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Title: The Stone Age
Author: Clement Wood
Editor: E. Haldeman-Julius
Release date: July 24, 2026 [eBook #79172]
Language: English
Original publication: Girard: Haldeman-Julius Company, 1923
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79172
Credits: Tim Miller, Jack Janssen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STONE AGE ***
LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 481
Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius
The Stone Age
Clement Wood
HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY
GIRARD, KANSAS
Copyright, 1923,
Haldeman-Julius Company.
THE STONE AGE
THE STONE AGE
CHAPTER I
THE RECORD OF THE ROCKS
A few days ago, I was walking down the long field back of my house
in Hastings-on-Hudson with J. Otis Swift, the naturalist. He stooped
and picked up an odd-shaped fragment of quartz. “You could write a
volume,” he observed, “about that stone. Long ago, in all probability,
it appeared either in granite, a primal stone out of the warm crust of
the earth, or as one of the vast mineral group of silicates. The slow
seasons weathered it, water took it in solution, and it was deposited
afresh as quartz in the cavities of some old basic igneous rock. The
action of sea or river rounded it to this large pebble; these scratches
may have been made by the glacier that once scratched the top of the
Palisades yonder. But these chipped places—here, and here—these were
made by the hand of man. The Indians, anywhere from five hundred to
fifty thousand years ago, chipped off the flakes and made of it a
hammer stone, to shape their stone weapons and implements. You could
write a volume about that stone.”
And this monument of the slow fashioning of fire and weather, water,
ice, and man, is now a simple field stone, trodden under foot by the
careless passerby! I have handled more than five hundred of these
worked Indian stones, in the fields within four miles of my house.
We often think of stones as worthless things, unless perhaps as
material for building. Yet they are the skeleton that holds the earth
together. In the old Greek myth of the flood, Deucalion was told to
throw the bones of his mother behind him; and he rightly interpreted
this as meaning stones, the bones of Mother Earth. Much of man’s
achievement is graven on the stones: from the ancient wordless ruins of
Stonehenge to the great pyramids, from the masterpieces of architecture
and sculpture to the stone writings of Egypt, Babylon, and the nearest
cemetery. The hearthstone commemorates the earliest home, the millstone
an early industry. From a rock smitten by Moses’ hand water gushed for
the thirsty wanderers; from a stone flung by the sling of David death
came to the giant foe of Israel. Commercial products of the stone range
from the salt that seasons each meal to the precious metals and the
more precious stones called gems. Lastly, the observant men called
scientists show us how to read stones like a printed book, in order to
understand the early history of the lifeless earth, the beginnings of
life upon it, and the forgotten days of the awkward ape-like ancestors
of man, and of the earliest man himself.
We do not know how old the earth is, or even how old the earliest rocks
are. Estimates by geologists and astronomers, based upon painstaking
study, vary between 3,000,000,000 and 25,000,000 years. Carroll Lane
Fenton, in “The Building of the Earth” (No. 275) in this series of
books, has chosen the conservative figure of 800,000,000 years. In any
case, the time occupied by man and his immediate ancestors, the apemen,
hardly exceeded one sixteen-hundredth of this, or 500,000 years. A
table may make this clearer:
GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE
_Years Ago_ _Era_ _Period_ _Life_
25,000 Recent Man
475,000 Pleistocene Rise of man
(Ice Age)
Cenozoic Pliocene Rise of ape-man
(Recent Life)
40,000,000 Miocene Development of mammals,
Oligocene grass, land forests, etc.
Eocene
140,000,000 Mesozoic Great reptiles
(Middle Life)
360,000,000 Paleozoic Early marine life, fishes,
(Ancient Life) amphibia, swamp forests
600,000,000 Proterozoic No visible trace of life.
(Primordial Life) Primitive forms, jelly fish,
etc.
800,000,000 Azoic (Lifeless) or No life, or one-celled life
Archeozoic (First Life)
Man’s immediate ancestors emerge from the vast geologic history
of the earth at the end of the Pliocene and the beginning of the
Pleistocene, the Ice or Glacial Age, immediately following. In this,
as in all of the tables, the order is stratigraphic, or following
the strata of the rocks. Thus the most recent age is at the top, the
oldest at the bottom. The Glacial Age, which reached from 475,000 to
perhaps 50,000 years ago, was supposed until recently to consist of
one great advance and retreat of the ice-fields from various centers.
The last forty years has established that there were at least four
chief glacial periods, with three interglacial periods, each with its
corresponding cold and warm climates. The terraces on either bank of
such European rivers as the River Inn, in Austria; the Rhine above
Basle, Switzerland, and the Thames, near London, establish a different
type of deposit for each glacial period, with different and advancing
forms of animal life and human remains. The successive coverings of
loam and earth, which washed down from the original sand and gravel
terraces left by the glaciers, indicate the same series of glacial
and interglacial periods. This loam was retransported in the form of
dust by the winds and laid down afresh in layers of varying thickness
known as “loess,” a process that still continues in certain districts;
this points to the same succession of glacial and interglacial epochs.
Finally, the different types of human relics and remains found in the
limestone shelters and caverns of Europe point to the same succession
of divisions of the Ice Age. The time since the Pliocene may thus be
divided as follows:
RECENT GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE
_Years Ago_ _Period_ _Culture_ _Division_ _Life_
9,000-12,000 Neolithic Recent races of men
(Polished
Stone)
25,000 Recent Upper Paleo- Post Glacial Man, or _Homo_
lithic _sapiens_
(Chipped Grenelle race
Stone) Cro-Magnon race
Grimaldi race
Lower Paleo- 4th Glacial _Pre-Homo sapiens_
lithic Neanderthal race
75,000 3rd Inter- Piltdown race
glacial (“dawn” men)
125,000 3rd Glacial
250,000 Pleistocene Eolithic 2nd Inter- Heidelberg race
(Ice or Gla- glacial
cial Age) 2nd Glacial
1st Inter-
glacial
1st Glacial
475,000 Pliocene Eolithic Ape-man (_Pithecan-
thropos_ _erectus_)
There is a common belief that primitive man had to contend with the
dinosaurs and pterodactyls of the Great Reptile Age, the Mesozoic. As
the first table indicates, this is entirely in error. These reptiles
disappeared suddenly from the earth millions of years before the first
ape-man appeared. The earliest mammal, a direct transition from the
reptile, may have hastened the disappearance of the great saurians by
his habit of feeding upon the eggs of the reptiles. Much later came the
earliest ape-man; he was contemporaneous with the hairy mammoth, the
sabre-tooth tiger, and the rhinoceros—unpleasant enough neighbors. When
it came to these monsters, he was less a hunter than the hunted; when
he took to the chase, it was after much smaller game.
Science has discovered many facts about the immediate ancestors of
man, and the earliest men. Yet all that has been discovered is but
a fraction of what is contained in the Record of the Rocks. A few
isolated spots on the earth’s surface have been examined; how much of
the surface has not even been scratched! Localities in France, England,
Germany, parts of Spain, the United States, Java, and elsewhere, have
been examined with some care; but there are thousands of miles in these
countries where secrets are unrevealed. Whole continents have been
hardly touched; South America, Africa, even Asia, perhaps the land in
which the races of men originated, are still to be searched. And if all
the remains hidden today were uncovered, we would have only a small
fraction of the story of the ancient life. Of one race we have found
only two teeth, a thigh bone, and the top of a skull; of another, we
have only one jaw. Why are there not more fragments? Certain of man’s
ancestors were perhaps tree-dwellers; these leave few remains. Their
bones are light, brittle, easily destructible; they were crushed in
a fall, consumed by beasts, or decayed and disappeared with the dead
leaves and wood of the early forests. The apemen and the first men were
ground dwellers, hiding among trees and, especially, rocks. It is not
such creatures that the Geological Record preserves, as a rule; that
record holds chiefly traces of water or marsh creatures, or creatures
easily and frequently drowned. When early man, during the harsh Ice
Age, took to the caves, he left more traces of his stay. More than
this, it has been only seventy years that such prehistoric human
fossils have been found; the Gibraltar skull of the Neanderthal race,
found in 1848, was practically the first of the long series. Seventy
years is not a long period, in which to read the mysteries of five
hundred thousand years. We will learn much more in the future.
