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Title: The triumph of the cross
Author: Girolamo Savonarola
Editor: John Procter
Release date: October 3, 2024 [eBook #74508]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Sands & Co
Credits: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS ***
THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS
[Illustration: No. X.
_Il ritratto de Savonarola_
_Fra Bartolommeo ad vivum Pinxit_ _Patch 1771._
_FRA GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA._]
THE TRIUMPH
OF THE CROSS
BY
FRA GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA
Translated from the Italian
EDITED, WITH INTRODUCTION
BY THE
VERY REV. FATHER JOHN PROCTER, S.T.L.
PROVINCIAL OF THE DOMINICANS IN ENGLAND
_WITH A FRONTISPIECE PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR_
“The work ... on THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS is a witness to my faith”
—(_Letter of Savonarola to Pope Alexander VI._)
LONDON
SANDS & CO.
DUBLIN
M. H. GILL & SON
1901
Nihil obstat.
JOANNES PROCTER, O.P., S.T.L.
_Die Martii 27, 1901._
Imprimatur.
HERBERTUS CARDINALIS VAUGHAN,
_Archiepiscopus Westmonast_.
_Die Martii 28, 1901._
INTRODUCTION.
Savonarola was a speaker rather than a writer. His was the eloquent
ministry of the living word, rather than the calm apostolate of the
lifeless pen. He was more at home when standing in the pulpit of the
Duomo in Florence, facing the panting, throbbing crowd, numbering
thousands, who, with itching ears and thirsting souls, drank in his every
word, as though the words were dewdrops from heaven, than when sitting
at the little table—which is still preserved in his lowly cell at San
Marco—holding in his emaciated hand a nerveless, passionless pen. His
great master-intellect and his large sympathetic heart seemed to long
to pour out their rich pent-up treasures, freely and without stint,
through the channel of his eloquent tongue; whereas the hand that would
perpetuate his thoughts, by stamping them upon paper, at times seemed
palsied. Out of the abundance of his heart his mouth preferred to speak.
Still he wrote sometimes;—it was generally, however, under moral
compulsion, being impelled to do so by circumstances which he could not
control. He was accused of error by those, or to those at a distance;
his advice was sought by others who were far away—defence or counsel had
to be committed to paper. For a time he might not sway the masses, as he
would, by the irresistible magic of his burning words; _then_ we have the
apostolate of the pen. He retired to the seclusion of his monastic cell,
and wrote, as his zeal prompted, his message to his fellow-men. Many
of his treatises—short ones for the most part—exist. We have his five
books—we might call them chapters, they are so brief—on “The Simplicity
of the Christian Life”; a treatise on “Humility”; an exposition of the
“Our Father,” and another of the “Hail Mary”;[1] commentaries on some of
the Psalms; an explanation of the Mass, and of the ceremonies of the Holy
Sacrifice; certain rules for good Christian living (composed when he was
in prison), and a number of other letters and booklets. But perhaps the
most notable, as well as the most useful, of his writings are the four
little “Books,” as he calls them, which these words are to introduce to
the English-reading public, and which he himself styles, in the Prologue
or Introduction to the First Book, a defence of “the glorious TRIUMPH
OF THE CROSS” over “the profane and foolish babble of worldly-wise
Philosophers”.
Of St. Philip Neri, the Apostle of Rome, who was ever staunch in his
loyalty to the memory of the one who, for a time at least, was the
Apostle of his own native Florence, it is said, that this was one of his
favourite books. The Saint’s biographer, Cardinal Capecelatro, writes:
“It is well known that Philip often read the writings of Savonarola,
especially THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS, and that he used them for the
instruction of his spiritual children. There are still preserved in the
Vallicella, among the books which belonged to St. Philip, and which were
given by him to the Congregation, five of Savonarola’s works.”[2]
The history and object of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS, which may be
considered the most important of the works, if we may so call them, of
the great Florentine Reformer, is given by Echard, the Continuator of
Quetif, in his _Scriptores Ordinis Prædicatorum_.[3]
THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS is (he tells us) an accurate work, and one
approved by all learned men. Savonarola undertook it for this special
reason, namely, that he might clearly show what were his real feelings
as regards the Catholic Faith and the Apostolic See; and that he might
refute the calumnious accusation of heresy and schism, which had been
laid to his charge by his adversaries. It begins thus: “The glorious
triumph of the Cross over the worldly wise and over wordy sophists,
etc.”. It is divided into four books, of which the first treats of the
existence, nature, and providence of God, and proves the immortality of
the soul of man. In the second the author shows, by various arguments,
how the Christian faith is in accord with truth and reason. He proceeds,
in the third, to point out that there is nothing, intrinsically, or
extrinsically, impossible in the chief mysteries of the Christian faith,
and that they are not, in any way, at variance with reason. The fourth
book is mainly devoted to an exposition of the truth of the religion
taught by Christ.
It shows that the vagaries of philosophers, astrologers, idolaters,
Jews, Mahometans, and heretics are absolutely opposed to reason.
This work Savonarola wrote in Latin, and it was printed at Florence
in 1497 in quarto. It was reprinted there, in quarto, in 1524, and
afterwards in Paris at the Ascension Press, in octavo, in the same year.
Next it was published at Basle by Henrici-Pietri, in 1540, in folio.
Then, more accurately, thanks to the zeal of the famous John Balesdens,
by John Maire at Lyons (1633), in duodecimo. It was also reproduced at
Rome by Cardinal S. Onufrius Antonius Barberini, brother of Urban VIII.,
at the Propaganda Press, in duodecimo, without any date. Finally, another
edition was issued at Grenoble, in 1666, under the care of the famous
companion of Stephen Mency.
But since many of Savonarola’s adherents were unable to obtain a copy,
and were unacquainted with the Latin language, in which it was written,
in accordance with their wishes he translated it into the Etruscan
tongue, not indeed (as he warns his readers in his introductory letter),
word for word, or line for line, but merely giving the sense and the
pith of each chapter, and sometimes (to make a special point the more
convincing to his readers), omitting some passages and adding others.[4]
He says that he did this advisedly, lest it should be purposely, and
maliciously, mis-translated by another. This was edited at Florence in
the year 1497, in quarto, and to it a Preface was written by Domenico
Benevieni, a Florentine noble, who was Canon Theologian of St. Laurence’s
in the same city. In this Preface Benevieni defended the author in a very
able manner. This version was reprinted at Venice, by Bernard of Bindoni,
in 1531, in octavo, and again, in octavo, in 1547.[5] It must be noticed
that the seventh chapter of the Fourth Book of the Latin edition was
taken out of its place, and inserted, by Theodore Bibliandrus, in his
collection of works written against the Mahometan errors. It is to be
found in the second part of the Basle Folio editions of 1543 and 1550,
under the title: “Commentatiuncula Savonarolæ Mahumeticam sectam omni
ratione carere ostendens”.
In his _Etude sur Jérome Savonarole_, the Reverend Père Bayonne, O.P.,[6]
adds to what we have already said, that the brother of Urban VIII.,
Cardinal Onufrius Antonius Barberini—a Capuchin—wishing to vindicate
his (Savonarola’s) innocence, left by will, dated 23rd of August, 1646,
500 gold crowns to bring out a reprint of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS, and
his commentary on the _Miserere_. The heirs of the Cardinal gave this
commission, as we have seen, to the Propaganda Press; and these two works
accordingly appeared. They were sufficient to dispel all the illusions of
those who still suspected the author of heresy and of hostility to the
Holy See.
The same writer also quotes M. Perrens as saying that the Society
of Jesus printed THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS in their _Annals of the
Propagation of the Faith_ (vol. ii., p. 211). The most recent edition is
one which appeared in 1899. It was published, both in Latin and Italian,
on parallel pages, at Siena, under the title “TRIONFO DELLA CROCE di Fra
Girolamo Savonarola, edito per la prima volte, nei due teste originali
Latino e Volgare, per cura del P. Lodovico Ferretti de’ Predicatori”.
I would here acknowledge, with thanks, my indebtedness to the Reverend
Editor of this valuable edition. He has kindly put his work at my service
in editing the translation which these words introduce to the English
reader.
This is the book which is now presented to the reader in an English form.
It is the first time, as far as I can ascertain, that it appears, in
its entirety, in English.[7] I say _in its entirety_. In reality, there
are two paragraphs omitted in the eighth chapter of the Third Book, the
omitted paragraphs being denoted by asterisks. The reason of the omission
is, that the author treats of a physical question of some delicacy;
and, as, since Savonarola’s day, the views of scientists on the subject
have changed, it has been designedly left out. I may add, however, that
the omission does not in any way affect the author’s argument.[8] I am
fully aware that a work was published, some years ago, purporting to
be an English translation of the four books, and that the Rev. Father
Lucas, S.J., in his recent biographical study, _Fra Girolamo Savonarola_,
calls his readers’ attention to it as “an English translation of THE
TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS”.[9] I have the book before me as I write, and I
cannot agree with the learned Jesuit in accepting this mutilated and
eviscerated English version as a translation of SAVONAROLA’S TRIUMPH OF
THE CROSS, nor do I think that the Florentine Dominican would, were he
able to do so, give either his _Nihil Obstat_ or his _Imprimatur_ to the
work as a reproduction of his own words, or as the full profession of
his own creed. The title of the book is “THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS, by
Jerome Savonarola, translated from the Latin ... by O’Dell Travers Hill,
F.R.G.S.”; it was published in London in 1868. It is NOT a translation
of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS. It is, apparently, only a translation of
certain portions of the book which would prove palatable to the class of
readers for whom the “translation” was clearly intended. Whole chapters
have been dropped out, evidently without the slightest compunction,
certainly without the least explanation. In some of the chapters which
appear, lengthy passages have been omitted without the shadow of
hesitation. Truly, it is _Hamlet_ without the Prince of Denmark. It
is no more a translation of the great Dominican’s famous defence of
his orthodoxy—as THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS was intended to be—than the
garden-fence of a suburban London villa is a reproduction upon English
soil of the Wall of China, or than Primrose Hill is an English _replica_
of the Alps. If the books of Catholic Apologists are to be “translated”
in this way, what is to prevent a Unitarian from giving us in English
an edition of the Bible without any allusion direct or indirect, to
the Blessed Trinity? Or what is to hinder an Agnostic from reproducing
the Gospels in our mother-tongue, without any reference to the Central
Figure, around whom the whole of the sacred writings revolve?
The “translator” tells us in his Preface that “this book is free from
all sectarian feeling or prejudice”. No doubt it is. But why? Everything
“sectarian” in THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS has been left out in the
“translation”. He speaks of “its freedom from all sectarian spirit, from
all scholastic quibblings”; and concludes that “its close consecutive
reasoning, its earnestness, convince us that its author was a man far in
advance of his age”. If the unbiassed reader will peruse the pages of
_this_ translation, from first page to last, from the opening chapter
of the First Book to the closing chapter of the Fourth, and compare the
doctrine of the four books with the teaching of any book written by any
recognised Catholic Apologist, in any tongue, in this twentieth century,
he will find that, in a sense, the words of the Preface are true, and
that Savonarola, writing in the fifteenth century, _was_ “in advance of
his age”; that he was one with the Catholic writers of this twentieth
age. If he will pursue his reading still further, and compare the true
TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS with the works of the Catholic Apologists of the
middle, and earlier, nay the earliest ages, he will find that Savonarola
was behind his age, as well as being in advance of it. There are no
“ages” in the history of the Catholic Creed of the Catholic Church.
Like Jesus Christ, the Church and the Church’s teaching are “yesterday,
to-day, and the same for ever”.[10] Savonarola’s teaching in this
profession of his creed—the creed in which he lived, in which he died,
and which he preached through life and with his dying breath—is the
creed of the Catholic Church in all places and in all times. “This is My
Covenant with them, saith the Lord. My Spirit that is in thee, and the
words that I have put in thy mouth, shall not depart out of thy mouth,
nor out of the mouth of thy seed, nor out of the mouth of thy seed’s
seed, saith the Lord, from henceforth and for ever.”[11]
The translator of what I cannot but call the _Pseudo_ TRIUMPH OF THE
CROSS, but which he ascribes to Savonarola, professes on the title-page
that it is “translated from the Latin”; and in the Preface he assures
his readers that “this translation has been made from a valuable copy,
printed with all the abbreviations peculiar to Savonarola’s manuscript,
found in the Archives of Sion College”. Where, then, does the fault
lie? Who is responsible for the omissions?[12] Is the defect—or are
the defects, for their name is “Legion”—in the original, or in the
“translation”? Let us see. There is only one Latin copy of THE TRIUMPH
OF THE CROSS in the Sion College Archives, and, as the translator says,
it _is_ “a valuable copy”. It lacks the first page; otherwise it is
complete. The loss of the title-page, however, matters little, as the
edition is recorded at the end of the book: “_Venumdatur in aedibus
Ascensianis_. Typog. Ascensiana, MDXXIIII.” Truly “a valuable copy,”
printed in Paris by a certain J. B. Ascensius in the year 1524, only
twenty-six years after the author’s tragic death. It is not the first
edition. This, as we have seen, appeared in Florence in 1497, the year
before he died. Still it is an early edition. There is another copy
of this Ascension Press edition of 1524 in the library of the British
Museum. A third copy, belonging to the library of the Dominican Fathers
at Woodchester, lies on my desk as I write these words. It is a small
octavo volume bound in vellum, and besides THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS,
it contains several other treatises of the Florentine Dominican. The
inscription at the end, with the date, corresponds to the Sion College
copy. The space at my command will only allow me to call attention to
two or three discrepancies between the original, the “valuable copy”
found in the Archives of Sion College, and the book which claims to be a
translation.
In the original Latin edition, the Third Book contains eighteen chapters;
in the translation only fifteen chapters appear. There is no explanation
given, either in the Preface or in the body of the work, of the reason
of the omission, nor is it stated that these three chapters are omitted.
The chapters which are absolutely ignored in the pseudo-translation are
those which appear in the original, and in this present translation, as
chapters xv., xvi., and xviii. If the reader will refer to them, he may
perhaps form his own opinion as to the reason of the omission from what
purports to be a translation. These chapters contain what the translator
would probably call “sectarian” teaching; they embody the “sectarian
spirit,” from which, he tells us, THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS is free. The
first of the three omitted chapters treats of the Sacraments, and teaches
that there are seven, even as does the Catholic Catechism of to-day.
Following the argument of St. Thomas, the author shows the need of each
of the seven Sacraments, from the analogy between the life of the body
and the spiritual life of the soul. In the following, or sixteenth
chapter, which the translator, on his own responsibility, evidently puts
under a ban of excommunication from an English home, Savonarola treats of
what the scholastics call “the matter and form” of the Sacraments, and
explains, in terse and clear words, the meaning and object of each of
these seven channels of grace to the soul. This chapter is “sectarian”
indeed. Hence, we may presume, its eradication, its being pulled up
root and branch from English soil; hence its elimination from English
pages; hence its absolute extermination, as far as English readers are
concerned. Savonarola wrote it in Latin, and reproduced it in Italian,
but _we_ will have no popery and no popish doctrine in our pure English
tongue! We have it, however, at last, in _this_ translation, as we have
had it from the beginning in the chapter of the original to which I
allude. Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Eucharist, Penance (or Confession),
Extreme Unction, Holy Orders, Matrimony—all are there, with their object,
their meaning, their “matter and form,” as the scholastics would call
their component parts, their mode of administration, and their effects
upon the human soul in time and in eternity.
Finally, in the third of the proscribed chapters—the eighteenth in the
original work—we have a dissertation on the Ceremonies of the Church.
Savonarola shows with what wisdom they form part of the Church’s
discipline, and how they answer to a demand of the soul of man in his
worship of the Most High. The author explains, too, some of the practices
of the Catholic Church, which, in our days, as in his own, are often
misrepresented or misunderstood.
The unprejudiced reader may draw his own conclusions as to the reason of
the omission of the three chapters from the book we have been referring
to, and which appear, probably for the first time in English, in the
pages which follow this Introduction. The Twenty-fifth of the Thirty-nine
Articles of the Anglican Creed declares: “There are two Sacraments
ordained of Christ our Lord ... Baptism and the Supper of the Lord”.
Savonarola says there are seven. The Twenty-eighth Article professes that
“transubstantiation ... cannot be proved in Holy Writ; it is repugnant to
the plain words of Scripture”. Savonarola, on the contrary, holds that
the Catholic doctrine _can_ be proved, and that it _is_ clearly taught in
Holy Writ by Jesus Christ the Divine Teacher. The Thirty-fourth Article
attaches little importance to ceremonies, and calls in question the need
of outward uniformity in the services of the Church. Savonarola has an
entire chapter written in their defence and explanation, in which he
speaks of crucifix and images, of devotion to the Mother of Jesus, of
the consecration of churches, of lighted candles, of sacred vessels, and
even of holy water. What then? The Articles are right; Savonarola must
be wrong; he must be “sectarian”. Then leave out the sectarianism; omit
the chapters in which he treats of subjects which are distinctly and
essentially Catholic. It is the old story. They _will_ make Savonarola
a Protestant, or, at least, a herald of Protestantism, a precursor of
Luther and Calvin, a harbinger of the Reformation, whether _he_ will or
no. Whereas, as every reader of his history and writings must know, he
was of Catholics the most Catholic—Catholic in life, Catholic in death,
Catholic to the heart’s core.
I must leave it to the calm unbiassed judgment of the reader to decide
whether this kind of translation is fair; whether it is just to the
memory of the great Dominican whom so many, Catholics and non-Catholics
alike, profess to revere; whether it is just even to the English-reading
people, to the vast majority of whom original works written in Latin
or Italian are sealed books, and who have consequently to depend upon
the fidelity and accuracy of a translation. If the translator had
professed to give an expurgated edition of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS;
if he had told his readers that he had eliminated everything that was
“sectarian”; if he had undertaken to give selections from the work,
in defence of Christianity; if he had professed to reproduce, in more
modern English, the translation published by the Cambridge University
Press in 1661, to which I have referred—this we could understand; but
to call a book with several chapters ruthlessly discarded, “THE TRIUMPH
OF THE CROSS translated from the Latin”—this, assuredly, it is beyond
the power of words to condemn. The translator of the Cambridge edition
of 1661—as we may readily understand both from the date and the place
of the publication—omits the identical passages omitted in the edition
of 1868—those which I have referred to, and others to which I shall
refer,—but he is candid and fair in so doing. He prepares the reader
for this in his Preface or Dedicatory Letter, to which he appends his
initials, J. W. B. “I know” (he writes) “that you will not disdain to
look upon him (Savonarola) in this English Dress, wherewith I have
attired him; _nor blame me for having cut off some few shreds, that he
might, with more credit, appear amongst us_.... You will approve of my
choice of this author, who lived in the thickest darkness of popery.”
Not so, however, the “translator” of the English edition of 1868. He
suppresses whole paragraphs and entire chapters without note or comment.
Moreover, he assigns no reason for so doing.
One further reference, and I have done with this so-called translation.
In the original edition of A.D. 1524 we find in the Fourth Book nine
chapters. In the mutilated English version we find also nine. No chapter,
it is true, is bodily omitted from the Fourth Book. One chapter, however,
has come under the reckless and unscrupulous pruning knife of the
translator; evidently, again, because it ran counter to his religious
views, or the preconceived ideas of those for whose benefit he was
translating. The sixth chapter of this Fourth Book, which professedly
treats of the doctrine of heretics, is in reality a dissertation on
Church government, and a plea for visible Church unity under one visible
head. After instancing, by way of analogy, the unity of bees under one
queen, and the unity of the members of the human body under one head,
the author goes on to show the need there is of one Chief Ruler in the
Church. He quotes the prophet Osee, and also the well-known words of our
Lord about the “One fold and the One Shepherd”. He then proceeds to argue
that Christ was the visible Head of the Church when on earth, adding that
when He ascended into Heaven, He would not leave the Church “without
any earthly head,” seeing that in such a case it would become a prey
to divisions, confusion, and disorder; and therefore He said to Peter,
“Feed My sheep”. “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock,” etc. And again:
“I will give unto thee the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven,” etc. All this
we find word for word in the English version which we are considering.
Savonarola then continues—AND THE WHOLE OF THE FOLLOWING WORDS ARE
EXCLUDED FROM THE PSEUDO-TRANSLATION:—“It can not, however, be supposed
that Christ conferred this dignity on Peter alone, to the exclusion of
his successors, since He Himself has declared that the Church should
endure for ever in the order which He had established. Speaking to His
disciples, and, in their person, addressing all the faithful, He said:
‘Behold I am with you even unto the consummation of the world’ (Matt.
xxviii. 20). And again, by the mouth of Isaias, He said: ‘He shall sit
upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom; to establish it, and
strengthen it with judgment and justice, from henceforth and for ever’
(Is. ix. 7). These passages clearly indicate that the office confided by
Christ to St. Peter, being highly expedient and necessary to the Church,
should, by an unbroken succession, be guaranteed to her for ever. Hence
it follows that, as Peter was chosen by Christ to be His vicar and the
shepherd of the whole Church, all his successors must inherit his power.
And, as the bishops of Rome hold the place of Peter, THE ROMAN CHURCH
MUST CONSEQUENTLY BE THE MISTRESS AND RULER OF ALL CHURCHES, AND THE
WHOLE BODY OF THE FAITHFUL MUST LIVE IN UNITY WITH THE ROMAN PONTIFF.
Whosoever, therefore, disagrees in his teaching with the doctrine of the
Roman Church withdraws from Christ, following crooked ways. And, as all
heretics dissent from the teaching of the Church, they have all declined
from the right way, and are unworthy of the name of Christians. For by
heretics we mean such as, falsifying the words of Holy Scripture and
choosing a religion for themselves, do obstinately persevere in their
error.
“Again, Truth, as is often said, mates with truth, and all truths confirm
each other. Now heretics disagree so entirely among themselves, that they
have scarcely one point in common, nay, rather they bespatter each other
with abuse; they present no solidity of argument. This fact alone proves
how far they have wandered from the Truth. But the doctrine of the Roman
Church, in all matters affecting faith or morals, is one; and Catholic
doctors, though almost innumerable, never dissent nor desire to dissent
from it.”
Every syllable of this profession of Savonarola’s faith in the
supremacy of the successor of St. Peter is expunged in the translated
version. There are no asterisks to show that words are left out. There
is no footnote, no word in the Preface, to explain the unpardonable
liberty of the translator. A comma is put after the words “loosed in
heaven,” and the translator continues,—as though this were the author’s
continuation,—“from which we may see that Jesus Christ,” down to the
words “He shall sit and rule upon the throne of David,” etc. The entire
passage about the successor of St. Peter, “Hence it follows,” is
summarily omitted from what purports to be a translation.
I have nothing more to say, except, in justice to Savonarola, to enter a
protest against the book to which I have been referring being considered
a translation of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS. If I have dwelt at length upon
this subject, it is only out of respect for, and in justice to the memory
of, one for whom I have a sincere veneration, and who has so often,
and so unjustly and unjustifiably, been represented as being wanting
in loyalty to the See of Peter, of being “a forerunner of Luther,” and
“a harbinger of the Reformation”.[13] It is by such methods as the one
against which I am protesting that these accusations against the Catholic
loyalty of Savonarola have been apparently substantiated. It is by the
persistent repetition of them that they have been perpetuated. “Here”
(they say) “is a book of his which professedly gives us the articles of
his creed. It is absolutely unsectarian. There is nothing distinctively
Catholic in it. Nothing which any non-Catholic could object to. There is
not a word about the seven Sacraments, about Confession, Extreme Unction,
the Mass, Ceremonies, and above all about the Pope being the successor of
St. Peter in the government of the Church!” And yet the reader will find
all these doctrines of Catholic belief clearly and luminously treated. He
will find an explicit profession of faith in all the vital and crucial
articles of the Catholic Creed in the volume which is now presented to
him, together with the author’s “reason for the hope which was in him”.
For Savonarola was ever mindful of the admonition of the Chief Apostle,
“being always ready to satisfy every one that asketh you a reason for
that hope which is in you”.[14]
THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS ought to “satisfy” the English mind upon the
subject of his orthodoxy for ever. THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS gives the
“reason” of it, in clear and concise and unmistakable words. It is
difficult to see how any one who has read it, could entertain the shadow
of a doubt about the author’s loyal devotion to the Church of which he
was a faithful child, or of his belief in the teaching of the one whom he
proudly called his “Mother”. Indeed, it is impossible to see how, with
the evidence of this book before him, any man could hesitate for a moment
as to his belief in the unwavering loyalty of Savonarola both to the
Church and the Church’s teaching, and to her divinely appointed visible
Head.
St. Peter, the Dominican Martyr, as he fell under the blow of the
assassin’s sword, wrote with his own blood on the ground the word
CREDO. Savonarola, the Dominican Apologist, has written CREDO in large
letters over every page of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS. It is a history of
the religious opinions of his times. It is more. It is the exposition
in writing of the doctrines which he preached, with such incomparable
eloquence, from beginning to end of his apostolic life. It is his clear
and uncompromising profession of faith to all time. It is his solemn
anathema to heresy, of which, nevertheless, men have sometimes dared to
accuse him. This book ought to lay that ghost of an accusation against
the Florentine Reformer for ever and for ever. It proclaims Savonarola’s
Catholicity beyond denial or doubt. It was intended to be his defence of
the faith. It was written as his profession of belief. It was to be his
CREDO in life, and the echo of his belief after his death, when his voice
was still, and he could no longer protest, as he did with such vigour in
his lifetime, against his false accusers. In the Preface which he wrote
to the _Apologeticum Fratrum Sancti Marci_—published probably the year
before his death—he says: “Three accusations have been brought against
me: (1) That I have taught a doctrine which is not true (_perversum
dogma_) ... to this I have already replied, _and my orthodoxy will be
clearly seen in my work_, THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS, which will shortly
appear”. In a letter to Pope Alexander VI., written from St. Marco,
Florence, on the 22nd of May, 1497,[15] he writes: “The work which I
shall shortly bring out on THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS _is a witness to my
faith_; and from it can be seen if I have ever taught heresy, or in any
way opposed the Catholic faith”. This book is his testimony unto all time.
The late indefatigable and zealous champion of Savonarola, Professor
Paolo Luotto, wrote a goodly volume, to which he gave the title: _Il Vero
Savonarola, et Il Savonarola di S. Pastor_. The English people, as well
as Signor Pastor, have had a Savonarola of their own. The Savonarola
of the English is a Savonarola created by novels and romances, by
non-Catholic and anti-Catholic histories and biographies, by prejudiced
enthusiasts, and unscrupulous translators. This faithful English
translation of the whole of THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS—for which we are
indebted to an anonymous but graceful as well as faithful pen—will,
let us hope, reveal THE TRUE SAVONAROLA—the Savonarola of fact and not
of fiction, the Savonarola of history and not merely of romance, the
Savonarola as mirrored in his own words, and not as misrepresented and
distorted, and rendered beyond recognition by many who, whilst professing
to extol him, and to add lustre to his name, have, in reality, belittled
him, and sullied his fair fame.
JOHN PROCTER, O.P.
_Postscript._—Since writing the foregoing INTRODUCTION the recent
valuable and interesting work, _The Story of Florence_, by Mr. Edmund G.
Gardner, has come into my hands. I have much pleasure in transcribing
the following note, which occurs on page 128: “Professor Villari justly
remarks that ‘Savonarola’s attacks were never directed in the slightest
degree against the dogmas of the Church of Rome, but solely against those
who corrupted them’. THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS was intended to do for the
Renaissance what St. Thomas Aquinas had accomplished for the Middle Ages
in his _Summa Contra Gentiles_. As this book is the fullest expression of
Savonarola’s creed, it is much to be regretted that more than one of its
English translators _have omitted some of its most characteristic and
important passages bearing upon Catholic practice and doctrine, without
the slightest indication that any such process of ‘expurgation’ has been
carried out_.” The _italics_ are mine.
J. P.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction v-xxvi
BOOK I.
Prologue 3
CHAPTER
I. How by means of visible things we arrive at the knowledge
of such as are invisible 5
II. How the Triumph of Christ testifies to the truth of our Faith 7
III. Containing certain fundamental and irrefragable principles 10
IV. Answers to the objections which may be brought against the
foregoing propositions 12
V. The mode in which our argument must be conducted 15
VI. The existence of God 17
VII. God is not a body, nor the form of a body, nor is He a
complex substance 19
VIII. God is the perfect and supreme Good, and is of Infinite
power; He is in every place; and He is immutable and
eternal 21
IX. God is One 22
X. God knows all things perfectly, and acts of His own Will,
and not from natural necessity 23
XI. The Providence of God extends over all things 25
XII. The end to which man is guided by Divine Providence 27
XIII. Man’s last end cannot be attained in this present life 28
XIV. The soul of man is immortal 33
BOOK II.
Method observed throughout this Book 39
I. Some true Religion exists in the world 41
II. Religion is both interior and exterior 42
III. No better life can be found than the Christian life 43
IV. The end presented to us by the Christian Religion is the
best which can possibly be conceived 45
V. A Christian life is the best possible means for attaining
to happiness 47
VI. The Christian life is a most sure means of attaining to
beatitude 49
VII. The faith of Christ is true, because it causes men to lead
a perfect life 51
VIII. The Doctrines taught by Christianity are true and come from
God 55
IX. The truth of the faith proved by arguments founded on the
prayer and contemplation of Christians 60
X. Proofs of the truth of the Christian Religion founded on
its external forms of worship 63
XI. The truth of Christianity evidenced by its effects on the
interior life of Christians 67
XII. The truth of Christianity manifested by its visible effects
on the lives of Christians 71
XIII. The truth of the faith demonstrated by the wonderful works
of Christ, especially those which pertain to His power 74
XIV. The truth of Christianity shown by arguments based on the
Wisdom of Christ 81
XV. The truth of Christ’s teaching is proved by His goodness 86
XVI. The truth of Christianity is proved by the power, wisdom,
and goodness of Christ, considered collectively 91
BOOK III.
Method observed throughout this Book 95
I. God contains within Himself, and can perform, an infinite
number of things surpassing human understanding 97
II. An examination of certain Articles of the Christian Creed
which exceed the limits of human understanding 99
III. The mystery of the Trinity is neither unreasonable nor
incredible 101
IV. The Christian Doctrine of Creation is neither incredible
nor unreasonable 108
V. The Christian teaching concerning the Sanctification, Glory,
and Resurrection of rational creatures contains no Article
which is either impossible or unreasonable 110
VI. The Doctrine of the Damnation of the wicked is one
befitting Christianity 113
VII. The Doctrine of the Incarnation of the Son of God is, in
no sense, incredible, unseemly, or unreasonable 114
VIII. The belief in the Virginal birth of Christ is consistent
with reason, and His life befitted, in all respects,
His dignity 117
IX. The Christian Doctrine of Original Sin is neither
unreasonable nor incredible 119
X. Our belief in the Passion of Christ, in the other mysteries
of His Humanity, and in all the Articles defined by the
Church, is strictly consistent with reason 123
XI. The Christian Religion most prudently establishes the two
precepts of charity, as the foundation of our whole moral
life 127
XII. The excellence of the moral teaching of the Church 130
XIII. The perfect reasonableness of the Christian constitution
and code of judicial law 133
XIV. The Sacraments of the Church have been instituted by Christ,
and are admirably adapted to the needs of mankind 137
XV. The number of the Sacraments is reasonable 139
XVI. The rites used in the administration of the Sacraments are
both reasonable and seemly 140
XVII. Answers to certain objections brought against the Doctrine
of the Blessed Eucharist 148
XVIII. The reasonableness of the Ceremonies of the Church 151
BOOK IV.
Introduction. Method observed throughout this Book 155
I. No Religion except Christianity can be true 157
II. The defective and erroneous Religions taught by Heathen
Philosophers 158
III. The futility and superstition of the traditions of astrology 165
IV. Idolatry is of all things the most vain 174
V. A refutation of the Jewish perfidy and superstition 179
VI. The malicious untruthfulness of heretics 190
VII. The utter irrationality of the Mahometan Religion 195
VIII. The Christian Religion will remain true and unwavering unto
the end 202
IX. Epilogue 204
Alphabetical Index 211
THE TRUTH OF FAITH MANIFESTED BY THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS.
BOOK I.
THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH MADE MANIFEST IN THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS.
Written by FRA GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA of Ferrara, of the Order of Preachers.
PROLOGUE.
The glorious triumph of the Cross embraces so many mysteries that, in
attempting to unfold them, and thus to silence the profane and foolish
babble of worldly-wise philosophers, I am undertaking a task far above my
powers, and can trust only to the help of the Lord.
It would seem mere waste of time to discuss and analyse our Faith,
based as it is upon the miraculous works of our Saviour Jesus Christ,
which are patent to the whole world, and upon the teaching of venerable
theologians. Nevertheless, there are nowadays men living in such bondage
to vice, that, even in the light of the noonday sun, they grope in
darkness, and scorn the marvels of heavenly science. I, therefore,
on fire with zeal for the House of God, intend, for the sake of the
salvation of these misguided men, and in order to rouse them from the
slumber that oppresses them, to recall to their memory the things of
Christ, which they have forgotten and thrust from their hearts.
Our Faith cannot be demonstrated by natural principles and causes.
Nevertheless, the past and present events of Church history afford
arguments in support of our religion so convincing that no logical mind
can reject them. At the same time, no one believes that Faith itself
depends upon these arguments, seeing that it is “the gift of God; not
of works, that no man may glory” (Eph. ii. 8, 9). We make use of these
arguments indeed; but we do so in order to confirm the faith of such as
waver, to prepare unbelievers for the reception of supernatural light,
and to enable the faithful to confute the arguments of irreligious men;
and thus, by exposing their folly, to undeceive the simple and unlearned
who have been misled by them.
This use of human reasoning does not detract from the value of Faith;
for the axiom that _faith proved by argument_ has no merit, refers only
to the faith of such as refuse to believe without proof. They who, being
enlightened by God, embrace the Faith without proof, and who then, in
order to strengthen their own belief and that of others, investigate the
grounds of their faith, deserve commendation, and obey the precept of St.
Peter: “Sanctify the Lord Christ in your hearts, being ready always to
satisfy every one that asketh you a reason of that hope which is in you”
(1 Peter iii. 15). In this book we intend to be guided by reason only.
We shall not, then, appeal to any authority, but shall proceed as if we
had no belief in any one in the world, no matter how learned he may be.
We shall rely solely on reason. Such a mode of procedure must, surely,
satisfy every one who is not absolutely foolish.
CHAPTER I.
HOW BY MEANS OF VISIBLE THINGS WE ARRIVE AT THE KNOWLEDGE OF SUCH AS ARE
INVISIBLE.
The senses, in which all our knowledge originates, take cognisance only
of extrinsic corporeal accidents. Our understanding, on the other hand,
is enabled, by its subtlety, to penetrate to the substance of natural
things, and thence to rise to the knowledge of such as are invisible and
immaterial. Thus, by the investigation of the substance and properties,
the order, the causes and the activities of visible things, we are led,
by little and little, to the understanding of invisible substance,
and, at length, to the knowledge of the Divine Majesty; just as, by
means of the external accidents and operations of man, we arrive at the
understanding of his soul, and of its invisible parts. Philosophers, from
the contemplation of the universe—of the heavens with their magnificence;
of the elements with their divers motions and operations; of the variety
and activity and individual perfections of the things composed of these
elements; and of the wonderful harmony and greatness and beauty of this
visible world—have raised their eyes to gaze upon invisible things, and
to investigate (so far as might be) their nature and properties.[16]
And, as these philosophers have understood that natural things are the
work of God’s hands, and are the means of arriving at a knowledge of His
infinite power and glory, we likewise desire to show that those things
which have been seen, and are still witnessed, in the Church of God, are
Divine works, by which we may attain to the knowledge of the glory and
Infinite Majesty of our Saviour Jesus Christ, who is unseen by us.
Sages of old were wont to marshal before their eyes all the visible
things of the universe. Thus, the wonderful works of nature constrained
them to acknowledge God as the First Cause of all things, and natural
phenomena as the creation of His unerring wisdom. We, in like manner,
must bring together before our minds all the wonderful works of Christ,
whereby we desire to prove that He was the First Cause of all things,
and that all His doings proceeded from God, who cannot err. We would not
be understood to say, that these proofs cause Christians to believe; for
they are established in their faith by the supernatural light of God
(otherwise, their belief would be, not faith, but opinion). But such
testimonies confirm us in our Faith, and prove to our adversaries that we
believe, not lightly, but thoughtfully and with deliberation. In order
the better to bring the works of Christ, which are continually being
performed in the Church, before the eyes of men, we will describe them
under the figure of a triumphal car, the figure of the entire universe.
CHAPTER II.
HOW THE TRIUMPH OF CHRIST TESTIFIES TO THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH.
As the power, wisdom and goodness of God are infinite, they could not
be manifested (save most imperfectly) in one creature. Therefore,
philosophers have been wont to contemplate the Divine Majesty, revealed
in the harmony of the universe, resulting not from one but from
numberless creatures, which, on account of their necessary dependence
one on the other, can with ease be considered simultaneously. In like
manner, we cannot understand the power and wisdom and goodness of Christ
by contemplating only one of His works. We must recall to our minds all
the wonders which He wrought. Thus we shall be constrained, not on one
count alone, but for many reasons, to acknowledge His Divinity. For,
should we not be convinced by one of His miracles or arguments, we cannot
(unless we be obstinate) fail to be persuaded when we consider His works
and teaching collectively. But, although it be easy, by reason of their
mutual dependence, to consider all the marvels of nature collectively,
it is not equally easy to contemplate all the works of Christ at once.
It has, therefore, occurred to me to present them under the figure of
_a triumphal car_, a similitude easy of comprehension to the feeblest
intellect.
