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Title: Field Artillery Training. 1914
Author: GB War Office
Release date: February 27, 2026 [eBook #78053]
Language: English
Original publication: London: HM Stationery Dept, 1914
Credits: Brian Coe, Thiers Halliwell, who created the book cover, which is placed in the public domain and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD ARTILLERY TRAINING. 1914 ***
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in the original text.
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[_Crown Copyright Reserved._]
FIELD ARTILLERY TRAINING.
1914.
GENERAL STAFF, WAR OFFICE.
[Illustration]
LONDON:
PRINTED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE
BY HARRISON and SONS, 45-47, ST. MARTIN’S LANE, W.C.,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY.
To be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from
WYMAN and SONS, LIMITED, 29, BREAMS BUILDINGS, FETTER LANE, E.C.,
and
54, ST. MARY STREET, CARDIFF; or
H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE (SCOTTISH BRANCH),
23, FORTH STREET, EDINBURGH: or
E. PONSONBY, LIMITED, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN;
or from the Agencies in the British Colonies and Dependencies,
the United States of America and other Foreign Countries of
T. FISHER UNWIN, LIMITED, LONDON, W.C.
_Price Ninepence._
This Manual is issued by command of the Army Council. It deals with
the general principles which are to govern the training in peace and
leading in war of Horse, Field, Mountain, and Heavy Artillery, and
forms the basis of the Training of R.G.A. Companies armed with movable
armament. The attention of commanders is drawn to “Training and
Manœuvre Regulations,” Section 2.
Any enunciation by officers responsible for training, of principles
other than those contained in this Manual, or any practice of methods
not based on those principles, is forbidden as tending to cause
confusion of thought and to prejudice successful co-operation in war.
[Illustration]
WAR OFFICE, S.W.
_9th April, 1914_.
CONTENTS.
Sec. Page.
DEFINITIONS 1
CHAPTER I.
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING.
1. Object and method of training 7
2. Responsibility for training 8
TRAINING OF RECRUITS.
3. Preliminary training of recruits 10
4. Recruit training in the battery 14
THE ANNUAL TRAINING OF THE SOLDIER.
5. System of training 14
INDIVIDUAL TRAINING.
6. General instructions 15
COLLECTIVE TRAINING.
7. Section training 17
8. Battery training 17
9. Brigade training 19
10. Annual practice 20
11. Divisional artillery training 21
12. Training of Special Reserve and Territorial
artillery and of the artillery of the
Overseas Dominions 22
CHAPTER II.
DISMOUNTED DRILL WITH AND WITHOUT ARMS.
SQUAD DRILL WITH INTERVALS.
13. General instructions 23
14. Position and movements at the halt 24
15. Saluting 27
16. Movements 29
SQUAD DRILL IN SINGLE RANK.
17. General instructions 35
18. Movements 36
SQUAD DRILL IN TWO RANKS.
19. General instructions 38
20. Movements 39
RIFLE DRILL.
21. General instructions 44
22. Rifle exercises 44
23. Inspection of arms 51
24. Guards and compliments 53
CHAPTER III.
EQUITATION AND DRIVING.
25. Standard required of men and horses 54
26. Horsemastership 55
27. Paces of the horse 58
28. Terms used in equitation 58
FITTING SADDLERY.
29. How to fit a saddle 59
30. Saddling 61
31. Bridling 63
32. Miscellaneous details 65
RIDING.
33. General instructions 66
34. Hints to instructors 68
35. Preliminary training 71
36. First lessons to the recruit 71
37. Mounting and dismounting 73
38. The seat 75
39. How to hold the reins 76
40. Position in the saddle at attention 79
41. First movements on horseback 80
42. Teaching the recruit how to ride his horse
over a fence 81
43. The aids 83
44. Bending 86
45. Spurs 89
46. Various exercises 89
47. Paying compliments mounted without arms 92
48. Leading horses 92
49. Securing horses 92
50. Riding with the sword 95
51. Riding with the rifle 98
52. Revolver shooting 101
DRIVING.
53. General principles 102
54. Fitting harness 102
55. Position of a driver standing to his
horses and mounted 104
56. Use of the whip 105
57. Driving without vehicles 106
58. Hooking in and unhooking 106
59. Traces 107
60. Moving off 108
61. Halting 108
62. Wheeling to the right 108
63. Wheeling to the left 109
64. Wheeling about 109
65. Unlimbering 110
66. Limbering up 110
67. Driving up steep hills 111
68. Jibbing 112
69. Driving down hill 113
70. Applying the brake 113
71. Reversing in narrow roads 113
72. Driving a pair of horses from the box 113
TRAINING THE YOUNG HORSE.
73. General principles 116
74. First stage 118
75. Second stage 120
76. Teaching a horse to stand still without
being held 123
77. Teaching the young horse to jump 123
78. Third stage 124
RIDING AND RETRAINING AWKWARD HORSES.
79. General remarks 126
80. Pullers 127
81. Refusers 128
82. Horses that rush at their fences 130
83. Horses that decline to leave the ranks and
“fretting” horses 130
84. Horses that decline to stand still when
being mounted 131
85. General vice and bad temper 132
86. Refractory draught horses 132
CARE AND DISPOSAL OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS.
87. Care of saddlery and harness 133
88. Disposal of saddlery and harness in harness
rooms or stables 134
89. Disposal of saddlery and harness in bivouac 135
CARE OF WAGONS.
90. General instructions 136
LOADING A WAGON OR CART.
91. General instructions 136
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY.
92. Position of driver 137
93. Fitting saddlery of ordnance mules 138
94. Training young mules 139
95. Leading mules 140
CHAPTER IV.
GUNNERY.
96. General instructions 142
97. Gunnery terms 142
98. Natures of artillery fire 144
99. Gunnery 145
100. Rifling 147
101. Centring 147
102. Forces acting on a shell in the bore 148
FORCES ACTING ON A SHELL DURING FLIGHT.
103. The resistance of the air 148
104. The force of gravity 149
105. Trajectory 151
106. Elevation 151
107. Causes affecting the accuracy of shooting 154
AMMUNITION.
108. Cordite 155
109. Lyddite shell 157
110. Shrapnel shell 157
111. Star shell 161
112. Time and percussion fuzes 161
113. Fuze indicator 162
114. Range tables 166
CHAPTER V.
LAYING.
115. General instructions 172
116. Direct laying 173
117. Indirect laying 175
118. Angle of sight 176
119. Deflection 178
120. Aiming points 181
121. Clearing the crest 181
122. Parallelism of lines of fire 182
123. Displacement 186
124. Gun layers and fuze setters 190
CHAPTER VI.
MOUNTED DRILL.
125. General instructions 191
126. Falling in for parade 194
127. Intervals and distances 195
128. Frontages and depths 196
129. Posts of officers, N.C.Os., etc. 197
130. Commands and signals 201
131. Leading and dressing 206
132. Wheeling 207
133. Markers 208
134. The battery of horse artillery 209
135. The field battery 213
136. The mountain battery 214
137. The heavy battery 214
138. Battery drill 215
139. Brigade drill 222
CHAPTER VII.
EMPLOYMENT OF ARTILLERY IN WAR.
140. General instructions 227
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD ARTILLERY.
141. Field guns 227
142. Field howitzers 228
143. Heavy artillery 229
144. Mountain artillery 229
PRINCIPLES OF EMPLOYMENT.
145. Objects of fire 230
146. Concealment 231
147. Economy of force 232
148. Protection 234
149. Intercommunication 235
CO-OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT WITH ARTILLERY.
150. Employment of aircraft 238
151. Signalling from aircraft 239
152. Signalling from the ground to aircraft 239
DUTIES OF DIVISIONAL ARTILLERY COMMANDER.
153. General instructions 240
ARTILLERY IN ATTACK.
154. Action of the advanced guard artillery 245
155. Opening phase of the attack 246
156. Second phase of the attack 247
157. Third phase of the attack 250
ARTILLERY IN DEFENCE.
158. General instructions and preliminary
measures 252
159. Opening phase of the defence 255
160. Second phase of the defence 256
161. Third phase of the defence 257
COUNTER-ATTACKS.
162. Artillery support to local counter-attacks 258
163. Artillery support to the decisive
counter-attack 258
ARTILLERY IN WOOD AND VILLAGE FIGHTING.
163A. The employment of artillery in
wood fighting 259
163B. Artillery in the attack and
defence of villages 261
ARTILLERY IN NIGHT OPERATIONS.
164. General instructions 261
ARTILLERY IN RETIREMENTS AND RETREATS.
165. Retirements 263
166. Rearguards 264
EMPLOYMENT OF HORSE ARTILLERY WITH CAVALRY.
167. General instructions 265
168. Position on the march 267
169. Escorts 267
170. The approach march 268
171. The advance into action 270
172. The fight 272
173. Pursuit or retreat 273
174. Horse artillery with cavalry acting
dismounted 273
175. Horse artillery in a general engagement 275
176. Ammunition supply 275
MOBILE ARTILLERY IN THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE
OF A FORTRESS.
177. The attack 276
178. The defence 277
ARTILLERY IN IRREGULAR WARFARE.
179. General principles 278
CHAPTER VIII.
BRIGADE TACTICS.
180. General instructions 280
181. Reconnaissance 280
182. Leading 283
183. Ground scouts 284
184. Occupation of a position 286
185. Intercommunication service 288
186. Allotting objectives and ranging 288
187. Observation and control 290
188. Change of position 291
189. Night firing 292
CHAPTER IX.
BATTERY TACTICS.
190. General instructions 293
191. Preparation for action 294
192. Reconnaissance of a position 295
193. Methods of occupying a position 297
194. Orders 300
195. Advance for action 302
196. To come into action 303
197. Duties of officers, etc., in action 308
198. Laying out the line of fire 310
199. Observation of fire 316
200. Look-out men 319
201. Control of fire 320
202. Methods of fire 323
203. Location of targets from aircraft 324
204. Observation of fire from aircraft 325
205. Signals from and to aeroplanes 328
206. Observation of fire from kites 329
RANGING.
207. General Instructions 330
208. To find the elevation 331
209. To find the fuze 334
210. To find the line 335
RANGING FOR HOWITZERS AND HEAVY GUNS.
211. General instructions 336
212. Howitzers 336
213. Heavy batteries 338
DISTRIBUTION OF FIRE.
214. General principles 338
215. Searching 341
216. Sweeping 342
217. Change of target 343
METHODS OF ENGAGING VARIOUS OBJECTIVES.
218. General instructions 343
219. To register a zone 344
220. Localities 344
221. Staffs 345
222. Cavalry 345
223. Artillery 346
224. Infantry 348
225. Machine guns 350
226. Aircraft 350
227. EXAMPLES OF RANGING 351
CHANGE OF POSITION.
228. To advance 360
229. To retire 361
REPLACEMENT OF CASUALTIES.
230. Casualties on the move 362
231. Casualties in action 363
CHAPTER X.
AMMUNITION SUPPLY.
232. General instructions 364
233. Ammunition supply within the battery 365
234. Replenishment of ammunition 366
235. Brigade ammunition columns 367
236. Divisional ammunition columns 370
237. Ammunition reserves on the line of
communication 371
CHAPTER XI.
FIELD ENGINEERING.
238. Entrenching and concealing guns 373
239. Passage of obstacles 377
CHAPTER XII.
RECONNAISSANCE DUTIES, RANGE-FINDING, AND
COMMUNICATION SERVICE.
240. General instructions 380
241. Visual training 381
242. Training in judging distance 382
243. Training in observation 383
244. Reports and sketches 385
RANGE-FINDING.
245. General instructions 388
SERVICE OF COMMUNICATION.
246. General system and principles 390
247. Internal communications 391
248. External communications 392
CHAPTER XIII.
MOVEMENTS AND QUARTERS.
249. Marches and march discipline 394
250. Billets 396
251. Bivouacs 398
TRANSPORT OF ARTILLERY.
252. Transport by rail 401
253. Slinging horses 403
254. Slinging guns and vehicles 407
APPENDIX I.
SYLLABUS OF TRAINING 409
APPENDIX II.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHEN FIRING BLANK
AMMUNITION 411
LIST OF PLATES.
To face
page.
Plate I.--Gunnery terms illustrated 144
Plate II.--Gunnery terms illustrated 144
Plate III.--Gunnery terms illustrated 144
Plate IV.--Protected observing station 376
Plate V.--Gun epaulment for shielded gun 376
Plate VI.--Gun pit for shielded gun 376
Plate VII.--Passage of obstacles 378
Plate VIII.--Passage of obstacles 379
Plate IX.--Panoramic sketch 387
Plate X.--Range-Taker’s card 387
Plate XI.--Temporary ramps 402
INDEX 412
NOTE.--Amendments, other than minor corrections, are
indicated by a black line in the margin.
FIELD ARTILLERY TRAINING.
1914.
DEFINITIONS.
_Alignment._--The straight line on which a body of troops is formed, or
is to form.
_Base._--An alignment generally indicated by markers on which it is
desired to form troops.
_Base body._--That on which a formation is made, or on which the
alignment is made at the halt, _e.g._, “base battery,” “base section.”
_Battery._--A battery of horse, field or mountain artillery consists
of two or three sections, each of two guns with their complement of
ammunition wagons. In the case of heavy and territorial artillery as
well as of most of the artillery of the Overseas Dominions a battery
consists of two sections only.
_Battery column._--A battery with the sections in open column.
_Battery quarter column._--A battery with the sections in quarter
column.
_Brigade of artillery._--Two batteries of horse artillery or three
batteries of field artillery, in each case with an ammunition column.
_Change of front._--A new alignment facing to a new front.
_Change of position._--A movement by which a body of troops moves
altogether off its ground, either to the front, flank, or rear, and
re-forms on a new alignment.
_Close order._--The ordinary distance between front and rear rank when
formed in line.
_Column._--Bodies of troops formed one in rear of another. When they
are at a distance from one another equal to their own frontage plus
interval, if any, the formation is known as “open column.”
_Column of batteries._--Batteries in open column.
_Column of masses._--Two or more artillery brigades in open column,
each formed in mass.
_Column of sections._--A formation used in brigade drill, when all the
sections are in open column.
_Column of subsections._--A column of single guns, each with a wagon
right or left of it, at full interval unless otherwise ordered.
_Column of route._--A column of single carriages.
_Covering._--The act of a body placing itself correctly in rear of
another.
_Deploying interval._--The interval between columns necessary to enable
them to form line to the front.
_Deployment._--The formation of line from column.
_Depth._--The space occupied by a body of troops from front to rear.
_Directing body._--The body on which the direction, pace and alignment
of a line, or the direction, pace and relative positions of the several
parts of a column or échelon depend.
_Distance._--The space between men or bodies of troops from front to
rear.
_Divisional line of masses._--A line of two or more artillery brigades
each formed in mass at deploying interval.
_Divisional mass._--A divisional line of masses at 25 yards interval.
_Double échelon._--A form of échelon in which the centre body is in
advance with other bodies on its right and left rear.
_Dressing._--The act of taking up an alignment correctly or of
maintaining that alignment on the move.
_Échelon._--Échelon when used with reference to drill signifies a
formation of successive and parallel units facing the same way, each on
a flank and to the rear of the unit in front of it. “Échelon” is when
the units are at wheeling distance, and “short échelon” when they are
at 20 yards distance.
_File._--A front rank man with his coverer.
_Firing battery._--Six guns and 6 ammunition wagons, except in the case
of 4-gun batteries, when it consists of 4 guns and 4 wagons.
In mountain artillery the firing battery consists of the mules carrying
the various portions of the gun and carriage, and 2 ammunition mules
per subsection, 1 pioneer mule per section, 1 mule for telephone
equipment, and relief mules for the gun and carriage complete of one
subsection.
_First line wagons._--Those battery ammunition wagons not included in
the firing battery.
In mountain artillery the first line mules are those battery ammunition
and relief mules not included in the firing battery.
_Fixed pivot._--The term applied to the pivot when, during a wheel, the
pivot man is halted and turns upon his own ground.
_Flank._--Either side of a body of troops; also the direction to either
hand of a body at right angles to its front.
_Fours._--Four front rank men with their coverers.
_Front._--The direction towards which a body of troops, or a single
man, is facing; in a general sense, the direction of the enemy.
_Frontage._--The extent of ground covered laterally by troops.
_Ground scouts._--Men employed to ascertain whether the ground in the
immediate vicinity is passable for artillery.
_Half-section._--Two front rank men with their coverers.
_Horse-length_--A term of measurement (8 feet).
_Horse-width._--A term of measurement (3 feet), which includes 3 inches
outside the rider’s knee on either side.
_Inclining of carriages._--A movement in which each carriage of a
subsection makes a half-wheel independently on its own ground.
_Inner flank._--The flank which serves as a pivot when a body is
changing its direction.
_Interval._--The space between men or bodies of troops from flank to
flank.
_Line._--Bodies of troops formed on the same alignment.
_Line of battery columns._--Battery columns in line at deploying
interval.
_Line of columns._--A line of two or more columns formed on the same
alignment.
_Look-out men._--Men specially detailed to assist the battery commander
in watching the movements of the enemy and friendly troops, and in
discovering new objectives.
_Mass._--A line of battery columns at 25 yards interval.
_Markers._--Men employed in certain cases to mark points on which to
march.
_Moving pivot._--The term applied to the pivot when, during a change of
direction, the pivot man moves on the arc of a circle without halting.
_Oblique march and inclining._--Movements by which ground is gained
to the front and flank simultaneously, while a front parallel to the
original alignment is maintained.
_Outer flank._--The flank opposite to the inner flank.
_Pace._--The denomination of different degrees of speed; also a
measurement of distance (30 inches) on foot.
_Parade line._--The line on which troops form for drill or for
ceremonial purposes.
_Parade movements._--The movements laid down for the inspection of a
body of troops.
_Patrols._--A party of men detached for any purpose, such as to
reconnoitre, to prevent surprises, to report fire effect, to pick out
and report favourable targets, or to keep a commander informed of
movements of either side.
_Pivot._--The flank on which a body wheels. The man on that flank is
the “pivot man,” or simply the pivot.
_Quarter column._--Batteries in column at 12 yards, sections in column
at 6 yards, distance from one another. When at full interval, each gun
has a wagon on its left at close interval.
_Rank._--Two or more men in line side by side.
_Scouts._--Selected men detached to obtain information of the enemy,
country, supplies, &c.
_Section._--A section consists of two subsections.
_Serrefiles._--Officers, non-commissioned officers, and others whose
posts are in rear of a battery when in line.
_Shouldering._--Wheeling on a moving pivot.
_Single file._--One front rank man or his coverer.
_Subsection._--One gun, with its complement of men, horses, and
ammunition wagons.
_Taking ground to a flank._--A movement in which each carriage of a
subsection wheels independently on its own ground.
_Wheeling._--A movement by which a body changes direction on a fixed or
moving pivot.
_Special for Mountain Artillery._[1]
_Subsection._--One gun with its complement of men and mules, divided
into two parts called firing battery mules and first line mules.
_Battery column._--A column of sections, in which the firing battery
mules of each section follow each other in succession and are followed
by the first line mules in the same order.
_Column of route._--A column of single mules in which each subsection
moves complete.
_Column of sections._--A column in which each section moves complete.
_Column of subsections._--A column of single mules, in which the
mules of the firing battery of each subsection follow each other in
succession and are followed by the first line mules in the same order.
_Mule-length._--A term of measurement (6 feet).
Width of a loaded ammunition mule = 4 feet.
_Relief Mules._--For some of the more difficult loads a second mule is
provided, which acts as a relief to the firing battery mule.
[1] The mule is referred to as the normal pack animal with mountain
batteries throughout this manual. The same principles are generally
applicable to pack ponies.
CHAPTER I.
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING.
=1.= _Object and method of training._
1. The object of training is to fit all ranks for the performance of
their duties in war. This volume deals with the general principles
which govern the training in peace and leading in war of horse,
field, mountain, and heavy artillery. It also forms the basis of the
training of companies R.G.A. armed with movable armament (except 6-inch
howitzers) for the defence of land fronts.
2. The training must include both moral and physical instruction. The
development of a soldierly spirit is needed to help the soldier to
bear fatigue, privation and danger cheerfully; to embue him with a
sense of honour; to give him confidence in his superiors and comrades;
to increase his powers of initiative, of self-confidence, and of
self-restraint; to train him to obey orders or to act suitably in their
absence; to impress upon him that so long as he is physically capable
of fighting, surrender to the enemy is a disgraceful act; and finally
to produce such a state of discipline that each individual will perform
his duty coolly and correctly in the stress of battle.
The training of the body is required to develop the soldier’s capacity
for resisting fatigue and privation, in order that he may always be fit
to perform his duty.
It is only after some development in these qualities of mind and
body has been made by the individual that instruction in working
collectively in the field should be undertaken.
3. As soon as a man enters the service, every endeavour should be made
to foster in him a soldierly spirit. Officers and non-commissioned
officers must remember that it is chiefly by their example that the
development of a soldierly spirit will be achieved.
The soldier should be instructed in the deeds which have made the
British Army and his own regiment famous, and as his education
progresses simple lessons drawn from military history may be explained
to him.
The privileges which he inherits as a citizen of a great empire should
be explained to him, and he should be taught to appreciate the honour
which is his, as a soldier, of serving his King and country.
4. The management, care, and handling of his gun and horse must always
be the principal aim in the artilleryman’s training, but he must also
have some knowledge of musketry and field engineering, either of which
he may be called upon to employ in the course of a campaign.
Drill is an essential factor of all training, in order to establish
and maintain a mutual understanding between a commander and his
subordinates.
Mounted and dismounted games are also of value in teaching the
importance of co-operation, discipline and determination. The greater
number, therefore, that take part in such sports the better.
It should be impressed on all ranks throughout their training that the
sole object of the various courses of instruction is to fit them for
their duties in war. By keeping this fact constantly in view training
will develop on sound and practical lines.
=2.= _Responsibility for training._
_See also_ T. and M. Regs. Sec. =2=.
1. Responsibility for the training of the troops committed to their
charge rests on all commanders from those of sections upwards. Subject
to the principles laid down in the various Training Manuals and
Regulations, commanders are at liberty to employ such methods as appear
best calculated to attain the desired end. Superior commanders while
holding their subordinates responsible for the training of their
units will never forego their functions of guidance and control, and
will exercise a general and continuous supervision over their work.
In carrying out this duty they must not curb the initiative of their
subordinates or interfere unnecessarily so long as the training is
conducted on sound lines.
2. The importance of artillery being regularly trained to work with
the other arms cannot be overestimated. It is the function of the
divisional commander to afford the necessary opportunities to his
batteries, when the divisional artillery commander reports that they
are ready. (_See_ T. and M. Regs., Sec. =40= (6).)
3. The divisional artillery commander is a subordinate commander and
as such is responsible for the efficiency of the artillery of the
division. (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part II, Sec. =9=.)
It is his duty to superintend the tactical training of the artillery,
to conduct the higher education of its officers, and to see that the
principles laid down in the various training manuals for the guidance
of the artillery are adhered to.
4. The commander of an artillery brigade is responsible for the
training and efficiency of his brigade and for supervising the
instruction of his officers. He will also see that the numbers and
efficiency of the officers, non-commissioned officers and men required
for special duties are maintained in accordance with the regulations.
(_See also_ Sec. =6= (6).)
The commander of a reserve brigade, is responsible for the system of
training the recruits as well as for the efficiency of the permanent
cadres of the depôt and reserve batteries.
5. The commander of a battery is responsible for the training and
efficiency of his officers, non-commissioned officers, men and horses.
He is also responsible that the equipment of his battery is complete
and fit for service. He is assisted in these duties by the captain. A
battery commander will hold his section commanders responsible for the
training and efficiency of their sections, and also for the condition
of the horses and equipment belonging to them to such an extent as
he considers desirable. It should be his aim, while maintaining a
general control, to develop the self-reliance and readiness to accept
responsibility of all ranks.
6. To qualify for the command of a section an officer should himself
be capable of performing all the ordinary duties which his men may be
called upon to undertake in the field.
Young officers, before being dismissed drill, should therefore be
capable of stripping and putting together a saddle, correctly saddling,
bitting and turning out a horse in marching order, putting together
the harness and harnessing a draught horse and driving in the centre,
lead or wheel. He should also have a thorough knowledge of the gun, its
equipment and ammunition, the system of laying and of the duties of the
various numbers.
When qualified they should personally train their own section to take
its place in the battery, making the most of the opportunities thus
afforded to study the characters of their men, to find out the special
qualifications of each and to gain their confidence.
TRAINING OF RECRUITS.
=3.= _Preliminary training of recruits._
1. The training of the recruit will commence as soon as he joins the
depôt or training brigade. As it is here that the foundation of his
military education is laid, great importance attaches to the system of
instruction adopted.
The daily programme of work should be varied so as to avoid monotony
with its consequent loss of interest.
A syllabus of training is given in Appendix I. This syllabus can only
be taken as a guide since weather and other conditions will often make
it impossible to carry out the programme laid down.
2. A practical character should be given to the instruction from the
beginning. Officers and non-commissioned officers should themselves
show the proper position or way to do whatever they are teaching: for
it is much easier to learn when the eye assists than when the ear alone
is the medium of instruction.
3. The language used should be as simple as possible and technical
terms which are necessary must be carefully explained. Questions which
admit of a simple answer should frequently be asked, but attempts
to extract long parrot-like quotations from drill-books should be
forbidden. Every encouragement should be given to recruits to take an
interest in all details connected with their work and to question their
instructors on any points they do not understand.
The attainments of recruits on joining are to be noted and all should
be encouraged to attend school until they obtain a second-class
certificate.
4. Recruits should be formed for instructional purposes in squads; the
number of men in each squad should not exceed ten. It may be advisable
to rearrange the squads periodically, so that the more intelligent men
may not be kept back by those of inferior ability.
Recruits should be called out in turn to drill when they have
progressed sufficiently, for this gives a man confidence, helps him to
learn, and causes him to take additional interest in his work.
5. The squad instructors must be carefully selected and should, if
possible, receive some previous training as instructors at the depôt.
They must be firm, but patient, making allowances for the different
capacities of the men, and it will be of advantage if the same
instructors remain with the same squads throughout their course.
An instructor should place himself where he can be seen and heard by
all in the squad, should stand in a smart, soldierlike attitude, and
should avoid pacing up and down, looking down on the ground, turning
his back to the squad, and similar habits, which fidget the men and
distract their attention. His explanations should be given in a
distinct voice; his word of command should be sharp and decisive.
6. Alertness of attitude and smartness of movement should be enforced
throughout all drill; but while details or explanations of drill and
equipment are being given, squads should be allowed to stand easy.
7. The recruits course will consist of instruction in the following
subjects:--
_All recruits._
i. Physical training. (_See_ Manual of Physical Training.)
ii. Foot drill.
iii. Rifle exercises, and Musketry exercises.
(Musketry Regulations, Part I.)
iv. The use of cordage, tackles, knots, &c.
v. Semaphore signalling.
_Gunners._
vi. Gun drill and elementary gunnery.
vii. Laying, fuze setting.
viii. Visual training.
_Drivers._
ix. Fitting, cleaning and disposal of harness.
x. Stable management.
_Boys._
xi. Signalling (flag, lamp and helio).
xii. Map reading.
8. In addition to short lectures connected with the above, others
should be given on the following subjects, illustrated whenever
possible, by reference to incidents of actual warfare:--
i. Moral education, including patriotism, devotion to
duty, the soldierly spirit and self-respect.
ii. Interior economy and barrack duties, including the
organization of a battery; dress, clothing and its
care; names and ranks of superiors, &c.; regulations
and orders; leave and passes, hospital rules,
pay, promotion, school.
iii. Discipline: its object: punctuality, regularity and
obedience: saluting: method of making requests:
behaviour out of barracks: meaning of esprit de
corps, regimental motto, &c.
iv. Sanitation, its object and rules to follow: hints on
marching and care of feet, &c.
Lectures should be given under the most comfortable circumstances to
the hearers and use should be made of models and the blackboard, in
order to engage and hold their attention and interest.
9. No definite period for the course above outlined can be laid down,
since it will depend on a number of varying circumstances, but it is
considered that 12 weeks would be needed to give the average recruit a
sound preliminary training. To enable his training in more important
subjects to go on uninterruptedly after joining his unit, every effort
must be made to complete that portion of the course which consists of
physical training and marching drill.
10. It should be impressed on recruits that their prospects of civil
employment in after life depend on their conduct whilst in the army,
that preference is given to such as have exemplary or very good
characters, and that sobriety is a very important qualification for
employment.
4. _Recruit training in the battery._
1. Recruits should, if possible, be posted to batteries in batches.
Further training in the various subjects referred to in Sec. =3= will
usually be necessary. The same instructors should, if possible, deal
with the same subjects throughout this training and one officer should
be specially charged with superintending the work and giving the class
a series of lectures.
2. During this period a careful watch should be kept for men who are
likely to become useful non-commissioned officers, or who show an
aptitude for any special duties; and every encouragement should be
given them to improve themselves.
THE ANNUAL TRAINING OF THE SOLDIER.
=5.= _System of training._
_See also_ T. and Man. Regs., Sec. =3=.
1. The conditions in which the artillery is raised in different parts
of the Empire vary so greatly that rigid adherence to any one system
of training is impossible, but the methods described in the following
pages should be followed as closely as circumstances allow.
2. The training of the soldier must be progressive and continuous.
With this object the training year will be divided into two periods,
which will be devoted respectively to--
i. Individual training.
ii. Collective training.
The object of individual training is to prepare the individual officer,
non-commissioned officer or soldier for the duties which he will be
required to carry out in war.
The object of collective training is to render the sections, batteries
and larger units and formations capable of manœuvre and co-operation in
battle.
3. Whatever periods are allotted for individual and collective training
the instruction of individuals and units is not to be considered as
limited to these periods respectively. Advantage must be taken of any
opportunities which may arise for individual training during the period
of collective training, and _vice versâ_. (_See_ T. and Man. Regs.,
Sec. =7=.)
4. It is undesirable to lay down fixed courses of training, and it
will rest with commanders to design for themselves programmes for each
training period which will ensure the necessary standard of efficiency
being reached within the limits of time allowed.
Under special circumstances, detailed instructions may be issued by
higher authority for the training of subordinate commands. Detailed
instructions should, however, be sparingly employed as they cramp
initiative and increase rather than facilitate the work of subordinates.
INDIVIDUAL TRAINING.
_See also_ T. and Man. Regs., Chap. II.
=6.= _General instructions._
1. Individual training must be, as far as possible, progressive and
uninterrupted.
The success of each year’s collective training will largely depend
on the care and attention devoted to the individual training which
precedes it.
2. Leave and furlough should, if possible, be so arranged that each
battery is at full strength for a period, or periods amounting in
all to not less than 24 working days. When this is not possible, the
application of this rule may be limited to the section. During this
period or periods the battery or section should be struck off duty
in order to allow its commander to carry out a complete and thorough
course of individual training for his officers and men.
3. Short lectures, practically illustrated, form one of the best means
of imparting instruction and are also of value in educating officers
and non-commissioned officers to express themselves in clear and simple
terms.
4. Individual training comprises:--
i. Instruction of officers in professional duties (King’s
Regulations, and T. and Man. Regs., Chap. II).
ii. Instruction of non-commissioned officers and men
likely to become non-commissioned officers in the
duties which they may be called upon to perform.
iii. Reconnaissance duties.
(Secs. =240-244= and F.S. Regs., Part I.)
iv. Range-finding. (Sec. =245=.)
v. Intercommunication duties. (Sec. =246-248=.)
vi. Physical training and marching drill.
vii. Gun drill, laying, and fuze setting.
viii. Equitation. (Chap. III.)
ix. Musketry.
x. Training of eyesight and observation, and in judging
distances. (Secs. =241-243=.)
xi. Semaphore signalling for captains, subalterns, and
non-commissioned officers, and at least 20% of the
gunners and drivers.
xii. Practice, so far as means are available, or can be improvised,
in entraining and embarking guns and horses,
and in slinging horses, vehicles and stores which form
part of their war equipment. (Secs. =252-254=.)
5. In addition, lectures on the following should also be included:--
i. The principles of artillery tactics, ammunition supply,
the employment of artillery in war in conjunction
with the other arms and the general characteristics
of those arms.
ii. The care of horses, saddlery, and equipment and
stable management, combined with practical
illustration. (_See_ Animal Management.)
6. The instruction in signalling, range-finding and reconnaissance
duties should be carried out under the direct instructions of the
brigade commander, who will also supervise the training of the officers
in professional duties.
COLLECTIVE TRAINING.
_See also_ T. and Man. Regs., Chap. III.
=7.= _Section training._
1. At the commencement of battery training each section will be trained
in the field under its own section commander to such an extent as the
battery commander considers desirable. For this purpose one or two
sections, as convenient, can be lent the horses and carriages of the
remainder, the latter being meanwhile trained in dismounted work, gun
drill, laying, fuze setting, semaphore signalling, &c. Arrangements
should be made so that every man may be trained with his own section
during this time.
2. The battery commander will personally supervise the section
commanders and thus ensure that each section is fit to take its place
in the battery.
The period of section training offers a convenient time for the
education of the battery headquarters by the battery commander or
captain.
=8.= _Battery training._
1. To ensure efficiency in the command of a battery it is essential
that its training should be devoted to foreseeing and removing all
possible causes of friction between its component parts.
2. Each battery should be struck off duty for at least 36 days
(inclusive of section training). It will seldom be possible for these
to be consecutive, but the brigade commander is responsible for making
the best arrangements possible for the general good of his command.
3. The chief points to which the battery commander should devote his
attention are:--
i. Fire discipline.
ii. Supply and replenishment of ammunition.
iii. Internal communication in the battery and co-operation
between the various members of battery headquarters.
iv. Fire tactics (the selection, occupation and preparation
of positions and co-operation with the other arms).
v. Field engineering. (_See_ M.F.E. and Secs. =238=, =239=.)
4. At first it will often be advisable to take out only the officers,
senior non-commissioned officers and parties required for observation
and communication. When these individuals have got to know their work
and to understand each other, the whole battery can be taken out.
Parties may with advantage be sent out to the positions against which
the guns are to come into action to note where and when any of the
personnel or material of the battery are exposed to view, and to form
targets for the guns. By such means the men will be enabled to see the
mistakes made, and learn to avoid them.
5. The difficulties which attend the supply of ammunition in the field
make it important that each battery should practise it with its full
number of wagons as often as possible. In order to do this arrangements
should be made to place the horses of the brigade at the disposal of
each battery in turn.
6. Before the training of the battery is finished an opportunity of
bivouacking for 24 hours should be obtained. It will be of advantage if
the site selected affords facilities for practising swimming horses,
entrenching and the passage of obstacles.
If arrangements can be made for issuing flour and live stock, useful
training in the preparation of rations under active service conditions
may be gained.
7. All training, other than formal parades, carried out beyond the
precincts of barracks, whether other arms are present or not, should
be based on some simple tactical scheme, which should be explained to
all ranks beforehand.
=9.= _Brigade training._
1. As soon as the batteries have completed battery training they will
be inspected by their brigade commander, after which the training of
the brigade should commence.
Each brigade should be at the disposal of its commander for at least 18
working days.
2. The object of brigade training is to fit the brigade to take
part, either alone or as part of a larger force of artillery, in any
operation involving the employment of other arms.
To achieve this object training in the following is necessary:--
i. The selection, and change of positions and of objectives
in accordance with the tactical plan.
ii. The concentration and distribution of fire in accordance
with the progress of the fight, and the
procedure to be adopted to carry out these objects.
iii. Co-operation with the other arms, and intercommunication
between the artillery brigade commander,
his batteries and ammunition column, and also
between the artillery brigade commander and the
divisional artillery commander and subordinate
infantry commanders.
3. If arrangements cannot be made to carry out tactical training with
the other arms (_see_ Sec. =2= and T. and Man. Regs. Secs. =40= and
=42=) the action and effect of those arms must be considered in the
solution of tactical problems.
=10.= _Annual practice._
1. The object of the annual course of gun practice is two-fold, viz.:--
i. To instruct all ranks in the application in the field of the
approved principles of gunnery and artillery tactics
with service ammunition.
ii. To accustom commanders to acquire the habit of appreciating
a situation quickly and correctly, of arriving
at an immediate decision, of translating that decision
into suitable orders and of ensuring their intelligent
and rapid execution.
2. The schemes on which the tactical practice is based should deal with
problems such as would be likely to confront a commander in war. These
schemes for batteries and brigades of divisional artillery will be
drawn up by the divisional artillery commander in consultation with the
general staff officer of the division. Schemes for larger formations
will be prepared by the general staff officer of the division under the
direction of the divisional commander.
In the case of horse artillery the camp commandant will draw up the
schemes for tactical practice in consultation with the inspector of
cavalry. In the case of heavy artillery and unallotted brigades of
field artillery the tactical schemes will be prepared by the camp
commandant.
The divisional commander will, whenever possible, be present at the
tactical practice of his divisional artillery and act as director of
the operations, assisted by the commandant, who is the divisional
artillery commander in the case of batteries and brigades of divisional
artillery. The commandant will act as director in the absence of the
divisional commander.
The director or assistant director will give out the schemes and,
if he himself is acting as the commander of the force engaged, will
explain the tactical situation and will issue such orders as he would
in war. Should the divisional commander so desire, a senior officer of
another arm may be placed in command, in which case he will describe
the situation and issue his orders. Before doing so he should be made
fully acquainted with the lessons which the director wishes to teach,
and with any limitations imposed by range conditions.
3. It is the duty of practice camp commandants to record the state of
efficiency of the various batteries and brigades, to bring to notice
matters affecting the efficiency of the equipment and to report on the
suitability for war of the technical methods employed.
4. Accurate observation of fire is of very great importance. Practice
camp commandants should, therefore, make sure that officers and
selected non-commissioned officers are given opportunities of watching
as many series fired as possible.
5. Further instructions for the conduct of practice are contained in
“Instructions for Practice, Horse, Field, and Heavy Artillery.”
=11.= _Divisional artillery training._
1. Divisional artillery training will generally take place between the
annual practice and divisional training, and under the supervision of
the divisional commander who will decide the duration and locality of
the training.
2. During this period attention will first be devoted to perfecting
the methods by which orders are issued to brigades, and communication
maintained between them and the commander of the divisional artillery
and to the reconnaissance and selection of artillery positions.
It will not always be necessary to take out the batteries in the
earlier stages of the training as much of the work in connection
with the above can be carried out by the headquarters of divisional
artillery and of brigades and batteries working together under the
divisional artillery commander.
3. Subsequently, schemes, in which the whole divisional artillery will
take part, should be framed to illustrate definite points in connection
with the tactical employment of artillery in various situations, the
higher command of artillery in battle, the allotment of zones or tasks,
the application of fire, and the replenishment of ammunition.
The other arms should usually be associated with the divisional
artillery in working out these schemes. Infantry may be utilised for
the purpose of showing in skeleton the positions and movements of that
arm in a scheme designed principally for the training of the divisional
artillery. When units are not available officers of other arms should
be attached for the purpose of stating the action that would be taken
by their arms.
Occasionally the artillery of a division may carry out exercises
independently of the other arms, but in such cases the effect which the
presence of other troops would have on the operations must never be
ignored.
=12.= _Training of Special Reserve and Territorial Artillery and of the
artillery of the Overseas Dominions._
1. The annual training should be earned out on the same principles as
have been indicated above for the Regular Forces. It is not possible
for citizen forces, in the limited time at their disposal, to carry
out the whole course. The perfecting of the battery as the fire unit
should be the principal object kept in view. Beyond this officers,
senior non-commissioned officers and battery headquarters should be
instructed, both with respect to their battery duties and also as
part of a brigade, for which purposes the presence of the batteries
themselves is not essential.
2. The training of the Special Reserve should be devoted to fitting
individuals to take a place in the battery suited to their special
qualifications. Thus any men who show aptitude as layers, signallers,
&c., should be encouraged to perfect themselves so far as the time
available for their training will allow.
CHAPTER II.
DISMOUNTED DRILL WITH AND WITHOUT ARMS.[2]
SQUAD DRILL WITH INTERVALS.
=13.= _General instructions._
1. Instruction can be imparted most easily to a squad in single rank. A
squad of recruits should, therefore, be placed in single rank at arm’s
length apart; but if want of space makes it necessary, the squad may
consist of two ranks, in which case the men of the rear rank will cover
the intervals between the men in the front rank.
2. At first recruits may be placed in position by the instructor,
afterwards they should not be touched, but made to correct themselves,
when faults are pointed out. The instructor should teach as much as
possible by illustration, performing the movements himself, or making a
smart recruit perform them.
[2] Heavy and mountain artillery drill as laid down for infantry.
Recruits will be advanced progressively from one exercise to another,
men of inferior capacity being put back to a less advanced squad.
When the various motions have been learnt, instruction by numbers will
cease.
3. Commands which consist of one word will be preceded by a caution.
The caution, or cautionary part of a command will be given deliberately
and distinctly; the last or executive part which, as a rule, should
consist of only one word or syllable will be given sharply. A pause
will be made between the caution and the executive word.
When the formation is moving, executive words will be completed as
the men begin the pace which will bring them to the spot on which the
command is to be executed. The caution must be commenced accordingly.
Young officers and non-commissioned officers should be frequently
practised in giving words of command.
4. In the following sections the various words of command are printed
in small block capitals, the cautionary part of the command being
separated from the executive part by a stroke thus--
=14.= _Position and movements at the halt_.
1. _The position_ Heels together and in line. Feet turned
_of attention._ out at an angle of about 45 degrees. Knees
straight. Body erect, and carried evenly
ATTENTION. over the thighs with the shoulders (which
should be level, and square to the front)
down and moderately back--this should
bring the chest into its natural forward
position, without any straining or
stiffening. Arms hanging easily from the
shoulders as straight as the natural bend
of the arm, when the muscles are relaxed,
will allow, but with the hands level with
the centre of the thighs. Wrists straight.
Palms of the hands turned towards the
thighs, with the heel of the hand and the
inside of the finger tips lightly touching
them, fingers hanging naturally together
and slightly bent. Neck erect. Head
balanced evenly on the neck, and not poked
forward, eyes looking their own height and
straight to the front.
The weight of the body should be balanced
on both feet, and evenly distributed
between the fore part of the feet and the
heels.
The breathing must not in any way be
restricted, and no part of the body should
be either drawn in or pushed out.
The position is one of readiness, but
there should be no stiffness or forced
unnatural straining to maintain it.
2. _To stand_ Keeping the legs straight, carry the left
_at ease._ foot about one foot-length to the left so
that the weight of the body rests equally
STAND AT--EASE. on both feet, at the same time carry the
hands behind the back and place the back of
one hand in the palm of the other, grasping
it lightly with the fingers and thumb, and
allowing the arms to hang easily at their
full extent. (It is immaterial which hand
grasps the other.)
3. _To stand easy._ The limbs, head and body may be moved, but
the man will not move from the ground on
STAND--EASY. which he is standing
_Note._--Troops “_standing easy_” who
receive a caution such as “_squad_,”
“_section_,” &c., will assume the
position of “_stand at ease_.”
4. _Dressing a squad_
_by the flank._
EYES--RIGHT On the word “_Right_” the head will be
(_or_ LEFT). turned, and the eyes directed to the right.
DRESS. On the word “_Dress_,” each recruit, except
the right-hand man, will take up his dressing in
line by moving, with short quick steps, until he
is able to see the lower part of the face of the
second man from him, taking care to keep his
body in the position of attention.
At the same time, all but the right-hand man
will extend their right arm, back of the hand
up, finger tips just touching the shoulder of
the man on their right.
EYES--FRONT. On the word “_Front_” the head and eyes
will be turned smartly to the front, and the
arm dropped, and the position of attention
resumed.
5. _The turns._ Keeping both knees straight and the body
erect, turn to the right on the right heel
and left toe, raising the left heel and right
toe in doing so.
RIGHT TURN--ONE. On the completion of this preliminary
movement, the right foot must be flat on
the ground and the left heel raised, both
knees straight and the weight of the
body, which must be erect, on the right
foot.
TWO. Bring the left heel smartly up to the right
without stamping the foot on the ground.
LEFT TURN--ONE. Turn to the left, as described above, on
the left heel and right toe, the weight of
the body being on the left foot on the
completion of the movement.
TWO. Bring the right heel smartly up to the left
without stamping the foot on the ground.
ABOUT--TURN Turn fully about to the right, as described,
ONE. for the “_Right turn_” by numbers.
TWO.
As soon as the recruit understands the different motions he should be
practised in performing these movements, judging the time.
=15.= _Saluting._
1. _Saluting_ Bring the right (left) hand smartly, with a
_to the front_ circular motion, to the head, palm to the
_by numbers._ front, fingers extended and close together,
point of the forefinger touching the peak of
RIGHT (LEFT) the cap in front of the right (left) eye, thumb
HAND--SALUTE close to the forefinger, elbow in line and
ONE. nearly square with the shoulder.
TWO. Cut away the arm smartly to the side.
2. _Saluting_ On the word “_Salute_,” go through the two
_to the front_ motions described in para. 1 and, after a pause
_judging the time._ equal to two paces in quick time, cut away the
arm.
RIGHT (LEFT)
HAND--SALUTE.
Recruits should also be practised in marching two or three
together, saluting points being placed on either side, and
the man nearest to the point giving the time.
3. _Rules as to saluting._
The salute will always be with the hand farthest from the person
saluted.
When a soldier passes an officer he will salute three paces before
reaching him, and will lower the hand on the third pace after passing
him. As the hand is brought to the salute, the head will be turned
towards the person saluted; if carrying a whip, the soldier will place
it smartly under the disengaged arm, cutting away the hand before
saluting. If standing still, he will face the officer as the latter
passes and salute.
A soldier, if sitting when an officer approaches, will rise, stand
at attention, and salute; if two or more men are sitting or standing
about, the senior non-commissioned officer or oldest soldier will call
the whole to “_Attention_,” facing the officer, and will alone salute.
When a soldier addresses an officer, he will halt two paces from him
and salute. He will also salute before withdrawing.
When appearing before an officer in a room, he will salute without
removing his cap.
A soldier, without his cap, or when carrying anything other than his
arms will, if standing still, come to attention, and face the officer
as he passes; if walking without his cap or riding a bicycle, he will
turn his head smartly towards the officer in passing him.
A soldier when wearing a sword will salute with the right hand.
Officers and soldiers passing troops with uncased colours will salute
the colours, and the commander if senior to them. When passing a
military funeral, they will salute the body.
A soldier driving a vehicle will bring his whip to a perpendicular
position, with the right hand resting on the thigh and turn his head
smartly towards an officer when passing him.
A soldier riding on a vehicle will turn his head smartly towards an
officer when passing him.
=16.= _Movements._
1. Before the squad is put in motion, the instructor will take care
that the men are square individually and in correct line with each
other. Each soldier must be taught to move straight to his front by
fixing his eye upon some object on the ground directly in front of him
and then observing some nearer point in the same straight line, such as
a stone or a tuft of grass. The two objects must be kept in line when
he advances.
2. The legs should be swung forward freely and naturally from the hip
joints, each leg as it swings forward being bent sufficiently at the
knee to enable the foot to clear the ground. The foot should be carried
straight to the front and, without being drawn back, placed firmly upon
the ground with the knee straight, but so as not to jerk the body.
3. The body should be maintained as erect as possible, its relative
position being as described for the position of “_Attention_,” well
balanced over the legs and carried evenly forward without swaying from
side to side, and with head erect.
4. The aims must not be stiffened but should swing freely and naturally
from the shoulders, the right arm swinging forward with the left leg
and _vice versâ_. If the arms are swung in this way they will bend
naturally at the elbow as they swing forward and will straighten as
they swing back, the movement being free without being forced.
5. _Length of pace._--In _slow_ and _quick time_ the length of pace is
30 inches. In _stepping out_ it is 33 inches, in _double time_ 40, in
_stepping short_ 21, and in the _side step_ 14 inches.
6. _Time._--In _slow time_ 75 paces are taken in a minute. In _quick
time_, and in the _side step_ 120 paces, and in _double time_ 180 paces
are taken in a minute.
7. _Marching_
_in quick time._
QUICK--MARCH. On the word “_March_,” the squad will
step off together with the left foot, in
quick time, observing the instructions
contained in the previous paragraphs.
8. _The halt._
The moving foot will complete its pace,
SQUAD--HALT. and the other will be brought smartly up
in line with it, without stamping.
9. _Stepping_ On the word “_Out_” the moving foot will
_out when_ complete its pace, and the soldier will
_marching_ lengthen the pace by 3 inches, leaning
_in quick_ forward a little but without altering the
_time._ time.
_Note._--This step is used when a slight
STEP--OUT. increase of speed, without an alteration of
time, is required; on the command QUICK--MARCH,
the usual pace will be resumed.
10. _Stepping_
_short when_
_marching_
_in quick time._ On the word “_Short_,” the foot advancing
will complete its pace, after which each
STEP--SHORT. soldier will shorten the pace by 9 inches
until the command QUICK--MARCH is
given, when the quick step will be resumed.
11. _Marking_ On the word “_Time_,” the foot then advancing
_time._ will complete its pace, after which the time
will be continued, without advancing by
MARK--TIME raising each foot alternately about
six inches, keeping the feet almost
parallel with the ground, the knees
raised to the front, the arms steady
at the sides, and the body steady. On
the command FORWARD, the pace at which
the men were moving will be resumed.
12. _Stepping_ On the word “_March_,” step back the
_back from_ named number of paces of 30 inches straight
_the halt._ to the rear, commencing with the left foot.
----PACES _Note._--stepping back should not exceed
STEP BACK--MARCH four paces.
13. _The_ On the word “_March_,” step off with
_double march._ the left foot and double on the toes
with easy swinging strides, inclining the
body slightly forward, but maintaining its
DOUBLE--MARCH. correct carriage. The feet must be picked
up cleanly from the ground at each pace and
the thigh, knee, and ankle joints must all
work freely and without stiffness. The whole
body should be carried forward by a thrust
from the rear foot without unnecessary effort,
and the heels must not be raised towards the
seat but the foot carried straight to the
front and the toes placed lightly on the
ground. The arms should swing easily from the
shoulders and should be bent at the elbow,
the forearm forming an angle of about 135
degrees with the upper arm (_i.e._, midway
between a straight arm and a right angle at
the elbow), fists clenched, backs of the hands
outward, and the arms swung sufficiently clear
of the body to allow of full freedom for the
chest. The shoulders should be kept steady and
square to the front and the head erect.
14. _Halting_
_from the_
_double march._
SQUAD--HALT. As in para. 8, at the same time dropping
the hands to the position of attention.
15. _Marking_
_time in_
_double time_
_from double_ On the word “_Time_,” act as in para. 11, the
_march._ arms and hands being carried as when marching
in double time, but with the swing of the arms
reduced.
MARK--TIME.
16. _Moving_
_to the right_
_or left by_
_the side step._
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT)
CLOSE--MARCH.
_or_--PACES
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT)
CLOSE--MARCH.
On the word “_March_,” each man will carry
his right foot 14 inches direct to the right,
and instantly close his left foot to it, thus
completing the pace; he will proceed to take
the next pace in the same manner. Shoulders
to be kept square, knees straight, unless on
rough or broken ground. The direction must
be kept in a straight line to the flank.
17. _Halting_ On the command “_Halt_,” which will be
_from the_ given when the number of paces has not been
_side step._ specified, the men will complete the pace
they are taking, and remain steady.
SQUAD--HALT. _Note._--Soldiers should not usually be
moved to a flank by the side step
more than twelve paces.
18. _Turning_ On the word “_Turn_,” each soldier will
_when on the march._ turn in the named direction, and move on at
once, without checking his pace.
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT) _Note._--A soldier will always turn to the
--TURN. right on the left foot; and to the left
on the right foot. The word TURN will be
given as the foot on which the turn is
to be made is coming to the ground; if
it is not so given the soldier will move
on one pace and then turn.
ABOUT--TURN. On the word “_Turn_,” the soldier will turn
right-about on his own ground in three beats
of the time in which he is marching. Having
completed the turn about the soldier will at
once move forward, the fourth pace being a
full pace.
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT) On the word “_Incline_,” each soldier will
--INCLINE. make a half-turn in the named direction and
move forward diagonally.
The soldier will turn in the original
direction on the word FORWARD.
SQUAD DRILL IN SINGLE RANK.
=17.= _General instructions_
1. Recruits will next be formed in single rank without intervals, each
man occupying a space of 27 inches.
2. When soldiers are on the alignment they have to occupy, they will
except at the commencement of drill, or at ceremonial parades, take up
their own dressing without orders. When a squad is halted each man will
look towards the flank by which the squad was previously dressing with
a smart turn of the head and commencing with the man nearest the flank
will move up or back to his place. Each man will look to his front as
soon as he has got his dressing.
3. _Numbering_ The squad will number off from the right
_a squad._ hand man, the right hand man calling out
“one,” the next on his left “two,” and so
SQUAD--NUMBER. on. As each man calls out his number he will
turn his head smartly towards his left and at
once turn to the front again.
4. _Proving._ Those ordered to prove stretch out their
right hands to the full extent of the arm,
palm of the hand to the left, fingers extended
EVEN (ODD) and close together, thumb close to the forefinger,
NUMBERS--PROVE. and in line with the top of the shoulder.
AS YOU WERE. Those proving bring their right hands
to the side, bending the elbow in so doing.
5. _Opening_ The odd numbers will take two paces forward;
_a squad to_ when the paces are completed the whole
_drill with_ squad will look to the flank ordered and
_intervals._ correct the dressing quickly, looking to the
front as soon as the dressing is correct.
OPEN RANKS--MARCH.
6. _A squad
with intervals
closing to
single rank._
REFORM RANKS--MARCH. The odd numbers will step back two paces,
when the paces are completed the squad will
dress.
=18.= _Movements._
1. _Marching in squad._
The caution will be given “THE SQUAD WILL ADVANCE,” followed by the
command “EYES RIGHT, QUICK--MARCH.” The man on the flank by which the
dressing is ordered will take up a point to march on.
During the march the shoulders must be kept square to the front, and
the eyes kept off the ground, everybody moving at the same pace, and
keeping their correct distances and intervals by uniformity of pace and
an occasional glance towards the directing flank.
The recruit will be practised in changing the pace, without halting,
from quick to double, by the command, “DOUBLE MARCH.” On the command
“QUICK MARCH,” the arms will be dropped to the usual position.
The instructor will insure that the flank man selects two distant
points to march on, and, before approaching the first, takes another in
advance on the same line, and so on.
2. _The_ On the word “_Incline_,” the men will
_diagonal_ all turn half right together, and march
_march._ in that direction, each regulating his pace
so that his own shoulders are parallel with
the shoulders of the man on his right.
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT)
--INCLINE.
FORWARD. On the word “_Forward_” every man will
move forward together in the original
direction.
_Note._--If the incline is properly performed
the squad after the word FORWARD will
be parallel to its original position.
3. _Wheeling._
Recruits will first be taught to wheel from the halt, after which they
will be instructed to wheel while on the march. It will be explained
to the squad that, in wheeling, the flank which is brought forward is
termed the outward flank; the other, the inward, or pivot, flank.
The method of wheeling will be the same as laid down in Sec. =20= (3).
4. _Movements by fours, half-sections, and single files._
The above will be performed in accordance with the instructions given
in Secs. =19= and =20=.
5. _Dismissing._ The squad will turn to the right, and, after
a pause, break off quickly and leave the
parade ground. If an officer is on parade the
DIS-MISS. men will salute together as they break off.
SQUAD DRILL IN TWO RANKS.
=19.= _General instructions._
1. The recruits, when thoroughly grounded in the foregoing
instructions, will be practised on foot in two ranks, the rear rank
at three paces distance from the front rank. The two ranks will be
equalized, as far as possible, a blank file being, if necessary, the
second from the left of the rear rank. The squad having been formed
up, the instructor will give the command, “FROM THE RIGHT TELL OFF
BY FOURS.” The man on the right of the front rank numbers himself
1, the next man on his left 2, and so on to the fifth man, who then
begins a fresh sequence by numbering himself 1. The same procedure is
continued till the left flank is reached. As soon as the squad has
finished telling off, the instructor will prove the flanks of four by
the command, “FLANKS OF FOURS, PROVE.” Each number 1 and 4 in the front
rank will then prove as described in Sec. =17= (4), as well as those
who cover them in the rear rank.
2. All movements and formations will be made from or on a named flank.
When moving by fours, half-sections or files, if there should be an
incomplete unit on the left, the files will open out to cover the front
of the whole unit. Should the incomplete unit consist of only half the
number of files in the full unit, or less, the rear rank will move up
on the left of, and in line with its front rank.
3. When on the move, increasing or decreasing the front on foot the
pace is not increased, but the front or rear is ordered to mark time as
necessary.
4. N.C.Os. or more advanced recruits should be posted without coverers
on the flanks of the front rank and the point of direction for dressing
will be given to one or other flank as a rule. These men are termed
flank guides and do not tell off.
=20.= _Movements._
1. _The_ On the word “_March_” the whole squad
_march in_ moves off together at the pace ordered.
_line._
The principles which regulate the march in
line are:--
EYES RIGHT (_a_) STRICT UNIFORMITY OF PACE.
QUICK (_or_ (_b_) Correct direction.
DOUBLE)-- (_c_) Correct intervals and distances without
MARCH. crowding. Every man looking
straight to the front, except
for an occasional glance to the
flank of direction.
2. _Inclining._ On the word “_Incline_,” each man turns
half right (or left). The rear rank moves in
RIGHT (_or_ the same manner, regulating itself by the
LEFT)-- front rank, so that each individual would
INCLINE. cover the corresponding front rank number
if both were turned to the front.
The flank guide of the directing flank
having made the half turn, picks up a point
on which to march, and moves forward at
the original pace. The remainder of the men
move parallel to him, preserving the same
relative direction and position with regard
to each other, as when the turn was first
made.
On the command FORWARD each man at
the same instant turns to the former front
when the frontage of the squad should be
parallel to the original frontage. The incline
should be employed for short distances only.
3. _Wheeling._ On the word “_Wheel_,” the inner flank
guide marks time, glancing to the outer flank
RIGHT (_or_ and coming gradually round with his rank.
LEFT)--WHEEL.
The outer flank guide glances inwards and
quickens his pace, regulating his direction
so as to maintain the same extent of front.
Each front rank man keeps touch with the
next man to him on the inner flank, glancing
to the outer flank and increasing or decreasing
his pace in accordance with the relative position
which he occupies in the wheel.
As soon as the front rank begins to wheel
the rear rank men gain ground towards
the outer flank by a combination of inclining and
wheeling.
The following are the words of command for
the different degrees of wheel:--
QUARTER RIGHT (_or_ LEFT). HALF RIGHT (_or_ LEFT).
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT) WHEEL. THREE-QUARTERS
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT) ABOUT. RIGHT (_or_ LEFT)
ABOUT WHEEL.
4. _Decreasing_
_the front from_
_the halt._
ADVANCE IN The right section of fours advances, followed
FOURS FROM by the next on its left, which inclines
THE RIGHT so as to cover the leading section. the
QUICK--MARCH. remainder follow in succession.
ADVANCE IN Nos. 1 and 2 of the right section, followed
HALF-SECTIONS by their coverers advance and these in turn
FROM are followed by nos. 3 and 4 and their
THE RIGHT coverers. the remaining half-sections follow
QUICK--MARCH. in succession inclining and covering the leading
half-sections.
ADVANCE IN No. 1 of the right section of fours advances,
SINGLE FILE followed by his coverer. nos. 2, 3 and 4, followed
FROM THE by their coverers move off in succession,
RIGHT. inclining and covering the leading file. the
QUICK--MARCH. remainder act similarly. If an advance from
the left is ordered, the same rules as above
will apply if left be substituted for right and
Nos. 4, 3, 2, 1, for 1, 2, 3, 4.
When done on the move the command
REAR, MARK TIME, must be substituted for
QUICK MARCH in the above words of command.
_Note._--Each of the movements can be
carried out in a similar manner from the
left by substituting “_Left_” for “_Right_.”
5. _Increasing_
_the front._
_From single_
_files._
TO THE The leading man advances 6 paces and halts,
HALT, FORM-- his rear-rank man moving up to his proper
HALF-SECTIONS. distance and covering him; the remainder
move up into line by inclining to the left.
_From_
_half-sections._
TO THE HALT, The leading half-section advances 6 paces
FORM--FOURS. and halts. those in rear conform as above.
_From fours._ The leading section of fours advances
6 paces and halts. Those in rear conform as
TO THE HALT, above.
FORM--SQUAD. This command will also be used when it is
required to form squad from Single Files or
Half-Sections.
If an advance from the left has been made
and it is desired to increase the front, the
same command as above will be given, but
the files, &c., will move up on the right of
those in front.
When done on the move the command FRONT
MARK TIME, must be substituted for the words,
TO THE HALT, in the above commands.
6. _Formations_ On the word “_Right_ (or _Left_),” the leading
_to a flank._ body will wheel at once to the flank
named, advance 6 paces and halt; those in
rear advance until nearly opposite the inner
_Forming_ flank of the body next in front of them and
_squad to a_ then wheel and come up into the alignment.
_flank._
In order to maintain the relative position
TO THE of the numbers in each section of fours,
HALT, “fours” must be formed before the order
FOURS--RIGHT to wheel is given when advancing in single
(_or_ LEFT). files or half-sections.
7. _Moving to_ A squad may be moved to either flank in
_a flank._ column of Fours, Half-sections, or Single
Files.
FOURS
(HALF-SECTIONS In each case on the word “_March_,” the men
_or_ SINGLE of the front rank wheel in the required
FILES) direction, followed by their rear rank men.
RIGHT (_or_ The remainder of the squad follow in succession.
LEFT). A squad may be moved a short distance
QUICK--MARCH. to a flank in file by the command RIGHT (_or_
LEFT) TURN.
8. _Formations to the rear._
Formations to the rear are made when in single files, half-sections
or fours by wheeling about, or when in line by wheeling fours
about and then acting as described above. In these cases the
first command will be FILES, HALF-SECTIONS _or_ FOURS--ABOUT,
the wheel being carried out to the right on a fixed pivot.
RIFLE DRILL.
=21.= _General instructions._
1. Recruits, before they commence the Rifle Exercises, are to be taught
the names of the different parts of the rifle and the care of arms as
laid down in the “Musketry Regulations,” Part I.
2. The rifle exercises will not be performed at inspections, and will
only be practised by formations larger than a squad for ceremonial
purposes.
3. Drilling by numbers should be restricted in the regular forces to
the instruction of recruits, and should be curtailed as far as possible
in the other forces.
4. The recruit having learnt the rifle exercises by numbers, will be
taught to perform them in quick time, the words of command being given
without the numbers, with a pause of one beat of quick time between
each motion.
5. Squads with arms will be practised in the different marches and
variations of step, described in the foregoing sections. During these
practices, the closest attention must be paid to the position of each
individual recruit.
The disengaged arm will be allowed to swing naturally as described for
marching in quick or double time without arms.
6. The following instructions apply to the Short Lee-Enfield,
Lee-Enfield, and Lee-Metford Rifle.
=22.= _Rifle exercises._
1. _Falling in with the rifle at the order._
The recruit will fall in as described in Sec. =14= (1), with the rifle
held perpendicularly at his right side, the butt on the ground, its toe
in line with the toe of the right foot. The right arm to be slightly
bent, the hand to hold the rifle at or near the band (with the L.E. or
L.M. rifle near the lower band) back of the hand to the right, thumb
against the thigh, fingers together and slanting towards the ground.
The left arm in the position of attention.
When each man has got his dressing he will _stand at ease_.
2. _Standing_ Keeping the legs straight, carry the left
_at ease_ foot about one foot-length to the left so that
_from the_ the weight of the body rests equally on both
_order._ feet, at the same time incline the muzzle of
the rifle slightly to the front with the right
STAND AT--EASE. hand, arm close to the side, the left arm to be
kept in the position of _attention_.
3. _The_
_attention_
_from stand_
_at ease._
SQUAD-- The left foot will be brought up to the right
ATTENTION. and the rifle returned to the order.
4. _The slope_
_from the order_
_and vice versâ._ Give the rifle a cant upwards with the right
hand, catching it with the left hand behind
the backsight, and the right hand at the
SLOPE small of the butt, thumb to the left, elbow to
ARMS--ONE. the rear.
TWO. Carry the rifle across the body, and place it
flat on the left shoulder, magazine outwards
from the body. Seize the butt with the left
hand, the first two joints of the fingers grasping
the upper side of the butt, the thumb
about one inch above the toe, the upper part
of the left arm close to the side, the lower part
horizontal, and the heel of the butt in line
with the centre of the left thigh.
THREE. Cut away the right hand to the side.
5. _The order_
_from the_
_slope._ Bring the rifle down to the full extent of
the left arm, at the same time meeting it
ORDER with the right hand just above the backsight
ARMS--ONE. (at the lower band L.E. and L.M. rifle), arm
close to the body.
TWO. Bring the rifle to the right side, seizing it
at the same time with the left hand just
below the foresight, butt just clear of the
ground.
THREE. _Place the butt quietly on the ground_, cutting
the left hand away to the side.
6. _The slope_
_from the stand,_
_easy and vice versâ._
SQUAD After taking up the positions of _stand at
SLOPE--ARMS. ease_ and _the order_ in succession,
the squad will slope arms as described in para. 4.
The squad orders arms as described in para.
STAND--EASY. 5 and, after taking up the position of _stand at
ease_, will stand easy.
7. _The present_
_from the slope,_
_and vice versâ._
PRESENT Grasp the rifle with the right hand at
ARMS--ONE. the small, both arms close to the body.
TWO. Raise the rifle with the right hand perpendicularly
in front of the centre of the body,
sling to the left; at the same time place the
left hand smartly on the stock, wrist on the
magazine, fingers pointing upwards, thumb
close to the forefinger, point of the thumb
in line with the mouth; the left elbow to be
close to the butt, the right elbow and butt
close to the body.
THREE. Bring the rifle down perpendicularly close
in front of the centre of the body, guard to
the front, holding it lightly at the full extent
of the right arm, fingers slanting downwards,
and meet it smartly with the left hand
immediately behind the backsight, thumb
pointing towards the muzzle; at the same time
place the hollow of the right foot against the
left heel, both knees straight. The weight
of the rifle to be supported by the left hand.
SLOPE Bring the right foot in line with the left
ARMS--ONE. and place the rifle on the left shoulder as
described in the second motion of the _slope_
from the _order_.
TWO. Cut away the right hand to the side.
8. _To trail_ By a slight bend of the right arm give the
_arms from_ rifle a cant forward and seize it at the point
_the order,_ of balance, bringing it at once to a horizontal
_and vice_ position at the right side at the full extent of
_versâ._ the arm, fingers and thumb round the rifle and
behind the seam of the trousers.
TRAIL--ARMS.
ORDER--ARMS. Raise the muzzle, catch the rifle at the
band (with L.E. or L.M. rifle at the lower
band) and come to the _order_.
9. _To_ Give the rifle a cant upwards with
_shoulder_ the right hand, catching it with the left hand
_arms_ in line with the elbow; at the same time
_from the_ slipping the second finger of the right hand
_order, and inside the guard, close the first and second
_vice versâ ._ fingers on the magazine, thumb and remaining
fingers pointing downwards; the upper part
SHOULDER--ARMS. of the barrel to rest in the hollow of the
ONE. shoulder.
TWO. Drop the left hand to the side.
ORDER--ARMS. Take hold of the rifle with the left hand
ONE. immediately below the band (with L.E. or
L.M. rifle at the lower band), arm close to
the body.
TWO. Bring the rifle down in the left hand nearly
to the ground, keeping the arm and rifle close
to the body; then seize it with the right hand
at the band (with L.E. or L.M. rifle at the
lower band), drop the left hand to the side,
and place the butt quietly on the ground at
the _order_.
10. _To_
_shoulder arms_
_from the trail,_ Tightening the grasp of the right hand,
_and vice versâ._ bring the rifle to a perpendicular position,
and hold it with the left hand in line with the
SHOULDER--ARMS. elbow, then seize it with the right hand as at
ONE. the _shoulder_.
TWO. Drop the left hand to the side.
TRAIL--ARMS Hold the rifle with the left hand in line with
ONE. the elbow, arm close to the body.
TWO. Take hold of the rifle with the right hand
at the point of balance; then bring it down to
the _trail_, at the same time dropping the left
hand to the side.
11. _The short_
_trail._ Raise the rifle about three inches from the
ground, keeping it otherwise in the position
of the _order_.
If standing with ordered arms, and directed
to close to the right or left, to step back,
or to take any named number of paces forward,
men will come to the _short trail_.
12. _To_
_ground arms_
_from the order,_
_and vice versâ._ Place the rifle gently on the ground at the
right side, magazine to the right. The right
hand will be in line with the toe as it places
GROUND--ARMS. the rifle on the ground. Then return smartly
to the position of _attention_.
TAKE UP--ARMS. Bend down, pick up the rifle and return to
the _order_.
13. _Dismissing_. The squad will turn to the right, and after
a pause break off quietly and leave the parade
DIS-MISS. ground with sloped arms.
_Note._--Arms will be sloped before the squad is dismissed.
=23.= _Inspection of arms._
1. When arms are inspected at the _port_ only, the officer will see
that the wind-gauge is properly centred, the fine adjustment at its
lowest point, the keeper screw and the screw on the right charger guide
in proper position, and that the magazine platform works freely.
Each soldier, when the officer has passed the file next to him, will,
without further word of command, _ease springs_ and _order arms_ and
_stand easy_.
2. _To port arms_
_for inspection_ Cant the rifle, muzzle leading, with the
_on parade from_ right hand smartly across the body, guard to
_the order._ the left and downwards, the barrel crossing
opposite the point of the left shoulder, and
meet it at the same time with the left hand
close behind the backsight, thumb and fingers
round the rifle, the left wrist to be opposite
the left breast, both elbows close to the body.
