The Cambridge natural history, vol. ix : Birds

By Arthur Humble Evans

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Title: The Cambridge natural history, vol. ix
Birds

Editor: S. F. Harmer

Author: Arthur Humble Evans

Editor: Sir A. E. Shipley

Release date: December 22, 2024 [eBook #74964]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Macmillan and Co

Credits: Keith Edkins, Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY, VOL. IX ***

Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
A single underscore introduces a subscript (CO_2), and a caret a
superscript (B^1).

Page numbers enclosed by curly braces (for example: {25}) have been
incorporated to facilitate the use of the Alphabetical Index and other page
references in the text.

* * * * *

THE

CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED BY

S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge;
Superintendent of the University Museum of Zoology

AND

A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge; University
Lecturer on the Morphology of Invertebrates

VOLUME IX

[Illustration]

[Illustration: NORTH POLAR CHART. Scale of Nature 1 to 47,830,000.]

[Illustration: SOUTH POLAR CHART. Scale of Nature 1 to 95,660,000. (_Half
the scale of North Polar Chart_)]

BIRDS

By A. H. EVANS, M.A., Clare College, Cambridge

London
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1899

_All rights reserved_

In sicco ludunt fulicae.–VIRGIL.

Loons disport themselves on dry matters.

{v}PREFACE

In this volume of the "Cambridge Natural History" the author has attempted
to meet a need which he believes to be somewhat widely felt. Recognising
the fact that there is at the present time an abundance of popular, or only
slightly scientific, works on Birds, some of which touch but superficially
upon the individual species composing the various groups, as regards their
plumage or habits, while others pay little or no attention to correctness
of Classification, he has essayed the difficult and apparently unattempted
task of including in some six hundred pages a short description of the
majority of the forms in many of the Families, and of the most typical or
important of the innumerable species included in the large Passerine Order.
Prefixed to each group is a brief summary of the Structure and Habits; a
few further particulars of the same nature being subsequently added where
necessary, with a statement of the main Fossil forms as yet recorded.

Thus it is hoped that the work may be of real use, not only to the tyro in
Ornithology, but also to the traveller or resident in foreign parts
interested in the subject, who, without time or opportunity for referring
to the works of specialists, may yet need the aid of a concise account of
the species likely to cross his path.

An introductory chapter has been written, to meet the claims of the present
day, on the external and to a limited extent on the internal structure of
Birds, with short paragraphs on {vi}Classification, Geographical
Distribution, and Migration, and a "Terminology" of the subject.

In accordance with the scheme of the Series generally, the order followed
runs from the lowest forms and the Ratite Birds upwards; the Carinate Birds
being divided, after Dr. Gadow's plan, into two Brigades or main sections,
and these again into Legions, Orders, and so forth. It should, however, be
understood that the _Species_ of each Genus are often merely placed in the
most convenient order; and that, where a geographical range is given, it
does not follow that it is unbroken from end to end.

In descriptions of colour, the names used for tints in the British Museum
Catalogue of Birds have been commonly adopted, or for British species those
in Mr. Howard Saunders' _Manual of British Birds_.

Various subjects of a highly technical, or at least of a special character,
have purposely been avoided in the main, as unfitted to the scope of the
work; such are, Variation and Hybrids, with their accompaniments of
Dimorphism, Dichromatism, and the like; Myology; Mechanism of Flight and
the supposed Lines of Flight on Migration; the Classifications of Linnæus
and the older writers; and the Strickland Code of Ornithological
Nomenclature. For these Professor Newton's _Dictionary of Birds_, and
especially the Introduction to it, may be consulted; besides a multitude of
other works.

The woodcuts have been chiefly supplied by Mr. G. E. Lodge; but a few
illustrations have been utilized from other sources.

The author does not hold himself responsible for the fact of the Family
names being in Roman in place of Italic type, nor for the dissociation of
the vowels in the diphthongs; in these minor points he personally differs
from the writers of the former volumes, though he agrees with the wish of
his Editors for uniformity.

{vii}In conclusion, he must take the opportunity of acknowledging the
invaluable assistance afforded by Mr. Howard Saunders, who carefully went
over the whole of the proofs, while Dr. R. B. Sharpe was kind enough to do
the same; nor must he fail to record his indebtedness to Professor Newton,
Mr. Sclater, Dr. Gadow, Mr. Ogilvie Grant, and many others, not to mention
the innumerable authors without whose previous labours to write a book of
this description would be a well-nigh impossible task. Dr. Stejneger's
Volume on Birds in the _Standard Natural History_ should be mentioned in
particular.

A. H. EVANS.

CAMBRIDGE, _November 17, 1898_.

{viii}ADDENDUM

Since the text has been printed off, several new species have been
described, and of these it is necessary to mention at least the following;–

_Archaeopteryx siemensi_, from Solenhofen, where the original form was
obtained.–(Dames.)

_Euryapteryx exilis_ (Dinornithidae); a new genus, _Anomalornis_, is also
proposed for _Anomalopteryx_ (preoccupied).–(Hutton.)

_Ammoperdix cholmleyi_ (Phasianidae), from Suakin.–(Ogilvie-Grant.)

_Cepphus snowi_ (Alcidae), from the Kurile Is.–(Stejneger.) The range of
_C. columba_ will now be "Bering Sea to California;" and of _C. carbo_
"North-East Asia and Japanese Seas."

_Podoces pleskii_ (Corvidae), from East Persia.–(Zarudny.)

Some new fossil forms from Patagonia.–(Mercerat.)

Mr. F. E. Blaauw has published a Monograph of the Cranes, and Mr. C. W. de
Vis has described the eggs and young of _Salvadorina_ (Anatidae).

In all these cases the _Zoological Record_ for 1897 may be consulted.

{ix}CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE v

ADDENDUM viii

SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK xi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER II

ARCHAEORNITHES–NEORNITHES RATITAE–NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE 23

CHAPTER III

NEORNITHES CARINATAE

BRIGADE I–LEGION I (COLYMBOMORPHAE). ORDERS: ICHTHYORNITHES–
COLYMBIFORMES–SPHENISCIFORMES–PROCELLARIIFORMES 48

CHAPTER IV

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONTINUED_

BRIGADE I–LEGION II (PELARGOMORPHAE). ORDERS: CICONIIFORMES–
ANSERIFORMES–FALCONIFORMES 70

CHAPTER V

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONTINUED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION I (ALECTOROMORPHAE). ORDERS: TINAMIFORMES–
GALLIFORMES–GRUIFORMES–CHARADRIIFORMES 182

CHAPTER VI {x}

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONTINUED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION II (CORACIOMORPHAE). ORDERS: CUCULIFORMES–
CORACIIFORMES 351

CHAPTER VII

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONCLUDED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION II (CORACIOMORPHAE _CONCLUDED_). ORDER:
PASSERIFORMES 466

INDEX 589

{xi}SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK

CLASS AVES (p. 23.)

SUB-CLASS I. ARCHAEORNITHES (p. 23).

_Archaeopteryx_ (pp. viii, 23).

SUB-CLASS II. NEORNITHES (p. 25).

_DIVISION A. NEORNITHES RATITAE_ (p. 25).

RATITAE (p. 26) { I. Struthiones (p. 27): Fam. Struthionidae (p. 27).
{ II. Rheae (p. 30): Fam. Rheidae (p. 30).
{ III. Megistanes (p. 32): { Fam. I. Casuariidae (p. 33).
{ { Fam. II. Dromaeidae (p. 36).
{ IV. Apteryges (p. 38): Fam. Apterygidae (p. 38).
{ V. Dinornithes (p. 41): Fam. Dinornithidae (p. 41).
{ VI. Aepyornithes (p. 43): Fam. Aepyornithidae (p. 43).

?? STEREORNITHES { { _Mesembriornis_, etc. (p. 44).
(p. 43) { { _Diatryma_ (p. 45).
{ ? { _Dasornis_ (p. 45).
{ { _Remiornis_ (p. 45).
{ { _Gastornis_ (p. 45).

_DIVISION B. NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE_ (p. 45).

HESPERORNITHES (p. 46).
? ENALIORNITHES (p. 46).
? _Baptornis_ (p. 46).

_DIVISION C. NEORNITHES CARINATAE_ (p. 48).

ICHTHYORNITHES { Fam. ICHTHYORNITHIDAE (p. 48): _Ichthyornis_ (p. 48).
(p. 48) { ? _Apatornis_ (p. 49).

Order. Sub-Order. Family. Sub-family.

COLYMBIFORMES { COLYMBI (p. 49) COLYMBIDAE (p. 50).
(p. 49) { PODICIPEDES PODICIPEDIDAE (p. 52).
{ (p. 49)

SPHENISCIFORMES SPHENISCI SPHENISCIDAE
(p. 54) (p. 54) (p. 54).

PROCELLARIIFORMES
(p. 59) TUBINARES PROCELLARIIDAE { Diomedeinae (p. 63).
(p. 59) (p. 59) { Oceanitinae (p. 65).
{ Procellariinae (p. 65).
{ Pelecanoïdinae (p. 68).

CICONIIFORMES{ STEGANOPODES { PHAËTHONTIDAE (p. 72).
(p. 70) { (p. 70) { SULIDAE (p. 73).
{ { PHALACROCORACIDAE (p. 75).
{ { FREGATIDAE (p. 81).
{ { PELECANIDAE (p. 83).
{
{ ARDEAE (p. 86) { ARDEIDAE (p. 87).
{ { SCOPIDAE (p. 95).
{
{ CICONIAE { CICONIIDAE (p. 95).
{ (p. 95) { IBIDIDAE { Ibidinae (p. 100).
{ { (p. 99) { Plataleinae (p. 103).
{
{ PHOENICOPTERI { PHOENICOPTERIDAE (p. 105).
{ (p. 105) { PALAELODIDAE (pp. 105, 108).

ANSERIFORMES { PALAMEDEAE { PALAMEDEIDAE
(p. 108) { (p. 108). { (p. 108)
{
{ ANSERES { ANATIDAE { Merginae (p. 115).
{ (p. 110) { (p. 111) { Merganettinae (p. 116).
{ { { Erismaturinae (p. 117).
{ { { Fuligulinae (p. 118).
{ { { Anatinae (p. 123).
{ { { Chenonettinae (p. 130).
{ { { Anserinae (p. 131).
{ { { Cereopsinae (p. 133).
{ { { Plectropterinae(p. 133).
{ { { Anseranatinae (p. 135).
{ { { Cygninae (p. 135).

FALCONIFORMES{ CATHARTAE { CATHARTIDAE
(p. 137) { (p. 137) { (p. 137).
{
{ ACCIPITRES { SERPENTARIIDAE (p. 141).
{ (pp. 137, 141) { VULTURIDAE (p. 143).
{ { FALCONIDAE { Gypaëtinae (p. 150).
{ { (p. 146) { Polyborinae (p. 151).
{ { { Accipitrinae (p. 153).
{ { { Aquilinae (p. 159).
{ { { Buteoninae (p. 164).
{ { { Falconinae (p. 173).
{ { PANDIONIDAE (p. 180).

TINAMIFORMES { TINAMI (p. 182) { TINAMIDAE (CRYPTURIDAE)
(p. 182) { { (p. 182).

GALLIFORMES { MESITAE (p. 186){ MESITIDAE (p. 186).
(p. 186) {
{ TURNICES { TURNICIDAE (p. 187).
{ (p. 187) { PEDIONOMIDAE (p. 189).
{
{ GALLI (p. 190) { MEGAPODIIDAE
{ { (p. 190).
{ { CRACIDAE { Cracinae (p. 196).
{ { (p. 194) { Penelopinae (p. 197).
{ { { Oreophasinae (p. 198).
{ { PHASIANIDAE { Numidinae (p. 204).
{ { (p. 198) { Meleagrinae (p. 206).
{ { { Phasianinae (p. 206).
{ { { Odontophorinae (p. 230).
{ { { Tetraoninae (p. 233).
{
{ OPISTHOCOMI { OPISTHOCOMIDAE
{ (p. 241) { (p. 241).

GRUIFORMES { { RALLIDAE (p. 243).
(p. 243) { { GRUIDAE (p. 251).
{ { ARAMIDAE (p. 256).
{ { PSOPHIIDAE (p. 257).
{ { CARIAMIDAE (p. 258).
{ { OTIDIDAE (p. 260).
{ { RHINOCHETIDAE (p. 263).
{ { EURYPYGIDAE (p. 265).
{ { HELIORNITHIDAE (p. 267).

CHARADRIIFORMES
(p. 268) { LIMICOLAE { CHARADRIIDAE { Charadriinae (p. 272).
{ (p. 268) { (p. 272) { Tringinae (p. 278).
{ { { Scolopacinae (p. 289).
{ { CHIONIDIDAE (p. 292).
{ { GLAREOLIDAE { Glareolinae (p. 293).
{ { (p. 293) { Dromadinae (p. 296).
{ { THINOCORYTHIDAE (p. 296).
{ { OEDICNEMIDAE (p. 297).
{ { PARRIDAE (p. 297)
{
{ LARI { LARIDAE { Stercorariinae (p. 304).
{ (pp. 268, 300) { (p. 300) { Larinae (p. 305).
{ { { Rhynchopinae (p. 310).
{ { { Sterninae (p. 310).
{
{ ALCAE (p. 315) { ALCIDAE (p. 315).
{
{ PTEROCLES { PTEROCLIDAE
{ (p. 321) { (p. 321).
{
{ COLUMBAE { DIDIDAE (p. 328).
{ (p. 325) { DIDUNCULIDAE (p. 331).
{ { COLUMBIDAE { Gourinae (p. 334).
{ { (p. 333) { Peristerinae (p. 334).
{ { { Columbinae (p. 342).
{ { { Treroninae (p. 344).

CUCULIFORMES { CUCULI (p. 351) { CUCULIDAE { Cuculinae (p. 352).
(p. 351) { { (p. 351) { Centropodinae (p. 356).
{ { { Phaenicophainae(p. 357).
{ { { Neomorphinae (p. 357).
{ { { Diplopterinae (p. 359).
{ { { Crotophaginae (p. 359).
{ { MUSOPHAGIDAE (p. 359).
{
{ PSITTACI { PSITTACIDAE { Stringopinae (p. 366).
{ (p. 361) { (p. 366) { Psittacinae (p. 367).
{ { { Cacatuinae (p. 372).
{ {TRICHOGLOSSIDAE{ Cyclopsittacinae(p. 373)
{ { (p. 373) { Loriinae (p. 373).
{ { { Nestorinae (p. 374).

CORACIIFORMES{ CORACIAE { CORACIIDAE { Coraciinae (p. 376).
(p. 376) { (p. 376) { (p. 376) { Leptosomatinae (p. 378).
{ { MOMOTIDAE { Momotinae (p. 380).
{ { (p. 379) { Todinae (p. 381).
{ { ALCEDINIDAE { Halcyoninae (p. 385).
{ { (p. 382) { Alcedininae (p. 386).
{ { MEROPIDAE (p. 387).
{ { BUCEROTIDAE (p. 390).
{ { UPUPIDAE { Upupinae (p. 395).
{ { (p. 395) { Irrisorinae (p. 397).
{
{ STRIGES { STRIGIDAE { Striginae (p. 403).
{ (p. 397) { (p. 398) { Buboninae (p. 404).
{
{ CAPRIMULGI { CAPRIMULGIDAE { Caprimulginae (p. 418).
{ (p. 415) { (p. 417) { Nyctibiinae (p. 418).
{ { PODARGIDAE (p. 419).
{ { STEATORNITHIDAE (p. 419).
{
{ CYPSELI { CYPSELIDAE { Macropteryginae(p. 422).
{ (p. 419) { (p. 420) { Chaeturinae (p. 422).
{ { { Cypselinae (p. 424).
{ { TROCHILIDAE (p. 426).
{
{ COLII (p. 439) { COLIIDAE (p. 439).
{
{ TROGONES { TROGONIDAE
{ (p. 441) { (p. 441).
{
{ PICI (p. 445) { GALBULIDAE { Galbulinae (p. 445).
{ { (p. 445) { Bucconinae (p. 446).
{ { CAPITONIDAE { Capitoninae (p. 448).
{ { (p. 448) { Indicatorinae (p. 451).
{ { RHAMPHASTIDAE (p. 453)
{ { PICIDAE { Picinae (p. 457).
{ { (p. 457) { Iynginae (p. 464).

Order PASSERIFORMES (p. 466)

Group. Division. Family. Sub-family.

PASSERES { SUBCLAMATORES { EURYLAEMIDAE
ANISOMYODAE{ (p. 467) { (p. 467).
(p. 467) {
{ CLAMATORES { PITTIDAE
{ (p. 469) { (p. 469).
{ { PHILEPITTIDAE
{ { (p. 471).
{ { XENICIDAE
{ { (p. 472).
{ { TYRANNIDAE { Taeniopterinae }
{ { (p. 473) { Platyrhynchinae } p.
{ { { Elaineinae } 473
{ { { Tyranninae }
{ { OXYRHAMPHIDAE
{ { (p. 477).
{ { PIPRIDAE
{ { (p. 477).
{ { COTINGIDAE { Tityrinae }
{ { (p. 479) { Lipauginae }
{ { { Attilinae } (p.
{ { { Rupicolinae } 479).
{ { { Cotinginae }
{ { { Gymnoderinae }
{ { PHYTOTOMIDAE
{ { (p. 483).
{ { DENDROCO- { Furnariinae }
{ { LAPTIDAE { Synallaxinae } (p.
{ { (p. 483) { Sclerurinae } 484).
{ { { Dendrocolaptinae }
{ { FORMICARIIDAE { Thamnophilinae } (p.
{ { (p. 488) { Formicariinae } 488).
{ { { Grallariinae }
{ { CONOPOPHAGIDAE
{ { (p. 489).
{ { PTEROPTOCHIDAE
{ { (p. 490).

