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Title: Celtic art in Pagan and Christian times
Author: J. Romilly Allen
Release date: August 26, 2025 [eBook #76733]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Methuen & Co, 1904
Credits: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CELTIC ART IN PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN TIMES ***
Transcriber’s Notes:
Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
in the original text.
Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
in the original text.
Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
Illustrations and footnotes have been moved so they do not break up
paragraphs.
Deprecated spellings have been preserved.
Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
THE ANTIQUARY’S BOOKS
GENERAL EDITOR: J. CHARLES COX, LL.D., F.S.A.
CELTIC ART IN PAGAN
AND CHRISTIAN TIMES
BY
J. ROMILLY ALLEN, F.S.A.
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
METHUEN & CO.
36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
LONDON
_First Published in 1904_
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE xv
CHAPTER I
THE CONTINENTAL CELTS AND HOW THEY CAME TO BRITAIN 1
CHAPTER II
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE BRONZE AGE 22
CHAPTER III
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE EARLY IRON AGE 61
CHAPTER IV
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE EARLY IRON AGE 90
CHAPTER V
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE EARLY IRON AGE 129
CHAPTER VI
CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD 162
CHAPTER VII
CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD 232
CHAPTER VIII
CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD 254
INDEX 305
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
PAGE
The Hallstatt Sword 8
Ornament on bronze sword-sheath from La Tène 11
Gaulish helmet of bronze from Gorge-Meillet 12
Chevron patterns of the Bronze Age 27-36
Bronze spear-heads ornamented with rows of dots 39
Gold lunula from Killarney 40
Longitudinal section of chamber and passage of Tumulus
at Newgrange, Co. Meath 45
Plan of chamber and passage of Tumulus at Newgrange, Co. Meath 47
Spiral ornament at Newgrange, Co. Meath 48
Slab with spiral ornament outside entrance to passage of
Tumulus at Newgrange, Co. Meath 49
Spiral ornament on bronze axe-head from Denmark 51
Bronze axe-head with spiral ornament from Sweden 52
Winding-band (curved swastika), sculptured on rock near
Ilkley, Yorkshire 58
Cup-and-ring sculptures on rock at Ilkley, Yorkshire 59
Bronze sword-sheaths from Hunsbury 97
Silver-gilt fibulæ found in Northumberland 104
Bronze beaded torque from Lochar Moss, Dumfriesshire 112
Late-Celtic bronze spoon from Brickhill Lane, London 119
Late-Celtic bronze spoon from Crosby Ravensworth, Westmoreland 119
Late-Celtic spoon, one of a pair, from Weston, near Bath 120
Late-Celtic urns from Shoebury, Essex 123
Late-Celtic bronze mirror from Trelan Bahow, Cornwall 131
Bronze sword-sheath from Hunsbury 132
Late-Celtic pottery from the Glastonbury Lake Village 142
Late-Celtic wooden tub found at the Glastonbury Lake Village 147
Handles of pair of Late-Celtic spoons from Weston, near Bath 147
Engraved bone object from Slieve-na-Caillighe, Co. Meath 150
Fibula of bronze-gilt from Æsica 152
Collar from Broighter, Limavady, Co. Londonderry 153
Spiral ornament in illuminated MS copied from repoussé metalwork 154
Shading of parallel lines 156
Cross-hatching placed diagonally 156
Cross-hatching placed diagonally, with dots 157
Cross-hatching of double lines placed diagonally 157
Chequerwork grass-matting shading 157
Engine-turned shading 158
Dotted shading 158
Swastika design on shield from the Thames 159
Engraved ornament found at the Glastonbury Lake village 161
Handles of bronze bowl found at Barlaston, Staffordshire 166
Handle of bronze bowl from Chesterton-on-Fossway, Warwickshire 167
Handle of bronze bowl from Chesterton-on-Fossway, Warwickshire 168
Spiral ornament from the Book of Durrow 169
Cross-slab from Pen-Arthur, Pembrokeshire 181
Erect cross-slab at St. Madoes, Perthshire 183
Cross at Penmon, Anglesey 185
Great wheel-cross of Conbelin at Margam Abbey, Glamorganshire 187
Cross at Neuadd Siarman, near Builth, Brecknockshire 189
Cross at Nevern, Pembrokeshire 191
Pin-brooch from Clonmacnois, King’s Co. 221
Pierced marble screen at Ravenna 245
Regular plaitwork without any break 259
Method of making breaks in plaitwork 259
Regular plaitwork, with one vertical break and one
horizontal break 260
Six-cord plait, with horizontal breaks at regular intervals 260
Cross-shaft at Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire 261
Cross-shaft at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire 261
Eight-cord plaits, with cruciform breaks 262, 263
Six-cord plait, with cruciform breaks 264
Ten-cord plait, with cruciform breaks 264
Knots derived from a three-cord plait 264
Diagrams of knotwork 265, 266
Method of deriving knots Nos. 3 and 6 from a four-cord plait 267
Knots Nos. 4, 5, 7, and 8 derived from a four-cord plait 268
Knot No. 1, derived from either a three-cord or a six-cord plait 268
Knots 3 and 4, derived from a six-cord plait 269
Evolution of knot No. 1 from a six-cord plait 269
Evolution of knot No. 7 from an eight-cord plait 271, 272
Diagrams of knotwork 273
Knotwork from Ramsbury, Wilts, and Nigg, Ross-shire 274
Circular knotwork from Tarbet, Ross-shire 276
Circular knotwork from Monasterboice, Co. Louth 276
Triangular knotwork from Ulbster, Caithness 277
Triangular knotwork from Dunfallandy, Perthshire 278
Key-patterns 280, 282
Shaft of cross of Eiudon at Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire 283
Erect cross-slab at Rosemarkie, Ross-shire 284
Methods of connecting spirals 285
Tree key-pattern, Meigle, Perthshire 286
Key-pattern border from the Book of Kells 287
Method of connecting spirals 288
LIST OF PLATES
------------------------------------------------------
Grave of a Gaulish warrior at Sesto-Calende,
I. Italy _To face page_ 8
Bronze fibulæ of La Tène type from the
cemeteries of the Marne
------------------------------------------------------
Bronze armlet of the La Tène period from
Germany
II. Bronze armlet of the La Tène period from ” 10
Longirod (Vaud)
Bronze armlet of the La Tène period from the
cemeteries of the Marne
------------------------------------------------------
III. Gaulish helmet of bronze from Berru (Marne) ” 12
------------------------------------------------------
IV. Cinerary urn of Bronze Age from Lake, Wilts,
now in the British Museum. Height 1 ft. 3¼ ins. ” 22
------------------------------------------------------
Bronze Age urn of “Incense-Cup” type from
Aldbourne, Wilts, now in the British Museum.
Height 3½ ins.
V. Bronze Age urn of “Food-Vessel” type from ” 24
Alwinton, Northumberland, now in the British
Museum. Height 5 ins.
------------------------------------------------------
VI. Bronze Age urn of “Drinking-Cup” type from
Lakenheath, Suffolk, now in the British
Museum. Height 7½ ins. ” 26
------------------------------------------------------
Spiral ornament on stone ball from Towie,
Aberdeenshire, now in the Edinburgh Museum.
Scale 1/1 linear
VII. Winding-band curved swastika on sword-hilt
from Denmark ” 58
Bronze sword-hilt with winding-band pattern
from Denmark
Bronze sword-hilt with spiral ornament from
Denmark
-------------------------------------------------------
VIII. Bronze mirror from Birdlip, Gloucestershire, now
in the Gloucester Museum. R. W. Dugdale, photo ” 68
-------------------------------------------------------
IX. Iron dagger with bronze hilt and sheath from
the River Witham ” 92
-----------------------------------------------------------
X. Bronze harness-rings from Polden Hill, Somersetshire,
now in the British Museum. Scale ¾ linear ” 94
-----------------------------------------------------------
Late-Celtic bronze fibula from Walmer, Kent,
now in the British Museum. Scale ¾ linear
Late-Celtic fibula from Ireland, now in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin
XI. Enamelled bronze fibula from Risingham, ” 98
Northumberland, now in the Newcastle Museum
Bronze fibula from Water Eaton, Oxon, now in
the British Museum. Scale ¼ linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
Bronze fibula from Clogher, Co. Tyrone, now
in the British Museum. Scale 1/1 linear
Late-Celtic bronze fibula (locality unknown),
now in the British Museum. Scale 1/1 linear
XII. S-shaped enamel bronze fibula (locality unknown), ” 100
now in the British Museum. Scale 1/1 linear
S-shaped fibula of enamelled bronze from Norton,
E. Riding of Yorkshire, now in the British
Museum. Scale 1/1 linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
Bronze fibula from Polden Hill, Somersetshire, now
in the British Museum, side view. Scale ¾ linear
Bronze fibula from Polden Hill, Somersetshire, now
XIII. in the British Museum, front view. Scale ¾ linear
Bronze fibula from River Churn, now in the ” 102
British Museum, front view. Scale 1/1 linear
Bronze fibula from River Churn, now in the
British Museum, side view. Scale 1/1 linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
Bronze hook-and-disc ornament from Ireland, now
in the Dublin Museum
Bronze pin enamelled from Danes’ Graves near
XIV. Driffield, Yorkshire ” 108
Bronze disc fibula with Late-Celtic ornament
from Silchester, now at Strathfieldsaye House.
S. Victor White, of Reading, photo
-----------------------------------------------------------
Bronze beaded torque from Mowroad, near
XV. Rochdale. Scale ¾ linear ” 110
Bronze collar from Wraxhall, now in the
Bristol Museum
-----------------------------------------------------------
XVI. Bronze armlets from the Culbin Sands, now
at Altyre, near Forres, N.B. ” 112
-----------------------------------------------------------
XVII. Late-Celtic bronze mirror in the Mayer
Museum, Liverpool (locality unknown) ” 114
-----------------------------------------------------------
XVIII. Late-Celtic pottery from Hunsbury, now in
the Northampton Museum ” 122
-----------------------------------------------------------
Late-Celtic pottery from Yarnton, Oxfordshire,
now in the British Museum. Scale ¾ linear
XIX. Late-Celtic pottery from Kent’s Cavern near ” 124
Torquay, Devonshire, now in the British
Museum. Scale ¾ linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
Granite monolith with Late-Celtic sculpture at
Turoe, Co. Galway. Height of stone 4 ft.
XX. Reproduced from a photograph by Mr. A. McGoogan ” 128
illustrating Mr. George Coffey’s paper in the
_Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy_
-----------------------------------------------------------
Cruciform harness-mounting of bronze enamelled
(locality unknown), now in the British Museum.
XXI. Scale 1/1 linear ” 136
Bronze enamelled harness-mounting from Polden Hill,
Somersetshire, now in the British Museum.
Scale ¾ linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
Upper part of bronze sword-sheath from
Lisnacroghera Co., now in the British Museum
XXII. Lower part of bronze sword-sheath from ” 148
Lisnacroghera Co., now in the British Museum
-----------------------------------------------------------
Handle of Late-Celtic bronze tankard, Trawsfynydd,
Merionethshire, now in the Mayer Museum, Liverpool
XXIII. Bridle-bit of bronze enamelled, from Rise near ” 150
Hull, now in the British Museum. Scale ½ linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXIV. Detail of ornament on Late-Celtic bronze shield from
the Thames at Battersea, now in the British Museum ” 152
-----------------------------------------------------------
Circular disc of bronze with repoussé ornament
from Ireland, now in the British Museum
XXV. Bronze enamelled harness-ring from Westhall, Suffolk, ” 154
now in the British Museum. Scale ¾ linear
-----------------------------------------------------------
Cast of metal object (locality unknown) from the
Albert Way Collection, now in the Museum of the
XXVI. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House
Cover of the Stowe Missal, in the Museum of the ” 170
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin (A.D. 1023 to 1052)
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXVII. Erect cross-slab in Aberlemno Churchyard, Forfarshire.
John Patrick, of Edinburgh, photo ” 184
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXVIII. Bronze bell with engraved ornament from Lough Lene
Castle, Co. Westmeath, in the Museum of the ” 202
Royal Irish Academy
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXIX. The shrine of the bell of St. Patrick’s Will, in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin ” 204
(A.D. 1091 to 1105)
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXX. Head of the Lismore crozier at Lismore Castle,
Co. Waterford (A.D. 1090 to 1113) ” 206
-----------------------------------------------------------
Celtic quadrangular bell of bronze with zoömorphic
handles from Llangwynodl Church, Carnarvonshire,
now in the possession of Corbet Yale-Jones Parry,
Esq., of Madryn Castle, Pwllheli. Mr. Morgan
XXXI. Evans, of Pwllheli, photo. ” 210
Bronze reliquary from Lower Lough Erne, now in
the possession of T. Plunkett, Esq., of
Enniskillen. 7 ins. long by 5⅞ ins. high by 3½ ins.
wide. R. Welch, of Belfast, photo.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Bronze fibula with plaitwork and Late-Celtic ornament
from the Ardakillen Crannog, near Strokestown, Co.
Roscommon, now in the Museum of the Royal Irish
XXXII. Academy, Dublin ” 216
Detail of ornament on the underside of the foot of
the Ardagh chalice, in the Museum of the Royal
Irish Academy, Dublin
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXXIII. Silver penannular brooch from Ireland, now in the
British Museum. Scale ¾ linear ” 222
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXXIV. Biskra woman wearing a pair of penannular brooches,
the ends of the pins pointing upwards ” 224
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXXV. Details of ornaments on the Tara brooch ” 226
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXXVI. Details of ornaments on the Tara brooch ” 228
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXXVII. Details of ornament on the Tara brooch, in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin ” 230
-----------------------------------------------------------
Circular knotwork on slab in church of
Sta. Sabina, Rome
XXXVIII. Doorway of the chapel of S. Zeno in the church ” 244
of S. Prassede, showing broken plaitwork on
jambs (A.D. 772 to 795)
-----------------------------------------------------------
XXXIX. Key pattern, S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna Vine ” 246
scrolls, S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna
-----------------------------------------------------------
Plaitwork of Romano-British pavement at Lydney Park,
XL. Gloucestershire ” 258
Plaitwork in ciborium in the church of San Clemente,
Rome (fifth century)
-----------------------------------------------------------
XLI. Erect cross-slab from Collieburn, Sutherland, now
in the Dunrobin Museum ” 274
-----------------------------------------------------------
XLII. Detail of ornament on erect cross-slab at Nigg,
Ross-shire ” 276
-----------------------------------------------------------
Four men placed swastika fashion on recumbent
pavement at Meigle, Perthshire. Scale ⅛ linear
XLIII. Spiral ornament on fragment of sculptured stone ” 288
from Tarbet, Ross-shire, now in the Edinburgh Museum
-----------------------------------------------------------
XLIV. Detail of ornament on erect cross-slab at Nigg, ” 292
Ross-shire
-----------------------------------------------------------
PREFACE
This work is an attempt—whether successful or not the critic must
decide—to give a concise summary of the facts at present available
for forming a theory as to the origin and development of Celtic art
in Great Britain and Ireland. By Celtic art is meant the art of the
peoples in Europe who spoke the Celtic language, but it must always
be borne in mind that although linguistically they were Celts, yet
racially they were of mixed Celtic and Iberian blood, so that their
art was possibly quite as much Iberian as Celtic. It is only since the
epoch-making discoveries of Schliemann in Greece, of Flinders Petrie
in Egypt, and of Arthur Evans in Crete that it has been possible
in a satisfactory manner to connect the culture of Britain in the
Bronze Age with the corresponding culture on the Continent. It is now
quite clear that certain characteristic decorative motives, such as
the divergent spiral, are of foreign origin instead of having been
invented in Ireland, as was at one time believed. Other discoveries
made in England, more especially those at Aylesford, Glastonbury,
Mount Caburn, and Hunsbury, have thrown an entirely new light on the
archæology of this country by showing that the Early Iron Age began
here two or three centuries at least before the Roman occupation.
Lastly, the explorations made by Continental antiquaries at Hallstatt
in Austria, La Tène in Switzerland, and in the Gaulish cemeteries of
the Marne district in France, point to the sources of the culture to
which the late Sir Wollaston Franks gave the name “Late-Celtic.”
Celtic art naturally divides itself into two distinct periods, the
Pagan and the Christian. With regard to the latter, the remains have
been so fully investigated that it is hardly probable any new facts
will be brought to light which will seriously alter the conclusions
now arrived at. With regard to the Pagan period the case is altogether
different, as most of the finds hitherto made have been due to
accident, and until the large number of inhabited and fortified sites
belonging to this period are systematically excavated our knowledge
must necessarily remain incomplete.
I have endeavoured to give in the footnotes all the sources whence my
information has been obtained, but I should like more especially to
acknowledge my indebtedness to A. Bertrand and S. Reinach’s _Les Celtes
dans les Vallées du Pô et du Danube_; J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan
Times_ and _Scotland in Christian Times_; Arthur Evans’ papers on the
Aylesford, Æsica, and Limavady finds in the _Archæologia_; and George
Coffey’s papers on the ornament of the Bronze Age, Newgrange, etc., in
the _Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland_, and in
the _Transactions_ and _Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy_.
The theory of the evolution of Celtic knotwork out of plaitwork (as
explained on pages 257 to 278) is entirely original, and, simple as it
appears when explained, took me quite twenty years to think out whilst
classifying the patterns that occur on the early Christian monuments
of Scotland, England, Wales, and Ireland, nearly all of which I have
examined personally.
No illustrations are given of the pages of the Celtic illuminated MSS.
on account of the difficulty of making satisfactory reproductions
of them on a small scale. I have thought it better to refer the
reader either to the MSS. themselves or to the _Publications of the
Palæographical Society_ and Professor J. O. Westwood’s _Miniatures of
the Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts_.
A large number of photographs of Late-Celtic metalwork in the British
Museum have been specially taken for this work by Mr. H. Oldland,
with the kind permission of Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A. I am indebted to
the Rev. Canon W. Bazeley for obtaining a photograph of the Birdlip
mirror in the Gloucester Museum, and to Mr. George for the loan of Sir
H. Dryden’s drawings of the Hunsbury sword-sheath in the Northampton
Museum. Mr. George Coffey, M.R.I.A., of the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy, has also from time to time been good enough to assist me in
various ways. The photographs of the cast of the Nigg cross were taken
by Messrs. M. and T. Scott, of Edinburgh, for Mr. D. J. Vallance, the
curator of the Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh.
For the use of electrotypes of blocks I have to give my best thanks to
the Society of Antiquaries of London,[1] the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland,[2] the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,[3]
the Royal Irish Academy,[4] the Royal Archæological Institute,[5]
the Cambrian Archæological Association,[6] the Somersetshire
Archæological Society,[7] and the publishers of the _Antiquary_,[8] the
_Reliquary_,[9] and the _Illustrated Archæologist_.[10] Plates XXVI.,
XXIX., XXXV., XXXVI., and XXXVII. are from the series of photographs
taken by Mr. W. G. Moore, of Upper Sackville Street, Dublin, for the
Royal Irish Academy.
[1] Blocks on pp. 112, 123, 152, 153, 166, 167, 168.
[2] Blocks on pp. 154, 169, 183, 276 to 278, 274 to 288.
[3] Blocks on pp. 150, 221.
[4] Blocks on pp. 39, 40, 45, 47.
[5] Blocks on pp. 119, 120, 131, 147.
[6] Blocks on pp. 27 to 36, 181, 185, 187, 189, 191, 259 to 269, 271 to
273, 283.
[7] Blocks on p. 142.
[8] Blocks on pp. 147, 161.
[9] Blocks on pp. 104.
[10] Plate XXXIV.
CELTIC ART IN PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN TIMES
CHAPTER I
THE CONTINENTAL CELTS AND HOW THEY CAME TO BRITAIN
THE CELTS A BRANCH OF THE ARYAN FAMILY OF NATIONS
All the nations at present inhabiting Europe, with the exception of the
Turks, the Finns, the Magyars, and the Basques, speak Aryan languages,
and are to a large extent of Aryan descent,[11] although their blood
has been mixed from time to time with that of the Neolithic non-Aryan
aborigines. The Celts, therefore, belong to the Aryan group of nations,
and came from the same cradle of the race in Central Asia as did the
ancestors of the Greeks, Italians, Teutons, Slavs, Armenians, Persians,
and the chief peoples of Hindustan.
[11] The fallacy that identity of language or of culture necessarily
implies identity of race must be carefully guarded against.
It has been the fashion amongst persons holding what they suppose to
be advanced views to dispute the fact that the cradle of the Aryans
was in Central Asia, but this is neither the time nor the place to
discuss the question. It is sufficient for our purpose to note that
the successive waves of Aryan conquest entered Europe from the east,
and that their general direction was towards the west.
THE CELT AS DESCRIBED BY GREEK AND ROMAN AUTHORS
The Celts make their first appearance in history at the end of the
sixth century B.C., when, however, they are referred to not by their
name as a people but by the name of the country they occupied. Thus,
Hecatæus of Miletus, writing about 509 B.C., mentions Marseilles as
being a Ligurian city near the Celtic region.[12]
Herodotus, writing half a century later, is the first historian who
uses the word κελτός (Celt) as distinguished from κελτική (the Celtic
region). In the two passages[13] in which the Celts are mentioned,
Herodotus says that they inhabited the part of Europe where the Danube
has its source, and that the only other people to the westward were the
Cynetes or Dog-Men. Both Herodotus and Aristotle erroneously supposed
that the source of the Danube was situated in the Pyrenees.
Aristotle[14] describes the country of the Celts as being so cold that
the ass is unable to reproduce his species there.
Plato, who lived sixty years after the time of Herodotus, classes
the Celts with the Scythians, Persians, Carthaginians, Iberians, and
Thracians, as being warlike nations who like wine, and drink it to
excess.[15]
[12] Μασσαλία πόλις τῆς Διγμστικῆς κατὰ τὴν κελτικήν (C. and T.
Muellerus, _Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum_, Paris, 1841, vol. i., p.
2, fragm. 22).
[13] Bk. ii., chap, xxxiii.; and Bk. iv., chap. xlix.
[14] _De Generatione Animalium._
[15] _De Legibus._
Pytheas (_circa_ B.C. 300) is the first author who includes the part
of Europe which was afterwards the Gaul of Cæsar within the Celtic
territory.[16]
According to the earlier historians, the parts of Europe occupied by
the Celts at the end of the fourth century B.C. were the coast of the
Adriatic from Rimini to Venice, Istria and the neighbourhood of the
Ionian Gulf, and the left bank of the Rhone from the Lake of Geneva to
the source of the Danube.[17]
Polybius (B.C. 205-123) gives more definite and satisfactory
information about the Celts than the somewhat vague references made to
them by previous writers. From him we learn[18]
[16] C. Elton’s _Origins of English History_, p. 25.
[17] A. Bertrand and S. Reinach’s _Les Celtes_, p. 19.
[18] _Ibid._, p. 27.
(1) That the Celts of upper Italy did not come from the
Gaul of Cæsar, but from the valley of the Danube, and more
particularly from the countries which border upon the
northern slopes of the Julian Alps of Noricum.
(2) That these peoples were primarily divided into Cisalpine
Celts and Transalpine Celts, that is to say, into the Celts
of the Alps and of the north of the Alps. In the third
century B.C. these latter were already called, more
particularly by Polybius, by the name of Galati.
(3) That the Cisalpine Celts, who from a remote period long
before the fourth century B.C. inhabited the wide
plains of Lombardy from the Alps to the river Pô, were, for
the most part, an agricultural and sedentary race living
in luxury and in a state of civilisation without any doubt
greatly superior to that which could have existed in Gaul at
that time.
(4) That the Galati, on the contrary, the Transalpine Celts,
although kinsmen to the former mountaineers, still half
nomads, shepherds and warriors chiefly, always ready to run
the risk of a raid, armed from the fourth century with an
iron sword, an iron-headed spear and a shield, lived under
the régime of a sort of military aristocracy, as proud as
they were poor, such as the inhabitants of the Caucasus were
not half a century ago.
The people who were called _Celtæ_ by the earlier historians, and
_Galatæ_ by the more recent writers, were also known to the Romans as
_Galli_; but these three separate appellations do not seem to indicate
any difference of race, and indeed they all have the same meaning, viz.
a warrior. The Gauls of Cæsar’s time preferred to call themselves by
the name which he wrote, _Celtæ_.[19]
All the Classical authorities are agreed as to the physical
characteristics of the Celts with whom they were acquainted. The Celts
are invariably described as being tall, muscular men, with a fair skin,
blue eyes, and blonde hair tending towards red.[20] Such were the Gauls
who conquered the Etruscans of northern Italy in B.C. 396, took Rome
under Brennus six years later, sacked Delphi in B.C. 279, and gave
their name to Galatia in Asia Minor.
[19] Prof. J. Rhys’ _Celtic Britain_, p. 2.
[20] C. Elton’s _Origins of English History_, p. 113.
It may well be asked what has become of the tall, fair-haired Celts
who in the fourth century B.C. were the terror of Europe? The answer
seems to be that being numerically inferior to the races which they
conquered, but did not exterminate, they after a time became absorbed
by the small, dark Iberians, who were the aborigines of France and
Spain in the later Stone Age. In Great Britain the once warlike Celt
at last became so effete that he fell an easy prey to the Picts, the
Scots, the Angles, and the Saxons.
THE CELTS AS REPRESENTED IN GREEK AND ROMAN ART
The physical type of the Celt in Classical Sculpture was fixed by the
artists of Pergamos, who were commissioned to perpetuate the victories
of Attalus I. (B.C. 241-197) and Eumenes II. (B.C. 197-159) over the
Galatians of Asia Minor.[21] The originals of the statues executed at
this period to decorate the acropolis at Pergamon and at Athens have
since been popularised by means of numerous copies. The statue most
familiar to everyone is that wrongly called the Dying Gladiator,[22]
but which is really a Gaulish warrior mortally wounded, as may be seen
by the twisted torque round his neck, and the shape of his shield and
trumpet. The other statues of the same class are the group formerly
known as Arria and Paetus[23] (representing a Gaul committing suicide
after having killed his wife) and the figures of an old man with a
young man dead[24] and a young man wounded[25] from the defeat of the
Gauls by Attalus.
In all these works of art the Gaulish type is the same, the men being
tall and muscular, with abundant unkempt locks, and an energetic,
almost brutal, physiognomy, the very opposite of the intellectual
beauty of the ideal Greek. The type thus fixed by eminent artists
was handed down from generation to generation, until the last years
of the Roman empire. It may be recognised on the Triumphal Arch at
Orange[26] (Vaucluse), in the south of France, and at the sarcophagus
of Ammendola[27] in the museum of the Capitol at Rome, both of which
have derived their inspiration from the works of art of the time of the
kings of Pergamon. Latterly the Gaulish type became that of barbarians
generally.[28]
[21] _Les Celtes_, p. 37; H. B. Walters’ _Greek Art_, p. 91; and Dr. A.
S. Murray’s _History of Greek Sculpture_, vol. ii., p. 376.
[22] In the Museum of the Capitol at Rome; cast in the South Kensington
Museum.
[23] Prof. Ernest Gardner’s _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, pt. ii., p.
456; and A. Baumeister’s _Denkmäler_, p. 1237.
[24] At Venice.
[25] In the Louvre.
[26] A. de Caumont’s _Abécédaire d’Archéologie_ (Ère Gallo-Romaine),
Second edition, p. 194.
[27] S. Reinach’s _Les Gaulois dans l’art antique_.
[28] S. Reinach’s _Les Celtes_, p. 38.
THE CELT AS REVEALED BY ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH
From an archæological point of view the Celtic civilisation which
existed in Central Europe, certainly as far back as 400 B.C., and very
probably three or four centuries earlier, was that of the Iron Age. The
Continental antiquaries divide the Iron Age in this part of Europe into
two periods marked by differences in culture. The culture of the Early
Iron Age is prehistoric, and is called that of “Hallstatt,” after the
great Alpine cemetery near Salzburg in Austria.
The culture of the Later Iron Age comes after the time when the Celts
first make their appearance in history, and is known to Swiss and
German archæologists as that of “La Tène,” from the Gaulish Oppidum
at the north end of the Lake of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. The La Tène
culture in the form it occurs in France is called “Marnian,” and
corresponds with the “Late-Celtic” culture of Great Britain.
Hallstatt, from which the Celtic civilisation of the earlier Iron Age
takes its name, is situated thirty miles S.E. of Salzburg in Austria,
amongst the mountains forming the southern boundary of the valley of
the Danube. It was a place of great commercial importance in ancient
times, in consequence of the salt mines in the neighbourhood, and
because it lay on the great trade route by which amber was brought from
the mouth of the Elbe to Hatria, at the head of the Adriatic.[29]
[29] C. Elton’s _Origins of English History_, pp. 46 and 62, and Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins’ _Early Man in Britain_, pp. 417, 466, and 473.
The pre-Roman necropolis of Hallstatt was discovered in 1846, and
excavations have been going on there at intervals ever since. In
1864 M. de Sacken, curator of the collection of antiquities in the
Vienna Museum, published a monograph on the subject, which still
remains the best book of reference. M. de Sacken did not superintend
the excavations personally, that task having fallen to the lot of
George Ramsauer. Copies in MS. of Ramsauer’s notes on the contents of
the tombs, and sketches of the antiquities discovered in them exist
in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and in the national museums at
Saint-Germain and at Vienna.
The Hallstatt finds show very clearly the transition from the Bronze to
the Iron Age in Central Europe.
M. Salomon Reinach thus summarises, in his _Les Celtes dans les Vallées
du Pô et du Danube_ (p. 129), the conclusions arrived at by M. de
Sacken:—
(1) Two distinct races have been buried at Hallstatt; one
of which cremated the bodies and the other which practised
inhumation; the former showing themselves to have been much
richer than the latter.
(2) The people, as represented by their grave-goods, must
have supported themselves, besides working the salt mines
(their chief industry), by breeding cattle. The number of
bones and teeth of animals found in the tombs show that they
possessed herds. Their agricultural pursuits are proved by
the presence of numerous scythes and sickles in the graves.
Slag and moulds from founderies indicate that they were
metallurgists.
(3) Amongst the individuals who had been burnt the greater
part of the men and women displayed a relative luxuriousness
of toilet appliances, a luxuriousness which was ministered
to by foreign commerce supplying amber from the Baltic,
Phœnician glass, ivory, embroidery in gold thread and
stamped gold-leaf of oriental workmanship, used in the
decoration of the sword-hilts and scabbards.
(4) On the bronze vessels, side by side with the old
geometrical ornament, common to them and to the Cisalpine
vases, are to be seen new combinations of symbolical designs
which recur on the Celtic coinage of Gaul.
Amongst the objects most characteristic of the Hallstatt culture are:—
(1) Daggers, or short swords, with a pointed blade of iron
and a bronze handle having two little projections at the top
terminating in round knobs and resembling the antennæ of an
insect.
(2) Long double-edged swords with an iron blade made in
imitation of the leaf-shaped swords of the Bronze Age,
having the edges slightly curved outwards in the middle, but
not having so sharp a point as the Bronze Age sword, and
being much longer. The hilts have a massive pommel encrusted
with ivory and amber, and ornamented with gold-leaf.
(3) Pails, or situlæ, of thin bronze plates ornamented with
figure subjects executed in repoussé work, and exhibiting
a peculiar style of art which Dr. Arthur Evans thinks
the Celts borrowed from the Veneti, the ancient Illyrian
inhabitants of the north of the Adriatic, who, in their
turn, had come under Hellenic influence whilst the amber
trade route between Greece and the Baltic passed through
Hatria.
[Illustration: The Hallstatt Sword]
[Illustration: GRAVE OF A GAULISH WARRIOR AT SESTO-CALENDE, ITALY]
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA OF LA TÈNE TYPE, FROM THE CEMETERIES OF
THE MARNE]
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA OF LA TÈNE TYPE, FROM THE CEMETERIES OF
THE MARNE]
Dr. Arthur Evans[30] divides the Hallstatt remains into an earlier and
a later group, the former dating from about 750 to 550 B.C. During the
later period, from 550 B.C., he thinks there was a tendency for the
typically Gaulish or Late-Celtic culture to overlap that of the Early
Iron Age. The Gallo-Italian tomb of a Celtic chieftain, found in 1867
at Sesto-Calende,[31] at the south end of Lago Maggiore, illustrates
the transition from the Hallstatt to the La Tène culture. Amongst the
grave-goods were a situla with figure subjects in repoussé metalwork
and a short pointed iron sword having a handle furnished with antennæ,
like those from Hallstatt.
[30] Rhind Lectures on the “Origins of Celtic Art,” Lecture II., as
reported in the _Scotsman_ for December 12th, 1895.
[31] S. Reinach’s _Les Celtes_, p. 49.
In addition, there were the remains of a chariot, horse-trappings, a
bronze war-trumpet, helmet and greaves, and iron lance-head, such as we
should expect to find buried with a Celtic warrior in the Iron Age in
Gaul or Britain.
La Tène (which gives its name to the modified and later form of
Hallstatt culture as it existed in Central Europe from about 400 B.C.,
when the name of the Gaul superseded that of the Celt, to the time of
Cæsar’s conquest) is a military stronghold, or oppidum, situated at the
N.E. end of the Lake of Neuchâtel, commanding an important pass between
the upper Rhone and the Rhine. The remains at La Tène were first
explored by Colonel Schwab in 1858, and subsequently by E. Vouga in
1880. The objects derived from this remarkable site are to be seen in
the public museums at Bienne, Neuchâtel, and Berne; and in the private
collections of Colonel Schwab, Professor Desor, E. Vouga, Dardel
Thorens, and Dr. Gross.[32]
According to Dr. Arthur Evans, the date of the culminating epoch
of Gaulish civilisation, as represented by the antiquities from La
Tène, is probably the third century B.C. It was at this period that
the earlier foreign elements derived from Hallstatt, and even from
countries further afield, became thoroughly assimilated, and the style
of art called Late-Celtic began to take definite shape.
The typical arms found at La Tène are:—
(1) A long sword with a double-edged iron blade having a
blunt point. The length and flexibility of the blade made it
useless for thrusting in the way which was possible with the
shorter and more rigid leaf-shaped sword of the Bronze Age,
so the pointed end was abandoned.
(2) Lances with an iron point often of a peculiar curved
form.[33]
(3) An oval shield of thin bronze plates ornamented with
bosses.
(4) A horned helmet of bronze.
[32] The remains are fully described in Dr. F. Keller’s
_Lake-Dwellings_; Dr. R. Munro’s _Lake-Dwellings of Europe_; E. Vouga’s
_Les Helvètes à la Tène_; and Dr. Gross’ _La Tène un Oppidum Helvète_.
[33] With flame-like undulating-edges “so as to break the flesh all in
pieces” (C. Elton’s _Origins of English History_, p. 116).
The characteristic La Tène ornament is found chiefly on the
sword-sheaths, the helmets, and the shields. The La Tène fibulæ are
derivatives of the “safety-pin,” and usually have the tail end bent
backwards, as in the Marnian fibulæ in France and the Late-Celtic
fibulæ in England.
[Illustration: BRONZE ARMLET OF THE LA TÈNE PERIOD FROM GERMANY]
[Illustration: BRONZE ARMLET OF THE LA TÈNE PERIOD FROM LONGIROD (VAUD)]
[Illustration: BRONZE ARMLET OF THE LA TÈNE PERIOD FROM THE CEMETERIES
OF THE MARNE]
The Gaulish culture in France corresponding with that of La Tène in
Switzerland has been called “Marnian” by the French archæologists
because the principal remains of this period have been found in the
cemeteries of the Department of the Marne. A list of seventy-two such
Marnian cemeteries (some of which contained as many as 450 graves) is
given by A. Bertrand in his _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, p.
358. The objects obtained from these cemeteries are fully illustrated
in the _Dictionnaire Archéologique de la Gaule_, and in Léon Morel’s
_La Champagne souterraine_ (_Album_). The best collections are those
in the Museum of Saint-Germain and the British Museum. M. Bertrand
fixes the date of the Marnian cemeteries at from 350 to 200 B.C., the
period between the time when bronze weapons ceased to be used, and the
introduction of a national coinage into Gaul.
[Illustration: Ornament on Bronze Sword-sheath from La Tène]
From the point of view of art, two of the most interesting burials
discovered in the Departement du Marne are those at Berru[34] and
Gorge-Meillet[35] of warriors interred with their chariots, horses,
and complete military equipment, including two bronze helmets, which
show the kind of decoration prevalent at the period, and afford a
link between the Marnian style in Gaul and the Late-Celtic style in
Britain. The burials at Berru and Gorge-Meillet correspond very nearly
with those at Arras, Danes’ Graves, and elsewhere, in the portion of
Yorkshire occupied by the Celtic tribe of the Parisi.
[34] A. Bertrand’s _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, p. 356.
[35] E. Fourdriguier’s _Double Sépulture Gauloise de la Gorge-Meillet_.
[Illustration: Gaulish Helmet of Bronze from Gorge-Meillet]
[Illustration: CASQUE DE BERRU. (MARNE.) dé couvert dans la Creuere
Gaulois.
GAULISH HELMET OF BRONZE FROM BERRU (MARNE)]
The Marnian cemeteries belong to the second Iron Age of Central Europe
after 400 B.C., but in the commune of Magny Lambert (Côte-d’or), near
the source of the river Seine, tumuli have been opened containing long
iron swords and bronze situlæ of distinctly Hallstatt type.
Dr. Arthur Evans thinks that the older, or Hallstatt, culture of
Central Europe was gradually modified and transformed into the La
Tène, Marnian, and Late-Celtic stages of culture, in consequence
of the foreign influence exercised by the continual flow of Greek
commerce into eastern Gaul from the sixth century B.C. onwards. Ample
evidence of this commercial intercourse is afforded by the discovery
of tripods, hydrias, œnochœs, and painted vases of Greek workmanship
associated with Gaulish burials,[36] as at Grækwyl, near Berne in
Switzerland, at Somme-Bionne (Marne), at Rodenbach in Bavaria, and at
Courcelles-et-Montagne (Haute-Marne).
[36] A. Bertrand’s _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, pp. 328 to
347; see also L. Lindenschmit’s _Die Alterthümer unserer heidnischen
Vorzeit_, Mainz, 1858, etc.
The great difficulty in understanding the evolution of Celtic art lies
in the fact that although the Celts never seem to have invented any new
ideas, they professed an extraordinary aptitude for picking up ideas
from the different peoples with whom war or commerce brought them into
contact. And once the Celt had borrowed an idea from his neighbour,
he was able to give it such a strong Celtic tinge that it soon became
something so different from what it was originally as to be almost
unrecognisable.
Polybius gives the following picture of the Cisalpine Gauls:—
“These people camp out in villages without walls, and are
absolutely ignorant of the thousand things that make life
worth living. Knowing no other bed than straw, only eating
flesh, they live in a half-wild state. Strangers to
everything which is not connected with war or agricultural
labour, they possess neither art nor science of any
description.”
The tendency of the Celt to copy rather than invent is brought out most
clearly in their coinage. M. A. Bertrand[37] says:—
“Were they settled in Macedonia they imitated with more or
less success the tetradrachms of Philip and of Audoleon,
king of Paeonia; did they advance towards Thrace, they
copied the tetradrachms of Thasos. The Senones of Rimini
took for their model the Roman and Italian _aes grave_;
in the north of Italy, finding themselves in contact with
nations who used the monetary system of the drachm and
its multiples and divisions, the Gauls copied them until
the time they were driven back on the Danube. In Liguria
they copied the drachms of Massalia. Were they encamped on
the banks of the Danube in Noricum, or in Rhaetia, they
again copied the monetary systems of their neighbours.
The tetradrachms of the Boii on which are inscribed the
name of ‘BIATEC,’ one of their chiefs, reproduced
the type of the last Roman of the family of Fufia struck
between the years 62 and 59 B.C. In a word, the
same habit of imitation is found everywhere in the cradle of
Gaulish numismatics properly so-called; on the left bank of
the Rhine, it was the gold staters of Philip which served
as the model for gold pieces and sometimes for silver;
in Aquitaine, it was the coins of Emporia, Rhoda, and
Massalia. Armorica and the frontier countries were the first
who adopted for their coinage types which can be called
national, although still reflecting those imitated from the
Macedonian staters. Let it be noticed that we are in one of
the most Celtic parts of Gaul: it is therefore natural that
the difference in genius between the two races of Celts and
Gauls should manifest itself most clearly.”
[37] _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, p. 387.
INVASION OF BRITAIN BY GOIDELIC CELTS IN THE BRONZE AGE
The aborigines of Europe, who were driven westward by the successive
waves of Aryan conquest, appear to have been in the Neolithic stage
of culture, and they are identified by Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins with the
Iberians mentioned by Strabo. Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins gives a map in
his _Early Man in Britain_ (p. 318) showing the relative distribution
of the Iberic, Celtic, and Belgic races in the historic period. In
this map the Iberians occupy the north of Africa, the west of Spain
and France, the country round Marseilles, the whole of Wales, and
the south-west of Ireland. The Celts follow behind to the eastward,
pressing the Iberians towards the Atlantic.
In the opening address of the Antiquarian Section at the meeting of the
Royal Archæological Institute at Scarborough in 1895, Prof. Dawkins
said:—[38]
[38] _Archæological Journal_, vol. lii., p. 342.
“The theory that the Neolithic inhabitants of the British
Isles are represented by the Basques and small, dark Iberic
population of Europe generally, has stood the test of
twenty-five years’ criticism, and still holds the field.
From the side of philology it is supported by the fact
pointed out by Inchauspé that the Basque word _aitz_
for stone is the root from which the present names of pick,
knife, and scissors made of iron are derived. This of
itself shows that the ancestors of the Basques were in the
Neolithic stage of culture. The name of Ireland, according
to Rhys,[39] is derived from Iber-land (Hibernia), the land
of the Iberians, or sons of Iber. The evidence seems to be
clear: 1. That the Iberians were the original inhabitants
of France and Spain in the Neolithic age, and the only
inhabitants of the British Isles; 2. That they were driven
out of the south-eastern parts of France and Spain in the
Neolithic age; (3) That they are now amply represented by
the small dark peoples in the Iberian Peninsula, and in
the island which bears their name, and in various other
places in Western Europe, where they constitute, as Broca
happily phrases it, ‘ethnological islands.’ The small, dark,
long-headed Yorkshiremen form one of these islands.”
[39] _Celtic Britain_, p. 262.
Let us pause for a moment to consider the stage of culture attained
by the Neolithic aborigines of Britain whom the Celts found here on
their first arrival. The houses in which Neolithic man lived are of two
kinds: (1) pit dwellings dug to a depth of from seven to ten feet deep
in the chalk, like those at Highfield,[40] near Salisbury, explored
by Mr. Adlam in 1866; and (2) hut-circles like those at Carn Brê near
Camborne,[41] in Cornwall, excavated by Mr. Thurstan C. Peter, and on
Dartmoor,[42] excavated by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould and Mr. R. Burnard.
In many cases the villages are fortified by a wall of rubble stone, as
at Grimspound, on Dartmoor. Neolithic dwellings have also been explored
by Mr. George Clinch, at Keston, in Kent.[43]
Neolithic man supported himself by the chase and by fishing, and also
was a farmer in a small way, growing wheat and cultivating flax. He had
domesticated the sheep, goat, ox, hog, and dog. He could spin, weave,
mine flint, chip and polish stone implements and make rude pottery.
[40] W. Boyd Dawkins’ _Early Man in Britain_, p. 267; and E. T.
Stevens’ _Flint Chips_, p. 57.
[41] R. Burnard in _Trans. of Plymouth Inst._, 1895-6; and T. C. Peter
in _Jour. R. Inst. of Cornwall_, No. 42.
[42] Reports of Dartmoor Exploration Committee in the _Trans. of
Devonshire Assoc. for Advancement of Science_.
[43] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, ser 2, vol. xii., p. 258, and vol. xvii.,
p. 216.
He buried his dead in long barrows, chambered cairns, and dolmens.
Cremation was not practised, and it was usual to inter a large number
of bodies in a chamber constructed of huge stones.
Such was the aboriginal inhabitant with whom the first Celtic invader
had to contend. I say _first_ Celtic invader advisedly, for there was
a second Celtic invasion at a later period. The vanguard of the Celtic
conquerors are called by Prof. J. Rhys, in his _Celtic Britain_ (p. 3),
“Goidels,” to distinguish them from the “Brythons,” who constituted
the second set of invaders. The modern representatives of the Goidels
are the Gaelic-speaking population of the Highlands of Scotland,
Ireland, and the Isle of Man; whilst the descendants of the Brythons
now inhabit Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. At the time of the Roman
occupation the Brythonic tribes inhabited the whole of England with the
exception of the districts now occupied by Cumberland, Westmoreland,
Devon, and Cornwall. The most important of these Brythonic tribes
were the Brigantes and Parisi of Yorkshire, the Catuvelauni of the
Midland Counties, the Eceni of the eastern counties, the Attrebates
of the Thames Valley, and the Belgæ, Regni, and Cantion in the south.
The south of Scotland was in possession of the Dumnoni and Otadini,
who were Brythons, as were also the Ordovices of Central Wales. The
Ivernians still held their own in the north of Scotland. The remainder
of Great Britain was inhabited either by pure Goidels or by Goidels who
had mixed their blood with the Ivernian aborigines.
As Prof. J. Rhys has pointed out in his _Celtic Britain_ (p. 211), the
soundest distinction between the Goidels and the Brythons rests on
a peculiarity of pronunciation in their respective languages. In the
corresponding words in each language where the Brythons use the letter
P, the Goidels use Qv. Hence they have been termed the “P and Q Celts.”
The most familiar instance of this is where the Welsh use the word _ap_
to mean _son of_, and the Gaels use _mac_. The older form of _mac_
found on the Ogam-inscribed monuments of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and
the West of England is _maqvi_, as in the bi-literal and bi-lingual
inscribed stone at St. Dogmael’s, in Pembrokeshire, where the Latin
“SAGRANI FILI CVNOTAMI” has as an equivalent in Ogams “SAGRAMNI MAQVI
CYNATAMI.” In modern Welsh _map_, or _mab_, has been shortened by
dropping the _m_, and in Gaelic the _v_ of _maqvi_ has been dropped,
and the _q_ made into _c_.
So much for the philological differences between the Goidel and the
Brython. They can also be distinguished archæologically, the former as
being in the Bronze Age stage of culture, and the latter in the Early
Iron Age when he arrived in Britain. In a subsequent chapter we shall
have to deal with the Brythonic Celt, but at present we are concerned
exclusively with the Goidel.
The Neolithic inhabitants of this country, whom the Goidelic Celts
found here on their arrival, were ethnologically a small dark-haired,
black-eyed race, with long skulls of a type which is still to be
seen amongst the Silurians of South Wales.[44] The ethnological
characteristics of the Goidels were entirely different: they were tall,
fair-haired, round-headed, with high cheek-bones, a large mouth, and
aquiline nose. In studying the past much must necessarily be more or
less conjectural, and we can never hope to see otherwise than “as in
a glass darkly.” As far, however, as it is possible to ascertain the
facts, it appears probable that the advancing wave of Goidelic Celts
did not entirely overwhelm the aborigines or drive them before it.
Most likely the big Goidels made the small Iberians “hewers of wood
and drawers of water,” and in time either absorbed them or themselves
became absorbed.
[44] Boyd Dawkins’ _Early Man in Britain_, chapter ix.
THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE
Actual dates in years can only be ascertained by means of historical
documents, and therefore no chronology of the ages of Stone, Bronze,
and Iron is possible except where contact can be established between
the prehistoric (or non-historic) races living in those stages
of culture in Northern and Central Europe, and the more advanced
civilisations on the shores of the Mediterranean and in Asia. Long
before direct contact took place between the northern barbarians
and the Egyptians, Assyrians, Phœnicians, Greeks, Romans, and other
great nations of antiquity, through invasions or immigrations, a
more indirect contact must have existed for centuries, owing to the
trade in such things as amber, gold, bronze, and tin. Dates have been
fixed approximately by the finding of imported objects in different
countries, and by studying their geographical distribution. Other
almost untouched fields of investigation which would help to solve many
of the problems of prehistoric chronology, are the migration of symbols
and patterns and comparative ornament.
The attempts that have been made to fix the duration of the Ages of
Stone and Bronze in actual years are at the best mere guesses, but
it may be worth while stating the conclusions arrived at by some of
the leading European archæologists, so as to give a rough idea of the
time at which bronze was in use for the manufacture of implements and
weapons in different countries.
Egypt during the greater part of its existence as a civilised nation
was in the Bronze Age. The copper mines of the Sinaitic peninsula
were worked as early as the Fourth Dynasty, as is proved by the rock
inscriptions of Sneferu (B.C. 3998-3969) at Wady Maghera.[45] Bronze
was certainly used by the ancient Egyptians in the fourteenth century
B.C., and in the tomb of Queen Aah Hotep, although bronze weapons were
found, iron was conspicuous by its absence, indicating that the latter
metal had not come into general use in the fifteenth century B.C.
The Mycenæan civilisation in the Ægean was of the Bronze Age, and
Prof. Flinders Petrie places its flourishing period at about 1400
B.C.[46] Bronze continued in use in Greece until the time of the Dorian
invasion, B.C. 800.
In dealing with the local centres of the bronze industry, Prof. Boyd
Dawkins[47] recognises three distinct local centres in Europe.
(1) The Uralian, or Eastern—Russia.
(2) The Danubian, or Northern and Central—Scandinavia,
Hungary.
(3) The Mediterranean, or Southern—Greece, Italy, France,
Switzerland.
Dr. Oscar Montelius[48] gives the following tentative dates for the
duration of the Bronze Age in these areas:—
[45] Petrie’s _Hist. of Egypt_, vol. i., p. 31. Article on “The Age of
Bronze in Egypt,” in _L’Anthropologie_ for January, 1890, translated in
the _Smithsonian Report_ for 1890, p. 499.
[46] _Jour. of Hellenic Studies_, vol. xii., p. 203.
[47] _Early Man in Britain_, p. 414.
[48] _Matériaux pour l’histoire primitive de l’homme_, pp. 108-113.
_The Caucasus._—The Massagete were, according to Herodotus,
still using bronze in the sixth century B.C.
_Greece._—Bronze Age civilisation of Mycenæ, 1400 to 1000 B.C.
_Italy._—Terramare of Bronze Age, twelfth century B.C. Iron
introduced in ninth or eighth century B.C.
_Scandinavia and Germany._—Bronze Age begun in fifteenth century
B.C., and ended in fifth century B.C.
Worsaae[49] places the beginning of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia five
centuries later than Montelius, _i.e._ 1000 B.C.
Dr. Naue[50] dates the Bronze Age in Upper Bavaria from 1400 B.C. to
900 B.C.
[49] _The Industrial Arts of Denmark_, p. 41.
[50] Dr. Arthur Evans’ review of Dr. Julius Naue’s _Die Bronzezeit in
Obayern_ in the _Academy_ for April 27th, 1895.
As regards Great Britain, there is no reason for supposing that the
Brythonic Celts of the Early Iron Age arrived in this country much
before B.C. 300, which date would terminate the Bronze Age, at all
events in southern England. The date of the beginning of the Bronze
Age in Britain can only be surmised. If, as we hope to be able to
prove, much of the art of that period here can be traced to a Mycenæan
origin there is no reason why the Bronze Age in Britain should not have
commenced shortly after the spiral motive patterns were transferred
from ancient Egypt to the Ægean, say, about 1400 B.C., and thence to
Hungary, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe. It is not impossible,
nay, it is even probable, that the Bronze Age may have lasted a
thousand years in Britain, beginning B.C. 1300, and ending B.C. 300.
CHAPTER II
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE BRONZE AGE
GENERAL NATURE OF THE MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR THE STUDY
OF THE ART OF THE BRONZE AGE IN BRITAIN, AND THE
DECORATIVE MOTIVES EMPLOYED
As we have already observed, the Goidelic Celts were in the Bronze Age
stage of culture when they landed in Britain. Let us now inquire into
the nature of the materials available for the study of the Pagan Celtic
art in the Bronze Age.
The remains of this period may be classified, according to the nature
of the finds, as follows:—
(1) Sepulchral remains.
(2) Remains on inhabited and fortified sites.
(3) Merchants’ and founders’ hoards.
(4) Personal hoards, that is to say, finds of objects purposely
concealed, either in times of danger, or buried as
_ex voto_ deposits.
(5) Finds of objects accidentally lost.
(6) Sculptured rocks and stones.
The art of the Bronze Age in Europe is both of a symbolical and
decorative character. The principal symbols employed are:—
The Swastika. The Ship.
The Triskele. The Axe.
The-Cup-and-Ring. The Wheel.
[Illustration: CINERARY URN OF BRONZE AGE FROM LAKE, WILTS; NOW IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM
HEIGHT 1 FT. 3¼ INS.]
It is probable that most of these were connected with sun-worship.[51]
The chief decorative art motives which were prevalent during the Bronze
Age are as follows:—
The Chevron.
The Concentric Circle.
The Spiral.
The Winding-Band.
With the introduction of bronze into Britain an entire change took
place in the burial customs of the people. The long barrows with their
megalithic chambers and entrance passages gave place to round barrows
containing cists constructed of comparatively small slabs of stone, and
having no approach from the exterior.
Although burial by inhumation still continued to be practised,
cremation was adopted for the first time. The proportions of unburnt
to burnt bodies found in opening barrows in different parts of England
vary according to Thurnam[52] thus:—
Unburnt. Burnt.
Wilts 82 272
Dorset 21 91
Derbyshire }
Staffordshire} 150 121
Yorkshire }
Yorkshire 58 53
[51] See J. J. A. Worsaae’s _Danish Arts_, p. 68.
[52] _Archæologia_, vol. xliii., p. 310.
The survival of the practice of inhumation to so large an extent would
seem to indicate that the bronze-using Goidels amalgamated with the
Neolithic aborigines rather than exterminated them.
The unburnt bodies were usually buried in a doubled-up position, and
sometimes an urn was placed near the deceased. When the body was
cremated the ashes were placed in a cinerary urn, and the grave-goods
most commonly consisted of smaller pottery vessels, a bronze dagger
or razor, and a stone wrist-guard. Occasionally flint implements and
polished stone axe-hammers have been found with burials of this type,
but it does not necessarily follow, in consequence, that bronze was
unknown at the time.
The sepulchral pottery derived from the round barrows of the Bronze Age
supplies us with ample material for studying the art of the period.
The principal collections are to be seen in the British Museum and the
museums at Devizes, Sheffield, Edinburgh, and Dublin. These have been
derived from the barrows opened by Sir R. Colt Hoare in Wiltshire, T.
Bateman in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, Rev. Canon Greenwell and the
Rev. J. C. Atkinson in Yorkshire, C. Warne in Dorsetshire, and W. C.
Borlase in Cornwall.
The pottery from the round barrows exhibits an endless variety of form,
but as regards their suggested use, they may be divided into four
classes, namely:—
(1) Cinerary urns.
(2) Food-vessels.
(3) Drinking-cups.
(4) Incense-cups.
There is no doubt as to the use for which the cinerary urns[53] were
intended, because they are found filled with burnt human bones,
sometimes placed in an inverted position upon a flat stone, and
sometimes mouth upwards. The cinerary urns vary in height from 6 inches
to 3 feet, and the most common shape resembles that of an ordinary
garden flower-pot, with a deep rim round the top, probably to give the
vessel greater strength.
[53] Greenwell’s _British Barrows_, p. 66.
[Illustration: BRONZE AGE URN OF “INCENSE-CUP” TYPE FROM ALDBOURNE,
WILTS; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
HEIGHT 3½ INS.]
[Illustration: BRONZE AGE URN OF “FOOD-VESSEL” TYPE FROM ALWINTON,
NORTHUMBERLAND; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
HEIGHT 5 INS.]
The so-called food-vessels[54] have received this name because they are
believed to have contained food for the deceased in the next world. In
support of this theory it may be mentioned that remains of substances
resembling decayed food have been found in some of the vessels in
question. Urns of the food-vessel type are shaped like a shallow bowl,
and they vary in height from 3 to 8 inches. They are usually found
placed beside the deceased.
The use of the so-called drinking-cups[55] is suggested more by the
form, which resembles that of a mug, or beaker, slightly contracted in
the middle, than by any actual facts connected with their discovery.
They are generally placed near the deceased. The height of the
drinking-cups varies from 5 to 9 inches. The Hon. J. Abercromby,
F.S.A. (Scot.), has recently published an elaborate monograph on the
drinking-cups of the Bronze Age entitled “The Oldest Bronze Age Ceramic
Type in Britain; its close Analogies on the Rhine; its Probable Origin
in Central Europe.”[56]
Incense-cups were conjectured by Sir R. Colt Hoare and the earlier
archæologists to have been used for burning some aromatic substance
during the funeral rites. The view taken by the late Mr. Albert Way,
and supported by Canon Greenwell,[57] is that they were for carrying
burning wood to light the funeral pile. The incense-cups are the
smallest of the sepulchral vessels of the Bronze Age, being only from
1 to 3 inches high. The shape is like that of a little cup. The sides
are sometimes perforated. The incense-cups are often found inside the
cinerary urns.
[54] _British Barrows_, p. 84.
[55] _Ibid._, p. 94.
[56] _Jour. Anthropolog. Inst._, vol. xxxii., p. 373.
[57] _British Barrows_, p. 81.
Canon Greenwell states that the urns of the four different types were
found associated with unburnt and burnt bodies in the barrows opened by
him on the Yorkshire wolds in the following proportions:—
Unburnt. Burnt.