FOR INSPECTION Turn the safety catch completely over to
PORT--ARMS. the front with the thumb or forefinger of the
right hand (_Charger-loading Lee-Enfield rifle._
Lower the safety catch with the thumb of the
right hand). Pull out the cut-off if closed,
first pressing it downwards with the thumb,
then seize the knob with the forefinger and
thumb of the right hand, turn it sharply
upwards, and draw back the bolt to its full
extent, then grasp the butt with the right
hand immediately behind the bolt, thumb
pointing to the muzzle.
3. _To ease_ Close the breech (with L.E. or L.M. rifle,
_springs and come_ the cut off should first be closed) press the
_to the order._ trigger, close the cut off by placing the right
hand over the bolt and pressing the cut off
inwards, turn the safety catch over to the rear,
and return the hand to the small.
EASE--SPRINGS.
Close the breech (with L.E. or L.M. rifle,
OR (_if the_ the cut off should first be closed), then turn
_magazine is_ the safety catch over to the rear and return
_charged_) the hand to the small.
LOCK BOLT.
ORDER--ARMS-- Holding the rifle firmly in the left hand,
seize it with the right hand at the band (with
L.E. or L.M. rifle at the lower band).
ONE.
TWO. As in the second motion of the _order_ from
the _slope_.
THREE. As in the third motion of the _order_ from
the _slope_.
4. _To examine_ If it is necessary to examine arms, the men
_arms from_ will be cautioned to remain at the _port_.
_the position_ Both ranks will come to the position for
_for inspection._ loading (_see_ Musketry Regulations, Part I),
with the muzzle so inclined as to enable
the officer to look through the barrel, the
EXAMINE--ARMS. thumb nail of the right hand being placed
in front of the bolt to reflect light into
the barrel.
The soldier, when the officer has passed the
next file to him, will act as detailed in para. 3.
=24.= _Guards and compliments._
1. When a soldier carrying a rifle passes or addresses an officer he
will do so at the _slope_ and will salute by carrying the right hand
smartly to the small of the butt, forearm horizontal, back of the hand
to the front, fingers extended. The salute will begin and end at the
same number of paces from the officer as when saluting without arms
(_see_ Sec. =15= (3).)
In passing an officer the soldier will always turn his head towards
him, in the same manner as when unarmed.
A soldier, if halted when an officer passes, will turn towards him and
stand at the _order_.
2. _Guards and sentries._--Guards, including reliefs, will march with
sloped arms.
Sentries, when saluting otherwise than by presenting arms, will halt,
turn to the front, and carry the right hand to the small of the butt as
directed in para. 1.
Further instructions concerning guards and sentries are given in
“Ceremonial.”
CHAPTER III.
EQUITATION AND DRIVING.
=25.= _Standard required of men and horses._
1. The efficiency of horse and field artillery depends so largely on
the riding of the men and on the training and condition of the horses
that the maintenance of a high standard of equitation must be the aim
of the commander of every unit.
2. Horsemanship and horsemastership are as essential to success as
good eyesight or a knowledge of gunnery. The development of a horse’s
powers by means of a progressive course of physical training and by the
adoption of uniform methods of control is as important as the training
of a man to ride.
3. Horsemastership is a necessary qualification for all artillery
commanders, and horse-training should also be studied to ensure a high
standard of equitation in a unit. Every section commander should be
capable of instructing his men in horsemastership. In addition to being
good military horsemen and instructors in riding, all officers must be
able to train and direct the training of remounts.
4. The qualifications of a good horseman from an artilleryman’s point
of view, are as follows:--
i. He should have a strong seat, quite independent of the reins;
in this way alone can he have good hands.
ii. He must understand and be able to apply correctly the “_aids_”
by which the horse is controlled.
iii. He must be a good groom, have a practical knowledge of the care
of horses both in barracks and in the field, and must understand
how to detect and treat the minor ailments to which horses are
liable.
iv. He should be able to cover long distances on horseback
with the least possible fatigue to his horse.
If a driver, he should be able to drive a pair of horses in any
position in a gun team and make them do even work, without distressing
them. He should also be able to get a fallen horse out of harness or
out of a ditch.
No mounted man who does not attain this standard can be considered a
really efficient horseman.
In every unit a limited number of men should be able to train an
unbroken horse, and improve a badly-trained one.
5. The requisites of a useful artillery horse are as follows:--
i. He must be a quiet ride, and capable of conveying a heavy
weight over long distances, without undue fatigue.
ii. Handy and quick in obeying the correct “_aids_.”
iii. Steady both in and out of the ranks or team and capable of
being ridden with one hand at any pace either in the company
of other horses or alone.
iv. Be a good jumper and ready to face water and swim.
=26.= _Horsemastership._
1. _General instructions._--The importance of being a good horsemaster
should be impressed upon the mind of every recruit from the moment of
his joining. He should understand that the efficiency of any body of
mounted troops on service depends first and foremost on the condition
of each horse, and that one tired horse in a gun team puts more work
on the other five, and may necessitate extra weight being put on some
other vehicle.
This important part of the soldier’s education demands individual
attention on the part of every battery officer and non-commissioned
officer, and it is their duty to see that the principles of
horsemastership are so thoroughly explained to each man that the care
of his horse becomes a second nature.
The recruit should receive careful instruction in the prevention and
cure of the minor ailments of a horse, in his feeding and watering,
and in his treatment on the march, in the field and in quarters. (_See
also_ Animal Management.)
2. _Watering._--Men should be impressed with the importance of watering
their horses when opportunity offers, particularly on hot days. Many
a horse has died on service through his rider not taking what proved
to be the only chance of giving him water during a long day. Horses
which are accustomed to be watered in buckets drink slowly at a shallow
stream, and consequently they should be given plenty of time. They
never suffer ill-effects from being watered when heated, unless they
are put to very severe exercise soon after it or are left to stand and
get chilled.
All horses will benefit if water is available in their stalls.
3. _Feeding._--Every opportunity should be taken when on service, or
on a long march or field day to allow the horses to water and feed.
Even a few mouthfuls of grass during a five minutes’ halt are worth
consideration.
4. _Weight off the back._--Even the lightest driver is a heavy burden
(generally more than 11 stone including the saddle), and every minute
that weight is removed from the horse’s back is a refreshing period of
relief.
Instructors should impress this on recruits by frequently making them
dismount for a few minutes at a time, so that it may become second
nature with them to dismount and walk a good deal, especially down
hill, if they should be called upon to work alone at any time. It
should hardly ever be necessary for a man to remain on his horse at the
halt, except in the case of teams that may come under fire.
5. _Off saddling._--The two most frequent causes of sore backs are:--i.
continued friction on one spot; ii. the stoppage of the circulation by
continued pressure. Either of these is liable to occur if the saddle is
left on for hours without being shifted or the girths slackened.
The “_off saddle_” can be effected very rapidly by all outriders and by
horse artillery gunners if it be regularly practised. It is advisable
in warm weather to do so once a day on the drill ground, or in the
open county, whenever the horses are absent from their stables for
any length of time. When the saddles are removed, the backs should be
immediately hand-rubbed, slapped, or massaged by means of the flat of
the hand for a few minutes, with steady pressure against the direction
of the hair, in order to restore circulation. In cold weather, the
girths should only be slackened, and the saddle shifted, as its removal
may result in a chill.
The horses of gun teams cannot readily be off saddled, but any
opportunity for loosening their girths and shifting the saddles should
be taken. Such action relieves the horses in the same way that the
removal of a tight boot does a man.
6. _Shoeing._--From the first men should be taught to pay attention to
their horses’ shoes, both in stables and in the field. The least sign
of a shoe loose or clinches broken or knocked up should be reported and
put right without delay.
A shoe lost in the field is a reflection on the man in charge of the
horse as well as on the section commander, No. 1 and farrier.
7. _Rolling in the sand._--Nothing rests a horse and freshens him up
more than a good roll in the sand, and, when it can be arranged, a sand
bath in barracks is most useful for teaching horses to roll in when
sweating. The bath should be about 20 feet square, with sand 1 foot
deep. A handful of sand poured over the back often induces a horse to
lie down and roll. After rolling, any sand remaining on the horse’s
back must be removed before he is again saddled.
=27.= _Paces of the horse._
1. The following are the regulation paces for drill and manœuvre:--
i. Walk 4 miles an hour, at which rate 117 yards are passed
over in 1 minute, or ¼ mile in 3 minutes 45 seconds.
ii. Trot 8 miles an hour, at which rate 235 yards are passed
over in 1 minute, or ¼ mile in 1 minute 52 seconds.
iii. Gallop is 12 miles an hour, at which rate 352 yards are
passed over in 1 minute.
2. The canter, about 9 miles an hour, and the jog or slow trot, 6 miles
an hour, should be constantly employed, both in teaching recruits to
ride and in training young horses. Except in the case of artillery
moving with infantry horses should always be made to walk up to the
regulation pace of 4 miles per hour.
3. In marching, especially along a road, and when men are riding singly
or in small groups not at drill a much slower trot should be used than
the regulation drill or manœuvre trot of 8 miles per hour.
=28.= _Terms used in equitation._
1. “_Right rein_” and “_Left rein_.”--A horse is said to be on the
“_right rein_” when he is going round the school to the right, or
on a circle to the right. The term “_left rein_” is used when he is
proceeding to the left in a similar manner.
To avoid confusing the pupils the instructor as far as possible should
use the terms “Right” or “Left” instead of “Outward” or “Inward” when
giving explanations.
2. “_The true canter_” is a pace of three time. The legs of the horse
should move in such a manner that whichever fore leg leads, the hind
leg on the same side also leads. (_See_ Sec. =43= (8)).
3. “_The true gallop_” is a pace of four time, in which the feet
follow one another in succession, with an interval of suspension
between the coming down of the leading fore foot and that of the
opposite hind foot. As when cantering whichever fore leg leads, the
hind leg on the same side must also lead.
4. “_Cantering disunited_” or “_galloping disunited._”--When a horse is
cantering or galloping in such a way that the leading hind leg is on
the opposite side to the leading fore leg, _e.g._, when he leads with
the off fore and near hind leg, he is said to be “_disunited_.” It is
a common fault with bad riders in changing the bend of their horses
to allow them to change their fore legs but not their hind legs. This
results in the horse going “_disunited_,” a faulty action which should
not be allowed.
5. “_Cantering false_” or “_galloping false._”--A horse is said to be
cantering false or galloping false, when at either of these paces, he
goes on a circle to the left with the off fore and off hind leading, or
to the right with the near fore and near hind leading.
6. _Balance._--A riding horse on the move is said to be balanced when
he carries his head and neck in the right position for balancing his
weight and that of his rider.
7. _Collected._--A horse is said to be collected when he is made to
bring his limbs properly under him so that he has the maximum control
over them. The collected paces are the school, or regulation, walk or
trot, and the canter. The extended paces are the walk out, the trot
out, and the gallop.
FITTING SADDLERY.
(_See also_ Animal Management.)
=29.= _How to fit a saddle._
1. There are four axioms in saddle-fitting:--
i. The withers must not be pinched or pressed upon.
ii. The spine must have no pressure on it.
iii. The shoulder-blade bones must have free and
uncontrolled movement.
iv. The weight must not be put on the loins, but upon
the ribs through the medium of the muscles
covering them.
2. In fitting a saddle the bare tree should first be placed on the
back, the front arch resting in the hollow behind the shoulder.
The arch and seat should be clear of the spine. This is not always
possible with horses possessing high withers, but it is desirable in
order to ascertain the fit of the side bars.
The front arch must be wide enough to admit the hand on either side of
the withers, and its points must clear the ribs.
The side bars must not be too long and must bear evenly on the back, or
as nearly so as possible. Care must be taken that their edges do not
press the withers or ribs.
3. The numnah pannels should then be fitted on and the tree replaced on
the back, but without a blanket.
The proper thickness of the blanket having been estimated, it is folded
and placed on the horse’s back with the tree on it. The blanket must be
pressed up well into the front arch, and before girthing up it should
be noticed whether the burrs are off the shoulders and the fans off the
loins; if they are not, the thickness of the blanket beneath the side
bars must be increased by turning it up on either side.
4. The girths should now be pulled up and a man placed in the saddle.
The first thing to ascertain is whether there is freedom from wither
pressure. The hand must readily find admission beneath the blanket and
over the top and along both sides of the withers. To make the test
effective, the man should lean forward, and the examiner must not be
satisfied with anything less than the introduction of his entire hand.
The next thing is to ascertain whether there is freedom for
shoulder-blade bone pressure. This is done by passing the hand beneath
the blanket to the play of the shoulder. It should be possible to
advance the horse’s foreleg to its full extent without the examiner’s
fingers being pinched between the blade-bone and side-bar, even if
the man is leaning forward in the saddle. If the fingers are pinched
the blade-bone will also be pinched, and the saddle must be raised by
fitting thicker numnah pannels on the side bar or by an extra fold of
blanket.
5. To ascertain whether the pressure of the side-bars is evenly
distributed, the saddle, having been ridden in for about half an hour,
is carefully ungirthed, and the tree lifted from the blanket without
disturbing it. The blanket will be found to bear the imprint of the
side-bars, and a glance will show whether they are pressing evenly from
top to bottom and from front to rear.
The examination must be made without delay, as the elasticity of the
blanket soon causes it to lose the impression of the side-bars.
If there is a deeper impression on one part of the blanket than
elsewhere, the pressure is not evenly distributed, and a sore back is
liable to result.
Irregularity in the fit of the side-bars may be remedied by the
introduction of pieces of numnah to fill up the space between the
side-bars and the blanket.
In peace these strips of felt can be fixed in position with glue, but
in the field they may have to be tied on, or secured with tacks, or
best of all, bound in position by means of a piece of leather (basil)
which can be tacked to the edge of the side-bar or laced with string
across the top.
By means of these strips of felt the most radical alterations in the
fit of a side bar can be effected in a few minutes by a man who has no
technical skill.
=30.= _Saddling._
1. The _saddle_ should be placed in the middle of the horse’s back; the
front of it so much behind the withers as not to interfere with the
play of the shoulder.
The fans should clear the back, and the front arch should clear the
withers to the breadth of not less than 2 fingers when the rider is in
the saddle. The saddle, to afford a suitable seat for the rider, should
have a level bearing on the horse’s back.
2. The _blanket_ is not to rest on the horse’s withers, but should be
slightly raised by placing the hand under it.
It can be folded in several ways. With a horse of normal shape and
condition the following method is recommended:--The blanket is folded
lengthways in three equal folds, one end is then turned over 24 inches,
and the other turned into the pocket formed by the folds; the blanket
thus folded is placed on the horse’s back with the thick part near the
withers. Size when folded 2’ O“ × 1’ 8”, when unfolded 5’ 5“ × 4’ 8”.
The folding of the blanket may be modified to suit special horses and
to meet alterations in shape consequent upon falling way in condition,
or from other causes. In the case of a horse which has fallen away
in condition, and for certain shapes of back, a useful method is the
“_channel fold_” The blanket is folded lengthways in three equal parts,
each end is then turned over and folded towards the centre (two or
three folds may be taken as required to suit the horse’s back), leaving
a channel in the centre.
3. The _girth_ should be sufficiently tight to keep the saddle in its
place and no tighter. In saddling a horse, the girth must be tightened
gradually, and not with violence. It is recommended that the girths of
all except young and growing horses should be fitted with the buckle in
the second or third hole from the free end of the tab.
4. The _surcingle_ should lie flat over the girth, and be no tighter
than the latter.
5. _Adjustment of the “=V=” attachment._--The =V= attachment, fitted
to the saddle as issued, admits of limited adjustment to suit the
conformation of the horse.
The front straps of the =V= attachment, Marks II and III, should not be
buckled and unbuckled daily when girthing, nor utilised for shortening
or lengthening the girth.
The normal position of the attachment is with the buckle in the centre
hole of the three--6½ inches from the rivet--this position will suit a
very large number of horses; the upper and lower holes are provided for
the adjustment; additional holes are not to be punched.
On animals with straight shoulders that carry the saddle too far
forward, the strap should be buckled in the lower hole.
On animals that have deep chests and sloping shoulders, and are thick
in front of the saddle, the front strap should be worn long.
But in no case is it to be worn as a true =V=, _i.e._, the front and
rear straps of equal length, which would depress the hinder part of the
saddle, and cause other difficulties.
Care should be taken in all cases to buckle the “near” and “off” straps
in corresponding holes.
=31.= _Bridling._
1. Care should be taken to fit each horse with a bit of the correct
size. A narrow bit pinches the horse’s lips, and a wide bit moves from
side to side and bruises them.
The bit should be fitted so that the mouthpiece is 1 inch above the
lower tusk of a horse, and 2 inches above the corner tooth of a mare.
This can only be laid down as a general rule, as much depends on the
shape and sensitiveness of the horse’s mouth and on his temper.
2. Figs. 1 and 2 represent bits, with and without a port, with a
section of the horse’s tongue and lower jaw.
The tongue is less sensitive than the bars of the mouth. A straight
mouthpiece, Fig. 1, rests on the tongue and bars of the mouth. When
the reins are pulled the tongue is able to take the greater part of
the pressure. A mouthpiece with a port, Fig. 2, rests chiefly on the
bars. When the reins are pulled the tongue slips into the port and is
unable to relieve the bars of the greater part of the pressure. A bit
with a straight mouthpiece is therefore less severe than one with a
port.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
3. The _curb_ should be laid in the chin-groove and be so adjusted
that when the bit is pulled back to its greatest extent the angle
which the bit forms with the mouth should never exceed 45° even with
the lightest-mouthed horse, and should vary between that and 30°
according to the degree of hardness of the mouth. The curb should be
fixed permanently on to the off curb-hook. The chain should be adjusted
by twisting it to the right, putting the last link on to the near
curb-hook, and then taking up as many more links as may be necessary.
It should admit two fingers easily between it and the jawbone.
4. The _headstall_ should be parallel to and behind the cheek-bone.
5. The _noseband_ should be the breadth of two fingers below the
cheek-bone and should admit two fingers between it and the nose.
6. The _throat lash_ should fit loosely, being only sufficiently tight
to prevent the headstall slipping over the horse’s ears.
7. The _reins_ should be of such a length that when held by the middle,
in the full of the left hand, with a light feeling of the horse’s
mouth, they will touch the rider’s waist.
=32.= _Miscellaneous details._
1. The _head rope_ is put on as follows:--The point of the rope is
passed through the lower ring of the jowl piece from the near to
the off side, and then through its own ring. It is next passed over
the horse’s neck from the off to the near side, and fastened off by
doubling back the end, and laying the loop so formed on the standing
end of the rope 6 inches from the ring. The free end is then wound
round the three returns, passed through the loop, and the loop is
hauled taut to it. The number of times the free end is wound round the
returns will vary according to the length of the horse’s forehand.
_Special for mountain artillery ponies._--Buckle the strap at the end
of the rope, buckle down, to the rear D of the head collar: pass the
free end from off to near side over the animal’s neck, fasten off by
doubling a piece of the rope long enough to make five complete turns,
and lay this loop on the standing end of the rope 6 inches from the
brass ring; the free end is now wound five times completely round the
three returns, and passed down through the loop which is hauled taut to
it. The bight of the rope is fastened off the front D on the saddle by
a leather tie.
2. The _wallets_ (officers only) are to be placed on the pommel of the
saddle with the hollowed side of the connecting piece to the front. The
wallet strap is to be passed from the rear through the rearmost staple
on the saddle, then through the rear keeper of the wallet, next through
the front staple of the saddle, and finally through the front keeper of
the wallet and buckled, the point of the strap pointing to the rear,
the buckles being in line with the front edge of the wallet.
3. The _sword frog_ is attached to the rear arch of the saddle on the
near side, the girth being passed through the steadying strap.
4. The _breast-piece_ should hang horizontally from the supporting
straps, the bottom of it about 1 inch above the point of the shoulder,
and should admit the breadth of the hand between it and the horse’s
chest.
5. The _breastplate_ should be so fitted that the upper edge of the
rosette or leather is the breadth of three fingers above the sharp
breast bone, and it should admit the breadth of the hand between it and
the flat of the shoulder.
6. The _martingale_ should be used only for exceptional horses. It may
be either running or standing, according to which suits the horse the
better.
It should be of such a length that it will not interfere with the horse
until he gets his head above the proper position. If it is shorter than
this it will tend to make him set his head and neck, and lean against
it.
If a running martingale is used on reins other than those sewn to the
bit or bridoon they should be fitted with “stops” to prevent the rings
of the martingale getting caught by the buckles or studs, which fasten
the reins to the bit or bridoon.
Running martingales should, as a rule, be put on the bit reins and
sufficiently loose to have no bearing on the reins till the horse
attempts to raise his head.
The standing martingale should, as a rule, be fastened to the noseband,
but under exceptional circumstances it may be fastened to the bridoon
or cheek of the portmouth bit.
RIDING.
=33.= _General instructions._
1. The instructions should be divided into three periods, and the pupil
should be gradually advanced from one to the other.
The proper sequence of instruction is a matter of extreme importance,
in order to obtain early and satisfactory results and to avoid spoiling
horses.
2. The first period should be devoted to the attainment of a firm seat
independent of the reins, and its natural consequence--suppleness of
the body from the hips upwards. Individual instruction should be the
rule during this period.
It is important to give the recruit confidence from the first, and to
start with he should be given a quiet, well-trained horse. He should
be allowed a saddle and stirrups for the first few days, after which
some of his work each day should be without stirrups. The greater part
of the instruction at this stage should be without reins. To save the
horse’s mouth the pupil should only be allowed to hold his reins when
he is riding with stirrups.
As soon as the recruit begins to be at home in the saddle and can rise
in his stirrups, cantering and jumping should commence.
3. Before he enters the second period the recruit should be able to
control his horse in straightforward movements and simple turns in
the school or manège and be able to ride over low jumps at all paces
without reins. From now onwards a considerable portion of the work
should be outside the riding school.
This second period should be devoted to teaching what are commonly
called the “_aids_,” _i.e._, the use of the hand and lower part of the
leg and the distribution of the rider’s weight to indicate the rider’s
will to his horse. (_See_ Sec. =43=.)
The instructor should aim at cultivating freedom and elasticity in the
shoulders, arm, and wrists. Stiff shoulder-action cramps the play of
the elbow-joints and wrists and makes good hands impossible.
The recruit should be instructed to keep the knee firm to the saddle
when the lower part of the leg is used.
4. In the third period more advanced instruction in horsemanship is
given. This should commence when the pupil has attained to suppleness
of the body and the limbs, and consists in combining the play of both
so that the rider may learn to move in unison with his horse.
Exaggerated movement of any sort must be discouraged, and the necessity
of quietness and of sitting still emphasized. The best horsemen attain
their ends with the minimum of exertion to themselves and to their
horses.
During this period the horse artillery recruit should be taught to use
his sword, and mounted men should receive instruction in riding with
the rifle.
5. After the first few lessons the recruit’s horse should be constantly
changed, and he should not be passed in riding until the average animal
goes pleasantly with him at any pace.
Concurrently with his instruction in riding the recruit should be
taught the principles of saddling and bitting, also the points of the
horse and other elementary but useful knowledge connected with horses
and stables.
6. By following out the methods described an average man, with careful
individual instruction, should be able to ride at a trot and canter and
over small jumps without reins after about 30 continuous lessons. He
should be fit for dismissal in about 60 lessons.
=34.= _Hints to instructors._
1. It is necessary that an instructor should himself be a practical
horseman.
2. Recruits should be carefully taught from the first how to put on
and fit their saddles and bridles. The ill effects resulting from bad
fitting saddlery should be explained to them.
Examples of horses badly saddled and bridled should be shown to the
men, and they should be made to point out what is wrong, and how
the mistake should be put right, _e.g._, if the front tab of the
=V=-shaped girth attachment is not buckled tightly up, the saddle will
slip forward. They should also be taught clearly how the bit acts on
the bars of the mouth, and how it should be fitted.
3. An instructor should be mounted, and in addition to a short verbal
description, should give a practical illustration of what he requires.
A recruit who may have great difficulty in learning his work by mere
verbal instruction will quickly do so by copying an expert horseman.
4. A feature of all instructional work should be its quietness; an
instructor should never shout and must always keep his temper. He must
endeavour from the first to create a spirit of emulation amongst his
pupils, and avoid keeping the more forward amongst them back for the
sake of the others.
5. An instructor should aim at making his lesson progressive, and as
interesting as possible. In order to give recruits confidence, they may
be allowed occasionally to amuse themselves in the riding school with
their horses, by doing anything they like without interference from the
instructor, beyond his taking care that the horses are not ill-treated.
When teaching men in the open they should be encouraged to ride about
independently, so as to get into the habit of making their horses
go where they like and do what they wish. As the men improve, the
instructor should accustom them to riding under as varied conditions as
possible.
6. The first portion of the early training can be pushed on much more
quickly in a riding school than in the open. The horses are under
better control, the nervousness natural to beginners and usually felt
by recruits is greatly lessened, for they know that the horse cannot
run away, and there is nothing to distract the attention of men or
horses. The more advanced training must, however, always be carried out
in the open, in order that the pupil may learn real control over his
horse and improve his hands.
7. The first object of the instructor is to give his pupils confidence,
to teach them balance, the knee and thigh grip, and to sit well down
in the saddle. The lungeing whip should not be allowed inside the
school, it does more harm than good, frightens the other horses and
upsets the men; if necessary, the recruit should be allowed to carry a
stick or whip. No riding school lesson should exceed one hour.
8. Falls should be avoided: they tend to spoil the beginner’s nerve
and retard his progress. To this end the recruit’s stirrups should be
connected in the initial stages by a strap passing under the horse’s
belly, of such a length that the man’s knees are not drawn away from
the saddle. The strap saves falls, because it prevents the rider’s legs
from flying out far in any direction and the confidence it engenders
enables him to acquire balance more quickly. It should not be used when
jumping obstacles over 2 feet high.
9. More horses are spoilt from being “_jobbed_” in the mouth than
from any other cause; particularly when jumping; hence the immense
importance of teaching the men from the first to leave their horses’
heads alone except for the purpose of control and for applying
particular aids.
Men may, with advantage, be taught to ride with their reins fully long.
10. An instructor should be careful not to keep horses reining back,
passaging, or bending for more than a few minutes at a time. Generally
speaking, half the length of the school is sufficient for one of these
exercises.
11. In order to teach a man to have a strong seat, with the knee firmly
in the saddle, and at the same time to keep his feet pressed down
home in the stirrups with the leathers practically taut, he should
frequently be practised in standing up in his stirrups. At first this
should be done with the horse standing still, the man resting his hand
on the horse’s neck, if necessary, to assist his balance. Afterwards at
the walk, trot and canter.
=35.= _Preliminary training._
1. Before a recruit is allowed to mount a horse his riding muscles
should, if possible, have been strengthened on a wooden horse, either
under a riding instructor or under a gymnastic instructor who is a good
horseman. At the same time he should be taught the correct seat. (_See_
Sec. =38= and Fig. 4.)
2. The following are good exercises:--
i. Rising from the knee with stirrups.
ii. Rising from the knee without stirrups.
iii. Touching the foot with the hand on each side, with
and without stirrups.
iv. Leaning forwards and backwards in the saddle, with
and without stirrups.
v. Swinging the lower part of the leg, with a circular
motion to the rear, and towards the horse’s side.
vi. Without stirrups and with arms folded, making the
horse rock by swinging the body backwards and
forwards, maintaining a firm grip with the thighs.
iii and iv should be practised on the move when riding proper begins.
Before commencing, the pupil must be placed well down in the saddle,
and he must be taught to keep his knees firm to the flap and not to
cling with the lower part of the leg.
3. These exercises on the wooden horse may be usefully employed during
subsequent training, but should not immediately precede or follow
a riding lesson. Exercising tired muscles is not only useless, but
harmful.
=36.= _First lessons to the recruit._
1. Squads should not exceed 8 in number, and should parade in line,
leading their horses.
“STAND TO YOUR HORSES.”--The man stands at attention on the
near side of the horse, toes in line with the horse’s
fore feet; the reins, taken over the horse’s head, are
held in the palm of the right hand near the ring of
the bit, little finger between the reins, back of the
hand up; the right arm bent, the hand as high as the
shoulder; the end of the reins in the left hand, which
hangs down by his side without constraint. This is the
position of _attention_ when the man is leading his
horse.
When the horse is about to be ridden, the position of attention will
be the same as above, except that the reins will not be taken over the
horse’s head and will be held by the right hand only near the bit.
“STAND AT EASE.”--The right hand slides down the near rein
to the full extent of the arm, the end of the reins
being retained in the left hand. The position of the
man’s legs and feet are the same as at dismounted drill.
_Note._--If the reins have not been taken over the horse’s head, they
will be held in the right hand only, the left arm hanging by the man’s
side without constraint.
“IN FRONT OF YOUR HORSES.”--Each man being at _attention_
will take a full pace forward with the right foot, turn
to the right-about on the ball of it, and take one rein
in each hand near the rings of the bit, still holding
the end of them in the left hand if the reins are over
the horse’s head; hands and elbows to be as high as the
shoulders.
This is the position in which a man should stand when showing a horse
at the halt.
“STAND TO YOUR HORSES.”--Each man will take a full step
forward to the horse’s near side with the right foot,
and turn left-about on the ball of it.
“QUICK MARCH.”--Each man will move off holding the reins as
above.
“SINGLE FILES RIGHT (OR LEFT)” “QUICK MARCH.”--Each man will
move off in succession, one horse-length from the file
in front of him.
2. A man when leading a horse through a narrow gate or doorway should
walk slowly backwards, taking care that the horse’s hips clear the
uprights. The head collar should be held in both hands, one on either
side of the horse’s head, which, however, should be sufficiently free
for the horse to see where he is going.
When a soldier, leading a horse, passes an officer he will look towards
him.
3. _How to pick up a horse’s foot._--The recruit should be taught the
right way to pick up a horse’s foot. To do this he should face the rear
and run his hand lightly down the leg from the shoulder or quarter
along the back of the knee or hock before attempting to lift the foot
from the ground.
4. _How to run a horse in hand._--The reins should be held as described
above in “_Stand to your horses_” and the horse led off. As soon as he
breaks into a steady trot the man should leave go the reins with the
hand nearest the horse, and only hold the end of the reins in his outer
hand. In turning a horse about when in hand, the man should always move
round the horse and not swing the horse round himself. In leading a
horse past an officer for inspection, the man should place himself on
the side nearest the officer.
=37.= _Mounting and dismounting._
1. _Without stirrups._--The reins hanging evenly on his neck, the
command will be given:--
“PREPARE TO MOUNT.”--Turn to the right and close 6 inches
to the right. Take the reins in the left hand properly
separated as for riding (_see_ Sec. =39=), and place
the left hand on the front of the saddle. The reins
should be of such a length that the horse’s mouth is not
interfered with while mounting. The right hand will grip
the back of the saddle.
“MOUNT.”--Spring up, straightening the arms to assist, pass
the right leg over the horse and drop gently into the
saddle. When mounting without a saddle the left hand
will be placed in front of the horse’s withers, and the
right arm on his loins, forearm well to the off side,
fingers closed.
“PREPARE TO DISMOUNT.”--Place both hands, with a rein or
reins in each, on the front of the saddle, and rise from
the horse’s back by straightening the arms. Without
saddles, both hands will be placed on the horse’s
withers.
“DISMOUNT.--Vault lightly to the ground and assume the
position of ”_Stand to your horses_.”
Mounting and dismounting should also be practised on the
offside.
2. _With stirrups._--“PREPARE TO MOUNT.”--Turn to the right about. Take
the reins in the left hand properly separated as for riding (_see_
Sec. =39=) and with a light and equal feeling on the horse’s mouth.
Place the left hand on the horse’s withers, and grasp his mane, or the
front of the saddle if he has no mane; then place the left foot in the
stirrup, and the right hand on the back of the saddle.
“MOUNT.”--Spring quietly into the saddle, place the right
foot in the stirrup without looking down and assume the
position of attention (_see_ Sec. =40=).
Mounting on the offside will be taught in the same manner, and recruits
should be made to practise it regularly.
“PREPARE TO DISMOUNT.”--Shorten the reins (_see_ Sec. =39=)
and grasp the mane with the left hand, place the right
hand on the front part of the saddle and take the right
foot out of the stirrup.
“DISMOUNT.”--Carry the right leg over and lower the body
gently to the ground; place the left foot in line with
the horse’s fore feet, turn to the left and come to the
position of “_Stand to your horses_.”
3. Whenever the men are dismounted and have been allowed to _Stand
easy_ from the position of _Stand at ease_, they will be recalled to
attention by the command “STAND TO YOUR HORSES.”
4. For instructional purposes the order for mounting and dismounting is
given by two words of command, _e.g._:--
“PREPARE TO MOUNT.”--“MOUNT”; “PREPARE TO DISMOUNT.”--“DISMOUNT”; but
for trained men there is only one word of command in each case, _i.e._,
“MOUNT” or “DISMOUNT.”
=38.= _The seat._
1. The recruit must be made to sit evenly on his seat, well down in the
saddle, and not on his fork; the flat of the thigh and the inside of
the knee pressed against the saddle, but not so tightly that the man
rides on his thighs, as the weight of the body should rest principally
on the seat. Below the knee the leg should hang free, and in the early
stages much attention need not be paid to the position of the body,
though from the first the recruit should be taught to get his seat well
under him.
2. Great care should be taken to fit the stirrups to the right length
to suit the build of the rider. The man should be made to place himself
in the saddle with his knees at the height which appears to suit his
thigh. The stirrups should then be adjusted so that the bars are in
line with the soles of his boots. If a man standing in his stirrups can
just clear the pommel with his fork the stirrups are about the right
length.
The end of the stirrup leather should be passed under both returns and
then under the surcingle. It should not be passed downwards through the
buckle.
A man with a short thick leg, however, requires his stirrups shorter
in proportion than a man of equal height but with a flat thigh and
thin leg. The stirrups are intended to be an aid and convenience to the
rider; if they are too long he will lose his seat by leaning forward in
his endeavour to retain them; if they are too short, the seat becomes
cramped and the rider is prevented from using the lower part of the leg
correctly.
In ceremonial work the stirrups should be kept on the ball of the foot,
but at other times the feet may be pushed right home.
=39.= _How to hold the reins._
1. The recruit should next be taught how to hold the reins as described
below. In the early stages he should only be allowed a snaffle or
single rein attached to the cheek of the universal bit, and no curb,
and should ride with the reins in both hands. The instructor should
impress upon him the importance of not hanging on by the reins and
explain that if he does so he will not make progress, but by injuring
his horse’s mouth will make him difficult to ride.
2. The hands should be low and close in front of the body, thumbs
uppermost, back of the hands to the front. Wrists should be rounded and
supple and the movements of the horse should be followed by means of
the play of the shoulders, elbows (which should be kept close to the
body), and wrists.
3. _Reins in left hand._ i. _Bridoon or check reins only._--Take the
two reins in the left hand, the right rein between first and second
fingers, the left rein outside the fourth finger, slack passed across
the palm and secured between the thumb and first finger.
ii. _All four reins._--Place the right bit rein between the second
and third fingers, and the left bit rein between the third and fourth
fingers. The right bridoon rein between the first and second fingers,
and the left bridoon rein outside the fourth finger, the slack of all
four reins thrown back over the first finger and secured by the thumb.
At riding drill drivers when holding the reins in the left hand should
place the right hand on the thigh, as described in Sec. =55=.
4. _Reins in both hands._--In the first place, whether using single or
double reins, take them in the left hand as described above, then take
up the right rein or reins in the right hand by placing it in front of
the left, pulling sufficient of the slack forward through the left hand
to obtain an even bearing on the mouth with both hands held low, just
in front of the body and close to the horse’s withers.
In the case of single reins only, the right rein should be held between
the third and fourth fingers; with double reins, the two right reins
should be separated by the third finger. In each case the right hand
should hold only the right rein or reins, the slack of these being
secured between the right thumb and forefinger and passing thence into
the left hand which holds both the left and right reins. (_See_ Fig. 3.)
[Illustration: FIG. 3.
(_Bit reins shown shaded._)
VIEW FROM FRONT.]
[Illustration: VIEW FROM ABOVE.]
5. _To lengthen the reins._--Allow sufficient rein to slip gently
through the fingers.
_To shorten the reins._--Keep the reins in the left hand but drop the
slack from between the thumb and forefinger, and take hold of this in
the right hand behind the left, slide the left hand forward until the
desired length is obtained. Then as before secure the slack, and if
riding with both hands on the reins, take up the right rein or reins
again in the right hand.
6. The recruit should be well grounded in the proper manner of holding
the reins, and frequently practised in changing them quickly from one
hand to both and _vice versâ_, also in shortening and lengthening them
at all paces. The importance of keeping the reins supple and unpolished
should be impressed on him.
7. Normally the reins should be held in the left hand only, bit reins
inside except in the case of beginners, and when riding young or
awkward horses, when both hands should often be used. Occasionally the
left hand may be required to be free, as when leading another horse, in
which case the reins of the ridden horse can be held in the right hand.
=40.= _Position in the saddle at attention._
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
1. The correct position of the rider at attention is shown in Fig. 4.
The head and body should be erect and square to the front; upper arm
hanging perpendicular; forearm nearly horizontal; thighs flat on the
saddle; legs from the knee down nearly vertical; knees turned inwards
so as to enable the toes to point towards the front; the heels should
be sunk lower than the toes and the feet pressed down into the stirrups
(_see_ Fig. 4).
2. On the command “SIT AT EASE” the reins should be relaxed by dropping
the left hand on the front of the saddle. The right hand should rest on
the left, back up.
=41.= _First movements on horseback._
1. The recruit should now be shown how to start his horse off at a walk
from the halt, _i.e._, he should be made to ease the reins slightly,
though still keeping a light feeling on the horse’s mouth, and press
him forward with the legs from the knees downwards. He should be
prevented from jogging his horse in the ribs with his heels and from
advancing his hands to slacken the reins. At the same time he should be
taught how to halt without jerking his horse’s mouth.
The trot should be slow and for short periods and there should be no
cantering for the first few lessons.
2. _How to rise in the stirrups._--The loins must be perfectly lissom,
so that the seat may be easy and comfortable; the back should not be
hollowed, but the upper part of the body should be inclined a little
forward.
The recruit should not try, by rising, to follow or to anticipate the
movements of the horse, but should let himself be raised.
His knees (and ankle-joints if riding with the stirrup on the ball
of the foot) will sustain his movement and will allow him to descend
softly into the saddle. It is advisable to let the recruit commence
this at a walk.
3. At the trot without stirrups the recruit should allow his body to be
thrown up at each step, and fall on his seat.
In cantering, the knees, the inside of the thighs and the seat
itself must remain close to the saddle, the whole body pliant and
accompanying the movement of the horse, so that with each stride the
rider feels a forward thrust through his seat from the animal’s back.
4. A few turns and circles may now be introduced, and in executing them
the recruit should be told how to use the weight of his body. He should
be instructed, whilst preserving the grip of his knees and thighs, to
incline his weight from the hips slightly backwards and to the side to
which he is turning.
5. As soon as he has gained some confidence, the recruit should ride
without reins; he should then be taught to jump, at first over small
obstacles, such as the bar lying on the ground. (_See_ Sec. =42=.)
The recruit should not be allowed to cling with the back of the calf;
it should be explained to him that the principal use of the lower part
of the leg will be taught to him later.
6. Much of the early training should be without reins, the arms being
folded in front of the body, never behind, as the latter tends to throw
the upper part of the body forward.
=42.= _Teaching the recruit how to ride his horse over a fence._
1. Jumping, when carried out with discretion, is an excellent training
for men and horses. Constant practice throughout the recruit’s training
will enable the man to acquire, and afterwards to maintain, a firm
seat, whilst at the same time the muscles of the horse’s back and
thighs are developed and strengthened.
2. Riding over the bar laid on the ground makes a good beginning, the
men trotting round the school with suitable distances between horses
and jumping it in turn. This has the advantage of leading both men and
horses to think that they are doing nothing out of the common, and
results in an orderly and quiet procedure.
The recruit should at first be allowed to hold the end of the rein in
the flat of the hand to give him confidence, but should be encouraged
as soon as possible to drop the reins altogether. The arms should
be folded across the chest. Stirrups should be allowed until the
instructor considers it advisable for the beginner to jump without them.
In the first jumping lessons the recruits may be allowed to hold the
mane, head rope, or front of the saddle in one hand and the reins
loosely in the other. With this assistance they will be found to get
confidence, attain their proper balance in a short time and be in a
position to control their horses without jerking their mouths.
3. As the horse takes off, the pupil should be instructed to lean
forward and to tighten his leg-grip; if he is successful in this his
body will soon swing in harmony with the horse. The movements of the
body from the hips upwards when riding over a jump vary so much with
different horses and different fences, that it is impossible to lay
down any rule. It is a matter of the rider balancing his body assisted
by a leg-grip. The horse should be eased up gently after a jump, on no
account should his pace suddenly be checked.
When the initial stage is passed frequent change of horses expedites
progress.
4. The pupil should be gradually trained to handle the reins when
jumping, and the greatest care must be exercised to avoid ill-treatment
of the horse’s mouth during the process. If the shoulder-joints are
given free play when the horse requires more rein, all jerky movements
of the arms and wrists will be avoided as the hands go forward. Reins
must be held long, and the man taught to keep his hands low and allow
them to come freely forward as the horse is on the downward plane. When
riding with the reins in one hand, the left shoulder can be brought
forward as the horse is descending.
5. Jumping low obstacles is very little exertion to the horse, and the
more the recruit has of it the sooner he will be ready to enter the
third period of instruction. Before he enters this stage he should sit
his horse with ease, both with and without reins, and, when jumping,
should be able to keep a light feeling on the horse’s mouth without in
any way interfering with it.
6. The pupil should then be given horses that require “_riding_”
at their fences, and be taught to handle them with resolution. A
combination of the qualities of determination and patience are
invaluable in a horseman, and should be developed and encouraged at
this stage of the training.
The method of dealing with refusers is given in Sec. =81=.
=43.= _The aids._
1. _General principles._--The “_aids_” are the signals used by the
rider to assist him in directing his horse. These signals are made by
means of the reins, legs, spurs, shifting the weight of the body, whip,
and voice. For instance, the reins can be used to bend the neck, to
raise, lower, or turn the head to any one side; and to make the horse
decrease his speed, halt, or rein back.
The necessity of impressing on all recruits the importance of
preserving the sensitiveness of the horse’s mouth cannot be over-rated.
The pressure of both legs is an indication to the horse to go forward,
and should normally be applied just behind the girth; the leg should
only be drawn back when the horse fails to respond to ordinary
pressure. The pressure of the leg drawn back on one side is employed to
make the hind quarters turn towards the opposite side, or to prevent
them from turning towards the side on which the pressure is applied.
When it is necessary to use the spur it should be applied as described
in Sec. =45=. If when the horse is on the move the weight of the body
is shifted, say to the right, the horse will be inclined to put out a
foot on that side, in order to equalize the distribution of weight on
its limbs. The hind quarters and forehand are respectively lightened
by the rider’s body being brought forward and back, or by lowering or
raising the horse’s head. The movement of the body as an “_aid_” should
be slight, except in the case of a man riding a heavy horse, when more
movement may often be necessary, but it should not lead to interference
with the horse’s mouth.
The indications of the whip are closely akin to those of the leg and
spur.
2. _To walk or trot._--Without drawing them back, close both legs to
the horse according to his temperament, and slightly ease both reins
by a slight turn of the wrist or wrists. As soon as the horse advances
at the desired pace relax the pressure of the legs and feel the reins
again as before.
3. _To halt._--Close both legs and feel both reins, at the same time
bring the weight of the body slightly back. As soon as the horse halts
relax the pressure of the legs.
4. _To turn to the right on the haunches._[3]--Close both legs to the
horse, using more pressure with the left leg drawn back to prevent his
haunches from flying out to the left. At the same time feel the right
side of the horse’s mouth, press the left rein against his neck, and
lean the body slightly back and to the right.
_To turn to the left on the haunche.s_--Reverse the above.
[3] NOTE.--Trained horses should never be turned except on their
haunches.
5. _To turn right about on the haunches._--The same as “_right turn_,”
except that the rider should lean his body slightly back as well as to
the right and as required apply more continued pressure on the right
rein and firmer pressure with the drawn back left leg to compel the
horse to turn on his haunches.
6. _To collect the horse._--Make the horse bring his hindquarters well
under him by a pressure of both legs, and induce him to flex his jaw
and bring his nose slightly in by a light feeling of the bit rein.
The pressure of the legs should precede any feeling of the reins. In
this way the rider causes the horse to stand, walk, trot or canter, at
attention.
7. _To rein back._--Collect the horse as described in the previous
paragraph, then feel the horse’s mouth as an indication for the horse
to step backwards; the rider must never have a dead pull on the horse’s
mouth, but when the horse has taken a step back, should ease the reins
and then feel them again. The horse should be kept up to his bit by a
pressure of both legs.
The trained horse should rein back collectedly, with head carried
fairly high, and the body balanced on all four legs. He must move in
a straight line, and must not be allowed to run back out of hand, but
must make each movement in obedience to the properly applied indication
of the rider. He should not be allowed to halt in an uncollected
position.
8. _To canter off fore and off hind leading._--Collect the horse, and
by a strong pressure of the drawn back left leg make him strike off
into a canter. Prevent him from turning his quarters to the right by a
supporting pressure of the right leg as required. When cantering the
horse’s body, head and neck should be kept in the direction in which
he is moving. The horse should be collected and slightly bent in the
direction of the leading leg. The horse must be made to canter true and
united.
_To canter near fore and near hind leading._--Reverse the above aids.
Methods of telling if a horse is cantering true:--
i. Look at his shoulders and fore feet: the shoulder and
foot of the leading leg should be the most advanced.
ii. Look at his hind legs. The leading one of these should
be on the same side as the leading fore leg. The horse’s
croup will be slightly turned towards the side of the
leading legs.
If “_disunited_,” the movement felt in the seat will be a jolting and
twisting motion.
9. _To change from off fore and off hind to near fore and near hind at
the canter._--Close both legs to the horse and turn his head slightly
to the right; prevent him from turning his body to the right by the
pressure of the left leg, put the weight of the body slightly backwards
and cause him to change by a stronger pressure of the drawn back right
leg.
_To change from near fore and near hind to off fore and off hind, at
the canter_.--Reverse the above aids.
10. _To circle right at canter_ (from the halt, walk, or trot).--Apply
the aids described for the “_Canter, off fore and off hind leading_,”
and guide the horse round to the right.
_To circle left at the canter._--Apply the aids described for the
“_Canter, near fore and near hind leading_,” and guide the horse round
to the left.
=44.= _Bending._
1. Bending affords the advanced recruit a lesson in applying the
“_aids_.” It is tiring exercise for the horse and should be practised
with discretion.
In all bending work it is very important to get the horse to yield his
jaw slightly as this conduces to lightness of hand.
As a rule, bending should be done on the move.
2. _To bend a horse:_--
i. _On the snaffle._--If to the right, the rider
should bend the horse by a gentle pressure on the right
rein, at the same time giving to him slightly with the
left rein but still retaining a gentle feeling on the
left side of his mouth, and using the pressure of the
legs as required; as soon as the horse bends to the
hands cease bending and make much of him.
ii. _On the bit._--The left hand, holding the reins,
should have an equal feeling on all four reins. In
bending to the right, place the third finger of the
right hand between the two right reins and slightly
feel the horse’s mouth, using the pressure of the legs
as required; when the horse yields to the feeling by
relaxing his jaw and bending as required, the hand
should immediately yield to him.
The outer rein in bending should always retain a steady feeling to
support the inner and to ensure the bend being made at the poll.
3. _Bending lesson._--With beginners it is advisable that this should
take place in the riding school or closed-in manège, but as the
instruction progresses it should be practised outside.
The following movements should be practised (_see_ Fig. 5):--
_Right shoulder in._
_Left shoulder in._
_Right pass_ } To move across the school or to a flank.
_Left pass_ }
In all these movements the horse’s neck should be kept straight from
the withers onwards to near the poll, his head itself being turned in
the direction in which he is moving.
In the “_shoulder in_” the horse’s body should be inclined at about a
half turn to the direction in which he is to move.
In “_right_” or “_left pass_” the horse’s body should be kept
approximately at right angles to the direction in which he is moving,
being inclined only just sufficiently in that direction to enable him
to cross his legs.
These movements should all be made in the same way. Thus in “_right
shoulder in_,” the left rein bends and leads the horse assisted by
the right rein. The pressure of the rider’s right leg makes the horse
cross his legs (except in the case of the half passage) whilst the
rider’s left leg keeps him up to the hand and prevents him from
swerving.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
Horses should not be turned at the corners when in the position of
“_shoulder in_.” On reaching a corner each horse should be walked on
and again “_shoulder in_” after passing it.
To turn to the right when passaging to the right:--Stay the hind
quarters with the right leg, lead the forehand round with the right
rein, keep the left leg closed to prevent the quarters from flying out.
In working the shoulder in and passages, fore and hind feet should move
on four distinct lines parallel to each other.
=45.= _Spurs._
When the recruit has learned to preserve his proper seat and balance,
and has a knowledge of the “_aids_” made with hands and legs, he may
ride with spurs. In making use of them he must not open his thighs or
move his body forward; the leg from the knee downwards only should
move. Spurs with sharp rowels should only be allowed in exceptional
circumstances.
The spurs should be used as little as possible, but when they are
necessary the horse should be made to feel them; a continual light
touch will either make the horse kick or cause him to become insensible
to them; a jogging motion of the leg with the heel drawn up should,
therefore, never be allowed.
=46.= _Various exercises._
1. _General principles._--The recruit’s course should proceed by
degrees according to the progress made, and any or all of the following
exercises may be found useful.
Others which suggest themselves to the instructor may be added. Each
exercise or game, however, should have some definite object, and should
be looked on merely as a means to an end.
2. _To circle._--The ride being told off by fours, on the command “Nos.
1 CIRCLE RIGHT (or LEFT),” each No. 1 will ride his horse in a circle
and fall-in the rear of his section of fours, Nos. 2, 3 and 4 doing the
same when ordered by the instructor.
“ODD (or EVEN) NUMBERS CIRCLE RIGHT (or LEFT).”--Each odd
(or even) number will ride in a small circle and fall-in
behind the even (or odd) number immediately behind him.
“HEADS OF FOURS CIRCLE RIGHT (or LEFT).”--The leading man
of each fours will ride in a circle followed by 2,
3, 4, and will continue in the circle until he gets
the command “GO LARGE,” when he will cease circling
and resume his original direction; or the rein may be
changed by the word of command “HEADS OF FOURS--CHANGE.”
3. _Figure of 8._--For preliminary training in this movement the horse
should be cantered quietly on a large circle or an oblong of about the
same length as the school.
i. _In the riding school or manège._
[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
The change of rein and leading legs should be made as soon as the new
circle is commenced at X. (_See_ Fig. 6.)
ii. _Outside._--First start off at a canter on a moderate sized
circle on either rein. As soon as the horse is moving correctly and
collectedly, turn inwards and describe a small circle still on the same
rein, but about half the size of the first, when this is completed
change the bend of the horse and the leading legs, and make a similar
circle on the other rein, the two circles describing the figure of 8
within the original circle. (_See_ Fig. 7.)
[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
In changing the bend, jerking the horse’s head across from one side to
the other should not be allowed; to compel the horse to change legs it
is necessary to turn his head slightly outwards, the rider at the same
time inclining his weight to the side to which he wishes the horse to
change, and pressing with his outer leg; these movements should be made
gently, and as soon as the horse has changed the leading legs, both
fore and hind, his neck and head should be turned to look the way he is
going.
4. The “_Ladies Chain_” is a useful practice for both man and horse.
The leading file turns about, and rides a slightly zig-zag course
through the remainder of the ride (who will be at three or four
horse-lengths distance from each other), passing on their right and
left hands alternately. When each man in succession has done this, the
rear file, at increased pace, will zig-zag through the ride from the
rear, and the remainder will follow in succession.
5. Practice in crossing a big V-shaped ditch, about 18 feet wide and
10 feet deep, _i.e._, large enough to compel the horses to go down one
side and up the other, is a particularly valuable exercise, as no horse
will face the opposite bank unless his head is left absolutely alone.
=47.= _Paying compliments mounted without arms._
When riding with both hands on the reins a soldier passing an officer
turns his head and eyes in the direction of the officer without moving
his hands. When holding the reins in one hand only he should drop
the right hand to the full extent of the arm behind the right thigh,
fingers half closed, back of the hand to the right, and turn his head
in the direction of the officer.
=48.= _Leading horses._
1. When riding one horse and leading another, the led horse should be
on the near side, so that when meeting or being overtaken by traffic
the man, by keeping on the left of the road, will have the ridden horse
between the led horse and the traffic. The end of the led horse’s rein
should be held in the left hand lying flat against the reins of the
ride horse. If the led horse is fresh his rein should be held short,
about 1 foot from his head. If he tries to break away, the man should
circle the two horses to the left.
2. When leading two horses one should be on each side.
3. When leading three horses one should be on the near side and two on
the off side. When leading two horses on the same side the reins of the
outer horse should be passed between the jaw and the jowl piece of the
head collar of the inner horse before being gathered up.
=49.= _Securing horses._
1. _Tying up a horse._--The chief considerations in securing a horse
by the reins or head rope are to prevent him injuring himself (wire
fences or spiked iron railings should obviously not be used) or
breaking his reins by treading on them. The knot used should be capable
of being quickly tied and untied and should not be likely to come
unfastened through the horse fidgetting about.
Fig. 8 shows how a horse may be secured to a suitable branch by first
placing the loop of the reins under and round it, and then doubling
back the end of the branch and passing it through the reins. A piece
of stick will answer the same purpose. The more the horse pulls the
tighter the knot becomes.
2. Single horses can also be kept from straying as follows:--
i. By knee-haltering. One end of a rope is made fast above
the knee by a clove hitch, fairly tight, with a keeper
knot (half-hitch) round the rope to prevent it from
coming loose. The other end is then carried back to the
head collar and so secured that the horse cannot tread
on it. The rope should be from 1 foot to 1 foot 6 inches
from the knee to lower ring of jowl piece of head-collar.
[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
ii. By securing the bit to the stirrup iron by means of the
rein or a strap.
iii. By securing the bridoon rein to the girth on the near
side; this is done by taking the bridoon reins over in
the usual way and passing them under the girth from
front to rear. They should then be drawn sufficiently
tight to bend the horse’s head to the left and fastened
by a single hitch, but without drawing the slip end
through. (_See_ Fig. 9.) When mounting in haste the
rider can easily loosen the slip knot after mounting,
and then pull the reins clear and pass them over the
horse’s head.
3. _Coupling horses._--Horses can be securely coupled by turning them
head to tail and tying each with the bridoon rein to the off back-strap
or arch of the saddle of the other, taking care that the reins, when
tied, are not more than 6 to 8 inches long. (_See_ Fig. 10.)
With three horses one can be tied to the head collar of either of the
two horses so coupled. Four horses are secured by tying a horse to each
of the two originally coupled. No horse should have more than 1 foot
length of rein, and the best knot to be used is a slip knot round the
rein itself.
[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
4. _Linking horses._--The head ropes are brought over the horses’ heads
clear of the reins, without unfastening the coil or knot. Each man
hands his rope to the man on his right, who passes it through the upper
ring of his own horse’s head collar, and ties it with two half-hitches.
=50.= _Riding with the sword._
-----------------+-------------------------------------------------
1. _To draw_ | Pass the right hand smartly across the
_swords._ |body, over the bridle arm, draw out the blade
|the sword knot on the wrist, give it two turns
DRAW--SWORDS. |inward to secure it, and then grasp the handle
ONE. |with the right arm close to the body, shoulders
|square to the front.
+-------------------------------------------------
TWO. | With an extended arm draw the sword
|slowly from the scabbard, in the rear of the
|left shoulder, and bring it smartly to the
|“_Recover_,” that is, with the bar of the hilt in
|line with the bottom of the chin, blade
|perpendicular, edge to the left, elbow close to
|the body.
+-------------------------------------------------
THREE. | Lower the sword smartly to the “_Carry_,”
|that is, with the top of the guard resting on
|the top of the hand, blade perpendicular, edge
|to the front, the first and second fingers
|gripping the handle under the resistance
|piece, the little finger behind the handle to
|steady it, the wrist resting on the leg and the
|pommel pressed against the side of it, upper
|part of the arm close to the body, and the
|elbow lightly touching the hip.
-----------------+-------------------------------------------------
_To slope_ | Bring the lower part of the arm at right
_swords._ |angles to the upper, hand in front of the
|elbow, relax the grasp of the second and third
SLOPE--SWORDS. |fingers, and allow the sword to fall lightly on
|the shoulder, midway between the neck and
|point of the shoulder, the top of the hilt resting
|on the top of the hand, the little finger
|still in rear of the hilt.
-----------------+------------------------------------------
3. _To sit at_ | Keeping the sword at the slope, place the
_ease._ |hands on the front part of the saddle, with the
|right hand over the left.
SIT AT EASE. |
-----------------+------------------------------------------
4. _To come_ |
_to position_ |
_of attention._ | Come smartly to the position of “_Slope
|swords_.”
ATTENTION. |
-----------------+------------------------------------------
5. _To carry_ | Resume the grasp of the second and third
_swords._ |fingers and bring the blade perpendicular,
|the hilt resting on the thigh, as in the third
|motion of drawing swords.
CARRY--SWORDS. |
-----------------+------------------------------------------
6. _To return_ | Carry the hilt smartly to the hollow of the
_swords._ |left shoulder, blade perpendicular, edge to
|the left, elbow level with the shoulder; then
|by a quick turn of the wrist drop the point
RETURN--SWORDS. |in rear of the left shoulder slowly into the
|scabbard, and resume the position at the end
ONE. |of the first motion in “_Draw swords_,”
|shoulders being kept square to the front
|throughout this motion.
+-----------------------------------------------
TWO. | Push the sword lightly into the scabbard,
|release the hand from the sword knot by giving
|it two turns outwards, the right hand remaining
|across the body in line with the elbow,
|fingers extended and close together, back of
|the hand up.
+-----------------------------------------------
THREE. |Drop the right hand smartly to the side.
------------------------+------------------------------------------
7. When “_Draw swords_” is ordered at the walk, the men after drawing
will remain at the “_Carry_” until ordered to “_Slope_”; but if “_Draw
swords_” is ordered at the trot or gallop, the men will come to the
“_Slope_” after drawing.
8. _Proving._--In proving with a drawn sword, the sword is brought to
the “_Carry_,” and again sloped on the command “AS YOU WERE.”
9. _Paying compliments with drawn sword._--An officer or soldier should
“_Carry_” his sword and turn his head and eyes in the direction in
which the compliment is to be paid.
10. _Officers’ salute._--i. The officers’ salute in marching past
commences ten yards from the reviewing officer, the sword being at the
“_Carry_.”
First motion: Carry the sword direct to the right to the full extent of
the arm, hand as high as the shoulder, back of the hand to the rear,
blade perpendicular.
Second motion: Bring the sword by a circular motion to the “_Recover_,”
keeping the elbow as high as the shoulder.
Third motion: Still keeping the elbow the height of the shoulder, bring
the hilt to the right shoulder; during this motion let the finger nails
come in line with the edge of the sword.
Fourth motion: Lower the sword to the front to the full extent of the
arm, blade 3 inches below the knee, edge to the left, thumb extended
in the direction of the point, hand directly under the shoulder. There
should be no pause between these motions, but all should be combined in
one graceful movement.
The head is slightly turned towards the reviewing officer whilst
passing him.
After passing the reviewing officer ten yards, the sword is brought to
the “_Recover_” carrying it well to the front, and to the “_Carry_” in
two deliberate movements.
ii. _The officers’ salute at the halt._--The sword being at the
“_Carry_.” First motion: Bring the sword to the “_Recover_,” but with
the thumb pointing upwards.
Second motion: As described in fourth motion of the salute when
marching past.
Third motion: Bring the sword to the “_Recover_.”
Fourth motion: Bring the sword to the “_Carry_.”
=51.= _Riding with the rifle._
----------------+----------------------------------------------
1. _To mount._ | Take hold of the barrel of the rifle with the
|left hand, about 3 inches below the muzzle,
|butt downwards, and prepare to mount, but
PREPARE TO |with the rifle held in the left hand on the
MOUNT. |off side of the horse.
+----------------------------------------------
MOUNT. | Mount as usual, raise the rifle with the left
|hand, seize it with the right hand in front of
|the magazine, and place it in the bucket.
----------------+----------------------------------------------
2. _To |
dismount._ |
|
PREPARE TO | Seize the rifle with the right hand at the
DISMOUNT. |small of the butt.
+--------------------------------------------------
TWO. | Draw the rifle out of the bucket far enough
|to allow the hand to re-grasp it just in front
|of the magazine; raise it so as to clear the
|front of the saddle.
+--------------------------------------------------
THREE. | Lower the butt under the bridle hand, and
|hold the barrel with the left hand about
|3 inches below the muzzle.
+--------------------------------------------------
FOUR. | Place the right hand in front of the saddle,
|and quit the right stirrup. On the command
|“DISMOUNT,” dismount as usual, bringing the
|rifle to the position of the “_Order_” in the left
|hand, and hold the bridle with the right hand.
|
|If required for dismounted service, as soon
|as the horse is given up, the rifle is passed
|from the left hand to the right.
----------------+---------------------------------------------
3. _The_ | The rifle is held with the right hand in front
_advance._ |of the magazine resting on the upper part of
|the right thigh, thumb and fingers round the
|rifle, muzzle pointing to the left front and
|just clear of the horse’s near ear, trigger guard
|to the front.
----------------+-------------------------------------------------
4. _To draw |
_arms._ |
|
DRAW--ARMS. | Grasp the rifle at the small of the butt.
----------------+-------------------------------------------------
TWO. | Draw the rifle out of the bucket far enough
|to allow the hand to re-grasp it just in front
|of the magazine.
----------------+-------------------------------------------------
THREE. | Retaining the same grasp, bring the rifle to
|the “_Advance_.”
----------------+-------------------------------------------------
5. _To carry_ | From the “_Advance_.”--Without moving the
_arms._ |right hand from its grasp of the rifle, place,
|the butt on the upper part of the right thigh,
CARRY--ARMS. |with the right eye, trigger guard to the left,
|back of the hand down, arm slightly bent,
|elbow close to the side.
----------------+--------------------------------------------------
6. _To return_ | This is done in one motion as follows:--Raise
_arms._ |the butt of the rifle and lower the muzzle
|into the mouth of the bucket, pressing the
RETURN--ARMS. |rifle well home with the right hand, trigger
|guard to the rear, taking care that the bolt lever
|does not catch on the edge of the bucket.
----------------+--------------------------------------------------
=52.= _Revolver shooting._
1. Revolver shooting is to be practised mounted by all ranks armed with
that weapon.
2. At least 10 days’ preliminary instruction, including snapping,
should be given immediately before firing the first year’s course,
while 5 days’ practice will generally be advisable before subsequent
courses. This preliminary instruction is important, in order to
inculcate correct methods and to train the eye and muscles of the hand,
wrist and arm.
3. The allowance of blank ammunition is required to accustom men to the
shock of discharge and horses to the noise. Firing should be carried
out first at a walk and finally at a canter.
4. When loaded the revolvers should be carried muzzle down and the
finger away from the trigger.
5. To take aim the revolver should be raised on to the mark, keeping
the wrist stiff with the forearm, wrist and barrel in the same vertical
plane, or it may be brought direct into the alignment. The arm may be
kept straight or slightly bent.
Mounted men should learn to shoot, without taking aim along the sights,
at the centre of the body of the target. With a little practice they
should learn to keep their eyes on the object and, as it were, “throw
the bullet” at it.
6. Practice with ball ammunition should be divided into two parts,
dismounted and mounted. The latter should not be carried out until a
man thoroughly understands the handling of the weapon.
DRIVING.
=53.= _General principles._
1. All officers, non-commissioned officers, and drivers must possess a
thorough knowledge of the principles of driving and of fitting harness.
2. Even and steady draught is a matter of paramount importance; the
respective weights behind teams are calculated on the assumption that
every horse will do his fair share of work; this is impossible unless
the driving is of a high order. If the driving is not good, neither
quick manœuvre, long marches, nor efficient transport serviceman be
assured.
3. When draught is even and steady every trace in the team is taut, and
the horses’ heads are facing straight to the front. If, for example, an
off horse’s head is pulled inwards, his draught power is reduced and he
is liable to become collar galled.
4. The lead driver is responsible for direction, distance, and pace; it
is the duty of the centre and wheel drivers to keep the traces taut and
cover him.
5. Temperament should be the first consideration in teaming horses. A
slug should therefore, if possible, not be included in a team of very
willing horses.
6. The position of the horses should frequently be changed; a hand
horse, for example, loses his back muscles if he is never ridden, and
is also apt to acquire the habit of leaning on the off side of the bit.
=54.= _Fitting harness._
1. The _saddle_, _saddle blanket_, _girth_, _surcingle_, _bit_, _curb_,
_chain_, _head rope_, _nose band_, and _throat lash_ will be fitted as
for the riding horse. (_See_ Secs. =30-32=.)
2. The _riding rein_[4] should be fitted of such a length that the
driver has complete control over his horse.
In the _leading rein_ the short piece on the near side should be
carefully fitted so that the bearing of the bit in the horse’s mouth
may be even when the rein is held in the driver’s hand.
[4] NOTE.--Special reins for near and off horses will eventually be
abolished and ordinary reins substituted.
The _side rein_, if required, should be buckled to the cheek of the bit
of the horse, the end being buckled to the saddle.
4. The _breast collar_ should hang horizontally from the padded neck
straps, the lower edge about one inch above the point of the shoulder.
The higher it is in reason the less chance there is of the horse
galling.
5. The _pole bar supporting straps_ should be sufficiently short to
carry the bar the width of a hand above the sharp breast bone; if
lower, the bar will gall the horse’s chest. Care must be taken to have
the bar horizontal.
6. The _loin straps_ should be so fitted that the traces shall be in a
straight line when the horse is in draught.
7. The length of the _traces_ must depend on the size of the horses.
The distance between horses in a team should not be less than one yard
from nose to tail, but the traces of each pair of horses must be the
same length.
8. The _breeching_ should be fitted about 16 inches below the upper
part of the dock; it is kept horizontal by the long loin straps. When
put back in the breeching the horse should be at least a foot from the
footboard.
9. _Pole chains_ should be so fitted that when wheel horses are
standing up to their collars there is no pull on the chains. By the use
of a tug neck piece in connection with the pole bar supporting straps,
horses with wheel harness can be harnessed to G.S. wagons whether the
latter are fitted with pole chains or pole straps.
10. _The kicking strap_ should be so fitted as to give the play of a
hand’s breadth between it and the horse’s croup when he is standing in
his collar.
=55.= _Position of a driver standing to his horses and mounted._
1. The driver stands to his horses on the near side of his riding horse
in line with the fore feet, holding the reins of both horses (the
leading rein passing over the riding horse’s neck) in his right hand,
right arm extended and level with his shoulder; left arm hanging down
by his side; whip, stock upwards, in his legging.
2. On the command “PREPARE TO MOUNT,” the driver turns to his right
about, places the leading rein over the riding rein in the palm of his
left hand, puts his left foot in the stirrup, and takes hold of the
front of the saddle with his left hand and the back of the saddle with
his right; if he cannot reach the back of the saddle, he must take hold
of the flap.
With the universal reins, the riding horse’s rein is held in the full
of the hand, the end hanging down between the first finger and thumb,
little finger dividing the reins. The leading rein is held in the full
of the hand, the end hanging down from the opposite side of the hand to
that of the ride horse’s reins.
At “MOUNT” he raises himself in the stirrup, passes his right leg over
the horse and drops quietly into his saddle. He then adjusts his reins
so that he has an even feeling on both horses’ mouths, takes the whip
out of his legging with his right hand, which he passes through the
loop at the end of the stock and places on his right thigh back up,
grasping stock and thong close together, with his elbow a few inches
from his body.
_This is the position of attention, mounted._
3. On the command “SIT AT EASE,” both hands are placed on the pommel
of the saddle, the right hand holding stock and thong of whip over the
left.
4. On the command “PREPARE TO DISMOUNT” the driver places the whip in
his legging.
At “DISMOUNT.”--If the driver cannot reach the ground with his right
foot while the left is still in the stirrup, he takes both feet out of
the stirrups, and the body, at first supported by both hands, is gently
lowered to the ground. He then comes to the position of standing to his
horses.
5. On the command “STAND AT EASE,” keeping both legs straight, he
carries the left foot about one foot-length to the left, and slides the
right hand (retaining hold of the leading rein) down the riding rein of
the riding horse as far as it will go; his left hand hanging down the
thigh.
“STAND EASY.”--He fastens the leading rein to the riding rein by means
of a thumb knot.
=56.= _Use of the whip._
1. The whip is chiefly used to control the off horse: _i.e._, to start
him, to keep him in the collar, and to guide him when turning. It
should be applied lightly on to the off side of the neck just in front
of the withers, fingers closed on stock and thong.
2. The driver also salutes with his whip when at a walk, in the
following manner:--He brings it to the recover as with a sword, passes
it over the withers of the off horse, right arm extended, but with the
elbow raised and slightly bent, hand in a line with the waist, back
of the hand up and inclined to the front, fingers firmly closed on
the stock and thong. The driver should hold his body erect with the
shoulders square to the front, and look the officer full in the face.
When the salute is finished, the whip is brought to the recover and
then down to the position of attention. The salute commences four paces
from the officer, and finishes four paces beyond him. A driver when
halted, or at the trot, salutes by coming to attention and looking the
officer full in the face.