PASSERES { SUBOSCINES { MENURIDAE
DIACROMYODAE{ (p. 491) { (p. 491).
(p. 491) { { ATRICHORNITHIDAE
{ { (p. 493).
{
{ OSCINES { ALAUDIDAE
{ (p. 494) { (p. 496).
{ { MOTACILLIDAE { Motacillinae } (p. 498).
{ { (p. 498) { Anthinae }
{ { HENICURIDAE
{ { (p. 501).
{ { TIMELIIDAE
{ { (p. 501).
{ { PYCNONOTIDAE
{ { (p. 504).
{ { MUSCICAPIDAE
{ { (p. 506).
{ { TURDIDAE { Turdinae (p. 509).
{ { (p. 509) { Myiodectinae (p. 513).
{ { { Sylviinae (p. 513).
{ { { Polioptilinae (p. 514).
{ { { Miminae (p. 514).
{ { CINCLIDAE
{ { (p. 519).
{ { TROGLODYTIDAE
{ { (p. 521).
{ { CHAMAEIDAE
{ { (p. 522).
{ { HIRUNDINIDAE
{ { (p. 522).
{ { CAMPEPHAGIDAE
{ { (p. 525).
{ { DICRURIDAE
{ { (p. 527).
{ { AMPELIDAE
{ { (p. 529).
{ { ARTAMIDAE
{ { (p. 530).
{ { LANIIDAE { Gymnorhininae (p. 532).
{ { (p. 531) { Malaconotinae (p. 533).
{ { { Pachycephalinae
{ { { (p 533).
{ { { Laniinae (p. 534).
{ { { Prionopinae (p. 535).
{ { VIREONIDAE
{ { (p. 536).
{ { SITTIDAE
{ { (p. 536).
{ { PARIDAE
{ { (p. 538).
{ { PANURIDAE
{ { (p. 541).
{ { ORIOLIDAE
{ { (p. 542).
{ { PARADISEIDAE
{ { (p. 543).
{ { CORVIDAE { Corvinae }
{ { (p. 552) { Garrulinae } (p. 552).
{ { { Fregilinae }
{ { STURNIDAE
{ { (p. 559).
{ { DREPANIDIDAE
{ { (p. 562).
{ { MELIPHAGIDAE { Myzomelinae } (p.
{ { (p. 564) { Meliphaginae } 564).
{ { ZOSTEROPIDAE
{ { (p. 568).
{ { NECTARINIIDAE
{ { (p. 568).
{ { DICAEIDAE
{ { (p. 570).
{ { CERTHIIDAE (p. 571).
{ { COEREBIDAE
{ { (p. 572).
{ { MNIOTILTIDAE
{ { (p. 573.
{ { TANAGRIDAE
{ { (p. 575).
{ { PLOCEIDAE { Viduinae (p. 576).
{ { (p. 576) { Ploceinae (p. 577).
{ { ICTERIDAE { Cassicinae }
{ { (p. 579) { Agelaeinae } (p.
{ { { Sturnellinae } 579).
{ { { Icterinae }
{ { { Quiscalinae }
{ { FRINGILLIDAE } (p. 582).
{ { + EMBERIZIDAE }

ERRATA

Page 4, note 2, _for_ Water-hens _read_ Moor-hens.
" 10, line 19, after Owls _read_ and _Pandion_.
" 16, " 17, _for_ Lord Howe's _read_ Lord Howe.
" 16, " 22, _for_ Galapagos _read_ Galápagos.
" 26, note 1, delete comma after Bronn's.
" 30, line 2 from bottom, _for_ Tarapaca _read_ Tarapacá.
" 59, " 6 " " for _Pelecanoidinae_ read _Pelecanoïdinae_.
" 60, lines 14, 26, 34, for _Pelecanoides_ read _Pelecanoïdes_.
" 67, line 6, for _Thalassaeca_ read _Thalassoeca_.
" 70, " 10, _for_ Phaenicopteridae _read_ Phoenicopteridae.
" 91, " 12, for _ralloides_ read _ralloïdes_.
" 118, " 17, for _dominicus_ read _dominica_.
" 122, " 2, after _F. cristata_, _read_ the Tufted Duck.
" 133, " 5, after Wavy, _read_ or Snow Goose.
" 160, " 8 from bottom, for _cirrhatus_ read _cirratus_.
" 215, " 10, for _praelatus_ read _praelata_.
" 258, " 15, _for_ perhaps _read_ probably not.
" 351, " 11, and page 357, line 6, for _Phaenicophainae_ read
_Phoenicophainae_.
" 357, " 11 from bottom, for _Phaenicophaës_ read _Phoenicophaës_.
" 429, Fig. 89, for _jugularus_ read _jugularis_.
" 550, line 20, for _Seenopoeetes_ read _Scenopoeetes_.
" 568, " 9 from bottom, _for_ a scale-insect _read_ an Aphid.

{1}CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION.–"A Bird is a feathered biped." This popular saying undoubtedly
furnishes a definition in the world of to-day, since no other existing
creature has a clothing of feathers, and even the word "biped" is thus
superfluous.

The above should, however, be somewhat expanded, in order to shew in
greater detail the differences between Birds and other Vertebrata. Care
must nevertheless be taken to avoid the fault common to many modern
definitions, of giving an abstract of the main characteristics of the
object, rather than a clear guide to distinction.

Dr. Gadow[1] defines Birds as "oviparous, warm-blooded, amniotic
Vertebrates, which have their anterior extremities transformed into wings.
Metacarpus and fingers carrying feathers or quills. With an intertarsal
joint. Not more than four toes, of which the first is the hallux."

Much of this the beginner might well postpone, his attention being solely
drawn to the external characters; though of course those that are internal
are by no means to be subsequently neglected. Indeed no satisfactory
progress can be made in the serious study of Ornithology, or the Science of
Birds, without a competent knowledge of their Anatomy and Development;
while, though at present comparatively few fossil remains of Birds have
been found, some of them are of the highest importance, and there is every
probability of future discoveries throwing much light not only on the
mutual relationships of Birds among themselves, but also on their connexion
with the _Reptilia_. Birds are, in fact, only extremely modified Reptiles,
the two Classes forming the _Sauropsida_ of Huxley, one of his three
primary divisions of Vertebrata. {2}The aid of the Palaeontologist and
Geologist must thus be called in to clear up many problems which present
themselves to the Ornithologist who does not content himself with examining
existing forms of life alone. _Archaeopteryx_ (p. 23) from the Jurassic
System is the oldest Bird known, nor are any other pre-Tertiary forms
recorded, save a small number from the rocks of the Cretaceous Epoch, the
chief of which are the so-called _Odontornithes_, or toothed species of
America (p. 45).

The following paragraphs on the structure of Birds will help to explain the
systematic account in the later chapters.

FEATHERS.–Returning to the outward character denoted by the popular saying
with which we began, the Feathers[2] constituting the plumage may not
inconveniently be first considered. The general belief that they grow from
almost every part of a Bird's body, as do hairs in most Mammals, is
erroneous; for, almost without exception, they grow in certain definite
tracts called _pterylae_, the intervening spaces, whether they be wholly
bare or covered with down, being termed _apteria_. The arrangement of these
patches is at times of considerable assistance in determining a Bird's
affinities; and the subject may be studied in Nitzsch's _Pterylographie_[3]
or in a shorter form in Dr. Gadow's article "Pterylosis" in Professor
Newton's _Dictionary of Birds_.

A feather originates thus. A conical papilla arises in the _derma_ and
pushes up the _epidermis_, a depression forming meanwhile around the base;
subsequently the derma supplies a nutritive pulp, while part of the
epidermal layer is converted into a tuft of stiff rays, meeting and forming
a short tube below; these thereafter burst their covering and protrude as
the _rami_ or barbs, on which, apparently by secondary splitting, are
commonly produced _radii_ or barbules. In this state we have a plumule or
"down-feather"; but in the case of the feathers that have "webs" or "vanes"
(_vexilla_) often called contour feathers (_pennae_ or _plumae_), a fresh
papilla forms at a deeper level, so that the earlier structure is thrust
forward and eventually drops off from the apex of the later. Meanwhile the
"dorsal" portions of {3}the barrel or quill (_calamus_ or _scapus_) at the
base of the tuft of rays have elongated into a principal shaft (_rhachis_);
this is generally accompanied by a secondary "aftershaft" (_hyporhachis_),
originating from the "ventral" side, which in the Emeu and Cassowary rivals
the shaft itself in size. On the rhachis a double series of _lamellae_ or
barbs are developed, carrying a similar double series of barbules, much as
in the down-feather, but the barbules again give rise to barbicels
(_cilia_), which in the distal rows usually terminate in hooklets
(_hamuli_). These catch in the folded margins of the next proximal row, and
a firm surface is thus secured. An after-shaft never, and a down-feather
rarely, possesses barbicels; while in some cases by the absence of these
and part of the barbules a "disconnected" web and a "decomposed" feather
are formed, as in the decorative tufts of many species. The barbs may even
be absent, as in the wing-quills of Cassowaries, the wires of
Birds-of-Paradise, the "bristle-feathers" at the gape of Night-jars or the
eyelashes of Hornbills. In the hackles of _Gallus_ (Fowl), and the
secondaries or even the tail-feathers of _Ampelis_ (Waxwing), the tip of
the rhachis is flattened and wax-like; and similar structures are
observable elsewhere. In the newly-hatched young the down is often partly
or entirely suppressed, but in certain Birds this suppression is temporary,
and a thick coat grows after a few days. "Powder-down" feathers are those
which never develop beyond the early stage, and continually disintegrate at
the tip into bluish- or greyish-white powder; they occur in the
_Tinamidae_, _Ardeidae_, _Rhinochetidae_, _Eurypygidae_, _Mesitidae_,
_Accipitres_ and _Psittaci_, in _Podargus_, _Coracias_, _Leptosoma_,
_Gymnoderus_ and _Artamus_.

COLOUR.–The colour of Feathers is due to one of three causes. First, an
actual pigment[4] may be present in certain corpuscles, or in diffused
solution, and the tint does not then vary according to the incidence of the
light. Secondly, it may arise from a pigment overlaid by colourless
structures in the form of ridges or imbedded polygonal bodies; here, if the
vanes are scraped or held up to the light, the pigmentary colour alone is
visible.[5] Thirdly, the colour may be iridescent or prismatic; that is, a
blackish {4}pigment may lie beneath a surface, which, whether polished,
ridged, or pitted, acts as a series of prisms, causing the hue to vary
according to the relative position of the spectator's eye and the light.
This is seen in a remarkable degree in Humming-birds.[6]

Not uncommonly the vanes of feathers have an appearance like watered silk,
due to very indistinct transverse striations. In regard to plumage
generally, it may be noticed that the markings on a feather frequently
indicate the age of a bird. In some the immature plumage is characterised
by light-coloured tips to the feathers, which are lost as maturity is
reached. In other groups, and especially in most of the _Accipitres_ or
Diurnal Birds of Prey, the markings of the immature bird are generally
longitudinal, and in the adult transverse. In nearly all these cases the
change is effected at the first moult. Females and young are usually duller
than males, but in some cases, such as _Phalaropus_ (_Limicolae_) and
_Eclectus_ (_Psittaci_), the hen-birds are the more brightly coloured.

MOULT.–Referring to p. 2, it should be remarked that, after the production
of a feather, the formative substances become for a while dormant, but
awake to renewed activity, if accidental or periodical loss needs to be
made good; and so we naturally arrive at the phenomena of the annual Moult,
which is often double, that is, occurring towards autumn, and again in
spring.

Though some Birds do not lose their quill-feathers the first year, they
normally gain a winter plumage–differing in colour from the summer garb–by
moulting or shedding their feathers. The wing-quills, and even those of the
tail, are ordinarily discarded in pairs, though not quite simultaneously;
but most _Anatidae_ (Swans, Geese and Ducks), and apparently the
_Phoenicopteridae_ (Flamingos), lose all the former at once,[7] and with
them the power of flight; while in the first-named Family the males of many
species assume for several weeks a dress resembling that of the female, and
are said to undergo an "eclipse." Young birds moult, as a rule, somewhat
later than adults, but in the typical _Gallinae_ the original quills are
shed before the possessors are fully grown, and are succeeded by others of
proportionately increased size, the power of flight being attained very
early.

{5}The additional or spring moult affects the smaller feathers only, while
it is still doubtful how far changes of colour are clue to a mere dropping
off of the fringe of barbicels. The decorative plumes of the males of many
species are gained at the vernal moult. The double process is certainly not
diagnostic of Families or even Genera, except in isolated cases; as an
instance, however, the Larks have one moult, the Pipits and Wagtails two.

In such cases as Swallows and Diurnal Birds of Prey generally, the plumage
is not changed till after the migration; in the Ptarmigan there is a triple
moult, the breeding-suit being changed first to a greyish habit and then to
a white; in Penguins the feathers of the wing come off in flakes.[8]

SKELETON, DIGESTIVE ORGANS, ETC.–The plumage, however, though often
striking, and of undoubted utility as a non-conductor of heat and a
protection against wet, plays a subordinate part in determining the
relationships of the larger groups of Birds. For this we need the
assistance of anatomy, if indeed we do not rely upon it almost entirely. It
will be well before starting to state that structures which are
morphologically similar, that is, which have a like origin in the embryo,
are termed "homologous," while those which perform the same physiological
functions are "analogous," the word in its strictest sense implying initial
diversity.

Any standard work on Vertebrate Anatomy ought to furnish a concise account
of the bony framework or Skeleton of a Bird, but it will be convenient here
to follow mainly the treatment of Dr. Gadow, in Prof. Newton's _Dictionary
of Birds_, pp. 848-867.

According to this authority the Axial Skeleton consists of the Skull and
Vertebral Column; the Appendicular Skeleton of the Ribs, the Sternum, the
Limbs and their Arches, the Hyoid Apparatus or framework of the tongue, and
the Jaws.

1. The Vertebral Column, which protects the Spinal Cord, is composed of a
variable number of cervical, dorsal, sacral or pelvic, and caudal
vertebrae; that is, those of the neck, back, loins and tail respectively.
The first cervical vertebra, which bears the head, articulating with it by
a single condyle, is called the Atlas; the second, on which it turns, the
Axis; the succeeding cervicals {6}present a considerable number of
processes or projections, which protect certain blood-vessels, and serve
for the attachment of the muscles which turn the flexible neck. The dorsal
vertebrae follow, and some not unfrequently coalesce with each other, but
this is always so with the sacrals, and in nearly all existing Birds with
the terminal portion of the caudals, which are fused together to form a
"pygostyle" or upright triangular plate to carry the tail-feathers.[9]
_Archaeopteryx_, so far as is known, stands alone in having all the caudal
vertebrae free.

A typical vertebra consists of a centrum, and an arch, with articular
surfaces for two ribs, and is called heterocoelous when the facets, or
connecting surfaces, are saddle-shaped, a condition characteristic of, and
restricted to, Birds. It is amphicoelous, or biconcave, when each end is
hollowed, as in the dorsal region of _Ichthyornis_ and probably in
_Archaeopteryx_; procoelous, when concave in front (as is common in
Reptiles); opisthocoelous when concave behind (as in many Mammals).

2. The Ribs are doubly attached to the vertebrae by a head (_capitulum_)
and a knob (_tuberculum_); and have a neck, a dorsal, and a ventral
portion, each dorsal section (save on the last rib) possessing an "uncinate
process" or thin, bony posterior projection, except in _Archaeopteryx_ and
the _Palamedeidae_. Should the ventral piece articulate with the sternum
the rib is "true," otherwise it is called "false"; moreover the cervical
and frequently the post-thoracic ribs are fused with the cervical vertebrae
and the ilia respectively.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.–Third cervical vertebra of Woodpecker (_Picus
viridis_). (Viewed anteriorly.) _Ft_, vertebrarterial foramen; _Ob_, upper
arch; _Pa_, articular process; _Psi_, haemal spine; _Pt_, _Pt_, the two
bars of the transverse process, shewn on one side ancylosed with the
cervical rib (_R_); _Sa_, articular surface of centrum. (From
Wiedersheim.)]

3. The Breast-bone (_Sternum_) presents two different styles–according to
whether it exhibits on its ventral surface a median ridge or keel
(_carina_), or not. In the former case, which is that of by far the greater
number of existing Birds (hence termed _Carinatae_), the keel is of
variable size, being correlated with the power of flight. It is exceedingly
deep in the Swifts, Humming Birds, and certain Petrels, but dwindles almost
to disappearance in some flightless forms such as the Dodo, the Kakapo
(_Stringops_), the extinct New Zealand Goose (_Cnemiornis_), and a good
many Rails.

{7}[Illustration: FIG. 2.–Skeleton of the trunk of a Falcon. _Ca_,
coracoid, which articulates with the sternum (_St_) at †; _Cr_, keel of
sternum; _Fu_ (_Cl_), furcula (clavicles); _G_, glenoid cavity for humerus;
_S_, scapula; _Un_, uncinate process; _V_, vertebral, and _Sp_, sternal,
portion of rib. (From Wiedersheim.)]