If the remains of bones are scanty, there is another record of the
rocks that yields more: the stone implements of man. Some scientists
hold that wooden implements came first, and shell implements second;
whether these preceded the use of stones as tools, or came with them,
wood and shell have decayed and disappeared. But tools of flint, agate
and quartz may not decay in a million years; and men have found every
stage of implement widely scattered over the earth. The important
thing always is to trace the stages in the development of man—not the
exact date when he reached these stages. With different localities,
the rate of progress differs enormously. Today, the white races are
in the age of the radio and the airplane; backward races still use
stone implements; South Sea Islanders and certain African Negroes and
bushmen still make use of wood and the sharp-edged shells of land and
water molluscs as tools. When Europe was in the age of Shakespeare
and Elizabeth, the twin continents of America were largely in the
Stone Age. But the order of development, as revealed by the tools, is
always similar. There was first a period whose tool remains cannot
be identified: because the stones and wooden clubs were used without
any shaping changes. Then came the Eolithic Age, or dawn stone age;
scientists are still disputing its remains. The tools of this age,
called eoliths, have only the rudest working. After this came the
Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age—the age of chipped stone. This varies
from the crudest flaking to the exquisite laurel-leaf pattern of the
Solutrean stage of tool-making (named from the implement station of
Solutre, near the Saone River, in France). This Old Stone Age is the
period, stretching over more than a hundred thousand years, that we
will study here. Next came the Neolithic, or New Stone Age—the age of
polished stone. After this came the Bronze Age, and then the Iron Age,
blending into the Steel Age. We are still in the last-named period. It
is convenient to remember these thus:
THE AGES OF TOOL CULTURE
Iron, and later Steel, Age.
Bronze Age.
Neolithic (New Stone) Age, of polished stones.
Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age, of chipped stones.
Eolithic (Dawn Stone) Age, of stones slightly chipped.
It is now time to answer the questions, who were the immediate
ancestors of men, and what can we find out about them.
CHAPTER II
THE APE-MEN
It is not correct to say that man is descended from any form of monkey
or ape now alive upon the globe. Both the anthropoid or man-like apes,
and men, are descended from a common ancestry, now extinct. There are
four of these man-like apes upon the earth today: the gibbon and the
orang-outang, in Asia, and the chimpanzee and the gorilla, in Africa.
But near the beginning of the Cenozoic or Recent Life Period, in that
stage known as the Oligocene, we find skeletal remains of a forerunner
of the great apes, resembling the gibbons, in the deserts of northern
Egypt. In the Miocene Stage which followed, true tree-living gibbons
found their way into Europe and continued throughout the Pliocene, the
stage preceding the Ice Age; these ranged as far north as Germany.
Another ape, quite man-like, called the _Dryopithecus_, inhabited
France in the Miocene; it was closely related to the ancestral stock
of the chimpanzee, gorilla, and orang, with a jaw remotely like the
dawn man, or Piltdown Man, found in Sussex, England. The Pliocene
saw a third great ape dwelling in Germany, and the Old Ape, or
_Paleopithecus_, inhabiting the Siwalik hills of Asia. This creature
was a generalized form apparently related to chimpanzee, gibbon and
baboon, with upper teeth resembling man’s.
The four existing man-like apes are all tree-dwellers, with long arms
especially adapted to arboreal life. In all these apes there is a
grasping power in the big toe, which is a kind of thumb; in man this
is a function of the hand alone. The opposable thumb, which may be
brought against each of the fingers, is the one characteristic lacking
in every one of the man-like apes, and which was early developed among
the ancestors of man. They had projecting faces, retreating foreheads,
and small brain-cases, compared to men; in his slow development man’s
face has become vertical, his nose prominent, his forehead high, his
brain-case large. In brain evolution, the tree life of man’s early
ancestors or cousins stimulated the development of the hind and side
portions of the brain, which control the muscular movements needed for
arboreal existence. All the man-apes have some power of walking more or
less erect on the hind limbs, thus releasing the arms. There were four
chief lines of development:
(1) the erect attitude;
(2) the opposable thumb;
(3) the growth of the front of the brain; and
(4) the acquisition of the power of speech.
In late Pliocene times the ancestor of man, in all probability a ground
ape, a running creature rather than a climbing creature, had achieved
the first three of these, and had a rudimentary power of speech. Then
came the first Glacial approach, and after thousands of years the
first Interglacial period. Scientists disagree as to whether the first
recognizable stone implements, the eoliths, came before or after the
first Glacial approach; but about this time came these first evidences
of man’s immediate ancestors upon the earth.
Among the early popularizers of the eoliths was a man named Benjamin
Harrison, a grocer, of Ightham, in Kent, England. In a great gravel
bed five to seven feet deep he found, among unmistakable paleoliths,
or chipped stones, hundreds of stones only slightly worked, with a
similarity of appearance which could hardly be accidental. In Belgium
and elsewhere many other eoliths have been found; I have picked up in
the field below my house in Hastings-on-Hudson stones of exactly the
same type. Whether these Kent or Belgium examples are the work of man
or of nature is not the most important thing; the thing to remember
is that the paleoliths or chipped stones were not originated all at
once; there must have been thousands of years of experiment before
these forms could be reached. These may not be recognizable to the
satisfaction of science; but they undoubtedly existed. Eoliths have
been found near the Sussex home of the early Piltdown man, and in
France. These are of the borer form, the hollow-scraper form, and the
crescent-shaped-scraper form. They are usually rolled and water-worn.
Nature has dulled their once keen edge, as she has dulled human
recollection of their ancient users.
Who were the man-like forms that fashioned and used these earliest
recognizable tools? Remember what was said about the infrequency
of relics of these early men. We must travel far away to find the
pre-human type which must have used similar tools.
The island of Java is separated from Asia by Sumatra and Borneo, and
by water. Geology has established that it was once a part of the
Asiatic mainland. In 1891, on the Bengawan River in central Java,
a Dutch army surgeon, Eugen Dubois, while excavating for pre-human
remains, discovered near Trinil a deposit of numerous mammal bones,
a single upper molar tooth, and, a short distance away, the top of
a skull. Further digging revealed a second molar tooth and a left
thigh bone, all imbedded and fossilized in similar fashion. In 1894
Dubois described these scattered parts as the remains of the type
of _Pithecanthropos erectus_, the erect ape-man. The _erectus_ was
determined by the thigh-bone, which demonstrated that the creature had
the same upright posture as man, and walked on two legs. The creature
was clearly not simian, or monkey; it was closer to man than to the
highest man-like ape. And yet it was not man. It was the transitional
form between man and the man-like apes, which the laws of evolution had
taught us must have once existed. It was the ancestor of man. It was
one of the missing links.
The geologists at once became busy. At first they were inclined to
place the creature in the late Mesozoic (Middle Life), also called
Tertiary (Third Stage), in the period Pliocene; but later researches
indicate that the true age is more probably Pleistocene, or the
beginning of the Ice Age, in the Cenozoic (Recent Life), also called
Quarternary (Fourth Stage). The mammal bones included a primate or
monkey called macaque; two species of the rhinoceros; and three late
Pliocene elephants,—the same elephants found in the Siwalik hills of
India, in earlier Pliocene deposits. The discovery of a race similar
to _Pithecanthropos_, the Ape-man, in India, may be anticipated.
The Trinil race may therefore be set down as late Pliocene or early
Pleistocene, as just before or during the opening of the Ice Age.
Judging from the length of the thigh bone, the Trinils were a tall
race, reaching a height of 5 feet 7 inches, a few inches higher than
the later Neanderthal race. The forehead is undeveloped, the frontal
area of the brain is small; thus the Trinil Ape-men had only a limited
faculty of profiting by experience and accumulated tradition. The
industry of the Trinil race was very elementary. The tools required
were simple, and natural flakes and fragments of flint were plentiful.
Hammer and knife were the original tools; both were picked up
ready-made, or were rudely chipped. When the edge of the flake become
dulled by use, the piece was thrown away, or the edge was retouched
for further use. If hammer or flake could not be held comfortably in
the hand, the troublesome points or edges were removed or reduced by
chipping. The stock of tools increased slowly, with the growing needs.
Artificial flakes were produced at last, to supplement the diminishing
stock of natural ones. Definite types of implements were at length
evolved, which led readily into the simplest forms of the paleoliths,
or chipped stones. It is fairly definite that the Trinil race were in
the Eolithic culture, using several weapons of wood and stone.
Periods of glaciation are periods of subsidence of the land; the
second glacial period, which came next, was by far the greatest of all
four. The glacier withdrew after many thousands of years, the land
was elevated again, and a new race appeared upon the scene. In 1907,
Schoetensack discovered in the Mauer sands near Heidelberg, Germany, a
single jaw, which has been named as belonging to the Heidelberg man.
Along with this pre-human jaw were discovered remains of the ancient
elephant, a rhinoceros, a wild horse, a primitive ox or aurochs, and
many other mammalian forms. The presence of the elephant indicates
a comparatively moist and well-forested country. The solitary jaw
indicates the human occupancy.