3. On rare occasions the whip may be used to punish a horse, when the
thong should be applied once on the shoulder. This procedure is seldom
justified, and is liable to upset the other five horses in the team.
At all other times the thong should be held close against the stock
with the end of the lash hanging down.
=57.= _Driving without vehicles._
1. Before recruits are allowed to drive horses in draught they should
be practised in manœuvring the team alone. The centre and wheel drivers
thus learn in the initial stages to keep the traces taut, and all
likelihood of either spoiling or overtiring horses is avoided.
2. The riding school is well suited for this training; three teams can
be worked together in an ordinary sized building, and they are more
under the instructor’s eye than in the open.
3. The positions of the drivers in the teams should frequently be
changed.
=58.= _Hooking in and unhooking._
1. Hooking in and unhooking should be done as in action, that is in
complete teams with drivers mounted, and by the same men who perform
the duty in action. The supporting bars for the poles are brought up
from the footboards of the carriages and attached to the neck pieces of
the wheelers. If possible the team should come up on the left of the
carriage, as it is easier for the wheel driver to get his horses into
position from the near than from the off side.
2. Traces should be fastened and unfastened at the swingle-trees. The
two highest available numbers at the gun and wagon respectively hook in
and unhook the teams of their own carriage. All numbers work on their
own side.
3. The inside traces of the centre horses pass over the supporting bar
to prevent the pole tipping up. When hooking in, the outside trace of
each horse is attached before the inside one. In unhooking, each man
unfastens what he fastened when hooking in, commencing where he left
off.
4. In the case of heavy artillery, should additional horses (over the
normal team of eight) be required, they should be attached to the
outriggers on the limber and not hooked in front of the team, as the
traces are not designed to stand the extra strain.
5. _Hooking in._--At “HOOK IN” the higher number holds up the pole near
the footboard, and the lower number goes round by the head of the off
wheeler, and as the wheel driver backs his horses guides the ring of
the supporting bar on to the pole. As soon as the ring is on the pole
the two gunners fasten the wheel traces (_see_ paras. 2 and 3).
_Drivers only._--The centre driver dismounts, and having secured his
leading rein to his driving rein, raises the pole at the point and
guides it into the ring on the pole bar. He then fastens the wheel
traces (_see_ para. 3).
6. _Unhooking._--The two gunners unhook the wheel traces (_see_ paras.
2 and 3), and as soon as the attachments are released, the wheel driver
gives the word “DRIVE ON.” The team drives on, allowing the pole to
fall to the ground.
_Drivers only._--The centre driver dismounts and unhooks the wheel
traces.
7. In exceptional circumstances the team can be unhooked in the
following manner. The wheel driver releases the trace attachments
of both wheel horses at the breast-collars, and the team drives on,
allowing the pole to fall to the ground. The breechings and traces
should be replaced on the horses as soon as possible.
=59.= _Traces._
1. When not in draught, the traces of lead and centre horses are
crossed in rear of the saddle and the ends passed forward under the
neck strap of the breast collar. In the case of spare horses the ends
of the traces are brought forward and fastened by the quick release
attachment to the rings on the breast collars, the short traces being
carried on the footboards of the vehicles.
In the case of wheel horses the traces are passed through the trace
bearers, then turned up under the loin straps and fastened back to the
bearers by their quick release attachment.
=60.= _Moving off._
1. On the command “MARCH” the drivers ease the reins and close their
legs to the riding horse, laying the whip over the neck of the off
horse, to ensure both horses starting together. On the command being
given every man in a team should start his horses to prevent loss of
distance.
2. In all alterations to a quicker pace the drivers use their legs on
the riding horse, and the whip on their off horse as described in Sec.
=56=.
=61.= _Halting._
1. The lead and centre drivers raise the whip hand as high as the head,
the whip horizontal across the front, as a signal to the wheel driver.
All three drivers feel their reins and take their horses out of the
collar. The wheel driver, with his right hand on the leading rein, puts
his horses back in the breeching.
As soon as the carriage stops, every horse is again put into the collar.
2. At any pace but the walk the lead and centre drivers must allow the
wheel driver sufficient time to stop the carriage before they come to
the halt.
=62.= _Wheeling to the right._
1. The lead driver wheels his riding horse by leaning his body to the
right and feeling the right rein; he brings his off horse round at the
same time by feeling the leading rein with his right hand.
The centre and wheel drivers follow the track of the lead driver,
laying their whips over their hand horses’ necks in front of the
withers to keep them from flying out or hanging back.
_Note._--On a horse that is not properly trained the lead driver may
have to apply his right leg as an additional aid. No application of the
left leg is necessary, as the traces prevent the horse’s quarters from
flying out. (_See_ Sec. =43=.)
=63.= _Wheeling to the left._
1. The lead driver wheels his riding horse by leaning his body to the
left and feeling the left rein; he brings his off horse round at the
same time by applying the whip over his neck.
The lead driver may have to apply his left leg on an untrained horse
(_see_ note above).
The centre and wheel drivers follow the track of the lead driver,
applying the same aids at the point of wheel.
Riding horses must not be allowed to hang back.
=64.= _Wheeling about._
1. In this case the drivers lean their bodies slightly back, and to
whichever side they are turning. In going to the right about the wheel
driver should take the leading rein in his right hand instead of
placing his whip over the neck of the off horse. In wheeling to the
left about it may be necessary for him to use both hands on the riding
horse to keep him from turning too soon. Otherwise the aids are the
same as for wheeling to the right or left, but are continued longer.
2. In order to prevent the carriage from locking, the wheel driver must
be very careful to keep up his hand, or riding horse, as the case may
be, and the lead driver must on no account make the circle too small.
3. Carriages should be advanced one yard before being wheeled about
from the halt.
=65.= _Unlimbering._
1. On the command “ACTION FRONT” the guns are unlimbered and brought
into action as detailed in the respective handbooks. As soon as the
limber is free, the order is given “LIMBER DRIVE ON.” The drivers
advance one yard, wheel to the right about at a trot, and proceed
direct to the wagon line.
2. On the command “ACTION RIGHT (or LEFT)” the guns are unlimbered and
the order “LIMBER DRIVE ON” is given.
The drivers advance one yard, wheel to the left (or right) and proceed
to the wagon line as directed.
=66.= _Limbering up._
1. On the command “FRONT LIMBER UP” the gun is reversed, the drivers
trot up on the right of the gun, keeping one yard clear in passing it.
When clear of the gun wheel they throw their right shoulders forward,
until the near wheel of the limber has just passed the trail eye.
They then halt and pass their horses off to the right until square, the
lead and centre drivers easing their traces sufficiently to do so.
The wheel driver must be careful not to let the limber run back on the
gun.
2. On the command “REAR LIMBER UP” the drivers trot up on the right of
the trail eye inclining to the right, if necessary, to allow room for
wheeling. The lead driver when he is level with the trail eye wheels to
his left and again to his left as soon as he has passed it. To enable
the wheel driver to wheel short round, the lead and centre drivers must
ease their traces as soon as they have passed the trail eye. The wheel
driver by holding in his riding, and keeping up his hand horse, squares
the limber, at the same time preventing it running back on the gun.
3. To limber up to the right the drivers trot up; the lead driver
passing close to the trail turns to the right when the wheel driver is
in line with it; the lead and centre drivers then case their traces and
pass their horses off until square. The wheel driver, as soon as he is
in line with the trail, turns his horses to the right. In all limbering
up the limber is halted by order of the No. 1, but the drivers must
look over their shoulders to see that the limber is properly placed.
In limbering up to the left the procedure is similar to the above
except that either the wagon or the gun must first be moved clear.
=67.= _Driving up steep hills._
1. To exert his strength to the utmost when pulling up hill, the
draught horse must get as much weight as possible forward and into the
collar. By assuming a lower and more advanced carriage of the head and
neck than he would do if moving balanced and out of draught, he is able
to add considerably to his power. He should therefore be allowed full
liberty of rein when ascending a steep hill.
2. A draught horse can put more weight into his collar if ridden.
Gunners should, therefore, be mounted on the off lead and centre horses
when circumstances demand it. All men riding draught horses up hill
should lean forward.
3. When manœuvring off the road, steep ascents should be taken in line
to avoid checks.
When on a road or track, and if circumstances permit, the battery
should be halted at the foot of the hill and sent up either by sections
or subsections, with about 10 yards’ distance between carriages.
4. On exceptional occasions, such as when the team is exhausted, an
extra pair may be hooked in to each carriage, but it must be remembered
that this is of little use unless the ascent is straight, and that in
any case it makes steady draught more difficult.
5. Should a check occur when the column is closed up, the lead drivers
in rear must be prepared to throw off their horses to the right or left.
6. The pace should be a steady walk during the whole ascent, by which
the top will be reached more easily and surely than if an attempt is
made to “_spring_” the hill.
7. The detachments can also assist with drag ropes hooked into the drag
washers, or by applying “_wheel purchases_,” if the carriage actually
sticks. To use a drag rope as a “_wheel purchase_” it is hooked round
the felloe near the lowest spoke, and is then laid on the tyre and
passed over the wheel to the front. Should the wheel slip round, a drag
rope may be wound round the felloe and tyre, with the turns about a
foot apart to enable it to get a grip.
8. After going up a steep hill, the horses should be halted, but when
this cannot be done, they should be allowed to move slowly to recover
their wind.
=68.= _Jibbing._
Horses jib from various causes, such as sore shoulders, a too heavy
load, bad driving, sore mouth, lameness, and vice.
The whip only aggravates the evil. A handful of gravel placed in the
horse’s mouth often starts a jibber pulling at once especially if the
wheels are manned at the same moment. The latter is important in any
case.
=69.= _Driving down hill._
1. In driving down hill, the lead and centre drivers hold their horses
back to allow the wheel driver the management of the carriage, but the
traces must be kept up; the wheel driver with his right hand on the
leading rein keeps his horses steadily in the breeching, taking care
not to throw them on their haunches, and, in the case of shaft draught
harness, not to let too much work fall on the off horse.
2. For moderately steep descents, the brake can be used. Should a
descent be so steep that the brake is not sufficient, the detachment
must hold on with the drag ropes hooked into the drag washers on the
gun carriage or wagon body.
=70.= _Applying the brake._
The brake should be put on sufficiently tight to check but not to skid
the wheel. In crossing a valley the man in charge of the brake must
begin taking it off soon enough for the wheels to be quite free before
the beginning of the rise on the other side is reached, or in fording a
river before the carriage gets into the water.
=71.= _Reversing in narrow roads._
Before attempting to reverse, the carriage should be drawn up as close
to the side of the road as possible. The carriage is next unlimbered,
and the lead and centre horses unhooked and taken out. The gun or wagon
body is then reversed, followed by the limber.
=72.= _Driving a pair of horses from the box._
1. When driven from the box, horses will neither work comfortably nor
be under perfect control, unless so coupled that when on the move with
an even bearing on the reins their heads are straight. The bearing of
the bits on their mouths should be light, but constant, and the reins
should never be allowed to slip through the driver’s fingers.
A pair of horses, worked as such, should frequently be interchanged.
This will prevent the acquirement of bad habits, such as pulling away
from the pole, shouldering the pole, &c.
2. _To put to._--The horses should be led up alongside the pole by the
noseband (not by the bit), the chain should then be passed through
the ring of the breast collar or kidney link of the hames. The traces
should next be fastened, the outer ones first, and finally the horses
should be poled up and coupled together. In unhooking the above
procedure is reversed.
The correct adjustment of the _coupling reins_ requires great care.
With a view to this, the outer reins have a number of holes punched
in them, up and down which the buckles of the coupling reins can be
shifted, thus enabling them to be shortened or lengthened to suit each
particular horse’s mouth. For instance, if the near horse carries his
head to the near side, the coupling rein on the off side should be
taken up, when his head will be straightened, and _vice versâ_.
3. _Sitting on the box._--The driver should sit square to his front on
the box, which should be low enough to allow of his legs being well
bent at the knee. If the box seat is too high he is liable to be pulled
off when a horse stumbles.
4. _How to hold the reins and whip._--The near rein passes over the
forefinger, the off rein between the middle and third fingers of the
left hand, both reins fall through the palm of the hand and hang loose
on the left side of the driver’s knees. The reins are kept in position
in the hand by the pressure of the third and fourth fingers assisted
by the second; the thumb and forefinger should not be used for this
purpose. The wrist should be rounded.
The whip should be held between the lower part of the thumb and the
base of the forefinger of the right hand, thus leaving the fingers
free. The point of the whip should be carried up, the stick inclined
across the body and to the front. The position of the whip should not
be changed when the right hand manipulates the reins. When required,
the right hand can be placed on the reins in front of the left, the
first and second fingers on top of the near rein, and the other two
between the reins. The former grip the near rein and the latter the off
rein.
Reins should always be shortened or lengthened from the front; _i.e._,
either pushed back through the left hand or pulled out through the left
hand.
5. _Use of the whip._--The whip should be employed as sparingly as
possible. When used, the thong should be applied on the shoulder and
drawn across from right to left, or _vice versâ_.
6. _Turning._--To turn or incline to the right, the right hand grasps
the right rein in the full of the hand, knuckles up and inclined to the
front. This gives the firmest hold and at the same time allows of the
position of the whip being maintained. To turn to the left, the left
rein is grasped in the same manner.
7. _Driving up hill._--An even and steady walk should be maintained
when travelling up a steep hill; if the load is exceptionally heavy and
circumstances permit, the horses should be allowed to incline from one
side of the road to the other as the wagon ascends.
8. _Driving down hill._--The pace cannot be too slow in descending a
hill, and the brake should not be applied until the horses take the
breeching. When the shoe is used the wheel to which it is applied
should be chained to the carriage; this prevents all chance of accident
should the shoe become unshipped when travelling over rough ground.
TRAINING THE YOUNG HORSE.
=73.= _General principles._
1. The training of the horse must be gradual, and accompanied by a
steady development of his physical powers.
It is better to give a remount two short lessons a day than one long
one, for it must be remembered that the tendons and muscles of a young,
immature animal are easily injured by too much continuous work, and
they must be gradually strengthened in order to stand the strain to
which they will be subjected.
Simplicity and suggestion should be prominent features in the first
stage of training; the horse not only has to learn the meaning of the
bridle and the leg, but must also adjust his balance to carrying a
weight on his back.
2. Free forward movement should, therefore, be the first aim of the
trainer, and as the horse learns the meaning of the bridle he should
gradually be made to move well up to it and at the same time taught to
carry his head for height in as good a position as nature will allow.
This may be called the first stage of the training, and should be
carried out on a snaffle, if available. When the horse will go forward
quietly he should be worked in the open.
3. The second stage of the training should consist in balancing and
collecting the horse, in teaching him to turn on his hocks, to passage,
to rein back, and to obey the aids quickly when ridden with one hand;
to go quietly by himself or in company and to leave other horses
freely; and where necessary to become accustomed to sword and rifle.
A few horses are naturally so well balanced, that if they have good
tempers and are properly ridden, this part of their education offers
no difficulties, but most artillery remounts will be heavy in front
and awkward to turn excepting on the forehand. For handiness and for
the safety of the rider they should be taught to carry more weight
on their hocks--in fact to move in the most balanced manner that is
possible, having regard to their make and to the retention of their
liberty of movement.
This portion of the training, or most of it, should be carried out with
the universal bridle, and while the pressure of the legs will often
have to be strong, the handling of the reins should be of the gentlest,
or the trainer will defeat his own ends.
4. The third stage of the training consists in teaching the horse to go
quietly in draught in any position in a team.
5. Patience, firmness, and pluck are necessary to all entrusted with
the training of young horses. Some horses are very much quicker at
learning than others, and no rule can be laid down; on no account
should the trainer attempt to hurry matters.
The trainer should communicate to his pupil his appreciation of any
progress made by immediately rewarding him with a handful of corn or
a carrot. Under no circumstances should he lose his temper with his
horse, and punishment should only be resorted to when it is certain
that the horse understands what he is required to do, but will not do
it.
Instructors must not imagine that the animal can learn a lesson only by
constant repetition. A horse is quick to receive new impressions, and
remembers them after comparatively few lessons, provided they are given
in a proper way.
6. As with recruits, jumping should be constantly practised throughout
the training, commencing at an early stage over very low obstacles and
always with a due consideration for the horse’s legs.
7. The same system of training is not applicable to every breed and
condition of horse. The principles, however, are the same, and must be
modified to suit the temperament of the animal, and his condition when
he reaches the trainer.
Factors, which greatly influence the duration of the training and its
ultimate success, are the capability of the rider and instructor; the
temperament, make, and condition of the horse; and the training ground
available.
=74.= _First stage._
1. Remounts arrive in all kinds of condition, and the methods adopted
with them should be those best suited to their nature, condition and
age.
The first day or two will be profitably spent by the trainer in getting
thoroughly acquainted with his pupil. A snaffle having been put in the
horse’s mouth, the trainer should lead him about, giving him confidence
and making him acquainted with his voice. He may then handle him about
the head and forehand. To prevent injuries to the mouth, it is a good
plan at this early stage to lead the horse by reins attached to the
D’s. of the head-collar, the snaffle being left to hang loosely in his
mouth. During these lessons the horse should be given a handful of corn
or green meat from time to time.
2. _Backing a remount._--As soon as the remount has become accustomed
to being led from either side and is quiet, he may be saddled, but
before he is mounted he should be allowed time to accustom himself to
the feel of the saddle.
An assistant should stand in front of the horse, holding a rein of
the snaffle in each hand; the man saddling him should hold the saddle
by the back arch with the pommel over his right hip (the stirrups and
girths having previously been thrown over the seat); he should then
place the saddle, quickly and quietly, on the horse’s back, let the
girths down, and tighten them gradually.
In backing a horse for the first time the help of two assistants is
advisable, one on the off side, who should hold the head collar in his
right hand and the off stirrup in his left, the other on the near side
holding the snaffle rein in his left hand. The trainer grasping the
back arch of the saddle in his right and the front arch in his left
hand, should stand close to his horse on the near side, and raise his
left foot up behind him by bending his knee; the second assistant will
then grasp his leg just above the ankle and raise him quietly into the
saddle on his stomach. This should be repeated several times until the
horse is accustomed to the weight, when the assistant will place the
rider’s left foot in the stirrup, who will then raise himself in the
stirrup and throw his right leg clean over the horse’s quarters and
drop quietly into the saddle; the remount should then be led a pace or
two forward by the assistant in order to accustom him to the weight
whilst moving; the rider avoiding too strong a pressure with the legs.
After two or three lessons, if the horse is quiet, the trainer may
mount with the stirrup in the usual way, great care being taken not to
touch him with the toe.
3. Considerable time and special pains should be taken to teach the
young horse to stand absolutely still when being mounted or dismounted.
In dismounting the first few times it is advisable for an assistant to
stand in front of the horse, and the rider after throwing his right
leg over to the near side should remain lying across the saddle as in
mounting, then quit his left stirrup and slide quietly to the ground.
This method will prevent any possibility of the rider sticking his toe
into the horse’s ribs, which is liable to make him unsteady.
4. During this period the trainer should devote his time to riding the
horse about at a free walk, slow trot and canter, and to teaching him
to stand still when required, and to lead easily.
To teach the remount to move forward freely at the walk, the rider
should hold his reins long and use his legs.
To teach him to stand still, constant practice and the use of an
assistant when necessary are required; the trainer should mount and
dismount from either side, time after time, not allowing the horse to
move forward immediately after mounting.
The horse should also be taught to do large circles to either hand
and practised over very small jumps and should be ridden frequently
outside barracks.
5. In exceptional cases it may be necessary to devote time to raising
or lowering the horse’s head to the right position as far as nature
will allow. It should be borne in mind that the same good carriage of
head and suppleness of neck cannot be expected of all makes and shapes
of horses.
The raising or lowering of the horse’s head must be done gradually, and
as much as possible on the move, for if done at the halt he is apt to
get behind the bit, and his freedom of action will be endangered. It
should be effected by the combined action of the legs and hands. The
legs compel the horse to move forward, drive and keep him up to the
bit; the hands through the reins and snaffle regulate the position of
the horse’s head and neck. The trainer must ride with a sympathetic
hand; that is, he must relax the pressure as soon as the horse places
his head in the required position, only retaining sufficient feeling
on the mouth to maintain the head in position. If the horse’s head
requires raising, the rider does so by holding his hands high. If the
head requires lowering, the hands are depressed, but without jerking
the reins.
6. This stage may seem tedious, but it must not be hurried. It is most
important towards moulding the horse’s future disposition, and for
building up his physical strength and preparing him for harder work
later on.
=75.= _Second stage._
1. _Balancing and collecting the young horse._--Hitherto the rider’s
only endeavour has been to teach the horse to go freely up to the
bridle keeping his head at the proper height. He must now be taught
to give to the bridle by bending his neck at the poll and slightly
yielding his lower jaw, care being taken that in yielding the head is
not lowered.
The trainer must not attempt much at one time. The longer a continuous
pressure on the reins is maintained, the less inclined is the horse
to yield, for the discomfort becomes less, the mouth losing its
sensitiveness. The application of the legs must often be strong to make
the horse yield.
A natural law of leverage governs the position of the horse’s head
as the head and neck are moved forward and downwards, the centre of
gravity of the whole horse is brought forward and he becomes heavier in
the forehand and freer or lighter behind. At a trot or canter the horse
naturally draws his head up to lighten the weight on his fore legs, and
to give them free and equal play with the hind legs.
The young horse should be trained to carry his head fairly high at the
trot and canter, and at such angle with the neck as will allow the bit
to have the best bearing on the bars of the mouth. As a horse cannot
put his fore feet down on the ground beyond his nose, he extends his
neck when galloping in order to lengthen his stride. By thus moving his
centre of gravity forward he lightens the weight on his quarters and
obtains the full propelling power of his hind legs.
A horse when jumping makes use of his neck both as an assistance in
taking off and to adjust his balance on landing; his head therefore
should remain perfectly free during every phase of the jump.
_The bending lesson_ (_see_ Sec. =44=) is useful for balancing and
collecting the young horse and for teaching him to obey the rider’s
legs. Instruction should commence either on foot or with the horse’s
head towards the wall, care being taken to make him bend correctly.
The exercises described in Sec. =46= are useful for teaching the young
horse to walk, trot and canter collectedly, but at first plenty of time
must be allowed for the horse to settle down quietly at each successive
period of cantering, trotting or walking.
2. _The rein back_ is also a useful exercise in the training of a young
horse. It collects him and teaches him to get his haunches under him,
but it should never be practised for more than a few minutes at a time,
nor should it be attempted until the horse will move well up to his
bridle.
To teach a horse to rein back, it is best to begin on foot and to
continue mounted, assisted by a man on foot.
The man on foot should stand in front of the horse and endeavour to
make him go back quietly one or two paces at a time. He should feel the
bit gently, but without a dead continuous pressure; if necessary, he
may give a light tap to the horse’s leading foreleg, should he decline
to move backwards.
When mounted, collect the horse by leg pressure and bring the weight of
the body slightly forward; feel one side (say the right) of the horse’s
mouth by the least movement of the wrist, at the same time apply the
pressure of the left leg to the horse’s side so as to prevent him from
moving his hindquarters to the left; lean the body a little to the
right, and feel both reins. As soon as the horse draws back the off
fore leg, reverse the aids until he draws back the near fore leg and so
on. The ultimate object in view is to teach him to go backwards with
his head carried as high as when going forward.
3. During this stage the remount should also be taught to change his
legs at the canter, for which purpose the figure of eight (_see_ Sec.
=46=) is a good exercise, provided the horse is first of all made to go
kindly and collectedly on the larger circle.
4. In order that the horse may retain his full freedom of movement he
should frequently be made to walk out fast and canter with a loose
rein. To make a horse walk out, ease the reins and close the legs
alternately, not both legs together as in the trot.
=76.= _Teaching a horse to stand still without being held._
A horse can be trained to stand still without being held in the
following way:--
Replace the rein with a strong piece of rope, throw the rope rein thus
made over the animal’s head, and fasten a sack to the end of it; the
effect of this is that as the horse moves forward he treads on the
sack, and gives himself a severe job in the mouth; after a few lessons
it will be found that the horse will not move when the reins are thrown
over his head, and the sack can be left off.
=77.= _Teaching the young horse to jump._
1. _General principles._--The aim of the instructor should be to teach
the horse to jump ordinary natural obstacles willingly and safely. To
this end outdoor jumping courses will be found very valuable. There
should be one with small and another with fair-sized jumps, all as much
like natural fences as possible, and laid out on cinder-tracks so as to
be available all the year round.
Jumps in the school should not only represent height, but breadth; the
horse to be useful must learn to jump out as well as up.
The secret in making a safe fencer is gradual and systematic training;
even if a horse shows great promise when first jumped his education
should in no way be hurried. He may lose his courage through an early
and unnecessary fall.
2. _First lessons._--There are many ways of commencing; if the horse
is fairly fit and will answer to the hand and leg he may be ridden
over low and simple fences at once. To avoid all chance of failure it
will, however, generally be found best to begin on foot and either to
lead or lunge him over the jump. In a school or confined space the best
method is first to lead the horse over a bar laid on the ground, and
afterwards to lead him up to it and let him go. The obstacle should be
gradually raised, always being put up firmly, and a man should stand at
the far end of the school with a basket of corn. In a very short time
most horses will jump a fence 3 feet 6 inches high with enjoyment. The
class of obstacle should be varied as much as possible as time goes on.
The lungeing whip should never be used, as the horse will watch it
instead of measuring his distance and calculating the jump.
If the single lungeing-rein and cavesson are used, the rein may be
attached to the front of the cavesson and the animal led over the
jump, or it may be fastened to a side D, when he should be made to
take the fence on the circle. If done in this way it is a good plan to
have a wing made to carry the rein over and prevent it catching in the
obstacle and checking the horse suddenly.
3. _Further training in jumping._--After a sufficient schooling
following any of the above methods, the remount may be sent down a
jumping-lane if one is available, an old horse acting as pilot on the
first occasion, or if there is no lane he may be ridden over small
fences in the open. The first jumping lessons should be given at a
trot. At this pace horses learn where to take off and jump from their
hocks without chancing a fence.
When a young but not impetuous horse is being ridden at a fence, he
should be allowed to go his own pace in reason; in this way he learns
to adopt the pace most suited to the obstacle and to get back on his
hocks for a high one.
=78.= _Third stage._
1. Before a horse is put into draught he should fulfil the following
conditions:--
i. Stand still to be mounted or dismounted.
ii. Be balanced, as well as make and shape will allow.
iii. Be able to do a figure of 8 correctly, passage, rein
back, halt collectedly; change his legs when turning, so
as to lead with the correct fore and hind leg, and when
turned about do so actively on his hocks and not on his
fore hand.
iv. Be a good jumper.
v. Be accustomed to gun fire and traffic.
vi. Go alone or in company, at any pace required of him
without pulling, and be ready to shorten his stride and
pull up when required.
2. All officers should understand how to train horses to draught.
The remount should be harnessed with great care, and led about until
the novelty has worn off. He should then be put into the hand centre in
the following manner:--
The drivers being mounted, and the remaining five horses in the team
standing just out of draught, the remount should be led up to his place
by two men, one on each side, the man on the off side holding the
horse’s head rope, which should previously have been undone. The man on
the near side should then hand the leading rein to the centre driver,
and go to the off quarters of the remount, moving round the horse’s
head to get there. He should next push the horse’s quarter gently over
until the animal stands square to its front in the team, and make much
of him. He should then take the traces quietly and hook in as described
in Sec. =58=. The remaining five horses should now be put into their
collars, and at the command “WALK MARCH” the team should move straight
to its front. The centre driver’s whip should be in his leg iron,
and he should use his right hand to make much of his hand horse. The
remount should not be asked to take the collar until he settles down
and walks along quietly, When this is the case, the man who has been
holding the head rope on the off side may knot it round the animal’s
neck. He must, however, keep with the team, and be prepared to hold
the rope or head collar again when turning is undertaken. All wheeling
should be to the left at first. When turns to the right are attempted
the greatest care should be taken to prevent the remount from running
back and getting a leg over a trace.
As soon as the animal goes quietly in the off centre, knows his work,
and understands the application of the whip as an aid, he should be put
into the hand lead and then into the hand wheel. When he goes well in
any place in the team his education is complete.
RIDING AND RETRAINING AWKWARD HORSES.
=79.= _General remarks._
Remounts joining the Service unbacked or unspoilt, unless exceptionally
vicious, ought never to come under this heading. A horse properly
trained in the first instance will only develop faults through
subsequent bad riding or ill-treatment.
The results of bad handling are shown in defective carriage and paces;
in a nervous, sulky, or irritable temperament; or in a combination of
the two.
When the animal is put back into the ranks, he should be given to a
good horseman, and if possible not be ridden by anyone else. Horses
rarely forget bad habits, and quickly relapse into them.
The work of retraining a horse is much more difficult than that of
“_making_” a young and untrained one; riders should therefore be
specially selected.
The trainer should first make himself thoroughly acquainted with the
animal’s faults, and then set to work to systematically and patiently
eradicate them. It will, in some cases, be found best to treat the
horse as untrained and begin his education afresh.
As the work will usually be of a corrective character the horse’s corn
and exercise should be carefully regulated according to his amenability
to discipline: good results cannot be obtained as long as the animal is
“above himself.”
=80.= _Pullers._
1. The usual causes of pulling are:--
i. Excitability.
ii. Pain.
iii. Fear.
iv. Freshness and want of work.
v. Hard-mouth.
vi. Bad training.
2. _Excitability._--Some horses, which are naturally of a nervous,
highly-strung disposition, become upset by unaccustomed sights and
sounds, a crowd, or galloping at a fast pace, especially in company
with other horses.
No special bit will cure this kind of puller, the only remedy is plenty
of work commencing at slow paces. Only the best horsemen in the unit,
possessing patience and good hands, should be allowed to ride them.
3. _Pain._--Another frequent cause of pulling is pain. A horse’s mouth
is most sensitive, and many horses pull through the pain caused by the
bit, or because their grinder teeth are long and sharp and thus cut the
sides of their cheeks. Horse’s mouths, especially of those who have
suddenly taken to pulling, should be constantly examined, particularly
the bars, under the tongue and close up against the grinders. A
neglected wound in the mouth may make a young horse pull or spoil his
mouth by forcing him to hold the bit on one side to protect the injured
part. If a horse’s mouth is found to be sore, he should be given a
rest, being exercised if necessary on a cavesson, and when the wound
is healed ridden for a time in a snaffle. If the grinders are long and
sharp it is a simple operation to remove the sharp points and edges
with a rasp. The corners of the lips also may become sore owing to the
bit being too narrow, or through being rubbed; the curb chain may also
injure the chin-groove, in which case the wound should first be healed
and then a guard should be used.
4. _Fear._--Some horses pull through fear. The only remedy for this is
to endeavour to accustom them to the cause of their alarm. They should
be treated kindly and only ridden by careful, patient men. If a horse
in his early training has been taught to obey the voice, this will
often be of great assistance in calming him.
5. _Freshness._--The remedy for a horse which pulls from this cause is
to give him more slow, steady work, and less food.
6. _Hard-mouth and bad training._--The best results are, as a rule,
obtained from retraining by a good horseman and plenty of school work,
especially cantering in small circles and figures of 8. If he pulls
with his mouth open, it should be shut by an adjustable noseband.
7. The great object with a puller is to get him to go collectedly. His
head should be kept up, but a dead pull on the reins must be avoided,
as this enables him to set his head and neck against the pressure on
the bit; instead, give and take to him alternately with the reins.
If a horse throws his head up, and pulls with his head in that
position, the standing martingale, properly applied, will stop him.
=81.= _Refusers._
1. Refusals may be due to any of the following reasons, or to a
combination of several:--
i. Insufficient elementary schooling.
ii. Want of heart or nerve in the rider.
iii. From the horse having been jobbed in the mouth or
unintentionally spurred when jumping, thus receiving
severe punishment for obeying the rider’s wishes.
iv. Sickened by too much jumping, especially on hard ground.
v. Seeing other horses refuse.
vi. Lameness or sore shins.
vii. Ill-fitting or too severe a bit.
viii. Sore back or badly fitting saddle.
ix. Want of heart or nerve in the horse.
x. Vice.
2. Before attempting to effect a cure every effort should be made to
diagnose the cause.
In many cases it is advisable to do a good deal of work on foot,
leading and lungeing the horse over low fences. As soon as obedience is
assured, the horse should be mounted again.
3. The best way to deal with a horse that has been unintentionally
ill-treated in the mouth is to remove the curb chain if he has one, and
to jump him over low obstacles without reins, and then gradually to
bring him on to jumping with reins.
4. A horse may sometimes refuse because he has lost his nerve
temporarily. In such a case, if he is taken three or four times over
quite a small fence, and then brought back to the original one, he will
probably jump it all right.
5. Sharp rowels may be necessary on a slug or a cur, but the liability
of the rider to spur his mount under some conditions without meaning to
do so is a disadvantage.
6. The faint-hearted or vicious horse should be treated with
resolution, and be made to feel that the rider is determined to jump.
This is communicated to the horse by holding the reins in both hands
and feeling his mouth with firmness, but not roughly or with undue
pressure, and above all by pressing him to the bit by the legs. Care
must be taken not to ride the horse slantingways at the jump or at a
spot near the outside edge of the fence; the rider should be on the
look out for the horse swerving round or running out. The horse should
be taken slowly up to within a few lengths of the fence and then put
straight at it by the rider increasing his leg pressure and decreasing
slightly the feeling on the horse’s mouth.
If he whips round, the horse should be turned back the opposite way
to face the fence, then reined back a short distance and when quite
square, put at it again. If necessary he should be helped on with the
spur without relaxing the leg pressure. Once over the fence the horse
should be made much of.
=82.= _Horses that rush at their fences._
1. Horses that persist in rushing at their fences and that get very
excited when jumping are best cured by steady, quiet practice. Such a
horse should be circled round in front of the fence as though he were
not going to jump it, until he settles down, when he may be jumped over
the obstacle.
He should be taught to stand quietly in front of a fence.
On no account should he be spurred or have his mouth jerked. After
landing over a fence he should be eased up gently to a slow pace and
never allowed to get out of hand.
He should not be jumped when very fresh.
=83.= _Horses that decline to leave the ranks, and “fretting” horses._
In addition to putting a good man on their backs such horses may be
greatly improved by being kept stabled alone and ridden alone for some
months. If a horse refuses to leave the ranks, do not slacken the reins
by pushing the hands forward, but feel his mouth and press him on with
the legs. Jogging the horse in the ribs with the heels or spurs and
slackening the reins will make him worse. It he continues to decline
to leave the ranks, rein him back two or three feet, then suddenly take
him unawares and urge him forward with leg pressure.
=84.= _Horses that decline to stand still when being mounted._
1. Such horses should be mounted and dismounted on both sides slowly,
time after time every day.
2. If the horse refuses to stand still after this treatment the
following method may be efficacious.
Put a loop under the horse’s upper lip and over the poll with a
slip knot, and when he becomes restive give it a slight jerk and
say “Steady.” The horse connects the sound of the voice with the
pain caused by the twitch, and he will learn to remain still even
without the word being said. The twitch must never be used except in
conjunction with the voice.
After doing this a few times, when mounting, the trainer should
dispense with the twitch, and with the left hand holding the reins and
the cheek piece of the bridle, should say the word “steady,” and swing
himself into the saddle, without leaving go of the cheek piece till he
is firmly seated; the horse connects the word and the pressure of the
hand on the cheek piece with the twitch, and will, as a rule, stand as
steadily as he would with the twitch still on him.
3. The best way to mount a horse that will not stand still is as
follows: With the left hand gather the reins loosely and seize the
cheek piece, hold the stirrup iron in the right hand and allow the
horse to walk round. Then place the left foot in the stirrup, and
transfer the right hand to the pommel or other part of the saddle. The
horse will then revolve in a small circle, of which the right toe of
the rider is the centre, and the latter should be able to mount without
difficulty.
=85.= _General vice and bad temper._
1. Such horses are most likely to be improved by a careful regulation
of work and feeding, by being stabled by themselves, and by gentle
treatment both in the stable and outside.
2. _Kicking and bucking._--If a horse begins to kick or buck, sit back,
and take the reins in both hands--keep the horse’s head up or pulled
right round to one side--get him on the move and away from other horses
as quickly as possible.
3. _Rearing._--If a horse starts to rear, take the reins in both hands,
lean forward and leave his mouth alone. If the rider leans his weight
on that part of the reins which passes from one hand to the other over
the withers (_see_ Sec. =39=, 4) it is an assistance. Get the horse on
the move at the first opportunity, if necessary hitting him over the
quarters, but not between the ears.
=86.= _Refractory draught horses._
1. The vices enumerated in this section should only occur in the case
of hired horses or of remounts joining on mobilization.
2. _A horse that refuses to be led up to his place in draught._--If all
persuasion fails he should be blindfolded with a horse rubber, and then
led up; the cloth should not be removed until the team starts.
3. _A horse that refuses to stand still when being hooked in._--One
fore leg should either be held up or strapped up.
4. _A horse that jibs at starting._--Jibbing has already been dealt
with in Sec. =68=. If there is plenty of time one of the horse’s fore
legs should be strapped up until he tires, and then the attempt may
be made to start him. Tapping a horse below and behind the knee is
sometimes effective.
5. _A kicker._--Use either a kicking strap or a tight bearing rein.
6. _A puller._--Use a bearing rein and side rein.[5] Both should be
fitted tight when the horse is standing still, or they will be useless
when he moves.
7. _Leaning on the pole._--A dandy brush strapped to the pole will
often cure this.
8. _Leaning away from the pole._--Change the horse’s side.
[5] Neither bearing reins nor side reins are part of peace equipment
stores, but they can be made up by the saddler.
CARE AND DISPOSAL OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS.
=87.= _Care of saddlery and harness._
1. Care should be exercised in the handling of all articles of harness
and saddlery. Saddles should not be dropped or thrown about as
fractured arches or broken side bars may result, and the usefulness of
collar pads is liable to be destroyed if subjected to unfair usage.
Minor defects should be attended to at once. Stitching should be tested
from time to time, as the life of thread is short compared with that of
leather.
Stirrup leathers should be exchanged occasionally or be shortened at
the buckle end, so as to bring the wear on fresh holes.
Girth tabs require special attention and must be renewed as the holes
wear.
2. The leather work of all saddlery should be kept soft and supple.
Seats and flaps of saddles and handled parts of reins should not be
polished. It is particularly important to keep leather girths supple
with grease.
3. It is rarely necessary to scrub leather work. Parts affected by
sweat from the horse, such as inside surfaces of breast collars,
girths, &c., should be sponged after use with clean cold water, and
then soaped.
4. Leather must not be washed with soda or in very hot water, as its
vitality is quickly affected by either; nor must it be subjected to
heat from a fire, as this destroys its durability.
5. All saddlery and harness should be taken to pieces periodically
and carefully inspected. Once or twice a year certain parts, such as
the inside of breechings, should be dubbed, the leather having first
been moistened with a sponge, and in cold weather the dubbin should be
warmed before use. After two or three days the residue of the dubbin
should be removed with a dry brush or rubber.
All leather work should be dubbed before being put away in store, and
should be overhauled from time to time, especially in hot or damp
climates.
6. Ropes, web girths and whips should be scrubbed with clean cold water
when necessary, and pipeclay should not be used on them.
Saddle blankets, panne’s, and numnahs should be placed in the sun or
wind to dry, and then beaten and brushed.
7. Steel or iron work such as bits should be wiped over immediately on
arriving in billets, stables or camp, and then rubbed with an oil rag.
This will save much subsequent trouble if done before rust has time to
form.
=88.= _Disposal of saddlery and harness in harness rooms or stables._
1. _Saddlery._--The _breastpiece_ is placed on the saddle peg, the
sides hanging straight down.
The _traces_ are folded in three equal lengths, secured by the bearing
straps, and are hung by the hooks to the Ds on the breastpiece.
The _bridle_ should be hung up complete, as on the horse’s head, the
curb hooked over the front of the bit.
The _head rope_ is hung up as on the horse.
The _saddle_ is placed on the peg cantle outwards, with the surcingle
and girth buckled as if on the horse. The stirrups hang at riding
length inside the backband of the head collar.
_Nose bags_ if not in use are kept with the other articles of horse kit.
2. _Harness._--The _saddles_ are hung from the pegs, the blankets being
placed over the pegs and under the breast collars.
The _breast collar_ is hung on the harness peg by the padded neck strap
under the blanket. In the case of lead harness the short traces are
hooked to the end link of the chains attached to the tugs and hang
straight down. The traces are hung by hooking the Ds on to small pegs
on each side of the harness peg.
The _bridle_ is hung on the harness peg as if on the horse’s head--the
reins should hang down from the bit.
The _head rope_ is hung up as on the horse.
The _breeching_ is hung under the padded neck strap.
The _legging_ is hung on the same peg as the inside trace of the riding
set, by the top strap, which is buckled; the other straps are left
unbuckled ready to put on.
The _whip_ is hung by the hand loop on the same peg as the inside trace
of the hand set of harness.
=89.= _Disposal of saddlery and harness in bivouac._
1. _Saddlery._--The _saddle_ complete is placed on the ground resting
on the pommel; the stirrup irons are hooked on the points of the side
bars.
The _bridle_ is placed with the head piece of the bit on the side bars.
The whole is wrapped in the harness wrapper.
2. _Harness._--_Harness and saddlery_ are to be laid down one yard
in rear of the line of heel pegs. The _breast collar_ is placed on
its lower edge in a circle. The _breeching_ is coiled round it. The
traces are round the breeching. The _saddle_ is placed on top, seat
uppermost, the bottom of the flaps being turned up inwards--this keeps
the breast collar from being crushed when the harness is tied up.
The whole of the head gear is laid across the top of the seat.
The _legging_ is placed inside the breast collar under the saddle of
the riding set. The _whip_ is placed inside the breast collar of the
hand set. The whole is wrapped in the harness wrapper.
CARE OF WAGONS.
=90.= _General instructions._
(_See also Handbooks of the various guns._)
1. It is only by giving constant attention to the vehicles that
transport service can be efficient.
The axles and the pipe-boxes of wheels should be frequently greased,
and should be kept free of dust, grit and old grease which contains
small particles of metal and sand, that wear down the surrounding parts.
2. To grease the axle, remove the wheel and carefully clean the axle
and inside of the pipe-box. Then smear the inside of the pipe-box and
the outside of the axle with fresh grease and replace the wheel.
3. Wheels, showing too much play on the axletree arm, should have a
leather or steel washer placed on the arm at the outer end of the
pipe-box, between it and the linch-pin washer.
In very dry climates it may be necessary at times to keep the wheels
constantly wetted to prevent the woodwork warping, cracking and
shrinking.
LOADING A WAGON OR CART.
=91.= _General instructions._
1. _Wagons._--The battery commander should have an inventory of what
each wagon is to carry made out the day previous to a march, unless
they are G.S. wagons horsed and loaded according to the official tables
in the Field Service Manual. Bulk as well as weight must be taken into
consideration in assessing the loads, this is necessary to secure good
packing and efficient transport service. The weights of the various
articles are given in the Field Service Manual.
The load which is to go in each wagon should be placed beside it before
the packing begins. An experienced man should then get up into the
wagon and name the articles in the order in which he wishes them to be
handed up to him. When the packing is complete the tarpaulin should be
roped carefully over the wagon to ensure against wet and loss.
2. _Loading a two-wheeled cart._--Care should be taken that the cart
when loaded is properly balanced. There should be a weight of about
10 lbs. on the tugs. If the load is placed too far forward, the off
horse is unnecessarily weighted: if too far back, draught becomes more
difficult.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY.
=92.= _Position of driver._
1. On parade the driver stands to attention on the near side of his
mule, holding the loop of the rein in his left hand, which should hang
down by his side; while with the right hand he takes hold of the double
rein about 6 inches behind the mule’s jaw, keeping the animal’s head in
its natural position.
“STAND AT EASE.”--Keeping both legs straight, carry the left foot about
one foot-length to the left as at dismounted drill, and slide the right
hand down the rein to the full extent of the arm.
“MARCH.”--Every driver will at once step off as at dismounted drill,
causing the mule to start off steadily at the same time by a gentle
feeling of the leading rein. He will march abreast of his mule, and
should rarely pull at the leading rein, as mules move best with a loose
rein and require a light hand.
“HALT.”--The driver halts as at dismounted drill, coming to the
position of attention and halting the mule at the same time by a gentle
pressure on the leading rein. Drivers should be taught to lead their
mules from either side.
To salute when passing an officer, a driver should look towards him
without moving his hand or altering his position.
=93.= _Fitting saddlery of ordnance mules._
1. The saddle should be placed in the middle of the mule’s back so
as to interfere as little as possible with its free action. The two
pannels should contain the same quantity of stuffing, should feel
elastic, and have an even bearing on the back and sides throughout. It
is best to have a distinct channel between the pannels along the top of
the mule’s back; the broader the channel the better.
The pannels should be so fitted that the saddle rides level along the
mule’s back as low as possible. They must not pinch the withers, nor
touch the backbone, and should allow of at least three fingers being
inserted in front and rear of the saddle.
2. _Girths._--Should be crossed beneath the mule, and should be drawn
slightly tighter than with riding saddles, but should be loose enough
to allow one finger to be inserted between them and the mule’s body
when the load is on.
3. _Breast-piece and breeching._--Should hang from their supporting
straps as horizontally as possible at such a height as will not impede
the free action of the limbs or breathing.
4. _Crupper._--Should not be tighter than is necessary to keep the
saddle from shifting forward, and should be loose enough to admit the
breadth of the hand between it and the mule’s croup. Care must be taken
that none of the mule’s hair remains between it and its dock. The dock
of the crupper must at all times be kept very soft and pliable.
5. _Bits_, _head collar_, and _curb chain_ as for horses.
6. _Leading rein._--To be fastened to both rings of bridoon bit. The Ts
of the rein passed through from inside to outside, the reins double in
the driver’s right hand, loop of rein in left hand.
The following method of attaching the rein to the bridoon bit may be
adopted to gain more control over restive mules and to prevent mules
stampeding when under fire, etc.:--
i. Pass one of the Ts of the rein through the near ring of
the bit from inside to out.
ii. Pass the other T through the off ring of the bit from
outside to in and then through the near ring from inside
to out.
The rein can now be used in the ordinary way; when, however, it is
required to restrain a restive mule, or it is apprehended that mules
may be frightened by coming under fire or otherwise, pull the T of the
near rein, thus pulling the rein through the near ring of the bit, pass
the loop of the rein in round the mule’s nose and haul fairly taut. The
rein is now single in the driver’s hand, and when hauled on, compresses
the mule’s nose and stops him.
=94.= _Training young mules._
1. Young mules are naturally timid and easily startled, but they are,
as a rule, docile and easily broken in, if treated with great kindness
and patience. Rough treatment of any kind must be avoided as likely
to prove fatal to the successful training of the mule. Men must be
carefully selected to break remount mules, and gunners will assist, if
the drivers are natives, so as to accustom the mules to be handled by
Europeans.
2. Saddling must be done at first with great caution, the saddle only
being placed gently on the mule’s back and moved about quietly so as
to accustom the animal to the feel of it before putting on the girths.
In girthing up care must be taken not to draw the girths so tight as
to cause any uneasiness to the mule, which will then be walked about
and allowed to get used to the saddle before the other harness is
gradually added. With the crupper especially great patience must be
exercised, as it is likely at first to upset a timid mule.
3. A mule should be thoroughly accustomed to walking about with the
saddle and harness before it is tried under a load. It is as well
to start training a mule to carry loads by using two bags of sand
or earth, weighing 80 lbs. each, and when it walks about with these
quietly the training can be completed by substituting other loads. A
young mule should always be allowed to become familiar with the sight
of a load before this is tried on the saddle.
4. Young mules should accompany the battery on all hill parades from
the first to accustom them to difficult ground and train their head and
wind for hill work. They should be barebacked at first and when broken
to the saddle should be saddled for parade.
5. They should not be loaded on the hillside till five years old, and
at first the load should be a light one and only carried for a short
distance; it should be gradually increased up to the full weight which
the mule will be required to carry.
6. Finally, young mules must be trained to jump small ditches and
similar obstacles without hesitation, and, at the end of the training,
this should be done with a load on. In leaping a mule, the rein must
always be left loose and a whip should not be used.
=95.= _Leading mules._
1. On good ground pack animals should always move closed up to their
proper distance, but in going up or down hill and in crossing difficult
ground the drivers will increase their distance and regulate their pace
as circumstances may require. Should any mules appear distressed, they
should be halted to enable them to recover their breath.
2. The driver should always give the mule a long rein when moving over
rough or hilly country; this is quickly effected by the driver letting
go the rein with the right hand, seizing the T-piece from the outside
of the ring of the bit and pulling the rein through. In difficult
ground the gunners will assist by steadying the loads and helping the
mules along. It may even be necessary to unload the mules and carry the
loads over an obstacle by hand. It is frequently advisable to attach
drag ropes to top loads when descending steep places.
For ascents the driver must tighten the breastpiece and loosen the
breeching of his mule, and for descents he will tighten the breeching
and loosen the breastpiece. This can be quickly done without halting by
means of the chain attachments of the breastpiece and breeching.
3. When a halt is ordered, any driver who has lost ground will continue
to move with his mule until he has recovered his proper distance.
Closing up to recover distance must be done steadily and by a gradual
increase of pace, not by rushing. Trotting should not be allowed except
by order.
When halting on hill roads, mules should be turned to stand level
across the roads with their heads outwards from the hillside. If the
width of the road does not admit of this, the drivers must stand to
the head of their mules and keep them from turning, so as to avoid
accidents.
4. It will happen sometimes on narrow roads that the driver must
march in front of his mule. When this is the case, he must resume his
position beside the mule and close up again to his proper distance as
soon as the road widens sufficiently.
5. If a load becomes disarranged, the driver will fall out to the most
convenient flank as soon as he can find room on the road, and when the
load has been readjusted, he will, as soon as practicable, regain his
place in column.
When a laden mule falls, its head should be held down to prevent it
struggling, and the load must be removed before the mule is allowed
to get up. In very difficult or dangerous ground the saddle should be
removed as well as the load.
CHAPTER IV.
GUNNERY.
=96.= _General instructions._
1. The subjects dealt with in this chapter are only divided into
sections for purposes of reference. The contents of many of the
sections are so closely connected that portions of several of them must
often be included in one lecture. In addition it must be realized that
it is impossible to deal fully within the limits of a manual with the
various subjects mentioned. All that is attempted is to give a brief
outline of the principles of modern gunnery.
2. A description of the various patterns of ordnance used in the field,
their stores and drill will be found in the respective handbooks; while
for further information of a more technical nature reference should
be made to the “Text Book of Gunnery,” the “Treatise on Ammunition,”
and the “Treatise on Service Explosives.” Instructors should endeavour
to use the simplest language; but, as a large number of more or less
technical terms must be employed, they must take care that their
meaning is clear.
=97.= _Gunnery terms._
_Angle of Departure._--The angle which the line of departure makes with
the horizontal plane, in other words, the quadrant angle plus the jump.
(_See_ 5, Plate II.)
_Angle of Descent._--The angle which the trajectory makes with the line
of sight at the point of their second intersection.
_Angle of Incidence._--The angle which the trajectory makes with the
normal to the surface struck.
_Angle of Elevation._--The angle which the line of sight makes with the
axis of the gun. (_See_ 2, Plate II.)
_Angle of Sight._--The angle which the line of sight makes with the
horizontal plane. (_See_ 3, Plate II.)
_Axis of the Gun._--A line passing down the centre of the bore. (_See_
A B, Plate I.)
_Axis of the Trunnions._--A line passing through the centre of the
trunnions. (_See_ C D, Plate I.)
_Battery Angle._--The angle formed at the battery by imaginary lines
drawn to the target and the observing station.
_Calibre._--The diameter of the bore in inches measured across the
lands.
_Drift._--The constant deflection of the shell due to the rotation
imparted by the rifling. (_See_ A, Plate III.)
_Direct Laying._--When the gun is laid by looking over or through the
sights at the target.
_Indirect Laying._--When the gun is laid for direction on an aiming
point, or on aiming posts, the angle of sight is adjusted by clinometer
and the elevation by the range indicator or drum. (With the 5“ B.L.
howitzer the range drum is set at the quadrant elevation.)
_Jump._--The angle between the line of departure and the axis of the
piece before firing. It is due to the vertical movement of the gun
on firing, and for any gun differs according to the mounting and the
charge used. (_See_ 6, Plate II.)
_Lateral Deviation._--The distance of the point of impact of the
projectile right or left of the line of fire.
_Line of Departure._--The direction of the shell on leaving the muzzle.
(_See_ 4, Plate II.)
_Line of Fire._--A line joining the muzzle of the piece and the target.
_Line of Sight._--A straight line passing through the sights and the
point aimed at. (_See_ E F, Plate III.)
_Muzzle Velocity_--The velocity in feet per second with which a shell
leaves the muzzle.
_Point Blank._--A gun is laid point blank when the line of sight is
parallel to its axis.
_Quadrant Angle._--The angle which the axis of the piece makes with
the horizontal plane. It is termed quadrant elevation or depression
according as the gun is laid above or below the horizontal plane.
(_See_ 1, Plate II.) The angle of elevation and the quadrant angle are
the same when the line of sight is horizontal.
_Range._--The distance to the second intersection of the trajectory
with the line of sight.
_Ranging._--Ranging is the process of finding the elevation, fuze, and
line.
_Remaining Velocity._--The velocity of a shell at any given point of
its trajectory.
_Striking Velocity._--The velocity of a shell at the point of impact.
_Trajectory._--The curve described by the shell in its flight. (_See_ D
F, Plate III.)
=98.= _Natures of artillery fire._
(_See_ Fig. 11.)
_High Angle Fire._--Fire from guns and howitzers at all angles of
elevation exceeding 25 degrees. But in coast defence the term “High
Angle Fire” is used in connection with guns of mountings specially
designed for extreme angles of elevation laid by means of instruments
specially provided.
[Illustration: Plate I.]
[Illustration: Plate II.]
[Illustration: Plate III.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
_Enfilade Fire._--Fire which sweeps a line of troops or defences from a
flank.
_Frontal Fire._--When the line of fire is perpendicular to the front of
the target.
_Oblique Fire._--When the line of fire is inclined to the front of the
target.
_Reverse Fire._--When the rear instead of the front of the target is
fired at.
=99.= _Gunnery._
1. Gunnery is the science of directing a projectile so that it will
strike a given object.
2. A gun serves two purposes. First to confine the gases of the charge
so as to allow them to act upon the base of the shell; and second to
give the shell the proper initial direction. In order to maintain the
shell in its proper direction after it leaves the bore of the gun, some
means of making it spin or rotate rapidly is necessary; since it is a
well-known fact that any rapidly-rotating body tries to keep the same
direction in which it was pointed when first made to spin. Rifling
which consists in a number of grooves cut down the bore, leaving raised
ribs called “_lands_” between them, is the means employed in modern
guns, in combination with a soft copper band called a “_driving band_”
secured to the shell near its base. The result of this combination is
that when the gun is fired the shell is forced along the bore, but,
the diameter of the driving band being bigger than that of the bore,
the lands cut into the copper of which it is made and the shell is
consequently compelled to follow their course and rotate. Without this
spin an elongated shell would soon lose its velocity and accuracy of
direction and become as unreliable in its flight as round shot were in
the days of smooth bore guns.
3. By the use of elongated shell the following additional advantages
besides accuracy of direction are obtained:--
i. A longer and therefore heavier shell can be fired from a
field gun than would be possible if the shell had to be
round (spherical). Consequently there is more room in
the shell for explosive or bullets.
ii. Greater range and greater power at a given range are
obtained, because there is a smaller surface, as
compared with a round shot of the same weight, offered
to the resistance of the air.
iii. By varying the length different kinds of shell for
the same gun can be brought to the same weight and
thus complications in range tables can be avoided. If
necessary a specially heavy projectile can be used.
iv. The flight of the shell being regular, allowance can
be made for any deviation observed and thus increased
accuracy may be obtained.
=100.= _Rifling._
1. The “_system of rifling_” is the term applied to the method adopted
in any particular type of rifled gun for giving rotation to the shell.
2. The aim of each system is to produce accuracy of fire, but it is
also essential that it should be simple, that it should not seriously
weaken the durability of the gun, and that the shell should not be
liable to jam in loading or firing. The “_twist of rifling_” by which
is meant the distance measured in calibres, in which the grooves make
one complete circuit of the bore, may be uniform, increasing or a
combination of the two.
3. In the case of a uniform twist the distance in which the grooves
make a complete circuit of the bore is the same wherever measured,
but with an increasing twist the distance decreases as the muzzle is
approached.
With a uniform twist the shell is compelled to rotate rapidly as soon
as it begins to move, and thus a severe strain is caused both to the
gun and shell.
With an increasing twist, this rotation is imparted more gradually,
thus relieving the strain, but at the same time causing more friction,
and consequent loss of velocity. The shell, moreover, is not so well
centred as with a uniform twist.
4. In designing a gun the twist has to be made to suit the shell which
it is desired to employ, and its intended velocity. Generally speaking,
a long shell with low velocity necessitates a rapid twist to make it
steady in flight.
=101=. _Centring._
It is important that the shell when it leaves the bore should be
centred, _i.e._, that the shell should rotate round its longer axis
which should coincide with the prolongation of the axis of the gun at
the moment it leaves the bore. Should this not be the case, the shell
becomes unsteady and noisy in its flight, and the shooting will be
irregular.
=102.= _Forces acting on a shell in the bore._
1. The velocity attained by a shell at the muzzle of a gun is due to
the pressure of the gas during its passage through the bore. The more
gradually this velocity is imparted to the shell the less will be the
strain upon it and the gun. The object sought is to distribute, as far
as possible, the pressure over the whole length of the bore and to
obtain the maximum work from a given charge without undue strain on
either gun or shell. Theoretically the last atom of the charge should
be converted into gas as the shell leaves the muzzle.
FORCES ACTING ON A SHELL DURING FLIGHT.
=103.= _The resistance of the air._
1. The air consists of innumerable small particles through which a
shell has to force its way. This produces a rapid loss of velocity; for
instance, the velocity of a shell from the 18-pr. Q.F. gun, which at
the muzzle is about 1,610 feet a second, is at 2,000 yards only about
1,030 feet a second, and at 6,000 yards about 740 feet a second.
2. The retardation due to the resistance of the air varies according to
the weight and diameter of the shell. If, for instance, two shells of
equal diameter, but of different weights, start with the same muzzle
velocity, the heavier will lose its velocity more slowly and have the
longer range, because it has the greater weight with which to overcome
the resistance of the air. On the other hand, if two projectiles are of
the same weight but of different diameters, the one with the smaller
diameter will have the advantage, because it presents less surface to
the resistance of the air.
3. The shape of the head also materially affects the question, for a
shell with a blunt head is plainly not so suited for forcing its way
through the air as one with a more pointed head. Thus the longer the
shell (other things being equal), the greater will be its remaining
velocity at any given range, and the greater will be its range for any
given muzzle velocity; but other considerations limit its length, such
as the strength of its walls, and the liability to turn over in flight.
4. The relationship between the weight and diameter of a shell,
represented by the expression
W
------,
(n d²)
is called the “_ballistic coefficient_” of the gun. The factor n
includes sub-factors which vary with the density of the atmosphere,
the shape of the head, the steadiness in flight, &c. The greater the
ballistic coefficient the less rapidly does the projectile lose its
velocity.
5. It has already been pointed out (Sec. =99=) that spin is necessary
to the shell if elongated projectiles are to be used. The effect of the
resistance of the air on a spinning shell is to deflect it in the same
direction as the spin. With all service shell this spin or rotation is
right handed, and consequently all shell deflect towards the right in
the course of their flight. This deflection is called “_drift_.”
As this rotation is definite and diminishes very slightly during the
flight of the shell, the amount of drift can be determined for each
nature of gun by actual experiment and compensation made for it. A
description of the method by which this is done will be found in Sec.
119.
=104=. _The force of gravity._
1. The force of gravity is the natural attraction which causes every
unsupported body to fall towards the centre of the earth. Moreover,
the longer a body is exposed to its influence the faster does it fall;
thus a body falls,
About 16 feet in the 1st second
” 48 ” ” 2nd ”
” 80 ” ” 3rd ”
that is, the total drop at the end of any given second of time is
proportionate to the square of the time.
Now a shell leaves the muzzle of a gun with a certain velocity, due to
the forces which acted on it in the bore, and, if the effect of these
forces and of the resistance of the air had alone to be taken into
account, it would proceed in a straight line, but at a decreasing pace.
Gravity, however, comes into play and causes the shell to fall with a
constantly increasing velocity. Thus in Fig. 12, supposing AB is the
direction in which a shell starts, the distances it would travel in the
first three seconds of its flight, if there were no gravity, might be
represented by AC, CE, EG. Owing to gravity, however, it would at the
end of the 1st second have dropped to some point D; at the end of the
2nd second it would have dropped four times as far, to a point F; while
at the end of the 3rd second it would have fallen nine times as far, to
a point H.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
2. The force of gravity is to some extent counterbalanced by the air,
which acts as a cushion and tends to support a body falling through it.
In the case of a heavy body, such as a bullet or shell, the distances
fallen are but slightly affected by the air.
Gravity is, however, appreciably counterbalanced by the “_planeing_”
effect on an elongated projectile forced at considerable velocity
through the air at high angles of elevation so that the value of “g”
drops below 32 to about 26.
=105.= _Trajectory._
1. The result of the three forces acting on the shell--the force
of projection tending to drive it forward in a straight line in
prolongation of the axis, the force of gravity drawing it down from
that line, and the resistance of the air tending to stop its progress
in each successive instant of time, and also to deflect it to the
right--is that it describes a curve, whether regarded from the side or
from above. This curve is called the trajectory. (_See_ ADFHI, Fig. 12.)
2. The shell in consequence of its high velocity, and of the short
time gravity has had to act upon it, falls at first very little, but
this fall--and consequently the curve--increases very rapidly with the
range; for example, at 100 yards the 18-pr. Q.F. shell if fired point
blank would fall about 8½ inches, but at 500 yards its drop would be
about 18¼ feet; at 1,000 yards, about 80 feet; at 2,000 yards, about
372 feet; at 3,000 yards, about 970 feet. The greatest height attained
by the trajectory is roughly four times the square of the time of
flight.
=106.= _Elevation._
[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
1. It is evident from what has been said that a shell fired from a gun
at a mark, S (Fig. 13) will not hit that mark, but will strike some
point, D, below it. To allow for the fall, it is necessary to point the
axis as much above the object to be hit as the shell would have fallen
below it if the axis had been pointed straight at the mark. This act of
tilting the gun so as to allow for the curve of the trajectory, is what
is meant by the expression “_giving elevation_.”
2. The theory of giving elevation may be illustrated by reference to
the flight of an 18-pr. Q.F. shell for the first 100 yards. This shell
falls about 8½ inches below the line at which the projectile leaves
the bore in passing over the first 100 yards of its flight. Assuming
that S (Fig. 13) is 100 yards from the muzzle and that SD represents 8½
inches, the axis of the gun must be elevated so that, when produced, it
would pass 8½ inches above S, viz., through F (Fig. 14), if an object
at S is to be hit.
3. The method of giving elevation to the gun to enable the shell to
reach a certain distance called the “_range_” should then be explained,
and it should be shown how the elevation can be marked in yards on the
range drum, tangent sight or clinometer.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
4. The principle of the sighting can be shown by means of a rifle
barrel placed on a tripod a few yards from a blackboard. If then aim be
taken at some mark on the board with the leaf of the sight upright, and
set to (say) 1,000 yards; and subsequently, without moving the barrel,
the bore be looked through, it will be seen that the axis produced
meets the blackboard considerably above the mark aimed at.
5. The effect on the shooting of the gun, if the wheels are not level,
can be explained by similar means. A stick to represent the trunnions
of the gun should be fastened across the barrel. It can then be shown
that if the wheels of a gun are not level, or in other words if the
axis of the trunnions is not horizontal, the gun (barrel) will not
elevate in a vertical plane; the muzzle will move towards the lower
side and the breech towards the higher, thus causing the shell to move
towards the lower wheel.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
6. The effect on the sight, if the axis of the trunnions is not level,
can also be demonstrated. The more the sight is tilted over to one side
the less will the elevation become and the more will the gun point to
the right or left of the target, according to the way the sight is
inclined. In these circumstances the shell, instead of hitting the
target, will fall below it and to one side. The greater the elevation
on the sight and the more it is inclined, the greater will be the
resulting error.
To make this clear, a vertical line, AB (Fig. 15), may be drawn on the
blackboard, with A as a spot to aim at. The recruit should then be
directed to aim at this spot with the sight, which must be perfectly
upright, set at 1,000 yards, and afterwards to look through the rifle
barrel, his attention being drawn to the fact that the axis cuts the
vertical line at C above the spot aimed at. He should then be made to
aim at the same spot with the same sight, _but inclined to one side_,
and to look through the barrel again, when he will see that the axis,
instead of being directed upon C as before, is now directed low, and
to that side to which the sight is inclined, as at D; consequently as
the trajectory always conforms to the movement of the axis, the bullet,
instead of hitting the mark, would strike as much below D as A is
below C. Draw a new vertical line through D and measure off on it a
distance equal to CA; this will give the spot E, which the bullet would
hit. From A draw a horizontal line AF to the new vertical line DF, then
AF will show the error of direction, and FE the loss of elevation. The
latter may practically be neglected; and a rule is given in Sec. =119=
for correcting the former, when the small size of the target renders it
necessary.
If it can be arranged it is better to show this with a gun, but a rifle
barrel is usually more convenient.
=107.= _Causes affecting the accuracy of shooting._
1. With the exception of the effect of the difference of level of
wheels, the various forces which act on a projectile and their effects
on its flight are calculated and compensated for before the gun is
issued for service.
They will not, therefore, come under the observation of the practical
gunner; but there are other causes affecting the accuracy of shooting
about which he must have a knowledge.
These are:--
i. Varying effect of the charge due to:--
Incorrect weighing.
Variation in strength.
State of the atmosphere.
Variation in space occupied by the cartridge
in the bore (_Loading density_).
ii. Force and direction of wind.
iii. Trail not being well supported.
2. If the shell is not rammed home to the same spot each round, the
amount of space available for the cartridge will vary and this will
cause the shooting to be irregular. The smaller the space left for the
cartridge the greater will be the range, but the greater also becomes
the pressure of the gas in the chamber.
The possibility of this occurring in the case of Q.F. guns is prevented
if fixed ammunition is used.
3. Wind has considerable effect on the range and direction of the
shell. According to its direction it may increase or reduce the range,
or drive the shell to right or left. If gusty, and of great force, the
shooting will be irregular, especially at long ranges. This becomes of
importance only when the target is a narrow one.
4. Unless the trail rests on firm level ground, and is similarly
supported during successive rounds, the shooting will be irregular,
on account of the variation of the jump. A carriage allowing of axial
recoil has practically no jump.
5. It is important that the effect which the above conditions may have
on the shooting should be fully understood, in order that the necessity
of the process called “ranging”[6] may be realized. By means of this
process the total effect of these causes is found out and the sight set
so as to counterbalance them. (_See_ Sec. =103=.)
[6] “Ranging” and “Range-finding” must not be confused with one
another. The latter is the measurement of the distance in yards
to the target by mechanical means, and the former the process by
which the elevation necessary to make a shell travel that distance
is ascertained, an elevation which, owing to the various causes
mentioned above, will rarely correspond with the distance given by the
range-finder.
AMMUNITION.
=108.= _Cordite._
(_See also_ Treatise on Service Explosives.)
1. Cordite is the smokeless explosive adopted for propulsive purposes.
2. Cordite consists of nitro-glycerine, gun cotton and mineral jelly,
worked into a dough and forced through a die, from which it comes
out in long cords. Its composition for small arms and all natures of
ordnance is the same, the required rate of combustion being obtained by
varying the diameter of the cord. The smaller the diameter the quicker
the rate of burning.
3. The cordite in general use for modern guns is termed “Cordite MD”
(modified) when in sticks or cords, “Cordite MDT” when in tubes, in
order to distinguish it from the earlier pattern of cordite which was
found to wear out the rifling of the gun too quickly. Cordite Mk. I is
still used in India and for the older patterns of guns and howitzers.
4. Tubular cordite is distinguished by two numbers representing in
hundredths of an inch the mean external and internal diameters of
the finished article. Other cordite is distinguished by a number
representing in hundredths of an inch the diameter of the die through
which it was pressed in the course of manufacture.
5. When any particular size is made to more than one length, the length
will be included, _e.g._:--
Cordite, Size--, length 12-inch.
Cordite, Size--, on drums.
6. Cordite will keep in all climates, but it is laid down that the
temperature of magazines in which cordite is stored should not
habitually exceed 80° F. or fall below 45° F.
The nitro-glycerine in cordite freezes at about 40° F., and if frozen
cordite is suddenly thawed it is liable to “sweat.” It should not be
handled till the nitro-glycerine has been reabsorbed.
7. The ballistic properties of cordite are affected by heat; the
higher the temperature of a charge the greater the muzzle velocity and
pressure.
8. Cordite charges are somewhat difficult to ignite, so that a priming
of guncotton yarn, fine grain gunpowder, or some other easily-lighted
substance is necessary to assist the flame from the cap or tube.
9. Cordite is safe to handle and store. It is not affected by damp or
water; this does not apply, of course, to the gunpowder priming. If
wetted with fresh, water a cordite charge may be fired when dried.
Before returning a wetted charge to store it should be thoroughly dried
in a ventilated building. Cordite wetted with sea water should be well
washed in fresh water and dried before repacking.
10. In some cases, after firing cordite charges to windward, a flame
issues from the breech when it is opened. This is not of sufficient
importance to require, in the case of field guns, any special
precautions being taken.