The absence of a keel is characteristic of the other and smaller group of
Birds, made up of the Ostrich, Rhea, Emeu and Cassowary, Moa and Kiwi,
which from the resemblance the sternum thus bears to a flat-bottomed boat
(_ratis_) are known as _Ratitae_. Whether keeled or not, the breast-bone
affords a surface of attachment to the principal muscles of the fore-limbs,
and its anterior end supports the coracoids, as in Fig. 2. Various
processes are in most cases developed on the sides of the sternum itself,
behind its junction with the ribs, especially towards the {8}posterior
portion, where they often take the form of prolongations, the extremities
of which occasionally meet and enclose what are called _fenestrae_; but
these are unimportant when compared with the features presented by the
anterior part.

4. The Pectoral Arch, or Shoulder-Girdle, consists of three pairs of bones,
the Coracoids, the Scapulae or Shoulder-blades, and the Clavicles or
Collar-bones, the last two usually coalescing in the median line into a
V-shaped or U-shaped Furcula (the well-known Merry-thought); but in some
groups, as certain Parrots, the clavicles are practically absent, while in
others, as several Owls, they do not unite. The furcula often ossifies
firmly with the anterior portion of the keel, and in _Fregata_, _Didus_ and
the _Ratitae_, the coracoids and scapulae are fused together.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.–Skeleton of the Limbs and Tail of a Carinate Bird.
(The skeleton of the body is indicated by dotted lines.) _F_, digits; _Fi_,
fibula; _HW_, carpus; _MF_, tarsometatarsus; _MH_, carpometacarpus; _OA_,
humerus; _OS_, femur; _Py_, pygostyle; _R_, coracoid; _Rd_, ulna; _Sch_,
scapula; _St_, sternum, with its keel (_Cr_); _T_, tibiotarsus; _Ul_,
radius; _Z_, _Z^1_, digits of foot. (From Wiedersheim.)]

5. The Anterior Limbs, or Wings, are composed of the Humerus, or upper
arm-bone, the Ulna and Radius (making the fore-arm), the Carpus or wrist,
the Metacarpus and Digits, corresponding with the hand and fingers. The
first of the three metacarpals bears the Pollex, or thumb, with one or two
{9}phalanges (joints); the second the Index, representing man's first
finger, with two or three joints; the third a weak digit with only one
phalanx, except in _Archaeopteryx_, where there are four. The _Casuarii_
and _Apteryges_ possess an index only, which in the _Sphenisci_ fuses with
the pollex. The basal joint of this is the normal place of attachment of
the "bastard wing" (_alula spuria_). _Archaeopteryx_ had claws on all its
fingers, but in recent Birds they occur on the first two only, being
functionless in the adult. Wing-spurs arise from the carpal and metacarpal
bones.

6. The Pelvic Arch consists of the Ilium, Ischium, and Os pubis, these
three paired bones meeting from each side at the cup (_acetabulum_) that
receives the head of the femur, and coalescing early in life; while the
_incisura ischiadica_ or notch between the ischium and the ilium becomes an
inclosed space (_foramen_) in all Birds except the _Ratitae_ and
_Crypturi_.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.–Pelvis of _Apteryx australis_. Lateral view. _a_,
Acetabulum; _il_, ilium; _is_, ischium; _p_, pectineal process of pubis;
_p^1_, pubis. (From Wiedersheim, after Marsh.)]

7. The Posterior Limbs, or Legs, are composed of the Femur or thigh, the
Tibia and Fibula, making the shank or "drumstick," and the bones of the
Foot. The thigh, however, being hidden by the plumage, the shank of a Bird
might easily be taken for the thigh, and the metatarsus (the cannon-bone of
some) for the shank. The tibia and fibula commonly unite to some extent,
and the former, as it now exists in adult Birds, is strictly a
"tibio-tarsus," since with it is fused the proximal portion of the
originally existing tarsal elements. Similarly the distal tarsal
{10}elements unite with the metatarsus, which is therefore properly a
"tarso-metatarsus," though often called merely "tarsus" by ornithologists.
This arises from a fusion of the second, third, and fourth metatarsal
bones, which in the adult (except among the _Sphenisci_ and to some extent
in _Psittaci_) do not lie in the same plane; the middle one having its
upper end thrust backward and its lower end forward in the course of growth
to maturity. The fifth metatarsal practically disappears, while the first
remains more or less separate, and lies behind the distal portion of the
other metatarsals.

Of the toes the fifth is not traceable in Birds; the first is often
aborted, but the second only in _Struthio_, and to a less extent in _Ceyx_
and _Alcyone_, and the fourth (nearly) in _Cholornis_. The hallux, or hind
toe, has two phalanges, the second digit three, the third four, and the
fourth five; _Cypselus_ and _Panyptila_ (Swifts), however, are exceptions,
and possess only three in each of the anterior toes, while the
_Caprimulginae_ (true Nightjars) and _Pteroclidae_ (Sand-Grouse) have only
four joints on the outer. In Owls the fourth digit is reversible at will,
the same being true to a less extent of the _Musophagidae_
(Plantain-eaters) and _Leptosoma_ (akin to the Roller); when this condition
is permanent, as in the _Cuculidae_, _Psittaci_ and _Pici_ the foot is
termed zygodactylous. In _Trogones_ the second toe is reversed
(heterodactylous). _Colius_ can turn the first toe forward and the fourth
backward, while certain Swifts, and to a less degree some Nightjars, have
the whole number permanently pointing to the front (pamprodactylous).
Membranes more or less connecting the anterior digits produce a webbed or
swimming foot, even the hallux being united with the rest in the
_Steganopodes_. The hind-toe is often elevated, or higher than its fellows,
when it is commonly reduced and sometimes lacks a nail. The Ostrich has
little or no claw on the outer toe, while that of the third toe is toothed
or serrated in a considerable number of Birds, but this is a character of
very slight importance.

The covering of the metatarsus is usually "scutellated," but when the
_scutellae_, or scales, which may be oblong or polygonal, are smaller than
usual–and generally hexagonal–it is called reticulated. In some cases the
surface becomes nearly or quite smooth ("ocreated" or "booted"), or more or
less granulated.

8. The structure of the Skull is a study in itself and affords
{11}considerable help in Taxonomy (Classification). It must suffice here to
refer for the names of the parts to the subjoined figure.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.–Skull of a Wild Duck (_Anas boscas_), from the side.
_ag_, Angular; _als_, alisphenoid; _ar_, articular; _bt_, basitemporal;
_d_, dentary; _en_, external nostrils; _e.o_, exoccipital; _eth_, ethmoid;
_fr_, frontal; _j_, jugal; _lc_, lacrymal; _mx_, maxilla; _mx.p_,
maxillopalatine process; _n_, nasal; _p_, parietal; _pg_, pterygoid; _pl_,
palatine; _ps_, presphenoid; _px_, premaxilla; _q_, quadrate; _q.j_,
quadratojugal; _s.ag_, supra-angular; _s.o_, supraoccipital; _sq_,
squamosal: _ty_, tympanic cavity; _v_, vomer; _II_, foramen for optic
nerve; _V_, for trigeminal. (From Wiedersheim, after Parker.)]

The Bill, or Beak, is composed of an upper jaw or maxilla, and an under jaw
or mandible. From the figure it will be seen that "maxilla" is not strictly
the whole upper portion, though the term is thus used for convenience, as
is the plural "mandibles" for the two jaws when mentioned simultaneously.
The "rhamphotheca," or horny sheath, may be simple (undivided), or
compound, that is, made of several distinct pieces. In the _Anseres_ the
covering is soft with a horny (corneous) tip or "nail"; in the _Limicolae_
it varies extremely, producing a hard pickaxe, as in the Oystercatcher, or
a delicate sensory organ as in the Snipe and Woodcock. The rhamphotheca at
times has extraordinary outgrowths, as in the Hornbills, Sheathbills, and
elsewhere. In the _Accipitres_, or Diurnal Birds of Prey, and most
_Psittaci_, the base is soft and becomes a "cere," while the similar
formation in the _Columbae_ is due to a swelling of the _operculum_ or
covering of the nostrils. This operculum, moreover, may be leathery
(coriaceous), as in the _Charadriidae_, _Trochilidae_ and so forth, or
rolled up, as in _Rhinochetus_; it may even result in a short soft tube, as
in _Caprimulgus_, or in the hard double tube which gives the name of
_Tubinares_ to the Petrels. "Impervious" nostrils are those with a septum,
or division, between the nasal cavities, "pervious" {12}those with none.
The narrow slit-like or entirely closed nostrils of the _Steganopodes_
should also be mentioned.

The form of the bill varies from the "spoon" of _Platalea_ and
_Eurynorhynchus_ (spatulate) to the "arch" of _Numenius_, the scissors of
_Rhynchops_, the "wedge" of _Picus_, the big rounded feature of the
_Psittaci_, and so forth; but for details the characters of the several
Families must be consulted, as also for helmets, shields, horns, knobs, and
peculiarities due to the elongation, distorting or crossing of the
mandibles. These, too, are often notched, serrated, lobed or "festooned,"
or emarginate (slightly indented); the curious transverse serrations or
_lamellae_ of the beak in _Anseres_, and the somewhat similar sifting
apparatus in _Phoenicopterus_, _Prion_ and _Anastomus_ being especially
remarkable. Teeth were probably lost by Birds before Tertiary times, but
were possessed at least by _Archaeopteryx_, _Hesperornis_ and
_Ichthyornis_. The so-called "egg-tooth" of embryos is merely a calcareous
protuberance on the upper surface of the bill, which is cast after being
used to crack the shell.

9. The organs of deglutition and digestion begin with the tongue, which is
subject to much variation of structure, according to the different groups
of Birds, and is of course correlative with their habits. It has little
connexion with taste, though often of assistance in obtaining nutriment. To
this follows the gullet (_oesophagus_), which in many cases has an
enlargement forming the crop (_ingluvies_), wherein the food may be
temporarily retained before passing into the stomach, the last-named always
having an antechamber (_proventriculus_) where digestion is largely
accomplished, in front of the gizzard (_ventriculus_). This has frequently
strong muscular walls, and its action is often assisted by the mechanical
process of comminution performed by stones, grit or sand, swallowed for
that purpose. The stomach is succeeded by the intestines, which in most
cases have a pair of blind-sacs (_caeca_) attached to them, often acting as
aids to digestion, though these are not always functional, and are absent
in many Birds, while in others they attain a very large size, their
condition being in consequence of some importance as a systematic
character.

10. The organs of voice in Birds have long attracted special interest from
the loud cries which some utter, and the melody with which others are
gifted. Setting aside the part played by {13}the _trachea_ or windpipe in
supplying air to the lungs, its formation is worthy of attention. Its upper
end consists of the _larynx_, and it passes down the neck as a flexible
tube, formed by a continuous succession of bony rings connected by
membrane, until it bifurcates into two _bronchi_, which open into the
lungs. A common feature, found in many groups not nearly allied, is the
dilatation of a portion, generally near the middle, while a remarkable
modification is exhibited by the males of many of the Duck-tribe, some of
the lowest rings being fused together and forming what is known as the
_bulla ossea_ or "labyrinth." In other _Anatidae_ (some of the Swans), and
some of the Cranes, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum; but a not
unfrequent modification, usually confined to the male sex, often occurs
elsewhere, when the windpipe is looped back upon itself. All these
arrangements, however they may affect the sounds uttered by Birds, do not
in themselves constitute the voice organ of most. That is reserved for the
_syrinx_, a peculiarity of the Class _Aves_, consisting of the lower end of
the trachea and the adjoining part of the bronchial tubes; and the varied
modulations are effected by means of muscles attached thereto. These
voice-muscles may be wholly absent or of the simplest character, but they
attain their highest perfection in the _Passeres_, and especially in the
large group of them known as _Oscines_, where there are often five or seven
pairs. In this group the lowest four or five tracheal rings are solidly
fused into a little bony box communicating with the bronchi; the first and
second bronchial rings (or in this part often semi-rings) being closely
attached to the trachea, and the spaces between the second and third and
the third and fourth being generally closed by an outer tympaniform
(drum-like) membrane, while the rest of the semi-rings of the bronchi are
closed by the inner tympaniform membrane. It should be clearly understood
that all the notes emitted by Birds are produced by the above structures
only, and that the tongue has nothing to do with their utterance, except,
possibly, in the case of the sounds that Parrots (but not other birds) are
taught to produce.

CLASSIFICATION.–The Classification of Birds is still in a condition of
uncertainty, notwithstanding the many schemes successively propounded
during more than two centuries. To dwell upon them here would be
impossible, and it is only practicable {14}to trace in the briefest way the
line which has led to the most recent attempts, and to name those whose
researches have produced the results which may be fairly regarded as
attained. First among them is Nitzsch (1806-1840), to whom followed Merrem
(1812-1817), and after a few years L'Herminier (1827). These three worked
quite independently, and in their lifetime little notice was taken of their
labours; for, though there were good ornithologists among their
contemporaries, little value was then set upon internal characters in this
connexion. An improvement took place when the great Johannes Müller (1846,
1847) published his scheme for grouping the _Passeres_, which, though based
on purely anatomical facts, was almost immediately accepted, chiefly
through the simultaneous exertions of Dr. Cabanis, by systematists of the
Old School. For twenty years no advance was made, for the morphological
researches of Parker were not directly taxonomical; but Huxley (1867, 1868)
started what was practically a new line of investigation, though it
subsequently appeared that up to a certain point it had been already
suggested by Dr. Cornay (1842-1847). The impetus thus given was fortunately
sustained, Huxley's example being followed by Dr. Murie, and by two
promising men, A. Garrod and W. A. Forbes, both of whom died at an early
age, leaving their mark in work which, though much of it was crude, was
that of true genius. Mr. Sclater (1880) has tried to bring the results of
the whole four into harmony with pre-existing views, and a similar attempt
was that of Dr. Stejneger (1885); but all were overshadowed by the
monumental performance of Prof. Fürbringer, whose _Untersuchungen zur
Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel_, completed in 1888, must ever remain
a record of unexampled labour, while his considerations on the derivation
of Birds from Reptiles, and of the later groups of Birds from the earlier,
whether his results be right or wrong, are of the utmost importance to the
ornithologist. During the progress of this work the author was in frequent
communication with Dr. Gadow, himself engaged on the ornithological portion
of Bronn's _Thier-Reich_, and thus the opinions of each were in many cases
mutually affected. Dr. Gadow, on the completion of his undertaking,
propounded a scheme of classification, which is followed, with some slight
modifications, in the present volume (see foregoing table)–it being, of
course, understood that a linear arrangement is, {15}strictly speaking,
impossible, since any group may have a decided affinity to more than two
others. This Classification, beginning (as Birds themselves must have
begun) with the lower forms, takes us, except in the _Oscines_, as far as
the Families, which in most cases are fairly distinguishable, though of
very variable value. Coming to Genera, and still more to Species, the
opinions of authorities often differ so widely, that at present an attempt
to reconcile them is hopeless. It cannot be denied that Genera and Species
are merely "convenient bundles," and that divisions of either, if carried
too far, defeat the object for which Classification is intended. Genera are
only more distinct from Species, and Species from Races, because the
intervening links have disappeared; and, if we could have before us the
complete series which, according to the doctrine of Evolution, has at some
time existed, neither Genus nor Species would be capable of definition, any
more than are Races in many cases; while the same remark will apply to the
larger groups.

From these Races or Geographical variations we may not unnaturally turn to
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. It will always be credited to Ornithology that
the interesting study of the Geographical Distribution of Animals was first
placed on a scientific basis as a result of the study of Birds. This was
effected by Mr. Sclater, whose division of the Globe into Six "Regions"–the
_Palaearctic_, _Ethiopian_, _Indian_, and _Australian_, forming one
group–the "Old World" (_Palaeogaea_); and the _Nearctic_ and _Neotropical_,
forming a second–the "New World" (_Neogaea_); was announced in 1858 (_J.
Linn. Soc._ ii. pp. 130-145). His scheme, being solely grounded on
Ornithological considerations, was accepted with scarcely any modification
by Mr. Wallace in his great work (_Geograph. Distrib. of Animals_, 1876),
and by the majority of zoologists, though some demurred, and among them
Huxley, who, in especial reference to Birds, shewed (_Proc. Zool. Soc._
1868, pp. 313-319) that there was more reason to divide the earth's surface
latitudinally than longitudinally, and that Four Regions were better than
Six–these four being (1) _Arctogaea_, comprising Mr. Sclater's Indian,
Ethiopian, Palaearctic, and Nearctic; (2) Austro-Columbia, corresponding
with the Neotropical; (3) Australasia; and (4) New Zealand–the last three
being combined as _Notogaea_. In 1882 Prof. Heilprin proposed to unite Mr.
Sclater's Palaearctic and Nearctic under {16}the name of Triarctic; but in
the next year (_Nature_, xxvii. p. 606) adopted for that union Prof.
Newton's earlier term Holarctic. Some other general schemes have been
promulgated, as those of M. Trouessart and Professor Möbius; but they have
found little support, and with regard to the Class _Aves_, though certainly
not with regard to other groups as _Pisces_, or _Mollusca_, what is
practically the scheme of Mr. Sclater has met with acceptance, whether with
or without the modifications proposed by Huxley and Professor Newton, there
being really but two important points of difference–(1) the recognition of
New Zealand as a distinct Region, and (2) the union of the Nearctic and
Palaearctic areas into a single Region. It would be impossible here to set
forth the arguments by which these views are maintained or contested, and
it must suffice to trace briefly the outlines of the several districts.
_New Zealand_, if admitted as a distinct Region, consists only of the
islands so named, the smaller Chatham, Auckland, and Macquarie groups,
Antipodes Island, Lord Howe's, Norfolk and Kermadec Islands. The
_Australian_, if the preceding be cut off, will include Tasmania, all
Australia, and the islands to the northward as far as what has been called
"Wallace's Line" (between Lombok and Bali), Celebes, New Guinea, New
Britain, and all the countless groups of tropical islands in the Pacific
Ocean–except the Galapagos, which undoubtedly belong to the next Region.
The _Neotropical_ is made up of all South America, the Antilles and Central
America, the only doubt being whether to draw the northern boundary so as
to exclude or include Mexico, or even the southern part of the United
States. To this naturally succeeds, but with an indefinite southern
boundary, the _Nearctic_, comprising the whole of the rest of North America
to the shores of the Polar Sea, with the addition of Greenland. Its
north-western corner, Alaska, is now known to be largely tenanted by forms
from Asia, not found elsewhere in America, and this is one of the chief
reasons assigned for uniting it with the _Palaearctic_ area, which may be
taken to include Japan and all continental Asia to the north of China
proper, the Himalayas, the Persian Gulf and the east end of the
Mediterranean. Some authorities would add Northern Arabia and Lower Egypt;
but all have agreed to include Tunis and the ancient Mauritania–the Barbary
States lying north of the Great Desert to the Atlantic Ocean about Mogador,
as well as the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores, with the whole of Europe
{17}from Greece to Iceland. What is left of Arabia and Africa, after taking
off the above portions, with the addition of Madagascar and the Mascarene
Islands, is the _Ethiopian_ Region; and all the rest of continental Asia,
with the islands not included in the Australian Region, becomes the
_Indian_, or, as it has lately been called, the _Oriental_. It would be
quite impossible to enumerate here the various Sub-regions and Provinces
into which these several Regions may be divided. The views of Mr. Wallace
are set forth at length in his excellent work, those of Mr. Sclater in _The
Ibis_ for 1891, pp. 514-557, and those of Professor Newton in his
_Dictionary of Birds_. Many writers would assign to Madagascar a higher
rank than that of a Sub-region.