This Heidelberg jaw is one of the most important finds in the whole
history of anthropology. It contains features never before found in
fossil or recent man. There is no evidence of chin at all. The teeth
establish that it was not the jaw of an ape, but of a human form. The
teeth are not large, in proportion to the jaw; but the jaw is the most
powerful jaw ever known, even greater than the largest Eskimo jaw. It
indicates a skull of very massive and primitive character. The space
left for the tongue is not large; this may have interfered seriously
with the free use of the tongue for articulate speech.
The Heidelberg man is apparently a low form of the Neanderthal race,
that is, a Neanderthal in the making. The Heidelberg teeth are arranged
in a perfect arch, or horseshoe arrangement; in all the apes, the
grinding teeth are almost parallel with each other. This establishes it
as another of the missing links. We know little of the habits of this
ape-man. Future excavations may tell more of his story. All that we are
sure of is that, during the second interglacial period, this race of
subhumans roamed Europe.
Then came the third glaciation. After thousands of years, the ice
retreated, and a new race appeared upon the human stage.
CHAPTER III
THE DAWN MEN
The best scientific estimates agree that the third warm interglacial
stage opened about 100,000 years ago, and lasted between 50,000 and
60,000 years. It must be remembered, however, that the eolithic
industry may have commenced more than a hundred thousand years before
this. The borders of one river, the River Somme at St. Acheul, France,
give us a vista of the whole story of the succession of geologic
events, from the eolithic culture through the whole Old Stone Age to
the neoliths, or polished stones. The animal life during this period,
as indicated by the remains, included the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the
hippopotamus, a primitive horse, the sabre-tooth tiger, elephants, and
many lesser species. This animal life is associated with eoliths, with
the next stage of stone industry, called pre-Chellean, and with some
later Chellean chipped implements.
The pre-Chellean differs from the pure eoliths in that it included
stones for weapons, as well as stones for tools or implements. It is
to be noted that there are three methods of concurrent chronology,
depending upon the kind of evidence. The purely geologic evidence
gives us the age by the geologic changes, such as the glaciers, and
the accompanying animal remains; the human skeletal remains give us
the successive pre-human and human races; while the implements give us
the successive stages of industry or culture, such as the eolithic,
pre-Chellean, etc. In the pre-Chellean, there is no longer any question
of human handiwork; these stones were shaped by men or submen. It is
possible that these primitive flint-workers entered Europe by way of
the northern coast of Africa, which was united to Europe by two land
bridges, one at Gibraltar and the other by way of Sicily to Italy.
The stone remains are restricted to Spain, France, Belgium, and Great
Britain. None are found in Germany or central Europe. Thus it is clear
that this race did not enter directly from the east. The best stations
are discovered along the rivers Somme and Seine. The eoliths found in
connection with the Piltdown flint workers, or Dawn Men, were typical
eoliths, and not as advanced as the real pre-Chellean. At this time the
flint workers, from the specimens discovered, were not designing the
shapes of their implements and weapons; they were utilizing the natural
shapes of the flakes and stones. In the industry, a second stage had
been reached. There was first the use of the stone hammer, to make
the sharpened edge; now came, in addition, the retouch, with a second
stone, which further sharpened the implement by knocking off small
chips on alternate sides of the cutting edge, giving it a saw-like
effect. This retouching further made the stone usable, by blunting any
sharp edges which might injure the hand of the user. Often the smooth,
water-worn end of the flint was preserved for this purpose. The name of
these typical stones is hand-stone, or the French _coup de poing_.
Among the types of implements and weapons are the following: the
planing tool, the scraper, the borer, the knife, the hammer-stone, the
throwing-stone, and the hand-stone or _coup de poing_.
The user of many of these implements was discovered at Piltdown, in
Sussex, England. This lies between two branches of the River Ouse,
west of Kent, in which many eoliths have been found. The discoverer,
Dawson, places the age of the remains as during the first half of the
Pleistocene, or Ice Age. About 1911, two portions of a skull were found
here. Careful search revealed a broken jaw, a tooth, two nose bones,
and other sections of the skull; all of these were fossilized. Nearby
were Pliocene mammals, such as the mastodon, the mammoth, and the
hippopotamus; in the same heap from which the Piltdown skull was taken
were found portions of a rhinoceros, hippopotamus, beaver, and deer.
There was also found a single flint, worked on one side, of a very
primitive or pre-Chellean type.
This indicates that the Piltdown man, who has been named _Eoanthropos_
or dawn man, belonged to the period before the true Chellean. The skull
is much less like the apes than any previously discovered. The nose was
flattened, resembling in this some of the existing Malay and African
races. The chin was extremely receding; the teeth are relatively longer
and narrower than those in the modern human jaw. The face projected
forward; the teeth may be called ape-like. Ape-like chin, parallel
grinding teeth, narrow human lower molar teeth, steep forehead,
practically no brow ridges (such as the later Neanderthal race
possessed)—this was the dawn man. The authorities are inclined to the
opinion that the race may have existed at about the same time as the
Heidelberg man. But the Heidelberg man was probably an ancestor of the
Neanderthal race, which largely disappeared later; while the Piltdown
man was a probable ancestor of the recent species of _Homo sapiens_,
to which we belong. Some, it is true, hold that the Piltdown jaw does
not belong to the Piltdown skull; but in any case it is clear that the
Piltdown man was either a direct ancestor of the modern human, or a
near side-branch.
Out of the eoliths and the later pre-Chellean implements came that
stage of human industry called the true Chellean. These workers
improved the older types of implements, and invented new ones. The
flint worker was still largely dependent upon the natural shape of
the shattered fragment of flint; he had not yet learned to shape it
symmetrically. Half a dozen definite varieties of the hand-stone or
_coup de poing_ can be distinguished; De Mortillet speaks of this as
the only tool of the Chellean tribes, used for all the purposes of axe,
chisel, saw, and awl—an early combination tool. The pointed form was
undoubtedly used as a dagger, both in war and in the chase.
There was plenty of game to chase, even if the larger mammals had still
to be avoided. Roaming Europe at this period were the Southern mammoth,
the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, the broad-nosed
rhinoceros, the hyena, lion, and bison. The hyena now found is the
spotted one, which had replaced the older striped hyena; the lion has
taken the place of the great sabre-tooth tiger. Red deer and giant deer
crashed through the brush; the brown bear appears for the first time;
there are varieties of wild horses, and a primitive species of wolf.
Some of these the Chellean men hunted; among their regular prey were
badgers, martens, otters, beavers, and still smaller mammals.
In all the continents, except Australia, we find stone implements
similar, in their main outline, to the Chellean; but there are always
minor differences. This indicates that the development was probably a
natural one occurring to primitive man widely scattered, rather than
that the Chellean culture spread over the world.
It is noteworthy that not a single pre-Chellean or Chellean station
has been found in Germany, Switzerland, or the rest of central Europe.
But the next stage, the Acheulean, is found throughout these regions.
During Chellean times this land might have been unfavorable for human
habitation; or the traces of man’s occupancy might have been washed
away, or may be still undiscovered. The Rhine, the Danube, even north
Germany, exhibit traces of the next period. In general, the Acheulean
flint workers, like the Chellean, preferred open country to caves and
grottoes. Up to this time man has been largely an outdoor dweller.
But a noteworthy exception to this is found in the great grotto of
Castillo, near Puente Viesgo, in Santandar, northern Spain. This cavern
was filled with deposits to the depth of 45 feet, from the floor to
the roof; Obermaier, who first explored these deposits thoroughly,
found here thirteen layers, covering eleven stages of industry, and
presenting a natural museum of the history of western Europe from
Acheulean times to the Age of Bronze, in Spain. For fifty thousand or
more years this great grotto was used, and then abandoned, by tribe
after tribe. It is a monumental volume of prehistory, which can be read
by the archeologist almost as clearly and precisely as if it were in
printed type. It is in the first period found here, the Acheulean, that
the first positive evidence of the use of fire by man is found, in the
shape of charred wood and bones. The discovery of fire has been made.
Man is on his road to what we call progress.
The Acheulean stone implements and weapons are increasingly numerous.
We find half a dozen varieties of the hand-stone, used for many
purposes; we find choppers, planing tools, scrapers, drills,
borers, knives, blades, and points. For the war and chase there are
lance-points, throwing stones, knives, and dart and spear heads.
The core or center of the flint is still used for the large typical
instruments; but the flakes are coming into wider use in a great
variety of forms. Gradually the blades grow finer and sharper; they
were probably used for butcher knives for dismembering the carcasses of
game, and for cutting up the skins; other tools were used as scrapers
to clean the hides, which were finally dressed by the aid of the
planing tool. The smaller implements are much improved. The knives
are fine and perfect, although lacking the symmetrical shape of later
stages. In all probability, the women of the tribe were the ones who
dressed the hides. Some of the finer implements were used to split
marrow bones, and furnish a choice feast. The stone work is a great
improvement over the crudity of the Chellean workers; but it seems
rough indeed, compared to the work of the Upper Paleolithic age, and
rougher still when contrasted with the polished stone of the Neolithic
Age.