Cinerary urns 12 9
(of cinerary urn type, (containing
but without ashes) burnt bones)
Food-vessels 57 16
Drinking-cups 22 2
Incense-cups none 6
The geographical distribution of the different types of sepulchral
urns, as far as at present ascertained, is as follows: Food-vessels are
most common in Yorkshire, and most rare in Wiltshire and the south of
England generally. Drinking-cups are found all over Great Britain,[58]
and it is the type of urn which varies least. Incense-cups are found
with greater frequency in the south of England than in the north.
[58] See map given by the Hon. J. Abercromby in the _Jour. Anthropolog.
Inst._, vol. xxxii., pl. 24.
Now as to the decorative features of the sepulchral pottery of the
Bronze Age in Great Britain.
The sepulchral urns are made of coarse clay moulded by hand—not turned
on a lathe—and imperfectly baked by means of fire. The decoration was
executed whilst the clay was moist, either by
(1) The finger-nail.
(2) An impressed cord.
(3) A pointed implement.
(4) Stamps of wood or bone.
[Illustration: BRONZE AGE URN OF “DRINKING-CUP” TYPE FROM LAKENHEATH,
SUFFOLK; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
HEIGHT 7½ INS.]
Besides incised patterns produced by these methods, the ornament was
sometimes moulded in relief and sometimes sunk, and the incense-cups
often have ornamental perforations.
With the exception of the circles found on the bottoms of some of the
incense-cups the decoration consists entirely of straight lines running
more often diagonally than either horizontally or vertically. The same
preference for diagonal lines will be observed in the key-patterns in
the Irish MSS. of the Christian period, and led, as we shall see in a
subsequent chapter, to those modifications of the Greek fret which are
characteristically Celtic.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.
(_a_) Party per Chevron.
(_b_) Party per Saltire.
(_c_) Chevron.
(_d_) Saltire.
(_e_) Indented.
(_f_) Dancettée
]
Of the hundreds and hundreds of sepulchral urns of the Bronze Age
that have been found in Great Britain no two are exactly the same
either in size, form, or decoration. The fertility of imagination
exhibited in the production of so many beautiful patterns by combining
diagonal straight lines in every conceivable way is really amazing. On
examination it will be found that, complicated as the patterns appear
to be, the chevron or zigzag is at the base of the whole of them. We
use the heraldic terms for the sake of convenience; their meaning will
be understood by a reference to Fig. 1.
It will be seen that the chevron consists of two straight lines or
narrow bars inclined towards each other so as to meet in a point, the
form thus produced toeing that of the letter =V=. Now the chevron, or
=V=, is capable of being combined in the following ways:—
=W=.—Two chevrons, with the points facing in the same
direction, placed side by side.
=◊=.—Two chevrons, with the points facing in opposite
directions, placed with the open sides meeting.
=X=.—Two chevrons, with the points facing in opposite
directions, placed with the points meeting.
By repeating the =W=, =◊=, and =X=, each in a horizontal row, the
patterns shown on Fig. 2 are obtained.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.
(_a_) The Triangle or Chevron Border.
(_b_) The Lozenge Border.
(_c_) The Saltire Border.
(_d_) The Hexagon Border.
]
It will be noticed that the same pattern results from repeating a
series of =◊=’s in a horizontal line as from repeating a series of
=X=’s, so that in order to distinguish the lozenge border from the
saltire border, it is necessary to introduce a vertical line between
each pair of =X=s. The hexagon border is derived from the lozenge by
omitting every other =X=.
It is a principle in geometrical ornament that for each pattern
composed of lines there is a corresponding pattern in which bars of
uniform width are substituted for lines. Another way of stating the
same proposition is, that for each pattern composed of geometrical
figures (squares or hexagons, for instance) there is a corresponding
pattern produced by moving the figures apart in a symmetrical manner
so as to leave an equal interspace between them. This principle is
illustrated by Fig. 3, where a zigzag bar is substituted for the zigzag
line of the triangle or chevron border.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.
(_a_) Line Chevron Border.
(_b_) Bar Chevron Border.
(_c_) Surface Pattern, produced by repeating
either of the preceding.
]
Then, again, another set of patterns may be derived from those composed
of lines or plain bars, by shading alternate portions of the design
as in chequerwork. Thus on Fig. 4 are shown three different ways of
shading the chevron border, and on Fig. 5 the method of shading the
patterns on Fig. 3.
[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
Fig. 4.—(_a_) Line Chevron Border.
(_b_, _c_, and _d_) Different Methods of Shading (_a_).
Fig. 5.—(_a_) Bar Chevron Border.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but shaded.
(_c_) Surface Pattern, produced by repeating (_b_).
A few new patterns (see Fig. 6) may be produced by placing the chevron
with the point of the V facing to the right or left, thus, =<= or =>=,
instead of upwards or downwards, thus, =Λ= or =V=.
[Illustration: Fig. 6.
(_a_) Chevron Border, with V’s placed thus, => >=.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but with a horizontal line
through the points of the =V=’s.
(_c_) The same as (_a_), but shaded.
(_d_) The same as (_b_), but shaded.
]
Figs. 7 to 10 give the triangular patterns, plain and shaded, produced
by repeating the chevron border (see Fig. 2. _a_).
[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
[Illustration: Fig. 8.
Fig. 7.—(_a_) Single Border, composed of Triangles.
(_b_) Double Border, composed of Triangles, with
the points of all the Triangles meeting.
(_c_) Surface Pattern, composed of Triangles, with
the points of all the Triangles meeting.
Fig. 8.—(_a_, _b_, and _c_) The Patterns shown on Fig. 7, shaded.
]
[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10.
Fig. 9.—(_a_) Double Border, composed of Triangles, with the
points of the Triangles in one row falling in
the centres of the bases of Triangles in the row
above.
(_b_) Surface Pattern, composed of Triangles, arranged
in the same way as in the preceding.
Fig. 10.—(_a_ and _b_) The Patterns shown on Fig. 9, shaded.
]
The patterns derived from the lozenge are shown on Figs. 11 to 18.
[Illustration: Fig. 11.
Fig. 11.—(_a_) Lozenge Border, composed of two sets of Chevrons,
with their points facing in opposite directions.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but with the Chevrons set apart.
(_c_) The same as (_a_), but with bars substituted for
lines.
(_d_) The same as (_b_), but with bars substituted for
lines.
]
[Illustration: Fig. 12.
Fig. 12.—(_a_) Lozenge Border, with Triangles or Chevrons, shaded.
(_b_) Lozenge Border, with Lozenges shaded.
(_c_) The same as Fig. 11 (_c_), but shaded.
(_d_) The same as Fig. 11 (_d_), but shaded.
]
[Illustration: Fig. 13.
Fig. 13.—(_a_) Surface Pattern, produced by repeating the Bar
Chevron Border, so that the points of all the
Chevrons meet.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but with the Chevrons set apart.
]
[Illustration: Fig. 14.
Fig. 14.—(_a_) The same as Fig. 13 (_a_), but shaded.
(_b_) The same as Fig. 13 (_b_), but shaded.
]
[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
Fig. 15.—(_a_) Line Lattice-work Surface Pattern, produced by the
repetition of either the Chevron Border,
Fig. 2 (_a_), or the Lozenge Border, Fig. 2 (_b_).
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but shaded.
Fig. 16.—(_a_) The same as Fig. 15 (_b_), but with shaded Lozenges
of two different sizes.
(_b_) Lattice-work Surface Pattern; the same as
Fig. 15 (_b_), but with diagonal white bars instead
of lines.
[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
[Illustration: Fig. 18.
Fig. 17.—(_a_) Bar Lattice-work-Surface Pattern; the same as
Fig. 15 (_a_), but with diagonal bars instead of lines.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but shaded.
Fig. 18.—(_a_) Surface Pattern, produced by repeating Fig. 11 (_c_).
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but shaded.
]
The patterns derived from the saltire are shown on Fig. 19.
[Illustration: Fig. 19.
(_a_) Saltire Border Pattern.
(_b_, _c_, _d_) Saltire Border Pattern, shaded in different ways.
(_e_) The same as (_a_), but with bars instead of lines.
]
The patterns derived from the hexagon are shown on Figs. 20 and 21.
[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
Fig. 20.—(_a_) Hexagon Border Pattern, derived from the Lozenge
Border, Fig. 2 (_b_), by leaving out every other =X=.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but with the Triangles shaded.
(_c_) The same as (_a_), but with the Hexagons shaded.
(_d_) Surface Pattern, composed of Hexagons and Triangles;
produced by repeating (_c_), so that the Hexagons in
one horizontal row adjoin the Triangles in the next.
Fig. 21.—(_a_) Hexagon Surface Pattern, probably derived from
Fig. 11 (_b_), by drawing straight lines between
the points of each of the Chevrons.
(_b_) The same as (_a_), but with bars instead of lines,
and having the Hexagons shaded.
The variations in the practical application of the chevron patterns,
which have been described above, to the decoration of the sepulchral
pottery of the Bronze Age, are produced in the following ways:—
(1) By placing the chevrons (_a_) horizontally, or (_b_) vertically.
(2) By making the chevrons of different sizes.
(3) By altering the angle of the chevrons, _i.e._ making the points
more acute or more obtuse.
(4) By shading some parts of the pattern whilst other parts are left
plain.
(5) By using different methods of shading, such as plain hatching,
cross-hatching, dotting, etc.
(6) By combining the chevrons with horizontal and vertical lines.
(7) By arranging the patterns in horizontal bands of different
widths.
In a few cases[59] hexagonal figures occur in the decoration of
the urns, but the patterns do not belong to the true hexagonal
system of ornament. The hexagons were arrived at by leaving a space
between the triangles of the chevrons, as on a drinking-cup found at
Rhosbeirio,[60] Anglesey.
[59] Ll. Jewitt’s _Grave-Mounds and their Contents_, p. 108. Folkton,
Yorkshire.
[60] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, 3rd ser., vol. xiv., p. 271; _British
Barrows_, p. 70.
The decoration of the urns is generally confined to the exterior, the
only exceptions being the interiors of the lips of some of the examples
and the crosses in relief found on the bottoms inside of cinerary urns
from Wilts, Dorset, and Sussex.
The incense-cups have occasionally ornament on the bottoms of them
which, like the crosses just mentioned, may have a symbolical
significance.
Some of the urns from Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man, are very
beautifully decorated with sunk triangles and ovals.
The different types of urns are not all equally highly ornamented. The
large flower-pot-shaped cinerary urns have least decoration, being
sometimes quite plain, but in the majority of cases having a broad
band of ornament round the top. The drinking-cups are more elaborately
decorated than any other class of sepulchral pottery, although the
food-vessels are also nearly as ornate.
The artistic quality of the decoration varies in different parts of
Great Britain. Some of the most beautiful examples come from localities
where there was a great mixture of aboriginal blood with that of the
Celtic invaders, and it is not unlikely that the infusion of new blood
may have had something to do with the excellence of the art.
The chevron, although it was more highly developed as a decorative
art-motive in the Bronze Age than at any other period, was not unknown
to the Neolithic inhabitants of Great Britain, and it is more than
probable that the Goidelic Celts got the idea from them. Several
shallow vessels with a band of chevron ornament round the rim were
found in the chambered cairn at Unstan,[61] Orkney, which is of the
later Stone Age. This particular chevron pattern occurs frequently in
the Bronze Age. Each of the triangles formed by the chevron is filled
in with hatched lines running diagonally, but alternately in directions
at right angles to each other (Fig. 4, _d_, p. 30). The pattern had
no doubt a structural origin, and was suggested by lashing of the
description used for the hafting of stone axes, or by some similar
bandaging of cords.[62]
[61] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Bronze and Stone
Ages_, p. 294.
[62] Prof. A. C. Haddon’s _Evolution in Art_, p. 87.
A similar chevron pattern is to be seen on a bowl from the Dolmen du
Port-Blanc, Saint Pierre, Quiberon, Morbihan, Brittany.[63] Possibly
this may be the survival of a strengthening band of basketwork round
the vessel.
[63] Paul du Chatellier’s _La Poterie aux Époques préhistorique et
Gauloise_, pl. 12, fig. 12.
[Illustration: Bronze Spear-heads ornamented with rows of dots
In the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin]
The decoration of the bronze implements, gold lunulæ, and jet necklaces
of the Bronze Age corresponds very nearly with that of the sepulchral
pottery. All the designs are founded upon the chevron, and the only
differences are in the methods of execution. On the objects of metal
the patterns are produced by the hammer, punch, and graver,[64] and on
the flat jet beads of the necklaces by a borer.
[64] Sir W. Wylde’s _Catal. Mus. R. I. A._, p. 388.
[Illustration: Gold Lunula from Killarney
Now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin]
The bronze implements most frequently decorated are celts and razors,
and more rarely dagger-blades and spear-heads.
Of the three classes of bronze celts, namely,[65]
(1) Flat celts,
(2) Winged and flanged celts,
(3) Socketed celts,
it is only the first two that are decorated with chevron patterns in
the same way as the sepulchral pottery. The socketed celts, which
are later than the others, are ornamented with concentric circles
resembling those on certain Gaulish terra-cotta figures.[66]
On some of the bronze spear-heads in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy the ornament consists of lines of small dots. The dotted
patterns in the Irish MSS. of the Christian period may possibly be
traced to this source.
The greatest number of gold lunulæ, most of which exhibit the
characteristic chevron-motive decoration of the Bronze Age, have been
found in Ireland. Dr. W. Frazer has compiled a list of known examples,
which will be found in the _Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries
of Ireland_.[67] The numbers are as follows:—
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy 32
British Museum 11
Edinburgh Museum 4
Belfast Museum 1
Private Collections 3
Present owners unknown 9
Found in France 2
[65] _Early Man in Britain_, p. 350; and _British Museum Bronze Age
Guide_, p. 40.
[66] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 3, vol. xiv., p. 308.
[67] 5th ser., vol. vii., p. 41.
The decoration consists of very fine lines executed with chisel-edged
punches,[68] and it is concentrated on the edges and the two horns of
the crescent, the broad part of the crescent in the middle being quite
plain, as will be seen in the specimen illustrated on page 40 from
Killarney, now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.
[68] Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. of Antiquities of Gold in Mus. R. I. A._,
p. 10.
The lunulæ were probably worn as head-dresses or else round the neck,
and the contrast between the large expanse of burnished gold and the
delicately engraved patterns must have been very effective when seen
flashing in the bright sunlight.
Some of the finest examples of jet necklaces have been found with
Bronze Age burials in Scotland, as at Balcalk, Forfarshire; Tayfield,
Fife; Torrish, Sutherlandshire;[69] Assynt, Ross-shire;[70] Melfort,
and Argyllshire. They have also been found occasionally in England, as
at Middleton Moor,[71] Derbyshire.
The beads of which the necklaces are composed are of three different
shapes, ovoid, flat triangular plates, and four-sided flat plates.
The flat beads are decorated with chevrons, triangles, and lozenges
produced by rows of dots. Here again we have an instance of a kind of
decoration which survived in Christian times.
The last class of remains exhibiting Bronze Age decoration are the
sculptured rocks and stones. Some of the carvings are found on natural
rock surfaces and boulders; others on such megalithic monuments as
stone circles, dolmens, and chambered cairns; whilst numerous examples
are on the slabs forming the covers or sides of sepulchral cists.
[69] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Bronze and Stone
Ages_, pp. 53, 55, and 56.
[70] Daniel Wilson’s _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_.
[71] Bateman’s _Ten Years’ Diggings_, p. 25.
Although the megalithic structures called by the late Mr. James
Ferguson “rude stone monuments” undoubtedly belong as a class to the
Neolithic period, yet some of them exhibit decorative forms which
are characteristic of the Bronze Age. This suggests the interesting
speculation whether the ornamental patterns used by the Celts in the
Bronze Age may not have been to a large extent borrowed from the
Neolithic aborigines, and also whether the absorption of the Iberian
peoples by the conquering Goidels may not have had a stimulating effect
on decorative art.
However this may be, it is a curious fact that the best specimens of
Bronze Age ornament sculptured on stone exist in the Co. Meath, in
Ireland, where such an admixture of race would be most likely to occur,
and the type of monument on which the carvings are found belongs to
the Neolithic period. In Ireland, therefore, either the erection of
dolmens, chambered cairns, and other similar structures must have
survived during the Bronze Age, or else the characteristic patterns of
the Bronze Age must have been derived from a Neolithic source.
The wonderful series of chambered cairns at Newgrange, near Drogheda,
and at Sliabh na Calliaghe, near Oldcastle, both in the Co. Meath,
have been well known to archæologists for many years, but it is only
quite recently that their decorative sculpture has been studied
scientifically by Mr. George Coffey, M.R.I.A., the Curator of the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin. The following account has
been compiled chiefly from Mr. Coffey’s admirable monographs on the
subject, published in the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_.[72]
[72] Vol. xxx., p. 1.
The great prehistoric cemetery, which has been identified with the
Brugh na Boinne mentioned in the Leabhar-na-h-Uidhri and in the Book of
Ballymote, is situated five miles west of Drogheda, extending thence
about three miles along the northern bank of the Boyne towards Slane.
Amongst the most important of the sepulchral remains are the three
great tumuli of Dowth, Newgrange, and Knowth, taking them in order from
east to west. Two of the tumuli certainly contain chambers, access to
which is gained by a passage leading from the exterior, and the third,
judging from analogy, probably is also chambered. The Boyne tumuli are
recorded in the _Annals of Ulster_ to have been plundered by the Danes
in A.D. 862. The chamber of the Dowth tumulus has been open since 1847;
that of Newgrange since 1699, when it was first entered in modern times
by Edward Lhuyd, the keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford; and that
of Knowth still remains to be explored.
[Illustration: Longitudinal section of Chamber and Passage of Tumulus
at Newgrange, Co. Meath.]
The sculptures at Newgrange are of such exceptional interest that it is
desirable to give a brief description of the structure upon which they
are found. The tumulus stands less than a quarter of a mile north-east
of Newgrange House, the Dowth tumulus being 1¼ to the north-east,
and the Knowth tumulus three-quarters of a mile to the north-west.
The Newgrange tumulus is surrounded by a circle of stones originally
consisting of thirty-five upright monoliths, twelve of which may still
be traced. Four of the standing stones near the entrance are from 6
to 7 feet in height, but the remainder are of smaller size. Between
the circle and the base of the mound is a ditch and a rampart of loose
stones. The tumulus is also of loose stones, surrounded at the base
by a continuous curb of great slabs of stone from 8 to 10 feet long,
laid on edge, above which is a retaining wall of dry rubble 5 or 6
feet high. The tumulus is approximately circular in plan, 280 feet in
diameter, and 44 feet high. The area occupied by the mound alone is at
least an acre. The entrance to the passage leading to the chamber is on
the S.E. side of the mound, and the passage runs in a N.W. direction.
The chamber is not in the centre of the mound, but to the S.E. side
of the centre. The plan of the passage and chamber is irregularly
cruciform, the dimensions being as follows:—
Feet. Inches.
Length of passage 62 0
Length from end of passage to back of
N.W. recess 18 0
Average width of passage 3 0
Width of chamber from back of N.E.
recess to back of S.W. recess 21 0
Height of passage varies from 4 ft. 9 in. to 7 10
Height of chamber 19 6
Depth of N.E. recess 8 8
” N.W. ” 7 6
” S.W. ” 3 4
The side walls of the passage and chamber are constructed of tall
upright stones, having the interstices filled in with rubble work.
The passage is roofed over with single lintel stones. The roof of the
chamber is in the form of an irregular six-sided truncated pyramid
composed of stones corbelled out until they meet sufficiently near
together at the top to be covered by a single slab. The floor was
originally paved with carefully selected, water-rounded pebbles. These
with equal originality and care have been removed by the Irish Board of
Works, and placed in the bottom of the pit dug in front of the carved
stone at the entrance.
There are on the floor four rudely made shallow stone basins, one
in each of the three recesses, and the fourth in the centre of the
chamber. The one in the middle of the chamber was taken from the
position it formerly occupied on the top of the basin in the N.E.
recess (where it was seen by Edward Lhuyd in 1699), and placed where
it now is by the over-officious zeal of the Irish Board of Works. The
large stones used in the construction of the chamber are of the lower
silurian grit of the district.
The following stones of the Newgrange Tumulus are sculptured:—
_On exterior of Mound at Base._
No. 1.—Above entrance of passage leading to chamber.
No. 2.—Front of entrance.
No. 3.—Nearly in a line with axis of passage prolonged to
cut circumference of mound on N.W. side.
No. 4.—N. side of mound.
_In Passage._
N.E. side—twenty-one uprights—Nos. 3, 12, 18, and 21 sculptured,
counting from entrance inwards.
S.W. side—twenty uprights—Nos. 10, 11, 17, and 20 sculptured,
counting from entrance inwards.
[Illustration: Plan of Chamber and Passage of Tumulus at Newgrange, Co.
Meath]
_In Chamber._
Seventeen uprights—Nos. 2, 3, 4, 10, and 16 sculptured,
commencing at end of passage S.W. side, and counting
round from right to left. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are in S.W.
recess, where there is also a horizontal stone above
No. 3 sculptured. No. 10 forms the N.E. jamb of the
N.W. recess. No. 16 forms the S.E. jamb of the N.E.
recess, which has also a sculptured roofing-stone. The
horizontal lintel-stone over the opening of the passage
into the chamber is sculptured.
[Illustration: Spiral Ornament at Newgrange, Co. Meath.
Scale ⅙ linear]
Analysing the sculptured decoration of the Newgrange tumulus, we find
it to consist partly of chevron patterns and chevron derivatives (such
as combinations of the triangle and lozenge), and partly of spiral
ornament, together with a few designs formed of circles grouped round
a lozenge, and some cups and rings. The chevron patterns have already
been noticed on sepulchral urns, bronze implements, and jet necklaces
of Great Britain, and concentric circles on socketed bronze celts, but
spiral ornament is conspicuous by its absence on any of these classes
of objects. Spirals are only known to occur on sculptured stones and
rock-surfaces in Great Britain, and on a few of the remarkable stone
balls with knobs found in Scotland. The following examples have been
recorded:—
[Illustration: Slab with Spiral Ornament outside entrance to passage of
Tumulus at Newgrange, Co. Meath
From a drawing by George Coffey, M.R.I.A.]
ENGLAND
CUMBERLAND. Maughanby (Stone circle surrounding cist
under tumulus).
Old Parks, Kirkoswald (Upright slab under tumulus).
LANCASHIRE. Calderstones, near Liverpool (Stone Circle).
NORTHUMBERLAND. Morwick (Rock-surface).
Lilburn Hill Farm (Slabs of stone found in grave).
WALES
MERIONETHSHIRE. Llanbedr (Slab of stone found near hut-circles,
now in Llanbedr churchyard).
SCOTLAND
ORKNEY. Eday (Stone in Pict’s House,
now in the Edinburgh Museum).
Firth (Slab of stone, now in the Edinburgh Museum).
ELGINSHIRE. Strypes (Standing stone).
Elgin (Stone ball).
ABERDEENSHIRE. Towie (Stone ball, now in the Edinburgh Museum).
Lumphanan (Stone ball, now in collection of
Hugh W. Young, Esq., F.S.A., Scot.).
ARGYLLSHIRE. Achnabreac (Sculptured rock-surface).
AYRSHIRE. Coilsfield (Cist-cover).
Blackshaw (Rock-surface).
PEEBLESSHIRE. La Mancha (Slab of stone, now in the
Edinburgh Museum).
WIGTONSHIRE. Camerot Muir, Kirkdale (Standing stone).
DUMFRIESSHIRE. Hollows Tower, Eskdale (Door-sill).
IRELAND
CO. MEATH. Newgrange (Chambered Cairn).
Dowth (Chambered Cairn).
Loughcrew (Chambered Cairn).
King’s Mountain (Chambered Cairn).
CO. LOUTH. Killing Hill, Dundalk (Sepulchral Chamber).
CO. TYRONE. Knockmany (Chambered Cairn).
CO. FERMANAGH. Castle Archdall (Sepulchral Chamber).
CO. DONEGAL. Glencolumbkille (Sepulchral Chamber).
Spiral ornament is as conspicuously absent on the implements and
objects of the Bronze Age in Gaul as in Britain. It is, then, to
Scandinavia that we must look for the origin of the Bronze Age spirals
found in this country.
In the museums at Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Christiania, may be seen
splendid specimens of bronze axes, sword-hilts, and personal ornaments
exhibiting spiral decoration in the greatest perfection. These are
fully illustrated in A. P. Madsen’s monograph on the Bronze Age, in the
works of O. Montelius and J. H. A. Worsaae, and in the _Transactions_
of the various archæological societies in Sweden and Denmark.
[Illustration: Spiral Ornament on Bronze Axe-head from Denmark]
The spirals with which the objects of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia are
decorated are generally arranged with their centres at equal distances
apart, and connected together by =S= or =C-=shaped curves, the former
being the most common.
When spirals are arranged in a single row, the problem of how to
connect the whole together so as to form a continuous running pattern
does not present much difficulty, but if it is required to cover a
large surface with spirals in groups of three or of four, all properly
connected, the solution is not so easy as it appears at first sight.
Both the metalworkers who made the Scandinavian bronze implements, and
the artist who designed the sculptured decoration of the Newgrange
tumulus, seem to have been unable to master the method of arranging the
=S-= and =C-=shaped connections of the spirals in proper order,[73]
so as to be capable of extension in every direction over a surface of
any required size. The difficulty was got over by a most ingenious
artifice, as Mr. George Coffey was the first to point out in his
monograph on “Newgrange, Dowth, and Knowth” in the _Transactions of the
Royal Irish Academy_ (vol. xxx., p. 25).
[73] That is to say, the way of placing the centres of the spirals in
relation to each other, and of determining how many =S-= or =C-=shaped
curves should run to each centre.
[Illustration: Bronze Axe-head with Spiral Ornament from Sweden]
When the spirals are not arranged and connected together in accordance
with the requirements of geometry, some of the bands which compose the
ornament have loose ends, _i.e._ run to nowhere. The question was how
to dispose of the loose ends so as to deceive the eye and give the
appearance of a continuous pattern. It was effected very simply by
carrying the loose ends right round one or more of the other spirals
so as to enclose them. Good instances of this occur on the sculptured
slabs at Newgrange (p. 48), and on the carved stone ball from Towie,
Aberdeenshire, now in the Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities.
Mr. G. Coffey’s theory, in which we feel inclined to agree, is that
the spiral motive came to Ireland from Scandinavia across Scotland
and the north of England. Both the geographical distribution of
spirals sculptured on stone in Great Britain, and the fact that the
same imperfect method of connecting the spirals together for all over
surface treatment is found in Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia
certainly lend support to this view.
It is now generally admitted by archæologists that the spiral
decoration of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia is of Mycenæan origin; and
the clearest possible proof is furnished by an associated spiral and
lotus motive design upon a bronze celt from Aarhöj,[74] near Aalborg,
Jutland, which finds an exact parallel in the ornament upon a gold
pectoral from Mycenæ.[75]
[74] _Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_, 1887, p.
259.
[75] Perrot and Chipiez’s _Art in Primitive Greece_, vol. i., p. 323.
The Mycenæan spiral decoration has furthermore been clearly proved
by Mr. Goodyear in his _Grammar of the Lotus_ to have been borrowed
from ancient Egypt; the best instance of the transference of a spiral
and lotus motive pattern from Egypt to the Ægean being the sculptured
ceiling of the beehive tomb at Orchomenos. In Egypt, the spiral is
found by itself forming a continuous running border on the scarabs
of Usertesen I.[76] (Twelfth Dynasty, B.C. 2758-2714), and combined
with the lotus on a scarab at Turin[77] of the same period. The best
examples of the use of the spiral as continuous surface ornament are
to be seen on the ceilings of Egyptian tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty
(B.C. 1633-1500).[78]
The spiral motive thus was most nourishing in Egypt from the Twelfth
Dynasty to the Eighteenth, say from B.C. 2758-1700.[79] After that it
found its way to the Ægean, perhaps as early as 1400 B.C.,[80] and
thence to Hungary, Scandinavia, and Great Britain.
[76] Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian Decorative Art_, p. 21.
[77] _Ibid._, p. 22.
[78] _Prisse d’Avennes, Histoire de l’Art Egyptien après les Monuments._
[79] Flinders Petrie, _Decorative Art in Egypt_, p. 28.
[80] _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol. xii., p. 203.
The chambered tumuli at Dowth, on the Boyne, and Loughcrew, near
Oldcastle, Co. Meath, resemble the Newgrange tumulus in plan and
construction, but the sculptures upon the stones of the chambers and
passages are not so obviously of Bronze Age type as those at Newgrange.
The designs seem to be more symbolical than ornamental, and from the
frequent occurrence of star- and wheel-shaped designs may have to do
with sun-worship. The Loughcrew tumuli and their sculptures have been
very fully described by Mr. E. A. Conwell, in the _Proceedings of the
Royal Irish Academy_ (vol. ix., p. 355; and 2nd ser., vol. ii., p. 72);
by Mr. George Coffey, in the _Transactions_ of the same society (vol.
xxxi., p. 23); and by Dr. W. Frazer, in the _Proceedings of the Society
of Antiquaries of Scotland_ (vol. xxvi., p. 294).
A certain proportion of the sepulchral cists of the Bronze Age in Great
Britain exhibit symbolical or decorative designs. The following is a
list of the examples which have been recorded:—
ROSS-SHIRE. Bakerhill.
ARGYLLSHIRE. Kilmartin.
Carnbân.
CLACKMANNAN. Tillycoultry.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE. Caerlowrie.
Craigie Wood.
LANARKSHIRE. Carnwath.
AYRSHIRE. Coilsfield.
CUMBERLAND. Aspatria.
Redlands, near Penrith.
NORTHUMBERLAND. Ford West Field.
YORKSHIRE. Bernaldby Moor.
CO. TYRONE. Seskin.
The sculpture is usually on the cover-stone of the cist, but in the
case of the examples at Kilmartin and at Carnbân it is on the vertical
end slabs.
The sculptured designs consist of cups and rings, concentric circles,
lozenges, triangles, axe-heads, curved meandering lines, and a few
patterns composed of straight lines. The carvings show the same
pick-marks that were observed at Newgrange.
The axe-heads on the end slab of the cist at Kilmartin[81] are of the
wedge shape common in the early Bronze Age. Like the stone axes and
axe-heads sculptured on the dolmens of Brittany, they probably have a
symbolical meaning connected with the worship of some axe-bearing deity
such as Zeus.
[81] _Jour. Brit. Archæol. Assoc._, vol. 36, p. 146.
The designs, composed of triangles alternately covered with dots and
left plain, which occur on the cist-cover from Carnwath,[82] we have
already seen sculptured at Newgrange and engraved on bronze axes and
jet necklaces. The grouped circles on the cist-cover from Craigie
Wood[83] may also be compared with those on the slabs in the Newgrange
tumulus, on the stone ball from Towie in the Edinburgh Museum, and on
the chalk drums from Folkton in the British Museum.
[82] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. x., p. 62.
[83] _Ibid._, vol. vi., _Appendix_, p. 28.
In three cases (viz. at Coilsfield,[84] Carnwath, and Tillycoultry)[85]
elaborately ornamented urns of the food-vessel type have been found
in the sculptured cists, thus clearly proving the period to which the
cists belong.
Sometimes slabs of stone sculptured with cup-marks, cups and rings, and
spirals, have been found associated with Bronze Age burials, although
not forming parts of a cist. One of the most remarkable discoveries
of this kind was made at Old Parks,[86] near Kirk Oswald, Cumberland.
In 1894 a barrow composed of loose stones, 80 feet in diameter and 4
feet high, was opened by the late Chancellor R. S. Ferguson, F.S.A.,
and when the mound was removed a row of five slabs fixed upright in
the ground was disclosed. The stones were in a line pointing north
and south, cutting the site of the mound into two halves, and three
of them are sculptured with spirals. As many as thirty-two deposits
of burnt bones were found in holes scooped out of the natural surface
of the ground, together with two ornamented urns of incense-cup form,
fragments of several other urns, and a necklace of cannel-coal beads.
[84] _Ibid._, vol. vi., _Appendix_, p. 27.
[85] _Ibid._, vol. xxix., p. 190.
[86] _Cumb. and West. Ant. Soc. Trans._, vol. xiii., p. 389.
A slab of stone sculptured with spirals and concentric circles was
found in 1883 on Lilburn Hill[87] Farm near Wooler, Northumberland,
associated with seven deposits of burnt bones buried in small circular
pits.
Stones sculptured with cups, or cups and rings, have been found either
as cover-stones of urns or associated with burials in round barrows at
the following places:—
NORTHUMBERLAND. Ingoe.
Black Hedon.
Kirk Whelpington.
CUMBERLAND. Maughanby.
YORKSHIRE. Kilburn.
Ayton Moor.
Claughton Moor.
Wykeham Moor.
DERBYSHIRE. Elkstone.
Sheen.
STAFFORDSHIRE. Stanton.
DORSETSHIRE. Came Down.
SUTHERLANDSHIRE. Dornoch Links.
ABERDEENSHIRE. Greenloan, Cabrach.
A link between the art of the Bronze Age in Britain and the art of
Mycenæ is afforded by a rock-sculpture at Ilkley,[88] Yorkshire, which
takes the form of a curved swastika. It belongs to a peculiar class of
patterns composed of winding bands and small bosses or dots, of which
there are numerous examples in the Scandinavian[89] and Mycenæan[90]
metalwork. Perhaps some of the Late-Celtic designs, in which the
arrangement of the long sweeping =S-= and =C-=shaped curves is governed
by the position of circular bosses they connect, may be descended
from the winding-band patterns of the Mycenæan period. For instance,
the designs on the enamelled handles of the bowl found at Barlaston,
Staffordshire, and on the Ilkley rock-sculpture have obvious points in
common, both being founded on the curved swastika.
[87] _Archæol. Æliana_, ser. 2, vol. x., p. 220.
[88] _Jour. Brit. Archæol. Assoc._, vol. xxxv., p. 18.
[89] A. P. Madsen’s _Antiquités préhistoriques du Danemark_.
[90] Schlieman’s _Mycenæ_, pp. 166, 167, 169, 264, and 265.
[Illustration: Winding Band (curved Swastika), sculptured in rock near
Ilkley, Yorkshire
Scale ⅛ linear]
There are in different parts of Great Britain a great number of rocks
and boulders sculptured with cups, generally surrounded by concentric
rings, and often having a radial groove leading from the cup outwards.
[Illustration: SPIRAL ORNAMENT ON STONE BALL FROM TOWIE, ABERDEENSHIRE;
NOW IN THE EDINBURGH MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
[Illustration: WINDING-BAND CURVED SWASTIKA ON SWORD-HILT FROM DENMARK]
[Illustration: BRONZE SWORD-HILT WITH WINDING-BAND PATTERN FROM DENMARK]
[Illustration: BRONZE SWORD-HILT WITH SPIRAL ORNAMENT FROM DENMARK]
[Illustration: Cup-and-ring Sculptures on rock at Ilkley, Yorkshire
Scale ¹/₃₂ linear]
The best-known instances are at Ilkley in Yorkshire, Wooler in
Northumberland, the district on the east side of Kirkcudbright Bay
between Kirkcudbright and the Solway Firth, and Lochgilphead and
Kilmartin in Argyllshire. In a few cases the cup-and-ring sculptures
are associated with the wheel-symbol, as at Mevagh, Co. Donegal,
and at Cochno, Dumbartonshire. Such sculptures are more likely to
be symbolical than decorative, but it would take us too far afield
to discuss their meaning here. Those who wish to pursue the subject
further may with advantage consult Sir James Simpson’s valuable paper
on “Ancient Sculpturings of Cups and Concentric Rings,” forming the
Appendix to vol. vi. of the _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._
The sculptured rock-surfaces of Great Britain in some respects resemble
the “Hällristningar” on the west coast of Sweden. The cup-and-ring,
the wheel-symbol, and the curved swastika are common to both, but the
Swedish sculptures are much more elaborate and include figure-subjects,
ships, animals, etc. The age of some of the sculptures is indicated by
the characteristic shape of the axes (evidently of bronze) held by the
figures, and by the fact that the same set of symbols which occur on
the rocks are also to be seen on the engraved knives of the Bronze Age
found in Scandinavia. The Swedish rock-sculptures are fully described
and illustrated in L. Baltzer’s _Hällristningar från Bohuslän_, A.
Holmberg’s _Skandinaviens Hällristningar_, and the _Mémoires_ of the
International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology at Stockholm.
Summing up the results of our investigations, we find that the
peculiarities in the Pagan Celtic art of the Bronze Age which were
transmitted to the Pagan and Christian styles of the Early Iron Age are
as follows:—
(1) The use of the closely coiled spiral.
(2) The use of rows of dots.
(3) The use of diagonal lines in preference to those running
horizontally or vertically.
(4) The use of designs founded on the curved swastika.
Of all these the spiral decorative motive is by far the most important,
as we shall see in a subsequent chapter.
CHAPTER III
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE EARLY IRON AGE
INTRODUCTION OF THE USE OF IRON INTO BRITAIN BY THE BRYTHONIC CELTS,
CIRCA B.C. 300
In a previous chapter we pointed out the difference between the Q and
the P Celts, the former being Goidels in the Bronze Age, and the latter
Brythons in the Iron Age, when they first arrived in Britain. We will
now proceed to consider the nature of the culture introduced with the
use of iron into this country from Gaul by the Belgic or Brythonic
Celts.
NATURE OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH HAVE LED TO THE FINDS
OF OBJECTS OF THE EARLY IRON AGE IN GREAT BRITAIN
A great variety of circumstances have led to the discovery of objects
of the Early Iron Age. Where they have not been buried at any great
depth beneath the surface of the ground, the plough[91] has frequently
been the means of bringing them to light. The making of roads[92] and
railways,[93] drainage of land for agricultural purposes,[94] military
fortifications,[95] quarrying[96] and mining,[97] have also had their
share in helping the archæologist. A considerable number of antiquities
which have found their way into the beds of rivers have been recovered
in the course of dredging operations for the improvement of inland
navigation[98] and building of bridge foundations.[99] Tumuli,[100]
camps,[101] caves,[102] sites of towns[103] and villages,[104]
crannogs,[105] etc., have yielded a plentiful harvest to the scientific
explorer. In some cases the denudation of the wind[106] or the erosion
of the sea[107] has removed the covering of sand by which the traces
of the ancient inhabitants have been concealed for centuries. The
rabbit,[108] although the enemy of the farmer, sometimes becomes the
friend of the antiquary by throwing up priceless relics of the past out
of his burrow. Lastly, pure accident[109] is now and then the agent by
which the position of a long-forgotten hiding-place for valuables is
made known.
[91] As at Polden Hill, Somersetshire.
[92] As at Birdlip, Gloucestershire.
[93] As at cuttings near Bedford and between Denbigh and Corwen.
[94] As at Westhall, Suffolk.
[95] As at Mount Batten, near Plymouth.
[96] As at Hamdon Hill, Somersetshire.
[97] As at Hunsbury, near Northampton.
[98] As in deepening the Shannon, Thames, and Witham.
[99] As at Kirkby Thore, on the Eden, Westmoreland.
[100] As at Arras, Yorkshire.
[101] As at Mount Caburn, near Lewes.
[102] As at Settle, Yorkshire; Deepdale, Derbyshire; and Kent’s Cavern
near Torquay.
[103] As at Great Chesters and Silchester.
[104] As at Glastonbury, Somersetshire.
[105] As at Lisnacroghera, Co. Antrim; Strokestown, Co. Roscommon; and
Lochlee, Ayrshire.
[106] As on the Culbin Sands, Elginshire, where in 1827 a sportsman
having lost his gunflint, found a splendid Late-Celtic bronze armlet,
whilst seeking for another flint on the site of a Neolithic settlement
covered with blown sand, except where denuded by the wind.
[107] As at Hoylake, in Cheshire, where the encroachment of the sea on
the portion of the coast lying between the estuaries of the Dee and the
Mersey washes out antiquities of every period from the submarine forest
and the sandhills above it.
[108] A beautiful Late-Celtic bronze armlet was found at Stanhope,
Peeblesshire, by the tenant of the farm, whilst searching for a rabbit,
under a large flat stone on the hillside.
[109] As in the case of the hoard of gold objects of bullion value,
amounting to £110, found at Shaw Hill, Peeblesshire, by a herd-boy who
saw something glitter in the ground, and scraped out the torques and
other relics with his foot.
GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE FINDS OF OBJECTS OF THE EARLY IRON AGE
The general character of the finds of objects of the Early Iron Age is
almost as varied as the circumstances which have led to their recovery
from oblivion, and they may be classified according to their nature, as
follows:—
(1) Sepulchral remains.
(2) Remains found on inhabited or fortified sites.
(3) Hoards of objects purposely concealed.
(4) Objects accidentally lost.
_Sepulchral Remains._—The sepulchral deposits of the Early Iron Age
differ greatly, both as regards the methods of burial adopted in each
case, and the kind of grave-goods placed with the deceased. This is to
be accounted for by a difference of time rather than area; and it is
only natural to find the Bronze and Iron Ages merging into one another,
whilst towards the close of the Late-Celtic Roman and even Saxon
influence began to be felt.
Possibly the earliest sepulchral remains of the Late-Celtic period
that have been found in England are the burials under mounds at
Arras, on the Yorkshire Wolds, which were explored by the Rev. E.
W. Stillingfleet, D.D.,[110] in 1815-17, and the Rev. Canon W.
Greenwell[111] in 1876. The bodies were not cremated, as was generally
the case in the Bronze Age, and also subsequently during the
Romano-British period; but were buried in excavations in the chalk,
and the place of sepulture marked by a tumulus. The so-called Queen’s
Barrow at Arras, when opened by the Rev. W. Stillingfleet, was found
to contain the skeleton of a female, with the feet gathered up, and
the head to the north. The grave-goods consisted of one hundred glass
beads, two bracelets, rings of gold and amber, and a pair of tweezers.
[110] _Memoirs of the Meeting of the British Archæological Institute
held at York in 1846_, p. 26.
[111] Greenwell’s _British Barrows_, p. 454.
In another barrow at Arras, the Rev. W. Stillingfleet discovered the
remains of a warrior resting on the smooth pavement of a circular
excavation in the chalk, 8 to 9 yards in diameter, and 1 foot 6 inches
deep, lying on his back, with his arms crossed over the breast. He had
been interred with his chariot, a pair of horses completely harnessed,
and two wild boars.
A third barrow explored by the Rev. W. Stillingfleet also covered
the skeleton of a warrior with the remains of his martial equipment,
consisting of the bosses of his shield, one wheel of his chariot, two
of his horses’ bridle-bits. Two wild boars’ tusks (one of which was
perforated with a square hole, and enclosed in a case of thin brass)
were associated with this burial; indicating, perhaps, some religious
or superstitious belief connected with this animal.[112]
[112] A Late-Celtic boar’s head of bronze was found at Liecheston,
in Banffshire, in 1816 (see Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan
Times: Iron Age_, p. 117). Three little bronze figures of boars, from
Hounslow, now in the British Museum, are illustrated in the _Proc.
Soc. Ant. Lond._ (2nd ser., vol. iii., p. 90); and the splendid bronze
shield from the Thames at Battersea, in the same collection, has a boar
represented upon it (see Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, pl. 14). The boar
also occurs on one of the Scotch symbol-bearing slabs at Knock-na-Gael,
near Inverness (see Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones of Scotland_, vol. i.,
pl. 38). For a boar on a helmet, see account of Benty Grange tumulus on
p. 67.
A portion of the antiquities mentioned are now in York Museum, and the
Rev. W. Stillingfleet’s manuscript notes on his diggings in 1815-17 are
preserved in the Library of the York Philosophical Institute.
The barrow at Arras, opened by the Rev. Canon W. Greenwell, covered
a circular grave, 12 feet in diameter, sunk in the chalk to a depth
of 3 feet, on the floor of which was laid the skeleton of a woman,
resting on the left side, with her left hand up to the face, and the
head to the west. Two tame pigs were buried with the deceased, and the
grave-goods comprised an iron mirror, a bronze harness-ring, a pair
of iron chariot-wheels, two snaffle-bits, and what may have been a
whip-shank.
In 1875 Canon Greenwell explored a tumulus near Beverley, in Yorkshire,
which yielded two chariot-wheels and a bridle-bit, but no human or
other bones.
In July, 1897, Mr. J. R. Mortimer, of Driffield, opened 16 out of a
group of 178 barrows, called “Danes’ Graves,” near Pockthorpe Hall, two
miles west of Kilham, E. R. Yorkshire.[113] The burial-mounds were from
10 to 33 feet in diameter, and from 1 foot 3 inches to 3 feet 6 inches
high, covering graves, either oval or oblong with rounded corners,
about 7 feet long by 5 feet wide by 2 feet deep. All the bodies were
unburnt and buried in the doubled-up attitude characteristic of the
Neolithic period. A beautiful bronze pin, inlaid with shell, was
associated with the skeleton of a female in a grave beneath the largest
of the mounds, and in another were found two male skeletons buried with
a chariot, the iron tyres of the wheels and the iron hoops of the naves
of which still remained together with the two iron snaffle bridle-bits
of the horses. The antiquities derived from the “Danes’ Graves” are now
in the Museum of the York Philosophical Society. The average breadth
index of the skulls was 735.
[113] _Reliquary_ for 1897, p. 224; _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, 2nd ser.,
vol. xvii., p. 119.
The burials just described bear a marked resemblance to those of
Gaulish warriors at Berru[114] and at Gorge-Meillet,[115] both in the
Department of the Marne in France, and may have belonged to the Celtic
tribe of the Parisi, who gave their name to Paris in Gaul, and who
colonised or conquered parts of Yorkshire.
Canon Greenwell describes the result of opening four barrows of the
Early Iron Age in the parish of Cowlam,[116] in Yorkshire, in all of
which were found the skeletons of females, laid on the natural surface
of the ground, resting on the left side, with the hands up to the
face, and the head to the north-east. The grave-goods from the first
barrow consisted of a bronze armlet, a bronze fibula with an iron pin,
and seventy exquisite blue glass beads; and from the second, of an
ornamental armlet. From the remaining two barrows only fragments of
pottery were obtained.
Mr. J. R. Mortimer explored a grave dug in the chalk, but without
any mound above it, in 1868, a quarter of a mile north-east of
Grimthorpe[117] House, near Pocklington, in Yorkshire. It measured
4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet 9 inches wide, by 4 feet deep, and
contained the skeleton of a young man, placed on the floor of the
grave, resting partly on the back, with the knees and head inclined to
the left side, the lower extremities drawn up, the hands on the breast,
and the head to the south. Associated with the burial were sixteen bone
implements, a sword-sheath, the umbo of a shield, a disc of bronze with
repoussé ornament, and bits of rude pottery.
[114] A. Bertrand, _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, 2nd ed., 1889,
p. 356.
[115] E. Fourdrignier, _Double Sépulture Gauloise de la Gorge-Meillet_.
[116] _British Barrows_, p. 208, Nos. li. to liv. The results of the
exploration are now in the British Museum. The bronze objects are
engraved in Sir J. Evans’ _Ancient Bronze Implements_, pp. 387, 388,
and 400.
[117] _Reliquary_, vol. ix., p. 180, and Ll. Jewitt’s _Grave-Mounds and
their Contents_, pp. 237 and 263.
The number of burials of the Early Iron Age that have been found in
Great Britain is extremely small as compared with those of the Ages of
Stone and Bronze. This would seem to indicate that the period between
the introduction of iron into this country and the commencement of the
Roman occupation cannot have been very long; and that if the new metal
was brought in by a foreign invasion rather than by peaceful commercial
intercourse, nothing like the extermination of the native inhabitants,
who used bronze and cremated their dead, can have taken place.
As we have seen, a large proportion of the sepulchral remains of the
Early Iron Age have been derived from Yorkshire; but other instances
have come to light in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Kent, Gloucestershire,
Devon, and Cornwall.
The Rev. Mr. Pegge has given an account in the _Archæologia_[118]
of the opening of a tumulus on Garratt’s Piece, Middleton Common,
Derbyshire, a mile and a half south-east of Arbelows, and ten miles
south-east of Buxton. The body had been laid on the surface of the
ground, lying east and west. With it were found one of the circular
enamelled discs to which reference will be made subsequently; a shallow
basin of thin brass, much broken and crushed; and part of the iron umbo
of a shield.
[118] Vol. ix., p. 189: letter read May 8th, 1788; and T. Bateman’s
_Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire_, p. 24.
At Benty Grange, in Derbyshire, eight miles south-east of Buxton, on
the road to Ashbourne, and one mile north-west of Arbelows, Mr. Thomas
Bateman[119] excavated a barrow, about 2 feet high, surrounded by a
fosse. The body had all decayed, except the hair; but in the spot
where it had been deposited was a remarkable assemblage of relics,
consisting of a leathern cup mounted with silver round the edge, and
having wheel- or cross-shaped silver ornaments round the bowl; three
circular enamelled discs of the same class as those from the Middleton
Common tumulus previously described; an iron helmet surmounted by the
figure of a hog of iron with bronze eyes, having a small silver cross
inlaid on the nasal; a buckle; fragments of chains, etc. This burial,
presenting some Celtic characteristics, belongs to a late period,
possibly even after the Roman occupation.
Two Early Iron Age burials are recorded as having been discovered in
Staffordshire, one at Alstonfield, the other at Barlaston. The barrow
near Alstonfield, called Steep Lowe,[120] was composed of loose stones,
and was 50 feet in diameter, and 15 feet high. The Iron Age interment
was a secondary one, the tumulus having been made originally in the
Bronze or Stone Age. The body was laid on its back; and amongst the
grave-goods were a spear-head, a lance-head, and a knife (all of iron),
some fragments of a highly ornamented drinking-cup, a stud of amber,
and Roman coins of Constantine and Tetricus.
The burial at Barlaston,[121] unlike the one just described, was not
in a mound, but in a grave, 7 feet long by 2 feet wide, by 1 foot 3
inches deep, cut in the solid red sandstone rock. With the body were
associated a beautifully ornamented flat bronze ring of Late-Celtic
character; three circular, enamelled discs of the type found in the
barrow on Middleton Moor; some fragments of a bronze bowl, which Mr.
Ll. Jewitt erroneously conjectured to have formed portions of a helmet;
and blades of an iron sword and knife.
[119] _Ten Years’ Diggings_, p. 28.
[120] Bateman’s _Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire_, p. 76.
[121] Ll. Jewitt’s _Grave-Mounds and their Contents_, p. 258; and
_Archæologia_, vol. lvi., p. 44.
[Illustration: BRONZE MIRROR FROM BIRDLIP, GLOUCESTERSHIRE; NOW IN THE
GLOUCESTER MUSEUM
_R. W. Dugdale photo._]
No discovery of sepulchral remains belonging to the Late-Celtic
period surpasses in interest that made in 1879, between Birdlip[122]
and Crickley, on the Cotteswold Hills, seven miles south-east of
Gloucester, both on account of the completeness of the series of
objects buried with the deceased, and the extreme beauty of some of
them as works of art.
Whilst repairing the road, Joseph Barnfield unearthed three skeletons
interred with the feet to the south, in graves protected by thin slabs
of stone placed on edge. The central skeleton was that of a female, and
those on each side males. The following grave-goods were associated
with the female: a bronze bowl (laid on the face of the deceased); a
silver fibula plated with gold; a necklace consisting of thirteen amber
beads, two jet beads, and one marble bead; a tubular brass armlet; a
brass key-handle; a bronze knife-handle ornamented with a beast’s head,
having small knobs at the ends of the horns; and last, but not least, a
superb bronze mirror.
Another very similar find of skeletons in graves formed of stones
placed on edge was made in 1833 at Trelan Bahow,[123] in the parish of
St. Keverne, in Cornwall, ten miles south-east of Helston. With one
of the skeletons was a beautiful bronze mirror, now in the British
Museum.[122] See John Bellows, in _Trans. of Bristol and Gloucestershire
Archæol. Soc._, vol. v., p. 137. The objects found are now in the
Gloucester Museum.
[123] See J. Jope Rodgers in _Archæol. Journ._, vol. xxx., p. 267.
Sepulchral deposits of the same period, which have also yielded
mirrors, were brought to light in the course of military works at
Mount Batten,[124] near Plymouth, in the spring of 1865. The burials,
however, in this case were not in stone-lined graves near the surface,
but in pits from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches deep, excavated in the
disintegrated rock. In addition to a bronze mirror and the handles of
two others, the following objects were obtained: two jointed bronze
armlets, two plain bronze armlets, four fibulæ, three bronze rings, a
bronze cup, an iron dagger, and a pair of shears, black pottery, and
fragments of glass. Ancient British coins had been found previously at
Mount Batten,[125] indicating a settlement here, perhaps in the first
century B.C.
The exploration of the Late-Celtic urn-field at Aylesford,[126] in
Kent, three miles north-west of Maidstone, by Dr. Arthur Evans, has
been the means of extending our knowledge of the art of this period in
a most unexpected manner, and has supplied the missing links between
the culture of Britain in the first three or four centuries B.C.,
and that of La Tène on the Continent, which in its turn can be shown
to have been strongly influenced by the civilisation of the ancient
Venetian country at the head of the Adriatic.[127] The shape of the
tall, cordoned, pedestalled vases, and other peculiarities of the
pottery from Aylesford, were things entirely unknown to archæologists
previously, and enable a distinction now to be drawn between the
fictile ware of the Late-Celtic period and that of the Romano-British
period. The discovery also of bronze objects of Italo-Greek manufacture
of the second century B.C., associated with Late-Celtic burials,
clearly indicates that there must have been a much more intimate
trade-intercourse between Britain and the southern parts of Europe, in
pre-Roman times, than has hitherto been suspected.
[124] See J. Spence Bate in _Archæologia_, vol. xl., p. 500.
[125] Sir J. Evans’ _Ancient British Coins_, pp. 72 and 106.
[126] _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 315.
[127] Dr. Arthur J. Evans’ third Rhind Lecture on the “Origins of
Celtic Art,” as reported in the _Scotsman_, December 14th, 1895.
The Late-Celtic urn-field at Aylesford was uncovered in 1886, at
Messrs. Silas Wagon and Son’s gravel-pit, in the course of removing the
surface earth which here overlies the old river-deposits to a depth of
3 feet or so. One of the first burial-pits which attracted attention
was circular, and about 3 feet 6 inches deep, the sides and bottom
being coated with a kind of chalky compound. In the pit were found a
bronze _situla_, or pail, splendidly ornamented with repoussé work in
the Late-Celtic style, and containing calcined bones; an _œnochoe_,
or wine-jug; and _patella_, or shallow pan, of imported Italo-Greek
fabric; fragments of a second _situla_; a bronze fibula; and fragments
of pottery.
From another grave, about 1 foot 6 inches deep, situated 200 yards
north-west of Aylesford Church, was obtained a bronze-plated tankard
with two handles, of the same class as the Trawsfynydd tankard,
surrounded by a circle of five or six earthenware vases, one of these
being the finest pedestalled urn collected from the site. All the
antiquities from Aylesford are now in the British Museum.
_Remains of the Early Iron Age found on Inhabited or Fortified
Sites._—Next in importance to the sepulchral remains, as affording
indications of the culture of the Early Iron Age, come the remains
derived from inhabited or from fortified sites. And it may be remarked
in passing that it is impossible to separate the inhabited from the
fortified sites, because in these early times the state of the country
was so unsettled that no isolated place of residence, village or town,
could afford to do without some means of defence, either natural or
artificial.
The inhabited site which bids fair to rival all others in the varied
nature of the relics obtained from it, and the light they help to throw
on the arts and industries of the Early Iron Age in Great Britain, is
the Glastonbury Marsh Village. As the explorations begun by Mr. Arthur
Bulleid, F.S.A., in 1892 are still in progress, it would be premature
to pass an opinion upon the finds until they are completely exhausted.
For an account of what has been already discovered there, the reader is
referred to Mr. Bulleid’s paper on the subject, which appeared recently
in the _Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archæological Society_.[128] A
bronze bowl is there illustrated which seems to be of the same kind as
those derived from the graves, but it is ornamented with raised bosses
instead of with circular plaques of enamel. The handle of a mirror,
like those from the graves, was also found at the Glastonbury Marsh
Village in 1896.
From the exploration of this settlement we have obtained a knowledge
of the peaceful pursuits and methods of life of the Late-Celtic
inhabitants, which could never have been derived from their sepulchral
remains. We now know that they were expert potters, wood-carvers,
coopers, and weavers,[129] applying the same beautiful flamboyant forms
of decoration that are characteristic of the metalwork of the period to
earthenware and wooden vessels. The long-handled weaving-combs, which
are so well known in the Pictish towers, or _brochs_, of the north of
Scotland, have been found here also. Amongst the iron implements was
a billhook for lopping the branches of trees—a most useful appliance
for clearing away undergrowth in forests, procuring firewood, and
building wattled structures. Unbaked ovoid clay pellets have been dug
up in hundreds. These were probably sling-stones, indicating that the
inhabitants must have been expert fowlers.
[128] Vol. xl. (1893).
[129] Ornamental weaving was, no doubt, practised. Although we have
no absolute proof of this, the La Tène helmet from Gorge-Meillet
(Marne), previously mentioned, has a sort of swastika pattern upon it,
suggestive of a textile origin.
The dwellings appear to have been circular or oval wattled huts, the
rudeness of which stands out in marked contrast to the high artistic
taste and technical skill of the inhabitants.
A few of the crannogs of Scotland[130] and Ireland,[131] whose
structure is somewhat analogous to the Glastonbury Marsh Village, have
also yielded Late-Celtic objects, but not in such quantities as to give
evidence of permanent occupation over a considerable period.