Let us, then, represent to our minds a four-wheeled chariot on which
is seated Christ, as Conqueror, crowned with thorns, and bearing the
marks of His wounds, thus showing that it is through His Passion and
death that He has overcome the world. Over His Head shines a light like
a triple sun. This represents the Blessed Trinity, which illuminates
His Humanity and the whole Church with unspeakable splendour. In His
left hand Christ holds the Cross and the instruments of His Passion,
in His right the Old and the New Testaments. At His Feet are the Host
and chalice; vessels of balsam and of oil; and the other symbols of
the Sacraments. The Blessed Mother of God, the Virgin Mary, is seated
beneath her Son. Around, and below her, are vessels of gold, silver and
precious stones, filled with ashes and bones of the dead. The Apostles
and Preachers go before the car, appearing to draw it. They are preceded
by the Patriarchs, the Prophets, and innumerable men and women of the
Old Testament. The chariot is encircled by the army of Martyrs, forming
as it were a crown. They, again, are surrounded by the Doctors of the
Church, bearing open books. Around them, again, circles a countless
multitude of virgins, of both sexes, adorned with lilies. Behind the car
follow innumerable men and women of all conditions—Jews, Greeks, Latins,
barbarians, rich and poor, learned and simple, small and great, old and
young; all of whom, with one accord, are praising Christ. And, all around
this multitude, gathered from the Old and from the New Testaments, are
the serried ranks of the enemies of the Church of Christ—emperors and
kings; princes and men in power; sages; philosophers; heretics; slaves
and freemen; men and women; people of every race and of every tongue.
Whilst around them lie idols, prone and broken, heretical books burnt,
and all sects, and every false religion confounded and destroyed.
Now the chariot which we have described symbolises a new world, from
whence shall spring a new philosophy. Its first cause, and the invisible
things which become known to philosophers by means of visible things,
are represented by the figure of the Blessed Trinity, True God, above
the Head of Christ which represents His Manhood, and by the innumerable
company of Angels and Blessed Spirits, who are all unseen by us. We
must arrive at the knowledge of these spiritual beings by means of the
visible beings grouped around the chariot. And, just as philosophers
teach that the heavens are the cause of all things produced beneath them,
so we say that, after the Divine Majesty, the chief cause of grace and
salvation is the Passion and Cross of Christ. Beneath the firmament are
the elements, which derive all their activity from the heavens; so to
the Passion of Christ succeed the Sacraments of the Church, deriving
all their power from It. The elements are followed in the natural world
by particular causes, such as seeds and the like. In our triumph, the
seed is represented by the teaching of the Gospel, and by the works and
example of the Saints whose relics repose in honour in glorious tombs,
and the memory of whose merits and holy lives produces continual fruit in
the Church. Particular causes are figured by the Apostles, Patriarchs,
Prophets, Martyrs and Doctors; who, while they lived, regenerated, by
their teaching, the whole world to Christ. Lastly, as in the natural
order effect follows cause, we represent effect by the countless men
and women who have been converted by the example and the preaching of
the Saints. But, as in nature, every movement is from one contrary to
another, and the generation of one thing is the destruction of something
else (for in all reproductions there are two opposing forces, of which
the stronger prevails), so, in the spiritual generation, Christ and
His elect have vanquished His enemies, represented by heresy, prostrate
around the triumphal car. The four wheels of the chariot signify the four
quarters of the world, so marvellously enlightened by Christ, and by Him
brought into subjection.
And, as philosophers, having before their eyes the order of the universe,
and considering the wonderful effects of nature, did, by searching for
their causes, ascend gradually from the lower to the higher, and attained
to the knowledge of invisible things and of the Divine Majesty; so, if
we examine attentively the works which Christ has performed, and still
does perform, in His Church (represented by this chariot), we shall begin
to be filled with wonder, and shall diligently seek the cause of those
works, and thus shall, gradually, rise to the knowledge of invisible
things, and of the Divine Majesty of Christ.
CHAPTER III.
CONTAINING CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL AND IRREFRAGABLE PRINCIPLES.
If an argument is to be conducted satisfactorily, the disputants must
agree with each other about some point. For, if they disagree on every
point, there will be no possibility of discussion. They may, or may not,
of course, think alike on matters of minor importance; but they _must_
agree about certain principles, which are so generally accepted that no
one denies them. We must, therefore, take up our position on certain
acknowledged principles. We cannot argue with one who denies them;
for he who refuses to accept first principles is unreasonable. First,
then, we are all agreed that Jesus Christ was crucified by the Jews,
and was afterwards, throughout almost the entire world, adored as God,
as we Christians adore Him. This fact is admitted by Jews, heretics,
Mahometans, Greeks, Latins and barbarians; the belief in it has never
died, but has been handed down, from generation to generation. Testimony
to this conviction is, further, forthcoming in the books written in every
language and diffused throughout the world, and in the ruins of Christian
churches to be found in every land. These are proof positive that
there is not a spot on the face of the earth where Christ has not been
worshipped, or is not still adored, or where, at least, there is not some
knowledge of Christianity. Hence, even unbelievers speak of Christ as the
God of the Christians.
If, therefore, no reasonable being will controvert that which is made
manifest by the books and the monuments of every nation; he who should
deny that Christ was slain by the Jews, and was afterwards adored as
God throughout the world, must be so foolish, that argument with him
would be waste of time. And, if it be acknowledged that the adoration of
Christ has been universal, the same must be said of the confession of
the Blessed Trinity, and of the Eucharist, the veneration of the Cross,
of the Virgin Mary, and of the Saints. The same evidence demonstrates,
further, that the Apostles, who were at first fishermen, preached the
Cross of Christ; that they were preceded by the Jewish people, the
Patriarchs and Prophets; and that they were followed by the glorious
Martyrs, the venerable Doctors, the spotless Virgins of the Church,
and likewise by an untold number of monks and priests, both regular and
secular. Finally, we must remember that, although the tyrants and the
philosophers of the world have fought against the Church, idolatry,
nevertheless, has been destroyed, heresy has been extirpated and even the
Roman Emperor has been brought into humble subjection to the fisherman,
and that the heretics and their heretical books have been destroyed.
These things being so well known as to need no proof, we shall presuppose
them, as philosophers are wont to presuppose the truths of science.
For they are acknowledged, not only by Christians, but by nearly every
people and in almost every country, yea even by Indians and innumerable
Mahometans, amongst whom exist certain proofs of our faith, who admit
that Christ has reigned amongst them and has worked miracles, and who,
although they themselves are in grave error, yet punish severely all
who blaspheme the Christian truths. Since, then, these truths are so
clearly manifest, they can be gainsaid by none but such as are foolishly
obstinate.
CHAPTER IV.
ANSWERS TO THE OBJECTIONS WHICH MAY BE BROUGHT AGAINST THE FOREGOING
PROPOSITIONS.
But perhaps some one will say: If your assertions be true, surely it is
strange that no pagan historian or orator should make any mention of
them; but that they, who minutely describe the wars and other doings of
men, should pass over in silence the works of Christ, which are so much
greater and more wonderful. Exception must be made in the case of certain
historians, who, wishing to refute Christianity, have rendered testimony
to its truth.
To these objections we reply, that it is false to say that pagan
historians have not written concerning Christ and His Church. For
not only have many authors, both Greek and Latin, treated fully and
eloquently of His praises, but many of them have been converted to His
Faith, and have propagated it by their preaching and their writing.[17]
And, if our objectors should reply, that they allude not to those who,
after their conversion, have written about Christ, but to those who have
remained in their errors; our answer is, that our Faith has confirmed
its converts to such a degree, that, not only have they written of the
praises of Christ and of the Church, but they have not hesitated to
shed their blood for His religion. For not only have those brought up
from their infancy as Christians written in behalf of their Faith, but
likewise innumerable and well-known men, of different nations, have
embraced the truth in their more mature years. And it is a much more
convincing proof of the truth of Christianity, that its converts should
have died for it, than if they had remained heathens and had written
volumes in its praise. What wonder that proud and incredulous men should
have neglected to narrate the works of Christ, when, beholding His
miracles, they refused to accept His Faith!
There are two further reasons why pagan historians have not written in
praise of Christ. One reason is the providence of God; the other their
own blindness. God moves all things, both corporeal and spiritual, and
cares for all things; and no one can move himself to write, unless he
be inspired thereto by God. Therefore, the heathen historians have not
written of Christ, because God did not move them to do so.
Now, Divine Providence did not inspire them to write for three reasons.
First, God ordinarily makes use of fitting means to achieve an end, and
the pagan philosophers, who were stained by infidelity and other vices,
were not fit to write of the pure and holy works of Christ and of His
Church.
Secondly, as Christ is Truth itself, and came into the world to give
testimony of the truth, it was not seemly that men, who, like the pagan
poets, orators and historians, perpetuated lies and fables and praised
the foulest deeds, should have defiled the pure truths of Christ by
writing of Him.
Thirdly, the heathen orators had none but the eloquence which springs
from natural reason; they sought rather to magnify themselves than to
declare the truth. As the works of Christ, on the other hand, are above
natural reason, it is evident that these pagans were not fit men to treat
of them.
Another cause which prevented the heathen writers from bearing witness
to Christ was the blindness, caused by their sins, especially pride and
vain-glory, which so completely darkened their hearts that they took no
account of the miracles wrought by Christ, such as the restoration of
sight to the blind, the raising of the dead, and so many other wonders,
which none but God could perform. Furthermore, as the heathen authors
had been nurtured, from their infancy, in the worship of their gods,
and in idolatrous fables, they, naturally, entertained a hatred for
Christianity, the sworn enemy of idolatry. They would not, therefore,
write anything in favour of the Church, both on account of their
detestation of her, and for fear of exciting the displeasure of the
tyrants who persecuted the Christians.
Again, we must remember that these poets and orators, by their egregious
flattery, cultivated the good graces of princes, in the hope of being
rewarded by them; and, as they knew that there was nothing to be gained
from Christians who loved truth and professed poverty, it is not
surprising that they did not write about Christ. Now, on the contrary,
when the Church possesses temporal dominion, there is no lack of poets
and orators to sing the praises of her princes and prelates; they often
even mingle with their eulogies many things which are not true. If the
Gentile authors did not espouse the cause of Christ, we need not go far
to find the reason of their silence.
CHAPTER V.
THE MODE IN WHICH OUR ARGUMENT MUST BE CONDUCTED.
Since we attain to the knowledge of the invisible by means of
the visible, we must understand, that there are some among the
invisible things of God which we can know by the natural power of our
understanding, and by means of natural things. Such things are, the
Existence of God, His Unity, His Simplicity of Being, and other truths
of this sort, to the knowledge of which philosophers have attained. But
there are others among the invisible things of God, which we cannot
discover by means of human reason. This is not very strange, seeing
that, even among men who are equal by nature, philosophers can understand
high and subtle matters, of which children and simple persons must
remain in ignorance. This being so, is it to be wondered at that in God
there are secrets, which no created intellect can investigate? We cannot
understand many of the things which we meet with every day; how then
shall we comprehend God, who infinitely surpasses all things?
The Divine things which our natural reason is not competent to discover
are those which we believe by Faith, to wit, the Trinity and Unity of
God, the Divinity and Humanity of our Saviour Jesus Christ, and other
truths of the like nature. But, although we cannot prove these truths by
natural effects or human arguments, we may, nevertheless, make ourselves
very sure of them by their supernatural effects. For, just as, by natural
effects, we know that the propositions, “God exists,” and “God is One and
Infinite,” etc., are true, and yet by means of them know not God as He
is, nor behold His Substance; so also, by means of supernatural effects,
we can certify ourselves of the truth of such propositions as “God is
Three and One,” “the Son of God is both God and Man”. Yet we cannot
understand, nor see these truths, as they are in themselves.
As nature precedes grace, we will first treat of those invisible things
of God which we are competent to investigate by means of their natural
effects, and afterwards of those which can be known by their effects
which are supernatural. The truths of the first category, however, we
will consider very briefly, since Catholic theologians and philosophers
have discussed them so thoroughly, as to leave no possibility of doubt.
CHAPTER VI.
THE EXISTENCE OF GOD.
If we do not mean to stultify our whole argument, we must begin by
proving the existence of God. What do we mean by God? All men use
this name to designate that which is higher and more excellent than
all other things. Some call this Highest Being the Prime Mover of all
things; others call it the First Cause and Principle, or the Highest
Good and Supreme Truth. But, whatsoever God may be called, if His name
expresses the highest and superexcellent nature, His existence must
be acknowledged. This is admitted even by philosophers. It is of His
existence that I wish briefly to speak.
Philosophers have proved, most effectually, that everything that moves
is moved by something else. Even though men and brutes move themselves,
there is in them one thing that moves and another that is moved; for the
body cannot move when abandoned by the soul. And, since every movement
under the heavens depends on the movement of the heavens, there must be
some substance that moves the heavens. Now, does that substance itself
move, or does it not? If it does not move, it must be God, who moves all
things, but is Himself immovable. But if the substance move, it must then
be moved by something else. Now, is that something else immovable, or is
it also moved? If it be moved, who moves it? If we continue this chain
of argument, we shall see that there must either be one First Mover, or
else an infinite series of movements with no First Mover. The second
hypothesis is philosophically absurd. For, if there be no First Mover, on
which other motors depend, nothing could move, and no order would reign
among the highest things. There must, then, be one supreme Mover, whom we
call God.
We can deduce a similar argument from the causation of things. Everything
in the world is caused. Nothing can make itself. Since then many causes
concur to the same effect, and one thing is always prior to another,
we must either assume an infinite series of causes, or believe in One
Supreme Cause, whom all men acknowledge as God.
Again, amongst natural things we see that one thing is always more true
and more perfect than another. This could not be the case, did it not
approximate more closely to some Supreme Truth and Perfection. We must,
therefore, agree that there exists some Supreme Being. This can be no
other but God.
Again, we see how, in the natural order, unintelligent beings proceed by
the right means from their beginning to their end. This cannot happen
by chance, since they always, or almost always, act in the same manner.
There must, then, be some Intelligence that directs them. What can this
Intelligence be save God?
To these arguments we may further add, that no natural inclination can
be futile. Now all men are naturally inclined to believe in God. From
the beginning of the world until now there has never been (as we know
from their superstitious rites and sacrifices) any nation so rude and
barbarous as not to believe in a God. Since, then, this belief has been
common to every era, and to every nation, it must be based on natural
instinct. Again, we see how men, when in danger and deprived of human
aid, will, instinctively, invoke the assistance of God. This is another
proof that belief in His existence is natural to the human soul.
CHAPTER VII.
GOD IS NOT A BODY, NOR THE FORM OF A BODY, NOR IS HE A COMPLEX SUBSTANCE.
No true philosopher entertains the slightest doubt that God is not a
body, nor the form of a body, nor a complex substance. It would be
impossible that God should be a body, seeing that He is the immovable
Mover of all things; for one body, unless it first move itself, cannot
set another in motion. Again, as spirit is more noble than body, God,
were He a body, would not be the noblest of all beings, neither would He
be the Supreme Ruler, since the body is governed by the spirit.
We must further hold, that God is not the form of a body, as the soul is
the form of the human body; because that which exists of itself is far
more noble than that which exists in others. Consequently, as God is the
most noble of all things, He must exist in Himself, and not in any body.
Again, things composed of matter and of form are more perfect than matter
alone and form alone; for the simple reason that the whole is always more
perfect than its parts. If, then, God were the form of a body, there
would be something more perfect than He; for the combination of matter
and form would be more perfect than form alone. It would further follow
that God could not act by Himself; since, as form has no being without
matter, it cannot operate without matter. Hence, as God would need
others for His operations, He would not be the First Cause.
It is, likewise, evident that God is not a complex Being, but Pure Act
and Simple Substance; for every complex being depends on others, and
composite bodies depend on those that are simple. Since, therefore, God
is the First Cause, independent of all others, and the one on whom all
things depend, He cannot be a complex Being, but must be Simple Act.
Again, were He a complex Substance, He could not be the First Supreme
Being in the universe; for complex bodies do not precede their parts, but
result from them; and the union of these parts could not take place, had
not some first cause preceded them. We must conclude, therefore, that God
is Simple Substance and Pure Act.[18]
CHAPTER VIII.
GOD IS THE PERFECT AND SUPREME GOOD, AND IS OF INFINITE POWER; HE IS IN
EVERY PLACE; AND HE IS IMMUTABLE AND ETERNAL.
If we believe (as we must) that God is Pure Act, we are also compelled
to acknowledge that He is perfect, the Supreme Good, Infinite in Power,
Ubiquitous, Immutable and Eternal. The greater the simplicity of an
immaterial thing, the greater, likewise, will be its perfection. God
being absolutely devoid of complexity, Pure Act, and Simplicity Itself,
we must also conclude that in Him is supreme Goodness and Perfection.
Again, as everything possesses greater power and virtue, in proportion
as it is raised above matter, and becomes more formal; God, as Pure Act,
being supremely elevated above all imperfection, and in the highest
degree Formal, must be infinite, and infinitely Powerful. And, just as
particular effects are reduced to particular causes, universal effects
must be reduced to universal causes. Now, being is the most universal
of all effects, because it is common to all things; it must therefore
proceed from an Universal Cause, which is God, who is the Cause of
being, not only by giving it, but also by preserving it. And, since it
is necessary that when the cause operates, it must join its power to its
effect, God, being His own Power, must be united to the being of all
things. Therefore He must be intimately in all things, because being is
more closely allied to nature than any other thing.
God, being indivisible, must be in the whole universe, and wholly in each
of its parts. He is likewise immutable; because everything that changes
must needs be composite, and God, being Pure Act, can know no change. He
must necessarily also be eternal; because, were He not eternal, He would
be mutable, having beginning and end; and thus He would not be God, but a
being dependent on other things, and consequently not the First Cause.
CHAPTER IX.
GOD IS ONE.
It is clear that there can be only one God, not many gods; for the Divine
Nature being Simplicity cannot communicate Itself outside Itself. Every
nature which is communicated to others, suffers composition, because it
must suffer diversity of being. It is impossible therefore, that the
Divine Nature should be shared by other beings.
If there were more gods than one, they would differ from one another; and
the cause of their difference would be, either some imperfection, or some
perfection. Were the cause an imperfection, the god that had it would not
be God, because God is wholly perfect. Were the cause a perfection, the
God that had it not, would, for the same reason, not be God. Thus there
cannot be more gods than one.
A third proof of the unity of God lies in the fact, that all things in
the universe are most excellently ordered. This perfect order could not
be the work of many; it must proceed from one. Among animals, such as
bees and cranes, we see one ruler directing a multitude of subjects. And
since art imitates nature, in the best human governments we, likewise,
see power vested in one head, otherwise the government could not stand.
In like manner, since the government of the Universe is of all forms of
government the most perfect, we see that in it there is but one Supreme
Lord and Ruler, who is God.
CHAPTER X.
GOD KNOWS ALL THINGS PERFECTLY, AND ACTS OF HIS OWN WILL, AND NOT FROM
NATURAL NECESSITY.
It is clear, from what has been said, that God knows all things. We see
in the natural order, that those beings that are capable of knowing have
a larger and more capacious nature than those that have no cognitive
faculty. For, not only do they know their own form, but, being of a
nature superior to matter, their cognitive power is able to receive the
forms of other things. Hence the cognition of every cognitive form is
ample and perfect, in proportion as that form is superior to matter.
God, then, being Pure Act, _i.e._, superior to all matter and all
potentiality, must possess the highest degree of cognisance, and the most
complete understanding of all things.
God does not understand as men understand, _i.e._, by receiving the
likeness of things into His understanding. For, being Simple Substance,
His wisdom and His understanding are His nature; and, being wisdom
itself He knows all things of Himself. And, since the power of God is
nought but God Himself, and He is likewise wisdom itself, His wisdom must
comprehend His power; and as His power is infinite, His wisdom must alike
be infinite.
Some men entertain the foolish opinion that God knows superterrestrial
things determinately, but that His knowledge of earthly things is
confused and general; in other words, that man knows more things, or
has a more perfect knowledge of them, than has God. Yet, even in merely
natural things, the greater and more perfect the power, the more things
it embraces and penetrates; and the more elevated a human intellect,
the greater is its range of understanding, and the more exquisite its
subtlety. Since, then, the Divine understanding is supereminent, and
infinitely perfect, it must necessarily penetrate all things to their
innermost being. And, since it is Immutable and Eternal, it is necessary
that it should have perfect knowledge, not only of all things past,
present and future, but also of all those which might ever be called into
being. Moreover, this knowledge has not only existed from all eternity,
but continues in the present, and will endure for ever.
We must, further, affirm that God acts, not from necessity, but by
His Understanding and Will. Nature acts in a certain order without
understanding it; and, as there cannot be order without intelligence, the
operations of nature must be governed by some superior intellect. Now, as
the intellect which governs is higher than the nature which is governed,
and as God is the First Principle of all things, it is evident that He
must act, not by natural necessity, but by Understanding and Will.
That which acts by natural necessity is drawn by its nature to produce
an effect as far as possible similar to itself. Now, as God is Infinite
Power, He would, therefore, were He constrained by natural necessity
to act, produce infinite things—which would be an impossibility. God
produces things according as they exist in Himself as in their Cause.
Even as a house exists in the mind of an architect who builds it by means
of his intelligence and will, so God also creates all things by means of
His Intelligence and Will.
CHAPTER XI.
THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD EXTENDS OVER ALL THINGS.
If our foregoing statements be true, there is no room for doubt that
the Providence of God extends over all things; not merely over natural
things, but over even the smallest human action.
The word _Providence_ signifies a knowledge of the order of things, with
an intention of reducing them, by fitting means, to their end. Therefore,
as God is Supreme Wisdom, to Him it belongs to order and dispose of all
things, as the First Cause, who acts on all things by His understanding,
determined by His free will. And, as He is Supreme Wisdom, whose
attribute it is to order all things aright, we must acknowledge that in
Him is perfect Providence over all things.
Philosophers have never hesitated to recognise Divine Providence in the
marvellous operations of Nature. The disordered and confused state of
human affairs has, however, presented a difficulty to them, and has led
some among them to deny the Providence of God over _human_ things.
But, if we reflect, we shall see that it is foolish to deny the
Providence of God in the conduct of human affairs, as well as in the
order of nature. For the more noble things are, the more perfectly
are they ordered; therefore, as man is the noblest of all beings, his
operations must be ordered.
Again, as the wisest men take more thought and care for the things which
are nearer to their end, than for those which are more remote from it,
so, as man is nearer to God (the end of all things) than are natural
things, it would be impossible to believe that, while Providence governs
nature, it does not extend to human affairs.
Further, Divine Providence proceeds from the love of God; and the more
God loves a creature, the greater is His Providence over it. Since, then,
by giving to man a more perfect nature and a higher order of operation
than He has given to natural things, God has shown that His love for man
is greater than His love for natural things, we cannot doubt that His
Providence, likewise, is exercised in human affairs.
Another proof of what we say lies in the fact that it is natural (as we
see in the case of animals with their young) for all causes to exercise
a certain providence over their effects. But as all secondary causes act
only in imitation of God, the First Cause, it is evident that He must
exercise Providence over all things, and especially over man, who is His
noblest effect, and whom He loves more than other natural things.
We must further remember that, if God does not extend His Providence to
man, it must be, either because He cannot do so, or knows not how to do
so, or else will not do so. Since He is Infinite Power and Infinite
Wisdom, it is vain to say that He cannot care for man, or knows not how
to do so. To say that He will not do so, is to derogate from His Infinite
Goodness; for none that is good spurns his own work, and no cause
despises its own effect. Neither would it be a righteous work to care for
imperfect things, and not for perfect ones. When even every good and wise
man cares diligently for human affairs, how shall we say that the God of
Infinite Goodness takes no heed of them?
CHAPTER XII.
THE END TO WHICH MAN IS GUIDED BY DIVINE PROVIDENCE.
Since it is the work of Divine Providence to move all things to their
end, and, since all things have their different proximate ends, they
must be moved by different means. Irrational things are led by natural
instinct, and are rather ruled by others than self-governing. Man,
however, having free will, can take thought for himself, and is moved
towards his end by God, in such a way that he governs himself, by working
together with God. It is, therefore, essential that he should diligently
strive to discover what is the last end to which he is destined by Divine
Providence; and what the means are whereby he must attain to it; that so
he may be enabled to order his life conformably to the designs of God.
Philosophers have studiously endeavoured to search out the End of Man.
In course of time, as their reasoning became more profound, and their
investigation approached nearer to the truth, they concluded that the
end of human life is the contemplation of Divine things. For this alone
is the proper operation of the human soul, and it is not directed to any
other thing as to its end, but is desired for itself, and unites man to
God. Again, man so far suffices in himself to this operation, that for it
he needs but few external aids.
This, in fact, is the end of all things that pertain to man. For all
natural things are ordered for the body of man; his body is ordered for
his soul; and all the powers of his soul serve to this contemplation,
which requires that calm and freedom from passion which art and civil
government are intended to procure for us.
It is thus evident that all things, both natural and artificial, are
ordered to this contemplation, as to the last end to which Providence
moves all men by means of moral virtues. It influences them, however, in
such a way, as to leave them the freedom of their will. It is, likewise,
clear, that if they will co-operate with the impulse of Providence, they
will, by using the fitting means, attain to their desired end.
CHAPTER XIII.
MAN’S LAST END CANNOT BE ATTAINED IN THIS PRESENT LIFE.
If we give serious consideration to what has been said, we shall see how
difficult, nay impossible, it would be for man to attain to his last end
during the course of the present life. For, although it be true that
beatitude is the last perfection of man, it is not every degree of
contemplation of Divine things which can render a man happy. Although the
contemplation of GOD forms the happiness of man, this contemplation must
be perfect, with the fullest perfection of which human nature is capable.
Whereas, during this mortal life, very few, scarce any one indeed, can
attain to this perfection. Perfect contemplation demands a fulness of
knowledge to which the greater part of mankind can never arrive. Some men
are hindered therefrom by physical ineptitude, or by some imperfection
in those interior senses which are the instruments used by the soul in
the pursuit of knowledge. Others again, are so obtuse, that they can
scarcely understand the clearest matters; whilst others are unable to
devote themselves to contemplation, by reason of the duties imposed on
them, through family cares, and the necessities of social life. And even
those who are able to free themselves from these trammels, must serve a
long apprenticeship before they can attain to the perfection of knowledge
and contemplation. This for two reasons. Firstly, remembering that we
attain to knowledge of immaterial things by means of sensible things,
it is only reasonable to expect that an extensive knowledge of material
things should be required before we can hope to attain to a perfect
knowledge of such as are in the highest degree spiritual. Secondly, in
order to attain to perfect contemplation, purity of heart, quiescence of
the passions, and the possession of moral virtues, are essential; and
these things are rarely met with except among the aged, and even among
them are not possessed save by such as have laboured diligently for their
acquisition. The greater number of those living in the world, being still
young, and, but few of them having opportunity to devote themselves to
the contemplation of the Truth, it follows that but a small number will
be able to attain to perfect happiness in this life.
Neither need we be astonished at the fact, that it is exceptional to find
souls capable of contemplation, when daily experience convinces us of
the limitations of human understanding, and of the ease with which men
are deceived in purely natural matters. How much more easily may we be
deceived in things which are Divine? All our knowledge of natural things
springs from the senses, and what more fallible than the eye, which tells
us that the sun is a tiny sphere, whereas it is much larger than our
entire earth? Again, the imagination can so obscure the intellect, as to
render it difficult for us to believe that any beings exist, save such as
are corporeal.
Our understanding, again, often deceives us, persuading us to give
credence to false and sophistical reasoning, as is proved by the many
varying opinions even amongst clever men. The divers passions and
affections of our soul, and our evil habits, are a further obstacle to
our apprehension of the truth. If, then, our intellect be so shackled in
its investigation of purely natural things, how much greater difficulty
shall we not have in learning such as are Divine? The more we consider
the hindrances which beset us in the acquisition of knowledge, the more
clear it becomes that, if true happiness is only to be found in this
life, very few amongst us can attain to it. Children, youths, women,
and all such as are not capable of learning, and are occupied in human
affairs, must be excluded from the chance of acquiring knowledge, and of
attaining, through knowledge, to beatitude. Such an idea as this is, of
course, absurd, since beatitude is the end of human life, and that for
which all mankind is created.
But there is another reason which makes it impossible for man to be
wholly happy in this life. This reason is, that happiness being the
ultimate good of man, cannot be marred by any admixture of evil, and,
being an all-sufficing good, it brings with it all other good; so that
when perfect happiness is attained, nothing further remains for man to
desire. But where shall we find, in this life, a man who wishes for
nothing, and who, having a nature subject, as is our nature, to so many
infirmities, enjoys, nevertheless, perfect immunity from every evil?
Daily experience shows us, that even those who, like Priam, have been
reputed happy, were beset by many misfortunes.
But let us assume that some one has, so far as it be possible in this
mortal life, attained to the perfect contemplation of Divine things, and
enjoys every other good, still even he cannot be called truly happy. For,
since happiness means perfect tranquillity of the human heart, and since
all men have a natural, an unceasing desire to know, this desire must be
an obstacle to perfect repose, as long as knowledge be not complete. The
number of things in the world which men do not know, and yet desire to
know, is almost infinite. Philosophers, after lifelong study, and much
learning, have died leaving much unknown. For the things of which we
have knowledge form but a small portion of that which there is to know,
and our actual knowledge is most imperfect. If, then, our intellect be
so limited regarding natural things, how can we expect to understand
such as are supernatural and Divine? The human heart cannot be satisfied
with slight knowledge, but always desires more perfect knowledge. Thus
it is, that the more it knows GOD, the more perfectly it desires to know
Him; for natural impetus is swifter, as it nears the end, than at the
beginning. Hence, it follows that, as we cannot, in the present life,
attain to any perfect knowledge of GOD, neither can we enjoy perfect
happiness.
But, supposing, for argument’s sake, that a man should attain, in this
world, to full knowledge of all things natural and Divine, he would still
fail to be perfectly happy; because perfect knowledge cannot be acquired
save in old age, when death draws nigh. Even if this knowledge could be
gained in youth, it would still be no safeguard against death. The desire
for immortality is innate in all men; hence, all men desire to continue
their lives, either in their children, or by some excellent work; for a
wise man who loves a perfect life cannot fail to hate what destroys it.
Therefore, were there no other life than this, the wisest man, yea, he
whom we assume to be truly happy, could not fail to be saddened at the
thought of death. A philosopher would not indeed banish the thought of
death, for that would be the act of an unreasonable man; but neither can
he be called happy, who has laboured all his life to acquire some good
which he is unable to retain, and who knows not whether his end is to be
in bliss, or in misery.
We see then, by the foregoing arguments, that, if there be no life
beyond the grave, the lot of man is beyond measure wretched. For all
other things are led by nature, and easily attain their end; but man is
surrounded by difficulties, and either fails to find his end, or, if
after much toil, he succeeds in finding it, he will be unable to retain
it. That such should be the fate of the noblest of God’s creatures on
earth must appear, even to the most unlearned mind, an absurdity.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE SOUL OF MAN IS IMMORTAL.
The arguments set forth in the last chapter leave no room to doubt that
there is another life; and that the human soul is immortal. For, as the
Providence of GOD conducts everything to its own end, man, if his end be
not attainable in this life, must be rendered capable of securing it in a
life to come. Were it otherwise, the Providence of GOD would not extend
to human affairs.
There is every proof of the existence of a germ of immortality in
the human soul. The operations of the intellect cannot proceed from
a physical force; because they extend beyond corporeal things, and
are occupied with GOD. This argument has compelled philosophers to
acknowledge the immortality and immateriality of the soul. It is,
nevertheless, so difficult to understand how an immaterial substance can
be the form of the body, that many different opinions have been held
about the mode of this immortality in man, which is called intellect.
It cannot, however, reasonably be denied, that the intellectual soul is
the form of the human body, since all men acknowledge that it is the
rationality of man which distinguishes him from other animals. This
distinction could not exist were not a rational soul the form of man; for
all specific differences arise from form.
Again, it is universally allowed, that the peculiar and pre-eminent
activity of man is understanding and reasoning; and man is the principle
of this activity. Man is composed of matter and form. We cannot say that
he is the principle of this activity by virtue of the matter of which he
is composed, but solely by virtue of the form. Consequently, as this form
is nothing but the intelligent soul, it is the intelligent soul which is
the form of man.
Another argument for the immortality of the soul lies in the fact that
man, like other animals, has the power of self-motion. Now, as the other
animals move by means of their form, which is their soul, it follows that
it must also be his soul which enables man to move. We know that man is
governed by will and understanding. The form of man, therefore, must be
an intelligent soul, capable of volition.
If a rational soul were not the form of man, the fact that a child,
unable to use his understanding, is man would be inexplicable; neither
could we see how intelligence could be attributed to a man who does not
use his reason. If rational substance be not the form of man, but be
self-subsisting, it will not be man, but that rational substance, which
works with the intellect. We may, of course, maintain, with Plato, that
man is not composed of soul and body; but that he is merely soul, which
is united to the body as a motor is joined to that which is movable. But
this opinion, if we adopt it, will lead us into many inconsistencies.
For, firstly, if the soul be the whole of man, to the exclusion of the
body, man will not be sensitive; and when the soul leaves the body,
corruption will not ensue; for the substance of a movable being does not
change when the motor leaves it. It follows, likewise, that the human
body does not live by the intellectual soul, and is not generated by
union with the soul; for a movable thing is not generated by union with
its motor. Human generation must, therefore, cease; for as, according
to Plato, the soul is not generated, if the body be not man, one man
will not be able to generate another. If neither the generated body, nor
the soul and body together, but only the soul (which is not generated),
be man, there will no longer, in human generation, be either fathers
or children. These, and similar absurdities, beset those who will not
acknowledge that the form of the body is an intelligent and immortal soul.
As the soul is, by its perfection, supreme among all natural and
material forms, it partakes of the nature of incorporeal and immaterial
substances; and, inasmuch as it partakes of the nature of inferior forms,
it is said to be the form of the human body. In the perfection wherein it
pertains to immaterial forms, it is separated from the body, so that the
intellectual faculty of the soul is not, like its sensitive faculties,
joined to any corporeal organ. Hence, the soul is sometimes called the
_nexus_ of the world, being the link between the highest and the lowest
things.
We cannot then escape the conclusion, that the form of the body is a
rational soul, which, in spite of the corruptibility of the body, remains
incorruptible. This attribute of incorruptibility is proper to all
intellectual substances, and is so for divers reasons:—
First, because every perfection must be proportioned to the thing of
which it is the perfection, and, as universal and incorruptible things,
and principally God, are the perfection of the intellectual soul, whose
beatitude consists in contemplating them, the soul must be incorruptible.
Secondly, as we know that the perfection of the soul is proportionate to
its abstraction from material, and its elevation to immaterial and Divine
things, it is folly to say that the soul becomes corrupted by segregation
from the body. Such an assertion is tantamount to saying, that separation
from corporeal things is, at one and the same time, both the perfection,
and the destruction of the soul. And it is equally futile to argue, that
the soul attains perfection, by abstraction from the body, by means of
the understanding, but suffers corruption by separation from the body
by means of its essence. For operation follows nature; and therefore
it is impossible that when the operation becomes perfect, the nature
should become imperfect. Hence, it is quite unreasonable to say, that the
intellectual soul suffers corruption when it is separated from the body.
The natural bias of mankind is a further argument in favour of the
doctrine of the immortality of the soul. We see that all men are
anxious about what takes place after death, and that none have been
able to persuade themselves, that there is no future life. Thus the
desire to know something of the hereafter is apparent in the writings
of philosophers, of poets, and of orators. The fact of such a desire is
a proof of our immortality; for if there were no future life, not only
would this yearning for knowledge about it be of no service to man,
but it would be injurious to him, by raising desires doomed only to
disappointment. But if we assume that the intellectual soul is immortal,
this natural desire to understand something of its future life is, far
from being useless, both wholesome and necessary; it enables man to
direct his thoughts to another life, and to tend towards beatitude.
It is evident, then, that if we deny that the intellectual soul is
the form of the body, and is immortal, we shall be involved in many
inconsistencies. We shall find it impossible to understand how man can be
a rational animal endowed with free will, and justly liable to punishment
for sin. Neither shall we be able to comprehend what is the End of man,
and what the Providence of God in his regard. But, granted that an
intellectual and immortal soul be the form of man, all these difficulties
will disappear.
Since the consideration of the other life, which awaits the soul after
death, exceeds the limits of human reason, we will here conclude our
First Book, in order to treat in the next of the supernatural truths of
Faith. For where reason halts, Faith begins. When we shall have shown,
as we hope to do in the following Book, the truth of our faith, the
immortality of the soul will be beyond doubt.
BOOK II.
METHOD OBSERVED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK.
In our last Book we treated of those things which human reason is
capable of grasping. It is our intention to discuss, in this Book, those
things which exceed reason, and to prove the truth of the Faith, both by
natural means, and by the supernatural deeds of Christ. Since present
occurrences carry more weight than past events, our first argument shall
be founded on the deeds of Christians within the Church. We speak not
of bad Christians, who are cut off from the body of Christ, but of such
as are Christians in deed, as well as in name. We will next examine the
works which Christ wrought in times past, and which are known to all the
world. And, since He Himself by His words, “I am come that they may have
life, and may have it more abundantly” (St. John x. 10), shows that His
chief work lies in the perfection of Christian life, we will demonstrate
the truth of the Faith of Christ: first, by arguments founded on the
Christian life; secondly, by others based on the cause of this life; and
thirdly, by those drawn from the effects of this life. This chain of
reasoning will embrace almost everything which is at present taking place
within the Church militant.
CHAPTER I.
SOME TRUE RELIGION EXISTS IN THE WORLD.
In order to connect what has already been laid down with what still
remains to be said, it is necessary to acknowledge the existence on earth
of some true religion, or form of Divine worship. Religion, or worship,
signifies the due honour paid to God, as to the universal Principle,
Ruler, and End of all things. Every effect turns naturally to its cause;
submits itself to its cause, in order to become like to it; and, in a
certain sense, invokes the protection of its cause. By acting thus, the
effect is paying honour and worship to its cause. Now, as man is the
effect of God, there must be in his nature an instinct prompting him to
turn to God, to become subject to Him, to resemble Him, and to invoke
Him, in order from Him to obtain beatitude. As no natural inclination is
given us in vain, these promptings must spring from religion; and they
are proofs that some true form of Divine worship exists in the world.