=109.= _Lyddite shell._
1. Lyddite is the high explosive used for filling common shells.
It consists of picric acid, melted and poured into the shell, where it
solidifies. In order to detonate the charge the shell are primed with
exploders containing picric powder. Complete detonation of a lyddite
shell may be assumed to have occurred when the smoke is black and not
tinged with yellow, when there is no picric acid colouring the crater
formed by the burst, and when the fragments of the forged steel shell
present a torn and jagged appearance.
2. Shell filled with lyddite are effective against _matériel_ and
artificial cover. They are not intended nor are they suitable for use
against personnel in the open owing to the limited numbers of pieces
into which they break up and to the very local effect caused by their
explosion.
Lyddite shell are carried with howitzer, heavy batteries and mountain
batteries armed with 2·75“ B.L. equipment.
=110.= _Shrapnel shell._
1. Shrapnel shell are hollow shell containing as many bullets as
possible together with a bursting charge sufficient to open the
shell, release the bullets, and give enough smoke to allow the burst
to be observed. They are provided with T. and P. fuzes, thus making it
possible to burst them, either on graze (percussion action) or at some
selected point of their trajectory (time action).
In the latter case each bullet as soon as it is free follows a
trajectory of its own, according to its position in the shell, to the
direction and velocity given to it by the bursting charge and by the
centrifugal force imparted by the rotation of the shell. Regarded as a
whole, however, the bullets form a cone the apex of which is located
at the spot where the shell bursts. This cone is called the “_cone of
dispersion_.”
2. If the height of burst is normal, the body of the shell which does
not as a rule break up has a trajectory which corresponds approximately
to, but is always lower than, that which the shell would have described
if it had not burst.
3. The effect of an individual shrapnel depends upon:--
i. The number of bullets.
ii. The energy of the bullets on impact.
iii. The spread of the bullets.
iv. The size of the target.
v. The curve of the trajectory, or the angle of descent.
4. The number of the bullets is very closely connected with the weight
and construction of the shrapnel, and also depends upon the weight and
specific gravity of the bullets.
The greater the weight of the shell, the greater under similar
conditions will naturally be the weight and also the number of the
bullets. The weight of the total content of bullets increases, however,
more rapidly than the weight of the shell, so that of two shells
constructed on the same principles, the heavier contains more bullets
in proportion to its weight than the lighter. Thus for example, the
13-pr. Q.F. shell which has a weight of 12½ pounds contains 236 bullets
of 41 to the pound, while the 18-pr. Q.F. has a weight of 18½ pounds
and contains 375 bullets.
5. A very small energy is required to put living targets out of action.
According to experiments it is considered that a striking energy of 60
foot-lbs. is sufficient; which means that a bullet of 41 to the pound
would require a striking velocity of about 400 foot-seconds.[7]
[7] NOTE.--This is obtained from the formula
v2
-------
w × 2g
representing the energy of a body. In this case
v2
------- = 60; whence v = 400 (approx.).
41 × 2g
The velocity on impact of shrapnel bullets depends upon their velocity
at the point of burst, their weight and upon the distance they travel
after burst. The latter is of the more importance, since the light
shrapnel bullets fall off very much in velocity owing to the resistance
of the air.
6. In shrapnel shell with base bursters the spread of the bullets is
principally caused by the rotation of the shell. In the 13-pr. and
18-pr. shell, however, the central tube is filled with powder, which
tends to increase the angle of opening.
It is difficult to measure this angle accurately; but its tendency is
to increase as the range increases. In estimating the front covered by
the spread of the bullets, it may be taken as about 35 per cent. of the
distance burst short.
7. The effect of the shrapnel depends largely on the nature of the
target and the position of the burst. As the distance of the burst
short of the target increases, the density of the hits diminishes,
and theoretically this distance should be regulated according to the
surface presented by the target. The normal height of burst of 13 and
18-pr. Q.F. shrapnel is about 10 minutes above the line of sight at all
ranges. In the case of the 15-pr. B.L.C. and 15-pr. Q.F. this height is
12½ minutes, and in the case of 4·5-inch howitzers about 20 minutes, of
5-inch howitzers 30 minutes, and in the case of the 60-pr. B.L. and
4·7-inch Q.F. about 15 minutes. If the target be of the nature of a
column, a lower burst must be obtained.
8. The curve of the trajectory diminishes the depth of the forward
effect of the shrapnel. The flatter the trajectory the greater the
depth of effect. On the other hand there is little searching effect
on troops behind cover, and for this reason the shrapnel of howitzers
fired at high angles of elevation are particularly effective, although
the ground covered by their cone of dispersion is small.
9. Shrapnel shell is the principal field artillery projectile, and is
carried for most natures of field artillery.
10. _Percussion shrapnel._--Percussion shrapnel is used for ranging,
and in the case of the 18-pr. Q.F. has given excellent results at
targets placed behind a brick wall 24 inches thick. It may therefore
be considered that the fire of percussion shrapnel will be effective
against troops defending any ordinary buildings.
Good effect has also been obtained with it against guns and personnel
behind shields when direct hits are obtained.
11. The action of percussion shrapnel differs from that of time
shrapnel, for the shell opens after graze, having an ascending angle,
and a velocity considerably lessened by the retardation on graze. Its
effect depends largely on the nature of the ground at the point of
impact; in soft or marshy soil the shell are smothered and results are
usually poor.
12. Percussion shrapnel, even at short ranges, must be burst very
close to the foot of the target to be effective, otherwise the cone
of dispersion passes over it, and descends in a shower some 250 yards
beyond graze: consequently, a small error in range is a matter of great
consequence.
13. _Time shrapnel._--Time shrapnel is used against living targets,
against aircraft and balloons, and for ranging.
14. The best effect from time shrapnel fire is obtained when the
trajectory passes through or close to the target, and the position
of the mean point of burst should be as close as possible to the
target without entailing an undue proportion of grazes. To attain this
“ranging” must be carried out till the correct range and length of fuze
are determined. (_See_ Sec. =207= _et seq._)
=111.= _Star shell._
Star shell are carried by mountain artillery. They contain a number of
stars and are fired with T. fuzes. When the shell bursts these stars
are ignited and illuminate the foreground.
=112.= _Time and percussion fuzes._
(_See_ Handbooks for description of various fuzes.)
1. Fuzes manufactured under varying atmospheric conditions have
variable rates of burning; care should, therefore, be taken in packing
limbers and wagons that fuzes of the same thousand should be as far as
possible together, so as to obtain uniformity of results.
2. The rate of burning of a time and percussion fuze is influenced
by the climate in which it has been kept, and the pressure of the
atmosphere.
3. Fuzes also burn longer as the height above the sea level increases,
that is, as the height of the barometer decreases. For each fall of 1
inch in the barometer (corresponding to about 1,000 feet in height) the
time of burning increases by ¹/₃₀.[8]
[8] NOTE.--¹/₄₄ for the No. 80 fuze.
4. The _mean error_ in the time of burning of the No. 80 time and
percussion fuze in use with the 18-pr. Q.F. gun may be taken as about
·14 seconds.
This error represents a distance of 48 yards at 2,000 yards range, and
this distance multiplied by 1·69 (= 81) gives the length of the zone
which will contain 50 per cent. of the bursts. If 10 per cent. of the
bursts are on graze, the distance of the mean point of burst from the
target should be equal to half the length of the 80 per cent. zone,
since 10 per cent. must be taken off the other end in order to keep
the mean point of burst in the same place. The 80 per cent. zone is
equal to the 50 per cent. zone × 1·90, _i.e._, 81 × 1·90 = 154. Thus at
2,000 yards, the mean point of burst should be approximately 80 yards
short, and at 5,000 yards 55 yards short. Though with the 13-pr. Q.F.
the error of the fuze is rather greater than with the 18-pr. Q.F., the
same data may be accepted. A larger percentage of grazes must, however,
be expected.
=113.= _Fuze indicator._
1. The object of the fuze indicator is to give the correct fuze setting
for effective burst at any range, when once the instrument has been
adjusted for _one_ range.
2. _Theory._--When the graduation 150 on the corrector scale is
opposite the arrow on the fuze scale slider, the length of fuze
opposite each range is that which will give “_an effective point of
burst_” under normal conditions. It will be noted that any corrector
setting found suitable with any particular range will be approximately
correct for all ranges under like conditions.
To arrive at this result the indicator has to be graduated on the same
principle as a “slide rule.” The fuze scale is graduated in such a way
that the linear spaces occupied are proportional to the logarithms
of the times of flight. The yard scale is similarly graduated. This
explains how in the table in para. 5 below an alteration of corrector
makes a proportional correction at various ranges and not an equal
correction throughout.
3. In the case of the 18-pr. Q.F. the effective points of burst are
taken to be as follows:--
At 2,000 yards 80 yards short.
At 3,000 ” 70 ” ”
At 4,000 ” 60 ” ”
At 5,000 ” 55 ” ”
At 6,000 ” 50 ” ”
These distances represent approximately an angular height of 10 minutes
at all ranges.
The corrector settings likely to give effective points of burst at
various altitudes are with the bar indicator as follows:--
At sea level, or with barometer 30 Corrector 150.
At 1,000 ft. altitude or with barometer 29 ” 144.
At 2,000 ” ” ” 28 ” 138.
At 3,000 ” ” ” 27 ” 132.
At 4,000 ” ” ” 26 ” 126.
4. Alterations in the barometer will affect the corrector setting, the
normal being when the barometer stands at 30. A fall in the barometer
necessitates a decrease, and a rise in the barometer an increase in the
corrector setting.
5. Different corrector settings give different heights of burst. To
raise the point of burst the corrector settings have to be shortened,
and to lower the point of burst the corrector settings have to be
lengthened. The amount of the alteration in the corrector settings
depends upon the range and the amount that it is desired to alter the
point of burst.
By altering the corrector setting from 150 to 140, the fuzes may be
expected to burst as follows:--
At 2,000 yards range 70 yards shorter.
At 3,000 ” ” 100 ”
At 4,000 ” ” 125 ”
At 5,000 ” ” 150 ”
At 6,000 ” ” 175 ”
It will be seen, therefore, that even smaller alterations than 5 in the
corrector settings may be made at long and distant ranges, when it is
desired to alter the point of burst of shell already bursting in the
air. (_See_ Sec. =227= Examples.)
6. Comparing the first and third of the above tables it will be seen
that 150 corrector at 2,000 yards gives bursts approximately 80 yards
short and that an increase or decrease of 10 in the corrector varies
the burst 70 yards. Consequently if it is desired to bring the burst on
to the line of sight (as in time shrapnel ranging), the corrector must
be increased by an amount equal to
80
---- × 10 (_i.e._, 10 for each 70 yards) = 11.
70
7. The following tables show the approximate difference in corrector
settings necessary to effect an alteration in the angular height of
burst at various ranges:--
------+--------------+----------------+-------------+---------------
Range.| 13 and 18-pr.| 4·5-inch Q.F. | 60-pr. B.L. |15-pr. Q.F.
| Q.F. |Howitzer ranging| | and
| | in yards. | |15-pr. B.L.C.
| | All charges. | |
| | “Gun range.” | |
------+--------------+----------------+-------------+---------------
| To raise |To raise height | To raise | To raise
| height | 20 minutes. | height | height
| 10 minutes. | | 15 minutes. | 12½ minutes.
------+--------------+----------------+-------------+---------------
1,000 | | 20 corrector. | |
2,000 | 11 corrector.| 10 ” | | 13 corrector.
3,000 | 7 ” | 6 ” |24 corrector.| 8 ”
4,000 | 5 ” | 4 ” |18 ” | 5 ”
5,000 | 4 ” | 2 ” |12 ” | 4 ”
6,000 | 3 ” | | 9 ” | 3 ”
7,000 | | | 6 ” |
8,000 | | | 5 ” |
9,000 | | | 4 ” |
------+--------------+----------------+-------------+---------------
4·5-inch Q.F. Howitzer.
_Ranging in degrees._
------------------------+---------------------------
Elevation (all charges).|To raise height 20 minutes.
------------------------|---------------------------
5 degrees. | 16 corrector.
10 ” | 10 ”
15 ” | 6 ”
20 ” | 4 ”
25 ” | 3 ”
35 ” | 2 ”
------------------------+---------------------------
Officers should know the figures for the equipment with which their
unit is armed.
8. _Use._--When a corrector is ordered, the fuze scale slider is moved
till the arrow is opposite the required graduation, and clamped. The
fuze for any range can now be read off. For the purpose of recording
the particular range and so avoiding possible error, the sliding
pointer on the top can be moved and set to such range.
Once having found the corrector setting, it is the “corrector setting
for the day,” provided that, if indirect laying is employed, the angle
of sight is correct. If, when finding the corrector setting, the angle
of sight is incorrect, the corrector setting found will be a false one,
being too short if the angle of sight is underestimated, and _vice
versâ_.
9. To obtain the corrector setting, an échelon of three rounds may be
fired, each round at a different corrector setting. When selecting the
échelon of corrector settings an endeavour should be made to choose
such lengths of corrector as will give bursts in air and on graze.
10. Bursts should always be judged with reference to the “_line of
sight_,” otherwise when the target is situated on sloping ground, an
unsuitable length of corrector may be selected, as rounds bursting in
air short of the target below the “_line of sight_” would, with the
same corrector, give bursts on graze when the trajectory passes through
the target.
=114.= _Range tables._
1. Range tables represent the ordinary performance of the gun with
service ammunition under normal conditions. They can, therefore,
only be taken as a guide. With the object of compiling these tables
and of finding out, in a general way, the relative accuracy of the
service ordnance and ammunition, series of rounds are fired at varying
elevations for range and accuracy.
From these series mean ranges and deviations are obtained for each
elevation; the difference of each round from the “_mean_” gives the
“_error_” and the mean of the errors of the series gives an estimate of
the accuracy.
2. The chief causes of inaccuracy, which may exist on the experimental
practice ground, where all the conditions are most favourable, are as
follows:--
i. Want of accuracy in the gun, faulty ammunition, or
unsuitable mounting.
ii. External causes, such as wind, and varying density
of the air.
Errors due to the gun will arise if the twist of rifling is unsuited to
the length of the projectile.
Errors due to the projectiles will arise if their density has not been
distributed in the best manner, or if they are inaccurately centred or
vary in weight.
Errors due to the charge can be reduced to a minimum by using explosive
of the same lot throughout the experiment, and by giving each charge
the same air space to secure uniformity of loading density.
Errors will also arise if the mounting, or the gun on its mounting, is
unsteady when the gun is fired, as this would cause a variable “_jump_”
and consequently a variable angle of departure.
3. The following is an example of one series:--
------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------
No. | Range. |Difference |Deviation|Difference
of | | from | right. | from
round.| | mean. | | mean.
------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------
| yds. | yds. | yds. | yds.
1 | 4,968 | 22·8 | 24·4 | 3·0
2 | 4,954 | 8·8 | 21·6 | 0·2
3 | 4,962 | 16·8 | 22·8 | 1·4
4 | 4,908 | 37·2 | 20·0 | 1·4
5 | 4,934 | 11·2 | 18·4 | 3·0
------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------
| 24,726 | 96·8 | 107·2 | 9·0
+---------+-----------+---------+-----------
Mean | 4,945·2 | 19·4 | 21·4 | 1·8
------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------
The second column in the above table gives the actual ranges. The mean
range is obtained by adding all together and dividing by 5, since 5
rounds were fired.
The third column contains the difference of each round, _irrespective
of sign_, from the mean range just found. The mean of these differences
is then obtained, and called the mean error in range or mean
longitudinal error. Evidently, if all the projectiles fall nearly at
the same range, this mean error must be small.
The fourth column gives the lateral deviation from the direction in
which the axis of the gun points; the mean deviation is at the bottom
of this column. If any shot had fallen to the left, then the deviation
would be reckoned from a line passing through either the extreme right
or the extreme left shot.
The fifth column gives the difference from the mean deviation, with a
mean at the bottom called the mean error in deviation or mean lateral
error.
Collecting the results from the table we have:--
Mean range 4945·2 yards.
Mean longitudinal error 19·4 ”
Mean deviation right 21·4 ”
Mean lateral error 1·8 ”
It can be shown by the theory of probabilities that if each mean error
is multiplied by the factor 1·69, the breadths of zones (of infinite
length), which will contain 50 per cent. of the hits, are obtained.
4. As a result of these and other tests the following information is
embodied in the various columns of the range table.
i. _Elevation and Range._--The angle of elevation in degrees and
minutes is shown for every hundred yards up to the limit of effective
range of the gun.
ii. _Fuze Scale._--The fuze scale column shows the graduation at which
the fuze must be set due to the time of flight for the range shown
on the table. In the range table for the 18-pr. Q.F. we find for a
range of 4,000 yards the fuze graduation is 12·8. As the fuze scales
are compiled for a barometric pressure of 30 inches, this means that
a shell with a fuze set at 12·8 will burst at 4,000 yards from the
gun when fired at the sea level under normal conditions. For various
reasons mentioned in Sec. 112, the fuze scale can only be taken as a
guide.
iii. _Angle of Descent._--The angle of descent is shown either in
degrees and minutes or as a slope.
As a field gun has only one charge, the only way to increase the angle
of descent is to increase the range. With field howitzers varying
charges are used, so that any required angle of descent can be obtained
by a judicious selection of the position of the gun and the charge to
be used.
iv. _Remaining Velocity._--This column shows the actual velocity of the
projectile at any given range.
v. _Five Minutes Alteration of Elevation or Deflection._--These columns
show what alteration in the range or point of impact is caused by an
alteration of 5 minutes in elevation or deflection. The former is
useful in ranging a howitzer battery, and the latter is useful in
calculating the deflection to be given to concentrate the fire of
the guns of a battery on to one point, and also in calculating the
correction required to get parallel lines of fire when using an aiming
point (_See_ Sec. =122=.) Thus, suppose the range to an aiming point
is estimated at 2,800 yards, and the virtual displacement of the gun
16 yards, the displacement difference will be 20 minutes, as the range
table shows that 5 minutes deflection alters the point of impact 4
yards at that range.
vi. _Time of Flight._--Time of flight is shown in seconds.
vii. _Deflection for Drift._--The sights of some howitzers not being
arranged to counteract the drift of the projectile, it is necessary to
give deflection. The amount required at the various angles of elevation
is shown in the table. It is always given to the left.
viii. _Accuracy Tables._--These columns give the length or breadth or
height within which 50 per cent. of rounds should fall and are based
upon actual practice.
_Example._--As an example take the 18-pr. Q.F. gun. At 3,000 yards
the 50 per cent. length is given as 20 yards, and the breadth as 1·44
yards. A series of rounds might fall, as in Fig. 16, round about a
target T. Of these 50 per cent. would be contained between the two
lines AB, CD, 20 yards apart, 10 yards on each side of the centre of
the group. All the rounds should fall within two lines four times that
distance apart, that is 40 yards on each side of the centre of the
group.
Again, of the rounds that fell right and left of the centre of the
group 50 per cent. would be enclosed by the two lines FE, HG, Fig. 17,
1·44 yards apart, and all should be contained by two lines four times
that distance apart.
If now one pair of parallel lines are placed over the other as in Fig.
18, evidently the rectangle enclosed by them will contain 50 per cent.
of 50 per cent., that is 25 per cent. of the total.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
The width of other zones (containing a different percentage of hits)
can be obtained by multiplying the width of the 50 per cent. zone by a
varying factor (_see_ Text Book of Gunnery).
If the target is a vertical one, the figures in the column “_height_”
should be taken, instead of those under “_length_.”
5. It is important to realize the effect of these laws in cases of
ordinary practice, where errors in range are of chief moment. We have
seen that at 3,000 yards, with the 18-pr. Q.F. gun, a series of rounds
would fall within two lines 40 yards on each side of the centre of
the series; therefore a shell falling 39 yards short is within normal
limits of error, but it should be counterbalanced by other shots
falling over.
6. Accuracy of fire is a comparative term; it is said to be good when
a group of projectiles, fired under as nearly as possible the same
conditions, falls close together.
The probable percentage of hits obtainable from an 18-pr. Q.F. on a
shield 4 feet 6 inches high and 5 feet wide, fired under experimental
conditions,
is at 2,000 yards 60 per cent.
2,500 ” 33 ”
3,000 ” 16 ”
3,500 ” 8½ ”
4,000 ” 5 ”
Under service conditions these percentages would be considerably
reduced.
CHAPTER V.
LAYING.
=115.= _General instructions._
1. All guns are so mounted that two motions can be given to the axis
of the gun, viz., motion in a vertical direction, termed elevation,
and motion in a horizontal direction, termed traversing. Elevation
is always given by mechanism, traversing is sometimes carried out by
mechanism and sometimes by hand.
A gun is said to be “_laid_,” when, by elevating and traversing, its
axis is made to point in the required direction.
2. Accuracy and rapidity are the two main factors in good laying.
Accuracy is required against stationary targets, while rapidity becomes
of more importance against large and moving targets.
3. Instruction in laying should be divided into four stages:--
_1st Stage._--Instructional target at close distance, explanation of
terms and rules, &c.
_2nd Stage._--Laying at well-defined natural objects at effective
ranges, and continued at less well-defined objects at long and distant
ranges.
_3rd Stage._--Laying at moving targets. This can be practised by
sending out men, mounted or on foot, to move at the pace and in the
direction desired. In order to check the laying they should be halted
by signal on the word “_fire_.”
_4th Stage._--Indirect laying.
4. The instructional target will be found valuable in teaching the men
of a battery to lay guns correctly and uniformly, as with it personal
errors can be shown, both in elevation and direction, and the practical
rules for correcting errors can be demonstrated.
5. When laying with open sights, in order to obtain uniform results,
one method should be strictly adhered to. The service method of laying
a gun is to direct it so that the centre of the imaginary line joining
the two highest points of the notch of the hind sight, the point of the
fore sight and the target are in line.
The gun should be approximately laid before looking over the sight; the
laying should then be completed by depressing the gun and sights on to
the target so as to avoid any error due to play of the elevating gear.
The distance of the eye from the sight should be the same from round to
round, and all layers of a battery should be trained to keep the eye at
the same distance.
6. After the gunner has attained a thorough knowledge of the sights,
and can lay accurately and rapidly on well-defined targets, he should
be taught to lay on natural objects, such as troops halted and in
motion, hedges, batteries, entrenchments, crest lines, at varying
ranges and under varying conditions of light, background, &c. The
ground line should always be laid on unless orders to the contrary are
given.
=116.= _Direct laying._
1. Direct laying can only be employed when the target is visible over
or through the sights.
2. With 13-pr. and 18-pr. Q.F. field guns the elevating mechanism is
so designed that, after the sights have been directed on the target,
the axis of the gun can be moved independently of the sights, and
inclined in a vertical direction at any angle to the line of sight,
which remains directed on the target. The angle at which the axis of
the gun is inclined to the line of sight, and the range due to it, is
shown on the range indicator on the right side of the gun. With the
independent line of sight, once the sights are laid on the target any
angle of elevation can be given without having to re-lay the gun. To
lay the gun, align the sights, or telescope, on the target, and adjust
the range indicator to the elevation ordered.
With other field guns the sight is set at the elevation ordered, and
the gun is laid by directing the sights or telescope on the target.
3. The advantage of direct laying is that, when the gun is laid, the
correct angle of sight is automatically included, and complications
will not arise in determining the corrector settings or length of fuze.
The disadvantages are the personal error of the layers, and the
difficulties due to light and distance; with the telescopic sight,
slowness, over-laying for direction, and difficulty in picking up the
target.
4. At medium ranges and against moving targets direct laying, or an
aiming point as described in Sec. =120=, should be used, according as
the formation of the ground and local circumstances render advisable.
The telescopic sight is particularly useful against guns in action,
trenches, &c., when great accuracy of line is important.
5. When laying direct the sight clinometer should be set level at the
earliest opportunity. This enables the laying for elevation to be
checked, or a change from direct to indirect laying to be made, should
the target become obscured from any cause.
=117.= _Indirect laying._
1. Indirect laying can be employed whether the target is visible over
the sights or not, and _is the normal method employed in the field_.
If a change from direct to indirect laying is desired, the order
“INDIRECT” must be given, and the layer must immediately pick up an
auxiliary aiming point to lay on for direction.
2. _For elevation._--With sights provided with an adjustable level the
level is set at the angle of sight, and the range indicator or drum
at the elevation ordered. The gun is elevated and depressed until the
bubble is level.
With sights not provided with an adjustable level, or with field
clinometer, the angle of sight is added to the elevation due to the
range, if it is one of elevation, and subtracted if it is one of
depression. The sight or clinometer is set at the elevation ordered,
the gun elevated and then depressed until the bubble is level.
3. The advantages of laying in this way are that the personal error of
the layer is eliminated, and the accuracy of the laying is not affected
by light or distance.
The disadvantage is that, if the angle of sight has not been accurately
measured and allowed for, the range shown on the range indicator or
drum will not be the true range, and complications will arise in
determining the corrector setting or length of fuze.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
In Fig. 19 let T be the target, G the gun (18-pr. Q.F.), T being on a
higher level than G.
If the angle of sight be underestimated, the range on the range
indicator will not be the true range.
Supposing true range GT = 3,900 yards.
” ” angle of sight = 2° 45′ elevation.
Angle of sight ordered = 2° elevation.
It follows that, in order to hit T, the range on the range indicator
must be 3,900 yards + 45 minutes, or about 4,150 yards.
The fuze, however, required will be that for 3,900 yards, but the
battery commander being unaware that he has wrongly estimated the angle
of sight, the fuzes will be set for 4,150 yards with the corrector
ordered, and all grazes may be expected. The corrector setting obtained
will not be a true one for the day, nor will the range be true.
4. _For direction._--Direction is obtained by laying on an aiming
point, or on a line marked by two aiming posts. The method of carrying
this out is described in Sec. =198=.
When indirect laying is used in the open with guns not provided with
the No. 7 Dial Sight, the layer after the gun has been put on the line
by the section commander will pick up an auxiliary aiming point with
his rocking bar sight or over the dial sight to lay on from round to
round. (_See_ Sec. =198=, b, ii.)
=118.= _Angle of sight._
1. The angle of sight can be measured by the sights on the gun, by
the level on the director, or by any other angle of sight instrument.
Considerable care should be taken in making this measurement, as on it
depends the accurate determination of the fuze.
2. When the target is not visible from the guns, or from a position
near the guns, the angle of sight can be found by means of the
following formula:--
[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
(_a_¹ × BO + _a_² × OT),
---------------------------------
BT
where T is the target, B the battery, and O the observer.
_a_¹ is the angle of sight from B to O.
_a_² is the angle of sight from O to T.
Angles of elevation are read as plus. Angles of depression as minus.
The No. 3 director is designed to work out this problem automatically,
excepting when battery, observing station, and target are approximately
in line.
3. When indirect laying is employed, and the sights are provided with
adjustable levels, the battery commander should invariably order the
angle of sight to the battery, both on first coming into action, and on
every subsequent change of target, either by giving out a fresh angle
of sight, or by raising or lowering the old angle of sight (_see_ para.
=4= below).
The battery commander must also order the necessary correction in the
angle of sight to allow for the differences in levels between the guns
or different parts of the target.
4. Any alteration in angle of sight will be effected by the order
“RAISE (OR LOWER) ANGLE OF SIGHT--MINUTES.” When engaging stationary
targets and the correct trajectory has been found, it is unwise to
alter the angle of sight to correct the height of burst.
At moving targets, however, it is better to alter the angle of sight
rather than to vary the corrector, except for small final adjustments.
=119.= _Deflection._
1. During its flight various causes are at work tending to make a
projectile deviate to right or left of its initial direction.
To counteract deviation it is necessary to set the line of sight at an
angle to the axis of the gun in a horizontal direction. This angle is
called “_deflection_.” If the hind sight is moved to the right (called
right deflection) the axis of the gun will point to the right of the
line of sight and the shot will fall more to the right in accordance
with the amount of deflection allowed. Similarly, if the shot is
required to go to the left, left deflection must be given.
2. _Difference in level of wheels._--_See also_ Sec. =106=.
The practical rule for making corrections for difference in level
of wheels with gun carriages having a wheel track of 60 inches or
thereabouts, is: number of inches or degrees difference in level of
wheels × number of degrees of elevation on the range indicator or
tangent sight = number of minutes deflection to be given on the side
of the higher wheel. When possible, it is better to dig in the higher
wheel and level the wheels in this way. This also helps to steady the
carriage and improve the shooting.
3. _Drift_ is the deviation of a projectile, due to rotation, that
occurs in all rifled guns. The deviation is to the right or left
according as the gun has a right or left-hand twist. Drift increases
with the elevation and range of the gun, and is counteracted either
by:--
i. Permanently inclining the sight (15-pr. B.L.C.) or axis
of the trunnions (13 and 18-pr. Q.F.);
ii. The “_set_” of the dial sight (5-inch B.L. Howitzer);
iii. An automatically actuated mechanism in the sight
carrier (4·5-inch Q.F. Howitzer).
4. _Moving targets._--In the case of a target moving across the line of
fire, it may be necessary to give deflection; if so, the following is a
useful guide:--
If the target is moving at a walk give 20′.
” ” ” a trot ” 40′.
” ” ” a gallop ” 1°.
This should be given by the battery commander.
5. _Wind._--The wind, especially at long ranges, causes a shell to
deviate to the right or left. Although the strength of a wind may vary
at different points of the trajectory of a shell, allowance can be
approximately made for it by observing its strength and direction.
A rough estimate of the deflection per thousand yards in the range
necessary to allow for a wind blowing directly across the line of fire
is given below:--
15 minutes when the wind is “Very strong.”
10 ” ” “Strong.”
7 ” ” “Fresh.”
5 ” ” “Moderate.”
In the case of howitzers these amounts should be slightly increased.
These corrections decrease as the direction of the wind approaches the
line of fire.
Practically each minute of deflection on the sight gives a difference
of 1 inch in every 100 yards of range.
6. All officers and N.C.O’s. should know what angles are subtended by
various parts of the hand when placed at arm’s length. Thus:--
Thumb and fingers extended, as in Fig. 21 (about 19 degrees), fist
clenched (8 degrees), first and second fingers extended (6 degrees),
the various knuckles, &c.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
For the purpose of instruction a degree scale calculated for a given
distance and painted on a wall will be found useful.
7. In ordering deflection it must be clearly understood that the
amount ordered is in addition to any deflection that may be already
on the sight, for this reason the word “more” is always to be used.
Thus:--sight has 25′ right deflection; if “10′ more right” be ordered
the sight will be set at 35′ right. Similarly, if “10´ more left” had
been ordered the sight would have been set at 15′ right.
=120.= _Aiming points._[9]
1. Aiming points are conspicuous points capable of easy description
on which the gun sight or dial sight is laid. They are used for two
specific purposes, namely:--
[9] NOTE.--An aiming point must not be confused with a reference point.
(_See_ Sec. =186=.)
i. For obtaining the original lines of fire to a target.
ii. For laying on from round to round.
As regards i. the aiming point should be as distant as possible and,
with a view to reducing the necessary correction for parallelism, as
much in prolongation of the line of guns as practicable.
It should, however, be noted that a well-defined aiming point not in
prolongation of the line of guns is better than an ill-defined one
which is in prolongation, provided that the correction for parallelism
is not forgotten. (_See_ Sec. =122=.)
As regards ii. when the aiming point cannot be laid on from round to
round an auxiliary aiming point must be picked up by the layer.
2. The aiming point or auxiliary aiming points must be made known to
the section commander and No. 1, and to the other numbers at the gun as
opportunity offers.
3. When the lines of fire are laid out by means of an aiming point,
then either two aiming posts can be planted in the line of fire and
laid on over the rocking bar sight, or the aiming point or an auxiliary
aiming point can be laid on through the No. 7 dial sight, or over the
No. 1 dial sight if neither the aiming point nor the auxiliary aiming
point are within the field of the rocking bar sight.
=121.= _Clearing the crest._
When guns are in action under cover the section commanders are
responsible that the shell will clear the crest. Immediately on coming
into action the section commanders must report to the battery commander
the lowest elevation which will clear the crest with zero angle of
sight, if no angle of sight has been ordered. The various methods of
carrying out this operation are fully dealt with in the handbooks of
the guns.
=122.= _Parallelism of lines of fire._
1. =It is very important that the lines of fire of the guns of a
battery should be parallel when first laid out, and every effort should
be made to attain this object.= Its commander will then have a definite
condition from which to make his calculations, and should be able to
switch his guns from one target to another without losing parallelism,
to distribute his fire correctly over a given front, or to concentrate
it on a given point.
2. When the guns of a battery are laid off an aiming point with the
same angle, their lines of fire will not be parallel unless the aiming
point is either at an infinite distance, or in exact prolongation of
the line of guns.
In Fig. 22 A and B are the positions of the flank guns and CD is the
prolongation of the line of guns.
Suppose P is an aiming point which, for simplicity, is taken as the
correct line of fire for the right gun, and is at right angles to the
line of guns.
If AE is drawn parallel to BP, it will represent the line of fire
required for the left gun.
The correction for parallelism for the left gun is consequently
the angle EAP, which is equal to the angle APB, _i.e._, the angle
subtending the front of the battery at the range of the aiming point.
This position of the aiming point, namely, at right angles to the line
of guns, entails the greatest amount of correction for parallelism for
an aiming point at any given distance.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
If the aiming point is in any other position at the same distance, such
as P¹, the angle AP¹ B becomes smaller, as the front of the battery
A¹ B becomes foreshortened when viewed from the aiming point. This
foreshortening continues until the frontage of the battery disappears,
_i.e._, the aiming point is in prolongation of the line of guns, in
which case no correction for parallelism is necessary.
3. The correction necessary to make the line of fire of A parallel to
the line of fire of B varies with the distance BP, and the angle PBD.
The total correction, divided by the number of gun intervals, gives the
amount of distribution or concentration necessary for each gun.
When the aiming point is in front of the line of guns distribution is
required; when in rear the same rule holds good, but concentration is
required.
4. The following table gives angular corrections for each gun interval
for different positions of the aiming point:--
--------------+------------------------------------------------
Angle between | Range to aiming point.
line to aiming|
point and line+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
of guns. |1000ˣ |2000ˣ |3000ˣ |4000ˣ |5000ˣ |6000ˣ |7000ˣ
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
|Mins. |Mins. |Mins. |Mins. |Mins. |Mins. |Mins.
10 degrees. | 10 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5
20 ” | 25 | 10 | 10 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5
30 ” | 35 | 15 | 10 | 10 | 5 | 5 | 5
40 ” | 45 | 20 | 15 | 10 | 10 | 5 | 5
50 to 70 “ | 60 | 30 | 20 | 15 | 10 | 10 | 10
80 ” 90 “ | 70 | 35 | 25 | 20 | 15 | 10 | 10
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
A good rough rule to ascertain the parallelism required is to divide
the angle between the line to the aiming point and the line of guns by
the number of thousands of yards range to the aiming point. The result
is the number of minutes concentration or distribution for each gun.
5. Another method is as follows:--Two guns (preferably the flank guns)
after their sights have been laid on the aiming point at the angle
ordered, may be ordered to lay on each other and report to the battery
leader the angles read. The battery leader then adds them together,
subtracts their sum from 180° and the result divided by the number of
gun intervals gives the distribution or concentration required per gun.
Thus in Fig. 23, supposing No. 1 gun reports “my angle 15°,” and No. 6
gun reports “my angle 160°,” the battery leader knows that 5° is the
total distribution for the battery and that 1° is the distribution per
gun.
=123.= _Displacement._
1. _Single displacement._--When the battery leader is unable to place
his director in or quite near to the line of guns a correction known as
single displacement becomes necessary to compensate for the difference
in the angles between the aiming point and the target, measured at the
director and at the battery respectively.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
This correction is given to all guns in such a way as to bring the
lines of fire towards the director.
In Fig. 24 suppose T is the target, B the battery, D the battery
leader’s director and P the aiming point. If no allowance for
displacement was made the lines of fire would be as much to the left of
the target as B is to the left of D.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
2. A simple rule for calculating the displacement angle is as follows:--
6 Base in yards
---- × -------------------------- = Displacement angle.
10 Range in hundreds of yards
_Example._--Suppose in Fig. 24 the base (BD) is 200ˣ, the range (DT) is
4,000ˣ, and the angle to the aiming point (PDT) is 79°.
6 200
Then the displacement angle = ---- × ----- = 3°,
10 40
and the battery leader would give out the angle “82° (_i.e._, 79 and 3)
Right” to the battery.
If the aiming point had been to the right of the target, the
displacement angle would have been deducted from the battery angle.
3. When it is desired to give the line of fire to the battery leader’s
director, or to the flank gun, from the observing station and the
distance is not enough to warrant the use of the plotter, the above
method of computing the displacement angle will be found useful. (_See_
Sec. =198= (2).)
The battery commander will make the necessary correction before sending
the angle to the gun or director.
4. _Double displacement._--When the observing station is some distance
from the battery, the switch angle measured to a new target will
usually differ from that required at the guns. This difference is known
as _double displacement_.
5. In Fig. 25, suppose B is the battery, D the director, A the original
target, and T the new target.
The angle measured between the original target and the new target at
the director will only coincide with that required at the battery, that
is the angle ADT will only be equal to ABT, when all the four points
happen to be on the circumference of a circle. If T is in any position
such as T¹, outside that circle, the angle at D is less than the angle
at B; if in any position T², inside the circle, the angle at D is
greater than that at B.
6. In practice it is useless to attempt to calculate the difference of
the apex angles at A and T. The most accurate method is to work out
the problem on the plotter as described in Sec. =198=. The difference
between the battery angle and that for the first target will be the
switch angle.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
If the line to the first target has been found otherwise than by the
plotter, and the observing station is some distance from the battery,
the battery leader should measure the battery angle to the first target
as soon as possible, and communicate it to the battery commander.
With this information the battery commander, after working out the new
battery angle, can ascertain the switch angle to order to the guns.
7. If the tactical situation does not admit of this method, or when,
owing to a small difference in range between the two targets, the
displacement is likely to be small, an approximation may be arrived at
as follows:--
Decide whether the line joining the two targets is more foreshortened
to the battery or to your own eye. If the former the switch angle will
be less than that measured, if the latter it will be greater.
8. Another method is to switch over one gun through the estimated angle
to the new target, correct its line by observation of fire, and, when
line is correct, to order parallel lines to that gun.
=124.= _Gun layers and fuze setters._
1. In all batteries of horse, field and heavy artillery, a list
of qualified layers and fuze setters is to be kept by the battery
commander.
2. In order to qualify to be placed on the list of layers, a
non-commissioned officer or gunner is to be examined as described in
“Instructions for Practice.” All serjeants should also be tested in
laying.
3. Every battery should have at least 3 men qualified as layers and
6 men as fuze setters per subsection, exclusive of serjeants. These
should be tested periodically.
Any non-commissioned officer or gunner with good sight should be able
to pass this test.
CHAPTER VI.
MOUNTED DRILL.
=125.= _General instructions._
1. At drill or manœuvre, the sections of a battery are termed “right,”
“centre” or “left,” and the subsections are numbered from 1 to 6 as
they stand in line without reference to any number or letter in use for
administrative purposes. In column they are termed “leading,” “centre,”
and “rear.”
A four-gun battery is organized on similar lines.
At brigade drill batteries are termed “right,” “centre,” and “left,” or
“leading,” “centre,” and “rear,” according to their position in line or
column respectively.
2. The object of drill is to acquire accuracy and flexibility in
carrying out movements necessary for manœuvre.
These movements should be as few and simple as possible, and the
brigade or battery should be trained to execute them with precision and
rapidity in any direction passing over as little ground as possible.
3. When a general order is not distinctly heard by a part of the line,
each commander (when the intention is obvious) will conform as quickly
as possible to this movement.
4. Numbering in line is from right to left; in column from the right of
the head of the column.
The relative position of batteries within a brigade, of sections within
a battery, or of subsections within a section, may be changed at any
time, but sections must not be broken up.
The battery or the section on the right of the line is always, for the
time being, the right battery or section. Line is to be formed in any
required direction with the utmost rapidity possible, without regard
to the original positions which batteries or sections or subsections
within sections, occupied when they were last told off.
5. The command “MARCH,” unless preceded by some other command, means
“Trot.” This does not refer to heavy batteries.
When moving at any pace exceeding a walk, the command “WALK” will
precede by a few seconds the command “HALT.”
Movements and formations will be made on the move unless the order “to
the halt” is given; in the case of formations “to the halt” the base
body advances its own depth before halting.
If a formation be ordered when a battery is on the move the original
pace will be preserved by the base body, while that of each portion
of the remainder will be increased or diminished as may be necessary,
until the formation is completed; but in field and heavy batteries, if
moving at the trot, and the formation is to the head of the column, the
pace of the base body will be reduced to the walk until the formation
is completed, when the trot will be resumed.
6. Horse and field artillery cannot be reversed on its own ground;
when acting with other troops, the battery interval should be allowed
on each flank to enable the subsections to wheel outwards if required.
It is generally advisable in parade movements to remain in rear of any
intended alignment until the other troops are finally formed.
7. When it is intended to increase the front the formation may be to
either or both flanks. If no special order is given the formation will
be outwards, the body which is immediately in rear of the head going to
the right. If it is intended to form on the right or left it must be so
stated.
To pass obstacles, and to facilitate movement, the batteries may
increase or decrease the battery intervals.
_Mountain Artillery._
8. Mountain batteries are organized in two lines for drill and
manœuvre, the firing battery, and 1st line.
The relief mules which form part of the firing battery should be taken
one from each subsection.
At drill and manœuvre the firing battery moves independently of the 1st
line, which, if present, follows some distance in rear and conforms
generally to the movements of the firing battery.
9. Mountain batteries move usually at the walk, and the command “MARCH”
means walk, unless some other pace is ordered. A pace of four miles an
hour should be maintained on level ground.
A distance of one yard between mules, measured from nose to croup, is
always maintained on a good road.
Batteries should also be able to move some distance at a slow trot and
should be trained accordingly.
10. To reverse or take ground.--Every animal is at once turned about,
or to the right or left, as ordered, the gun detachments moving round
with the mules and maintaining their position relative to them. As a
general rule mules are reversed to the left.
In executing a movement to a flank, the half wheel of subsections is to
be preferred.
11. In the detail of drill movements contained in sections, the
instructions are generally applicable to mountain batteries with the
following modifications:--
i. All reference to the movement of wagons of field
artillery may be neglected.
ii. Where the incline of subsections or carriages is ordered
for a field battery, the movement will be executed by
the half wheel of subsections except for diminishing or
increasing intervals in line. Where a formation into
line or column is effected in field artillery by one
part of the battery increasing its pace, in mountain
artillery that part of the battery makes no change, but the
remainder of the battery checks its pace.
=126.= _Falling in for parade._
1. The men of each subsection will fall in on foot in front of their
own stables, where they will be inspected by their Nos. 1, and the
reports made to the battery serjeant-major. The drivers and mounted men
of each subsection will then be marched into stables ready to turn out
when ordered, and the dismounted men marched to the gun park.
2. The teams will be inspected by the Nos. 1 before they proceed to
the gun park. When ordered to turn out, the subsections are formed up,
mounted in front of their stables, marched to the gun park and hooked
in. Teams should not be hooked in until shortly before the hour for
parade.
3. Each section will also be inspected by its section commander, whose
duty it is to see that every man, animal, and carriage is properly
equipped, that each gun is in working order, the buffer filled and the
bore clear.
He should then dismount drivers and detachments and make his report to
the captain.
If a section is without an officer, the senior non-commissioned officer
of that section takes his place and commands it.
4. When bare charges are carried and when the cartridge is contained in
a case which is not attached to the shell, all drill ammunition will be
left in barracks or camp.
_Mountain Artillery._
5. When ordered to turn out, the drivers will turn out with their mules
by subsections and be marched to the gun park, where they will form up
behind the guns in the position for action.
Mules will not be loaded or the girths tightened till the last possible
moment.
=127.= _Intervals and distances._
1. Intervals are measured from No. 1 to No. 1 when limbered up, from
muzzle to muzzle when in action, and from knee to knee between files.
Between files 6 inches.
Open files 2 yards.
Half extended files 4 ”
Extended files 8 ”
Close interval between subsections 4 ”
” ” ” heavy batteries 6 ”
Half interval between subsections 10 ”
” ” ” heavy batteries 12 ”
Full interval between subsections 20 ”
” ” ” heavy batteries 25 ”
Battery intervals--
Between batteries at full intervals 25 ”
” ” close ” 10 ”
Intervals--
between brigades 25 ”
” artillery and other troops 25 ”
2. Distances are measured between animals from tail to head, between
carriages from rear end of carriages to head of the following team, and
between the units of a column or Échelon from No. 1 to No. 1, except
when otherwise stated:--
Between ranks half a horse-length (4 feet).
Battery column, column or
échelon of sections 40 yards.
Column or échelon of sections,
heavy batteries 50 ”
Column of batteries 125 ”
” ” heavy batteries 100 ”
Short échelon of sections or
batteries 20 ”
Short échelon of section or
batteries, heavy batteries 25 ”
Quarter column of batteries 12 ” between carriages
and lead horses’ heads.
” ” sections 6 ” ” ” ”
Column of route 4 ” ” ” ”
Between brigades and larger bodies
in column of route 20 ” ” ” ”
Between batteries in column of route 10 ” ” ” ”
Column or échelon of sections
of mountain batteries 100 ” ” ” ”
=128.= _Frontages and depths._
1. The frontage at full interval of a horse, field or mountain battery
(6 guns) may be taken to be 100 yards, and that of a heavy battery 75
yards.
2. The depth in column of route of a horse battery with detachments on
a flank, or of a field battery, is obtained by allowing 20 yards for
each carriage with an allowance for the headquarters. Horse artillery
with detachments front or rear requires an extra 8 yards for each
detachment; if the detachments are in files, 4 yards must be allowed
for every two horses in the detachment.
The road spaces occupied by batteries in column of route are as
follows:--
A horse artillery battery (6 guns and 12 wagons):--
With detachments right or left of the guns 390 yards.
” ” front or rear 440 ”
” ” in files 490 ”
A field battery (with 6 guns and 12 wagons) 390 ”
A heavy battery (with 8 wagons) 340 ”
The depth of a mountain battery, in column of route, is obtained by
allowing 3 yards for each mule or pony, and adding 25 yards for Nos. 1,
coverers, range-takers and signallers.
=129.= _Posts of officers, N.C.Os., &c._
1. The positions assigned to the brigade and battery commanders are
those to be taken up when the formation is completed; while it is in
progress their posts are wherever they can best superintend and be seen
and heard by their commands.
In order to carry out this principle effectually, commanders of
batteries and brigades should not remain too close to their commands.
When moving in line, or in line of battery columns, their normal
position is in front of the centre.
In quarter column formations officers (other than those in front) and
serrefiles take half distance.
2. BRIGADE COMMANDER. _In line._--In the centre, two horse-lengths in
front of battery commanders.
_On other occasions._--In the best place from which he can command the
brigade.
3. BATTERY COMMANDER. _In line._--One horse-length in front of the
centre of the line of section commanders.
_In column or quarter column of batteries._--One horse-length in front
of, and three from the directing flank of, the battery.
_In all other formations._--In front of the battery.
4. CAPTAIN. _In line._--One horse-length in rear of the centre of the
serrefile rank.
_In column of batteries._--As in line.
_In quarter column of batteries, full or close interval._--Half a
horse-length on the outer flank of the battery, in line with the front
rank or gun leaders.
_In battery column._--Three horse-lengths on the right flank of the
centre of the battery.
_In column of subsections and column of route._--One horse-length in
rear of the rear carriage.
5. SECTION COMMANDER. _In line._--One horse-length in front of the
centre of his section.
_In battery column or quarter column._--The leading section commander
as in line, the remainder in centre of sections in line with front rank
or gun leaders.
_In column of subsections and column of route._--Where he can best
command his section.
6. OBSERVATION OFFICER (HEAVY BATTERIES).--With the observation party.
7. ADJUTANT.--The adjutant will, as a rule, accompany the brigade
commander and assist him as required.
When a formation is completed he will place himself as follows:--
_In line._--On the right flank of the brigade, one horse-length from
and in line with the front rank or gun leaders.
_In column and échelon._--Three horse-lengths on the right flank of the
leading battery in line with the front rank or gun leaders.
8. BRIGADE SERJEANT-MAJOR. _In line, in column, and in
échelon._--Covering the adjutant at one horse-length distance.
9. BRIGADE TRUMPETER.--With brigade commander.
10. BATTERY STAFF-SERJEANTS. _In line and in column of batteries._--One
horse-length in rear of the flank subsections; the serjeant-major on
the right.
_In quarter column of batteries, full and close interval._--As in line,
but half a horse-length in rear.
_In battery column._--The serjeant-major and the
quarter-master-serjeant in the centre of the leading and rear section
respectively in line with the gun axles. In mountain artillery as for
line.
_In column of subsections and in column of route._--The serjeant-major
on the off side of the leading gun in line with the leaders (in column
of route, with the battery commander); the quarter-master-serjeant one
horse-length in rear of the rear carriage in line with and on the left
of the captain.
11. SERJEANT-FARRIER AND MOUNTED SHOEING-SMITH. _In line._--The
farrier, one horse-length in rear of No. 2 subsection, and the
shoeing-smith (saddler in a British mountain battery) the same distance
in rear of No. 5.
_In quarter column of batteries, full and close interval._--As in line,
but half a horse-length in rear.
_In battery column._--One horse-length in rear of the rear carriages,
the farrier in rear of that on the right. In mountain artillery as for
line.
_In column of subsections and in column of route._--One horse-length
in rear of the captain and quartermaster-serjeant, except in mountain
artillery, where they will be in single file, farrier leading.
12. TRUMPETERS.--One with the battery commander, the other with the
captain.
13. NOS. 1.--Of horse artillery, on the left of the lead driver of the
gun or with their detachments. (_See_ Sec. =134= (2).)
Of field artillery, on the left of their gun leaders.
Of mountain and heavy artillery at drill and manœuvre in front of their
subsections.
14. COVERERS.--On the left of their wagon leaders (of heavy artillery
in front).
15. PATROL, RANGE-TAKERS, SIGNALLERS, AND OBSERVERS.--_In line._--In
line one horse-length in rear of the centre of the battery from right
to left in the order named; at open files when the battery is at full
or half interval; at close files when it is at close interval.
In mountain artillery these men are dismounted and form in single rank
one pace in rear of the centre of the battery.
_In column of subsections and column of route._--In a column of parties
from front to rear in the order named; the men of each party abreast
of one another, and the rear party one horse-length in front of the
leading section commanders.
_In battery column or quarter column._--In column as above, one
horse-length on the right flank of the centre of the battery.
_In quarter column of batteries full or close interval._--As in line,
but at half a horse-length distance.
16. SPARE HORSES. _In line._--In the serrefile rank in rear of the
centre of their sections, those of the centre section on the left of
the line of patrols, range-takers, &c.
_In quarter column of batteries, full or close interval._--One
horse-length in rear of the rear battery. Those of the leading battery
on the right, and those of the rear battery on the left.
_Mountain artillery._
17. SENIOR DRIVER N.C.O. _of British Mountain Batteries_, (Driver
Havildar Major).
_In line._--One pace in rear of the pioneer mule of the right section.
_In action._--He is in charge of the firing battery mules.
18. PIONEER MULES. In column of route and subsections.--Leading their
section.
_On all other occasions._--In the centre of the section, in line with
the second ammunition mule.
Two gunners, or one only if short-handed, per subsection are detailed
as pioneers, and walk alongside the pioneer mules in the order of march.
19. RELIEF MULES WITH FIRING BATTERY. _In line._--Distributed in rear
of the 2nd ammunition mules.
_In battery column and in column of subsections._--Following in rear of
the firing battery.
_In column of route._--With their subsections.
20. WHEEL AND AXLE MULE. (10-pr. B.L. equipment only.) _In line and
battery column._--One yard in rear of the pioneer mule of the centre
section.
_In column of subsections._--One yard in rear of the last mule of the
relief mules with the firing battery.
_In column of route._--The last of the firing battery mules of its
subsection.
_Indian mountain batteries._
21. INDIAN OFFICERS. _In line at close order and in battery
column._--One horse-length in rear of the centre of firing battery of
their sections.
_At drill and in action._--Two native officers assist the captain, the
third is with the battery commander.
_On all other occasions._--On the outer flank of and near the rear of
their sections.
22. BATTERY STAFF-SERJEANTS.--The havildar-major and
quartermaster-havildar as for the battery serjeant-major and battery
quartermaster-serjeant, but at one pace instead of a horse-length
distance.
23. PAY HAVILDAR.--_In line_ in rear of No. 3 subsection.
_In battery column._--In rear of right subsection of centre section.
_In column of subsections and column of route._--In front of the
quartermaster-havildar.
=130.= _Commands and signals._
1. Orders may be given:--
i. By word of command.
ii. By signal.
iii. By trumpet sound.
_Words of command._
2. Direct word of command is not suitable for any larger body at the
halt than a brigade, or on the move than a battery.
3. All words of command should be given in a firm and explicit manner,
and loud enough to be heard by all concerned. The executive part of the
command must be clearly distinguished from the preparatory part, and
must not follow it too quickly. =Commands will be accompanied by the
corresponding signals.=
4. Battery commanders repeat the brigade whistle and then give their
own executive word or signal.
Section commanders, as a rule, command by signal, and give orders by
word of mouth only in case of necessity.
Nos. 1 do not repeat commands or signals.
The leader of every unit is responsible that the command is passed on
correctly to the next leader.
_Signals._
5. The following signals are to be employed to represent the words of
command mentioned:--
_Signal._ | _To Indicate._
|
i. Arm swung from rear to front |“_Advance_,” _or_ “_Forward_,”
below the shoulder, finishing with| or “_Commence movement_.”
the hand pointing to the front. |
|
ii. Arm circled above the head. | “_Retire_,” or “_Subsections_
| --_Right about wheel_.”
| (In mountain batteries)
| “_Left reverse_.”
|
iii. Hand raised in line with the | “_Walk_,” or “_Quick-time_.”
shoulder, elbow bent, and |
close to the side. |
iv. Clenched hand moved up and |“_Trot_” or “_Double_.”
down between thigh and shoulder.|
|
v. Circular movement of hand below |“_Gallop_.”
the shoulder in a vertical plane.|
|
vi. Arm raised at full extent above |“_Halt_.”
the head. |
|
vii. Body or horse turned in the |“_Incline_.”
required direction and arm extended|
in a line with the shoulder. |
|
viii. Clenched hand brought to the |“_Right_ (or _left_) _take_
shoulder, and the arm then extended|_ground_.”
sharply in the required direction |
two or three times. |
|
ix. Circular movement of extended |“_Shoulders_,” or
arm in line with the shoulder in |“_Wheel_.”
the required direction. |
|
x. Arm waved from above the head |“_Sections right_ (or _left_)
to a position in line with the |_wheel_.”
shoulder, pointing in the required|
direction. |
|
xi. Arm waved horizontally from right|1. “_Form line_” from
to left and back again as though |battery column or line
cutting with a sword, finishing with |of battery columns or mass.
the delivery of a point to the front.|
|
|2. “_Form mass_” from
|line, column of route
|or column of sections.
|
|3. “_Advance in battery_
|_column_” (for a single
|battery in line) or
|“_Advance in mass_”
|(from brigade in line).
xii. Two or three slight movements |“_Form line_” from échelon.
of the open hand, palm to the |
front (arm extended, hand waist |
high) denoting a forward movement |
looking to each flank in turn. |
|
xiii. As above, but arm to the rear, |“_Form échelon_” from line.
denoting a backward movement. |
|
xiv. Two or three slight movements of|“_Dismount_” or “_Lie down_.”
the open hand towards the ground. |
|
xv. Two or three slight movements |“_Mount_.”
with the open hand upwards (palm up).|
|
xvi. Arm raised as for “_Halt_” |“_Action_.”
and then pointed to the ground. |
|
xvii. Weapon held up above and as if |“_Enemy in sight in
guarding the head. |small numbers_.”
|
xviii. As in xvii, but weapon |“_Enemy in sight in_
raised and lowered frequently. |_large numbers_.”
|
xix. Weapon held up at full extent of|“_No enemy in sight_.”
arm, point of muzzle uppermost. |
Signals for formations from line also apply to échelon.
For signals to first line wagons in action, _see_ Sec. =201=.
6. Officers giving signals should, as far as possible, face the same
way as those to whom the signals are made, but when a signal ordering a
change of direction is made, the body or horse should be turned in the
required direction.
All signals should be made with whichever arm will show most clearly
what is meant.
In order to ensure uniformity in the system of giving signals, they
must be practised in the riding school.
7. Signals of position, such as “_Halt_” or “_Incline_,” should be
maintained. Signals of movement, such as “_Advance_” or “_Shoulders_,”
should be repeated until it is clear that they are understood.
8. The whistle (_see also_ Sec. =201=) will be used:--
i. By brigade and battery commanders to draw attention to a signal
about to be made--a short blast. The whistle must not be used when
approaching guns or infantry already in action.
ii. To turn out troops from bivouac or camp to fall in or to occupy
previously arranged positions--a succession of alternate long and short
blasts.
When a battery is manœuvring as part of a brigade, the battery
commander will only repeat the brigade commander’s whistle, to whom he
will look for his signal.
Section commanders will wait for their battery commander’s whistle and
act on his signals, not on those of the brigade commander.
_Field calls._
9. The following field calls should be understood, and such as are
applicable maybe used _see_ (Trumpet and Bugle Sounds for the Army):--
“Forward” _or_ “advance.”
“Walk.”
“Trot.”
“Gallop.”
“Charge.”
“March.”
“Halt.”
“Annul,” _or_ “As you were.”
“Troops, half-right.”
“Troops, half-left.”
“Form line.”
“Retire” or “Troops right (or left) about wheel,”
or (for artillery) “Subsections--Right about wheel.”
“Squadron columns.”
“Head of column change direction, half-right.”
“Head of column change direction, half-left.”
“Pursue.”
“Rally,” _or_ “Close.”
“Mass.”
“March at ease,” _or_ “Sit at ease.”
“Attention.”
“Stand to your horses.”
“Prepare to mount, or dismount.”
“Mount.”
“Dismount.”
=131.= _Leading and dressing._
1. To preserve uniformity of movement, men and horses must be trained
to maintain the regular pace of trot and gallop.
For the same reason the trot and gallop must commence simultaneously
throughout the battery.
As large bodies cannot move in perfect order as rapidly as smaller
bodies, the leader must regulate the pace accordingly.
2. The “_battery leader_” is the officer personally leading and
controlling the movements of the battery. He should be well to the
front.
Should the battery commander for any reason temporarily cease to act as
battery leader, his place will be taken by the senior section commander.
3. The “_battery guide_” is the commander of the directing section,
which is the second from the right (or in column and échelon the
leading section). He is responsible for the direction and pace of the
battery, following and conforming to the movements of the battery
leader.
The other sections will keep their relative positions from the
directing section.
4. Similarly in brigade the officer personally leading is the “_brigade
leader_,” and the battery leader of the second battery from the right
the “_brigade guide_.” A line of columns is considered a line in all
matters connected with dressing.
In échelon or column movements the battery leader of the leading
battery is the brigade guide.
=132.= _Wheeling._
1. When wheeling, dressing is to the opposite flank to that to which
the wheel is made. This flank regulates the pace at which the wheel is
made, care being taken that the correct interval is preserved from the
pivot.
2. To wheel half or quarter, right or left, the word of command is
“HALF (or QUARTER), RIGHT (or LEFT).” If it is required to complete the
wheel to the full quarter circle, after having wheeled half right or
half left, the command is “RIGHT (or LEFT).” When a definite degree of
wheel has been ordered no further command is required, the battery or
brigade guide being responsible for taking up the proper direction at
the conclusion of the wheel ordered.
3. In throwing shoulders forward both flanks are kept in motion, the
pivot describing part of a circle, and the outer flank and intermediate
subsections by a compound of inclining and wheeling, conforming to the
pivot movements. To perform wheels on this principle the command is
“RIGHT (or LEFT) SHOULDERS,” followed by “FORWARD” when the required
degree of wheel has been attained.
4. In small changes of direction (which are usually done by
shouldering) the battery leader takes the new direction and the battery
guide conforms. When a wheel amounts to a quarter of a circle or nearly
so, the battery leader must give the signal to wheel and if desired
the word of command and place himself in front of where the centre of
the battery will be when the wheel is completed. He gives the signal
“FORWARD” and moves in the new direction as soon as the battery is
facing in the required direction.
5. If it is desired to move the line or column consisting of guns and
wagons to a flank, the command is “RIGHT (or LEFT) TAKE GROUND,” upon
which each carriage wheels at once to the flank named. To move each
carriage to the rear the command is “RIGHT REVERSE,” upon which each
carriage wheels about to the right.
When horse artillery receive the command “RIGHT (or LEFT) TAKE GROUND,
or RIGHT (or LEFT) REVERSE,” if the detachments are in front or rear of
their guns they wheel right, left, or about on their own ground.
=133.= _Markers._
1. The duties of markers will be restricted at drill to indicating the
points for the assembly and formation of the battery or brigade for
rendezvous.
2. The markers for a battery are the battery serjeant-major and battery
quartermaster-serjeant, who are termed respectively the right and left
markers. Battery markers mark for the points nearest to their positions
in the original formation. They are placed and dressed by the captain.
3. The markers for a brigade are the brigade serjeant-major and the
right marker of each battery. They are termed the brigade and battery
markers respectively. They are placed and dressed by the adjutant.
4. On the command “MARKERS” being given they move to their places, are
dressed by the officer in charge of them, and when dressed receive the
word “STEADY” from him. When the formation is completed he gives the
command “EYES FRONT” and the markers fall in.
5. When marking for line, markers face the new alignment, their horses’
heads 6 inches from it, battery markers opposite the points where the
horses of the Nos. 1 of the flank subsections will be, and the brigade
marker in line with, and 1 yard outside, the flank marker on the
directing flank.
6. When marking for column of batteries, each marker should place
himself 1 yard to the left of the spot where the No. 1 of the
subsection for which he is marking will rest when the formation is
completed, and should face the front. The brigade marker faces the
marker on the directing flank of the leading battery; the adjutant
places himself behind the brigade marker and corrects the covering.
Markers are not required for a single battery in battery column.
A line of columns is considered a line in all matters connected with
marking.
=134.= _The battery of horse artillery._
1. The number of men required for the service of each gun is 11, of
whom 9 are mounted. In addition a man is required with each section as
section commander’s horseholder. He is numbered 12, and falls in on the
right of the detachment of the left subsection of his section, except
in column of route, when he rides with the leading subsection of his
section.
2. The senior N.C. officer of each detachment is the No. 1 in charge
of the gun, and rides on the left of the lead driver of the gun,
except in the case of “_detachment front_” when he is on the right of
the detachment. The next senior is No. 7 the coverer in charge of the
wagons, who rides on the left of the lead driver of the firing battery
wagon. Having taken this wagon into action he returns with the team
or limber to the selected position and is employed in the supply of
ammunition as the commander of the wagon line may direct. Nos. 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6 are active numbers (_see_ Handbook); Nos. 10 and 11 are
horseholders and hold the horses of the active numbers, except those
of 1 and 6 which are held by the centre driver of the gun and wagon
respectively. Nos. 8 and 9 are dismounted men and are carried on the
first line wagon. The horses of the battery commander and of the man,
who works the director, are held by the first trumpeter.
3. A section of horse artillery, with full detachments, is shown in
Fig. 26 (the shaded figures representing the horses of active numbers).
In cases of reduced detachments Nos. 6, 5, 10 are omitted in succession.
4. A battery forms for drill and manœuvre as above. Detachments one
horse-length on the right of and in line with the gun muzzles. This
formation is termed “Detachments right rear.” Lead horses of the firing
battery wagons one horse-length on the left of and in line with the gun
muzzles.
5. To decrease the front of the subsection the following formations may
be adopted:--
Detachments { Lead horses of guns one horse-length
front. { in rear of the detachments covering
{ the centre.
Detachments { Detachments one horse-length in rear
rear. { of and covering the guns.
In each case the firing battery wagons will cover the gun or detachment
at a distance of four yards.
The front may be still further reduced by advancing from the right or
left of detachments by files.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
6. _To dismount and mount detachments, in line,_
_close interval, guns rear._
{ At the caution, the front rank advances
PREPARE TO { one horse-length and halts; the odd
DISMOUNT--DISMOUNT. { numbers, both of front and rear ranks,
{ advance one horse-length,and at the word
{ “_Dismount_,” the whole dismount together.
{ After mounting, the odd numbers of both
{ front and rear ranks rein back and dress
{ on the even numbers. The front rank then
PREPARE TO { reins back one horse-length and halts.
MOUNT--MOUNT. {
{ If this is required to be done with
{ “detachments left” at close interval, the
{ detachments must be advanced one
{ horse-length in front of the guns, and
{ then dismounted, as laid down above.
=135.= _The field battery._
1. The number of men required for the service of each nature of gun
is given in the handbooks. No. 1 is the senior; and the coverers, who
are the next senior, are mounted non-commissioned officers. Nos. 1
ride on the left of the lead drivers of their guns and the coverers
will occupy a similar position as regards the wagons of the firing
battery, will take them into action, and will return with the teams
to the first line wagons. They will subsequently be employed for the
supply of ammunition, as the commander of the wagon line may direct.
The positions of the other numbers of the detachment are given in the
handbook of the gun.
2. In action the horses of officers and non-commissioned officers are
held as follows. (_See_ Fig. 29, p. 306.)
i. Battery commander’s and that of the man who works the
director by the 1st trumpeter;
ii. Captain’s by the 2nd trumpeter.
iii. Battery leader’s or that of the officer accompanying
the battery commander, by an orderly.
iv. Battery serjeant-major’s by one of the battery
headquarters.
v. Section commander’s by the lead drivers of right
subsections.
vi. Nos. 1 by their centre drivers.
=136.= _The mountain battery._
1. The number of men required for the service of each gun is given in
the handbook. No. 1 is the senior and leads his subsection, walking in
front of the leading mule. The gunners walk alongside the mules in the
order shown in the handbook. In bad or hilly ground they help the mules
whenever necessary.
2. A N.C.O. is detailed to be in charge of and lead the 1st line mules
of each subsection, and will be employed in the supply of ammunition.
3. In action the horses of the battery commander and battery
serjeant-major are taken by the 1st trumpeter, that of the captain by
the 2nd trumpeter, and those of the section commanders by a N.C.O. or
driver of their right subsection.
=137.= _The heavy battery._
1. The number of men required for the service of each gun is given in
the handbooks. The senior N.C.O. is called the No. 1, and the next
senior, the coverer. The No. 1 is in charge of the gun, and the coverer
in charge of the wagon.
2. In action the horses of officers and non-commissioned officers are
held as follows:--
i. Battery commander’s and serjeant-major’s by the 1st trumpeter.
ii. Captain’s by the 2nd trumpeter.
iii. Section commander’s by a man detailed for the purpose.
=138.= _Battery drill._
i. The formations of a battery are:--
i. Line.
ii. Échelon or short échelon.
iii. Battery column.
iv. Battery quarter column.
v. Column of subsections.
vi. Column of route.
------------------+-------------------------------------------------
2. _From_ | The battery leader moves in the required
_line to |direction. The battery guide follows preserving
_advance._ |smooth and uniform pace. The remaining
|section commanders dress by the battery
|guide and keep section interval from him, but
|without constantly fixing their attention on him.
|
MARCH. | The Nos. 1 keep correct interval and distance
|from the section commanders. If
|obstacles are met section commanders lead
|their sections round them, or direct individual
|guns to evade them.
------------------+-------------------------------------------------
3. _From line to_ |
_advance in_ |
_échelon or short_|
_échelon._ |
|
ADVANCE IN | The named section advances, the others
ÉCHELON (_or_ |follow at the distance ordered.
SHORT ÉCHELON) |
FROM THE RIGHT |
(CENTRE _or_ |
LEFT)--MARCH. |
------------------+-------------------------------------------------
4. _From line to_ |
_retire._ |
|
i. SUBSECTIONS | Wagons and serrefiles follow their gun
RIGHT ABOUT |round.
WHEEL--MARCH. |
+-------------------------------------------------
ii. RIGHT | Each carriage wheels to the right about and
REVERSE--MARCH.|follows in rear of the serrefiles, who turn about
|on their own ground.
|
|_Note._--If it is required to make the rear
|the front the order is “GUNS FRONT, SERREFILES
|REAR.”
------------------+-------------------------------------------------
_Note._--The retirement of a mountain battery at full and half interval
is usually carried out by the order “LEFT REVERSE--MARCH.”
Nos. 1 and serrefiles turn about on their own ground.
On the order “GUNS FRONT, SERREFILES REAR,” the leading mules step
short, and the axle mules move to the front by inclining to the right,
followed by the others in succession from the rear.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
5. _From line_ | The odd subsections advance at the pace
_to retire_ |ordered while the even subsections check the
_when at half_ |pace. When the odd subsections are clear of
_interval._ |the even subsections the battery commander
|orders “SUBSECTION RIGHT ABOUT WHEEL,”
|and when the subsections are all in line again
THE BATTERY | The original pace is taken up.
WILL RETIRE--MARCH. |
|
|_Note._--A line may reverse when at half
|interval in a similar manner.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
6. _From line_ | All the section commanders turn half right
_to incline._ |(or left) while the lead drivers of all the
|carriages wheel their horses half right (or
i. RIGHT |left), and all move off in the new direction.