Hunsbury,[132] two miles south-west of Northampton, which has been
called the English “La Tène,” is a good example of a Late-Celtic
_oppidum_. The camp is of oval shape in plan, measuring 560 feet by
445 feet, and defended by a single earthen rampart and ditch. The area
enclosed is about four acres. Between 1880 and 1886 the whole of the
interior was excavated to obtain ironstone, which lay in a bed 12 feet
thick, at a depth of 7 feet 6 inches below the natural surface of the
ground.
[130] At Lochlee and at Lochspouts, Ayrshire; Dowalton, Wigtownshire;
and Hyndford, Lanarkshire (see Dr. R. Munro’s _Lake-Dwellings of
Scotland_).
[131] Lisnacroghera and Craigywarren, Co. Antrim; Strokestown and
Ardakillen, Co. Roscommon; Lagore, Co. Meath; and Ballinderry, Co.
Westmeath (see Wood Martin’s _Lake-Dwellings of Ireland_).
[132] See Sir Henry Dryden in _Associated Architectural Societies’
Reports_, vol. xviii. (1885), p. 53.
In the course of the excavations about three hundred refuse-pits,
averaging 5 feet in diameter, and dug in the soil overlying the
ironstone, were discovered. Amongst the contents of the pits were two
bronze sword-sheaths, one of them highly ornamented in the Late-Celtic
style;[133] three fibulæ, bridle-bits and cheek-pieces of bone, a
chariot-wheel, iron saws, knives, spear-heads, etc.; one hundred and
fifty quernstones, reckoning the upper and lower stones separately;
eight spindle-whorls, long-handled weaving-combs, and pottery
with Late-Celtic decoration. All these antiquities are now in the
Northampton Museum.
The camp on Mount Caburn, two miles south of Lewes, in Sussex, explored
by General Pitt-Rivers[134] in 1878, seems to have been an _oppidum_
of the same class as that at Hunsbury, and the relics indicated the
same kind of culture. The pits found at Mount Caburn were some of
them oval, and others oblong, 5 to 7 feet in diameter, and 5 feet
deep. The objects obtained from the pits included ornamental pottery,
long-handled wearing-combs, an iron billhook like the one from the
Glastonbury Marsh Village, and three ancient British tin coins.
[133] Engraved in the _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 762.
[134] _Archæologia_, vol. xlvi., p. 423.
The fine collection of Late-Celtic horse-trappings, etc., now in the
Duke of Northumberland’s private Museum at Alnwick Castle, was found
in 1844, in a pit about 5 feet deep, within an earthen entrenchment at
Stanwick, in Yorkshire, seven miles north of Richmond.[135]
A few Late-Celtic objects have been derived from Roman towns[136]
and stations[137] in England; and also from the _weems_,[138] or
underground houses, and the _brochs_,[139] or Pictish towers of
Scotland.
The bone-caves which were the permanent habitations of Palæolithic
and Neolithic man in Britain served as temporary places of refuge
for the Brit-Welsh population during the troublous times immediately
succeeding the Roman evacuation of this country. Gildas’ account of
the Britons leaving their houses and lands, and taking shelter in the
mountains, forests and caves, whence they were able successfully to
repel the inroads of the Picts and Scots,[140] is fully borne out by
archæological research.[141]
[135] _Memoirs of the Meeting of the Archæological Institute of
Great Britain and Ireland at York in 1846_, p. 88; Dr. J. C. Bruce’s
_Catalogue of the Antiquities at Alnwick_, p. 38.
[136] As in Silchester. These have not been illustrated, but are to be
seen in the Reading Museum.
[137] As in Æsica (Great Chesters) (_Archæologia Æliana_, 2nd ser.,
vol. xvii., p. xxviii.).
[138] As at Castle Newe, Aberdeenshire, and Grange of Conan,
Forfarshire (see Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_,
pp. 141 and 160).
[139] As at Okstrow and at Harray in Orkney (_Ibid._, pp. 219, 236).
[140] Gildas, xvii.; Bede’s _Eccl. Hist._, bk. i., chap. xiv.
[141] Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins’ _Cave-Hunting_, p. 106.
The principal caves which have yielded relics of this period are
Kirkhead[142] Cave in Lancashire; the Victoria,[143] Kelko,[144]
and Dowkerbottom[145] Caves in Yorkshire; Poole’s[146] Hole and the
Deepdale[147] Cave in Derbyshire; Thor’s[148] Cave in Staffordshire;
and Kent’s[149] Cavern in Devonshire.
The character of the antiquities derived from the caves does not differ
materially from that of the remains from the crannogs and the _oppida_,
although a few things of peculiar form have been found in some of
the caves, such as the spoon-shaped bone-pins from the Victoria and
Dowkerbottom Caves, and the bone whistles from Thor’s Cave. The fibulæ
from the Victoria and the Deepdale Caves are of remarkable beauty.
Evidence of spinning is afforded by the long-handled comb from Thor’s
Cave, and the numerous spindle-whorls from others. The discovery of
Roman coins and Samian ware indicate the period at which the Brit-Welsh
sought refuge in these recesses of the rock.
_Hoards of Late-Celtic Objects purposely concealed._—The
horse-trappings found in an excavation at the bottom of one of
several oblong pits, 7 feet long by 3 feet wide by 4 feet deep, at
Hagbourne Hill[150] in Berkshire, two miles south of Didcot, seem to
have been purposely hidden; as also the horse-trappings which were
discovered in the chink of the rock by quarrymen at Hamdon Hill[151]
in Somersetshire, five miles west of Yeovil. Another instance of
intentional concealment is afforded by the beautiful bronze mirror that
was found, with other ornamental pieces of bronze, wrapped in a cloth,
and covered by the upper stone of a quern, at Balmaclellan,[152] two
miles north-east of New Galloway, Kirkcudbrightshire.
[142] Three miles south of Cartmel, on the shore of Morecambe Bay
(_Cave-Hunting_, p. 125).
[143] A mile and a half north-east of Settle (_Cave-Hunting_, p.
81; and H. Eckroyd Smith in _Trans. of Hist. Soc. of Lancashire and
Cheshire_, vol. for 1866, p. 199; and Roach Smith’s _Collectanea
Antiqua_, vol. i., p. 67).
[144] Overlooking Giggleswick, one mile north-west of Settle.
[145] Between Kilnsey and Arncliffe, ten miles north-east of Settle
(_Proc. Geol. and Polytech. Soc. of W. Riding of Yorksh._ for 1859, p.
45).
[146] A mile south-west of Buxton (_Cave-Hunting_, p. 126).
[147] Three miles south-east of Buxton (_Derbyshire Archæol. Soc.
Trans._, vol. xiii., p. 196).
[148] Near Grindon, eight miles north-west of Ashbourne (_Reliquary_,
vol. vi., p. 201, and _Trans. Midland Sci. Assoc._, 1864-5, p. 1).
[149] One mile north-west of Torquay. There is a fragment of pottery,
with Late-Celtic ornament upon it, from Kent’s Cavern, in the British
Museum.
[150] _Archæologia_, vol. xvi., p. 348.
[151] _Ibid._, vol. xxi., p. 39.
[152] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 126.
_Late-Celtic Objects accidentally lost._—Besides the Late-Celtic
objects which have been dropped by their original owners on dry land,
and got covered with the soil and thus been preserved, it is remarkable
in how many cases they have been lost whilst crossing or navigating
rivers, especially the Thames,[153] Witham,[154] Tyne,[155] and
Tweed.[156]
[153] Shield (_Archæologia_, vol. xxiii., p. 96); helmet (in the
British Museum); fibula (_Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, 2nd ser., vol. xv.,
p. 191).
[154] Shield (_Archæologia_, vol. xxiii., p. 96); sword-sheath (J. C.
Bruce’s _Catal. of Alnwick Mus._); daggers (Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_,
pl. 17).
[155] Fibulæ (_Illustrated Archæologist_, vol. ii., p. 157).
[156] Sword-sheath (_Archæologia_, vol. xlv., p. 45).
FINDS OF CELTIC COINS IN BRITAIN
The earliest native coinage of Britain belongs to the Iron Age, and
dates from 200 to 150 B.C. Sir John Evans has collected together all
the known facts relating to the numismatics of this period in his
_Coins of the Ancient Britons_, and gives excellent maps showing the
geographical distribution of the finds. Prof. John Rhys, in his _Celtic
Britain_ (p. 19), says:—
“The coinage of Britain had been modelled in the first
instance after that of Gaul, which, in its turn, can be
traced to the Phocæan Greeks of Massilia or Marseilles,
through whom the continental Gauls became acquainted in
the latter part of the fourth century before Christ with
the gold stater of Philip II. of Macedon. This was a fine
coin, weighing 133 grains, and having on one side the head
of Apollo wreathed with laurel, while the other showed a
charioteer in a biga, with Philip’s name underneath. It was
imitated by the Gauls fairly well at first, but as it got
further removed from the original in time and place, the
figures degenerated into very curious and fantastic forms.”
Before the landing of Julius Cæsar in Britain in 55 B.C. the Cantii,
the Dutoriges, the Catuvelauni, and the Trinovantes each had coinages
of their own, but entirely devoid of lettering. The lettered coins
begin with those of Commios, dating from a period some time before 30
B.C., after which come those of his three sons—Tincommios, Verica, and
Eppillos. Prof. J. Rhys[157] says:—
“The coins of Commios, and some of the earlier ones of
Tincommios, continued the degenerate imitations of the
Macedonian stater without showing any Roman influence; but
it was not long after Augustus became emperor, in the year
30, that Tincommios copied the Latin formula, in which the
former styled himself _Augustus Divi Filius_, or the
son of his adoptive father, Julius Cæsar, who had now got to
be officially called _Divus_, or the god. So Tincommios
had inscribed on his money the legend _Tinc. Commi F._,
or even shorter abbreviations, meaning Tincommios son of
Commios; and the grotesque traits derived from the stater
soon disappear in favour of classical designs of various
kinds, proving very distinctly that the influence of Roman
art was beginning to make itself felt in the south of Britain.”
The coins which have been assigned to the Dobunni (although their exact
date, place of issue, and sequence are somewhat doubtful) belong to the
series of the Macedonian stater, and show hardly any trace of Roman
influence. Their probable date[158] seems to be between A.D. 1 and 41.
[157] _Celtic Britain_, p. 25.
[158] _Ibid._, p. 35.
There was no native British coinage either in Scotland, Wales, or
Ireland, and in England the finds do not extend further north than
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The greater part of the finds lie to the south of
a line drawn from Wroxeter to the Wash, and east of a line drawn from
the same place to Exeter. The geographical distribution of the finds is
clearly shown on the map given in Sir John Evans’ _Coins of the Ancient
Britons_.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FINDS OF OBJECTS OF THE LATE-CELTIC PERIOD
IN GREAT BRITAIN[159]
In the present state of our knowledge no very satisfactory deductions
can be made from a study of the geographical distribution of the finds
of this period, partly because the discoveries have been so imperfectly
recorded (more especially in Ireland), and partly because a large
number of sites which are probably Late-Celtic still remain unexplored.
Another difficulty to be reckoned with is that it is only within
the last few years that archæologists have been able to distinguish
between what is purely Celtic and what is Romano-British. Indeed, in
many cases, in the absence of coins or other evidence, it is quite
impossible to determine whether particular finds are of pre-Roman,
Roman, or even post-Roman, as the Late-Celtic style of decoration was
in vogue throughout the whole of the Pagan Iron Age in Britain, and
survived in remote districts after the introduction of Christianity.
Then, again, the fact must not be lost sight of that the greater
frequency of finds in some districts than others can be accounted for
by their having been covered with lakes where crannogs could be easily
constructed, or on the limestone formation, where rock-shelters and
caves suitable for temporary places of refuge already existed.
[159] A complete list of the finds as far as recorded is given in the
_Archæologia Cambrensis_, 5th ser., vol. xiii., p. 321.
We will take the geographical distribution of the sepulchral remains
first. It is most remarkable that up to the present no Late-Celtic
burials have been recorded in Wales, Scotland, or Ireland, although
finds of objects of the period have been frequent in all three of these
countries. The earlier Bronze Age burial customs may, of course, have
survived after the introduction of iron, or interments of the Iron Age
may have passed unrecognised owing to the rapid decay of the metal
implements accompanying the body.
In England the greatest number of Late-Celtic burials have been found
in the south-east corner of Yorkshire, near Beverley and Driffield. In
most cases the tumuli covering the graves are in large groups, those
at “Danes’ Graves,” near Kilham, numbering 178; those at Arras, near
Market Weighton, 200; and those in Scorborough Park, near Beverley,
170. The people to whom these extensive cemeteries belonged probably
invaded Britain from the Continent some few centuries before the Roman
occupation, and landing at the mouth of the Humber, settled permanently
on the east coast of Yorkshire. The people in question had long skulls,
and buried their dead in a doubled-up attitude without cremation, which
has suggested another less probable theory that they were the direct
descendants of the more ancient Neolithic inhabitants of Yorkshire.
In Derbyshire one undoubted Late-Celtic burial has been found[160] and
there are a few others which seem to belong to the transition towards
the end of the Roman occupation or the beginning of the Saxon Pagan
period.[161]
[160] In Deepdale.
[161] At Benty Grange, and on Middleton Moor.
In Kent[162] and Devonshire[163] cemeteries containing a large number
of graves have been brought to light.
Isolated burials have been found in single localities in each of
the counties of Stafford,[164] Gloucester,[165] Dorset,[166] and
Cornwall.[167]
The following lists show the geographical distribution of the inhabited
or fortified sites of the Late-Celtic period in Great Britain:—
[162] At Aylesford.
[163] At Mount Batten.
[164] At Barlaston.
[165] At Birdlip.
[166] In the Isle of Portland.
[167] At Trelan Bahow.
CAVES
YORKSHIRE. Dowkerbottom Hole, Arncliffe.
Victoria Cave, Settle.
Kelko Cave, Settle.
LANCASHIRE. Kirkhead Cave.
DERBYSHIRE. Thirst House, Deepdale.
Poole’s Hole, near Buxton.
STAFFORDSHIRE. Thor’s Cave, Dovedale.
DEVONSHIRE. Kent’s Cavern, Torquay.
LAKE-DWELLINGS AND CRANNOGS
SOMERSETSHIRE. Glastonbury Marsh Village.
LANARKSHIRE. Hyndford Crannog.
AYRSHIRE. Lochlee Crannog.
Lochspouts Crannog.
WIGTOWNSHIRE. Dowalton Crannog.
CO. ANTRIM. Lisnacroghera Crannog.
Craigywarren Crannog.
CO. ROSCOMMON. Strokestown Crannog.
Ardakillen Crannog.
CO. WESTMEATH. Ballinderry Crannog.
CO. MEATH. Lagore Crannog.
PICTISH TOWERS
ORKNEY. Broch of Harray.
Broch of Okstrow.
CAITHNESS. Broch of Kettleburn.
SELKIRKSHIRE. Broch of Torwoodlee.
UNDERGROUND HOUSES
ABERDEENSHIRE. Castle Newe.
FORFARSHIRE. Grange of Conan.
CELTIC _OPPIDA_ AND FORTIFIED VILLAGES
YORKSHIRE. Stanwick.
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. Hunsbury.
KENT. Bigbury Camp.
SUSSEX. Mount Caburn.
BERKSHIRE. Northfield Farm, Long Wittenham.
DORSETSHIRE. Hod Hill.
Hambledown Hill.
Maiden Castle.
Rotherley.
SOMERSETSHIRE. Ham Hill.
NAIRNSHIRE. Burghead.
PERTHSHIRE. Abernethy.
AYRSHIRE. Seamill Fort.
CARDIGANSHIRE. Castell Nadolig.
CARNARVONSHIRE. Treceiri.
ROMANO-BRITISH STATIONS AND TOWNS
NORTHUMBERLAND. Great Chesters (Æsica).
Risingham (Habitancum).
WESTMORELAND. Brough.
Kirkby Thore.
LANCASHIRE. Ribchester.
YORKSHIRE. New Malton.
NORTHAMPTON. Wellingborough.
SURREY. Farley Heath.
HAMPSHIRE. Silchester.
PERTHSHIRE. Ardoch.
DUMFRIES. Birrenswark.
A study of the above lists discloses some interesting facts. It will
be noticed that the caves are confined exclusively to the limestone
districts of the counties of York, Lancaster, Derby, Stafford, and
Devon. The lake-dwellings are found chiefly in the south-west of
Scotland and the north-east and central part of Ireland, there being
only one example in England and none in Wales. The _brochs_ and _weems_
(or underground houses) are Pictish structures, and therefore do
not occur anywhere except in Scotland, chiefly in its north-eastern
counties. The Celtic _oppida_ are most common in the south of England
where the Belgic settlements predominated, but there are a few examples
in Scotland. Probably a more systematic examination of the hill-forts
throughout Great Britain would show that those in which large areas are
enclosed by double and triple ramparts of stone or earth[168] belong
to the Late-Celtic period. At the present time practically nothing is
known as to the age of the stone forts and earthen raths in Ireland or
Wales.
Most of the Romano-British fortified sites which have yielded works of
art of Late-Celtic type, although executed under Roman influence, are
in the south of Scotland or in the north of England, on or near the
Wall of Hadrian, or along the lines of the military roads leading to
it.[169] At Farley Heath, near Guildford, Surrey, numerous specimens
of Kelto-Roman enamelled bronze objects have been found, and this site
would no doubt produce a plentiful harvest of antiquities of a similar
nature if properly explored. The great difficulty, however, as we have
already pointed out in dealing with the Romano-British sites, is to
determine to what extent the style of the art of the objects found
there can be shown to be definitely Celtic. In our lists we have only
included sites from which have been procured antiquities exhibiting
Celtic enamel and flamboyant ornament, or fibulæ of known Celtic type.
[168] I refer here to defensive works in which the whole of the summit
of the hill is enclosed. These forts are usually of approximately oval
shape, and follow the conformation of the hill.
[169] As, for instance, at Risingham (Habitancum) on the road going
north from the Wall into Scotland, and at Brough and Kirkby Thore on
the road from York to Carlisle, which passes through upper Teesdale,
and thence into the valley of the Eden.
If to the sepulchral deposits and inhabited sites just described
be added all the miscellaneous finds of objects accidentally lost
or purposely concealed, it will be observed that there is hardly
a single county throughout England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland
which cannot show one or two such Late-Celtic finds at least. Some
counties are nevertheless richer than others,[170] as, for instance,
Aberdeen, Forfar, Perth, Ayr, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries, in Scotland;
Antrim, Meath, and Roscommon, in Ireland; Denbighshire, in Wales; and
Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Suffolk, Middlesex,
Kent, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Hants, and
Somerset, in England.
[170] _i.e._ have from four to ten localities where Late-Celtic finds
have been made.
EVIDENCE AS TO DATES OF FINDS OF OBJECTS OF THE EARLY IRON AGE IN GREAT
BRITAIN
The finds of objects of the Early Iron Age to which an approximate date
can be assigned are as follows:—
(1) Finds associated with burials of a particular kind.
(2) Finds associated with objects of the Bronze Age.
(3) Finds associated with objects of early Hallstatt type.
(4) Finds associated with fibulæ or other objects of La Tène type.
(5) Finds of objects associated with imported articles of
Græco-Italic fabric.
(6) Finds of objects associated with Ancient British coins.
(7) Finds of objects, (_a_) on Romano-British inhabited or fortified
sites, (_b_) associated with Roman coins, and (_c_) associated
with articles of Roman manufacture.
There are at least three different methods of burial characteristic of
the Late-Celtic period in Great Britain.
(1) Uncremated burials in excavated graves beneath barrows
in which the deceased is generally found with his
chariot and horses, as at Arras, Yorkshire.
(2) Cremated burials in pits without any exterior mound, the
ashes being contained in cinerary urns and the burials
in groups, as at Aylesford, Kent.
(3) Uncremated burials in graves formed of slabs of stone
placed on edge, without any exterior mound, as at
Birdlip, Gloucestershire.
The first class of burials correspond with those at Berru and
Gorge-Meillet, Department of the Marne, and probably belong to the same
period as these earlier Gaulish interments which, from the associated
Greek and Etruscan relics,[171] are known on the Continent to belong to
the third, fourth, and fifth centuries B.C.[172]
The second, or Aylesford urn-field type of burial, is dated by
associated vessels of Italo-Greek fabric at from 200 to 150 B.C.[173]
Implements of the Bronze Age have been occasionally discovered with
objects of Late-Celtic character, as at Hagbourn Hill,[174] Berks,
where a Late-Celtic bridle-bit and harness-rings were associated with
some small spear-heads and a socketed celt; and at Hounslow,[175]
Middlesex, where three figures of boars and two of other animals were
found with celts and gouges of the Bronze Age.
[171] Such as the Græcwyl bronze vase now in the Berne Museum; the
bronze _œnochoe_ and Etruscan cup from Somme-Bionne (Marne); and the
two-handled cup from Rodenbach, Bavaria (described and illustrated in
A. Bertrand’s _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, pp. 328 to 347).
[172] Arthur Evans in _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 72.
[173] _Ibid._, vol. lii., p. 66.
[174] _Archæologia_, vol. xvi., p. 348.
[175] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, 2nd ser., vol. iii., p. 90.
Up to the present time, no specimen has yet been found in this country
of the great iron sword of Hallstatt type, with its massive ivory
handle encrusted with amber.[176] Of the smaller Hallstatt sword with
an iron blade and a bronze handle, having antennæ-like projections at
the top,[177] one specimen from the Thames is to be seen in the British
Museum, and there are about half a dozen others in the Museum of the
Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.
Tall vessels made of thin sheets of bronze riveted together and
furnished with two round ring-handles at the top have been found in
Ireland (at Montiaghs,[178] Co. Armagh; and Dowris,[179] King’s Co.)
and in Scotland (at Cardross,[180] Dumbartonshire); the form of these
vessels shows that they are akin to the situlæ of the late Hallstatt or
early La Tène period on the Continent.
In the instances where other objects have been associated either with
the swords _à antennes_ or situlæ in Great Britain they have been
of purely Bronze Age type, showing that the Hallstatt period on the
Continent was earlier than the Late-Celtic period in this country.
[176] A. Bertrand and S. Reinach’s _Les Celtes dans les Vallées du Pô
et du Danube_, p. 125.
[177] _Ibid._, p. 85.
[178] _Jour. Royal Soc. Ant. Ireland_, ser. 5, vol. vii., p. 437.
Another example found in Ireland is figured in Sir W. Wylde’s _Catal.
Mus. R.I.A._, p. 531.
[179] Now in the British Museum. Evans’ _Ancient Bronze Implements_, p.
410.
[180] R. Munro’s _Prehistoric Scotland_, p. 40.
The forms of the fibulæ associated with Late-Celtic finds afford
specially valuable evidence as to date. The pre-Roman, or La Tène, type
of fibula was made in one piece on the same principle as the modern
safety-pin, and therefore differed from the Roman Provincial harp, or
bow-shaped fibula, in which the pin was separate from the back and
worked on a hinge. Fibulæ of the earlier kind have been found with
Late-Celtic burials at Cowlam, Yorkshire; Aylesford, Kent; and Birdlip,
Gloucestershire; and on inhabited and fortified sites at Hod Hill, and
Rotherley, Dorset. The fibulæ from the Stamford Hill Cemetery, near
Plymouth, and the Polden Hill hoard of horse-trappings belong to the
later class. As the forms of the different fibulæ will be discussed
subsequently, no more need be said on the subject here.
Ancient British coins have been found near the Late-Celtic cemeteries
at Aylesford,[181] Kent, and Stamford Hill,[182] near Plymouth;
also within the fortifications of the Late-Celtic _oppida_ at Mount
Caburn,[183] near Lewes, Sussex, and Hod Hill,[184] near Blandford,
Dorset. General Pitt-Rivers came across ancient British coins
during his excavations on the site of the Romano-British village at
Rotherley[185] in Cranbourne Chase, Dorset, and numerous specimens
(especially of the coins of Verica, one of the three sons of Commios)
have turned up from time to time at Farley Heath,[186] near Guildford,
Surrey.
[181] _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 315.
[182] _Ibid._, vol. xl., p. 500.
[183] _Ibid._, vol. xlvi., p. 423.
[184] _Archæol. Jour._, vol. lvii., p. 52.
[185] _Excavations in Cranbourne Chase_, vol. ii., p. 188.
[186] F. Martin Tupper’s _Farley Heath_, p. 10.
The Romano-British inhabited or fortified sites from which objects of
Late-Celtic character have been derived, have already been specified.
The following lists show the instances where Late-Celtic finds have
been associated with Roman coins or with objects of Roman manufacture:—
_Late-Celtic Finds associated with Roman Coins._
---------------------------+-----------------+----------------------
Place. | Nature of Find. | Date of Coins.
---------------------------+-----------------+----------------------
Victoria Cave, Settle, | Inhabited Site | Trajan to Constans,
Yorkshire | | A.D. 98-353.
Kelko Cave, Giggleswick, | Inhabited Site | (?)
Yorkshire | |
Dowkerbottom Cave, | Inhabited Site | Claudius Gothicus
Arncliffe, Yorkshire | | to Tetricus,
| | A.D. 268-273
Kirkhead Cave, Cartmel, | Inhabited Site | Domitian, A.D. 81-96
Lancashire | |
Poole’s Cavern, | Inhabited Site | (?)
Buxton | |
Thirst House, Deepdale, | Inhabited Site | Antoninus Pius to
Derbyshire | | Gallienus,
| | A.D. 138-268
Thor’s Cave, Staffordshire | Inhabited Site | (?)
Broch of Torwoodlee, | Fortified Tower | Vespasian, A.D. 69-79
Selkirkshire | |
Rotherley, Dorset | British Village | Trajan to Gallienus,
| | A.D. 98-268
Kirkby Thore, Westmoreland | | Vespasian to Severus,
| | A.D. 69-211
Hod Hill, Dorset | Fortified Site | Augustus to Trajan,
| | B.C. 27-A.D. 117
Æsica, Northumberland | Romano-British | Mark Antony to
| Station | Magnentius, B.C.
| | 32-A.D. 353
Farley Heath | British Village | (?)
Alstonfield, Staffordshire | Burial | Tetricus and
| | Constantine,
| | A.D. 268-337
Ham Hill, Somerset | Fortified Site | Valerian to
| | Theodosius I.,
| | A.D. 379-395
Westhall, Suffolk | Horse-trappings | Faustina
Chorley, Lancashire | Fibulæ | Hadrian, A.D. 117-138
Backworth, Northumberland | Fibulæ | Antoninus Pius,
| | A.D. 138-161
Kingsholm, | Horse-trappings | Claudius, A.D. 41-54
Gloucestershire | |
Castlethorpe, Bucks | Silver Armlet | Verus, A.D. 161-169
---------------------------+-----------------+----------------------
_Late-Celtic Finds associated with Samian Ware._
Place. Nature of Find.
Broch of Okstrow, Orkney Pictish Tower.
Lochlee Crannog.
Lochspouts Crannog.
Settle, Yorkshire Cave.
Deepdale, Derbyshire Cave.
Thor’s Cave, Staffordshire Cave.
Isle of Portland Burial.
Westhall, Suffolk Horse-trappings.
_Late-Celtic Finds associated with Objects of Roman Manufacture._
---------------------------+-----------------+-------------------
| Nature of |
Place. | Late-Celtic | Class of Roman
| Find. | Object.
---------------------------+-----------------+-------------------
Dowalton, Wigtownshire | Crannog | Saucepan
Stanhope, Peeblesshire | Armlet | Saucepan
Polden Hill, Somersetshire | Horse-trappings | Fibulæ
Stamford Hill, near | Cemetery | Fibulæ
Plymouth | |
Castlethorpe, Bucks | Armlet |
Æsica, Northumberland | Fibulæ | Silver necklace,
| | etc.
Hay Hill, Cambridgeshire | Fire-dog | Amphora
Mount Bures, Essex | Fire-dog | Six amphoræ,
| | glass, etc.
Stanfordbury, Bedfordshire | Fire-dog | Bronze jug, Samian
| | ware, etc.
---------------------------+-----------------+-------------------
CHAPTER IV
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE EARLY IRON AGE
GENERAL NATURE OF THE MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR THE STUDY
OF THE DECORATIVE ART OF THE EARLY IRON AGE IN
GREAT BRITAIN
The materials available for the study of Late-Celtic art in this
country may be classified as follows:—
METALWORK.
Arms of Offence and Defence.
Horse-trappings.
Chariot Fittings.
Personal Ornaments.
Toilet Appliances.
Domestic Appliances.
Musical Instruments.
Objects for Religious Use.
Objects of Unknown Use.
POTTERY AND GLASS.
Sepulchral Urns.
Vessels for Domestic Use.
Beads for Necklaces.
WOODWORK AND BONEWORK.
Vessels for Domestic Use.
Dress-fasteners.
Spatulæ.
STONEWORK.
Sculptured Monuments.
The arms of offence and defence of the Late-Celtic period are made of
metal; the sword-blades, dagger-blades, and lance-heads being of iron;
and the sword-sheaths, dagger-sheaths, shields, and helmets of bronze.
In this country the bronze objects only are ornamented.[187]
[187] A lance-head of iron from La Tène, in Switzerland, is ornamented
with engraved patterns, but nothing of a similar kind has been found in
Great Britain (E. Vouga, _Les Helvètes à La Tène_, pl. 5).
Bronze sword- and dagger-sheaths have been found in considerable
numbers in England, and also less frequently in Scotland and Ireland,
as will be seen from the lists given below.
_List of Localities in Great Britain where Bronze_
_Sword-sheaths of the Late-Celtic Period have been found._
Carham Northumberland.
Embleton Cumberland.
Houghton le Skerne Co. Durham.
Sadberge Co. Durham.
Warton Lancashire.
Stanwick Yorkshire.
Catterdale Yorkshire.
Flasby Yorkshire.
Grimthorpe Yorkshire.
Lincoln Lincolnshire.
Hunsbury Northamptonshire.
Amerden Buckinghamshire.
Water Eaton Oxfordshire.
Dorchester Oxfordshire.
Boxmoor Hertfordshire.
London Middlesex.
Battersea Middlesex.
Icklingham Suffolk.
Hod Hill Dorsetshire.
Moreton Hall Midlothian.
Glencotho Peeblesshire.
Bargany House Ayrshire.
Lisnacroghera Co. Antrim.
_List of Localities in Great Britain where Bronze_
_Dagger-sheaths of the Late-Celtic Period have been found._
River Witham Lincolnshire.
North Hinksey Oxfordshire.
Wandsworth Surrey.
Southwark Surrey.
Cookham Berkshire.
Athenry Co. Galway.
Some of these sheaths are elaborately ornamented, more especially the
specimens from Hunsbury, Lisnacroghera, and the River Witham. The shape
of the sheaths was evidently derived from a foreign source, as may be
seen by comparing those found in Great Britain with the examples from
Hallstatt and La Tène.
Bronze shields of the Late-Celtic period are not by any means common,
but the British Museum is fortunate enough to possess the only two
perfect specimens now in existence. One of these came out of the River
Thames at Battersea, and the other from the River Witham, near Lincoln.
The former is, perhaps, on the whole, the most beautiful piece of
Late-Celtic metalwork that has survived to the present time. It is of
oblong shape with rounded corners like the Gaulish shields,[188] and
is made out of plates of thin hammered bronze, strengthened all round
the edge by a roll moulding. The body of the shield consists of a
plain plate upon which are riveted three circular pieces of ornamental
repoussé work, the largest one in the centre, and the other two smaller
ones at the top and bottom. In the middle of each of the circular
pieces of ornament is a raised boss, the annular space surrounding
which is filled in with gracefully flowing =S=- and =C=-shaped curves
raised above the rest of the surface, and starting from and returning
to small circular plaques of enamel with a swastika design on each. No
written description can give any idea of the subtle decorative effect
produced by the play of light on the surfaces of the flamboyant curves
as they alternately expand and contract in width and rise and fall
above the surrounding level background. The drawing of the curves is
simply exquisite, and their beauty is greatly enhanced by the sharp
line used in all cases to emphasise the highest part of the ridge.
It will be observed that the design is set out with regard to small
circular bits of enamel placed in definite positions symmetrically
round a central boss. If closely coiled spirals like those of the
Bronze Age were to be substituted for the enamelled discs, we should
then have a style of decoration exactly similar to that of the
Christian Celtic MSS. The metalworker who made this shield seems to
have possessed the true artistic feeling which told him instinctively
exactly how much plain surface of shining bronze should be left to set
off the ornament to the greatest advantage. The other shield in the
British Museum, from the River Witham, is very inferior to the one just
described, and is probably of later date.
[188] See article on the Gaulish statue from Montdragon (Vaucluse) now
in the Musée Calvet at Avignon in the _Revue Archéologique_, N.S., vol.
xvi. (1867), p. 69; also _Diodorus_, bk. 5, ch. 30.
[Illustration: IRON DAGGER WITH BRONZE HILT AND SHEATH FROM RIVER WITHAM
_Reproduced from Kemble’s “Horæ Ferales”_]
Late-Celtic bronze helmets are of great rarity. There are two in the
British Museum, one from the Thames at London, and the other from
an unknown locality. A third from Torrs, Kirkcudbrightshire, is now
preserved at Abbotsford, near Melrose. The specimen from the Thames is
furnished with two conical horns terminating in small turned knobs,
all the different pieces of wrought metal being riveted together with
extreme neatness. The front of the helmet is ornamented with small,
round enamelled discs and repoussé work in very low relief. The other
helmet in the British Museum is shaped like a jockey’s cap, and is
particularly ugly in appearance.
The helmet at Abbotsford has been so fully described by Dr. Joseph
Anderson in his _Scotland in Pagan Times: The Iron Age_ (p. 113) that
it will not be necessary to say more about it here.
Decorated bronze helmets of the La Tène period have been found in
France at Berru[189] (Marne) and Gorge-Meillet[190] (Marne).
[189] A. Bertrand’s _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, 2nd ed., 1889,
p. 356.
[190] E. Fourdrignier’s _Double Sépulture Gauloise de la Gorge-Meillet_.
It will be seen from the list given below how extremely common finds of
Late-Celtic horse-trappings have been.
_List of Localities in Great Britain where_
_Late-Celtic Horse-trappings have been found._
South Shields Co. Durham.
Stanwick Yorkshire.
Arras Yorkshire.
Rise Yorkshire.
Danes’ Graves Yorkshire.
Kirkby Thore Westmoreland.
Hunsbury Northamptonshire.
Locality unknown Lincolnshire.
Leicester Leicestershire.
The Fens Cambridgeshire.
Saham Toney Norfolk.
Westhall Suffolk.
Norton Suffolk.
London Middlesex.
Canterbury Kent.
Bapchild Kent.
Stouting Kent.
Alfriston Sussex.
Chessell Down Isle of Wight.
Hagbourn Hill Berkshire.
Polden Hill Somersetshire.
Hamdon Hill Somersetshire.
Abergele Denbighshire.
Neath Glamorganshire.
Clova Aberdeenshire.
Crichie Aberdeenshire.
Ardoch Perthshire.
Middleby Dumfriesshire.
Kirriemuir Forfarshire.
Henshole Roxburghshire.
Torwoodlee Selkirkshire.
Stanhope Peeblesshire.
Lochlee Ayrshire.
Dowalton Wigtownshire.
Birrenswark Dumfriesshire.
Auchendolly Kirkcudbrightshire.
Ballycostello Co. Mayo.
Clooncunra Co. Roscommon.
Emlagh Co. Roscommon.
Tara Co. Meath.
Ballynaminton King’s Co.
Kilkeeran Co. Monaghan.
[Illustration: BRONZE HARNESS-RINGS FROM POLDEN HILL, SOMERSETSHIRE NOW
IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
Under the head of horse-trappings are included a large number of
miscellaneous objects, such as bridle-bits, harness-rings, -buckles,
and -mountings, pendants, head ornaments, etc. In fact, the term
has been much abused by museum curators, who, when in doubt, say
horse-trappings. Much the most important finds, consisting in each case
of a large number of objects, have been those made at Polden Hill,
Somersetshire, in 1801; Hagbourne Hill, Berks, in 1803; Westhall,
Suffolk; Stanwick, Arras, and Rise, Yorkshire; all the objects being
now in the British Museum. The specimens from the Saham Toney find,
which was equally important, are to be seen in the Norwich Museum.
Other smaller finds are preserved in the museums at Edinburgh and
Dublin.
Nearly all the big finds of horse-trappings have included several
bridle-bits. These are usually quite plain, but there are, at least,
four highly ornamented examples known (1) from Rise,[191] Yorkshire,
now in the British Museum; (2) from Birrenswark,[192] Dumfriesshire,
in the Edinburgh Museum; (3) found near Tara,[193] Co. Meath, now in
the Dublin Museum; and (4) from Kilkeeran,[194] Co. Monaghan, also at
Dublin. These bridle-bits are formed of three or four separate pieces
linked together, as in a modern one, and the decoration, which is
concentrated on the terminal rings, consists of the usual Late-Celtic
trumpet-shaped expansions and coloured _champlevé_ enamels.
[191] _Magazine of Art_ for 1885, p. 456.
[192] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 124.
[193] Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. of Mus. R. I. A._, p. 605.
[194] _Journ. R. Hist. and Archæol. Assoc. of Ireland_, N.S., vol. i.,
p. 423.
In nearly all the finds of horse-trappings rings of various shapes and
sizes are of frequent occurrence. They were probably used for passing
the reins or other parts of the harness through, and perhaps also to
act as strap buckles. Most of the rings are round in cross-section,
except a segment separated from the rest by projecting flanges, the
cross-section of which is made rectangular, apparently to enable the
ring to be more rigidly fixed to the harness. The decoration of the
rings usually consists of curious projections of various shapes, some
resembling pairs of mushrooms placed with the convex tops together and
the stems inclined at an angle; whilst others are more like segments
of an orange. Many of the rings are ornamented with engraved patterns
composed of lines and dots, or are enamelled. The best specimens in the
British Museum have been derived from the finds already described at
Stanwick, Yorkshire; Polden Hill, Somerset; and Westhall, Suffolk.
[Illustration: Lower ends of Bronze Sword-sheaths from Hunsbury
Now in the Northampton Museum]
The harness-mountings are either in the form of a cross or a sort of
rosette, with petals like a flower, some pointed and some round. At
the back of the mounting are a pair of rectangular loops for passing
a strap through. The front is, in many cases, beautifully enamelled.
There is an extremely pretty little cruciform mounting of this kind
in the British Museum, but unfortunately the locality whence it came
is unknown. Two similar specimens have been recorded, one in the
Uffizi Museum at Florence,[195] and another from Saham Toney,[196]
Norfolk, now in the Norwich Museum. The most elaborately decorated
harness-mounting of the rosette type is the one from Polden Hill,[197]
Somersetshire, in the British Museum.
A large number of objects found in Ireland, resembling a spur or the
merry-bone of a chicken in shape, have been conjectured to be horses’
head ornaments.[198] One of them was found near Tara, Co. Meath, with
the bridle-bit already mentioned.
[195] Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, pl. 19, fig. 5.
[196] _Norfolk Archæology_, vol. ii., p. 398.
[197] Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, pl. 19, fig. 3.
[198] There are more than thirty-two in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy (see Wilde’s _Catal._, p. 109). Others have been found in the
counties of Roscommon, Sligo, and Cork (see _Proc. R. I. A._, vol.
vii., p. 161; Vallancey’s _Coll. de Rebus Hibernicis_, vol. iv., p. 54;
and Wood Martin’s _Pagan Ireland_, p. 462).
Iron tyres of chariot-wheels have been found at Stanwick,
Arras, Beverley, and Danes’ Graves in Yorkshire, and Hunsbury,
Northamptonshire; but the bronze objects associated with them, which
are believed to be the fittings of the chariots, do not afford
sufficiently characteristic decoration to need description here.
[Illustration: LATE CELTIC BRONZE FIBULA FROM WALMER, KENT; NOW IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
[Illustration: LATE CELTIC FIBULA FROM IRELAND; NOW IN THE MUSEUM OF
THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, DUBLIN]
[Illustration: ENAMELLED BRONZE FIBULA FROM RISINGHAM, NORTHUMBERLAND;
NOW IN THE NEWCASTLE MUSEUM]
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA, WATER EATON, OXON; NOW IN THE BRITISH
MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
The personal ornaments of the Late-Celtic period consist chiefly of
fibulæ, pins, collars, and armlets, usually of bronze, but in rare
instances of gold or silver.
The evolution of the Roman Provincial type of fibula from earlier La
Tène type can be nowhere better studied than in this country during the
transition from the Late-Celtic to the Romano-British period.
To anyone who is acquainted with the elaborate studies[199] made
by Scandinavian archæologists on the origin and development of the
various forms of fibulæ found in northern Europe it must be a matter
of surprise that up to the present no attempt has been made to do the
same thing for our own country. With the exception of Dr. Arthur Evans’
paper in the _Archæologia_,[200] absolutely nothing has been written on
the subject in England, nor do the curators of our public museums make
the faintest attempt to classify the different kinds of fibulæ of the
Romano-British period according to their shapes.
[199] Hans Hildebrand’s _Industrial Arts of Scandinavia_; Oscar
Montelius’ “Spännen från bronsåldern” in the _Antiquarisk Tidskrift
för Sverige_; and O. Almagren’s _Studien über norden europäische
Fibelformen_.
[200] Vol. lv., p. 179.
Looked at from a purely mechanical point of view, a fibula, or brooch,
belongs to the same class of appliances as an ordinary door-lock;
being, in fact, a device for fastening applied to dress. The fibula
was probably in its earlier stages evolved from a simple pin by
endeavouring to invent some way by which the pin might be prevented
from slipping out once it had been inserted in the fabric of the dress.
A sufficiently obvious plan for effecting this is to connect the head
of the pin with the point by means of a rigid bar sufficiently bent
into the shape of an arch to avoid pressing too closely upon the
portion of the dress between it and the pin. When fixed in its place
the brooch forms a complete ring, so that a locking and unlocking
contrivance is necessary in order to enable it to be removed when not
in use.
The modern safety-pin, which is also one of the most ancient
inventions, is perhaps the simplest kind of dress-fastener, and yet
it is the parent of the almost endless series of European fibulæ from
the Bronze Age to the present time. It can be constructed in the
easiest possible manner out of a single piece of metal wire of uniform
thickness by making a coil in the middle of its length to act as a
spring and a point at one end and a hook at the other. The pointed
end is then bent round until it catches in the hook, and the thing is
complete.
There are two other classes of brooches which do not belong to the
safety-pin type or its descendants, namely, (1) the Celtic penannular
brooch;[201] and (2) the Northern Bronze Age brooch,[202] which has
a pin with a hole through the head enabling it to slide, turn, and
move about loosely on the body of the brooch. With these we are not
concerned at present.
[201] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 2nd ser.,
p. 7.
[202] J. J. A. Worsaae’s _Industrial Arts of Denmark_, p. 92.
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA FROM CLOGHER, CO. TYRONE; NOW IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
[Illustration: LATE-CELTIC BRONZE FIBULA, LOCALITY UNKNOWN; NOW IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
[Illustration: S-SHAPED ENAMELLED BRONZE FIBULA, LOCALITY UNKNOWN; NOW
IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
[Illustration: S-SHAPED FIBULA OF ENAMELLED BRONZE, FROM NORTON, E.
RIDING OF YORKSHIRE; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
Although the safety-pin type of fibula was, in its earlier stages, made
out of a single piece of wire, it may be considered to consist of four
different parts, each of which performs a function of its own, namely,
(1) the head, containing the spring or hinge; (2) the tail, containing
the catch, or locking apparatus; (3) the body or framework, connecting
the head with the tail; and (4) the pin, moving on a hinge or spring at
one end and with the pointed end fitting into the catch. In all fibulæ
derived from the safety-pin the pin is straight and the body bent into
a more or less arched shape, like a bow. An infinite variety of forms
were produced (1) by increasing the number of coils in the spring and
their size; (2) by expanding the tail end into a thin triangular plate;
and (3) by increasing the thickness of the body, or by making a coil in
the middle of its length to act as a secondary spring. Much the most
important modifications, however, in the safety-pin brooches were those
which gradually led up to the harp-shaped, T-shaped, and cruciform
fibulæ of the Romano-British period. Dr. Arthur J. Evans, in his paper
in the _Archæologia_ (vol. lv., p. 179) on “Two Fibulæ of Celtic Fabric
from Æsica,” has traced the evolution of the harp-shaped fibula from
the bow-shaped fibula in a most interesting way. The different stages
in the process appear to have been as follows:—
(1) The tail end of the fibula was extended and bent backwards so as
to make an =S=-shaped curve with the bow; (2) the retroflected end of
the tail was fixed to the middle of the convex side of the bow by means
of a small collar, made in a separate piece; (3) the whole of the back
was formed out of one piece of metal, with the collar surviving as a
mere ornament; and (4) the triangular opening at the tail, bounded by
the retroflected end, part of the bow, and the catch for the point of
the pin, was filled in solid with a thin plate. It will be noticed
that during this process of evolution the extended and retroflected
end of the tail has become part of the continuous curve of the convex
side of the bow, whilst what was previously one-half of the outside of
the bow is now on the inside of the triangular plate at the tail end.
This, together with the expansion of the head to suit the increased
number of coils in the spring, produced the characteristic harp-shape
of the Romano-British fibula, in many of which the knob ornament in the
middle of the back is the last survival of the collar for fixing the
retroflected end of the tail in its place.
The cruciform and =T=-shaped fibulæ, which began in Roman times and
continued to be used by the Anglo-Saxons, resulted from extending the
coils of the spring at the head symmetrically on both sides of the
pin. In this class of fibula the two outside ends of the coil were
joined by a loop passing through the inside of the bow so as to give
extra leverage to the spring, or sometimes serving merely as a loop for
suspension by means of a chain.
A specimen of silver was found at the Warren,[203] near Folkestone,
and is now in the British Museum. The lower portion is, unfortunately,
broken off, but the retroflected end of the tail remains, with the
little ornamental knob which is the survival of the practically useful
collar for securing it to the back of the bow. The coils of the spring
on each side of the pin and the connecting loop are clearly seen,
together with the loose ring passing through the coils of the spring
and a portion of the chain for suspension.
[203] _The Reliquary_ for 1901, p. 197.
An exceedingly pretty pair of harp-shaped fibulæ of silver, with a
well-wrought chain for suspension, were found near Chorley, Lancashire,
with Roman coins dating from Galba to Hadrian, and are now in the
British Museum. At the top of each fibula is a loop for attachment to
the chain, and the bodies are beautifully ornamented with Late-Celtic
flamboyant patterns. The knob, which is the survival of the collar
already referred to, has here assumed a highly ornamental form
resembling two floriated capitals of columns placed together.
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA FROM POLDEN HILL, SOMERSETSHIRE; NOW IN
THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SIDE VIEW, SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA FROM POLDEN HILL, SOMERSETSHIRE; NOW IN
THE BRITISH MUSEUM
FRONT VIEW, SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA FROM RIVER CHURN; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SIDE VIEW, SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA FROM RIVER CHURN; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
FRONT VIEW, SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
The specimen represented on p. 104 is one of a pair of silver-gilt
fibulæ, similar to the preceding, but larger and without the chain,
although possessing the loops for suspension. They were purchased in
Newcastle about the year 1811, and are now in the British Museum. It is
stated in Hodgson’s _History of Northumberland_ (vol. iii., Appendix
x., p. 440) that the locality from whence they came was somewhere in
the county north-east of Backworth. The fibulæ were discovered in a
silver patera bearing a dedicatory inscription to the Deæ Matres, and
containing, in addition—
5 gold rings.
1 silver ring.
2 gold chains with wheel pendants.
1 gold bracelet.
3 silver spoons.
1 mirror.
280 denarii.
2 large brass coins of Antoninus Pius.
A full account of the find is given in E. Hawkins’ “Notice of a
remarkable collection of ornaments of the Roman period, connected with
the worship of the Deæ Matres, and recently purchased for the British
Museum” in the _Archæological Journal_ (vol. viii., p. 35).
[Illustration: One of a pair of silver-gilt Fibulæ found in
Northumberland, with Denarius of Antoninus Pius (A.D. 139)
Drawn by C. Praetorius]
We may here call attention to the intensely Celtic character of the
fibulæ just described. The wearing of brooches in pairs with a chain
attachment was a Celtic and not a Roman custom, as has already been
pointed out in a previous volume of _The Reliquary_ (for 1895, p. 157).
A pair of bronze fibulæ, of the same kind as the one from the Warren,
Folkestone, fastened together by a double chain, was found in one of
the Gaulish cemeteries in the Department of Marne[204] in France, and
is now to be seen in the museum of St. Germain, near Paris. It may,
therefore, be fairly assumed that all the fibulæ found in this country
with chains attached to them or with loops for a chain at the top are
more Celtic than Roman.
[204] Engraved in the _Dictionnaire Archéologique de la Gaule_.
Other examples from the cemeteries of Somme-Bionne, Courtois,
Bussy-le-Château, and Sommesous in the Department of the Marne, are
given in the _Album_ accompanying L. Morel’s _La Champagne souterraine_
(pls. 13, 29, 34, and 40).
Amongst the Late-Celtic antiquities in the British Museum are three
specimens which illustrate the evolution of the harp-shaped fibula very
well. One ornamented with a coral boss and gold stud, probably from the
Marne district, was presented by the late Sir A. W. Franks; another
came from a chalk pit near Walmer, Kent; and the third was found at
Clogher, Co. Tyrone.
Broadly speaking, it may be said that the safety-pin type of fibula
made in one piece is earlier in date than the Roman occupation of
Britain, and the specimens found in this country are obviously either
imported from abroad or copied from foreign originals, such as those
found at La Tène, in Switzerland, and in the Champagne district of
France. The fibula in use in Britain, after it became a province of the
Roman Empire, has a massive harp or bow-shaped back made in a separate
piece from the pin and spring. In the earlier, or La Tène type of the
fibula, the catch for the end of the pin forms one side of a triangular
opening, which, as we have already mentioned, is filled in with a thin
plate in the later or Roman Provincial fibula. There is also a sort of
transitional kind, with ornamental piercings in the plate.
There was yet another description of fibula belonging to the
Romano-British period, having a flat plate for the body in the shape of
a circular disc, or sometimes in the shape of a fish or animal.
The different classes of Late-Celtic fibulæ are given in the following
lists.
_List of Localities in Great Britain where Late-Celtic_
_Fibulæ have been found._
LA TÈNE AND MARNIAN TYPE, WITH TAIL BENT BACKWARDS.
Cowlam (Brit. Mus.) Yorkshire.
Hammersmith (Brit. Mus.) Middlesex.
Avebury (Brit. Mus.) Wiltshire.
Water Eaton (Brit. Mus.) Oxfordshire.
Clogher (Brit. Mus.) Co. Tyrone.
LA TÈNE AND MARNIAN TYPE, WITH TAIL BENT BACKWARDS
AND ATTACHED TO BOW.
Aylesford (Brit. Mus.) Kent.
Folkestone (Brit. Mus.) Kent.
Walmer (Brit. Mus.) Kent.
Locality not given (Liverpool Mus.) Kent.
Datchet Oxfordshire.
LA TÈNE AND MARNIAN TYPE, WITH FLATTENED
AND EXPANDED BOW.
Ringham Low Derbyshire.
Hod Hill (Brit. Mus.) Dorsetshire.
London (Guildhall Mus.) Middlesex.
Bonville (Brit. Mus.) Co. Armagh.
Navan Rath (Mus. R.I.A.) Co. Armagh.
Locality unknown (Mus. R.I.A.) Ireland.
Hunsbury (Northampton Mus.) N’hamptonshire.
TRANSITIONAL TYPE, WITH ORNAMENTAL HEAD AND EITHER
PLAIN OR PIERCED TAIL-PLATE.
Birdlip (Gloucester Mus.) Gloucestershire.
London (Guildhall Mus.) Middlesex.
ROMAN PROVINCIAL TYPE, WITH HARP-SHAPED PROFILE,
T-SHAPED TOP, OR SPRING-CASE, AND PIERCED TAIL-PLATE.
Polden Hill (Brit. Mus.) Somersetshire.
Stamford Hill, Plymouth Devonshire.
Cricklade (Brit. Mus.) Wiltshire.
ROMAN PROVINCIAL TYPE, WITH HARP-SHAPED PROFILE,
EXPANDED TRUMPET-SHAPED TOP, AND FLORIATED
KNOB IN MIDDLE OF BOW.
Backworth (Brit. Mus.) Northumberland.
Chorley (Brit. Mus.) Lancashire.
Great Chesters (Newcastle Mus.) Northumberland.
River Tyne (Newcastle Mus.) Northumberland.
Risingham (Newcastle Mus.) Northumberland.
Ribchester Lancashire.
Farley Heath Surrey.
KELTO-ROMAN DISC-SHAPED TYPE, WITH
REPOUSSÉ ORNAMENT.
Brough (Brit. Mus.) Westmoreland.
Victoria Cave, Settle Yorkshire.
Silchester (Strathfieldsaye House) Hampshire.
KELTO-ROMAN S-SHAPED OR ZOÖMORPHIC TYPE,
WITH ENAMELLED ORNAMENT.
Kirkby Thore Westmoreland.
Dowkerbottom Cave, Settle Yorkshire.
Malton Yorkshire.
Thirst House Cave, Deepdale Derbyshire.
Kilnsea Yorkshire.
Cirencester Gloucestershire.
Locality unknown (Brit. Mus.)
Metal pins do not seem to have been much used as dress-fasteners
during the Late-Celtic period, judging from the number to be seen in
our public museums. One of the most beautiful pins of this period now
in existence is the one found with the burial previously mentioned at
Danes’ Graves,[205] near Driffield, Yorkshire, and now in the York
Museum. The pin is of bronze, with a peculiar crook near the top and a
circular head (resembling a chariot-wheel with four spokes) inlaid with
shell, or, according to another account, enamelled. Two bronze pins,
with plain turned heads, were amongst the objects derived from the
Thirst House Cave,[206] Deepdale, Derbyshire.
[205] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._ ser. 2, vol. xvii., p. 120.
[206] _The Reliquary_ for 1897, p. 96.
Several pins of the class known as “hammer-headed” have been discovered
from time to time, chiefly in Ireland and Scotland. These pins are of
considerable size, some being ten inches long, and have semicircular
heads with the convex side facing downwards. The top of the pin is
bent at right angles, and the head fixed on in front of it. At the
top of the head are usually from three to five projecting studs, and
the face of the head is enamelled with Late-Celtic designs. From the
associations in which such pins have been found and the style of
their decoration, they would seem to belong to the transition period
between Paganism and Christianity. There is one in the British Museum
from Moresby, Cumberland, which was associated with a small bronze
ornament of Late-Celtic character; another in the same collection from
Craigywarren,[207] Co. Antrim, has spiral patterns upon it; whilst a
third in the Edinburgh Museum, from Norrie’s Law,[208] Forfarshire, was
associated with coins of the seventh century, and silver leaf-shape
pendants engraved with the same mysterious symbols which occur so
frequently on the early Christian sculptured stones of Scotland. A
hammer-headed pin of silver from Gaulcross,[209] Banffshire, has spiral
designs upon the head, but of a kind more nearly resembling that found
on the Christian crosses of about the ninth century in Argyllshire
than the Late-Celtic flamboyant designs of Pagan times. Other examples
of pins of this kind have been found at Lagore,[210] Co. Meath,
Urquhart,[211] Elginshire, on the Culbin Sands, Nairnshire, and in the
island of Pabbay, Hebrides.
[207] Wood Martin’s _Lake-Dwellings of Ireland_, p. 110.
[208] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 2nd ser.,
p. 36.
[209] Dr. J. Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones of Scotland_, vol. ii., pl. 9.
[210] Wood Martin’s _Lake-Dwellings of Ireland_.
[211] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxxv., p. 279.
[Illustration: BRONZE HOOK-AND-DISK ORNAMENT FROM IRELAND; NOW IN THE
DUBLIN MUSEUM]
[Illustration: BRONZE PIN, ENAMELLED, FROM DANES GRAVES, NEAR
DRIFFIELD, YORKSHIRE; NOW IN THE YORK MUSEUM]
[Illustration: BRONZE DISC FIBULA WITH LATE-CELTIC ORNAMENT, FROM
SILCHESTER; NOW AT STRATHFIELDSAYE HOUSE
_S. Victor White, of Reading, photo._]
Unquestionably the finest Late-Celtic personal ornaments are the
collars for wearing round the neck, of which, at least, two in gold and
about ten in bronze are known to exist. Being larger than any other
class of personal ornament, they naturally afford greater scope for the
display of the elaborate forms of flamboyant designs in which the art
metalworker of the period used to revel. One of the gold collars just
referred to came from Broighter, on the western shore of Lough Foyle,
near Limavady, Co. Londonderry. It was in the British Museum, but has
recently been removed to Dublin. The collar, which formed part of one
of the most valuable finds of gold ornaments yet made in Great Britain,
is unique both as regards its form and the extraordinary artistic skill
displayed in its decoration. The hoard was accidentally brought to
light in 1896 whilst ploughing a field on the farm occupied by Mr. J.
L. Gibson. We give a list of the various objects comprising the find
below.
_List of Objects in the Limavady Find of Gold Ornaments._
(1) Model of a boat, 7¾ inches long by 3 inches wide, weighing
3 ozs. 5 dwts., with benches and rowlocks for eighteen oarsmen
(nine on each side) and rowlock for steering-paddle in the
stern.