This fact is, again, proved on another count. Man is possessed of reason
and of free will. Now, as reason is fallible on many points, especially
in Divine matters, it follows that, if God had not revealed some true
form of worship, we should have gone astray, as did the heathen before
the advent of Christ, and should never have attained beatitude. Thus, our
natural instinct would have misled us, and the Providence of God would
have failed us, in a matter most closely pertaining to our salvation.
It is clear that a natural tendency to religion is innate in the heart of
man, from the fact that some form, though frequently an erroneous form,
of Divine worship has existed through all generations. If, then, there be
no possibility of satisfying this natural inclination, God has provided
better for the needs of irrational creatures than for those of man.
It is the property of a cause to infuse its goodness and perfection
into its effect, in order that this effect may, as far as is possible,
resemble the cause. God, who is the Supreme Good and the First Cause of
all things, desires, more earnestly than does any other cause, to infuse
His goodness into man in order to bring him to beatitude; and, as the
perfection of man consists in that interior homage whereby he subjects
himself to God, it is clear, that God cannot have made this interior
homage impossible, and that, in other words, some true religion exists in
the world.
CHAPTER II.
RELIGION IS BOTH INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR.
God can be honoured by man, both in body and in spirit; and, therefore,
religion must be both interior and exterior. Interior worship is paid to
God by means of the understanding and the will; and exterior homage by
means of ceremonies and sacrifices.
Interior religion, then, strictly speaking, signifies uprightness of
heart before God, and perfection of life. For, as every effect honours
its cause chiefly by its perfection, man cannot pay to God a greater
homage than that of a perfect life. This, therefore, constitutes the
truth and completeness of Divine worship, even as the perfection of a
work gives glory to the worker.
And, as we pay homage to God, not only in order to honour Him, but also
in order to receive beatitude from Him; and as a good life is a more sure
way of attaining to beatitude than are sacrifices and ceremonies, it is
evident that perfection of life is a more true religion than any exterior
form of worship. God is not a body, but Pure Act: therefore man renders
to Him more perfect worship by purity of heart, than by external actions,
for “God is a Spirit, and they that adore Him, must adore Him in spirit
and in truth” (St. John iv. 24).
CHAPTER III.
NO BETTER LIFE CAN BE FOUND THAN THE CHRISTIAN LIFE.
As true religion consists in the perfection of human life; and as no
better life than the Christian life can be conceived, it follows that
there can be no better religion than the Christian religion. This
assertion is easily proved. Animal life is more perfect than vegetative
life; and among the different degrees of animal life, that one is the
highest which is the most largely endowed with sensible feeling. If,
further, it be the case that intellectual cognition be superior to
sensible feeling, it is certain that the life of man is more perfect
than that of animals. Among men are likewise found degrees, not of life
but of perfection; for, as man is rational, those men are the most
perfect who live the most nearly according to reason; for he who lives
not according to reason resembles a beast rather than a man. Again,
among those who live according to reason, there are divers degrees of
perfection. For, as the end of the life of reason is the contemplation of
Divine things, so the more perfectly a man abstracts himself from earthly
things, and devotes himself to the contemplation of that which is Divine,
the more perfect will be his life. Since the Christian life consists
in separating ourselves, not only from temporal things, but also from
self-love, and in drawing, by love and contemplation, near to God, so as
to become like to Him, and, so far as possible, to be made one with Him,
it is clear that nothing better than the Christian life can exist.
As we have already said, the more perfectly a man follows the dictates of
reason, the more perfect will be his life. It is evident, therefore, that
the Christian life does nothing and permits nothing, not even the least
thing, which is contrary to reason; but that it submits in all things to
the Divine Law.
A virtuous life tends to the contemplation of heavenly things, and finds
its end in this contemplation. Great purity of heart is requisite for
the attainment of this end. Consequently, as no life so purifies us,
and renders us so apt for contemplation, as does the Christian life, it
follows, that nothing better can be found on earth than Christianity.
CHAPTER IV.
THE END PRESENTED TO US BY THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS THE BEST WHICH CAN
POSSIBLY BE CONCEIVED.
In order to show that there can be no life better than the Christian
life, we shall first prove that the end set in view by the Christian
religion is the best possible end, and the one most in accordance with
reason, and that the means furnished by Christianity for the attainment
of that end are those best adapted to that purpose.
It is self-evident that the end held out to us by the Christian religion
is the best possible end, seeing that it is God, and the vision and
fruition of God; and this vision and fruition is not such as may be
gained by means of creatures, but that wherein God is beheld “face to
face”. Many reasons can be adduced to prove that this clear vision of
God is the end of our human life. First, as we have already proved,
man’s beatitude cannot be attained in this life; therefore, if he be
not created in vain, it must be attainable in the next. But if, in the
next life, his happiness were to consist in knowing and contemplating
God by means of creatures, it would not be complete happiness, for his
heart would not be at rest; and happiness consists in the quiescence
or satisfaction of all desires. This tranquillity would be incomplete,
whether his knowledge of creatures were perfect or imperfect. If he knew
creatures imperfectly, his heart would not be at rest, because he would
desire that this knowledge should be perfect. For we know, by daily
experience, that we desire distinct and particular cognition of the
things which we know only in a general and confused manner. Were his
knowledge of creatures perfect, he would still desire to know that on
which they depend. For it is natural to us when we see an effect to wish
to know its cause; and the more perfectly we know the effect the more
intensely do we wish to know its cause, just as the heavier an object is,
with the greater energy does it gravitate to its centre. Hence, as man
becomes happier and more perfect in proportion to his knowledge of Divine
things; and, as his desire of this knowledge increases proportionately
to his progress therein, it is certain that his wish for this knowledge
will never cease until he attains his Last End. This End can be nought
but God. For, as we know by experience, our hearts can never be satisfied
by any finite thing. Our intellect is superior to everything finite,
because there is nothing superior to its capacity; and our ability to
understand increases in proportion to our knowledge. Hence, as everything
which is inferior to God is finite; and, as our intellect is capable of
knowing infinite things, it is true to say that no creature can fill
even one-tenth part of our heart. It becomes, therefore, not merely
reasonable, but even necessary, to acknowledge that the happiness of man
consists in the vision of God, who alone is greater than the human heart.
Every natural movement, as all philosophers will admit, tends to some
end, in which, when it is attained, the thing which is moved finds
rest. Now God, who is the term of human desire, is the satisfaction of
the human heart, leaving nought else to be desired. And this because
everything else, being finite, will bear no comparison to Him who is
infinite; and, also, because all perfection of creatures is to be found
in its fullest excellence in Him who is their Cause. Thus, when the
soul of man possesses God it possesses all things; for the intellect
which knows Him, will know creatures far more perfectly; and, although
the excessive intensity of things sensible weakens the sense perceiving
them, the excess of that which is intelligible, far from injuring the
understanding, perfects it.
But we must remember that, as God is infinite, and is outside the realm
of creation, our intellect cannot, by virtue of its natural light, attain
to the vision of Him; because nothing can act beyond the limits of its
nature. Nevertheless, our understanding, which is capable of rising to
infinite things, may, by the Divine Power, be enabled to behold that
which is naturally invisible to it. Thus the beatitude of man consists
in the vision of God, and he is enabled to enjoy it by means of a
supernatural light, which is called “the light of glory”. It is plain
then, that no more reasonable or better end could be devised, as the term
of human life, than the end set before us by the Christian religion.
CHAPTER V.
A CHRISTIAN LIFE IS THE BEST POSSIBLE MEANS FOR ATTAINING TO HAPPINESS.
If the vision of God be the end of human life, God, who has made nothing
in vain, must have given us some means of attaining to it. For, just as
it would be useless for us to possess the power of motion, had we not
limbs wherewith to move, so would it be futile to be created for an end,
if we have no means of reaching it. The Christian religion teaches, that
the means whereby we are to attain to the vision of God are, purity of
heart, and grace, together with all the virtues supernaturally infused
into the soul.
We shall see how true and how reasonable this doctrine is, if we remember
that a means must be proportioned to its end. Now, as the end of man is
the supernatural vision of God, the Supreme Object of intelligence, there
is needed, in order to attain to it, perfect purity of heart, consisting
in a complete aversion of the mind and heart from the love of corporeal
things, together with a conversion to things incorporeal and Divine. This
purity of heart is far more explicitly enjoined by the Christian religion
than by any philosopher. Christianity has included all that philosophy
has taught on the subject; at the same time defining more clearly what is
meant by this purity of heart, and showing that mere natural virtue, such
as is inculcated by philosophers, is not sufficient for the attainment
of an end infinitely superior to nature. Christianity teaches that the
purity of heart which springs from temperament, imagination, natural
religion, from the influence of the heavenly bodies, or from any other
created thing, will not suffice to bring us to the vision of God. Our
purity must be the fruit of Divine grace. A fuller explanation of the
subject may be found in the treatise on _The Simplicity of Christian
Life_,[19] in which it is shown that purity of heart, and the perfect
Christian life, is not the result of natural love, nor is it the creation
of the imagination nor even of reason; that it is not influenced by the
heavenly bodies nor by any spiritual creatures; but that it comes from
the grace of God, supernaturally infused into the soul. We need not
repeat all that is written in that book, about the most perfect means
for attaining the perfection of the Christian life. Suffice it to say,
that the life of a true Christian, which embraces the highest form of a
holy life, both natural and supernatural, is most conducive to perfect
happiness.
CHAPTER VI.
THE CHRISTIAN LIFE IS A MOST SURE MEANS OF ATTAINING TO BEATITUDE.
If, as has been proved, there be in the world some true religion,
consisting mainly in uprightness of life; and if the Christian religion
surpasses every other; we must acknowledge Christianity to be true, not
only in its interior spirit, but also in its exterior forms. For there
must be some true external worship which corresponds, in all things,
with interior religion. Therefore, if Christians live according to the
teaching of their Faith, paying due homage to God, both in order to
honour Him and to attain to beatitude, we cannot doubt that they will
thus arrive at their Last End.
If, again, it pertains to Divine Providence to bring things to their End
by fitting means, and if there are no better means than the Christian
religion whereby man may attain to beatitude, who can doubt that the
Christian religion conducts man to the eternal enjoyment of the beatific
vision?
Further, if God be just—and we must confess that He is; and if He
exercise Providence over human things, He will not suffer those who have
obeyed His commandments and professed the Christian religion to fail in
the attainment of their end. He must bring either some men to beatitude,
or none. If none are to attain to beatitude, creation is in vain. Some
men, therefore, must be saved, and among them God will not pass over
true Christians, who are of all men the best fitted and prepared for
beatitude. If Christians do not attain to the fruition of their End,
we must needs confess that none others can hope to do so; that all we
have hitherto taught and proved is false; and that all men are living
in disorder and confusion. For where there is no last end there can be
no order in life. It would follow likewise, that man lives by chance,
more miserably than the animals. This would only be one of many similar
absurdities which would inevitably follow, were we to deny the value of
Christianity.
It must be acknowledged, then, that the teaching of the Christian
religion about the end of man, and the means necessary for its
attainment, is most reasonable; and we must confess this religion to be
true.
CHAPTER VII.
THE FAITH OF CHRIST IS TRUE, BECAUSE IT CAUSES MEN TO LEAD A PERFECT LIFE.
In proving Christianity to be true, we have hitherto made use of
arguments founded on the good life of true Christians. We will now
proceed to examine the causes of this virtuous life. One of the chief
causes is, as the Scripture teaches, the belief in Christ informed by
charity: “The justice of God, by faith of Jesus Christ, unto all, and
upon all them that believe in Him” (Rom. iii. 22). “Without faith it is
impossible to please God” (Heb. xi. 6). By faith informed by charity, we
mean that, loving Christ crucified above all things, we believe Him to
be truly God and truly Man, One with the Father and the Holy Ghost, and
distinct from them only in Person.
Universal experience demonstrates the truth of what we say. For in the
present day it is evident to all, and still more was it so in days
gone by, that, as soon as a man grasps the Faith of Christ and becomes
inflamed with His love, he begins to lead a Christian life, and makes
progress in perfection, in proportion to his increase of faith and
charity; and at the same time he is confirmed in those virtues, in
proportion to his advance in perfection. On the other hand, they who
lead bad lives are deficient in faith; and they that lack faith lead bad
lives. As this is a truth admitting no denial, we will investigate it,
and, by inquiring into the causes of such wonderful effects, will deduce
proofs of the truth of the Christian religion.
First. Since all perfection depends upon its cause, no effect can be more
perfect than its cause. Therefore, if all the truth and uprightness of
the Christian life depends upon the Faith of Christ, as upon its cause,
it is impossible that the Faith of Christ should not be true. And if this
faith be true, we must, with Christians, confess that Christ is God, and
that His religion is the true religion revealed by God.
Again. It is impossible that falsehood and evil should be the cause of
truth and goodness; for evil, in so far as it is evil, and falsehood, in
so far as it is falsehood, are nothingness. If, then, the Faith of Christ
were false, His love would be vain and evil. Now, a life so perfect as
is the Christian life could not spring from falsehood and iniquity.
Therefore, the Christian religion must be true.
Furthermore. If this religion be untrue it is the most stupid falsehood
that can possibly be conceived; for to say (were it not true) that a
crucified man is God would be the extreme of folly. Now, as the Christian
life is a perfect life, it cannot spring from untruth; for all rightly
ordered life proceeds from correctness of understanding, and all error in
human conduct springs from some mistake on the part of the intellect.
It must also be remembered that capacity for improvement in any nature is
proportioned to the good disposition already existing therein. Now, as
the perfection of our intellect is truth, and as purity of heart is the
disposition which enables him to become steadfast in truth, the more a
man is purged from earthly affections the better he will know the truth,
the more closely he will embrace it, and the further he will banish
falsehood from his soul. If this be true, surely Christians, since their
lives are purer than those of other men, would be the first to know if
their religion were false. We see, however, that far from rejecting their
faith, Christians cling more closely to it in proportion as they increase
in perfection, and that their increase in perfection is proportioned to
their steadfastness in their faith. Therefore, their faith cannot be
false.
Again, as God is the First Cause moving all things, both spiritual
and corporal, it is certain that it is He who must move the human
understanding, and that, apart from Him, no truth can be known. But who
can doubt that God will inspire to know the truth those who are prepared
for its reception, rather than those who are not thus disposed, and
especially when the truth concerns eternal salvation? Since then true
Christians are better prepared than are any other men to embrace the
truth, we cannot doubt that, if the Faith of Christ were false, they
would be enlightened by God to reject it. To think otherwise, would be to
doubt the providence and goodness of God.
The end regulates the means used to attain it, and he that errs as to
his end, will err also as to the means which he uses. Christians do not
err as to the means which they adopt for attaining to beatitude, and
therefore they do not err as to their end. Now, as all Christians profess
that Christ is their End, and that they strive to be made like to Him in
this life in order to enjoy Him in the next, it cannot be erroneous to
teach that Christ is God, and is the End of human life.
Again, God proceeds in all things in a certain order, and in His wisdom
governs inferior things by those that are superior to them. And since the
cause is always more perfect than the effect, He has ordained noblest
causes for the noblest effects. As there is not in the world a more
noble effect than the Christian life, it follows that the cause from
which it springs must be the noblest possible. Since the Christian life
is an effect of the Faith of Christ, we must acknowledge that that Faith,
far from being a fable, is the noble cause of a noble effect.
All secondary causes are instruments of a primary cause. Therefore
Christ, the Man who was crucified, is the instrument whereby God chooses
to produce that wonderful effect—the Christian life. Had Christ, in spite
of His assertions, not been God, His pride and mendacity would have been
unparalleled; and God would have used a bad instrument to produce a most
perfect effect—a course quite out of keeping with His wisdom.
The more closely an effect resembles its cause, the more perfect does it
become. We become more holy and more Divine in proportion as we walk in
the footsteps of Christ and become like to Him. This is a clear proof
that Christ is true God, and the Cause of man.
Causes are known by their effects, and one of the best arguments in
favour of the Christian religion is the reflection that, whereas heathen
philosophers have laboured for years to establish rules of conduct, they
have gained but few disciples, of whom even the most virtuous have never
attained to that standard of living which has been so quickly reached by
innumerable Christians of both sexes and of every race and condition. No
one who reflects on this fact can fail to see that there is no comparison
between the efficacy of the heathen philosophy and of the Christian
Faith, which is able to render the proud, avaricious, and luxurious,
humble, benevolent and chaste. Every one, consequently, must acknowledge
that Christ, as God, is the Principal Cause of human perfection, and, as
Man, is its Means and Instrumental Cause.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE DOCTRINES TAUGHT BY CHRISTIANITY ARE TRUE, AND COME FROM GOD.
The reading, hearing, and study of Holy Scripture is both a cause of our
Christian life, and the substance and foundation of our religion, of
which the object is the truth of the Faith. Having examined the arguments
founded on the Faith of Christ, we now proceed to investigate those drawn
from Holy Writ.
We know that there can be no certain truth or knowledge about future
things which may or may not happen. Even philosophers, who were truly
wise, admitted this. These can be known to God alone, and to man only
when God reveals them to him. Man could not know them, unless it pleased
God to make them known. Now Holy Scripture, in almost every portion, but
especially in the Old Testament, has foretold things which should come
to pass, and which depended on man’s free will. These prophecies concern
not only general, but also particular things; and they relate to events
which were to occur, not only in one year or in ten, but in a hundred
or a thousand, or three or four thousand years; they were to happen not
only to the Jews and to Christ and His Church, but were to concern also
the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Medes, the Greeks, the
Romans, and other lesser kingdoms.[20] Now many of the events foretold
by the Prophets have come to pass; and the fact of their fulfilment
inspires us with confidence that any that have not yet been accomplished
will eventually be verified. We must, therefore, acknowledge the Holy
Scriptures to be, not a work of human ingenuity, but the revelation of
God’s Providence towards us.
God alone has prescience of the future. Therefore, no man, be he ever so
diligent or wise, can order the wars and doings of kings and princes, and
the names and places, and divers actions and circumstances of men in such
a way that they shall foreshadow things to come. The reason is simple.
God has the ordering of things which are to come; they are subject to
Him. They are beyond the power and knowledge of man. The Old Testament
foretells the New Testament, and the things which Christ has done and
suffered, both in His Person and in His Church. Therefore, we have good
reason to believe that both the Old Testament and the New are the Word of
God.
It is not reasonable to say that Christians have interpreted the
prophecies of Scripture according to their desires. For, taking into
account the differences of times and circumstances, of language and of
authors, the extraordinary uniformity which exists between the Old and
the New Testaments would not be possible, were they not the work of one
Mind, which knows all that has taken place at all times. Neither can this
uniformity be ascribed to chance, since there is no discord or want of
harmony between the two Testaments, but perfect agreement between them,
even in the smallest particulars; so that what is obscure in one passage
is explained in another; and the Scripture interprets itself. Although
those who have not studied the Bible may be ignorant of this fact,
the truth of what I say will be acknowledged by all who examine Holy
Scripture with faith, humility and purity of heart.
It is on account of this harmony between the Old and New Testaments, that
the Bible possesses the dignity of an allegorical meaning. But, observe,
that by an allegorical, we do not mean a fabulous, interpretation—such
as we find in the poets—for we interpret parables also, and their
interpretation is not called an allegorical, but literal and parabolic
meaning. We do not intend by the words of the fable or parable to express
what is signified by the words themselves, but rather what we understand
by the meaning underlying those words. An allegory requires, first,
that the words should narrate, not a fiction, but some fact that has
really occurred; secondly, that this fact should prefigure some future
event; thirdly, that the fact narrated should have taken place not only
on account of its intrinsic importance, but also as a forecast of some
future occurrence. As no one but God can compose such allegories, and as
the Holy Scriptures are full of them, it is clear that only God can be
their Author.
The language and style of the Bible are so peculiar, that none of our
most learned and eloquent Doctors have ever been able to imitate it; nor
has it been copied by any other writer. The Prophets, although they lived
at different times and wrote with varying degrees of elegance, have all
retained the same mode of expression, which has not been imitated by any
other author, and is, in fact, inimitable. This is a clear proof that the
Holy Scriptures are a Divine and not a human work.
A further confirmation of what we say may be perceived, if we observe
the effects which proceed from the Scriptures; for the virtue of a cause
is known by its effect. Now, as upon earth there is no more sublime
effect than the Christian life, and as the Bible is a most powerful
instrumental cause and foundation of this life, it is manifest that it
can only proceed from the First Cause of the Christian life, _viz._, God.
Long experience teaches us that human science avails but little in the
formation of virtuous habits; for, before Christianity was preached, the
whole world was wrapped in the darkness of ignorance and sin; but from
the time the Apostles taught the truth, mankind has been enlightened and
initiated into many heavenly secrets.
And even in our own days, we see how the teaching of the Holy Scripture
has more efficacy than has any other doctrine, in enlightening and
consoling men, and in inclining them to live virtuously. For the
preachers who discourse only on philosophical subjects, and pay great
attention to oratorical effect, produce scarcely any fruit among their
Christian hearers. Whereas our forefathers, who in past times confined
themselves to the simple preaching of the Holy Scriptures, were able
to fill their hearers with Divine love, enabling them to rejoice in
affliction and even in martyrdom. I speak also from personal experience.
For, when at one time (in order to demonstrate the profundity of Holy
Scripture to sciolists, proud of their intelligence) I was wont to
discourse on subtle points of philosophy, I found that the people who
heard me were inattentive. But as soon as I devoted myself to the
exposition of the Bible, I beheld all eyes riveted upon me, and my
audience so intent upon my words, that they might have been carved out of
stone. I found, likewise, that when I set aside theological questions,
and confined myself to explaining Holy Scripture, my hearers received
much more light, and my preaching bore more fruit, in the conversion of
men to Christ and to a perfect life. For Holy Scripture contains that
marvellous doctrine, which, more surely than a two-edged sword, pierces
men’s hearts with love, which has adorned the world with virtue, and has
overthrown idolatry, superstition, and numberless errors. This proves
that it can proceed from none but God.
The more completely the human intellect is purified, the more capable it
becomes of apprehending the truth. Now, as there is no purity of life
so perfect as that produced by Christianity, Christian doctors, of whom
there are many, would (were the Bible not the work of God) on account
of their learning and their holiness, be the first to discern the fact.
So far, however, from denying the Divine inspiration of the Scriptures,
the Fathers of the Church have left many volumes extolling the teaching
of Holy Writ, and have written and preached that it is unlawful to alter
one iota of the sacred text. Some of them have, in defence of the Divine
origin of the Bible, even shed their blood. If these men had not had some
certainty that the Scriptures were the work of God, they would, most
assuredly, not have sacrificed their lives in such a cause.
Again, truth can never disagree with truth; truth must be in harmony
with truth; but it is invariably at war with falsehood. Now, as every
science agrees with Holy Scripture, it is evident that it must contain,
not falsehood, but truth. The leaders of thought, in every branch of
science, have proved that no true science is repugnant to Holy Scripture.
Therefore, Christians are not forbidden to study any science, save
divination and such like pernicious superstitions, which are derided
by all true scientists. This harmony between science and the Bible is
a proof of the truth of the latter. Were the Scriptures false, they
would infallibly contradict science; whereas the Doctors of the Church
show that the Bible and science agree; and they are able to explain any
_apparent_ discrepancy between them.
Further. The more truth is impugned, the more, if it have a defender, it
becomes clear to the human intellect, which has a natural tendency to
truth as to its own perfection. Christianity has been always opposed,
both by philosophers and by temporal sovereigns, and has invariably
proved itself invincible. This, again, is a strong proof of its
truth; for, had it been false, it must, inevitably, have succumbed to
persecution.
CHAPTER IX.
THE TRUTH OF THE FAITH PROVED BY ARGUMENTS FOUNDED ON THE PRAYER AND
CONTEMPLATION OF CHRISTIANS.
Faith, and meditation on the Holy Scriptures are not only the cause, but
also the nourishment and perfection, of the Christian life. Experience,
both past and present, shows that Christians given to continual prayer,
acquire great perfection in a short space of time, and find such delight
in spiritual things, that everything else seems worthless to them. This
is the case not with a few learned men only, but with many also of the
uneducated. In fact, this is the experience of all, both men and women of
every degree, who exercise themselves in prayer. On this fact we intend
to found an argument for the truth of our faith.
First. Since God is Pure Act, Supreme Truth, and Infinite Light, it
follows that the nearer man approaches to Him (in spirit not in body),
the more he will partake of the Divine purity, truth and light. Now, as
the Christian life is more pure and perfect than any other, it must be
nearer to God than any other life; and Christians approach most closely
to Him when they are engaged in the exercise of prayer and contemplation,
which renders the soul peculiarly capable of receiving the Divine purity,
truth, and light. Since, then, it is by prayer and contemplation, that
Christians are confirmed in their Faith in Christ Crucified, and fired
with love of Him, it is undeniable that the Faith is Divine truth and
light.
Again. Our understanding is naturally inclined to delight in truth, to
desire it, and to shun falsehood; and the more a natural inclination is
purified, the more vehement it becomes. Prayer purifies the understanding
more efficaciously than does any other mental act; and therefore, if in
time of prayer, the soul be more drawn to embrace the Faith of Christ
than at any other time, this is a proof that the Faith is truth and not
falsehood.
Further. Christians, when they pray, make their supplications to God for
the sake of Christ Crucified, and through His merits; and nevertheless
they ask for great things. Even should this assertion be disbelieved,
it cannot, at least, be denied that the chief prayer of a Christian
is for grace to live a Christian life, and for joy and peace of soul.
Now, if Christ were not the One whom they think Him to be, God would
surely enlighten them to see the truth. Or, if they preferred to remain
obstinately in error, their prayers would not be, as they now are, heard
for the sake of Christ.
Again. No cause prevents matter from receiving a form; and no natural
motor prevents a thing from tending to its end. As beatitude is the end
to be attained by a good life and by prayer, and as man cannot move
himself to pray and to live virtuously, but must be inspired thereto by
God, who inspires Christians to so perfect a life, and to such sublimity
of prayer, and confirms them in Faith, it is manifest that Faith is the
means by which we are to attain to beatitude, and that this Faith must
proceed from God.
Every cause listens, if we may so speak, to the prayer of its effect, and
by this _prayer_ we mean the desire of the effect for its perfection,
which, if its dispositions be ordered aright, it will seek to obtain
from its cause. We see in the natural order, that when matter is duly
prepared, the cause does not delay in giving it form; and this proceeds
from the goodness of the cause, for the characteristic of good is to
communicate itself. Hence, as God is Supreme Goodness, He exceeds all
causes in listening to the prayer of His effects, when they are disposed
to receive His influx. Now, the Christian life, especially as exhibited
in the act of prayer and contemplation, is the best possible preparation
for being heard by God; and the prayers of Christians are, most surely,
not made in vain. There is nothing which Christians more earnestly
implore of God than to be enlightened as to the truth. Thus David, in
the name of all, prays, saying, “Enlighten mine eyes, O Lord, that I
may never sleep in death” (Ps. xii. 4). And therefore we must believe
that true Christians are enlightened as to the truth which pertains to
salvation. The more they pray, the more confirmed do they become in their
faith in Christ. Thus, we have good grounds for believing this faith to
be true, and not false.
A further argument is, that if Christ be not God, it would be blasphemy
to believe and to confess that He is God—One with the Father and the
Holy Ghost—and to pray through His merits. How could the Divine Goodness
leave in such blindness Christians, the best of mankind, always ready to
extirpate any error which may dishonour the Divine Majesty? It is absurd
to say that God leaves them in their misbelief, because they obstinately
persevere in it. For, were this the case, why should He hear their
blasphemous prayers? Why, on the contrary, should He not punish them
severely?
If, again, the Faith of Christ be false, could there be a more absurd
superstition than to adore a crucified man as God? Our understanding
naturally loves truth and abhors falsehood; how then could it be
possible, that innumerable Christians, amongst them men of vast genius
and great learning, could so delight in the contemplation and love of
Christ Crucified, as for His sake, not only willingly to bear, but even
eagerly to desire, hunger and thirst, labours, threats, opprobrium,
scourges, imprisonment, and even death? Truly the finger of God is here.
CHAPTER X.
PROOFS OF THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION FOUNDED ON ITS EXTERNAL
FORMS OF WORSHIP.
Our arguments for the truth of Christianity have hitherto been drawn from
the interior aspect of that religion. We will now proceed to proofs based
on its Sacraments, ceremonies, and other external rites. We will, instead
of considering them individually, which would be a lengthy task, group
all the ceremonies and Sacraments of the Church under the one which is
chief and most venerable, _viz._, the Sacrament of the Blessed Eucharist.
We know by experience, and since the first days of Christianity it has
been proved, that the reverent observance of this exterior worship is
the cause, the nourishment, and the perfection of the Christian life;
that they who frequent the Sacraments devoutly become more holy day by
day; and that they who treat them with irreverent familiarity become more
hardened than other men in sin. We see this fact exemplified in priests,
who, day and night, administer the Sacraments, and perform the ceremonies
of the Church. For, those who do so devoutly, are most holy men, so
completely purified from earthly affection, and so closely united to God,
that, for love of Him, they fear not to expose their lives.
Those, on the other hand, who perform their sacred duties irreligiously,
are worse than any other men; for, besides being guilty of pride,
avarice, envy, and other sins, they are in the most hopeless state
possible, for they are incorrigible; and the admonitions, reprimands
and good examples, which cause others to amend, are for them only an
incitement to scorn, hatred, and worse sin. We cannot, therefore, deny
that the same Sacraments produce contrary effects in different men. We
must now investigate the cause of this phenomenon. It is in no wise
repugnant to philosophy, that contrary effects should, by reason of
contrary disposition of matter, spring from the same cause. For, we
see how the rays of the sun harden the earth, and melt ice, cause a
well-planted tree to bear flower and fruit, and wither another whose
roots have not struck deeply. The two effects of which we have been
speaking, _viz._, the good effect produced by the Sacraments on good
priests and religious, and the bad effect produced on those that are
bad, cannot spring from a false or empty cause. For, if the externals of
religion did not depend on God, and were not the instruments of Divine
virtue and truth, they could not produce an effect so excellent as to
give birth to the Christian life, and to nourish and perfect it. For as
this life is wholly spiritual and Divine, it cannot proceed from any
physical power. Who is there that believes that baptism with water,
anointing with chrism, smoke of incense, oblation of bread and wine upon
the altar, and other rites and ceremonies of the same description, could
of themselves, without any other power, suffice to render a soul perfect?
Surely if these things were human inventions, or deceits of the devil,
they could not produce holy lives.
But, perhaps you will say, the Christian life is not produced by this
external worship, but by the exercise of virtues, and by the credulity of
men, who, believing these exterior ceremonies to be Divine, do by means
of them lead a good life, and thus make progress in virtue. Why is it,
then, we would answer, that other men who practise virtue without the
Sacraments, never attain to the same degree of holiness, as these good
priests? Surely, if external worship were false and useless, those who
abstained from it would become all the better, not being contaminated by
error; and priests who despised these rites and ceremonies, and made a
jest of them, would be the best of men. Daily experience, however, shows
us, that facts are quite otherwise.
Again, it stands to reason that as God is the Supreme Truth, man, the
more closely he draws nigh to God, partakes more fully of His light and
truth; and the more he becomes involved in error and falsehood, the
further he recedes from God. But we know that those who devoutly frequent
the Sacraments, and make use of the ceremonies of the Church, become so
united to God, that manifest signs of the presence of the Divine light
appear in their countenance, and many are rapt in ecstasy, and their
faces are then so transfigured, that they appear to all men attractive
and venerable. And although such phenomena were more common in past
times than at present, these marvels are still often to be seen in our
own days, amongst both men and women, learned and ignorant. Whence come
these ecstasies, and this holy contemplation, this fervour of spirit, and
these tears which accompany exterior worship? In truth, if these external
ceremonies are not ordained by God, they are full of absurdities and
fallacies; for they are all typical of things spiritual and Divine; and
our churches, sacraments, altars, priestly vestments, sacred psalmody,
and ceremonies all typify falsehoods, especially concerning Christ,
of whom they are a figure, and they amount to nothing save useless
lies. But if these exterior rites are a mere mockery, good men would
not take such delight in them, nor by their means draw so near to God.
For, as we have said, in proportion as men are involved in error, they
recede from God. Hence, we must conclude that the ritual of the Church
is full of grace and truth. The wonderful ceremonial of the Church,
again, and the symbolical signification of her rites wherein there is
nothing trivial, nothing irrational—but everything, even the most minute
detail, is typical of some mystery—proves, that these rites are not a
human invention, but a Divine ordinance. It is not our intention here
to enlarge upon the meaning of the ecclesiastical ceremonies, as this
subject will be briefly handled in the next Book. If, however, any one
wishes to know more of these mysteries without further delay, he will
find them explained in the Christian doctrine; and he will see that there
is no less harmony and order in the ceremonies of the Church than in the
operations of nature. And, unless he be thoroughly perverse, he will be
forced to acknowledge, that our worship is the outcome, not of a human,
but of a Divine Spirit.
CHAPTER XI.
THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY EVIDENCED BY ITS EFFECTS ON THE INTERIOR LIFE
OF CHRISTIANS.
We have, to the best of our poor ability, proved the truth of the Faith
by arguments founded on the internal and external causes of the Christian
life. We will next proceed to demonstrate its truth by its effects on
this life. Its chief interior effect is peace and joy of spirit, and
liberty of soul. We see this effect exemplified in the Saints of former
times (when there was more fervour than at present). They enjoyed a
serenity and peace of mind which enabled them, not only to remain
unshaken in the midst of affliction, but even to rejoice at martyrdom.
Now, as this joy in the midst of tribulation increases in them in
proportion as they draw nearer to Christ, we see that peace of soul can
only be attained by union with God, the last end and only satisfaction of
the human heart, in whom alone we can find rest. Those who are closely
united to Him have such firm hope of enjoying happiness after this life,
that they make no account of the good things of this world, and fear
neither persecution nor loss of life, but eagerly look forward to death,
as the passage to eternal bliss. And God, though He is everywhere, dwells
specially in such souls as these, by His grace and love, and by the gift
of contemplation. He sustains them by His presence, delivering them from
all fear, and giving them such liberty of spirit, that they are neither
cast down by adversity, nor uplifted by prosperity.
This peace, joy, and freedom of soul cannot proceed from any natural
human power, weakened as we are by sensuality and ignorance. It must be a
supernatural gift of God, causing us to lift our eyes to the Divine light
and the beatitude promised to us.
We can prove that this peace of soul is caused by union with God, if
we reason in the following manner. The soul is one, and all its powers
spring from it. If, then, the soul be fixed on the operation of one
power, it cannot attend to the operation of another; just as in intense
contemplation the operations of the senses are suspended, and in great
physical pain or enjoyment the understanding is no longer exercised.
Hence, humanly speaking, it would be quite impossible that, in the
midst of intense bodily torture, the intellect should enjoy peace and
happiness. And, yet, we behold this phenomenon in innumerable martyrs, of
both sexes, and of every rank of life. Of course the sages of this world
will adduce examples of a few individuals, who, although not Christians,
have experienced the same ecstacy in the midst of sufferings. But the
Christians in whom this miracle has been wrought are innumerable, and
the least child who is a true Christian is superior to all the heathen
saints, whose erroneous judgment and perverted affections are conspicuous
in their writings. Thus, this power of rejoicing in the midst of
suffering, is not natural; it is a supernatural gift of God. This again
is a proof of the veracity of Christianity. For were the Faith of Christ
(which is the cause of these wonderful effects), proved to be false,
it would not come from God, and Christians would thus be left to their
natural weakness, and involved in many errors.
The more virtuously a man lives, the more clearly he discerns the truth,
and the better he loves good and hates evil and falsehood. If, then,
the religion of Christ were not true, Christians would live in error,
and their persistence in adoring Christ as God would be criminal. But
experience shows us that Christians are confirmed in their faith, and
enjoy peace, and joy, and liberty of soul in proportion to their virtue.
This would certainly not be the case were Christianity a falsehood.
The truth of our Faith is also confirmed by the example of the many
religious of both sexes, who in these days, as well as in past times,
have from desire of perfection left friends and kinsfolk, riches,
pleasure, and even their own will, and have retired into a cloister in
some far-off land, where, submitting to strangers, they have promised to
observe poverty, to possess nothing save with the permission of their
superior, to preserve chastity of soul and body, to fast and watch as
much as their weakness will permit, and to practise obedience to all
commands. Thus, they renounce worldly possessions, earthly happiness and
their own will; and yet they live as joyfully, and take as much delight
in praising God, as if they had all that earth can give. With one consent
they acknowledge that all their peace and joy of soul is based on the
Faith in Jesus Crucified. And we cannot repute them as fools, since among
them are not only ignorant persons, but men renowned for learning,
prudence, and judgment, who would, were their Faith false, speedily
recognise their error. Hence, we must reckon that the cause of this
wonderful effect is the religion of Christ, which is not false but true.
As these religious, being in a state of life wherein a high degree of
perfection is attainable, make every effort to advance in perfection,
it follows that they are more fitted than are other men to receive
heavenly illumination. Were the faith false, it would not be possible
for its falsehood to be disguised during so many centuries, and among
so many worthy men; nor could these men confirm their religion every
hour in their hearts, by their words, their works, and their innumerable
writings; nor, being in the greatest subjection, live in such spiritual
liberty and joy.
Again. Every cause does, as far as possible, direct its effect to its
end, especially when the effect is disposed to receive the influx of its
cause. Hence, God, being supremely good, conducts all things to their
end, unless they are hindered, by their unfitness, from attaining to it.
Now, as no better disposition for attaining to beatitude can be found
than the life of religious, it follows that they must be guided by God to
beatitude, and that their peace and joy are a participation of beatitude.
As this aptitude for beatitude springs from the Faith of Christ, and
increases in proportion to the growth of that Faith, it is clear that the
Faith cannot be false, or God would be fostering errors and spurious joy
in the souls of well-disposed men, and would thus be leading them astray.