These first three races, the Ape-man or _Pithecanthropos erectus_, the
Heidelberg man, and the Piltdown or Dawn Man, have left few skeletal
remains. We are next to study a race about which we can speak with much
more certainty—the Neanderthal Men.
CHAPTER IV
THE NEANDERTHAL MEN
Croatia was a section of Hungary, before the World War altered
geographical boundaries. In the northern portion of this district,
near the small town of Krapina, in the valley of the Krapinica River,
is the famous cavern of Krapina. Here, in 1899, a discovery of men of
the Neanderthal race was made. The animal remains point to the late
Acheulean period; there are a rhinoceros, the cave bear, a species
of horse, and other mammalian remains. When the cavern was explored,
it was found to contain thousands of animal bones, mingled with
hundreds of human bones, and hundreds of stone implements and chips.
In 1906 Gorjanovic-Kramberger published the result of his researches
among these remains. He had found about three hundred pieces of human
bone, many well preserved. From these the Neanderthal race can be
reconstructed.
These men were short-skulled. The race was somewhat dwarfed, with a
broad head. The chin is still retreating. The broken condition of
these bones has led some to suggest that the Neanderthal men were
cannibals. But none of the bones were split lengthwise, as would have
been done to extract the marrow; and there is no other evidence of
cannibalism during the whole Old Stone period. These people lived
here at the close of the Third Interglacial period, and perhaps
during the Fourth Glacial period which followed. During this time the
mammoth disappeared, and then the hippopotamus; the rhinoceros and
the straight-tusked elephant lingered on for a time. The Neanderthal
races slowly passed from the Acheulean industry into that called
the Mousterian, which closed the Lower Paleolithic Age. This Fourth
Glaciation is estimated as beginning 40,000 years ago, and ending some
20,000 years ago. When it is recalled that the whole Neolithic period,
the Bronze Age, and then the Iron and Steel Ages, have only occupied
part of the last 20,000 years, and that we have some written record of
about half of this period, it becomes apparent how close in point of
years the Neanderthal race is to us. Cold tundra animals from the north
came in to replace the rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant, in
the shape of the woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth. Arctic trees
and plants spread over Europe. This is the beginning of the reindeer
period.
In Southern Britain, some unusually interesting remains have been
found. At Crayford, near the mouth of the Thames, and along the Lea,
have been found working floors of Mousterian culture, buried beneath
four to five feet of sand and loam, and resting upon the surface of
the older river-gravels. There are spots occupied by unabraded stone
implements and flakes, which obviously lie today just as they were left
by the Old Stone workmen. At one place there is evidence that the flint
shaper squatted over his work, with his knees slightly apart; for the
chips are thrown to right and left in small piles.
The discovery of the Neanderthaloid (Neanderthal-like) races has
extended over about seventy years. There is no evidence of burial, it
is well to remember, in the cases of the Trinil, the Heidelberg, and
the Piltdown remains; the bones apparently were washed down by the
river, and mingled with those of other mammals. It is possible that the
bodies of the dead and of the aged were thrown out to the scavenger
beasts and birds, as some African tribes do today. In the Krapina
cavern there was no evidence of burial, but to the contrary there was
slight evidence of cannibalism. As we get into the Mousterian period,
all this has changed. The custom of burial, or the orderly laying out
of the remains of the dead in the floors of protected caves, came in.
The colder climate drove this race into the close quarters of caves and
grottoes; perhaps this turned attention to dead bodies, and slowly led
to forms of burial. This habit has afforded us a much fuller knowledge
of the race and its industry than we were able to obtain of previous
races.
The first discovery of a Neanderthaloid was made in 1848. This was
near Forbes Quarry, on the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar; the
skull found here is called the Gibraltar skull. The brain is extremely
small, even for this race, and the ridges above the orbits of the
eyes are only slightly developed. It is regarded as a primitive type
of this race, probably the skull of a female. A female, just as an
infant, as pointed out in the masterly studies of Lester Ward, is less
specialized and closer to the race stem than the adult male. In 1856
workmen clearing out a cave in the valley known as the Neanderthal,
on the Dussel flowing between Elberfield and Dusseldorf, discovered
some human bones, probably an entire skeleton. These were carelessly
thrown aside; but a scientist rescued what he could, including the
skullcap, both thigh bones, portions of the arm, bones of both sides,
the right collar bone, and fragments of the pelvis, shoulder-blade,
and ribs. All were well preserved, and are now in the museum of Bonn.
For forty years scientists argued concerning these remains, with wild
theories ranging to the classic hypothesis that each peculiarity in
the skeleton was caused by some bone disease. But in 1901 Schwalbe’s
great work gave the skeleton supreme importance, as the type of the
Neanderthal race. Since then, there have been more than twenty separate
discoveries of remains of the race, in France, Moravia, Belgium, and
on the Isle of Jersey. The worked stones accompanying them range from
the early type found in Krapina, Croatia, which are late Acheulean or
early Mousterian, through the whole Mousterian period, with half a
dozen skeletons accompanied by tools of slightly later epochs. The two
finely preserved skulls and skeletons found at Spy, Belgium, in 1887,
and the numerous finds since 1908 in the Dordogne region, France, were
preludes to the skeleton discovered the same year in a grotto near
La Chapelle-aux-Saintes, nearby to Le Moustier, France, which gave
its name to the Mousterian culture. This was the perfectly preserved
skeleton of an individual between fifty and fifty-five years of age,
which had been given ceremonial burial. The body was laid out in an
east and west direction in a small natural depression. Even the bones
of the face were in position; this gave the first opportunity to
measure the actual size and proportions of the brain, with only slight
possibility of error. In a Mousterian cavern on St. Brelade’s Bay, on
the Island of Jersey, thirteen human teeth were discovered, associated
with the bones of the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and two types of
horse, as well as Mousterian hearths and stone implements of the same
period. This long group of more than a score of discoveries, commencing
in 1848 and multiplying recently, gives us a comparatively complete
knowledge of the bony structure of the men, women, and children of the
Neanderthal race. We are able to state positively the relative brain
developments and heights of the sexes. We know that this race, and this
race only, inhabited all of western Europe during the late Acheulean
and the whole Mousterian period. From their custom of ceremonial burial
we know that they possessed a reverence for the dead, which may have
been accompanied by some belief in an existence after death.
It is not difficult to distinguish the features of the Neanderthal
race, which mark it off from previous and subsequent races of men.
Most noticeable of all were the heavy, overhanging brows and the
retreating forehead. Many recent races have a decided ridge over the
eyes; but in recent races the outer edge of this ridge turns upward
at the outer line of the eyebrows. In the Neanderthal men, to the
contrary, this ridge surrounds the whole upper edge of the eye socket,
extending around the outside borders of the forehead; this forms a
regular roof over the eye sockets, which appear like two deep caverns.
Certain living Australians exhibit this form of ridge, without other
Neanderthal characteristics.
The face is an exceptionally high one. From upper jaw to the line of
the eyes it is much longer than that of more recent man; this suggests
the faces of the man-like apes. The jaw is less powerful than the
Heidelberg jaw; but, like it, it is very thick and massive. The chin
is receding; the Heidelberg man entirely lacked a chin. The teeth are
more human than in the Piltdown or Dawn Man. The skullcap is flat, the
forehead retreats, the ridges above the eyes are prominent, the face is
long, the cutting teeth are prominent, the chin recedes. There you have
the face of the Neanderthal man.
Most of these characteristics may be found in certain specimens of
the heads of living inferior races; but all of them are never found
in any living race. In many ways the Neanderthal race was closer to
the man-like apes than to _Homo sapiens_, or thinking man. The brain
capacity varied from 1,296 cubic centimeters, for the Gibraltar skull,
to 1,723 c. cm. for the skull known as Spy II, found in Spy, Belgium.
The left hemisphere of the brain is larger than the right, indicating
that the race was right-handed. Like the man-like apes, the frontal
portion of the brain is relatively smaller than in recent man. As far
as height is concerned, the Neanderthals were distinctly a short race.
They ranged from 5 feet 1 inch to 5 feet 5 inches for the male; the
females were approximately 4 feet 10 inches.
The head was very large, in proportion to the body. The thigh is
relatively long, the lower leg much shorter than in any existing human
race. In this respect the Neanderthal man had a shorter shinbone,
compared to the thigh, than even the man-like apes. This indicates that
the Neanderthal men were clumsy and slow of foot. Similarly the forearm
of the Neanderthals was very short, distinctly shorter than any of the
man-like apes. This points to the fact that the immediate ancestors of
the Neanderthals were ground dwellers, rather than tree dwellers. To
sum up these characteristics, the head was large, compared to the body;
the arm was short, compared to the leg; both forearm and lower leg were
short, compared to upper arm and thighbone respectively. The chest and
midbody were muscular and robust, the shoulders very broad. The hand
was extremely large, but the thumb was not as fully developed as in
recent races. There is one invariable feature of the Neanderthals. The
relation of the kneecap to the shinbone shows that this bone could not
be straightened wholly, but was always bent slightly backward. This
indicates too that the race squatted, instead of sitting. They could
not stand wholly erect; they were a bent or squatting race.