(_or_ LEFT) |The lines of the section commanders, guns and
INCLINE--MARCH. |wagons remain parallel. To resume the original
|direction the order is “FORWARD.” In horse
|artillery the detachments preserve their
|positions relative to their guns.
|
| In a mountain battery the incline is
|executed by every man and animal turning
|half right (or left) on his own ground and
|moving in the new direction.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
ii. SUBSECTIONS HALF | In this case, the wagons follow the guns
RIGHT (_or_ LEFT)|instead of inclining independently. all resume
--MARCH. |the original direction on the command
|“SUBSECTIONS HALF LEFT (or RIGHT).”
|
| Inclining should only be done for short
|distances.
|
| In a mountain battery each subsection
|follows its No. 1, who turns half right
|(or left) as ordered.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
7. _From line_ |
_to take_ | Each carriage wheels at once. Officers, &c.,
_ground to_ |move to their places in column.
_a flank._ |
| In a mountain battery every animal is at
RIGHT (_or_ |once turned to the right (or left) as ordered,
LEFT) TAKE |Nos. 1 and serrefiles turn on their own
GROUND--MARCH. |ground. The dressing is towards the axle
|mules.
---------------------+--------------------------------------------
8. _From line_ | The closing or opening is done upon the
_to diminish_ |battery guide. He moves straight forward,
_or increase |while the other section commanders and the
the intervals._ |carriages incline inwards or outwards, and
|when at the required interval, move forward
|in succession. When all are in their places,
HALF |the trot is resumed by order of the battery
(CLOSE _or_ FULL) |leader.
INTERVAL--MARCH. |
| Should it be required to diminish or increase
|the intervals without advancing the battery,
|the battery guide stands fast, the carriages
|reverse, move inwards or outwards, and form
|up to the halt at the required interval.
|
| Should the battery commander desire it, he
|may order the formation on any section or
|subsection, when his command will be “HALF
|(CLOSE or FULL) INTERVAL ON THE RIGHT (or
|LEFT) SECTION (or No. ).”
---------------------+--------------------------------------------
9. _From line_ | The subsection on the named flank (or, in
_to advance_ |the case of an advance from the centre, the
(_or retire_) |right subsection of the centre section) moves
_in column_ |forward, the section commander placing himself
_of route._ |in front. The remaining subsections
|incline to their right or left, checking the
|pace as required, and turn forward in
|succession when in rear of the head of the
|column.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
ADVANCE IN | In advancing from the centre, the left
COLUMN OF |subsection of the centre section follows the
ROUTE FROM |right subsection, then those of the right
THE RIGHT |section.
(LEFT _or_ CENTRE) | A retirement is carried out in a similar
--MARCH. |manner, the command being, “RETIRE IN
|COLUMN OF ROUTE FROM THE RIGHT (LEFT, or
|CENTRE)--MARCH.” The subsections wheel
|about and proceed as before.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
10. _From_ |
_line to_ | This is carried out in a similar manner to
_advance_ |the previous movements, except that on
(_or retire_) |leaving the alignment the wagons move up
_in column_ |as ordered on the right or left of their guns
_of subsections._ |at 20 yards interval.
|
ADVANCE IN | The command for a retirement is “RETIRE
COLUMN OF |IN COLUMN OF SUBSECTIONS FROM THE RIGHT
SUBSECTIONS |(LEFT, OR CENTRE)--WAGONS RIGHT (OR LEFT)
FROM THE |--MARCH.”
RIGHT (LEFT | In mountain artillery the advance or
_or_ CENTRE)-- |retirement in column of subsections is done in
WAGONS RIGHT (_or_ |a similar way, the firing battery mules of
LEFT)--MARCH. |subsections following each other in succession,
|and the 1st line, when this is on parade,
|moving in the same order in rear.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
11. _From_ | The advance unless otherwise ordered is
_line to_ |always from the centre or directing section.
_advance in_ |The centre section advances straight to its
_battery column._ |front. The right section inclines to its
|left and follows immediately in rear of the
|centre section, checking the pace as required
ADVANCE IN |to do so. similarly the left section inclines
BATTERY |to its right and follows the right section.
COLUMN (_or_ | The wagons of 3 and 2 disengage and move
FROM THE |forward at an increased pace so as to allow
RIGHT _or_ |the guns of the right and left sections to get
LEFT)--MARCH. |into their places without checking. This done
|they drop back again.
|
| To advance in battery column from a flank
|the named section advances, followed by the
|remainder in succession.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
12. _From_ |
_line to_ |
_retire in_ | After the subsections have wheeled about
_battery column._ |the movement is carried out as in para. 11,
|the section is now on the right following the
|centre section.
RETIRE IN |
BATTERY |_Note._--In mountain artillery the retirement
COLUMN--SUBSECTIONS |in battery column may be done similarly by
ABOUT |reversing, the order being “RETIRE IN BATTERY
WHEEL--MARCH. |COLUMN--LEFT REVERSE--MARCH,” and the
|movement is carried out as above when the
|reversing is completed.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
13. _From_ | The rear subsections of sections incline to
_column_ |their right and move up at the prescribed
_of route_ |interval on the right of those in front.
_to form_ |
_battery | If the order “ON THE LEFT FORM BATTERY
_column._ |COLUMN” is given, the rear subsections form
|in a similar manner on the left of those in
|front.
|
FORM | In mountain artillery battery column is
BATTERY |formed from column of subsections in the
COLUMN--MARCH. |same way.
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
14. _From_ |
_battery_ | The right (or left) subsection of the leading
_column_ |section moves straight to the front, the other
_to advance_ |inclines and follows.
_in column_ |
_of route._ | The rear section acts similarly, checking
|the pace until there is room for them to move
ADVANCE IN |forward.
COLUMN OF |
ROUTE FROM |In mountain artillery an advance in column
THE RIGHT |of subsections is similarly carried out.
(_or_ LEFT)-- |
MARCH. |
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
15. _From_ |
_battery_ | The wagons incline to the left and move
_column_ |up on the left of their guns at close interval.
_to form_ |The sections close up to quarter column
_battery_ |distance.
_quarter_ |
_column._ | Should it be desired, the wagons can be
|brought on the right or at half interval by
FORM |the command “WAGONS RIGHT,” or “WAGONS
QUARTER |HALF INTERVAL.”
COLUMN--MARCH. |
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
16. _From_ |
_battery column_ | The leading section follows the battery
_to form line._ |guide.
|
| The centre and rear sections incline outwards
|and follow their commanders on to the
FORM |alignment.
LINE--MARCH. |
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
_Special for Mountain Artillery._
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
17. _From_ |
_battery_ |
_column to_ |
_form line_ | The right (or left) subsections of sections
_to a flank._ |come into action at once in the required
|direction. The left (or right) subsections
LINE TO THE |wheel to the right (or left) at their proper
RIGHT (_or_ |interval, moving at a trot, if possible, and
LEFT) FOR |come into action on the alignment.
ACTION--MARCH. |
---------------------+----------------------------------------------
=139.= _Brigade drill._
1. The formations of a brigade are:--
i. Line.
ii. Échelon or short échelon.
iii. Line of battery columns.
iv. Mass.
v. Column of batteries.
vi. Column of sections.
vii. Column of subsections.
viii. Column of route.
----------------------+-------------------------------------------
2. _From_ | The brigade advances straight to the front
_line to_ |at an even pace. The brigade leader gives
_advance._ |the direction to the brigade guide, and the
|other battery leaders regulate themselves
MARCH. |and consequently their batteries, by the
|latter.
----------------------+-------------------------------------------
3. _From_ |
_line to_ |
_advance._ |
_in échelon_ |
_or short_ |
_échelon of_ |
_batteries._ |
|
ADVANCE IN | The named battery advances--the others
ÉCHELON (_or_ |follow at the distance ordered.
SHORT ÉCHELON) |
FROM THE RIGHT |
(CENTRE _or_ |
LEFT)--MARCH. |
----------------------+-------------------------------------------
4. _From_ |
_line to_ |
_advance._ |
_in line_ |
_of battery_ |
columns._ |
|
ADVANCE IN | Each battery advances straight to the front
LINE OF |in battery column, the direction, dressing,
BATTERY |and pace being regulated as in line.
COLUMNS--MARCH. |
----------------------+--------------------------------------------
5. _From_ | The batteries advance in battery column.
_line to_ |The heads of the flank columns make half
_advance._ |a wheel inwards and move up in line with the
_in mass._ |centre column, at 25 yards interval.
|
ADVANCE IN | With two batteries, the battery of
MASS--MARCH. |direction moves straight forward, the other
|closes on it.
----------------------+--------------------------------------------
6. _From_ | The battery of direction forms line and
_mass to_ |moves straight forward.
_form_ |
_line to_ | The leading sections of the flank batteries
_the front._ |make a half wheel outwards and move in that
|direction till they have taken their correct
FORM LINE--MARCH. |distance in line from the brigade guide. They
|then wheel to the front and line is formed.
----------------------+---------------------------------------------
7. _From_ | The leading battery forms battery column,
_column of_ |continuing to move straight forward.
_route to_ |
_form mass._ | The centre and rear battery form battery
|column and incline to the right and left
|respectively, coming up on either side of the
FORM MASS--MARCH. |leading battery at 25 yards interval.
|
| In a similar manner mass may be formed
|on either flank.
----------------------+---------------------------------------------
8. _From_ |
_column of_ |
_sections to_ |
_form mass._ |
|
FORM MASS--MARCH. |As in 7.
----------------------+---------------------------------------------
9. _From_ |
_line to_ |
_advance_ |
_in quarter_ |
_column_ |
_of batteries_ |
_from a_ |
_flank (or_ | The right battery advances to clear the
_the centre)._ |front and the other batteries incline to the
|right.
|
ADVANCE IN | They successively incline to the front and
QUARTER |close up to quarter column, the wagons of all
COLUMN OF |coming up on the left of their guns at close
BATTERIES |interval (or on the right or at half interval if
FROM THE |ordered).
RIGHT--MARCH. |
----------------------+---------------------------------------------
10. _From_ |
_line to_ |
_form_ |
_quarter_ |
_column_ |
_of batteries_ | The centre and left batteries reverse and
_to the_ |move to the rear. The centre battery takes
_halt._ |ground to its left, and again to its left
|when in rear of the right battery, and closes
TO THE |up to quarter column. the left battery
HALT, |inclines to its left, again to its left when
QUARTER |it has room, and takes ground to its left
COLUMN OF |when in rear of the column, also closing up
BATTERIES. |to quarter column. the wagons all come up on
ON THE |the left of their guns at close interval
RIGHT--MARCH. |(or on the right or at half interval if
| ordered).
----------------------+---------------------------------------------
11. _From_ | The leading battery moves forward till clear
_quarter_ |of the one behind it. The centre battery
_column of_ |inclines (shoulders at close interval) to its
_batteries_ |right and continues in that direction till
_to form_ |the battery guide has got his interval in
_line to_ |line from the brigade guide, when it inclines
_the front._ |to the left and comes up in line on the right
|of the directing battery. Similarly the rear
FORM LINE--MARCH. |battery inclines to the left and comes up on
|the left.
|
| When the line is formed the trot is taken up
|by all. The wagons drop into their places as
|soon as possible.
|
| When this movement is performed from the
|halt to the halt, the rear batteries take
|ground to the right and left respectively,
|and come up in line by a square movement.
----------------------+---------------------------------------------
CHAPTER VII.
EMPLOYMENT OF ARTILLERY IN WAR.
=140.= _General instructions._
1. F.S. Regs., Part I, lay down certain principles for the guidance of
commanders in the combined employment of the various arms. A knowledge
of these principles by artillery commanders is essential for effective
co-operation.
2. The instructions contained in this chapter are based on those
principles, and are intended further to assist artillery commanders
in the solution of problems which will confront them on the field of
battle and in training their commands on a uniform system.
=These principles are generally applicable to any force of artillery
acting under an independent commander, whether his command is of a
temporary nature or not.=
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD ARTILLERY.
=141.= _Field guns._
1. The principal characteristics of modern field guns are the flatness
of the trajectory of their shell, the rapidity and accuracy of their
fire and their power to deliver effective fire from concealed positions
as well as from those in the open. Other characteristics are mobility,
increased power of concealment, owing to the use of smokeless powder,
and decreased vulnerability, due to the adoption of shields.
2. The effect of field guns is most fully developed against troops in
the open, either in movement or stationary.
They may be used effectively against personnel in entrenchments, in
buildings or behind gun shields. Against personnel protected by
entrenchments the effect will be slight unless the defenders are
compelled to man their entrenchments by the action of the other arms.
Against buildings the effect is usually limited to the rooms facing
the guns, as the projectiles are arrested by a second wall, and their
destructive and incendiary effect is not great. The destructive effect
of direct hits on artillery _matériel_ is considerable, but at long
ranges this would entail a great expenditure of ammunition. (_See_ Sec.
=114= (6).)
=142.= _Field howitzers._
1. Field howitzers by reason of their high explosive shell and the
steep angle of descent of their shrapnel bullets are specially suited:--
i. To attack artillery personnel protected by shields.
ii. To destroy artillery _matériel_.
iii. To attack the defenders of entrenchments.
iv. To destroy defended localities such as villages, farms,
or the strongly entrenched portions of a position.
v. To support an attack up to the moment of assault.
2. Their wide field of fire enables howitzers to cover a zone of
considerable extent, and they are particularly adapted to the support
of infantry in the later stages of an attack, owing to the steep angle
of descent of their projectiles. (_See_ Sec. =157=.)
Troops in movement or other targets presenting only a fleeting
opportunity do not come within the normal rôle of howitzers, which,
however, should be prepared to engage such objectives, if circumstances
make such action advisable.
3. The chief conditions for effective howitzer fire are good gun
platforms, and facilities for both observation of fire and the exercise
of command. A position behind natural cover is obviously preferable,
provided these conditions are fulfilled.
=143.= _Heavy artillery._
1. The special characteristics of heavy artillery are accurate
long-range fire and great shell power, but these advantages are to a
certain extent discounted by a limited mobility. The long-range fire
of guns of this nature should be utilized to bring enfilade and cross
fire to bear on the enemy’s positions. The sites chosen for them should
be such as to facilitate fire being brought to bear on as much of the
ground occupied by the enemy as possible. In normal circumstances these
conditions are most likely to be obtained by dispersion.
The fire of guns of this nature is of special value against shielded
guns, fortified localities and buildings.
2. Owing to the limited mobility of these guns and the fact that they
are unprovided with shields, considerable risk may be incurred without
adequate compensation, if they are placed too far forward, or exposed
on a flank.
Occasions may, however, occur, when to gain decisive results, it will
be necessary to use them in line with those of lighter calibre.
3. If well protected and placed on the flanks of a defensive position
in an open country, their long-range fire may compel a turning movement
to be made on so wide an arc, that time, valuable to the defenders, may
be gained.
=144.= _Mountain artillery._
1. In country where wheeled traffic is impracticable, light guns
carried on pack animals are the only substitute for field artillery,
but the use of mountain artillery is not restricted to such country.
Infantry requires effective support throughout the attack, and as pack
animals can go practically anywhere that an infantry soldier can go
without using his hands, batteries of mountain artillery are peculiarly
suited to work with infantry in difficult country of any kind.
2. Hills, woods, and broken or enclosed country, which might be
impassable to wheeled artillery, present little difficulty to pack
animals, and, as cover, which will conceal a man standing upright is
sufficient for them also, batteries of mountain artillery will often
be able to work their way forward on a battlefield without attracting
attention, where the movement of wheeled artillery could not escape
detection.
Moreover, the utility of mountain artillery is not confined to
supporting the infantry in the various forms an attack may assume, for
in the defence of woods, in temporary forward positions occupied by the
defence, and in rearguard action, its mobility and easy concealment
will often enable it to render valuable service.
In short, mountain batteries are capable of being of great value on
many occasions when circumstances are unfavourable to the use of
wheeled artillery, with which, however, they compare unfavourably in
respect of shell power.
PRINCIPLES OR EMPLOYMENT.
=145.= _Objects of fire._
=1. Artillery cannot ensure decisive success in battle by its own
destructive action.= It is the advance of the infantry that alone is
capable of producing this result.
=To help the infantry to maintain its mobility and offensive power by
all the means at its disposal should be the underlying principle of all
artillery tactics.=
The primary objects of artillery fire should therefore be:--
i. To assist the movements of its own infantry.
ii. To prevent the movements of the enemy’s infantry.
These objects may be attained by--
(_a_) Inflicting losses on the enemy, and breaking down
his fighting spirit.
(_b_) Destroying his _matériel_.
(_c_) Reducing the resisting power of fortified
localities and rendering them more easy of approach.
It is legitimate, therefore, to use artillery fire for any of these
purposes, in so far as they contribute towards the end in view.
=146.= _Concealment._
1. The provision of suitable equipment enables batteries to deliver
effective fire from positions in which they are completely concealed
from the enemy. The batteries may thus be able to retain their
mobility, and remain at the disposal of the commander of the force in
the event of a change in the situation.
2. =Concealment in action increases the difficulties of the hostile
batteries, possibly even to the extent of conferring immunity from
their fire, thus enabling the concealed artillery to devote its
attention to the support and assistance of its own infantry.=
Although the employment of aircraft for reconnaissance has modified the
possibilities of complete concealment to some extent, guns in action
may escape observation from the air if they are carefully sited.
Groups of horses and wagons in the open are very easily seen from
aircraft and even when the guns are not visible may be an indication
of the presence of artillery. Advantage should therefore be taken of
woods, avenues of trees, or other features whenever possible to conceal
the limbers, first line wagons and horses of artillery.
The power of delivering effective fire from concealed positions is,
however, limited. Rapid movement or very fleeting opportunities are
difficult to deal with. Distant observing stations involving the
passage of orders by mechanical means increase the difficulty. The
amount of dead ground which can be left in front of the guns may also
be a matter of serious concern.[10]
[10] Supposing that guns and target are on the same level, then to
guns 60 yards in rear of a crest and 16 feet below it all ground is
dead within 3,000 yards; if 9 feet below it all ground is dead within
2,000 yards; if 3 feet below it all ground is dead within 1,000 yards.
On the other hand batteries exposed to view will usually be compelled
to enter into an artillery engagement for their own protection, in
which they will start at a disadvantage. This is less likely to occur
at the crisis of the fight when the struggle of the infantry at close
quarters may monopolize the attention of the combatants.
=3. Concealed manœuvre favours surprise=, and should therefore be
sought for up to the moment of opening fire, due regard being had to
tactical requirements. Even if the enemy is at once able to locate
the flashes the more vulnerable portions of the battery will probably
have been safely disposed and some measure of surprise attained. The
advantages to be gained from moving batteries into position under
cover of darkness have increased owing to the difficulty of evading
observation by hostile aircraft.
=4. Concealment, both as regards position and manœuvre, must invariably
be foregone for adequate reasons. To support infantry and to enable it
to effect its purpose the artillery must willingly sacrifice itself.=
To move in column of route on a road in circumstances where a lucky
shot will bring the column to a standstill is to court disaster. On the
other hand, when deployed, rapid movement over open ground exposed to
fire for a short distance is accompanied by but slight risk; or, when
the enemy’s attention is fully occupied elsewhere, movements may become
possible which would have no reasonable chance of succeeding if the
enemy was on the look out for them.
5. Knowledge of the general tactical situation and discrimination are
essential on the part of all who order artillery movements on the
battlefield.
=147.= _Economy of force._
1. Artillery, owing to its mobility till subjected to effective fire,
its great rapidity of fire and its power to fire effectively while
remaining concealed, is able in most situations to conserve its energy,
selecting its own time for action and realizing to a great extent the
value of surprise effect.
=The principle of economy of force is, therefore, particularly suitable
to the tactical employment of the arm, but must always be subordinate
to the necessity of employing sufficient force to attain the object in
view.=
2. When an encounter with the enemy takes place sufficient artillery
should be deployed to support the advanced troops and to cover the
deployment of the infantry. The remaining batteries should be assembled
in positions of readiness.
As the plan of action develops, tasks will be assigned to the different
artillery units, and they will be brought into positions suitable for
their purpose. If it is not necessary to open fire immediately they
will remain in observation of the zones assigned to them.
3. =Fire will not be opened with more guns than are necessary for
the task in hand.= In deciding on the number of guns with which
to open fire, the total number available, the frontage that they
can conveniently cover with their fire and the extent and tactical
importance of the objective must be considered. Efforts must also be
made to foresee the course of the action, and to keep a reserve of
fire power in hand to meet successive requirements as they arise.
To justify the opening of fire there must be a definite tactical object
and a reasonable probability of attaining it. Ineffective fire is not
only a waste of ammunition, but affords encouragement to the enemy and
gives him information. It should therefore be avoided whenever possible.
4. =Expenditure of ammunition should, as a rule, be proportionate
to the tactical importance of the objective and the probability of
obtaining results commensurate with the expenditure.= In deciding
whether to engage an objective its vulnerability and tactical
importance should, therefore, be considered.
When an objective is both vulnerable and tactically important a
considerable expenditure of ammunition is obviously justified, but
important tactical objectives are frequently invisible or relatively
invulnerable. The expenditure of ammunition in such cases must be
governed by the urgency of the tactical situation.
5. The objects of keeping artillery in hand are:--
i. To be able to open fire on new objectives that become
menacing without disturbing the allotment of tasks of
that already engaged.
ii. To be in a position to deal with unforeseen
contingencies.
iii. To have guns available for any force detached to a
distance, such as a general reserve employed on a wide
turning movement.
The methods by which these objects may be attained are:--
(_a_) By bringing batteries into action in concealed
positions, where they can remain in observation, their
fire power being in hand till they are actually ordered
to open fire. A battery need not employ the fire of the
whole of its guns; some may be kept temporarily in hand.
(_b_) By keeping batteries in positions of readiness
in which they retain their mobility and can be moved to
other parts of the field.
(_c_) By keeping batteries actually in reserve, if
their withdrawal from action or from positions in
readiness would cause delay and compromise the success
of any contemplated operation.
It follows as a consequence of the above that the power of the Q.F. gun
must be utilized on occasion to its full extent to compensate for the
small number of guns employed on a given task.
=148.= _Protection._
1. On the march, artillery, owing to its inability to defend itself,
requires protection which is provided by the other arms under the
orders of the commander of the force to which the artillery belongs.
2. On the field of battle artillery will generally be protected by the
distribution of the other arms. When, however, guns are in an exposed
position, an escort should be detailed, and, if this has not been done,
it is the duty of the artillery commander concerned to apply to the
commander of the nearest troops, who will provide an escort.--(_See_
F.S. Regs., Part I., Sec. =105=). In moving from one part of a
battlefield to another artillery commanders must consider, if no escort
has been provided, whether one is necessary or whether to avoid delay
they should rely on their own patrols.
3. When an escort is provided its commander is responsible for the
protection of the artillery. This fact, however, does not absolve the
artillery commander from all care for the safety of his guns. He should
consult with the escort commander when necessary and should be ready to
assist him with any available artillery patrols, when their employment
would conduce to greater security.
4. Once in action artillery should be able to protect its own front,
provided there is no ground within effective rifle range upon which the
fire of the guns cannot rapidly be brought to bear in case of need.
5. Rifles are carried on artillery wagons, except in horse artillery.
In action these rifles should, if considered necessary, be distributed
to the gunners with the wagon lines, who should assist the escort, if
one has been provided, in protecting these vehicles. This precaution is
especially desirable in the case of artillery in action on the exposed
flank of a force, where hostile cavalry may be operating.
=149.= _Intercommunication._
1. Intelligent co-operation depends largely on the receipt of timely
information, and this in turn is dependent on the efficiency of the
system of intercommunication.
2. In open country where the features are bold and the field of fire
and view extensive, infantry can often be supported more effectively
from a flank than by batteries situated in its immediate zone; and
the possibility of bringing effective converging fire to bear on a
given locality may be capable of realization. For this to be done the
divisional artillery commander must have the means of readjusting
from time to time the tasks that have been assigned to the artillery
brigades in the original dispositions for battle.
In close or intricate country, on the other hand, where the view is
restricted, artillery will rarely be able to do more than support
the infantry in its own immediate front. In these circumstances the
artillery and infantry may be formed temporarily into groups and
the units thus associated must co-operate closely with one another.
The limitations of central artillery control must then be met by
an increased devolution of responsibility to subordinate artillery
commanders. (_See_ Sec. =153=, (7).)
Artillery communications therefore involve two distinct ideas, viz.,
i. communication between the divisional artillery commander and
his subordinates; ii. between infantry and artillery subordinate
commanders. Both must be kept in view and organized as far as possible,
but the relative importance of each varies to a great extent with the
nature of the country.
3. The means of communication available are:--
i. Staff or orderly officers.
ii. Mounted orderlies.
iii. Artillery brigade telephones.
iv. Visual signalling.
v. Divisional signal service.
For the purposes of communication between the divisional artillery
commander and his subordinates orderlies are probably the most
reliable, but the number of officers and men available for the purpose
is limited, and moreover their employment involves the expenditure of
considerable time and horseflesh.
The telephone equipment with which each artillery brigade is provided
is primarily intended to link up the brigade commander with his
batteries. But it may also be possible to utilize this equipment for
communication with the divisional artillery commander. When it is
desired to maintain direct communication with the divisional artillery
commander, and the nature of the country makes it possible, the
telephone should be employed. It is impossible, however, to trust
entirely to this means, and arrangements must be made to supplement it
by others that will be available in the event of breakdown.
Visual signalling is apt to disclose positions to the enemy and, except
when the use of the heliograph is possible, is slow and uncertain. In
any case the number of signallers available make it impossible to trust
exclusively to this method of communication. In open country, and for
lateral communications, where it is possible to conceal the use of
flags, etc., from the enemy’s view visual signalling is valuable as a
means of supplementing other methods.
The divisional signal service affords a useful alternative. When it
is desired to use this means of communication it will be advantageous
if the subordinate artillery commander can station himself near the
infantry brigadier with whom he is co-operating, as it is then possible
for him to communicate with the divisional artillery commander by using
the cable that connects divisional and infantry brigade headquarters.
This line, however, cannot be relied on for urgent messages, as it is
often very congested.
4. For the purpose of establishing an understanding between infantry
and artillery subordinate commanders the most satisfactory results in
a combined operation are obtained by a personal exchange of views
between the commanders concerned before the operation begins. (_See_
sec. =153=. (7).)
If this is impossible or if the artillery commander is unable to remain
in the vicinity of the infantry commander he should be represented by
an officer.
5. It is of the utmost importance that communication should be
maintained between the artillery and infantry commanders throughout the
operation. It is unsafe to rely on one means of communication only,
and two, or even more, should usually be arranged for. The mutual
adoption of some system of describing the features of the ground,
such as squared maps or panorama sketches, will often save delay and
misunderstanding.
CO-OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT WITH ARTILLERY.
=150.= _Employment of aircraft._
1. Both during the period of tactical reconnaissance which precedes the
battle, and in the battle itself, the employment of aircraft may assist
the artillery.
2. If it is possible before a battle to ascertain the general position
and number of the hostile batteries by reconnaissances from aircraft, a
valuable clue to the probable grouping of the hostile artillery may be
obtained and the allotment of tasks to his artillery by the divisional
commander facilitated.
3. During the battle aircraft can assist artillery as follows:--
i. By the indication of concealed targets.
ii. By observation of fire.
Aeroplanes may be used for both these objects, but kites are of
value chiefly for observation of fire. The latter, however, can only
operate in a wind of from 20 to 40 miles an hour. They can lift an
observer to a height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet and can keep in telephonic
communication with the ground. They cannot easily be damaged by fire.
=151.= _Signalling from aircraft._
1. The means of communication from aircraft are:--
i. Wireless telegraphy.
ii. Visual signals.
iii. Sound signals.
iv. Dropping written messages.
Wireless telegraphy, in its present state of development, can be used
only in a limited number of aircraft and will not generally be provided
in aeroplanes allotted for work with artillery.
Visual signals can be made by means of Very’s signal lights, coloured
flags or weighted streamers. Electric lamps may also prove of value.
Very’s lights are used in three colours; white, red and green.
The distance at which they can be seen and distinguished varies
with atmospheric conditions, but on a clear day they are easily
distinguishable at 3,000 feet overhead, and if the sun is not very
bright and in the eyes of the observer at a distance of 2 miles with
the naked eye. On a clear evening they can be seen and distinguished
as far as 6 miles. Specially prepared lights can be seen at greater
distances. Red, yellow, or blue flags, 18 inches square, held out by an
observer can be seen with field glasses at a distance of 1 mile with
the aeroplane at a height of 2,000 feet. Dark and light streamers can
be distinguished with the naked eye at a distance of 1 mile.
A Klaxon horn in an aeroplane can be heard on the ground from a height
of 2,000 feet and a distance of 1 mile.
Messages may be written on special weighted message blocks and thrown
over, or written on an ordinary form and placed in a weighted bag with
streamers, or in a parachute.
=152.= _Signalling from the ground to aircraft._
Any place where it is desired to have messages dropped will be marked
by a cross on the ground, made of two strips of white cloth about 15
feet by 3 feet.
White strips on the ground, 6 feet by 1 foot, can be seen from a height
of 3,000 feet, and a prearranged code of signals can be made by this
means. (_See_ Sec. =205=.)
On a clear evening Very’s lights fired from the ground can be seen from
aircraft at a height of 2,000 feet and a distance of 6 miles, and the
different colours distinguished.
DUTIES OF THE DIVISIONAL ARTILLERY COMMANDER.
=153.= _General instructions._
1. The divisional commander is at all times responsible for the
tactical employment of the artillery under his command. The divisional
artillery commander is responsible for the execution of his orders so
far as they affect the artillery.
2. When a force is marching towards the enemy and an encounter is
anticipated, the divisional artillery commander will detail officers’
patrols (_See_ Sec. =240=) to accompany the advanced troops. These
patrols will be found by the artillery brigades of the division, their
number depending on the nature of the country and the front occupied
by the division when on the march. As soon as an action appears likely
these officers’ patrols will rapidly reconnoitre the ground on which it
is probable that the force will deploy, and send information as soon
as possible to the divisional artillery commander as to the nature and
extent of the available artillery positions. A brief report received
at the right time will be of greater value than a more elaborate and
detailed report which is received too late to be acted upon.
3. The divisional artillery commander will usually accompany the
divisional commander on the march. He must be careful to let all
concerned, particularly his patrols, know where reports can reach him,
both on the march and in action.
4. Should time be of importance and a rapid deployment essential there
may be no opportunity for a detailed reconnaissance by either the
divisional or the artillery commander. If time permits, however, it is
advisable for the divisional artillery commander to make a personal
reconnaissance and report the result to the divisional commander before
the manner of the deployment is settled, stating how best in his
opinion the artillery can be utilized to further the object in view.
5. In forming a plan of action the manner in which the artillery and
infantry will co-operate should be clearly defined, and will depend, as
a rule, on the character of the country. If the country is such that
the task assigned to the division can be carried out by the troops of
the division acting in combination under the immediate control of the
divisional commander, it will, generally, be inadvisable to delegate
the command of portions of the divisional artillery to subordinate
commanders.
Batteries may be able by crossing their fire to afford effective
support to infantry other than that operating in their immediate front.
To tie them down to limited tasks might reduce the fighting capacity
of the division as a whole. In such circumstances, the bulk of the
artillery will deploy and occupy positions under the orders of the
divisional artillery commander, who will allot tasks to each brigade
commander or zones in which he thinks their fire can be employed most
effectively.
6. The country may, however, be such as to necessitate the employment
of the division on more than one tactical operation, in such a manner
that their efforts cannot be directly combined. In such cases it
will be advisable that the artillery and infantry should be formed
temporarily into groups. =The units of the two arms thus associated
for a distinct tactical operation should be under one commander.=
It is the function of the divisional commander to organize these
temporary groups. It is then the function of the divisional artillery
commander to convey the necessary orders to the subordinate artillery
commanders, placing them at the disposal of the group commanders.
It is the duty of a group commander to report to divisional
headquarters when his special task is accomplished. When the special
task has been accomplished, unless a new combined task is then to be
allotted, the artillery of that group should be again placed at the
disposal of the divisional artillery commander without delay, with
a view to the issue of fresh instructions by him for its further
employment. The artillery commander of the group is responsible for
keeping the divisional artillery commander informed as to the course of
the operation in which he is engaged, the general disposition of his
batteries and the expenditure of ammunition.
7. =Whenever a subordinate artillery commander is allotted a task
necessitating co-operation with a certain force of infantry, whether he
is placed under the orders of the commander of that force or not, it
becomes his duty to open communication with its commander, reporting
to him in person, if possible, in order to obtain full information as
to the character of the operation that he is to support and as to the
proposed method of its execution.= (_See_ Secs. =149= (4) and =248=
(2).)
8. The manner in which the divisional commander’s plan is translated
into orders and in which these orders are conveyed to the artillery
must depend to a great extent on the nature of the operation.
Divisional operation orders lay down what is required of the artillery
and contain such information about it as it is necessary for the
other arms to know. If infantry and artillery are grouped together
temporarily as indicated above, divisional operation orders will give
particulars of the grouping, and will also state the task or mission
that is assigned to each group. Consequently in cases where divisional
operation orders are issued to commanders of artillery brigades the
divisional artillery commander will usually only require to supplement
them with a few technical instructions.
In his capacity as a subordinate commander (_see_ F.S. Regs., Part II.
Sec. 10), however, the divisional artillery commander is responsible
that the necessary orders are issued to his own units. When, therefore,
divisional orders are not issued to artillery brigades, or when they
do not give sufficient information respecting the artillery, it is
his duty to issue his own orders, and he is responsible that they
convey to the units under his command all the information respecting
the intention of the divisional commander and the movements of the
other arms which it is desirable for them to know. It will frequently
be necessary to give these orders verbally, and for this purpose the
divisional artillery commander may find it convenient to assemble his
brigade commanders.
It is his duty to make sure that the necessary orders are issued to
the divisional ammunition column commander and that the latter is
acquainted with the dispositions of the various artillery units.
9. The divisional artillery commander must bear in mind that during the
course of an action unexpected developments are always liable to occur
and that the artillery must be prepared to deal with them promptly.
Concealed positions have greatly facilitated this task. Batteries that
are in action, but have not been located by the enemy, can often be
moved rapidly to other parts of the field. The tasks allotted to some
of these batteries may have become of minor importance and they will
be available if required. Other batteries may have accomplished the
tasks assigned to them and thus be at the disposal of the divisional
artillery commander. Notwithstanding these possibilities, however, it
may often be advisable to keep some guns in hand ready to reinforce
guns already in action or to open fire in a new direction.
10. As the action progresses it may be necessary to rearrange the
tasks or zones allotted to artillery brigades to meet the changing
circumstances, or to order changes of position. The position of the
divisional artillery commander during an action should, therefore, be
chosen with a view to the facilities it affords for keeping in touch
with the divisional commander as well as for observing the progress of
events and for communicating with his subordinate artillery commanders.
(_See_ Sec. =149= (2).) If the divisional artillery commander cannot
find a suitable position in the vicinity of divisional headquarters, he
must take steps to keep himself in constant touch therewith, in order
that he may learn at once all information reaching the headquarters
which might be of use to him.
11. For the purposes of directing and controlling the fire of his
batteries the information that is of primary importance to an artillery
commander is firstly to know exactly where the infantry that he is
supporting is from time to time; secondly, what is its immediate
objective; and thirdly, what it is that prevents it from attaining its
object.
The comparative effect of fire from different portions of the enemy’s
position is, however, difficult to estimate from the artillery
positions. The establishment of advanced observation posts may,
therefore, be necessary to watch the situation generally, to obtain
information from infantry commanders, and to report to the artillery
commander concerned. Responsibility for establishing posts for this
purpose will rest either with the divisional artillery commander or
with the commander of the artillery in a temporary group. (_See_ para.
6.)[11]
[11] This does not preclude subordinate artillery commanders from
making the arrangements for observation of fire referred to in Sec.
=199=.
12. The task of the artillery is likely to be much facilitated in
future by the use of aircraft, by means of which targets may be located
and the observation of fire assisted.
The divisional artillery commander should therefore point out to
the divisional commander whenever necessary the directions in which
aircraft can be usefully employed in obtaining information which would
be of value to the artillery.
ARTILLERY IN ATTACK.
=154.= _Action of the advanced guard artillery._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 68.)
1. The advanced guard affords protection to the main body and obtains
information; either function may compel it to fight. When the enemy
is encountered, and offensive action is intended, the advanced guard
should drive back the enemy’s advanced troops till the dispositions
of his main body are disclosed, after which the advanced guard will
usually be compelled to limit its action to holding the ground gained
until the commander has formed his plan and deployed his force.
=It follows that the action of the advanced guard may alternate between
the offensive and the defensive. The action of the artillery must
conform.=
2. The commander of the artillery of the advanced guard will accompany
the advanced guard commander on the march, so that he may receive early
instructions as to his action. The artillery will be allotted positions
that will enable it to co-operate with the rest of the advanced guard
in carrying out the plan of action that the advanced guard commander
may decide to adopt.
The occupation of concealed positions, a wide dispersion of the
available guns and a liberal expenditure of ammunition will then assist
to deceive the enemy as to the strength of the force opposed to him,
and may so contribute materially to the success of the operation.
3. If the enemy is in strength the advanced guard will eventually
encounter opposition which it is unable to overcome. The artillery
should then occupy the best positions available to assist the advanced
guard in holding the ground gained and in repelling any attack that may
be made upon it, in which case the principles involved are identical
with those discussed later under the heading “Artillery in Defence.”
(_See_ Sec. =158= _et seq._)
4. As it is impossible to foresee, when an advanced guard action
is entered upon, where and when the main battle will be fought,
considerations as to possible eventualities should not be allowed to
influence the choice of the most suitable positions for the immediate
purpose. Any breaking up of units that may result must be rectified
later, if possible.
=155.= _Opening phase of the attack._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 105.)
1. If the divisional commander decides to attack, the first functions
of the artillery will be to support the advanced guard against any
possible offensive on the part of the enemy in order to cover the
deployment of the infantry of the main body. Usually concealed
positions will be the best for this purpose.
2. If the infantry deployment takes place successfully and the enemy is
definitely thrown on the defensive the next stage will be the advance
of the infantry through the zone swept by the hostile artillery fire.
The enemy will probably use his artillery to delay this advance and to
inflict loss on the infantry whenever opportunity offers. His guns are
likely to be concealed. =The task of the artillery at this stage will
usually be to locate the enemy’s batteries and, by subduing the fire of
those in action, to support the infantry.=
To carry this out observation posts must be established and every
effort made to locate the hostile batteries or their observation posts.
Valuable help can be rendered by aerial reconnaissance, but artillery
officers and look-out men should be trained to detect readily the
flashes of guns, the dust thrown up by their discharge and the other
indications of the presence of a battery in action or of an observing
party. When a hostile battery that is impeding the advance of the
infantry has been located, every effort should be made to subdue its
fire. The range should be obtained as accurately as circumstances
permit, and the battery should be subjected to an accurate, rapid,
and intense fire[12] with the object of demoralizing the personnel and
driving them temporarily from their guns or compelling them for the
time being to cease fire. Should this object be achieved the hostile
battery should be closely watched and any further attempt to intervene
should be dealt with by a repetition of the same process. (_See_ Sec.
=223= (3).)
[12] Should the limits within which the hostile battery is located be
wide the fire must be of a searching nature.
3. Unless the enemy’s artillery by exposing itself offers an
opportunity for its destruction, commensurate with the expenditure of
ammunition involved, fire should be confined to those hostile batteries
that can be located, which are impeding the infantry advance. If the
hostile batteries cannot be located ammunition should be husbanded and
efforts directed towards further reconnaissance. =The primary object
being to assist the infantry to close with the enemy, an artillery
engagement should not be entered into at this stage for its own sake.=
=156.= _Second phase of the attack._
1. As soon as the infantry reach a point where the effect of the
enemy’s rifle fire begins to be seriously felt a fresh stage of the
operations is entered upon.
=The forward movement of the infantry is henceforward dependent
largely on effective covering fire. To be effective this covering fire
must be developed by guns, machine guns and rifles in combination.
The artillery commanders must therefore have a thorough grasp of the
tactical situation and appreciate fully the needs of the infantry.=
The two arms must communicate freely and the artillery must watch the
progress of the infantry closely. The actual method by which this
co-operation should be obtained will vary in accordance with the
general nature of the operation. (_See_ Sec. =153= (5).)
2. The defence of a position usually takes the form of the occupation
of certain localities with unoccupied intervening spaces. If the
terrain is suitable to defence these localities will mutually support
one another and will each be supported by artillery. It follows that
the attack must resolve itself into the attack of these localities, and
protracted struggles will take place for their possession. When the
country is intricate and enclosed the attacks on localities tend to
become isolated actions and the system of temporary groupings referred
to in Sec. =153= will be resorted to. The mission assigned to each
group will be the capture of a certain locality. When the country is
open the attacks on the localities, like the defence, can and should be
mutually supporting.
3. The fire which prevents the development of an attack on a defended
locality may come from the locality itself, or from other localities
which are able to give support, or from supporting artillery. Inasmuch
as infantry has difficulty in bringing fire to bear on objectives other
than those in its immediate front, it follows that the artillery fire
of the attack must be distributed according to requirements on all
objectives from which effective fire is being brought to bear on the
attacking infantry, if it is to be effective in helping the infantry
forward.
Judicious distribution rather than over-concentration of artillery
fire is therefore indicated, and to arrange for this distribution, and
to allot suitable tasks or zones to each unit, is the function of the
divisional artillery commander. (_See_ Sec. =153= (5) and (6).)
The method of fire to be employed by each unit will depend on the
nature of the actual target that it is engaging. A battery engaging
hostile artillery which is seriously impeding the advance of the
infantry by its fire should endeavour to overwhelm the hostile
artillery as described in Sec. =223=. A battery engaging infantry
should, by bursts of fire, endeavour temporarily to disturb the enemy’s
aim and reduce the volume and effect of his fire so as to afford its
own infantry an opportunity of gaining ground. These bursts of fire
should become more frequent and intense as the infantry approaches the
enemy’s position and the further advance becomes more difficult. (_See_
Sec. =224=.) Covered in this manner by the fire of the artillery the
infantry approaches nearer and nearer to the enemy till it reaches a
point from which it is possible to assault.
4. During the progress of the fight it will usually become necessary
for the artillery to move forward to positions from which it will
have a clearer view of the infantry fight and thus be able to afford
to the infantry more effective support, especially against local
counter-attacks. For this forward movement to be carried out with
success and to attain its object certain conditions are necessary,
namely:--
i. A line of advance that is either protected from fire or
over which the guns can move deployed and at speed, so
as to avoid the risk of columns of guns and wagons being
brought to a standstill under fire.
ii. The possibility of reasonable protection from fire
during deployment and up to the moment of opening fire.
These conditions may be found to obtain for small forces of artillery
such as sections or single guns, when they do not obtain for a large
number of batteries moving simultaneously. In such cases guns should
be dribbled forward a few at a time as may be found practicable. The
advancing batteries should, when necessary, be supported by the fire of
those in action. In cases of extreme difficulty it may be necessary for
the forward movement to take place under cover of darkness.
5. To support an attack with success a battery commander must be able
to see the ground over which the infantry is advancing and also be able
to control the fire of his battery rapidly and effectively, but the
more cover that can be obtained compatible with control by voice the
better.
6. Artillery as at present equipped has certain limitations as regards
dealing with rapid movement from under cover, such as might be the case
if a counter-attack were made unexpectedly, and must reach the crest to
develop the full effect of its fire against such targets. Its conduct
in such cases must be guided by the principle laid down in Sec. =146=
(4).
=157.= _Third phase of the attack._
1. The infantry covered by the fire of the artillery will endeavour to
reach a position from which it will be possible to deliver the assault.
The distance between this position and the enemy must depend upon the
ground and the resisting power of the enemy.
2. The bursts of artillery fire should become frequent and intense
at this period, the object of the artillery being to demoralise the
defenders and reduce the volume and effect of their fire so as to
afford to the infantry the opportunity to assault.
3. =Every effort should be made to bring a converging fire to bear on
the immediate objective of the attack, such fire being by far the most
demoralizing and decisive in its effect.=
At the same time no portion of the enemy’s position from which
effective fire is being brought to bear on the attackers should be
ignored.
4. The number of batteries employed should be limited to the number
that can be effectively controlled, and should be proportionate to
the extent of the objectives that it is necessary to engage. Provided
sufficient batteries are in action for the extent of the objectives a
greater volume of fire, if required, should be obtained by an increased
rapidity of fire from those batteries that have got the range, rather
than by engaging fresh batteries.
5. The losses that may be inflicted by wild artillery fire at this
period may imperil the success of the whole operation, and unless the
infantry has confidence in the artillery the effect of the covering
fire of the latter may be to delay and hamper rather than facilitate
the delivery of the assault.[13]
[13] The distance at which artillery other than howitzers can with
safety fire over the heads of its own troops varies. At ranges under
1,500 yards _on the level_ it would be dangerous to fire over friendly
troops; at longer ranges infantry should be sufficiently safe at 500
yards (with heavy artillery 800 yards is necessary) from the guns.
=Battery commanders must, therefore, do all in their power to improve
their facilities for observing closely the course of the action and
must keep the most complete control over the fire of their batteries
that it is possible for them to exert.=
6. Whether the artillery can continue its fire until the assaulting
infantry is actually on the point of closing with the enemy, or whether
it should increase its range on the first signs of the commencement
of the assault, must depend on the circumstances of each case. The
distance between the combatants just prior to the assault and the slope
of the ground are important factors. Where the ground in front of
the enemy’s position is steep and broken this distance will probably
be short, but a steep slope gives a better view to the artillery and
small errors in elevation will not be so dangerous to the infantry as
on flat ground. If the ground is flat and exposed the infantry may
be compelled to assault from further off, while the artillery will
experience increased difficulties in estimating the relative positions
of the combatants, and errors in elevation and fuze setting will be
more dangerous to the attacking infantry.
The advantages of artillery support at this period are, however, so
great that the danger from a few shells falling short must not be
allowed to prevent the artillery from continuing their fire till the
latest possible moment. (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I., Sec. =106=.)
By changing from time shrapnel to percussion shrapnel it may be
possible to defer the moment when the artillery must cease firing at
the immediate objective of the infantry. When it is no longer possible
to continue firing at that objective the range of the artillery
should be increased so as to search the rear of the position, but no
considerable amount of ammunition should be devoted to this object.
7. If the assault is seen to succeed, it is more important to move
some batteries forward to pursue the enemy with fire or to support the
successful infantry in holding the ground gained against a possible
counter-attack than to continue firing over the position. The flanks of
the locality that has been captured will often prove the best positions
for support against counter-attack.
ARTILLERY IN DEFENCE.
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Secs. 107-109.)
=158.= _General instructions and preliminary measures._
1. When an encounter takes place a force may be thrown temporarily on
the defensive by the numerical superiority of the enemy or by his more
rapid deployment and greater readiness for action. In such a case time
may be required in which to deploy or to bring up reinforcements, or
possibly it may be desired to extricate the troops that are engaged and
break off the action.
2. If it is desired to gain time for deployment, or to bring up
reinforcements, it is usually gained by the action of advanced troops
or the occupation of advanced posts. The artillery plays an important
part in the support of these troops and in covering their withdrawal
later. To give effective support an early deployment of a sufficient
force of artillery for the purpose is necessary.
A commander may, however, deliberately assume a defensive attitude in
one part of the field in order to exhaust the enemy’s powers, while he
prepares an offensive stroke elsewhere. In such a case he will occupy
a position with a portion of his force; strengthening it artificially
if time permits, in order to reduce as much as possible the force to
be locked up in its defence and to free as many as possible for the
subsequent offensive. It is the action of the artillery in the defence
of a position of this kind that is considered in the following sections.
3. The defence of a position usually takes the form of the occupation
of certain localities with unoccupied intervening spaces. (_See_ Sec.
=156= (2).) The troops holding these localities are supported by local
reserves, whose functions include the attack of any hostile force
penetrating between the localities and the recapture at once of any
locality that may be successfully assaulted by the enemy.
In order to carry out this general scheme of defence the position to
be defended is divided into sections each comprising one or more of
these localities. Commanders are appointed to the sections and troops
allotted for their defence, including the local reserves. The remainder
of the force forms the general reserve, which is kept in hand for the
decisive counter-attack. The artillery allotted to the position will be
distributed, in accordance with the general scheme of defence, by the
divisional commander after a careful reconnaissance of the ground, in
which the divisional artillery commander will take part.
4. The tasks which the artillery allotted to the defence of the
position may be called upon to perform are:--
i. To make the enemy’s infantry deploy at a distance, to
delay the advance through the zone in which the hostile
infantry is exposed to artillery fire only, and to make
this advance as laborious and as costly as possible.
ii. To prevent the hostile artillery obtaining the mastery
in such a way as to facilitate the advance of its
infantry.
iii. To combine with the infantry in the close defence of
each defended locality so that if possible there is
no line of approach by which the enemy can move without
being subject to the fire of the two arms in combination.
iv. To support local counter-attacks and, if possible, the
decisive counter-attack. (_See_ Secs. =162=, =163=.)
=The distribution of the artillery will be settled in accordance with
the relative importance of each of the above tasks in the general plan
of battle and with due regard to the nature of the ground.=
5. When the country is enclosed and the field of fire restricted it
will usually be desirable to distribute a large proportion of the
artillery to the sections of the defence and to form temporary groups
of the two arms as has been advocated in the case of the attack. (_See_
Sec. =153= (5), (6), (7).) In such country the close defence of each
defended locality is the chief requirement, and the other tasks assume
a minor importance.
When the country is open with bold features and a good field of fire it
will often be found that the defended localities can be made mutually
supporting, and that artillery posted in one section of the defence can
assist the defence of a locality in another section better than the
batteries actually posted in that section. In this case the formation
of more or less independent groups should seldom be necessary, and the
positions will be selected and tasks allotted to the artillery by the
divisional artillery commander under instructions from the divisional
commander.
In either case it is inadvisable to commit many guns to action until
the direction of the enemy’s attack is definitely ascertained.
=6. At the commencement of the action it is advisable that the
artillery should be concealed as much as possible.=
If the intricacies of the ground make such a course desirable, it is
permissible to post guns in open positions for the close defence of
a locality and to reserve the fire of these guns for the crisis of
the fight. If this is done great care should be taken to conceal the
emplacements.
A ridge in rear of the main position and dominating it will facilitate
the co-operation of the artillery with the infantry defence, provided
the distance between the two is not too great.
Positions where the defender receives the support of his artillery,
while the attacker does not, are usually strong for defence.
=159.= _Opening phase of the defence._
1. The use to be made of the artillery fire of the defence during the
opening phase of the attack must depend on the general plan for the
conduct of the action. A commander may desire to draw the enemy on and
induce him to commit himself in a certain direction so as to offer a
favourable opportunity for early counter-attack, or he may desire to
delay the enemy’s advance and make the progress of his attack as slow,
laborious and costly as possible.
In the former case he will reserve his artillery fire and will rely
largely on surprise effect when he eventually decides to open fire.
Communication must be established throughout the position and control
must be rigidly maintained.
In the latter case the artillery of the defence will endeavour to
make the enemy deploy at a distance and to delay the advance of his
infantry. The enemy will make use of covered approaches and will cross
open spaces as rapidly as possible when exposed to view, adopting
formations that are the least vulnerable to artillery fire.
2. Searching the covered approaches when the effect of the fire cannot
be observed is not likely to have the desired result, and will lead to
the waste of valuable ammunition.
The limits of the open spaces over which the enemy is likely to
attempt to move and, if necessary, the range of any prominent objects
within those limits should be registered (_See_ Sec. =219=), and all
arrangements made to establish a belt of fire through which the enemy
must pass (_see_ Sec. =224= (4)). =The fire should be of such a nature
as to impress upon the enemy the certainty of loss if he attempts to
cross open spaces without deploying.= The result will be to instil
caution, cause deployment to take place at a distance, and make the
advance slow and difficult.
3. The enemy’s artillery will endeavour to support the advance of the
infantry. The best way to defeat this object is for the defending
batteries to be concealed. Batteries that are located at this stage may
be moved and take up other positions, if such are available.
=160.= _Second phase of the defence._
1. =It is only in exceptional circumstances that the artillery of
the defence can hope, by the effect of its own fire, to prevent the
attacking infantry closing with the defence.= A new phase of the
operations will be entered upon when the attacking infantry comes under
the effective rifle fire of the defence.
2. The object of the attacking infantry at this stage will be to build
up firing lines in suitable positions from which to develop effective
covering fire to support a further advance.
From now onward the hostile infantry will be compelled to move in
extended order by rushes; the number of men moving, and the length of
the rushes, depending on the ground, the distance from the defender’s
position, and the volume and effect of his fire. The shorter the
distance from the position and the more effective the defender’s fire,
the shorter will be the length of each rush and the fewer the number of
men taking part in it.
Artillery cannot hope to deal effectively with each individual rush.
=At this stage the object of the artillery should be to foresee the
positions where the hostile firing lines will be formed, and to subject
these firing lines to bursts of fire of such rapidity and intensity as
to keep them glued to the ground, and to prevent them from developing
effective covering fire.= The more threatening the hostile infantry is
the more frequent and intense should be the bursts of artillery fire.
3. The hostile artillery will do all in its power to reduce the volume
and effect of the fire of the defence, both gun and rifle fire.
If the hostile artillery is able to locate the position of the
defender’s infantry the latter may suffer severely, and the power of
the defence may be seriously weakened thereby. The artillery of the
attack therefore must not be ignored, but instead of endeavouring to
destroy the hostile batteries by an overwhelming concentration of fire,
the object will be to neutralize their fire with as few batteries as
possible, so as to free as many as possible to fire on the attacking
infantry.[14]
[14] The methods by which a hostile battery should be neutralized are
described in Sec. =155= (2).
4. =Infantry conquers and retains the ground. The principal effort must
therefore be directed to bringing the infantry advance to a standstill.
When the infantry loses its power of forward movement it is no longer
capable of forcing a decision.=
When this occurs the enemy’s reserves should be expected and a careful
watch kept for their appearance, so that they may be crushed without
delay.
=161.= _Third phase of the defence._
1. If the attacking infantry is successful in reaching a position
from which it is possible to threaten an assault, no effort must be
spared to increase the effect of the fire of the defence. If a forward
movement to an open position is likely to contribute to this object it
must be undertaken without hesitation. The principle laid down in Sec.
=146= (4) applies to this situation.
Should a successful assault be delivered there is sure to be some
confusion in the ranks of the attackers, who will probably endeavour
to re-form. The captured locality should at once be subjected to
artillery fire, converging if possible.
2. If a counter-attack is launched for the recapture of the locality
the artillery will give it the most effective support that is possible
in the circumstances. If time permits the divisional artillery
commander should organize this support under instructions from the
divisional commander; but subordinate artillery commanders must not
wait for orders, when aware that such an attack is taking place.
COUNTER-ATTACKS.
=162.= _Artillery support to local counter-attacks._
1. During the course of the fight all favourable opportunities for
local counter-attacks must be seized. (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec.
109.) These local counter-attacks must be assisted by the fire of any
guns conveniently situated for the purpose. The time for preparation
will usually be short, and subordinate artillery commanders must
therefore often decide for themselves how this support can best be
given and what proportion of the guns to employ. Extensive changes of
position should be avoided and should rarely be necessary.
=163.= _Artillery support to the decisive counter-attack._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 110.)
1. The nature of the artillery support to the decisive counter-attack
must depend on the nature of the ground over which it is delivered and
the direction which it takes.
It may be that the counter-attack can best be supported from the
positions already occupied by the artillery in the main position. If
that is the case it will not be necessary to keep artillery in reserve
for the purpose. A change of zones or objectives may suffice to afford
the necessary support.
This will not always be the case. If the troops with which it is
intended to carry out the counter-attack have been placed at a distance
from the main position, and if the direction of the counter-attack
and the ground over which it moves prevents adequate artillery support
being given from the main position, special provision must be made.
Either artillery must from the outset form part of the troops destined
for the counter-attack or batteries must be withdrawn from the main
position for the purpose.
Either course is legitimate, and the method to be adopted is a matter
for the decision of the commander of the force. If he decides to
withdraw guns that are in action every effort must be made to ensure
their timely arrival in their new positions. As the success of the
counter-attack is usually dependent on correct timing this is a matter
of great importance.
2. =The action of the artillery in support of the counter-stroke should
be characterized by boldness.= The moral effect of batteries advancing
boldly in support of their infantry may decide the issue, when success
or failure hang in the balance.
ARTILLERY IN WOOD AND VILLAGE FIGHTING.
=163= A. _The employment of artillery in wood fighting._
1. As obstacles to movement and view woods exercise an important
influence on artillery tactics both in attack and defence. A wooded
area increases the difficulty of observation of fire.
2. A wood of small extent that is held by the enemy lends itself to
envelopment, and the hostile troops will usually be posted outside it.
In such a case the wood itself should not materially interfere with
artillery support for the attacking infantry.
3. A wood of large area presents a serious obstacle to effective
co-operation between the attacking artillery and infantry. The enemy
may have prepared the wood for internal defence, using existing
clearings and making others; or he may have taken up a position behind
it, sufficiently near to bring a concentrated artillery and rifle fire
to bear upon the attacking troops as they attempt to debouch. In either
case the problem which confronts the attacking infantry is the same,
namely, to issue from a belt of wood and cross an open space under
close fire from hostile artillery and infantry.
Provided observation parties can establish themselves in suitable
positions and adequate means of intercommunication are available, the
attacking artillery may be able to support the infantry from positions
outside the wood.
The most effective means of assisting the infantry, however, will be
the employment of sections or even single guns in the wood itself in
close support of the firing line.
4. In dealing with a wood of considerable extent the best position for
troops compelled to act on the defensive will often be in rear of the
wood at such a distance from it that artillery and infantry fire can be
brought to bear at close ranges on the hostile infantry as it attempts
to issue from the wood.
The edge of the wood should be prepared with abatis or entanglements
and arrangements should be made for artillery fire to be brought to
bear on any gaps between the obstacles or other places where hostile
bodies are likely to assemble when emerging from the wood.
Arrangements should further be made for artillery to support the action
of local reserves against hostile bodies that may succeed in issuing
from the wood, and to deal with outflanking movements by the enemy.
If a clearing of suitable extent exists or can be made within the wood,
troops may be placed in position along the edge of it furthest from the
enemy, the opposite edge being prepared with obstacles as explained
above. Guns should be placed in position with the infantry, care being
taken to dispose them so that their fire can be brought to bear on any
open spaces likely to be crossed by the enemy.
Special arrangements should be made for the timely withdrawal of the
guns to positions behind the wood should the infantry be driven back to
the main position.
5. Against troops located in a wood high explosive shell or percussion
shrapnel will be more effective than time shrapnel.
=163= B. _Artillery in the attack and defence of villages._
1. Villages not only lend themselves to conversion into strong tactical
localities, but troops are instinctively attracted towards them.
2. In defending a village infantry will usually be entrenched outside
it, in front of it, and on its flanks. Artillery should also be placed
outside the village in positions where the guns command the approaches
to it and the exits from it.
A portion of the artillery may be posted in advance of the village at
the outset, in order to compel the enemy to make an early deployment.
In this case careful arrangements should be made for the timely
withdrawal of the guns to positions on the flanks or in rear of the
village, as the attack develops.
As in the case of wood fighting it is important to arrange for adequate
artillery support for local counter-attacks by the local reserves.
3. In the attack of a village artillery fire should be concentrated on
the hostile infantry as soon as it is located.
When the enemy has been driven from his trenches the fire of the
artillery should be concentrated on the village itself in order to deny
its cover to the hostile troops retiring through it.
When the attacking infantry reaches the village the artillery should
push forward on the flanks and engage any hostile bodies posted in rear
of the village to command the exits from it.
ARTILLERY IN NIGHT OPERATIONS.
=164.= _General instructions._
1. “Night operations may be classified as _night marches_, _night
advances_ and _night assaults_.” (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 129.)
Artillery must be prepared to take part in any of these operations.
It may also be required to participate in the defence, at night, of a
position or locality.
2. In a night march artillery usually marches at the least exposed
portion of the column, _i.e._, in rear or on the protected flank. In
this case preliminary reconnaissance by the artillery is not possible,
its preparations being chiefly directed to reducing the noise caused by
the horses’ harness and by the vehicles.
3. “The purpose of a night advance is to gain ground from which further
progress will be made in daylight and not to deliver a decisive assault
during darkness.” (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 134.)
Such advances are made when in contact with the enemy, either as a
preliminary to opening a battle, or to gain an advantage during its
course. The ultimate object in view in each case may be either an
assault at dawn, or to gain better fire positions. The immediate aim of
the artillery must be to get the guns during darkness into favourable
fire positions, ready to open fire at dawn. Careful reconnaissance of
the positions to be occupied is an essential preliminary. (_See_ Sec.
=189=.)
4. Night assaults may be undertaken to gain a point of support for
further operations in daylight, to drive in an enemy’s advanced troops
or to secure an outpost position as a preliminary to an attack at dawn.
(_See_ F.S. Regs., Pt. I, Sec. 135.)
The extent to which artillery can participate in a night assault
depends principally on whether the assault follows immediately on a
night march or is a continuation of previous operations. In the former
case artillery can rarely be of assistance during darkness; in the
latter, guns may occasionally be able to assist, provided thorough
preparations have been made in daylight, and careful steps taken to
ensure the timely cessation of fire.
5. In the defence artillery may be able to give effective assistance
when the front to be defended is narrow, and there is limited ground
over which the enemy must pass if he wishes to attack. In these
circumstances all arrangements for concentrating fire on various zones
should be made in advance.
ARTILLERY IN RETIREMENTS AND RETREATS.
=165.= _Retirements._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 113.)
1. It must be a point of honour with troops never to retire, without
orders, from a position they have been detailed to hold to the end.
On occasions it may be advisable to order batteries when exposed to
accurate and destructive fire to cease fire temporarily; or they may
be compelled to do so by want of ammunition. In either case they must
remain in action and wait for the fire to diminish, or the arrival of
more ammunition. When any movement to the rear is ordered it must be
carried out in an orderly manner, otherwise it cannot fail to have a
bad moral effect.
2. Should it become necessary to abandon a position, a portion of the
artillery will usually be required to establish itself as quickly as
possible in positions from which the retirement of the rest of the
force can be covered. The fire of heavy guns from positions overlooking
the main position, combined with that of field guns which, owing to
their greater mobility, may occupy more advanced positions, would
usually form the most effective means for securing the withdrawal of
the rest of the force.
When it is a question of ensuring the safe withdrawal of the main body,
artillery must be ready to take any risk, and loss of _matériel_ is
then fully justified.
3. The organization of a rearguard to cover further retreat is the
function of the commander assisted by the general staff, but, in order
that the most efficient artillery units may be allotted to such a
force, it is necessary for divisional artillery commanders to keep
themselves acquainted with the position and relative condition of each
artillery brigade as regards losses and ammunition.
It is also the duty of the artillery commander to appoint a commander
of the rearguard artillery, and to inform him of the batteries at his
disposal and of the name of the commander of the rearguard.
4. The withdrawal of the rest of the artillery and its subsequent
formation on the march is the next most important duty for the
divisional artillery commander in co-operation with the general staff
of the division.
=166.= _Rearguards._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Secs. 71, 72.)
1. The object of a rearguard is to gain time and then to withdraw
without becoming too deeply engaged. This is best effected by
compelling the enemy to halt and deploy for attack as frequently and at
as great a distance as possible.
With these objects in view a rearguard is usually strong in artillery.
2. The commander of the artillery of a rearguard should, as a rule,
accompany the rearguard commander, in order that he may have early
information as to the next position to be occupied, its extent and the
general dispositions for its occupation.
3. Batteries in direct fire positions are apt to be pinned to their
positions by the hostile artillery, and withdrawal from such positions
is often difficult. As, moreover, the close defence of a position
is rarely required in a rearguard action it will not, as a rule, be
necessary for artillery to bring fire to bear on the ground close in
front of the position. Positions in rear of the crest are therefore
preferable but battery commanders must arrange to keep their immediate
front under observation.
4. The flanks of a rear guard position are specially important and some
guns should usually be employed in their defence. It is the duty of the
commander of these guns to see that they have an escort. Any artillery
patrols that may be available should also be allotted to them rather
than to guns centrally situated whose position is more secure.
5. While it is the duty of the rearguard commander to select the
time and method of retiring and the position where the next stand is
to be made an artillery officer should, if possible, accompany the
officer detailed to reconnoitre this position in order to select the
most suitable positions for the batteries and to supply the artillery
commander with information.
Subordinate artillery commanders must endeavour to have lines of
retirement reconnoitred, in order to avoid interfering with the
movements of other troops.
6. The supply of ammunition to a rearguard requires careful
arrangements to be made by the divisional artillery staff in accordance
with the orders of the divisional commander. Sections of brigade
ammunition columns may be disposed at suitable points; or sometimes
small depôts of ammunition may be left in easily recognized localities
at which empty ammunition wagons can refill. The commander of the
rearguard artillery must be informed of the arrangements made for
replenishing ammunition.
EMPLOYMENT OF HORSE ARTILLERY WITH CAVALRY.
(_See also_ “Cavalry Training.”)
=167.= _General instructions._
1. =The paramount duty of horse artillery is to prepare the way for the
cavalry and to support it in the fight.=
The principles laid down in the preceding sections regarding the
employment of artillery apply equally to the horse artillery, although
the special characteristics and functions of cavalry may call for
modification in methods.
2. The main functions of cavalry in war are--
i. To discover the enemy’s dispositions and movements.
ii. To screen and protect its own army from the observation
of the enemy and hostile interference,
iii. To take its place as part of the fighting machine in
co-operation with the other arms on the battlefield.
3. Cavalry is trained to fight either mounted or dismounted, and the
power to combine shock with fire action, or to adopt either method at
will, not only increases its independence, but adds materially to its
offensive and defensive power.
For the full development of fire power artillery is required, hence a
force of cavalry is usually accompanied by one or more batteries of
horse artillery.
4. The duty of the horse artillery commander being to help and support
the cavalry, it is essential that he should know the general intentions
and tactical plan of the cavalry leader. It will, however, frequently
be impossible for the cavalry leader to do more than give a general
indication of his plans and intentions; the horse artillery commander
must therefore study his superior’s methods, and endeavour to regard
the situation, as it develops, from the point of view of that officer,
training himself to appreciate his wishes rapidly and to anticipate his
orders.
5. The horse artillery commander and his subordinates must have a
thorough understanding of the principles upon which the conduct of a
cavalry fight is based, to enable them to grasp at once the object of
each movement and to ensure co-operation on the part of the guns.
6. The methods to be adopted by the horse artillery will vary according
as the cavalry to which it is attached is opposed to cavalry or other
troops and whether fire or shock action is to form the principal means
of reaching the desired result.
Where shock action is anticipated, opportunities for effective
participation in the fight will occur with so little warning, and be
of so fleeting a nature that horse artillery must be granted a greater
measure of independence than is the case with other artillery in the
field.
To take advantage of such opportunities promptness of decision,
readiness of resource, and rapidity of action are essential, and these
characteristics should distinguish all ranks.
=168.= _Position on the march._
1. On the march the distribution of the horse artillery will be decided
by the commander of the force. As a rule, the artillery of a mounted
force is kept concentrated with the main body. When marching in column,
horse artillery is usually placed near the head of the column, normally
in rear of the leading unit.
2. Whether the first line wagons accompany the guns or march in rear
of the fighting portion of the column will depend upon the tactical
situation; within striking distance of the enemy, and when the power
to deploy quickly and manœuvre with freedom is desirable, the latter
course will usually be advisable.
3. When moving on a broad front, or across country, guns should be
allowed a certain latitude in conforming to the pace and movements of
the cavalry, advantage being taken of roads or firm ground.
=169.= _Escorts._
1. In normal conditions horse artillery requires no special escort.
When guns are detached from the main body or otherwise exposed, it is
the duty of the horse artillery commander to ensure that a suitable
escort is detailed.
Should no escort have been detailed and should the development of the
situation at any time render an escort desirable, it is the duty of the
horse artillery commander on the spot to call upon the commander of the
nearest body of cavalry to provide one.
2. The principal duties of the escort are--
i. To give timely warning of any threatened attack.
ii. To keep hostile riflemen beyond effective range of
the guns.
iii. To cover the withdrawal of the guns if attacked by
greatly superior forces.
3. It is important that communication be maintained between the guns
and their escort. For this purpose the escort commander will attach an
officer or non-commissioned officer to the artillery commander.
4. The senior officer with the wagon line, whether in action or on the
move, will make such dispositions as may be possible for their defence.
=170.= _The approach march._
1. The object of the approach march of a force of cavalry is to close
upon the enemy in order to attack him. The principles governing the
disposition of the force are dealt with in “Cavalry Training.”
2. The position of the horse artillery will be ordered by the cavalry
commander. As a rule, horse artillery will move massed on the flank
of the cavalry in line with the head of the main body. The formation
adopted must ensure elasticity and allow the guns some latitude in
conforming to the pace of the main body when moving over undulating
country.
The guiding principle is that the guns shall be readily detachable and
free to move at a rapid pace to the selected fire position without
interfering with the deployment of the remainder of the force.
3. On commencing the approach march the horse artillery will assume
the most convenient formation, probably divisional mass or column of
brigade masses, all wagons other than those of the firing batteries
joining the first line transport of the force.
4. The horse artillery should usually remain concentrated with a view
to bringing the most intense fire possible to bear on the hostile
formations when encountered, but occasions will occur especially in
undulating country when it will be advisable to leave some guns on
one ridge, to cover the occupation of the next. It may sometimes be
advisable to place the guns on both flanks, in order to deny ground to
the enemy by which he might otherwise approach.
5. The horse artillery commander must accompany the cavalry commander
during the approach march. He will thus be in a position to receive the
earliest information regarding his superior’s plans and will himself be
well placed to watch the situation and examine the ground on which the
action is expected to take place. His headquarters will not actually
accompany him, but such of its members as he requires will remain in
close touch.