All joy again is based on love, which is that first act of the appetite
and will, on which all other acts depend. Now, as the happiness of
religious is not centred on worldly goods, which they have relinquished,
and as they unanimously acknowledge that the well-spring of their joy is
the Faith of Christ and the hope of another life, they cannot be living
in error. For, the uprightness of their life would cause them to perceive
their mistake; and thus would banish their peace of mind. But we see that
they experience quite contrary effects, which prove that the Faith of
Christ is true.
CHAPTER XII.
THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY MANIFESTED BY ITS VISIBLE EFFECTS ON THE LIVES
OF CHRISTIANS.
Another signal effect of the Christian religion is to be perceived in
the exterior of those who profess it; for their countenance and manner
constrain men to reverence them and hold them in honour. The fiercest
men have become gentle, at the sight of devout Christians clad in lowly
guise. Attila, the ferocious King of the Huns, beholding Saint Leo,
the Pope, in the city of Ravenna, and hearing his words, abandoned the
invasion of Italy. Totila, the savage King of the Goths, could not
confront the poor and humble monk, St. Benedict; but, prostrating himself
upon the ground, would only rise at the Saint’s behest. Theodosius, the
Emperor, after the slaughter of the inhabitants of Thessalonica, was by
St. Ambrose banished from the temple of God, and, not daring to disobey,
humbled himself and did penance. Time would fail me were I to make
mention of all the examples that I can recall; but it is not necessary
to enlarge upon what is so clear. Even in our own time we have seen
arrogant sinners, smitten with compunction at the sight of holy men; and
this compunction has led them to an entire reformation of life.
Now the cause of this effect is supernatural grace, with the infusion of
all virtues. For we know how the soul can, by means of the imagination,
alter the whole countenance. Thus angry feelings express themselves
openly on the face: we grow pale with fear, red with shame; joy makes the
eye sparkle, etc. For, as the understanding makes use of those corporeal
organs, the senses; the thoughts of the understanding (when they are very
intense) often stamp themselves upon the body, especially on the eyes and
countenance. Thus a haughty mind can be recognised by the arrogance of
a man’s looks; cruelty by his rolling eye; light-mindedness by restless
limbs. Nay, sometimes sin can infect the very air and the bodies of
others—as we see in the case of malignant old women, who can bewitch
little children. Good and bad habits, when they are deeply rooted in the
soul, cannot be so completely disguised that they never appear in the
face. As we know that every effect expresses its cause, the beautiful and
venerable aspect of perfect Christians can proceed from nothing, save
from the beauty of their soul, which is, of itself, most efficacious
in the conversion of sinners. Even though a man be uneducated, if he
leads a holy life, he will have more influence with his fellows than an
eloquent and learned philosopher, or than miracles, either reported or
witnessed. We see how attentively an audience will listen to the words
of a learned preacher, without making any change in their lives; yet,
although his eloquence may be much praised, it will remain barren if his
life corresponds not to his words. In the same way, both in past days
and in our own time, many miracles have been wrought, and crowds of men
and women have flocked to see them; but they have produced but little
fruit in the reformation of their lives.
A perfect Christian life, on the contrary, will convert to God numberless
souls, not only among the poor and simple, but among the learned, and
will fill them with compunction. Indeed many have been so strongly
influenced by the holiness of life exhibited by perfect Christians, that
they have left the world and retired into a cloister. There must, then,
be some intrinsic power in those who lead holy lives, which enables them
to produce such marvellous effects. I say _intrinsic_, for this power
is not exterior, since the body does not, strictly speaking, act upon
the spirit; and therefore the exterior of a perfect Christian could not
have power to change the will and the understanding of other men. The
chief virtue of a perfect Christian, and that which produces both his
good life and his exterior beauty, is his Faith in, and love of Christ
Crucified. And the more this Faith and love increase, the more beautiful
and venerable does his exterior aspect become.
Truth is stronger than falsehood. Now there is, as we have already said,
no more efficacious means of inducing men to lead a good life, than the
example of a good Christian. For, the example of virtuous heathens led
very few to heathen perfection; whereas those who have been converted by
the example of Christianity are innumerable. Hence the root and essence
of the Christian religion cannot be false or futile; otherwise it would
produce less effect on the lives of men than does philosophy. This, as we
know, is not the case.
God is the primary Cause of motion, without which nothing moves; and,
as He does all things wisely, He produces the noblest effects from the
noblest causes. Therefore, as the Christian life is a most noble effect,
it springs from most noble causes, of which one is the good example
exhibited by this life. One begets the other, as man begets man, and
animals beget animals. Therefore we must acknowledge, that the example of
a good life is a most noble cause and instrument, used by God to lead men
to true virtue, and that, as this virtue is Faith informed by charity,
Faith also must be true.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE TRUTH OF THE FAITH DEMONSTRATED BY THE WONDERFUL WORKS OF CHRIST,
ESPECIALLY THOSE WHICH PERTAIN TO HIS POWER.
We have, by the assistance of God, proved the truth of Faith by the
effects daily visible in the Church of Christ. In further confirmation
of our proofs, we can bring forward further arguments, based on the
works which Christ wrought in past times, and which were patent to the
whole world. As philosophers investigate the natural causes of the
things which they see, we will place before our eyes the Triumph of the
Cross, described before. And, as philosophers, seeing the greatness and
wonderful order and perfection of the Universe, believe God to be the
most powerful, the wisest and most perfect Cause of causes, and Prime
Mover of all things, we, likewise, from the marvels described in the
Triumph of the Cross, desire to show that Christ Crucified has surpassed,
in power and wisdom and goodness, all those that have been honoured and
adored as gods, and has done incomparably greater and more wonderful
things than they have wrought; so that He, most surely, is “a great God,
and a great King above all gods” (Ps. xciv. 3).
Let us then begin by considering His power, and by placing before our
eyes the Triumph of the Cross. Let us argue in this wise. Either Christ
is the True God and the First Cause of all things, or He is not. If He
be God, it follows that Christianity is true; and there is no need for
further discussion. If He be not God, He must have been the proudest man,
and the greatest liar that ever lived. He must also have been exceedingly
foolish. For it would have been, indeed, the height of folly for a
man, unaided by wealth or worldly power, ignorant of philosophy and of
rhetoric, to attempt, merely by virtue of his death, to fight against
the Divine Majesty, and to usurp to himself the honour due to It; or to
strive to induce learned and powerful men to join a new religion which
should change the whole face of the earth, should acknowledge him as God,
and should inspire his followers with such fervent love for him, that
for his sake they should be ready to lay down life itself. Could any
absurdity equal such aspirations as these? If, then, Jesus of Nazareth
were not true God, He would be a most foolish and sacrilegious seducer.
How could such a man have been able to supersede the Law of Moses, and to
struggle successfully against men of authority and learning, against the
powers of heaven and hell, nay, against God Himself? Why, O Jews, did not
your God take vengeance on Him? For what reason, ye Gentiles, have your
deities not overthrown Him? How has it come to pass that a poor and lowly
man, put to death by Crucifixion, has accomplished such mighty deeds?
What God, I speak not of men, can be compared with Christ?
Again, consider how foolish it is to draw a comparison between Jesus
Christ and Apollonius, Pythagoras, Socrates, Cæsar, or any emperor;
since none of them has either proclaimed himself God, or done any deed
which can be compared to the works of Christ. Mahomet, who never called
himself God, attracted a barbarous people to himself by force of arms and
by sensual indulgence; he spoke admiringly of Christ, but himself never
proposed anything to his followers, above the force of human nature.
Jesus Christ did not act thus. His commands to men are most arduous and
most difficult to obey; since He would have them believe in a God, One
in Nature, Three in Person. His followers must confess that the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Ghost are true God, Simple Substance, and that He
is very God, the Son of God, One with the Father and the Holy Spirit,
and true Man, the Son of the Virgin Mary, who must be reverenced as the
true Mother of God. Furthermore, Christians are bound to confess that
the Cross, which used to be an instrument of punishment, is a powerful
sign of our salvation, and that a little bread and wine is changed, by
virtue of certain words pronounced over it, into the Body and Blood of
Christ, the heavenly food of our souls, and as such has to be adored. We
must also believe that no one can enter into the Kingdom of God unless he
receive the baptism which confers heavenly grace. And we must hold, with
inviolable firmness, every point taught by Scripture, however difficult
it may be to human understanding.
Neither is Faith sufficient for salvation. We must also love invisible
things so much as to despise such as are visible, and to be ready to
suffer persecution, and even death itself, rather than offend God in
anything. Christ does not promise us in this world riches, or honour,
or dignity, but rather poverty, persecution, scourges, exile, prison,
and death. He reserves for us hereafter happiness unspeakable, a share
in the glory of the angels, the resurrection of the body, and joy which
“eye hath not seen, ear hath not heard, neither hath it entered into the
heart of man to conceive” (1 Cor. ii. 9). And although the things which
our Lord sets before us are most difficult to human nature, innumerable
Christians, of all times and conditions of life, have accepted His
teaching, and adhered to it so closely, that they have preferred to die
rather than to deny it.
Let us, then, place before our eyes Christ living in poverty, the reputed
son of a carpenter; and let us question Him as to His thoughts. He will
reply: I, poor though I be and an exile on earth, propose to lay down
laws for the whole human race, and so to change the face of the world,
that, although I shall be crucified, men shall adore Me as true God, One
with the Father and the Holy Ghost. And it is My will that the cross and
nails and thorny crown, and all the other instruments of My Passion,
shall be honoured and held in veneration as most precious treasures.
Likewise men shall believe that a little bread and wine is changed into
My Body and Blood, and shall adore It as God. They shall confess that the
water of baptism cleanses from sin, and that oil and chrism sanctify, and
that My doctrine, of which it is not lawful to change one jot or tittle,
surpasses all other teaching. My Virgin Mother also shall be honoured and
loved throughout the whole world, and My Apostles, who were fishermen,
shall be so revered, that men shall honour their very bones and ashes.
If any poor man were to speak thus, should we not deride him as a madman?
But, if, in spite of your ridicule, He should say further: It is My
will, not only that men should believe these things, but should on
their account live in holiness, and should for the sake of invisible
things spurn such as are visible, suffering for love of Me poverty,
hunger, thirst, labour, torture and death—would you not think that He
had lost His senses? And were He to add: I shall accomplish all these
things against the will of the whole world, and shall overcome kings and
princes, the powers of hell, and the machinations of men—would you not
think Him completely mad?
But what would be your opinion of Him, if, when you asked Him with what
weapons He proposed to achieve these victories, He should reply: My
only arms will be the tongue, used not in rhetorical or philosophical
eloquence, but in simplicity of preaching; and I know that by means of
this preaching many will be converted to Me, and will for My name endure
suffering and death; and the blood of My faithful will become the seed
of the Church. And so great will be the power of My doctrine that Peter
the fisherman and his successors will become heads of the proud city
of Rome, and the chiefs of the world; and emperors will humbly stoop
to kiss their feet. And good and learned men shall, in every language,
compose innumerable books filled with My praises, and in defence of My
doctrine. And when my priests shall, with great reverence and solemnity,
pronounce My word, all people shall listen to it, standing with bared
heads. And none shall prevail against Me, but My religion shall endure
for ever. Would you not have treated such words as foolish dreams? And,
surely, when we consider how all these prophecies have been fulfilled,
shall we not see that they could not possibly have been accomplished by
one poor man, nor by all men, nor by all natural or supernatural power,
but only by the infinite power of God? Beholding these things, can we
possibly doubt that they are the work of God, and that the Faith of
Christ is true? What conjuror, what philosopher, what powerful king has
ever performed the like? Can Mahomet, can the heathen gods be compared to
Christ, before whose coming none of these things were accomplished, or
even imagined? Neither can we say that these marvels happened by chance,
for they had been foretold years before their accomplishment by the
Prophets and Sybils, whose books are known to the whole world. This is
another argument in favour of the truth of Christianity.
In the course of nature some causes invariably produce their effect;
others do so nearly always; and others are indifferent as to whether
they produce their effect or not. Again, some arguments, _i.e._, those
called demonstrative, infallibly constrain the understanding to accept a
proposition; others almost always incline the understanding to receive
it; and others sometimes appeal to the mind, and at other times produce
no effect upon it. Demonstration abounds in mathematical science, though
there is very little of it in natural science, and still less in moral
science which treats of sublime and Divine things. For our understanding
is so weak, that it does not really know the nature of things; and,
therefore, it is with difficulty convinced with regard to things which
are not manifest. If, then, it be difficult to persuade the understanding
to embrace moral and Divine things, how much harder must it not be to
incline it to virtue and contemplation, seeing how the flesh ever rebels
against the spirit? But it is, above all things, difficult to incline the
intellect to perseverance in good works. In philosophical schools we see
many systems under many founders; but few sincerely love what they learn
or teach. For, very few who know what really are good works, are, as a
consequence, by their knowledge of them, attracted to persevere in their
performance. If, then, the greatest philosophers, with all their learning
and eloquence, have scarcely succeeded in persuading a few men to believe
things dictated by reason—such as, for instance, God’s providence over
human affairs and the duty of practising virtue and avoiding vice—how
much less able would they have been to induce men to believe things above
natural reason, and, above all, to love good works? But the disciples
of Christ, unknown fishermen, were able, by their simple preaching, to
persuade the world to accept the truths of faith and to love these truths
so ardently, and to pursue good works so unflaggingly, that in comparison
with them they esteemed all earthly things as dust and ashes, and refused
to deny their faith either for promises or threats, or even for death
itself. Surely, if Christianity were false, the Apostles could not more
easily have persuaded men to accept it, than philosophers had induced
them to embrace systems which appealed to natural reason. And the words
of the poor fishermen would not alone have sufficed to convert the world,
but those words must needs have been confirmed by miracles. And who but
God could have enabled them to work their miracles, which surpassed all
the powers of human nature? But, supposing that the Apostles worked no
miracles at all, surely the wonder of wonders would be that a crucified
man should be able, by means of twelve poor fishermen, to persuade, by
words alone, the entire world to embrace His doctrine. Therefore, whether
the spread of Christianity be due to miracles or not, we cannot deny that
the power of Christ has been beyond any natural power. And, since the
First Cause is that which is more powerful than other causes, so the true
God must be He that is more mighty than any other god. Therefore, Jesus
Christ, whose Faith has been victorious over all other forms of religion,
must be the true God, and His teaching must be the true religion.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY SHOWN BY ARGUMENTS BASED ON THE WISDOM OF
CHRIST.
The property of wisdom is a capacity to subordinate things to their
end. Thus, that artist is considered a master who can dispose the
circumstances of his art towards the end which he wishes to attain;
and it is to the architect, and not to the builders, that the credit
of an edifice is due. But artists, seeing that they only work towards
some particular end, are relatively, not absolutely, wise. He alone
who labours for the last end of human life, and who directs all his
activities towards the attainment of that end, is endowed with absolute
wisdom. Now, as Jesus of Nazareth has pointed out the true end of human
life, and the true means of attaining thereto, and has done so with a
clearness and a force exercised by no other man, He alone can be called
truly and pre-eminently wise.
Again. As power to beget children is a sign of perfect virility, so
power to teach is a mark of perfect wisdom. And, surely, never has
teacher arisen whose doctrine is more sublime, or more useful, than is
that of Christ; and never has one taught with ease and power comparable
to His. The systems of philosophers are obscure, and mingled with many
errors; and the teachers themselves are uncertain on many points, such as
Divine Providence, the end of human life, and the things which pertain
to salvation. But our Saviour, Jesus Christ, has enlightened even women
and children, to understand clearly many things incomprehensible to
philosophers, and has enabled them to hold His doctrine with a firmness
invincible even by death.
Further. As the power of an agent is known by the extent and duration of
his work, the wisdom of a teacher is recognised by the number of ignorant
sinners whom he converts, and the speed wherewith their conversion
is effected. For it is no great sign of power to attract those who
are naturally and habitually well disposed; but only great wisdom can
instruct, in a short time, men of mean understanding, and women and
children, and can reform notorious sinners. Christ alone has succeeded in
effecting these wonders throughout the whole world. Therefore, He alone
is endowed with incomparable wisdom.
Again. It is no great thing to produce natural effects by natural causes.
For example, it does not surprise us if a conflagration be caused by
fire, but it would be marvellous were it produced by water. Hence, it is
only supreme and infinite power that can act on natural objects, either
without instruments or with such as are diametrically opposed to the
effect produced; or that can operate on all natural objects with the
same instrument. Thus it is nothing very wonderful that philosophers
should have been able to teach by means of ordinary methods; but only
Supreme Power could have taught by means of that which, in the world, is
accounted foolishness. Now Christ, by means of the folly and the ignominy
of the Cross, has imparted to men sublime wisdom, true wisdom, which can
only be acquired by the teaching of the Cross, wisdom, compared to which
all human learning is foolishness. Therefore, the wisdom of Christ must
itself be pre-eminent.
If wisdom mean the science of Divine things, the wisdom of Christ must
exceed all other wisdom. For, as we see by comparing Christian doctrine
with philosophical systems, no one has treated of Divine things so fully,
or so sublimely, as Christ has done. Theology has purged philosophy, and
made it perfect, and has diffused so widely the knowledge of the Divine,
that Christians, even the least educated, easily understand points which
are stumbling-blocks to philosophers. And, further, the preaching of the
Apostles has illuminated the world to see its errors. Since this dawn of
the light of Christ, philosophers and poets, ashamed of their false gods
and fables, have tried to disguise their superstitions under a cloak of
allegory.
Again. It is only great wisdom that can understand sublime and intricate
matters. Christ has taught and easily defended, most subtle doctrine.
How, then, shall we hesitate to declare His wisdom incomparable? His
doctrine has not only stood the test of argument, but likewise that of
cruel persecution, under which philosophers would have denied their first
principles. For as their philosophy proceeded from natural reason, they
would have had neither strength nor wisdom to uphold it. But the teaching
of Christ, being supernatural, is likewise, of necessity, invincible.
Christianity is either false or true. If it be true, discussion is at
an end. If it be false, Christ must still be acknowledged to have been
the wisest of men, seeing that He was able to persuade men to accept
doctrines, difficult and unpalatable, and to adhere to them so firmly,
that no human reason or power has been able to uproot them from the
world. Nevertheless, in all that Christ has taught there is nothing
repugnant to philosophy or to science. On the contrary, Christianity
culls truth from all systems, even from paganism. If Christ had not been
Wisdom Itself, He could never have founded so wise a religion as is this.
If His doctrine had been false, it would not be defensible by science.
For philosophers find it sufficiently difficult to defend even truth
against their opponents. Even were we obliged to acknowledge Christianity
to be a falsehood, we should still be constrained to recognise the
extraordinary sagacity of its Founder, who by means of subtle fallacies
has been able to lead His disciples to sublime perfection of life. But,
seeing that there can be no harmony between virtue and deceit, and no
agreement between truth and falsehood, we are driven to confess that
Christ is truly wise, with a wisdom surpassing that of men. His wisdom is
attested by the many who have extolled it, not only by their words and
writing, but by their works, and by the shedding of their blood.
Finally. The greatest power of wise men appears, chiefly, in the fact,
that they require but a short time in which to lead their pupils to the
perfection of knowledge. But as no one has given such clear proofs of
this power as Christ has manifested, it is evident that He alone is wise
above all men. Every science is either rational or real. By rational
science we understand logic, rhetoric and poetry; and the end aimed at
by these branches of rational science is to teach us to weave together
arguments, chains of reasoning, and exhortations, which will convert
men to agree with our opinions. Now, Christ instructed the Apostles in
rational science to such good purpose, that, by their preaching, they
exercised more influence in the world, than had ever been achieved
by any human power or learning. Real science is either practical and
moral, or speculative. Christ has taught practical and moral science so
effectually, that Christians need no philosophy but His. Speculative
science may be concerned with Divine things, and in the teaching of
Christ is contained such fulness of Divine knowledge that, beside it,
all human wisdom is stultified. Or, on the other hand, it may teach the
knowledge of numbers and of figures, as do arithmetic and geometry; but
as this knowledge is in no wise necessary to salvation, the teaching
of Christ disregards it, except for purposes of allegory. Thirdly,
speculative science may treat of sensible things, in order, by means of
them, to lead men to speculation on intelligible things. The teaching
of Christ exhibits most perfectly this speculative science, seeing that
His preaching abounds in the use of visible things, as images or mirrors
of such as are invisible. Thus we see that Christ only is supremely
wise, since He only has been able, easily, to lead men to the fulness of
knowledge.
Again. The pleasures of the mind are far greater than those of the
senses; but the greatest of all intellectual enjoyments is the
contemplation of Supreme Truth. Therefore, since wisdom consists in
the cognition and contemplation of this Truth, he must be wisest who
most delights in it. Now, never has the contemplation of Truth been
so ardently loved, and so strenuously sought after, as in these days,
when, for its sake, men abandon every earthly joy, and, living like
disembodied spirits, heed not the things of the flesh, and are disturbed
at no tribulation. Thus do they prove that Christ, their Teacher, is wise
beyond all human wisdom, and beyond all the wisdom of heathen deities,
yea, that He is the very Wisdom of the Eternal God.
CHAPTER XV.
THE TRUTH OF CHRIST’S TEACHING IS PROVED BY HIS GOODNESS.
We have shown that Jesus of Nazareth surpasses, in wisdom and in power,
all men and all heathen deities. Hence, if we believe in the existence
of any god, He only can be that God. It will next be our duty to prove
His Divinity by arguments founded on His goodness, and to show that Jesus
Christ is the Supreme Good and the End of human life. And we must premise
that all human operations, i.e., such as proceed from free will, are
effected for some end; for appetite always tends to that which either
is good, or appears to be good. It cannot tend to two things as to its
ultimate end; for it is so fully satisfied by its last end, that it can
desire nothing which is not ordered thereto. Now, as men, though not all
of the same opinion or endowed with the same degree of knowledge, are
yet all of the same nature, they must all tend to the same end, which is
happiness; although, from their difference of condition, they do not all
place their happiness in the same thing. If, then, we can prove that
Christ is the Last End, to which all nature tends, it will be clear that
He must be the very Truth, the First Cause, the Supreme Good, and in fact
the true God.
In order to make this argument more clear, we must remember, that, when
one thing tends naturally to another as to its end, it will be hindered
in the attainment of this end, if it be joined by another thing of a
contrary nature. Thus, if a heavy thing move towards its centre, it will
be impeded in its course if it be joined to a light thing whose tendency
it is to go upwards. Thus birds, whose bodies are heavy, are nevertheless
raised aloft by their wings; whereas, a merely heavy thing moves swiftly
towards its centre. Now, as man is composed of a corporeal and a
spiritual nature, it happens, that, while his spiritual nature tends to
true beatitude, his senses disturb and trouble him in the pursuit of his
end; and, although they cannot force him to evil, they often incline him
to inordinate desires. From these molestations, and from the weakness of
his understanding, arise the divers human conceptions of happiness. If
we would learn, by means of man’s natural desire, in what his beatitude
consists, we must not consider the desires and inclinations of such as
live like beasts, but of such as live according to reason. Just as, if we
want to see whether heavy things move downwards or upwards, we must not
choose birds as a test; but must select something completely heavy. We
may learn what is the Last End of man by examining the desires of such
as have purified themselves from the defilement of the senses, and who
live according to reason. And as no life is so pure and so reasonable as
the Christian life, we can, from the desires common to Christians, learn
what is the Last End of man. Now, as Christians unite in an intense love
for Christ Crucified, as the Last End of human life, it follows that we
cannot reasonably hold that any but Christ can be the Last End of man.
Again. Man’s last end is his ultimate perfection; and the more perfect he
becomes, the nearer does he approach to his end. Now, nothing causes man
to become so perfect in life and in contemplation, as does Jesus Christ
Crucified; and they who least resemble Him and are the most remote from
Him, are the worst and most imperfect of men. He, therefore, must be the
Last End of human life.
Further. The desire of the last end is natural to everything, and is
ineradicable. When, therefore, men, who are purged from vice desire
something, they love it so much that all other things appear to them
as nought in comparison with the object of their desire. They would
rather die than relinquish their pursuit of it. Now, as the life of true
Christians is a pure life, and as they desire Christ Crucified with so
steadfast a desire that they would sacrifice life itself rather than lose
His love, and would most gladly die for His sake, it is manifest that
Christ is the Supreme Truth and the Last End of human life. Our argument
is further strengthened by the fact, that nothing is so steadfastly
desired as He. For when men love other things, they love them not more
than themselves, but for their own satisfaction; and would rather abandon
them than die for their sake.
We see, likewise, how all things of the same species incline naturally to
the same end; as all heavy things tend towards their centre. Therefore,
Christ must be the Last End of human life, since nothing has been pursued
by men with the same ardour and constancy, that they have shown in
following Him. This is the reason why Christians are so closely united
together; for we see that they love Jesus Christ above all things. For
His sake they likewise love each other, of whatsoever race and country
they may be; and the more their faith in Christ increases, the stronger
grows their brotherly love. This could not be the case were their faith
not true. For fallacy and error cause, not harmony, but discord.
Again. The soul enjoys greater happiness in proportion as, by love and
contemplation, it draws nearer to its last end. But the happiness enjoyed
by Christians far surpasses all pleasures of understanding and sense.
This truth is proved by the invincible constancy of the martyrs, who went
to death rejoicing and exulting; by the numberless monks and hermits who,
relinquishing all things, and living in the practice of the greatest
austerity, have yet enjoyed incomparable happiness; and by the numerous
philosophers who have found such delight in the study of Holy Scripture,
that, in order to devote themselves to it, they have abandoned every
other branch of learning. Hence we see that the joy which souls find in
Christ exceeds all other happiness. If, then, felicity be synonymous with
proximity to our last end, Christ, in whom all happiness is found, must
be the Last End of human life.
In order to comprehend, collectively, all the properties of our Last
End we reason thus. As all things of the same species tend naturally to
the same end, be it proximate or ultimate, it follows that men, who are
all of the same species, must be fitted for some one thing which is the
common end of human life. Now, all men agree in professing that they
tend towards a last end; but they differ as to that wherein their last
end is to be found. But since the happiness of mankind consists in the
act of understanding, it is natural to conclude that this last end is to
be found in that thing, towards which they who live the most rationally
and whose affections are the most purified do uniformly incline; that
to which they steadfastly adhere, loving it better than themselves;
delighting in it; drawing from it sanctity of ways and brightness of
heavenly life; and being raised by its influence so far above this world,
that, in comparison with their end, they repute all earthly things as
worthless. Now, as all these wonderful effects have never been produced
in man by any, save by Christ Crucified, He must be the Last End of human
life.
But why do we insist on so self-evident a truth knowing, as we do, that
it is the property of Good to communicate itself, and that the graces
and blessings diffused by Christ over mankind are absolutely unequalled?
His coming has purged the world from error, filled it with sanctity
and virtue, and communicated to all His followers happiness which no
earthly thing could give. His supreme goodness is further shown by the
promptitude and liberality wherewith He not only forgives sinners, but so
enriches them with His gifts, that where sin did abound, grace has much
more abounded, and they who return to Him from their sins are enabled
to lead a virtuous life and enjoy their pristine peace and happiness,
whereas they who forsake Him lose all tranquillity of mind. What further
proof do we require that Christ is the Supreme Good, and the Last End of
man?
CHAPTER XVI.
THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY IS PROVED BY THE POWER, WISDOM, AND GOODNESS OF
CHRIST, CONSIDERED COLLECTIVELY.
We may sum up in a few words what has been already said about the power,
the wisdom, and the goodness of Christ. Had Christ not been God, He would
have been the most proud and the most foolish of men. And if (as some
hold) the assertion of His Divinity was not made by Himself but by His
disciples, how can a religion of such goodness, wisdom, and power, be
the outcome of such a falsehood? If Christ be not God, who is God? God
preserves and governs all inferior things by the requisite means; and,
as no means are so suitable for the attainment of a virtuous life as the
Faith and love of our Saviour Jesus Christ, we must either acknowledge
that He is the true means whereby we attain beatitude, or must hold, with
fatalists, that things happen by chance; and we must end in denying the
existence of God.
Again. If there be any true religion in the world; and if no religion be
supported by such arguments and undeniable proofs as is the Christian
religion; where, save in Christianity, are we to seek the true religion?
Further. No religion has endured the constant and cruel persecution
inflicted on Christianity. Other religions, or rather superstitions, have
never roused in the world the hatred excited by the Faith of Christ. Yet,
in spite of this fact, other religions which persecuted Christianity,
have died out, of themselves, without being persecuted. Christianity has
only flourished, and waxed stronger, by means of its conflicts. How do we
account for this fact, if Christianity be untrue?
We must remember, likewise, that they who have persecuted Christians have
been, not good and upright men, but men of infamous life. Is not this a
further proof of the truth of our religion?
Again. No religion has made converts under the same conditions as those
in which men have accepted the Faith of Christ. For those who have become
Christians have done so, not in hopes of gaining riches, or honour, or
pleasure, but with the expectation of having to bear poverty and shame,
torture and death. If these men had not been enlightened by true light,
could they have acted thus?
This collection of arguments, surely, ought to convince all men of the
truth of Christianity. For, although the intellect may not be persuaded
by one proof, nor by two, nor by three, a series of proofs carries as
much weight as does a chain of mathematical demonstrations, or the sight
of a dead man raised to life.
If, then, Christianity be true, all other religions must be false; for
none can be saved except by Faith. This condition for salvation is a
most reasonable one; for our beatitude is to consist in the vision and
fruition of God, to which none can attain, save by the supernatural gift
of Faith, without which, as St. Paul says, “it is impossible to please
God” (Heb. xi. 6). Neither have they any ground for excuse or complaint
who live in distant lands, where Christianity is unknown. For, as all
men are endowed with reason, which leads to the knowledge of God, and
as God further manifests Himself in the natural order of Creation, it
follows that if any one live according to reason, and turn to God for
help (as nature teaches every effect to turn to its cause), Almighty
God, the Supreme Good who is never wanting to any necessity of, even His
irrational, creatures, will still less fail man in matters pertaining to
salvation. He will rather enlighten him, either by interior inspiration,
as He enlightened Job; or by the ministry of angels, as He instructed
Cornelius the Centurion; or by preaching, as He taught the Eunuch of
Candace, by means of Philip the Apostle.
BOOK III.
METHOD OBSERVED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK.
We have already proved the truth of Christianity, by means of arguments
based on the past and present works of Christ. But it is our duty, not
merely to demonstrate the solid foundations of our Faith, but, also, to
defend it against the objections raised against it; and to show that,
while it teaches many things surpassing human understanding, not one
point of its doctrine is either unreasonable or incredible.
We will, then, first, discuss the articles of our belief. Next, we
will examine the reasons for the divers moral commandments imposed
upon us. Thirdly, we will demonstrate the equity of the laws, of which
Christianity makes use in judging. And lastly, we will explain the hidden
meaning of the ceremonies used in our religious rites.
It is true that many learned writers have treated these points, fully
and eloquently, but we could not omit them in our work, without leaving
it imperfect. And, whereas other authors have handled these matters with
great diffuseness and subtlety; it is our intention to set them forth so
simply, and so briefly, as to make them easily intelligible, not only to
the learned, but to the ignorant and unbelieving.
CHAPTER I.
GOD CONTAINS WITHIN HIMSELF, AND CAN PERFORM, AN INFINITE NUMBER OF
THINGS SURPASSING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING.
If we think, for a moment, of the natural weakness of our intellect,
we shall easily see that in God there must be many things which exceed
our mental capacity. We believe that the acme of human wisdom has
been reached by a certain number of great philosophers; yet even they
acknowledge themselves to be baffled by some purely natural phenomena.
If, then, men of the very highest order of intelligence have been able
to attain merely to a very imperfect knowledge of the everyday things
of nature, how can we expect to understand heavenly mysteries, and the
Divine truths which are so far above any earthly intelligence?
Again. Although men are all of the same species, they differ so much
in mental capacity, that many, although making every effort, could
never succeed in understanding matters which are comparatively simple
to others. Why then should we wonder, if the angelic mind be so
differentiated from the human, that angels know many things which men are
quite incapable of comprehending? And as God is infinitely superior to
angels, must there not be in Him infinite things surpassing the powers
of human reason? And although we can, as a rule, know a cause by its
effects; yet when a cause greatly exceeds its effects, the effects do
but most imperfectly manifest their cause. Hence, God, being infinitely
superior to His effects, can only be most imperfectly known by them.
It is not difficult, furthermore, to prove that God can do infinite
things of which the human intellect is incapable. For, as all our
knowledge begins from the senses, our intellect can only, naturally,
grasp such things as are made clear to it by means of the senses; and
whatever efforts we may make, we can never know anything which exceeds
the natural order, or which is beyond our imagination. Now, God, being
Pure Act and Infinite Power, is not tied down to any order whatsoever,
but infinitely exceeds all created things, both spiritual and corporeal.
Thus we are constrained to acknowledge, that He can do infinite things
which we can never understand. We know, further, not only that He can
do, but that He has done many such things, _viz_., things spiritual and
angelic.
We can assign three reasons which make it fitting that God should have
done, and should have manifested to the world, many supernatural things,
surpassing the capacity of human understanding. First. He has done so
with a view to the salvation of mankind. For, as man is made for God,
and for a supernatural end, he could not attain to that end, were it
not revealed to him by God, together with the means conducive to it.
Secondly. God has acted thus, in order to humble man, and to teach him
to know his own nothingness as compared to the Divine Majesty. For, in
proportion as we realise that we can neither know nor contemplate (save
most imperfectly) even things revealed to us, we shall become more lowly
minded, and more reverent towards such as are Divine. Thirdly. By the
manifold revelation of His mysteries, which God has made to the world,
man has acquired a great relish for eternal truths, and has learned to
love the Divine goodness and condescension.
Hence, the fact that we cannot understand the truths of Christianity is
no reason for rejecting these truths. It is a reason, rather, for making
a serious study of the religion which teaches them, and of thus proving
to ourselves that it contains nothing either unreasonable or incredible.
But to make this more evident, we will (in the succeeding chapters)
descend to particular instances.
CHAPTER II.
AN EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF THE CHRISTIAN CREED WHICH EXCEED
THE LIMITS OF HUMAN UNDERSTANDING.
We may divide the articles of belief peculiar to Christians, into those
that pertain to the Divinity of Christ, and those that concern His
Humanity.
Regarding His Divinity, we believe that there are not many gods, but one
only God. This, the fundamental doctrine of Christianity, is not merely
believed, but also known, by enlightened and learned men. Secondly.
Together with the Unity, we believe in the Trinity of God, by which we
mean, that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, are One God and Three
Persons. These two articles regard the Divine Essence. The next articles
refer to the Divine works. And, first, considering the works of nature,
we profess that God has created all things, or made them out of nothing.
Next, passing to the works which He has wrought in the supernatural
order, we declare, that God alone can sanctify the creature, and that He
does so, by means of supernatural gifts, in order to draw the creature
to Himself. We next pass to the works of glory. Considering the glory
of the soul, we profess that such as have been sanctified by God, will,
after death, be glorified in beatitude and supernatural fruition, and
that the body will rise again. We also acknowledge the immortality and
glorification of the bodies of the just, and the damnation of the wicked.
Concerning the Humanity of Christ, we believe that Christ is true God
and true Man—Son of God, and Son of the Virgin Mary, by her conceived
and borne, through the power of the Holy Ghost; that for our salvation
He was crucified, died, and was buried. We believe, moreover, that He
went down to that part of hell called Limbo, thence to deliver the souls
of the Patriarchs; that He rose again from death to glory, and ascended
into Heaven, where He sits at the right hand of the Father; and that He
will come again to judge the living and the dead, and to make new the
whole face of the earth. Thus, our whole faith consists in these twelve
articles. We also believe all that is embraced in the Holy Scriptures,
and all that the holy Roman Church has defined, or shall hereafter
define. We shall, therefore, proceed to discuss these twelve articles of
the Creed, and to show that they contain nothing, either unreasonable,
or incredible. We have not made any mention of the Blessed Sacrament of
the Altar nor of the other Sacraments; but they are included under the
head of the sanctification of the rational creature, and we shall further
treat of them when we are explaining the ceremonies of the Church. We
have already spoken of the Unity of God, in the First Article of the
First Book. Therefore, we shall not treat of it now, more especially as
the greatest of the philosophers, and indeed nearly all men, agree with
us in admitting this truth.
CHAPTER III.
THE MYSTERY OF THE TRINITY IS NEITHER UNREASONABLE NOR INCREDIBLE.