The spinal column was short and thick-set; the back curved upward
into the neck, more as in the chimpanzee than as in modern humans.
This caused a habitual stooping of the Neanderthal man at the neck
and shoulders, and prevented his ever holding his head erect. Legs
that could not be wholly straightened out, a head permanently stooped
forward—this squatting race would never appear quite human; it would
bear resemblance to certain man-like apes.
The position of the Neanderthal race in the development of human
culture and industry can be ascertained best from a table. It should be
remembered that it is the testimony of the stone implements and weapons
that determines the stage of culture.
TABLE OF IMPLEMENT CULTURE
_Years Ago_ _Age_ _Culture_ _Race of Men_
2,500 Later Iron Age Modern Recent
3,000 Earlier Iron Age Ancient Recent
4,000 Bronze Ancient Recent
10,000 Neolithic (New or Polished Recent
Stone Age)
14,000 Upper Paleolithic (Old or Azilian Cro-Magnon, etc.
Chipped Stone Age)
18,000 Magdalenean Cro-Magnon, etc.
Solutrean Cro-Magnon, etc.
Aurignacian { Cro-Magnon, etc.
{ Grimaldi Race
40,000 Lower Paleolithic (Old or Mousterian Neanderthal
Chipped Stone Age)
Acheulean Neanderthal
100,000 Chellean
Pre-Chellean { Piltdown
{ Heidelberg
475,000 Eolithic Trinil Ape-man
The localities presenting evidence of the Mousterian culture, called
Mousterian stations, are more than fifty in number, and are almost as
many as the Acheulean stations. In England we find Kent’s Hole, in
Devonshire, where among the Mousterian flints were found teeth of the
sabre-tooth tiger. There were three other stations on what was then the
mainland of England, one, on the Island of Jersey, yielding thirteen
Neanderthal teeth. In the Dordogne region of France are eight sites;
Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Moravia, and even Russia
have remains indicating that the Neanderthal men of the Mousterian
culture inhabited these scattered localities. At Dewlish, in Dorset,
England, an artificial trench has been found which is supposed to have
been a Neanderthal trap for elephants. Usually they could not kill such
prey; but they undoubtedly consumed the wounded or dead bodies of the
larger mammals, when they could find them. Part of the kill they ate
where it fell; they brought back the big marrow bones to their caves,
to crack at their leisure. These are almost the only mammalian bones
found in the caves. In addition to these rare feasts on the forest
monsters, the Neanderthal man’s regular diet included the hare, the
rabbit, and the rat—a fare supplemented by nuts, acorns, wild fruit and
buds, roots, birds’ eggs, young birds, honey from wild bees, snails and
frogs, fish, mussels, seaweed, and even caterpillars.
Compared to previous cultures, Mousterian life was dense and crowded.
It centered chiefly in caverns and grottoes, located near some
convenient stream. Primitive man had as yet no pots or vessels to
transport water. Fire was probably made by striking iron pyrites
against flint, near dried leaves; chips of these two stones are often
found together. The fire was probably banked when not needed; it was
needed most at night, as a protection against wild beasts. The herding
together must have developed something of tribal tradition, and the
germs of religious belief, as indicated in the ceremonial burials.
There is, of course, little industrial progress or invention shown in
the remains. The stone industry is quite distinct from the Acheulean,
although evidently descended from it. The change from the free and open
life of Chellean and early Acheulean times to the crowded grottoes
and shelters of Mousterian times may have had a dwarfing effect upon
the human beings and their industry. One characteristic of Mousterian
flints is that they are often retouched on only one side, leaving the
opposite side smooth, just as it had been rounded by natural forces,
such as water. The Mousterian points and scrapers usually have this
appearance. The Mousterians were the first to make widespread use of
the flake, instead of the core of the flint; this led to the decline
of the _coup de poing_ or hand-stone, used in so many ways by the
Acheuleans. When these hand-stones are found, the workmanship has
degenerated. This implement has run its course as a human tool, in the
same way that the great reptiles and prehistoric beasts had largely
run their courses; only rude, small vestiges remained. The implement
had its beginning in pre-Chellean times; it reached its maturity and
perfection, and gradually fell into degeneration and final disuse. This
occurred when it came into competition with another form of implement,
based upon a different and superior plan; in the struggle for existence
it gradually disappeared, because of the greater usefulness of the
replacing type.
The use of the bone anvil came in during this stage of industry.
Many small tools, chiefly made of flakes, were developed at the same
time, most of these being retouched on one side only. The industrial
implements are the degenerating hand-stones, the chopper, planing
tool, drill or borer, six varieties of scraper—knife-edged, saw-edged,
double-edged, etc.—the hand-point, and the hammer stone; the weapons
of war and chase are the hand-point, the spear head, the hand-stone,
throwing-stone, and knife. The planing tool is disappearing; the
scraper is the tool most used. There are very few knives; the drill and
the scraper have taken their places in industry.
There is no definite proof of the attachment of any of these stones
to a shaft or handle; there are yet no barbed or headed points. This
industry gradually blends into the first of the Upper Stone Age
industries, the Aurignacian.
For many thousands of years these Neanderthal men dwelt throughout
Europe. This long stay must have brought forth a distinct evolution
from lower to higher types, and into numerous varieties. These
variations we find in the skeletal remains, ranging from the primitive
Gibraltar skull and Krapina bones to the skeleton Spy II, more like the
modern races. The height remained fairly constant. As to what became of
the race, authorities differ. Hrdlicka and others hold that they partly
evolved into the lowest races of _Homo sapiens_, the thinking man, to
which modern races belong; that they contributed to the Brunn and other
races of the Upper Old Stone Age times, and even to the higher race of
the Cro-Magnons, which succeeded them. These scientists also hold that
traces of Neanderthal blood and physiognomy are present in some modern
Europeans. On the other side of the question stands H. F. Osborn, the
distinguished American anthropologist, and a number of followers. These
hold that the Neanderthals represent a side branch of the human race,
which became wholly extinct in western Europe.
The evidence undoubtedly points to a sudden racial change, more abrupt
than any other known, at the end of the Mousterian culture. Apparently
the Neanderthals disappeared bodily, to be replaced everywhere by the
Cro-Magnon race. From geological evidence, the date of this transition
is usually placed at between 20,000 and 25,000 years before our era.
No trace of the pure Neanderthals has been found in any of the Upper
Old Stone Age burial places; nor is there definite proof that the
Neanderthal influence appears in any later race. It may have been
that, during the rigor of the Fourth Glacial Period, the Neanderthals
were degenerating physically and industrially. In any event, toward
the end of the Lower Old Stone Age a new race entered Europe, a race
highly superior. Probably the new race competed for a time with the
Neanderthals, before they drove them out of the country, or killed them
in battle. The Neanderthals must have fought with wooden weapons and
with the stone-headed dart and spear, but there is no evidence that
they used the bow and arrow. There is a possibility that the newly
arrived Cro-Magnon race possessed this superior weapon; a barbed
arrow or spear-head appears in drawings of a later stage of Cro-Magnon
culture, the Magdalenean. In any case, the Neanderthals virtually
disappeared.
We are guided here by the evidence of skeletal and stone remains,
which in general are more trustworthy than early written records. Yet
these remains depend upon human interpretation, which is liable to
long error. Darwin thus attached no significance to the Neanderthal
skull, considering that it could not have been _Pre-Homo sapiens_
in part because of its large brain capacity. Written records are at
least as deceptive. The ancient historical writings of the Hebrews
state repeatedly that all of the primitive inhabitants of Canaan were
wiped out: “Joshua left none remaining; he utterly destroyed all that
breathed” (Joshua 10:40) sums up the story. The group of historical
books commencing with Judges tells a different story: “And it came to
pass, after the death of Joshua, that the children of Israel asked of
Jehovah, saying, Who shall go up for us first against the Canaanites,
to fight against them? And Jehovah said, Judah shall go up.... And
Jehovah was with Judah, and he drove out the inhabitants of the
hill-country; for he could not drive out the inhabitants of the valley,
because they had chariots of iron.” (Judges, 1:1, 2, 19.) This apparent
contradiction is capable of simple explanation. In this case, there was
no central organized government among the Canaanites, as far as can be
ascertained; the first kingdom was established some years after the
conquest by the victorious Israelites. Accordingly, even members of the
conquered race would desire to forget their kinship with the conquered,
and claim membership with the conquerors; until the story became
current that all of the first inhabitants had been destroyed.