6. As a general rule, the plan will consist of a mounted attack
combined with the fire attack of guns, machine guns and, if the range
admits, of their escort.
In combining fire action with mounted action the chief factors of
success are:--
i. The timely separation of the guns, etc., from the
mounted attack, so that their fire may be available
the moment that collision is inevitable, and in order
that the freedom of manœuvre of the cavalry may not be
cramped nor the fire of the guns masked by the movement
of the cavalry which they are supporting. Fig. 27
illustrates this principle, which generally holds good.
ii. The correct timing of the attacks, so that the enemy
will not be allowed to deal with the two separately. For
this reason it will often be necessary to push the guns
and machine guns boldly forward.
The nature of the country, the time available, the action of the enemy
and the safety of the guns are factors to be considered when deciding
to what extent the guns can be separated from the cavalry.
7. As soon as the cavalry commander has settled on his general plan of
attack he informs his artillery commander of the general rôle that he
wishes the artillery to take in it. The situation is liable to change
with such rapidity that more than this is usually impossible, and the
exact spot for coming into action, and the moment for opening fire or
changing position, can only be decided by the artillery commander in
accordance with the development of the fight.
After receiving his instructions, therefore, the artillery commander
proceeds to reconnoitre for positions and will have complete freedom of
action within the limits of the instructions he has received. It will
generally be advisable for the artillery commander to leave an officer
with the cavalry commander, to keep him informed, as far as possible,
of the latter’s plans and intentions.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
=171.= _The advance into action._
1. The manœuvres which precede the charge take place in such rapid
succession that little time will be available for elaborate orders
or dispositions. Horse artillery brigade commanders must therefore be
ready to join the artillery commander as quickly as possible, when he
proceeds to carry out his reconnaissance, so as to receive his verbal
orders and communicate them without delay to brigade leaders.
2. The two chief duties of the horse artillery commander are to
reconnoitre a position for his brigades and to watch the manœuvres
of his own and the corresponding movements of the opposing cavalry.
To save delay and to enable him to devote more time to the tactical
situation he should usually be accompanied and assisted in his
reconnaissance by the commanders of horse artillery brigades.
3. =The principal considerations involved by the above duties are,
firstly, the selection of a position the fire from which will not
easily be masked by the advance of the cavalry, and, secondly, the
correct moment for coming into action, taking into account the time
which must elapse between opening fire and obtaining effect.= If
the cavalry machine guns are to act on the same flank as the horse
artillery their commander must ascertain the position of the guns, so
that he may avoid masking their fire at a critical moment.
4. Every effort should be made to conceal the guns till the last
moment, so that the fire may come as a surprise. A covered line of
advance, to the selected position should, therefore, be sought, while,
if exposed ground has to be crossed, the distance of the enemy and the
possibility of coming under fire must be considered in deciding on the
formation to be adopted, it may be possible to deceive hostile patrols
by masking the guns with the detachments. The position itself must be
suitable for direct laying.
5. Both in the advance to and occupation of the position the artillery
commander should ensure that the exposed flank of the guns is watched
by artillery patrols, if no escort has been provided. If no natural
obstacle covers this flank in action, it may be advisable to dispose
some of the guns so as to cover it with their fire.
6. Batteries should be retained in positions of readiness as long as
possible, in order not to lessen their mobility, should the situation
change unexpectedly.
The temptation of gaining a temporary advantage must not be allowed to
lead artillery into premature action. Such tactics, far from assisting
in the defeat of the hostile cavalry, are liable to divulge the cavalry
leader’s plans and may give the enemy a chance of immobilizing, with
a fraction of his own artillery, the guns thus engaged, while the
remainder of his troops are able to manœuvre in a direction out of
reach of fire.
As a general rule, fire should not be opened until the cavalry is in a
position to take immediate advantage of its effect. On the other hand
the cavalry commander’s plan may render it desirable to open fire for
some special purpose, such as to occupy the enemy’s attention or to
force him to deploy prematurely or in a faulty direction.
=172.= _The fight._
1. =The most favourable moment for the guns to open fire will usually
be when the opposing cavalry has definitely committed itself.=
2. As success depends on the result of the cavalry charge, it is the
paramount duty of the horse artillery to concentrate its fire on that
portion of the enemy’s cavalry on which the decisive attack is about to
be delivered.
The time during which this portion of the enemy’s force is likely to be
exposed to fire being of very brief duration, effect must be sought by
the greatest rapidity of fire and well judged distribution.
3. When the guns can no longer engage the immediate object of the
attack, fire should be directed on any supports or reserves that may be
visible. It is most important that any formed bodies of fresh troops
be dealt with at once.
As a rule, it is only when the guns become masked from the hostile
cavalry, that their fire should be directed on to the enemy’s
artillery. If, however, the enemy’s artillery exposes itself while
limbered up or is bringing a heavy fire to bear on the main body of
the cavalry during its approach march, the artillery commander will be
justified in modifying the above procedure to meet such cases.
=173.= _Pursuit or retreat._
1. If the attack succeeds the artillery commander should send forward
part of the artillery at once to support and assist the immediate
pursuit. The object of these guns is to prevent the enemy re-forming or
holding positions which would check the pursuit.
At the same time the artillery commander should retain control of
some portion of the artillery so that he may be ready to comply with
any demand which the cavalry commander may make on him for guns to
co-operate in an organized pursuit.
2. If the attack fails the horse artillery must remain in action and by
its fire form a screen in rear of which the cavalry may rally.
=174.= _Horse artillery with cavalry acting dismounted._
1. Occasions will frequently occur on reconnaissances, in advanced
or rearguard actions, and in the seizure of advanced positions, when
mounted troops will be involved in a fire fight, where mounted shock
action is either not contemplated or is not of primary importance.
2. In such circumstances the mobility of mounted troops is generally
employed in enabling successive fractions to move rapidly from one
tactical point to another covered by the fire of those at rest. When
taking part in such a fight, horse artillery should be guided by the
general principles laid down for artillery co-operating with infantry.
(_See_ Sec. =154= _et seq._)
As a rule an action of this nature will be initiated more deliberately
than in a purely mounted combat.
The first requisite is information. The second that, in order to keep
in touch with the developments of the action--conducted as it will
probably be over a wide area--the positions for the guns should be
chosen with a view to affording facilities for movement as well as for
effective fire support.
3. A combination of a mounted attack with the fire attack will often
form part of the plan of action.
In this case the mounted attack will usually endeavour to gain the
flank of its objective while the artillery with the dismounted part of
the force brings fire to bear at the right moment, in order to distract
the enemy’s attention and pin him to his ground and so prevent any
change of position to meet it.
4. Sometimes, however, it will be essential for mounted troops to drive
home an attack against a locality on foot. On such occasions they must
be formed for attack in depth, the object being to establish a firing
line in a position as close as possible to the enemy and to obtain
superiority of fire over him. When such is the case the action of the
horse artillery will resemble that of field artillery in co-operation
with infantry, and time will usually be available to draw up a
systematic plan of attack. (_See_ Sec. =153=.)
5. The assistance of horse artillery will also be of great value when
a mounted force has recourse to dismounted action either with a view
to holding a locality till other troops arrive or simply to denying
it to the enemy. Its method of employment will approximate to that of
field artillery in the defence, but full advantage should be taken of
its mobility to support any extensions or changes of front which may be
adopted.
=175.= _Horse artillery in a general engagement._
1. Occasions for the employment of shock tactics against infantry or
artillery may arise on the battlefield of the future, as they have in
the past. Success can, however, only be anticipated when the enemy is
either taken by surprise or when demoralized.
2. Surprise may be achieved by a skilful use of the ground or through
the enemy’s attention being absorbed by the attack of the other arms.
The enemy’s demoralization will depend on the action of the guns and
infantry. Hence cavalry before attacking the enemy’s infantry or
artillery must chiefly look to the way being prepared for it by the
action of the other arms.
Horse artillery must be ready to assist in this preparation, and it
will be the duty of its commander, under the instructions of the
cavalry commander, to ascertain how best this assistance can be
rendered. To this end the establishment of communication with the
commanders of adjacent bodies of troops will be advisable.
=176.= _Ammunition supply._
1. Previous to an action the commander of each horse artillery brigade
ammunition column should send an officer or non-commissioned officer to
artillery headquarters.
2. The artillery commander is responsible for informing the ammunition
column commanders as early as possible of the intended course of action
and of the localities to which they are to move.
The original positions of these columns should be chosen with a view to
the facilities for replenishing ammunition and suitability for defence.
3. If the force is to operate on a wide front, or if part of it is to
act independently, instructions as to detaching sections or attaching
orderlies to the various cavalry and artillery brigades will be
necessary.
4. In the event of a cavalry or horse artillery brigade requiring more
ammunition its commander will either send back the orderly to the
ammunition column or apply direct to cavalry divisional headquarters as
may be most convenient. The place to which the ammunition is to be sent
and what arrangements, if any, have been made for its protection should
be stated.
MOBILE ARTILLERY IN THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF A FORTRESS.
=177.= _The attack._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Secs. 118-125.)
1. In the attack of a fortress the first object will be to capture any
advanced positions which the enemy may have occupied. These positions
will often be provided with field works the extent of which will depend
on a variety of circumstances. To drive the enemy out of such positions
the employment of heavy mobile artillery may be necessary, but
opportunities will also occur for the employment of the lighter guns in
support of the infantry attacks.
These operations should be conducted on the same principles as laid
down in Secs. =154-157=, every opportunity being taken to cause losses
to the enemy which he cannot replace.
2. During the siege operations the field artillery will be employed
as directed by the commander of the besieging force. The whole, or
a portion of it, may be temporarily or permanently placed under the
orders of the siege artillery commander.
The positions of batteries, which have not been placed under the siege
artillery commander’s orders, will be selected by divisional artillery
commanders, under the orders of divisional commanders. Care must be
taken to ensure that the fire from these batteries will assist, and not
interfere with, the siege artillery.
3. In the attack of permanent works, the fire of field guns being
of little or no value, their use should be restricted to supporting
infantry assaults, or to repelling sorties, which compel the enemy’s
troops to expose themselves.
Howitzers and heavy artillery, on the other hand, would usually be
called upon to take part in destroying the enemy’s armament and works.
4. Accuracy of fire being most important, the judicious selection of
observing stations and positions is as important for field batteries as
for heavier guns. The gun sites should be concealed and artificially
protected, and, when possible, platforms for the howitzers should be
provided. A good system of intercommunication and an efficient supply
of ammunition are additional factors of importance.
=178.= _The defence._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Secs. 126-128.)
1. In the defence of a fortress delay is usually one of the principal
objects. The longer the close investment can be prevented the more will
it assist this object.
2. If assisting in the defence of a coast fortress, the first duty of
the mobile artillery will be to oppose hostile landing parties. For
this purpose it must be able to sweep the probable landing-places with
shrapnel fire. It should, if possible, be screened from view of the
ships supporting a landing. The best positions for opposing a hostile
advance, from whatever quarter it may come, should be chosen in peace,
and the sites for the guns thoroughly reconnoitred.
3. With the object of delaying the investment of the fortress one or
more advanced positions may be occupied in front of the main line
of defence. The distance of an advanced position from the main line
of defence cannot be precisely laid down, but it must be far enough
forward to deny to the enemy artillery positions from which fire can
be opened against the main works, and should be strengthened by all
artificial means available. In the advanced position will be placed the
heavier guns of the movable armament; the light guns being employed in
the counter-attacks that will be made from it with a view of inflicting
loss upon the enemy, and hindering the establishment of his batteries.
Sites for the various guns and howitzers available should be got ready
in good time if this has not been done in peace.
4. As the assailants make good the ground, the last of the advanced
positions will eventually be evacuated. The mobile artillery will
then be distributed amongst the various sections of the defence, a
proportion being retained with the general reserve.
5. As soon as the direction of the main attack has been made clear, the
artillery on this front will be reinforced by all the guns that can
be spared from elsewhere. The disposition of this armament will vary
according to its nature and local conditions. Well-concealed positions
for the howitzers and for Q.F. guns, positions from which they can fire
direct against assaulting infantry, must be sought.
6. The same general rules apply to the use of projectiles in the
defence as in the attack; high explosive shell being employed against
_matériel_, and shrapnel fire against personnel.
ARTILLERY IN IRREGULAR WARFARE.
=179.= _General principles._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Chap. X.)
1. The extent to which tactical methods differ in small wars from those
obtaining in regular campaigns varies widely in different cases.
In each instance the special characteristics, armament and tactics of
the enemy must be considered, in addition to the nature of the country
in which the operations are to take place, and the object in view.
General indications, therefore, can alone be given as to the form which
artillery tactics should assume.
2. The importance of impressing such foes as are met with in these
campaigns with a feeling of inferiority cannot be overestimated.
Consequently a bold offensive is generally adopted and every endeavour
made to inflict serious loss on the enemy. Against opponents such
as are met with in irregular warfare the moral effect of guns is
very great, but without material effect, moral effect is like to be
transitory. Sometimes it may be expedient merely to drive the enemy off
by shell fire, but, as a rule, this should not be the primary object of
the guns.
3. In irregular warfare, guns should generally be dispersed rather
than concentrated, so as to bring effective fire to bear at any point
where opportunities may present themselves. Moreover any artillery the
enemy may possess will usually be inferior in numbers and certainly
in training and efficiency, and therefore direct fire and shorter
ranges than are usual in regular warfare should be employed. Against
irregulars armed with rifles, who rely chiefly on fire action, covering
fire from part of the artillery may be necessary, but a prolonged
preparation of the attack may cause the enemy to disperse before the
attack can be pushed home and is incompatible with anything in the
nature of a surprise. The guns not used for covering fire should be
pushed forward in order that when the enemy is finally driven out of
his position he may be vigorously pursued by shell fire.
CHAPTER VIII.
BRIGADE TACTICS.
=180.= _General instructions._
1. The brigade is the tactical unit. Its commander is responsible for
reconnoitring and selecting positions for the batteries composing the
brigade, for the method of occupying them, and for the allotment of
zones, tasks, or objectives to each battery within the limits of the
orders he has received.
2. When the brigade commander finds it necessary to change the
objective of one of its batteries he should inform other batteries whom
it may concern.
Should it become necessary to open fire on a target outside the area
allotted to him, he must be careful to report the circumstances to the
divisional artillery commander.
As changes of target entail fresh ranging and consequently some loss of
fire effect, they should not be lightly ordered.
3. The brigade commander exercises general control over the expenditure
of ammunition, but the ranging, the method of engaging an objective and
the rate of fire should be left in the hands of battery commanders.
The brigade commander may, if in close touch with a battery commander,
give him precise orders as to the nature and rate of fire; otherwise he
should only interfere if he has convinced himself that the fire of a
battery is ineffective, or unsuited to the tactical situation.
=181.= _Reconnaissance._
1. As soon as the brigade commander has received his orders, which
should include full information as to the tactical situation and
the intention of the divisional artillery commander with regard to
the action of his batteries, he communicates them to his battery
commanders, and informs them if they are to accompany him during his
reconnaissance.
=As a rule, he should then seek out the commander of any infantry with
which he is to co-operate, and obtain from him full information as to
his intended action.= (_See also_ Sec. =153= (7).)
2. Before proceeding to reconnoitre with a view to selecting the most
suitable positions from which to carry out the task allotted to him,
the brigade commander should indicate to the brigade leader the pace
and general direction of the advance.
If he is unable to direct the brigade to any definite spot near its
probable position in action he should select a point or series of
points, if possible marked on the map, which the brigade is to pass in
its advance and at which he can communicate to the brigade leader any
necessary instructions as to its further movements.
If the brigade commander thinks it necessary to supplement this system
of intercommunication he may be accompanied in his reconnaissance by a
few additional men to direct the brigade at doubtful points. These men
will join the brigade when it reaches them unless they receive orders
to the contrary.
In carrying out his reconnaissance the brigade commander should be
accompanied only by such men as are essential for the purpose and for
communication between himself and the brigade, the remainder of the
headquarters with the telephone wagon following at the head of the
brigade.
A natural eye for country, and previous training will materially assist
him in coming to a decision as to the best position to be occupied. At
the same time he should be well ahead of his batteries, so that he may
have as much time as possible to reconnoitre the position before they
arrive.
3. The selection of an observing station, which is not likely to be
readily recognized as such by the enemy, which affords cover to the
observing officer and his assistants, from which the tactical situation
can be watched, and which offers facilities for intercommunication with
the infantry and the batteries should be one of the brigade commander’s
first cares. This position should be occupied and the enemy observed by
himself or another officer from the earliest possible moment.
4. In selecting the position for the batteries the first consideration
is that they should be able to carry out the task allotted to them. If
this task involves bringing fire to bear over an extensive area, it may
be advisable to divide the area into zones, and to select positions for
the batteries, which will ensure each of them observing a different
zone.
5. The extent to which dispersion, combined with concealment, may be
possible, must depend partly on the ground available and partly on the
amount of dead ground that can safely be left near the guns.
The further a position is in rear of a crest the greater become the
difficulties of command or of a change to a position in which direct
fire is possible, and the greater must the interval be between units.
On the other hand greater immunity will be obtained from hostile fire,
of which oblique or enfilade fire is the most dangerous.
At a distance of 400 yards from the crest it is doubtful if the enemy’s
searching fire would be effective.
6. A position with rising ground behind and with a wood or rising
ground in front has the advantage that concealment can be obtained
without sacrificing spaces for observation, since the battery
commanders can observe and control the fire from a position in rear.
In such a position special arrangements for the replenishment of
ammunition will be necessary, if concealment is to be maintained.
7. The following points, some of which must often be left to battery
commanders to decide, are also important:--
i. A good platform for the guns.
ii. The position and cover available for wagon lines.
iii. If the position is under cover the shell must be able
to clear the crest at all ranges at which fire is likely
to take place (_See_ See. =121=).
iv. The position, if not behind cover, should give a clear
view over the sights not only of the target, but also of
all ground on to which fire may have to be turned.
v. The approaches should facilitate the supply and
replenishment of ammunition.
=182.= _Leading._
1. Having due regard to the urgency of the tactical situation the
leader’s aim is to bring the brigade to its position for action
without being discovered by the enemy and with as little distress as
possible to the teams. Correct utilization of the ground is, therefore,
important.
To judge whether troops moving by a certain route will be concealed or
not from ground which the enemy may be occupying requires experience
and a good eye for country.
2. The brigade leader should keep well to the front to get early
information as to the brigade commander’s intentions, and to
reconnoitre the routes between the various points which the brigade
is to pass in its advance (_See_ Sec. =181= (2)). The brigade guide
will follow and conform to the directions he receives from the brigade
leader.
The number of men required to maintain communication between the
brigade guide and the brigade leader may sometimes be reduced if the
latter selects intermediate points, which the brigade is to pass in its
advance and at which any necessary changes of direction or formation
can be communicated to the brigade guide.
3. The brigade leader should try to avoid ground, such as a dusty road,
which would be likely to give indication of movement to a vigilant
enemy. He will sometimes have to make up his mind whether to make
a long detour to ensure concealment or to risk detection by moving
over a sky line. If he selects the latter alternative he must decide,
according to his knowledge of the situation, in what formation he
should move.
To take advantage of local conditions, column of sections or even
column of route may often be retained until close to the position,
but changes of formation and flank movements within view of the enemy
should be avoided and line or double échelon is then the most suitable
formation.
4. The procedure of each battery need not be identical. Each battery
leader, while employing the formation that appears most suitable, must
conform as far as possible to the general direction and pace of the
brigade.
In passing through obstacles where only a few passages exist, no
battery or section should increase its proper frontage, if by so doing
it will interfere with troops on its flank.
5. When artillery is obliged to move through other troops, notice
should be sent to their commander so that an opening may be made.
6. Movements under fire should be carried out as rapidly as is
consistent with steadiness and a proper regard for the horses and
equipment. Modern equipments are complicated and delicate and care must
be taken that guns are not moved over rough ground with unnecessary
rapidity.
7. Battery commanders should ride at the head of the brigade when in
column, so as to be ready to join the brigade commander quickly.
=183.= _Ground scouts._
1. Ground scouts are mounted men, whose duty it is to precede the
brigade and ascertain whether the ground is suitable for its movement,
to point out obstacles, and to look for and indicate the best points
of passage. Artillery should never manœuvre without them.
In mountain artillery dismounted men are employed as ground scouts and
the gunners detailed to act as pioneers may often be used for this
purpose.
2. The number of scouts employed must depend upon the nature of the
ground and the rapidity with which the movement is to be made. In
ordinary circumstances one man per battery is sufficient, but when a
single battery is moving fast over difficult ground, two or more scouts
may with advantage be sent out; one man can then halt to point out a
passage while the others explore further on.
3. Ground scouts must be told the original direction of the movement,
but they must be careful to keep an eye on their batteries so as to
conform to any change in pace or direction, and must avoid exposing
themselves to view on high ground or against the sky line.
They must be sufficiently far in advance to give ample warning of
obstacles, but never out of sight of their batteries. As a rule they
should not be less than 200 or more than 500 yards to the front.
4. If the ground is boggy or otherwise impassable, a scout will halt
and raise his right arm perpendicularly; he will then make for whatever
point appears practicable, indicating the direction in which the
brigade or battery should move. If the ground within view in front and
on either side is quite impracticable, a scout will face the brigade,
raise his right arm, and ride in to report.
5. Ground scouts must be careful not to ride on to the position on or
behind which the brigade is about to come into action.
=184.= _Occupation of a position._
1. The brigade commander, having completed his reconnaissance, will
send an officer back to meet the brigade. This officer will point out
the position of the brigade commander to the battery commanders, who
at once ride on to receive their instructions. He will direct the
telephone detachment to the brigade observing station and, if ordered
to do so, the remainder of the headquarters, and will lead the brigade
in the required direction.
2. The brigade commander should first point out the areas to be
observed by each battery or the objectives for their fire, and his
own observing station. He should then give orders as to the positions
for the batteries and whether they are to occupy “_positions in
readiness_,” “_positions in observation_,” or to open fire without
delay.
A “_position in readiness_” implies that a battery is limbered up under
cover, but that all possible alternative positions in the immediate
neighbourhood have been reconnoitred and preparations made for their
occupation.
The actual positions for the guns should be determined, aiming points,
reference points, and observing stations selected, and arrangements
made to watch the situation.
A “_position in observation_” implies that a battery is in action,
concealed as much as possible, that it is ready to open fire, and that
it is watching all ground within the zone allotted to it.
3. In deciding whether he will occupy positions in observation or
retain all or any of his batteries in readiness, the brigade commander
will be guided by the principles laid down in Sec. =147=, bearing in
mind that to commit his batteries to action prematurely may, upon
the development of the tactical situation, necessitate a change of
positions and consequent delay in opening fire.
4. The extent, to which detailed instructions for the occupation of the
position can be given will vary, but, as a rule, some latitude should
be allowed battery commanders in the choice of the actual sites for
their batteries.
If, however, the position is a covered one, confusion and delay will be
avoided if the brigade commander indicates generally the positions for
the battery observing stations. This difficulty does not arise in the
case of howitzers, where observation can take place from immediately in
front of the battery.
5. The brigade commander’s orders to battery commanders should in every
case include instructions as to opening fire.
If the batteries are to come into action, the brigade commander decides
by which of the two following methods he will occupy the position.
6. _Ordinary method._--The adjutant or other officer leads the brigade
to the position, taking care not to arrive too close to it before the
battery commanders have completed their reconnaissance and marked the
line of fire. If necessary, he must check the pace or even halt the
brigade under cover.
The subsequent procedure is as described in Sec. =193=, unless the
advance into action is to be simultaneous, in which case the adjutant
or other officer himself gives the order to advance when he sees that
all is ready.
To facilitate the leading of the brigade, the brigade commander may,
if he thinks desirable, mark the line of fire for the centre of the
brigade by placing the brigade serjeant-major about 200 yards in rear
of his own position, or by any other method so long as the officer
leading the brigade understands it.
7. _Special method._--The brigade commander selects the preliminary
position (_See_ Sec. =193= (7)), and the adjutant or other officer
guides the brigade to it.
The battery commanders select the exact positions for their batteries
and then proceed as laid down in Sec. =193= (8).
The batteries come into action independently by their own commander’s
order.
=185.= _Intercommunication service._
Communication between brigade and battery commanders should be
established immediately on coming into action, and it is the duty of
the battery commanders to see that it is so established. The adjutant
is responsible for organizing the communications between the brigade
observing station and their points. (_See_ Secs. =149=, =246= and
=247=.)
Instructions regarding field artillery telephone equipment and drill
for its use are contained in “Training Manual--Signalling.”
=186.= _Allotting objectives and ranging._
1. The extent of front which a battery can cover is given in Sec. =214=
(2). As a general rule it is better to increase the rate of fire rather
than add to the number of guns engaging any given objective.
2. If the batteries of a brigade are in action close together, and
the objective is sufficiently broad, it would usually be desirable to
divide it into suitable widths and allot one to each battery.
The batteries of the brigade may, however, be dispersed in order to
obtain the advantages of enfilade, oblique or cross-fire as well as for
the sake of concealment. Or it may be desired to cross the fire of the
whole or a portion of the guns of the brigade with those of another
brigade for the same purpose. In such cases special arrangements may be
necessary to enable each battery to obtain the range. The principle of
economy of force still applies, and when once the fire of the desired
number of batteries has been made effective an increased volume of
fire should be obtained by the increasing rapidity of fire of the
batteries engaged rather than by the introduction of fresh batteries.
3. When the probable objectives are dispersed, the extent to which
oblique or cross-fire can be secured, and the facilities for observing
its effect will be the principal factors in deciding which battery
shall engage any particular target, and the latitude to be allowed its
commander in the selection of other objectives.
4. It will be of great assistance in allotting objectives it
conspicuous features and prominent points are given names, and all
concerned made acquainted with them.
5. One method of pointing out objectives is to describe them with
reference to some prominent point, making use of the figuring of the
face of a clock. This point is termed the “_reference point_” and must
not be confused with the “_aiming point_.” (_See_ Sec. =120=.)
The reference point being considered to be the centre of the face of
the clock, the direction of any object with reference to it can be
indicated by the figuring of the face thus:--
[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
Reference point--Chimney of cottage on Green Hill.
Nature of objective--Artillery in action behind hedge,
flashes visible.
Left extremity of objective--2.30 o’clock, 3 degrees.
Extent of objective--4 degrees 30 mins.
In Fig. 28, A is the left of the objective, AB its extent, C is the
chimney of the cottage on Green Hill.
Having pointed out the objective and its extent as above, it can be
allotted to batteries by naming a number of degrees and minutes for
each to engage. Thus:--
Reference point. Chimney of cottage on Green Hill.
Left battery. From 3° to 4° 30′.
Centre battery. From 4° 30′ to 6°.
Right battery. From 6° to 7° 30′.
Changes of objective can be indicated in the same manner.
6. Another method of indicating targets is by means of panorama
sketches. (_See_ Sec. =244= (2).)
Each battery having prepared sketches of the enemy’s position forwards
two copies to the brigade commander, who letters all prominent points
on the sketches in such a way that the same letter refers to the same
point on each sketch. The duplicates are returned to the batteries, and
the brigade commander can then refer to any target or locality with
reference to the letters on the sketches.
Thus:--“Target H” or “crest of hill, 3 o’clock, from Wood B”. The
brigade commander having a copy of the sketch from the position of
each battery, can at once tell which battery is best able to engage
any target, also whether all batteries can concentrate fire on any
particular spot or not.
=187.= _Observation and control._
1. Responsibility for watching the tactical situation and
redistributing the fire of his batteries in accordance with the
progress of the fight rests with the brigade commander.
To maintain touch with the situation a position near the commander of
the infantry brigade or other body with whom the artillery is acting
has many advantages. (_See_ Sec. =149=.)
2. If the brigade commander is unable to accompany the infantry
commander himself, it will usually be advisable to detail an officer
with the necessary means of communication to do so. The duty of this
officer will be to keep the brigade commander informed as to the
position of the infantry and as to the localities from which the
hostile fire is most damaging. (_See_ Sec. =149= (4) (5).)
3. If the batteries of the brigade are dispersed the brigade commander
can usually only indicate fresh targets by means of telephone,
signalling or messenger. Such instructions may be amplified by the use
of panoramic sketches. (_See_ Sec. =186= (5) (6).)
=188.= _Change of position._
1. During the fight, the brigade commander should endeavour to have
fresh positions and the best lines of advance to them reconnoitred. In
the event of an advance to a new position being ordered, the procedure
is as far as possible the same as described in Sec. =181=.
2. Before going forward himself, the brigade commander will send word
of his intention to the battery commanders, indicate the general
direction of the advance, and give orders when it is to commence,
and if all the batteries are to move together or not. The subsequent
procedure is similar to that described in Sec. =184=.
3. In the case of a retirement, the adjutant precedes the brigade
and selects the new positions. He is accompanied by one or more
range-takers from the batteries if they can be spared and by sufficient
men of the brigade headquarters to guide the brigade commander to the
position. He will communicate the dispositions to the battery captains.
=189.= _Night firing._
(_See also_ Secs. =164= and =199= (3).)
1. In favourable circumstances a fairly effective fire can be achieved,
both in attack and defence, at close and effective ranges.
2. The use of searchlights is confined to defensive action, and is
referred to in F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 140. In addition to their use
as fixed beams, as therein stated, they may be used to search for
targets.
Up to 3,400 yards under favourable conditions of atmosphere and
background a well-defined target can be picked up, but not an
ill-defined one. Movement, however, can be detected and ranging can be
carried out at this distance.
3. Before moving guns into positions by night the following
arrangements should be made:--
i. The roads or tracks leading to the gun positions should be
thoroughly reconnoitred by those who will lead the guns.
ii. The route should be marked where required by patches of white,
bundles of straw, or anything else that will be visible.
iii. The actual gun positions should be carefully marked and the
bearing of the line of fire taken. In doing this every precaution must
be taken not to give any hint to the enemy of the intended occupation.
iv. The officers concerned should be furnished with orders in writing
notifying the time of moving off from rendezvous, order of march, route
they are to follow, and time of opening fire.
4. Care must be taken to prevent limbers or teams of a battery which
has occupied its position clashing with batteries or other troops which
are still advancing.
5. All ranks must understand that no lights or smoking are allowed, and
that the occupation of the position as well as the entrenching must be
carried out as silently as possible.
Steps should be taken to deaden the noise of wheels and jingling of
harness as far as possible.
CHAPTER IX.
BATTERY TACTICS.
=190.= _General instructions._
1. The battery is the fire unit, except in heavy artillery, in which,
each section being self-contained, the battery or the section is the
fire unit according to circumstances. To enable effective fire to be
brought to bear in the shortest possible time on such objectives as
the tactical situation may require, correct observation and promptness
of decision on the part of the battery commander are as essential as a
high standard of fire discipline throughout the battery.
2. By fire discipline is meant not only careful attention to all the
details of drill when in action, but also ready response to the signals
and orders of all superiors. It demands, in addition, endurance of the
enemy’s fire, even when no reply is possible.
3. The battery commander should be allowed latitude as regards the
choice of objectives within the task allotted to him, which may be wide
or circumscribed. (_See_ Sec. =184= (2).) If the battery commander
assumes the responsibility of departing from his allotted task he must
be prepared to justify his action, which should be reported at once to
the brigade commander.
4. The principles which guide a commander in applying the fire of his
battery in different circumstances should be known to all officers and
non-commissioned officers.
5. When a battery is acting independently, its commander is responsible
not only for its fire action, but for those other duties which are
described under the head of brigade tactics, In this case it may be
desirable for the commander to devote his whole attention to watching
the tactical situation, and to leave the conduct or fire to the next
senior officer; this may sometimes be advisable even when the battery
is in brigade,
6. For manœuvre the battery is divided into:--
The firing battery.
The first line wagons.
The “_firing battery_” consists of 6 guns and 6 ammunition wagons,
except in the case of 4-gun batteries, when it consists of 4 guns and 4
wagons. The wagon of the firing battery always accompanies its gun.
The “_first line wagons_” consist of the remainder of the ammunition
wagons authorized to accompany a battery. In Q.F. batteries these are 6
in number.
The 1st line mules of a mountain battery correspond to the 1st line
wagons of a field battery for the purpose of manœuvre. References to
the procedure of the 1st line wagons in the succeeding paragraphs apply
therefore to the 1st line mules of mountain batteries. (_See also_ Sec.
=125= (8).)
=191.= _Preparation for action._
1. The object of preparation for action is to minimise as far as
possible the pause between coming into action and opening fire. The
exact time and place for this cannot be laid down. If the enemy is
likely to be met it is advisable to prepare for action before the march
commences; if this has not been done a short halt will be necessary for
the purpose.
2. When preparing for action the firing battery will be separated from
the first line wagons which will be formed up by the captain as may be
most convenient. If preparation for action takes place while in column
of route on a road, the 1st line wagons will follow in rear of the
battery when it moves oil, but if the road is narrow it may be better
to delay the separation of the firing battery from the 1st line wagons,
in order to avoid blocking the road.
=192.= _Reconnaissance of a position._
1. The battery commander, as soon as he receives his orders, rides
forward to the brigade commander accompanied by not more than two
of his headquarters. The latter should remain under cover while the
battery commander is receiving his instructions, when they proceed with
him to reconnoitre the position for the battery.
It may also be advisable for the battery commander to take a section
commander with him. This officer should be accompanied by a signaller
and horseholder with director, and he can then be utilized to select
the actual position for the guns, to convey any information required to
the battery leader, and to mark the line of fire, should the battery
commander remain at his observing station.
2. The remainder of the battery headquarters, including the observation
wagon will follow at the head of the battery until they are required
by the battery commander, who will then send for such portions of the
headquarters as he requires before the arrival of the battery. They
should then be brought up under suitable command, care being taken to
make use of any available cover, so as not to attract the attention
of the enemy. For the same reason they should not follow the battery
commander on to the actual position, nor should ranges be taken from it.
3. The first object of this reconnaissance, if a position under cover
is to be occupied, should be the selection and occupation of the
observing station (_see_ Sec. =199=), the concealment of which from the
enemy is of great importance. The battery commander must then decide on
the approximate position for the guns, ascertain that the trajectory
will clear the crest, settle how the position is to be occupied and
mark the line of fire, unless he delegates this duty to the section
commander, who may have accompanied him. He must also decide whether
he will use his observation wagon or not, and must give orders as to
the placing of the wagon, with a view to its concealment, as far as
possible, from all portions of the enemy’s position.
4. In estimating the amount of cover that will be necessary, regard
must be paid to the general tactical situation. Defilade from the
immediate objective is not sufficient. All ground in occupation of the
enemy from which fire may be observed and controlled should receive
consideration.
5. The orders issued to the battery commander will, as a rule, include
instructions as to the position to be occupied.
A battery position may be either an “_open position_,” a “_semi-covered
position_” or a “_covered position_.”
6. An “_open position_” is one in which the objective can be seen over
the sights and in which direct laying is possible. In such positions
the guns may or may not be exposed to the enemy’s view before fire is
opened. If they can be concealed up to the moment of opening fire the
value of surprise effect may be gained coupled with good facilities for
control of fire, for distribution, and for dealing with movement. When
once located accurately by the enemy the guns are fully exposed to the
effects of hostile fire, and in conditions favourable to the enemy are
liable to destruction by direct hits and by oblique fire.
7. A “_semi-covered position_” is one in which it is necessary to
employ indirect laying but in which the degree of cover obtained is
insufficient to conceal the flashes of the guns or the dust raised by
them after fire has been opened. Such positions, as a rule, enable
direct control by voice to be used. As compared with covered positions
they facilitate the engaging of fresh objectives, and if required the
guns can be run up to the crest. Heavy manual labour is sometimes
necessitated in their occupation. Searching fire may be effective
against such positions.
8. A “_covered position_”[15] is one in which the guns and their
flashes are completely concealed from the enemy and in which it is
necessary to use indirect laying. Such positions confer immunity
from fire, but they increase the difficulty of control, frequently
necessitating artificial means of communication such as telephones,
signalling and the use of plotters. For this reason they increase the
difficulties of engaging fresh objectives and of dealing with movement.
[15] NOTE.--In normal circumstances the amount of cover necessary to
hide the flashes is about 13 feet for field guns, and 20 feet for
howitzers and heavy guns.
=193.= _Methods of occupying a position._
1. There are two methods of occupying a position:--
i. The ordinary.
ii. The special.
=The words ordinary and special apply to the method by which the
battery is brought to the firing position and have no reference to
cover, concealment, or the method of fire.=
_The ordinary method._
2. The battery commander having completed his reconnaissance and
selected the exact position for the battery, places himself where its
centre will halt for action, the battery serjeant-major marking the
prolongation of the line of fire at least 50 yards in his rear. The
battery commander will use his discretion as to whether he and his
serjeant-major, or he alone, should dismount while marking the line
of fire, but he must ensure that they are both visible to the officer
leading the battery.
3. This will be the procedure in an open position when the battery
commander intends to command from the centre of the battery, but if
he decides to command from a flank the line of fire may be marked by
the battery serjeant-major and another man, or by any other means so
long as the battery leader understands them. In many cases instead of
marking the line of fire it may be preferable to mark where the flanks
of the battery will rest.
The battery is then led up, halted and brought into action by the
battery leader.
4. When the battery commander is at an observing station some distance
from the battery the exact position for the guns may be chosen by
the battery leader, or by the section commander, who accompanies the
battery commander in his reconnaissance, see Sec. =192= (1). The
battery leader or the section commander with the battery commander
assisted by a signaller marks the line of fire for the battery, or the
position where its flanks will rest. The battery leader brings the
battery into action. The officer who chooses the position for the guns
is responsible that the battery commander’s observation station shall
not be within the danger angle of the guns when in action. To ensure
that the observing station shall not be within the danger angle (Sec.
=197= (3)) the battery commander should after laying his director on
the target or on the centre of the zone allotted to him, swing it round
through an angle of 120° towards the position for the battery. The
battery must not be behind this line, which allows for a subsequent
switch of about 15°.
5. _On rough ground_ the Nos. 1 should be sufficiently ahead to enable
them to select the best platforms for their guns. They must be careful
to halt their guns on the selected spots, for which purpose it may be
advisable for them to dismount. They should not, however, be so far
ahead that they prematurely disclose the position.
6. A covered position should be occupied by the ordinary method if the
cover is sufficient to completely conceal the guns and teams while
coming into action.
If the nature of the ground compels the battery to adopt a column
formation till the position itself is nearly reached, and it is
important to open fire without delay, guns may be brought into action
by sections, or even singly.
_The special method._
7. This method should only be employed when it is impracticable to
occupy the position by the ordinary method.
The battery commander, having chosen his position of observation,
selects or indicates a position for the battery in action and a
preliminary position under cover and close in rear, and sends his
serjeant-major, or section commander if he has one with him, to guide
the battery to it.
8. The battery commander then gives the order “SECTION COMMANDERS
(mounted or dismounted, as the case may be), ONE AIMING POST.” The
section commanders, with an aiming post for each of their guns, fall
out to the battery commander, who points out to them the target,
general alignment of the battery and position of one gun. They then
mark with an aiming post the exact spot for each of their guns
according to the accidents of the ground, care being taken to avoid
danger angles. (_See_ Sec. =197= (3).)
If the soil renders the planting of aiming posts difficult, the layers
may be fallen out to mark the positions the guns will occupy.
As soon as these arrangements are completed each section commander
brings his section into action by the simplest method.
9. When using the special method in a semi-covered position, in order
to avoid exposing the battery, the guns and wagons should be driven as
near the position as possible, and run up the remainder of the distance
by hand. It may sometimes be advisable to bring up the carriages with
wheel horses only, leaving all other horses under cover.
10. In the case of guns not fitted with the No. 7 dial sight care must
be taken when occupying a semi-covered position to select an aiming
point which can be laid on from round to round, as the planting of
aiming posts might disclose the position to the enemy. If it is found
necessary to plant aiming posts, care should be taken that the men
planting them are not exposed.
11. When using the special method in a covered position it should
be possible to drive the guns to the position they will occupy by
following the line formed by the aiming posts, and coming into action
right or left. After the guns are in position, the wagons should be
driven as near as possible to the position they ought to occupy.
Drivers should not be dismounted to lead their horses if there is any
danger of coming under fire.
12. This method has many advantages for heavy artillery, where
platforms are all important, and the guns difficult to man handle.
=194.= _Orders._
1. The battery commander should give section commanders as much
information as possible before bringing the guns into action, in order
to eliminate as far as possible the pause that takes place after the
guns are unlimbered and before fire is opened.
2. He must clearly point out or indicate the target and extent to be
engaged by each section when visible, and the aiming point or reference
point (if one is used).
His orders must also include:--
The angle of sight, or the sight to be used.
The method of ranging.
The nature of projectile, if necessary.
The corrector settings, if necessary.
The first elevation or elevations.
The interval, if required.
If under cover, the order to fire.
These orders should always be given out in the above sequence.
3. The following abbreviated words of command will be used:--
Collective for Collective ranging.
Right ranging ” Right section ranging.
No. 1 ranging ” No. 1 gun ranging.
Fire ” Commence firing.
Stop ” Stop firing.
Corrector ” Time shrapnel corrector.
Échelon ” Échelon corrector.
4. To avoid mistakes and for the sake of uniformity the elevation will
be ordered as shown in the following examples:--
1,000 yards “One thousand.”
1,800 ” “Eighteen hundred.”
1,950 ” “Nineteen fifty.”
2,000 ” “Two thousand.”
2,100 ” “Two one hundred.”
2,350 ” “Two three fifty.”
If two ranges are ordered at the same time the order would be as
follows:--
1,800-1,500 yards “Eighteen hundred, fifteen hundred.”
2,400-2,100 ” “Two four, two one,”
5,000-4,700 ” “Five thousand, four seven.”
5. Corrector settings will be ordered as shown in the following
examples:--
136 “One three six.”
150 “One five o.”
6. Angles from an aiming point will be ordered as shown in the
following examples:--
80 degrees “Eight o degrees.”
58 ” “Five eight degrees.”
=195.= _Advance for action._
1. The senior section commander with the battery leads it, and the
captain directs the movements of the first line wagons, which will
be led by a non-commissioned officer detailed by him, communication
between the two being kept up by means of the mounted non-commissioned
officers of the wagon line.
2. The directions for the maintenance of communication between the
brigade commander and his brigade, for the leading of a brigade and for
the employment of ground scouts (_see_ Secs. =181=, =182= and =183=)
are applicable to a battery acting by itself. The officer leading
the battery must avoid pressing on the battery commander during his
reconnaissance, and should not lead the battery on to the position
until he sees that the line of fire has been marked, if it is to come
into action by the ordinary method. If the special method is to be
employed he will receive instructions as to the preliminary position to
be occupied. (_See_ Sec. =193= (7).)
3. Section commanders and Nos. 1 when advancing in line will ride
ahead of their guns to select the best ground and to give warning of
obstacles.
It is the duty of section commanders to dismount their detachments if
necessary.
4. The first line wagons conform to the movements of the firing
battery. The distance to be maintained between the firing battery and
the first line wagons cannot be laid down, but should not, as a rule,
exceed half a mile. The captain must go forward and obtain information,
as soon as possible, as to the intended position of the battery, in
order to select a position for the wagon line, which offers facilities
for the supply of ammunition, and where the men and horses will be
under cover.
To avoid searching fire directed at the firing battery, the position of
the wagon line should be to a flank, or if directly in rear of the guns
not less than 400 yards distant.
If it is impossible to obtain cover for the whole wagon line in one
place, the captain must use his discretion as to how best he can
sub-divide it.
In selecting the position for the wagon line the captain must be
careful not to block lateral communication, or the lines of advance of
troops in rear, nor must he endeavour to forestall another battery in a
position which more naturally belongs to the latter. Easy access to his
own battery is essential.
5. As soon as the battery is in action he will select alternative
positions of assembly for possible use when changing position (_See_
Sec. =228= (1) iii and Sec. =229= (1) ii).
=196.= _To come into action._
(_See also_ Secs. =65=, =66=, and =233=.)
1. _Horse artillery._--On approaching the position the wagons do
not drop back unless ordered to do so, but on the command “ACTION
FRONT” are at once driven up alongside their guns, halting with their
axletrees one yard in rear of the axletrees of the gun and 6 inches to
a flank. They are then unlimbered (unless otherwise ordered) by No.
6, who lowers the perch to the ground at the same time giving “LIMBER
DRIVE ON.” The limbers reverse to their left and go to the place
selected for the 1st line wagons, forming up in front of their own gun
limbers.
2. One of the wagon limbers of the firing battery may be utilized to
give protection to the battery headquarters and will be placed where
ordered by the battery commander. Instructions to this effect must be
sent to the battery before it arrives on the position.
As soon as the limbers and teams are clear, they will proceed to the
wagon line under the direction of the captain, who, however, will not
wait to collect them, but will indicate the direction they should take
and allow all horses to get clear as soon as possible.
3. All led horses except those accompanying the teams go at once to the
wagon line independently.
4. Detachments should remain as far as possible under cover of the
shields and unnecessary movement in the battery must be avoided, as
such movement may enable the enemy to locate the position of the guns.
If, however, the guns are in action on a forward slope it will usually
be necessary to dig in the trails.
5. _Field artillery._--On approaching the position the wagons will drop
back about 10 yards in rear of the guns. As soon as the trail of each
gun is on the ground, its wagon will drive up on its left and halt with
the axletree of the wagon body one yard in rear of the axletree of the
gun and not more than 6 inches to a flank, in order to obtain the full
benefit of the shields. Wagons may, however, be placed on the right of
guns by order of the section commander, when he considers it advisable.
In either case the wagon teams will be immediately unhooked.
When the battery is coming into action under cover and the line of fire
has to be obtained, the wagons should not drive up to their guns until
the latter are in the correct line.
The procedure of the wagon limber for the protection of the battery
commander, and of teams, led horses and detachments will be similar to
that laid down above for horse artillery.
In special cases, the wagons of the firing battery may be unlimbered.
The approximate positions[16] of individuals and led horses not
mentioned in the handbook of the gun are as shown in Fig. 29.
The position of the wagon line in the figure has no reference to the
position of the battery.
The 2nd trumpeter, farrier, and shoeing-smith will be used as desirable
to maintain communication between the firing battery and 1st line
wagons.
6. _Howitzer and heavy batteries._--The procedure is as described above
for field gun batteries, except that 2 yards must be left between guns
and wagons in the case of 5“ B.L. howitzers and 1 yard in the case of
heavy batteries, for the free working of the guns in action, and in
howitzer and heavy batteries the centre of the perch should be in line
with the gun axletree.[17]
7. _Mountain batteries._--On the command “ACTION FRONT,” the guns
are unlimbered and brought into action just in front of the wheel
and axle[18] mule of each subsection. The mules move off to the rear
independently as each is unloaded, and proceed to join the 1st line
mules under the direction of the captain. The ammunition boxes of the
firing battery are placed on the ground immediately to the left of the
gun, unless cover is available close by.
[16] Ground scouts’ horses will also be with the wagon line.
[17] In batteries armed with 4·7-inch Q.F. guns the wagons will be
placed 2 yards to the left flank and 10 yards in rear of the trail eye,
poles to the rear.
[18] Axle mule in the case of the 10-pr. B.L. gun.
Sometimes a suitable position for the firing battery mules can be
obtained under cover in close proximity to the battery, where it is
inconvenient to bring, or there is not sufficient space to accommodate,
all the 1st line mules as well. In such cases the captain will select
another position for the 1st line mules further to the rear, and only
order up such extra ammunition mules to join the firing battery mules
as are necessary to ensure facility of ammunition supply.
[Illustration: _Field battery in action._
FIG. 29.
Look-out men and signallers posted as convenient.
Range-takers under cover if not employed.]
[Illustration: _Explanation of the symbols used in FIG. 29._]
=197.= _Duties of officers, &c., in action._
1. _Battery commander._--The battery commander controls and directs the
fire of the battery.
2. _Captain._--The captain commands the 1st line wagons and in
action controls the vehicles and horses of the firing battery. He is
responsible for the supply of ammunition to the firing battery and for
seeing that the wagon line is kept filled with ammunition. It is his
duty to arrange for the replacement of casualties in men, horses, and
_matériel_ (_see_ Sec. =230= _et seq._), and to select positions of
assembly (_see_ Sec. =195= (5)). To carry out these duties in action
the captain must be as much as possible in personal communication
with the firing battery; when he is not with the line of guns he will
leave one of his assistants with the firing battery to carry orders
to him. The commander of a wagon line situated on an exposed flank is
responsible for taking measures for protecting the wagon line (_see_
Sec. =148= (5)).
3. _Section commanders._--Section commanders will place themselves
where they can best see and hear the battery commander and will only
move about their sections when necessary for the supervision of their
command. In ordinary circumstances each should be in rear of the wagon
of his section which is the nearer to the battery commander.
They will acknowledge the battery commander’s orders by saluting. When
the orders cannot be heard throughout the battery they are to be passed
from one section commander to the next, not repeated simultaneously.
Each section commander is responsible that the next section commander
receives the order. If in giving an order the battery commander makes
an obvious verbal slip, it is the duty of the section commander nearest
to him to draw his attention to it.
They are responsible that their guns are laid in the direction
ordered. When the target is visible from the battery, they will give
alterations in deflection to their guns when ordered to do so by the
battery commander.
They are responsible that their guns are not fired when within the
danger angle, _i.e._, the line of fire of any gun must not make a less
angle than 45 degrees with a line joining its muzzle and the muzzle of
any other gun.
In firing from behind cover they must ascertain that the trajectory
will clear the crest (_see_ Sec. =121=), running their guns up or back
as necessary without waiting for orders if slight alterations only are
required, but informing the battery commander if a considerable change
of position is necessary.
Before reporting a gun out of action or a casualty to any part of the
equipment of their section, section commanders must first ascertain
personally whether it is possible to repair the damage with the means
at their immediate disposal in the firing line; if not, application
should be made to the captain. No casualty should be reported to the
battery commander during ranging, unless it is of a permanent nature or
likely to interfere with the process of ranging.
4. _Observing officer, heavy artillery._--He is responsible for the
efficiency of the observing parties in all respects.
5. _Battery serjeant-major._--The battery serjeant-major supervises the
placing of the battery commander’s limber or observation wagon, and the
work of the battery headquarters.
During ranging he reports the number of each gun as it is fired, if the
battery commander wishes him to do so; reports prematures, and calls
the attention of the battery commander to verbal slips or omissions.
(_See_ =210= (3).)
He will be frequently used to pass the battery commander’s orders, but
if desired some other man from the battery headquarters may be employed
for this purpose instead of him. The megaphone should be used when
necessary.
If the battery commander becomes a casualty the battery serjeant-major
must be in a position to give all information as to the situation,
target, and point on which lines of fire were laid out, &c., to the new
battery commander, and to carry on until he arrives.
6. _Nos. 1._--Nos. 1 are responsible for the correct service of their
guns. They will see that the correct angle of sight has been put on,
and will order the necessary allowance in deflection for difference in
level of wheels. They will acknowledge all orders relating to their
guns by saluting, and when difficulty is experienced in passing orders
they should assist.
If a section commander is temporarily absent from his section or
occupied with damaged equipment, the senior No. 1 not engaged with him
must act for him.
=198.= _Laying out the line of fire._
(a) _In a covered position._
1. If the target can be seen from the vicinity of the position selected
for the battery to come into action, or its direction obtained from
the flashes of the enemy’s guns, from a map, or from patrols, &c., the
battery commander, or the section commander who has accompanied him in
his reconnaissance, marks the line by planting two aiming posts.
2. The battery having been brought into action on the selected
position, lines of fire in the direction of the target can be obtained
by one of the following methods:--
i. The battery leader, or section commander who accompanied the battery
commander in his reconnaissance, sets up his director in line with the
two aiming posts and as close to the battery or its intended position
as possible, and selects an aiming point. He then measures the angle
between the direction of the target and the line from the director to
the aiming point and gives it out as an order to the battery. (_See_
Sec. =123= (3).) He will leave the director laid and clamped on the
aiming point for the information of the battery. The dial sight of
each gun is set at the angle ordered and laid on the aiming point.
ii. The director is clamped at zero and laid in the line of the aiming
posts with the foresight towards the target. The battery commander or
battery leader then faces the battery and laying back over the director
(namely, foresight--backsight) aligns it on the dial sight of each gun
in turn. The angles are noted down and communicated to the battery, or
by word of mouth to each individual gun. Thus:--
(Director (Director in front
behind battery.) of battery.)
“LINES OF FIRE”
“No. 1 152 Right” } { 28 Right
“No. 2 164 Right” } { 16 ”
“No. 3 176 Right” } or { 4 ”
“No. 4 172 Left” } { 8 Left
“No. 5 160 Left” } { 20 ”
“No. 6 148 Left” } { 32 ”
The dial sight of each gun is set at the angle ordered, and laid on the
director.
When using this method the director must be at least 80 yards in front
or rear of the line of guns.
iii. If the line of fire cannot be marked by planting two aiming posts
(_See_ para. 1) the procedure will be as follows, or as in method
iv. below. From his observing station the battery commander, using
his director as in ii., sends down the angle to one gun or to the
battery director. In the latter case the battery leader or officer
who is working the director obtains the line of fire by setting it to
the angle ordered. He then measures the angle to an aiming point as
described in i. and gives it out to the battery. When the angle is sent
to one gun the section commander to whom the gun belongs directs his
gun on to the line of fire and the subsequent procedure is as in para.
4 below. In both cases the battery commander will make the necessary
correction for displacement before sending down the angle. (_See_ Sec.
=123= (3).)
iv. From his observing station the battery commander, having fixed the
compass on the No. 3 director, measures the angle which the direction
of the target makes with magnetic North, and after making the necessary
correction for displacement sends this angle down to the battery as ...
degrees Right or Left of magnetic North.
The officer working the battery director, having fixed his compass to
the director, sets the director at the angle ordered with reference to
magnetic North and the subsequent procedure is as in i or ii.[19]
[19] At present this procedure is only possible with batteries provided
with two No. 3 directors.
3. In each method the aiming point is laid on, either through the No.
7 dial sight or over the No. 1 dial sight, or else auxiliary aiming
points are picked up and laid on, from round to round. Should aiming
posts be used, they are planted in line with the No. 7 dial sight, or
the rocking bar, or gun sights set at zero.
4. To obtain parallel lines of fire to that of a gun whose line is
correct, the battery commander gives the order “PARALLEL LINES TO NO
________” The dial sight of the named gun is used as a director, and
lines obtained as in method i.
5. In the case of guns which are not provided with dial or panoramic
sights, but with gun arcs, or the shields graduated as gun arcs, slight
modifications of the three methods mentioned above are necessary.
i. The best aiming points will be such as are within the capacity of
the arc, right or left of the line of fire, either to the front or to
the rear. Any angle can, however, be employed either by repeating the
process of switching, or by using the whole extent of the gun arc, or
by using the prolongation of the gun arc in order to obtain an angle
of 90°,
ii. When the director is behind the battery the gun layer must lay back
on the director. As the large angles cannot be read on the gun arc the
officer laying out the lines of fire will, after clamping the director
at zero on the target, align it backsight--foresight on the centre of
each breech and give out the angles.
6. If the direction of the target cannot be obtained from a position
near that selected for the battery and the distance of the observing
station is too great to render any of the above methods available, the
battery commander as soon as he has completed his reconnaissance and
pointed out the approximate position of the battery to the battery
leader, returns to his observing station; where he has previously
left his range-takers, signallers, and such other portions of his
headquarters as he requires.
Communication is at once opened up, the signallers taking care to keep
under cover. The telephone if available is laid between the battery and
the observing station. The range-takers take the range to the target,
and to the battery (if the “sub-base,” para. 7, is not used), and
afterwards to other objects in the field of fire.
The battery commander sets up his director under cover and measures the
angle between the battery and the target.
When necessary, a flag is placed on the battery director, but the
observing station director should be rendered conspicuous in some other
manner.
He then works out by means of the plotter the battery angle (T B O in
Fig. 30) and the range from the battery to the target, and communicates
them to the battery leader, =taking care that the battery angle is sent
down right or left according as the target is right or left of the line
joining the battery and the observing station= (B O in Fig. 30). He
then calculates the angle of sight and communicates it to the battery
leader.
If the dial sight is used, it is set at the battery angle, and when
laid on the observing station director the gun is in the line of fire.
If the director is used, it is set at the battery angle and laid on the
observing station director; the direction of the target is shown, when
the arrow head is brought to zero.
[Illustration: Fig. 30.
_T = Target._
_B = Battery._
_O = Observing Sta._
_F = Flag._
]
The direction of the target having been obtained at the battery, lines
of fire for the guns can be given by one of the methods described above.
7. The distance from the observing station to the battery can be
rapidly measured by the use of a sub-base at the battery. An aiming
post or signalling flag, F (_see_ Fig. 30) having been placed at a
convenient distance, 20 to 50 yards, from the battery director and at
right angles to the line B O, the angle that this base subtends at O
is measured with the director and the range deduced from the formula:--
6 Sub-base in yards
---- × --------------------- = Base in hundreds of yards.
10 Apex angle in degrees
8. Should preparations for opening fire be required and no target be
visible, a suitable reference point in the enemy’s position is selected
and lines of fire laid out to this point.
The switch angles, ranges, and angles of sight to all points on which
fire may have to be directed are then ascertained, and all other
preparations made which will conduce to fire being opened as quickly as
possible when required.
The fire is controlled and the ranging carried out in the ordinary
manner by the battery commander.
If the observing station is so far from the battery or the intervening
ground so broken that in case of emergency it would be difficult for
the commander of the battery to reach the guns in time, it may be
necessary for him to remain with the guns and to detail another officer
to control the fire. (_See_ Sec. =199=(2).)
(b) _In an open or a semi-covered position._
9. In an open or semi-covered position where the target can be seen by
the section commanders standing up, the target and its extent may be
indicated:--
i. By the director placed in the centre of where the battery will be
when in action, pointing on the centre of the target or zone, with a
N.C.O. in charge to inform the section commanders on their arrival as
to its direction and extent, or--
ii. By the director placed as before, but pointing on the reference
point, the target and its extent with reference thereto being described
to the section commanders by the N.C.O. left in charge.
In both i. and ii. the section commanders will throw their guns on to
the line themselves but the battery commander will frequently put the
first gun on to the line himself.
When indirect laying is used in such a position, the layer, after his
gun has been thrown on to the line by the section commander, will
immediately pick up an auxiliary aiming point to lay on from round to
round. With guns not provided with No. 7 dial sights, an auxiliary
aiming point must be picked up which is in the field of the rocking bar
sight or which can be laid on over the dial sight.
In a semi-covered position when the section commander cannot see the
target, the procedure will be as in a covered position.
10. Guns not provided with No. 7 dial sights will be laid if possible
on auxiliary aiming points; otherwise they will be laid from round to
round over the No. 1 dial sight on the original aiming point. Aiming
posts should seldom be necessary.
=199.= _Observation of fire._
1. To derive full benefit from the accuracy and rapid fire of modern
equipment and to ensure effective support to the other arms, correct
observation with reference to the objective is most important.
2. To enable a battery to engage an objective, a position must be
selected from which to observe and control the fire of the battery.
This is called the “_observing station_.”
The position of this station should be as close to the battery as
possible, provided a good view of the field of fire is obtainable.
With this object use should be made of any means such as a tree,
house, haystack, limber, ladder, &c. When the observing station is
near the battery it should, if possible, be behind the line of section
commanders to facilitate the passage of orders, due regard being paid
to the direction of the wind.
The officer who observes and controls the fire from the observing
station is the battery commander for the time being. Any other officer
sent out to assist in the observation of fire is called an “_observing
officer_.”
Observation should be made with glasses having as large a field of
view as is compatible with good power of magnification, and graticules
will be found of the greatest assistance. The telescope, on account of
the smallness of its field, is unsuited for the observation of fire
when ranging, but is very useful for watching the effect of fire when
ranging has been completed.
3. _Combined observation._--In the case of targets which are distant,
very difficult, or behind an intervening crest, and in night firing,
the battery commander will generally find it useful to combine his own
observations with those of a flank or advanced observing party. In the
case of a flank party the method of its employment is illustrated in
the figure which follows:--
[Illustration: Fig. 31.
T. is the target.
B. C. is the battery commander.
O. P. is the observing party.
B.C.’s O.P.’s B.C.’s
Observations. Observations. Deductions.
1. Right Left -
2. Left Right +
3. Left Line +
4. Line Line T
5. Left Left Left, give right deflection.
]
This method is also applicable when the battery commander, being unable
to observe himself and great accuracy being required, decides to make
use of two observing parties.
When this system is employed each observing party will only send in
results of its observations as right or left of the line from it to
the target. The amount right or left should be measured in degrees and
minutes.
_Heavy batteries._
4. In a heavy battery there are two observing parties, one to each
section. When the battery is intact both parties are under the
direct command of the “_observing officer_.” When a section acts
independently, its own observing party accompanies it.
When the battery commander goes forward to reconnoitre he will be
accompanied by the observing officer, in addition to the section
commander mentioned in Sec =192= (1).
The observing officer will take charge of the observing party when one
is employed. If two observing parties are employed he will superintend
the work of both as far as possible. When the battery commander
observes for himself, the observing officer will assist as may be
required.
=200.= _Look-out men._
1. As the attention of battery commanders is so much taken up by the
observation and control of the fire of their batteries, men, termed
“_look-out men_” are to be trained in every battery, whose duty it is
to assist the commander in watching areas of ground and the movements
of hostile and friendly troops.
2. Look-out men should be selected for their intelligence and good
sight, and should be adepts in the use of the telescope. There should
usually be two in each battery (not the range-takers or signallers).
One of these men may be employed, if desired, by the battery commander
to assist him in taking angles of sight, &c.
In action they should take up a position as near the battery observing
station as is compatible with the instructions they have been given.
They should be trained to co-operate with the range-takers so that the
latter may receive early information as to possible objectives.
=It is not their business to observe the fall of the shell, nor should
they be used as patrols.=
=201.= _Control of fire._
1. The fire of a battery is controlled by means of the voice or through
the medium of the telephone, signalling, orderlies, or whistle.
2. _Voice._--If the observing station is near the battery, the battery
commander gives his orders direct to the battery, or he may employ a
selected man to call them out.
If the observing station is at a distance the battery leader repeats
the orders of the battery commander. Whilst performing this duty he
will cease for the time to act as section commander, and will supervise
the means of communication at the battery. In this case a position
in rear of the line of section commanders, with due regard to the
direction of the wind, is generally best.
3. _Telephone._--When the telephone is the means of communication,
signalling communication should also be established. (_See_ “Training
Manual--Signalling.”)
4. _Signalling._--The semaphore code will be used.
Semaphore signalling with small flags can be read in a clear atmosphere
without glasses up to 1,200 yards, and with the telescope up to
2,000 yards; signalling with the arms can be read up to 600 yards in
favourable conditions.
A quick method of utilizing semaphore signalling is to employ two sets
of signallers, each pair having different coloured flags. Those with
the same coloured flags should communicate with each other only.
The procedure for “attracting attention,” “moving of signallers,” and
“erasing of signals,” will be as ordinarily employed in signalling.
Special attention should be paid to light, background, &c.
5. In sending orders or the result of observations by signal, the
following abbreviations will be used:--
Aiming point AP Fuze FZ
Air AR Go on GO
Air high AR Graze GZH
All guns AL Gun fire GFL
Angle AN Left LG
Angle of sight AS Left-half battery LH
Battery fire BY Line LIF
Both guns BO Line of fire LOTH
Centre C Lyddite LY
Collective ranging CO Minutes MIL
Commence firing FI More left MLRE
Common shell CS More right MR
Concentrate CO One round ORN
Core only or first CO Over or increase PLRE
Core and one ring CO Parallel PAOR
Core and two rings CO Percussion shrapnel PSTR
Corrector CO Probably PBR
Deflection DF Put flag on director PFN
Degrees DE Range RGG
Depression DE Ranging RGP
Distribute DI Repeat RES
Doubtful QY Right RT
Échelon EC Right-half battery RHH
Effective fire EF Round RD
Elevation EL Seconds SE
Far F Second charge SC
Fourth charge FO Section XC
Full charge or fifth FC Section fire XF
Short or drop MN (minus) Third charge TC
Stop firing STOP Time shrapnel TS
Target TG Unload or empty guns MT
Take flag off director TFD Unobserved UN
6. For communicating by signal with the wagon line the following
abbreviations may be used:--
“Send up wagons to replenish ammunition”--W N.
“Send up gun limbers”--G L.
“Send up wagon limbers”--W L.
“Send up wagon teams”--W T.
Any of these signals may also be used in combination with one another,
thus:--
“Send up gun limbers and wagon teams”--G L W T.
_Mountain artillery._--“Send up one ammunition mule per
subsection”--Both arms above the head.
“Send up firing battery mules to limber up”--Both arms extended
horizontally.
7. _Orderlies._--A long chain of orderlies is an unsatisfactory means
of communication which multiplies opportunities for error and is not
well suited to service conditions, but a chain of not more than two
specially trained men may be very useful when flag signalling would
disclose the position.
8. _Whistle._--A long drawn out blast denotes “_Stop Firing_,” only to
be used when rendered necessary by the fact that a word of command is
likely to be either unheard, or to take a long time getting through the
battery. On hearing the whistle, section commanders will order “STOP
FIRING.” Firing will be resumed on the command “GO ON.”
Batteries in brigade, or in action close to other batteries, must avoid
using the whistle unless it is an absolute necessity.
_Section control._
9. Should the battery commander consider it advisable at any time to
place the control of fire in the hands of the section commanders he
will order “SECTION CONTROL.” On this order section commanders will
direct the fire of their sections, making any alteration in elevation,
line, or corrector setting that may be necessary, or range their
sections independently as may be required. The senior No. 1 may perform
the duties of section commander.
The battery commander will watch the tactical situation and control the
expenditure of ammunition. When he desires to resume control he will
give the order “BATTERY CONTROL.”
=202.= _Methods of fire._
1. There are three methods of fire:--
Battery fire.
Section fire.
Gun fire.
2. In all methods of fire, guns are loaded and fired by order of Nos. 1.
3. _Battery fire._--In battery fire the guns are fired in succession
throughout the battery commencing from the right at an interval of 5
seconds, unless another interval is ordered.
4. _Section fire._--In section fire the guns of each section are fired
at the interval ordered by the battery commander, without reference to
other sections.
5. _Gun fire._--In gun fire the battery commander orders the number of
rounds to be fired, with or without an interval. The specified number
of rounds is then fired at the interval ordered; if no interval is
ordered, each gun is fired when reported “_ready_” and “_set_.”
In the case of an attack at close ranges, the number of rounds to be
fired is not ordered, but fire is continued until an order to stop
firing is given.
=203.= _Location of targets from aircraft._
1. The general method of procedure is as follows:--The pilot, or
observer, or both, remain close to the artillery commander. When the
latter wishes to use an aeroplane to locate a target he explains
what he requires, and if possible the nature of the target and its
general direction. The aeroplane then rises to the necessary height
behind the battery in order to run less danger of injury by hostile
fire. Meanwhile, two strips of white cloth are laid out on the ground
near the battery so as to give the supposed direction of the target.
The aeroplane, having got to the required height, flies out over the
battery to find the exact position of the target.
2. Three different methods may be adopted to convey this information:--
i. A white Very’s light may be fired from the aeroplane when
it is vertically over the target. At the battery end one
observer follows the machine with a director and another
takes the range with a one-man range-finder. The director
is clamped and the range read as soon as the shot is fired.
Provided the aeroplane is flying at a pre-arranged height
the direction and range of the target can then be found.
ii. The aeroplane returns along the line target-battery, and
continues its flight over and past the battery in the same
straight line. No light need be fired in this system but
the range of course cannot be communicated.
iii. An enlargement of the map or in certain cases a written
message may be dropped from the aeroplane giving the exact
position of the target.
A combination of any two or of all these methods may be used.
=204.= _Observation of fire from aircraft._
1. For observation of fire from aeroplanes a different system to that
ordinarily employed for ranging must be adopted. It is generally
necessary to correct for line, range and fuze in succession, and not
simultaneously.
As a rule single rounds are sufficient for observation, but it may
sometimes be necessary in the case of Q.F. batteries to fire salvoes of
two or more guns.
Salvoes may also be used when it is desired to carry out the
observation of fire of one particular battery by aeroplane, and it is
necessary to distinguish its fire from that of several others firing at
the same target.
2. Shrapnel bursting in the air can be easily seen, but it is difficult
to determine the height of burst, and consequently the position
relative to the target. Bursts on graze are generally visible. In the
case of 18-pr. guns, it is usually impossible to observe the strike of
the bullets on the ground. The burst of lyddite shell from howitzers
can be seen easily.
3. Very’s lights form the best means of signalling from the aeroplane
to the ground, and white strips of cloth, 6 ft. by 1 ft., for
communication from the ground to the aeroplane. If available a Klaxon
horn in the aeroplane is also useful. For code of signals, _see_ Sec.
=205=.
When possible, the observing aircraft should remain close to their
own guns at the best height for observation, in order to facilitate
communication. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to fly out
further towards, or even over, the target in order to ensure accurate
observation. In such cases much delay will ensue if the aeroplane has
to come back over its own guns to signal the results; on the other
hand, if it remains out in front the signals may not be seen.
4. The observer, having located the position of the target and conveyed
the information to the artillery commander (_See_ Sec. =203=) receives
from him the signal “Observe for line” (_See_ Sec. =205=).
[Illustration: FIG. 32.]
The aeroplane now moves as in Fig. 32, keeping on that side of the
battery furthest from the sun, so that the signals can be easily seen.
Shots can only be seen with ease when the aeroplane is moving out
towards the target. If the distance A to B is about 1 mile, two
rounds can be observed during each outward flight. As soon as line is
obtained the signal “Observe for range” (_See_ Sec. =205=) is sent; the
aeroplane now moves in an elongated figure of eight, as in Fig. 33,
always turning towards the target. It will keep behind or in front of
the battery according to the position of the sun. Shots can be seen at
any time.