Passing over the first principle of the Christian Faith, _viz._,
the unity of God, we will proceed to the second article which is
pre-eminently difficult, _viz._, the Unity in Trinity. By this we mean
that the three Persons,—Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,—are not three Gods
or three natures, but One God and One Nature. We hold that there is
One God, of most pure nature; and our belief is in no wise contrary to
philosophy. Although we believe that the Father, the Son and the Holy
Ghost are One God, we do not teach, as Sabellius taught, that one Person
is called at one time Father, at one time Son, and at another time Holy
Ghost. Nor, do we hold, as was held by Arius, that the three Persons are
substantially different, and that the Son is inferior and posterior to
the Father, and the Holy Ghost inferior and posterior to the Father and
the Son. We profess, against Sabellius, that the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost are three distinct Persons. We teach, against Arius, that they
are of one and the same nature, and equal in power and glory; so that all
that belongs to the Father, belongs likewise to the Son and to the Holy
Ghost; and all that belongs to the Son, belongs equally to the Father
and the Holy Ghost; and all that belongs to the Holy Ghost, belongs, in
like manner, to the Father and the Son. Thus, there is not between the
Divine Persons the natural distinction which exists among creatures,
consequent upon the more or less that each possesses, but merely a
relative distinction. By which we mean that the Father possesses all that
He has, of Himself, and from none other; that the Son, who has all that
the Father has, derives it from the Father; and that the Holy Ghost, who
has all that have the Father and the Son, receives it from Father and
Son. Nor, on this account, are the Son and the Holy Ghost inferior to the
Father, for they are One with Him in Nature and in dignity. Neither did
the Father exist before the Son, nor the Son before the Holy Ghost. For,
God, being immutable and eternal, the Father could not be God before He
was the Father, and was always God and Father; and as He could not be
Father without a Son, the Son is necessarily co-eternal with Him; and as
the Holy Ghost is love, and the Father and the Son have loved each other
from all eternity, they can never have existed without breathing forth
the Holy Ghost. Neither is there any composition in the Divine Essence;
for we believe that each of the Persons is One and the Same with the
Divine Nature. Human reason cannot understand how in God, who is Pure Act
and Simple Substance, there can be three Persons so completely distinct
that One is not the Other, so that the Father is not the Son, nor the Son
the Father, nor the Holy Ghost the Father and the Son, nor the Father and
the Son the Holy Ghost; and yet at the same time the Father is the same
Simple Nature as the Son, and the Son as the Father, and the Holy Ghost
as the Father and the Son. For in God there is Personal, but not natural,
distinction; and as we name things according to our knowledge of them,
and knowing God by means of creatures, we name Him by names derived from
creatures. Now, among creatures, the production of one living being from
another living being is called _generation_, and the one who begets is
termed _father_, and the one begotten, _son_. And as in God, one living
Person proceeds from another living Person, we term this procession
generation, and He from whom the other Person proceeds is called THE
FATHER, and the Person who proceeds we name THE SON. This generation,
unlike that of men and animals, is wholly spiritual and Divine. And
therefore we say that the Son is THE WORD, THE IMAGE, AND THE BEGOTTEN
WISDOM OF THE FATHER. But the procession of the Holy Ghost, who is Love,
is from the Father and the Son, because love is the union between the
lover and the beloved, and thus the Holy Ghost proceeds immediately from
two perfect Persons, the Father and the Son. But because, in the order of
nature, nothing can be found which proceeds immediately from two equally
perfect beings, no special name has been found for the Holy Ghost and
His procession; and therefore the general term _procession_ has been
retained. It is correct, however, to call this procession the _spiration_
of the Father and the Son, because the Holy Ghost proceeds by love,
which implies a certain impetus, or breathing forth, towards the thing
beloved. It is for this reason that the Person proceeding from the Father
and the Son is called, _par excellence_, THE HOLY SPIRIT, although both
the Father and the Son are equally Spirits and equally Holy. And because
in intellectual nature, there are but two processions—the one by means
of the understanding, the other by means of the will—faith reasonably
teaches that in God there are but two processions and three Persons.
Any one who desires to learn more about the mystery of the Holy Trinity,
will find inexhaustible treasures of knowledge in the writings of the
Fathers. We have stated only the mere substance of the Faith, and have
been content to show that in the mystery of the Blessed Trinity there is
nothing incredible or unreasonable. Faith teaches nothing contrary to
reason, but merely declares, that we cannot, by natural reason alone,
arrive at the knowledge of Divine things. For human reason can only,
by means of creatures, know God as the Cause and Principle of created
things. And, as God is the Principle and Cause of things, only by means
of His Power, Wisdom, and Goodness, and as the three Divine Persons
are not distinct in these attributes, but united in them, it follows
that reason cannot, by means of creatures, apprehend the distinction of
the Persons of the Blessed Trinity. We do not say that we should not
_believe_ this mystery because we cannot _understand_ It. For it is most
foolish to gauge truth by our intellectual capacity; since in God there
are infinite mysteries, unfathomable by the mind of man.
If we further consider the arguments set forth in the second Book, we
can have no doubt as to the Mystery of the Trinity. Our faith in it
is confirmed by certain peculiar reasons, one being that though this
Mystery is above our reason, it is, in no sense, contrary to it, and
that it is further rendered credible by the likeness borne to it by
many created things. First, by means of the procession or emanation of
creatures, the mind may rise in some sort to the contemplation of the
Divine procession. For, in creatures we see processions of many kinds,
of which those that belong to the more perfect nature are likewise most
perfect and most interior. For example, there is in inanimate things a
certain sort of generation. One fire generates another, the virtue of the
generating fire passing into the one generated. This procession, however,
is not perfect nor intrinsic; for it does not remain in the thing that
generates, but passes into an object outside of itself. Plants, being
animated, have procession more perfect and more intrinsic; for that
which is generated from a plant belongs to the principle of the plant
producing it, and is united to it. But here, as the thing produced is
finally separated from the principle of the producer, this procession
is not perfect nor intrinsic. As animals are more perfect than plants,
we find in them more perfect and more intrinsic procession, and one
rather spiritual than corporeal. Now, this procession is the operation
of the senses which remains within the senses themselves. Nevertheless
this operation, being caused by an extrinsic object, its procession is
not wholly intrinsic. But the procession of the intellect is far more
perfect and more interior; because, since the intellect of itself, and
by no external aid, understands that which it understands, it forms its
own operations within itself, produces the word and the likeness of the
thing known, and is united, as it were, by love to that thing in such a
way as to become an image of the Trinity—to wit: by understanding, word,
and love. But, since all our knowledge has its origin in sense, the
processions of our intellect are not wholly, but only partly, extrinsic.
We shall find, if we consider the angelic intellect, that in it the
procession of word and of love is more intrinsic and more perfect than
is the case in the human intellect; because angelic cognition does not
arise from sense, but is wholly interior. Nevertheless, as the whole of
the angelic substance depends on God, we cannot say that the procession
of word and of understanding in the angelic intellect is as intrinsic
as if it depended on nothing extrinsic; and, therefore, it contains
some imperfection. Knowing then, as we do, that creatures are noble
in proportion as they are perfect and intrinsic, and understanding,
likewise, that every effect endeavours to imitate its cause, our Faith
surely teaches nothing unreasonable when it professes that, as the
nobility of God infinitely surpasses the nobility of all creatures,
there are in Him most perfect and intrinsic processions, arising from no
extrinsic cause, and having no existence apart from His Substance; and
that all creatures endeavour, in so far as they can, to imitate these
processions, though they can never equal them in perfection, since the
Divine Persons depend on nothing, but are God, the Cause of all things.
We see, therefore, that the dogma of the Blessed Trinity contains nothing
either impossible, or unreasonable.
There exists in the spiritual part of man’s nature a certain likeness
to the Trinity, _viz._, understanding, word, and love. This likeness
becomes more apparent when man is engaged in actual contemplation of
God; for, then, his understanding is informed by the Divine light and
presence representing the Father; he forms in his contemplation a concept
of God which represents the Son, and is called the word of the mind; and
the Divine love which springs from his understanding and his concept of
God represents the Holy Spirit. Of course this human trinity is very
remote from the Trinity of God, and differs from it exceedingly. For
our intellectual word, and our love, are changeable, and are not the
substance of our soul; whereas the Divine Word and the Divine Love are
eternal, consubstantial with the Father. But in spite of this essential
difference, so vivid a likeness to the Blessed Trinity is apparent in the
nobler creatures that it is proved, that this doctrine is completely in
accord with reason.
This likeness to the Blessed Trinity exists, not only in the superior,
but also in the inferior, ranks of creation, since the perfection of
every creature consists in three things, _viz._, beginning, middle, and
end. The beginning is attributed to the Father, the middle to the Son,
and the end to the Holy Ghost. We see, likewise, in creatures another
trinity, that, namely, of substance, power, and operation. We might
point out many other illustrations of the trace left by the Trinity
upon creatures, and of their tendency to reproduce the number three,
as if _it_ were the sum of their perfection. Aristotle, the Prince of
Peripatetics, following not faith but reason, says in his _Heaven and
Earth_: “All things appear to be made up of threes”. And Pythagoras also
concludes, that “all things are determined and perfected in this number
three, which represents beginning, middle, and end,” and that “this
number has been transferred from creatures to the gods”. And “if we speak
of _two_ things (he adds) we do not mean the sum total of things; but
when we say _three_ things we mean all things; for without the third
thing, the quantity would be incomplete, and therefore imperfect, since
perfection means completeness”. Pythagoras further adds, that “bodies
being composed of three things—to wit length, breadth, and height—are
perfect quantities”. By these examples, and by the arguments already
brought forward, it becomes clear, that our belief in the Blessed Trinity
is not unreasonable, but rather that this doctrine is a most credible,
and, even according to our human standard, a most probable one. For,
although far exceeding human reason, it is in no wise opposed to natural
philosophy. It avails itself of the arguments of philosophy, thereby
giving a most sure sign of its truth.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF CREATION IS NEITHER INCREDIBLE NOR UNREASONABLE.
We have hitherto considered the supernatural in its relation to God.
We will now look at it as it regards creatures. And first, as every
one acknowledges that God is the Efficient Cause, on whom both heaven
and earth depend, it is neither untrue nor irrational to say, that God
has created all things in time, or that a certain principle has out of
nothing made all things, both visible and invisible. For what is an
efficient cause, save a cause that gives being to its effects? And is not
the most perfect cause, that which acts upon the most numerous and the
most remote things? God, therefore, being Pure and Perfect, exercises His
power over the being of all things. Consequently, all things depend on
Him.
It is true that, in earthly things, imperfection precedes perfection.
Nevertheless, speaking strictly, perfection always precedes imperfection;
because every imperfect thing depends upon the perfect. God, therefore,
being the most pure and perfect Act, precedes all things, and all things
are made by Him.
We believe, further, and most reasonably, that all things were made out
of nothing, without any pre-existing matter. For, although all things
in nature and in art require material on which to operate, God, being
the universal cause of all effects, gives being to all things; and as
being is a universal effect, it can be produced only by the universal
Cause, who is God. Nothing can exist that has not been produced by Him;
and even those things which are made out of matter, owe their being
to Him who gave being to that matter. For all matter is either made
out of something, or out of nothing. If it be made out of nothing, our
proposition is proved. If it be made out of something, that something
must likewise have been made out of something else. So that we must
finally accept either the hypothesis of creation out of nothing, or that
of eternal matter. This latter alternative is so unreasonable, that we
are driven to the former, namely, that all things were created originally
out of nothing; and, that from created matter other creatures have been
produced. And as God acts, not from necessity but by free will, it is
not necessary to say, that the world was created from eternity; but
that it was made at the time chosen by the Divine Wisdom. The reason
for creation in time, is hidden in the inscrutable counsels of the Most
High. We can, however, in some measure, see its congruity with the Divine
Nature and its utility to man. God has done all things for the good of
His elect. Now this good consists, above all, in the knowledge of God;
and man can know God more perfectly through His having created the world
in time, than if He had created it from all eternity. For, the fact
that the world was created in time, shows that God is infinitely perfect
and infinitely happy in Himself, and that He has no need of creatures;
otherwise He would not have deferred their creation. Thus, the Christian
Faith teaches nothing incredible, nor irrational, about creation.
We will now dismiss this subject. It has been amply treated by the
doctors of the Church, who have pulverised the frivolous arguments
whereby Aristotle, and other philosophers, have sought to prove the
eternity of this world.
CHAPTER V.
THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING CONCERNING THE SANCTIFICATION, GLORY, AND
RESURRECTION OF RATIONAL CREATURES CONTAINS NO ARTICLE WHICH IS EITHER
IMPOSSIBLE, OR UNREASONABLE.
We have already spoken of the sanctification of man by grace, pointing
out that, as man is destined for a supernatural end, to which he cannot
attain save by Divine grace, this grace is supplied to Him by God, who
is never found wanting to His creatures. We have likewise treated, at
sufficient length, of the glory of the soul, when we proved that the
end of human life is the vision of the Divine essence in the light of
glory. Thus have we shown that the teaching of Faith concerning the
sanctification and glory of the rational creature, is both reasonable
and credible. The same may also be affirmed of the doctrine of the
resurrection of the dead. For, although this could not _naturally_
take place, since nature can only give life by generation, the Divine
Power being infinite, and not limited to natural operation, can perform
innumerable other things in infinite ways. Therefore, to God the
resurrection of the body is most easy. Why should not He who has made all
things out of nothing, be able, by raising the dead, to make one thing
out of another thing? Death does not mean annihilation. The soul remains
immortal; and the matter of which the body is formed is changed into
other matter. Even were it resolved into nothing, God could call that
nothingness back to life, as easily as He could create the world out of
nothing.
Hence, we shall see, on reflection, that belief in the resurrection
of the body is neither absurd nor impossible, but on the contrary
reasonable, expedient, and necessary. Because, as the soul is the form
of the body and is immortal, its separation from the body is unnatural.
Now, as any unnatural condition is incongruous with the Divine Wisdom, it
cannot be permanent; and therefore the soul must of necessity return to
the body.
Again. Without the body, the being of the soul is imperfect. All things
tend to their perfection. Therefore, without the resurrection of the
body, the soul could never be completely happy, since its desire for
perfection (which consists in the union of soul with body), would remain
eternally unsatisfied.
Further. Happiness is due to those that live aright; and, in this life,
it is not the soul which lives but the man. Life, intelligence, and all
other activities are not attributes of the soul alone, but of the whole
man. It is the whole man who acts, and the soul is the form, by virtue
whereof he acts. Happiness, therefore, is due not only to the soul, but
to the whole man who lives aright. Now, without the resurrection of the
body, the soul only would receive reward.
Furthermore. Since Divine Providence rewards the good and punishes the
guilty; and since the body, as well as the soul, does good and evil, the
body equally deserves punishment or reward. But if the body rise not
again, how is justice to be satisfied?
The foregoing arguments, besides proving the reasonableness of our faith
in the resurrection of the body, demonstrate further that the body
must rise to immortality. Otherwise, each death would necessitate a
corresponding resurrection, and the series would continue _ad infinitum_.
We believe, likewise, that the body will rise to glory. For matter must
be proportionate to its form, and if the soul, which is the form of the
body, be glorified, the body must receive proportionate glory. For it
would not be fitting that the glorified soul should be joined to a body
not glorified, nor subject in obedience. Therefore, Faith most logically
teaches that, by the power of God, the glory of the soul overflows into
the body, rendering it agile, completely obedient to the soul, and
absolutely perfect. And, since all bodies are made for man, who is their
end, faith teaches, likewise, that when man is glorified, the whole world
will also be glorified, since things must needs become proportioned to
the end for which they are destined. After the resurrection, the body
will no longer require sustenance; therefore, the motions of the heavenly
bodies will cease; and animals, plants, and all compound substances will
be resolved into their elements, purged by fire, and clothed in new and
glorious brightness; and we shall be for ever happy with the Lord.
CHAPTER VI.
THE DOCTRINE OF THE DAMNATION OF THE WICKED IS ONE BEFITTING CHRISTIANITY.
As the just deserve the glory of Heaven, the wicked, who have gone
aside from God, deserve the lowest place on earth, wherein they and
their sins may be punished. There is no injustice in the eternity of
punishment inflicted for temporal guilt. Even human law (as in the
case of death or lifelong exile), avenges certain crimes by unending
punishment. The wicked are justly deprived for all eternity of glory,
and punished for ever in hell—not for their passing sins so much as for
the malice of their will, which remained obstinately inclined to sin
until death. Surely, is it not most reasonable to believe, that they who
have preferred temporal pleasure to eternal glory, and would, (had it
been possible), have persevered in this choice, should be punished with
eternal suffering; the more so as, after this life, they are no longer
capable of meriting eternal life? Again, as we have already remarked,
it is not the soul alone, but the whole man who acts, and if it be
reasonable that the just should be glorified in soul and body, the wicked
equally deserve twofold punishment.
There are in hell other torments besides that of fire. But because fire
is the most active it is always spoken of as the chief punishment. The
bodies of the damned are not consumed by this fire, for the Divine Power
enables their souls to preserve these bodies from destruction. But as,
by malice, these souls have turned away from their Creator, their
bodies are not perfectly subject to them; they are therefore capable of
suffering excruciating torments in the fire of hell, though not of being
consumed by it.
CHAPTER VII.
THE DOCTRINE OF THE INCARNATION OF THE SON OF GOD IS, IN NO SENSE,
INCREDIBLE, UNSEEMLY, OR UNREASONABLE.
The Christian religion maintains inviolably that God is Man; that His
Person subsists in two natures, _viz._, the Divine Nature and the Human;
and that the union between these natures is so perfect that the Person
who is God is likewise Man. No parallel to this union can be found in
nature, for the simple reason, that no perfect created substance can be
united to another substance in such a manner as to become one with it.
Even the union between soul and body cannot be compared to the union
between the Word and the human nature. The soul is the form of the
body; but form is imperfect; and as God is Perfection, the Word cannot
be the form of the human nature. Moreover, the Divine Nature and the
human are in Christ two perfect substances; and therefore the union
between them surpasses understanding. We must not, however, say that this
union is impossible. God can do many things beyond the capacity of our
intelligence. Then, in the union between the Divine and Human nature, His
Divine Majesty suffers no change; but human nature is, by His infinite
power, raised to wondrous union with His Person.
Neither can we call this union unseemly or unreasonable. For, from it
countless blessings have come to the world, benefits so numerous indeed
that we could not attempt to name them all, but must content ourselves
with recounting some of them.
First. The Incarnation has been a most powerful means, whereby man may
attain happiness. The true beatitude of man consists, as we know, in the
vision of the Divine Essence. But, considering the limitations of human
intelligence, and the sublimity of the Divine Nature, we might justly
have despaired of gaining this supreme happiness. Therefore, God, by
uniting in His own Person the Divine with the Human Nature, (a union far
surpassing the union between the Divine Essence and the understanding
of the blessed), has willed to hold forth to man hopes of attaining to
the glory for which he was created. And man, since the Incarnation, has
aspired to happiness, with greater ardour than he did before this mystery
was accomplished.
Again. The Incarnation, wherein God has united Himself (directly, without
intermediary), to man, has made clear to man that God is His sole End,
and has thus taught him to appreciate the excellence of his own nature.
It has so far enlightened the human race, that men, at the sight of this
wonderful union between God and man, have abandoned the worship of idols.
Then, in their quest of true religion and unalloyed happiness, they have
despised all earthly wealth and dignity and pleasure.
We must further remember that, as the happiness, whereunto we were
created, far exceeds the capacity of our understanding, it would have
been impossible for us to have had any sure knowledge or hope of it.
Even the investigations instituted by the most learned philosophers
would have been in vain. Befitting therefore was it, that God, in His
special Providence over man, should take flesh, in order to assure man
of his future blessedness and to confirm his hopes of it. Hence, by the
Incarnation, mankind has a far more complete and clear knowledge of
beatitude and of Divine things.
We know, likewise, that man, before the Incarnation, was entangled in
affection for many temporal things. By His Incarnation, God took the
surest means possible to raise him from earth to the love of eternal
things. For, who, seeing this great love of God towards man, will not be
moved to love Him in return? And, in fact, since God’s love for man has
been known upon earth, men have been so much inflamed with desire for
Divine things, that they have entered into friendship with God, and with
His saints; and they have despised all earthly ties.
Again. Certain means are necessary to enable man to gain happiness.
These means are virtue and spiritual perfection. These graces have, by
the Incarnation, been abundantly poured out upon mankind. The proof of
this lies in the fact that, since the coming of Christ, the world has
been so fertile in examples of virtue and perfection, that none, save
the blind, can doubt that the teaching of Christ is the one sure road to
blessedness. Thus, we see, that the Catholic faith teaches, in the dogma
of the Incarnation, nothing either incredible or unreasonable.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE BELIEF IN THE VIRGINAL BIRTH OF CHRIST IS CONSISTENT WITH REASON, AND
HIS LIFE BEFITTED, IN ALL RESPECTS, HIS DIGNITY.
Hitherto we have undertaken to prove the credibility and congruity of our
belief in the more difficult articles of the Christian creed. We will
now proceed to discuss such as are easier. First then, if God was able
to become Man, He was also able to be born of a virgin. For generation
signifies the production of a person, not of a nature; and birth means
the entrance into the world, not of human nature, but of an individual
man or woman, subsisting in that nature. Now, as the Person of the Son of
God subsisted in human nature, it was possible for God to be born of a
woman, from whom He took that nature. God might, certainly, have formed
the body of Christ from the earth, or from some other material. He might
have done so; but He did not, because it was more fitting that it should
have been born of a woman, in order that the sight of the Father of all
things deigning to have an earthly mother and kinsfolk and country, and
to suffer the infirmities of human life for love of us, should excite us
to deeper humility.
It was, likewise, most seemly that He who in Heaven had no mother, and
whose Father was the God of all Purity, should choose for His earthly
mother a spotless virgin, and that He should have no earthly father.[21]
* * * * *
It was, moreover, highly fitting that Christ should not have lived a
solitary life, but should have mingled with men. For since He had come
upon earth, in order, by His preaching, to induce mankind to seek for
eternal happiness, it was necessary that He should not, like St. John
the Baptist, lead an austere life but an ordinary one; that He should
follow, in His eating, drinking, and other habits of life, the customs
of His country; that thus He might enable men to profit by His words
and example. Neither, by choosing the common life, did He in any sense
contravene the principles of the spiritual life. For, perfection does not
necessarily consist in austerity, but in sincerity and ardent charity;
which, by fixing our mind on eternal things, ensures us against elation
in prosperity, and depression in adversity.
It was also most fitting that Christ should, by His poverty, set an
example to preachers, showing them that they ought to be free from
solicitude about earthly gains, and from the least taint of avarice. The
poverty of Christ, likewise, threw into stronger relief the power of
His Divine Majesty, which alone, unaided by worldly power or learning,
sufficed to transform the world. His miracles, again, are reasonably
to be expected, since it was by them that He manifested His Divinity.
Finally, if we reverently and humbly study all His words and works, we
shall find in them the most admirable sequence, and most perfect order.
CHAPTER IX.
THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF ORIGINAL SIN IS NEITHER UNREASONABLE NOR
INCREDIBLE.
In order the better to understand both what has been said, and what still
remains to be said, we must touch on the subject of that original sin,
whereby the whole human race has been defiled. We have already shown,
that God, in His own good time, created the world, placing over it, as
the head of all things, man, endowed with an intellectual, immortal and
most noble soul; and that to this soul was fitted an immortal body,
obedient in all things and proportioned to the soul, which, as form,
governs its matter, the body. But, since intellectual knowledge depends
upon the senses, and senses cannot have any being save in a body composed
of fleshly elements warring against reason, the only body that befits the
soul is the human body.
Nevertheless, we believe, with good reason, that Divine Providence, which
never fails His creatures, mercifully delivered man at his creation,
from corruption, and from that repugnance to reason inherent in the
flesh; and that He so proportioned the matter of the body to its form,
the soul, that the inferior powers were subject to reason. Hence, we say
that man was, at his creation, endowed with original justice, _i.e._,
with impassibility, and subjection of body to soul, and of the sensitive
part of his nature to reason. We further hold that this original justice
would, had not Adam deliberately disobeyed God, have descended to all his
posterity. But it is most reasonable, that, if man wilfully chose to
turn aside from God, he should be deprived of original justice, of the
natural subjection of his senses to reason, and of the immortality of
his body. This was the just punishment of his sin. This deprivation of
original justice, inflicted on Adam, and transmitted by him to the whole
human race, is what we mean by original sin.
We see in man such evident proofs of the truth of this doctrine, that it
appeals strongly to our reason. The Providence of God rewards good deeds,
and punishes evil ones. When we see a penalty inflicted, we know that
some fault has preceded it. Now, we behold the human body subject to many
sufferings—to cold and heat, to hunger and thirst, to sickness and to
death. We see, moreover, that the intellectual soul is weak in reason and
in will; that it is harassed by the flesh; and, that, by reason of these
infirmities, man falls, daily, into many errors. These sufferings are
the sign of some antecedent fault. But, although the deficiences of man
seem proper to his nature, God could have supplied them all, had not man,
by his own fault, placed an obstacle in the way. Therefore, it is quite
reasonable to say, that the defects in human nature, are the outcome of
the sin of our first parent, the representative of our whole race.
The sin of Adam was at the same time both personal and common to all
nature. It was personal, in so far as it deprived Adam of original
justice. It was common, in so far as the deprivation extended to all
his posterity. From the point of view of the will of the human race,
this privation does not imply sin; but from the point of view of the
malice of Adam, this subtraction of original justice is the direct
consequence of his sin. And, as he is our head and we are his members, he
has implicated us in his guilt. The actual taking of a thing unjustly
with the hand is thieving, and is called sin: yet the sin is not in
the hand, but in the malice of him that moves the hand to steal. In
like manner our privation of original justice would not be accounted
unto us for sin, nor should we be born in sin, had we not been, by our
first parent, implicated in his sin. His malice has affected all the
members of his body, and therefore we, who are his members, are all
born in original sin. But if Adam had never been endowed with original
justice, and consequently had never lost it, we, had we been born with
the irregularity now existent in our nature, should not have been born
in sin. Ours would have been a purely natural state. For, where there is
no malice in the will, there cannot be sin. It is, therefore, the malice
of our first parent which causes the privation of original justice,
transmitted by him to the human race, to be accounted as original sin.
There is nothing unjust in the fact that all men have to suffer the
penalty due to one. Man had no natural right to original justice, in the
sense in which he has a right to the use of his limbs. Justice was a free
gift of God; and the giver has power to choose the time, and manner, of
his gift. If God gave to Adam original justice, with the understanding
that if he did not sin, both he and all his posterity should keep this
gift; but that if he did sin, both he and his descendants should be
deprived of their privilege, what ground have we for complaint? Human
nature, in its entirety, was included in Adam. Since, then, original
justice is, in no sense, our due, we could not murmur had Adam never
been graced with it. How therefore can we complain that, in consequence
of Adam’s violation of the conditions imposed upon him by God, our
nature has been deprived of this privilege? Original sin does not, as is
often thought, mean simply a wound inflicted on human nature, which has
injured it by depriving it of some good proper to it. It means, rather,
the deprivation of that state of original justice, to which human nature
has no claim. It is as unreasonable to murmur at being born in our purely
natural state, as it would be to complain that we were not sanctified in
the womb, or were not created in the enjoyment of happiness.
Man cannot attain to beatitude without the gift of supernatural grace.
Therefore, he who dies in original sin is deprived of eternal life; but
he is not, therefore and thereby, subjected to any sorrow or suffering.
Not being proportioned to beatitude, he is incapable of enjoying it.
He does not, however, suffer from the loss; because God rectifies his
will, conforming it to His own, and taking from it the desire of that
which is impossible to it. A man who has no claim to an imperial crown,
does not grieve because he is not an Emperor. Neither does such a soul
suffer any sensible pain. On the contrary, it is endowed with all
perfection proper to human nature—such as the knowledge of all natural
things, and even the contemplation, by means of creatures, of such as
are Divine. It enjoys all the happiness which human nature can enjoy.
Furthermore, God confers upon these souls certain supernatural gifts—such
as immortality, and impassibility of body—so that they are not subject
to human infirmity; nor will they ever suffer sensible pain. And,
although we believe that the abode of these souls is Limbo, the place
of their habitation signifies but little. My private opinion, (subject
to any future pronouncement of the Holy Roman Church), is, that after
the resurrection, they will dwell on the purified and glorified earth.
My reason for thus thinking is, that if the place of habitation be
proportioned to the inhabitant, souls informing immortal and impassible
bodies, and enjoying all the happiness natural to man, ought not to be
deprived of the light of the sun and of other natural advantages and
delights, in which they could have no share were they detained in a
subterranean Limbo. We may go further, and say, that such a deprivation
would not only be a diminution of happiness, but a sensible pain.
Original sin, however, although it involves, as its consequence, the loss
of the Beatific Vision, does not imply the endurance of sensible pain.
Thus, we see, that God, in His dealings with souls that pass from life
in original sin, manifests, in a peculiar manner, His justice and His
wisdom. We see also that the Christian teaching concerning original sin
is neither incredible nor unreasonable.
CHAPTER X.
OUR BELIEF IN THE PASSION OF CHRIST, IN THE OTHER MYSTERIES OF HIS
HUMANITY, AND IN ALL THE ARTICLES DEFINED BY THE CHURCH, IS STRICTLY
CONSISTENT WITH REASON.
God, the Father of mercies, who is all-bountiful, has supplied for the
defects caused by original sin, certain fitting remedies. Of these the
chief are: first, the faith and sacrifices of the Patriarchs; next,
Circumcision; and thirdly, Holy Baptism. These remedies render man
capable of attaining, by grace, to supernatural happiness. And if we do
not receive this grace, we ought to blame, not the Providence of God, but
the remissness of our parents.
Some persons may find a difficulty in the fact, that, although the Saints
of the Old Testament died in a state of grace and cleansed from original
sin, they nevertheless were debarred from entering Heaven. The answer
to this objection is, that, as original sin was an offence against God,
imputed, not to individuals, but to human nature, it was necessary that
His Divine Majesty should be satisfied, before the gates of Paradise
could be opened. And again, as, by original sin, guilt was incurred by
human nature, which may be said to be composed of an infinite number of
persons, this guilt was in a manner infinite, and demanded satisfaction,
not from one individual alone, since every creature is finite, but from
the whole human race.
But, another difficulty may be raised on this point. It may be argued,
that it beseems the infinite mercy of God to accept from man the
satisfaction which he is capable of making, and to remit the debt which
he cannot pay. We answer, that, had there been no other possibility
of satisfying for original sin, God would have accepted the only
satisfaction which man was capable of making. But, as He was able to
satisfy His justice by other means, He chose to make use of these other
means, thereby both satisfying for sin, and perfecting human nature. Man
could not, of himself, atone for sin. Only God, who had never sinned,
could make fitting satisfaction for it. Therefore, He, in His infinite
mercy, wisdom, and power, willed, by becoming man, to pay the debt which
man owed, and was unable to pay.
Man owed satisfaction, and God-made Man, alone had power to make that
satisfaction, not, indeed, for Himself, but for the whole human race.
In this fact is revealed the fitness of His Incarnation, wherein He has
united the Divine to the Human nature. In this mystery we behold His
power, His wisdom, and the goodness whereby He has wholly given Himself
to the human race, to embrace it, and draw it to His love. But, above all
His other attributes, His mercy is made manifest; for it has led Him to
be crucified for love of us. His justice also is seen; for He has Himself
made satisfaction for original sin. Hence, while His mercy should inspire
repentant sinners with the surest hope, His justice should cause the
impenitent to tremble. This is the reason why, since the coming of Christ
into the world, so many men have been drawn from sin to holiness of life.
When we consider these mercies, and the innumerable other benefits
conferred by Christ upon human nature, we discover depths of wisdom
which are unfathomable by the intellect of man, and which, for this very
reason, are accounted folly by the world. We see, moreover, how fitting
it was that Christ should suffer for the guilt of mankind.
But since He came, not merely to suffer for man, but likewise to set
him an example of righteous living, it behoved Him to choose a most
bitter and disgraceful death; thus teaching us that neither shame, nor
suffering, should force us to betray the cause of truth and justice. Time
forbids me to enlarge upon the other reasons which caused our Saviour to
choose His terrible mode of death. I will only add, that His cross has
been, to them that love Him, a fount of sweetness and of light, known
only to those who have experienced it.
As Christ died in order to make satisfaction for our sins, and
especially for that original sin, on account of which the Patriarchs
were detained in Limbo, it was meet that, being already delivered from
original sin, they should be enlightened by the descent of Christ
into Limbo, which took place immediately after His death. And it was,
likewise, most fitting that he should remain for three days in the
tomb. Had He stayed there longer, men would have lost all hope of His
Resurrection; and had He not remained in the sepulchre so long, they
would have denied the reality of His death. But, as abode in this present
life does not befit the life of glory, Christ, after His Resurrection,
did not converse with men, as He had done before His death. But, as His
body was perfect, and noble above all human bodies, on account both of
the perfection of His Soul, and of His union with the Word, He ascended
into Heaven and sits at the right hand of the Father, as His true and
sole-begotten Son. The expression _sitteth at the right hand of the
Father_, is not to be understood as referring to bodily posture, but as
signifying that Christ, beyond all creatures, enjoyed the fruition of
eternal happiness. And, if it be asked how His body could penetrate the
heavens, we answer that the Divine Power can enable two bodies to exist
together.
Further, it is fitting that the Son of God, who was unjustly judged by
men, should be the Head, and Standard, and Judge of the living and the
dead. For, in this wise, does His reward correspond to the suffering
which He bore for us. Thus, if we reflect, we shall see that the acts
which Christ performed in the world are full of mysteries; and we shall
understand, that the Christian religion is not only reasonable, but
wonderful, and Divine.
We have already spoken of the faith which enables us to believe
everything contained in Holy Scripture; and we have shown how true it
is and how reasonable. We have also shown, that, as the objects of our
faith can proceed from no one but from God, we are bound to believe them
unwaveringly. But since, in doctrine as in material things, every movable
thing must be reduced to something immovable, we acknowledge, with the
fullest reason, that God has established in His Church, over which He
exercises peculiar care, certain unchanging doctrines to which all men
must submit, doctrines which contain those first principles from which
all conclusions are deduced. Therefore, the Catholic Faith most fittingly
holds, that all that the Holy Roman Church has defined, or shall define,
is most certain truth. It rejects all other teaching. For the Church, as
we shall show hereafter, is the firm and solid foundation of the faith,
and our guide to salvation.
CHAPTER XI.
THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION MOST PRUDENTLY ESTABLISHES THE TWO PRECEPTS OF
CHARITY, AS THE FOUNDATION OF OUR WHOLE MORAL LIFE.
We have already shown, that the Christian religion teaches nothing
concerning faith which is either impossible or irrational. We shall now
proceed to prove that this is likewise the case in those matters which
regard morals. And, although we have already given sufficient proofs of
this fact, when we pointed out that the Christian life is the best life
possible; nevertheless, as things are better understood in particular
than in general, we will descend to some details.
The first principle and foundation of our moral doctrine is the
commandment, “Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, with
thy whole soul, with all thy mind, and with all thy strength” (Deut. vi.
5; Matt. xxii. 37; Mark xii. 30; Luke x. 27). And the second commandment
is, “Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself” (Lev. xix. 18; Matt. xxii.
39; Mark xii. 31; Luke x. 37). We must not understand these commandments
as meaning that it is sufficient for salvation to love God and our
neighbour from natural virtue or inclination. Our love must proceed from
supernatural grace, for the reception of which we must diligently prepare
ourselves. Thus, the first principle and foundation of the Christian
moral life, is the obligation to love God, by means of supernatural
charity, more than ourselves; and to order ourselves and all things else
to His glory, as to our end. St. Paul expresses this precept in the
following words, “Whether you eat or drink, or whatsoever else you do, do
all to the glory of God” (1 Cor. x. 31).
But since the rebelliousness of the flesh withdraws men greatly from
the love of God, the precept adds, “thou shalt love the Lord thy God
with thy whole heart,” which signifies, thou shalt love Him in such a
way that thou shalt subjugate thy sensitive affections to thy will.
For by the heart, is here meant, those sensibilities of our nature
which are the fount and source of desires which separate us from Divine
love. And since the will goes astray, if it be not conformed to reason,
the commandment adds the words, “and with thy whole soul,” whereby we
understand the will. For, since the soul is in animals the principle of
life and motion, whereby we distinguish animate from inanimate beings,
so, likewise, does the will move all the powers of the rational soul.
Therefore, God commands us to love Him with our whole will; so that all
our activities may be directed to Him; our love, desire, joy, fear,
and hope, may all be centred on Him; and our whole soul may turn, in
horror, from all that is contrary to His will, or derogatory to His
honour. The inclination of the will depends entirely on reason; for we
cannot desire what we do not know. This is expressed by the words in the
commandment, “with thy whole mind,” by which is meant our understanding
and our reason. These must be turned to God, who must, either habitually
or actually, be the chief object of our contemplation. But we are bound
to honour God, not only with our souls, but with our bodies, working our
external works to His glory. Therefore, the commandment concludes with
the words, “all thy strength”. Observe the word _all_, remembering that
an end, being loved for itself, is not loved according to measure; but
the means, being ordained to an end, are loved in proportion to the end
to which they are ordered. Since, then, God is our End, we are commanded
to love Him with our whole heart, with our whole soul, with all our
mind, and all our strength. That is to say, that, both interiorly and
exteriorly, we must be wholly directed to God, and lead perfect lives;
so that in us God may be glorified, as the Cause is honoured by the
perfection of its effect. This commandment teaches us, further, in what
manner man is bound to love himself. For self-love must be directed to
God, who must be glorified in man, as in His own work.
But, as the love of others is not so natural to man as is self-love,
we are taught how we must love our neighbour by the words, “thou shalt
love thy neighbour as thyself”. That is, thy love of others shall be
governed by the same motive as that which directs thy love of thyself;
and thou must desire for thy neighbour that same perfection of life, and
the other blessings, which thou dost desire for thyself; so that in him,
God may be honoured and glorified, as in His most perfect work. Nothing,
surely, can be conceived more reasonable, than these two commandments, on
which depend all other laws, both human and Divine. Therefore all that
is included in them, or results from them, is by Christians esteemed
holy and inviolable; and whatever impugns them, is reputed impious and
diabolical.
CHAPTER XII.
THE EXCELLENCE OF THE MORAL TEACHING OF THE CHURCH.
We have already shown how reasonably Holy Scripture sets before us two
tables of commandments: one teaching us our duty to God, and the other
showing what we owe to our neighbour. For, as each man forms part of a
community, he must be rightly disposed, both towards the head of the
community, and to his fellow-members; that is to say, towards God, and
towards his neighbours. Man is rightly disposed towards God, when He
loves Him with his whole heart, his whole soul, with all his mind, and
with all his strength. But as we owe to our civil rulers three duties,
_viz._, loyalty, reverence, and obedient service, the Christian religion
sums up these our obligations to God in three commandments. The first
commandment bids us to honour the one only true God, and none other;
the second, to reverence His Holy Name; the third, to pay Him obedient
service, by honouring His day, by both interior and exterior acts of
worship. From these three commandments spring all the other precepts
which relate to man’s service of God; and by disobedience to them, he
forfeits his eternal salvation.
The second table of the Law concerns man’s duty to his neighbour. This
consists in doing him good, and avoiding injury to him. The first
commandment of this table is, “Honour thy father and thy mother”. And
the honour which we are hereby bidden to render to our parents means,
not merely that we must reverence them in our words, but, likewise, that
we must help them by good works. The next three commandments forbid
us to injure any one. We can do harm to others in three ways, namely
by injury to them in their own person; by injuring them in the person
of those connected with them; and by injuring their property. Hence,
the first of these commandments forbids homicide; the second prohibits
adultery; and the third theft. And, as we are commanded to abstain from
injury to others, not only in deed, but also in word or desire, the
next commandment forbids false testimony; and the two following warn us
against coveting either the wife, or the property of another.