MIGRATION.–Few peculiarities of Birds have excited more general interest
than their seasonal Migration, which in many species is so marked as to
have been observed from very remote times; and it is probable that nearly
all species are subject to periodical movements of varying extent. These
movements are greatest in the Birds which have their breeding quarters in
the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere; and, with some exceptions,
it may be said that the more northerly is the range of a species the more
extensive are its migratory wanderings. In the Southern Hemisphere the
facts known are as yet insufficient to allow of safe deductions. Absence of
a food-supply in winter is alone enough to account for migration in the
above cases, and the return from the south in spring is probably due to the
desire of Birds to reoccupy their old haunts, or those in which they have
been bred. But just as there are some species which habitually breed within
the Arctic Circle and winter in the Tropics, there are others which may not
go so far in either direction, and yet have their movements governed by
exactly the same principle, with the result that in a temperate zone we
have Birds coming from the north to winter with us, while others, arriving
from the south in spring, spend the summer here, and depart towards autumn.
Others again, the true "Birds of Passage," arriving like the last in
spring, make little or no stay, but pass onward to more northerly lands,
and re-appear for as short a time in autumn on their return journey
southwards. Moreover, observation shews that, in most parts of the
temperate zone, there are many Birds which, though _resident as species,
are migratory as individuals_–that is to say, that while examples of
{18}the species may be met with at certain spots throughout the whole year,
those which occur at one season are not always the same individuals as
those which occur at another–the particular Thrush, Titmouse, or Finch,
appearing in the winter not being identical with that which appears in
summer. Again, among species of which some individuals are constantly
present throughout the year, a great accession to the numbers is made at
the close of the breeding-season by the influx of other individuals of the
same species bred in another district, though this influx generally lasts
for a comparatively short time, and the strangers pass on, accompanied it
may be, by some or even most of those that have been reared on the spot in
the season immediately preceding. These species are the "Partial Migrants."

It would at first seem from the above that the annual migratory movement
would be in a direction due north and south, or south and north, according
to season, and so in a general way it is; but there is no doubt that this
simple movement is disturbed by many causes, chief among which is possibly
the configuration of the land, which is found to give rise to considerable
deviations, and that to an extent which is at present very imperfectly
understood. It may be considered proved that the trend of a coast-line, the
course of a great river, or the intervention of a chain of mountains, has a
very appreciable effect on the direction taken by migrating Birds; but not
one of these, nor all in combination, affords a sufficient explanation of
all the deflexions, and will certainly not account for at least one
remarkable fact, as it may now be regarded–the tendency of many Birds in
Eastern Europe and part of Siberia to travel westward towards the close of
summer or in autumn. This is shewn in several ways, but in none better than
by the almost yearly occurrence in Britain at that season of examples of
species which breed only in the Russian Empire. For, admitting that such
examples are stray wanderers, which have lost their course, their
appearance here is still useful in indicating the existence of the westward
movement; and, with the evidence they furnish before us, we may judge
whence come vast numbers of others–Starlings, Crows, Rooks, Jays, Larks,
and what not, whose origin and starting-point it would be otherwise hard to
trace or even surmise. Much has been written, especially in Europe, on
so-called Lines of Flight, but as yet to little purpose, and indeed
{19}scarcely any writers on the subject have had sufficient _data_ to form
an hypothesis, so that it is not surprising that hardly any two agree in
theory.[10] In other parts of the world there is still less ground for
theorising, though in North America many valuable observations have been
made; and these, in conjunction with those carried on in Europe, will no
doubt in due time lead to satisfactory results as regards the Northern
Hemisphere. Concerning the Southern our ignorance is almost complete.

Of the way in which Migration is performed there is still much to learn–but
one thing is certain, all Birds do not migrate in the same manner. Some
gather in flocks, great or small, others seem to accomplish their northward
journey in pairs, or at any-rate arrive at their breeding-quarters already
paired. Some undoubtedly voyage by night, others may be seen to travel by
day. Of the Birds which in spring arrive unpaired, it is now incontestable
that the males outstrip or precede the females. There is, moreover, equal
diversity in the southward movements towards the close of summer and all
through the autumn. Of some species the earlier broods disappear without
attracting attention, and the later broods as well as the parents slip away
almost as imperceptibly. In one remarkable case, that of the Cuckoo, the
adults leave this country long before the young are fit to follow; but, in
by far the greater number, the young start first, and are followed, often
at an interval of some weeks, by their parents.[11] It is contended by many
that of actual Migration we see very little, since it is constantly carried
on at a height where the Birds are beyond our ordinary observation, and as
regards some species this seems to be true. Moreover, it would seem that
the longest flights are performed by night, and when the sky is clear, so
that only in thick weather do the Birds come near enough to the earth to be
heard–seeing them being of course impossible in the dark, though in a few
cases they have been telescopically observed passing across the face of the
moon. It is certain that many of the smaller land-birds gradually press
{20}onwards prior to leaving our shores, but after that they may possibly
betake themselves aloft to continue their journey.

The speed at which Birds travel during Migration is a matter on which very
diverse opinions have been and are held; but the highest estimates, such as
those of the late Herr Gätke (who would allow even 150 miles an hour), can
scarcely be otherwise than exaggerations; for there is no evidence of any
but exceptional performances at such rates, and there is really no reason
to suppose that Birds can fly faster at a higher elevation than at a lower.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.–A Falcon. To shew the nomenclature of the external
parts.]

TERMINOLOGY.–The annexed figure explains the nomenclature of most of the
outward parts of a Bird, but some further explanations may be given, as
below:–

{21}_Air-sacs._–Membranous receptacles, filled with air, in communication
with the respiratory organs or passages. Pouches are often exaggerated
air-sacs.

_Alar bar._–A coloured bar across the wing (_ala_).

_Allantois._–A vascular sack, growing from the hind-gut of the embryo and
enclosed by the amnion; the two fuse together and form the Chorion, which
lines the egg-shell, and takes upon itself respiratory functions.

_Altrices_ or _Nidicolae_.–Nestlings which, being hatched in a helpless
condition, are fed by their parents or inhabit the nest for a
considerable time.

_Amnion._–A membrane which grows in the developing egg from the ends and
sides of the embryonic area, and encloses the embryo at an early period.

_Bronchi_ (p. 13).

_Bronchial syrinx._–One in which outer tympaniform membranes exist
between two or more successive bronchial semi-rings, while an inner
tympaniform membrane may also be present. In typical cases the trachea
has no sounding membranes.

_Chest._–The same as the upper breast or base of fore-neck.

_Chorion._–See _Allantois_.

_Compressed._–Used of lateral compression as opposed to vertical
(depressed).

_Coverts (tectrices)._–Feathers that cover the base of the quills
(_Remiges_, oar-feathers) of the wing and of the tail (_Rectrices_,
steering-feathers). The wing exhibits several series above and below
(greater, median, and lesser). Unless otherwise specified, "coverts" in
the text refer to upper coverts.

_Cubitals._– See _Secondaries_.

_Cuneate._–Wedge-shaped.

_Decomposed_ (p. 3).

_Depressed._–See _Compressed_.

_Distal._–That end of any part or member which is furthest from the
imaginary centre or axis of the body.

_Dorsal._–The upper side of the body; and hence applied to the
corresponding surface of any part or parts of the structure.

_Filoplumes._–Filamentous or hair-like feathers.

_Flanks._–The portion of the sides near the leg.

_Graduated._–Used of the tail when its feathers diminish in length
gradually.

_Hackles._–Elongated and pointed feathers, as on the neck of Fowls.

_Heterodactylous_ (p. 10).

_Hyoid Apparatus._–The bony and cartilaginous framework of the tongue.

_Hypocleidium._–A projecting median process at the junction (_symphysis_)
of the clavicles.

_Lanceolate._–Used of the tongue, when pointed and (commonly) lengthened.

_Lore._–The space between the bill and the eye.

_Mantle._–The feathers of the upper back combined with the upper
wing-coverts.

_Manuals._–See _Primaries_.

_Nidicolae._–See _Altrices_.

_Nidifugae._–See _Praecoces_.

_Oil-glands._–Secretory organs near the root of the tail, probably used
in oiling the plumage. Some exhibit tufts of feathers, others are naked.

_Operculum_ (p. 11).

_Pamprodactylous_ (p. 10).

{22}_Patella._–The knee-cap.

_Pouches._–See _Air-sacs_.

_Powder-down patches._–Groups of powder-down feathers (p. 3).

_Praecoces_ or _Nidifugae_.–Nestlings which are hatched in a condition
that enables them almost immediately to leave the nest and feed
themselves.

_Primaries_ or _Manuals_.–Those wing-quills (_Remiges_), varying from ten
to twelve, borne by the _manus_ or hand. They should properly be counted
outwards from the _carpus_ or wrist.

_Procnemial._–In front of the knee.

_Proximal._–That end of any part or member which is nearest to the
imaginary centre or axis of the body.

_Racquet-shaped._–Used of feathers with bare shafts and roundish terminal
vanes.

_Rectrices_ and _Remiges_.–See _Coverts_, _Primaries_ and _Secondaries_.
The _Rectrices_ usually number twelve, but vary from four to
twenty-eight.

_Reticulated_ (p. 10).

_Rictal._–Belonging to the gape.

_Roofed._–See _Vaulted_.

_Sagittate._–Used of the tongue, and meaning arrow-shaped.

_Scapulars._–The feathers lying along the _scapulae_ or shoulder-blades.

_Scutellated_ (p. 10).

_Secondaries_ or _Cubitals_.–Those wing-quills (_Remiges_) borne by the
_Ulna_, which often exhibit roughnesses where they grow. They should
properly be counted inwards from the wrist, and vary from six to thirty
or more.

_Spatulate._–Spoon-shaped. Used of the bill or of racquet-shaped
feathers.

_Speculum._–Strictly applied to a band across the wing, more or less
metallic in colour, which occurs in the Duck-tribe.

_Square._–Used of the tail when level at the end.

_Syrinx_ (p. 13).

_Tectrices._–See _Coverts_.

_Tertials._–A mistaken word for the inner secondaries.

_Thighs._–Loosely used in describing plumage to indicate the feathers
falling over the leg.

_Trachea_ (p. 13).

_Tracheal syrinx._–One in which the lower portion of the trachea consists
of thin membranaceous walls, about six of the rings being thin or
deficient. Both inner and outer tympaniform membranes exist in the
bronchi, as well as some vibratory tracheal membranes. The few muscles,
generally but one pair, are wholly lateral.

_Tracheo-bronchial syrinx_ (the normal form).–One which has this
essential feature, that the proximal end of the inner tympaniform
membrane, forming the median wall of each bronchial tube, is attached to
the last pair of tracheal rings.

_Vaulted_ or _Roofed_.–Used of the tail when compressed like that of a
Fowl.

_Ventral._–The lower side of the body, in which lie the heart, lungs and
digestive organs; and hence applied to the corresponding surface of any
part or parts of the structure.

_Zygodactylous_ (p. 10).

{23}CHAPTER II

ARCHAEORNITHES–NEORNITHES RATITAE–NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE.

The Class AVES is divided by Dr. Gadow (Bronn's _Klassen und Ordnungen des
Thier-Reichs, Aves, Systemat. Theil_, p. 299) into two Sub-classes of like
value, _ARCHAEORNITHES_ and _NEORNITHES_, though some writers prefer to
consider the former as of equal rank only to the several subdivisions of
the latter here adopted, namely, RATITAE, ODONTOLCAE, and CARINATAE
(p. 25). The question is clearly one of degree, and depends entirely on the
amount of weight assigned to the various points of distinction to be
mentioned below.

The Sub-class _ARCHAEORNITHES_ is at present represented by but one member,
the first undoubted fossil Bird, made known in 1861 by Andreas Wagner from
the Jurassic slate formation of Solenhofen in Bavaria, and now preserved in
the British Museum. This he described under the name of _Griphosaurus_; but
as Hermann von Meyer had already bestowed the title of _Archaeopteryx
lithographica_ upon a bird, presumably identical, a feather of which had
been obtained from the above system, the latter appellation has a prior
claim. In 1877 a second example, now at Berlin, was procured from the same
beds,[12] since which date Meyer's specific name has become firmly
established, in place of that of _macrura_ given by Owen to Wagner's
specimen.

This very remarkable animal, about the size of a Rook, is without doubt a
connecting link between Reptiles and Birds; but zoologists are practically
unanimous in regarding it as an Avine form, with Reptilian affinities and
probably arboreal habits.

{24}[Illustration: FIG. 7.–_Archaeopteryx lithographica._ The Berlin
specimen. (After Dames.)]

The sternum was possibly furnished with a weak keel, the strong wide
furcula was U-shaped, the ribs had no uncinate processes, while in all
probability the coracoid and scapula made a right, or even an acute, angle
at their junction, and the centra of the vertebrae of the neck and back
were biconcave. The bill was short and blunt, each side of the upper jaw
possessing about thirteen teeth, of which six seem to have belonged to the
praemaxilla; whereas in each side of the lower jaw only three can be
recognised, and those towards the anterior extremity. These teeth, conical
in shape and of fairly equal size, were fixed in a regular row, in distinct
sockets. The fibula and tibia did not coalesce, the latter exceeding the
metatarsus in length; the toes were four {25}in number, with two, three,
four, and five phalanges respectively, ending in claws, the hallux being
directed backwards. The manus had three free digits, and apparently three
free metacarpals; the pollex consisted of two joints, the index of three
and the third finger of four, while each had a strong hooked claw at the
tip. The hand was furnished with six or seven well-developed primaries,
attached to the third metacarpal and the second and third digits, the
number of secondaries being ten. The long Lizard-like tail had no terminal
pygostyle, but was composed of about twenty-one free post-sacral vertebrae,
of which the first twelve each bore a pair of large feathers, similar to
those of the wing, with the inner webs broader than the outer, and with
decided shafts.[13]

The Sub-class _NEORNITHES_ may be arranged, as above stated, in three
divisions, (A) NEORNITHES RATITAE, (B) NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE, and (C)
NEORNITHES CARINATAE. The first of these contains the Ratite Birds proper
and possibly part of the so-called _STEREORNITHES_ of Patagonia (p. 43),
with several fossil forms of doubtful position from England, France, and
New Mexico, as will be seen below; the second the _HESPERORNITHES_ of the
Cretaceous Shales of Kansas, the _ENALIORNITHES_ of the Cambridge Upper
Greensand, and _Baptornis_ of the American Chalk; the third the
_ICHTHYORNITHES_ of the aforesaid Kansas deposits, and all other existing
Birds, with various extinct species closely allied to them.

Of the points of distinction between the Neornithes and the Archaeornithes
the most important are that the metacarpals are fused together, the second
digit being the longest, and the third more or less reduced; and that the
number of caudal vertebrae does not, as far as is known, exceed thirteen,
of which the last five or six combine together to form a pygostyle, except
in the Hesperornithes, Ratitae, and Tinamidae, where such is seldom the
case.[14] The _centra_ of the vertebrae also are concave on one side only,
except in _Ichthyornis_, and perhaps in _Enaliornis_. The possession of
teeth is, of course, exceptional, as is the remarkable loss of the keel of
the sternum in the Ratitae.

It is now generally, if not universally, agreed that Flightless Birds were
developed from those that could fly. It does not, however, necessarily
follow that the Neornithes are direct {26}descendants of the
Archaeornithes, as each may be a separate offshoot from the same parent
stem. All we can safely assert is, that the former were in existence about
the end of the Jurassic times, that teeth were still retained in some cases
during the Cretaceous Epoch, and that not only normal forms, but also
flightless forms without keel or pygostyle,[15] had arisen by that date.