(2) Boat-fittings in miniature, consisting of fifteen oars, one
grappling-iron, three forked implements, one yard-arm, and
one small spar.
(3) Bowl, 3½ inches in diameter by 2 inches deep, weighing
1 oz. 5 dwts. 12 grs., provided with four small rings for
suspension.
(4) Two twisted necklets (one broken), the perfect one 5 inches
in diameter, weighing 3 ozs. 7 dwts. 9 grs.
(5) Two chains of plaited wire, one 1 foot 2½ inches long, weighing
2 ozs. 7 dwts., and the other 1 foot 4½ inches long, weighing
6 dwts. 12 grs.
(6) Late-Celtic collar, 7½ inches in diameter, made of a tubular
ring 1⅛ inch in diameter.
The collar must have had a joint of some kind, which is now missing;
and the fastening is a most peculiar one, consisting of a =T=-shaped
projection on the end, one-half of the tubular ring fitting into a
slot in the end of the other half of the ring. The locking is effected
by giving the slotted end a half turn after the =T=-shaped projection
has been inserted. The whole of the exterior surface of the tube is
decorated with long sweeping curves, narrow in the middle and with
trumpet-shaped expansions at each end, combined with helixes resembling
a snail-shell. The background is shaded with a sort of engine-turned
pattern of fine lines drawn with a pair of compasses. This remarkable
gold collar has been fully described and illustrated by Dr. Arthur
Evans in the _Archæologia_ (vol. lv., p. 397), and the facts relating
to its discovery are related in detail by Mr. R. Cochrane, F.S.A.,
in a paper in the _Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
Ireland_ (vol. xxxiii., p. 211). An account of the evidence given by
Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., before the committee appointed to inquire into
the respective rights of the British Museum and the Museum of the
Royal Irish Academy at Dublin to the possession of the hoard of gold
ornaments will be found in the report of the inquiry in the Blue Book
issued in 1899.
[Illustration: BRONZE BEADED TORQUE, FROM MOWROAD, NEAR ROCHDALE,
LANCASHIRE
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
[Illustration: BRONZE COLLAR FROM WRAXHALL, SOMERSETSHIRE; NOW IN THE
BRISTOL MUSEUM]
A second collar of gold now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in
Dublin, said to have come from Clonmacnois, King’s Co., is illustrated
in Sir W. Wilde’s _Catalogue of Antiquities of Gold in Museum R.I.A._,
p. 47. It consists of a plain hollow ring 5½ inches in diameter with
an ornamental bulb on each side, one of which seems to be made in
imitation of one of the glass beads of the period.
The Bristol Museum possesses a perfect flat-jointed bronze collar, of
a different kind from any of those just described, from Wraxhall,[212]
Somerset, and a portion of another from Llandyssyl,[213] Cardiganshire.
In the British Museum there are two similar collars, one from
Trenoweth,[214] Cornwall, and the other from the Isle of Portland,[215]
Dorsetshire. The Edinburgh Museum has also an exceedingly good example
from Stitchell,[216] Roxburghshire. All these collars are elaborately
ornamented in the Late-Celtic style. The date of the collar from the
Isle of Portland is approximately fixed by its having been associated
with a dish of Samian ware.
The existence of other Late-Celtic collars has been recorded at
Mowroad,[217] near Rochdale, Lancashire; Embsay,[218] near Skipton,
Yorkshire; Perdeswell,[219] Worcestershire; Lochar Moss,[220]
Dumfriesshire; and Hyndford Crannog,[221] near Lanark. These five
belong to a special class of what are not inaptly called “beaded
torques,” because rather more than one-half the collar is composed
of bronze beads of two different shapes, (one convex and the other
concave) strung alternately on an iron rod of square cross-section,
so as to prevent the beads from revolving. The remaining and smaller
segment of the circle consists of a bronze tube of rectangular
cross-section, ornamented on the exterior with a Late-Celtic flamboyant
design. The Perdeswell collar is incomplete, and the part which remains
is formed of twenty beads resembling vertebræ strung on to an iron wire
or bar, as in the case of the Lochar Moss collar.
[212] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 6, vol. i., p. 83.
[213] _Ibid._
[214] _Archæologia_, vol. xvi., p. 127.
[215] _Ibid._, vol. liv., p. 496.
[216] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times_.
[217] H. Fishwick’s _History of the Parish of Rochdale_, p. 5.
[218] _Archæologia_, vol. xxxi., p. 517.
[219] _Ibid._, vol. xxx., p. 554.
[220] D. Wilson’s _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_, vol. ii., p. 141,
and _Archæologia_, vol. xxxiii., p. 347.
[221] _Proc. Soc. Art. Scot._, vol. xxxiii., p. 385.
[Illustration: Bronze Beaded Torque from Lochar Moss, Dumfriesshire
Now in the British Museum]
[Illustration: BRONZE ARMLET FROM THE CULBIN SANDS; NOW AT ALTYRE, NEAR
FORRES, N.B.]
[Illustration: BRONZE ARMLET FROM THE CULBIN SANDS; NOW AT ALTYRE, NEAR
FORRES, N.B.]
The last class of personal ornaments of the Late-Celtic period to
be noticed are the armlets. The most remarkable of these are of the
Scottish type, as it may fairly be called, only one specimen having
been found outside Scotland.[222] The armlets of this type are very
heavy and massive, and their general form appears to have been
suggested by a coiled serpent; as in the one from the Culbin Sands,
Nairnshire, the ends of the coil terminate in actual serpents’ heads.
The armlets are usually found in pairs, and are highly ornamented
with flamboyant work, and in some cases enamelled. Although they are
of cast bronze, the style of the decoration is evidently copied from
the repoussé designs of the wrought metalwork of the period. Dr. J.
Anderson has devoted a considerable portion of his Rhind Lectures on
_Scotland in Pagan Times_: Iron Age, to the examination of the Scottish
group of armlets, most of which are in the Edinburgh Museum. The
following is a list of the known examples:—
[222] At Newry, Co. Down.
_List of Localities where Armlets of the Scottish Type_
_have been found._
Culbin Sands, Nairnshire. Bunrannoch, Perthshire.
Auchenbadie, Banffshire. Seafield Tower, Fifeshire.
Castle Newe, Aberdeenshire. Stanhope, Peeblesshire.
Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire. Plunton Castle, Kirkcudbrightshire.
Aboyne, Aberdeenshire.
Pitalpin, Forfarshire. Locality unknown.
Grange of Conan, Forfarshire. Newry, Co. Down.
Pitkelloney, Perthshire.
The armlet from Stanhope, Peeblesshire, was associated with a
Romano-British saucepan, which suggests that this type belongs to the
later part of the Celtic Pagan Iron Age.
Bronze armlets of La Tène, or continental type, have been derived from
the burial mounds at Cowlam and Arras, Yorkshire. The bronze armlet
from the Stamford Hill Cemetery, near Plymouth, is jointed like the
collars, and decorated with flamboyant work.
A pair of penannular ring armlets of silver terminating in serpents’
heads, which may possibly be Late-Celtic, was disposed of at the sale
of the Bateman Collection from Lomberdale House, Derbyshire. They were
found at Castlethorpe,[223] Buckinghamshire, in 1827, in a small urn
containing Roman silver and brass coins, none later than the reign of
Verus (A.D. 161-169), and a massive silver ring set with a carnelian
engraved with a figure of Bonus Eventus. A similar pair of base silver
armlets were found near the Carlswark Cavern,[224] in Middleton Dale,
Derbyshire.
Three very elegant armlets of twisted and looped bronze wire were
associated with a Late-Celtic burial outside Thirst House Cave,[225]
Deepdale, Derbyshire. Armlets of the same make are illustrated in
Lidenschmit’s _Alterthümer_, (vol. ii., pt. 5, pl. 3).
[223] _The Reliquary_, vol. xiii., pl. 18; and _Jour._; and _Brit.
Archæol. Assoc._, vol. ii., p. 353.
[224] _The Reliquary_, vol. 1867, p. 113.
[225] _Ibid._, 1897, p. 101.
The Late-Celtic toilet accessories are of three kinds, namely,
hand-mirrors, hair-combs, and châtelaines. The mirrors are of bronze
and circular in shape, with an ornamental handle. The back, or
unpolished face of the mirror, is in nearly all cases decorated with
incised circles of different sizes, combined with curved lines and a
peculiar sort of background filled in with cross-hatching. A list of
mirrors such as those described is given below.
[Illustration: LATE-CELTIC BRONZE MIRROR, IN THE MAYER MUSEUM,
LIVERPOOL; LOCALITY UNKNOWN]
_List of Localities where Late-Celtic Mirrors have been found._
Warden (Bedford Mus.) Bedfordshire.
Stamford Hill, near Plymouth (Plymouth Mus.) Devonshire.
Birdlip (Gloucester Mus.) Gloucestershire.
Trelan Bahow (British Mus.) Cornwall.
Balmaclellan (Edinburgh Mus.) Kirkcudbrightshire.
Locality unknown (Liverpool Mus.)
Unornamented mirrors have been found with burials at Arras,[226]
Yorkshire, and Gilton,[227] Kent.
The hair-combs are of bone, and will therefore be described
subsequently when dealing with bonework.
The châtelaines of the Late-Celtic period are pretty little objects of
bronze, generally enamelled. At the top is a loop for suspension; there
is a little rod below, from which are hung tweezers, picks, files, etc.
Specimens have been discovered in the Thirst House Cave,[228] Deepdale,
Derbyshire, and at Canterbury,[229] and Craven Arms,[230] Shropshire.
[226] W. Greenwell’s _British Barrows_, p. 454.
[227] B. Faussett’s _Inventorium Sepulchrale_, p. 30.
[228] _The Reliquary_ for 1897, p. 95.
[229] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, ser. 2, vol. vi., p. 376.
[230] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. vi., p. 90.
The domestic utensils and cooking appliances of the Late-Celtic
period include wooden tankards and buckets with bronze mountings,
bronze bowls and saucepans, and iron fire-dogs. Some of the riveted
caldrons possibly also belong to this period, but as they cannot be
distinguished from those of the Bronze Age it will be unnecessary to
describe them here.
There is a very perfect wooden tankard mounted with bronze in the Mayer
Museum, Liverpool, from Trawsfynydd,[231] Merionethshire, having a
handle ornamented in the Late-Celtic style with flamboyant tracery,
which might easily be mistaken for Gothic work of the fourteenth
century were it not for the trumpet-shaped expansions which occur
in the details. Handles of similar tankards have been found at
Aylesford,[232] Kent; Elveden,[233] Essex; Okstrow,[234] Orkney; and
Carlingwark Loch,[235] Kirkcudbrightshire.
Late-Celtic wooden buckets with bronze mountings are of the greatest
rarity, so much so that only two are known to exist, one from
Aylesford,[236] Kent, in the British Museum, and the other from
Marlborough,[237] Wilts, in the Devizes Museum. They are both decorated
with repoussé designs representing men, animals, etc., treated much in
the same way as on the Ancient British and Gaulish coins of the same
period.
Bronze bowls have been frequently found on Late-Celtic inhabited sites
and with Late-Celtic burials. A quite plain but extremely well-made
bronze bowl is to be seen in the British Museum side by side with the
beaded torque from Lochar Moss,[238] Dumfriesshire, which accompanied
it. There is another plain bowl in the Gloucester Museum which was
associated with the burial at Birdlip,[239] Gloucestershire, already
described. A bronze bowl ornamented with projecting bosses is amongst
the objects derived from the Glastonbury[240] Marsh Village; and a
bowl in the Dublin Museum from Keshkerrigan,[241] Co. Leitrim, has a
very characteristic Late-Celtic handle in the form of a beast made up
of flamboyant curves. A special type of bronze bowls with zoömorphic
handles and enamelled decorations will be dealt with subsequently.
[231] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. xiii., p. 212.
[232] _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 44.
[233] _Ibid._, vol. lii., p. 45.
[234] J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 242.
[235] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii., p. 7.
[236] _The Reliquary_ for 1897, p. 35.
[237] Sir R. Colt Hoare’s _Ancient Wilts._
[238] D. Wilson’s _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_, vol. i., p. 465,
pl. 9.
[239] _Trans. of Bristol and Gloucestershire Archæol. Soc._, vol. v.,
p. 137.
[240] _Proc. of Somersetshire Archæol. Soc._, vol. xl., p. 149.
[241] _Reliquary_ for 1900, p. 247.
Most of the saucepans in use during the Late-Celtic period were
either imported from Italy and Gaul or were so nearly copied by local
metalworkers as to be indistinguishable from the originals. None of
these saucepans, as far as I am aware, have Celtic decoration upon
them, although several are inscribed with Celtic names, and others
are highly enamelled. Two specimens in the British Museum are of
exceptional interest, one of bronze enamelled and inscribed with the
name “BODVOGENVS,” from Prickwillow,[242] near Ely, Cambridgeshire,
and the other of silver, with a highly ornamented inscribed handle,
which was found at Backworth,[243] Northumberland, with the pair of
Kelto-Roman fibulæ previously mentioned. The more elaborate saucepans
were probably used in connection with religious ceremonies and not
for cooking, as is borne out by the dedicatory inscriptions upon the
handles and the circumstances under which many of them have been found.
A list has already been given of the saucepans associated with finds of
Late-Celtic objects.
[242] _Archæologia_, vol. xxviii., p. 436.
[243] _Archæol. Jour._, vol. viii., p. 39.
The metalworkers of the Late-Celtic period were not only capable
of executing some of the finest pieces of repoussé bronze that the
world has ever seen, but they also excelled in producing works of
art in wrought-iron of great merit. As an example of their skill in
this direction we have the remarkable pair of fire-dogs from Capel
Garmon, Denbighshire,[244] now in the possession of Colonel Wynne Finch
of Pentre Voelas, near Bettws-y-coed. The fire-dogs consist of two
upright bars, each surmounted by the head of a beast with horns, and
standing on an arched foot, connected near the bottom by a horizontal
bar on which to rest the logs of wood used for the fire. The uprights
are ornamented on each side with thinner pieces of iron bent into
undulations and scrolls, and fixed to the uprights at intervals with
rivets having large round heads.
Each of the beasts’ heads has a very curious sort of crest ornamented
with a row of circular holes and round knobs. Other fire-dogs of the
same kind, made of plain iron bars, and with horned beasts’ heads on
the top of the uprights (each horn terminating in a round knob), have
been found at Mount Bures,[245] Essex, Hay Hill,[246] near Cambridge,
and Stamfordbury,[247] Bedfordshire, associated with Romano-British
burials.
The only objects of the Late-Celtic period which may conjecturally
have been used for religious purposes are the little bronze figures of
animals from Hounslow,[248] Middlesex, now in the British Museum.
[244] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 6, vol. i., p. 40.
[245] C. Roach Smith’s _Collectanea Antiqua_, vol. ii., p. 25.
[246] _Archæologia_, vol. xix., p. 57.
[247] _Publications of Cambridge Ant. Soc._ for 1845.
[248] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, ser. 2, vol. iii., p. 90.
Under the head of musical instruments come the bone flutes from Thor’s
Cave, Staffordshire, and the magnificent bronze trumpet found in 1794
at Loughnashade, Co. Armagh, and now in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy at Dublin. Most of the trumpets of this kind are of the Bronze
Age, but the style of the decoration on the annular disc at the mouth
of the one from Loughnashade shows clearly that it is of the Iron
Age.[249] [249] Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal._, pp. 627 and 631.
Amongst the objects of unknown use of the Late-Celtic period are
certain so-called spoons, some peculiar disc-and-hook ornaments, and
a few highly ornamented circular pieces of repoussé bronze with a
cup-shaped depression nearly in the centre.
[Illustration: Late Celtic Brone Spoon from Brickhill Lance, London]
[Illustration: Late Celtic Bronze Spoon from Crosby Ravensworth,
Westmoreland]
The spoon-like objects have been very fully dealt with in a paper by
Mr. Albert Way in the _Archæological Journal_ (vol. xxvi., p. 52), and
below is given a list of all the known specimens.
[Illustration: Late Celtic Spoon. One of a pair from Weston, near Bath.
Now in the Edinburgh Museum. Scale 1/1 linear]
_List of Localities where Spoon-like Objects with Late-Celtic_
_Decoration have been found._
Crosby Ravensworth (British Mus.) Westmoreland.
London, Brickhill Lane (British Mus.) Middlesex.
London, Thames (British Mus.) Middlesex.
Weston, near Bath (Edinburgh Mus.) Somersetshire.
Llanfair (Edinburgh Mus.) Denbighshire.
Penbryn (Ashmolean Mus.) Cardiganshire.
Locality unknown (Liverpool Mus.) Ireland.
Locality unknown (Dublin Mus.) Ireland.
Walmer Kent.
The body of these objects is shaped like a very shallow spoon with a
pointed end, and the handle (if such it may be called) is circular
or nearly circular, in many cases with two little round ears or
projections at each side. The so-called spoons are generally found in
pairs, one spoon having a cruciform design in the middle of the bowl;
whilst its fellow has a small hole bored through the edge of the bowl.
The handles of the spoons are always ornamented, sometimes on the front
only, but more commonly on the back as well.
There are specimens of the other Late-Celtic objects of unknown
use—namely, the hook-and-disc ornaments[250] and the circular pieces
of repoussé metalwork with a cup-shaped depression—in the British
Museum[251] and the Dublin Museum.[252]
[250] _The Reliquary_ for 1901, p. 56.
[251] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xix., p. 254.
[252] Sir W. Wylde’s _Catal. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 637.
No satisfactory explanation has been given of the use of certain wheel
and triskele pendants of which examples have been found in Berkshire,
Kingsholm, near Gloucester, Hunsbury, N. Hants, Seamill Fort, Ayrshire,
and Treceiri, Carnarvonshire.
POTTERY AND GLASS
The pottery of the Late-Celtic period differs from that of the Bronze
Age in being turned on a wheel instead of being handmade. The firing
is also better done, and the quality of the ware superior in every way.
Since the discovery of the Aylesford cemetery in Kent, in 1886, it has
been possible to differentiate Late-Celtic pottery from Romano-British
by the peculiar forms of the vases. Dr. Arthur Evans has dealt with
this subject pretty exhaustively in his paper in the _Archæologia_
(vol. lii., p. 315).
The most characteristic of the Aylesford urns is tall, with a narrow
base and wide mouth. The base is in the shape of a low truncated cone,
the top of which is the narrowest part of the vase, and from this point
it gradually gets wider until the top rim is nearly reached, when it
contracts again slightly. The curve thus produced is of such extreme
elegance as to at once suggest a classical origin. The exterior surface
of some of these pots is plain, but in many cases it is divided into
bands by horizontal projecting bead mouldings. Dr. A. Evans does not
find much difficulty in showing that the peculiarities of form can be
directly traced to the metal _situlæ_ from which the vases were copied.
With regard to this, he says:—
[Illustration: LATE-CELTIC POTTERY FROM HUNSBURY; NOW IN THE
NORTHAMPTON MUSEUM]
[Illustration: LATE-CELTIC POTTERY FROM HUNSBURY; NOW IN THE
NORTHAMPTON MUSEUM]
[Illustration: Late Celtic urns from Shoebury, Essex
Now in the Colchester Museum]
“In most cases these (_i.e._ the Aylesford) vases,
which for elegance of form may almost vie with the ceramic
products of Italy or Greece, are divided into zones by the
small raised ridges or cordons described above, the zones
themselves being, in turn, decorated with finely incised
linear striations. This type of vase, beautiful as it is
in itself, is still more interesting from the comparisons
to which it inevitably leads us. No one familiar with
the ceramic forms of an important group of North-Italian
cemeteries, belonging, for the most part, to the fourth
or fifth centuries before our era, and of which the whole
series of objects so admirably excavated and arranged by
Professor Prosdocimi at Este[253] forms the most splendid
illustration, can fail to be struck with the manifold points
of resemblance presented by the urns before us with the
most characteristic of the vase-types there represented.
The contour of the type referred to, with its shoulders
sometimes angular, sometimes abruptly rounded off, its
inverted conical body divided into vertical zones by raised
cordons, and tapering off to a pedestal below, can only be
described as identical with that of some of the finest of
the Aylesford specimens. The only perceptible difference is
that, whereas the British urns are almost uniformly covered
with a black or brown coating—the colouring matter may have
been supplied by pounded charcoal—zones of the Euganean
cineraries are coloured alternately with bands of graphite
and red ochre. Some of the earlier of the Este vases are,
however, of plain dark brown _bucchero_, and others,
again, of later date, of an uniform red or grey. These
North-Italian parallels have a still further value, inasmuch
as they throw the clearest possible light on the actual
genesis of this type. The cordoned vases of Este are, in
fact, nothing more than copies in clay of certain forms of
bronze _situlæ_; the commonest form of these, which is
distributed through the whole of the geographical area where
these vases are discovered, is zoned in the same way as the
pots, the zones answering to an universal method of early
metal industry, in accordance with which vessels were built
up of bands of thin metal riveted together at the edges,
each zone being often, in turn, defined by cordons or beads
of metal. These cordons themselves in their more prominent
form represent the wooden rings that surrounded and kept
together the framework of wooden staves, to which in early
times the metal plates themselves were riveted.”
[253] _Notizie degli Scavi_, etc., 1882, pp. 5-37.
Besides the pedestalled vases from Aylesford,[254] made in imitation of
the cordoned _situlæ_ of bronze from the North-Italian region, there
are others, perhaps derived from them, with elegantly formed bases.
There are also vases without pedestals, and having somewhat globular
bodies as well as bowl-shaped and saucer-shaped pots. Most of these are
now in the British Museum.
[254] A fine example of this type from Sandy, Beds, is illustrated in
T. Fisher’s _Bedfordshire_.
The following list gives the finds of pottery of a similar kind:—
_List of Localities where Finds of Late-Celtic Pottery
of the Aylesford Type have been made._
Kit’s Coty House (Maidstone Mus.) Kent.
Allington (Maidstone Mus.) Kent.
Northfleet Kent.
Elveden Essex.
Shoebury Essex.
Braintree Essex.
Locality unknown (Cambridge Mus.)
Hitchin Herts.
Aston Clinton (Aylesbury Mus.) Bucks.
Abingdon (Ashmolean Mus.) Berks.
Whitechurch (Dorchester Mus.) Dorset.
Weymouth (British Mus.) Dorset.
[Illustration: LATE-CELTIC POTTERY FROM YARNTON, OXFORDSHIRE; NOW IN
THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
[Illustration: LATE-CELTIC POTTERY FROM KENT’S CAVERN, NEAR TORQUAY,
DEVONSHIRE; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
Another class of pottery is recognised to belong to the Late-Celtic
period, not so much by the forms of the vases (because most of them are
in a very fragmentary condition) as by the patterns upon them, which
consist of incised curved lines, circles, dots, and different kinds of
cross-hatching and shading. A list of the finds is given below.
_List of Localities where Finds of Late-Celtic Pottery,_
_ornamented with Incised Lines, Circles, Dots, and Shading,_
_have been made._
Hunsbury (Northampton Mus.) Northamptonshire.
Mount Caburn (Pitt-Rivers Coll.) Sussex.
(British Mus.)
Brighton (Brighton Mus.) Sussex.
Highfield Pits, near Salisbury
(Blackmore Mus., Salisbury) Wiltshire.
Kent’s Cavern, Torquay (British Mus.) Devonshire.
Glastonbury Marsh Village
(Glastonbury Mus.) Somersetshire.
Kingsholm (Ashmolean Mus.) Gloucestershire.
Yarnton (British Mus.) Oxfordshire.
Those who wish to compare the Late-Celtic pottery of Britain with
Gaulish pottery of the same character may, with advantage, consult the
_Dictionnaire Archéologique de la Gaule_, and Paul du Chatellier’s _La
Poterie aux époques préhistoriques et gauloise en Armorique_.
As far as the available evidence goes, glass does not seem to have
been used for any other purpose by the Late-Celtic people except the
manufacture of personal ornaments, the most important of which were
beads for necklaces. Some of the beads from Ireland and Scotland,
specimens of which may be seen in the museums at Dublin and Edinburgh,
are most artistically fashioned from twisted rods of glass of
variegated colour bent into peculiar shapes. They have been obtained
from the Irish crannogs at Lagore, Co. Meath, and Lough Ravel.
A bracelet of green glass, with a cable-like ornament in white and blue
strands surrounding its outer surface, was found a few years ago in the
crannog at Hyndford, Co. Lanark.
WOODWORK, BONEWORK, AND THE KIMMERIDGE SHALE INDUSTRY
Owing to the perishable nature of the material very few examples
of carved woodwork of the Late-Celtic period are now in existence.
Those which we do possess have been derived from the Glastonbury
Marsh Village and from the crannog at Lochlee, Ayrshire. Mr. Arthur
Bulleid, F.S.A., has illustrated three specimens in an article on
“Some Decorated Woodwork from the Glastonbury Lake Village” in the
_Antiquary_ for April, 1895, p. 109. No. 1 was dug up from the peat
at a depth of 6 feet 6 inches below the surface, near the south-east
edge of the village. It is a rectangular piece of wood dressed smooth
all over, 1 foot 7 inches long by 3¾ inches wide by ⅛ inch thick,
decorated on one side with a step-pattern shaded after the fashion of
chequerwork, with a cross-hatching of diagonal lines. No. 2 is the
stave of a small bucket, which, when complete, must have been 7 inches
high by 5½ inches in diameter, decorated with a lozenge pattern shaded
with parallel straight lines. No. 3 is a portion of a tub 6 inches high
by 1 foot in diameter, cut out of a solid piece of ash, and having
its exterior surface decorated with flowing lines of extreme beauty,
resembling scrolls of foliage converted into geometrical ornament by
successive copying. Where the flowing lines diverge, the trumpet-shaped
expansions are shaded with diagonal cross-hatching and dots. There is
a good model of this tub in the British Museum. The designs on the
woodwork from Glastonbury are produced by incising the surface with
some fine sharp-pointed tool, and afterwards burnt in by passing a
heated piece of metal along the incisions.
The specimen from the Lochlee crannog, which is illustrated in Dr. R.
Munro’s _Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings_ (p. 134), is a piece of ash 5
inches square, ornamented on one side with a triple spiral, and on the
other with Late-Celtic flamboyant work.
A wooden bowl with a carved handle, found in a bog near Rathconrath,
Co. Westmeath, and now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in
Dublin, may possibly belong to the same category.
Amongst the objects of bone belonging to the Late-Celtic period the
most remarkable are the spatulæ, or flakes, of which no less than 5,000
are said to have been derived from cairn H of the Slieve-na-Caillighe
series, near Oldcastle, Co. Meath. These chambered cairns were in the
first instance erected as burial-places at the end of the Neolithic
Age or the beginning of the Bronze Age, and the one marked H on the
plan given in the _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._ (vol. xxvi., p. 294) appears
to have been used as a workshop by an artificer in bone during the
Early Iron Age. Ninety-one of the bone spatulæ from the cairn in
question were engraved by compass, with circles, curves, and ornamental
puncturings, and twelve were decorated on both sides. Unfortunately
the whole of the bones have been lost, and we only know what they were
like from the illustrations in E. Conwell’s _Tomb of Ollamh Fodhla_
(p. 53). A fragment of one of these bones which had been overlooked by
the previous explorers of the cairn has recently been brought to light
by Mr. E. Crofton Rotheram.[255] Perhaps the most interesting feature
connected with the bones from Slieve-na-Caillighe is the discovery
with them of the pair of iron compasses used in producing the incised
designs upon them.
[255] _Journ. R. Soc. Ant. Ireland_, ser. 5, vol. vi., p. 257.
Besides the bones just described, the other principal objects of
the same material belonging to the Late-Celtic period are certain
toilet-combs and spoon-shaped fibulæ, or dress-fasteners. Bone combs
with Late-Celtic ornament have been found on the inhabited site at
Ghegan Rock, near Seacliff, Haddingtonshire, and in the crannogs
at Lagore,[256] Co. Meath, Ballinderry,[257] Co. Westmeath; and at
Longbank crannog on the Clyde, near Glasgow. Spoon-shaped fibulæ of
bone have been derived from the Victoria Cave, Settle, the Kelko Cave,
Giggleswick, and Dowkerbottom Cave, Arncliffe, Yorkshire. The ornament
upon them consists of concentric circles and dots.[258]
In addition to wood and bone, the Late-Celtic people used Kimmeridge
shale for the manufacture of objects, chiefly turned vases with
cordons, like the Aylesford pots previously described. Vessels of
this kind have been found at Old Warden,[259] Bedfordshire, Great
Chesterford[260] and Colchester,[261] Essex, and Corfe Castle,[262]
Dorset.
[256] Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 271, fig. 176.
[257] _Ibid._, p. 271, fig. 177.
[258] Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins’ _Cave-Hunting_, pp. 91 and 131.
[259] “On the Materials of Two Sepulchral Vessels found at Warden, Co.
Beds”, by the Rev. J. S. Henslow (_Cambridge Ant. Soc. Publ._, 1846).
[260] _Archæol. Jour._, vol. xiv., p. 85.
[261] Henslow, _loc. cit._, p. 87.
[262] _Archæol. Jour._, vol. xxv., p. 301.
STONEWORK
Only three sculptured monuments decorated with Late-Celtic patterns
are known to exist at present.[263] They are all in Ireland and are
fully described by Mr. G. Coffey in the _Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy_ (vol. xxiv., sect. c, p. 257).
[263] At Mullaghmast, Co. Kildare; Castle Strange, Co. Roscommon; and
Turoe, Co. Galway.
[Illustration: GRANITE MONOLITH, WITH LATE-CELTIC SCULPTURE, AT TUROE,
CO. GALWAY.
HEIGHT OF STONE, 4 FT.
_Reproduced from a photograph by Mr. A. McGoogan illustrating
Mr. George Coffey’s paper in the “Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy”_]
CHAPTER V
PAGAN CELTIC ART IN THE EARLY IRON AGE
TECHNICAL PROCESSES EMPLOYED DURING THE EARLY IRON AGE IN BRITAIN
The fact must never be lost sight of that the picture presented
to our mind of any particular prehistoric stage of culture must
necessarily be extremely imperfect, since the extent of our knowledge
is limited entirely by the number of relics which specially favourable
circumstances have preserved from destruction. Of the textile
fabrics of the Late-Celtic period, for instance, hardly anything
is known, although we are certain that spinning and weaving must
have been extensively practised from the quantities of long-handled
weaving-combs, spindle-whorls, and loom-weights that have been found on
almost every inhabited site. A people who showed such a high capacity
for decorative design could not have failed to produce good artistic
effects by means of pattern-weaving.[264] What such textile patterns
may have been can only be guessed at by survivals (like the Scottish
tartans) or by ornament of a textile character occurring on objects
made of less perishable materials (like the step-pattern on a piece of
wood from the Glastonbury Marsh Village).
[264] “The cloth was covered with an infinite number of little squares
and lines as if it had been sprinkled with flowers, or was striped with
crossing bars which formed a chequered design. Their favourite colour
was red or a pretty crimson.” C. Elton’s _Origins of English History_,
p. 114, quoting Pliny and Diodorus Siculus.
The Celts had already become expert workers in metal before the close
of the Bronze Age; they could make beautiful hollow castings for the
chapes of their sword-sheaths; they could beat out bronze into thin
plates and rivet them together sufficiently well to form water-tight
caldrons; they could ornament their circular bronze shields and golden
diadems with repoussé patterns, consisting of corrugations and rows of
raised bosses; and they were not unacquainted with the art of engraving
on metal.
The Celt of the Early Iron Age attained to a still higher proficiency
in metallurgy than his predecessor of the Bronze Age. Casting in bronze
was applied to a much larger number of objects than before, such as—
Handles of swords and daggers.
Chapes of sword and dagger-sheaths.
Bridle-bits.
Harness-mountings and rings.
Chariot fittings.
Collars and armlets.
Handles of tankards and mirrors.
Spoon-like objects of unknown use.
Wrought-bronze was used for—
Sword and dagger-sheaths.
Shields and helmets.
Mountings of wooden buckets and tankards.
Caldrons and buckets.
Circular discs of unknown use.
The ornamental features of the objects of cast bronze were produced
chiefly during the process of moulding, although the surface was in
many cases further beautified afterwards by chasing, engraving, and
enamelling.
[Illustration: Late-Celtic Bronze Mirror from Trelan Bahow, Cornwall
Now in the British Museum]
Objects of wrought-bronze were usually decorated by means of repoussé
work, _i.e._ designs in relief hammered up from the back. Occasionally
enamel was added (as, for example, on the shield from the Thames, now
in the British Museum), in the form of small plaques fixed on with
rivets. In place of the more or less crude corrugations and rows of
raised pellets of the Bronze Age we get the most marvellous curved
surfaces and conchoids, executed with an unerring eye and a skill which
it would be difficult to surpass. The repoussé work of the Late-Celtic
period is seen in its greatest perfection on the circular discs of
unknown use[265] in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin,
and the British Museum.
Both cast and wrought objects of bronze were decorated with patterns
composed of finely engraved lines shaded in places with a peculiar
kind of cross-hatching or with dots. The mirror-backs,[266] the
sword-sheaths,[267] and the harness-rings[268] afford good examples of
this class of work.
[265] See p. 121.
[266] See list on p. 115.
[267] See list on p. 91; especially the one from Lisnacroghera.
[268] See list on p. 94; especially those from Polden Hill, Somerset.
[Illustration: Upper part of Bronze Sword-sheath from Hunsbury
Now in the Northampton Museum]
Brazing and soldering appear to have been unknown to the metalworkers
of the Late-Celtic period, as they pieced their metalwork together
by means of rivets. The practice of riveting was learnt from the
artificers who constructed the caldrons of the late Bronze Age
already referred to, and they, no doubt, in their turn, acquired their
knowledge from a foreign source. The bronze helmet from the Thames at
Waterloo Bridge, now in the British Museum, illustrates the riveting of
the Late-Celtic period at its best. The rivets generally have pointed
conical heads, producing a good decorative effect. The way in which
the different pieces of metal are held together is often ingeniously
disguised by making the rivet-heads form part of the ornament, or by
concealing the head behind a circular disc of enamel.
The evidence of both history and archæology tends to show that the
art of enamelling on metal was, in the first instance, a British one.
The historical evidence is confined to an oft-quoted passage from the
_Icones_ of Philostratus (a Greek sophist in the court of Julia Domna,
wife of the Emperor Severus), which is as follows:—
“They say that the barbarians who live in the ocean pour these
colours on heated brass, and that they adhere, become hard as
stone, and preserve the designs that are made upon them.”
Philostratus wrote this at the beginning of the third century A.D.; and
by “the barbarians who live in the ocean” (τοὺς ἐν Ὠκεανῷ βαρβάρους)
he no doubt meant the Britons rather than the Gauls, as some French
writers have assumed.[269]
[269] A. W. Franks in Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, p. 186.
The earliest enamels are those which occur on objects decorated in the
pure Late-Celtic style without any trace of Roman influence, such as—
Bridle-bits from Rise, near Hull, Yorkshire; and Birrenswark,
Dumfriesshire.
Harness-rings and mountings from—
Norton Suffolk.
Westhall Suffolk.
Alfriston Sussex.
Polden Hill Somersetshire.
London Middlesex.
Saham Toney Norfolk.
Uffizi Museum Florence.
British Museum Locality unknown.
Armlets from Castle Newe, Aberdeenshire; and Pitkelloney, Perthshire.
Handles of bowl from Barlaston, Staffordshire.
Next, in order of age, come objects which from their general form or
from the associations they were found in are known to belong to the
Romano-British period, but yet have Late-Celtic decoration upon them,
such as—
Harp-shaped fibulæ from Risingham, Northumberland,
River Tyne, in the Newcastle Museum.
S-shaped fibulæ from Norton, Yorkshire, and other places
(see list on p. 107).
Seal-box from Lincoln, in the British Museum.
Four-legged stand, with round hole in the top, from
Silchester, in the Reading Museum.
Lastly, there are survivals of the use of discs of Late-Celtic enamel
in the decoration of bowls of early Saxon, and therefore post-Roman,
age, the following examples of which have been found:—
_List of Localities where Bowls of the Saxon Period, but
with Late-Celtic enamelled decoration, have been found._
Crosthwaite (British Mus.) Cumberland.
Middleton Moor (Sheffield Mus.) Derbyshire.
Over-Haddon Derbyshire.
Benty Grange Derbyshire.
Chesterton (Warwick Mus.) Warwickshire.
Caistor (now lost) Lincolnshire.
Oxford (Pitt-Rivers Collection) Oxfordshire.
Needham Market (now lost) Suffolk.
Barrington (Sir John Evans’ Collection) Cambridgeshire.
Lullingstone (Sir W. Hart Dyke’s Collection) Kent.
Greenwich (Mr. J. Brent’s Collection) Kent.
Kingston Down Kent.
The hammer-headed pins, a list of which has already been given on page
108, are also instances of the use of Celtic enamel in post-Roman times.
* * * * *
Before going further it may be as well to say a few words about the art
of enamelling in general, so as to show the position occupied by the
Late-Celtic examples.
The term enamel is used to designate a particular kind of mixture
or paste which can be applied to the surface of metals or other
materials, so that when it has been vitrified by the application of
heat, and afterwards cooled, it forms a decoration of great beauty and
durability. The base of all enamels is a flux composed of silica (in
the shape of silver sand or powdered flint), red lead, and potash.
To this flux are added certain metallic oxides to produce different
colours, and, if necessary, oxide of tin to render it opaque. The
materials are mixed together, fused in a crucible, reduced to a fine
powder when cold, made into a paste with water, and then applied to the
surface of metal to be decorated. After vitrifaction in a furnace and
polishing, the enamel is complete.
Mr. A. W. Franks[270] divides enamels into the following classes:—
[270] Afterwards Sir Wollaston Franks; see _Glass and Enamel_, by J. B.
Waring and A. W. Franks.
(1) _Inlaid Enamel_, where the outlines are formed by
metal divisions.
(2) _Transparent Enamel_, where the outlines and all the
markings are produced by variations of depth in the
sculptured ground over which the vitreous material is
floated.
(3) _Painted Enamel_, where the outlines are made by a
difference in the tint of the enamel itself, which
completely conceals the metal base beneath.
The divisions between each of the colours in inlaid enamel are produced
in two different ways, namely:—
(_a_) _Champlevé Enamel_, where the field (_champ_) or area to be
occupied by each colour is dug out and removed (_levé_), so
as to leave a very narrow band of metal at the level of the
original surface to form the dividing line between the fields.
(_b_) _Cloisonné Enamel_, where the divisions or partitions
(_cloison_) between the fields consist of thin strips of metal
bent into the required shape and fixed to the surface to be
enamelled.
All the enamels of the Late-Celtic period belong to the _champlevé_
kind. The colours used are bright red, yellow and blue, and the designs
are more often curvilinear than not, like those on the repoussé
metalwork. The patterns were probably traced on the surface of the
metal to be decorated with a finely pointed instrument, and the hollows
to receive the enamel dug out with a scooping tool, in the case of
small work, or with a long thin chisel and a chaser’s hammer where the
work was larger.
[Illustration: CRUCIFORM HARNESS-MOUNTING OF BRONZE ENAMELLED. LOCALITY
UNKNOWN; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE 1/1 LINEAR]
[Illustration: BRONZE ENAMELLED HARNESS-MOUNTING FROM POLDEN HILL,
SOMERSETSHIRE; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
The late Sir Wollaston Franks, than whom no better authority can be
quoted, always maintained the Celtic origin of the art of enamelling
in Western Europe, and gave the distinctive name of _opus Britannicum_
to the special kind of enamel which was produced in greater perfection
by the Celts inhabiting the British Isles than by any other people.
The art of enamelling in the purely Celtic style commenced before the
arrival of the Romans in this country, and after continuing throughout
the whole period of their occupation, survived for some centuries after
their departure from our shores. There are, however, numerous enamels
which, though very possibly of Celtic workmanship, are altogether
Roman as far as the ornamental patterns upon them are concerned. Dr.
Joseph Anderson has described an exquisitely enamelled patera of this
kind found in Linlithgowshire, and now in the Museum of Antiquities of
Edinburgh. He says of it:—[271]
[271] “Notice of an enamelled cup or patera of bronze found in
Linlithgowshire, recently purchased for the Museum,” in the _Proc. Ant.
Scot._, vol. xix., p. 45.
“Apart from the singular beauty of its decoration it is
possessed of this special interest, that it is the only
vessel of its kind and character known to exist in Scotland.
It is, however, one of a class of objects, which, though
few in number, are pretty widely distributed over the area,
which may be termed the outskirts of the Roman Empire,
towards the north and west—that is Britain, North Germany,
and Scandinavia. We look in vain for anything like it within
the area of the Roman Empire proper, and it may therefore
be regarded as a product of a culture of some portion of
the area of north-western Europe, where it was touched and
modified by the Roman culture.”
Other similar examples of enamelled vessels have been found at
Braughing,[272] near Standon, Herts; the Bartlow Hills,[273] Essex;
Maltbeck,[274] Denmark; and Pyrmont,[275] in the Rhine valley. In
addition to these we have two other enamelled vessels, but differing in
their style of ornament, one from Rudge,[276] Wilts, now in the Duke of
Northumberland’s private museum at Alnwick Castle, and the other from
Prickwillow,[277] Cambridgeshire, now in the British Museum.
[272] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, 2nd ser., vol. iv., p. 514.
[273] _Archæologia_, vol. xxvi., p. 300.
[274] _Mém. de la Soc. Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_, 1866-71, p. 151.
[275] _Jahrbücher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden in Rheinlande,
heft_ 38, p. 47.
[276] _Catal. of Mus. of R. Archæol. Inst. at Edinburgh_, 1856.
[277] _Archæologia_, vol. xxviii., p. 436.
Of the art of enamelling as carried on elsewhere than in Britain Dr.
Anderson says:—[278]
[278] _Loc. cit._, p. 49.
“The Gauls as well as the Britons—of the same Celtic
stock—practised enamel-working before the Roman conquest.
The enamel workshops of Bibracte, with their furnaces,
crucibles, moulds, polishing-stones, and with the crude
enamels in their various stages of preparation, have been
recently excavated from the ruins of the city destroyed
by Cæsar and his legions. But the Bibracte enamels are
the work of mere dabblers in the art compared with the
British examples. The home of the art was Britain, and
the style of the patterns as well as the associations in
which the objects decorated with it were found, demonstrate
with certainty that it had reached its highest stage of
indigenous development before it came in contact with the
Roman culture.”
A full account of the discoveries made at Bibracte will be found in J.
G. Bulliot’s _Fouilles de Mont Beuvray_. Several beautiful enamels have
been derived from the Belgo-Roman cemetery at Presles.
Romano-British enamels, without distinctively Celtic patterns upon
them, have been dug up at many places in Great Britain, but more
especially at Prickwillow.
We shall see in a subsequent chapter how the divergent spiral patterns
on the circular discs of enamel used to decorate the bronze bowls of
the end of the Late-Celtic period were transferred bodily to the pages
of the early Irish illuminated MSS. of the Gospels.
Another method of ornamenting metalwork besides enamelling was by
means of settings of different materials fixed in place by small pins
or rivets. As instances we have the bronze shield from the River
Witham,[279] now in the British Museum, set with red coral; the bronze
fibula from Datchet, Oxon,[280] set with amber and blue glass; and
most curious of all, a bronze object of unknown use from Carlton,[281]
Northamptonshire, now in the Northampton Museum, inlaid with portions
of the stem of a fossil encrinite.
A very effective kind of decorative metalwork may be made out of wire,
bent so as to form a series of loops, of which we have British examples
in the bracelets from the Early Iron Age burial in Deepdale,[282]
Derbyshire; and a foreign specimen in a fibula from the cemetery of the
La Tène period at Jezerine,[283] in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
[279] J. Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, p. 14, and pl. 15.
[280] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, ser. 2, vol. xv., p. 191.
[281] _Ibid._, ser. 2, vol. xvii., p. 166.
[282] _The Reliquary_ for 1897, p. 101.
[283] R. Munro’s _Boznia-Herzegovina_, p. 170.
More or less akin to the looped wirework just mentioned are certain
gold and silver chains made of fine wire. Dr. Arthur Evans has gone
pretty fully into this subject in his paper in the _Archæologia_ (vol.
lv., p. 394), describing the find of gold ornaments at Broighter, near
Limavady, Co. Londonderry, amongst which were two chains of the kind
referred to. The art of making these chains was no doubt of foreign
origin, as they have been found in Etruscan tombs of the fifth century
B.C. in Italy; with burials of the La Tène period in the cemetery
of Jezerine, in Bosnia; and in a tomb in the Gaulish cemetery of
Ornovasso, in the province of Turin. In Britain such chains were used
during the period of the Roman occupation for the attachment of fibulæ
worn in pairs, as in the case of those from Chorley,[284] Lancashire,
and from Newcastle-on-Tyne,[285] Northumberland. We shall see in a
subsequent chapter that the manufacture of these finely wrought chains
of silver survived in early Christian times in Ireland, the best-known
examples being those attached to the Tara brooch,[286] and to an
enamelled pin from Clonmacnois.[287] With regard to the date of the
chains, Dr. Arthur Evans says:—[288]
“It thus appears that these fine chains were in use among
the Celtic peoples during the first two centuries before
and after our era.[289] In Britain, however, the finest
class is, as far as I am aware, confined to the latter
half of this period; the chains attached to the earlier
British fibulæ, like the one in the British Museum from
the Warren,[290] near Folkestone, which may date from the
second century B.C., being, like those referred to
from the Champagne[291] cemeteries, of simpler and coarser
construction.”
[284] _The Reliquary_ for 1901, p. 198.
[285] _Ibid._ for 1895, p. 157.
[286] M. Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 75.
[287] _Jour. R. Soc. Ant. of Ireland_, ser. 5, vol. i., p. 318.
[288] _Archæologia_, vol. lv., p. 396.
[289] Dr. A. Evans appears to have forgotten the Christian survivals in
Ireland.
[290] _The Reliquary_ for 1901, p. 197.
[291] The coarser chains are made of ordinary circular or oval links,
sometimes double (see illustrations given in the _Dictionnaire
Archéologique de la Gaule_ of those from the Marnian cemeteries).
Ornamental ironwork of the Late-Celtic period is extremely rare, either
because the smiths were too busily employed in making weapons for the
warrior and tools for the artisan to devote their time to decorative
work, or because the specimens of their handiwork have disappeared in
consequence of the perishable nature of the material of which they
were made. Fortunately, however, the fire-dogs from Capel Garmon,[292]
now at Colonel Wynne Finch’s house at Voelas, are still in existence
to show us what fine ornamental ironwork the Welsh smiths of the
Romano-British period were capable of producing.
Turning now from the metalwork to the pottery of the Late-Celtic
period, we find it to consist of unglazed vessels made on a wheel,
fired in a kiln, and ornamented either by mouldings or by patterns
engraved on the surface with a pointed instrument. The technical
processes employed in its manufacture do not seem to have differed
essentially from those of the Romano-British potters, except that
slip-ware was unknown. As far as I am aware, no painted pottery like
that from Mont Beuvray[293] (Bibracte), nor vessels incrusted with
pebbles and polished with graphite like the one from Plouhinec[294]
(Finistère) now in M. Paul du Chatellier’s collection at the Château de
Kernuz, near Quimper, have yet been discovered in this country.
[292] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 6, vol. i., p. 39.
[293] See J. G. Bulliot’s _Fouilles de Mont Beuvray._
[294] See _Revue Archéologique_ for 1883, p. 11.
As far as the existing evidence goes no ornamental glasswork was made
during the Late-Celtic period in Britain except certain beads and
armlets already described. The technical process of manufacturing
these beads consisted in twisting together fine rods of different
coloured glass, and then bending the composite rod into loops round a
mandril so as to form the bead.
[Illustration: Late-Celtic Pottery from the Glastonbury Lake Village]
The art of the ornamental worker in wood in the Late-Celtic period is
displayed at its best in the tankards, buckets, and tubs of which,
fortunately, a few interesting specimens have been preserved. The
tankard from Trawsfynydd,[295] Merionethshire, now in the Liverpool
Museum, shows great ingenuity of construction, the staves of which it
is composed being kept together at the bottom by a corrugated wire
let into the ends of the staves. Another tankard, belonging to Mr.
T. Layton,[296] F.S.A., has the staves fastened together with wooden
dowels and pins.
[295] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. xiii., p. 212.
[296] _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 359.
We have already described how the engraved patterns were produced on
the ornamental woodwork from the Glastonbury Marsh Village by a finely
pointed instrument, and afterwards burnt in.
Ornamental objects were also made out of bone and Kimmeridge shale
during the Late-Celtic period, but there is nothing special to call for
any comment in the technical methods employed, except to mention that
the patterns on the bone objects were often engraved by means of a pair
of compasses, and that the vessels of Kimmeridge shale were turned on a
lathe.
Of the basketry in which the Celts excelled in the time of Cæsar[297]
no specimens are now extant, but no doubt their natural talent for
decorative art showed itself in this native industry of Britain, as in
all others.
[297] C. Elton’s _Origins of English History_, p. 122.
LEADING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LATE-CELTIC STYLE OF ART
Once the eye of a trained archæologist has become familiar with the
general appearance of the art products of the Late-Celtic school, it
is comparatively easy for him to recognise other products of the same
school almost by intuition; but he would find it a much more difficult
task if he were asked to define exactly what the peculiarities are
by which he is enabled to distinguish this particular style from any
other. Most of the decorative elements composing the style are of so
fantastic and original a nature as to impress themselves first on the
retina of the eye, and then on the mind; yet, on that very account,
they seem to elude the descriptive powers of the writer. The motives
employed are neither purely geometrical in character nor have they
been obviously arrived at by conventionalising natural forms, but are
something between the two, being (like the designs on the ancient
British coins) the result of successive copying. We will, however,
notwithstanding the difficulties that have been pointed out, endeavour
to analyse the decoration of the Late-Celtic period as far as it is
possible to do so.
Unlike the art of the Bronze Age, the art of the Late-Celtic period
does not appear to have been in any way influenced by religious
symbolism, and therefore must be looked upon as purely decorative. The
designs may be divided into three classes as regards the method of
their execution, namely:—
(1) Designs engraved on a flat surface.
(2) Designs in relief on a flat surface.
(3) Designs in the round.
The designs themselves may be classified as follows:—
(1) Anthropomorphic designs.
(2) Zoömorphic designs.
(3) Designs derived from foliage.
(4) Curvilinear geometrical designs.
(5) Rectilinear geometrical designs.
Anthropomorphic and zoömorphic designs are extremely rare in
Late-Celtic art in Great Britain, and the two best-known examples—the
buckets from Marlborough[298] and Aylesford[299]—have, according to
Dr. Arthur Evans, been imported from Gaul. The Marlborough bucket is
encircled by four horizontal metal bands, the upper three of which are
decorated with human heads and pairs of animals in repoussé work. The
projections at each side of the rim, to which the crossbar at the top
is attached, have pairs of human heads upon them. The mountings of the
Aylesford bucket consist of three bronze bands, the lower two of which
are plain and the uppermost one ornamented with pairs of animals and a
peculiar kind of scrollwork. Each of the attachments for the handle at
the top has upon it a single human head surmounted by a sort of crested
helmet.
[298] Sir R. C. Hoare’s _Ancient Wilts_, vol. ii., p. 34, and W.
Cunnington’s _Catal. of Stourhead Coll. in Devizes Museum_, p. 88.
[299] _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 374.
The style of the art of the two buckets is the same, and corresponds in
some respects with that of the Gaulish coins,[300] and in others with
that of the sword-sheaths from La Tène[301] and the bronze _situlæ_
from Hallstatt, Watsch, and Certosa.[302] Dr. Arthur Evans has dealt
so exhaustively with the details of these buckets and the origins
of the art they exhibit in his paper on the Aylesford find in the
_Archæologia_,[303] that there is really little more to be said on the
subject. It may, however, be worth while directing attention to the
scrolls hanging down from the mouths of one of the pairs of beasts on
the Marlborough bucket. Anyone unacquainted with the origin of these
scrolls would probably mistake them for the animal’s tongue protruding
from its mouth, but on comparing the designs on the Marlborough bucket
with those on the _situlæ_ just referred to, the scrolls will be seen
to be simply degraded copies of the branch of a tree on which the
animal is feeding. The art metalworkers who made the _situlæ_ were, in
fact, in the habit of using a simple convention for emphasising the
difference between the herbivorous and carnivorous animals by showing,
in one case, the branch of a tree, and in the other the leg of its prey
protruding from its mouth. The Celtic copyists were either ignorant
of this convention or disregarded it, so that in their hands both the
branches and legs were soon converted into meaningless scrolls bearing
hardly any resemblance to the original. Throughout the whole range of
Celtic art there is displayed a tendency when dealing with plants and
animals to transform first the details and afterwards the whole thing
represented into curvilinear geometrical ornament.
[300] _Dictionnaire Archéologique de la Gaule._
[301] E. Vouga, _Les Helvètes à La Tène_.
[302] Illustrated in the second edition of Dr. R. Munro’s
_Boznia-Herzegovina_, p. 407.
[303] Vol. lii., p. 360.
Besides the buckets just described, there are a few other examples of
zoömorphic designs in Late-Celtic art, amongst which are the small
bronze figures of animals found at Hounslow,[304] Middlesex, now
in the British Museum; the bronze armlet, terminating in serpents’
heads, from the Culbin Sands,[305] Elginshire; the knife-handle,
terminating in a bull’s head, from Birdlip,[306] Gloucestershire;
the iron fire-dogs,[307] with uprights terminating in horned beasts’
heads, from Mount Bures, Essex, Hay Hill, Cambridgeshire, and
Shefford, Bedfordshire; the horned bronze helmet from Torrs,[308]
Kirkcudbrightshire, now at Abbotsford; the swine’s head from
Liechestown,[309] Banffshire, now in the Banff Museum; and the bull’s
head from Ham Hill,[310] Somerset, in the Taunton Museum.
[304] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, ser. 2, vol. iii., p. 90.
[305] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 156.
[306] _Trans. Bristol and Gloucestersh. Archæol. Soc._, vol. v., p. 137.
[307] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 6, vol. i., p. 41.
[308] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 113.
[309] _Ibid._, p. 117.
[310] _Proc. Somersetsh. Archæol. Soc._, ser. 3, vol. viii., p. 33.
[Illustration: Engraved Ornament on Late-Celtic Wooden Tub found at the
Glastonbury Lake Village]
[Illustration: Ornament on backs of handles of pair of Late-Celtic
Spoons from Weston, near Bath
Scale 1/1 linear]
The heads of the bull on the knife-handle from Birdlip, and the
beasts on the fire-dogs from Hay Hill and Shefford, have horns with
round knobs on the end of each. Beasts with knobbed horns of this
kind are represented on the Scandinavian gold bracteates[311] of
the Early Iron Age, generally associated with the swastika symbol.
Similar horns are to be seen on the helmet of a small bronze figure
found in Denmark;[312] on a figure depicted on the silver bowl from
Gundestrup,[313] Jutland; and on the handles of gold vessels from
Rönninge,[314] Boeslund,[315] and Fyen,[316] Denmark. The horns
probably have some religious significance.
[311] Prof. G. Stevens’ _Old Northern Runic Monuments_.
[312] J. J. A. Worsaae’s _Industrial Arts of Denmark_, p. 109.
[313] Sophus Müller in _Nordiske Fortidsminder_, pt. 2, pl. 10.
[314] A. P. Madsen’s _Bronze Age_, ii., pl. 25.
[315] _Industrial Arts of Denmark_, p. 105.
[316] P. B. Du Chaillu’s _Viking Age_, vol. i., p. 97.
Foliage so slightly conventionalised as to be easily recognised as
such cannot be said to exist in Late-Celtic art, yet the foliageous
origin of many of the designs at once betrays itself in the undulating
curves with scrolls repeated at regular intervals on each side of what
may be called the stem-line. We cannot select any better examples as
illustrating this than the two beautiful bronze sword-sheaths from the
crannog at Lisnacroghera,[317] Co. Antrim. Here the portions of the
designs which represent the principal stem consist of two lines running
close together parallel to each other until they reach the point where
a smaller stem branches off, when they diverge. The smaller stems, like
the principal stem, consist of parallel lines running close together,
and these, again, diverge to form what represents the leaf. The ends of
the leaves terminate in small spirals and their general shape resembles
that of what are known as arabesques. We thus get the long sweeping
=S=-shaped curves and the alternate contractions and expansions of the
space between the two boundary lines which are common to nearly all
Late-Celtic ornament. Now, for some inscrutable reason, the natural
forms of plant life never seem to have appealed to the Celtic mind in
the way they did, for instance, to the ecclesiastical sculptors of
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Consequently the designs which
were in the first instance copied from foliage soon became transformed
into a succession of beautiful flamboyant curves, pleasing to the eye
unquestionably, but suggesting but little to the mind as to their
meaning. In reference to this, Dr. Arthur Evans remarks:—[318]
[317] _Jour. R. Hist. and A. A. of Ireland_, ser. 4, vol. vi., pp.
384-90. The decoration of a wooden tub found at the Glastonbury Marsh
Village affords another very good instance of a Late-Celtic pattern
derived from foliage.
[318] _Archæologia_, vol. lv., p. 404.
[Illustration: UPPER PART OF BRONZE SWORD-SHEATH, FROM LISNACROGHERA,
CO. ANTRIM; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM]
[Illustration: LOWER PART OF BRONZE SWORD-SHEATH, FROM LISNACROGHERA,
CO. ANTRIM; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM]
“The tendency of all Late-Celtic art was to reduce all
naturalistic motives borrowed by it from the classical
world to geometrical schemes.... Yet the whole history of
Late-Celtic art instructs us that this geometrical scheme,
elaborate as it is, was originally based on ornaments of a
naturalistic kind.”