This errancy of written records does not apply with equal force to
the records of anthropological remains. At the same time, a caution
must be observed. It is hardly conceivable that the lower race
could be entirely destroyed; there would in all probability be some
intermarriage, or some enslavement of the women at least of the
Neanderthals, who would bring forth offspring mingling the racial
streams. A wholesale destruction is only conceivable, if there were so
much physical difference between the races that the conquerors could
not bring themselves to mate with the vanquished. We know that the
Neanderthals were a squatting race, whose heads were always stooped;
there is evidence that they were an excessively hairy race. These
factors would decrease the probability of widespread intermingling.
Perhaps a dim racial remembrance of this bent, hairy race remains in
the ogre of folk fairy tales. Some mating must have taken place; future
excavations may bring to light intermediate types, future researches
may find in living European veins some trace of this first race whose
widespread occupancy of western Europe is shown by the enduring record
of the stones.
CHAPTER V
THE GRIMALDI OR NEGROID RACE
The date of the ending of the Neanderthal race and the beginning of
the Cro-Magnon supremacy is the first date that can be given with any
confidence. Geologists are agreed that this, which corresponds roughly
with the ending of the Fourth Glacial Period and the beginning of the
present Postglacial time, took place about 25,000 years ago. This race
came in with the Aurignacian culture. The early stations of this period
are scattered along the north and south shores of the Mediterranean
Sea, and are not found in eastern or central Europe. Apparently they
came from Asia through the land of Phoenicia, part of them passing
along the northern coast of Africa, including Tunis, into Spain; and
perhaps part along the northern coast of the Mediterranean through
Italy. Where they came from we cannot with any certainty state. It was
probably from somewhere on the continent of Asia; for their physical
structure is of the Asiatic type, and hardly at all of the African or
Ethiopian type. The reason that we cannot speak with definiteness of
Asia as their homeland, is that this continent has been only slightly
explored for anthropological remains. At the present time several large
expeditions are at work in Asia, especially in the backlands of Thibet
north of the Himalayas; it is confidently believed that here, or in
northern India, the central scattering point of the human race may
be discovered, with the possibility of the discovery of remains of a
race closely akin to the Trinil Man, the Ape-man of Java. Without this
evidence, we can only indicate the probability that these Cro-Magnons
came from Asia, and followed the trail later taken by the true
Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed, narrow-faced people, who
followed this coast in early Neolithic years, or, again, like the wave
of Arabian Moslem advance which pushed forward along the north coast of
Africa into Spain and as far as mid-France, more than a thousand years
ago.
An additional support to this theory of migration along the north coast
of Africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two members of
an entirely distinct race, which were found in the Grotto of Grimaldi,
near Mentone, France. These skeletons were found in 1906 by Vernau.
They are called the negroids of Grimaldi, because they are the only
Upper Old Stone Age race discovered in Europe resembling the African
negroid race. Anatomically they are not closely related to either the
Neanderthals or the Cro-Magnons. Their culture seems to have been
Aurignacian, because their skeletal remains were found just above
the layer which marked the close of Mousterian times. There are nine
grottoes of Grimaldi, which yielded the remains of sixteen individuals,
fourteen of which apparently belonged to the Cro-Magnon race, and two
to the Grimaldi negroids. At this time, along this southerly shore,
the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and the rhinoceros
still roamed, as the last members of the great African-Asiatic animals.
Vernau, the discoverer of the Grimaldi negroids, is inclined to regard
them as of a very ancient race, much older than the Cro-Magnons. He
believes that they belonged to a new racial type which formerly played
an important role in Europe, and enjoyed wide geographic distribution.
A professor in Cambridge has recently elaborated this theory, holding
that the negroid race was the first human race to separate from the
parent stock in Asia; that its members divided, part going south
into Africa, and part more directly westward into Europe, where they
scattered widely and blended into subsequent stocks. There is as yet
small evidence for this enlarged theory. Osborn is one who holds that
these two skeletons were probably true negroids who found their way
into Europe from Africa, but never became fully established as a race
in Europe.
Of the two skeletons found by Vernau, one is that of a middle-aged
woman; the other that of a youth of sixteen or seventeen. Both clearly
belong to the existing species of man, _Homo sapiens_. In the Grotto
of the Infants, in which the bodies were found, there is at the bottom
traces of Mousterian fire-hearths, probably used by Neanderthals;
above that, the two Grimaldi negroids; above and in close proximity to
these, various remains of the Cro-Magnon race. The Grimaldi negroids
were not a tall race, averaging 5 feet 2 inches; this is noticeably
shorter than the Cro-Magnon women and youths. There are many negroid
characteristics in the skull, the hip-girdle, and the proportions of
the limbs. In common with the man-like apes, there are found the long
forearm, the curved thigh-bone, and the marked projection of the teeth.
The nose is broad and flat, the jaw heavy without much chin. Somewhat
to the contrary implications is the fact that the head is long and
disharmonic, as are the Cro-Magnon heads. By disharmonic is meant that,
with a long head, the face is short and quite broad. The brain capacity
is relatively high, being estimated at 1,580 c. cm. The forearm and
thigh-bone resemble the man-like apes; the proportions of the leg are
similar to the Cro-Magnons.
Upon the subject, Vernau writes: “The fact remains that at a very
remote period of the Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside
the Neanderthal race, a type of man that in many of his cephalic
(head) characters, in the structure of his pelvis, and in his limb
proportions, showed striking analogies to the negro of today. In their
remarkable proportions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of
the recent Negroes; their teeth resemble those of the Australian type.
There is evidence of the establishment and spread of the Grimaldi
race throughout western Europe, namely, in cases of partial reversion
to this type among the skeletal remains of the Neolithic Age, the
Bronze Age, and the early Iron Age in Brittany, Switzerland, and
northern Italy. Extreme prognathism (projection of the face) is the
characteristic that most frequently appears, and in some instances
there is the broad nose, with the same osteological peculiarities
that mark the Grimaldi type. In every instance these individuals show
dolichocephaly (long-headedness), nearly always combined with a short,
broad face. Until the discovery of the Grimaldi type we were at a loss
to explain the existence of these individuals among a population from
which they differed so radically.”
In view of the divergence of the authorities, it may be safer to
conclude with Keith that the Grimaldi people represent an intermediate
type in the evolution of the typical white and black races. The
Grimaldi negroids constitute one of the great puzzles of anthropology.
By the ratio of skeletons preserved to probable human beings existing,
these two bodies indicate that a large number of negroids inhabited
Europe at this period. Whether they were as widely spread and as
influential as Vernau contends is problematical. Future excavations may
throw further light upon them, even if it be only in a negative way.
CHAPTER VI
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE
The evidence of the rocks points rather definitely to a clash between
the Cro-Magnons and the Neanderthals. There are places, such as the
valley of the Somme, where early Aurignacian retouched stones, probably
of Cro-Magnon working, appear below a layer of the latest Mousterian
implements, typical of the Neanderthals. The same is true of other
stations. This indicates that the Cro-Magnons held the station,
temporarily abandoned it to the Neanderthals and then repossessed
themselves of it.
A brief resume of the history of the stone implements will throw
light upon the problem. Of industrial and domestic implements, the
Pre-Chellean culture had the planing tool, scraper, borer, knife,
and hammer stone. The Chellean added to these the _coup de poing_,
or hand-stone, with its varied uses. The Acheulean brought this tool
to perfection, and added the chopper; the Mousterian added nothing,
but perfected the scraper. In the Upper Old Stone Age, chopper and
hand-stone disappear; the anvil stone comes in, and disappears after
the Azilian, while the others continue. The Solutrean adds the
polisher, the Magdalenean supplements with the lamp and the mortar.
This is the story in brief of the industrial implements.
Of weapons of war and the chase, the Pre-Chellean begins only with
the knife. The Chellean adds the hand-stone as a hand-axe and dagger;
the Acheulean brings on the throwing-stone and the point; these are
all appearing in the Lower Old Stone Age. In the Upper division, the
hand-stone disappears, while the Aurignacian includes the lance or
lance-knife, and the lance-head; the Magdalenean for the first time
shows the arrow point. Only the arrow-point and the knife persist in
the later stages of the Upper Old Stone Age.
No implements of art, sculpture, or engraving appear in the lower
divisions of the Paleolithic. Beginning with the Aurignacian, the
drill, the chisel, the etching tool, and the graver appear, and
continue until the end of the Old Stone Age.