[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
Range having been obtained the signal “Observe for fuze” (_See_ Sec.
=205=) is sent, the aeroplane still moving as in Fig. 33.
Subsequent observation as to the general effect of the fire can best be
made from over the target, the results being written out in a message
and dropped at the battery.
When the signal “Land” is sent the aeroplane comes down at a place
previously selected and not necessarily at the spot whence the signals
are sent.
Two men should be detailed from the battery to watch the observing
aeroplane, one with field glasses looking for the signals, the other
with his naked eye keeping a continuous watch on it so as to make
certain that no mistake is made as to the actual machine, since, when
there are several aircraft out in observation, confusion between them
is very likely to arise.
=205.= _Signals from and to aeroplanes._
1. With Very’s lights the following code of signals will be used for
communication from the aeroplane to the ground:--
(_a_) Before fire is commenced--
One white light I am over the target.
One green ” I am ready to observe fire.
(_b_) While ranging--
--------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
Light used. | For Line. | For Range. | For Fuze.
--------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
One red. | Right. | Over. | Air.
Two reds. | Far right. | Far over. | --
One green. | Left. | Short. | Graze.
Two greens. | Far left. | Far short. | --
One red, one green. | Line. | Range. | Fuze correct.
One green, one red. | Unobserved. | Unobserved. | Unobserved.
--------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
Succession of blasts on
Klaxon horn Am about to fire two signals.
The signal “Far right” or “Far left” should be made when the shell
bursts 8 degrees or more from the target. Any shell bursting 500 yards
or more short of or beyond the target should be signalled as “Far
short” or “Far over.” “Fuze correct” will be signalled when some of the
shells burst on graze and others in air.
(_c_) After fire for effect has commenced--
Red, green Fire effective.
A white light fired at any time after fire has commenced means “Stop,
am about to drop a message.”
2. Strips of white cloth 6 feet by 1 foot, placed on the ground, can be
used for signalling from the ground to aeroplanes. The following code
of letters formed from the white strips placed on the ground will be
employed.
3. I } Direction of target.
I }
L Observe for line.
X Observe for range.
Z Observe for fuze.
V Observe for general effect of fire.
N Repeat last signal.
T Land.
F/ Fresh target on right.
The letters I, K or A may be placed immediately after
the F to indicate to the aeroplane observer the nature
of the target, viz., I for infantry, K for cavalry,
and A for artillery.
All letters should be placed on the ground so that the top of the
letter is towards the target.
=206.= _Observation of fire from kites._
1. When kites are available the results of the observation can be
telephoned down to the guns and there is no waste of time, but they can
only operate in a wind (_See_ Sec. =150=), and their range of vision
and power to see behind cover is limited.
Kites require special consideration and the exact place from which
they should be flown should be chosen by a kiting officer. Some of the
requirements are:--
i. Concealment from the enemy of the winch and carrier kite
when on the ground.
ii. Ground not obstructed by obstacles.
iii. Sufficient room in a straight line to haul down 600
or 1,000 yards. This should be measured out down wind
and must be free from obstructions. It is possible to
haul down in a smaller space, but this involves much
preparation and a number of holdfasts are necessary.
RANGING.
=207.= _General instructions._
1. Ranging is the process of finding the elevation, fuze and line.
2. When the battery commander has given an order to load with any
nature of projectile, that loading will be continued until an order to
change is given.
3. With fixed ammunition, if a change of elevation or corrector be
ordered when time shrapnel is being fired, Nos. 1 order “UNLOAD,” and
guns are reloaded for the new elevation or corrector. A similar order
should be given when for any other reason it is desired to empty guns
already loaded, as, for instance, when ceasing fire.
If fixed ammunition is not used, and a change of elevation is ordered,
guns loaded with the fuze for the old elevation will be fired at the
new elevation. If for any reason it is required to empty guns already
loaded, the order is “EMPTY GUNS,” and the guns are fired at once
without any fixed interval.
4. As soon as ranging is completed the battery commander will send the
angle of sight, elevation, corrector or fuze to the brigade commander,
and in the case of howitzers the charge also.
=208.= _To find the elevation._
1. Under service conditions it is seldom possible to estimate with
accuracy the distance the burst of a shell is short or over with regard
to the target. The principle of ranging for elevation is, therefore, to
find two elevations, the longer of which will throw the shell beyond
and the other short of the target, thereby enclosing it in what is
called a “_bracket_.”
This bracket is large at first, usually 300 yards.[20] If a smaller
bracket is required one or more rounds, according to the nature of
the ranging employed, are fired at the intermediate hundreds. This
gives the 100 yard bracket, which in ordinary circumstances is the one
required. The elevation is then verified by repeating the two ends of
the bracket. =The important point is to make certain of this bracket.=
2. Ranging is either “_Collective_,” “_Single Gun_,” “_Section_,” or
“_All Guns_.”
The method adopted should be that best calculated to obtain effective
fire with the least delay, and with this end in view a combination of
the different methods may sometimes be used. An example of combined
“section” and “collective” ranging is given in Sec. =227=.
By “_Collective Ranging_”[21] is meant more than 2 guns fired in quick
succession at the same elevation and fuze. The form that collective
ranging should take in a 6-gun unit is the fire of half batteries
alternately; in a 4-gun unit the fire of the three right guns.
[20] Or multiple of 300.
[21] Collective ranging does not apply to howitzers and heavy guns.
By “_Single Gun Ranging_,” “_Section Ranging_” and “_All Guns Ranging_”
is meant ranging with one, two, or all guns fired singly.
In “_All Guns Ranging_” a single initial elevation is ordered,
subsequent elevations being given out singly on the observation of the
previous round.
In “_Section Ranging_” two elevations are ordered with or without an
interval.
In “_Single Gun Ranging_” either of the above two methods may be
followed, but only one gun is used.
3. The fall of the rounds is judged from the smoke of the burst of the
shell or splash of the bullets, which should be clearly observed as
short of or beyond the target.
4. In order to obtain good results when ranging with time shrapnel a
length of corrector or fuze should be employed, which will give bursts
on or just below the line of sight. When indirect laying is employed
it may occasionally be advisable to commence with a corrector or fuze
échelon series, in order to select a suitable length. (_See_ Sec. =209=
(2).)
5. Elevation should always be given at first in round numbers,
beginning, in the case of yards, at the nearest 100, or in degrees, at
the nearest degree or half degree. It is seldom worth while to make a
smaller change of elevation than 25 yards, or its equivalent.
When the whole series depends on the correct observation of a single
round, that round should be repeated and another fired with 100 yards
more (or less) elevation.
Further alterations in the elevation from the observation of the splash
of the bullets and fall of the case of the shell, when visible, are
made as required. This will often be necessary for individual guns.
If a shell is observed to strike the target, a verifying series of one
or two rounds should be fired.
6. The battery commander details the method of ranging and the nature
of the projectile thus:--
“COLLECTIVE” } { “CORRECTOR”
or } {
“RIGHT (CENTRE or } { or
LEFT) RANGING” } ... { “PERCUSSION”
or } {
“NO. ... RANGING” } { or
or } {
“ALL GUNS RANGING” } { “LYDDITE.”
“_Collective Ranging._”
7. When collective ranging is employed the battery commander gives out
one elevation and corrector for example:--
“Collective--Corrector 156--4600.”
This elevation is fired by the right half battery,[22] commencing from
the right at battery fire 3 seconds unless otherwise ordered. The
battery commander from the result of these rounds alters the corrector
if necessary, and orders a fresh elevation to the left half battery to
obtain his 300 yard or other bracket. He then sends down corrections
for line for the right half battery unless one correction to the whole
battery is advisable, in which case he will send it down before the
new corrector and range. This process is continued until the size of
the bracket is, if possible, reduced to 100 yards. (_See_ Sec. =227=,
Example 1.)
[22] In a 4-gun battery by the three right guns.
“_Section Ranging._”
8. When a section is being used for ranging the battery commander gives
out two elevations differing by 300 yards or multiple of 300 (the
longer elevation first). The elevation which is given out first is
fired by the right gun, the second by the left gun of the section, at
an interval of 5 seconds, unless another interval is ordered. If the
target is not bracketed two fresh elevations are ordered.
Should a gun of the ranging section become temporarily or permanently
disabled, the section commander continues with the other gun of the
section, or informs the section commander next him, who will place the
nearest gun temporarily under his command.
“_Single gun Ranging._”
9. If one gun is used for ranging, elevations will be given out singly
or in pairs, the general procedure for bracketing the target being
similar to the above.
“_All guns Ranging._”
10. Ranging with all guns is in certain circumstances admissible,
particularly when high explosive shell are alone to be used. Elevations
will be given out singly. In the case of field guns this method would
only be an advantage in very exceptional cases. It presupposes that the
range from each gun is identical and that observation is easy.
=209.= _To find the fuze._
1. =As a rule no special ranging for fuze should be necessary.= The
battery commander before or after ranging for elevation will select
what he considers to be a suitable length of corrector and modify it
later according to circumstances.
2. When fighting in a hilly country or when from any cause no
reasonable estimate of the corrector can be formed it may prove
economical in ammunition to fire an échelon before proceeding to fire
with time shrapnel. (_See also_ Sec. =208= (=4=).) When an échelon is
considered necessary it will, except in the case of howitzers and heavy
guns, be fired before ranging for elevation commences. The échelon is
fired by the three right guns from right to left at 5 seconds interval
unless another interval is ordered. The fuze indicators, or fuze
setters, are set at lengths increasing by 10, the order being “ÉCHELON]
... RANGE....” In ordering the initial corrector settings, the battery
commander should endeavour to select an échelon which will give bursts
in the air and on graze.
On this order the No. 1 of No. 1 gun orders his corrector to be set
at the graduation ordered. The Nos. 1 of the other guns order their
correctors to be set at a successive increase of 10. It may in very
exceptional circumstances be necessary to fire a second échelon. The
above procedure is then repeated.
3. If a gun misses its turn during the échelon the fact will be
reported to the battery commander, and the gun will be fired when ready
unless otherwise ordered. The section commander will, however, be
careful that the gun is not fired during the échelon.
4. When fire is being corrected by observation from a distant observing
station and the battery angle proves to be correct, any considerable
discrepancy between the gun range and the plotter range will be due to
a miscalculation of the angle of sight. The correct fuze will then be
that for the plotter range.
=210.= _To find the line._
1. Except in the case of fleeting opportunities, battery fire will be
continued till the battery commander is satisfied that the correct line
of fire for each gun has been obtained. Even in the case of fleeting
opportunities it will sometimes be advisable to fire a round of battery
fire at small intervals to check the lines.
To avoid waste of ammunition, especially in the case of guns which
cannot be unloaded, it may be advisable to increase the normal interval
between the rounds of an échelon or at battery fire. Line corrections
are preferably made on the fall of each round, but _see_ Sec. =208= (7).
2. The battery commander will correct the deflection for each gun
unless he has delegated this duty to the section commanders. (_See_
Sec. =197= (3).) Should he consider from the first ranging rounds that
his lines are not correct he should order an initial correction for the
remaining guns.
3. To assist the battery commander in correcting for line when the
observing station is not close to the battery, the number of each gun
as it fires, also all prematures, should be reported by signalling or
telephone. (_See also_ Sec. =197= (5).)
RANGING FOR HOWITZERS AND HEAVY GUNS.
=211.= _General instructions._
1. The general principles of ranging are the same as for field guns,
but certain differences exist owing to the equipment, weight of shell,
etc.
2. As a general rule, a steep angle of descent is a paramount condition
for effective howitzer fire. When firing lyddite, an angle of descent
of at least 20° is desirable.
3. Against troops in the open, the full charge should be employed in
order to obtain the forward effect of a comparatively flat trajectory.
When engaging objectives such as a wall, or buildings, which present a
high vertical target, the full charge should also be used.
Redoubts or overhead cover on the contrary require a steep angle of
descent; the same applies to trenches and shielded guns.
4. Howitzers frequently require individual corrections due to
variations in the muzzle velocities of the guns, but such corrections
should only be made on the observation of groups of rounds. The
smallest correction which it is worth making is one equivalent to 25
yards.
5. When a change from lyddite to time shrapnel is made and it is known
that lyddite shell range differently to the shrapnel a few rounds of
time or percussion shrapnel should be fired to verify the elevation.
Owing to the steep angle of descent it is often easier to observe the
splash of the bullets of time shrapnel than the burst of percussion
shrapnel.
=212.= _Howitzers._
1. Ranging can be carried out with lyddite, percussion or time shrapnel.
The ranging is carried out with one section or one gun of the
battery, but all guns may be used for ranging if lyddite is to be
used subsequently, and the target is of narrow front, or presents no
obliquity to the battery.
2. When a section is employed for ranging, a bracket to approximate
as nearly as possible to 300 yards, or multiple of 300 yards, should
be ordered, but round numbers should usually be adhered to, such as
28°-25°, not 28°20´-25°20´.
This bracket is further reduced to one corresponding to about 100
yards, or 1-3rd of the original bracket. The elevation is then verified
by repeating the two ends of this bracket.
When lyddite only is to be used, the bracket will be further reduced to
50 yards, and the two ends of the bracket repeated.
For howitzers fitted with the range drums graduated in yards for the
fourth charge, the B.C. will range in yards as with other field guns,
and will select the approximate ranges to start with, in accordance
with the charge to be used, by means of the ranging rule provided.
If the range rule is not available, the following calculation will give
the approximate range for different charges:--
When using full charge subtract ¼ from the _real_ range.
” fourth charge give the _real_ range.
” third charge add ⅓ to the _real_ range.
” second charge add ⅔ to the _real_ range.
” first charge double the _real_ range.
3. When ranging with one gun, or with all guns, only one elevation will
be ordered at a time, the principles of bracketting as laid down above
being adhered to.
4. _To find the fuze._--The battery commander, after ranging for
elevation, may find it necessary to order an échelon (this will nearly
always be necessary for batteries not provided with fuze indicators).
The échelon is fired from right to left by the three right guns at 5
seconds interval, unless another interval is ordered, as in field gun
batteries.
5. In the case of batteries not provided with fuze indicators, a fuze
and an increment will be ordered, such increment to be a division or
half division according to which most nearly corresponds with 100 yards.
If the battery commander begins ranging with time shrapnel the
procedure will be the same as for other field guns except that
collective ranging will not be used. (_See_ Sec. =208= (4)).
=213.= _Heavy batteries._
1. The procedure of these guns is identical with that of field
howitzers, except that ranging will not be carried out with time
shrapnel. At long ranges it is advisable to order one elevation at a
time.
2. When firing with lyddite, as with howitzers, the 50 yard bracket
should be verified. At distant ranges, however, the bracket should not
be less than twice the 50 per cent. zone.
When time shrapnel is to be used the 300 yard bracket may be found with
lyddite or percussion shrapnel.
3. The procedure in ranging for fuze is that of firing an échelon as
laid down for howitzers.
DISTRIBUTION OF FIRE.
=214.= _General principles._
1. =Distribution of fire over the target allotted to the battery
should, whenever possible, commence from the first round.=
This should not prevent a battery commander in the case of an
indistinct target from ranging on the most conspicuous portion, and
distributing his fire subsequently.
2. Assuming 50 yards to be the average distance required to burst a
shell short of the target, and that the lateral space covered by the
cone of dispersion of a shell is about 35 per cent. of the distance
burst short, it will be seen that the width a battery at normal
intervals can effectively cover when the lines of fire of its guns
are parallel is approximately equal to its own front. By “_sweeping_”
(_see_ Sec. =216=) it can cover a width of 3 times its own front.
3. When section commanders are ordered to correct for line (_See_ Sec.
=197= (3)), each of them should be made responsible for a definite
portion of the target. The extreme edge of a target should not be laid
on, as a small error might cause the shell to be wasted.
4. If it is required to concentrate or distribute the fire of a battery
over a front of a lesser or greater width than that covered when the
lines of fire are parallel, it is effected by ordering concentration
on, or distribution from, a named gun. When an aiming point is
employed an angle is given to the battery, followed by the amount of
concentration or distribution required.
5. The amount of concentration or distribution to be given will depend
on the width of the target, the angular measurement of which varies
with the range.
Thus:--
At 2,000 yds., 100 yds. measure 3°, 60 yds. measure 1° 45′.
” 3,000 ” ” ” 2° ” ” 1° 10′.
” 4,000 ” ” ” 1½° ” ” 50′.
” 5,000 ” ” ” 1° 10′ ” ” 40′.
” 6,000 ” ” ” 1° ” ” 35′.
These may be taken as the front covered by a 6-gun or 4-gun battery
respectively when the lines of fire are parallel.
6. The angle given to the battery must bring the flank guns inside the
flanks of the target. The total distribution required is the difference
between the front covered by the battery and the extent of the target.
This must be divided by the number of gun intervals to obtain the
distribution between each gun. If the target is narrower than the front
covered by the battery a similar rule applies, but concentration will
be needed.
If a switch from one target to another is involved, the angle between
the line of fire of a flank gun and the spot on which it is desired to
direct the new line of fire of the same gun should be measured.
7. _Example I._--Supposing a 6-gun battery is required to fire at
a range of 3,000 yards against a target measuring 3°, the fire of
the battery with parallel lines will cover a front of 2°. An extra
distribution of 1° is, therefore, needed. This amount divided by 5
will give 12 minutes for each gun interval, which would be taken as 10
minutes to prevent the fire of the further flank gun being outside the
target. The order would then be “DISTRIBUTE 10 MINUTES, FROM NO. 1.”
No deflection is given to the named gun, but each of the remaining
guns would be given 10 minutes left deflection for every gun interval
between it and No. 1 gun.
_Example II._--Supposing it is desired to concentrate the fire of
the above battery on the right to cover a front of about 30 minutes
at a range of 3,600 yards, the battery commander’s order would be
“CONCENTRATE 15 MINUTES ON NO. 1.” No deflection is given to the gun
named; each of the remaining guns would be given 15 minutes deflection
for every gun interval between it and the gun named, viz., No. 2 gun 15
minutes more right, No. 3 gun 30 minutes more right, and so on.
_Example III._--A 4-gun battery firing at a target whose angular extent
is 4°. It is desired to switch the fire on to a target whose angular
extent is 2°, therefore the difference 2° or 120 minutes divided by
3 (gun intervals) gives 40 minutes which is the concentration to be
ordered.
When there is a considerable difference in range from one target to the
other, parallelism should be first given to the guns before making the
switch.
After the operation of ranging has been completed, the battery
commander has to determine by what method of fire he will engage the
objective. He may do so by one of the three methods described in Sec.
=202= (1), combined, if desired, with “searching” or “sweeping.”
=215.= _Searching._
1. “_Searching_” means distributing fire in depth over an area of
ground by successive alterations in elevation.
2. It will often be impossible to obtain the true range of a target,
either owing to the difficulty of locating its exact position, or to
want of time. All that can then be done is to ascertain two limits
within which the target lies, and to search within those limits. Ranges
at which fire is seen to be ineffective are cut out and the space under
fire is thus gradually reduced.
3. Sometimes it will be necessary to range on a crest line behind which
the target is located. In this case searching should not be attempted
to a greater depth than 400 yards from the crest or other obstacle
to view, unless the battery commander can obtain information as to
the result of his fire or the approximate position of the target,
as results are unlikely to be proportionate to the expenditure of
ammunition. In this connection flank observing parties may be of great
value.
4. Orders as to changes in elevation and number of rounds to be fired
are given by the battery commander.
The amount by which the elevation should be increased for each series
of rounds will depend on the depth of ground which is effectively
covered by the burst of the shell. This amount varies from 100 yards at
short ranges to 50 yards at extreme ranges.
Should the ground to be searched slope considerably to the front, the
above increments should be increased; if to the rear, they should be
diminished. When such is the case the angle of sight will be different
for each successive range. It is generally inadvisable to alter this
angle on the sights, but the slope can be allowed for by altering the
corrector setting, decreasing it if the angle of sight is increased and
_vice versâ_.
=216.= _Sweeping._
1. “_Sweeping_” means distributing fire in width over a front greater
than a battery can cover in the ordinary way.
2. When sweeping fire is employed the lines of fire of the guns must
first of all be opened out, the amount depending on the width of the
target. To obtain the amount of sweep required after the guns have been
opened out multiply the frontage subtended by the target in degrees
by three for a 6-gun battery, five for a 4-gun battery, and ten for a
section. This gives approximately the number of minutes sweep required.
In giving the order to sweep, the battery commander will state in
degrees or minutes the amount of sweep necessary, and such order
will always be prefaced by the rate of fire required, thus:--Battery
commander orders “RANGE ... SECTION (OR BATTERY) FIRE ... SECONDS,
SWEEP ... DEGREES OR MINUTES.” On this order the first round from
each gun is fired in the line ordered, and the second ... degrees (or
minutes) to the right, and the third ... degrees (or minutes) to the
left of the line of the first. This procedure is repeated for as long
as is necessary, the fourth round being fired on the line of the first
and so on.
The guns must be re-laid for elevation and direction after each round.
If the battery is already at section or battery fire and sweeping fire
is required, the battery commander must give the order:--“AT SECTION
(OR BATTERY) FIRE ... SWEEP ... DEGREES (OR MINUTES),” as otherwise the
procedure will be as in para. 3.
3. If it is desired to sweep an area with great rapidity, the battery
commander will order:--“SWEEP ... DEGREES (OR MINUTES),” and the guns
will be fired at gun fire. With guns fitted with traversing gear on
the carriage the layer lays for direction for the first round only,
the line for the second and third rounds being obtained by moving the
traversing gear to the amount of sweep, right or left. The guns must be
re-laid for elevation after each round. After the third round is fired
the gun is traversed on to the original line and the direction checked
by the sights. If it is necessary to repeat this procedure, the battery
commander orders:--“REPEAT.”
4. _Searching and sweeping combined._--If the target possesses
considerable width and depth a combination of searching and sweeping
may be employed.
=217.= _Change of target._
1. When a change of target is ordered, the battery commander measures
the angle between the new and old target. He determines whether any
allowance is necessary to counteract the difference between the angle
he has taken and that required for the battery. (_See_ Sec. =123= (4).)
He then orders or communicates the angle to the battery thus: “ALL GUNS
... DEGREES MORE RIGHT (_or_ LEFT).”
2. With guns not fitted with No. 7 dial sight, if the angle is within
the amount of deflection which can be given on the deflection scale,
the position of the aiming posts may not have to be changed, and the
order is given thus:--
“ALL GUNS ... DEGREES MORE RIGHT (OR LEFT).”
otherwise it is necessary to move the aiming posts and the order will
be--
“LINES OF FIRE ... DEGREES MORE RIGHT (OR LEFT).”
METHODS OF ENGAGING VARIOUS OBJECTIVES.
=218.= _General instructions._
1. The choice of objective, the opening of fire, and the expenditure of
ammunition are governed by the tactical situation and are dealt with
in Chapter VII. The following sections deal primarily with the methods
by which fire can be applied with effect to various objectives.
2. The methods of ranging are described in Sec. =208=, and the examples
in Sec. =227= illustrate those methods. Officers are responsible for
using their discretion as to which method should be employed so that
the fire of their batteries may achieve the object in view.
=219.= _To register a zone._
1. A battery occupying “_a position in observation_” (_see_ Sec. =184=)
may be called upon to “_register_” a certain zone or area of country.
To do this the range should be obtained to various points in such
a manner that fire may be opened rapidly on any objective that may
subsequently appear in their neighbourhood.
Such points may be crest lines, hedges, bridges, roads, clumps of
trees, buildings, the edges of woods, or the limits of open spaces over
which the enemy may be expected to move.
Registering may be carried out with a section or single gun, time or
percussion being used. It is advisable to number or letter the objects
registered from the right, a careful record being kept of the points
registered.
2. The degree of accuracy to which it is desirable to obtain the range
to such points must vary according to the nature of the objective that
may be expected to appear. The range to a crest on which artillery is
expected to come into action must be accurately found. The limits of
open spaces over which movement may be expected cannot, as a rule, be
accurately defined. A few trial shots, therefore, may give sufficient
indication for the purpose.
=220.= _Localities._
1. Villages or individual houses may be fired on by artillery in order
to reduce their resisting power and render the approach to them
easier. Field howitzers or heavy artillery firing lyddite should be
used if available.
2. To destroy an individual house accurate ranging is necessary, only a
sufficient number of guns or howitzers being employed for the purpose.
3. To destroy a village by setting it on fire or to prevent the massing
of reserves in the streets a searching fire should be used.
4. To facilitate the attack on a village or house occupied for defence,
field guns firing percussion shrapnel may be used, as well as howitzers
and heavy artillery, as their projectiles are effective against
personnel behind all ordinary walls. Accurate ranging is necessary;
particularly for line, as it is necessary to hit each individual house.
5. If the edge of a wood is occupied by the enemy’s infantry, it should
be ranged on in the same manner as a trench (_see_ below). A searching
fire may be employed against troops taking cover in a wood, but as it
will usually be difficult, if not impossible, to establish a bracket
with any certainty, effect must depend to a great extent on chance.
=221.= _Staffs._
1. It may be possible to locate groups of officers forming staffs
either mounted or dismounted. Such objectives should be ranged on
rapidly and a quick rate of fire opened for effect till they either
disperse or disappear.
=222.= _Cavalry._
1. Cavalry when mounted must usually be engaged on the move. It may
present a variety of targets; a mass, a line more or less at right
angles or parallel to the line of fire, or an area over which a number
of comparatively small bodies is moving. The direction and pace of
movement must always be reckoned with.
2. A mass will break up under artillery fire, so should be dealt with
by rapid ranging, and an extremely rapid and intense fire till it
breaks up, followed by a searching fire with suitable deflection to
allow for movement.
3. To stop an advancing line the chief considerations are a suitable
distribution and rapid changes of elevation, arranged so that the
cavalry is always advancing into the fire.
At ranges under 2,000 yards it may be advisable to order lengths of
fuze instead of corrector settings.
4. To enfilade a cavalry line moving across the front requires
concentration of the lines of fire with varying elevations for each
section and suitable deflection to compensate for movement.
5. Cavalry, covering a wide area, requires distribution both laterally
and in depth, with deflection and alterations of range to compensate
for movement.
6. Dismounted cavalry will usually be dealt with as infantry. Its led
horses, if they can be located, form a vulnerable objective, which
should be dealt with by rapid ranging followed by rapid fire for effect
till the horses either disperse or gain cover.
=223.= _Artillery._
1. To engage a battery of which the flashes or dust thrown up by
discharge are visible behind a crest, the crest should be bracketed,
and searching fire employed for a suitable distance behind the crest.
If the slope of the ground behind the crest is known, or can be
ascertained, it may afford an indication of the distance behind the
crest to which it is desirable to search.
2. A battery in action or attempting to come into action in the open
engaged by a battery also in the open should be ranged on as quickly as
possible and should be subjected to fire for effect at the earliest
possible moment. The bracket should then be narrowed down and the fire
maintained till the enemy’s fire slackens or becomes inaccurate. If the
range is suitable and observation sufficiently easy, efforts may then
be made to destroy the _matériel_ with percussion shrapnel. To do this
each gun should engage a hostile gun, and the fire of each gun should
be carefully corrected.
A concealed battery engaging a hostile battery in the open will adopt
a similar procedure, but there is not the same need for haste, and the
ranging may be more deliberate.
3. To neutralize a battery it should be subjected to a rapid, accurate
and intense fire till its fire is mastered. It should then be observed
and if it endeavours to intervene again it should be subjected to the
same treatment. A hostile battery, the fire of which has been mastered,
may be neutralized by a portion only of a battery, which should employ
a rapid sweeping fire to compensate for the reduction in the number of
guns.
If a rapid and intense fire is desired against hostile artillery it is
preferable to employ a quick rate of section or battery fire.
4. Guns coming into action in the open can usually establish themselves
in action before the process of ranging on them is completed, unless
the range to some point in the immediate neighbourhood of the position
has been previously ascertained. If this has been done the rapid
opening of fire for effect may cripple the hostile battery before it is
able to open fire.
5. Howitzers and heavy artillery, if available, are especially suitable
for dealing with entrenched guns, the former using shrapnel against
the personnel and lyddite against the entrenchments. The latter would
preferably use lyddite against the entrenchments. Very accurate ranging
is desirable.
6. Every effort should be made to locate the enemy’s observing
stations. When located they should be engaged with a portion of the
guns available.
7. The wagon lines of batteries in action form a vulnerable objective
if they can be located. They should be dealt with in the same manner as
the led horses of cavalry (_see_ Sec. =222= (6).)
=224.= _Infantry._
1. Artillery may fire on hostile infantry for any of the following
reasons:--
i. To facilitate the advance of its own infantry.
ii. To cause the hostile infantry to deploy.
iii. To delay its advance, bring it to a standstill,
or prevent it resuming its advance.
These objects are not likely to be fulfilled unless the fire of the
artillery is sufficiently accurate to cause the infantry loss. The
losses inflicted should, however, be looked upon as the means to the
end.
2. To facilitate the advance of its own infantry against the hostile
infantry the enemy’s fire position must be subjected to an accurate
and well distributed fire. The fire position, whether it be a trench,
a series of trenches, a crest line, the edge of a wood or some other
tactical feature, will seldom be a continuous straight line parallel
to the front of the battery. The line may be broken and the range and
angle of sight to various portions of it may vary.
When engaging irregular shaped targets, such as these, it is advisable,
after obtaining a bracket on a portion of the target, to correct lines
and range during battery fire, and to order individual guns or sections
to add or drop the necessary number of yards.
This applies equally to other irregular targets besides infantry.
In the open “_section control_” may be desirable, if the target is wide
and the line broken, but during the infantry advance bursts of fire
should be in the hands of the battery commander.
Fire for effect should be arranged in bursts of section or battery fire
during which the infantry may gain ground.
3. To cause hostile infantry in close formation to deploy requires
rapid ranging, the obtaining of the best bracket possible in the
shortest possible time and a rapid searching fire for effect within the
limits of the bracket found.
If the appearance of formed bodies of hostile infantry in a certain
locality has been foreseen and the zone has been registered the process
of ranging may be dispensed with, and the full value of surprise effect
may be obtained.
4. When the enemy’s infantry is still beyond the range of rifle fire
it will endeavour to cross open spaces exposed to artillery fire as
rapidly as possible in the least vulnerable formations. If these open
spaces have been registered the advance of the infantry may be delayed
and possibly prevented by establishing a belt of fire through which it
must pass. This belt can be moved at will but if the enemy’s infantry
is only visible at intervals, accurate prediction is required as to the
places where it will be exposed to fire.
5. When the infantry comes under effective rifle fire it will be
compelled to form firing lines in the best fire positions available.
These positions should, if possible, be foreseen and the ranges
ascertained. The method of engaging the infantry when it occupies these
positions will be similar to that referred to above for supporting
the advance against infantry in position. The essentials are accuracy
and suitable distribution. The moral effect of a great volume of fire
should be borne in mind. A rapid and intense fire for a short period
may bring an advance to a standstill or prevent it being resumed. In
a similar way infantry advancing by rushes in extended order may be
stopped or driven to cover by bursts of fire.
6. The most intense fire possible should be employed to prevent the
delivery of an assault.
7. Infantry advancing rapidly to counter-attack must be dealt with by
rapid ranging and rapid fire for effect directed against the front line
of the infantry and corrected as regards range and line in accordance
with its movements. If the advance is checked a searching fire directed
so as to include the supporting troops may be usefully employed.
=225.= _Machine guns._
1. Machine guns often form objectives of great tactical importance, and
it may be necessary to subject them to a very intense fire in order
to silence them. When employed in sections they present a target with
a narrow front and accuracy of line is important. Only a sufficient
number of guns for the purpose should therefore be employed. This
would usually be a section. When entrenched it may be desirable to use
howitzers with either shrapnel or lyddite or both against them.
2. The difficulty in dealing with machine guns in action lies in the
facility with which they can be concealed. If they can be located
accurate ranging for elevation and line are necessary and a few well
placed rounds should either disable the detachments or drive them to
cover. If they cannot be located accurately it may still be possible
to obtain sufficient indication of their whereabouts to enable a wide
bracket to be obtained. Searching fire between the limits of such a
bracket must then be resorted to.
=226.= _Aircraft._
1. It is at present difficult to distinguish hostile from friendly
aircraft, but this difficulty will probably decrease in the future as
the aircraft of different nations tend to develop on distinctive lines.
The strictest control must be exercised over all fire directed against
aircraft as indiscriminate fire may endanger neighbouring units and may
disclose the position of the troops to the enemy’s observers.
2. To engage such objectives certain preparations should, if possible,
be made beforehand. These preparations consist in digging trenches for
the trails and in organizing flank observing parties with telephones.
Some modification of the usual procedure is necessary owing to the
variations which occur in height, range, and direction of these objects
under different influences.
3. _Captive balloons or kites._--Efforts should be made to enclose such
targets within the limits of a 500 or 600 yards bracket, employing a
corrector which gives bursts near the line of sight. The layer must
devote his attention to keeping the gun on the part of the target
indicated.
Subsequently the bracket having been reduced and the corrector
shortened, occasional rounds of gun fire should be fired, each section
using a different elevation.
4. _Airships._--Provided an airship is not moving across the front at
a rapid rate it may be engaged successfully in a similar manner. The
principal points to be attended to are the establishment of a bracket,
and the employment of a corrector, when fire for effect is being
attempted, which will give high bursts. A similar procedure will be
employed against aeroplanes.
=227.= EXAMPLES OF RANGING.
_Note._--These examples are only intended to illustrate the different
methods of ranging.
The methods of engaging various objectives are described in Secs. =218=
to =226=.
I.--_Example of “Collective Ranging.”_
(For all batteries except howitzer and heavy.)
Position of battery--Under cover.
Target--6-gun battery in action in semi-covered position.
Tops of shields visible from observing station.
+------+-------+------+-----+------------+---------------------------
| | | |Corr-| Observed. |
| No. | No. | |ector+--+--+------+
| of | of | Elev-| or |+ |A |Height| Battery Commander’s
|round.| Sub- |ation.|P.S. |or|or| of | Orders.
| |section| | |- |G.|burst.|
+------+-------+------+-----+--+--+------+---------------------------
| | | | | | | |“Guns in action.”
| | | | | | | |“Angle of sight
| | | | | | | | 1° 30′ elevation.”
| | | | | | | |“Collective.” “Corrector
| | | | | | | | 154.”
| | | | | | | |“3400.” “Fire.”
| 1 | 1 | 3400 | 154 |? |A | 20′ |“No. 1--30′ more right.”[23]
| 2 | 2 | ” | ” |? |A | 20′ |“No. 2--1° more right.”[24]
| 3 | 3 | ” | ” |+ |A | 5′ |“No. 3--30′ more right.”[25]
| | | | | | | |“All guns 30′ more
| | | | | | | | right.”[26]
| | | | | | | |“Corrector 162.” “3100.”
| 4 | 4 | 3100 | 162 |- |A | 5′ |“No. 4--10′ more left.”[27]
+------+-------+------+-----+--+--+------+---------------------------
N.B.--Notes [23] and [24] apply to 6-gun batteries only. In 4-gun
batteries individual corrections for line must be sent down
_before_ the new corrector or elevation is given.
[23] These individual corrections are noted but will not be sent down
to the battery, as one correction proves sufficient for all guns.
[24] These individual corrections are noted but will not be sent down
to the battery, as one correction proves sufficient for all guns.
[25] These individual corrections are noted but will not be sent down
to the battery, as one correction proves sufficient for all guns.
[26] As the correction is one for all guns it is sent down _before_ the
new corrector and elevation.
[27] Individual corrections are noted but will not be sent down to the
battery until the elevation for the next salvo has been given.
I.--_Example of “Collective Ranging”--continued._
------+-------+------+-----+------------+---------------------------
| | |Corr-| Observed. |
No. | No. | |ector+--+--+------+
of | of |Elev- | or |+ |A |Height| Battery Commander’s
round.| Sub- |ation.|P.S. |or|or| of | Orders.
|section| | |- |G.|burst.|
------+-------+------+-----+--+--+------+---------------------------
5 | 5 | 3100 | 162 |- |G | ... |“No. 5--20′ more right.”[28]
6 | 6 | ” | ” |- |G | ... |“3300.”
7 | 1 | 3300 | ” |- |A | 5′ |
8 | 2 | ” | ” |- |G | ... |“No. 2--20′ more right.”
9 | 3 | ” | ” |- |A | 5′ |“Corrector 158” “3350.”
| | | | | | | “Battery fire 10 seconds.”
10 | 1 | 3350 | 158 |- |A | 10′ |
11 | 2 | ” | ” |+ |G | |
12 | 3 | ” | ” |- |A | 10′ |
13 | 4 | ” | ” |- |A | 5′ |
14 | 5 | ” | ” |- |A | 15′ |
15 | 6 | ” | ” |- |A | 10′ |
16 | 1 | ” | ” |- |A | 5′ |
17 | 2 | ” | ” |- |G | |
18 | 3 | ” | ” |- |A | 10′ |“5 seconds.” [29]
------+-------+------+-----+--+--+------+---------------------------
[28] Individual corrections are noted but will not be sent down to the
battery until the elevation for the next salvo has been given.
[29] Line having been accurately found the battery commander varies
his rate of fire to such speed as the tactical situation may demand.
II.--_Example of combined “Section” and “Collective Ranging.”_
(For all batteries except howitzer and heavy.)
Position of battery--Under Cover.
Target--6-gun battery in action (visible).
------+-------+------+-----+----------------+------------------------
| | |Corr-| Observed. |
No. | No. | |ector+---+---+--------+
of | of |Elev- | or | + |A | Height | Battery Commander’s
round.| Sub- |ation.|P.S. |or |or | of | Orders.
|section| | | - |G. | burst. |
------+-------+------+-----+---+---+--------+------------------------
| | | | | | |“Guns in action.”
| | | | | | |“Angle of sight
| | | | | | | 1° 30’ elevation.”
| | | | | | |“Right Ranging.”
| | | | | | | “ Percussion.”[30]
| | | | | | |“45--42.” “Fire.”
1 | 1 | 4500 | P.S.| + |...| ... |“No. 1--30′ more right.”
2 | 2 | 4200 | ” | - |...| ... |“No. 2--30′ more right.”
| | | | | | |“Remainder 30’ more
| | | | | | | right.”
| | | | | | |“Collective.” “Corrector
| | | | | | | 154.”
| | | | | { 20′ |“4300.”
3 | 1 | 4300 | 154 |...| A{ (Bullets|
| | | | | { short).|
4 | 2 | ” | ” | ? | A | 20′ |
5 | 3 | ” | ” | - | A | 5′ |“Corrector 162.” “4400.”
6 | 4 | 4400 | 162 | + | A | 5′ |“No. 4--10′ more left.”
7 | 5 | ” | ” | + | G | ... |“No. 5--20′ more right.”
8 | 6 | ” | ” | + | G | ... |“Corrector 158.” “4350.”
| | | | | | |“Battery Fire
| | | | | | | 10 seconds.”
9 | 1 | 4350 | 158 | - | A | 10′ |
10 | 2 | ” | ” | - | A | 10′ |
11 | 3 | ” | ” | + | G | ... |“No. 3--10′ more left.”
12 | 4 | ” | ” | - | A | 10′ |
13 | 5 | ” | ” | - | A | 5′ |
14 | 6 | ” | ” | - | A | 10′ |“Section fire
| | | | | | | 10 seconds.”[31]
------+-------+------+-----+---+---+--------+------------------------
[30].--NOTES Or “Corrector 154.” “45--42.”
[31].--Or “Battery fire ... seconds.”
III.--_Example of “Section Ranging.”_
(For all batteries.)
Position of battery--In the open, supporting an infantry attack.
Target--A trench clearly visible from the battery. The trench,
its extent and the portion allotted to each section are
communicated to the section commanders.
------+-----+------+----+-------------------+-----------------------
| No. | |Cor-| Observed. |
No. | of |Eleva-|rec-+-----+---+---------+
of |Sub- |tion. |tor | + | A | Height | Battery Commander’s
round.|sec- | | or | or |or | of | Orders.
|tion.| |P.S.| - | G.| burst. |
------+-----+------+----+-----+---+---------+-----------------------
| | | | | | |“Open Sights” (or
| | | | | | | “Telescope sights”).
| | | | | | | “Right ranging.”
| | | | | | | “Percussion.”[32]
| | | | | | |“28--25.” “10
| | | | | | | seconds.”[33]
1 | 1 | 2800 |P.S.| + |...| ... |“Section Commanders
| | | | | | | correct for line.”
2 | 2 | 2500 | “ | - |...| ... |”27--26.“ ”2
| | | | | | | seconds.“[34]
3 | 1 | 2700 | ” | + |...| ... |
4 | 2 | 2600 | “ | + |...| ... |”26--25.”
5 | 1 | 2600 | “ | + |...| ... |
6 | 2 | 2500 | ” | - |...| ... |“Corrector 144”
| | | | | | | “2550.” “Battery
| | | | | | | Fire, 10 seconds.”[35]
------+-----+------+----+-----+---+---------+-----------------------
[32] Or “Corrector 152”--“28--25.”
[33] Interval suitable to time of flight is ordered as the battery is
firing over the heads of its own infantry which is approaching the
objective.
[34] The battery commander is satisfied that his infantry is in no
danger from his fire, so he shortens the interval.
[35] As battery commander is not certain that the whole extent of the
target is parallel to the front of the battery, he orders a longer
interval in order that he may correct the range of individual guns if
necessary.
III.--_Example of “Section Ranging”--continued._
------+-----+------+----+-------------------+------------------------
| No. | |Cor-| Observed. |
No. | of |Eleva-|rec-+-----+---+---------+
of |Sub- |tion. |tor | + | A | Height | Battery Commander’s
round.|sec- | | or | or |or | of | Orders.
|tion.| |P.S.| - | G.| burst. |
------+-----+------+----+-----+---+---------+------------------------
7 | 1 | 2550 |144 | ... | A | 5’ |
8 | 2 | ” | “ | + | G | ... |
9 | 3 | ” | ” | - | G | ... |“Corrector 138.”
10 | 4 | ” |138 | ... | A | 10′ |
| | | | | |{ 10′ |
11 | 5 | ” | “ | ... | A |{(Bullets|
| | | | | |{ over) |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | |{ 10′ |
12 | 6 | ” | ” | ... | A |{(Bullets| “Left section drop 50.”
| | | | | |{ over) |
13 | 1 | ” | “ | ... | A | 10′ |
14 | 2 | ” |... |Range| G | ... |
15 | 3 | ” |... | ... | A | 10′ |
16 | 4 | ” |... | ... | A | 5′ |
17 | 5 | 2500 |... | ... | A | 10′ |
18 | 6 | ” |... | ... | A | 10′ |
19 | 1 | 2550 |... | ... | A | 10′ |”2 seconds.“[36]
20} | | | | | | |
to} | ... | ... |... | ... |...| ... |”20 seconds.“[37]
40} | | | | | | |
------+-----+------+----+-----+---+---------+------------------------
[36] Battery commander sees that his infantry is checked, so orders a
burst of fire.
[37] Battery commander seeing that his own infantry has been helped to
advance, as desired, comes back to a slow rate.
IV.--_Example of engaging advancing (or retiring) infantry._
Position of battery--In observation under cover, with orders to delay
the advance of hostile infantry in a certain zone. Ground has been
registered.
Target--Lines of infantry. The angle of sight to a point towards which
they are advancing has been previously registered as 20’ depression,
the range as 3,650 yards.
------+-----+------+----+--------------+----------------------------
| No. | |Cor-| Observed. |
No. | of |Eleva-|rec-+---+---+------+
of |Sub- |tion. |tor | + | A |Height| Battery Commander’s
round.|sec- | | or |or |or | of | Orders.
|tion.| |P.S.| - | G.|burst.|
------+-----+------+----+---+---+------+----------------------------
| | | | | | |“All guns 3° more right.”
| | | | | | |“Angle of sight
| | | | | | | 20′ depression.”
| | | | | | |“Right ranging.”
| | | | | | |“Percussion.”[38]
| | | | | | |“37--36.” “Fire.”
1 | 1 | 3700 |P.S.| + | | |
2 | 2 | 3600 | “ | - |...| ... |”All guns 1° more right.”
| | | | | | |“Corrector 146.”
| | | | | | |“3650.” “One round battery
| | | | | | | fire 10 seconds.”
3 | 1 | 3650 |146 | - | A | 10′ |
4 | 2 | ” | “ | - | G | ... |”No. 2--20′ more right.”
5 | 3 | ” | “ | - | A | 15′ |
6 | 4 | ” | ” | - | A | 10′ |
7 | 5 | ” | “ | + | G | ... |”No. 5--10′ mere left.”
8 | 6 | ” | “ | - | A | 5′ |[39]
------+-----+------+----+---+---+------+----------------------------
[38]--Or “Corrector 154.”
[39]--Battery commander has now corrected his lines and has
established a “belt” of fire parallel to the front of his guns, through
which the infantry must pass. In this example lines are not opened
out. The whole “belt” can be shifted up and down, right or left, as
the subsequent movement of the enemy may dictate, and a quick rate of
battery or section fire can be employed as necessary.
V.--_Example of “Section Ranging.”_
(Howitzer battery. Ranging in degrees.)
Position of battery--Under cover, supporting an infantry attack.
Target--A trench.
Battery commander issues instructions for obtaining the line of fire.
Range-takers range 3300.
LEGEND:
A = No. of Subsection
B = Elevation.
C = Projectile.
D = Corrector.
------+-------+------+-----+----+-------------------+---------------
| | | | | Observed. |
No. | A | B | C | D +--+-----+---+------+
of | | | | |+ | |A |Height| Battery
round.| | | | |or|Line.|or | of | Commander’s
| | | | |- | |G. |burst.| Orders.
------+-------+------+-----+----+--+-----+---+------+---------------
| | | | | | | | |“Trench.”
| | | | | | | | |“Angle of
| | | | | | | | | sight.......”
| | | | | | | | |“Right ranging
| | | | | | | | | lyddite.[40]
| | | | | | | | | 3rd charge.”
| | | | | | | | |“26°--23°, fire.”
1 | 1 | 26° | L |... |+ |Left | | |
2 | 2 | 23° | L |... |- | ” |...| ... |“All guns 1°
| | | | | | | | | more right.”
| | | | | | | | | “25°--24°.”
3 | 1 | 25° | L |... |+ |Right|...| ... |“No. 1--20’
| | | | | | | | | more left.”
4 | 2 | 24° | L |... |- |Line |...| ... |“Repeat.” “Time
| | | | | | | | | shrapnel.”
5 | 1 | 25° | L |... |+ | ” | | |
6 | 2 | 24° | L |... |- | ” |...| ... |“Échelon 140.”
| | | | | | | | | “24° 30′.”
7 | 1 |24°30′| T.S.|140 |? | ” | A | 60′ |
8 | 2 | ” | ” |150 |+ | ” | A | 40′ |
9 | 3 | ” | ” |160 |? |Right| A | 10′ |“No. 3--1° more
| | | | | | | | | left.”[41]
| | | | | | | | |“Corrector 154,
| | | | | | | | | one round
| | | | | | | | | battery fire.”
10 | 1 | ” | ” |154 |- |Line | G | |
11 | 2 | ” | ” | “ |- | ” | A | |
12 | 3 | ” | ” | ” |? |Left | A | ... |“No. 3--20′ more
| | | | | | | | | right.”[42]
13 | 4 | ” | ” | “ |? |Right| A | ... |”No. 4--30′
| | | | | | | | | more left.”
14 | 5 | ” | ” | “ |+ |Line | A | |
15 | 6 | ” | ” | ” |+ | ” | G | ... |“Section fire
| | | | | | | | | 40 secs.”
------+-------+----------+------+--+-----+---+------+---------------
NOTES.--With 3rd Charge 1° elevation = 85 yards.
With 3rd Charge 50% zone = 45 yards.
[40] Or “Right ranging, 3rd Charge, Corrector 150, 26°--23°. fire.”
[41] Splash of bullets visible.
[42] Splash of bullets visible.
VI.--_Example of “Single Gun Ranging.”_
(Heavy battery.)
Position of battery--Under cover.
Target--Guns in open.
Battery commander issues instructions for obtaining parallel
lines of fire.
------+-------+------+-----+----+-------------------+---------------
| No. | | | | Observed. |
No. | of |Eleva-|Pro- |Cor-+--+-----+---+------+
of |Subsec-|tion. |jec- |rec-|+ | |A |Height| Battery
round.| tion | |tile.|tor.|or|Line.|or | of | Commander’s
| | | | |- | |G. |burst.| Orders.
------+-------+------+-----+----+--+-----+---+------+---------------
| | | | | | | | |“Guns in action.”
| | | | | | | | |“Angle of sight
| | | | | | | | | --1° 30′”
| | | | | | | | | elevation.”
| | | | | | | | |“No. 1 ranging.”
| | | | | | | | |“Lyddite.”
| | | | | | | | |“6800.” “Fire.”
1 | 1 | 6800 | L | |+ |Left | | |“All guns 20′
| | | | | | | | | more right.”
| | | | | | | | |“6500.”
2 | 1 | 6500 | L | |- |Line | | |“6700.”
3 | 1 | 6700 | P.S.| |- | ” | | |“6800.”
4 | 1 | 6800 | ” | |+ | ” | | |“6700.” “Time
| | | | | | | | | shrapnel.”
5 | 1 | 6700 | ” | |+ | ” | | |“Échelon 140.”
| | | | | | | | | “6700.”
| | | | | | | | |
6 | 1 | ” | T.S.|140 |? | ” | A | 40′ |
7 | 2 | ” | ” |150 |- |Left | A | 10′ |“No. 2--30′
| | | | | | | | | more right.”
8 | 3 | ” | ” |160 |+ | ” | G | |“No. 3--20′
| | | | | | | | | more right.”
| | | | | | | | |“Corrector 146.”
| | | | | | | | | “One
| | | | | | | | | round battery
| | | | | | | | | fire.”
9 | 1 | ” | ” |146 |- |Line | A | 30′ |
10 | 2 | ” | ” | “ |+ | ” | A | 20′ |
11 | 3 | ” | ” | ” |- | ” | A | 10′ |
12 | 4 | ” | ” | “ |? |Left | A | 25′ |”No. 4--10′
| | | | | | | | | more right.”
| | | | | | | | |“Section fire,
| | | | | | | | | 40 seconds.”
------+-------+------+-----+----+--+-----+---+------+---------------
CHANGE OF POSITION.
=228.= _To advance._
1. The alternative methods are as follows, that adopted depending upon
the circumstances of the moment.
i. The battery commander orders “PREPARE TO ADVANCE” and
issues his instructions to the battery leader. The
captain orders up the gun limbers followed by the first
line wagons. As these approach the position the battery
commander orders “CEASE FIRING,” “FRONT (OR REAR) LIMBER
UP.” The firing battery wagons remain on the position
and are removed under the orders of the captain.
ii. If it is proposed to advance with the firing battery
wagons the battery commander orders “WITH FIRING BATTERY
WAGONS PREPARE TO ADVANCE.” Procedure is similar to that
in i., except that the teams (or limbers, if wagons have
been unlimbered) of the firing battery wagons are sent
up in the place of the first line wagons.
iii. The battery commander orders “PREPARE TO LIMBER UP,”
and issues instructions to the battery leader and
section commanders. The guns are run back to cover by
hand and limbered up independently under the supervision
of section commanders. The captain directs the first
line wagons under charge of a non-commissioned officer
to the position of assembly (Sec. =195= (5)), and sends
up each limber to its gun as soon as he sees that
it is required. When limbered up each gun proceeds
independently to the position of assembly, where it is
formed up by the non-commissioned officer in charge of
the first line wagons. The firing battery wagons are
left on the position to be removed under the orders of
the captain as circumstances permit.
In a covered position it will generally be possible to adopt methods i.
or ii.
In an open or semi-covered position a cessation of hostile fire may
permit of method i., but more often it will be necessary to adopt
method iii.
On occasions it may be advisable to move a portion of the battery
covered by the fire of the remaining guns.
=229.= _To retire._
1. When a retirement is contemplated the battery commander informs
the captain of his intentions, specifying the general direction to be
followed, and, should he intend the battery to come into action again,
the approximate locality of the new position. He will also give orders
as to whether the first line wagons are to accompany or precede the
battery in the retirement. The captain arranges for the movement of the
first line wagons accordingly.
Two alternative methods of carrying out the retirement are given, that
adopted depending upon the circumstances of the case, and being subject
to modifications if the battery is under heavy hostile fire.
i. The battery commander orders “PREPARE TO RETIRE”
and issues his instructions to the battery leader. The
captain orders up the gun limbers, followed by the teams
(or limbers, if wagons have been unlimbered) of the
firing battery wagons. As these approach the position
the battery commander orders “CEASE FIRING,”
“REAR (OR FRONT) LIMBER UP.”
ii. The battery commander orders “TO RETIRE, PREPARE TO
LIMBER UP,” and issues any necessary instructions to
the battery leader and section commanders. A few rounds
are taken from each wagon and laid on the ground beside
the gun. The firing battery wagons are run back under
cover by hand. Their teams (or limbers, if wagons have
been unlimbered) are then sent up by the captain as
required, and the wagons driven to the position of
assembly. As soon as the battery commander sees that the
firing battery wagons are clear, he orders “CEASE
FIRING,” and the guns are run back by hand and
limbered up as in method iii., Sec. =228=.
It may sometimes be advisable to withdraw a portion of the battery
covered by the fire of the remaining guns.
Should it be intended to come into action again, the captain (or a
section commander), as soon as his duties allow, accompanied by the
range-takers, and such other members of the battery headquarters as can
be spared, proceeds to reconnoitre and select the new position.
In a covered position it will generally be possible to adopt method i.
In an open or semi-covered position a cessation of hostile fire may
permit of method i., but more often it wall be necessary to adopt
method ii.
REPLACEMENT OF CASUALTIES.
=230.= _Casualties on the move._
1. If during an advance or retirement a wagon becomes separated from
its gun, the gun will proceed and come into action with the battery.
The wagon will drive up into its place as soon as it is able to catch
up, or in case of a serious breakdown, the captain will send up a wagon
from the first line wagons. Till the arrival of the wagon, ammunition
will be obtained from the wagon limber of the other gun of the section.
Should a casualty occur to a gun, the damage should, when possible, be
made good from its wagon.
2. In mountain artillery, if a firing battery mule becomes a casualty,
its load will at once be transferred to the relief mule, another relief
mule to replace this one being immediately ordered up from the first
line mules. It will sometimes save delay, when the distance to the
position for action is short, to bring up the load by hand.
=231.= _Casualties in action._
1. The following rules refer to the immediate replacement of casualties
in action. They do not preclude other arrangements being subsequently
made by superior authority. (_See also_ Handbook of the gun.)
1. Casualties are replaced by the next senior as soon as circumstances
permit. All ranks must, therefore, know what duties they will perform
in the event of casualties occurring.
ii. If, when the battery commander becomes a casualty, the captain is
not with the line of guns, the senior section commander will command
until the latter arrives.
In cases where the battery commander only leaves the battery
temporarily (as, for instance, when he is the senior battery commander,
and takes command of the brigade while its commander is reconnoitring),
the senior section commander leads the battery, the captain remaining
in charge of the wagons.
iii. Men sent up to replace casualties will report themselves to the
section commanders who should order such changes of duties in their
detachments as they consider necessary. Section commanders must
remember that the layer will probably not show any visible signs of
fatigue until long after he has for the time being lost his efficiency
as a layer. When firing is continuous he should be changed after about
half an hour.
iv. Wounded will be sent back to the line of wagons, if it can be done
without impediment to the service of the guns, from whence they will be
removed to the dressing station.
2. Ammunition wagons may be ignited on being struck either by
projectiles or bullets, the liability increasing with the amount of
wood used in the construction of the wagons or boxes. Should a wagon
be ignited by a projectile there is usually very little danger of it
blowing up immediately; attempts should therefore at once be made to
put out the fire, remove the ammunition from the wagon, or move the
wagon away.
CHAPTER X.
AMMUNITION SUPPLY.
=232.= _General instructions._
1. The necessity for an ample supply of ammunition for guns and rifles
makes the position of wagon lines and ammunition columns in action a
matter of great importance.
2. The object to be kept in view therefore is that the various échelons
should be so situated on the march that when an engagement takes place
it may be possible to arrange for a regular supply of ammunition from
rear to front to replace that expended in action.
The supply from ammunition columns is not necessarily restricted to
troops of their own division or brigade; any troops are to receive
ammunition on demand during an action, from any column which may be at
hand.
3. The work of replenishment is divided between:--
i. Units with the fighting troops.
ii. Units on the line of communication, working under the
inspector-general of communications.
4. The artillery ammunition available with the fighting troops is
distributed in action as follows:--
i. The firing battery.
ii. First line wagons. (Mtn. Art., 1st line mules.)
iii. Brigade ammunition columns.
iv. Divisional ammunition columns.
Details regarding the amounts carried for the various types of ordnance
are shown in “War Establishments.”
=233.= _Ammunition supply within the battery._
(_Wagon supply._)
1. The supply of ammunition will be, as a rule, first from the wagon
body and next from the wagon limber. When the ammunition in the wagon
body is exhausted it will be unlimbered and run out of the way, and the
limber will be run back till its axletree is in line with that of the
gun.
The captain is responsible for maintaining the supply of ammunition in
the battery.
_Mountain artillery._--The battery supply of ammunition is carried on
8 ammunition mules, of which 2 accompany the firing battery and 6 go
with the 1st line mules. The supply of ammunition will be from the
first pair of boxes with the firing battery, while the ammunition in
the second pair of boxes will be kept as a reserve, and only used in
emergency.
(_Limber supply._)
2. It may sometimes be necessary for the guns of a firing battery to
leave the wagons and trust to the ammunition in the limbers. The horses
will then be unhooked from the limbers as soon as the limbers have
reversed, and the limbers will be placed in position by hand on the
right of the guns, poles to the front, axletrees of limbers in line
with, and 6 inches from, the axletrees of the guns.
In the case of horse artillery taking part in a cavalry action, or of
field artillery, when limbered up, being charged by cavalry, it may be
necessary to draw ammunition from the limbers without unhooking. The
battery commander orders “WITHOUT UNHOOKING LIMBER SUPPLY,” and on
coming into action, the limber is halted 5 yards in rear of the trail
eye, the team facing to the rear.
In either case if the wagons arrive, they will not be brought up to the
firing battery, unless specially ordered, but will be halted in such a
position as to be available for the next move, when, if required, the
wagon limbers may be substituted for the gun limbers.
=234.= _Replenishment of ammunition._
1. When the captain becomes aware, either by personal observation or
by the receipt of information from the battery that ammunition is
required, he will send or order forward the first line wagons.
2. It is his duty to arrange how the wagons can best be brought up to
the firing battery and to inform section commanders of his proposed
arrangements.
If the battery is not under a heavy fire, and there is no danger of
disclosing the position of guns hitherto undetected by the enemy, the
wagons can be driven into position on the right of the guns, the teams
subsequently hooking into the empty wagons and taking them back to the
wagon line.
Sometimes it may be feasible to push forward a few wagons from the
first line wagon position to a point nearer to the battery, from which
the replenishment of ammunition can be carried out by hand, using
ammunition carriers.
3. Whenever the brigade commander, or battery commander if acting
independently, considers that the tactical situation or the position
the guns will occupy, make it desirable to have more ammunition with
the guns than is contained in the six wagons, he may order the first
line wagons to accompany the battery into action. In this case the
first line wagons follow the firing battery wagons. The latter form up
and unhook in the usual manner; the former halt as close as possible
in rear of the guns, unlimber, and the limbers return with the gun
limbers.
_Mountain Artillery._
When the ammunition in the first pair of boxes is becoming exhausted,
the captain orders up one mule per subsection from the 1st line; these
will be sent up under a N.C.O.
The reserve numbers take off the full boxes and load up the empty ones,
while No. 5 takes out any rounds that may be unexpended from the first
pair of boxes, placing them under the lid of one of the second pair.
The mules with the empty boxes will be led back to the 1st line by the
N.C.O. who brought them up. If the firing battery mules are separated
from the 1st line, six more ammunition mules will then be sent under a
N.C.O. to join them.
In order that the battery may always move with two full pairs of
boxes per subsection in the firing battery, the captain will see that
one ammunition mule per subsection loaded with a full pair of boxes
accompanies the firing battery mules, when the order to limber up is
given. The partly empty pair of boxes will be loaded upon the mule sent
up for the purpose, which will then join the 1st line.
The ammunition in partly empty boxes will be redistributed so as to
keep as many full boxes as possible, and mules with empty boxes will be
sent to the ammunition column to replenish.
=235.= _Brigade ammunition columns._
1. Brigade ammunition columns form an integral part of the artillery
brigades to which they belong. Besides supplying ammunition, they form
a reserve in men, horses, and _matériel_ to the batteries of their
brigade. If necessary their own efficiency must be sacrificed to make
good losses in the batteries. In cases of emergency help should also be
extended to batteries of other brigades.
2. Brigade ammunition columns usually march in the rear of the
fighting troops of their division, or brigade in the case of a cavalry
brigade not allotted to a cavalry division. =When an action is
probable a non-commissioned officer from the ammunition column should
accompany the headquarters of the artillery brigade for purposes of
intercommunication=.
3. The position of the columns during a battle will normally be
regulated by artillery brigade commanders in accordance with the
instructions of divisional artillery commanders. It may sometimes be
necessary for the higher commanders to issue special orders as to
their positions and as to the units they are to supply. The positions
selected should offer facilities for intercommunication and movement,
and should be about a mile in rear of the battery wagon lines.
4. On arriving at the position allotted him the commander of a
brigade ammunition column will inform the commander of the artillery
brigade of his arrival, and place himself in communication with the
units he receives orders to supply. He will provide the commander of
the infantry brigade ammunition reserve and each battery wagon line
commander with an orderly, who is to be used only in connection with
ammunition supply. One of the mounted men with the battery wagon line
should also know the position of the column and the best way to it.
5. If troops are scattered, it may be necessary to distribute the
sections of the ammunition column in order to bring the reserves of
ammunition nearer the troops engaged. Commanders of sections will then
deal direct with wagon line or infantry brigade ammunition reserve
commanders, keeping the brigade ammunition column commander informed
of the issues made by them.
6. On receipt of a message that ammunition is wanted, the column
commander will send forward the number of wagons or carts demanded
(under an officer if possible) the orderly who brought the message
being used to guide them to their destination. The ammunition is then
either transferred from the full to the empty vehicles, or an exchange
of vehicles is effected. If the latter procedure is adopted, it will be
necessary to transfer men’s cloaks and equipment from one set of wagons
to the other.
If the position of the wagon line or infantry brigade ammunition
reserve is much exposed, the empty vehicles should be withdrawn and the
transfer of ammunition carried out under cover.
7. Indents on ammunition columns are unnecessary. Receipts will be
prepared by the officer handing over the ammunition for the number of
full wagons or carts issued from the column, and will be signed by the
officer receiving them, who is responsible for seeing that they contain
what he requires.
The account of rounds fired by any unit during an action is not the
affair of the brigade ammunition column commander. Such accounts must
be kept under the orders of the commander of the unit.
_Field artillery (howitzer) brigade ammunition columns, and ammunition
columns with mountain or heavy batteries._
8. The procedure of field artillery (howitzer) brigade ammunition
columns and ammunition columns with mountain or heavy batteries, will,
as regards artillery ammunition, be similar to that laid down in the
foregoing paragraphs.
_Horse artillery ammunition columns._
9. The procedure of horse artillery ammunition columns, as regards the
provision of gun ammunition to batteries will be carried out as far as
possible on similar lines to those laid down in paras. 1 to 7 above.
(_See also_ Sec. =176=.)
=236.= _Divisional ammunition columns._
1. Divisional ammunition columns form part of the divisional artillery.
They are under the immediate orders of divisional artillery commanders.
Normally, their position on the line of march is regulated by
divisional headquarters, but may, if necessary, be fixed by army or
general headquarters.
2. Each divisional ammunition column consists of four sections, of
which the first three carry small arm and 18-pr. ammunition and the
fourth ammunition for the howitzer brigade and heavy battery.
3. When an action is imminent sections of the divisional ammunition
columns will be ordered to form reserves of ammunition at convenient
points, which will also be the refilling points for such sections.
(_See_ Sec. =237= (4).) The position of these points will be fixed by
divisional headquarters, if necessary under instructions from army
headquarters, and should usually be about two miles in rear of brigade
ammunition columns.
4. The divisional ammunition column commander should establish his
headquarters at the rendezvous selected for the divisional ammunition
park. (_See_ Sec. =237= (4).)
It is his duty to ascertain the position of this rendezvous if this
information is not sent to him, and to arrange for the replenishment of
ammunition within the limits specified in such orders as he may have
received from the divisional artillery commander.
5. Each commander of a section which is detached will notify his
arrival at his destination to the divisional artillery commander and
to the divisional ammunition column commander, and will also send an
orderly to open communication with each brigade ammunition column which
he is to supply.
6. The supply of ammunition from these sections to brigade ammunition
columns will be carried out on the same principles as those laid
down for brigade ammunition columns and batteries, ammunition being
sent forward to the brigade columns in the vehicles belonging to the
divisional columns.
7. There are no divisional ammunition columns for the cavalry division
or army troops.
=237.= _Ammunition reserves on the line of communication._
1. The ammunition held in reserve on the line of communications is
divided between ordnance depôts and ammunition parks. The proportion
of ammunition to be held at each depôt is determined by the
inspector-general of communications in accordance with the instructions
he receives from general headquarters.
2. The inspector-general of communications is responsible that the
ammunition reserves are pushed up by means of the railway and parks to
within reach of the fighting troops.
3. During an action, the ammunition park will be sent forward to a
rendezvous as directed by the inspector-general of communications under
instructions from general or army headquarters. This rendezvous should
be placed sufficiently far behind the fighting troops to ensure freedom
of movement to the latter.
As a rule the best position for the headquarters of the ammunition park
will be at railhead or corresponding locality but either the commander
of the park or his representative will be required at the rendezvous,
which will also be the headquarters of the divisional ammunition
column. (_See_ Sec. =236= (4).)
4. From the rendezvous sections or portions of sections will be sent
forward to the refilling points (Sec. =236= (3)) to replenish sections
of the divisional ammunition column in accordance with the demands of
the divisional ammunition column commander, who is responsible for
regulating the amount of ammunition sent forward from the parks to
refill these sections.
In favourable circumstances it may be possible to refill brigade
ammunition columns direct from park vehicles.
After reaching the rendezvous the movements of the ammunition park for
a cavalry division and for a cavalry brigade (with attached troops)
not allotted to a cavalry division will normally be regulated by the
headquarters of the cavalry formations concerned under instructions
received from general headquarters. Ammunition parks for these troops
carry ammunition direct to brigade ammunition columns or to regiments,
&c., as may be convenient.
5. Ammunition required to replenish ammunition parks will be demanded
by park commanders through the headquarters of the inspector-general
of communications, who is responsible that the ammunition required to
refill the parks is sent to suitable localities on the railway.
6. An artillery officer is allotted to each ammunition park who is
responsible for seeing that the lorries forwarded to the various
refilling points contain the nature of ammunition required. In order to
carry out this duty he should, during an action, locate himself at the
rendezvous.
CHAPTER XI.
FIELD ENGINEERING.
(_See also_ “Manual of Field Engineering.”)
=238.= _Entrenching and concealing guns._
1. The importance of concealment, both in attack and defence, has
increased with the destructive effect of quick firing artillery, but
is valuable only so long as its employment does not interfere with
effective fire.
2. There is a two-fold object in making use of cover, viz., concealment
from view and protection from fire. By these means the possibility of
surprising the enemy with fire is increased, while the possibility of
being immobilized by hostile fire is diminished.
3. Guns may be concealed either by making use of natural or artificial
cover, and sometimes by the selection of sites with a suitable
background, but reconnaissance of the position can alone show if
concealment is likely to be temporary or permanent. If circumstances
permit, the sites for the guns should be viewed from the most suitable
observation posts for the enemy’s artillery before they are finally
fixed, bearing in mind that positions which are effectively hidden from
the front often become visible by moving a short distance to a flank.
4. Advantage should invariably be taken of any natural cover available,
but to give efficient protection against fire some artificial cover
will usually be required.
When the contour of the ground is favourable trees will give valuable
cover from view, and so make it more difficult for the enemy to obtain
the range. A position behind a wood, a hedge or belt of trees can often
be found where the guns can be brought into action unseen by the enemy,
the fire being observed from a position in rear.
5. Experience shows that anything that breaks the view close in front
of distant objects greatly increases the difficulty of seeing them.
Such material as nets or bamboo trellis with bits of the surrounding
vegetation stuck into them may be used for this purpose. If guns have
to be placed on a skyline, a strip of sacking stretched in front
of them may serve as a false skyline when viewed from the enemy’s
position. Similarly brushwood hurdles placed behind guns to act as a
background will often conceal them for the time being.
To prevent guns being located by the dust thrown up on discharge the
ground should be watered for some yards in front of the muzzles, or
such material as raw hides, and sacking, pegged down over it.
For a similar reason the movements of guns and individuals must be
restricted as much as possible when there is any likelihood of the
enemy being able to observe them.
6. In entrenching guns the first consideration is fire effect, the
second that while getting some cover in the shortest possible time the
form of the work should be such as to admit of gradual improvement in
the event of more time being available.
The site of a gun emplacement having been selected, the first step is
to decide whether an epaulment or pit is most suitable, the next is to
mark out the platform for the gun, which must be large enough to enable
it to be traversed so as to engage any likely objective.
In deciding whether gun pits or epaulments are to be made, it must be
remembered that sinking the guns reduces their field of fire and makes
more dead ground in front of them if the position is not already under
cover.