Once the foliageous origin of the flamboyant patterns was lost sight of
or disregarded, it became easy to elaborate fresh designs by placing
the forms derived from the leaves and stems of plants in all sorts of
unnatural positions relatively to each other, as, for instance, on
the pair of bronze spoon-like objects from Weston, near Bath, which
are now in the Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities, and in a particular
class of pierced ornaments, several of which are illustrated in L.
Lindenschmit’s _Die Alterthümer unserer heidnischen Vorzeit_.[319]
[319] Vol. i., pt. x., pl. 6; vol. ii., pt. viii., pl. 5; vol. iii.,
pt. vii., pl. 6. Compare these with the ornament found at Silchester,
illustrated in the _Archæologia_, vol. liv., p. 470.
A still further transformation resulted from the practice of drawing
the various curves by means of a pair of compasses, and once this
mechanical method had been adopted the temptation to introduce complete
circles of different sizes into the designs would follow as a matter
of course. This is very clearly seen on the ornamented bone spatulæ
from Slieve-na-Caillighe, Co. Meath, already referred to as having been
found with a pair of iron compasses; and also on backs of the bronze
mirrors, of which a list is given on p. 115. It is most remarkable that
the Late-Celtic artists should have succeeded in doing what has baffled
everyone else before or since, namely, in producing “sweet” curves by
means of a combination of circular arcs.
[Illustration: Engraved Bone object from Slieve-na-Caillighe, Co.
Meath]
[Illustration: HANDLE OF LATE-CELTIC BRONZE TANKARD FROM TRAWSFYNYDD,
MERIONETHSHIRE; NOW IN THE MAYER MUSEUM, LIVERPOOL]
[Illustration: BRIDLE-BIT OF BRONZE ENAMELLED FROM RISE, NEAR HULL, NOW
IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ½ LINEAR]
Lastly, when the patterns which had thus been evolved from natural
foliage on a flat surface were transferred to the relief of the
repoussé metalwork, and raised bosses, volutes, and round plaques of
enamel substituted for the complete flat circles, an entirely new
style of decoration was brought into existence. The most appropriate
name that can be given to this particular kind of Celtic ornament
is _flamboyant_ work. The French word _flamboyer_ means to blaze,
and the Gothic window tracery of the fourteenth century, in which
=S=-shaped curves predominate, is called _flamboyant_ on account of its
resemblance to tongues of flame. The handle of the Late-Celtic tankard
from Trawsfynydd,[320] Merionethshire, now in the Liverpool Museum, if
reproduced in stone on a larger scale, would certainly be mistaken for
a piece of Gothic tracery, so that it may almost be looked upon as a
blasphemous anticipation of Christian art by the Pagan Celt.
[320] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. xiii., p. 212.
The best examples of the Late-Celtic flamboyant work, for purposes of
study, are the bronze shield from the river Thames, a circular disc
of unknown use from Ireland, both in the British Museum; the gold
collar from Limavady, Co. Londonderry, in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy, Dublin; and the Æsica fibula, in the Newcastle Museum. There
is also a disc in the Dublin Museum of similar design to the one in the
British Museum, which is worth comparing with it.
The whole design of the shield from the Thames is arranged with a due
regard to symmetry. The small circular plaques of enamel, which are a
leading feature in the scheme of decoration, are placed in definite
positions, in groups of four and eight, around a central plaque
within a raised boss. The plaques are connected by =S=-shaped curves
in relief, which vary in width and in height above the background
in different places. The highest part of the curve is emphasised by
a sharp ridge which does not traverse the whole length of the curve
midway between the margins, but at one place approaches near one edge,
and a little further on approaches the other. An extremely complicated
solid, bounded by curved surfaces, is thus formed, the appearance of
which can only be realised by seeing the thing itself or a model of it.
[Illustration: Fibula of Bronze-Gilt from Æsica
Now in the Newcastle Museum. Scale 1/1 linear]
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON LATE-CELTIC BRONZE SHIELD FROM THE
THAMES AT BATTERSEA; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM]
[Illustration: Flamboyant Ornament on Collar from Broighter, Limavady,
Co. Londonderry]
The circular bronze discs and the gold collar from Ireland exhibit a
class of flamboyant work which is somewhat different from that on the
shield from the Thames, and is still further removed from the original
foliage motive designs. Here conchoids take the place of the circular
enamelled plaques arranged in symmetrical positions, and the curves
connecting them with each other have the trumpet-shaped terminal
expansions, which are so characteristic of the Late-Celtic style, very
highly developed. A further modification that disguises the foliageous
origin of the design is the substitution of two =C=-shaped curves
meeting at an angle for the more gracefully flowing =S=-shaped curves.
Examples of a running pattern composed of =C=-shaped curves meeting at
an angle in the way described, occur on a bronze collar from Lochar
Moss,[321] Dumfriesshire, now in the British Museum (see p. 112). A
running pattern composed of =C= and =S=-shaped curves alternately
meeting at an angle occurs on the enamelled mounting of a bronze bowl
from Barlaston,[322] Staffordshire. We have pointed out the changes due
to copying in relief a design engraved on a flat surface; but curiously
enough when the decoration of the repoussé metalwork was again
transferred to a flat surface, as in the enamelled fittings of the
bronze bowls and in the spiral ornamentation of the illuminated MSS.
of the Christian period, it did not return to what it was before, but
became still more unlike its foliageous prototype. It will be noticed
that the ends of the trumpet-shaped expansions on the bronze discs and
gold collar being in the highest relief catch the light. In the MSS.
and enamels this effect is imitated by small almond-shaped spots of a
different colour from the rest. The beautiful repoussé ornament on the
bronze mirror from Balmaclellan,[323] Kirkcudbrightshire, now in the
Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities, supplies us with another instance of
little raised bosses which were afterwards reproduced on the flat by
means of colour in the Christian MSS.
[321] _Archæologia_, vol. xxxiii., p. 347.
[322] _Ibid._, vol. lvi., p. 44.
[323] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 127.
[Illustration: Spiral Ornament in Illuminated MS. copied from repoussé
metalwork]
[Illustration: CIRCULAR DISC OF BRONZE WITH REPOUSSÉ ORNAMENT FROM
IRELAND; NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM]
[Illustration: BRONZE ENAMELLED HARNESS-RING FROM WESTHALL, SUFFOLK;
NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
Many of the curvilinear Late-Celtic patterns which are used to fill
a circular space are based upon the triskele and the swastika. A
good example of a curved swastika pattern occurs on each of the
three enamelled handles of a bronze bowl found at Barlaston,[324]
Staffordshire. Triskele designs are much more common, especially
on the round disc fibulæ, specimens of which have been found at
Silchester,[325] Hampshire; Brough,[326] Westmoreland; and in the
Victoria Cave,[327] near Settle, Yorkshire. There are other instances
on the bronze tankards from Elveden,[328] Essex, and Trawsfynydd,[329]
Merionethshire; on the bronze shield from the Thames,[330] now in
the British Museum; on a bronze disc-and-hook ornament in the Dublin
Museum;[331] on a bronze plate in the Welshpool Museum;[332] on some
bronze harness-mountings (?)8 from South Shields;[333] on bronze
wheel-shaped pendants from Seamill Fort,[334] Ayrshire, from Berkshire,
now in the British Museum, from Kingsholm,[335] near Gloucester, and
from Treceiri, Carnarvonshire. These designs may have had a symbolical
origin, as the triskele was a well-known sun symbol in the Bronze
Age. The triskele arrangement of three spirals round a central spiral
survived in the decoration of the illuminated MSS. of the Christian
period.
[324] _Archæologia_, vol. lvi., p. 44.
[325] Now at Strathfieldsaye House.
[326] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond._, ser. I, vol. iv., p. 129.
[327] _Historic Soc. of Lanc. and Cheshire, Trans._ for 1866, p. 199.
[328] _Archæologia_, vol. lii., p. 359.
[329] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. xiii., p. 212.
[330] Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, pl. 15.
[331] _The Reliquary_ for 1901, p. 56.
[332] Unpublished.
[333] _Jour. Brit. Archæol. Assoc._, vol. xxxix., p. 90.
[334] R. Munro’s _Prehistoric Scotland_, p. 378.
[335] Douglas’ _Nenia Britannica_, p. 134.
In the repoussé metalwork of the Late-Celtic period certain portions
of the design are thrown into relief in order to enable them to be
distinguished from the rest which is not in relief. Much the same
artistic effect can be obtained when the design is engraved on a flat
surface by means of shading, and in the case of enamelled plaques, by
employing different colours. In fact, by the use of relief, shading, or
colour, the decorative effect of a pattern is doubled, because there
are two things for the mind to comprehend, namely, the shape of the
pattern itself and the shape of the background. Anyone who endeavours
to realise both shapes simultaneously will find it an impossibility.
Several different kinds of shading are used in Late-Celtic art, chiefly
in ornament engraved on metal, wood, bone, and pottery, as will be seen
by the following list:—
_List showing different kinds of shading used in Late-Celtic
Art, and the objects on which they occur._
(1) Shading of parallel lines.
[Illustration]
On spoon-like bronze objects from Crosby Ravensworth, Westmoreland, and
Ireland.
On bronze mirror from Stamford Hill, near Plymouth.
On engraved pottery from Glastonbury Marsh Village.
On bronze sword-sheath from Embleton.
(2) Cross-hatching placed diagonally.
[Illustration]
On engraved piece of wood and engraved pottery from the Glastonbury
Marsh Village.
(3) Cross-hatching placed diagonally, with dots in each of the square
meshes.
[Illustration]
On engraved wooden tub from the Glastonbury Marsh Village.
(4) Cross-hatching of double lines placed diagonally.
[Illustration]
On engraved piece of wood from the Glastonbury Marsh Village.
(5) Chequerwork grass-matting shading.
[Illustration]
On bronze sword-sheath from crannog at Lisnacroghera.
On bronze mirrors from Trelan Bahow, Cornwall; Birdlip,
Gloucestershire; from unknown locality, now in the Liverpool Museum;
and from Stamford Hill, near Plymouth.
(6) Engine-turned shading.
[Illustration]
On gold collar from Limavady.
(7) Dotted shading.
[Illustration]
On bronze spoon-like objects in the Dublin Museum.
On bronze harness-ring from Polden Hill, Somersetshire.
On silver armlet from Stony Middleton, Bucks.
Besides the Late-Celtic objects just described, which exhibit
curvilinear surface decoration derived from foliage, there are others
with very peculiar forms “in the round.” Amongst these are the
harness-rings with projecting knobs from Polden Hill, Somersetshire;
Stanwick, Yorkshire, and elsewhere; the beaded torques from Lochar
Moss, Dumfriesshire; Hynford, Lanark; and the beaded bracelets from
Arras and Cowlam, Yorkshire.
The projections on the harness-rings generally occur at three points
round the circumference, and their shapes will be better understood
from the illustrations than from any written description. It is not
easy to say what the meaning or origin of these projections can be, as
they bear no obvious resemblance to any natural or artificial object.
The beaded torques mentioned are composed of separate metal beads
(usually of two different shapes) strung on a square iron rod, so that
they cannot rotate or rattle about. The bracelets are, however, cast
in one piece, and made in imitation of a string of beads. This style
of bracelet is of foreign origin, as specimens have been found in
France[336] and Germany,[337] many of which are elaborately ornamented
with spiralwork in high relief.
[336] _Dictionnaire Archéologique de la Gaule._
[337] Lindenschmit’s _Alterthümer_.
[Illustration: Swastika design on Shield from the Thames]
Rectilinear patterns are of comparatively rare occurrence in
Late-Celtic art, as the designers of the period appear to have had a
rooted objection to using straight lines if they could possibly be
avoided. There are, however, a few exceptions. The small circular
enamelled plaques with which the bronze shield from the Thames, now
in the British Museum, is decorated, have a swastika pattern on each.
The swastika was probably a foreign importation, as it is used in
the decoration of the Gaulish bronze helmet from Gorge-Meillet[338]
(Marne), and of the iron lance-head from La Tène,[339] Switzerland.
The step-pattern in Late-Celtic art may have had a textile origin,
_i.e_. have been copied from a woven belt or other fabric. Instances of
it occur on a piece of engraved wood from the Glastonbury[340] Marsh
Village; on the bronze mountings of a shield from Grimthorpe,[341]
Yorkshire, now in the British Museum; on the bronze ferrule of a
spear-shaft from the Crannog at Lisnacroghera,[342] Co. Antrim; and on
a sculptured monolith at Turoe, Co. Galway. The step-pattern survived
after the Pagan period in the Christian enamels, as in the bowl from
Möklebust,[343] Norway, and the fragment at St. Columba’s College,[344]
Dublin. The key-pattern, or Greek fret, is unknown in Late-Celtic art.
The chequerwork pattern may also have had a textile origin. There
is an example of it on the bronze sword-sheath from Embleton,[345]
Cumberland, now in the British Museum.
The chevron and lozenge patterns are possibly survivals from the
preceding Bronze Age. We have instances of the chevron pattern on the
bronze mirror from Trelan Bahow,[346] Cornwall, and on a potsherd from
the Glastonbury[347] Marsh Village; and of the lozenge on the stave of
a bucket[348] from the same site.
[338] A. Bertrand’s _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, p. 367.
[339] E. Vouga’s _Les Helvètes à La Tène_, pl. 5.
[340] _The Antiquary_ for 1895, p. 110.
[341] Ll. Jewitt’s _Grave-Mounds and their Contents_, p. 246.
[342] _Jour. R. Hist. and Archæol. Assoc. of Ireland_, ser. 4, vol.
vi., p. 394.
[343] _Mém. de la Soc. Ant. du Nord_, 1890, p. 35.
[344] J. B. Waring’s _Manchester Fine Art Treasures Exhibition_.
[345] Kemble’s _Horæ Ferales_, pl. 18, fig. 3.
[346] _Archæol. Jour._, vol. xxx., p. 267.
[347] _Proc. Somersetsh. Archæol. Soc._, vol. xl.
[348] _The Antiquary_ for 1895, p. 110.
[Illustration: Engraved Step Ornament on piece of wood found at the
Glastonbury Lake Village
Drawn by Arthur Bulleid, F.S.A.]
CHAPTER VI
CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD (A.D. 450 to 1066)
THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO BRITAIN, AND ITS EFFECT ON NATIVE
ART
It must always be borne in mind that the conversion of the inhabitants
of Britain from Paganism to Christianity was a very gradual process,
extending over a period of two hundred years at least. It seems
probable that during the last hundred years or so of the Roman
occupation of Britain the Christian faith may have been accepted by a
limited number of the native population; but almost as soon as the new
religion began to take root in England it was entirely swept away by
the Saxon conquest, and the few converts who were not exterminated by
the ruthless Pagan invaders fled for refuge to Wales and Cornwall. The
archæological evidence of the existence of Romano-British Christianity
is extremely scanty. Out of the hundreds and hundreds of inscribed and
sculptured monuments belonging to the period of the Roman occupation
of Britain there is not one which bears a Christian symbol or shows a
trace of Christian art. There are only two instances of the occurrence
of a Christian symbol on a Romano-British structure, namely, (1) at
Chedworth,[349] where the Chi-Rho Monogram is carved twice upon a stone
in the foundation of the steps leading into the corridor of a Roman
villa there; and (2) at Frampton,[350] Dorsetshire, where the same
Monogram forms part of the decoration of a mosaic pavement in one of
the rooms of a Roman villa. As Romano-British Christianity produced no
effect on the art of this country, we are not further concerned with it.
[349] _Journ. Brit. Archæol. Assoc._, vol. xxiii., p. 228.
[350] S. Lysons’ _Reliquiæ Brittanico Romanæ_, No. 3, pl. 5.
Whilst England remained under the dominion of Saxon Pagandom for a
century and a half in some parts, and for nearly two centuries in
others, Christianity spread rapidly from Gaul to Cornwall, Wales, and
the south-west of Scotland, and thence to Ireland. After the Saxons
were converted by St. Augustine, in A.D. 597, there was a return
wave of Celtic Christianity from Ireland to Iona, and from Iona to
Lindisfarne, in Northumbria, which was founded A.D. 635. The localities
where Christianity was first planted in Britain are indicated
archæologically by the geographical distribution of monuments bearing
the Chi-Rho Monogram, which is as follows:—
CORNWALL. St. Just.
St. Helen’s Chapel.
Phillack.
Southill.
CARNARVONSHIRE. Penmachno.
WIGTOWNSHIRE. Kirkmadrine.
Whithorn.
As the Chi-Rho Monogram does not occur on the early inscribed stones of
Ireland, but in place of it the cross with equal arms expanded at the
ends, enclosed in a circle, which is derived from the Monogram,[351]
it naturally follows that Irish Christianity is later than that of
Cornwall, Wales, and the south-west of Scotland.
[351] See J. R. Allen’s _Christian Symbolism_, p. 94. The Chi-Rho
Monogram occurs on inscribed monuments in Gaul between A.D. 377 and
493.
Setting aside the vague and unsatisfactory statements of the mythical
period (such as the one about the presence of three British at the
Council of Arles in A.D. 314), we find that the real history of the
Christianising of this country begins with the opening years of the
fifth century, and that it followed directly from the foundation of the
school of learning and centre of missionary enterprise by St. Martin
at Tours, in France. In A.D. 397 St. Martin died, and not long after,
in A.D. 412, his disciple, St. Ninian, built a stone church dedicated
to his master at Whithorn, Wigtownshire. In A.D. 429 Germanus, Bishop
of Auxerre, and Lupus, Bishop of Troyes, visited Britain in order to
suppress the Pelagian heresy. About the same time the conversion of
Ireland is believed to have been commenced by either St. Patrick or
by St. Palladius (_circa_ A.D. 432). The sixth century witnessed the
foundation of the great school of ecclesiastical learning at Llantwit
Major, Glamorganshire, where St. David, St. Samson, and Gildas the
historian were educated; but an event of even greater importance was
the landing of St. Columba at Iona in A.D. 563, and the subsequent
conversion of the northern Picts. The sixth century ends with the
conversion of Kent by St. Augustine in A.D. 597. It was eighty-four
years more before the South Saxons accepted Christianity and the
conversion of England became complete. In the meantime the differences
between the Saxon and Celtic Churches had been settled in favour of the
former at the Synod of Whitby in A.D. 664.
Reviewing the historical facts just mentioned, it appears that
for about 200 years (from A.D. 450 to 650) there was a separate
Celtic Church in Britain, which may appropriately be called the
pre-Augustinian Church. The question now naturally suggests itself, to
what extent did the introduction of Christianity influence the native
art of Britain during the 200 years which followed the departure of
the Romans from its shores? The answer supplied by archæology is that
before about A.D. 650 there was no distinctively Christian art existing
in this country.
The monuments belonging to the pre-Augustinian Church consist of
rude pillar-stones with incised crosses of early form, or with
Latin inscriptions in debased Roman capitals, sometimes with Celtic
inscription in Ogams in addition. The monuments of this class do not,
as a rule, show any trace of ornament or sculpture beyond the crosses
and inscriptions. The only recorded exceptions are—
An Ogam-inscribed stone from Pentre Poeth,[352] Brecknockshire,
now in the British Museum, having on one face a bishop with his
crozier, St. Michael and the Dragon, and very rude zigzag ornament.
An Ogam-inscribed stone from Glenfahan,[353] Co. Kerry, now in the
Dublin Museum, with rude spiral ornament, a figure of a man, a
looped pattern, and several crosses.
An Ogam-inscribed stone at Killeen Cormac,[354] Co. Kildare,
lying prostrate near the entrance gate, with a bust of Christ
carrying the cross over the right shoulder.
St. Gobnet’s Stone at Ballyvourney,[355] Co. Cork, with a cross
enclosed in a circle, surmounted by the figure of a bishop holding
his crozier.
A stone, with a minuscule inscription, at Reask,[356] Co. Kerry,
having on the same face a cross in a circle, with incised spiral
ornament at each side of the shaft.
[352] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 6, vol. i., p. 240.
[353] _Trans. Royal Irish Academy_, vol. xxxi., p. 318.
[354] _Journ. R. Hist. and A. A. of Ireland_, ser. 4, vol. ii., p. 546.
[355] _Archæol. Jour._, vol. xii., p. 86.
[356] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. ix., p. 147.
The stones, with incised symbols of unknown meaning, which are so
common in the north-east of Scotland, possibly belong to the same early
period. The ornament on some of them has a very marked Late-Celtic
character.
[Illustration: Enamelled Handles of Bronze Bowl found at Barlaston,
Staffordshire
Now in the possession of Miss Amy Wedgwood. Scale 1/1 linear]
[Illustration: Enamelled Handle of Bronze Bowl from
Chesterton-on-Fossway, Warwickshire
Now in the Warwick Museum. Scale 1/1 linear]
There are no Celtic MSS. with illuminations or ornament of any kind
to which a date earlier than A.D. 650 can be assigned, but there are
a certain number of metal objects which illustrate the overlap of the
Pagan and Christian styles of Celtic art. Amongst the most important
of these are the bronze bowls with enamelled mountings and zoömorphic
handles which have been described at some length by the author in
the _Archæologia_ (vol. lvi., p. 43). The chief peculiarities of the
bowls is the hollow moulding just below the rim and the three or four
handles with rings for suspension. The upper part of each handle is
like a hook, terminating in a beast’s head, which rests on the rim of
the bowl and projects inwards over it. The lower part of each handle
is circular, or in the shape of the body of a bird, and is fixed to
the convex sides of the bowl. The circular form is most common in
the examples found in England, and the disc is either ornamented
with _champlevé_ enamel[357] or with piercings, giving a cruciform
appearance.[358]
[357] As in the specimens from Barlaston, Staffordshire;
Chesterton-on-the-Fossway, Warwickshire; Barrington, Cambridgeshire;
Crosthwaite, Cumberland; Middleton Moor, Derbyshire; Oxford; and
Greenwich.
[358] As in the specimens from Wilton, Wilts; and Faversham, Kent.
[Illustration: Enamelled Handle of Bronze Bowl from
Chesterton-on-Fossway, Warwickshire
Now in the Warwick Museum. Scale 1/1 linear]
The earliest of the series from Barlaston, Staffordshire, now in the
possession of Miss Wedgwood, has three handles all alike, ornamented
with discs of enamel, the designs on which are distinctly Late-Celtic
in style, and consist of small circles connected by =C=- and =S=-shaped
curves. In the case of the enamelled handles of the other specimens,
closely coiled spirals of the Bronze Age type take the place of the
circles, and by this trifling alteration the character of the design
is so completely changed as to be almost identical with the spiral
decoration of the Book of Durrow and other Irish MSS. of the same
period. We see here exactly when and how the flamboyant ornament
of Pagan Celtic art became transformed into the spiralwork of the
Christian illuminated MSS. which was afterwards applied to the
decoration of the sculptured crosses and ecclesiastical metalwork. The
circumstances under which the bowls have been found show that they
belong to the Pagan Saxon period between A.D. 450 and 600.
[Illustration: Spiral Ornament from the Book of Durrow]
In the museum of the Society of Antiquaries at Burlington House there
is the cast of an object from the collection of Mr. Albert Way, the
well-known antiquary, which exhibits a curious mixture of styles. Where
the original is, or where it came from, is unfortunately not known, but
it has every appearance of having been of metal. In the middle of the
object is a square panel of triangular pierced work, exactly like that
on the cover of the Stowe Missal[359] (made A.D. 1023 to 1052); whilst
at each of the rounded ends are curved designs with trumpet-shaped
expansions of pronounced Late-Celtic type.
Plaitwork, which is, of course, one of the leading motives of Celtic
art of the Christian period, occurs occasionally in association with
Pagan flamboyant ornament, as on a brooch from the Ardakillen[360]
crannog, near Stokestown, Co. Roscommon (now in the Dublin Museum), and
on a gold armlet from Rhayader,[361] Radnorshire (now in the British
Museum).
Amongst objects belonging to the early Christian Celtic period
before A.D. 600, may probably be classed the leaf-shaped silver
plates engraved with symbols from Norrie’s Law,[362] Forfarshire,
and the terminal link of a silver chain, also engraved with symbols,
from Crawfordjohn,[363] Lanarkshire (all in the Edinburgh Museum
of Antiquities). The hammer-headed pins also, a list of which has
already been given (p. 108), seem, from the enamelled designs upon
them, to belong to the transitional period between Celtic Paganism and
Christianity.
[359] Miss M. Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 92. The
Stowe Missal is in the Museum of the R.I.A. at Dublin.
[360] Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 569.
[361] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. xvi., p. 261.
[362] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 2nd ser.,
p. 38.
[363] _Ibid._, p. 44.
[Illustration: CAST OF METAL OBJECT (LOCALITY UNKNOWN) FROM THE ALBERT
WAY COLLECTION; NOW IN THE MUSEUM OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES,
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON]
[Illustration: COVER OF THE STOWE MISSAL IN THE MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL
IRISH ACADEMY, DUBLIN (A.D. 1023 TO 1052)]
Although, as we have just seen, the introduction of Christianity
into Britain did not immediately affect the native Pagan art to any
appreciable extent, yet as soon as the Saxons were converted and
communication with the Continent became easier and therefore more
frequent, an entirely new style of decoration came into existence with
extraordinary rapidity. The flamboyant designs of the Late-Celtic
period were modified by combining them with the closely coiled spiral
of the Bronze Age, and several new motives, such as interlaced-work,
key-patterns, zoömorphs, and foliage, were introduced from foreign
sources. At the same time a complete revolution took place in the class
of objects to the decoration of which the skill of the artificer was
applied. The priest took the place of the warrior as the patron of the
fine arts, and monopolised all the available time of the metalworker
and enameller in making beautiful vessels for the service of the
church. Then, too, with Christianity came the art of writing and
illuminating ecclesiastical MSS., which was unknown to the Pagan Celt.
The influence of the draughtsman upon other arts was now possible for
the first time, and the introduction of MSS. soon worked far-reaching
changes. Fresh motives could be more easily transferred from one
art centre to another, and decorative designs could be combined
and elaborated in a way that was impossible when working in such
intractable materials as metal or stone instead of drawing on parchment
with a facile pen. The new Celtic style of the Christian period soon
took a definite shape, and after the patterns had been fully developed
in the illuminated MSS. they were afterwards applied to decorative work
in stone and metal.
GENERAL NATURE OF THE MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR THE STUDY
OF CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD IN GREAT BRITAIN
The materials available for the study of Celtic Art of the Christian
period may be divided into four classes, namely:—
(1) Illuminated MSS.
(2) Sculptured Stones.
(3) Metalwork.
(4) Leatherwork, Woodwork, and Bonework.
The most important collections of Irish and Hiberno-Saxon MSS. in
this country are in the libraries of Trinity College, Dublin; of the
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin; and the British Museum, London. There
are other smaller collections, or in some cases single volumes only,
in the University and College libraries of Oxford and Cambridge; in
the Cathedral libraries at Durham, Lichfield, and Hereford; and in
the Archiepiscopal library at Lambeth. The chief libraries on the
Continent which are fortunate enough to possess specimens of Irish
calligraphy and illumination (either acquired by purchase or still the
property of monasteries originally founded by Irish missionaries) are
at Stockholm, St. Petersburg, Paris, St. Gall and Basle in Switzerland,
and at Nuremberg, Fulda, and Trèves in Germany. The Irish MSS. from the
monastery founded by St. Columbanus in A.D. 613 at Bobio, in Piedmont,
are distributed over the libraries at Milan, Turin, and Naples.
For descriptions and illustrations of these MSS. the reader may be
referred to Prof. J. O. Westwood’s _Palæographia Pictoria Sacra_ and
_Miniatures of the Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._; C. Purton Cooper’s
_Report on Rymer’s Fœdera, Appendix A_, Sir H. James’ _Facsimiles of
the National MSS. of Ireland_; _Publications of the Palæographical
Society_; Miss Margaret Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in Ireland_; Dr.
J. Stuart’s _Book of Deer_, published by the Spalding Club of Aberdeen;
J. A. Bruun’s _Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages_; and Dr. W.
Reeve’s paper on “Early Irish Calligraphy” in the _Ulster Journal of
Archæology_, vol. viii., p. 210.
The following is a list of Irish MSS. selected on account of the beauty
of their illuminated pages:—
GOSPELS
Book of Lindisfarne British Museum (Nero D. iv.).
Book of Kells Trinity College, Dublin.
Book of Durrow _Ibid._
Book of Armagh Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Book of St. Chad Lichfield.
Book of MacRegol Bodleian, Oxford.
Book of MacDurnan Lambeth.
Book of Deer Public Library, Cambridge.
Codex No. 51 St. Gall, Switzerland.
Golden Gospels Royal Library, Stockholm.
Gospels Imperial Library, St. Petersburg.
Gospels of St. Arnoul, Metz Nuremberg.
PSALTERS
Vespasian A. i. British Museum.
Vitellius F. xi. _Ibid._
Psalter of St. John’s College Cambridge.
Psalter of Ricemarchus Trinity College, Dublin.
Some of the above MSS. can be dated by means of entries giving the name
of the scribe or other person, who can be identified by contemporary
or nearly contemporary historical record. The oldest MS. with
illuminations in the Hiberno-Saxon style which can be thus dated is the
Lindisfarne Book. It contains two entries written in an English hand of
the tenth century, which show that the volume was written by Eadfrith,
Bishop of Lindisfarne; that Æthilwold, Bishop of Lindisfarne, made the
cover for it; that Billfrith, the anchorite, wrought the metalwork for
it; and that Aldred, the priest, over-glossed it in English for the
love of God and St. Cuthbert. Eadfrith held the see of Lindisfarne
from A.D. 698 to 721, and was then succeeded by Æthilwold, who held
the bishopric of the island until his death in A.D. 740. The Book of
Lindisfarne, therefore, must have been written either during the last
two years of the seventh century or the first twenty-one years of the
eighth century. This may be looked upon as the starting-point of all
Hiberno-Saxon art, and its origin may be fairly traced to Lindisfarne,
where the Scotic and Anglo-Saxon schools were able to mingle, each
reinvigorating the other to their mutual advantage.
The Book of Kells makes its first appearance in history in A.D. 1006,
during which year it is recorded in the _Annals of the Four Masters_
that the Great Gospels of Columkille was stolen. Although the name
of the scribe who wrote and illuminated this book is unknown, it is
probable, from the style of the decoration and lettering, that it
belongs to about the same period as the Lindisfarne Book, but somewhat
later, as the Book of Kells contains foliage amongst the ornament, and
is altogether more elaborate.
The Book of Durrow was written by a scribe named Columba, who can
hardly have been the celebrated Saint of that name, as his time is far
too early for it. Since the spiral patterns in the Book of Durrow
approximate more nearly to the flamboyant designs of the Pagan Celtic
metalwork than those in any other MS., it cannot be dated later than
the eighth century.
The Book of St. Chad should more properly be called the Book of St.
Teilo, as it contains an entry stating that the volume was purchased by
Gelhi, son of Arihtuid, from Cingal for his best horse, and dedicated
to God and St. Teilo. Before it was at Lichfield it lay on the altar of
Teilo, at Llandaff. This MS. has also a good claim to be of the eighth
century.
The Book of Armagh and the Golden Gospels of Stockholm are of the ninth
century. The former was written by Ferdomnach, “a sage and choice
scribe of Armagh,” who died in A.D. 844. The Stockholm Gospels contains
a deed of gift, which shows that the volume was bought by the Earl
Ælfred and Wetburg his wife from a Viking, and presented by them to the
Cathedral of Canterbury. The deed is signed by Ælfred, Wetburg, and
their daughter Alhtryth, who have all been identified by the will of
Ælfred, which is attested by Ældered, Archbishop of Canterbury, from
A.D. 871-9. The Gospels of MacRegol also belongs to the ninth century,
if the identification of the scribe who wrote it with “MacRiagoil nepos
Magleni, Scriba et Episcopus Abbas Biror” can be relied upon. His death
is recorded in the Irish Annals under the year A.D. 820.
The Gospels of MacDurnan is of the tenth century. It has an inscription
on one of the blank pages of the MS. showing that the book was either
written for, or was in the possession of, Maelbrigid MacDurnan,
and that it was given by King Athelstan to the city of Canterbury.
Maelbrigid MacDurnan was Abbot of Derry in the ninth century, and was
afterwards promoted to the see of Armagh in A.D. 927. He died in A.D.
927. Athelstan reigned from A.D. 925 to 941.
The Psalter of Ricemarchus is of the eleventh century. It contains a
Latin poem, from which we gather that the book was written by Ricemarch
Sulgenson, with the assistance of Ithael, “whose name makes learning
golden,” and that the initial letters were illuminated by John.
Ricemarch, or Rhyddmarch, succeeded his father Sulgen in the see of St.
Davids in A.D. 1089, and died in A.D. 1096.
The examples given afford a very good series arranged in chronological
order, showing the modifications which the style underwent in the
course of the four centuries between A.D. 650 and 1050. We are somewhat
sceptical as to there having been any fine illuminated Hiberno-Saxon
MSS. before A.D. 700; but assuming that there may have been some which
are no longer in existence, the best period is from A.D. 650 to 850;
then from A.D. 850 to 950 there is a middle period of rather inferior
excellence; and, lastly, from A.D. 950 to 1050 a distinct period of
decline which went on with increasing decadence for a century or two
after the Norman Conquest.
The number of illuminated pages in the different MSS. varies
considerably, sometimes because the volumes are imperfect, but also
because they were less lavishly illustrated in the first instance. The
illuminated pages in the copies of the Gospels are of the following
kinds:—
(1) Initial pages.
(2) Ornamental or Cross-pages.
(3) Symbols of the Evangelists.
(4) Portraits of the Evangelists.
(5) Scenes from the Life of Christ.
(6) Tables of Eusebian Canons.
As an instance of a very completely illustrated MS. of the Gospels we
may take the Lindisfarne Book, which contains twenty-three full pages
of illumination as specified below:—
Four portraits of the Evangelists with their Symbols, one
for each Gospel.
Five ornamental pages, one before St. Jerome’s Epistle
and one before each Gospel.
Six _Initial pages_, namely—
“Novum opus,” commencing St. Jerome’s Epistle.
“Liber generationis,” commencing St. Matthew’s Gospel.
___
“XPI autem generatio,” commencing the Genealogy
of Christ in St. Matthew’s Gospel.
“Initium Evangelii,” commencing St. Mark’s Gospel.
“Quoniam quidem,” commencing St. Luke’s Gospel.
“In principio erat,” commencing St. John’s Gospel.
Eight pages of tables of Eusebian Canons.
The Book of Durrow has sixteen illuminated pages, namely, four of
the Symbols of the Evangelists; six ornamental pages, one at the
frontispiece, one before the Preface of St. Jerome, and one before each
Gospel; and the usual six initial pages.
The Book of Kells is more profusely illustrated than any other Irish
MS. in existence. Besides innumerable large and small initials, it
contains three portraits of the Evangelists, three combined symbols
of the Four Evangelists, three scenes from the Life of Christ—namely,
the Virgin and Child, Christ seized by the Jews, and the Temptation of
Christ, and eight pages of Eusebian Canons.
The St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51) has twelve full pages of
illumination, namely, four portraits of the Evangelists, five initial
pages, one ornamental cross-page, and two scenes from the Life of
Christ—the Crucifixion and Christ in Glory.
As an instance of the method of illustrating the Irish MSS. of the
Psalter we may take the one in the library of St. John’s College,
Cambridge. This has six illuminated pages, namely—
(1) “Beatus vir,” commencing the 1st Psalm.
(2) “Quid gloriaris” ” ” 51st ”
(3) “Dne exaudi” ” ” 101st ”
(4) Miniature of the Crucifixion.
(5) ” David and Goliath.
(6) ” David and the Lion.
The Vit. F. xi. Psalter in the British Museum has two initial pages and
two miniatures, namely, David and Goliath, and David playing the harp.
The Vesp. A. i. Psalter in the British Museum has only one miniature,
namely, David playing the harp; but it has a great number of extremely
beautiful initial letters ornamented with spiralwork of the best
quality. Figure subjects (one of David and the Lion) are introduced in
the initials of the 26th, 52nd, 68th, 97th, and 109th Psalms.
The details of the ornamental patterns in the MSS. will be dealt
with when we come to consider the leading characteristics of the
style; all that we need do now, therefore, is to point out the
manner in which the patterns are distributed. The treatment of the
miniatures of the Evangelists and of the scenes from the Life of
Christ and the Life of David is very simple; the picture is enclosed
within a rectangular frame divided into panels, each filled in with
a separate piece of ornament complete in itself. Sometimes, as in
the case of the miniatures of Christ seized by the Jews in the Book
of Kells, and David playing the harp in the Vesp. A. i. Psalter,
the figures are placed beneath an arch supported by columns at each
side. The architectural origin of the design is entirely concealed
by converting the columns and the arch into pieces of flat ornament
arranged in panels. The pages of Eusebian Canons are also treated
architecturally, the tables being placed under arcading so disguised
by the incrustations of ornament as to be almost unrecognisable.
The initial pages of the Gospels are only partially surrounded by a
rectangular frame, so as to allow the tops of the large capital letters
to project beyond the frame into the margin. The incomplete portion of
the frame on the right side of the page is converted into a zoömorph in
a characteristically Celtic manner by adding the head of a monster at
the top and a fish-like tail at the bottom. The frame and the larger
initials within it are covered with panels of ornament. The pages of
ornament are generally arranged in rectangular panels, so as to give
the appearance of a cross; or sometimes, as in the Book of Durrow,
there is a small equal-armed cross within a circle in the middle of the
page, the remainder of which is entirely filled up with ornament. In
many cases where the miniatures, etc., are surrounded by a rectangular
frame the outer margins are extended and formed into ornamental knots
at each of the four corners.
After the Celtic style of decorative art of the Christian period had
been fully developed in the Irish and Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. of
the eighth century, it was afterwards applied to sculptured stonework
in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. There are so few details
of pre-Norman Celtic buildings[364] which afford examples of ornamental
sculpture that they are hardly worth considering, so that we need only
take cognisance of the sepulchral and other monuments. These are of the
following different kinds:—
(1) Recumbent cross-slabs.
(2) Recumbent hog-backed and coped stones.
(3) Erect cross-slabs.
(4) Erect wheel-crosses.
(5) Erect free-standing crosses.
(6) Erect pillar crosses, with shafts of round or square
cross-section.
[364] The sculptured architectural details of the Round Towers and
early churches in Ireland and Scotland consist chiefly of crosses or
crucifixes over the doorways and terminal heads.
The recumbent cross-slabs are confined almost exclusively to Ireland,
although there are one or two in Cornwall, Wales, and Scotland. Much
the largest collection is at Clonmacnois, King’s Co., where there are
not far short of 200 sepulchral cross-slabs with inscriptions in Irish
minuscule letters, giving the name of the deceased and requesting a
prayer for his or her soul. A considerable number of the names on the
slabs have been identified on sufficiently satisfactory evidence,
thus giving reliable dates for a series arranged in chronological
order. Clonmacnois was founded by St. Ciaran in A.D. 554, but the
greater part of the dated cross-slabs belong to the ninth, tenth,
and eleventh centuries. The earliest of these inscribed cross-slabs
which exhibits any decorative features is that of Tuathgal,[365] who
has been identified with the seventh abbot of Clonmacnois. The death
of abbot Tuathgal took place in A.D. 806. There are, therefore, no
ornamental cross-slabs at Clonmacnois older than the beginning of
the ninth century. The best examples of recumbent cross-slabs with
Celtic ornament in Ireland to which reliable dates can be assigned
are those of Suibine McMailæhumai[366] at Clonmacnois (A.D. 887), and
St. Berechtir[367] at Tullylease, Co. Cork. The latter is specially
interesting as having upon it a combination of interlaced-work,
key-patterns, and spiral ornament.
[365] Petrie’s _Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_, vol. i.,
pl. 12, No. 29.
[366] _Ibid._, vol. i., pl. 31, No. 82.
[367] _Ibid._, vol. ii., pl. 30.
[Illustration: Cross-slab from Pen-Arthur, Pembrokeshire
Now in St. David’s Cathedral. Scale ⅛linear]
Outside the limits of Ireland there are slabs of the same type, but of
unknown date, at Camborne,[368] Cornwall; Pen-Arthur[369] (now in St.
David’s Cathedral), Pembrokeshire; and Baglan,[370] Glamorganshire.
The recumbent hog-backed or coped stones are more likely to be of
Anglian or Scandinavian origin than Celtic. They are most common in the
north of England; there are one or two in Wales, and none in Ireland.
As instances of coped stones with Celtic ornament we have those at
Meigle,[371] Perthshire; and Lanivet,[372] Cornwall.
The erect cross-slabs are, with a few unimportant exceptions, peculiar
to Scotland and the Isle of Man. They are probably older than the
free-standing crosses, because the erect cross-slabs are not treated
architecturally (as the high crosses of Ireland are), but resemble more
nearly than anything else ornamental pages from the Celtic illuminated
MSS. directly transferred to stone with hardly any modification
whatever to suit the requirements of the new material to which the
decoration was applied. A particularly good instance of this is
afforded by the erect cross-slab at Nigg,[373] Ross-shire. On one side
of the monument is a cross with the ornament arranged in rectangular
panels exactly as it is in the cross-pages of the Irish Gospels; and on
the other a figure subject (David and the Lion) surrounded by a frame,
also divided into panels, as in those of the miniatures in the Book of
Kells.
[368] _Archæologia Cambrensis_, ser. 5, vol. vi., p. 357.
[369] Prof. J. O. Westwood’s _Lapidarium Walliæ_, pl. 60.
[370] _Ibid._, pl. 14.
[371] Dr. J. Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones of Scotland_, vol. ii., pl.
131.
[372] A. G. Langdon’s _Old Cornish Crosses_, p. 412.
[373] Dr. J. Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones of Scotland_, vol. i., p. 28.
See also casts in the South Kensington and Edinburgh Museums.
[Illustration: Erect Cross-Slab at St. Madoes, Perthshire
Scale ¹/₁₂ linear]
The following is a list of some of the best specimens of erect
cross-slabs in Scotland:—
NORTHERN PICT-LAND
Papil (now at Edinburgh) Shetland.
Ulbster (now at Thurso) Caithness.
Farr Sutherland.
Golspie ”
Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon) Ross-shire.
Nigg ”
Rosemarkie ”
Shandwick ”
Brodie Elginshire.
Forres ”
Aboyne Aberdeenshire.
Dyce ”
The Maiden Stone ”
Migvie ”
SOUTHERN PICT-LAND
Aberlemno Forfarshire.
Cossins ”
Farnell ”
Glamis ”
Inchbrayock (now at Montrose) ”
Invergowrie ”
Monifieth (now at Edinburgh) ”
St. Vigeans ”
Woodwray (now at Abbotsford) ”
St. Madoes Perthshire.
Meigle ”
Rossie Priory ”
Dunfallandy ”
DALRIADIC SCOTLAND
Ardchattan Argyllshire.
[Illustration: ERECT CROSS-SLAB IN ABERLEMNO CHURCHYARD, FORFARSHIRE
_John Patrick of Edinburgh, photo._]
[Illustration: Front]
[Illustration: Back
Cross at Penmon, Anglesey
Drawn by Harold Hughes
Scale ¹/₁₆ linear]
The erect cross-slabs of the Isle of Man show a mixture of Celtic and
Scandinavian art, but there are a few which appear to be purely Celtic,
as, for instance, those at Kirk Maughold[374] (on the village green)
and at Kirk Bride.[375]
The erect free-standing cross seems to have been evolved from the
erect cross-slab by removing one part of the background of the cross
after another, until at last nothing but the cross itself was left.
We see the first stage in the Papil stone from Shetland, now in the
Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities. Here the top of the slab is rounded
to suit the curve of the circle, within which the head of the cross
is enclosed. The wheel-cross comes next, in which the portion of the
background of the cross on each side of the shaft is dispensed with,
as in the specimens at Margam[376] and Llantwit Major,[377] both in
Glamorganshire. Then the ends of the arms of the cross are allowed to
project beyond the circular ring, as at Penmon,[378] Anglesey. Lastly,
the portions of the background of the cross between the quadrants of
the ring and the arms are pierced right through the slab, thus giving
us the “four-hole” cross of Cornwall[379] and the typical High Cross of
Ireland.[380]
[374] J. G. Cumming’s _Runic Remains of the Isle of Man_.
[375] _Ibid._
[376] Prof. J. O. Westwood’s _Lapidarium Walliæ_, pl. 15.
[377] _Ibid._, pl. 5.
[378] _Ibid._, pl. 84.
[379] A. G. Langdon’s _Old Cornish Crosses_.
[380] H. O’Neill’s _Ancient Crosses of Ireland_.
We have used the term “wheel-cross” to describe the class of monuments
with a round head and a shaft of less width than the diameter of
the head rather because it is convenient than on account of its
appropriateness. Perhaps “disc-cross” would be more accurate, but
in order to avoid confusion it may be as well to adhere to the term
“wheel-cross,” which has been adopted by previous writers on the
subject.
[Illustration: Great Wheel-Cross of Conbelin at Margam Abbey,
Glamorganshire
Drawn by Worthington G. Smith
Scale ¹/₁₆ linear]
The wheel-crosses are peculiar to Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man,
there being none either in Ireland or Scotland. The wheel-crosses of
Wales and the Isle of Man have round heads of large diameter and very
short shafts; those of Cornwall have heads of much smaller diameter
with a taller shaft. The best examples of wheel-crosses are at Margam
and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire; and at Kirk Braddan and Lonan, Isle
of Man.
The free-standing crosses, in which the outline of the stone
corresponds with the outline of the cross, are the most highly
developed type of Celtic sculptured monument of the Christian period,
and are therefore presumably the latest, with the exception of those
of the decadent period just before and after the Norman Conquest.
The free-standing crosses show the influence of the architect rather
than that of the monkish scribe who embellished the early Irish and
Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. The sculpture is less flat, and the
mouldings round the panels of ornament are more elaborate than on the
earlier erect cross-slabs.
The free-standing crosses also, instead of being monolithic, are
constructed of two or more separate pieces of stone fixed together by
means of mortice and tenon joints. In the larger of the High Crosses of
Ireland the base forms one block, the shaft another, the head a third,
and sometimes the top arm a fourth.
[Illustration: Front]
[Illustration: Back
Cross at Neuadd Siarman, near Builth, Brecknockshire
Scale ¹/₁₂ linear]
The High Crosses of Ireland are in most cases associated with a
characteristic set of ecclesiastical structures consisting of a Round
Tower and several small churches. This class of monument consequently
belongs to the time when the artistic talents of the Celtic monks,
which had been previously entirely absorbed in illuminating MSS.,
was directed into the new channel of architecture. The High Cross of
Muiredach[381] at Monasterboice, Co. Louth, and that of King Fland[382]
at Clonmacnois, King’s Co., are proved by the inscriptions upon them to
have been erected during the first quarter of the tenth century. There
is such a general family likeness between most of the High Crosses of
Ireland that they are probably all of about the same date.
There is a peculiarity in the design of some of the High Crosses of
Ireland which should not pass unnoticed, namely, the semicircular
projection in each of the four hollows between the arms.[383] In a
stone cross these projections have no use or meaning, but in the metal
crosses of the same period projections of this kind serve to disguise
the rivets by means of which the metal plates on each side of the cross
are held together.[384] From this it would appear that the art of the
worker in metal to some extent influenced the sculptors by whom the
stone crosses were made.
Some of the Cornish crosses have triangular projections in a similar
position, giving an appearance not unlike the cusping in Gothic window
tracery.
[381] Petrie’s _Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_, vol.
ii., p. 66.
[382] _Ibid._, vol. i., p. 43.
[383] As on the crosses at Monasterboice, Co. Louth, and Durrow, King’s
Co.
[384] As on the Cross of Cong in the Dublin Museum, and on the pectoral
cross of St. Cuthbert in the Library of Durham Cathedral.
[Illustration: Cross at Nevern, Pembrokeshire
Scale ¹/₂₄ linear]
The free-standing crosses of Wales and Cornwall differ from those
of Ireland in having heads of much smaller diameter in proportion
to the height of the shaft, and bases are the exception rather than
the rule. In the Welsh and Cornish crosses figure-sculpture is made
altogether subordinate to ornament, whilst in the Irish crosses exactly
the reverse is the case. The fronts and backs of the Irish crosses,
and sometimes the sides also, are entirely covered with panels of
symbolical figure subjects forming a cycle, which does not occur in
the illuminated MSS., although evidently borrowed from a Byzantine
source. The subordination of ornament to figure subjects on the Irish
crosses shows that they are further removed from the MSS. than the
Welsh, Cornish, and Scottish crosses, and therefore of later date. The
free-standing crosses of Scotland seem to belong to the Irish group.
The following list gives the best examples of free-standing crosses:—
IRELAND
Kells Co. Meath.
Monasterboice Co. Louth.
Termonfechin Co. Louth.
Clonmacnois King’s Co.
Durrow King’s Co.
Castle Dermot Co. Kildare.
Moone Abbey Co. Kildare.
Kilklispeen Co. Kilkenny.
Kilfenora Co. Clare.
Drumcliff Co. Sligo.
SCOTLAND
Iona Argyllshire.
Kildalton Islay.
Barrochan Renfrewshire.
Dupplin Perthshire.
WALES
Penmon Anglesey.
Maen Achyfan Flintshire.
Neuadd Siarman Brecknockshire.
Llanbadarn Fawr Cardiganshire.
Llantwit Major Glamorganshire.
Margam ”
Carew Pembrokeshire.
Nevern ”
Penally ”
The shafts of the erect free-standing crosses which have just been
described are rectangular in section, but there are a few exceptional
monuments with shafts of square section or of round section, or partly
of square and partly of round section. As an instance of a cross
of square section we have the one at Llandough, Glamorganshire. At
Llantwit Major, in the same county, is a cylindrical pillar with a
vertical groove down one side of it, the use of which has caused much
futile speculation amongst antiquaries. The pillar of Eliseg at Valle
Crucis, Denbighshire, is round at the bottom and square at the top,
thus corresponding in shape to a well-known type of monument which is
common in Mercia. These round pillar crosses usually occur in pairs.
There are a few unique monuments that cannot be classed with any of
those already described, such as the ornamented stone coffin at Govan,
Renfrewshire, and the altar tomb at St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
Descriptions and illustrations of nearly all the monuments mentioned
will be found in Dr. J. Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones of Scotland_
(published by the Spalding Club of Aberdeen); Dr. J. Anderson and J.
R. Allen’s _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_ (published by the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland); R. C. Graham’s _Carved Stones
of Islay_; H. O’Neill’s _Sculptured Crosses of Ancient Ireland_; Dr.
Petrie’s _Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_ (published by
the R. Soc. Ant. of Ireland); Miss M. Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in
Ireland_; Prof. J. O. Westwood’s _Lapidarium Walliæ_; A. G. Langdon’s
_Old Cornish Crosses_; J. G. Cumming’s _Runic Remains of the Isle of
Man_.
The Celtic metalwork of the Christian period may be arranged under the
following heads:—
Bells. Book-shrines.
Croziers. Relic shrines.
Chalices. Plaques for book-covers.
Processional crosses. Penannular brooches.
Bell-shrines. Hammer-headed pins.
With a few exceptions all the existing specimens are now preserved in
the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin, the National Museum of
Antiquities of Scotland in Edinburgh, and the British Museum in London.
Ecclesiastical bells are of two different kinds, namely, (1) _portable_
bells, sufficiently light to be carried in the hand; and (2) _fixed_
bells, whose weight renders a trussed framework of wood necessary for
their support. Each kind of bell can be rung in two separate ways,
namely, (1) by holding the bell stationary and striking it on the
outside with a hammer; or (2) by providing the bell with a tongue, or
clapper, suspended from the inside and swinging the bell backwards and
forwards, so as to cause the clapper to strike against the interior
and thus produce sound. The method of bell-ringing by means of a
hammer is frequently illustrated in the illuminated psalters of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and is also to be seen on the
sculptured capitals in the Abbey of St. George’s de Boscherville,[385]
in Normandy. The great bells of the Kremlin at Moscow, and in other
Greek churches throughout Russia, are rung in this fashion. Portable
bells with clappers have a handle at the top, by which they can be
swung backwards and forwards in the hand, in the manner depicted upon
the Bayeux Tapestry.[386] Fixed bells with clappers have loops at the
top for suspension by iron bands to a horizontal wooden axle or rocking
bar working in bearings supported on a trussed framework of timber,
usually within a masonry tower. The required rocking motion is given by
a lever and rope or a grooved wheel and rope.
The bells used in the Celtic Church seem to have belonged exclusively
to the class of portable bells rung by hand. During the earlier period
of Christianity in Ireland, when the monks lived together in small
isolated communities, bells which were intended to carry sound to a
great distance would be unnecessary, so that the absence of belfries in
connection with the primitive dry-built stone oratories of the sixth
and seventh centuries is easily explained. When, however, at a later
period, the congregations became larger and more widely scattered, the
lofty tower served a useful purpose in greatly increasing the area over
which the sound of the bell could be heard.
[385] Didron’s _Annales Archéologiques_, vol. vi., p. 315.
[386] F. R. Fowke’s _Bayeux Tapestry_, pl. 31.
The commencement of the building of belfries in Ireland coincides
with the introduction of Lombardo-Byzantine architecture into that
country, and the Irish round tower is obviously nothing more than a
local variety of the Italian campanile. The Viking invasions at the
same time gave an additional impetus to the erection of structures
which could be used not only for ecclesiastical purposes, but also
as watch-towers to detect the approach of the enemy, as bell-towers
to alarm the neighbourhood, and as towers of defence to secure the
lives and property of the congregation. The fact that the Irish round
towers are called by the name of _cloiccthec_, or bell-house, in the
ancient annals is sufficient proof they were used as belfries, but it
does not appear to be known whether the bells were rung by swinging
in the hand or fixed to a framework and swung on pivots. At any rate,
no Irish bells of this period (A.D. 800 to 1000) have survived except
the portable hand-bells. If any mechanical appliance was employed for
bell-ringing in the Irish round towers it was probably constructed
by fixing an ordinary hand-bell to a horizontal axle-bar of wood or
iron, working in two bearings, and swung backwards and forwards by
means of a rocking lever with a rope attached to it, as is done in
many village churches at the present day. The large, heavy metal bells
made specially with a view to being fixed in a tower and rung by a
grooved wheel and cord belong to a much later period, after the Norman
Conquest, when the art of making castings in bronze of great size had
been learnt.
The portable bell of the early Celtic Church is merely an ordinary
cattle bell,[387] such as would, no doubt, be common in Pagan times,
adapted to ecclesiastical purposes and slightly modified to suit the
requirements of the monks. It differs hardly at all, except as regards
size, from the common sheep-bell still to be found in many parts of
England. Dr. Joseph Anderson tersely sums up the peculiarities of the
Celtic ecclesiastical bell, as regards its material, manufacture, form,
and size, in his _Scotland in Early Christian Times_ (first series), p.
183, somewhat as follows:—
[387] Probably the earliest representation of a cow-bell in Great
Britain is on the pre-Norman cross at Fowlis Wester, near Crieff,
Perthshire.
(1) _Material_—iron coated with bronze.
(2) _Manufacture_—hammered and riveted; coating of
bronze put on by means of a process analogous to tinning.
(3) _Form_—tall, narrow, tapering, four-sided; ends flattened;
sides bulged.
(4) _Size_—portable; provided with handle so as to be easily
swung by hand.
The original home of ecclesiastical bells of this type was in Ireland,
where there are still the greatest number in existence, and thence they
spread to Scotland, Wales, England, Brittany, France, and Switzerland.
The largest iron bell of this kind is preserved in the Church of
Birnie, near Elgin, N.B. It is 1 foot 2 inches high, and 7 inches by
5 inches at the bottom, tapering to 4½ inches by 3 inches at the top.
It is riveted down each of the narrow sides with four rivets, and the
handle is fixed to the top by four much smaller rivets. As a rule,
however, the height of such bells rarely exceeds 1 foot or is less than
8 inches.
The Celtic ecclesiastical bell of wrought-iron was afterwards copied
in cast bronze. It is reasonable to suppose that the bronze bells are
of later date than those of iron (1) because the rectangular shape is
useless and meaningless in the case of a bronze bell, and results from
copying an iron bell, in which the rectangular shape is necessitated
by its method of construction; (2) because the bronze bells are of
more refined shape and better manufacture than those of iron; and (3)
because the bronze bells are in many cases ornamented.
Celtic ecclesiastical bells of cast bronze may be divided into the
following classes:—
(1) Bronze bells without ornament.
(2) Bronze bells without ornament, but inscribed.
(3) Bronze bells with ornamented handles.
(4) Bronze bells with ornamented bodies.
Examples of Celtic quadrangular bells of cast bronze without ornament
have been recorded at the following places:—
WALES—
Llanrhyddlad, Anglesey
(_Archæologia Cambrensis_, 4th ser., vol. ii., p. 275).
Llangystenyn, Carnarvonshire;
now in the Powysland Museum at Welshpool
(_Montgomeryshire Collections_, vol. xxv., p. 327).
SCOTLAND—
Eilean Finan, Loch Shiel, Argyllshire
(Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_,
1st ser., p. 198).
Insh, near Kingussie, Inverness-shire (_Ibid._, p. 195).
Little Dunkeld, Perthshire (_Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._,
vol. xxiii., p. 119).
Forteviot, Perthshire (_Ibid._, vol. xxvi., p. 434).