(A) The RATITAE are commonly characterised as Birds with no keel to the
sternum; but this will not hold as a definition, since _Hesperornis_ has
also that peculiarity, while such genera as _Didus_, _Stringops_,
_Cnemiornis_, and _Notornis_ are nearly in the same condition. It is no one
point, therefore, but the sum of many, which enables us to draw so clear a
line of demarcation between this primitive group and the remainder of
existing forms; nevertheless it is convenient to preserve the name
unaltered, as it is well understood to what members of the class it is more
especially meant to apply. The rhamphotheca, or horny sheath of the bill,
instead of being simple, is composed of several more or less separate
pieces, as in the Procellariidae, Tinamidae, and Steganopodes; the quadrate
bone, by means of which the lower jaw is articulated to the skull, in place
of two proximal knobs has only one, as in _Hesperornis_, _Ichthyornis_, and
the Tinamidae; the coracoid and scapula are fused together, and meet at an
obtuse, as opposed to an acute or right, angle; and the last six or seven
caudal vertebrae do not coalesce into a pygostyle, or upright triangular
expansion to carry the rectrices, a state of things found elsewhere in
_Hesperornis_ and the Tinamidae.[16] The reduced wings preclude flight; the
tail is functionless, as in the Podicipedidae and Tinamidae; the tongue is
very small; the oil gland is absent; the penis is large and erectile, being
comparable to that of the Anseriformes; while in the adult the feathers are
evenly distributed over the whole surface, as in the Spheniscidae and
Palamedeidae, no down being present. Claws are found on the pollex and
index in _Struthio_ and _Rhea_, or occasionally on the third digit; in
_Casuarius_, _Dromaeus_, and _Apteryx_ they occur only on the index.

Ratite Birds proper are comprised in six groups, STRUTHIONES or Ostriches,
RHEAE or Nandus, MEGISTANES or Cassowaries and Emeus, APTERYGES or Kiwis,
DINORNITHES or Moas, and AEPYORNITHES or Rocs.

{27}I. STRUTHIONES.

Fam. STRUTHIONIDAE.–These birds are distinguished from all others by having
only two toes–the third and fourth–the terminal phalanges of which are
shortened and bear thick stunted claws, that of the outer toe being
commonly absent. The whole foot, including the long scutellated metatarsus,
is exceptionally stout, and the toes are padded beneath. The beak is short,
broad, and depressed, with deeply split gape; the head is small, with large
eyes; the neck very long; the wing- and drooping tail-feathers–the plumes
of commerce–are large and soft, with broad equal vanes. The furcula and
syringeal muscles are wanting, nor is there any aftershaft.

_Struthio camelus_, the Ostrich or "Camel-bird" of North Africa, now
extends from Barbary to Arabia, and even to Mesopotamia, though no longer
found, as of old, in Egypt or Central Asia, its former occurrence in
Baluchistan being somewhat open to question. It is black with white wings
and tail, having a flesh-coloured neck covered with brownish down, and
partially bare tibiae of the same hue. The female and young male are almost
entirely cinereous, while the chicks are clothed with bristly
yellowish-white down with blackish stripes. The eggs of the typical
northern bird have a surface like ivory, while those from Southern Africa
are marked with close-set pits, whence some authorities recognise a
different species (_S. australis_) in the latter region, distinguishable,
moreover, by the bluish colour of the naked parts. Examples from Somaliland
and the adjoining districts of East Africa to Lake Tanganyika are separated
as _S. molybdophanes_, on account of the leaden colour of the unfeathered
portions, coupled with a red patch on the front of the metatarsus. The eggs
are smoother than in the southern species, but similarly pitted. The fossil
forms _S. asiaticus_ from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills of India, and
_S. karatheodori_ from the Upper Miocene of Samos complete the family,
while _S._ (_Struthiolithus_) _chersonensis_ has been founded on a
petrified egg from the government of Cherson in South Russia.

{28}[Illustration: FIG. 8.–Ostrich. _Struthio camelus._ × 1/19.]

The Ostrich stands about eight feet high, being the largest of existing
birds; it frequents sandy wastes and dry arid localities, such as are found
in the Sahara and the plains and valleys of Southern Africa, while
districts studded with low bushes are not unfrequently tenanted. Though the
fable of the head being hidden to avoid detection is of course devoid of
foundation, this species is timid and wild in its native haunts, and being
keen-sighted as well as wary, gives an impression of great restlessness.
From the fact that a single stride is said to cover twenty-five feet or
more, it will readily be understood that the speed is very great, exceeding
that of a galloping horse; but, owing to its habit of running in a curve,
it is generally possible to intercept the bird's path at a distance from
the point where it started. In motion the head is held forward, and the
wings are outspread, while both beak and feet are used as weapons of
defence when capture is imminent, the latter delivering strong sideways
kicks, which make close quarters very dangerous. Forty or fifty individuals
may at times be seen in company; the usual parties, however, consist of
five or six at most, especially during the breeding season, when the
polygamous cock escorts a flock of several hens, obtained by battle or
allured by courting performances earlier in the season. A liking for the
companionship of zebras, hartebeests and other antelopes, has been noticed
by various observers. The cry is said to be hoarse and mournful, resembling
the roar of a lion or {29}the lowing of an ox; but Ostriches are, as a
rule, decidedly silent. In a state of nature the food consists chiefly of
herbage, including seeds and fruits; in captivity the diet is of every
description, and even in a wild condition small mammals, birds, reptiles,
and insects are eaten, with a quantity of grit to aid digestion. In
confinement the birds become very tame, and will then swallow bones, nails,
and the like–in fact almost anything they can pick up. They can exist for a
long time without water, but drink regularly when opportunity offers; they
show a liking for salt, and will bathe in the sea or in rivers, immersed up
to the neck. The hens belonging to one cock lay in the same nest, which is
a fairly shallow excavation dug in sand or dry soil, and surrounded by the
material thrown out during the process, or more rarely by an edging of
grass. The spot is hard to discover in the desert, the stride being too
long for tracks to be of much assistance. More than thirty yellowish-white
eggs are sometimes deposited within the pit in circular arrangement, and
many more are dropped around, to serve, it is asserted, for food for the
newly-hatched young; in the wild state, however, the average number is
probably less. The contents, equal to those of some two dozen hens' eggs,
are used for food by the natives, the shells forming convenient pots for
water and so forth. The cock undertakes almost the whole duty of
incubation, being occasionally relieved by the hens during the daytime;[17]
but when the sun is hot no brooding is necessary, though a covering of sand
is superposed to guard the spot from the depredations of marauders. The
chicks, which run from the shell, are hatched in six or seven weeks, and
are accompanied by both parents, the male often counterfeiting wounds to
draw away the intruder, circling around with drooping wings or throwing
himself down as if in extremities.

Ostriches were well known to the ancients, who used the plumes for
ornament, as we do; these were considered emblems of justice from the
equality of the two webs, or were worn in token of victory, as is still
done in some parts of Africa. The words of Aristotle–who was followed by
Pliny in the statement that the Ostrich was part quadruped, part
bird–combine with those of Xenophon to bear witness to this knowledge,
while monuments, inscriptions, and even the Bible tell the same tale. In
the Sahara and elsewhere these birds are hunted with horses and camels,
{30}being stalked or ridden down by means of fresh relays of beasts; the
Namaquas draw a cordon round them; the Bushman, concealed in sand or
disguised in skins, shoots them with poisoned arrows; while the lasso,
pitfall, or other device are used in particular districts. Space will not
permit a detailed account of the Ostrich farms of modern Africa, so well
described in Messrs. de Mosenthal and Harting's _Ostriches and
Ostrich-Farming_, and other books; but it may be mentioned that the tribes
of the north of that continent have long been in the habit of domesticating
the bird, that the value of the sales in South Africa is not far from a
million pounds yearly, and that the plumes are plucked or, preferably, cut
about twice a year, the adults yielding the finest feathers. The flesh is
coarse, and of little use for food.

II. RHEAE.

Fam. RHEIDAE.–The Rheas, or Nandus, have the head, neck, and bill much like
those of Ostriches, the maxilla being somewhat more rounded and terminating
in a nail-like process; the metatarsus is also similar and equally stout in
proportion, but the toes are three in number in place of two, the
mid-phalanges being shortened and the terminal furnished with decided
claws. In _Rhea darwini_ alone the metatarsi are mainly reticulated instead
of scutellated anteriorly, and have the upper portion feathered. The bones
of the wing are comparatively well developed, the feathers being slender
but not ornamental, while there is no apparent tail. The furcula is
wanting, as is the aftershaft to the feathers, but the syrinx is
tracheo-bronchial with one pair of syringeal muscles, a condition
absolutely unique among the Ratitae. The head and neck are feathered, only
the lores, orbits, and ear-openings being naked, and of these the latter
are surrounded by bristles.

_Rhea americana_, the so-called American Ostrich, the Ema of the
Brazilians, the Avestruz, Nandú, or Chueké of Argentina, is found from
Bolivia, Paraguay, and South Brazil to the Rio Negro, if not further; it is
brownish-grey with blackish crown, nape, and breast, white thighs and
abdomen, and yellowish neck. The sub-species _R. macrorhyncha_ of
North-East Brazil is darker, with longer bill and more slender metatarsi.
_R. darwini_, which occurs south of the Rio Negro, and up the Andes to
Tarapaca, is buffish-brown, with whiter underparts and white margins to the
{31}feathers of the wings and back. Hens are not so dark, and Mr. Hudson
says[18] that in _R. darwini_ the young are dusky grey and are hatched with
the legs feathered to the toes. Rheas are shorter than Ostriches by about a
couple of feet, _R. americana_ being the largest form; the feathers are
much rounded, broad, and very soft. Fossil remains occur in the Upper
Tertiary or quite recent deposits of South America.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.–Nandu. _Rhea americana._ × 1/20.]

The members of this family find their favourite haunts on the treeless
flats of the Argentine pampas, the scrub-covered plains of Patagonia, or
the dry open Sertões of Brazil, where their acute vision enables them to
detect the approach of enemies from afar. Small flocks of from three to
seven individuals are met with at certain seasons, and parties of twenty or
thirty at other times–often with deer or guanacos–so it would appear that,
as in the case of the Ostrich, larger companies are formed after the young
are able to provide for themselves. The birds become exceedingly tame when
not molested, but when danger threatens they run at great speed, doubling
upon their pursuers constantly, or crouching down among bushes or other
cover, if they think they can escape observation. In the latter case they
will lie closely until almost trodden upon, and may be shot before they
rise by the hunter who cautiously approaches their hiding-place, as the
head is usually visible above the surrounding vegetation. When moving at
full pace the wings have normally a somewhat drooping position, but they
are raised alternately above the back–apparently {32}to aid progress–when
fresh exertions are necessary. Mr. Hudson tells us[19] that Darwin's Rhea
"carries its neck stretched forward, which makes it seem lower in stature
than the allied species." The diet consists chiefly of grass, roots, and
seeds, but berries of _Empetrum_ are a favourite food, and lizards,
insects, worms, and molluscs are said to be eaten, together with hard
substances to promote digestion. Nandus take readily to the water, and can
swim across a river several hundred yards wide, the body being hardly
visible. In spring the cock utters a deep, resonant, booming noise, a loud
hiss being not uncommonly heard also; while at that season the rival males
attack each other viciously with their beaks, trampling down the ground in
their passion, but not generally using their feet, as they do when wounded.
The hens secured by each of the cocks lay together in a mere depression in
the soil with very little, if any, lining; the eggs numbering from twenty
to thirty, or exceptionally more, besides those scattered about outside the
nest. Here again Mr. Hudson is our authority for stating[20] that the eggs
of _R. americana_ are golden yellow when fresh, those of _R. darwini_ deep
rich green; both however fade quickly to a whitish colour. The male
incubates very closely for about six weeks, often taking up his position,
as the Ostrich does, before the final egg is laid; he afterwards attends
upon the young, and charges intruders who seem dangerous, with outstretched
wings and beak. Rheas may be captured by riding after them in a semicircle,
which closes upon them as they go, or by means of long-winded hounds; but
the most usual method is that of hurling the "bolas" or leaden balls
connected by leather thongs, which wind around the bird's neck or legs, and
thereby hamper its movements or throw it down. The feathers, though
inferior to Ostrich plumes, are much used for brooms and the like, and are
said to be called "Vautour" in the trade. The flesh is very poor. These
birds have bred both on the Continent and in Britain.

III. MEGISTANES.

The MEGISTANES comprise the _Casuariidae_ or Cassowaries, and the
_Dromaeidae_ or Emeus, the following being the chief peculiarities of the
group. The wings are quite rudimentary; {33}the aftershaft of the contour
feathers is extremely large, so that they appear to be double; three front
toes are present, with shortened mid-phalanges and large claws; and the two
clavicles do not meet. The lack of ornamental wing- or tail-plumes, and the
hair-like nature of the coat is also characteristic, while, as opposed to
_Rhea_, there is no indication of syringeal muscles. Within the group
itself the Cassowaries are distinguished from the Emeus by the points next
to be mentioned. The former have a compressed keeled beak and a large
casque of bony tissue upon the bare head, the greater part of the neck
being also naked and in most cases wattled; the remiges are reduced to
thick black barbless quills from four to six in number, and the inner toe
has a particularly long sharp claw. Emeus, on the contrary, have a broad
depressed beak, short feathers on the head and neck, no helmet, wattles, or
spines on the wing, and an ordinary claw on the inner toe. Both Families
have long necks, stout metatarsi covered with coarse roundish scales, and
toes padded below; the tibia being nearly, if not quite, covered by the
plumage.

Fam. I. CASUARIIDAE.–Following Professor Salvadori,[21] Cassowaries may be
divided into two groups: the first with the helmet laterally compressed,
and the second where it is triangular and pyramidal, or even depressed.
They are all large birds, though smaller than Emeus, which are only
surpassed in size among existing forms by the Ostrich; the colour of the
coarse but glossy hair-like plumage is black, and similar in both sexes;
the hen is bigger than the cock, as is also the case in the Dromaeidae and
Apterygidae.

Of the first of the above groups, _Casuarius tricarunculatus_, from Warbusi
in New Guinea, which is possibly a "sport," has two lateral wattles on the
fore-neck and a third small median caruncle at a lower level. _C.
bicarunculatus_, of the Aru Islands, has two long distant reddish-violet
wattles, a black casque, bluish-green head, and blue neck with some red
behind. _C. galeatus_ of Ceram, the species first known to ornithologists,
is similarly coloured, though less brightly, and has the flesh-coloured
throat-wattles close together, and a naked reddish-purple space on each
side of the neck. The larger _C. australis_ of North-East Australia has a
higher helmet, a brighter blue throat, and a few scattered hairs on the
wattles, which Wall, who discovered the species, said were coloured with
blue and scarlet. _C. beccarii_ of the Aru Islands, {34}Middle and South
New Guinea, has the front and top of the casque black, its sides greenish,
and its back yellowish; the head is grey-blue, the throat and sides of the
neck are blue, the hind-neck is red and orange, a yellow streak running
across to the mandible; a bare space on each side of the base of the neck
is flesh-coloured, and the long single neck-wattle of the same colour is
somewhat deeply divided at the tip.

Of the second group, _C. uniappendiculatus_ (Fig. 10), of Salawatti and the
adjoining parts of New Guinea, has the head, throat, and nape blue, the
lower portion of the neck and the median pear-shaped caruncle yellow, the
casque dusky olive, and a longitudinal naked space towards the sides of the
neck flesh-coloured with a yellow margin. _C. occipitalis_ of Jobi Island
is distinguished from the last-named by a large occipital spot of yellow
and a paler helmet; while the remaining three forms have no wattle at all.
Of these, _C. papuanus_, of North-East New Guinea, has a dusky black
casque, blue head, throat, and fore-neck, grey-green occiput and auricular
region, and orange hind-neck changing into rosy flesh-colour towards the
sides. _C. picticollis_ of South-East New Guinea has a black helmet,
grey-blue occiput, violet-blue nape, pale blue hind-neck, red throat and
longitudinal space on the sides of the lower neck; _C. bennetti_ of New
Britain differing in having the head and neck of an almost uniform blue.
Nestling Cassowaries are clothed in rusty brown, relieved by darker
stripes; at a later period they become more tawny, and the black plumage
begins to appear; but a few hair-like feathers remain on the head for some
time, while the helmet is very gradually developed from a flat Coot-like
shield, though the gaudy colours of the neck and wattles are assumed much
earlier.[22]

All the species of this family inhabit wooded country, commonly of the
densest description, though often found in more open scrub and in the
neighbourhood of creeks and watercourses. Naturally shy but inquisitive,
they have been rendered doubly wary by man's persecution since their haunts
have been invaded by colonists. They dislike the sun, and emerge from cover
only in the morning and evening, seeking their favourite spots, where they
feed chiefly on fallen fruit, varying this diet with insects and
crustaceans. Berries, leaf-buds, and bulbs are, however, also eaten, with
grit and pebbles for digestive purposes, and in captivity they are almost
omnivorous.

{35}[Illustration: FIG. 10.–One-wattled Cassowary. _Casuarius
uniappendiculatus._ × 1/14. (From _Nature_.)]