Bone implements are not found until the Mousterian, when we have the
anvil and the awl. The Aurignacian brings in bone blades, javelin
points, spear points, needles, smoothers, wedges, chisel, and the
ceremonial staff; the Solutrean adds the dagger, fishhook, and harpoon;
the Magdalenean has the spear-thrower, shuttle, pin and wand. These
taper off at the end of the Paleolithic.
One of the chief sources of the change which swept over western Europe
was in the increased brain power of the Cro-Magnons, especially in
the development of the almost modern forehead and forebrain. Their
brains were capable of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination; they were
more highly endowed artistically than any uncivilized race which has
ever been discovered. The Neanderthals, except in the slow development
of symmetry in their implements, seem to have lacked the artistic
instinct entirely; the Cro-Magnon artistic capacity was nearly as great
as that of the modern races. They were apparently capable of advanced
education; had a developed aesthetic and religious sense; and were
organized into highly specialized communities.
One interesting thing about the Europe of the Upper Old Stone Age is
that there were at least five differing races in it at the same time.
There were, first, the Grimaldi negroids; secondly, the Cro-Magnons,
noted for their artistic ability; thirdly, the Brunn race, probably
entering Europe directly from Asia through Hungary; fourthly, a
long-headed race with a narrow face, perhaps forerunners of the
Neolithic or polished stone invasion; fifthly, the Furfooz or Grenelle
race, very broad-headed, entering Europe probably from central Asia,
bringing the Azilian industry already developed. There may have been
other races. All of this happened in the last 25,000 years.
During Aurignacian times, France was still connected with England by a
broad land highway; the British Isles were united to each other. The
Aurignacian life, which was chiefly Cro-Magnon, centered in grottoes
or caverns. Throughout western Europe the climate was still dry and
chilly; in the Postglacial period, now commencing, there were three
Postglacial advances of the Alps ice-caps, although there was no great
glacial period. In addition to the caverns, there were a few notorious
open camps, such as the one at Solutre, the famous hunting station for
wild horse, which gave its name to the Solutrean culture. The remains
of 100,000 skeletons of horses have been located here. These wild
horses here and elsewhere were not bred and reared by men, as far as
the evidence goes; they were hunted for food. It was the far East, not
Europe, which discovered that the horse could be used as a beast of
burden.
In 1823 the first Cro-Magnon skeleton was discovered, in the Paviland
cave, in western Wales. The bones were stained red. This was long
called the “Red Lady”; it is identified now as a Cro-Magnon male. In
1852, seventeen skeletons were discovered at Aurignac, in France;
these gave the name to the culture. In 1868, in Cro-Magnon, in the
Dordogne, France, portions of five skeletons were unearthed; these
gave the name to the race. A number of subsequent discoveries have
been made, including the fourteen skeletons in the Grimaldi grottoes.
The race was exceptionally tall; the face was broad, the eye-orbits
long and narrow; the skull was long and large, with marked brain
capacity, indicating that here was a high racial type belonging to
_Homo sapiens_. The head is disharmonic, that is, long and at the
same time broad across the face. The upper part of the face is almost
vertical, as in modern races. The men of this race varied from 5
feet 11 inches to 6 feet 4; the women were noticeably shorter. With
an average male height well over six feet, it may well be said that
“there were giants in those days.” The shin-bones were long, indicating
fleetness of foot. The flattened form of this bone indicates that the
men were used to squatting, while engaged in industrial occupations.
The long leg and strong thigh bone are both typical of a hunting race.
The shoulders were broad, the arms relatively short. The race, with a
cranial capacity averaging 1,800 c. cm., was one of the finest that the
world has ever seen. The appearance of the face most resembles tribes
living today north and south of the Himalayas. The characteristics were
definitely Asiatic rather than African.
In 1909 O. Hauser discovered, in the shelter of Combe-Capelle, a
skeleton which has been called the Aurignacian man. The height is only
5 feet 3 inches. In many characteristics it resembles the Cro-Magnon;
and, until further evidence is adduced, it may be best included as a
transition type of the Cro-Magnons.
The burial customs during the Aurignacian times were decidedly quaint.
The use of color to paint the skeletons, as in the Paviland skeleton
found in Wales, is characteristic. The Grimaldi infant skeletons are
not colored, but are accompanied by a vast number of small perforated
shells, evidently forming a sort of burial mantle. The female skeleton
here was wrapped in a bed of unperforated shells; the legs were
extended, the arms stretched beside the body. One of the large male
skeletons had legs extended and arms folded, and was decorated with a
crown of perforated shells. Another rested on its left side, with the
limbs slightly flexed, the forearm folded, and the head decorated with
a circle of perforated stones colored red. Other skeletons have been
found in a layer of red earth containing iron; two of these skeletons
rest on the left side, the limbs extended or slightly flexed, and with
shells in abundance surrounding the forehead, chest, and one limb.
The ornaments, weapons, and, in some cases, food placed beside these
bodies, indicated some sort of belief in survival of existence. The
use of color points to its probable use as a decoration for the bodies
while alive.
The Aurignacian marks the beginning of definite art. The art products
of this and succeeding ages range from the primitive mammoth, painted
in red ochre in the cavern of Pindal, showing only two limbs, to the
exquisite tinted bisons on the ceiling of Altamira, Spain, representing
a high stage of art, in which four colors were used. There were
drawings in all stages of completion, and carved figurines in talc,
limestone, and, soapstone. Elaborate carvings were made on reindeer
horn. Human skulls were shaped into drinking cups. There is a marked
similarity between the human figures and primitive African art, which
lends color to the theory that the Cro-Magnon people traveled along the
north shore of Africa, bringing with them the Aurignacian industry,
which may have been modified along the route by contact with African
sources. Small carved figures similar to the Aurignacian, especially
representations of the female form, are found in baked clay along
the valley of the Nile. These figurines have in common the great
development of the parts connected with maternity, and in some cases a
headdress similar to early Egyptian art. There are many silhouettes
of hands on the walls of these grottoes, of which a large number are
mutilated in one or more fingers.
Above the Aurignacian culture came the Solutrean. In the west of
Europe, during this period, were the Cro-Magnons; in the east, were the
men of Brunn. In 1871 a skullcap was discovered at Brux, in Bohemia; in
1891 a skeleton, evidently belonging to the same race, was discovered
at Brunn, in Moravia, deeply embedded. These are of a much lower type
than the Cro-Magnons; but, differing sharply from the Neanderthals,
are entitled to be regarded as members of _Homo sapiens_. The Predmost
“mammoth hunters,” remains of twenty of whom were excavated in 1880 in
Moravia, also belong to this race. The Solutrean industry, carried on
by both Brunn and Cro-Magnon men, brought to its highest development
the art of chipping flints. The famous laurel-leaf points, thin and
exquisitely shaped, are characteristic of this culture. This culture
apparently came from the east, from Asia, just as the Aurignacian
apparently entered Europe from the south, along the northern coast of
Africa and the northern coast of the Mediterranean. In purely artistic
work this period does not rank as high as the Aurignacian; the chief
energy apparently went to the fashioning of flint weapons. At the same
time, artistic advance can be discovered.
The Solutrean was succeeded by the Magdalenean period, the most
fascinating of all the stages of the Old Stone Age. This period marks
the height of Paleolithic civilization; it marks the crest of the
development of the Cro-Magnons, prior to their sudden decline and
disappearance as the dominant type in western Europe. The men of
this time are commonly known as the Magdaleneans, taking their name
from the typical culture station of La Madeleine, France. The period
probably reached from 16,000 B.C. onward. There are elaborately
decorated javelin points of bone, fitted for attachment to a wooden
shaft. The art of the period is the culmination of the art begun in the
Aurignacian and continued through the Solutrean. We find numberless
representations both of individual animals and of herds. Most
frequently the subjects chosen were the bison, mammoth, wild horse,
reindeer, wild cattle, deer, and rhinoceros; less often the ibex,
wild boar, and wolf appear; there are hardly ever pictures of fishes
or of plant life. We find the lion and the bear, but not the hyena,
now disappearing from Europe. The elaborate carved wands, made of
reindeer horn, point to a tribal organization. It is possible that the
tribesmen were specialized into chieftains, priests, and medicine men,
hunters, fishermen, flintworkers, hide-dressers, makers of clothing
and footwear, makers of ornaments, engravers, sculptors in wood, bone,
ivory, and stone, artists with color and brush, and numerous other
pursuits. A strong sense of truth animated their artistic work, as well
as a distinct feeling for beauty.
The human remains of the time are predominantly Cro-Magnon, of a
modified type. The height of the race has grown much less; this may
have been due to the severe climatic conditions of the Postglacial Era.
New features creep into the burial ceremony, such as the separation of
the head from the body. Elaborate bone harpoons, at first barbed on
one side only, later on both sides, have been found widespread. Flint
blades with toothed edges, elaborate bone needles, are often located;
but toward the end of the period, the workmanship of these degenerates.