IRELAND—
Garton, Co. Donegal
(Rev. H. T. Ellacombe’s _Church Bells of Devon—Supplement_,
p. 342).
Lower Badony, Co. Tyrone (_Ibid._, p. 344).
Scattery Island, Co. Clare; now in the British Museum
(_Ibid._, p. 344).
Kilbroney, Rostrevor, Co. Down
(R. Welch, photo. No. 1,932; _Jour. R. Soc. Ant. of Ireland_,
vol. xxxiii., P. 55).
Kilmainham (_Jour. R. Soc. Ant. of Ireland_, 5th ser.,
vol. x., p. 41).
Cappagh, Co. Tyrone (_Jour. R. Soc. Ant. of Ireland_,
vol. xxxiii., p. 52).
Drumragh, Co. Tyrone (_Ibid._, vol. xxxiii., p. 54).
FRANCE—
Goulien, Finistère (_Ibid._, 5th ser., vol. viii., p. 167).
As has already been pointed out, the bells of cast bronze are copies
in another material of the wrought-iron bells, the quadrangular form
of which had its origin in the method of construction out of a thin
sheet of metal with riveted joints being still adhered to in the bronze
bell, where joints were not required. The only difference in the shape
of the iron and the bronze bells is that the latter have in most cases
a flange, or an expansion and thickening of the metal round the mouth.
The handles vary from those which are almost rectangular to those which
are quite round. The bell still preserved in the church at Insh, near
Kingussie, Inverness-shire, may be taken as a fair sample of the Celtic
quadrangular bell of cast bronze without ornament. It is 10 inches
high, and measures 9 inches by 7¾ inches at the mouth. The handle is
oval and the mouth expanded. The remaining bells of the same class vary
from 4 inches to 11 inches in height, with their other dimensions in
proportion.
There are three Celtic quadrangular bells of cast bronze without
ornament, but inscribed, at the following places:—
IRELAND—
Clogher, Co. Tyrone
(H. T. Ellacombe’s _Church Bells of Devon—Supplement_, p. 369).
Armagh; now in the Museum of the R.I.A. at Dublin
(M. Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 65).
BRITTANY—
Stival
(_Mémoires de l’Institut Impériale de France; Académie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, vol. xxiv., pt. ii., p. 387).
The bell of Clogher is inscribed, in one horizontal line, with Roman
capital letters—
PATRICI
The bell of Armagh is inscribed, in three horizontal lines, with
Hiberno-Saxon minuscules—
✠ oroit ar chu
mascach ṁ
ailello
“✠ A prayer for Cumascach, son of Ailell.”
The bell of Stival is inscribed, in one vertical line, with
Carlovingian minuscules—
pirtur ficifti
“Pirtur made this” (?).
Or, according to the Vicomte Hersart de la Villemarqué:
pir turfic is ti
“Sweet-sounding art thou.”
The Cumascach mentioned on the bell of Armagh was probably the steward
of Armagh, who, according to the _Annals of the Four Masters_, died in
A.D. 904, thus fixing the date of at least one of the bells of this
class.
Celtic quadrangular bells of cast bronze with ornamented handles exist
at the following places:—
WALES—
Llangwynodl, Carnarvonshire; now in the possession
of W. C. Yale-Jones-Parry, Esq., of Madryn Castle,
Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire (_Archæologia Cambrensis_,
1st ser., vol. iv., p. 167; and 4th ser., vol. ii., p. 274).
SCOTLAND—
Strathfillan (Bell of St. Fillan), Perthshire; now in the
National Museum at Edinburgh (Dr. J. Anderson’s
_Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 1st ser., p. 186).
IRELAND—
Lorrha (Bell of St. Ruadhan), Co. Tipperary; now in
the British Museum (H. T. Ellacombe’s _Church Bells
of Devon—Supplement_, p. 344).
FRANCE—
St. Pol de Léon (Bell of St. Meriadec) (Rohault de Fleury’s
_La Messe_, vol. vi., pl. CDXVIII.; Ellacombe, p. 383).
The ornament on the handles is of two kinds—zoömorphic and
phyllomorphic. The former consists of the head of a beast at each end
of the loop handle where it joins the body of the bell, and the latter
of a leaf in the same position. The bell of Llangwynodl[388] has a good
typical example of a zoömorphic handle, and the bell of St. Pol de Léon
is the only one with leaf terminations to the handle. The Llangwynodl
bell is 5 inches high, and measures 6½ inches by 4 inches across the
mouth; and the St. Pol de Léon bell is 9½ inches high, and measures
6½ inches across the mouth. St. Fillan’s bell is 1 foot high, and St.
Ruadhan’s bell only 2 inches or 3 inches high.
[388] We are indebted to Mr. W. Corbet Yale-Jones-Parry, of Madryn
Castle, Pwllheli, the present owner of the Bell, for permission to
reproduce the photograph.
Celtic quadrangular bells of cast bronze with ornamented bodies exist
at the following places:—
IRELAND—
Lough Lene Castle, Co. Westmeath; now in the Museum
of the R.I.A. at Dublin; Bangor, Co. Down (_Ulster
Journal of Archæology_, vol. i., p. 179; Ellacombe, p. 340).
Cashel; now at Adare Manor (Lady Dunraven’s _Memorials
of Adare Manor_, p. 152; Ellacombe, p. 340).
By the courtesy of Mr. George Coffey, M.R.I.A., of the Museum of the
Royal Irish Academy, we are able to illustrate the bell from Lough Lene
Castle.
It is 1 foot 1¼ inches high, including the handle, and measures 8⅛
inches by 7¾ inches across the mouth. The shape of the body of the
bell resembles that of the iron quadrangular bells, but exhibits
much greater refinement in the delicate and almost imperceptible
curves of the sides. The handle is semicircular. The cross of the
well-known Irish type, with a border of key-pattern below, round the
mouth of the bell, on one of the border faces; and a border of angular
interlaced-work in a similar position on each of the narrower faces.
The bell of Bangor was found at the place of that name, in Co. Louth,
and was subsequently in the possession of Dr. Stephenson, of Belfast.
It now belongs to Colonel MacCance, of Knocknagoney House, Holywood,
Co. Down.[389] It is 1 foot 2½ inches high, and measures 9 inches by 8
inches across the mouth.
[389] Mr. R. Welch, of Belfast, tells me that it is kept in a
fire-proof safe, and that over £300 was refused for it.
This bell is also ornamented with a cross and key-patterns, like the
one just described, the only difference being that the cross is not
combined with a circular ring, and the design of the key-pattern is not
quite the same.
[Illustration: BRONZE BELL WITH ENGRAVED ORNAMENT FROM LOUGH LENE
CASTLE, CO. WESTMEATH, IN THE MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY]
The bell of Cashel was found at the place of that name, in Co.
Tipperary, in 1849, and is now preserved at Lord Dunraven’s house at
Adare Manor, Co. Limerick. It resembles the bell of Bangor almost
exactly, except that there are four round dots in the hollows between
the arms of the cross. The handle is broken off, and without this the
bell is 1 foot high. Its dimensions across the mouth are 9½ inches by
6¼ inches.
These three bells are so nearly alike as regards their size, shape, and
ornamentation that they are probably all the same date, and may even
have been the work of one artificer in metal. A peculiarity occurs in
the key-patterns on the bells from Lough Lene Castle and from Bangor
which may perhaps help to fix the date. It will be noticed that the
square spaces in the middle of the key-patterns are filled in with an
almond-shaped figure. This is also a feature of the key-patterns in the
Irish Gospels (Codex No. 51) at St. Gall, in Switzerland.[390]
[390] R. Purton Cooper’s Appendix A to Rymer’s _Fœdera_, p. 90 and pl.
7 (St. Mark miniature), and pl. 10 (initial page of St. John’s Gospel).
There is in the British Museum a Celtic quadrangular bell of iron
with an ornamental bronze cap fixed to the top of it, but it is not
clear whether the cap forms part of the original design or was added
subsequently. This bell is called the Bell of Conall Gael, and came
from Inishkeel, in the Barony of Boylagh, Co. Donegal. It was enclosed
within a metal shrine in the fifteenth century.
All the other Celtic ecclesiastical bells which have been enshrined
are entirely of iron, a fact tending to show that the bronze bells are
of later date than the iron ones, because the enshrined bells were
those belonging as a general rule to the saint who founded the church.
The bronze bells probably came into use long after most of the older
churches had been founded.
It may be interesting to give a list of the bell-shrines still in
existence:—
IRELAND—
Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will; now in the Museum of
the R.I.A. at Dublin (H. O’Neill’s _Fine Arts of Ancient
Ireland_, p. 46).
Shrine of the Bell of St. Culan, called the _Barnaan Cuilaun_;
now in the British Museum (_Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy_, vol. xiv., p. 31).
Shrine of the Bell of St. Mogue.
Shrine of the Bell of Maelbrigde (Miss M. Stokes’
_Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 67).
Shrine of the Bell of St. Mura, from the Abbey of
Fahan, Co. Donegal (_Ulster Journal of Archæology_,
vol. i., p. 274).
Shrine of the Bell of Conall Gael, from Inishkeel,
Co. Donegal; now in the British Museum (H. T.
Ellacombe’s _Church Bells of Devon—Supplement_, p. 365).
SCOTLAND—
Bell-shrine of Kilmichael Glassary, Argyllshire, dug up on
Torrebhlaurn Farm in 1814; now in the National Museum at
Edinburgh (Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian
Times_, 1st ser., p. 207).
Bell-shrine, preserved at Guthrie Castle, Forfarshire
(_Ibid._, p. 209).
[Illustration: THE SHRINE OF THE BELL OF ST. PATRICK’S WILL IN THE
MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, DUBLIN A.D. 1091 TO 1105]
The bells of the Celtic Church, whether they be of iron or bronze,
whether devoid of lettering or inscribed, ornamented or plain,
possess a far higher interest than that attaching to ordinary museum
specimens, because most of them have an authentic history, going back
in some cases to the time when Christianity was first introduced into
this country. The bell, the book, and the crozier which belonged to
the Celtic saints who founded churches, were always looked upon with
the highest veneration, and were used for a variety of superstitious
purposes, such as healing the sick, procuring victory in battle, and
the solemnising of oaths. The relics of the saints of the fifth, sixth,
and seventh centuries were enclosed in costly metal shrines, generally
a few hundred years after the death of the saint, and an hereditary
keeper was appointed to be responsible for the safety of the relics
when borrowed for effecting cures and other purposes. The shrines and
their contents were thus handed down from generation to generation, and
in most cases sold by their last hereditary keepers to collectors of
antiquities, from whom they were acquired by the national museums of
England, Scotland, and Ireland. The relics still bear the names of the
saints to whom they originally belonged; the names of their hereditary
keepers are well known, and they have been obtained from the localities
where the saint founded his church, and where the relics remained for
centuries afterwards undisturbed. No class of antiquities, therefore,
possesses a better record or a more satisfactory pedigree.
The Irish and Scottish bell-shrines which have been enumerated are
cases of metal of the same shape as the bell they contain, having
four sloping sides and an arched top. The sides are usually made of
bronze plates ornamented with gold, silver, enamel, and settings of
crystal and precious stones. Two features which are characteristic of
the ornamental bronze bells are repeated in the shrines, namely, the
zoömorphic terminations of the handles and the cross on the body of
the bell. In the two Scottish bell-shrines the Crucifixion takes the
place of the Cross. The ornament on the bell-shrines is much further
removed in style from that of the illuminated MSS. than is the case
with the sculptured stones. This is only what might be expected,
considering the late date of the bell-shrines as compared with that of
the crosses. On two of the bell-shrines Scandinavian influence may be
clearly detected in the ornament upon them. Thus on the Shrine of the
Bell of St. Patrick’s Will the pear-shaped eyes of the beast’s heads
on each side of the arched top are placed with the point outwards in
the Scandinavian fashion; and on the Shrine of the Bell of St. Mura the
“tendril pattern,” which is so common on the Rune-inscribed monuments
of the Isle of Man, may be noticed.
The dates of three of the bell-shrines have been ascertained by means
of the inscriptions upon them, namely, Maelbrigde’s Bell-shrine,
_circa_ A.D. 954; the Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will, A.D.
1091 to 1105; and the Guthrie Bell-shrine, 14th century. Judging merely
from the style of the ornament, the Shrine of the Bell of St. Culanus
should be of the twelfth century, and the Shrines of the Bell of St.
Mura and of Kilmichael Glassary perhaps as late as the beginning of the
thirteenth century.
The metal croziers of the Celtic Church are in reality shrines
enclosing the wooden pastoral staffs of the different saints, whose
names most of them still bear. The chief peculiarity of the Celtic
crozier is the shape of the head, which is like the hook of a modern
walking-stick, but with a remarkable flattened end. The inside curve of
the hook is nearly circular, but the outside curve is only partially
semicircular, and suddenly changes to a nearly vertical straight line
just before the end of the crook is reached. At the bottom of the
crozier is a pointed ferrule, and the straight portion consists of two
cylindrical tubes of thin metal joined together in the middle by a
bulbous collar. The upper tube is joined to the head at the top by a
similar bulbous collar, and the lower tube is joined to the ferrule at
the bottom by a third bulbous collar.
[Illustration: HEAD OF THE LISMORE CORZIER AT LISMORE CASTLE, CO.
WATERFORD A.D. 1090 TO 1113]
One of the most perfect of the Irish croziers is preserved at Lismore
Castle,[391] Co. Waterford. It bears an inscription showing that it was
made by Nectan, the artisan, for Niall, son of MacAeducain. Mac Mic
Aeducain was Bishop of Lismore from A.D. 1090 to 1113. Another fine
crozier in the British Museum[392] has an inscription asking a prayer
for Maelfinnia and Condulig. The former was Bishop of Kells, and died
in A.D. 967. Condulig was an ecclesiastic of the same monastery, and
died in A.D. 1047.
The best examples of uninscribed croziers are the croziers of
Clonmacnois[393] and of St. Berach in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy in Dublin, and a crozier now in the possession of the Roman
Catholic Bishop of Killarney. Besides the complete croziers mentioned
there are several heads and other portions of croziers in the Museum
of the Royal Irish Academy, and in the Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities
may be seen the head of the crozier of St. Fillan,[394] which has an
unusually interesting history.
[391] Petrie’s _Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_, vol.
ii., p. 118; and H. O’Neill’s _Fine Arts of Ancient Ireland_, p. 42.
[392] Petrie’s _Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_, vol.
ii., p. 116.
[393] Miss M. Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 105.
[394] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 1st ser.,
p. 219.
The decoration of the Celtic croziers is concentrated on the head, the
ferrule, and the collars round the straight portion of the staff. Most
of the croziers have a zoömorphic cresting[395] on the outside curve
of the head, sometimes consisting of a procession of beasts one behind
the other, and sometimes only having terminal beasts’ heads at each
end.[396] The flat portion of the crook of the crozier at the end is
decorated in some cases with the head of the saint or bishop, and a
crystal setting below.[397] Zoömorphism enters very largely into the
ornamentation of the Celtic croziers, and the beasts with only two
toes instead of three on the Crozier of Clonmacnois obviously betray
their Scandinavian origin by this detail. The decoration of the heads
of the croziers is treated in at least three different ways: (1) the
head of the Lismore crozier is divided into rectangular panels with
raised bosses of enamel at the intersections of the bands, which form
the divisions between the panels; (2) the heads of the croziers of
Dysert, Blathmac, and St. Fillan are divided into lozenge-shaped panels
by a sort of raised lattice-work; and (3) the head of the crozier
of Clonmacnois is not divided into panels, but the surface entirely
covered with zoömorphic strapwork.
[395] As on the croziers of Lismore, Clonmacnois, and Dysert.
[396] As on St. Fillan’s crozier.
[397] As on St. Fillan’s crozier.
The croziers are all of the eleventh century or later, and their
decoration has little in common with that of the early illuminated MSS.
“Cumdachs,” or book-shrines, are peculiar to Ireland. Three MSS. still
in existence are known, from historical evidence, to have had cumdachs,
although they have been lost.
These are:—
The Book of Durrow enshrined A.D. 877 to 914.
The Book of Armagh ” A.D. 938.
The Book of Kells ” before A.D. 1007.
The existing cumdachs are as follows:—
_In the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy._
Cumdach of Molaise’s Gospels A.D. 1001 to 1025.
” ” the Stowe Missal A.D. 1023.
” ” Columba’s Psalter A.D. 1084.
” ” St. Patrick’s Gospels.
_In the Library of Trinity College, Dublin._
Cumdach of Dimma’s Book A.D. 1150.
The cumdachs are simply rectangular boxes, sufficiently large to hold
the MS., made either of wood or bronze and plated with silver. The
decoration of the principal face of the cumdach is generally arranged
in the form of a cross, the treatment being much the same as in the
ornamental pages of the MSS. of the Gospels. The cross on the cumdach
of Molaise’s Gospels is formed of a flat silver plate with panels
pierced right through the thickness of the metal, and filled in with
interlaced patterns in filigree-work. The cross in the middle is
surrounded by the Symbols of the Four Evangelists, with their names
inscribed at the side of each. The centre of the cross and the ends of
the four arms are ornamented with settings of crystal.
On one of the narrow faces of this cumdach are some very curious
figures of two ecclesiastics, one holding a bell and the other a
pastoral staff; and a harper, with an angel above his head, between
them.
The cumdach of the Stowe Missal has upon the principal face a cross
within a rectangular frame. The centre of the cross is ornamented with
a crystal setting, and the recessed panels of the background are filled
in with a peculiar kind of triangular and square chequerwork made of
pierced metal plates.
The cumdach of Dimma’s Book has also on the principal face a cross
surrounded by a rectangular frame, and ornamented with thirteen crystal
settings. The four recessed panels of the background of the cross are
filled in with zoömorphic designs in the same style as those on the
High Cross of Tuam,[398] Co. Galway, which is of about the same period,
having been erected in A.D. 1123.
The relic shrines of the Celtic Church are of two kinds, namely,
(1) those made in the shape of the portion of the body of the saint
enshrined; and (2) those made in the shape of a small oratory or house
with a steep pitched roof having hipped ends. As an example of the
first kind we have the Shrine of St. Lachtin’s Arm.[399]
[398] H. O’Neill’s _Sculptured Crosses of Ancient Ireland_, pl. 12.
[399] _Vetusta Monumenta_, vol. vi., pl. 19.
[Illustration: CELTIC QUADRANGULAR BELL OF BRONZE WITH ZOÖMORPHIC
HANDLES FROM LLANGWYNODL CHURCH, CARNARVONSHIRE; NOW IN THE POSSESSION
OF W. CORBET YALE-JONES-PARRY, ESQ., OF MADRYN CASTLE, PWLLHELI
_W. Morgan Evans, of Pwllheli, photo._]
[Illustration: BRONZE RELIQUARY FROM LOWER LOUGH ERNE; NOW IN THE
POSSESSION OF T. PLUNKETT, ESQ., OF ENNISKILLEN
7 INS. LONG BY 5⅞ INS. HIGH BY 3½ INS. WIDE
_R. Welch, of Belfast, photo._]
The most beautiful and perfect example of a reliquary in the form of a
small oratory is the one now in the possession of Sir Archibald Grant,
and preserved at Monymusk House,[400] Aberdeenshire. It is a wooden
box, hollowed out of the solid, and covered with plates of bronze and
silver. It is decorated with enamel, settings of precious stones, and
raised circular medallions and rectangular plaques of interlaced-work
on a chased background of zoömorphic designs. Another reliquary of
the same kind was found in Lough Erne,[401] between Enniskillen and
Belleek, in 1891, and belongs to Mr. T. Plunkett, of Enniskillen. It
is 7 inches long by 3½ inches wide by 5⅞ inches high, and is made of
plates of bronze covering an inner box scooped out of two solid pieces
of yew-wood. The decoration, which consists of interlaced-work, is
concentrated upon the ridge-piece of the roof; upon a band concealing
the joint between the eaves of the roof and the sides; upon six
circular raised medallions, one on each of the longest sloping faces
of the roof and two on each of the longest sides; and upon the hinges
at each end of the box to which the bars for suspending the shrine
round the neck of its hereditary keeper were attached. There is a third
reliquary, like the two just described, from Norway, in the Copenhagen
Museum.[402] It has raised circular medallions arranged in the same
way as on the Lough Erne shrine, but they are decorated with spiral
designs, and the background, instead of being plain, is covered with
elaborate interlaced-work. An inscription in later Runes on this shrine
reads “Ranvaig owns this casket.” The Edinburgh Museum possesses a
fourth shrine of the same class found in the Shannon[403] in a very
dilapidated condition.
[400] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 1st ser.,
p. 249.
[401] _Journ. R. Soc. Ant. of Ireland_, 5th ser., vol. ii. (1892), p.
349.
[402] J. J. A. Worsaae’s _Nordiske Oldsager i det Kongelige Museum i
Kjöbenhavn_, p. 129, Fig. 524.
[403] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 1st ser.,
p. 246.
Dr. J. Anderson[404] has pointed out the identity of the form of the
Temple at Jerusalem, as represented in the Book of Kells, with the form
of this particular class of reliquary.
The Breac Moedoc,[405] or shrine of St. Mogue, from Drumlane, now
in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin, resembles the
reliquaries of the Monymusk type in shape except that the roof is
gabled instead of being hipped, and the method of applying the
decoration also is entirely different. It is 7¼ inches long by 8⅞
inches wide by 3½ inches wide, and is made of bronze, with decorations
of bronze-gilt, enamel, and glass. The front is divided into
rectangular panels, each containing a group of figures of male and
female saints numbering twenty-one altogether; and on one of the gabled
ends is a bearded figure playing a harp on which a bird is perched. The
back and bottom of the shrine are ornamented with cruciform patterns in
pierced work, as on the shrines of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will, of
the Stowe Missal, and of Dimma’s Book.
[404] _Ibid._, p. 247.
[405] _Archæologia_, vol. xliii., p. 131.
The relic-shrine of St. Manchan[406] differs from all those previously
described in being considerably larger, and in being shaped like the
gabled roof of a house, but without any house; that is to say, it has
two rectangular faces meeting in a horizontal ridge and two nearly
vertical triangular ends. It was formerly in the keeping of the ancient
Irish family of Mooney, of the Doon, but it is now preserved in the
Roman Catholic Church of Boher, in the parish of Lemanaghan, near
Clara, King’s Co. The Shrine of St. Manchan is 1 foot 11 inches long
by 1 foot 1 inch wide by 1 foot 7 inches high. The framework of the
shrine is made of yew boards. The front and back are each ornamented
with an equal-armed cross having large circular raised bosses in the
centre, and on the ends of the four arms. The four spaces forming the
background of each of the crosses are filled in with rows of small
figures fixed to the bronze plate behind with rivets. The front, back,
and two ends of the shrine are partially surrounded by a border of
zoömorphic ornament. The bosses in relief of the crosses on the front
and back, and the recessed triangular panels on the two ends are also
elaborately decorated with zoömorphs. At each of the four corners of
the base is a circular ring, probably for carrying the shrine about.
The clamps of the rings, the borders round the bottom of the shrine,
and the narrow parts of the arms of the crosses have step-patterns in
red and yellow enamel upon them. The whole of the bronze was originally
gilt. The style of the ornament is so similar to that on the Cross of
Cong that we shall not be far wrong if we attribute the shrine of St.
Manchan to the same period, namely, the twelfth century.
[406] _The Reliquary_, vol. xv. (1875), p. 193.
There is only a single example of a processional cross belonging to the
Celtic Church now in existence, namely, the Cross of Cong[407] in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. It is 2 feet 6 inches high
by 1 foot 6¾ inches across the arms by 1¾ inches thick. The cross is
of oak covered with copper plates, and has a boss of rock-crystal in
the centre, beneath which the portion of the true cross was enshrined.
The outer margin of the cross is formed by a roll moulding of silver,
with eighteen small enamelled knobs at intervals to emphasise the
cuspings of the outline of the cross. The face of the cross within the
margin is divided into two rows of panels by a narrow longitudinal
band in the middle of the arms, with enamelled bosses of enamel in
relief and circular silver discs alternately marking the points where
the cross-bars branch off at right angles to the central stem, so as
to divide the surface into panels. The eight panels surrounding the
boss of rock-crystal in the centre of the cross are filled in with
scrolls of gold filigree-work, and the remaining thirty-eight panels
on the arms and shaft are filled in with zoömorphic designs in cast
bronze gilt, riveted to the copper plates beneath. At the bottom of
the cross is a beast’s head with a bulbous projection between it and
the socket to receive the staff. The bulbous portion is ornamented
with small bosses of blue enamel and panels of zoömorphic designs. The
general effect of the whole is extremely rich, and shows great artistic
feeling. The prevalence of the zoömorphic element in the design and
the arrangement of the panels reminds us of the croziers of the same
period, more especially the one at Lismore Castle, Co. Waterford.
[407] _Proc. R.I.A._, vol. ii., p. 113, and vol. iv., p. 572; Petrie’s
_Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_, vol. ii., p. 118; Miss
M. Stokes’ _Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 108; and _Journ. R.
Soc. Ant. Ireland_, vol. xxxi. (1901), p. 40.
The inscriptions on the Cross of Cong, of which the first is in Latin
(twice repeated) and the remaining four in Irish, may be thus rendered
in English:—
(1) “This Cross covers the Cross on which the Saviour
of the World suffered.”
(2) “Pray for Murdoch O’Duffy, the Senior of Ireland.”
(3) “Pray for Turloch O’Connor, for the King of
Ireland, for whom this shrine was made.”
(4) “Pray for Donnell M’Flannagan O’Duffy, for the
Bishop of Connaught, for the successor of Coman and
Ciaran, under whose superintendence this shrine was made.”
(5) “Pray for Maeljesu MacBratdan O’Echan, who made
this shrine.”
Murdoch O’Duffy, Archbishop of Connaught, died in A.D. 1150, and it is
recorded in the _Annals of Innisfallen_ that in the year 1123 a bit of
the true cross came into Ireland and was enshrined by Turlogh O’Connor,
thus fixing the date of the Cross of Cong some time in the first half
of the twelfth century. The cross was removed from Tuam to Cong either
by Archbishop O’Duffy or King Roderic O’Conor, and was found there in
1839, when it was purchased by Prof. Mac Cullach and presented by him
to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy.
Chalices of earlier date than the Norman Conquest are of extreme rarity
either in Great Britain or on the Continent. Perhaps the three most
ancient specimens abroad are (1) the chalice, found with gold coins of
Justinian (A.D. 508 to 527), at Gourdon,[408] Chalons-sur-Saône, and
now in the National Library at Paris; (2) the chalice of Tassilo,[409]
Duke of Bavaria (A.D. 757 to 781), at Kremsmünster in Lower Austria;
and (3) the chalice of St. Gozlin[410] of Toul (A.D. 922 to 962), now
in the treasury of the Cathedral of Nancy. The first and last of these
have two handles. The chalice of Tassilo, however, has no handles. It
is profusely decorated with interlaced-work, zoömorphic designs, and
figure subjects, and has round the foot the following inscription in
capital letters, not unlike those used in the Hiberno-Saxon MSS:—
“+ TASSILO DVX FORTIS LVITPIRC VIRGA REGALIS.”
[408] De Caumont’s _Abécédaire d’Archéologie Architecture Religieuse_,
p. 117.
[409] Dr. R. Munro’s _Boznia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, p. 292.
[410] De Caumont, _loc. cit._, p. 118.
The lady referred to was Luitberga, wife of Duke Tassilo, and daughter
of Desiderius, the last king of the Lombards. The chalice is 10 inches
high and is made of copper ornamented with gold, silver, and niello.
The figures are placed in oval medallions round the bowl and the base.
The principal figure is that of Christ giving the benediction, and the
remainder appear to be those of saints. The style of the decoration
resembles that of the Irish metalwork to a certain extent, and the
chalice of Tassilo may very possibly have been made abroad under the
direction of some Irish monk.
Only one metal chalice of undoubted Irish work has been preserved
until the present time, namely, the Ardagh Chalice[411] in the Museum
of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. It was found in 1868 in a rath
in the townland of Reerasta, in the parish of Ardagh, Co. Limerick.
The chalice belongs to the two-handled type, and has a hemispherical
bowl, a very short cylindrical stem, and a conical base with a flat rim
round the bottom. It is 7 inches high by 9½ inches in diameter at the
top, and 6½ inches in diameter at the bottom, the bowl being 4 inches
deep and of sufficient capacity to hold three pints of liquid. The
chalice is composed of gold (1 oz. 2 dwts.), silver (20 ozs. 13 dwts.),
bronze (9 ozs.), lead, enamel, glass, amber, and mica. No less than 354
different pieces, including 20 rivets, are used in the construction of
the vessel.
[411] Petrie’s _Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language_, vol.
ii., p. 123; _Trans. R.I.A._, vol. xxiv., p. 433; Miss M. Stokes’
_Early Christian Art in Ireland_, p. 83.
The exterior of the bowl of the Ardagh chalice is inscribed with the
names of the Twelve Apostles in Hiberno-Saxon capitals, finely engraved
on the silver. The forms of the letters correspond with those used in
the Books of Kells, Dimma, St. Chad, Durham, and MacRegol.
[Illustration: BRONZE FIBULA WITH PLAITWORK AND LATE-CELTIC ORNAMENT
FROM THE ARDAKILLEN CRANNOG, NEAR STROKESTOWN, CO. ROSCOMMON; NOW IN
THE MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, DUBLIN]
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE UNDER SIDE OF THE FOOT OF THE
ARDAGH CHALICE IN THE MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, DUBLIN]
The raised decoration of the chalice, which is made in separate pieces
and fixed on with rivets, is concentrated on the following parts:—
(1) A horizontal band just below the rim and running through
the handles.
(2) The two handles.
(3) Two circular medallions on the lower side of the bowl
midway between the handles.
(4) The stem.
(5) The flat rim at the bottom of the base.
(6) The under side of the flat rim round the base.
(7) The circular medallion in the centre of the under side
of the conical base.
The ornament consists of interlaced-work, step-patterns, key-patterns,
spiralwork, zoömorphic designs, and scrollwork, arranged in panels
after the usual Celtic fashion. The step-patterns are confined to the
plaques and bosses of enamel, and the other patterns are executed in
delicate gold filigree-work on a repoussé background of gold. On the
under side of the flat rim round the base panels of most beautifully
plaited silver wire are introduced. Amber is used on the handles for
the borders round the raised bosses of enamel, and there is a narrow
ring of the same material between the concentric rings of ornament in
the middle of the under side of the base. The heads of the rivets by
which the circular medallions on the sides of the bowl are fixed are
concealed by two small bosses of blue glass and two of amber. The heads
of the rivets for securing the two handles in place are disguised in
a similar manner. The stem and supports of the chalice are of bronze
gilt, highly ornamented. They are attached to the bowl by a bronze-gilt
ball, with a strong square tang, and most ingeniously fastened by an
iron bolt which secures all together. A plate of lead is inserted
between the upper and under sides of the flat rim round the base to
give weight and stability. The flat rim round the base is ornamented
with gold and bronze-gilt plaques of open work on a background of mica,
in order to show up the beauty of the patterns. The flat rim round the
base has on its under side, between the panels of ornament, rectangular
tablets of blue glass, underneath which are decorated pieces of
wrought-silver, which give a brilliant appearance in a strong light.
In the centre of the under side of the base is a circular setting of
rock-crystal. The rim of the bowl of the chalice is of brass.
Enough has been said of the elaborate nature of the construction and
ornamentation of the Ardagh Chalice to show that it is a masterpiece
of Celtic art metalwork of the best period. The style of the lettering
of the inscription upon it and the general character of the decorative
features indicate that it belongs to the same school as the Book of
Kells, the Durham Book, St. Chad’s Gospels, and the Tara Brooch, and
cannot consequently be of much later date than the eighth century. It
will be noticed that in the decoration of the Ardagh Chalice spiral
patterns of the best quality are present, and that the zoömorphs are
kept under proper restraint so as not to swamp the whole design. Both
these points are an indication of early date.
There are at least three examples known of bronze plaques with
representations upon them of the Crucifixion treated in the archaic
Irish fashion. The most interesting of these was found at Athlone,[412]
and is now in the Museum of the Irish Academy in Dublin. The Saviour is
shown wearing a tunic, the surface of which is almost entirely covered
with spirals, key-patterns, and interlaced-work. Another smaller and
less ornamental plaque with the Crucifixion may be seen in the same
museum;[413] and a third, belonging to Mr. M. J. Arketell, has been
illustrated by Prof. J. O. Westwood in his _Miniatures and Ornaments of
the Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._[414]
[412] Dr. J. Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones of Scotland_, vol. ii., pl. 10.
[413] _Miniatures_, pl. 51. Fig. 7.
[414] Pl. 51, Fig. 8.
Leaving Celtic ecclesiastical metalwork, we come to personal
ornaments, which, although exhibiting the same style of decoration,
were not necessarily intended to be worn by persons taking part in
the ceremonies of the Church. These personal ornaments consist of
pins, brooches, and buckles. We have previously given a list of the
hammer-headed pins, which may either be Pagan or Christian. Another
peculiarly Celtic type of pin consisted of three parts, namely, (1)
a long pin; (2) a kite-shaped pendant; and (3) a short bar hinged at
one end to the top of the pin, and at the other to the rounded top of
the pendant. A remarkably fine pin of this description was found about
1883 at Clonmacnois,[415] King’s Co., and is now in the possession
of the Rev. Timothy Lee, of Limerick. The pin is 7½ inches long, the
coupling-bar ¾ inch long, and the kite-shaped pendant 2½ inches long by
1⅛ inches wide by ⅙ inch thick. The whole is of silver, decorated with
gold filigree, enamel, niello, and settings of claret-coloured glass
or precious stone. The coupling-bar has on one side a lozenge-shaped
panel of filigree-work, and on the other an interlaced pattern in
niello. The front of the pendant is ornamented with a cross having
a large rectangular setting of glass in the centre, three smaller
rectangular settings at the ends of the top and two side arms, and a
small triangular setting at the bottom of the shaft. The background of
the cross consists of four panels of interlaced filigree-work, three
of which are missing. The point of the kite-shaped pendant terminates
in a beast’s head. On the back of the pendant there is a cross of
similar shape to that on the front, but with an ornamental border of
spiralwork round it, and the whole design executed in niello. At the
pointed end at the bottom is fixed a small ring through which passes
a silver plaited chain of Trichinopoly-work, like the one attached to
the Tara Brooch. There is another pin of similar shape ornamented with
zoömorphic designs in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,[416] in
Dublin.
[415] _Journ. R. Soc. Ant. Ireland_, ser. 5, vol. i. (1890-1), p. 318.
[416] R.I.A. photo, A 165.
Dr. Hans Hildebrand, in his excellent South Kensington handbook of
_The Industrial Arts of Scandinavia_ (p. 21), remarks that “every
work of human art, higher as well as lower, has its shape determined
by two agents: the end which it is to serve, and the taste of the
people and the time of which it is a fruit.” In other words, there is
a utilitarian as well as an ornamental side to almost every object
fashioned by man to satisfy his wants. The form of an object must
depend primarily upon the practical use to which it is intended to be
put, and the decorative features generally follow afterwards in due
course. The function of the decorative features, however, should be to
add grace and beauty to the original form of the object, but not to
attempt to disguise the utilitarian purpose it fulfils.
No relics of antiquity are more deserving of study than personal
ornaments, and of all personal ornaments perhaps the brooch is the most
important as affording an insight into the character of the people by
whom it was worn. Their ingenuity can be measured by the perfection of
the mechanism of the working parts, their culture by the refinement
of the ornament, and their skill as craftsmen by the finish of the
workmanship. Much, again, is to be learnt of the habits of the people
by investigating the different methods of wearing the brooch. Thus it
is that almost every age and every country possesses its typical form
of brooch.
[Illustration: Pin-brooch from Clonmacnois, King’s Co.
Now in the possession of the Rev. Timothy Lee, of Limerick
Drawn by R. Cochrane, F.S.A.]
Looked at from its practical side, a brooch is a contrivance for
fastening together temporarily any two points on a garment. It is
obviously a higher development of the pin. Going back to first
principles, the pin may have been suggested by the natural spikes,
or thorns, found in the vegetable world. It would not require much
intelligence to see that a small knob added to the blunt end of the
pin would facilitate its removal from the fabric when it was required
to be withdrawn, and would also prevent the pin going further than
was desirable through the fabric. The problem which was solved by the
invention of the brooch, however, was one of much greater complexity,
namely, how to secure the pin in position so as to prevent it from
slipping out of the fabric in the direction of the head. This might
have been effected either by fixing a removable knob, or stop of some
kind, on the pointed end after it had been inserted in the fabric, or
by connecting the head with the point temporarily, so as to form a
complete ring for the time being. In the brooch the latter alternative
is chosen. The pin must necessarily be straight, so as to pierce
the fabric with the least amount of resistance, and the temporary
connection between the head and the point has to be approximately
semicircular, the whole forming a ring shaped like a bow, the pin
corresponding to the string and the body of the brooch to the bow.
[Illustration: SILVER PENANNULAR BROOCH FROM IRELAND; NOW IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM
SCALE ¾ LINEAR]
In order to be able to remove the brooch from the fabric at pleasure,
some contrivance must be hit upon by which a gap, or break, can be
made in the ring, and be closed up again whenever it is desired to do
so. The opening is attained by placing a hinge where the head of a pin
joins the body of the brooch, and the closing by having a groove-shaped
catch at the opposite extremity. A spring is also required to prevent
the pin coming unfastened accidentally from the catch. These different
contrivances constitute the essential parts of a brooch, which,
divested of its ornamental appendages, is represented by the ordinary
“safety-pin” of the present day.
If the rigid bow-like connection between the head and point of the pin
be doubled we get an annular brooch, and if the central portion of the
ring be filled in we get the discoidal brooch. In these cases the ring
or disc is placed parallel to the plane of the fabric instead of at
right angles to it.
The somewhat dry disquisition just inflicted upon the unsuspecting
reader is necessary in order to place him in a position to fully
understand the mechanism of the typical Celtic brooch, the leading
characteristics of which are that the ring has a break in its
continuity (whence the name “penannular”), and that the length of the
pin considerably exceeds the diameter of the ring. The object of the
break in the continuity of the ring is that it enables the spring-catch
to be dispensed with, the method of fixing the brooch in the dress
being as follows: First, the long pin is inserted in the fabric at
two points close together, in such a manner that the apex goes right
through it and appears again above the surface; the pin is then forced
through the break, and the ring is given a turn through a right angle
in the plane of the fabric, thus fixing the brooch by the friction
produced by the drag of the weight of the garment on the pin.
We are now brought face to face with the question as to how the
Celtic penannular brooch was worn. This can not only be conjecturally
determined by an examination of the specimens to be found in museums,
but fortunately can be settled beyond a shadow of a doubt in two
ways, each of which confirms the other. First, there are at least two
contemporary representations of persons actually wearing a penannular
brooch (one on a cross at Monasterboice, Co. Louth, and the other on
a cross at Kells, Co. Meath, in Ireland); and this ancient form of
fibula has survived, and is in use at the present time in Algeria and
elsewhere.
The example at Monasterboice[417] is on the bottom panel of the side of
the shaft of the cross of Muiredach (or Murdoch), which was erected in
A.D. 924. The scene represented on the panel has been conjectured by
the late Prof. J. O. Westwood, from its similarity to a miniature in
the Book of Kells at Trinity College, Dublin, to be intended for Christ
seized by the Jews. If this be so, the central figure is our Lord, and
on each side is a soldier armed with a drawn sword. The sculpture is
in good preservation, considering its great age, and the details of
the costume, which are very elaborate, can be made out fairly well.
Our Lord wears a sort of cloak with a penannular brooch fixed on His
right shoulder. The split in the ring of the brooch faces downwards,
and the pin is inclined upwards at an angle of about 30 degrees to the
horizontal, the point being outwards. Probably the heavy head of the
pin is placed downwards because its weight would always tend to bring
it to this position, as the one of most stable equilibrium, but it may
also have been to avoid injury from the point of the long pin.
[417] _Illustrated Archæologist_ for 1893, p. 164.
[Illustration: BISKRA WOMAN WEARING A PAIR OF PENANNULAR BROOCHES, THE
ENDS OF THE PINS POINTING UPWARDS]
The second example is on the bottom panel of the side of the broken
cross-shaft in Kells[418] churchyard. The exact date of this monument
is unknown, but it is probably of the ninth or tenth century. The
subject on the panel is the Baptism of Christ, with the sources of the
two imaginary rivers, Jor and Dan, which, when united, were supposed to
contribute their waters to the Jordan, indicated conventionally in a
most remarkable manner. John the Baptist pours the water over the head
of Christ with a sort of ladle. Above is the Holy Dove, and on the left
are two figures wearing penannular brooches exactly in the same manner
as on the Monasterboice cross, with the pin pointing upwards. In the
case of the figure furthest to the left, the end of the long pin is
inserted a second time into the fabric of the dress, beyond the ring.
The method of wearing the penannular brooch at the present day in
Algeria is clearly indicated on the reproduction of a photograph[419]
here given. The only difference in the way of wearing the brooch in
Algeria and in ancient Ireland is, that in the former case they are
worn in pairs instead of singly, and there is a connecting chain with
a small pendant scent-box hung from the middle. The size of the box is
exaggerated out of all proportion by being placed nearer the camera
than the rest of the figure.
[418] _Illustrated Archæologist_ for 1893, p. 165.
[419] Obtained from Albert Hautecœur, 2, Boulevard des Capucines,
Paris.
In Great Britain the penannular brooches appear to have been worn
singly, as they are never found in pairs; thus offering a contrast to
the Scandinavian bowl-shaped brooches, which are always found in pairs,
and were connected by a chain, as in the case of the Algerian brooches.
It would be interesting to know how the penannular form of brooch was
first introduced into this country, for its seems hardly conceivable
that it could have been invented here, or else it would not be found
in Algeria, which never had any connection with Great Britain, it
being extremely unlikely that so peculiar a type of brooch was evolved
independently in the two countries.
The most probable suggestion is that the Algerians and the ancient
Irish got it from a common source, namely, the East, and that its
introduction into our own islands dates from the time when the traffic
in silver bullion from the East commenced. The existence of a trade
route which was made use of by the dealers in silver bullion is made
clear by the number of finds of Mahomedan silver coins associated
with ingots, rings, and ornaments of silver, made both in Scandinavia
and in Great Britain. Dr. Hans Hildebrand, in his _Industrial Arts of
Scandinavia_ (p. 81), informs us that “considerable stores of such
coins, most of them of the Samanid dynasty, have been found in Sweden.
It is satisfactorily proved by Russian finds, that these coins were
brought from states near the Caspian Sea, through Russia to the shores
of the Baltic Sea, and thence to the commerce established by the
inhabitants of Gotland over to that island. From Gotland, and probably
also by direct intercourse with Russia, the Mahomedan coins were spread
over Scandinavia, being of course more common in the eastern provinces
of Sweden than in the western and in Norway.” No less than 20,000
Mahomedan silver coins have already been discovered in Sweden, mostly
dating between A.D. 880 and 955, the latest belonging to the year A.D.
1010.
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE TARA BROOCH]
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE TARA BROOCH]
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE TARA BROOCH]
Penannular brooches have been found in association with Mahomedan coins
of the ninth and tenth centuries, at Skaill, in Orkney; at Storr, in
Skye; and at Cuerdale, near Preston, in Lancashire.
Although the general form of the penannular brooch is probably of
Eastern origin, the decorative features vary according to the race of
people who adopted it. Thus the examples from Algeria have Mahomedan
ornament; those from Gotland, Scandinavian patterns; whilst those
from Ireland and Scotland are thoroughly Celtic in design. With the
decoration of the foreign specimens we are not now concerned, but a few
words with regard to the various types found in Great Britain will form
a fitting conclusion to this article.
The finest collections of penannular brooches are to be seen in the
British Museum, the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, in
Edinburgh, and in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin. A
few good specimens are in private hands, and there is a splendid one
from Orton Scar,[420] in Westmoreland, in the Museum of the Society of
Antiquaries at Burlington House.
[420] _Reliquary_ for 1903, p. 203.
The portions of the brooch, the forms of which are altered so as to
adapt them better to the reception of ornament, are the head of the pin
and the two terminations of the ring, where the break occurs. The two
chief ways of altering the shapes of these parts are (1) by making them
spherical, and (2) by expanding into a wide flat surface; the object
in both cases being to increase the area available for decoration.
Sometimes, also, the ring and the long end of the pin are flattened and
widened for a similar purpose.
As an example of a penannular brooch with bulbous terminations
to the ring and head of the pin, we have one from Co. Kildare in
Ireland (R.I.A. photo, B 172). The knobs are covered with a prickly
ornament produced by incised lines drawn diagonally in two directions,
crossing each other, giving the whole the appearance of the head of
a thistle. Several brooches of this kind have been obtained from
different localities in Ireland, and there was one along with the
three brooches of the type with flattened and expanded ends found with
the Ardagh Chalice—a hoard of objects of purely Irish types—but their
ornamentation appears to be more Scandinavian than Celtic. One of the
best specimens from Skaill, in Orkney, now in the Edinburgh Museum,
has a pin 1 foot 3 inches long, and the bulbous ends covered with
zoömorphic designs similar to those on the Manx crosses, and on an iron
axe-head inlaid with silver from the Mammen How,[421] Denmark.
[421] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Pagan Times: Iron Age_, p. 97.
We next come to brooches with discoidal terminations, of a date not
later than the beginning of the ninth century, as the simplest example
of which may be taken one from Croy, in Inverness-shire (_Scotland in
Early Christian Times_, 2nd ser., p. 23). Another, found near Perth
(_ibid._, p. 21), has three raised heads on each disc; whilst one from
Rogart, in Sutherlandshire (_ibid._, p. 7), has four raised heads
outside the circumference of the disc, so that the terminations are
altered into the shape of a quatrefoil.
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE TARA BROOCH IN THE DUBLIN
MUSEUM]
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE TARA BROOCH IN THE DUBLIN
MUSEUM]
Lastly, we have brooches with flat expanded ends to the ring, of which
kind three specimens in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin
are illustrated, in order to show the way of ornamenting the expansions
with one, four, and five raised bosses, having zoömorphic designs on
the background (R.I.A. photos, B 163 and B 164). The area of the head
of the pin available for decoration is increased by making it into a
cylindrical tube.
In the final stage of the development of the penannular brooch in
Ireland it ceased to be penannular, if we may be permitted to use such
an Irish expression. The break in the ring was entirely filled up,
although its position can still be traced by the method of arranging
the pattern, which survived in its old form long after the split had
disappeared. The celebrated Tara Brooch, in the Museum of the Royal
Irish Academy (R.I.A. photo, A 161), affords a striking example of
this. The doing away of the break in the ring must have entirely
defeated the original purpose the brooch was intended to serve, and
it would, therefore, appear that these highly decorated brooches were
made rather for ceremonial use, than to be of any practical value as
dress-fasteners.
It may be pointed out that all the characteristic modifications of the
form of the penannular brooch made by the Celtic artist arose from his
desire to provide more space for the ornamental patterns, which were
the very salt of his existence.
Dr. Joseph Anderson contributes the following note apropos of the long
pin:—
“In the _Brehon Laws_, vol. iii., p. 291, men are
exempted from liability to fine for injury from the
pin of their brooch (in a crush? or at a fair?) if
they have the brooch on their shoulder so as not to
project beyond it. Women also are exempt if they have
their brooch similarly on their bosom.” Vol. iv., p.
323, “a precious brooch worth an ounce [of silver?] is
enumerated among the customary insignia of a chief.”
The Tara Brooch[422] was found in 1850 by some children whilst
playing on the strand near Drogheda, Co. Meath. It was offered by
the mother of the children to a dealer in metals in Drogheda, but he
refused to purchase it, after which she took it to a watchmaker in
the town, who gave her a trifle for it. The watchmaker cleaned it
up, and subsequently sold it to Messrs. Waterhouse, of Dame Street,
Dublin. The Tara Brooch is now in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy. The body of the brooch is made of an alloy of copper and tin
called white bronze, and the decorations with which it is encrusted
consist of gold filigree in small recessed panels, niello, enamel, and
settings of amber and glass. The ornament includes interlaced-work,
spirals, step-patterns, scrollwork, zoömorphs, and anthropomorphs. The
spiralwork is of the best kind, such as is only found in MSS. like
the Book of Kells. The designs on the back of the brooch appear to
be chased or cut into the solid metal of the body, and not composed
of plaques fixed on with rivets. Attention should be particularly
directed to the rows of birds, each biting the leg of the one in
front of it, on the back of the brooch. Similar designs occur in the
Lindisfarne Gospels[423] and on a cross-shaft from Aberlady,[424] now
at Carlowrie Castle, near Kirkliston, Linlithgowshire, clearly showing
Northumbrian influence, as bird-motived ornament of this kind is in no
way characteristic of pure Irish work.
[422] H. O’Neill’s _Fine Arts of Ancient Ireland_, p. 49.
[423] _Publication of the Palæographical Soc._, and G. F. Warner’s
_Illuminated Manuscripts in the British Museum_, 3rd series.
[424] Allen and Anderson’s _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_, p.
428.
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON THE TARA BROOCH IN THE MUSEUM OF
THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, DUBLIN]
There are several beautiful penannular brooches in the National Museum
of Antiquities of Scotland, at Edinburgh, most of which are described
and illustrated in Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian
Times_ series. The finest of these is the Hunterston Brooch,[425] which
has a Runic inscription upon it and is decorated with interlaced-work,
zoömorphs, and spiralwork almost equal to that on the Tara Brooch. The
Cadboll Brooch[426] from Rogart, Sutherlandshire, and a brooch from
Perth[427] are also very beautiful examples.
The best examples of early Irish ornamental leatherwork are the
satchel of the Book of Armagh[428] in the Library of Trinity
College, Dublin, and the satchel of St. Moedog’s reliquary[429] in
the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. The patterns on the former
consist of interlaced-work and zoömorphs, and those on the latter of
interlaced-work only. There are also specimens of leather shoes in the
Museum of the Royal Irish Academy with Celtic ornament upon them.[430]
There are very few objects of wood or bone now in existence which
exhibit Celtic ornament of the Christian period.
[425] Dr. J. Anderson’s _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, 2nd ser.,
p. 2.
[426] _Ibid._, p. 7.
[427] _Ibid._, p. 21.
[428] Rev. J. P. Mahaffy’s _Book of Trinity College_.
[429] _Archælogia_, vol. xliii., p. 131.
[430] Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 284.
CHAPTER VII
CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD
TECHNICAL PROCESSES AND MATERIALS EMPLOYED DURING THE
CHRISTIAN CELTIC PERIOD IN GREAT BRITAIN
Ecclesiastical and other MSS. written on sheets of vellum and bound
up in the form of a book were introduced into this country with
Christianity. The materials and tools used by the Celtic scribes and
illuminators probably did not differ to any great extent from those
used throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. The parchment of the
Irish MSS. is, however, generally much thicker[431] than that of the
Carlovingian and other foreign MSS. The letters in the Irish MSS. of
the best period, such as the Book of Kells, are composed partly of
extremely fine lines, drawn with a firm hand, which gradually expand in
width to form the other parts of the letters. These could hardly have
been made with a reed or a brush, so that it is probable that the pens
of the Irish scribes were made from the quills of swans, geese, crows,
and other birds. The black ink used in the Irish MSS. is remarkable
for its blackness and durability; and Bede, the historian, speaks
highly in praise of the colours prepared in Ireland, and especially
of the brilliancy and permanence of the red made from whelks.[432]
Some colours, such as yellow, are put on thin and transparent; whilst
others, such as red, have a thick body made of titurated earth or other
skilfully prepared material, mixed with some strong binding material of
the nature of gum or varnish.[433]
[431] Sir E. M. Thompson’s _Greek and Latin Palæography_, p. 38.
[432] Bede’s _Eccl. Hist_., bk. i., chap. 1.
[433] Dr. Ferdinand Keller in the _Ulster Journal of Archæology_, vol.
viii.
The material employed for the highly ornamented sculptured monuments of
the Christian Celtic period was generally that most readily procurable
on the spot, but a preference was always shown for a freestone, which
could be easily worked. The greater proportion of the best crosses
are carved in a fine-grained sandstone. In Cornwall granite was most
generally used, although Polyphant stone was also used. In the Isle
of Man nearly all the crosses are of slate. Hard, volcanic rocks were
avoided where possible on account of the difficulty of working. There
are, however, crosses of trap-rock at Carew, Pembrokeshire, and Moel
Siarman, Brecknockshire.
On some of the crosses the marks of the tool with which they were
carved can still be clearly seen, as on the Cross of Iltyd at Llantwit
Major, and the cross-base at Llangevelach, both in Glamorganshire.
As far as it is possible to judge from the tool-marks, either a pick
or a pointed chisel must have been employed by the early Christian
Celtic stone-carvers. Similar tool-marks have been observed on the
cup-and-ring sculptures of the Bronze Age.
In the churchyard at Kells, Co. Meath, there is an unfinished cross
which is of great interest as showing the exact methods used in the
construction and decoration of this class of monument. The stone was
first squared and the design roughly set out upon it. Draughts were
then cut across the faces, leaving certain portions standing out in
high relief, upon which the figure subjects were afterwards sculptured.
The unfinished cross at Kells was formerly lying on the ground, but
it has recently been erected on its original base, which is also
unfinished.
When the crosses are constructed of two or more pieces they are fitted
together by means of mortice and tenon joints. Sometimes the quadrants
of the circular ring connecting the arms were made in separate pieces,
as in the case of the large broken cross at Iona.[434]
The metals in use during the Christian Celtic period were gold,
silver, copper, lead, bronze, brass, and other alloys. These were cast
and wrought and ornamented by means of enamelling, niello, plating,
gilding, repoussé work, chasing, engraving, piercing, inlaying,
filigree-work, Trichinopoly chainwork, and settings of precious stones,
amber, and glass. The different pieces of the metal objects were
fixed together by rivets, and if soldering and brazing were known,
they were certainly not employed to any great extent. Even when the
specimens can be removed from their show-cases in museums and examined
carefully by an expert it is not always possible to be certain of the
exact technical processes by which the various decorative effects have
been produced, and unless the objects can be dissected many of the
constructive features must necessarily be a matter for conjecture. The
Ardagh Chalice and the Tara Brooch illustrate nearly all the materials,
technical processes, and methods of construction used at this period.
[434] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxxv., p. 90.
Three different kinds of enamel are used in the decoration of the
Ardagh Chalice, namely, (1) a peculiar variety of _cloisonné_ in which
the compartments, or _cloisons_, are all cut out of a single piece of
metal and the open framework thus formed is pressed into the surface
of the enamel when soft until it rises up and fills each compartment;
(2) a combination of _cloisonné_ and _champlevé_ enamel in which the
compartments are all cut out of a single piece of metal, some being
pierced right through and the remainder only sunk partially through
the thickness of the metal; the framework is pressed into the enamel
when soft, thus filling up the open compartments, as in the first kind
just described, and the remaining dug-out compartments are filled with
fusible enamel as in _champlevé_; and (3) a species of _champlevé_
enamel, in which the surface of a piece of glass was engraved with a
design in _intaglio_ and the hollows filled up with an enamel of a
different colour. The Celtic enamels of the Christian period usually
occur in the form of small round bosses, of which there are good
instances on the Ardagh Chalice, the Ardagh Brooch, the Tara Brooch,
the Lismore Crozier, and the Cross of Cong.
The use of bands of silver with borders of niello is well illustrated
by the head of a crozier[435] formerly belonging to the late Dr. W.
Frazer, M.R.I.A., of Dublin. Portions of the silver have been stripped,
showing how the surface of the metal into which it was inlaid was
roughened with a pointed tool to make the inlay adhere better. Niello
is a black composition made of silver, lead, sulphur, and copper, which
is reduced to powder and placed in cavities or lines cut for its
reception in the surface of the metal, and afterwards incorporated with
it by being passed through the furnace. Niello probably found its way
to Ireland from the East. It was used by the Byzantines as early as the
beginning of the ninth century.[436]
[435] _Proc. R.I.A._, 3rd ser., vol. i., p. 207.
[436] J. H. Pollen’s _Gold and Silver_, p. 53.
A peculiar kind of decoration which is specially characteristic of the
early Irish ecclesiastical metalwork consists of plates perforated with
triangles, squares, and crosses, so as to form a geometrical pattern.
The plates are usually of bronze covered with silver, and the contrast
between the bright surface of the white silver and the pierced portions
through which the dark bronze below can be seen gives the general
appearance of chequerwork. There are good instances of this class of
decoration on the Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will, and the
Cumdachs of Dimma’s Book, the Stowe Missal, and the Shrine of St.
Mogue. Cruciform pierced work of a similar kind also occurs on an ivory
of the tenth century representing the raising of the widow of Nain’s
son, in the British Museum;[437] on an ivory of the tenth century,
representing Christ in the Temple, in the Royal Library at Berlin;[438]
and on the chair of the image of St. Faith, in the treasury of
Conques[439] (Aveyron). The wards of ecclesiastical keys are often made
to form cruciform patterns, as in the case of those of Netley Abbey,
St. Serrais Maestricht, and Liège.[440] The cruciform patterns on the
west face of the cross at Dysert O’Dea,[441] Co. Clare, seem to be
copied from metalwork.
[437] J. O. Westwood’s _Catal. of Fictile Ivories in S. K. Mus._
[438] _Ibid._
[439] _Annales de la Société Archéologique de Bruxelles_, vol. xv.
(1901), p. 434.
[440] Le Chanoine Rensens’ _Éléments d’Archéologie Chrétienne_, 2nd ed.