In this state they become extremely tame, and are kept like fowls by the
natives of some districts, who consider the flesh very palatable; while in
Queensland the adults are said to be hunted with dogs. The plumage is used
for the manufacture of mats, rugs, head-ornaments, and the like.
Cassowaries run with wonderful swiftness, though rather heavily, diving
into the bushes at a moment's notice, or aiding themselves by their wings,
and leaping over obstacles as much as six feet high, if shelter is not
readily available. They usually rest on the whole of the metatarsus, but
sleep on the breast, or perhaps occasionally on the side; at other times
they will dance about with contortions of the neck, or roll on the ground
like playful monkeys. Old males become very fierce when driven to bay,
kicking out in front or sideways, ruffling up their feathers and using
their beaks at the same time. In the wet season swimming is a common
practice, wide rivers being {36}crossed with ease, and in the absence of
other bathing-places the sea is often utilised. The note in a state of
excitement is a sort of grunt or snort, the call to the young being of a
lowing nature; but the ordinary voice is loud, guttural, and unearthly,
consisting of quickly-repeated croaking sounds, lasting for as long as
three minutes, and audible at a distance of a mile, or considerably more.
The female is much quieter, while the "Mooruk" (_C. bennetti_) is stated to
utter a low scolding or plaintive whistle. A rough nest of leaves and grass
is formed in a depression of the soil, generally below bushes or tangled
undergrowth, in which from three to six very large eggs are deposited,
placed in the shape of the letter V. These are normally light green in
ground colour, with close-set granulations of dark bright green; but one,
if not more, is ordinarily of a perfectly smooth texture, and is therefore
entirely light green. The cock incubates, it appears, solely, though some
say that the hen takes her turn; and the former tends the young when
hatched, the period of sitting being about seven weeks. The nest is said to
be covered by the parent if left for a time, but this is uncertain, as is
the use of the two or three eggs scattered round the nest, which are
asserted by natives of widely-distant districts to furnish food for the
chicks. After breeding, small flocks are formed in some cases, possibly by
the combination of two families. The Ceram species, which seems to have
been called "Emeu" or "Ema" by the early Portuguese navigators, often lays
in captivity, while _C. bennetti_ has bred in the gardens of the Zoological
Society of London.

Fossil remains occur in Australia. _Hypselornis sivalensis_ is an allied
form from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in India.

Fam. II. DROMAEIDAE.–From about the beginning of this century the name
"Emeu," used, as mentioned above, in varying form for both the Rhea and the
Cassowary, has been restricted to the genus _Dromaeus_, the members of
which stand more than five feet high, though lower on their legs than an
Ostrich. _D. novae-hollandiae_ of the interior of Eastern Australia, which
extended in times past to Tasmania and the islands in Bass's Straits, is
blackish grey, with black tips to the plumage. _D. irroratus_, a more
slender species from West, and probably the adjoining parts of South,
Australia, has each feather transversely barred with dark grey and white,
and a rufous margin to the black patch at the end. Young birds in down are
greyish-white, with longitudinal blackish streaks above, {37}and spots on
the head and lower parts. The sexes are similarly coloured, both possessing
a remarkable tracheal pouch, connected by a slit with the windpipe, and
only fully developed in adults.[23]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.–Emeu. _Dromaeus novae-hollandiae._ × 1/20.]

In their general habits Emeus are not unlike Cassowaries, but they inhabit
sandy plains or open forest districts, being invariably monogamous, though
seen in small parties after breeding. Their sight is keen, they run
strongly and rapidly, rest on the whole metatarsus, and kick out backwards
towards the side. The food is of fruit, roots, and herbage, generally
obtained in the morning or evening; water is freely drunk, and the birds
love bathing, being capable of crossing even a broad river. They utter at
times a hissing or grunting sound, but in the nesting season a peculiar
loud booming or drumming note is produced, probably in connexion with the
tracheal pouch. The nest may be a mere hollow scraped in the ground, with
or without a surrounding ring of grass or plant-stems, or a mound of
bark-scales some three inches high[24]; the eggs are from seven to thirteen
in number, or even more, and are of a dark, or occasionally light,
{38}green colour, while the surface is covered with granulations which give
it the appearance of shagreen. They are small for the size of the bird,
being less than those of the Cassowary. The cock performs the duties of
incubation, and it is very doubtful whether the hen ever assists him; the
chicks break the shell in about eight weeks. The flesh is moderately good
for eating, and the fat below the skin yields a large quantity of oil. The
birds are constantly hunted with dogs or shot on account of the damage they
do to wire fencing and the grass they devour. Emeus are easily
domesticated, and propagate readily in semi-confinement, being perfectly
hardy in Britain and elsewhere.

_D. patricius_ is a fossil species from the Pleistocene of Queensland and
New South Wales. _D. gracilipes_ is another extinct Australian form, but
_Dromornis australis_ of Queensland may indicate a distinct group of
Ratitae.[25] _Dromaeus ater_, of Kangaroo Island, off the south coast of
Australia, is now extinct, though a stuffed skin and a skeleton are in the
Paris Museum.[26]

IV. APTERYGES.

The APTERYGES, or Kiwis, have been recently shown to be much more nearly
related to the Dinornithes than to the remaining Ratite forms, and are
accordingly placed in close proximity to them in the classification here
adopted. Professor T. J. Parker has, moreover, lately formulated a new
system–excluding the _Aepyornithes_, which may commend itself to many
persons as a further improvement.[27] In this, the Order _Struthiones_
contains the family Struthionidae, and the _Rheae_ the Rheidae; but the
third Order, upon which the name _Megistanes_, Vieillot, is bestowed,
includes two Sub-Orders–_Casuariformes_, comprising the Casuariidae and
Dromaeidae, and _Apterygiformes_, with the Dinornithidae and Apterygidae.
In other words, the original stock is considered to have produced three
Ratite branches only, the third of which gives rise to two twigs, each of
these separating again into two smaller twigs representing the Families.

Fam. APTERYGIDAE.–These birds are at once distinguished {39}from all their
allies by their small size, and by the long, weak, decurved bill, which
tapers regularly and has the nostrils placed almost at the extremity. The
head and eyes are comparatively small, as will be seen to be the case in
the Dinornithidae. The legs are very stout and situated backwardly, a small
elevated hallux is present, and the toes are provided with long, sharp
claws. The moderate metatarsus is reticulated in the young, but is clothed
with fairly large scutes in the adult, when it becomes much smoother. The
wings are small-boned and invisible, with functionless quills, the tail is
rudimentary, the aftershaft and furcula are absent, while many elongated
hairs occur on the front of the head.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.–Kiwi. _Apteryx australis._ × ⅐.]

These curious flightless birds are confined to New Zealand, whence a
specimen was brought to England as early as 1813. _Apteryx mantelli_, of
the North Island, is deep red-brown with longitudinal streaks of
yellowish-brown, the head being darker and the lower parts greyer; _A.
australis_, of the South Island, is lighter, and feels soft instead of
harsh when grasped. _A. oweni_, of both islands, is much smaller, and is
light grey-brown, transversely marked with blackish bars. _A. haasti_, also
said to occur in both islands,[28] is a larger and darker form of the last
named; _A. lawryi_, of Stewart Island, hardly differs from _A. australis_;
while _A. maximus_, of Verreaux, is a very doubtful species. Mr.
Rothschild[29] has founded a sub-species (_occidentalis_) {40}on examples
of _A. oweni_ from the North Island and the west of the South Island. In
all these birds the lanceolate feathers have a hair-like texture, due to
the disunited filaments of the upper portion, the lower part being covered
with grey down, and the rhachis more or less exserted. The tibia is
feathered, the bill being yellowish, and the feet brown or black. The
female is similar, but larger, the young blacker. Mr. Lydekker has
described a fossil species, _Pseudapteryx gracilis_, from New Zealand,[30]
and Mr. De Vis _Metapteryx bifrons_ from Queensland.[31]

Kiwis inhabit wooded country and hills up to the snow line; they are still
met with at low elevations on a few islands, but their retreats are now
chiefly on the slopes and in the gullies of the mountains, where a dense
undergrowth of shrubs and tree-ferns shades a carpet of creeping vegetation
and moss. Here parties of from six to twelve used to be seen, though in the
breeding season they separated into pairs, but at the present day flocks
can hardly be hoped for. In the daytime these shy birds hide in burrows in
the ground, or natural cavities under tree-roots or rocks, while towards
dusk they emerge in an animated condition. The direct rays of the sun seem
to dazzle them, and they roll themselves up into a ball, if not disturbed;
when stirred up they are somewhat sleepy and quickly retreat to cover.
Lengthy strides carry them along at a great pace, the body being held
obliquely with outstretched neck; and, if molested, they ruffle up the
plumage and snap the bill, while striking viciously with their feet at the
intruder, the leg being drawn up to the breast and the blow delivered
downwards. Sometimes they rest upright with the point of the bill touching
the ground, sometimes upon the whole metatarsus, but usually they are seen
at feeding time cautiously moving from spot to spot, and tapping the soil
or the walls of their cage with their long sensitive beaks. A sniffing
sound accompanies this operation, and probably the smell of food assists in
its discovery, yet the sense of touch is no doubt the primary agent. The
diet consists chiefly of worms, in search of which the ground is deeply
probed, and shows funnel-like holes scattered over its surface; when a
capture is made the worm is extricated with a gentle wriggling motion, and
is either beaten upon the ground to kill it, or swallowed at once with a
jerk of {41}the head. Grubs, beetles, molluscs, and berries are also eaten,
with grit or pebbles as digestives. The loud whistling note, which gives
the name to the Kiwi, is chiefly heard on light nights, that of the female
being shorter, and the young uttering a chuckling or kitten-like cry.
Growls are emitted by the birds when disturbed, and they have a curious way
of yawning in the daytime. The nest is usually in an enlarged space at the
end of a round tunnel in the soft earth, said to be made by the female
alone, the opening being under a tree-root, a stone, or a tussock of grass;
it consists merely of a little dry fern, herbage, or a few leaves. The
eggs–generally two in number, though one is often found, and three are
recorded–are enormous for the size of the bird, and are equal to a quarter
of its weight; they are pure white, or slightly green in hue, with a smooth
surface, recalling by their appearance those of the Whooper. The Maories
are very fond of the flesh, either roasted or boiled, and hunt Kiwis
systematically with muzzled dogs, while of old the chiefs utilised the
plumage for ornamentation. The cock performs most, if not all, of the
duties of incubation, and attends upon the young. Females lay in captivity,
but no chicks appear to have been hatched as yet under these conditions.

V. DINORNITHES.

The Family DINORNITHIDAE contains those well-known extinct New Zealand
forms the Moas, as they are supposed to have been denominated by the
Maories, some of which were of gigantic size. The larger species must have
been comparatively rare, judging by the fossils obtained, while some seem
to have survived until about four or five hundred years ago, or even a
century later in the South Island. Being flightless, these birds were
easily slaughtered by the natives, who were very fond of the flesh, and
captured them when exhausted by repeated spear-wounds, after they had been
driven from their retreats by burning the grass and vegetation. It was not
until the year 1839 that a femur-shaft was exhibited by Owen to the
Zoological Society of London, that being the first portion of a Moa known
to have reached this country; but since the above date an immense quantity
of bones of all descriptions have been procured in many parts of both the
North and the South Islands, some hidden under the sand or exposed upon
{42}its surface, some in marshes and superficial deposits generally, and
others in caves, hollows of rocks, or cooking places of the former
inhabitants. Footprints have been observed in the sandstone; portions of
muscles, ligaments, and even of skin have been discovered; and, most
remarkable of all, feathers have been met with of fresh appearance and
unfaded colours. Pebbles used to aid digestion, and eggs, both whole and
fragmentary, complete the list.

Moas had comparatively small heads, and also small orbits and eyes; the
bill varied, as will be seen below; the legs were stout, though not always
equally so, a hallux being usually present; the wings were extremely
reduced, or even wanting; the furcula was absent, and the aftershaft of the
larger feathers was of great size. The neck is supposed to have been
partially bare, while the webs of the rounded feathers were disunited and
more or less downy below. Some of the latter were black, with red-brown
bases and white tips, others were blackish-brown or yellowish.

Professor Parker, in his recent memoir,[32] proposes three Sub-families,
_Dinornithinae_, _Anomalopteryginae_, and _Emeinae_; _Megalapteryx_, which
he omits, possibly representing a fourth. The first of these contains only
one genus, _Dinornis_, with wide convex sternum, comparatively slender
limbs, broad skull, and long, wide, deflected beak; the height of _D.
maximus_, the largest of the whole group, being estimated at about twelve
feet. The second Sub-family comprises three genera, _Pachyornis_,
_Mesopteryx_, and _Anomalopteryx_, forms of small or moderate height and
varying bulk, with less broad skulls and pointed beaks, the sternum ranging
from long and narrow to wide and flat. The third possesses a single genus,
_Emeus_, in which the limbs are heavy, the strongly-built skull is narrow,
and the beak short and broad. _Pachyornis elephantopus_ has extraordinarily
stout, short legs, while _Anomalopteryx parva_, perhaps the smallest Moa
known, is said to have been about the size of a turkey. The validity of
some genera and species is, however, questionable. Most writers think that
the female was larger than the male. Mr. De Vis has described a fossil
femur from Queensland as _D. queenslandiae_,[33] but it may belong to the
Dromaeidae. According to native testimony the habits were sluggish, but the
birds were dangerous to approach; they lived in pairs and fed upon green
shoots and roots of ferns, making a nest of a pile {43}of grass and leaves.
We are told that the eggs found with the remains were dark green, light
green, or yellowish, but the last colour at least probably refers to faded
specimens.

VI. AEPYORNITHES.

Quite as remarkable as the Moas are the immense, massive-limbed forms of
the Family AEPYORNITHIDAE, supposed by many to be identical with the "Ruc"
or "Roc" of the Venetian traveller Marco Polo, and of the _Arabian Nights_.
If this is the case, the size of the birds and their eggs must have been
absurdly exaggerated, since the largest species known probably stood about
seven feet high, and the egg is certainly not as big as a butt;
nevertheless, the fact of the Roc being accredited to Madagascar makes it
probable enough that the fables were engrafted upon _Aepyornis_, which was
an inhabitant of that island. The eggs were first brought to the notice of
ornithologists by Strickland in 1849, while soon afterwards Isidore
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire obtained two of them, with some fragments of
bones.[34] These eggs, which exceed all others in magnitude, measuring some
thirteen inches by nine and a half, have now been obtained in considerable
numbers, with a large quantity of fossil remains of the birds themselves;
and in consequence about twelve species have been indicated, and a second
genus, _Mullerornis_.[35] It is supposed that some of them were in
existence not more than two hundred years ago. The most salient points of
their structure are the long, stout legs, with four toes and broad flat
metatarsi, the apparently rudimentary humeri, the absurdly short keel-less
sternum, and the frontal pits, indicating a large crest, comparable to that
supposed to have existed in certain of the Dinornithidae.[36] The shell of
the eggs, some of which contain two gallons, is used by the natives to hold
liquor, and is slightly pitted.

* * * * *

It will be remembered that, in the arrangement here followed, Dr. Gadow
placed the _STEREORNITHES_ under the head of Neornithes Ratitae, though not
under that of Ratitae in the restricted {44}sense; but it should be noted
that their systematic position was not by any means assured, though
justified by what was then known of these extraordinary fossils, of which
the sternum has not even yet been brought to light. Remains of various
forms, chiefly of gigantic size, have been disinterred from the Miocene
strata of Santa Cruz in Patagonia, one of which (_Phororhachos_) was
described in 1887 by Dr. Ameghino,[37] from its mandible as an Edentate
Mammal, though four years later[38] he arrived at the more correct
conclusion that the jaw was to be referred to a bird. In 1891, moreover,
Señores Moreno and Mercerat[39] proposed a new Order with the name of
_Stereornithes_, when publishing a series of fine plates; while Dr.
Ameghino, who criticised their work, reduced the nine genera created
therein to the smaller number of three.[40] Another paper by the author
last named,[41] and two by Mr. Lydekker[42] should be consulted by those
interested in the details of the subject, while an admirable summary will
be found in Professor Newton's _Dictionary of Birds_. In a review of Dr.
Ameghino's paper on these birds,[43] Mr. C. W. Andrews stated that
_Phororhachos_ and others of the "Stereornithes" were not truly Ratite, but
were Carinate forms in which the wings had undergone reduction, and
suggested that possibly they were related to the parent stock of the
Gruiformes, approximating particularly to _Cariama_ (_Dicholophus_).
Shortly afterwards Dr. Ameghino's collection was acquired by the British
Museum, and a study of the specimens themselves has not caused the reviewer
to change his opinion.[44] Some members of the group (e.g. _Mesembriornis_)
are perhaps truly Ratite, and one at least (_Dryornis_) belongs to the
_Cathartidae_. _Phororhachos_ is remarkable for the immense size and heavy
build of the skull, to which the legs, huge though they sometimes are, bear
no proportion; the maxilla is exceedingly compressed, yet very deep, and
ends in a strong hook, while the long massive mandible curves upwards to
meet it. There is a quite or nearly complete interorbital septum in this
case, as opposed to _Apteryx_, and, to a considerable extent, to the
Dinornithidae; {45}while the nostrils are pervious, and the quadrate
articulates with the skull by two heads, contrary to what occurs in the
Ratitae proper. The furcula is existent, but extremely slender; the
metatarsus is more or less elongated, the hallux is present, the wings are
small but well developed, and the tail is said to be long, with a
considerable number of separate vertebrae.