But, it may be asked, why are only these two particular forms of
covetousness specified, when desires contrary to any of the other
commandments are equally criminal? I answer, that the evangelical law
punishes, not only exterior deeds, but likewise interior inordinate
affections. Special mention has, however, been made of these two kinds
of evil desire, because men might hesitate to condemn them; whereas
they would consider interior rebellion against God or infidelity to Him
inexcusable; and they would look on contempt of parents, or desire to
bring death or dishonour on their fellow-men as equally detestable. But
a covetous longing for the property of others seems so natural to man,
that unless such covetousness had been expressly forbidden, he would not
have regarded it as sinful. We see, therefore, how perfectly Christianity
legislates for mankind in all things, whether internal or external; and
that all other precepts, and all philosophical systems of ethics, may be
reduced to these ten commandments, which, in fact, comprise points which
no heathen sages have ever understood.
Certain counsels are, furthermore, subjoined to the commandments. For, as
the whole scope of the Christian life tends to the perfection of Divine
love, which cannot be attained without purity of heart, the teaching
of the Church divides the Christian law into two parts, namely, into
positive and negative laws and precepts. The positive laws regard the
perfection of charity by enjoining good works. The negative precepts
concern purity, by forbidding all that can defile the soul. Now, in
order to complete the perfection of this charity and purity, Christ has
left us certain counsels. He exhorts those that will be perfect, to sell
all that they have and give it to the poor; to observe chastity; and to
embrace the religious life, whereby they will renounce not only earthly
possessions, but themselves, in order to become entirely devoted to the
contemplation of eternal things, and, in a certain sense, to be made one
with God. In these counsels, we behold the consummate wisdom of the
Christian religion, in all matters pertaining to morality. For nothing,
required by reason, is neglected; and nothing contrary to reason is
enjoined. A comparison of this system with any other school of ethics,
will show a superiority, as marked as is the distance between heaven and
earth, or the difference between light and darkness.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE PERFECT REASONABLENESS OF THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION AND CODE OF
JUDICIAL LAW.
The Christian judicial system, furthermore, can be proved to be highly
reasonable. For, as in every process there is some principle, which is
the measure of other things, there must be in law some principle or
standard which is the Eternal Law, or certain rule of Divine Wisdom,
governing all the operations and motions of creatures. From this law all
other laws take their rise; for the power of the first motor is felt by
all inferior motors. This rule and standard exists in God, as in the
Supreme Ruler, and in creatures as in things governed and set in motion
by Him, subject to His Providence, and impressed with the character of
His law, which inclines them to their proper end.
Rational creatures, being subject, in a peculiar manner, to Divine
Providence, are also, in a special way, governed by this law; and their
obedience to this Divine law renders it necessary that they should be
ruled, likewise, by a certain natural law. Now, the origin of this
natural law is the light of reason, impressed by God on man, making
clear to him certain principles, both in practical and in speculative
matters. These principles are known as first or natural laws. From these
first laws all other laws are deduced. And they are deduced in one of
two ways, _viz._, as conclusions drawn from manifest principles, (as
is generally the case in speculative science); or as axioms laid down
and approved by prudent men, as is the case with artists who formulate
general rules, to be applied in particular cases. Thus, an architect,
in erecting an individual building, will follow certain principles,
universally observed in all architecture. In matters concerning morals,
law is administered by means either of conclusions drawn from universal
natural laws: _e.g._, murder is forbidden; to poison another is to
murder him; therefore, giving poison to others is forbidden. Or else,
the law is applied by means of certain definite rules, laid down by
legislators, applying the universal natural law to particular cases. For
instance there is a general law declaring that crime must be punished;
but the particular penalty to be inflicted for a particular crime must be
determined by the judgment of prudent men, and for the common good. Such
laws must, evidently, vary according to circumstances. These are called
positive, or human, laws. We see, at once, that all men are not governed
by these differing positive laws; whereas the natural laws are invariable
and binding on all races. They are binding, not merely in so far as they
are general principles, but likewise in the case of the particular laws
deduced from these general principles. For true principles cannot give
rise to false conclusions.
But, as natural law would not suffice for the government of human life,
the assistance of the Divine law is also necessary; and this for several
reasons.
First, because, by law man is directed to the attainment of his last end;
but, as his last end is supernatural, natural law would not suffice to
guide him to it.
Secondly, our understanding is so feeble, that, the more we descend to
particulars, the greater difficulty we experience in judging aright.
The Divine law is therefore necessary, to enable us to arrive at just
conclusions in particular cases.
Thirdly, human law does not punish or forbid everything that is criminal;
it allows many lesser evils in order to ward off greater ones. Therefore,
a law was necessary, which should show man that guilt, unpunished by
human law, would be avenged by Divine law.
Fourthly, human law judges not the hidden things of the heart, but only
exterior actions. Therefore, in order to teach us that we must be perfect
both interiorly and exteriorly, the Divine law, which punishes the sins
of the heart, was necessary.
This Divine law may be called a compendium of the Divine commandments,
and it proceeds from the light of Faith. We, therefore, speak of it as
being essentially the grace of the Holy Spirit, from which spring all the
commandments of which we have spoken. And from these universal precepts
are deduced, (either by conclusion or by specially formulated axioms),
all particular laws. The particular laws, derived from the Divine law,
are called canonical laws. Those deduced from natural law are termed
civil laws. The laity are governed by civil, and the clergy by canonical
law.
There is no opposition between the Divine and the natural law. But, as
grace perfects nature, the Divine law perfects the natural law; and all
that pertains to the natural law pertains, likewise, to the Divine law.
The moral teaching of our natural reason is said to belong to the natural
law. The duties imposed on us by the light of grace are called the
precepts of the Divine law. We must not, however, imagine that everything
that is contained in the Divine law belongs to the natural law; for the
Sacraments and the truths of Faith pertain, solely, to the Divine, and
not to the natural law.
The Christian religion, then, is organised by the Divine law. It excludes
nothing which is in accordance with truth or morality; it admits nothing
contrary to them. Therefore, as Christians, we do not despise the good
and reasonable laws, of either uncivilised nations, or of heathen
philosophers. On the contrary, we select from those laws all that is true
and virtuous, and ascribe it to God, who, for the sake of His elect, has
created all truth and all goodness. On the other hand, our religion is
so averse to all fables or falsehood, that it will not authorise even
such books as have been written to glorify the Faith and the deeds of
the Saints, unless the author be reliable, and the truth of his writing
manifest. And, if, in the government of the Church, some unjust law
exist, it exists, not through the fault of the Christian religion, but,
by reason of the impiety of some tyrant, whom the Church condemns and
execrates. Thus, we see, that the Christian religion is most reasonably
administered, by means both of civil and of Divine laws.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE SACRAMENTS OF THE CHURCH HAVE BEEN INSTITUTED BY CHRIST, AND ARE
ADMIRABLY ADAPTED TO THE NEEDS OF MANKIND.
It is our intention to treat, in this chapter, of the ceremonies of the
Church. And, as her Sacraments are the chief ceremonies—all other rights
being ordained on their account—we will begin by proving how absolutely
reasonable these Sacraments are. And thus, all the other rites of the
Church will be more easily understood. Christ, by His Passion, is the
universal cause of our salvation. But, just as, in the law of nature,
a universal cause only operates by means of particular causes, which
apply its virtue to particular effects, it is likewise most reasonable
that there should be some particular cause of our salvation, whereby the
virtue of the Passion of Christ should be applied to our souls. This
particular cause is found in the Sacraments of the Church, which are the
channels of Christ’s grace to the soul. And, as a particular cause must
be proportioned to the universal cause, and an instrument to the agent;
it is most reasonable and fitting, that the Sacraments should be composed
of external signs and of words, thus representing Christ, the Word of the
Eternal Father united to human nature.
And, since none can be saved without grace, we can say most truly, that
these Sacraments are Christ’s instruments in the conferring of grace.
We do not mean, that their power is able to produce the final effect
of grace; but we speak in the sense used by philosophers, when they
say that man is begotten of man and of the sun’s heat; not meaning, of
course, that either human or solar power is capable of producing the
intellectual soul of man. We must remember that an instrument acts in two
ways; first, by its own form, as in the case of a saw, which, from the
metal of which it is made and its serrated shape, is able to cut wood;
secondly, by the power and movement of the agent, which, as in the case
of the carpenter using a saw, gives a specific form to the wood. But,
this power does not always produce the ultimate effect on that on which
it is exercised. For we see, that, though creatures are the instruments
used by God in human generation, they do not beget the intellectual soul
of man, which is created immediately by God; but that they are only
instrumental in the final disposition of matter, and in the union of
soul with body. In the same way, the Sacraments are not, either by their
own virtue, or by power acquired from the movement of Christ, the chief
agent, able to produce their final effect, which is grace. Grace proceeds
from God alone; but the Sacraments dispose the soul for the reception of
grace; and this disposition, imparted by them, is, by theologians, called
their character.
We see a proof that the Sacraments thus confer grace, in the good life of
those who receive them, in their conversion from vice to virtue, and in
the progress in perfection made by those who frequent them. As we have,
however, in the preceding Book, treated at length of these effects, we
will say no more about them for the present.
CHAPTER XV.
THE NUMBER OF THE SACRAMENTS IS REASONABLE.
Since Christ is the universal cause of our salvation and of the spiritual
life by which we live to God; and since we understand spiritual things by
the likeness which they bear to such as are physical; we must distinguish
the Sacraments which are instituted for the spiritual life, by comparing
them with those things which are ordained for corporeal life.
Now, in physical life, we have: first, generation, whereby life is
acquired; secondly, development, whereby the body is perfected; thirdly,
nutrition, whereby it is preserved. Thus the vegetative life possesses
powers of generation, of growth, and of nutrition. But for the animal
nature, as sickness may attack it, nature provides fitting remedies; and
as generation cannot occur without a parent, some generating factor must
exist in the world.
Corresponding to these needs of the physical life, we have in the
spiritual life many Sacraments. Of these the first is Baptism, whereby
man is born again in Christ. The second is Confirmation, whereby grace
is increased within him, and he is rendered strong enough to endure
the trials, through which all must pass on their way to eternal life.
The third is the Blessed Eucharist, without which the spiritual life
of man would flag, as his body would faint without food. The fourth
is the Sacrament of Penance, whereby he recovers spiritual health,
and the wounds of his soul are healed. The fifth is Extreme Unction,
which heals the soul, and, (since bodily sickness is sometimes caused
by sin), in some cases restores health to the body; or, when recovery
from sickness is not expedient, it enables the soul to pass, more
devoutly and easily, to eternal life. The sixth Sacrament is that of
Holy Orders, which provides fathers for the spiritual life. Then, since
the spiritual life could not endure, were the human race to be extinct,
we have the Sacrament of Matrimony, which is the seventh Sacrament of
the Church. Thus we see, that, as in the physical order the propagators
of physical life may be regarded, either as the principles of the life
of their progeny, or as the rulers and superiors of their children, so
in the spiritual order, Christ has ordained seven Sacraments to be the
principles and the organisers of the spiritual life.
We see, then, how wisely, and how advisedly, Christ has instituted seven
Sacraments in His Church.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE RITES USED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS ARE BOTH
REASONABLE AND SEEMLY.
The matter and symbols, used in the administration of our Sacraments,
are likewise most fittingly ordained. Let us first consider Baptism, the
Sacrament of regeneration. We know that birth signifies the change from
non-being into being; and that as all men are born in original sin, they
are all born in a state of privation of grace or spiritual life; and in
proportion as they add actual to original sin, they are still further
deprived of grace. Therefore, it was most meet, that Christ should give
to the Sacrament of Baptism power to remit sin, and to confer grace and
spiritual life. Again, as bodily stains are effaced by water, it was
fitting that water should be chosen as the matter of this Sacrament. And,
as we can be born but once, it is reasonable that Baptism can be but once
conferred.
The perfection of spiritual life consists in a constant and courageous
confession of the Cross of Christ, and in boldly enduring insult for
His sake. In order to produce in us this effect, He has instituted the
Sacrament of Confirmation. Those who fight under a commander, bear
upon them his device or crest; and so those who receive Confirmation
are signed on the forehead with the Cross, in order to show, that they
must not be ashamed to be the soldiers of Christ. This Cross is made of
oil and of balsam. The oil signifies that the conscience of him that
is anointed must shine, like oil, with those gifts of the Holy Ghost,
wherewith Jesus being most excellently endowed, was called Christ,
or anointed. The balsam symbolises the sweet odour of virtue, which
Christians are bound to diffuse around them. It is fitting, likewise,
that bishops alone should be empowered to administer this Sacrament,
since they are the leaders of the army of Christ; and the captains of an
army alone can adorn their soldiers with their insignia.
The Blessed Eucharist being ordained for the nourishment of the spiritual
life, it is meet that its outward signs should be bread and wine. And, as
food is substantially joined to the body which is nourished, we believe
that Christ exists in this Sacrament, not only by His power, but in His
substance; and that He is thus present, in order to unite Himself so
intimately with them that receive Him with faith and love, as to become
one with them. Furthermore, as the Blessed Eucharist is to be a memorial
of His Passion, wherein His Body and Blood were divided, it is meet that
His body should be given to us under the appearance of bread, and His
Blood under the form of wine; although Christ Himself is wholly present
in each species.
When we consider the Sacrament of Penance, we must remember that physical
health proceeds, sometimes, from natural strength of constitution, and,
sometimes, from the assistance of a physician and of remedies. The same
thing holds good in the spiritual order, but with certain limitations.
For the health of the soul cannot proceed entirely from our intrinsic
power—none being able to deliver himself from sin without grace;
neither can it be altogether effected by extrinsic assistance—for the
co-operation of our will is always required. Spiritual health, therefore,
needs both an exterior, and an interior, agent. And, as we call a man
physically sound, when he is free from all weakness caused by disease,
we say, in like manner, that the soul is healed, when it is freed from
all the infirmity caused by sin. Now, sin produces three bad effects.
The first of these is aversion of the soul from God, and its conversion
to creatures. The second is the penalty incurred by its guilt. And the
third is a diminution of grace and weakness of will; for, by sin, the
soul becomes more prone to evil, and more disinclined to good. Therefore,
the remedial Sacrament of Penance is most reasonably ordained to remedy
these three evils. The first part of this Sacrament is contrition, which
delivers the soul from aversion to God, causing it to repent of sin and
to return to its Maker; frees it from the penalty of eternal death,
which cannot remain due to a soul in grace and charity; and renders it
inclined to good and averse to evil. But, as contrition is not perfect
in all men, it does not always remit the entire penalty of sin. The
Lord has, therefore, added two other parts to the Sacrament of Penance,
to wit, Confession and Satisfaction. Man may wish to pay in this life
the penalty which remains due to him after contrition; but he cannot
know what this penalty may be; he must therefore submit himself to the
judgment of Christ, to whom alone he owes satisfaction. But, as Christ,
glorified in Heaven, is to us invisible, He has left in His place, as His
ministers, the priests of the Church. A judge cannot, however, assess
the penalty, if he be ignorant of the crime. Therefore a sinner must
make confession to a priest. This confession is the second part of the
Sacrament of Penance. It follows, that the ministers of Christ, in their
judicial capacity, must be invested with a twofold power. First, they
must be invested with authority and knowledge to judge the gravity of
sin. Secondly, they must have ability to bind and to loose. This power
of binding and loosing is known as _the power of the Keys_. Now, as the
Sacraments are the instruments of grace, it is quite certain, that,
by this power of the Keys, a penitent obtains more grace, and fuller
remission of punishment, than he could receive merely by contrition. It
sometimes happens, however, that contrition and confession do not suffice
to remit the entire penalty incurred by sin. Therefore, a third part
has been added to the Sacrament of Penance, namely Satisfaction, or the
performance of a penance enjoined by the priest.
The Sacrament of Extreme Unction has been most fittingly ordained by
Christ, in consideration of human weakness. For, as bodily sickness
is often both the effect of sin, and the cause of grave spiritual
detriment, a Sacrament was necessary which should repair this detriment,
and should heal both soul and body; or should, at least, enable the soul
to pass more easily, and with greater purity, into the other life. For
the Sacrament of Penance does not always remit the entire penalty due to
sin; nor does it wholly remove all inclination to sin and slothfulness
in the performance of good. Nay, these evils are oftentimes increased
in sickness, by pain and anxiety of mind, which hinder the dying from
the remembrance of their sins. Thus, at the hour of death, there may be
many remnants of sin in the soul, which call for powerful assistance,
to enable a man to depart, purified, to eternal glory. Now, this
assistance is given by that Sacrament, which—to denote that it should
only be administered in sickness unto death—we call Extreme Unction. The
matter of this Sacrament is oil, which has been chosen as representing a
remedy often used to soothe physical suffering. And, as in sickness, the
physician strives to apply his medicine to the root of the disease, so
in Extreme Unction, the five senses, which are, so to speak, the chief
instruments of sin, are anointed.
We must next consider the Sacrament of Holy Orders. As we do so, we shall
see, with what good reason it has been ordained. When Christ withdrew His
visible presence from the Church, it was necessary that He should have
some representatives, who should dispense the Sacraments to the faithful.
And, as they were to be His instruments, it was likewise necessary that
they should be like, in some manner, to Himself, and thus be proportioned
to their Agent. Christ, being both God and Man, His ministers had, then,
to be, not angels, but men, endowed with some share of His Divine power.
And, as they could not be immortal, they had to possess this power, in
such a manner, as to be capable of conferring it on their successors,
until the consummation of the world. This power, for reasons given above
when treating of the Sacraments in general, has been fittingly bestowed
upon the ministers of Christ, under the form of certain formulated words
and signs, such as the imposition of hands, the presentation of the
chalice and book, etc. But, as the power of Orders is given, to enable
the ministers of the Church to administer the Sacraments—of which the
Blessed Eucharist is the chief—we must consider the degrees of Orders,
with relation to this adorable Sacrament.
We know that every power designed to produce an important effect, is
served by other and inferior powers, even as an architect who intends
to erect a building, is assisted by stonecutters, and other labourers.
Since, then, the Sacrament of Holy Orders is instituted, mainly, in order
to consecrate the Body and Blood of Christ, to distribute It to the
faithful, and to cleanse them from sin—in order to prepare them for Its
reception—there must be some rank or Order, destined, especially, for
this office, and served by ministers of inferior degree. This rank is the
Priesthood, which is created for two ends, _viz._, to consecrate the Body
and Blood of Christ, and to cleanse the faithful from sin, in order to
enable them to receive It. Priests, then, must be assisted in both, or
in one, of their offices, by those in lower orders, who will, according
to their dignity, take part in rites more or less sacred. The lowest
Order of door-keepers, is instituted in order to prepare the people, to
separate the faithful from unbelievers, and to exclude the latter from
the Church. Next in dignity comes the Order of Readers, whose duty it is
to instruct neophytes in the Faith. Then Exorcists, who must deliver them
from the power of the devil. The office of those in the higher Orders
is, to prepare the faithful for the Sacraments, and to assist in the
celebration of the Blessed Eucharist. Thus the Acolyths must prepare the
vessels and elements used in the Sacrifice; the Sub-deacons must place
the unconsecrated species in the sacred vessels; and the Deacons must
also have some office with respect to the Consecrated Elements, inasmuch
as they are ordained to distribute to the faithful the Precious Blood
of Christ. Hence, only Priests, Deacons, and Sub-deacons are said to be
in Sacred Orders; this term signifying, that they alone, have power to
handle that which is most Sacred. Deacons, Sub-deacons, and Acolyths also
assist the priest in preparing the people. The Deacon reads the Gospel to
them, and the Sub-deacon the Epistle, and the Acolyth bears the lights,
which are intended to show reverence for the Holy Scripture.
And, as the Sacraments must be administered by fitting persons, appointed
by some superior power, it is reasonable that Episcopal authority should
exist in the Church, which, while nowise exceeding the sacerdotal power
with regard to the Consecration of the Body of the Lord, is superior to
the priestly power in all that pertains to the body of the Church, and
the solution of any difficulties which may arise in its government. But,
although there are many different bishops in many parts of the earth,—the
Church being one,—the whole Christian people is under one head, and is
thus united in one Faith, and in no danger of being divided by reason of
different opinions springing up within the Church. The power given to
the ministers of Christ is inalienable, and cannot be forfeited by any
sin. And the Sacraments, administered by sinful priests, lose none, of
their efficacy, since their virtue resides in the Sacraments themselves,
not in their ministers. Neither do those who receive the Sacraments from
unworthy priests, become themselves unworthy. For priests are only His
instruments; and that on which an effect is wrought becomes like to the
principal agent, not like to the instrument.
Finally, the Sacrament of Matrimony is a state most fittingly ordained,
not only for the public welfare and for the preservation of the human
race, but likewise for the multiplication of the faithful, to the Glory
of God. The union of man with woman, in so far as it concerns the good
of the Church, is a true Sacrament, blessed by the ministers of Christ,
representing the union of the Church with our Lord, and conferring grace
on those that receive it devoutly. And as there is only one Christ and
one Church; and as Matrimony represents the union between them; the bond
of wedlock must be indissoluble, in order that God may be glorified and
Holy Church perpetuated.
From what we have said, it is, we think, plain, that there is nothing
unreasonable or impracticable in the principal ceremonies of the Church.
CHAPTER XVII.
ANSWERS TO CERTAIN OBJECTIONS BROUGHT AGAINST THE DOCTRINE OF THE BLESSED
EUCHARIST.
Many and great difficulties are wont to arise in man’s mind concerning
the dogma of the Blessed Eucharist. We, therefore, deem it expedient,
to devote some space to their consideration. When we declare that the
whole Body of Christ is contained in a little bread, and all His Blood
in a little wine; and that, at the same time, the whole Christ is in
Heaven; it seems as if we were affirming an impossibility. For Christ
can only be present in this Sacrament in one of two ways. Either, the
bread is changed into the Body of Christ; and this appears to be out
of the question. For a thing into which another thing is changed, has
no existence before this change; it only begins to exist when this
change has taken place. If, then, the bread be changed into the Body of
Christ, His Body cannot have existed before the bread was changed into
It; just as the serpent into which the rod of Aaron was changed had no
existence previous to this miracle. Thus, the Body of Christ which is in
the Blessed Eucharist, is not the Body which is in Heaven, but another
Body newly produced. Or else, we may say that the Body of Christ which
is in Heaven, comes by local movement into the Blessed Sacrament. But
this seems, likewise, impossible. Firstly, because, unless His Body
left Heaven altogether, it would have to be in two places at once.
Secondly, because local movement cannot terminate in more than one place
at the same time; and we know that many Hosts are consecrated at once.
Thirdly, because one Body cannot be in more than one place at the same
moment. How, also, can a full-grown Body be contained in a little Host,
and all Its Blood in a small chalice? Again, it seems impossible that
accidents can exist without their substance; the more so as we know, by
experience, that the consecrated bread and wine do what accidents alone
could not do—(_e.g._, nourish, warm, and strengthen the body)—and that
the consecrated wine, if consumed to excess, would produce intoxication.
Furthermore, the consecrated elements are subject to vicissitudes,
such as burning, putrefaction, etc., which could not affect mere
accidents. And, again, if the elements be divided into small particles,
how can the Body of Christ be present in each fraction? Our answer to
these objections is that which we have made before, _viz._, that the
infinite power of God can do more than we can conceive; and that, what
is impossible to nature and to man, is possible to Him. In the Blessed
Eucharist there is nothing beyond the power of God. For we say that the
Body and Blood of Christ are present in this Sacrament by conversion.
And this is not impossible to God, although it is impossible to nature,
which cannot change one thing into another thing already in existence.
If the infinite power of God can create something out of nothing, can it
not, much more, cause one substance to be transformed into another, and
therefore the substance of bread and wine to become the substance of the
Body and Blood of Christ?
Since, then, the Body of Christ is not present in the Blessed Eucharist
by local movement, _i.e._, by descent from Heaven into the Host, but
solely by conversion, we must admit that His presence in Heaven differs
modally from His sacramental presence. In Heaven His Body, like other
bodies, occupies space and is extended; but He is present in the Host,
not by mode of extension, but in an indivisible manner, and in a mode so
wonderful, that this whole Body is present in every fragment of the Host.
This mode of existence is possible only to God, whose power exceeds the
bounds of our intelligence. But, observe, that in the Blessed Eucharist
the Body of Christ is present under the appearance of bread, and His
Blood under that of wine; but as His Blood, His Soul, and his Divinity
never leave His Body, and His Body never leaves His Blood, the whole
Christ is, by natural concomitance, present in every particle and drop of
both species. Christ, furthermore, is not present in this Sacrament as in
a place. Therefore, although there are many Hosts on many altars, He is
not in many places but in many Sacraments. We see this in our own case,
for we know that our whole soul is in every part of our body, and yet we
do not say that it is in different places; because the soul is not in the
body as in a place, but as the form in its matter.
As God has created all things out of nothing by His own Power, without
the aid of other causes, He can produce all natural effects without using
secondary causes. Therefore, although, naturally speaking, substance
upholds accidents, God can preserve accidents without the help of
substance. Many philosophers have maintained that quantity can exist
without substance; and we say that in the Blessed Eucharist, not quantity
only, but all other accidents, do, by the power of God, exist without
substance. Not only does God enable accidents to exist without substance;
but He enables them to do, and to suffer, that which substance would do
and suffer, were the accidents joined to substance, _e.g._, to nourish,
to intoxicate, to putrefy, to burn, etc. These actions and sufferings do
not extend to the Body of Christ, but only to the accidents. Thus when
the Host is broken, the fracture does not affect the Body of Christ,
which remains entire in each particle.[22] Many other difficulties may be
urged against the dogma of the Eucharist, but the solution we have given
to the difficulties enumerated, will pave the way to the solution of all
others. And it will be manifest that the Catholic Faith does not, in this
doctrine, propose to our belief anything impossible to God.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE REASONABLENESS OF THE CEREMONIES OF THE CHURCH.
Having shown that the Sacraments of the Church are in accordance with
reason, it will not be difficult to prove that other ecclesiastical
ceremonies are equally rational. But as we cannot, for the sake of
brevity, discuss them all, we will confine our attention to a few of the
most important.
First, then, the homage paid by Christians to the Cross, and to
representations of Christ and of His Saints, may seem to some people
irrational. We must, however, remember that images may be looked upon
from two points of view. We may consider the material of which they are
made, gold, silver, wood, or stone. Certainly, Christians do not honour
images on this account. Or, we may consider images as representing some
thing or person. And this is the light in which Christians regard them.
They pay homage not to the image itself, but to the thing or person
represented thereby; just as, when subjects honour a picture of their
sovereign, they honour, not the picture itself, but him who is depicted
thereon. Therefore we pay to images the honour due to those whom they
represent. We give to the Cross and Crucifix the worship of _latria_,
which is the worship that we pay to God. We honour an image of the Virgin
Mary with an inferior honour, yet with greater honour than that which we
give to representations of the other Saints. We honour the Saints as the
blessed friends of God. We erect their images in order to recall them to
our memory, to excite ourselves to virtue by their example, and to raise
our hearts in prayer to God, through their intercession. There can be
no doubt that pictures and statues, representing holy objects, are as
helpful as books, especially to unlettered and simple folk.
And as we know invisible things by means of such as are visible, we
build and consecrate material churches—thereby symbolizing the spiritual
Church, and enabling ourselves, by the sight of earthly things, to
raise our minds to the contemplation of Divine mysteries. The stones
of the church signify Christians united in Faith; and the lime which
cements them is charity, which joins the hearts of the faithful together.
The foundation-stone is Christ; and the stones around it represent the
Prophets and Apostles. The high walls symbolize the sublimity of the
contemplative life; the roof the active life, exposed to the storms of
temptation. The spiritual temple differs from an earthly edifice in that
its foundation is in Heaven. In the length of the church, we behold
the permanence of the true Church; in its height, the difference of
merit among its members; and in its breadth, the number of the faithful
throughout the world. The sanctuary recalls to us the Virgins of Christ,
and the naves those living in the married state; for as the sanctuary
is narrower and more holy than the naves, virginity is holier and rarer
than wedlock. The cemetery in front of the church reminds us of false
Christians buried in sin. The altar represents Christ, on whom we offer
our sacrifices, saying at the end of every prayer, “Through our Lord
Jesus Christ”. The belfry signifies the Holy Scripture, by means of
which, (if we take our stand upon it), we shall be able to discern the
snares of our enemies, and to fight against them. The bells are preachers
calling together the Church militant and triumphant. The windows we
may take to represent the holy doctors who pour the light of their
teaching into the Church. From the whiteness of the interior walls we
learn purity of heart and external decorum. The twelve candles, burning
before the crosses of consecration, represent the twelve Apostles, who
have enlightened the world by preaching the Cross of Christ throughout
it. The doors signify the Sacraments, by means of which, especially
of Baptism, we enter the Church. The lamps symbolize the continual
illumination of the Holy Ghost. The Holy Water may remind us of the tears
of penitents. Finally the sacred vestments and vessels, the psalms,
hymns, and the whole order of ceremonies, represent the Divine mysteries,
which time will not permit us to explain. But from what has been said,
it is evident, that nothing contained in Christian doctrine is either
incredible or unreasonable.
If any one desires further instruction, and will read, and carefully
reflect on, the works of the Doctors of the Church, he will understand
that our religion is the work, not of men, but, of Him “who enlighteneth
every man that cometh into this world”. Daily experience proves to us,
that many good men, reflecting upon these mysterious rites, forget
themselves, are raised above worldly thoughts and earthly things, and
that their “conversation is in heaven”.
BOOK IV.
INTRODUCTION.
METHOD OBSERVED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK.
Would that all men were sincerely zealous in the pursuit of truth. It
would then be far easier to open their eyes to perceive it, for their
intellect tending towards it, as to its perfection, would readily incline
to embrace it. Indeed some men are so strongly attracted to truth, that
they utter it even against their will.
The knowledge of a thing leads to the knowledge of its opposite; for
instance, if we know the right side we shall know the left; and if we
know what is true, we shall easily know what is false. And, although
truth is at constant war with falsehood, nevertheless, he that draws nigh
to truth, will ever be victorious. Therefore, when different and contrary
opinions prevail among men, that opinion may be held to be most probably
true which is supported by the soundest reasoning. Now, as there exists
much discord amongst men on matters of religion, and the arguments in
favour of Christianity are much stronger than those that can be advanced
in support of any other form of belief, Christianity must indubitably be
the true religion. This is the point which we shall undertake in this
Book to prove, first in general, and then in particular.
CHAPTER I.
NO RELIGION EXCEPT CHRISTIANITY CAN BE TRUE.
From what has just been said, it is evident, that Christianity is the
only true religion. And if this be the case, and if there be no salvation
except through the faith of Christ, all, save Christians, must be living
in error.
Again, if a virtuous life be the end proposed by all religions, and
if there be no better life than the Christian life, there can be no
religion superior to Christianity. Any other religion must be either
equal or inferior to it. If other religions be inferior to Christianity,
Christianity must be the best; and we are bound to embrace it, and to
reject all others as idle and superstitious. But if there be a religion
equal to Christianity, it must be the same as Christianity. For, unless
it propose to us the same end to be attained, and the same means for the
attainment of that end, as Christianity professes, it cannot be called
equal; it must be inferior to the Christian creed.
Furthermore, if we know a cause by its effects, and if Christian holiness
be the perfection of human life; and, if we see no such effects produced
by any other religion, Christianity must be true; the more so, as its
effects are so quickly and so easily produced, and as its power appears
so marvellously in the conversion of men. Therefore, there can be no
danger of erring in rejecting all other creeds, and cleaving to the faith
of Christ.
In order, however, to make what we say more clear, we will descend to
particulars, and will discuss divers forms of religion. But, as it
would be useless to attempt to discuss all the superstitions which have
ever existed, we will reduce them to six, _viz._, heathen philosophy,
astrology, idolatry, Judaism, heresy, and Mahometanism. In our analysis
of these false religions, we will ignore the different opinions and
divisions which have existed amongst philosophers, astrologers,
idolaters, and heretics. We will examine their tenets from a general
point of view.
CHAPTER II.
THE DEFECTIVE AND ERRONEOUS RELIGIONS TAUGHT BY HEATHEN PHILOSOPHERS.
We must preface our remarks by observing that the teaching of heathen
philosophy, even where its leaders have not taught erroneous doctrine,
is, in all that regards salvation, exceedingly poor and insufficient.
Nor can we wonder at this, seeing that their only guide was the light
of human reason. For, as the end to which we aspire must be the rule of
all our operations, those who undertake to lead men to a virtuous way
of living ought, at least, to know what is the true end of human life.
Now, the heathen sages could have no such knowledge, because it exceeds
the bounds of human reason, by which alone they were enlightened. But if
they could not know the last end of man, still less could they know by
what means he could attain his end. Therefore, all that they could teach
about religion was necessarily imperfect, uncertain, or erroneous. What
sane person, then, would abandon Christianity, for the tenets of heathen
philosophy?
And, although, the best among the philosophers held that the end of human
life is the contemplation of Divine things, their teaching on this point
is very confused, because they cannot speak, with any certainty, about
their end. If they were asked, whether, by this contemplation, they meant
contemplation of this present life, or of the future life, they could
not answer with any certainty. For, considering the perils and troubles
of this life, it would be wholly unreasonable to expect beatitude in
it; and as the philosophers could not, by means of mere natural reason,
discover anything about the future life, whatever they might say about
it would be unproven, and therefore not accepted by men. They would,
furthermore, involve themselves in the still more intricate question of
the immortality of the soul, the difficulty of which is shown by the many
different opinions entertained concerning it. The greatest difficulty
on this point arises from the fact, that, as the soul can perform the
operation of understanding without any corporeal organ, it would appear,
that, with regard to the activity of understanding, the soul cannot be
the form of the body; for it seems as if that which can act without a
body, can exist without a body. This is why Plato insisted that our soul
is not the form, but the mover of the human body.
Aristotle, on the contrary, maintains that the soul is the form of
the body. He, however, uses such ambiguous expressions about the
understanding, as distinct from the soul, that his commentator,
Averröes, fell into the unreasonable error of supposing that there is
in all men an intellect, existing independently of other powers. But,
I believe that Aristotle, being a very sagacious man and knowing that
the natural light of reason cannot arrive at any perfect knowledge of
the matter, purposely spoke very cautiously about it, for fear of being
worsted in argument. Thus the philosophers who followed him, remained in
a dilemma. For, if they called the soul the form of the body, it seemed
that the soul must reasonably be supposed to be mortal. If they said that
the soul was not the form of the body, it was impossible to see how man
could be said to be man, on account of his possessing an intellectual
soul. And, if, with no clearer light than the light of natural reason,
they had maintained what Faith teaches, _viz._, that although the
intellectual power of the soul operates independently of any corporeal
organ, yet, nevertheless, the substance of the soul is the form of the
body, they would have found themselves in quite as great a difficulty as
they were before. For they would have been asked, whence came this form—a
question to which they could have given no certain answer. For, as this
form is elevated above all corporeal things, it cannot have been produced
by any natural power; nor, as they did not believe in creation, would
these philosophers have said that it came from nothing. And, even if they
had made such an assertion, they could not have produced any reasonable
proof of what they said. Their opinion, consequently, would have been
treated with contempt.
Certain ones amongst them, therefore, endeavoured to evade the
difficulty, by maintaining that souls existed from eternity, before
bodies. This opinion, however, involved them in still greater confusion.
For, while they held that souls were made from eternity before bodies,
they could adduce no reason to hinder the soul from being the form of the
body. They, also, at the same time, fell into many other inconsistencies,
adduced by the Peripatetics against the Platonists. And, although
Aristotle said that the intellectual soul comes from without, _i.e._, not
from natural power,—his expression is very ambiguous; for it explains
neither whence, nor how, the soul comes into the world. And if, as he
maintains, the intellectual soul be immortal, and the form of the body,
it cannot, at the same time, exist before the body, nor pass from one
body to another. Therefore, if the soul be not produced by natural power,
I do not see how Aristotle can deny Creation.
The philosophers who, unenlightened by faith, assert that the soul is
immortal, and is the form of the body, expose themselves to further
difficulties. They may, with good reason, be asked whether the world has
likewise existed from eternity, and whether it will last for ever. If
they reply, without being able to prove their words, that the world had
a beginning and will have an end, their views will be held in derision.
If, on the other hand, with Aristotle, they maintain that the world never
had a beginning and will never have an end, they must likewise hold
that there has existed an infinite series of years and days. But, if
man is the most important part of the world, no one can, with any show
of reason, say that the world has existed without man; and therefore
infinite men must have died. If, further, as they say, the soul is
immortal, and is the form of the body; and if it does not pass from one
body to another, there must have been infinite souls. This is, clearly,
an irrational hypothesis. Those who uphold this view will, of course,
maintain that it is not irrational; but by so doing, they have to face
fresh difficulties. For, as the soul is the form of the body, it is
against its nature to be outside the body; and we know, in fact, that the
soul only leaves the body by compulsion. Now, compulsion, or violence,
cannot continue perpetually, especially in the case of so noble a thing
as the soul.
Those, however, who hold that souls will never return to their bodies,
must admit that souls, in spite of their dignity, are perpetually
banished, by violence, from their bodies. If they believe in the
resurrection of the body, on the other hand, they must believe in the
resurrection of infinite bodies, which is impossible. They may, indeed,
hold, that, after a certain prolonged space of time, souls will return to
their former bodies, and will become what they formerly were; and that
they will repeat this separation from, and return to, their bodies an
infinite number of times. But they have no reason, or proof, on which to
ground this hypothesis; and we are right in treating it with contempt.
And, certainly, such a supposition is unreasonable and absurd, implying,
as it does, that we, and all that exist at present, must have already
existed an infinite number of times.
In these, and in such like difficulties, do they entangle themselves who
try, by natural reason, to discover the end of human life. Nor, as they
ignore the most important element of life, can they be expected to speak
surely or definitely, either about religion or about virtuous living.