(Aix, 1885), vol. i., pp. 241 and 262.
[441] _Jour. R. Soc. Ant. Ireland_, ser. 5, vol. ix., p. 251.
Filigree-work of gold wire is used to make the panels of
interlaced-work, scrollwork, and zoömorphic designs with which some of
the best specimens of Christian Celtic metalwork are decorated, such
as the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, and
the Clonmacnois Pin. The filigree-work is often covered with minute
granulations, which add greatly to the richness of the effect produced
by their texture.
We have already referred to the Trichinopoly chainwork of silver wire
used in the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, and the Clonmacnois Pin.
This kind of chainwork can be traced back to the Pagan Celtic period,
as chains of similar character were found with the Late-Celtic gold
collar at Limavady, Co. Londonderry, and with the pair of silver-gilt
Kelto-Roman fibulæ from Chorley, Lancashire, now in the British Museum.
Settings of coral and enamel were, as we have seen, employed for
the decoration of the Late-Celtic metalwork, but in the Christian
Celtic period numerous other substances were also employed, such as
glass, rock crystal, amber, and other precious stones. In some cases
the settings of stones and glass were rectangular with a flat top
and bevelled edges, but they were more generally round, oval, or
almond-shaped and “tallow-cut,” _i.e._ polished without facets.
The process used for producing the patterns on the leather satchels and
shoes previously mentioned was probably of the same nature as that by
which the _cuir bouilli_ cases of later times were decorated.
Objects of wood, bone, ivory, and pottery and textile fabrics of the
Christian Celtic period are so rare that there is really nothing to be
said about the technical processes involved in their manufacture.
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN GREAT BRITAIN
Attention has been recently directed to the problem of how decorative
art was evolved, in the first instance, by the primitive races of
mankind in remote ages. Mr. Henry Balfour, Mr. C. H. Read, and Dr.
Colley March have shown us how much light may be thrown on this
difficult question by a critical examination of the various forms of
ornament used by the savage—or, rather, the uncultured—peoples existing
at the present day in countries where they have had only limited
opportunities of coming in contact with modern civilisation.
There is, however, at least as difficult a problem nearer our own
doors awaiting solution, namely, that of the origin and development
of early Christian decorative art in the British Isles. This problem
is not one of a wholly uncultured race left to itself to work out its
own ideas, as suggested by external natural objects or otherwise, but
it is a problem of a race already in a state of semi-culture being
brought suddenly face to face with a higher civilisation, through
the introduction of a new religion, and afterwards influencing,
or being influenced by, other conquering races—also in a state of
semi-culture—whom they converted by missionary enterprise. That is
to say, the Celts of Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and
Cornwall became acquainted with Italo-Byzantine art when they were
first Christianised, about the middle of the fifth century. In the
seventh century they came in contact with the Anglo-Saxons, and in the
ninth with the Norsemen and Danes. It is the object of the present
inquiry to determine in what measure the Christian art of this country
before the Norman Conquest was affected by the absorption of these new
racial elements.
The style of art we are now dealing with was formerly, quite wrongly,
called Runic, because some of the monuments on which characteristic
forms of ornament occur bear Runic inscriptions. Later authorities have
called the style Hiberno-Saxon, Kelto-Northumbrian, Celtic, and Irish,
but this is simply begging the whole question. The term we have chosen,
namely, early Christian, is scientifically correct, and does not commit
us to the assumption of any unproved facts.
Early Christian art in this country is essentially decorative, and to
a lesser extent symbolic. The figure subjects are obviously barbarous
copies of Byzantine originals, for no matter how they are disguised
by bad drawing or incrusted with ornament, the conventional grouping
and accessories still remain to prove their origin. The miniature of
the Temptation of Christ in the Book of Kells is perhaps the most
remarkable instance of a Byzantine design Celticised, if one may use
the expression. Comparing this with a miniature in the Psalter of
Misselinda (A.D. 1066) in the British Museum (Add. 19,352), we find all
the essential features of the scene the same, even to the black Devil;
but in the Book of Kells the Temple with its Byzantine cupolas has
been converted into an Irish stone-roofed oratory, shaped like a metal
shrine of the period, and covered with ornament; the Devil, too, has
been decorated with spiral curves after the Celtic fashion.
The miniatures of the Evangelists, with their symbols, which form the
frontispieces of the Irish Gospels, are also taken from a Byzantine
source and similarly disguised, although not so effectually as to
conceal their derivation. The Irish illuminator put as much local
colour into his copy as a Chinaman or a Japanese would, but in a
different way, if told to make a replica of an English picture.
In distilling the original Byzantine idea through the alembic of the
mind of the Irish scribe it has absorbed so much of his individuality
that it assumes an archaic and semi-barbarous appearance which is very
misleading at first sight. We hope to be able to show that some of
the elements of the ornament may be traced to a Byzantine source, and
that the only obstacle in the way of our at once recognising whence
the Irish designer received his inspiration is his marvellous power of
adaptation and skill in evolving fresh combinations of simple elements.
The ancient Irish artists appear in some respects to have resembled the
Japanese in the rapidity with which they absorbed new ideas and turned
them to good account in their decorative designs.
The materials available for the study of early Christian art in Britain
consist of illuminated MSS., ecclesiastical and other metalwork,
sculptured monuments, and a few miscellaneous objects. I propose now
to direct attention chiefly to the sculptured monuments, because they
afford a much more certain means than any other of determining the
characteristics of the various local styles throughout the country.
If a monument is found in a particular district, it may generally be
assumed that it was the art product of the district, unless there is
some special reason for thinking otherwise. The number of MSS. and
examples of metalwork is comparatively much smaller than the number of
monuments, and it is only in a few exceptional cases that a MS. can be
traced to the monastic establishment where it was written. In Scotland,
for example, although richer than any other part of Great Britain in
sculptured monuments, the Book of Deer is the only pre-Norman MS. known
to have been written there. Wales, again, can only claim the Psalter of
Ricemarchus.
I am of opinion that if we are ever to arrive at any definite
conclusions with regard to the evolution of early Christian art in
Great Britain, it must be by means of a careful examination and
comparison of the minute details of the ornament. The science of
palæography is entirely founded on the observation of every small
variation in the form of each letter, and if the same trouble was taken
with ornament equally valuable results would be obtained.
We will now proceed to analyse the decorative features of the
monuments, and endeavour to find an origin for the component elements
which go to make up the style. I must assume the reader to possess a
certain amount of acquaintance with the art of the early Christian
period, and to know what is meant by most of the technical terms, but I
shall give examples of the various classes of patterns in case anyone
should be unfamiliar with their appearance.
Broadly speaking, early Christian ornament in Great Britain is made up
of the following elements, generally arranged in separate panels:—
(1) Interlaced-work.
(2) Step-patterns.
(3) Key-patterns. Geometrical.
(4) Spirals.
-----------------------------------------------------
(5) Zoömorphic Designs. Suggested by Animal,
(6) Anthropomorphic Designs. Human, and Vegetable Forms.
(7) Phyllomorphic Designs.
Now the question is, what are the possible or probable sources whence
each of these different kinds of patterns was derived?
First of all, there are the native and imported styles of decorative
art existing in Great Britain previous to the introduction of
Christianity (_circa_ A.D. 450), comprising the art of the ages of
Stone, Bronze, and Iron, and Romano-British art. Next, the external
influences which came into play after A.D. 450, and before A.D. 1066,
were Italo-Byzantine, Anglo-Saxon, Frankish, and Scandinavian.
Early Christian art in Great Britain was produced, in the first
instance, by grafting the Italo-Byzantine style upon the native style
of the Iron Age (sometimes called Late-Celtic), and was subsequently
modified by Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian influence.
Of the forms of decoration used in the Stone Age in this country we
know hardly anything, and therefore they will not come within the scope
of our investigations. The ornamental patterns of the Bronze Age, as
far as we are acquainted with them from a study of the sepulchral urns,
implements, personal ornaments, and sculptured cists and chambered
tumuli, are of a very simple description, consisting chiefly of
chevrons, concentric circles, and rudely drawn spirals. The latter may
have been the forerunners of the beautifully designed volutes of the
Iron Age, the nearest approach to perfection being on the sculptured
slab at the entrance to the New Grange tumulus, Co. Meath, and on the
slabs forming the sides of a chambered cairn at Clover Hill, Co. Sligo.
When we come down to the Iron Age we find a very beautiful and refined
system of decoration applied to bronze objects, such as hand-mirrors,
shields, helmets, sword-sheaths, and horse-trappings, the leading
_motif_ of which is the divergent, or trumpet-shaped spiral. This style
of decoration has received the name Late-Celtic in this country, and La
Tène on the Continent.
No one can fail to be struck with the similarity between the
Late-Celtic spiral ornament and that found in the early Irish MSS., the
patterns in some cases being absolutely identical. It is thus possible
to trace this particular element in the decorative art of the early
Christian period to a native Pagan source.
Late-Celtic objects have been found in all parts of the United Kingdom,
but probably the style of decoration only survived into Christian times
in Ireland, although there is really no reason why it should not have
done so elsewhere—in the north of Scotland, for instance, which was
quite as much cut off from civilisation as Ireland during the Saxon
conquests. The closest resemblance between the spiral decoration of the
Pagan period and that of the Christian period is to be found on the
discoidal ornaments with patterns in _champlevé_ enamel, forming the
attachments of the handles of certain bronze bowls, several examples
of which have been discovered from time to time in different parts of
England.[442]
[442] _Archæologia_, vol. lvi., p. 43.
I believe that the only element in early Christian decorative art
in this country that can be traced to a native Pagan source is the
divergent spiral. It has been suggested that the Irish and Saxon
designers derived some of their ideas from the Roman pavements, but
I can see nothing in the decoration of the MSS. on monuments of the
pre-Norman period that can be fairly attributed to a Romano-British
origin.
We have now to consider the external influences which came into play
after the introduction of Christianity (_circa_ A.D. 450). First
amongst these was the influence of Italy, and thus more indirectly that
of Byzantium. It is to this source that it is possible to trace the
interlaced-work and scrolls of foliage which occur so frequently on the
early sculptured monuments in Great Britain. We can refer to no better
text-book whilst dealing with this portion of our investigation than
_L’Architettura in Italia_, by Professor Raffaele Cattaneo (Venezia,
1888), who, by a careful study of the subject, has been able to divide
early Italian ecclesiastical architecture into the following styles and
corresponding periods:—
(1) Latino-Barbaro A.D. 300 to A.D. 600.
(2) Bizantino-Barbaro A.D. 600 to A.D. 800.
(3) Italo-Bizantino A.D. 800 to A.D. 1000.
As an example of the first period we have the Ciborium in the Church
of San Clemente at Rome (A.D. 514-23), decorated with plaitwork and
foliage, both evidently of Classical origin. Belonging to the second
period we have the Ciborium of San Giorgio di Valpolicella[443] (A.D.
712), decorated with broken plaitwork, and the Baptistery of Cividale
(A.D. 737), with fully developed knotwork. And belonging to the third
period the Ciborium of Sant’ Apollinare in Classe, near Ravenna (A.D.
806-16), with interlaced-work and foliage, and a slab over the altar of
San Giacomo, at Venice (A.D. 829), with circular knotwork.[444]
[443] Also the jambs of the doorway of the chapel of S. Zeno in the
church of S. Prassede, Rome (A.D. 772-95).
[444] Slabs of circular knotwork are also to be seen in the church of
Sta. Sabina, Rome.
[Illustration: CIRCULAR KNOTWORK ON SLAB IN CHURCH OF STA. SABINA, ROME]
[Illustration: CIRCULAR KNOTWORK ON SLAB IN CHURCH OF STA. SABINA, ROME]
[Illustration: DOORWAY OF THE CHAPEL OF S. ZENO IN THE CHURCH OF S.
PRASSEDE AT ROME, SHOWING BROKEN PLAITWORK ON JAMBS
(A. D. 442 TO 795)]
[Illustration: Pierced Marble Screen at Ravenna]
A careful examination of these specimens shows that the plait was the
first kind of interlaced-work employed for decorative purposes, and
that it was of Classical origin. The plait as a decorative motive must
have been well known to the inhabitants of this country during the
Roman occupation and immediately after, from the numerous examples
which occur on Roman pavements, as at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire, and
elsewhere.
Knotwork was gradually evolved from the plait by introducing breaks
at regular intervals during the Bizantino-Barbaro period (A.D. 600 to
800); and subsequent to this we find still more complicated forms of
interlaced patterns were introduced, which I propose to call circular
knotwork and triangular knotwork. The evidence gathered from dated
examples of interlaced-work in Italy tends to show that there was
a gradual advance in the elaboration of the patterns as time went
on. Consequently the style could not have been borrowed _en bloc_
by Ireland from Italy, or _vice versâ_, at one time; but interlaced
ornament must have been a prevalent form of decoration throughout
the whole of the West of Europe, and the style advanced in all the
different countries simultaneously, there being always a constant
communication between Rome and the centres of religious activity
abroad. Some races, like those in Great Britain, who appear to have
had a special gift for inventing new patterns and combining them with
a sense of artistic fitness, may have made more rapid strides than
their neighbours and have influenced the development of the style in
consequence, but that is all that can be said.
[Illustration: KEY PATTERN, S. APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA]
[Illustration: VINE SCROLLS, S. APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA]
Two special peculiarities of the Italian interlaced-work, as compared
with that in Great Britain, are the ornamenting of the interlaced bands
with two incised lines instead of one, and the twisting together two
bands at frequent intervals, thus—
[Illustration]
The latter feature, which is clearly Classical, occurs frequently in
circular knotwork in this country, showing that circular knotwork is of
Italian origin.
The reason why interlaced-work is characteristic of early Christian
decoration almost throughout the whole of Europe, whilst spirals,
key-patterns, foliage, etc., are confined to particular limited areas,
I believe to be partly because the number of distinct patterns that can
be produced from interlaced-work is far greater than those which can be
got from any other class of ornament.
It is hardly necessary, perhaps, to enlarge much upon the subject of
the foliage of the early Christian period in Great Britain. The scrolls
with conventionalised bunches of grapes are no doubt descendants of
the Classical vine; the involved birds, beasts, etc., being a later
addition[445] of the Bizantino-Barbaro, or Italo-Bizantino periods.
Foliage is unknown in the Pagan Saxon, Scandinavian, or Late-Celtic
art, and the only other source it could have been derived from is
Italian art.
[445] Or a substitution of later forms for the Cupids, etc., of the
Classical style.
We lastly have to consider the parts played in the development of early
Christian art in Great Britain by the Anglo-Saxon and the Scandinavian
invaders. There does not seem to be much evidence to show that the
Saxons were ever gifted with any great capacity for ornamental design,
although their workmanship often reached a high pitch of excellence. In
looking through the plates of the most recent work on _The Industrial
Arts of the Anglo-Saxons_, by the Baron J. de Baye, one is struck with
the extremely limited range of imagination displayed in the design of
the patterns. Interlaced-work (but of a debased kind) occurs on some of
the sword-hilts and buckles, the latter evidently bearing a remarkable
affinity to the Merovingian buckles. A radiated fibula found at Searby,
in Lincolnshire, exhibits a diagonal key-pattern similar to that found
in the Irish MSS. Far the most beautiful specimens of Saxon jewellery,
however, are the circular brooches with _cloisonné_ ornament. The
disc-shaped surface of these brooches is broken up into little
compartments, which are filled in with thin slabs of coloured glass,
garnets, etc. The narrow bands of gold which separate the compartments
from each other are zigzagged at right angles, or stepped, and it is
quite possible that the idea of the stepped patterns within circles,
which occur in the decoration of the Irish MSS. and on the circular
enamelled bosses on the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork, may have been
taken from the circular _cloisonné_ Saxon brooch. It is only fair,
however, to mention that circular ornaments of _cloisonné_ enamel, with
an approximation to a stepped-pattern, are used in the decoration of
the magnificent Late-Celtic shield found in the Thames at Battersea,
and now in the British Museum.
It has been suggested that Irish interlaced-work was derived from the
rude interlaced patterns on the Saxon and Merovingian buckles, but this
appears to me most unlikely.
M. Paul du Chaillu, in his _Viking Age_, has endeavoured to show that
the Anglo-Saxons derived their art such as it is from Northern rather
than from Central or from Western Europe; but his views will not
receive favour at the hands of the scientific archæologist who relies
on hard facts to make good his contentions. The forms and ornamental
details of the buckles and other objects found with Saxon burials in
the south of England undoubtedly show more affinity with Merovingian
grave-goods than with anything emanating from Norway, Sweden, or
Denmark.
Although no trace of Scandinavian influence can be detected in the
ornamental patterns of the Anglo-Saxons—at all events, in the period
preceding the Viking conquests in the ninth and tenth centuries—I
am not quite so sure that one of the elements of early Christian
decorative art in Great Britain may not possibly be of Northern origin,
namely, the zoömorphic element. I put forward this suggestion with the
greatest diffidence, and merely as a tentative theory until something
better can be found to take its place.
Zoömorphism is not a marked characteristic of Pagan Saxon decorative
art, and therefore, in order to account for the predominance of
so-called dragonesque designs in the early Irish illuminated MSS., we
must fall back on one of the following alternatives: (1) that these
patterns are of native origin, and were invented by the Irish; (2) that
like the spirals, they are of Late-Celtic origin; and (3) that they are
of Italo-Byzantine derivation.
General Pitt-Rivers and Mr. Henry Balfour have given us an insight
of the manner in which animal forms, by repeated copying, may
degenerate into mere ornament; and at one time I thought that early
Christian zoömorphism might have been the result of a process of a
reverse nature. It is possible to “see snakes” when looking at a
piece of interlaced-work without necessarily suffering from excess
of alcoholism. Thus zoömorphic designs might have been evolved from
interlaced-work by making the bands terminate in heads and tails, the
limbs following in due course later on. Such may have been the process
by which the Irish illuminator arrived at his zoömorphism, unless it
can be shown that he got it in some other way.
Animal forms are comparatively rare in Late-Celtic art, and they are
not interlaced, so that it is almost useless to seek for the original
inspiring idea in this direction.
Birds, beasts, reptiles, and other creatures—often used
symbolically—are frequently seen in Byzantine art, both in the
decorative features of churches and in the borders of the MSS. If it
was thence that the early Christian zoömorphs in this country took
their origin, I fancy the interlacements must have been arrived at
either by placing the creatures in pairs symmetrically facing each
other, or by contorting their bodies into unnatural attitudes. In the
case of beasts arranged in pairs, the first step towards interlacement
is to raise their paws and then to make them cross. The beasts may also
be placed with their necks crossed; their tails may gradually curl
round until they pass over the body, and may be looped or knotted to
fill in a blank space; and in endless other ways the most complicated
forms of zoömorphic interlaced-work may be evolved from simple
beginnings.
Dr. Hans Hildebrand, in his _Industrial Arts of Scandinavia_ (p. 50),
explains in a most ingenious manner how the lion _couchant_, which
so often appears in Roman art, forms the basis of the earlier kinds
of zoömorphic ornament in Scandinavia. The question is, did the Irish
evolve their zoömorphs independently in a similar way from a Classical
or Byzantine lion, or did they get the idea from the Scandinavians
after they had so transformed the Roman lion _couchant_ that all
resemblance to the original had disappeared? The difficulty in settling
this point is the absence of accurately dated specimens of Scandinavian
art workmanship. The panels of zoömorphic ornament on some of the
fibulæ of the Later Iron Age, illustrated in Dr. Hans Hildebrand’s
work already referred to (pp. 58-65), bear a very considerable general
resemblance to the panels of interlaced beasts in the Irish MSS.,
although the details are worked out differently. The whole question
turns on the exact date of the Gotland brooches. If they can be proved
to be earlier than the time when zoömorphism first appears in the Irish
MSS., and if it is possible that the communication between Ireland and
Gotland can be accounted for by the trade in silver objects and bullion
existing between this country and the East, then there is something
to be said for the Scandinavian origin of zoömorphism in Ireland. I
believe, however, that from the evidence of the coins found with hoards
of silver objects, this trade did not begin until about A.D. 800.
Attention must here be called to two points which are common to the
zoömorphic and anthropomorphic designs of Scandinavia and of Great
Britain, namely, (1) the introduction of spiral curves to represent
conventionally the folds of the skin where a limb joins the body; and
(2) the introduction of figures of men grasping birds and beasts, or
arranged swastica-wise grasping each other’s limbs. Here, again, it is
not easy to decide whether these features were invented independently,
or whether they were borrowed by the Irish from Scandinavia, or by the
Scandinavians from Ireland.
Whatever may be thought of the possibility of the existence of
Scandinavian influence on Christian art in this country in its
earlier phases, there is plenty of evidence of the development of
an Anglo-Scandinavian style in particular districts where the Norse
element was strong, as in the Isle of Man, and the adjoining coasts of
Cumberland, Lancashire, and North Wales, and in Orkney and Shetland.
The specially Scandinavian characteristics of the sculptured monuments
in the districts specified are as follows:—
(1) There is a predominance of patterns formed of
chains of rings.
(2) The bands of the interlaced-work have a tendency
to bifurcate and break off into scroll-like
terminations.
(3) The beasts in the zoömorphic designs have two toes,
instead of three; the bodies are covered with
scales; the attitude is peculiar, the head being
bent back and a crest issuing from it with fin-like
appendages in places; and the junction of the limbs
with the body is conventionally indicated by spirals.
(4) Amongst the figure-subjects scenes from the
mythic-heroic Eddaic poems, such as Sigurd Fafni’s
bane, Thor fishing for the Midgard-worm, Weyland
Smith, etc.
Even in Norman times Scandinavian influence is exhibited in the details
of the tympana at Hoveringham, and Southwell Minster, Notts, and St.
Nicholas, Ipswich.
The only element in early Christian decorative art the origin of
which we have not succeeded in running to earth in the preceding
investigation is the key-pattern. I venture to think that this may have
been suggested by the Greek or Roman fret, and that the essentially
Celtic character imparted to it was the placing of the guiding lines
in a diagonal direction with regard to the margin, instead of parallel
to it. I believe the reason for this to be that exactly the same
setting-out diagram was used both for the interlaced-work and the
key-pattern. It is often possible to trace the origin of key-patterns
to the necessities of the methods of weaving textile fabrics; but with
regard to the ones we are now considering I am inclined to think that
their beginnings are due to the geometrical conditions imposed by the
arrangement of the setting-out lines.
In conclusion, I wish to emphasise the fact that the beauty and
individuality of the ornamental designs found in early Christian art
in Great Britain are due chiefly to the great taste with which the
different elements are combined and the exquisite finish lavished
upon them. I cannot see that it in the least detracts from the praise
due to the originators of the style if it can be shown that the ideas
underlying many of the patterns were suggested by a pre-existing native
style or adapted from a foreign one. Interlaced-work, key-patterns,
spirals, and zoömorphs are to be found separately in the decorative art
of many races and many periods, but nowhere and at no time have these
different elements been used in combination with such consummate skill,
as in the early Christian period in Great Britain and Ireland.
CHAPTER VIII
CELTIC ART OF THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD
THE LEADING CHARACTERISTICS OF CELTIC ART OF THE
CHRISTIAN PERIOD IN GREAT BRITAIN, AND THE GENERAL
NATURE OF ITS DECORATIVE AND SYMBOLIC ELEMENTS
The leading characteristics of Celtic art of the Christian period are
as follows:—
(1) The prominence given to the margin or frame within which the
whole design is enclosed.
(2) The arrangement of the design within the margin in panels, each
containing a complete piece of ornament.
(3) The use of setting-out lines for the ornament, placed diagonally
with regard to the margin.
(4) The use of interlaced-work, step-patterns, key-patterns,
spirals, and zoömorphs in combination.
(5) The geometrical perfection of all the ornament.
(6) The superiority of the decorative designs to the figure drawing.
There are in the world two distinct schools of decorative art, one
which entirely ignores the shape of the surface to be ornamented, and
the other which allows the contour of the margin to influence the
whole design. Japanese art belongs to the first of these, and Celtic
art to the second. In the Irish illuminated MSS. the rectangular
shape of the page determines the setting-out of the design, which is
universally enclosed within a rectangular margin composed of lines of
various thicknesses, or within an ornamental panelled frame. The only
exception is in the case of the initial pages of the Four Gospels,
where the margin is incomplete, so as to allow the extremities of the
letters to project more nearly to the edge of the page. This prominence
given to the margin often greatly influences the designs within it,
more especially the key-patterns with diagonal setting-out lines. In
sculptured stonework either roll-mouldings or flat bands form the
margin, and in metalwork the margins are raised and the panels sunk.
The panels within the margin are generally rectangular, but sometimes
they are circular, annular, segmental, triangular, etc. The ornament
in adjoining panels is seldom of a similar kind, and the patterns
are often arranged on the principle of chequerwork, so that if there
is a panel of interlaced-work at the left-hand upper corner of the
page of a MS., and a panel of key-pattern at the left-hand lower
corner, the order will be reversed on the opposite side of the page,
and the key-pattern will be at the right-hand upper corner and the
interlaced-work at the right-hand lower corner.
The diagonal setting-out lines are chiefly confined to the
key-patterns, and, as we shall see subsequently, are the origin of the
peculiar form of Celtic key-pattern which was developed from the Greek
fret.
The various motives that have been specified—namely, interlaced-work,
step-patterns, key-patterns, spirals, and zoömorphs—are not always
found in combination, except in the MSS., sculptured stones, and
metalwork of the best period. The step-patterns are, as a rule, only
found in the early MSS. and on the enamelled settings of metalwork.
Foliage is a distinctly non-Celtic element, and wherever it occurs it
is a proof of Anglian influence from Northumbria. As the decadence
of Celtic art set in the spirals disappeared first, and then the
key-patterns, leaving only interlaced-work and zoömorphs, which
survived even after the Norman conquest. Key-patterns survived in
a debased form in the architectural details of the churches of the
twelfth century in Ireland, but not in Scotland or Wales.
By the geometrical perfection of the Celtic ornament is meant that
there are hardly ever any mistakes in the setting-out and complete
execution of the designs. Thus in the interlaced-work every cord laps
under and over with unfailing regularity (never over two or under two),
and all the cords are joined up so as not to leave any loose ends. All
the details of the spiralwork are executed with the minutest care,
and there is never a broken line or pseudo-spiral. In the zoömorphic
designs the beasts are all provided with the proper number of limbs and
are complete in every respect down to the smallest detail.
The inferiority of the figure drawing in Christian Celtic art to the
ornament will be dealt with subsequently in its proper place.
We will now proceed to examine in detail the different motives made use
of in the Celtic art of the Christian period in Great Britain.
INTERLACED-WORK
The interlaced ornament used in Celtic art may be divided into the
following classes:—
(1) Regular plaitwork, without any breaks.
(2) Broken plaitwork, with breaks made in an irregular way.
(3) Knotwork.
(4) Circular knotwork.
(5) Triangular knotwork.
(6) Ringwork or chainwork.
Interlaced-work is the predominant motive of the Celtic style of the
Christian period. It lasted longer in time than any other motive, and
its geographical distribution extends over a larger area. It is very
seldom that one motive is used by itself for the decoration of a stone
monument, metal object, or page of a MS.; but where this is the case
the motive chosen is invariably interlaced-work, and not a key-pattern,
spiral, or zoömorph. As instances of sculptured monuments decorated
entirely with interlaced-work we have the cross at Neuadd Siarman,
Brecknockshire, and the cross-shaft at St. Neot, Cornwall.
The evolution of knotwork from plaitwork cannot better be studied
anywhere than in the decoration of the Welsh crosses. Let us now
endeavour to trace the various stages in the process by which the
higher forms of Celtic interlaced-work were arrived at.
In Egyptian, Greek, and Roman decorative art the only kind of
interlaced-work is the plait, without any modification whatever;
and the man who discovered how to devise new patterns from a simple
plait by making what I term _breaks_ laid the foundation of all the
wonderfully complicated and truly bewildering forms of interlaced
ornament found in such a masterpiece of the art of illumination as
the Book of Kells in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. Although
we do not know _who_ made this discovery of how to make breaks in a
plait, we know pretty nearly _when_ it was made. In the decoration
of the mosaic pavements in Great Britain belonging to the period of
the Roman occupation, no instance, as far as I can ascertain, exists
of the introduction of a break in a plait; nor is there any break in
the plaitwork on the marble screen and the capitals of the columns of
the ciborium in the Church of San Clemente at Rome (which are dated
by R. Cattaneo[446] between A.D. 514 and 523). In the eighth century,
however, there are several examples with well-authenticated dates of
the use of true knotwork (as distinguished from plaitwork) in the
decoration of churches in Italy; namely, on the ciborium of San Giorgio
at Valpolicella[447] (A.D. 712); on the Baptistery of Calistus at
Cividale[448] (A.D. 737); and on the jambs of the doorway of the Chapel
of San Zeno in the Church of San Prassede at Rome[449] (A.D. 772-795).
[446] _L’Architettura in Italia_, pp. 29 and 31.
[447] _Ibid._, p. 80.
[448] _Ibid._, p. 87.
[449] _Archæologia_, vol. xl., p. 191.
It would appear, then, that the transition from plaitwork to knotwork
took place between the Lombard conquest of Italy under Alboin in A.D.
563, and the extinction of the Lombard monarchy by Charlemagne in
A.D. 774; possibly during the reigns of Luitprand (A.D. 712-736) and
Rachis (A.D. 744): for the name of the former king is mentioned in the
inscriptions on the Baptistery at Cividale and the ciborium of San
Giorgio at Valpolicella, and the latter on the altar at Cividale.
[Illustration: PLAITWORK ON ROMANO-BRITISH PAVEMENT AT LYDNEY PARK,
GLOUCESTERSHIRE (SIXTH CENTURY)]
[Illustration: PLAITWORK ON CIBORIUM IN THE CHURCH OF SAN CLEMENTE, ROME]
I now propose to explain how plaitwork is set out, and the method of
making breaks in it. When it is required to fill in a rectangular
panel with a plait the four sides of the panel are divided up into
equal parts (except at the ends, where half a division is left), and
the points thus found are joined, so as to form a network of diagonal
lines. The plait is then drawn over these lines, in the manner shown
on the accompanying diagram. The setting-out lines ought really to
be double so as to define the width of the band composing the plait,
but they are drawn single on the diagram in order to simplify the
explanation.
[Illustration: Regular plaitwork without any break]
[Illustration: Method of making breaks in plaitwork]
If now we desire to make a break in the plait any two of the cords
are cut asunder at the point where they cross each other, leaving
four loose ends A, B, C, D. To make a break the loose ends are joined
together in pairs. This can be done in two ways only: (1) A can be
joined to C and D to B, forming a vertical break; or (2) A can be
joined to D and C to B, forming a horizontal break. The decorative
effect of the plait is thus entirely altered by running two of the
meshes between the cords into one. By continuing the process all the
knots most commonly used in Celtic decorative art may be derived from a
simple plait.
[Illustration: Regular plaitwork, with one vertical break and one
horizontal break]
[Illustration: Six-cord plait, with horizontal breaks at regular
intervals]
[450] This occurs on the second panel of the cross at Llanbadarn Fawr.
Let us proceed to trace the process of the evolution of knotwork out of
plaitwork by actual instances taken from the Welsh crosses. We have, to
start with, good examples of plaits of four, six, and ten cords[451]
without any breaks at Nevern, Pembrokeshire; and Llantwit Major, and
Margam, Glamorganshire. Next, plaits with a single break only are to
be seen at Carew, Pembrokeshire, and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire;
then plaits with several breaks, made quite regardless of symmetry or
order, at Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire; and, lastly, breaks made at
regular intervals, at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. When the breaks
are made symmetrically at regular intervals, and brought sufficiently
near together, the plait ceases to be the most prominent feature in the
design, and in its place we get a pattern composed entirely of what
(for want of a better name) are called knots. On some of the Welsh
crosses (as at Carew and Nevern, Pembrokeshire), however, the breaks
are made with sufficient regularity and proximity to produce knots,
and yet the knots themselves are not symmetrically placed. The result
is a class of interlaced-work, intermediate between plaitwork with
irregular breaks and knotwork. The same kind of thing is to be seen on
the crosses at Coppleston, Devonshire; and St. Neot, Cornwall.
[451] Plaits of an uneven number of cords are seldom used, because they
produce lopsided patterns.
[Illustration: Cross-shaft at Golden Grove, with panels of irregular
broken plaitwork
Scale ¹/₁₆ linear]
[Illustration: Cross-shaft at Llantwit Major (No. 5), Glamorganshire.
Eight-cord plait, with cruciform breaks
Scale ¹/₁₂ linear]
[Illustration: Eight-cord plaits, with cruciform breaks]
[Illustration: Eight-cord plaits, with cruciform breaks]
[Illustration: Six-cord plait, with cruciform breaks
(Occurring at Llanbadarn Fawr)]
[Illustration: Ten-cord plait, with cruciform breaks
(Occurring at St. Neuadd Siarman)]
[Illustration: Knots derived from a three-cord plait]
If two horizontal breaks and two vertical breaks are made next to each
other in a plait, a space in the shape of a cross is produced. A large
number of the interlaced patterns used in Celtic decorative art are
derived from a plait by making cruciform breaks at regular intervals.
There are examples of this in Wales, at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire;
Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardiganshire; and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire. It
is not unlikely that symbolism had something to do with the frequent
use of the cruciform break.
There are eight elementary knots which form the basis of nearly all the
interlaced patterns in Celtic decorative art, with the exception of
those already described. Two of the elementary knots are derived from a
three-cord plait, and the remaining six from a four-cord plait.
[Illustration: Knot No. 1]
[Illustration: Knot No. 2]
=Knot No. 1= is derived from a three-cord plait by making horizontal
breaks on one side of the plait only, and =No. 2= by making horizontal
breaks alternately on one side and the other.
=Knot No. 3= is derived from a four-cord plait by making horizontal
breaks in the middle of the plait.
=Knot No. 4= is derived from No. 3 by making a horizontal break at A;
and =No. 5= from No. 4 by making a vertical break at B and C.
=Knot No. 6= is derived from a four-cord plait by making horizontal
breaks in the middle of the plait, in the same way as in the case of
knot No. 3, but closer together.
[Illustration: Knot No. 4]
[Illustration: Knot No. 3]
[Illustration: Knot No. 5]
[Illustration: Knot No. 7]
[Illustration: Knot No. 6]
[Illustration: Knot No. 8]
=Knot No. 7= is derived from No. 6 by making a vertical break at B; and
=No. 8= from No. 6 by making vertical breaks at B and C.
If a series of knots repeated in a single row can be derived from a
plait of _n_ bands, a series of the same knots repeated in a double row
can be derived from a plait of _2n_ bands. Thus a pattern composed of
knot No. 1 arranged in a double row would be derived from a plait of
six cords.
Knots like Nos. 3 and 4, which are longer than they are broad, can be
placed either horizontally or vertically. Thus No. 3 placed with its
longer axis vertical can be derived from a four-cord plait, but if
placed horizontally it would be derived from a six-cord plait.
[Illustration: Method of deriving Knots Nos. 3 and 6 from a four-cord
plait]
Knot No. 2 does not occur on the Welsh crosses, and No. 1 only in a
double row, as at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. This pattern is
derived from a six-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the two
edges of the plait, and vertical breaks in the middle, the stages being
shown on the annexed diagram.
Knot No. 3, in a single row placed with its longer axis vertical,
occurs at Llandough, Glamorganshire, and, in a single row placed the
other way, at Margam, Glamorganshire.
[Illustration: Knots Nos. 4, 5, 7, and 8, derived from a four-cord
plait]
[Illustration: Knot No. 1, derived from either a three-cord or a
six-cord plait]
[Illustration: Knots 3 and 4, derived from a six-cord plait]
[Illustration: Evolution of Knot No. 1 from a six-cord plait]
Examples of the two knots, Nos. 4 and 5, which are derived from No. 3,
are to be seen at Baglan, Glamorganshire, and Penally, Pembrokeshire.
Knot No. 6, in a single row, occurs at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire,
and its second derivative, No. 8, at Llantwit Major, and also at Neuadd
Siarman, Brecknockshire. Its first derivative, No. 7, is only used
in a double row on the Welsh crosses, as at Silian and Maes Mynach,
Cardiganshire, and at Penally, Pembrokeshire, where the knots have an
extra spiral twist. The direction of the twist of the spirally bent
cord is the same in both the right-hand and left-hand vertical row of
knots, although the positions of the knots are different. The more
usual arrangement is to make the cords twist in opposite directions, as
on the annexed diagram, in which the evolution of the pattern is shown.
(Page 271.)
The clearest proof that the spiral knot No. 7 was developed from
plaitwork in the manner explained is that on stones at Llangenydd,
Glamorganshire; Whithorn, Wigtownshire; Abercorn, Linlithgowshire;
and Aycliffe, Co. Durham; the successive stages of development can be
easily traced.
[Illustration: Evolution of Knot No. 7 from an eight-cord plait]
[Illustration: Evolution of Knot No. 7 from an eight-cord plait]
I have coined the term _circular knotwork_ to describe a particular
class of interlaced-work, in which the circular curves made by the
cords give the pattern its distinctive appearance. The best example
of circular knotwork in any of the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. occurs on one
of the ornamental cross-pages of the Book of Durrow.[452] Circular
knotwork is not used in the decoration of the Irish ecclesiastical
metalwork, probably because it is only suitable for application to
larger surfaces than are to be found on comparatively small metal
objects. Circular knotwork is characteristic of the Irish and Scottish
sculptured monuments of the best period; it is unknown in Cornwall
and the Isle of Man and there is only one instance of its occurrence
in Wales. Very good examples of circular knotwork may be seen on
sculptured monuments in Ireland[453] at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice
and Termonfechin, Co. Louth; Boho, Co. Fermanagh; Kilfenora, Co.
Clare; and Drumcliff, Co. Sligo; and in Scotland[454] at Collieburn,
Sutherland (now in the Dunrobin Museum); Tarbet (now at Invergordon
Castle), Brodie, Elginshire; Nigg, Ross-shire; Aberlemno, Monifieth
(now in the Edinburgh Museum), and Eassie, Forfarshire; and Rossie
Priory and St. Madoes, Perthshire.
[452] J. R. Allen and J. Anderson’s _Early Christian Monuments of
Scotland_, p. lxxviii.; J. A. Bruun’s _Illuminated Manuscripts of the
Middle Ages_, pt. I, “Celtic MSS.,” p. 8.
[453] H. O’Neill’s _Crosses of Ancient Ireland_.
[454] Allen and Anderson’s _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_.
[Illustration: Evolution of Knot No.7 from an eight-cord plait]
The most common kinds of circular knotwork appear to have been evolved
in the following manner. It has already been shown how knot No. 3 can
be derived from a four-cord plait by making a series of horizontal
breaks at regular intervals, leaving two crossing-points of the cords
between each break; and how knot No. 4 can again be derived from knot
No. 3 by making a horizontal break at the point A.
[Illustration: Knot No. 3]
[Illustration: Knot No. 4]
Now if a pair of knots like No. 4 be placed opposite each other thus—
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
and repeated in a vertical row, we get the pattern shown below.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Sections of pattern shown on p. 273]
[Illustration: Knotwork from Ramsbury, Wilts, and Nigg, Ross-shire]
By making pointed ends to the loops forming the knots and “sweetening”
the curves of the bands between each knot the appearance of the whole
is changed, and its development from the plait disguised. Almost
all geometrical ornament is capable of conveying several different
impressions to the mind according to the way it is observed by
the eye for the time being, and the intellectual pleasure which a
pattern gives is most probably dependent on the infinite variety of
these kaleidoscopic changes. Taking this pattern for example, if the
attention is concentrated upon the portions of the pattern between each
of the points where the bands cross in the centre, it will seem as if
the whole was formed of repetitions of knot No. 4; but if the attention
be now directed towards the portions lying between the middle points
of each of the knots, the pattern will appear to consist entirely of
circular curves with two diameters crossing each other diagonally.
[Illustration: ERECT CROSS-SLAB FROM COLLIEBURN, SUTHERLAND, NOW IN THE
DUNROBIN MUSEUM
_Photograph supplied by the Rev. J. M. Joass, LL.D., Honorary
Curator_]
When the circular knot thus obtained is repeated in a double row we get
a comparatively simple pattern, in which the circular curves assume
much greater prominence.
More complicated forms of circular knots can be derived from the
elementary circular knot by combining it with a circular ring, either
a larger one enclosing the four loops in the middle entirely, or a
smaller one interlaced through the loops thus:—
[Illustration]
Further variations can again be produced from these by severing the
bands in places, and joining parts of the loops to the rings on the
same principle that breaks can be made in a plait.
[Illustration]
The connection between the different knots will at once become clear if
they are drawn on separate pieces of tracing paper and placed one over
the other.
Another kind of circular knotwork is formed by enclosing the simpler
sort of knots derived directly from plaitwork within a circular band,
which crosses over in one or two places and turns inwards to form the
enclosed knots.
[Illustration: Circular knotwork from Tarbet, Ross-shire]
The illustrations of the different kinds of circular knotwork from
actual examples show the process of development.
[Illustration: Circular knotwork from Monasterboice, Co. Louth]
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON ERECT CROSS-SLAB AT NIGG,
ROSS-SHIRE
_From photographs of the cast in the Science and Art Museum, Edinburgh,
supplied by Mr. Vallance, Curator_]
By the term _triangular knotwork_ is meant interlaced patterns,
the setting-out lines of which form triangles only or triangles
and lozenges. The patterns are made by distorting the simple knots
derived from plaitwork, so as to adapt them to the triangular shape.
This species of knotwork is very seldom seen except in a few of the
Hiberno-Saxon MSS. and on some of the sculptured stones of Ireland and
Scotland. The best examples are at Kilfenora, Co. Clare; Ulbster (now
at Thurso Castle), Sutherlandshire; and Dunfallandy, Perthshire.
[Illustration: Triangular knotwork from Ulbster, Caithness]
Under the head of ringwork and chainwork are included all patterns
composed of circular, oval, and looped rings interlaced symmetrically
round a centre, or arranged so as to form a long chain. Patterns of
this kind are not found in the best Celtic work, and when they occur it
is generally an indication either of Scandinavian influence or of the
style being debased.
A certain number of modifications of the interlaced-work already
described are produced by adapting the patterns so that they will fit
into circular or annular spaces. Instances of this may be seen on the
erect cross-slabs at Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon Castle) and
Nigg, Ross-shire; Glamis, Forfarshire; and Rossie Priory, Perthshire;
and on the Lough Erne and Monymusk Reliquaries.
[Illustration: Triangular knotwork from Dunfallandy, Perthshire]
STEP-PATTERNS
A step-pattern is one which is formed of straight lines bent backwards
and forwards at right angles so as to resemble a flight of steps.
The lines are often arranged symmetrically round a centre, so as
to make cruciform and swastika designs, and the different parts are
also generally shaded alternately black and white on the principle
of chequerwork. Step-patterns hardly ever occur in Christian Celtic
art except on the enamelled bosses of metalwork and in a few of the
illuminated MSS., such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the St. Gall Gospels
(Codex No. 51), the Gospels of MacRegol, the Book of Kells, and the
Book of Durrow. The step-patterns in the MSS. so nearly resemble those
on the enamelled bosses on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, and
the Cross of Cong, that there can be but little doubt the illuminators
copied their designs from the enamels. In the Pagan Celtic enamels the
ornament is nearly always curvilinear; but in the Christian Celtic
enamels it is rectilinear, the arrangement of the _cloisons_ being very
similar to that on the Anglo-Saxon disc brooches incrusted with small
slabs of garnet, glass, etc. Instances have already been given in a
previous chapter of the use of step-patterns by the Pagan Celts on the
engraved woodwork from the Glastonbury Marsh Village (p. 161). The only
instances I have met with of step-patterns on the sculptured stones of
the early Christian period in this country are at Bradford-on-Avon,
Wilts; and Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare.
KEY-PATTERNS
The term _key-pattern_ is used to describe a particular kind of
rectilinear ornament which bears a certain amount of resemblance to
the perforations in a key to allow it to pass the wards of a lock. The
best-known key-pattern is the Greek fret. This is composed of what may
be appropriately called straight-line spirals; that is to say, straight
lines (or, to speak more accurately, narrow straight bars) bent round
into a series of right angles in the same direction. The space between
the lines (or narrow bars) is generally about the same width as that of
the line itself.
[Illustration: 1 2]
[Illustration: 3 4
Key-patterns
(1) Aberlady, Haddingtonshire
(2) Abercorn, Linlithgowshire
(3) St. Andrews, Fifeshire
(4) Collieburn, Sutherlandshire
]
The key-patterns used in Christian Celtic art may be classified as
follows:—
(1) _Square key-patterns_, in which the lines run horizontally
and vertically parallel to the margins.
(2) _Diagonal key-patterns_, in which the lines run vertically
parallel to the right and left margins, and diagonally in
two directions at an angle of 45° to the margins.
(3) _Diaper key-patterns_, in which the lines run horizontally
and vertically parallel to the margins, and diagonally in
two directions at an angle of 45° to the margins.
The essential difference between the key-patterns used by the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans and those used by the Christian Celts
consists in the introduction of diagonal lines by the latter. Square
key-patterns (_i.e._ those of the Greek fret type) were very seldom
used in Christian Celtic art. There is, however, a very good example
on one of the crosses at Penmon, Anglesey. The first step in the
evolution of the Celtic key-pattern was to turn the Greek fret round
through an angle of 45° so as to make the lines run diagonally with
regard to the margins instead of parallel to them. Key-patterns in
this stage of development are to be seen in the Lindisfarne Gospels,
the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51), and an Anglian cross-shaft from
Aberlady, Haddingtonshire, now at Carlowrie Castle, near Kirkliston,
Midlothian. It will be observed, however, that the result of changing
a square key-pattern into a diagonal one is to leave a series of
unornamented triangles all round the edge (p. 280). When these
triangles are filled in by bending the ends of the diagonal lines
round through an angle of 45°, so as to run parallel to the margins,
we get such a characteristically Celtic key-pattern as the one on the
great cross-shaft at St. Andrews, Fifeshire. Lastly, when the opposite
ends of the diagonal lines in the middle of the panel are bent round
in a similar manner, the most typical of all the Celtic key-patterns
is arrived at, of which there is a very good example on the erect
cross-slab at Farr, Sutherlandshire.
[Illustration: 1 2]
[Illustration: 3 4
Key-patterns
(1) Rosemarkie, Ross-shire
(2) Farr, Sutherlandshire
(3) Gattonside, Roxburghshire
(4) Nigg, Ross-shire
]
[Illustration: Shaft of Cross of Eiudon, at Golden Grove,
Carmarthenshire]
The filling in of the sharp corners made by the lines inclined to each
other at an angle of 45°, with small black triangles (if in a MS.)
or with sunk triangles (if on a sculptured stone) gives a decorative
finish to the pattern, and still further adds to its distinctively
Celtic character.
Next to interlaced-work the key-pattern is the most common motive
made use of in the decorative art of the Christian Celtic period.
It occurs in nearly all the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. and on a
large proportion of the sculptured monuments in Ireland, Scotland, and
Wales. Key-patterns and interlaced-work in combination, but without
any other decorative motive, may be seen on the Welsh crosses at
Carew and Nevern, Pembrokeshire; Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire; and
Llantwit Major and Margam, Glamorganshire. On the metalwork of the
period key-patterns seldom occur, except on the bronze bells, on a
strap-buckle from Islandbridge, near Dublin, and on the Crucifixion
plaque of repoussé bronze from Athlone, now in the Dublin Museum.
[Illustration: Detail of ornament on erect cross-slab at Rosemarkie,
Ross-shire]
SPIRAL ORNAMENT
[Illustration: Methods of connecting spirals]
The spiral is the only decorative motive used in Christian Celtic art
that can be proved to have been borrowed from the Pagan Celtic art
of the preceding period. Although spiral ornament appears to be so
complicated when it is completed, the geometrical process of setting
it out is simplicity itself. All that it is necessary to do is to fill
in the surface to be decorated with circles of any size, leaving about
the same distance between each; then connect the circle with =S=-
or =C=-shaped curves; and, lastly, fill in the circles with spirals
working from the tangent points, where the =S= or =C= curves touch
the circles, inwards to the centre. As the size of the circles is a
matter of no importance, a surface of irregular shape may be covered
with spiral ornament just as easily as one of symmetrical shape. In
the flamboyant ornament of the Pagan Celtic period we have the same
=S=- and =C=-shaped curves, but the circles were occupied either by a
disc of enamel (as on the bronze shield from the Thames), or by raised
conchoids (as on the gold necklet from Limavady, Co. Londonderry).
In the spiral ornament of the Christian Celtic period closely coiled
spirals like those of the bronze age were substituted for the discs of
enamel or raised conchoids. The background of the spirals, however,
retained several of the prominent features of the repoussé metalwork,
the effect of the light shining on the raised trumpet-shaped expansions
of the =S= and =C= curves being imitated in black and white or coloured
by almond-like dots. In the later and less refined spiral ornament of
the Christian period this background disappears altogether, and the
spirals are made all the same size and placed close together.
[Illustration: Tree key-pattern, Meigle, Perthshire]
As the spiral was the earliest decorative motive in Christian Celtic
art, so it was also the first to disappear, and its disappearance
marks the decadence of the style. We have in a previous chapter traced
the spiral motive from the Pagan metalwork through the enamelled
disc ornaments of the bronze bowls of the Transition period to the
illuminated MSS. of Christian times. Spiral ornament in its best form
is to be found in the following MSS.:—
The Lindisfarne Gospels A.D. 720.
The Book of Kells 8th century.
The Gospels of St. Chad ” ”
The Book of Durrow ” ”
The Book of Armagh A.D. 750-808.
The Gospels of Willibrod A.D. 739.
The Gospels of St. Gall 8th or 9th century.
The Gospels of MacRegol A.D. 820.
The Gospels of Stockholm A.D. 871.
The Vespasian A. i. Psalter 8th century.
[Illustration: Spiral ornament, with key-pattern border, from the Book
of Kells]
In metalwork spiral ornament is less common than in the MSS., there
being good examples on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the
Hunterston Brooch, the Monymusk Reliquary, and the Athlone Crucifixion
Plaque.
Spiral ornament of the best kind is found on the sculptured stone
monuments only in Ireland and Scotland.[455] In Wales, Cornwall, and
the Isle of Man spiral ornament is extremely rare, and when it does
occur it is of debased character. Typical examples of spiral ornament
may be seen on the sculptured monuments in Ireland at Kells, Co. Meath;
Monasterboice, Co. Louth; Clonmacnois, King’s Co.; and Kilklispeen,
Co. Kilkenny; and in Scotland at Nigg, Shandwick, Hilton of Cadboll
(now at Invergordon Castle), all in Ross-shire; the Maiden Stone,
Aberdeenshire; St. Vigeans, Forfarshire; Meigle and Dunfallandy,
Perthshire; and Ardchattan, Argyllshire.
[455] Chiefly in the Pictish districts of the north-east of Scotland.
[Illustration: Method of connecting spirals]
Judging from the evidence afforded by the dated specimens, the best
kind of spiral ornament seems to have disappeared entirely from
Christian Celtic art after the first quarter of the tenth century.
[Illustration: FOUR MEN PLACED STRASTIKA FASHION ON RECUMBENT MONUMENT
AT MEIGLE, PERTHSHIRE
SCALE ⅛ LINEAR]
[Illustration: SPIRAL ORNAMENT ON FRAGMENT OF SCULPTURED STONE FROM
TARBET, ROSS-SHIRE; NOW IN THE EDINBURGH MUSEUM]
ZOÖMORPHIC DESIGNS
Animal forms are used in Celtic art of the Christian period in three
different ways, namely, (1) pictorially, (2) symbolically, and (3)
decoratively. As cases of the first kind of treatment we have the
hunting scenes,[456] battle scenes,[457] men driving in chariots[458]
drawn by horses, groups of animals,[459] etc., on the erect cross-slabs
of Scotland and on the bases of some of the Irish and Welsh crosses.
Although these subjects may have some symbolism behind them, yet all
the living creatures represented are treated realistically, and not
conventionally. As cases of the second kind of treatment we have the
Symbols of the Four Evangelists, which, although consisting of the
figures of a man, a lion, a bull, and an eagle, are generally highly
conventionalised. Lastly, we have the decorative use of animal forms,
where the zoölogical species of the creatures represented becomes of
so little importance that it is altogether ignored. The creatures can
certainly be divided into beasts, birds, fishes, and reptiles; but the
artist has taken such liberties with the shapes of their bodies, limbs,
heads, tails, and other details, that he would be a bold man who would
say of any one of the beasts whether it was intended for a lion, a
tiger, a dog, a wolf, or a bear. The quadruped most in favour with the
Christian Celtic artist may, as has been already suggested, have been
degraded by successive copying from the Classical lion. Anyway, it has
a head something like that of a dog, with pointed ears, an attenuated
body, four legs terminating in paws with claws, and a long tail. The
head and the paws are never misrepresented for decorative purposes, but
the body, limbs, ears, and tail may be extended to any given length
or bent in any desired direction. The beasts and other creatures are
generally shown in profile, and only rarely in plan.
[456] As on the erect cross-slab at Hilton of Cadboll (now at
Invergordon Castle), Ross-shire.
[457] As on the erect cross-slab at Aberlemno, Forfarshire.
[458] As on the base of the cross in the churchyard of Kells, Co. Meath.
[459] As on the erect cross-slabs at Shandwick, Ross-shire; and St.
Vigeans, Forfarshire; and on the base of the cross at Castledermot, Co.
Kildare.
In the simplest kind of zoömorphic ornament a single beast is used to
fill a panel, the different attitudes being as follows:—
(1) With the head looking forwards.
(2) With the head bent backwards.
(3) With the head bent backwards, biting the middle of the body.
(4) With the head bent backwards, biting the end of the tail.
(5) With the tail curled up over the back.
(6) With the tail curled up under the belly.
If the beasts are in pairs, they may be placed in the following
positions:—
(1) Symmetrically facing towards each other, or face to face.
(2) Symmetrically facing away from each other.
(3) In a horizontal row one in front of the other.
(4) In a vertical row one below the other.
When there are three or four beasts, besides being arranged in rows,
they may be placed after the fashion of the triskele or the swastika
round a centre.
Interlaced zoömorphic ornament can be made with a single beast by
extending the length of its tail and ear, and forming them into knots
at intervals, crossing over the body and limbs where necessary.
Sometimes the tail alone is knotted. In this sort of ornament the shape
of the beast is seen distinctly and the knots occupy the background. A
more complicated design can be made from a single beast by twisting its
body and limbs into knots as well as the ears and tail.
The panels of zoömorphic ornament in Christian Celtic art are, however,
usually composed of two or more beasts placed symmetrically with
regard to each other and having their bodies and limbs crossed over
and interlaced. The ears and tails may also be extended and formed
into knots in combination with the bodies and limbs. The designs thus
produced will be seen to consist apparently of two sets of bands
crossing each other diagonally, the wide bands being the bodies of the
beasts and the narrow bands, the limbs, tails, and ears. The bands are
nearly straight, or if bent at all only gently curved.
When the beasts are not placed in opposite symmetrical positions, but
in horizontal rows one in front of the other, or in vertical rows
one below the other, the bodies are often bent round spirally in one
direction or twisted into =S=-shaped spirals in two directions. A
favourite device with the Celtic artist was to make the beasts bite
their own bodies, limbs, or tails, or the body, limbs, or tail of the
beast immediately in front of it.
The zoömorphic designs composed of birds were arranged on the same
principles as those composed of beasts.
Reptiles or serpentine creatures with bodies of nearly the same width
throughout were converted into interlaced zoömorphic ornament by
twisting, plaiting, looping, or knotting the bodies together. This
class of ornament is, in fact, the ordinary interlaced patterns derived
from the plait, with heads added at one end and tails at the other.
A very ingenious zoömorphic design is made by filling in a long narrow
panel with the body of a serpentine creature undulating from side to
side. The head of the creature is at the top of the panel, and the body
remains about the same width until it reaches the bottom of the panel,
where its width is greatly reduced and its direction reversed. On its
return journey it makes a series of Stafford knots, which fill in the
spaces between the undulations of the body and the sides of the panel,
and the end of the tail is finally received into the mouth of the
reptile.[460]
There are two kinds of zoömorphic designs which are peculiar to the
MSS. of the period, namely, initial letters made in the form of a bird
or beast, and the incomplete frames round the initial pages of the
Gospels terminating in a beast’s head at one end and a fish-like tail
at the other. The only thing of a similar kind which occurs on the
sculptured monuments is the zoömorphic margin round some of the erect
cross-slabs of the east of Scotland.[461] The margin is formed by two
beasts, the heads of which appear at the top facing each other and the
tails at the bottom.
[460] Instances of this occur at Lanherne and Sancreed, Cornwall.
[461] At Cossins and Monifieth, Forfarshire; and Meigle, Dunfallandy;
and St. Madoes, Perthshire. The arched top of the frame round the
miniature of Christ seized by the Jews, in the Book of Kells, is
treated in exactly the same way as the pedimented tops of the erect
cross-slabs. In the second table of Eusebian Canons, in the Book of
Kells, the head and arms of Christ are placed between the two beasts’
heads.