This genus includes the species _P. longissimus_, _P. inflatus_, _P.
platygnathus_, _P. modicus_, _P. gracilis_, and _P. sehuensis_;
_Brontornis_, which has a shorter and wider mandible and smaller but
stouter metatarsi, possesses in _B. burmeisteri_ a form as large as
_Aepyornis maximus_, while _Opisthodactylus_ and other proposed genera are
too imperfectly known to deserve consideration in our limited space.

Besides the above, Dr. Gadow classed with the Stereornithes, _Diatryma_ of
New Mexico, known from a metatarsus; _Dasornis_ of the London Clay,
described from fragments of a skull; _Remiornis_ from the neighbourhood of
Rheims, of which several imperfect bones have been found; and _Gastornis_
of both England and France, of which a fair number of parts have been
unearthed. All occur in the Eocene, but the question of their relationship
is by no means settled, and some writers consider _Gastornis_ to be nearly
allied to the Anseres. This form appears to have been of the size of an
Ostrich, with long leg-bones and short weak wings, and was probably
flightless. Three species have been propounded, _G. parisiensis_, _G.
klaasseni_, and _G. edwardsi_.

* * * * *

(B) With regard to the difficult question of the position in the system of
the NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE, a few introductory words of explanation are
necessary. In 1872 Professor Marsh bestowed upon two fossils from the
Cretaceous deposits of Kansas the names of _Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_,
which he proposed in the following year[45] to comprise in a Sub-class
_Odontornithes_, so called from the presence of teeth in the jaws.
Subsequently[46] he divided this Sub-class into two Orders, _Odontolcae_
and _Odontotormae_, the former containing _Hesperornis_, with the teeth
arranged in grooves, and the latter _Ichthyornis_, where they were placed
in distinct sockets. His views have been controverted by many writers, but
Mr. Lydekker–an authority of great weight in this connexion–while fully
admitting the affinity of the first form to {46}the Divers, and the
resemblance of the second to the Gull-tribe, proposed in 1891[47] to retain
the term Odontornithes for a series of birds ancestral to the modern series
of toothless Carinatae, for which he adopted the title _Euornithes_, used
in a narrower sense by Dr. Stejneger. It has, however, been decided to
follow Dr. Gadow on this point; while the marks of distinction given below
make it seem at least probable that, whereas _Ichthyornis_ may be referred
to the Carinate division, _Hesperornis_ should be placed in closer
proximity to the Ratite forms. Our Neornithes Odontolcae consequently
contain the HESPERORNITHES, the ENALIORNITHES, and _Baptornis_, all of
which appear to be nearly related.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.–Restoration of _Hesperornis_. (From Huxley, after
Marsh.) × 1/13.]

_Hesperornis regalis_, which stood about three feet high, and _H.
crassipes_, of even larger dimensions, had blunt teeth in the {47}grooves
of both maxilla and mandible, the number being thirty or more below, but
considerably less above, where they did not reach to the anterior
extremity. The bill was long and pointed, the rami of the lower jaw being
entirely separate; the head was rather small, the neck was long, and the
quadrate bone articulated with the skull by one knob only. The sternum was
long, broad, and flat, without keel; the furcula was decidedly reduced, the
metatarsus was moderate and laterally compressed; there were four toes, all
directed forwards and probably webbed; the wing was rudimentary, being
little more than a humerus; the tail was fairly long and broad, but had no
pygostyle. _Enaliornis barretti_ and _E. sedgwicki_ of the Cambridge
Greensand had leg-bones very similar to the above, but being only known
from fragmentary remains, their position is uncertain; while the same may
be said of _Baptornis_ of the North American Cretaceous strata, which, like
the two last-named, is much smaller than _Hesperornis_.

{48}CHAPTER III

NEORNITHES CARINATAE

BRIGADE I–LEGION I (COLYMBOMORPHÆ). ORDERS:
ICHTHYORNITHES–COLYMBIFORMES–SPHENISCIFORMES–
PROCELLARIIFORMES

(C) The NEORNITHES CARINATAE, or birds which, with few exceptions, have a
keel to the sternum, include all the remaining members of the Class. It is
unnecessary to recapitulate the distinctions between these forms and the
Ratitae, to be found on p. 26, but it may be well to reiterate that it is
the sum of all the characters that constitutes the difference, and to point
out that in one or more of the items several of the Carinatae agree with
the members of the aforesaid group, though totally at variance with them in
the aggregate. Claws on the manus are found on the pollex and index in
certain of the Anseres, Cathartae, and Accipitres, and on the pollex alone
in some Anseres, Accipitres, and Galli, with individual instances in other
birds.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.–Head of _Ichthyornis_. (From Geikie, after Marsh.)
× ½.]

ORDER I. ICHTHYORNITHES.

Enough has already been said with regard to the position of the Order
Ichthyornithes, with its sole Family ICHTHYORNITHIDAE; but it remains to
discuss the several members. _Ichthyornis victor_, _I. dispar_, and the
other species were small forms of about the size of a Partridge, with the
habits and appearance, it is presumed, of Terns or Gulls.[48] The head was
extremely large {49}in proportion to the remainder of the skeleton; the
beak was long and pointed, with entirely separate rami to the mandible; the
sharp teeth, fixed regularly in distinct sockets, were inclined backwards,
and occupied the whole of the lower and at least the posterior half of the
upper jaw; the keel of the sternum was large and broad; the dorsal and
cervico-dorsal vertebrae were biconcave, as in _Archaeopteryx_, and perhaps
to some extent in _Enaliornis_; the quadrate articulated to the skull by
one knob, as in the Neornithes Ratitae and Neornithes Odontolcae; the
metatarsus was short and the whole foot small; a furcula was probably
present; the wings were well developed, indicating great powers of flight;
while the tail was comparatively short, and ended in a pygostyle. It will
be observed that of these characters the formation of the jaw and its
teeth, the biconcave vertebrae, and the articulation of the quadrate, are
those that chiefly distinguish the Order from the rest of the Carinatae.
_Apatornis celer_, also from the Cretaceous deposits of Kansas, is probably
to be placed here, but other genera described from the same strata cannot
yet be certainly classified.[49]

ORDER II. COLYMBIFORMES.

The Colymbiformes constitute a very archaic Order of Birds, and hold a
somewhat isolated position. Older writers combined them with the Alcidae as
a group Pygopodes, but recent anatomical investigations make it clear that
Auks have more affinity to Gulls, which again trend to the Limicoline
alliance. As regards structure, the two Sub-Orders COLYMBI and PODICIPEDES,
with their Families _Colymbidae_, or Divers, and _Podicipedidae_, or
Grebes, may be here treated together. They are all water-birds with webbed
or lobed toes and extraordinarily flattened metatarsi. The sternum in the
Colymbidae is much longer than broad, in the Podicipedidae short and wide,
while the furcula is Y-shaped; the neck is more or less elongated; the bill
in the former Family is strong, straight, acute, and compressed, in the
latter moderate and sometimes recurved, being either slender, as in
_Aechmophorus_, or very stout, as in _Podilymbus_. The scutellated
metatarsi are set very far back, and are fairly long, the procnemial
process of the tibia being remarkably elongated, though Grebes alone have a
distinct patella; the hallux is very small and has a small membrane,
{50}but whereas Divers have the anterior toes fully webbed, their allies
have them surrounded by large lobes of skin, connected only at the base.
The claws are abnormally broad and flat in Grebes, the outer margin of the
third being serrated. In the Colymbidae the wing is short, narrow, and
pointed, with eleven primaries and about twenty secondaries; in the
Podicipedidae it is still shorter and concave in form, with twelve
primaries but rarely twenty secondaries; in the latter no true rectrices
can be distinguished, though a tuft of downy feathers exists, while in the
former they are normal though much reduced, and number from eighteen to
twenty. Grebes have bare lores, and are frequently adorned in the breeding
season with crests or tippets of a golden or brownish colour; the dense
glossy plumage being more commonly used for decorative purposes than the
duller coats of Divers. The tongue is always long and pointed, the syrinx
is tracheo-bronchial, the nostrils are pervious, an aftershaft is present,
and both adults and young are uniformly downy. Fossil remains from the
Oligocene of France and southern England, indicating a genus intermediate
between the two Families, have been named _Colymboïdes_.[50]

Fam. I. COLYMBIDAE.–_Colymbus septentrionalis_, the Red-throated Diver of
the Arctic and sub-Arctic parts of both worlds, is brownish black in
summer, with white under-parts and white specks above; the head and neck
are lead-coloured, except the nape, which is black with white streaks, and
the mid-throat, which is reddish-chestnut. _C. arcticus_, the
Black-throated Diver, found in the same regions though with a different
distribution, as for instance in Scotland, is blacker, with white bars as
well as spots; the crown and hind neck being ashy grey, the sides of the
latter striped with black and white, and the throat purplish-black,
interrupted by a semi-collar of white with vertical black lines. _C.
pacificus_ of western North America is barely separable. _C. glacialis_,
the Great Northern Diver, has a much more restricted range, breeding in
Iceland, Greenland, and the Fur Countries as far west as the Great Slave
Lake, where it meets _C. adamsi_ (hardly differing except in the
yellowish-white bill), which extends thence to Northern Asia, and possibly
to Spitsbergen and Jan Mayen. The former is black above, with belts of
white spots making a "chess-board" pattern; the lower surface is {51}white,
and the throat is crossed by two bands of white with longitudinal black
bars, while the head and neck are black with a purplish gloss, changing to
green below. In winter most Divers are found down to the northern tropic,
at which season the throat becomes white, as it is in the young, in which
the feathers of the upper parts are duller with whitish edges. The sexes
are similar; the bill is normally black, and the feet are bluish or
greenish grey. The downy chicks are sooty above.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.–Great Northern Diver. _Colymbus glacialis._ × ⅛.]

Divers are not usually gregarious, and unless driven by stormy weather to
inland waters, are essentially marine, except during the breeding season,
when they ascend the rivers and seek their customary nesting-sites on the
moors, the Black-throated species showing a somewhat greater preference
than the rest for islands in the lakes they frequent, but the Red-throated
often selecting small pools, or even "flows," among the heather. The two
eggs, greenish- or reddish-brown in hue, with blackish and grey blotches
and spots, are laid on a mere depression in the grass or sand close to the
water's edge, or upon a mass of green vegetation which is occasionally
semi-natant. Incubation is said to last four weeks. As a rule the female
performs this duty, lying flat upon her eggs, and gliding or scrambling off
when disturbed, whence a distinct track is often visible upon the turf. On
leaving the land a dive is taken {52}to a considerable distance, then both
parents swim towards the intruder with the body partly submerged, and
finally, if thoroughly scared, they rise heavily on the wing to circle
round with outstretched neck before betaking themselves with rapid but
laboured flight to some neighbouring lake, from which they return at
intervals until the coast is clear. They descend from aloft noisily and
with great impetus, the splashing plunge being followed by a gliding
movement, leaving a broad furrow behind, while on land they move with
difficulty, and rest on the metatarsus. Their croak, or loud, clear,
melancholy cry is often heard before storms, whence the Red-throated Diver
is called Rain-goose in Scotland; the food consists chiefly of fish,
brought to the surface and swallowed with a jerk, but crustaceans,
molluscs, and perhaps aquatic insects vary the diet. The young take to the
water readily, but the female occasionally carries them on her back.

Both Divers and Grebes swim strongly, the flat of the metatarsus meeting
the water during the back stroke, and the thin edge on the return. When
submerged they do not use the pinions.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.–Little Grebe. _Podicipes fluviatilis._ × ¼.]

Fam. II. In the PODICIPEDIDAE both sexes are mainly dusky brown or blackish
grey above, and silvery white below, often with some white on the wing; so
it will only be necessary to note hereafter the distinctive ornaments or
bright colours which are invariably lost in winter. _Podicipes
fluviatilis_, the Little Grebe or Dabchick, ranging over Europe, Africa,
and Asia to the Malay Countries and North Australia, has rich chestnut
cheeks, throat, and sides of the neck, horn-coloured bill, and greenish
feet. In winter the chestnut fades to buff with a white chin. Count
Salvadori[51] considers _P. gularis_ of Australia and Papuasia and {53}_P.
tricolor_ of the Moluccas separable, _P. pelzelni_ of Madagascar being
hardly so. _P. dominicus_, extending from the southern United States to
Patagonia, differs in its black throat. The Little Grebe breeds commonly in
Britain, while _P. cristatus_, the Great Crested Grebe or Loon, only nests
on our largest waters, covering, however, a wide range in Europe, Africa,
Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. It has a bifurcate crest of brown, a
chestnut ruff tipped with black round the cheeks and throat, a red base to
the bill and greenish feet. _P. griseigena_, the Red-necked Grebe, which
wanders to our shores, but breeds in the north of the Palaearctic and
Nearctic Regions, and perhaps occasionally in Morocco, has the foreneck
chestnut, a line above the cheeks white, and the base of the bill yellow.
Some writers denominate the North American and East Asiatic form, _P.
holboelli_. _P. auritus_, the Slavonian Grebe of the sub-Arctic portions of
both worlds, has a tuft of golden chestnut feathers on each side of the
head, an ample black ruff, rufous chest and flanks, black bill and greenish
feet; _P. nigricollis_, the Eared Grebe, of Central and Southern Europe,
Africa, temperate Asia, and western North America, has merely golden
ear-tufts, with a black chest. Both visit us at certain seasons. Finally,
_P. nestor_ inhabits South Australia; _P. rufipectus_ New Zealand; _P.
caliparaeus_, _P. rollandi_, and _Aechmophorus major_ America south of Peru
and Brazil; _Ae. occidentalis_ western North America; _Podilymbus podiceps_
nearly all the New World: and _Centropelma micropterum_ Lake Titicaca only.
The first two have white hair-like filaments on the head, the third and
fourth elongated ear-coverts of golden brown or black and white; while
_Podilymbus_ is remarkable for its stout whitish bill with median black
band and its black throat, _Centropelma_ for its aborted wings and
flightless condition. _Podicipes taczanowskii_, of Lake Junin in Peru,
differs from _P. caliparaeus_ in its longer and lighter bill and feet, and
grey-brown ear-coverts. Grebes in the down are streaked with white or buff
on a dusky ground, while some have a naked red space on the crown.

These migratory birds frequent reedy streams and stagnant waters in summer,
being companionable, though not gregarious; hard weather, however, drives
them to the sea. They walk fairly well, though awkwardly, and sit upon the
whole metatarsus; but the chicks progress on "all fours," using the wings
almost {54}as forefeet.[52] They fly straight and rapidly, with head and
feet extended, but have difficulty in leaving the water; they dive at the
slightest alarm, their quick sight enabling them to vanish below the
surface at the flash of a gun, to reappear, with hardly a ripple, at a
distance. Frequently it requires much patience to obtain a second view, as
their bodies can be submerged to any extent, and at times the bill alone is
exposed. In swimming they jerk the head and often rise vertically to shake
their wings. They descend from the air with a splash and a glide, while in
diving the feet alone act as oars, the young soon equalling their parents
in this respect. The note is a harsh croak in the larger forms, a softer
sound or whit-whit in the smaller; the food consists of fish when
procurable, but small reptiles, amphibians, molluscs, crustaceans, insects,
and vegetable matter are frequently added, and feathers of some size are
constantly found in the stomach. The nest, a pile of aquatic weeds or
rushes of varying bulk, is fixed among reeds, sedges, semi-natant masses of
herbage, or, more rarely, upon low branches of trees or bushes verging upon
the water. Should this rise higher, fresh materials are added. From three
to six bluish-white eggs with a smooth chalky covering are laid in a slight
depression above, but being covered with wet weeds by the female on
leaving, soon become stained with brown. The bill is used in concealing
them, nor does an invader's presence usually hinder the operation.
Incubation lasts from twenty-one to twenty-four days. Both sexes are said
to assist, and the mother carries the nestlings on her back, or even dives
with them in that position.

ORDER III. SPHENISCIFORMES.

The Order Sphenisciformes, with its Sub-Order SPHENISCI, contains only
those remarkable marine birds the Penguins (Fam. SPHENISCIDAE), the life of
which is chiefly spent on the stormy waters of the Antarctic seas. Coupled
by former writers with the Auks, their northern analogues, it has now been
shown that the slight external similarity of the two groups is utterly
misleading, the nearest allies of the primitive forms here treated being
the Petrels on the one hand and the Divers and Grebes on the other. Their
unique structure is correlated with very peculiar habits.

{55}The horny sheath of the maxilla is composed of from three to five more
or less distinct pieces, while the powerful bill may be long, thin, and
slightly decurved, as in _Aptenodytes_ and _Pygosceles_; shorter and pretty
broad, as in _Eudyptes_; or very stout, short, and compressed, as in
_Spheniscus_, where the prominent hook of the culmen overhangs a truncated
mandible. The three metatarsals are not completely fused as in other birds
(p. 10), the scutellated metatarsus itself being shorter and broader than
in any other Family, except the Fregatidae; the legs are set far back, the
tibia is hardly visible, and the short thick toes are directed forwards,
the small hallux alone having no web. Even more striking are the wings,
which are totally devoid of normally-developed quills, though the number of
feathers is very large, the primaries themselves amounting to about
thirty-six; these flippers or paddles have highly compressed bones with no
power of flexure, but work freely from the shoulder in rotatory fashion,
requiring a corresponding increase of strength in the muscles of the
neighbouring parts. The numerous rectrices are fairly long and stiff in
_Aptenodytes_, _Pygosceles_, and _Eudyptes_, but shorter in _Spheniscus_,
having considerably reduced vanes. On the body we find no naked tracts, but
a uniform covering of small scale-like feathers, with or without barbs, and
an equally uniform distribution of down both in adults and young; the
moult, moreover, is accomplished in an exceptional manner, the plumage
being shed in masses, and that of the wing gradually flaking off above the
new coat. The process apparently occupies about ten days.[53] Long
superciliary crests occur in _Eudyptes_, the mandible is more or less
feathered in _Aptenodytes_ and _Pygosceles_, and the metatarsi are clothed
besides in _A. forsteri_. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx
tracheo-bronchial, the tongue rudimentary, an after-shaft is present, and
the plentiful subcutaneous fat produces a marketable oil.