But no primitive art has touched the Magdalenean at its height. Herds
are pictures, with detailed study of the first and last animal,
and symbolic horns or heads for the remainder. There are elaborate
frescoes, showing great processions of mammoths, bison, reindeer, and
horse. The cavern of Altamira, in northern Spain, is in many ways the
most remarkable of all the Magdalenean stations.
And then there was a sudden decline. We cannot with any certainty
fix upon the cause; the psychic circle of growth, maturity, and
decline, may have run its course. There is no distinct environmental
alteration, which can be held responsible. The race did not disappear;
it apparently broke up into many colonies, which can perhaps be traced
through Neolithic and even recent times. The shape of the Cro-Magnon
head, long and with a broad face, the type known as disharmonic, is
still found in the region around Dordogne, France, today. These people
are not degenerate in any particular; they are keen and alert. It is
quite possible that these people of Dordogne today represent by far
the oldest race living in western Europe; it is a significant fact
that the oldest speech spoken in Europe, the Basque among the northern
Pyrenees, is spoken near by, within two hundred miles. Authorities
suggest a possible connection between the Basque language, different
from all the other tongues of Europe, and the vanished language of the
Cro-Magnons. Ripley suggests that it is not inconceivable that the
ancestors of the Basques conquered the Cro-Magnons dwelling there, and
took over in whole or in part their ancient speech.
Among other localities where the skulls resemble the Cro-Magnon are
certain portions of Thuringia, and the recently extinct race of
Guanches of the Canary Islands. Such skulls have been discovered in
northern Africa, among living Berbers. But the chief centers of modern
heads resembling the Cro-Magnons are the Dordogne region, at Landes
near the Garonne in southern France, at Lannion in Brittany, where a
third of the population are of the Cro-Magnon type, and on the island
of Oleron off the west coast of France. Perhaps the inhabitants of
Trysil, on the Scandinavian peninsula, who show the same disharmonic
features, are an offshoot of the Cro-Magnons.
It may be worth while to look for a moment at the vanished Guanches of
the Canary Islands, who were conquered by Spain in the 15th Century.
The average height was over six feet for the males, and less for the
females. The heads had points of resemblance to the Cro-Magnons.
The offensive weapons in warfare consisted of three stones, a club,
and several stone knives; the defensive weapon was a simple lance.
They also used wooden swords with great skill. They lived in large,
well-sheltered caverns, whose walls were always decorated. The ceilings
were covered with red ochre, the sidewalls with various geometric
designs in red, black, gray, and white. Hollowed-out stones served as
lamps. Here is surely evidence of kinship to the vanished Cro-Magnons.
CHAPTER VII
END OF THE OLD STONE AGE
We have now reached the end of the Old Stone Age, a period some 9,000
or 12,000 years ago. Certain new races entered Europe, and played a
part in the downfall of the tall artists. Two new races found their
way along the Danube, as revealed by the burials at Ofnet, in eastern
Bavaria. One of these is broad-headed and apparently from central
Asia, the other long-headed and perhaps of Mediterranean origin.
These races had a relatively high brain development. The first of
these is called the Furfooz-Grenelle race; the second was probably
a Mediterranean race, not related to the Brunn. This latter race,
or still another Mediterranean race, also entered Europe from north
Africa, into Spain; it is distinguished by conventionalized art.
There may have been another race, perhaps ancestral to the Teutonic,
coming along the shores of the Baltic. These races correspond to the
Azilian culture, which closed the Paleolithic Age. Its art is marked by
numerous flattened and painted pebbles, whose use is problematical, in
spite of many ingenious theories; the flints are a degenerate type of
Magdalenean stonework. There are as yet no polished stone implements.
The ceremonial burial at Ofnet is one of the strange exhibits of this
period.
Here was found a ceremonial burial of thirty-three skulls of two
distinct races, one short-headed, one long-headed, and neither related
to the Cro-Magnons. Twenty-seven of these were embedded in ochre and
arranged in a sort of nest, with the faces all looking westward.
The inner skulls were crushed, as if the outer ones had been added
from time to time. A yard away a nest of six more skulls was found,
arranged in the same manner. The interment must have taken place just
after death, for the lower jaws and some of the neck vertebrae were
found with each skull. The heads had been severed from the necks by a
sharp flint; its marks were visible on some of the vertebrae. These
skulls were mainly of women and children; only four were adult males.
Ingenious theories have been offered to explain this, ranging from
cannibalism to captivity and blood sacrifice. But the presence of
ornaments, and the novel arrangement of heads facing westward, indicate
that these theories must be held in abeyance until further evidence is
discovered.
This is the first burial in Europe (with the possible exception of
Grimaldi) which presents two or more races.
The broad-headed race here is probably kin to the late Paleolithic race
known as the Furfooz-Grenelle men. In 1867, in a cave near Furfooz,
Belgium, sixteen skeletons were discovered. These were short-headed
men. The Grenelle skulls, found near Paris, are probably Neolithic;
but this is no reason for denying them kinship with the Furfooz race,
whom they closely resemble. The bulk of the evidence points to their
migration from central Asia.
The narrow-headed Mediterranean race is another matter; they probably
came from the south. At about the same time, the retreat of the
northern icefield permitted a migration along the shores of the Baltic,
which may have been the advance wave of the Teutonic peoples. They
are known today only by their industries; no skeletons have as yet
been discovered. Their art was entirely unconventionalized, and much
cruder than the Cro-Magnon art. It is probably contemporaneous with the
Azilian culture in the south.
The brain capacity of these various races may be compared in a table:
TABLE OF BRAIN CAPACITIES
Brain Capacity
c. cm.
Recent European (average) 1400-1500
Ofnet race (short-headed) 1400
Ofnet race (long-headed) 1500
Cro-Magnon (average) 1800
Grimaldi race (negroid) 1580
Brunn race 1350
Neanderthal race 1296-1723
Piltdown race 1400
Trinil race (Ape-man) 950
Apes (maximum) 600
There is no evidence for the migration routes of the earlier
races—although their cultures point to a southerly entrance, in the
cases of the Trinil, Piltdown, Heidelberg, and Neanderthal men.
Industrial evidence points to the north African route as the path of
the Cro-Magnons; the Grimaldi negroids came from the same direction.
The succeeding culture, the Solutrean, apparently came from the east,
as did the Brunn race which followed. Toward the close of the Upper Old
Stone Age we find another southerly or Mediterranean invasion; during
the same period there is the Furfooz-Grenelle approach from the East,
and perhaps the Baltic from the north.
Whether the Neolithic or polished stone workers suddenly appeared
and overcame the chipped stone wielders, or whether these gradually
filtered in, science cannot now with certainty answer. It is certain
that the men using the polished stones appeared in France, then in the
Swiss lake region, where they built their lake-dwellings on high piles
driven into the lake-bed. Along with the disappearing chipped stone
implements we find more and more made of polished stone. Agriculture
began, together with implements for preparing the soil and harvesting
the crops. Nomadic life began to be abandoned, in favor of more settled
dwellings. Even more distinctive is the appearance of pottery, used
first in the preparation and preservation of food. The art began over
with crude naturalistic drawings. Man had entered upon another upward
step in his slow progress from his lowly ancestry.
Thus we have seen the Old Stone Age in its entirety, its beginning, its
height, and its decline. It has been read from the slow carving of vast
natural forces, glaciers and seas, upon the ancient rocky skeleton of
the earth; it has been deciphered from the scattered remains of tree
apes and ground apes, from ape-men, dawn men, and true men; it has been
pieced together from the rude implements fashioned out of this same
stone by these early workers. Man has as yet read hardly the first page
of the great Record of the Rocks. The fascinating task of perusing the
rest of the record is still before us.
Transcriber’s notes
Hyphenation has been retained as it appears in the original publication,
except for hyphenation when splitting words across two lines.
The author uses “Pithecanthropos” and “Eoanthropos” instead of
“Pithecanthropus” and “Eoanthropus”. Since he is consistent in this, the
spelling most likely isn’t a printing error and therefore maintained.
The table “TABLE OF IMPLEMENT CULTURE” is moved to a nearby space
between paragraphs.
Corrections
Page 16 “In Belgium and elsewere” changed to “In Belgium and
elsewhere”;
Page 23 “the Piltdown man was a probable ancester” changed to “the
Piltdown man was a probable ancestor”;
Page 51 “with a cranial capacity avering” changed to “with a cranial
capacity averaging”;
Page 52 period changed to comma after “and succeeding ages range from
the primitive mammoth”;
Page 56 “the ancestors of the Basques conquered the Cro-Manons” changed
to “the ancestors of the Basques conquered the Cro-Magnons”;
Formatting conventions
Italic words have been indicated with underscore characters, for
example, “_word_”;
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