We need not, therefore, be surprised, that the religious systems of the
philosophers are imperfect, and filled with error.
We shall understand this fact still more clearly, if we consider the
different erroneous conclusions at which they have arrived; and we shall
see how poor and feeble a thing is the unassisted light of reason. The
highest power of an agent is shown when it exerts itself to its fullest
capacity. Now, human reason has been most strenuously exerted by the
greatest philosophers, who have exercised it to the utmost of their
ability. We see this by the fact, that the other philosophers who have
succeeded them, have never found anything new to say; or if they have
originated some fresh theory, it has been a very insignificant one.
Since, then, the very greatest philosophers have been so grossly mistaken
in matters concerning salvation, it is evident that the natural light of
reason is but a treacherous guide.
Of course, the earliest philosophers, who asserted that the last end of
man is to be found in riches, glory, pleasure, or some other material
good, were far more completely deceived than those who taught that it was
to be sought in the contemplation of Divine things. But, the teaching of
these latter was vague, and left men in the greatest uncertainty about
the affairs of their salvation.
Again, there are as many opinions and errors about the nature of
the intellectual soul, as there are philosophers. Setting aside the
fallacies enumerated by Aristotle in his first book, _De Anima_, even the
Aristotelian philosophers themselves entertain endless different views.
Some teach that the human understanding is one thing, and others proclaim
it to be another; so that, even to this day, their disciples remain in
utter uncertainty. This confusion would be even more inextricable, had
not the Faith of Christ enlightened the world.
Again, if any one will read the philosophical books treating of the
universe, of the end for which it was made, and of its supposed beginning
and end, he will find almost as many errors as there are words. And,
although Aristotle, and some of his followers, have tried to establish
the eternity of the world, the Aristotelian arguments are so weak, that
any learned man could easily overthrow them.
But what are we to say of the number of the angels, or, as the
philosophers call them, the separate substances? Aristotle, following the
motion of the heavens, represents the angels as being equal in number to
the celestial spheres, as though they were created solely to move the
heavens. This is, of course, an absurdity. It is probable, however, that
Aristotle spoke, not as affirming a certainty, but as giving an opinion.
Again, the heathen schools of philosophy, besides their many grave
errors, laid down nothing definite or certain about the externals of
Divine worship. They entertained also many most frivolous ideas about
Divine Providence. And thus, their teaching, far from being profitable
to man’s salvation, or honourable to religion, was merely a source of
confusion to mankind. Nevertheless, we must not despise the valuable
portion of the old philosophy, but rather make use of it ourselves.
For, although it is not sufficient for salvation, it is often of great
assistance to us in confuting the adversaries of the Faith.
CHAPTER III.
THE FUTILITY AND SUPERSTITION OF THE TRADITIONS OF ASTROLOGY.
Astrologers, who claim to be reputed philosophers, maintain that human
affairs are governed by the heavens and the stars, making out the sky
to be our god, thus imitating some of the ancients, who worshipped the
sun and the stars. We will, therefore, with the plainest arguments,
demonstrate their error, and show that the heavenly bodies are not the
cause of the things which man performs by means of his understanding
and his will. Superior things cannot be governed by their inferiors;
hence, as the intellect is more perfect than any mere body, it cannot be
governed by either heavenly or any other bodies.
Again, it has been proved by philosophers, that no body operates without
movement. Consequently, immovable things, such as incorporeal substances,
amongst which is the intellect, are not subject to bodies. Hence we
see that the understanding, in proportion to its abstraction from the
restlessness and activity of things corporeal, works with greater
rapidity and greater perfection.
We know, likewise, that everything that is ruled or moved, whether by
heavenly or earthly bodies, is physical, and subject to time. Now, our
understanding transcends, in its operations, all bodies, and extends to
immaterial things, and even to God. This it could not do by means of any
physical force; for, no agent, in its operations, exceeds its nature.
Hence, the power of the heavenly bodies cannot, strictly speaking,
act upon our understanding, since the power of the understanding far
surpasses that of the firmament.
Many believers in astrology, being hard pressed by this argument, try
to evade the difficulty by saying, that the heavenly bodies are not the
direct, but the indirect cause of the operations of our understanding.
The intellect (they argue) makes use of sensitive powers, especially
of imagination, memory, and thought, which are dependent on physical
temperament; and, as our body, like all other composite bodies,
is subject to the heavenly bodies, these heavenly bodies do, in a
certain sense, influence our understanding. We all know, of course,
that difference of mental endowment is the result of difference of
temperament. But no one who reflects on the nature of the understanding
or of free-will, can possibly believe, that the heavens can in any way
influence our choice, or rule the course of human events. Everything that
happens from the impression of the celestial bodies, happens naturally;
being naturally subject to these bodies. Hence, if the operations of
free-will were the result of the impression of these bodies, these
operations would be natural and not voluntary, originating not from
free-will, but from natural animal instinct. The absurdity of this
opinion can be easily demonstrated.
First, we know that all things which act by natural instinct, proceed,
if they be of the same nature, to the same end, by the same means, and
in the same manner; just as all heavy things tend to their centre. But
men, both in natural and artificial things, tend to different ends,
using different means. Therefore, their operations are not natural, but
voluntary. Secondly, natural operations are always, or almost always,
well ordered; for nature very seldom errs; whereas human operations are
not always free from error. Thirdly, natural operations, in so far as
they are natural, do not vary;—thus, all swallows build their nests and
feed their young in the same way; and sparrows, and every species of
bird, follow their own specific method of carrying on these operations.
But, human operations are so diverse, that we see scarcely two men who
act alike; the reason being that man is guided, not by instinct, but by
free-will. Again, did human choice depend on nature, virtue and vice must
be imputed not to individuals but to nature; which view would destroy all
idea of injustice, or of rational plan, or of a _providence_ over human
affairs. Since nature is governed by God and is immutable, man would
necessarily be left to act according to his instinct. We can imagine what
would then be the condition of human affairs.
But, to return to our first proposition. Since the understanding exceeds,
in its operations, all bodies, the will exceeds them likewise; because
its love and desire aspire even to God. Therefore, the will cannot be
subject to any physical power. Further, as means are proportioned to
their end; and as the last end of man exceeds any corporeal thing; the
operations of the understanding and of the will, by means of which man
attains his end, transcend all bodies; nor are they subject to the
influence of the heavenly bodies. And, although our bodies are subject
to celestial bodies, and are, by the impressions made on us by them,
inclined to do what is contrary to right reason; we have, nevertheless,
so much power to resist this inclination, that our operations may be
said to be subject, not to the heavens, but to our free-will. Thus,
as the firmament is not, strictly speaking, the cause of our actions,
it cannot be called our God. For God is the First Cause, who does all
things, and acts in all things.
Some, however, maintain that the heavenly bodies are animate. They,
therefore, hold that, although of themselves they do not move our
understanding and free-will, these faculties are, nevertheless,
influenced by the soul which vivifies the heavens. The following
arguments will easily demonstrate the fallacy of this opinion:—
First, it is futile to use an instrument which is not adapted to produce
a desired effect. It has already been proved that the power of the
heavens is not able to influence the understanding and free-will. It is
futile, therefore, to say that the heavenly bodies, as instruments of the
soul which animates the firmament, act upon our understanding. Secondly,
the soul of the heavens cannot by means of its instruments, the celestial
bodies, affect immediately or directly, the intellect or will, because
corporeal influences cannot immediately act upon what is spiritual. But
the power of the heavenly bodies may, certainly, affect our physical
temperament, and by means of it may influence our imagination and
interior sense. These activities, in their turn, may represent to our
understanding some advantage to be sought, or peril to be avoided. But
no one is obliged to heed these phantasies. We are always free to think,
or not to think of what we choose; and experience proves that man is
master of his actions. Therefore, it is unreasonable to say that the
stars and the firmament, or the soul which animates them, is God. For God
is He who immediately gives being and operation to all things; it is
He who moves our understanding and free-will; although in moving it He
always respects our liberty, because He moves all things in a way that is
adapted to their nature. Therefore, all worship given to the heavens, or
to the stars, or to the soul of the firmament, is empty and dangerous.
These bodies are created for the service of man; and no one ought to
worship that which is meant to be his servant. Hence, we see the folly of
astrologers who assign to the heavens the government of human affairs,
and pretend to direct men by observation of the stars.
But, even in these modern times, there are some nominal Christians, who,
under certain disguises, try to uphold the fallacies of astrology. They
say, for instance, that although free-will is, by its nature, subject,
not to the heavens, but to God; nevertheless, since the sensitive part
of our nature—by which almost all men are ruled—is subject to astral
influences, they are able by means of the stars to foretell many future
events; the more so, that God governs human affairs by means of the
stars, as secondary causes. So far, indeed, does the father of lies lead
them astray, that they delude men into trusting more to the stars than
to God, and they are able to persuade them to undertake nothing without
first consulting the heavens.
This system of astrological divination so little deserves the name of
science, or of art, that the best philosophers have judged it unworthy
of notice, and have passed it over in silence. Both Plato and Aristotle
ignore it. The latter proves, in many places, that we can have no
knowledge of the things to which astrology professes to furnish a clue.
For, future events, which may or may not take place, cannot be known in
themselves, as they as yet possess no being; nor can they be foreseen in
their cause, since they have no definite or determinate cause, but only
such as is uncertain and wholly undetermined.
But, granted that man could arrive at some knowledge of the future,
he certainly could not attain to it by looking at the heavens, as the
universal cause of inferior things. Certainly no knowledge of particular
effects can be attained by the contemplation of a general cause, but only
by the investigation of proximate and particular causes. Physicians do
not try to discover the causes of sickness by means of the stars, nor do
they endeavour to cure by an astrolabe; they study, rather, to find out
the special predisposing causes of illness, and the physical temperament
of their patient. Nothing, therefore, can be more foolish than to attempt
to investigate, by the mere contemplation of the stars and planets,
future events, which will arise from the free-will of individuals and
from particular causes.
Astrologers say that different virtues and properties reside in
different parts of the heavens. The absurdity of this pretension shows
the folly of their other superstitions. The very greatest philosophers,
who, certainly, were far wiser and better informed than astrologers,
have never discovered in the firmament, the virtue claimed for it by
astrologers. The astrologers further affirm that this virtue or property
acts upon the earth by means of the moon and of the motion of the
firmament, and that the variety of things caused upon earth proceeds,
primarily, from the diversity of light and from the motions of the
spheres and of the stars; and, secondarily, from the variety of the
dispositions of matter and of particular agents. Hence, according to
their opinion, if we wish to foretell future events, it does not suffice
to know the varieties of light and of motion in the heavens; we must
also understand the disposition of matter, and the nature of particular
agents, without which the celestial bodies cannot act. But, since, for
reasons before stated, we could not, even if we had this knowledge,
arrive at any certainty as to the future—especially as to events which
depend on free-will—how can we be likely to gain such certainty, merely
by gazing at the stars?
But, even if we assume with astrologers, that Divine properties reside
in the heavens, this does not prove that their astrology is not foolish.
For such properties can be nothing but the universal causes of the
things which take place on earth. For, as the stars and planets are
more remote from earth than are the elements, and as the elements are
universal causes of terrestrial things, the celestial bodies must be
causes even more universal. Now, we cannot, merely by understanding
the generative force of animated beings in general, know the mode of
reproduction peculiar to particular species of animated life—such as
animals or plants. Still less can we arrive at such knowledge merely by
contemplating the heavens.
But although it is an absurdity, let us concede to astrologers, that
the virtue of the astral bodies is more particular than that of the
elements. Their divination would still remain an idle folly; for our
senses, (which are the fount of our knowledge), can never investigate
anything so far remote from them as the forces of the heavens. The
greatest philosophers have never discovered these forces. We cannot
understand the properties even of many things which we handle every day;
and how can astrologers, who cannot compare either in mental capacity
or in learning with philosophers, pretend to analyse the powers of the
stars? But, even if they did understand these powers, they would have no
reason to boast of their idle superstitions. For the particular causes,
existing under heaven, cannot have been created in vain, since nothing
has been made without a purpose. If, then, there reside in the firmament
certain particular forces, _e.g._, one destined to reproduce mankind,
another to reproduce oxen, etc., we should have to say, that sublunary
particular causes exist, only for the purpose of disposing matter for the
reception of the form impressed on them by astral forces. Therefore, for
the purposes of divination, an astrologer could not be satisfied by the
mere contemplation of the heavens. The heavenly bodies impress different
forms upon matter, according to its varying disposition; and if matter
be not duly prepared, it is incapable of receiving a form. And, as there
may be many obstacles to the fitting preparation of matter, an astrologer
could not gain any sure knowledge of particular things by merely gazing
at the skies. For instance, let us suppose that the force contained in
one particular star is adapted to produce grapes from a vine. We cannot,
by merely gazing at the star, calculate the crop which that vine will
bear; for, many things may hinder its fertility. It may be, for example,
planted in unsuitable soil; it may be cut down; cattle may browse on
it; or some other star may injure it, by causing either drought or too
heavy rains. By merely looking at the sky we cannot know which of these,
and many similar accidents, may occur. And if we can arrive at no more
certain conclusion than this, about purely natural things, how much less
can we trust our judgment upon those points which depend on the endless
variations of free-will?
Therefore, when we consider the false principles on which astrology
is based, and the mutable nature of man’s desires and will, we shall
see very clearly that the conduct of human affairs does not depend on
the stars, and that it is an absurdity to try to direct man’s lives by
studying the heavens.
But, it is not our intention to argue at any greater length against
such folly. We will rest content with having proved that any religion,
that ever has been, or ever shall be invented, for the worship of the
stars and other heavenly bodies, is meaningless and superstitious. Count
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, whose sublimity of intelligence and wealth
of learning must be numbered among the great works of God and of nature,
has, in his book of disputations, so subtly confuted and completely
demolished the pretensions of astrologers to powers of divination,
that anyone who reads his treatise intelligently, and does not then
despise astrology, deserves to be considered an unreasonable man. In
order, furthermore, to convince every one of the folly of astrologers,
I also have composed and published, in the vulgar tongue,[23] a work in
confutation of their doctrine. Therefore, let whosoever desires it read
these books, and he will see how great a folly it is to devote time to
such a superstition, or to trust in it.
CHAPTER IV.
IDOLATRY IS OF ALL THINGS THE MOST VAIN.
We have already shown that the religion of philosophers, who worshipped
the First Cause, was insufficient for salvation; and that the teaching of
astrologers was most useless and dangerous. How much more contemptible,
then, is worship given to images of wood and stone, made in the likeness
of men or beasts? Surely, such a religion needs no confutation; since
every one can see that it is foolish to honour senseless things.
Some men, however, to excuse their folly, say that they do not honour
images themselves, but the gods dwelling in them, just as Christians
honour the representations of the Saints. We shall show, therefore, that
the worship which they pay to these gods, was, and if it still anywhere
exist, is, both impious and superstitious. This is a fitting place to
discuss this subject; for, as we have been treating of extremes we ought
now to speak of the mean; and midway between God and the heavens, are the
separate substances[24] which were the gods of the pagans.
But we must remember that God moves the will of man in two ways: either
by showing him good, in order to excite him to the love of it; or, by
applying His power to the will of man, in order to make that will elicit
an act of love or of desire—just as a shepherd may either attract a
sheep by showing it pasturage; or he may, with his hand, draw it along.
Now, creatures can influence each other in the former of these two ways;
but no man can act on the will of another in the second way specified.
Because, as the will proceeds immediately from God, it is immediately
subject to Him, and He alone can move it to will, or not to will. But,
although the will be completely in God’s power, He never acts upon it
in such a way as to deprive man of his liberty. He always leaves him
his free-will; because God moves all things according to their form and
natural propensity. Man, as man, is immediately subject to God; and to
Him alone, as to the Prime Mover and Ruler of all things, does he owe
the worship of _latria_.[25] He is bound to pay to other immaterial
substances, only such honour as is proportioned to their participation in
the Divine likeness. Therefore, the Christian gives all his worship to
God. He honours the Saints and Angels, not as gods but as the friends of
God. He desires that they should pray for him, and impetrate from God the
things that he, of himself, cannot obtain from Him. He praises God in His
Saints, and thanks Him that He has deigned to bestow such glory upon His
creatures. This is a lawful and holy way of honouring God and immaterial
substances. But idolaters adored their idols, and burnt incense to them,
and implored favours of them, believing them to be true gods.
But, as some may argue that, although the heathens adored many gods,
their worship was really referred to Almighty God, whom they adored in
all their other gods; we shall show that, even were this the case, it
would not justify the folly and evil of idolatry. Firstly, because the
masses of the heathen nations could not appreciate such distinctions,
and were, therefore, misled; and, secondly, because the heathen
ceremonies were largely composed of absurd and unseemly rites. It cannot
be maintained that these ceremonies were practised only by impious
men who wanted to degrade the worship of their idols, since they were
observed throughout the whole world, even amongst great men.
But we will not now argue this point any further. We will confine
ourselves to proving, that the idols, worshipped by the heathen, were not
gods, but evil spirits, in whose person God could not be honoured. It is
proper to every created and well-ordered intellect, not only to submit
itself, and to pay homage to its First Cause, which is God; but also to
dispose all other intelligences inferior to itself, to do likewise, so
that God, the Worker of all good, may be glorified in all things. But
the spirits adored by idolaters, whilst frequently giving answers to
those who questioned them, never inclined men to true religion, nor to a
well-ordered life. In fact, we read that they acted quite contrariwise,
subverting all order, deceiving men, and usurping the honour due to God;
thus filling the world with so much sin and ignorance, that mankind had
no knowledge of Him.
Again, good spirits do not work evil, nor encourage hatred, nor inculcate
vice. But we read of the pagan deities, that amongst them, war,
dissensions, sacrilege, incest, and many other crimes, which we cannot
contemplate without horror, were common; and these fabulous stories of
their lives set a bad example to all mankind.
Furthermore, God being perfect and standing in need of nothing, does
not, for His own sake, desire our worship. He enjoins it on us for our
profit, as a means whereby we may become perfect and blessed. Therefore,
every well-ordered intelligence ought to endeavour, as far as possible,
to obey this Divine command, and to teach others to worship God, in order
thus to gain beatitude. Consequently, had the heathen deities been good
spirits, they would have endeavoured to render men virtuous and perfect
in the spiritual life, which consists in the knowledge, love, and desire
of God. Now, on the contrary, they deceived mankind by so much vanity and
falsehood, that, truth and virtue were far better taught in the schools
of such philosophers as Pythagoras and Socrates, Plato and Aristotle,
than in the temples of the gods. And the philosophers, who despised or
ignored the pagan religions, were men of better life than the heathen
priests.
Further, if the heathen deities had been good spirits, they would have
given to mankind some assurance of obtaining what it desired, _to wit_,
beatitude and true virtue; thereby showing that they watched over the
interests of man as guardians, whose duty it was to direct all things to
their proper end; and remembering that, even philosophers could not, by
reason of this weakness of human intellect, arrive at knowledge of this
truth. But, far from acting thus, the pagan gods confused the minds of
mortals, and prevented them from attaining to this knowledge.
Good spirits are not liars, and do not deceive men; for falsehood
is always evil. But we read of the gods of the ancients, that they
frequently misled their questioners by giving them false and ambiguous
answers. Again, as we have shown before, the knowledge of things to come
is a Divine prerogative, which, had the heathen gods been good spirits,
they would not have claimed. For they did not, like our prophets, say,
“Thus saith God”. They spoke as of themselves, pretending to prescience
of the future, and seducing men into superstition. They also feigned to
disclose to them events to come by means of the entrails of animals, or
the song and flight of birds, and such like follies. From all this, good
spirits would not only have abstained; they would even have forbidden
them to their followers. Neither would good spirits have encouraged
magical arts, by means of which, gross immorality was often perpetrated,
innocent persons were deprived of life, and wicked men were rendered
prosperous. On the contrary, they would have loathed such practices, and
would have strenuously forbidden them.
Again, no good spirit would take pleasure in cruelty. Now, we read that,
for the sacrifices offered to the heathen deities, not only were beasts
slaughtered, but even children and young maidens were slain by their
own fathers; and this, because the gods desired these massacres, and
delighted in them. And, at the destruction of the pagan temples, which
ensued on the preaching of the Apostles, there were found innumerable
bones of men and women, but mostly of children, of both sexes.
We could recount endless evils which have sprung from idolatry. What we
have said will, however, suffice, seeing that, through the mercy of our
Lord Jesus Christ, this false teaching has been swept from the face of
the earth. The heathen religions have likewise been abundantly confuted
and expounded by our forefathers, who were men of learning. Surely if
the pagan idols had been gods, their worship could never have been so
completely exterminated as it has been.
CHAPTER V.
A REFUTATION OF THE JEWISH PERFIDY AND SUPERSTITION.
From what we have been saying it is clear, that, before the coming of
Christ, the light of natural reason was obscured to such a degree, that,
without His succour, mankind would have been so blinded by sin as to
sink below the level of irrational animals. Therefore, man required
supernatural light. But, as many, (among whom the Jews are the chief),
have made a bad use of the knowledge which is the origin of this light,
we intend to dispute with them, and to show them their errors; although
they glory in the Old Testament, which they pervert by strained and
erroneous interpretations. Now, all their hope is centred on the Messiah,
for whose coming they still look. If, then, we are able to prove to them
that the Messiah has already come, and is Jesus Christ our Saviour, they
cannot deny that our religion is of God, and that they are in error. And,
although the proofs given in our Second Book ought to be sufficient to
convince them, (for if Jesus be not the Messiah, who, greater or worthier
than He, can come?), we will, nevertheless, adduce some further special
arguments founded on those very Scriptures in which the Jews believe. We
shall, however, discuss these points very briefly, as they have already
been very fully treated by learned men. We have promised in this Book
to make use, not of the testimony of authority, but of reasoning. Our
reasoning, as it is based on the authority in which our adversaries
believe, is most convincing against them, and most profitable to other
unbelievers. Therefore, on the authority of the Prophets, we shall prove
that Jesus Christ of Nazareth, crucified by the Jews, is the Messiah of
the Patriarchs and Prophets, and that He was, in many ways, foretold and
foreshadowed in Holy Writ.
First, however, we must establish some self-evident principles. It was
known to all the Jews, that God had promised to send them a Saviour and
a great Prophet, who should be called the Messiah, and whom all men were
to hear and obey as God Himself. Thus Moses says to the people: “The
Lord thy God will raise up to thee a Prophet of thy nation and of thy
brethren like unto me: Him thou shalt hear, as thou desirest of the Lord
thy God” (Deut. xviii. 15, 16). And, again, the Lord speaks in these
terms to Moses: “I will raise them up a Prophet out of the midst of their
brethren, like to thee: and I will put My words in his mouth, and he
shall speak to them all that I shall command him. And he that will not
hear his words, which he shall speak in My name, I will be the revenger”
(_Ibid._ xviii. 18, 19).
It is certain, then, and acknowledged by all the Jews, that the
circumstances of the Messiah were foretold in the Mosaic law, in the
Psalms, and in the Prophets. That is to say, there are many predictions
concerning His race, birthplace, and the time of His coming, and also
regarding His life and teaching, His works, and many other things
peculiar to the Messiah. It is known, moreover, throughout the entire
world, that the Old Testament, interpreted by Christian doctors, shows
that all that is written of the Messiah is true of Jesus of Nazareth. In
fact, so aptly do the prophecies of the Old Testament apply to Christ
and to His Church, that if the Jews were not loud in proclaiming the
antiquity of Moses and the Prophets, their predictions might be taken for
forgeries of Christianity.
Let us, then, inquire of the Jews, whether Jesus of Nazareth be, in
truth, the Messiah. If He be, they ought to become Christians; for they
have been commanded to hear and to obey Him. If He be not the Messiah,
how is it that God has allowed all the conditions peculiar to the Messiah
to be manifested to the Jews, since He enjoined of them to follow Him
who should display these qualifications? If Christ be not the Messiah,
we must say, either that God did not know that Jesus was to come into
the world, or that he could not prevent His coming; or that, having the
power, He had not the will, to oppose His advent. Any of these answers
would be unworthy of a sane man. If, then, God foreknew the coming of
Christ, and could have prevented it, why did He not do so, since he had
imposed such strict commandments upon the Jews? It would look as if God
had deceived the Jews; and as if Christians would not be condemned by
Him for following Jesus of Nazareth, in describing whose career all the
Prophets agree, and who was wonderful above all other men. Certainly,
if He be not the Messiah, we need not expect any greater wonder-worker
than He. If He be not the Messiah, God, through Him, has deceived the
whole human race. Let the Jews, then, search the Scripture, and see what
distinguishing mark they expect to see in their Messiah, which is not
clearly manifested by Jesus of Nazareth.
Again, Holy Writ foretells the period in which the Messiah is to come.
This period, as we perceive by the Scripture, is long since passed. If,
then, no man has ever been seen on earth, possessing greater power,
wisdom, or goodness than Jesus of Nazareth, how can we doubt, that,
if the Messiah be already come, Jesus was He? Many passages in Holy
Scripture indicate the time fixed for the advent of the Messiah. Thus we
read in Genesis: “The sceptre shall not be taken away from Juda, nor a
ruler from his thigh, till He come that is to be sent, and He shall be
the expectation of nations” (Gen. xlix. 10). Again in Daniel we read:
“Seventy weeks are shortened upon thy people, and upon thy holy city,
that transgression may be finished, and sin may have an end, and iniquity
may be abolished; and everlasting justice may be brought; and vision and
prophecy may be fulfilled; and the Saint of saints may be anointed. Know
thou, therefore, and take notice: that from the going forth of the word,
to build up Jerusalem again, unto Christ the prince, there shall be seven
weeks, and sixty-two weeks: and the street shall be built again, and the
walls in straitness of times. And after sixty-two weeks Christ shall be
slain: and the people that deny Him shall not be His. And a people, with
their leader that shall come, shall destroy the city and the sanctuary:
and the end thereof shall be waste, and after the end of the war the
appointed desolation. And he shall confirm the covenant with many, in
one week: and in the half of the week the victim and the sacrifice shall
fail: and there shall be in the temple the abomination of desolation: and
the desolation shall continue even to the consummation, and to the end”
(Dan. ix. 24-27).
We can easily see from these words, that Jesus Christ is the true
Messiah. For the seventy weeks mentioned have passed long ago; and there
is no one except Christ with whom we can connect them. In the Holy
Scriptures, as we learn from Leviticus xxiii. and xxv., a week may
signify either seven days or seven years. Now, seventy weeks of years
amount to 490 years. And this period has elapsed, four times, between
the days of Daniel and our own. And, if any one should object, that
Daniel meant by a week neither seven days nor seven years, but some
longer period, we would ask him what the longer period may be? And as he
will not be able to answer, except in our terms, it is clear that any
period assigned by him, and unspecified by Holy Writ, will be his own
invention. Surely, if by a week God intended to signify a number of days
and years not mentioned in Scripture, He would, by not apprising Daniel
of the fact, have rendered his prophecy useless, and a cause of confusion
and error. It must, therefore, be conceded that the time appointed for
the advent of the Messiah is past; and, that He has already come. It
were vain to answer, that, although the weeks predicted by Daniel have
elapsed, the Messiah has not arrived; and to argue that neither Daniel
nor the other Prophets indicate _how soon_ after the close of the seventy
weeks Christ _is_ to come. For, if this argument held good, it would
follow that the Prophets never foretold, with any certainty, anything
concerning the Messiah. However, Daniel expressly says, “Know thou,
therefore, and take notice: that from the going forth of the word, to
build up Jerusalem again, unto Christ the Prince, there shall be seven
weeks, and sixty-two weeks”; and again: “He shall confirm the covenant
with many, in one week: and in the half of the week the victim and the
sacrifice shall fail”. The meaning of which words cannot certainly be
applied to any one except to Christ. Thus we see that He is indicated
by this text; otherwise God would have led us into error, letting us
believe that what was spoken concerning another, referred to Christ.
But let us now proceed to an exposition of the words. It is manifest,
from what has already been said, that Jesus came into the world, in order
to dispel error, and to lead men to holiness of life. Hence, the time of
His coming is plainly shown by the words, “seventy weeks are shortened
upon thy people, and upon thy holy city”; for they indicate that He was
to preach first to the Jews. And the next words, “that transgression
may be finished, and sin may have an end, and everlasting justice be
brought,” have been verified throughout the world. And, because all
Prophets speak of Christ in the same strain, Daniel continues, “and
vision and prophecy may be fulfilled, and the Saint of saints may be
anointed,” by which we understand the anointing of Jesus Christ, at His
Incarnation, with the unction of the Holy Spirit. But, as, at the same
time, many different things were accomplished, Daniel describes them
all without distinction. He makes mention, first, of “seven weeks,”
because, in that time, as we read in Esdras and Nehemias, the temple and
city, destroyed by Nabuchadonosor, were, with the greatest difficulty,
restored. He next speaks of “sixty-two weeks,” because during that
period, as we learn from the book of Maccabees, the Jews were grievously
harassed by their enemies. Thirdly, Daniel refers to “one week,” because
at the beginning of one week Christ began to preach, and in the middle of
a week He was crucified, for He preached for three years and a half.[26]
He was followed by His Apostles, who taught the Jews, that the legal
sacrifices and ceremonies need no longer be observed, since, as the
Reality had come, it was meet that its type should have an end. The
doctors of the Church show that Christ began to preach, and was slain, at
the predicted time; and, as men may read their books for themselves, I
will pass over the subject briefly. And as the Jews denied Christ before
Pilate saying, “we have no king but Cæsar,” they were justly condemned
by God, and the Gentiles chosen by Him in their stead. Their rejection
is signified by the words, “the people that shall deny Him shall not be
His”: _i.e._, in punishment of their sin they were dispersed. Therefore,
the Prophet continues, “and a people”—_i.e._, the Romans—“with their
leader that shall come”—_i.e._, Vespasian and Titus—“shall destroy the
city and the sanctuary,” _i.e._, the Temple. And, as the Jews were
completely routed and dispersed, the prophecy concludes with the words,
“and the end thereof shall be waste, and after the end of the war the
appointed desolation”.
God had promised to the Patriarchs and Prophets to send the Messiah,
who should open Heaven to them and give them a new law. Thus we read in
Jeremias: “Behold the days shall come, saith the Lord, and I will make a
new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Juda. Not
according to the covenant which I made with their fathers, in the day
that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt:
the covenant which they made void, and I had dominion over them, saith
the Lord. But this shall be the covenant, that I will make with the
house of Israel, after those days, saith the Lord: I will give My law in
their bowels, and I will write it in their heart: and I will be their
God, and they shall be My people” (Jer. xxxi. 31-33). Therefore Daniel
says, “He shall confirm the covenant with many in one week”. This means,
that Christ should, by His Blood and His Preaching, with that of His
Apostles, confirm the covenant of the New Testament, not to all, (for
all would not believe), but to many in one week, the last week, “and in
the half of the week the victim and the sacrifice shall fail,” because
in the middle of this week Jesus Christ was crucified. And, as He was
prefigured by the victims and sacrifices of the Old Law, it was meet
that when He, the true Light, came, these shadows should flee away. The
Temple was thus rendered useless; and by the will of God it was profaned
and utterly destroyed. Therefore Daniel continues, “and there shall be in
the temple the abomination of desolation”. This abomination signifies,
that the statue of the Emperor Hadrian should be set up where the Ark of
Moses had stood; for in the eyes of the Jews every idol was abominable.
The expression “abomination” may also refer to the Jewish sacrifices,
which were to become abominable before the Lord. Finally, as the Jews
will not be converted to the faith, save at the end of the world,[27]
Daniel concludes by saying, “the desolation shall continue even to the
consummation and to the end”.
This is confirmed by the Prophet Osee in the words: “Thou shalt wait for
me many days: thou shalt not play the harlot,” _i.e._, thou shalt not
worship idols. This prophecy foretells the fact, that, after their return
from Babylon, even to this day, the Jews have not fallen into idolatry,
save for a little while at the time of the Maccabees. “And thou shalt
be no man’s,” continues the Prophet, meaning that the Jews should not
belong to Christ; “and I also will wait for thee. For the children of
Israel shall sit many days without king, and without prince, and without
sacrifice, and without altar, and without ephod, and without teraphim.
And after this the children of Israel shall return, and shall seek the
Lord their God, and David their King,” _i.e._, Christ, the Son of David,
“and they shall fear the Lord, and His goodness in the last days” (Osee
iii. 3, 5).
This prophecy most distinctly points to Jesus of Nazareth. And if we
study the other Prophets carefully, we shall see His coming foretold
by all. But, returning to our original point, we observe that the time
for the advent of the Messiah has already passed,—not only the time
determined by the Holy Scriptures, but also the time indicated by
many Jewish doctors,—and, as no other man save Jesus of Nazareth, has
appeared, bearing the characteristics which were to distinguish the
Messiah, every one must conclude that Christ is the Messiah promised in
the Law and the Prophets.
This truth is further borne out by the last Jewish captivity; as we
shall see, if we compare it with the Babylonian captivity, by which it
is typified. The captivity of Babylon was a punishment to the Jews for
their many sins, especially for their idolatry, which of all crimes is
the most heinous. Nevertheless, even during their captivity, they were
always consoled by the presence of their leaders and prophets and holy
men; and their exile did not last for more than seventy years. But their
last captivity has lasted for more than 1400 years, which they have
passed, deprived of all consolation; without leader, prophet, or holy
man. Neither has God assigned any limit to the time of their captivity.
Yet, they have not incurred this punishment by idolatry, since, as we
have said, they have not, since the Babylonian captivity, fallen into
this crime.
Why, then, have the Jews been scattered over the face of the earth? And
why has their name been made a byword to all men? Surely, if idolatry
be the greatest of all crimes, and if they have not committed it for
hundreds of years, their punishment ought to be a lighter one than that
which they once incurred for idolatry. They must, then, be suffering
for an offence even more heinous. This offence is, that, with malicious
perfidy and hatred, they have crucified the true Son of God, whom they
knew by His life, His miracles, and the prophecies concerning Him, to be
the Messiah. They have, with a few exceptions, persevered in this malice
until now. And it is for this crime, and in order to render testimony to
our faith, that they have been dispersed over the earth.
Again. For a very long time, no sign of sanctity or of true religion
has appeared among the Hebrew people. They have been distinguished for
avarice and other sins. The gift of prophecy has failed among them. And
God does not now, as in times past, show, by any sign, that they are
His people. On the other hand, the Church of the Gentiles manifests all
holiness of life, true religion, and the wonderful works of Christ and
of His saints. Thus is verified the prophecy of Malachy, who, speaking in
the person of God, to the Jews, says, “I have no pleasure in you, saith
the Lord of hosts: and I will not receive a gift of your hand. For from
the rising of the sun even to the going down, My name is great among the
Gentiles, and in every place there is sacrifice, and there is offered to
My name a clean oblation: for My name is great among the Gentiles, saith
the Lord of hosts” (Mal. i. 10, 11). If God, who is no longer with the
Hebrew people, be not with the Gentiles, He must have utterly forsaken
the human race.
Again. If it be true that God does not despise small things, neither does
He contemn such as are greater. He has foretold by His Prophets many
events, such as matters concerning the small kingdoms of the Idumeans,
Moabites, Ammonites, far less important than the deeds of Christ and of
His Church. Surely, then, it would be an extraordinary thing, were He
to pass over in silence these wonderful works; the more so as he made
known, before the coming of our Lord, all the evils which have since
befallen the Jews. Now, as the Kingdom of Christ was to be to the Jews a
far greater and more enduring calamity than any other, is it reasonable
to suppose that God, who warned them of the minor evils which would come
upon them from Nabuchadonosor, and other kings and nations, would have
made no reference in the Scripture to the advent of Christ? But, as the
Scriptures do contain abundant mention of Him; and as, by comparing His
works with the words of the Prophets, we see that no prophecies can apply
to Him, save those that refer to the Messiah, we are driven to conclude,
either that God has deceived us, or that Jesus Christ is the Messiah.
If, again, we study history, we shall see, that, before the coming of
our Lord, God continually showed forth His wonders among the Jewish
people; but since the advent of Christ, no marvellous sign has ever been
wrought amongst them. This proves that they are forsaken of God. That the
Almighty has abandoned them, is further shown, by the blindness of their
understanding. For their doctrines are full of fables so foolish, that no
one, with any sense, would propagate them. And their expositions of Holy
Scripture are so palpably erroneous, that one wonders that shame has not
prevented their publishing, or even conceiving, the fallacies in which
they abound.
We might adduce many other proofs in refutation of the Jews. But the
doctors of the Church have written very fully on this matter; so, that
which we have said about it must suffice. However, if any one will study
the arguments just brought forward against the Jews, together with those
adduced in our Second Book, he will most certainly conclude, that Jesus
of Nazareth is the true God, and the Messiah foretold by the Prophets.
CHAPTER VI.
THE MALICIOUS UNTRUTHFULNESS OF HERETICS.
We must next consider the case of heretics, who, while acknowledging
Christ and the Gospel, are involved in many errors. It would take too
long to refute every heresy. Therefore, as learned authors have devoted
themselves to this task, we will simply, by means of reasoning, confute
the principles common to them all.
First, then, we will prove that it is necessary that the Church should
be governed by one only head. For, if heretics believe that Divine
Providence rules the world, and especially the Church, by which such
great deeds have been wrought, they must, to be consistent, admit that
the form of government ordained by the Lord of all things must be the
best. Now, the best government is a monarchy; because, by it a nation is
brought into closer unity, than by a government administered by many; and
union and peace are the end aimed at by government. Therefore, as the
government of the Church is the best kind of government, its government
must be a monarchy.
Again, the government of lower things naturally follows the government
of such as are higher; and the more closely it resembles it, the more
perfect it will be. Hence, the government of the Church militant, being
fashioned on the pattern of that of the Church triumphant, which is ruled
by God alone, must be administered by one ruler only.
Further, supernatural things are more perfectly ordered than are things
natural. Now in nature we see that wheresoever government exists there is
only one ruler; for instance, bees have only one queen, and the limbs of
the body are regulated by the heart. Therefore, as the government of the
Church, being supernatural, is superior to all other governments, it must
be administered by one governor alone.