On the other hand the difficulty of locating guns from aircraft is
greater if sunken sites without parapets are employed.
7. At first, a simple parapet to supplement the cover afforded by the
shield and to protect the detachment, when kneeling, from oblique
fire should be provided. For this purpose some empty corn sacks may
be carried by guns on active service. These may also be found useful
in bright weather in preventing the glint from the tyres disclosing
their position. Subsequently the cover can be improved and pits, with
ammunition shelves or recesses in front or rear to cover the detachment
standing, may be added, but a clear space of 13 feet between these
pits is necessary for working field guns. The breadth of the embrasure
will depend on the field of fire to be covered. The recoil of the gun
carriage should be prevented by digging a trench for the spade, butting
it against a plank or sleeper.
8. Every effort should be made to assimilate the emplacement with its
surroundings. Sharp angles, steep ends and clearly defined embrasures,
which throw dark shadows, should be avoided as likely to attract
attention, and the intervals between the emplacements themselves may be
filled with some form of screen with advantage.
Any newly-turned earth, if liable to be seen by the enemy, should be
covered with turf, bushes, &c.
9. If time and tools permit, cover for an ammunition wagon near each
gun, and a blinded communication trench for the men replenishing
ammunition should be provided; or, where this is not practicable, some
shelter pits to afford resting places for the men supplying ammunition
by hand from the wagon line.
Where still more time is available traverses against enfilade fire and
overhead splinter-proof cover may be prepared. For the latter purpose
uprights are needed to carry horizontal transoms on which planks or
corrugated iron are arranged to support earth to the thickness of 12
inches. Uprights and transoms should be 8 to 10 inches in diameter,
except in the case of such of the latter as are only required for short
spans.
Special cover is required for the battery commander and his
headquarters, the battery leader and his signallers, and section
commanders. A type of protected observing station is shown in Plate IV.
If time admits, head cover with some form of loophole should be added.
10. Diagrams of an epaulment and gun pit are shown on Plates V and
VI, but they are not intended as types to be rigidly copied on all
occasions.
For heavy guns a parapet about 3 feet in height should be carried round
in front of the carriage, and should be constructed with a radius
admitting of ample interior space and a wide field of fire. The gun
should be run as close to the parapet as possible. It is generally
inadvisable, unless artificial platforms are available, to disturb the
natural surface of the ground.
11. Cover from both view and fire may sometimes be obtained by a
combination of natural and artificial cover:--
i. By scarping the reverse crest of a steep ridge
(_See_ Fig. 34).
ii. By sinking pits close to the front crest of a feature
(_See_ Fig. 35).
[Illustration: FIG. 34]
[Illustration: PLATE IV.
PROTECTED OBSERVING STATION.]
[Illustration: PLATE V.
GUN EPAULMENT FOR SHIELDED GUN.
(_Not drawn to Scale._)
The breadth of the embrasure must depend on circumstances; if the field
of fire is limited by ground or by the target it can be narrowed, if
not it must be fairly broad.]
[Illustration: PLATE VI.
GUN PIT FOR SHIELDED GUN.
(_Not drawn to Scale._)
The breadth of the embrasure must depend on circumstances; if the field
of fire is limited by ground or by the target it can be narrowed, if
not it must be fairly broad.]
[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
12. In some circumstances guns may have to be entrenched under cover
of darkness in readiness to open fire at daylight. Careful preliminary
reconnaissance is the chief essential to avoid mistakes in carrying out
the various works (_See_ Sec. =189=), special care being taken to make
sure that the principal line of fire is laid out correctly.
While the nature of the soil, the proximity of the enemy and the time
available will all have their influence on the details of the works,
every endeavour should be made to conceal them from view.
=239.= _Passage of obstacles._
1. The obstacles likely to be met with will vary from walls or ditches
to unfordable rivers. In the case of the smaller obstacles a few
minutes’ use of the tools carried with the battery will often be all
that is required.
2. Obstacles should be crossed at right angles and in column of route,
as each carriage will make the way easier for the one which follows.
In the case of boggy places, however, each carriage should cross at
a different spot. The gunners should always be dismounted from the
carriages if there is any likelihood of the latter being overturned.
3. For the passage of small ravines a serviceable bridge can be
quickly made by using a pair of wheels on their axle to support the
road-bearers. _See_ Fig. 36.
If the bottom of the ravine is soft, two spars, D and E, should be
lashed to the wheels as shown. The wheels are then lowered, hauled into
position, and secured by guys AB, BC.
One or two transoms (H) are then lashed across the top of the wheels
with square lashing and the road-bearers (R, R) placed in position. The
number of the latter depends on their strength and on the weight to be
passed over.
Transoms 4 × 9 inches (8 inches in mean diameter if round) and 5
road-bearers, mean diameter 6½ inches, will bear field guns and
howitzers. The road-bearers should be butted against pieces of timber
(F, G) sunk in the ground.
If planks are procurable to form the roadway, they should be used. If
not, the road-bearers must be placed close together and covered with
branches of trees and brushwood. If horses are to cross the bridge, it
should be covered with earth to deaden the sound.
[Illustration: FIG. 36.]
4. Plate VII shows another type of bridge constructed with stores, most
of which are carried with a battery.
[Illustration: PLATE VII.]
[Illustration: PLATE VIII.]
5. Should it be required to pass field guns across a river quickly, the
gun and carriage can be floated across by means of four casks lashed as
shown in Plate VIII.
The number of casks required can be calculated from the following
rule:--
The available buoyancy of a cask (_i.e._, weight which it will support)
in pounds is found by multiplying its contents in gallons by 9. Thus a
108-gallon cask has an available buoyancy of 972 lbs.
CHAPTER XII.
RECONNAISSANCE DUTIES, RANGE-FINDING, AND COMMUNICATION SERVICE.
=240.= _General instructions._
1. The primary object of artillery reconnaissance is to collect and
transmit information, which is important from an artillery point of
view, to the commander who orders the reconnaissance. At the same time
anything which is likely to prove of value to the other arms should be
noted. While smokeless powder and long-range weapons have increased the
difficulties of reconnaissance, they have also added to the value and
importance of accurate information. It is essential, therefore, that
artillery should be well trained in this difficult work.
2. In each artillery brigade there should be at least one officer’s
patrol, the members of which are accustomed to work together, and
capable of carrying out a combined reconnaissance.
These patrols, which should ordinarily consist of an officer with one
or two selected non-commissioned officers and range-takers, may often
be required to carry out reconnaissances for the divisional artillery
commander. (_See_ Sec. =153= (2).)
When not so required they are at the disposal of the brigade commander.
As batteries may also have to act singly, there should be some men in
each capable of carrying out a simple reconnaissance.
Men selected for this work should be good riders and horse-masters.
3. The mounted men of brigade or divisional artillery headquarters
should also be trained in reconnaissance and scouting, so that they may
be capable of:--
i. Reconnoitring the enemy’s position and observing the
effect of fire.
ii. Watching and reporting the progress of friendly troops
during an attack.
iii. Reconnoitring and watching ground in the vicinity of
batteries to assist in ensuring their safety.
iv. Supplementing other means of intercommunication.
These duties cannot all be performed simultaneously with the number of
men available. A commander must, therefore, husband his resources so as
to have one or more of his headquarters available in an emergency.
4. The training should be individual and progressive and should be made
as interesting as possible. The following sections are intended to
serve as a guide to the principal points to which attention should be
directed.
=241.= _Visual training._
1. The men should be taken to some ground with a good view all round,
and each in turn questioned as to what he makes of distant objects such
as men, cattle, bushes, rocks, &c.; his answers being checked with
field glasses by the instructor. These practices should be repeated
till the men are proficient at picking out objects under varying
circumstances of light, atmosphere, background and surroundings.
2. The effect which these conditions have on the appearance and
apparent distance of objects should be pointed out. Thus the ranges to
objects are underestimated in a bright light or clear atmosphere, when
background and object are of different colours, with the sun at one’s
back, with water or snow to look over and when looking up or down hill.
With a dark background, with the light in the eyes, on broken ground
and when looking over a valley or undulating ground, the ranges to
objects are overestimated.
Objects dimly seen at evening, and in misty weather, appear
more distant and larger than in reality. When the sun shines on
entrenchments, the salient parts project their shadows on to the
re-entering parts and when freshly raised they look lighter than the
surrounding ground.
=242.= _Training in judging distance._
1. The faculty of judging distances correctly can be developed by
practice, but rapid and accurate estimates cannot be expected until the
visual powers of the soldier have been developed.
When judging distance a man must not be allowed to guess, but must be
made to give reasons for his estimate.
2. The following is the system usually recommended:--
i. Measure out distances of hundreds of yards, from 100 to 500, and
accustom the soldier to recognize these distances.
ii. Ascertain the exact range of certain objects visible from the
drill ground or barracks and teach him to note from these places the
appearance of the objects under varying atmospheric conditions. When he
has got the measured distances and the appearance of the objects firmly
into his mind he should be exercised at longer ranges. To judge these
he should measure the intervening ground by mental comparison with the
distances with which he is familiar, or, should all the ground up to
the object not be visible, he must judge the range from the impression
conveyed to his eye by the object, bearing in mind how this impression
may be affected by the conditions mentioned in Sec. =241= (2), as well
as those which follow.
3. Under normal conditions:--
i. Movement of legs and arms can be distinguished at 1,000 yds.
ii. Individual men become vertical lines at 1,500 yards.
iii. Infantry and cavalry at 1,500 yards can be
distinguished only by their mode of motion.
iv. At 2,000 yards infantry presents a thick line, cavalry a
thicker line with a jagged top.
4. In estimating long distances, the time taken in going over them
should form a very fair guide. A man should know his own normal pace
and the various rates at which his horse walks and trots.
5. Distance can also be judged by sound. The time in seconds between
the flash of a gun and hearing the report multiplied by 370 gives
the distance (in yards) travelled by the sound approximately: this,
however, may be affected by wind and atmosphere.
=243.= _Training in observation._
1. The habit of noting and remembering small signs or details, both at
a distance and near at hand, is important. It is closely connected with
the two subjects discussed above, and should be gradually introduced
while they are being taught.
2. The following is one method of training men in this subject:--
The whole terrain in front is roughly divided into right, centre and
left sections.
These again are divided into:--
i. The background.
ii. The foreground.
The men are formed up in extended order and allowed to observe the
landscape for a few minutes, and then turned about. The instructor then
ascertains the number, nature, and distance, of the objects each man
has noted in these divisions. Even if only one object is noted in each,
it makes six objects noticed, and this is more than the untrained mind
usually identifies.
They should learn to classify the objects they see under various
headings, as for example:--
Human beings.
Animals.
Houses, farms, roads, paths, &c.
Trees and vegetable growths.
Water and rivers.
Rocks, hills, &c.
They should also know such facts as that dust raised by cavalry forms
a high light cloud; by infantry a lower and denser one; by wheeled
vehicles denser still, and broken.
3. Regular instruction of this kind, whether held indoors or in the
open, gradually educates men to make an intelligent use of their eyes
until an automatic connection is established between the eye and brain,
and sight becomes observation.
When the instruction of the men has advanced sufficiently, they may be
classified both by a “time test” and a “number of objects” test, which
increases the interest.
4. The men who prove themselves most proficient in these exercises
should be further instructed in the use of the telescope and field
glasses. When ground is available, a military aspect should be given
to the training as much as possible. For instance, a number of objects
such as dummies, kneeling and lying behind rocks, hats or helmets
resting on stones or bushes, horses or dummies standing against a dark
background, and dummies’ heads on the sky line may be arranged on some
position the distance of which from the selected point of observation
will depend on the atmospheric conditions. The class is then taken out
by the instructor, the battery telescope on the tripod set up, each man
looks through it, identifies as many objects as he can, and writes them
down. When a certain amount of proficiency has been attained in this
way the tripod should be dispensed with and the men taught to use the
telescope kneeling or prone, making use of any improvised rest that may
be available.
Practice at locating and identifying moving objects should also be
given.
5. Exercises in observation may be carried out during a march or at
exercising order. Thus, after going a certain distance each man may
be questioned upon, or required to jot down what he has observed
of any military importance, _e.g._, rivers, bridges, cross roads,
sign posts, villages, provision shops, smithies, post and telegraph
offices, haystacks, &c. These occasions also afford the instructor an
opportunity of pointing out such objects of interest as the varieties
of trees and vegetation, and the habits of animals.
=244.= _Reports and sketches._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 16.)
1. Officers who may be called upon to carry out reconnaissances should
be capable of executing rough maps and also panorama sketches. They
should be trained in selecting aiming points, in calculating the
necessary deflection from them to various objectives, and in estimating
slopes over which guns can fire at given ranges.
They should be able to write a concise report containing only such
information as will be of use to the officer for whom it is intended,
and which is relevant to the object in view. If an area is being
reconnoitred for artillery positions the report should commence with
a brief description of the area reconnoitred, the positions available
with their special advantages or disadvantages.
The positions recommended to be occupied should then be given and
information furnished on such points as the following:--
i. The approaches, whether concealed or exposed: and the
nature of the ground, whether hard or boggy.
ii. What formation batteries can advance in.
iii. Positions of readiness in their vicinity.
iv. Suitability for direct or indirect laying.
v. Nature of gun-platform.
vi. Number of guns for which there is room at full interval.
vii. Best positions for observation of fire.
viii. Positions for first line wagons.
ix. Description and position of any natural screen in front
or to the flanks.
x. Necessity for any field work.
xi. Best method of protecting position from surprise; dead
ground in front or to the flanks.
xii. Best lines of advance from the position and the extent
to which they are concealed from view.
xiii. Obstacles to movement, such as streams with high banks
and bogs.
If time admits a rough map on a scale of about 4 inches to 1 mile,
showing the proposed positions of the guns and 1st line wagons, the
approaches to them and the position of any natural screens, will be a
valuable addition to the report and will often save much writing.
Concurrently with the above any information obtainable on the following
points should be noted and reported:--
(_a_) Description of the enemy’s position giving
approximate relative heights.
(_b_) Likely positions for the enemy’s guns or
observing stations.
(_c_) Any earthworks that can be observed.
[Illustration: PLATE IX.
Position P
_VIEW FROM FARM LOOKING NORTH._]
[Illustration: Plate X.
RANGE-TAKER’S CARD.
Ranges taken from position P.]
2. A panorama sketch of the enemy’s position should, if possible, be
made and will save much writing. For firing at moving objects from
under cover, for switches, and in night firing a sketch of this nature
is invaluable.
Plate IX shows a form on which the sketch may be made so as to render
it a most useful and practical aid more particularly adapted to hilly
country. It will be seen that the lateral angle and the angle of sight
to any point can be judged with considerable accuracy at a glance.
It has, moreover, the great advantage that, with its assistance, the
poorest draughtsman can produce a useful, panoramic sketch.
The sketch should show the principal features in outline, one of
which near the centre of the field of view is chosen as the reference
point. A line is drawn from each of these features, with the range and
description marked thereon, also the angle of sight on the right of the
line and the lateral angle, in degrees, between it and the reference
point on the left of the line, thus--=L.A. 4° | L 3°=.
The sketch should state clearly the point from which it is made.
3. If time does not admit of this sketch, it may be replaced by a
range-taker’s card (Plate X), on which the following should appear:--
i. A line, if possible in red, drawn to the most prominent object near
the centre of the field of view. (_See_ P.T., Plate X.) The object so
selected is called the reference point. In drawing this line the card
should be set so that its longer edge roughly corresponds to the line
of the position to be occupied. The lateral angle, in degrees, between
the line to the reference point, and a line to all prominent features
for ranging upon should be given.
ii. The range to and the angle of sight of these features which should
be given names. It may often be more convenient to letter and describe
them with their ranges and angles of sight on a separate paper.
4. The above instructions apply to officers, but in order that N.C.Os.
and men employed on reconnaissance work may be of use to them, they
will require training in the following subjects:--
i. _Map reading._--They should be able to find the way in a strange
country, first, by practical map reading; then by memory of the map;
by sun and compass; by landmarks; by questioning natives of the
country. As maps may not always be available on service, they should be
practised in working without their aid.
It should be a habit with them to notice the general direction taken
and changes of direction subsequently made.
ii. _Sketching._--When they have learnt to read a map, elementary
instruction in sketching should be given. This to include instruction
in conventional signs; judging distances by time or by eye; making a
simple approximate scale, finding approximate north point; dictating a
map; sketching a piece of simple country; drawing a map from memory;
estimating heights.
iii. _Reporting._--As the value of the men’s work depends largely on
their ability to furnish a clear report they should receive instruction
in this subject. Written reports should be in telegraphic language, and
verbal reports thought out beforehand.
iv. _Concealment._--Their attention should be drawn to the great
importance of dismounting and taking cover and of selecting a
background to suit the colour of their clothing when observing; the
importance of remaining perfectly still; of avoiding the sky line; of
selecting look-out points when on the move, and of getting from one to
another quickly, and unseen.
RANGE FINDING.
=245.= _General instructions._
1. However accurate in itself the instrument for finding the range may
be, satisfactory results can only be expected if the range-takers are
themselves efficient. To ensure this, careful training and regular
practice are essential. In order that the system of instruction may
be similar in each brigade, the brigade commander should personally
supervise it; an officer or qualified non-commissioned officer being
detailed annually to take charge of the instruction of all range-takers
in the brigade.
2. In addition to the authorized establishment of range-takers an
adequate and efficient reserve to replace possible casualties must be
maintained.
3. These requirements necessitate a class being formed each year, which
should commence work during the period of individual training.
4. The men selected for a course must be active and willing to learn.
They must have good hearing and eyesight and a steady hand. They should
be able to write clearly, and it will be an advantage if they can read
a map and be a good judge of distance before commencing work.
5. The course should be a progressive one, beginning with a few short
lectures, which should be devoted to explaining the working of the
instrument, the names of its various parts and their uses, and the
errors that are commonly made. The proper way to handle the instrument
can also be taught.
6. The next step is to take the class out of doors and practise them
in taking ranges to well-defined upright objects, such as chimneys and
later to smaller objects, such as posts, at close and known ranges. Any
errors in the handling of the instrument or in the methods employed
should be pointed out at the time.
7. The men should now be ready to be taken into the country and
practised in taking ranges at first to well-defined objects from three
to four thousand yards away, and subsequently to others, such as crest
lines and hedges, which would form the more usual and less distinct
objectives in war.
8. =It is a matter of the greatest importance that the men should learn
to take ranges with the least possible exposure, in order to avoid
giving any information to the enemy as to the artillery positions.= The
instructor should, from the earliest moment possible, act as though he
were a battery commander and, having pointed out the objects to which
he requires the range, should insist on the men withdrawing under cover
and moving to another position before taking it, unless well concealed
in their present position. The same precautions should be taken when
reporting the range, due allowance being made for any extra distance to
the front or rear that the range was taken from.
9. =All officers should understand the general working of the
instrument in use in their unit and be capable of taking ranges with
it.=
SERVICE OF COMMUNICATION.
=246.= _General system and principles._
1. Artillery communications in the field are divided into:--
i. Internal communications, consisting of those established between the
various artillery headquarters and units.
ii. External communications, which are those formed as a temporary
measure to link up artillery with infantry.
2. The means of communication available for horse and field artillery
are given in Sec. =149=.
3. The signalling personnel allowed is laid down in War Establishments.
This establishment is based on the principle that signalling personnel
is required for the purpose of providing communications downwards,
_i.e._, with subordinates, and laterally, _i.e._, with equals.
To enable commanders of artillery brigades to carry out this principle
they must be able to communicate with brigade stations of the
divisional signal service as well as with their subordinates. The
standard of efficiency of a proportion of the signallers must therefore
be equal to that required of the divisional signal service. On the
other hand, as long distance work is not needed within the batteries,
the standard required of their signallers need not be so high.
The signalling personnel is therefore divided into two classes--
i. Brigade signallers.
ii. Battery signallers.
4. As it is usually of importance to ensure the continuity of
communications when once they have been opened between any two points,
alternative methods should be established, if possible. To enable
this to be done it is essential that men employed on the service of
communication should be capable of acting in any of the capacities laid
down for the classes to which they belong. All signallers should also
be capable of acting as despatch riders, since it will often be quicker
to send a message in this way than by signal. Instructions for training
despatch riders are laid down in Signal Training, Part II.[43]
[43] In course of preparation.
=247.= _Internal communications._
1. For communicating between brigade headquarters and the headquarters
of batteries and ammunition columns an establishment of brigade
signallers is provided as an integral part of brigade headquarters.
These men should be fully qualified signallers as laid down in Training
Manual--Signalling.
This establishment has been calculated on the assumption that
communication with one battery at least will be more conveniently
carried out verbally or by message. Communication by telephone or
visual signalling will not, therefore, be required with more than
two batteries, orderlies being used to communicate with the brigade
ammunition column.
The officer in charge of communications at brigade headquarters is
responsible for allotting the brigade signallers to batteries for
the purpose of maintaining communication between them and brigade
headquarters in accordance with circumstances.
2. Communication within the battery from the battery commander to his
guns and observers will be carried out by the battery signallers. These
battery signallers are maintained solely for purposes of communication
within the battery. Their training is limited to the use of semaphore,
telephone and buzzer.
Communication may be carried out by means of:--
(_a._) Telephones.
(_b._) Semaphore.
(_c._) Orderlies.
For the purpose of maintaining communication between a battery and its
observing station, four signallers are necessary, two at each station.
They should be provided with telephones and flags, so that alternative
means of communication may be available.
Semaphore signalling is the most rapid system of visual signalling with
small flags. (_See_ Sec. =201= (4).)
The best way of utilizing semaphore signalling is to employ two sets of
signallers, each pair having different coloured flags. Those with the
same coloured flags should communicate with each other only.
In sending orders, or the result of observations, by signal the
abbreviations laid down in Sec. =201=, will be used.
=248.= _External communications._
1. Effectual co-operation between artillery and infantry depends
largely on the receipt of timely information. An efficient system of
communication is therefore very important.
2. A personal exchange of views between subordinate infantry and
artillery commanders is likely to produce the best results in a
combined tactical operation. If unable to remain in the vicinity of the
infantry commander, the artillery commander should be represented by an
officer (_See_ Sec. =153= (7).)
3. No rules can be laid down as to the means by which communication is
to be maintained between this officer and the artillery commander.
If circumstances are favourable communication may be maintained by
the brigade telephone or by visual signalling, but as the infantry
commander will usually change his position as the fight progresses, it
may be necessary to rely on orderlies, or a combination of orderlies
and telephone or visual signalling.
4. It may be possible to arrange direct communication between the
artillery commander and advanced observation posts, with a view to
keeping him informed as to the progress of the attacking infantry and
the effect of the artillery fire. (_See_ Sec. =153= (11).)
The means of communication which can be employed will depend on the
nature of the country.
Visual communication will usually be inadvisable on account of the
difficulty of finding positions which are invisible to the enemy,
and the telephone may be expected to give the best results. When no
artillery telephone is available the possibility of sending information
of equal importance to the artillery and infantry through the infantry
communication service should be kept in view. It must be borne in mind
that a message sent by orderly will take an appreciable time to reach
its destination.
CHAPTER XIII.
MOVEMENTS AND QUARTERS.
=249.= _Marches and march discipline._
(_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Chap. III.)
1. March discipline includes everything that affects the efficiency of
man and horse during a march. On it depends not only the comfort of
a column of troops as a whole, but also the time which is needed to
perform a march or deploy for battle.
The principles which govern the order of march of a body of troops are
laid down in F.S. Regs., Part I, Chap. III.
2. The following rules should be observed by artillery:--
i. The order of units should be changed daily.
ii. Brigade signallers and range-takers should ride three
abreast at the head of the brigade to which they
belong.
iii. Batteries should always march in column of route on
the left of the road. The regulation distance between
carriages should be strictly preserved, and care must
be taken that, when a halt is ordered, each carriage
is drawn up on the left side of the road. Cross roads
must be left clear.
iv. Dismounted detachments should keep on the inner flank
of the column, but if this is not possible they should
march in fours behind their respective guns and
wagons. They should never march on the off side of the
carriages.
Men may mount or dismount when the column is moving at a walk.
3. In column of route when two ammunition wagons per subsection are
present they immediately follow their gun until the batteries prepare
for action, when those which do not accompany the guns into action,
will assume a preparatory formation under the command of the captain.
(Sec. =191=.)
4. On a march the first halt usually takes place not long after
the start, when a careful examination should be made of the horses
and harness. Subsequent halts are made at regular intervals at the
discretion of the commander of the column. The duration of these halts
and the time when they are to take place, should be made known in
advance.
5. It is of great importance to relieve horses as much as possible of
the heavy weights they have to carry. They should be harnessed up as
short a time as possible before turning out, and should not be hooked
in until just before the time for marching off.
When they are standing in harness the drivers should be dismounted.
When marching at a slow pace with other troops men are inclined to
lounge in their saddles and thus to cause sore backs. On this account
mounted men should be instructed to walk and lead at intervals, and the
drivers may be relieved occasionally by capable gunners. For the same
reason slouching in the saddle, even when riding at ease, should be
prevented and, when trotting, every man should rise in his stirrups.
6. Opportunities which may occur for watering and feeding horses should
always be seized. Watering requires to be carried out on a regular
system if it is to be done smoothly and expeditiously.
7. When artillery is moving independently of other troops, very early
starts are undesirable, except for some special reason. The men should
have time to get breakfast and the horses should be fed before the
march commences.
The maintenance of an even and regular pace is essential, otherwise
the constant opening out and closing up, which occurs in rear, becomes
trying, both to men and horses.
In some circumstances, such as when the roads are hilly or dusty, the
intervals between files and the distances between carriages may be
increased.
The last couple of miles of a march should be at a walk, so as to bring
the horses in cool, and during this period they should be watered, if
there be a convenient place.
=250.= _Billets._
1. The principles to be observed in the allotment of billets, and
instructions for administration and discipline in billets, are laid
down in F.S. Regs., Part I, Chap. IV.
2. Billets are of three descriptions, viz.:--
i. Billets with subsistence.
ii. Billets with partial subsistence.
iii. Billets without subsistence.
When billets with subsistence are provided, officers and others must
be satisfied with the usual fare of the householder on whom they are
billeted.
All billets will include attendance and, when required, the use of
ordinary cooking utensils, but bedding cannot be demanded as a right.
3. Billeting areas are allotted by the quartermaster-general’s
branch of the staff. The commanders of these areas then distribute
the accommodation among the units to be quartered in them and issue
billeting demands to their representatives.
4. A billeting party should consist of one officer or senior
non-commissioned officer per brigade, and one rank and file N.C.O. per
battery or ammunition column. Before starting for his allotted area,
the commander of the party should obtain a statement showing the number
of officers, men, and horses for whom accommodation is required.
5. On arrival in the locality in which his formation is to be billeted,
the commander of the billeting party will first proceed to the mayor,
or other chief official, hand him the billeting demand, and notify
him of the hour at which the troops may be expected. If time permits
billeting orders should be obtained from the local authority for each
inhabitant on whom men and horses are to be quartered.
6. On receipt of these orders the commander of the billeting party will
issue them in proper proportion to the representative of each unit, who
will be given instructions as to the posting of any special notices,
arrangements for watering, &c., and the rendezvous, when the billets
have been inspected. The men of the party then proceed to the houses
and stables allotted to their units, inspect and mark them and hand the
billeting orders to occupiers. In arranging for billets horses should
be billeted near the men, and as close as possible to the guns and
vehicles. Each unit should, if possible, be allotted both sides of a
street.
7. In the meantime the commander of the party will select and mark
the position of the headquarters of the brigade, guard-room, sick
inspection room, and gun parks. (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. =49=.)
He will also ascertain the most suitable lines for communicating with
neighbouring units and the best lines into and out of the area.
8. In fixing the sites of gun parks and arranging accommodation for
horses, precautions must usually be taken against discovery by hostile
aircraft.
Although to avoid blocking roads and communications it may be necessary
to place guns and other vehicles outside towns or villages, they should
not be parked in a regular formation in the open. As many vehicles and
horses as possible should be placed under cover, the remainder being
concealed by placing them close to hedges, buildings, stacks, or any
other object which will screen them against observation from the air.
Subject to the conditions above, guns and wagons should be parked,
where possible, on dry ground, but near water, with easy approaches
and plenty of room. Additional entrances may be needed to facilitate
movement. Provided there is plenty of room for movement and it is
possible to conceal the carriages from observation by aircraft a single
gun park has advantages.
9. After completing the above, the commander of the billeting party
should, if possible, prepare a rough plan of the area, showing the
allotment of billets, main roads and communications, position of gun
parks, together with a statement as to any special arrangements that
may be necessary as regards watering horses, and other details.
10. On reassembling his men, he will notify them of the positions of
headquarters, guard, gun parks, etc., and will despatch a proportion to
convey this information to the units. (_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec.
48.)
11. When time is not available for the above procedure troops will
be halted outside their billeting areas. Meanwhile brigade billeting
parties will proceed to the town hall or similar place, where a
representative of the commander of the area will allot certain streets
or groups of houses to them, which they in turn will assign to units.
12. A list of the addresses of the officers should be given to the
commander of the main guard.
=251.= _Bivouacs._
1. The general rules for the occupation of a bivouac are given in F.S.
Regs., Part I, Sec. 56.
2. The commander of the billeting party, as soon as he has been shown
the area allotted to him, selects the sites for the bivouacs for each
battery, and has the positions of kitchens, slaughter-places, and
latrines marked out.
He then goes to meet the artillery commander with information on the
various details dealt with in F.S. Regs., Part I, Secs. 56 and 57.
Orders dealing with any of these points, which it is necessary for the
troops to know, should be communicated to them before leaving the gun
park.
3. It will generally be necessary to take precautions against
observation by hostile aircraft, and when this is the case regular
formations should be avoided and all possible arrangements made to
conceal the guns and horses (_See_ Sec. =250= (8)). Bivouac shelters,
if used, should not be put up till after dark. When artillery reach
their bivouac in darkness and when it is not necessary to take
precautions against discovery by hostile aircraft the method of
arranging a bivouac for a battery in Fig. 37 may be used.
This method, which is quick and economical of space is given as a guide
and should be followed only so far as the ground allows.
The guns are formed in line at half interval (10 yards) with the firing
battery wagons on their left at 2 yards interval, three of the first
line wagons in rear of and at right angles to the line of guns and 5
yards from them. The remaining three are then formed up parallel and
about 60 yards from the above.
4. The picketing ropes are stretched between the upper spokes of the
1st line wagons. The rope can be stretched taut by lifting and heaving
on the wagons furthest from the gun park, and, if necessary, sinking a
small trench for the wheels to rest in. If the length of rope required
is considerable it may be advisable to use other wagons to support it
half-way.
[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
The horse lines of each section should be as far as possible in rear of
the guns of its own section.
The horses of each section are then fastened to one rope, using both
sides of the rope. No horse should be fastened within 5 yards of a
carriage in order to prevent the possibility of damage.
The harness is placed in rear of the heel pegs, blankets folded on the
saddles and the whole bound up in the harness cover: forage 5 yards
from the horse lines at the opposite end to the gun park.
The sections are arranged so that the personnel may be as near their
own horses as possible. The right and left sections parallel to the
horse lines, the centre section at right angles to them at 10 yards
distance. The officers 20 yards in rear of the centre section.
TRANSPORT OF ARTILLERY.
=252.= _Transport by rail._
The transport of troops in peace by land and sea is dealt with in the
“King’s Regulations.” Owing to the variations in size of carriages and
trucks in the different countries where campaigns may take place, it
is impossible to fix the number of vehicles or trains required for a
battery.
Rolling stock, such as in common use in the United Kingdom, will take:--
8 men with their equipment in each compartment.
7 harnessed riding or light draught or 6 heavy draught
horses in a cattle truck.
2 or 3 pairs of wheels on the average wagon truck.
The number of vehicles in a train varies on different railways,
according to the ruling (_i.e._, maximum) gradient, speed, and the
types of locomotives and trucks.
In the United Kingdom each six gun battery of horse or field artillery
at war strength would require 2 trains, while the brigade headquarters
and ammunition column for a howitzer, 13-pr. and 18-pr. artillery
brigade would occupy 2, 3 and 4 trains respectively.
It may be necessary to entrain and detrain horses and carriages without
the use of raised platforms by means of ramps. Regular practice in
doing this is required in order to avoid delay.
Fixed ramps can be made with earth revetted with sleepers, or sleepers
alone may be used.
Plate XI shows ramps which can be quickly improvised if portable ramps
are not available. The stores required are two rails, 21 ft. to 24 ft.
long, and 40 or 50 sleepers for each ramp.
The following are the principal points to which attention should be
paid when loading horses and guns and carriages.
i. _Horses._
1. The entrainment and detrainment of horses will be carried out in
accordance with the instructions given in F.S. Regs., Part I., Sec. 38.
2. The floors of trucks used for the conveyance of horses should, if of
wood, be at least 1½ inches thick. Cinders, sand or gravel should be
sprinkled on them to prevent the horses slipping; on no account should
straw or any inflammable material be used for this purpose.
3. A man leading a horse into a truck should walk freely in with a
loose head rope, as though leading it into a stall. He should not stare
in the animal’s face. Much time may be lost in dealing timorously with
a jibbing horse; two men should be ready to clasp hands above its hocks
and hustle it into the truck.
4. If possible, on long journeys, horses should be taken out of a train
at least once every 24 hours, walked about, and allowed to roll on sand
or grass.
[Illustration: PLATE XI.
TEMPORARY RAMP
_For Entraining Guns._
(_End Loading_)]
[Illustration: TEMPORARY RAMP
_For Entraining Horses._
(_Side Loading_)]
ii. _Guns and carriages._
The general points which should be attended to are:--
To distribute the load evenly over the floor, and if any of the
flooring planks are rotten, to put a sleeper across them under the
wheels. The minimum thickness of floor should be 2 inches.
To see that the points of poles or shafts do not stick up so that they
would strike against bridges, &c., as would usually occur if they were
more than 7 feet above the floor of the trucks.
To lash the wheels nearest to the ends of the trucks securely to the
false buffers or to rings by a rope, which is also given a turn round
the axle of each pair of wheels on the truck to prevent them shifting
with the jerks of the train.
Generally the best way to stow the carriages is, poles, trails, and
perches resting on the floor, poles to the front, perches and trails
to the rear, the wheels of each vehicle interlocking with those of the
carriage in front of it.
=253.= _Slinging horses._
(_Transports alongside._)
1. If horses are to be embarked by slinging, they should on arrival
alongside the ship be unsaddled or unharnessed, the head rope should be
fastened in the ordinary way round the neck; the ship’s halter will be
put on under the head-collar; the bridoon reins should be left loose
(as they may be required for keeping the head in the proper position
while lowering down the hatchways), but they should be knotted to
prevent them getting entangled in the horse’s legs. Slings should be
minutely inspected before the embarkation begins. A double guy should
be made fast to the horse’s head, one end being held on shore and the
other on board, in order to keep the head steady; the surcingle must be
moved round so that the buckle is on the seat.
2. In slinging horses, five men are required, one at the head, one at
each side, one at the breast, and one behind. One end of the sling is
passed under the horse’s belly, and both ends are brought up to meet
over his back; one man passes his loop through the other loop, and it
is received by the man on the other side, who hauls it through, hooking
the tackle to it, both men holding up the ends of the sling until it
is taut. The men at the breast and behind bring their ropes round and
make them fast to the grummets, and the man who holds the horse’s
head makes fast the guys to the ship’s head-collar. The breech band
and breast girth must be securely fastened. Timid or restive horses
should be blindfolded. When all is ready, the words “HOIST AWAY” will
be given, and the horse is to be rapidly run up from the ground to the
necessary height, and then carefully lowered down to the hatchway. Two
or three men should be stationed at the hatchway and between decks to
guide the horse in being lowered. A soft bed of straw or coir mats must
be provided for the horse to alight upon, and the men stationed in the
lower deck must be ready to receive him and take off the sling, as on
first feeling his legs, unless firmly handled, he is apt to plunge and
kick violently.
3. In disembarking, sand or straw must be laid on the wharf for the
reception of the horses. Horses are apt to fall on their knees at once
unless carefully held up.
(_Transports not alongside._)
4. The method of embarking horses in boats or flats will vary according
to circumstances. If the boats can come alongside a wharf, or can
approach close to an open beach, the horses can either be led on board
by gangways (horse brows), or be slung in the manner described above,
sheers or a derrick being erected. Horse brows may be at steep angles
of ascent or descent if there is considerable rise and fall of tide.
When the boats cannot come sufficiently near the shore to enable horses
to be hoisted on to them, piers or platforms must be constructed. The
piers should always be provided with stout side railings about three
feet high, and the floor covered with shingle, straw, or something to
prevent the horses slipping.
5. When embarking in boats, the detachment should be formed up opposite
them, and the same rules, so far as practicable, followed as when
embarking in vessels alongside a wharf. A man must be told off to each
horse, and take with him in the boat the whole of his kit, equipment,
saddlery, &c. The men should take off arms, belts, and spurs. The
horses should, if possible, be placed athwart the boat alternately, the
head to tail. Each man must hold his horse until the vessel is reached.
Sand or straw should be put in the boats to prevent the horses slipping.
6. In the absence of boats and appliances, the following method of
embarking horses by swimming may be employed:--
The horses having been halted a short distance from, and out of sight
of, the point of embarkation, are stripped of all appointments except
the bridoon and headstall, which latter should be close fitting.
A horse having been led to the landing place, two men prepare him for
the water. No. 1 holds his head. No. 2 places the sling in position
and secures the straps with yarn, so as to prevent the sling opening
in the water; he then fastens the breast rope and breeching securely.
A rope of about eight yards in length, with an eye at one end, is next
passed round the neck and fastened rather tightly by an overhand knot,
so as to prevent its becoming either looser or tighter. The bridoon is
then taken off, and to support the horse in the water another rope is
attached to the lower ring of the headstall under the chin, or else a
short rope is passed round the girth in front of the sling and close
behind the elbows, the ends being brought up and fastened over the
withers. The horse is controlled altogether by the neck rope.
The horse is then led into the water as far as he will walk towards the
boat, in the stern of which should be a man, who receives the neck rope
in his right hand, and immediately reeves it through the stern ring of
the boat to secure additional power in the event of the horse plunging;
the headstall or girth rope he receives in his left hand.
When once the horse is swimming, the neck rope should be hauled close
up while the headstall or girth rope gently supports him in the water.
A small rowing boat with two oars will be sufficient. It should not be
pulled too fast, or the horse will make no attempt to swim.
On reaching the ship’s side the hook and tackle should be lowered, the
hook passed through the sling’s eye, and the horse hoisted up on board.
Care should be taken to arrange the tackle so that the horse, in being
hoisted in, is kept clear of the ship’s side.
7. Horses may, in cases of emergency only, be disembarked by swimming.
When this method is adopted, the horse should be lowered in the sling
over the side of the vessel without fastening the breast rope or
breeching. When the tackle is unhooked the sling opens, and is at once
slipped from under the horse. The neck rope should be hauled up and
secured, and the horse supported, as explained above. If necessary,
four horses may be made to swim ashore at a time, two on each side of
the boat. It is important that horses should be kept at the point to
which the others are to swim.
Horses should be cool before being put into the water.
=254.= _Slinging guns and vehicles._
1. For slinging guns, limbers and limbered wagons, the following method
has been found to give good results:--
Two four-inch slings are used, one round each axletree, and a hook rope
hooked into the trail eye. The bights of the slings are placed on the
tackle hook, to which the end of the hook rope is also made fast.
Limbers are slung in the same way as guns, the hook rope in their
case being made fast to about the centre of the pole, unless special
instructions to remove the poles are issued.
Limbered wagons will, as a rule, be embarked loaded on their wheels,
the poles should not be removed before slinging. If the wheels are
removed, special care must be taken that the linch pins and washers are
put away. Those carriages first required on disembarkation should be
stowed away last.
2. G.S. wagons can be slung by four chain slings connected to a common
link at the one end and provided with hooks at the other, these four
hooks are then secured to all four wheels of the vehicle. The poles
must be removed before slinging, and =made fast to the body of the
wagons=.
If cordage only is available, two slings each, consisting of one rope 3
in. by 60 ft., knotted at a suitable length, and two lashings, 1½ in.
by 30 ft. for guy ropes are required.
To adjust the front sling pass one end inside the wheels and under the
futchels of the fore carriage in front of the axle. To adjust the back
sling loop one end of the sling over the nave of the off hind wheel.
Pass the sling over the load and loop the other end to the nave of the
near hind wheel. Care must be taken to see that the drag washers are
turned down to prevent the sling from slipping off.
The hook of the hoisting tackle is then passed through the end of the
two ends of the front sling and under the centre of the back sling.
The pressure can be taken off the sides of the carriage by making use
of loops made with polechains or ropes at the end of poles through
which the slings are passed.
APPENDIX I.
The following syllabus of training for recruits of R.H. and R.F.A. is
given as a guide to officers charged with the training of recruits. It
is not intended that it should be followed rigidly.
SYLLABUS OF TRAINING.
GUNNERS.
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
| 1st | | | | | |Total
Subject. | fort- |2nd |3rd |4th |5th |6th |hours
| night. | | | | | | per
| | | | | | |subject.
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Physical training | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |10 | 60
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Dismounted drill-- | | | | | | |
without arms | 30 | 20 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 90
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Rifle exercises-- | | | | | | |
including | | | | | | |
musketry and | | | | | | |
visual training | | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 25
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Cordage, knotting, &c. | | 5 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 19
Semaphore | | | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 20
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Gun drill--including | | | | | | |
gunnery, laying, | | | | | | |
fuze setting, and | | | | | | |
visual training | | | 10 | 12 |12 | 12 | 46
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Lectures | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 30
+-------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
Total hours per fortnight| 45[44] | 45 | 50 | 50 |50 |50 | 290
-------------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+--------
[44] It is calculated that in addition about 2½ hours a week in the
first fortnight are spent on medical inspection, fitting clothing, and
school tests.
DRIVERS.
---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------
| Fortnight. |
Detail. +------+---+---+-----+-----+------+ Total.
| 1st |2nd|3rd| 4th | 5th | 6th |
---------------------------+------+---+---+-----+-----+------+-------
1. Physical training | 10 | 10| 10| 10 | 10 | 10 | 60
2. Foot drill | 30 | 20| 10| 10 | 10 | 10 | 90
3. Rifle exercises and | | | | | | |
visual training | | 5| 10| 5 | 5 | 5 | 30
4. Cordage, knotting, &c. | | 5| | 2½ | | | 7½
5. Semaphore | | | 5| 5 | 5 | 5 | 20
6. Wooden horse | | | | 2½ | 2½ | 2½ | 7½
7. Fitting and cleaning | | | | 2½ | 5 | 5 | 12½
harness, &c. | | | | | | |
8. Stable management | | | 10| 10 | 10 | 10 | 40
9. Lectures | 5 | 5| 5| 2½ | 2½ | 2½ | 22½
+------+---+---+-----+-----+------+-------
Total hours per fortnight |45[45]| 45| 50| 50 | 50 | 50 | 290
---------------------------+-------+---+---+-----+-----+------+-------
[45] It is calculated that in addition about 2½hours a week in the
first fortnight are spent on medical inspection, fitting clothing, and
school tests.
APPENDIX II.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHEN FIRING BLANK AMMUNITION.
1. No officer, non-commissioned officer, or gunner, is to command or
form part of a section or gun detachment firing blank ammunition at
salutes or on field days who has not been trained and passed in gun
drill.
2. When bare charges are used, no gun is to be reloaded within 30
seconds after firing. When firing Q.F. blank cartridges, no gun is to
be reloaded within 15 seconds after firing.
Even after these intervals no gun is to be reloaded unless the No.
1 has examined the chamber and the bore and removed any “debris”
remaining from the previous round. (N.B.--With the 4·5-inch Q.F.
Howitzer the lid of the cartridge is not to be removed when firing
blank ammunition.)
3. In firing salutes not less than four guns are to be used. When
firing signal rounds at field days and manœuvres, however, any number
of guns may be used provided that the conditions of paragraph 2 are
fulfilled.
4. In the event of a missfire, at least one more attempt should be made
to fire the gun, when it is again its turn, but in any case the breech
must not be opened for at least one minute with “black powder” charges
and ten minutes with “smokeless powder” charges after the last failure
to fire the gun. None of the detachment should be directly in rear of
the breech when it is opened.
In firing salutes, an officer or senior non-commissioned officer
should be detailed for the special duty of timing the interval after
a missfire, and informing the No. 1 of that gun when he may open the
breech.
INDEX.
=NOTE.--No reference to drill movements is made in this
Index. Headings of sections dealing with drill
will be found in the Contents.=
A PAGE.
Abbreviations to be used in signalling, 321
” ” ” words of command, 301
Action, advance of battery for, 302
” field battery in, 306
” method of coming into, 303
” preparation for, by battery, 294
Advance of battery in action, 360
” of horse artillery into action, 270
Advanced guard artillery action of the, 245
” ” ” to conform to action of, 215
” observation posts, 244
Aerial reconnaissance, 246
Aeroplane observing, men to be detailed to watch, 328
Aeroplanes, location of targets by, 324
” method of engaging, 351
” observation of fire from, 325
” signals from and to, 328
Aiming point, angular corrections necessary
for different positions, 186
” ” auxiliary, 181
” ” selection of, 300
” points, position and use of, 181
” posts, planting of, 300
Air, resistance of, on a shell during flight, 148
Aircraft, advantage to be taken of woods, &c.,
for concealment against, 231
” advantages of concealment modified by use of, 23
” co-operation with Artillery, 238
” employment of, 238
” methods of engaging, 350
” placed at disposal of divisional artillery commander, 244
” prevention against discovery by, 398, 399
” signalling from, 239
” ” ” the ground to, 239
” with artillery co-operation of, 238
Airships, method of engaging, 351
All guns ranging, 331, 334
Ammunition, 155
” blank, precautions to be taken when firing, 411
” column, brigade, 367
” ” howitzer brigade, 369
” columns, divisional, 370
” ” horse artillery, 370
” ” with heavy batteries, 369
” ” ” mountain batteries, 369
” control of expenditure of, 280
” distribution in action, 364
” expenditure of to be guided by importance of objective, 233
” liberal expenditure of when permissible, 245, 247
” mountain artillery, replenishment of, 367
” parks, 371
” receipt for, 369
” replenishment of, 366
” ” ” for cavalry and horse artillery, 276
” reserves on the line of communication, 371
” supply, general instructions, 364
” ” not restricted to troops of own formation, 364
” ” of, to a rearguard, 265
” ” within the battery, 365
” transfer of, 369
” waste of, 255
Angle of sight, alteration in, 178
” “ how found when target not visible from guns, 176
” ” ” measured, 176
” switch, 189
Angles, form of ordering, 302
” use of hand for measuring, 180
Angular corrections for different positions of aiming point, 186
Annual practice, 19
Approach march, horse artillery with cavalry, 268
Artillery, advanced guard, action of the, 245
” and infantry, forming of, into groups, 236, 241
” attack, opening phase of the, 246
” ” second phase of the, 247
” ” third phase of, 250
” defence, opening phase of, 255
” ” second phase of, 256
” ” third phase of, 257
” distribution of, in defence of a position, 254
” employment of, in war, 227
” field, characteristics of, 227
” fire, natures of, 144
” forward movement, 249
” horse, action in cavalry pursuit or retreat, 273
” ” advance into action, 270
” ” escorts for, 267
” ” in a general engagement, 275
” ” ” cavalry fight, 272
” ” position on the march 267
” ” with cavalry 265
” ” ” ” acting dismounted, 273
” in attack, 245
” ” defence, general instructions and
preliminary measures, 252
” ” hand, objects and methods of keeping, 234, 245
” ” irregular warfare, 278
” ” retirements and retreats, 263
” location of enemy’s batteries, 246
” methods of engaging, 346
” mobile, in the attack and defence of a fortress, 276
” protection of, 234
” territorial, training of, 22
” transport of, by rail, 401
” with aircraft, co-operation of, 324
Assembly, positions of, when selected, 303
Atmosphere, state of, affects accuracy of shooting, 154, 166
Attack, artillery in, 245
” of a fortress, mobile artillery in the, 276
” opening phase of the, 246
” second phase of the, 247
” third phase of the, 250
B
Ballistic coefficient, 149
Balloons, captive, method of engaging, 351
Batteries, nomenclature and position of at brigade drill, 191
Battery acting independently, responsibility of commander, 293
” advance for action, 302
” coming into action, method of, 303
” commander, duties of, in action, 308
” ” orders by, 300
” ” responsibility of, 9
” commanders, position in brigade in column, 284
” drill, 215
” field, in action, 306
” fire, 323
” in action, advance of, 360
” “ retirement of, 361
” leader at mounted drill, 206
” observing station, 295, 316
” position, methods of occupying, 297
” preparation for action, 294
” reconnaissance by commander, 295
” recruit training in, 15
” serjeant-major, duties of, in action, 309
” signallers, 391
” tactics, general instructions, 293
” training, 17
Bending lessons in equitation, 86
Billeting areas, 396
” orders, 397
” party, 396
Billets, descriptions of, 396
Bivouacs, 398
Blank ammunition, precautions to be taken when firing, 411
Boys, course of instruction for, 12
Bracket, 331
Brake, application of, 113
Bridge, construction of with battery stores, 378
Bridling, 63
Brigade ammunition columns, 367
” ” ” position of, 368
” commander, reconnaissance by, 281
” ” responsibility of, 9
“ drill, 222
” leader at mounted drill, 207
” ” duties of, 283
“ selection of position for, 282
” signallers, 391
“ tactics, general instructions, 280
” training, 19
Buildings, effect of field gun fire on, 228
” use of percussion shrapnel against troops defending, 160
Bursts, how judged, 165
C
Calls, field, 205
Camp commandants, practice, duties, &c., 21
Canter, the true, 58, 85
Cantering, disunited and false, 59, 86
Captain, duties of, in action, 308
Carriages, loading of, 403
Cart, loading a, 137
Casualties in action, 363
” on the move, 362
” replacement of, 362
Cavalry acting dismounted, horse artillery with, 273
” employment of horse artillery with, 265
” fight, horse artillery in, 272
” functions of in war, 266
” methods of engaging, 345
” pursuit or retreat, action of horse artillery in, 273
Centring of shell, 147
Civil employment, qualifications for, 13
Clinometer laying, 177
” sight to be set level, 174
Coast fortress, defence of, 277
Collective ranging, 331, 332, 352
” training, 17
” ” object of, 11
Combined employment of the various arms, knowledge of essential, 227
” observation, 317
Command, abbreviated words of, 301
Commandants, practice camp, duties, &c., 21
Commander horse artillery, duty of, 264, 271
Communication between artillery and infantry to be maintained, 238
” means of available, 236, 390
Communications, external, 390, 392
” internal, 390, 391
Compass, use of, to obtain line of fire, 312
Compliments, paying of when mounted without arms, 92
” ” with drawn sword, 97
Concealed positions, utilization of, 245, 246
Concealing guns, 373
Concealment, 231, 243, 254
” training in, 388
Concentration of fire, 339
Cone of dispersion, 158
Control by brigade commander, 290
Control of fire of a battery, 320
Co-operation of aircraft with artillery, 238
Cordite, 155
Corrector settings, 162, 300
” ” form of ordering, 301
Counter-attack, support against, 252
Counter-attacks, decisive, 258
” local, 258
Covering fire, combination of guns, machine guns and rifles, 247
Crest, clearing the, 181
D
Darkness, advantages gained from moving batteries
under cover of, 232
Defence, artillery in, 252
” ” opening phase of, 255
” ” second phase of, 256
” ” third phase of, 257
” of a fortress, mobile artillery in the, 277
” ” position, form taken, 248, 253
Definitions, 1
” of gunnery terms, 142
Deflection, causes and counteraction of, 178
” corrections for difference in level of wheels, 178
” for moving targets, 179
” ” wind, 179
” method of ordering, 180
Despatch riders, 391
Dial sight, use of, 312
Direct laying, advantages and disadvantages of, 174
” ” when employed, 173, 174
” ” with 13-pr. and 18-pr. Q.F. and other field guns, 174
Director, use of, 311, 312
Discipline on the march, 394
Dismounting from horse, 73
” importance of, 56
Dispersion, cone of, 158
” of guns, 245
Displacement, 186
Distance at which artillery can fire over own troops
with safety, 251
” judging, training in, 382
Distribution of fire, general principles, 338
Divisional ammunition column to be acquainted with dispositions
of artillery units, 243
” ” columns, 370
“ artillery commander, duties of, 9, 240, 249
” ” ” position of, 240, 244
” ” training, 21
Double displacement, 188
Drift, 149
” deflection for, 169
” how counteracted, 179
Drill, dismounted, 23
” mounted, _see_ =M.=
” squad, general instruction, 23, 35, 38
Driver, position of, with mountain artillery, 137
” ” ” mounted and dismounted, 104
Drivers, course of instruction, 12
Driving a pair of horses from the box, 113
” application of brake in, 113
” band, 146
” down hill, 113, 115
” general principles of, 102
” reversing in narrow roads, 113
” up hills, 111, 115
” without vehicles, 106
Duties of personnel of battery in action, 308
E
Economy of force, 232
Elevation, 151
” form of ordering, 301
” how to find, 331
Employment of artillery in war, general instructions, 227
“ with other arms, 22
Engaging objectives, methods of, 343
Engineering, field, knowledge of necessary, 8
Entrenching guns, 373
Epaulments, gun, 374
Equitation, 54
” standard required, 54
” terms used in, 58
Escorts for horse artillery, 267
” necessity of, 235
F
Field artillery, characteristics of, 227
” calls, 205
” engineering, 373
” guns, characteristics of, 227
” ” effect and use of, 227
” howitzers, characteristics of, 228
Fire action with mounted action, 269
” artillery, distribution of, 338
” ” natures of, 144
” battery, 323
” concentration of, 339
” control of, 320
” ” ” in action, 251
” converging, effect of, 250
” covering, combination of guns, machine guns and rifles, 247
” discipline, 293
” distribution of, general principles, 338
” effect of, 248
” gun, 323
” in defence, 256
” justification for opening of, 233
” line of, laying out the, 310
” lines of parallelism of, 182
” not to be opened with more guns than necessary, 233
” objects of, 230
” observation of, 316
” ” ” from aircraft, 238, 325
” ” ” ” kites, 329
” on hostile firing lines, 256
” searching and sweeping combined, 343
” ” 341
” section, 323
” sweeping, 342
” unit, 293
” when to be opened by horse artillery, 272
Firing battery, composition of, 294
” blank ammunition, precautions to be taken, 411
First line wagons, composition of, 294
Force, economy of, 232
Flight, time of, 169
Fortress, mobile artillery in the attack and defence of, 275
Furlough, arrangement of, 15
Fuze indicator, object and theory of, 162
” ” use of, 165
” scale, 168
” setters, list of qualified to be kept, 190
” ” numbers maintained, 190
” ” to be tested, 190
” to find the, 334, 337
Fuzes, time and percussion, 161
G
Gallop, the true, 58
Galloping, disunited and false, 59
Games, value of, 8
Gravity, force of, action on shell during flight, 149
Ground scouts, 284
Gun arcs, use of, 312
” epaulments, 374
” field, number of men required for service of, 213
” fire, 323
” heavy, number of men required for service of, 214
” horse, number of men required for service of, 209
” layers and fuze setters, list of qualified to be kept, 190
” ” ” numbers maintained, 190
” ” ” to be tested, 190
” mountain, number of men required for service of, 214
” parks, sites for, 397
” pits, 374
” when laid, 172
Gunners, course of instruction, 12
Gunnery, general instructions, 142
” ” principles of, 145
” terms, 142
Guns, concealment of, 373
” dispersion of, 245
” entrenchment of, 373
” field, characteristics of, 227
” ” effect and use of, 227
” heavy, characteristics of, 229
” how mounted, 172
” loading of, 403
” not to be parked in the open, 397
” objects and methods of keeping in hand, 234, 245
” selection of position for, 295
” slinging of, 407
H
Halting, when driving, 108
Hand, use of, for measuring angles, 180
Harness, care of, 133
” disposal of, 134, 135
” fitting of, 102
Headquarters of battery, movement of, 295
” ” brigade ”, 281
Heavy artillery, characteristics of, 229
” ” use of, 276, 277
” batteries, observing parties for, 319
” guns, ranging for, 336, 338
Hill, driving down, 113, 115
Hills, driving up, 111, 115
Hooking in and unhooking, 106
Horse artillery action in cavalry pursuit or retreat, 273
” ” advance into action, 270
” ” commander, duty of, 264, 271
” ” employment with cavalry, 265
” ” escorts for, 267
” ” fire, when to be opened, 272
” ” in a general engagement, 275
” ” ” cavalry fight, 272
” ” position on the march, 267
” ” with cavalry acting dismounted, 273
” balance, 59
” bending a, 86
” brows, 405
” collected, 59, 84
” how to pick up a foot, 73
” ” run in hand, 73
” paces of the, 58
” to jump, teaching of, 123
” to stand still without being held, teaching a, 123
” training of, first stage, 118
” ” general principles, 116
” ” second stage, 120
” ” third stage, 124
” wooden, use of, 71
Horseback, first movements on, 80
Horseman, qualifications of, 54
Horsemastership, general instructions, 55
” necessity of, 54
Horses, awkward, riding and retraining of, 126
” draught, refractory, 132
” feeding of, 56
” fretting, 130
” jibbing, 112
” leading of, 92
” loading of, 402
” off saddling, 56
” practising swimming, 18
” pulling, causes and cure of, 127
” refusing, causes and cure of, 128
” rolling in the sand, 57
” securing of, 92
” shoeing, 57
” slinging of, transports alongside, 403
” ” ” transports not alongside, 404
” sore backs, cause of, 56
” standard required of, 55
” temper and vice, 132
” that decline to leave the ranks, 130
” ” ” to stand still when being mounted, 131
” ” fret, 130
” ” rush at their fences, 130
” training of remounts, 54
” vice and bad temper, 132
” watering of, 56
” weight off the back, 56
Howitzers, field, characteristics of, 228
” ranging for, 336
” use of, 277, 278
I
Indicator, fuze, 162
Indirect laying, advantages and disadvantages of, 175
” ” for direction, 176
” ” ” elevation, 175
” ” when employed, 175
Individual training, 15
” ” object of, 11
Infantry advance, stopping of hostile, 256
” advancing, artillery to support attack of, 249
” assault, 250, 251
” co-operation with, duty of artillery commander, 242
” deployment, cover and support of, 246
” grouping of, with artillery, 236, 241, 254
” hostile methods of engaging, 348, 357
” ” prevent movements of, 230
” howitzers adapted to support of in later stages
of attack, 228
” intended action to be communicated to artillery
commander, 281
” sacrifice of artillery to support, 232
” support of primary object, 247
” ” ” principle of all artillery tactics, 230
Information, advanced guard obtains, 245
Intercommunication, N.C.O. from ammunition column to accompany
headquarters of brigade for, 368
” service of, 390
” ” ” brigade headquarters, 288
” system of, 235
Irregular warfare, artillery in, 278
J
Jibber, method of starting a, 112
Judging distance, training in, 382
Jumping, instruction of recruits in, 81
” teaching of horses in, 123
” training of mules in, 140
K
Kites, method of engaging, 351
” observation of fire from, 329
L
Lands, 146
Layers, list of qualified to be kept, 190
” numbers maintained, 190
Laying, to be tested, 190
” clinometer, 177
” direct, advantage and disadvantages of, 174
” ” when employed, 173, 174
” ” with 13-pr. and 18-pr. Q.F. and other field guns, 174
” general instructions for, 172
” indirect, advantages and disadvantages of, 175
” ” for direction, 176
” ” ” elevation, 175
” ” when employed, 175
” main factors in, 172
” methods of instruction in, 172
” out the line of fire, 310
” with open sights, 173
Leading of battery, 302
” brigade, 281, 283
” in mounted drill, 206
Leave, arrangement of, 15
Lectures, importance of, 15
Limbering up, 110
Line of fire, how marked, 310, 311
” “ laying out the, 310
” to find the, 335
Lines of fire, how obtained, 310
” ” parallelism of, 182
Loading a wagon or cart, 136
Localities, method of engaging, 344
Look-out men, 319
Lyddite shell, 157
M
Machine guns, cavalry, position of, 271
” ” methods of engaging, 350
Main body, protection of, 245
Map reading, training in, 388
Maps, rough, those who reconnoitre should be able to execute, 385
Marches and march discipline, 394
Mountain artillery, characteristics of, 229
” ” mounted drill, 193, 194, 214
” ” organization for drill and manœuvre, 193
” ” special instructions re equitation
and driving, 137
Mounted drill, battery, 215
” ” brigade, 222
” ” commands used at, 201
” ” falling in for parade, 194
” ” field battery, 213
” ” ” calls used at, 205
” ” frontages and depths, 196
” ” general instructions, 191
” ” heavy battery, 214
” ” horse battery, 209
” ” intervals and distances, 195
” ” leading and dressing, 206
” ” markers, 208
” ” mountain artillery, 193, 194
” ” ” battery, 214
” ” object of, 191
” ” posts of officers, N.C.O’s. &c., 197
” ” signals used at, 202
” ” wheeling, 207
Mounting a horse, 73
Movements, 394
Moving off, when driving, 108
” targets, deflection for, 179
” ” use of direct laying against, 174
Mules, leading of, 140
” ordnance, fitting saddlery of, 138
” training young, 139
Musketry, knowledge of necessary, 8
N
Night firing, 292
” operations, general instructions, 261
Nitro-glycerine, freezing in cordite, 156
Nos. 1, duties of in action, 310
O
Objectives, allotting, by brigade commander, 288
” choice of by battery commander, 293
” methods of engaging, 343
Observation, combined, 317
” of fire, 316
” ” ” from aircraft, 238, 325
” ” ” ” kites, 329
” posts, advanced, 242
” ” when established, 246
” responsibility of brigade commander, 290
” training in, 383
Observing officer, definition of, 316
” ” heavy artillery, duties of, in action, 309
” station and battery, how to measure distance between, 314
” ” battery, 295
” ” definition of, 316
” ” selection of, 281
Obstacles, passage of, 377
Officers, duties of, in action, 308
Officers’ patrols, 240, 380
Operation orders, 243
Orderlies, use of, 322
” ” ” for communication, 236
Orders by battery commander, 300
” operation, 243
Overseas dominions, training of artillery, 22
P
Pace, length of, 30
Paces of the horse, 58
Panorama sketches, those who reconnoitre should be
able to execute, 385
Parallel lines of fire, how obtained, 312
Parallelism of lines of fire, 182
Patrols, look-out men not to be used as, 320
” officers’, 240, 380
Percussion shrapnel, 160
Picketing rope, 399
Pits, gun, 374
Planeing, 151
Position, change of, 291
” covered, definition of, 297
” defence of, form taken, 248, 253
” for batteries, selection of, 282
” ” guns, selection of, 295
” in observation, meaning of, 286
” ” readiness, meaning of, 286
” methods of occupying by battery, 297
” occupation of a, by a brigade, 286
” of battery, change of, 360
” “ wagon line, selection of, 303
” open, definition of, 296
” semi-covered, definition of, 296
Positions of assembly, when selected, 303
Principles of employment, 230
Protection of artillery, 234
” ” the main body, 245
Pulling horses, causes and cure of, 127
Q
Quarters, 394
R
Rail, transport by, 401
Range, 152
Range-finders, all officers to be capable of using, 390
” ” reserve to be maintained, 389
” finding, definition of, 155
” ” general instructions, 388
” tables, 166
” ” information in, 168
” takers, training of, 389
Ranging, 155
” all guns, 331, 334
” collective, 331, 332, 352
” examples of, 351
” for heavy guns, 336, 338
” ” howitzers, 336
” general instructions, 330
” in brigade, 288
” method of detailing, 332
” section, 331, 333, 355, 358
” single gun, 331, 333, 359
” use of percussion and time shrapnel for, 160
Rations, preparation of, 18
Ravines, passage of, 378
Rearguards, 264
Reconnaissance, 253, 280, 295
” aerial, 246
” by battery commander, 295
” ” brigade commander, 281
” object of, and general instructions, 380
” reports, detail of, 386
Recruits, course of instruction, 12
” training in the battery, 13
” ” of, 10
Reference point, definition of, 289
” ” laying out lines of fire on, 290
Refusers, causes and cure of, 128
Rein, right and left, 58
Reins, how to hold the, 76, 114
” to lengthen or shorten the, 78, 115
Remounts, training of, 54
Reporting, training in, 388
Reports and sketches, 385
Reserve brigade commander, responsibility of, 9
” special, training of, 22
Retirement, action of artillery in, 263
” of battery in action, 361
Retraining awkward horses, 126
Reversing in narrow roads, 113
Revolver shooting, 101
Riding awkward horses, 126
” first lessons to the recruit, 71
” ” movements on horseback, 80
” general instructions, 66
” hints to instructors, 68
” how to hold the reins, 76
” ” rise in the stirrups, 80
” mounting and dismounting, 73
” over a fence, teaching recruit, 81
” position in the saddle at attention, 79
” preliminary training, 71
” spurs in, use of, 89
” the aids in, 67, 83
” ” seat, 75
” various exercises in, 89
” with the rifle, 98
” ” ” sword, 95
Rifle drill, general instructions, 44
” exercises not to be performed at inspections, 44
” riding with the, 98
” saluting when carrying, 53
Rifling, definition and object of, 147
” twist of, 147
Road spaces, 197
S
Saddle-fitting, 59
Saddlery, care of, 133
” disposal of, 134, 135
” miscellaneous details, 65
” of ordnance mules, fitting of, 138
Saddling, 61
Salute, drivers’, 105
” officers’, 97
Saluting, rules as to, 28
” when carrying rifle, 53
” ” leading horse, 73
Salvoes, when used, 325
School, attendance of recruits in, 12
Scouting, training of men at, 381
Searching and sweeping fire combined, 348
” fire, 341
Searchlights, use of, 292
Section commander, duties of, in action, 308
” ” qualifications for, 10
” ” responsibility of, 10
” control of fire, 322
” fire, 323
” ranging, 331, 333, 355, 358
” training, 17
Sections, nomenclature and position of, 191
Semaphore signalling, 393
” ” use of, 320
Shell during flight, forces acting on, 148
” elongated, advantages of, 146
” in the bore, forces acting on, 148
” lyddite, 157
” shrapnel, 157
” star, 161
Shoeing of horses, 57
Shooting, causes of, affecting the accuracy of, 154, 166
” effect on, when wheels not level, 153
Shrapnel bullets, 158
” percussion, 160
” shell, 157
” time, 160
Sight, angle of, alteration in, 178
” ” ” how found when target not visible from guns, 176
” ” how measured, 176
” clinometer, to be set level, 174
Sight, telescopic, when useful, 174
Sighting, principle of, 152
Sights, open, laying with, 173
Signal service, divisional, 237
Signallers, brigade and battery, 391
Signalling, abbreviations to be used in, 321
” from aircraft, 239
” ” the ground to aircraft, 239
” use of, in control of fire, 320
Signals from and to aeroplanes, 328
” used at mounted drill, 202
Single displacement, 186
” gun ranging, 331, 333, 359
Sketches and reports, 385
Sketching, training in, 388
Slinging guns, 407
” horses, 403
” vehicles, 407
Soldierly spirit, development of, 7
Special reserve, training of, 22
Spurs, use of, in riding, 89
Squad drill, general instructions, 23, 35, 38
” formation of, 12
” instructors, selection of, 12
Staffs, method of engaging, 345
Star shell, 161
Sub-base, use of, 314
Subsections, numbering and position of, 191
Surprise, concealed manœuvre favours, 232
Sweeping and searching fire combined, 343
” fire, 339, 342
Switch angle, method of obtaining, 189, 190
Sword, riding with the, 95
Syllabus of training, 409
T
Tables, range, 166
” ” information in, 168
Tactical practice, schemes on which based, 20
” situation, knowledge of, essential, 332
Tactics, battery, general instructions, 293
” brigade ” ” , 280
Target, change of, 343
Targets, concealed, indication of by aircraft, 238
” location of, from aircraft, 324
” moving, deflection for, 179
” ” use of direct laying against, 174
Telephone equipment, use of, 237
Telephones, 320, 393
Telescopic sight, when useful, 174
Territorial artillery, training of, 22
Time and percussion fuzes, 161
” in marching, 30
” of flight, 169
” shrapnel, 160
Traces, position of, 107
Training, artillery of the overseas dominions, 22
” battery, 17
” brigade, 19
” collective, 17
” ” object of, 14
” divisional artillery, 21
” individual, 15
” ” object of, 14
” object and method of, 7
” of recruits, 11
” ” special reserve artillery, 22
” ” territorial artillery, 22
” responsibility for, 8
” section, 17
” syllabus of, 409
” system of, 10
” the young horse, 116
” to be progressive and continuous, 14
” with other arms important, 9
Trajectory, 151
Transport of artillery by rail, 401
U
Unhooking, 106
Unlimbering, 110
V
Vehicles, care of, 136
” not to be parked in the open, 398
” slinging of, 407
Villages, attack of, by artillery, 261, 344
” defence of, 261
Visual signalling, 237, 239
” training, 381
W
Wagon line, selection of position for, 305
” loading a, 136
Wagons, care of, 136
Wheels, deflection due to difference in level of, 178
” not level, effect on shooting, 153
Wheeling, mounted drill, 207
” when driving, 108, 109
Whip, use of, 105, 115
Whistle, use of, 322
Wind, deflection for, 179
” effect of, on shooting, 155
Wireless telegraphy, 239
Wood, attack on a, 345
” fighting, artillery in, 259
Woods, advantage to be taken of, for concealment
against aircraft, 231
” use of mountain artillery in the defence of, 230
Wounded, disposal of, 363
Z
Zone, to register a, 344
Zones, 282
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