Zoömorphs are found throughout the whole range of Christian Celtic art;
they form an important feature in the decoration of nearly all the
Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS.; they are particularly characteristic of
the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork; and they are of frequent occurrence
on the sculptured monuments of Ireland and Scotland. On the crosses
of Wales and Cornwall zoömorphs are comparatively rare. Some of the
best instances of zoömorphic designs in the MSS. are to be seen in
the cross-pages of the Book of Durrow, the Gospels of Lindisfarne,
the Book of Kells, the Gospels of St. Chad, and the St. Gall Gospels
(Codex No. 51); in metalwork on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch,
the Hunterston Brooch, the Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will,
the Cross of Cong, and the Shrine of St. Manchan; and on sculptured
monuments at Termonfechin, Co. Louth; Kells, Co. Meath; Tihilly,
King’s Co.; Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare; Nigg, Ross-shire; Aberlemno
and Invergowrie, Forfarshire; St. Madoes, Perthshire; Penally,
Pembrokeshire; and Sancreed and Lanherne, Cornwall.
[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT ON ERECT CROSS-SLAB AT NIGG,
ROSS-SHIRE]
Sometimes key-patterns and spirals are converted into zoömorphic
designs by the addition of animals’ heads, as at Penmon, Anglesey;
and Termonfechin, Co. Louth. The centres of spirals are also often
made zoömorphic, as in the Gospels of Lindisfarne, on the cross at
Kilklispeen, Co. Kilkenny, and on an erect cross-slab at St. Vigeans,
Forfarshire.
Probably the most wonderful _tour de force_ in the way of zoömorphic
sculpture is a pair of panels on the erect cross-slab at Nigg,
Ross-shire. Each panel is ornamented with a series of raised bosses
arranged symmetrically. The whole of the convex surfaces of the bosses
is covered with intricate knotwork, and the background is composed
of serpents, the tails of which coil spirally round the bases of the
bosses, and in each case enter the circumference at three points to
form the interlaced-work on the boss. After innumerable crossings under
and over, the tails again diverge at three other points round the base
of the boss, and finally terminate in small spirals in different parts
of the background.
ANTHROPOMORPHIC DESIGNS
Under the above heading are classed all designs in which the complete
figure of a man, or portions of a man are used for purposes of
decoration. Human heads occur in metalwork in the decoration of the
Tara Brooch[462] and in sculptured stonework on the cross of Muiredach,
at Monasterboice, Co. Louth, and on a cross-head from the crannog at
Drumgay Loch.
[462] A pin-brooch ornamented with a human head, from Woodford River,
Co. Cavan, is illustrated in Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. of the Mus.
R.I.A._, p. 565.
The most remarkable instances of the decorative use of the complete
figures of men in the illuminated MSS. are to be found in the Book of
Kells. The figures are generally arranged in pairs facing each other,
in groups of three triskele fashion, and in nearly all cases the
attitudes are extremely uncomfortable with the knees drawn up close
against the stomach. The limbs of the different figures are crossed
over and interlaced, as in zoömorphic ornament, and the hands are shown
grasping either the limbs, hair, or beard of one of the other figures.
Sometimes the human figures are combined with figures of birds or
beasts.
We have already referred to the incomplete frames of the initial pages
of the Gospels with zoömorphic terminations. In the
___
“Nativitas XPI”
initial page in the Book of Kells the incomplete frame terminates in a
human head at one end and two legs at the other. Another initial page
in the same MS.—that of St. Mark’s Gospel—has a zoömorphic frame, but
the beast’s head is holding a man between its jaws, whilst the man is
tugging at the beast’s tongue with his hand.
Groups of four human figures arranged swastika fashion, interlaced
and each grasping the limbs, wrists, hair, or beard of one of the
other figures, occur on crosses in Ireland at Kilkispeen, Co. Kilkenny;
Monasterboice, Co. Louth; and Kells, Co. Meath; and in Scotland on a
recumbent monument at Meigle, Perthshire. A human figure interlaced
with a bird occurs in two instances on sculptured stones in Scotland,
namely, at Monifieth, Forfarshire (now in the Edinburgh Museum of
Antiquities); and at Meigle, Perthshire.
FOLIAGE
Leaf and plant motive decoration is entirely foreign to the spirit of
purely Celtic Christian art, and whenever it occurs it is generally
to be traced to Northumbrian influence. The Book of Kells and the
Stockholm Gospels are the only Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. in which
any trace of foliage can be detected. There are panels of foliage on
the Irish crosses at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice, Co. Louth; and
Clonmacnois, King’s Co. In Wales there is an instance of foliage on
the crosses at Penally, Pembrokeshire. In Scotland the only sculptured
monuments with foliage upon them (excluding, of course, those in the
Northumbrian districts of the south) are the erect cross-slabs at
Hilton of Cadboll and Tarbet, Ross-shire (both now at Invergordon
Castle); St. Vigeans, Forfarshire; and Crieff, Perthshire; on crosses
at Camuston, Forfarshire; Dupplin, Perthshire; and on a cross-shaft at
St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
The foliage may in all cases be traced back to the Classical vine, the
well-known symbol of Christ. It is often much degraded by successive
copying, and although the forms of the leaves are often altered beyond
recognition the bunches of grapes can always be made out.
SYMBOLICAL FIGURE-SUBJECTS
We have already mentioned most of the figure-subjects to be found in
the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS., and on the Irish ecclesiastical
metalwork. It remains therefore only now to take the sculptured
monuments into consideration.
It was in Ireland alone that a recognised cycle of scriptural figure
subjects was adopted for the decoration of the crosses and that in
nearly all cases the ornament was relegated to a subordinate position.
In Scotland and Wales, on the contrary, Scripture scenes are seldom
represented on the sculptured monuments; in Cornwall the only figure
subject which occurs on the crosses is the Crucifixion; and in the
Isle of Man the figure-subjects are mostly taken from the Pagan Norse
mythology.
The following table shows the Scriptural subjects on the sculptured
monuments of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, and the frequency
with which they occur:—
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
|Ireland.|Scotland.|Wales.|Cornwall.
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
_Old Testament_— | | | |
Adam and Eve | 15 | 2 | — | —
Noah in the Ark | 2 | 1 | — | —
Sacrifice of Isaac | 9 | 1 | — | —
Three Children in Furnace | 4 | — | — | —
Daniel in Den of Lions | 8 | 9 | — | —
David and Harp | 6 | 2 | — | —
David and Lion | 6 | 2 | — | —
David and Goliath | 3 | — | — | —
Jonah and Whale | — | 3 | — | —
Ascent of Elijah | — | 1 | — | —
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
_New Testament_— | | | |
Virgin and Child | — | 5 | — | —
Adoration of Magi | 2 | 1 | — | —
Flight into Egypt | 1 | — | — | —
Baptism of Christ | 2 | — | — | —
Miracle of Loaves and Fishes| 4 | 1 | — | —
Raising of Lazarus | — | 1 | — | —
Crucifixion | 16 | 5 | 3 | 40
Christ in Glory | 5 | 1 | — | —
Last Judgment | 1 | — | — | —
Annunciation | — | — | 1 | —
Christ seized by the Jews | 2 | — | 1 | —
Twelve Apostles | 1 | — | — | —
Agnus Dei | 2 | — | — | —
Dextera Dei | 2 | — | — | —
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
In addition to the above there are the following, which are sacred or
ecclesiastical, but not, strictly speaking, Scriptural:—
-----------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
|Ireland.|Scotland.|Wales.|Cornwall.
-----------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
Symbols of Four Evangelists | — | 4 | — | —
Cherubim | — | — | 1 | —
Angels | — | 22 | — | —
Saints | — | — | — | —
Oranti | — | 1 | 3 | —
-----------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
It appears, then, that the Scriptural subjects of most frequent
occurrence in Ireland are the Crucifixion, Adam and Eve, the Sacrifice
of Isaac, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, and the scenes from the Life of
David; and in Scotland, the Crucifixion, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, the
Virgin and Child, and the symbols of the four Evangelists.
The subjects common to both Ireland and Scotland are Adam and Eve, Noah
(?), Sacrifice of Isaac, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, David and the Harp,
David and the Lion, Adoration of the Magi, Flight into Egypt, Miracle
of Loaves and Fishes, Crucifixion, Christ in Glory, Agnus Dei, Angels.
The subjects which occur in Ireland, but not in Scotland, are the
Three Children in the Furnace, David and Goliath, Baptism of Christ,
Resurrection, Last Judgment, Dextera Dei, Twelve Apostles. And those
which occur in Scotland, but not in Ireland, are Ascent of Elijah,
Raising of Lazarus, Jonah and the Whale, Annunciation, Salutation,
Miracle of Healing the Blind, Christ and Mary Magdalene, Lazarus.
Of the subjects on the early sculptured stones of Ireland and Scotland
the following belong to the cycle of subjects found on the paintings in
the Catacombs and the Sculptured Sarcophagi (A.D. 50 to 450):—
Adam and Eve. Daniel in the Lions’ Den.
Noah. Jonah and the Whale.
Sacrifice of Isaac. Adoration of Magi.
Three Children in the Furnace. Adoration of Magi.
Ascent of Elijah. Miracle of Healing the Blind.
The following subjects belong to the Lombardo-Byzantine period (A.D.
700-1100):—
David. Christ in Glory.
Baptism of Christ. Last Judgment.
Crucifixion. Agnus Dei.
Resurrection. Dextera Dei.
Flight into Egypt. Twelve Apostles.
Virgin and Child (apart from Magi). Symbols of the Four Evangelists.
Christ and Mary Magdalene. Angels.
Thus the early Sculptured Stones and the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. of Great
Britain, and the Carlovingian Ivories afford a connecting link between
the older symbolism of the primitive Christianity of the Catacomb
period and the more strictly ecclesiastical art of mediæval times.
Quite apart from the fact that King David was a type of Christ, and
that his pictures formed the illustrations of the Psalter, it is not
surprising that he should have been an object of popular worship
amongst the warlike and musical Celts, to one side of whose character
his heroic deeds in rending the jaws of the lion and slaying the giant
Goliath, would appeal as strongly as his talent as a harper would to
the other.
A small MS. Irish Psalter in the British Museum (Vit. F. i.)[463]
contains two very curious miniatures, one of David Playing the Harp and
the other of David and Goliath.[464] The former is interesting, because
I think it helps to explain the meaning of a figure sitting on the back
of a beast and playing a harp,[465] sculptured on one of the panels of
the cross at Clonmacnoise. As I hold, this is intended for David; and
my reason for supposing this is, because the throne on which David is
seated in the miniature in the Psalter is conventionally treated as a
beast.
[463] Westwood’s _Miniatures_, pl. 5.
[464] In the miniature of David and Goliath in the Psalter David
holds a sling in one hand and a beast-headed club in the other. The
resemblance between this club and the beast’s-head symbol, which occurs
on the Norrie’s Law silver ornaments and on several of the early
incised slabs in Scotland, may be only accidental, but it is worth
noting as a possible clue to the scriptural interpretation of the
symbol.
[465] O’Neil, pl. 24A.
I am not quite sure whether the boat with men in it, on the stone at
Cossins, is intended for Noah’s Ark or not, but a boat of just the same
kind is represented on a carved wooden pillar at Olaf’s Church,[466]
Nesland, where it is associated with other Scriptural subjects, amongst
others the creation of Eve, Samson and Delilah, and David and Goliath.
In this case there can be little doubt but that the boat is intended
for Noah’s Ark, so that probably the boat at Cossins has the same
meaning.
The angels are cherubim, with four wings, and spirals where the wings
join on to the body, representations of which are to be seen on the
stones at Eassie, Glamis, and elsewhere in Scotland. They do not occur
on any of the sculptured crosses in Ireland; but there are instances
of angels or the symbols of the four evangelists treated in the same
fashion in the St. Gall Gospels, Codex No. 51,[467] and on the Book
Shrine of St. Molaise’s Gospels,[468] in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy in Dublin, and also on a bronze plaque[469] of the Crucifixion,
in the same collection. I have recently discovered a very curious
instance of an angel of this kind, with three wings on a cross-slab,
with interlaced-work, in St. David’s Cathedral, given in Westwood’s
_Lapidarium Walliæ_ (pl. 63, fig. 4), but the wings and spirals only
shown, and the head of the angel omitted.
[466] L. H. S. Dietrichsen, _De Norske Stavkirker_, p. 362.
[467] C. Purton Cooper’s “Appendix A to Report on Rymer’s Fœdera,” pl.
5.
[468] _Archæologia_, vol. xliii., p. 131.
[469] Westwood’s _Miniatures_, pl. 51.
The pair of ecclesiastics, sometimes standing, sometimes enthroned,
sometimes kneeling, with a bird holding a circular disc in its mouth
between them, is a subject common to the early sculptured stones of
both Scotland[470] and Ireland,[471] but the exact meaning of it
has yet to be ascertained if we are not to take the instance on the
Ruthwell cross as an authoritative explanation of the whole.
[470] As at Nigg and St. Vigeans. Dr. J. Anderson regards the Nigg
example as being intended for St. Paul and St. Anthony.
[471] As at Kells, Moone Abbey, Clonca.
As I have already pointed out in my Rhind Lectures on _Christian
Symbolism_, there is a nearer affinity between the subjects chosen to
decorate the bases of the Irish crosses and the representations of
hunting scenes, horsemen, chariots, etc., on the upright cross-slabs of
the north-east of Scotland, than the more strictly Scriptural scenes on
the shafts of the Irish crosses. The best examples illustrating this
are to be seen on the bases of the crosses at Kells (Figs. 5 and 6),
Monasterboice, Clonmacnois, Castle Dermot (Fig. 7), and Kilklispeen.
The chariot on the Meigle slab, now lost, may be compared with the
chariots to be seen on the shaft of the cross at Killamery, and on
the bases of the crosses at Monasterboice, Kilklispeen, and in Kells
churchyard; on the base of the cross in the street at Kells we have the
eagle and fish, as on the “Drosten” stone at St. Vigeans,[472] and as
in the Book of Armagh; and on the base of this same cross, and on the
cross of Muredach at Monasterboice, centaurs occur, in some respects
like those on the slabs at Aberlemno, Meigle, and Glamis.
[472] Another remarkable instance of the eagle and fish has recently
been found on a stone with an Ogam inscription, at Latheron, near
Keiss, Caithness.
On the base of the Kilklispeen cross is portrayed a procession of
ecclesiastics taking part in a most remarkable ceremony. On the south
side of the base is to be seem a priest carrying a processional cross,
and followed by a man leading a horse, on the back of which is laid
the headless trunk of a man, with two birds of prey, or carrion crows,
perched on the top.
On the north side of the base are two ecclesiastics on horseback,
followed by two more in a chariot drawn by a pair of horses.
On the east side are several beasts, birds, and a man.
On the west side is a central figure, perhaps a bishop, with three
ecclesiastics holding croziers on each side of him.
These scenes can hardly be Scriptural; and if they are not taken from
the life of some saint, it is difficult to see what explanation remains
to be suggested, except that an event of local importance is here
commemorated. The bases of the pillar-cross at Llandough and of the
great wheel-cross at Margam, both in Glamorganshire, are the only ones
with figures of horsemen upon them in Wales.
The symbolism of the shafts of the Irish crosses is so strictly
biblical that secular subjects may have been placed on the bases by
way of contrast, to indicate the actual world or earth on which the
cross stood representing the spiritual world. The eagle and fish may
personify the ocean, and the centaur the desert, for which we have the
authority of the bestiaries and the legendary life of St. Anthony.
The points of similarity between the ornamental patterns on the stones
of Ireland and Scotland raise questions of too much intricacy to be
dealt with here; but it may be remarked that figure-sculpture forms
the chief feature of the Irish crosses—geometrical, zoömorphic, and
foliageous designs being only as a rule applied to the decoration
of the smaller panels on the sides of the shafts and to the rings
connecting the arms. The upright cross-slabs of Scotland, more
particularly those in Ross-shire, approach much more nearly in
style—and therefore probably in age—to the illuminated pages of the
Hiberno-Saxon MSS. of the best period, than do any of the Irish crosses.
In conclusion, I consider the so-called Celtic style to be a
local variety of the Lombardo-Byzantine style, from which the
figure-subjects, the interlaced-work, the scrolls of foliage, and many
of the strange real and fabulous creatures were apparently borrowed.
The Lombardo-Byzantine style was introduced into this country after
the Saxons had become Christians; and being grafted upon the Pagan
art of the Late-Celtic period, was developed in different ways in
different parts of Great Britain. However, it in no way detracts from
the artistic capacity of the Celt that he should have adapted certain
decorative motives belonging to a foreign style instead of evolving
them out of his own inner consciousness. Although his materials may
not all have been of native origin, they were so skilfully made use of
in combination with native designs, and developed with such exquisite
taste, that the result was to produce an entirely original style, the
like of which the world had never seen before.
INDEX
Abercorn, cross-shaft, 269
Abergele, horse-trappings, 95
Aberlemno, erect cross-slab, 184
Abernethy, 82
Abingdon, pottery, 124
Aboyne, armlet, 113
— erect cross-slab, 184
Achnabreac, spirals at, 50
Ægean, spiral ornament in the, 54
Æsica, 82
— fibula, 152
Alfriston, horse-trappings, 94
— enamelled harness-ring, 134
Algeria, penannular brooch, 225
Allington, pottery, 124
Alstonfield, Iron Age burial at, 68
Amber settings, 237
Amerden, sword-sheath, 91
Ammendola, sarcophagus of, 6
Andrews, St., sarcophagus, 193
Angels, 300
Animals, figures of, 146
Antennæ, swords with, 86
Anthony, St., 302
Anthropomorphic designs, Late-Celtic, 144
Anthropomorphs in Celtic Christian art, 294
Apollinare in Classe, Sant’, Ravenna, 244
Archdall, Castle, spirals at, 51
Ardagh, chalice, 216, 235
Ardakillen Crannog, 81
— — fibula, 170
Ardchattan, erect cross-slab, 184
Ardoch, 82
— horse-trappings, 95
Aristotle, 2
Armagh, bell, 199
— Book of, 175
— shrine of Book of, 208
Armlets, enamelled, 134
— Late-Celtic, 113
— of glass, Late-Celtic, 141
Arria and Paetus, 5
Arras, armlet, 114
— horse-trappings, 94
— Iron Age burials at, 63
— mirror, 115
Aryans, 1
Aspatria, sculptured cist, 55
Assynt, jet necklace from, 42
Aston Clinton, pottery, 124
Athenry, dagger-sheath, 92
Athlone, Crucifixion, 218
Auchendolly, horse-trappings, 95
Auchenbadie, armlet, 113
Avebury, fibula, 106
Axe-head of bronze with spirals, 52
— sculptures, 55
Aycliffe, cross-shaft, 269
Aylesford, bucket, 116, 145
— fibula, 106
— Iron Age cemetery at, 70
— pottery, 122
— tankard, 116
Ayton Moor, cup-marks at, 57
Backworth, pair of fibulæ, 103
— saucepan, 117
Badony, Lower, bell, 198
Baglan, cross-slab, 182
Bakerhill, sculptured cist, 55
Balcalk, jet necklace from, 42
Ballinderry Crannog, 81
— — comb, 128
Balmaclellan, Late-Celtic finds at, 77
— mirror, 115
Balls, stone, of Bronze Age, 50
Ballycostello, horse-trappings, 95
Ballynaminton, horse-trappings, 95
Bandaging patterns, 38
Bangor, bell, 201
Bapchild, horse-trappings, 94
Bargany house, sword-sheath, 91
Barlaston, bowl, 58, 166
Barlaston, Iron Age burial at, 68
Barrington, enamelled bowl, 135
Barrochan, cross, 192
Bartlow Hills, enamelled vessel, 138
Basketry, Late-Celtic, 143
Battersea, shield, 92
— sword-sheath, 91
Beaded torques, 159
Beads, Late-Celtic, 125, 141
Belhelvie, armlet, 113
Bells, Celtic, 194
Bell-shrines, 204
Benty Grange, enamelled bowl, 134
— Iron Age burial at, 67
Berkshire, triskele pendant, 121
Bernaldby Moor, sculptured cist, 55
Berru, helmet from, 12
Beverley, Iron Age burials at, 65
Bibracte, enamels from, 138
Bigbury Camp, 82
Birdlip, bowl, 116
— fibula, 106
— Iron Age burials at, 69
— mirror, 115
Birnie, bell, 198
Birrenswark, 82
Birrenswark, horse-trappings, 95
Biskra, penannular brooch, 225
Black Hedon, cup-marks at, 57
Blackshaw, spirals at, 50
Blathmac, crozier, 208
Boars’ tusks from Arras, 64
Bones, engraved, 150
Bonework, Late-Celtic, 127
Bonville, fibula, 106
Book-shrines, 208
Bowl, Barlaston, 166
— Chesterton, 167
— enamelled, Möklebust, 160
Bowls, Late-Celtic, 116
— with enamelled handles, 134
Boxmoor, sword-sheath, 91
Braddan, Kirk, wheel-cross, 188
Braintree, pottery, 124
Braughing, enamelled vessel, 137
Brazing, 132
Breac Moedoc, 211
Breaks in plait, 259
Bride, Kirk, cross, 186
Bridle-bit, enamelled, Rise, 133
— — Birrenswark, 133
Brighton, pottery, 125
Brodie, erect cross-slab, 184
Broighter, Limavady, find of gold ornaments, 109
Brooch, penannular, 223
Bronze Age burials, 23
— — Celtic art in, 22
— — Celts, 15
— — chronology of, 19
— — patterns which survived into the Iron Age, 60
Brough, 82
Brough, fibula, 107, 154
Brythons, 17
Buckets, 145
— Late-Celtic, 116
Burghead, 82
Burials of Iron Age, 65
Bunrannoch, armlet, 113
Byzantine art, 239, 244
Caburn, Mount, Late-Celtic oppidum at, 74
Caistor, enamelled bowl, 135
Calderstones, spirals at, 50
Camborne, cross-slab, 182
Came Down, cup-marks at, 57
Camerot Muir, spirals at, 50
Canterbury, châtelaine, 115
— horse-trappings, 94
Capel Garmon, fire-dogs, 118, 141
Cappagh, bell, 199
Carew, cross, 193
Carham, sword-sheath, 91
Carlingwark Loch, tankard, 116
Carlswark Cavern, armlet, 114
Carlton, inlaid object, 139
Carnbân, sculptured cist, 55
Carn Brê, 16
Carnwath, sculptured cist, 55
Cashel, bell, 201
Castell Nadolig, 82
Casting metal, Iron Age, 130
Castle Dermot, 192
Castle Newe, armlet, 113
— — weem at, 82
— — enamelled armlets, 134
Castlethorpe, armlet, 114
Catterdale, sword-sheath, 91
Cauldrons of bronze, 86
Caves inhabited by Brit-Welsh, 75, 81
Celtæ, 4
Celtic Tribes in Britain, 17
Celt in classical sculpture, 5
Celts of bronze, 41
Centaur, 302
Certosa situlæ, 145
Chad, St., Book of, 175
Chains, 237
— of gold and silver, Late-Celtic, 139
Chalices, Celtic, 215
Chalk drums from Folkton, 56
Champlevé enamel, 136
Characteristics of Celtic Christian style, 254
— Late-Celtic style, 143
Chariots, 301
— wheels, 98
— wheels from Arras, 64
Châtelaines, Late-Celtic, 115
Chedworth, Chi-Rho Monogram, 162
Chequerwork, Late-Celtic, 160
Cherubim, 300
Chesterford, Great, Kimmeridge shale vessel, 128
Chesters, Great, fibula, 107
Chesterton, bowl, 167
— enamelled bowl, 135
Chevron patterns, 28
— — Late-Celtic, 160
Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Chorley, chains, 140
— pair of fibulæ, 102
Christianity in Britain, 162
Chronology of Bronze Age, 19
Circles, concentric, in Bronze Age, 55
Circular knotwork, 273
Cirencester, fibula, 107
Cists of Bronze Age with sculpture, 55
Cividale, Baptistery of Calistus, 258
Claughton Moor, cup-marks at, 57
Clemente, San, Rome, 244, 258
Clogher, fibula, 105
— bell, 199
Cloisonné enamel, 136
Clonmacnois, 190
— cross-slabs, 180
— crozier, 207
— gold collar, 111
— pin, chains, 140
— pin, 219
Clooncunra, horse-trappings, 95
Clova, horse-trappings, 95
Clyde Crannog, comb, 128
Coins, ancient British, 77
— with Late-Celtic finds, 88
Cookham, dagger-sheath, 92
Colchester, Kimmeridge shale vessel, 128
Commios, coins of, 78
Corfe Castle, Kimmeridge shale vessel, 128
Cowlam, fibula, 106
Cochno, wheel-symbol at, 59
Coffey, George, theory on spiral ornament, 53
Coffins, stone, 193
Coilsfield, spirals at, 50
— sculptured cist, 55
Coinage, Celtic, 14
Collar, Late-Celtic, 153
Collars, Late-Celtic, 109
Colours used by celtic scribes, 233
Columba’s Psalter, shrine of, 209
Compass-work in Late-Celtic art, 150
Cong, cross, 213
Coped stones, 182
Copenhagen, reliquary, 211
Coral settings, 237
Cossins, erect cross-slab, 184
Courcelles-et-Montagne, 13
Cowlam, armlet, 114
— Iron Age burials at, 65
Craigie Wood, sculptured cist, 55
Craigywarren, pin, 10
Crannogs, 81
Craven Arms, châtelaine, 115
Crawfordjohn, silver chains, 170
Cremation in Bronze Age, 23
Crichie, horse-trappings, 95
Cricklade, fibula, 106
Crosby Ravensworth, spoons, 120
Cross, Celtic, evolution of, 186
— processional, 213
Cross-slabs, 181
Crossthwaite, enamelled bowl, 134
Croy, penannular brooch, 228
Croziers, Celtic, 206
Cruciform breaks in plait, 262
— patterns, 236
Crucifixion plaques, 218
Crystal settings, 237
Cuerdale, penannular brooch, 227
Culan, St., bell-shrine, 204
Culbin sands, armlet, 113
Cumdachs, 208
Cup-and-ring sculpture at Ilkley, 59
— — Wooler, 59
— — Kirkcudbright, 59
— — Lochgilphead, 59
— — Kilmartin, 59
Cup-marked stones, 57
Danes’ Graves, horse-trappings, 94
— — Iron age burials, 65
— — pin, 107
Dartmoor, 16
Datchet, fibula, 106, 139
Dates of Late-Celtic finds, 85
Decorative motives in Bronze Age, 23
Delphi sacked by the Gauls, 4
Denmark, spiral ornament in, 51
Deepdale cave, 76, 81
— looped wire armlets, 139
Diagonal lines, use of, 60
— setting-out lines, 255
Dimma’s Book, shrine of, 209
Discs of repoussé bronze, late-Celtic, 121
Dogmael’s, St., 18
Dogs, fire-, 141
— — Late-Celtic, 118
Dorchester, sword-sheath, 91
Dornoch Links, cup-marks at, 57
Dots, rows of, in decoration, 39
— use of, 60
Dowalton Crannog, 81
— horse-trappings, 95
Dowkerbottom Cave, fibula, 107
Dowth, spirals at, 50
Drinking-cup urns, 25
Drumcliff, cross, 192
Drumragh, bell, 199
Dunfallandy, erect cross-slab, 184, 277
Dunkeld, Little, bell, 198
Dupplin, cross, 192
Durrow, cross, 192
— Book of, 169, 174
— shrine of Book of, 208
Dyce, erect cross-slab, 184
Dysert, crozier, 208
Eagle and fish, 301
Ecclesiastics, 301
Eday, spirals at, 50
Egypt, spiral ornament in, 54
Eilean Finan, bell, 198
Eliseg’s Pillar, Valle Crucis, 193
Elkstone, cup-marks at, 57
Elveden, pottery, 124
— tankard, 116
Embleton, sword-sheath, 91
Embsay, collar, 111
Emlagh, horse-trappings, 95
Enamelling, Iron Age, 133
— process of, 135
Enamels of Christian Celtic period, 235
Engraved patterns, Iron Age, 132
Eppillos, coins of, 78
Essex, pottery, 122
Evolution of Celtic cross, 186
Farley heath, 82
— fibula, 107
Farnell, cross-slab, 184
Farr, erect cross-slab, 184
Fens, the, horse-trappings, 94
Fibula, evolution of, 99
— from Æsica, 152
Fibulæ, enamelled, 134
— disc-shaped, 154
— worn in pairs with chain, 104
Figure drawing in Celtic Christian art, 256
Figure-subjects in Celtic Christian art, 296
Filigree-work, 237
Finds, Late-Celtic, dates of, 85
— — geographical distribution of, 79
— — with coins, 88
— of Iron Age, nature of, 61
Fire-dogs, 141
— Late-Celtic, 118
Firth, spirals at, 50
Flamboyant ornament, Late-Celtic, 150
Flasby, sword-sheath, 91
Flutes, Late-Celtic, 118
Foliage in Celtic Christian art, 247, 294
— in Late-Celtic art, 148
Folkton, chalk drums from, 56
Food-vessel urns, 25
Ford West Field, sculptured cist, 55
Forres, erect cross-slab, 184
Forteviot, bell, 198
Frampton, Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Galati, 4
Gall, St., Gospels of, 177
Galli, 4
Garton, bell, 198
Gaulcross, pin, 108
Gauls, Cisalpine, 13
Geographical distribution of Late-Celtic finds, 79
Ghegan Rock, comb, 128
Giacomo, San, Venice, 245
Gilton, mirror, 115
Giorgio, San, di Valpolicella, 244, 258
Gladiator, the Dying, 5
Glamis, erect cross-slab, 184
Glass, Late-Celtic, 125, 141
— settings, 237
Glastonbury Lake-Dwellings, 72, 81
— Lake Village, pottery, 142
— — — woodwork, 147, 161
— Marsh Village, pottery, 125
— — — woodwork, 126
— — — bowl, 117
Glencolumbkille, spirals at, 51
Glencotho, sword-sheath, 91
Glenfahan, Ogam stone, 165
Gobnet, St., stone of, 165
Goidelic Celts, 15
Goidels, 17
Golden Grove, cross, 261
— — cross-shaft, 282
Golspie, erect cross-slab, 184
Gorge-Meillet, helmet from, 12
Gospels, 173
Goulien, bell, 199
Gourdon, chalice, 215
Govan, sarcophagus, 193
Grækwyl, 13
Grange of Conan, weem at, 82
— — armlet, 113
Greenloan, cup-marks at, 57
Greenwich, enamelled bowl, 135
Grimspound, 16
Grimthorpe, Iron Age burial at, 65
— sword-sheath, 91
Guthrie Castle, bell-shrine, 204
Hagbourne Hill, horse-trappings, 95
— — Late-Celtic finds at, 76
Hällristningar, 60
Hallstatt, cemetery of, 7
— situlæ, 145
— type, objects of, found in Great Britain, 86
Hambledown Hill, 82
Ham hill, 82
Hamdon Hill, horse-trappings, 95
— — Late-Celtic finds at, 76
Hammer-headed pins, 108
Hammersmith, fibula, 106
Hand-grasping figures, 294
Harness-mountings, 98
— enamelled, 134
Harness-rings, enamelled, 134
— Late-Celtic, 96
Harray, broch of, 82
Haughton-le-Skerne, sword-sheath, 91
Hay Hill, fire-dogs, 118
Head ornaments for horses, 98
Hecatæus, 2
Helen’s, St., Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Helmet from Berru, 12
— from Gorge-Meillet, 12
Helmets, Late-Celtic, 93
Henshole, horse-trappings, 95
Herodotus, 2
Hexagon patterns, 36
High Crosses, 188
Highfield Pits, pottery, 125
Hilton of Cadboll, erect cross-slab, 184
Hinksey, N., dagger-sheath, 92
Hitchin, pottery, 124
Hod Hill, 82
— — fibula, 106
— — sword-sheath, 91
Hollows Tower, spirals at, 50
Hook-and-disc ornaments, Late-Celtic, 121
Horns with terminal knobs, 148
Horse’s head ornaments, 98
Horse-trappings from Arras, 64
— Late-Celtic, 94
Hounslow, figures of animals, 146
Hunsbury, fibula, 106
— Late-Celtic oppidum at, 73
— pottery, 125
— sword-sheath, 132
— sword-sheath, 91, 97
— triskele pendant, 121
Hunterston, brooch, 231
Hyndford Crannog, 81
— — collar, 112
Iberians, 15
Icklingham, sword-sheath, 91
Ilkley, cup-and-ring sculpture, 59
— rock-sculptures at, 57
Incense-cup urns, 25
Inchbrayock, erect cross-slab, 184
Ingoe, cup-marks at, 57
Inhumation in Bronze Age, 23
Inishkeel, bell, 203
Ink used by Celtic scribes, 232
Insh, bell, 198
Interlaced-work, 246
— evolution of, 257
Invergowrie, erect cross-slab, 184
Iona, cross, 192
Ireland, spoons, 121
Italo-Greek objects found at Aylesford, 71
Iron Age finds, 61
Jet necklaces, 42
Jezerine, chains, 140
Just, St., Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Kells, Book of, 174
Kells, cross, 192, 224, 233
— crozier, 207
— shrine of Book of, 208
Kelko cave, 76, 81
Kent’s Cavern, 76, 81
— — pottery, 125
Keshkerrigan, bowl, 117
Keston, 16
Kettleburn, broch of, 82
Key-patterns, 278
Kilbroney, bell, 198
Kilburn, cup-marks at, 57
Kildalton, cross, 192
Kildare, Co., penannular brooch, 228
Kilfenora, cross, 192
Kilkeeran, horse-trappings, 95
Kilklispeen, cross, 192
Killarney, crozier, 207
— gold lunula from, 40
Killeen Cormac, Ogam stone, 165
Killing Hill, spirals at, 51
Kilmainham, bell, 198
Kilmartin, cup-and-ring sculpture, 59
— sculptured cist, 55
Kilmichael Glassary, bell-shrine, 204
Kilnsea, fibula, 107
Kimmeridge shale objects, Late-Celtic, 128
Kingsholm, pottery, 125
Kingsholm, triskele pendant, 121
King’s Mountain, spirals at, 50
Kingston Down, enamelled bowl, 135
Kirkby Thore, fibula, 107
Kirkcudbright, cup-and-ring sculpture, 59
Kirkhead Cave, 75, 81
Kirkly Thore, 82
Kirkmadrine, Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Kirk Whelpington, cup-marks at, 57
Kirriemuir, horse-trappings, 95
Kit’s Coty House, pottery, 124
Knobs on horns of beasts, 148
Knockmany, spirals at, 51
Knot, spiral, 270
Knots used in Celtic art, 265
Knotwork, circular, 273
— triangular, 276
Lactin’s, St., arm, shrine of, 210
Lagore crannog, 81
— — beads, 125
— — comb, 128
— pin, 108
Lake-dwellings, 81
Lake-dwellings at Glastonbury, 72
Lanivet, coped stone, 182
Lashing patterns, 38
Late-Celtic finds, dates of, 85
— — geographical distribution of, 79
— — with coins, 88
— style, 143
La Tène, oppidum of, 9
Latheron, eagle and fish, 301
Lattice-work patterns, 34
Leatherwork, 237
Leicester, horse-trappings, 94
Lilburn Hill, spirals at, 50
Limavady, gold chains, 139
Limavady, gold collar, 109, 153
Lincoln, sword-sheath, 91
Lindisfarne Book, 177
Linlithgowshire, enamelled patera, 137
Lismore, crozier, 207
Lisnacroghera Crannog, 81
— — sword-sheath, 148
— sword-sheath, 91
Llanbadarn Fawr, cross, 193
Llanbedr, spirals at, 50
Llanfair, spoons, 121
Llandough, cross, 193
Llandyssyl, collar, 111
Llangenydd, cross-shaft, 270
Llangystenyn, bell, 198
Llangwynodl, bell, 200
Llanrhyddlad, bell, 198
Llantwit Major, cross, 186, 261
Lochar Moss, bowl, 116
— — collar, 111
Lochgilphead, cup-and-ring sculpture, 59
Lochlee Crannog, 81
— — woodwork, 127
— horse-trappings, 95
Lonan, Kirk, wheel-cross, 188
London, enamelled harness-ring, 134
— fibula, 106
— horse-trappings, 94
— spoons, 120
— sword-sheath, 91
Looped wirework, 139
Lorrha, bell, 201
Loughcrew, spirals at, 50
Lough Erne, reliquary, 210
Lough Lene Castle, bell, 201
Loughnashade, trumpet, 118
Lough Ravel Crannog, beads, 125
Lozenge patterns, 32
— — Late-Celtic, 160
Lullingstone, enamelled bowl, 135
Lunulæ, gold, 41
Lumphanan, stone ball from, 50
MacDurnan, Gospels, 175
MacRegol, Gospels of, 175
Madoes, St., erect cross-slab, 183
Maen Achyfan, cross, 193
Maes Mynach, cross-shaft, 270
Magny Lambert, 12
Maiden Castle, 82
Maiden Stone, erect cross-slab, 184
Maltbeck, enamelled vessel, 138
Malton, fibula, 107
Malton, New, 82
Marlborough, bucket, 116
Mancha, La, spirals at, 50
Manchan, St., shrine of, 212
Manuscripts, illuminated, 173
Margam, cross, 186
Marlborough bucket, 144
Marne, La, cemeteries of, 11
Materials for study of Celtic art in Bronze Age, 22
Materials for study of Celtic art in Iron Age, 90
Materials for study of Celtic Christian art, 172
Materials used by Celtic sculptors, 233
Maughanby, cup-marks at, 57
— spirals at, 50
Maughold, Kirk, cross, 186
Meigle, coped stone, 182
— erect cross-slab, 184
Melfort, jet necklace from, 42
Metallurgy, Iron Age, 130
Metals used by Christian Celts, 234
Metalwork, Christian Celtic, 194
Methods employed by Celtic sculptors, 233
Methods employed by Celtic metalworkers, 234
Mevagh, wheel and symbol at, 59
Middleby, horse-trappings, 95
Middleton Common, Iron Age burial at, 67
Middleton Moor, enamelled bowl, 134
— — jet necklace from, 42
Migvie, erect cross-slab, 184
Mirrors, Late-Celtic, 115
Mirror, Trelan Bahow, 131
Mogue, St., bell-shrine, 204
Möklebust, enamelled bowl, 160
Molaise’s Gospels, shrine of, 209
Monasterboice, cross, 190, 224
Monifieth, erect cross-slab, 184
Monogram, Chi-Rho, 163
Moone Abbey, cross, 192
Mont Beuvray, enamels from, 138
— — pottery, 141
Monuments, sculptured, of Christian period, 180
Monymusk, reliquary, 210
Moresby, pin, 108
Moreton Hall, sword-sheath, 91
Morwick, spirals at, 50
Motives, decorative, in Bronze Age, 23
Motives used in Christian Celtic art, 242
Mount Batten, Iron Age cemetery at, 70
Mount Bures, fire-dogs, 118
Mount Caburn, pottery, 125
Mountings for harness, 98
Mowroad, collar, 111
Mura, St., bell-shrine, 204
Mycenæan art, 57
Nancy, chalice, 215
Navan Rath, fibula, 106
Necklaces of jet, 42
Needham Market, enamelled bowl, 135
Neolithic dwellings, 16
Neuadd Siarman, cross, 190
Nevern, cross, 191
Newcastle, chains, 140
Newgrange tumulus, 43
Newry, armlet, 113
Niello, 235
Nigg, erect cross-slab, 182
Norrie’s law, leaf-shaped plates, 170
— — pin, 108
Northfield, Late-Celtic village, 82
Norton, enamelled fibula, 134
— enamelled harness-rings, 134
— horse-trappings, 94
Ogam-inscribed stones, 165
Okstrow, broch of, 82
— tankard, 116
Old Parks, tumulus, 56
Orange, Triumphal Arch of, 5
Orchomenos, spiral ornament at, 54
Origin of early Christian art, 238
Ornovasso, chains, 140
Orton Scar, penannular brooch, 227
Over-Haddon, enamelled bowl, 134
Oxford, enamelled bowl, 135
Pails, Late-Celtic, 116
P and Q Celts, 18
Panels, ornament arranged in, 255
Papil, erect cross-slab, 184
Parisi, 12
Patera, enamelled, 137
Patrick’s Will, St., bell-shrine, 204
Patrick’s, St., Gospels, shrine of, 209
Penally, cross, 193
Penannular brooch, 223
Pen-Arthur, cross-slab, 181
Penbryn, spoons, 121
Penmachno, Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Penmon, cross, 185
Pens used by Celtic scribes, 232
Pentre Poeth, Ogam stone, 165
Perdeswell, collar, 111
Perfection of details of Celtic ornament, 256
Perforated metal plates, 236
Pergamos, 5
Perth, penannular brooch, 231
Philostratus, 133
Pins, Celtic, 219
— hammer-headed, 108
— Late-Celtic, 107
Pitalpin, armlet, 113
Pitkelloney, armlet, 113
— enamelled armlets, 134
Plait, cruciform breaks in, 262
— horizontal and vertical breaks in, 259
Plaques with Crucifixion, 218
Plato, 2
Plaitwork, 259
Plunton castle, armlet, 113
Polden Hill, enamelled harness-ring, 134
— — fibula, 106
— — horse-trappings, 95
Pol de Léon, St., bell, 201
Polybius, 3
Poole’s cave, 76, 81
Port-Blanc, dolmen, 39
Portland, Isle of, collar, 111
Pottery, Late Celtic, 121, 142
— painted, Mont Beuvray, 141
— sepulchral, in bronze age, 24
Prassede, San, Rome, 258
Presles, enamels from, 138
Prickwillow, saucepan, 117
Processes, technical, in Celtic Christian art, 232
— — iron age, 129
Psalter of St. John’s College, Cambridge, 178
— Vesp. A. i., 178
— Vit. F. xi., 178
Psalters, 176
Pyrmont, enamelled vessel, 138
Pytheas, 3
Rathconrath, wooden bowl, 127
Ravenna, screen, 245
Reask, inscribed stone, 166
Rectilinear patterns in Late-Celtic art, 159
Redlands, sculptured cist, 55
Relic shrines, 210
Repoussé metalwork, Iron Age, 132
Rhayader, gold armlet, 170
Ribchester, 82
— fibula, 107
Ricemarchus, Psalter of, 176
Ringham Low, fibula, 106
Rings for harness, 96
Rise, horse-trappings, 94
Risingham, 82
— enamelled fibula, 134
— fibula, 107
Riveting, Iron Age, 132
Rock-sculpture in Scandinavia, 60
Rodenbach, 13
Rogart, penannular brooch, 228
Rome taken by the Gauls, 4
Rosemarkie, erect cross-slab, 184, 283
Rossie Priory, erect cross-slab, 184
Rotherley, 82
Round towers, 196
Sadberge, sword-sheath, 91
Safety-pin type of fibula, 100
Saham Toney, cruciform harness-mounting, 98
— — enamelled harness-mounting, 143
— — horse-trappings, 94
Saltire patterns, 35
Sandy, pottery, 124
Sarcophagi, 193
Saucepans, Kelto-Roman, 117
Scandinavia, rock-sculpture in, 60
— spiral ornament in, 51
Scandinavian features in Celtic art, 252
Scattery Island, bell, 198
Scribes, pens, ink, etc., used by, 232
Scripture subjects in Celtic art, 296
Sculptured monuments of Christian period, 180
Sculptured stone at Newgrange, 49
Sculptured stones, Late-Celtic, 128
Sculpture on Bronze Age cists, 55
Seafield Tower, armlet, 113
Seal-box, enamelled, 134
Seamill Fort, 82
— — triskele pendant, 121
Sepulchral remains of Iron Age, 63
Seskin, sculptured cist, 55
Sesto-Calende, 9
Settings of coral, amber, glass, and crystal, 237
Shading, kinds of, in Late-Celtic art, 156
Shandwick, erect cross-slab, 184
Sheen, cup-marks at, 57
Shields, Late-Celtic, 92
— South, horse-trappings, 94
Shoebury, pottery, 124
Shrines of bells, 204
— of books, 208
— of relics, 210
Silchester, 82
— enamelled stand, 134
— fibula, 107, 154
Silian, cross-shaft, 270
Silures, 18
Situlæ, Hallstatt, 145
— Late-Celtic, 116
— of bronze, 86
Skaill, penannular brooch, 227
Sliabh na Calliaghe, 43
— — — bonework, 127
— — — engraved bones, 150
Soldering, 132
Somme-Bionne, 13
Southill, Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
Southwark, dagger-sheath, 92
Spear-head of bronze age, 39
Spiral, closely coiled, 60
— knot, 270
— ornament at Newgrange, 48
— — at Orchomenos, 54
— — in Bronze Age, 50
— — in Egypt, 54
— — in Scandinavia, 51
Spirals in Celtic Christian art, 284
— Late-Celtic, 154
— from Book of Durrow, 169
Spoons, Late-Celtic, 119
Stamfordbury, fire-dogs, 118
Stamford Hill, armlet, 114
— — fibula, 106
— — mirror, 115
Stand, enamelled, 134
Standon, enamelled vessel, 138
Stanhope, armlet, 113
Stanton, cup-marks at, 57
Stanwick, horse-trappings, 94
— Late-Celtic finds at, 75
— sword-sheath, 91
Step-patterns, 277
— in Late-Celtic art, 160
Stitchell, collar, 111
Stival, bell, 200
Stockholm, Gospels, 175
Stones, sculptured, Late-Celtic, 128
Storr, penannular brooch, 227
Stowe Missal, cover of, 170
— — shrine of, 209
Strathfillan, bell, 201
Strokestown Crannog, 81
— — fibula, 170
Strypes, spirals at, 50
Style, Late-Celtic, 143
Swastika anthropomorphs, 294
— curved, at Ilkley, 58
— — on Barlaston bowl, 58
— —, 60
— designs, Late-Celtic, 154
Sweden, bronze axe-head with spirals from, 52
Sword, Hallstatt, 8
Sword-sheath from La Tène, 11
— Hunsbury, 132
Sword-sheaths, Late Celtic, 91
Swords with antennæ, 86
Symbols used in Bronze Age, 22
Tankard, Late-Celtic, 142, 151
Tankards, Late-Celtic, 116
Tara brooch, 229
— — chains, 140
— horse-trappings, 95
— horse’s head ornament, 98
Tassilo, chalice of, 215
Tayfield, jet necklace, 42
Technical processes, Iron Age, 129
— — in Celtic Christian art, 232
Termonfechin, cross, 192
Textile patterns, Iron Age, 129
Thames, river, helmet, 93
— — Late-Celtic finds in, 77
Thirst House Cave, armlet, 114
— — — châtelaine, 115
— — — fibula, 107
Thor’s Cave, 76, 81
— — flutes, 118
Tillycoultry, sculptured cist, 55
Tincommios, coins of, 78
Trawsfynydd, tankard, 142, 151
Treceiri, 82
— triskele pendant, 121
Trelan Bahow, mirror, 115, 131
— — Iron Age burials at, 69
Trenoweth, collar, 111
Triangle patterns, 31
Triangular knotwork, 276
Triskele anthropomorphs, 294
— designs, Late-Celtic, 154
— pendants, Late-Celtic, 121
Torques, beaded, 159
Torrish, jet necklace from, 42
Torrs, helmet, 93
Torwoodlee, broch of, 82
— horse-trappings, 95
Towers, round, 196
Towie, stone ball from, 50
Trumpet, Late-Celtic, 118
Tuam, cross, 210
Tullylease, cross-slab, 181
Tumulus at Newgrange, 34
— at Old Parks, 56
Turoe, Late-Celtic sculpture, 128
Tweed, river, Late-Celtic finds in, 77
Tyne, fibula, 107
— river, Late-Celtic finds in, 77
Uffizi Museum, cruciform harness-mounting, 98
— — enamelled harness-mounting, 134
Ulbster, erect cross-slab, 184, 276
Unstan, urn from, 38
Urns, cinerary, 24
Urquhart, pin, 108
Victoria Cave at Settle, 76, 81
— — fibula, 107, 154
Vigeans, St., erect cross-slab, 184
Verica, coins of, 78
Walmer, fibula, 105
— spoon, 121
Wandsworth, dagger-sheath, 92
Warden, mirror, 115
Warden, Old, Kimmeridge shale vessel, 128
Warren, Folkestone, fibula, 102
Warton, sword-sheath, 91
Water Eaton, fibula, 106
— — sword-sheath, 91
Watsch situlæ, 145
Wellingborough, 82
Westhall, horse-trappings, 94
— enamelled harness-rings, 134
Weston, spoons, 121, 147
Weymouth, pottery, 124
Wheel-crosses, 188
Wheel-symbol in Bronze Age, 59
Whitechurch, pottery, 124
Winding-band patterns, 57
Witham, river, dagger-sheath, 92
— — Late-Celtic finds in, 77
— — shield, 92, 139
Whithorn, Chi-Rho Monogram, 163
— cross-shaft, 270
Woodwork, Late-Celtic, 126
Woodwray, erect cross-slab, 184
Wooler, cup-and-ring sculpture, 59
Wraxhall, collar, 111
Wrought metalwork, Iron Age, 130
Wykeham Moor, cup-marks at, 57
Zoömorphic designs, Late-Celtic, 144
Zoömorphs in Celtic Christian art, 249, 287
PLYMOUTH
WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON
PRINTERS
THE ANTIQUARY’S BOOKS
Messrs. Methuen will shortly begin the issue of a series of volumes
dealing with various branches of English Antiquities.
It is confidently hoped that these books will prove to be comprehensive
and popular, as well as accurate and scholarly; so that they may be
of service to the general reader, and at the same time helpful and
trustworthy books of reference to the antiquary or student. The writers
will make every endeavour to avail themselves of the most recent
research.
The series will be edited by the well-known antiquary, J. Charles
Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., Member of the Royal Archæological Institute,
and Corresponding Member of the British Archæological Association.
Each book will be entrusted to an expert in the selected subject,
and the publishers are fortunate in having secured the services of
distinguished writers.
A special feature will be made of the illustrations, which will vary,
according to the requirement of the subjects, from 50 to 150. Some will
be in colour. The type will be large and clear, the length of each
volume will be about 320 pages, and the size will be demy 8vo. The
volumes will be issued at the price of 7s. 6d. net.
THE FIRST VOLUMES ARE
ENGLISH MONASTIC LIFE
ABBOT GASQUET, O.S.B., D.D., PH.D., D.LITT.
In these pages the daily round of the old life of English monks and
nuns is fully set forth, together with interesting details as to their
various officials and methods of administration. Illustrations are
given of the habits of the various orders, as well as plates taken
from old MSS., ground plans of important houses, and maps showing the
distribution of the different monasteries. A full and accurate list of
the whole of the English religious houses (including the hospitals)
suppressed at the Reformation is for the first time set forth, together
with indications of the cases in which there are extant remains.
REMAINS OF THE PREHISTORIC AGE IN ENGLAND
PROF. B. C. A. WINDLE, D.SC., F.R.S.
This book is intended to give an account of the present state of
knowledge respecting the relics of prehistoric man in this country.
Though chiefly dealing with objects found in England, where necessary,
descriptions have been given of discoveries made in other parts of
the kingdom and of the world. The object of the writer has been to
confine himself, as far as possible, to ascertained facts, and to
leave theories aside, but matters of present controversy, such as the
question of eoliths and that of the transition between the Palæolithic
and Neolithic periods, have been fully dealt with. Lists of the most
important objects of large size have been added to the chapters dealing
with them, and there is also a list of museums in this country in which
collections of the smaller objects are on view. The book is illustrated
by nearly one hundred figures, all of which have been specially drawn
for it, and most of which have not previously appeared elsewhere.
OLD SERVICE BOOKS OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH
CHRISTOPHER WORDSWORTH, M.A., AND HENRY LITTLEHALES
A clear description of the plan and contents of all the various
service books in use in the English Church before the Reformation.
The descriptions have been written mainly from the books themselves,
often from those known to have been formerly in use in specified parish
churches. One whole page of every important service-book is given in
facsimile, and reproductions of illuminations have also been supplied,
some of which depict services taking place.
CELTIC ART
J. ROMILLY ALLEN, F.S.A.
“Celtic Art” embodies the results of the most recent researches with
regard to the peculiarly Celtic phases of “Hallstatt” and “La Tène”
culture on the continent of Europe and their extension to Great
Britain in the Ages of Bronze and Iron. An endeavour is made to show
the effects produced in the art of the Celtic peoples in Pagan times,
by their coming in contact on the one hand with the lower culture of
the Neolithic aborigines of Britain, and on the other with higher
civilisations of the Mediterranean nations. Lastly, it is explained how
the decorative motives which the Pagan Celt had absorbed from various
sources were incorporated in the art of the Christian period.
ARCHÆOLOGY AND FALSE ANTIQUITIES
ROBERT MUNRO, M.D., LL.D.
The main object of this work is to show how modern methods of
Comparative Archæology may be utilised as a means of detecting
erroneous conclusions, whether founded on imperfect observations,
false statements, or the actual forgery of objects. A brief account
is given of a number of discoveries in various parts of the world
which have become the subject of controversy, as well as some notable
forgeries. Then follows a criticism of the so-called “idols,” “totems,”
“_churingas_,” etc., recently found in the Clyde valley, which are
still the subject of acute controversy. The concluding chapter deals
with the lessons to be derived from the above narrative of the results
of ignorance, fraud, and imposture.
SHRINES OF BRITISH SAINTS
J. CHARLES WALL
“Shrines of British Saints” deals with a class of monuments which,
throughout the Middle Ages, was of magnetic attraction, largely
governing the social and religious life of the nation, but which has
all but ceased to exist in the British Isles. From illumined page and
fragmentary sculpture the style and structure of shrines is here set
forth. The art bestowed upon them, the influence they had upon the
designs of cathedrals and great churches, and the legends surrounding
them, form a subject of no mean value in the life of Englishmen.
THESE VOLUMES WILL FOLLOW
FOLK-LORE IN EARLY BRITISH HISTORY
G. LAURENCE GOMME, F.S.A.
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION
JOHN WARD, F.S.A.
VILLAGE GEOGRAPHY
W. RYLAND D. ADKINS, B.A.
CHURCH FURNITURE
J. C. COX, F.S.A, AND ALFRED HARVEY, M.B.
ENGLISH SEALS
J. HARVEY BLOOM, M.A.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
J. CHARLES COX, F.S.A.
MANORS AND MANORIAL RECORDS
NATHANIEL J. HONE
CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS OF ENGLAND
ALFRED HARVEY, M.B.
Other Volumes are in course of arrangement
[Illustration: BENEDICTINE NUNS IN CHOIR]
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY METHUEN AND COMPANY:
LONDON 36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
CONTENTS
PAGE
GENERAL LITERATURE, 2-24
ANTIQUARY’S BOOKS, 25
BUSINESS BOOKS, 25
BYZANTINE TEXTS, 25
CHURCHMAN’S BIBLE, 25
CHURCHMAN’S LIBRARY, 25
CLASSICAL TRANSLATIONS, 25
COMMERCIAL SERIES, 26
CONNOISSEURS LIBRARY, 26
LIBRARY OF DEVOTION, 26
ILLUSTRATED POCKET LIBRARY OF
PLAIN AND COLOURED BOOKS, 26
JUNIOR EXAMINATION SERIES, 28
METHUEN’S JUNIOR SCHOOL BOOKS, 28
LEADERS OF RELIGION, 28
LITTLE BIOGRAPHIES, 28
LITTLE BLUE BOOKS, 28
LITTLE BOOKS ON ART, 29
LITTLE GALLERIES, 29
LITTLE GUIDES, 29
LITTLE LIBRARY, 29
METHUEN’S MINIATURE LIBRARY, 30
RARIORA, 30
SCHOOL EXAMINATION SERIES, 30
SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY, 31
TEXTBOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY, 31
HANDBOOKS OF THEOLOGY, 31
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERIES, 31
WESTMINSTER COMMENTARIES, 32
FICTION, 32-39
BOOKS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, 39
NOVELS OF ALEXANDRE DUMAS, 39
METHUEN’S ONE SHILLING NOVELS, 39
THE NOVELIST, 40
SIXPENNY LIBRARY, 40
SEPTEMBER 1904
A CATALOGUE OF MESSRS. METHUEN’S PUBLICATIONS
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India.
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=Abbot (Jacob).= THE BEECHNUT BOOK.
Edited by E. V. LUCAS. Illustrated.
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=Acatos (M. J.).= See L. A. Sornet.
=Adams (Frank).= JACK SPRATT.
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=Adeney (W. F.)=, M.A. See Bennett and Adeney.
=Æschylus.= AGAMEMNON, CHÖEPHOROE, EUMENIDES.
Translated by LEWIS CAMPBELL, LL.D.,
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=Æsop.= FABLES.
With 380 Woodcuts by THOMAS BEWICK.
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THE TOWER OF LONDON.
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_Fcap. 8vo. 3s. 6d. net._ [Illustrated Pocket Library.
=Alexander (William)=, D.D., Archbishop of Armagh.
THOUGHTS AND COUNSELS OF MANY YEARS.
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See also =Nimrod= and =Egan=.
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MRS. BARBERRY’S GENERAL SHOP.
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=Asquith (H. H.)=, The Right Hon., M.P.
TRADE AND THE EMPIRE.
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=Atkins (H. G.).= GOETHE.
With 12 Illustrations. _Fcap. 8vo. 3s. 6d.; leather, 4s. net._
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=Austen (Jane).= PRIDE AND PREJUDICE.
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NORTHANGER ABBEY. Edited by E. V. LUCAS.
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=Baden-Powell (R. S. S.)=, Major-General.
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THE MATABELE CAMPAIGN, 1896.
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=Banks (Elizabeth L.).= THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF A ‘NEWSPAPER GIRL.’
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=Baring-Gould (S.).= Author of ‘Mehalah,’ etc.
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AN OLD ENGLISH HOME.
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