Now, all heretics agree with us either about the New Testament alone, or
about the New Testament and the Old together; although they dissent from
us in the interpretation of the Scriptures. But both in the Old and in
the New Testament, it is distinctly said that the Church is to have one
head. “The children of Juda, and the children of Israel shall be gathered
together: and they shall appoint themselves under one head,” says Osee
(i. 11). “There shall be one fold and one Shepherd,” says our Lord (St.
John x. 16). No one can reasonably understand such words as meaning, that
after His ascension, Christ would be the Head of His Church in such sense
that no earthly head would be required. For He would thus have created
endless confusion and discord; and there would have been no means of
adjudicating between the many opinions concerning faith and morals, which
would have arisen amongst Christians. Therefore, our Lord, speaking to
St. Peter alone, said, “Feed My sheep” (St. Matt. xxi. 18). And again,
“I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not: and thou being once
converted, confirm thy brethren” (St. Luke xxii. 32). Hereby is shown
that He left St. Peter as His vicar. He proved his intention still more
clearly when he said, “Thou art Peter; and upon this rock I will build My
Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will
give to thee the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt
bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in Heaven: and whatsoever thou
shalt loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in Heaven” (St. Matt. xvi.
18, 19).
It cannot, however, be supposed that Christ gave this dignity to St.
Peter only, to the exclusion of his successors; since He Himself
declared, that the Church should endure for ever in the order established
by Him. Speaking to His disciples, and addressing, in their person, all
the faithful, He said, “Behold I am with you, even unto the consummation
of the world” (St. Matt. xxviii. 20). And again, by the mouth of Isaias,
He says, “He shall sit upon the throne of David, and upon his Kingdom:
to establish it, and strengthen it with judgment and with justice, from
henceforth and for ever” (Is. ix. 7). These passages clearly indicate,
that the office confided by Christ to St. Peter, being highly expedient
and necessary to the Church, should, by a perpetual succession, be
guaranteed to her for ever. Hence it follows that, as St. Peter was
chosen by Christ to be His vicar and the shepherd of the whole Church,
all his successors must inherit his power. And, as the Bishops of Rome
hold the place of Peter, the Roman Church must consequently be the
mistress and ruler of all churches; and the whole body of the faithful
must be in unity with the Roman Pontiff. Whosoever therefore disagrees
in his teaching with the doctrine of the Roman Church, withdraws from
Christ, following crooked ways. And, as all heretics dissent from the
teaching of the Church, they have all declined from the right way, and
are unworthy of the name of Christians. For by heretics we mean such as,
falsifying the Holy Scripture, and choosing a religion for themselves, do
obstinately persevere in their error.
Again, it is often said: “Truth mates with truth, and all truths confirm
each other”. But heretics disagree so completely between themselves, that
they have scarcely a point in common; nay, rather, they are perpetually
flinging abuse at one another; and no solid argument can be found in
their teaching. This, of itself, proves how far they have strayed from
the truth. But the doctrine of the Roman Church, so far as regards faith
and morals, is one; and her doctors, though almost innumerable, never
dissent, nor desire to dissent, from it.
Again, the Kingdom of Christ and of the Church militant will endure until
the consummation of the world. Nay, more, even after the earth shall have
been made new, this kingdom will last for ever, in the Church triumphant.
Now, as many heretics have risen against the Roman Church, and have been
absolutely crushed, it is clear that they cannot have formed part of the
Church, and that their teaching was not of God.
Again, the sinful lives of many heretics prove, further, that they come
not from God. Not one, even among the most eminent of the heresiarchs,
has been held in the veneration accorded to the Saints of our Church,
whose very bones and ashes are solemnly honoured, while the day of their
death is commemorated by praises of their holy lives.
Heretics also fall into numerous errors not only concerning Holy
Scripture, but regarding natural reason and true philosophy. This is
another proof that their teaching is not inspired by God. But we need not
further discuss their errors, since they have been abundantly refuted by
holy doctors. And their heretical doctrines (I speak of those that have
more publicly attacked the Church), have been almost entirely extirpated.
This, of itself, is a proof that they came not forth from God.
CHAPTER VII.
THE UTTER IRRATIONALITY OF THE MAHOMETAN RELIGION.
Mahometans, who observe the Jewish rite of circumcision and maintain
almost every heretical doctrine, stand midway between Jews and heretics.
It shall be our last, and not very difficult, task to refute them. I
say that the task should not be a difficult one, for any one who knows
the religion and reads the Koran of Mahomet, must be at once convinced
of the folly of his system. All religion, to be true, must be either
supernatural, or must proceed from the light of natural religion. Now,
the Mahometan superstition can be inspired by no wisdom, either human or
Divine, seeing that any one, however moderately versed in philosophy, can
easily confute it.
The book of the Koran, or collection of precepts, bears ample testimony
to the ignorance of its author, Mahomet. Its contents are so confusedly
brought together, that no one in the world could, I believe, arrange
them. This want of method is a clear sign of ignorance, or of falseness
of judgment. But the Koran is also so full of fables and immorality, that
it deserves ridicule rather than serious analysis. It is evident that
such a law could not proceed from natural reason, and still less from
supernatural inspiration, since, as we have before shown, what is opposed
to natural light, is necessarily opposed also to supernatural wisdom.
Again, a bad beginning rarely, if ever, brings a good ending. Now,
Mahometanism began with Mahomet, who, as history tells us, was a most
unreasonable and unprincipled man, an adulterer, and a robber. He was
subject to epileptic fits, which often caused him to fall prostrate, and
these falls he attributed to colloquies with an angel. Gradually, and by
means, not of argument, but of violence and bribery, he gathered around
him a number of uneducated and depraved men; and with their assistance
conquered vast multitudes of people. A sect, begun in this fashion, was
not likely to have a good end.
Mahomet, in his Koran, approves both the New and the Old Testament. He
commends Christ as a true Prophet, born of the Virgin Mary. But, in spite
of this, he accuses Christians of having falsified both the Old and the
New Testament. Such an accusation will, easily, be rejected by any one
who considers the uniformity existing between the versions of the Old
and New Testament, whether written in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, or any other
language, either ancient or modern. Had Christians tampered with the
Scriptures, how could the versions of the Bible be uniform? This would
be wonderful, existing, as they do, in so many languages, and written in
such numbers of books, both Jewish and Christian, ancient and modern.
This very uniformity of all the versions of the Scriptures is a clear
proof that the fables of Mahomet, and the Koran itself, are but a tissue
of lies.
Again, every true religion is established for the purpose of teaching a
virtuous mode of life. Its end is the practice of purity of heart. It is
intended to facilitate the contemplation of the Divine mysteries. Now,
the religion of Mahomet is absolutely material. Completely ignoring true
beatitude, it promises to its followers, after this life, nothing but
the enjoyment of sensual gratification. There is no ground for saying
that Mahomet spoke allegorically. The Koran contains no explanation of
any parable, such as are to be found in our Scriptures.
Among the Mahometans, again, we do not, as in the Christian religion,
meet with any miracles, or manifestation of Divine phenomena. Mahomet,
while acknowledging Christ as the messenger of God, commissioned to
convert the world by miracles, said that he himself had been sent
by Heaven to convert it by the sword. This pretension was obviously
ridiculous; since God takes no pleasure in tyranny, nor in compulsory
service. There is nothing striking in the doctrine contained in the
Koran; yet the Mahometans think that they are uttering a wonderful
saying, when they pronounce the words, “There is but one God, and Mahomet
is His prophet”; “God is great and powerful”. This, and similar phrases,
are often repeated, and to them are added fables, which our very children
would ridicule.
Again, the Mahometans, unlike Christians, own no prophets, no holy men,
no workers of heavenly wonders. They venerate as saints, certain madmen,
who mutilate their bodies, perform strange antics, and know nothing of
Divine things. Mahomet, also, constantly contradicts himself in his
Koran. He says that he knows not, whether he and his followers are in
the way of salvation; and that he believes, that none can understand his
law. It is a matter of surprise to me, that he was not stoned by his
own people for giving them an unintelligible code, and leaving them in
doubt about their salvation. His law indeed, being supported neither by
natural reason, by miracles, nor by sanctity of life, is, fittingly, an
object of derision. If Mahomet had attempted to establish his religion
by preaching, his errors would have been very easily demonstrated. But,
knowing that his doctrine was indefensible on any logical grounds, he had
the astuteness to command, that it should be propagated by the sword. It
may surprise some persons that Mahomet should have been successful in
perverting so many nations, and in seducing them from Christ. For, it may
be thought that Mahomet had greater influence than our Lord, the more so
as his kingdom has constantly been on the increase. Our answer is, that
there is nothing in this fact, which ought to impair our belief in the
Christian religion. It does not, in the least, diminish the strength of
the arguments which we have already adduced to prove the Divinity of its
Founder. For neither in the law of Mahomet, nor in any other religious
system, can anything be discovered, more holy, or more wonderful, than
the Christian dogmas.
As for the fact of Mahomet’s having withdrawn many from Christianity,
as much may be asserted of the devil. So, this is no proof of Mahomet’s
superiority to Christ. For Satan has conquered a far greater multitude
of souls than either our Lord or Mahomet have gained. If numbers are
to be considered as a testimony to truth, we ought to follow in the
wake of impious men, rather than to imitate the piety of the just. Bad
men will always outnumber the good. It is indeed a surprising mode of
arguing in favour of Mahomet, to say, that he must be superior to Christ,
because, by means of the sword, he has subjected many to his irrational
and degrading law. Such are not our arguments; nor was the Mahometan
system that on which Christianity was founded. Small wonder is it, that
Jesus has so few followers, since He commands us to live virtuously,
to suffer until death, and yet, promises us none but invisible rewards.
If the reasoning of those who uphold Mahometanism were correct, it
would gainsay, not only supernatural doctrine, but also philosophy.
For the conclusion, logically arising from it, is, that good is evil;
truth, falsehood; and light, darkness. For, if the fact that a system
is followed by a multitude renders it true and good and luminous; and
if, as is the case, the number of men living virtuously and reasonably
is extremely small, all our notions of religion and morality must be
reversed.
Again, we must remember that, as God allows those who will not walk in
the truth to be blinded, He suffered certain nations, as a punishment
for their sins, to be seduced by Mahomet. Surely, had such not been His
will, and had these races not deserved such a chastisement, Mahomet would
have been powerless. For, if Christ was able, whilst His Name was still
unknown, and the world was full of idolatry, to convert, by peaceful
means, so many nations to Himself, how much more glorious would be His
triumph, now that His Name is magnified throughout the whole earth?
But, as we have just said, God allowed certain nations to be infected
by Mahometanism, to punish them for their sins. Such a judgment is
consistent with the words of our Lord, “Many are called, but few are
chosen” (St. Matt. xx. 16).
We must, likewise, remember that the Church has frequently increased
numerically, and frequently diminished, because man possesses free-will,
and because God does not force him to virtue, but draws him by love. He
either promises him eternal happiness, or threatens him, if he persist in
sin, with divers penalties, of which one of the chief is the darkening of
his understanding. Thus, David, speaking in the person of Christ, and of
the just against the wicked, says, “Let their eyes be darkened that they
see not; and their back bend thou down always” (Ps. lxviii. 24). Again,
we find in Isaias, “Blind the heart of this people, and make their ears
heavy, and shut their eyes: lest they see with their eyes, and hear with
their ears, and understand with their heart, and be converted, and I heal
them” (Isa. vi. 10). This blindness of heart and stubbornness of mind,
foretold by the Prophets, was the first punishment that overtook the Jews.
We know, also, that it has been predicted, that many are to fall away
from the faith. Our Lord, speaking of the end of the world, says,
“Because iniquity hath abounded, the charity of many hath grown cold”
(St. Matt. xxiv. 12). He says again, “The Son of Man, when He cometh,
shall He find, think you, faith on earth”? (St. Luke xviii. 8). St. Paul,
likewise, writes thus to Timothy, “Now the Spirit manifestly saith,
that in the last times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to
spirits of error, and doctrines of devils” (1 Tim. iv. 1). And, if we
study the teaching of the Gospel, we shall find that this blindness of
heart, the severest of all punishments, because it leads to hell, has
been foretold by Christ, and by Him has been permitted to overtake men
for their ingratitude and malice.
Some one may, however, reply, that it does not seem just that children
should be punished for the sins of their fathers; and that if the Jews
and Mahometans offended God, them indeed He ought to have punished with
blindness, but not to have involved in the same fate their descendants.
To this argument we would reply, that, as the faith of Christ is known
to the entire world, no one can be excused for disbelieving it. Of
course, children would not be punished with their fathers, if they did
not commit their fathers’ sins. Men are all the less excusable, since,
if they lived according to natural reason, and prayed to God for their
eternal salvation, they would most undoubtedly be enlightened by faith.
For, although we know that the judgments of God are unsearchable, we know
likewise that He will never be wanting to any creature in its necessity.
The Apostle says, “For God hath concluded all in unbelief, that He may
have mercy on all”. Then, contemplating the unfathomable abyss of the
Divine Majesty, he immediately continues, “O the depth of the riches, of
the wisdom, and of the knowledge of God! How incomprehensible are His
judgments, and how unsearchable His ways! For who hath known the mind of
the Lord? Or who hath been His counsellor? Or who hath first given to
Him, and recompense shall be made him? For of Him, and by Him, and in
Him, are all things: to Him be glory for ever, Amen” (Rom. xi. 32-36).
We must, nevertheless, bear in mind that Christ our Lord, who foretold
these evils to come, has likewise assured us that His Church shall never
fail. For “behold,” He says, “I am with you all days, even unto the
consummation of the world”. Now, as the calamities which He prophesied
have come to pass, we have every reason to trust that the blessing which
He has promised will also be vouchsafed to us. We may say this with
confidence, as the Church is so solidly established, that it is folly
to think that She can fail. We trust, therefore, that, as Christ has
punished unfaithful Christians, He will likewise make new His Church,
opening to her the whole world, that, so, there may be “one fold and one
Shepherd”. This, we know, will quickly come to pass. And, thus, the ship
of Peter will plough her way forward, sometimes borne on by favouring
winds, and sometimes buffeted by storms. But the law of Mahomet, based
not on reason, Divine or human, but on physical force, cannot endure; for
nothing established by violence can continue.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION WILL REMAIN TRUE AND UNWAVERING UNTO THE END.
As all religion must proceed either from natural reason, from
supernatural light, or from the union of the two, we should be bound, if
there existed any religions or superstitions besides these that we have
enumerated, to refute them with the same arguments that we have already
used. For all religions founded by men, enlightened merely by natural
light, are based, as is the religion of the ancient philosophers, on
the true principles of human reason. We have already shown that such a
religion will not suffice for salvation. Such religions may be founded
on false principles of reason. This may occur in one of two ways. They
may be, as is the superstition of astrology, grounded on false principles
concerning natural things; or, like idolatry, on false principles
emanating from Satan. Further, no religion can exist proceeding from
supernatural light which is not established on the Old and the New
Testament together. A false religion may, like the Jewish, be based on
the Old Testament alone; or, like heretical sects, on misinterpretation
of the New Testament; or, like Mahometanism, it may rest on a medley of
the Old and the New Testaments. But Christianity is founded on both the
Testaments, and is illuminated both by natural reason and by supernatural
light. Since then the religions which we have enumerated,—to wit,
philosophy, astrology, idolatry, Judaism, heresy, and Mahometanism,—are
the chief religions in the world; and since Christianity surpasses
them, both in reasonableness, in miracles, and in all other ways, as
immeasurably as Heaven dominates earth, or light darkness; it is plain,
that Christianity must be the true religion, and the sure harbour of
salvation.
But to forestall cavilling, we will add that, even should some one
proclaim the advent into the world of a religion superior to the
Christian Faith, this would in no wise dim the glory of Christianity.
Firstly, because, as, at present, no better religion than that of Christ
exists, we ought to follow it until a better appear. Secondly, because it
is unreasonable to think, that a religion, superior to Christianity, can
exist. For, as the Faith of Christ sets before us the best possible end,
the surest possible means of attaining thereto, the most perfect life,
and the greatest and most wonderful deeds, it can never be superseded by
any other system.
But, supposing, for the sake of argument, that a religion, superior to
Christianity, should arise, it would not condemn our Faith. For, since
Christianity, as we have shown, proceeds from supernatural light; and
since it is, in no wise, opposed to that which is natural, it can have
come from none but God. Thus, it can be condemned by no other religion.
Any better religion than Christianity must approve and commend the
Christian Faith; because any such religion would, necessarily, arise
either from natural or supernatural light. From whichsoever of these
sources it might spring, such a religion would, necessarily, approve and
commend Christianity. For truth must be ever in harmony with truth; and
whatsoever arises from natural or supernatural light, must proceed from
God the Creator of this dual light, which, by its beams, enlightens the
world with His truth. Were natural and supernatural light opposed to each
other, one would necessarily be false; and God would teach men at one
time falsehood, and at another time truth. This hypothesis is manifestly
absurd. For, were God thus to confuse our understanding, we should be
incapable of knowing the truth. To produce such a condition in His
creatures is foreign to the Divine Nature. Therefore, if any other true
religion were to arise in the world, it would be, of necessity, bound
to approve Christianity, and to commend it as the truth which leads to
eternal life.
CHAPTER IX.
EPILOGUE.
Arguments carry greatest weight when accumulated. Therefore, the
conclusion of our work shall consist of a brief summary of the line of
argument pursued throughout it. We will begin, therefore, by asserting
that the faith of Christians in the teaching of Christ, and their
observance of His commandments, is not founded on frivolous motives, but
on the most prudent grounds. Every intelligent man who considers the
greatness and the wondrous harmony of the universe, will be convinced,
that there must be a God, the Supreme Cause and Primary Mover of all
things. For, as everything that moves is moved by some other thing, there
must be some First Mover. Further, spirit being more noble than body,
and God being noble above all things, He must be a spirit and simple
substance, or Pure Act. Hence it follows, that He is perfect, Supreme
Good, Supreme Power, Immutable, Eternal, One. All that is noble is,
in proportion to its elevation above matter, more fully endowed with
knowledge. God, therefore, must be Highest Intelligence, and possessed
of free-will. He must act, not out of necessity, but by means of His
Will. As, by means of His Intelligence and Will, He acts in all things,
even in the very least, we must acknowledge that His providence cares
for all things, and especially for man, for whom He has created every
natural thing. Hence, it pertains to God, to guide man to his last end,
to wit, the contemplation of Divine things. But, as such beatitude cannot
be attained in this present life, wherein we are encompassed by misery,
and enjoy but scant knowledge of God, we are forced, under pain of being
very inconsistent, to believe in another life, and to maintain that the
soul is immortal, and that it is the form of the body. Thus the Catholic
Church, with respect to the natural order of things, teaches about God
and the final blessedness of man, nought save what is most reasonable and
intelligible.
If we next call to mind the picture which I drew of the Triumph of the
Cross, we shall see that Christians, in confessing the faith of Christ,
show the truest wisdom. For, the necessity of the existence of some
religion in the world cannot be denied, when man’s natural tendency to
religion—the means whereby blessedness is attained—is taken into account.
And, if the end of religion be a good life, and a good life be that true
religion whereby God is perfectly honoured, then as no better life than
the Christian life exists, we must confess Christianity to be the true
religion, whereby man is surely led to blessedness.
If it be a hard matter to believe that Jesus Christ, who was crucified,
is both God and Man, we must bear in mind, that, were this article of
Faith an error, it could not produce, foster, and develop the Christian
life. Yet, as a matter of fact, this truth produces, more than does any
other article of our belief, consummate perfection among Christians.
Again, we know that the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament,
on which our whole creed is founded, must be from God. Otherwise, the
innumerable events which they predict would not have been verified;
nor would the Scriptures have borne such abundant fruit throughout the
world. If our Faith were false, men of purified intellect could not
fail, especially when they are engaged in contemplation and prayer, to
discern its errors; but, contrariwise, we see that such men are the
boldest champions of the Faith. Again, were our religion false, its
exterior rites could not, as they do, sanctify those who practise them
reverently, nor deprave those who desecrate them. Neither, were the
Faith untrue, could it give to the hearts of Christians such peace, and
joy, and freedom, as to make them account affliction as a blessing and
consolation; nor would it beautify their very countenance with such an
expression of sincerity and calm, as to render them venerable in the
sight of all men, and a powerful attraction to the practice of Christian
virtue.
Furthermore, when we consider the power of Christ, whereby He has
overcome all—gods, emperors, tyrants, philosophers, heretics,
and barbarous nations; when we remember how His work has been
accomplished—not by the sword, nor by wealth, nor by human wisdom, but by
the daily torture and death of His martyrs; when we think of His Divine
Wisdom which has so speedily enlightened the world and purged it of its
errors; and when we reflect upon His mercy, whereby He has attracted
multitudes to His love so powerfully, that not only have they renounced
all earthly possessions, but have gladly suffered martyrdom rather than
deny one jot or tittle of the faith—can we hesitate as to the truth
of Christianity? What god, or what man, has wrought like wonders? If
these marvellous works have been performed without a miracle; this, of
itself, would be the greatest of miracles. But if they have been wrought
miraculously, these miracles prove that Christianity is blessed by God.
If we next study the teaching of Christ, we shall see that it contains
nothing unreasonable. The very mystery of the Blessed Trinity is
imaged forth in creatures. It is reasonable, again, to believe that
God is the Creator of all things, since everything needs an efficient
cause. Likewise, since man is created for supernatural happiness, it
is logical to maintain the sanctification and glory of the soul, and
the resurrection of the body; for without the body, the soul would be
imperfect. Furthermore, in order that the senses, more especially the
eyes, of glorified bodies, may have more perfect and more fitting objects
on which to exercise themselves, it is rational to believe that this
earth will likewise be glorified. As God is able to do more than we
can conceive, He was able by His power to become man. And it was most
fitting that He should become incarnate, in order to instruct mankind
as to its final beatitude, as to the true means for its attainment, and
also, that He might make satisfaction to the Eternal Father for the sins
of men. It beseemed Him, likewise, to be born of a Spotless Virgin, and
to die upon the Cross, to teach us to face even death for justice’ sake.
It was meet, too, that in order to give us hopes of our resurrection, He
should rise again, and that, having been unjustly judged by the wicked,
He should become the Judge of the living and the dead.
Again, nothing can be more in accordance with reason, than is the
judicial and ethical code of Christianity; since no life is so perfect
as is the Christian life. This results from the government of the
Church, whose doctrines contain all that is best in the teaching of
philosophers and sages. There is, again, nothing unreasonable, or absurd,
in ecclesiastical ceremonies. This is evidenced by the sanctity of life,
resulting from devout observance of them.
Where, then, shall we find a religion, established on such solid grounds
of reason, as is Christianity? Philosophers ignored the true end of human
life. Astrology is a web of superstition. Idolatry contains neither
morality nor truth. Judaism is refuted by its prophets of old, and by the
present captivity of its followers. The discord among heretics, and the
extermination of their sects, is a strong proof that they are in error.
Mahometanism outrages every principle of philosophy. Christianity alone
is resplendent with natural and supernatural light; and is adorned by
sanctity, wisdom, miracles, and wondrous deeds.
Can any intelligent man, then, refrain from devoutly embracing the Faith
of Christ? Can any one fail to perceive the rashness and folly of those
who revile a religion, blessed by God, and preserved by Him through
centuries of persecution, and consecrated by the blood of innumerable
martyrs? Surely, every man of sound judgment acknowledges Christianity
to be true. Every man must believe that there exists another life, into
which all must pass; that each one of us must stand before the awful
Judge who will place on His left hand the wicked condemned to eternal
punishment, and, on His right, the good who will enter into everlasting
bliss. In this glory unutterable they shall gaze for ever on God in
Trinity unspeakable, infinite. They shall rejoice in the grace of our
all-conquering and triumphant Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ, to whom be
power, and divinity, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, for ever and
ever. AMEN.
FOOTNOTES
[1] A translation has recently been published by the Catholic Truth
Society.
[2] _Life of St. Philip Neri_, translated by Father Pope, vol. i., p. 278.
[3] Tome i., p. 885. Edit. Paris, 1719.
[4] This will account for some few slight and unimportant verbal
variations from the original _Latin_ edition in the present English
translation, which, though it has been compared with the Latin, has been
made from the Italian version.
[5] Many other editions were afterwards printed in Italy and elsewhere,
which are not mentioned by Echard.
[6] Page 339. Edit. Paris, 1879.
[7] An imperfect edition in English appeared in 1661. A copy is to be
found in the Cambridge University Library. It was “printed by John Field,
printer to the University, Cambridge,” under the title, “_The Truth of
the Christian Faith_; or, _The Triumph of the Cross_, by Hieronymus
Savonarola, done into English out of the author’s own Italian copy”; and
it was dedicated “To the much honoured Francis S. John, Esq.”.
[8] The alphabetical _Index_ at the end of this translation is not
found in either the Latin or the Italian edition. It is added for the
convenience of the English reader.
[9] Page 235.
[10] Heb. xiii. 8.
[11] Isa. lix. 21.
[12] In addition to the instances which I shall give later on, the reader
will look in vain in Mr. Travers Hill’s translation for the reference
to “the blessed Mother of God, the Virgin Mary,” the “Host,” “Chalice,”
“Mary,” and “Relics,” which will be found in chapter ii. of the First
Book in _this_ translation (and in the original, which Mr. Hill professes
to reproduce in English). In the following chapter he will also fail to
find Savonarola’s words about “Virgins,” “the Eucharist,” “the Veneration
of the Cross,” and “the reverence due to Mary and the Saints”. In the
eleventh chapter of the Second Book the subjects of cloistral-life,
fasting and watching, and the three vows of religious, which are found
in the original, are suppressed in the “translation”. In the thirteenth
chapter of the same Book, after the words “born of the Virgin Mary,” the
author adds, “Whom He wishes to be reverenced (_quam vult adorari_) as
the true Mother of God”; the translator omits the words. Later on, in the
same chapter, Savonarola, writing of the Blessed Sacrament—“My Body and
Blood under the appearance of bread and wine”—says: “_They shall most
devoutly venerate It_”. (In the Italian edition Savonarola expresses it
“_they shall adore It as God_”), not so the “translator”; nor does he
insert Savonarola’s words: “My Virgin Mother shall be honoured,” which
immediately follow the reference to the Blessed Sacrament. The profession
of faith in the Roman Catholic Church, which the reader of this volume
will find at the end of the tenth chapter of the Third Book, and which
begins: “Therefore, the Catholic faith most fittingly,” etc. (see page
127), is ignored completely by Mr. Hill, but is found word for word
in Savonarola’s original work. In one place (Book ii., chap. xiii.)
the words, relating to the Eucharist: “In Ipsius Corpus et Sanguinem
_transmutari_” are rendered “_represent_ His body and blood”!
[13] See _Savonarola and the Reformation—a Reply to Dean Farrar_, by the
present writer (Catholic Truth Society).
[14] First Epistle of St. Peter iii. 15.
[15] Given by Quetif, _Annales O. P._, vol. ii., p. 125. An English
translation of the letter is to be found in _Savonarola and the
Reformation_, before referred to, at page 114.
[16] “When we look up to the sky and contemplate the heavenly bodies,
what can be so evident and so clear, as the existence of a Deity, with a
most marvellous mind, by whom all these bodies are governed?” (Cicero,
_De Natura Deorum_, lib. ii.)—EDITOR.
[17] _E.g._, St. Ignatius the Martyr, St. Polycarp, St. Clement of
Alexandria, etc.—EDITOR.
[18] As this expression occurs frequently in the following pages, it
may be well, for the uninitiated in scholastic phraseology, to explain
its meaning. Savonarola, in the 10th chapter of this 1st Book, defines
_Pure Act_ as being “superior to all matter and _possibility_” and in
the 2nd chapter of the following Book, he writes: “God is not a body,
but Pure Act”. The term _Pure Act_ is applied to the Most High by
theologians, to exclude all imperfection, and all possibility of change,
or of any further acquisition. St. Thomas in his _Summa Theologica_
(Pars prima, Quaest. xxv. art. 1) distinguishes between that which is
_in actu_, and that which is _in potentia_. To say of anything that it
is _in potentia_ (or possibility) implies that it may still receive
something, or become something which it has not or is not, something
which it lacks; and that, therefore, it is wanting and imperfect
(_deficiens et imperfectum_)—_e.g._, a child is _in potentia_ to become
a man—he _may_ some day be a man; or an ignorant man is _in potentia_
to learning—he _may_ become a learned man; there is a _possibility_ of
it—therefore, as yet, he is imperfect. _In actu_, on the other hand,
means that it _actually_ possesses some special gift or perfection. God
_has everything_ that He possibly can have, He _is everything_ that He
possibly can be in the scale of perfection—nothing is wanting to Him,
nothing further is possible to Him. Hence St. Thomas concludes: “God is
Pure Act simply and universally perfect; nor is there any imperfection
in Him” (_ibid._). No creature can be called _Pure Act_; because every
creature is _in potentia_—he may receive or become something which he has
not or is not. The term is applied to God alone.—EDITOR.
[19] _De Simplicitate Vitæ Christianæ._ This little work consists of
five short treatises, or, as the author calls them, “Books”. It is from
the pen of Savonarola himself. It was first published in Italian at
Florence in the year 1496, and afterwards, in Latin, at Venice, and at
the Ascension Press in Paris. As the title suggests, it treats of certain
practical and simple rules, which help souls to attain to the perfection
of the Christian life. I do not know of any existing English translation
of this booklet.—EDITOR.
[20] The author, probably, had in his mind the dream of Nabuchadonosor,
interpreted by the prophet Daniel (Dan. ii.).—EDITOR.
[21] See Introduction, p. x.
[22] The reader will, naturally, recall the words of St. Thomas, in the
_Lauda Sion_:—
“Fracto demum Sacramento,
Ne vacilles, sed memento,
Tantum esse sub fragmento,
Quantum toto tegitur,” etc.,
of which the late Father Aylward, O.P., has left the following
translation:—
“When the priest the Victim breaketh,
See thy faith it nowise shaketh;
Know that every fragment taketh
All that ’neath the whole there lies;
This in Him no fracture maketh,
’Tis the figure only breaketh,
Form or state, no change there taketh
Place, in what it signifies.”—EDITOR.
[23] _i.e._, in Italian. It was published in Florence in the year 1495.
Afterwards a Latin edition, _Contra Astrologiam Divinatricem lib._ iii.,
was printed.—EDITOR.
[24] _i.e._, angels, or else disembodied spirits, or souls which have
left this world; to some of which pagans gave Divine worship.—EDITOR.
[25] _i.e._, Divine worship.—EDITOR.
[26] The author, quoting the Book of Leviticus, has already said (p.
183), that the “week” of Daniel’s prophecy is to be interpreted as being
a week of _years_. He here reminds his readers that in the middle of the
week our Lord was crucified, _i.e._, after three years and a half (or
half of seven years) preaching. “He shall confirm His covenant with many,
in one week: and in the half of the week the victim and sacrifice shall
fail” (Dan. ix. 27).—EDITOR.
[27] Probably a reference to St. Paul’s words: “For I would not have you
ignorant, brethren, of this mystery (lest you should be wise in your
own conceits), that blindness in part has happened in Israel, until the
fulness of the Gentiles shall come in. And so all Israel should be saved,
as it is written: there shall come out of Sion, He that shall deliver,
and shall turn away impiety from Jacob.... According to the Gospel,
indeed, they are enemies for your sake: but according to election they
are most dear for the sake of the fathers” (Rom. xi. 25, 26, 28).—EDITOR.
INDEX.
Allegory, 57.
Angels, 9, 175.
Apostles, their work in the world, 9, 77, 80, 153.
Astrology, superstitions of, absurd, 165.
Baptism, Sacrament of, 77, 139, 140.
after state of those who die without, 122.
Beatitude. See _End of Man_.
Bible, harmony of. See _Testaments_.
inspired by God, 56, 57, 58, 206.
misinterpretation of, cause of heresies, 193, 202.
reading of, helpful to holiness of life, 57.
Blessed Sacrament. See _Eucharist_.
Trinity. See _God_.
Virgin. See _Mary_.
Cause, First. See _God_.
Ceremonies, meaning and importance of, 42, 49, 63, 140, 152.
Chalice, 8.
Charity, twofold precept of, 128.
Christian life, end of, 43, 51.
most perfect life, 43, 45, 51.
sure means of happiness, 49.
Christianity, truth of, evidenced by spiritual lives of Christians,
7, 67, 71.
by external conduct, 71.
the only true religion, 157.
See also _Jesus Christ_.
Church, the, Head of. See _Pope_.
a monarchy, 191.
perpetuity of, 192, 202.
unity of, 190, 193, 201, 203.
Church (a material building), symbolical meaning of, 152.
Cloister. See _Religious life_.
Commandments, the, 130.
Confession of sins, 139, 142.
Confirmation, Sacrament of, 139, 141.
Contemplation of Divine things, 28, 44, 60, 153.
Creation, doctrine of, does not contradict reason, 108.
errors on the subject of, 160.
Creed, the Christian, 99.
Cross of Christ, veneration of the, 11, 76, 77, 162.
Doctors of the Church, 8.
Doctrines of Christianity are true, 35, 74.
moral, of Christ, excellency of, 130, 133.
End of Christian life, 43, 51, 81.
of man is God, 27, 47.
not attainable in this world, 28.
errors on the subject of, 158.
Epilogue, 204.
Errors of astrologists, 165.
of ancient philosophers, 158.
of heretics, 190.
Eucharist, the Blessed, 8, 11, 76, 77, 139, 141, 145.
objections against, refuted, 148.
Example, influence of, 69, 71.
Extreme Unction, Sacrament of, 139, 143.
Faith leads to God and holiness of life, 51, 75.
in itself not sufficient, 76.
never at variance with reason, 4.
objects of, 15.
why necessary, 16, 97.
First principles must be accepted, 10.
God, existence of, demonstrated, 17.
the First Cause, 5, 18, 53.
incomprehensibility of, 97.
knowledge of, 23.
perfections of, 21.
providence of, 25, 27, 49.
Pure Act, 20.
Simple Substance, 20.
Trinity of Persons in, 8, 9, 101.
unity of nature proved, 22, 101.
Happiness. See _End of Man_.
Head of Church. See _Pope_.
Hell, justice of, 113.
Heresy, untruthfulness of, 190, 193.
cause of, misinterpretation of Scriptures, 193, 202.
Hierarchy in the Church, 144.
History witnesses to Jesus Christ, 12.
Holy water, 154.
Idolatry, folly and sinfulness of, 174.
Images, sacred, respect for, 152.
Immortality. See _Soul_.
Incarnation, 100.
doctrine of the, not contrary to reason, 114.
Intellect, human, not infallible, 30.
Invisible things revealed through visible, 5, 15.
Jesus Christ, virginal birth of, 117.
truly God, 11, 74, 91.
truly man, 100.
goodness of, evidence of truth of Christianity, 86.
power of, 74.
wisdom of, 81.
wonderful works of, 74, 91, 118.
Jews, their testimony to Jesus Christ, 11, 180.
their doctrine illogical, 75, 179.
Keys, power of the, 143.
Koran. See _Mahomet_.
Laws, natural, human, divine, 133.
Mahomet, personal character and life of, 195.
teaching of, 195.
refutation of, 196.
Martyrs, 8, 9, 209.
Mary, Mother of God, 8, 76, 77, 208.
veneration of, 11, 77, 152.
Matrimony, Sacrament of, 140, 147.
Matter and form, 19.
Means to attain end of man, 51.
Messiah, coming of, foretold, 180.
See also _Jews_.
Ministers. See _Hierarchy_.
Miracles of Jesus Christ, 7, 77.
Morality, Christian teaching on, 130, 143.
Orders, Holy, Sacrament of, 140, 144.
Original sin, doctrine of, not opposed to reason, 121, 124.
explanation of, 119.
how remitted, 123.
Passion of Jesus Christ, 7, 8, 123.
Patriarchs, 8.
Peace of soul fruit of holy life, 67.
Penance, Sacrament of. See _Confession_.
Persecution testifies to truth of Christianity, 78, 91, 209.
Philosophers prepared way for Jesus Christ, 82, 164.
Pope, the, successor of St. Peter, 78, 192, 202.
infallibility of, 100, 127, 193.
primacy of, 192.
supremacy of, 193.
Prayer, efficacy of, 62.
made through Jesus Christ, 61.
evidence of Christianity, 60.
Preacher, Scripture useful to, 58.
influence of life of, 82.
Priesthood, double power of, 145.
See _Orders_.
Processions, the Divine, 101.
Prologue, 3.
Prophets, 8, 55.
Providence. See _God_.
Purity of heart necessary for happiness, 48, 73.
Real Presence. See _Eucharist_.
Reason never contradicts faith, 4, 104.
not sufficient guide in itself, 16, 97, 158.
Relics of Saints, 9, 77.
Religion, necessity of, 41.
external. See _Ceremonies_.
interior, 42, 67.
the Christian. See _Christian life_.
Religious life, the, 12, 69, 73, 132.
Resurrection of the body, 110.
Revelation, 41. See also _Bible_.
Roman See. See _Pope_.
Sacraments derive power from Passion of Jesus Christ, 9, 137.
number of (seven), 139.
salutary effects of, 64, 146.
Saints, 8, 11, 77, 152, 175.
Savonarola, motive of, in writing _Triumph of Cross_, 3.
preaching of, 58.
Scripture. See _Bible_ and _Testament_.
Senses, bodily, not infallible, 30.
reflect grace and virtue in soul, 72.
Soul of man, form of body, 33.
not generated, 34.
immortal, 33, 111.
errors on subject of, 159.
Supernatural, religion must be, 97, 100, 104.
Testaments, the Old and New, 8, 56, 202.
Trinity. See _Blessed_.
Triumph of Christ, 7.
of the Cross, 8, 74.
Triumphal car, a simile, 7.
Vessels, sacred, 8, 154.
Vestments, 154.
Virgins and the virginal life, 8, 12, 153.
Vision of God. See _End of Man_ and _End of Christian_.
Vows, the religious, 69, 132.
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