Penguins[54] have been said to derive their name from the Latin _pinguis_
(fat) or the English "pin-wing," _i.e._ pinioned wing, but such nautical
appellations are usually obscure. The French term them "Manchots." These
birds rest on the whole metatarsus, the bill usually pointing upwards;
their gait on land is ludicrous, but often fast, a vertical position being
generally preserved, while they endeavour to waddle along on their toes
with constant flapping of the pinions, every now and then partially losing
their balance {56}and regaining it by the aid of their flippers. Several
species are called Rock-hoppers, from their manner of hopping upon the
boulders. They are, however, rarely seen on land, except in the breeding
season, though equally gregarious at all times, swimming in "schools" and
resorting in vast numbers to their "rookeries." When submerged, the wings
act as paddles with alternating rotatory action, and the feet as rudders;
but on the return to the surface the latter naturally become the
propellers. The note is a croak, a scream, a murmuring sound, or, in the
young, a whistle. The food of crustaceans, cephalopods, and other molluscs,
is varied by fish or a little vegetable matter, and accompanied by a mass
of pebbles, often ejected near the breeding places. The nest of grass and
leaves–more rarely of twigs, pebbles, clay or rubbish, when herbage is
scarce–may be in burrows, among tussocks, under stones, in caves, or in the
open; the two coarse-flavoured eggs being white or greenish-white, with a
variable amount of chalky incrustation. The male is said to assist in
incubation, which lasts about six weeks; the parents sit very closely and
feed the blind young for an exceptionally long period, by inserting their
bill in that of the nestling. Pugnacious and thievish towards one another,
Penguins are usually fearless on land, though, when they are irritated, the
beak can inflict a very severe bite.

The range extends southwards from the Galápagos round Cape Horn to the
Falkland Islands, a few stragglers reaching Brazil; thence breeding
stations are found eastwards in Tristan da Cunha, off the Cape of Good
Hope, in the Crozets, Marion, and Amsterdam Islands, Kerguelen Land, and so
on to the south of Australia and New Zealand, with the Antarctic regions as
far as man has penetrated. The largest form is _Aptenodytes forsteri_, and
the smallest _Spheniscus minor_, about 36 and 19 inches long respectively;
the sexes are alike in colour, or the female may be a little duller and
resemble the young. The bill and feet are usually reddish-brown, black or
grey, but the latter may be whitish. The nestling in down is blackish- or
yellowish-brown with white lower parts.

_A. forsteri_, the Emperor Penguin of Victoria Land and the adjacent seas,
is blackish-grey, with white breast and belly and an oval yellow spot on
each side of the head. It is particularly tame, and moves at a marvellous
rate by lying on the snow and propelling itself with its feet.[55] _A.
pennanti_, the King Penguin of {57}Kerguelen Land, the Falklands, Crozets,
Auckland, Macquarie, Campbell, and other southern islands, apparently
confounded with the last-named under the title of _A. patagonica_, is
distinguishable by the longer bill, more orange chest, and lack of feathers
on the sides of the mandible and metatarsus. The crowded breeding grounds
are flat spaces of hard soil covered with slime, and are often quite apart
from the general quarters. When disturbed the birds utter a loud
"urr-urr-urr," and run to the sea at a great pace, maintaining an upright
position; while they pass to and from the water singly, and not in flocks,
as do other species.[56] The pyriform eggs are sometimes held up by the
parents' feet. _Pygosceles taeniata_, the "Gentoo," of similar but more
restricted range, is bluish-black above and on the throat, having the lower
parts, the margins of the flippers, and a band across the crown white.
Dense colonies are found both near the sea and several miles inland, a
regular path being often beaten down by the birds traversing it in company;
the nests consist of a little herbage in a hollow, or are small conical
mounds of stones and clay, lined with feathers and down, the oval eggs
being frequently of unequal size. The note is an unmelodious bark.[57] _P.
adeliae_ inhabits the icy regions of the far south.

_Spheniscus demersus_, the Cape Penguin or Jackass, ranging from western
South America to South Africa, has bluish-black upper parts and throat, and
white lower surface crossed by a blackish band–or two in the variety
_magellanicus_. The note is a harsh bray; the eggs are either deposited in
burrows–presumably dug by the parent itself–or, as on rocky islands near
the Cape, in nests of pebbles and rubbish, commonly placed under large
stones.[58] _S._ (_Eudyptula_) _minor_ is a bluer species with white
throat, that part being dark coloured in the whole Family except here and
in _Eudyptes antarcticus_; it occupies the south of Australia and the New
Zealand area. The note is a loud croak or growl, and the oval but somewhat
pointed eggs are laid on a bed of leaves and grass in an excavation in the
soil or a crevice among rocks.[59] _S. mendiculus_, the only tropical form,
occurs in the Galápagos.

{58}The genus _Eudyptes_ contains the crested "Maccaroni" Penguins or
Rock-hoppers, of which _E. chrysocome_, figured below, extends southwards
and eastwards from the Falklands through the Indian Ocean and Antarctic
seas to the coasts of New Zealand and the neighbouring islands. It is
bluish-black with white breast and belly, and a fine orange crest on each
side of the crown, from which a broad golden streak passes over the eye to
the base of the maxilla.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.–Rock-hoppers. _Endyptes chrysocome._ (From
Thomson's _Atlantic_.)]

_E. chrysolophus_, a rarer bird of somewhat similar range, has the forehead
yellow instead of black. _E. chrysocome_ nidificates on elevated slopes,
usually near fresh water, in which it delights to bathe, the nest being
either a mere depression in the bare earth or a slight structure of
plant-stems and leaves. This is at times perfectly exposed, but is not
unfrequently among boulders or under the shade of tussocks of grass as high
as a man's head, the filthy breeding-places being intersected by beaten
pathways formed by the constant passage of troops to and from the sea. The
parent is said to sit almost perpendicularly, with the eggs closely applied
to a naked space in the centre of the abdomen, but it should be mentioned
that some observers state that the breast is lowered until it nearly
touches the ground, though there seems to be little doubt that the position
is at least half upright in the case of Penguins generally. Like other
species, Rock-hoppers swim chiefly below the surface of the sea, coming
into view only {59}from time to time to breathe; but they have a most
curious habit of stretching out the legs below the tail, laying their wings
flat to their sides, arching their necks forward, and then making a sudden
spring clear out of the waves. An occasional croak is heard while the birds
are in the water, but on land the barking noise is perfectly deafening, nor
do the severe bites with which the intruder is greeted make matters more
tolerable.[60] Among other species recognised by different writers are _E.
antarcticus_ of the Falklands, South Orkneys, South Shetlands, and New
Georgia; _E. antipodum_ of New Zealand and Campbell Island, with an almost
yellow head; _E. atratus_ of the Snares Islands, entirely of a blackish
hue, and possibly a melanistic form; _E. schlegeli_ of Macquarie Island,
_E. vittatus_ and _E. pachyrhynchus_ of New Zealand, _E. sclateri_ of the
Auckland Islands, and _E. serresianus_ of Tierra del Fuego.

_Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_[61] is a fossil form nearly 7 feet high, from
the Eocene of New Zealand, while Señores Moreno and Mercerat record
_Paraptenodytes antarcticus_, _Palaeospheniscus patagonicus_, _P.
menzbieri_, and _P. bergii_ from the Miocene of Patagonia.[62]

ORDER IV. PROCELLARIIFORMES.

The Procellariiformes, or Petrels, are archaic ocean forms with great
powers of flight, often placed near the Laridae on account of a supposed
external resemblance, though the structure of the internal parts shews this
to be misleading, and indicates rather a position between the
Sphenisciformes and Ciconiiformes.

The single Sub-Order TUBINARES, with the Family _Procellariidae_, may be
subdivided into the Sub-families: (1) _Diomedeinae_, or Albatroses; (2)
_Oceanitinae_ and (3) _Procellariinae_, or Fulmars, Shearwaters, and
Petrels proper; and (4) _Pelecanoïdinae_, or Diving Petrels.[63]

Fam. PROCELLARIIDAE.–In the larger species the bill is long, stout, and
frequently compressed, with a strong sharp hook overhanging the truncated
mandible; its size gradually diminishing throughout the Sub-Families in
very much the above order. The {60}horny sheath is separated by grooves
into more or less distinct plates, and the mandible may also be grooved, as
in _Phoebetria_; while _Prion_ is especially remarkable for the curious
fringe of transverse lamellae on the margins of the broad maxilla, which
recall those of the Duck tribe, traces of the same being exhibited by
_Ossifraga_, _Fulmarus_, _Daption_, and _Halobaena_. The most striking
peculiarity, however, is the tubular structure of the impervious nostrils,
which trenchantly divides the Petrels from all other Birds; these tubes are
far apart in the Diomedeinae, and lie laterally towards the back of the
culmen; in the remaining groups they are fused together and are situated
dorsally. In the Oceanitinae the single aperture looks forwards and
upwards, but in the Procellariinae the septum is produced to the front,
showing clearly the double nature of the formation; in _Pelecanoides_ again
the distinct openings are almost vertical, an arrangement as well adapted
to the diving habits as are the long sternum and the compressed wing-bones.
The rows of retroverted spines found on the palatal membrane in most of the
family no doubt aid in the retention of slippery prey, as do the lamellae
in _Prion_. The lower portion of the tibia is bare; the metatarsus varies
in length and stoutness according to the species, though often decidedly
slender, and is much compressed in _Puffinus_ and its nearest allies. It is
usually covered with hexagonal scales, but _Oceanites_ and _Cymodroma_ show
but one long anterior scute (_ocrea_), while _Garrodia_ and _Pelagodroma_
have a series of oblique plates instead. The hallux is absent in
_Pelecanoides_, and consists of only one phalanx elsewhere, being quite
rudimentary in the Diomedeinae; it is slightly above the level of the
anterior toes, which are connected by large webs. The claws are, as a rule,
sharp, curved, and compressed, but are blunt and much flattened in
_Pelagodroma_, _Pealea_, and _Cymodroma_, showing a similar tendency in
others of the Oceanitinae. The wings are normally long, and are very narrow
and pointed in the Diomedeinae, where the expanse is vast, but in
_Pelecanoides_ they are decidedly short: the primaries are eleven in
number; the secondaries are ten or less in the Oceanitinae, thirteen of
more in the remaining forms, and amount to more than thirty in some of the
Diomedeinae. The tail is rarely long, as in _Phoebetria_, and may be even,
rounded, graduated, or emarginated; the above species, _Bulweria_, and some
forms of _Puffinus_ have it wedge-shaped, while {61}a distinct fork occurs
in _Oceanodroma_. Sixteen rectrices are found in _Ossifraga_, fourteen in
_Fulmarus_, _Priocella_, and _Daption_, twelve elsewhere. The small tongue
is somewhat triangular, being rather larger in _Ossifraga_ and _Prion_; the
syrinx is tracheo-bronchial; and an after-shaft is present, though in some
cases rudimentary.

The soft, dense plumage shows various patterns of black, brown, grey, and
white; the bill and feet may be black, brown, flesh- or horn-tinted,
yellow, orange, or parti-coloured, but in _Prion_ and _Halobaena_ the
latter are bluish. Light and dark phases are not uncommon, as in _Fulmarus_
and _Ossifraga_; the sexes are invariably similar; and the nestlings, which
long remain helpless, are clad in thick down of a black, brown, grey, or
white hue, through which the feathers appear gradually. Some white
Albatroses have intermediate dusky stages of plumage, and do not gain the
adult coloration at once, as most of the Family seem to do.

_Diomedea exulans_ is one of the largest birds that fly, exceeding a goose
in size, while the smaller Petrels are hardly bigger than Finches. The
range of the Order is world-wide, though a majority of species frequent the
desolate tracts and islands of the southern oceans; but even Albatroses
breed in the North Pacific.

Though the members of this Family can hardly be called gregarious, flocks
of Shearwaters, Fulmars, and so forth are by no means an uncommon sight
from shipboard, and settlements are formed in the breeding season, which is
almost the only occasion on which they voluntarily seek dry land.
Albatroses, Fulmars, the "Cape Pigeon" (_Daption_), and other allied forms
are observed most commonly in the daytime, whereas those that nest under
cover are to a great extent nocturnal during incubation, and are generally
seen or heard after dusk. While the whole group is oceanic, there is a wide
difference between the powerful Albatros and its smaller and weaker
relations in that respect, the latter journeying but little from the
immediate neighbourhood of their homes, and not accompanying ships for long
distances in the same way as the former. In the larger species the flight
is strong and graceful,[64] accompanied by circling, soaring, or sailing
movements, the feet being extended below the tail; Shearwaters skim the
waves in a curious twisting fashion, and the lesser Petrels flit with
greater action of the wing close to the {62}surface, upon which they paddle
to assist themselves. The Diving Petrels–and their allies to a limited
extent–plunge through or beneath the billows, while all species may be
noticed at times resting or swimming upon the water. Equally at home in
storm or calm, they pass the greater part of their lives upon the ocean,
and it seems impossible to doubt the fact that they sleep there also. Great
difficulty is experienced in rising from a level surface, whether it be the
deck of a ship or a grassy flat; the birds scrambling along with flapping
wings and occasional aid from the bill, until some slight declivity or
broken edge enables them to obtain a start. When taken from a nest in a
burrow, they either drop to the ground like stones, or flutter off in a
dazed condition, which lasts for several seconds, and renders them
absolutely helpless. The cry is said in various cases to resemble a bray, a
croak, a harsh cackle, a diabolical scream, a puppy's whine, or a soft
whistle, while the twittering or "singing" of _Procellaria_, _Oceanodroma_,
and _Oceanites_ in their holes is well known to those who have visited a
Storm Petrel's colony. The food consists of fish, crustaceans, cephalopods
and other molluscs, jellyfish, and the like, Albatroses and Fulmars being
said to force other species to part with their booty after the manner of
Skuas, or even to devour nestlings. Herbage is rarely found in the stomach,
but blubber of dead animals and scraps thrown from shipboard are eagerly
swallowed, so that many of the largest forms are captured by concealing a
hook in a piece of pork and trailing it in the water on a cork, when the
bait is often greedily contested by every individual in the vicinity.
Albatroses and other members of the Family which will take food from the
surface of the sea descend upon it with elevated wings, to rise again with
the morsel obtained, or to float upon the waves while enjoying it;
Shearwaters commonly dash down with considerable impetus, and disappear
after their prey for the moment; while the Diving Petrels procure their
nourishment at a much greater depth. When handled, and perhaps especially
when taken from a nesting-hole, the birds bite severely, and eject a
quantity of amber-coloured or greenish oil from the beak, followed as a
rule by semi-digested food, the fluid possessing a strong smell of musk,
which is also perceptible in the feathers and the eggs. The nest of the
Albatros is usually a truncated cone or cylinder of mud, grass, leaves, and
moss, with a slight {63}depression on the top, colonies being formed on
cliffs, rocky slopes, or bare hill-tops above the limit of trees; the Giant
Petrel makes a similar structure at no great elevation; Shearwaters and
their nearest allies collect a mass of grass and rubbish in a burrow
scraped in a bank, among boulders, or in holes and crevices of rocks,
accommodating themselves to little stone huts, provided by the fishermen,
in the Canary and Salvage Islands.[65] Fulmars scrape a cup-shaped hollow
on ledges of precipices, adding little or no lining, while most of the
remaining forms utilise small burrows, or crannies among the scattered
stones which collect upon the shores or at the base of cliffs. A single
lack-lustre white egg is deposited, frequently marked with a ring of rusty
spots towards the larger end, especially in the case of the lesser species.
Adult and young Shearwaters are eaten by the natives of the Canaries, the
islands of Scotland, Ireland, and elsewhere, _Puffinus brevicauda_ being
the "Mutton-bird" of Australia, and _P. anglorum_ being termed "Fachach" in
the Hebrides and North Ireland. In the case of _Pelagodroma_, we have
positive evidence that both sexes incubate;[66] and before the eggs are
laid the parents are not uncommonly found together in the hole when such a
site is chosen. Incubation lasts from twenty-five to sixty days.

Sub-fam. 1. _Diomedeinae._–This contains two genera, _Phoebetria_ and
_Diomedea_, of which the former has one member, _P. fuliginosa_, of a sooty
grey colour, distinguished from its allies by the sulcated mandible and
cuneate tail. It frequents the South Seas, while straying to Oregon, as
does _Diomedea culminata_; and has similar manners to other Albatroses.
_Diomedea exulans_, the Wandering Albatros, or "Cape Sheep," of the
Southern Oceans generally, is white with narrow dusky undulations above and
almost black wings; and particulars of the habits having been already
given, it only remains to refer to the majestic flight, described by
Professor Hutton as follows: "With outstretched, motionless wings he sails
over the surface of the sea, now rising high in the air, now with a bold
sweep, and wings inclined at an angle with the horizon, descending until
the tip of the lower one all but touches the crests of the waves as he
skims over them. Suddenly he sees something floating on the water and
prepares to alight; but how changed he now is from the noble bird but a
moment before, all grace and symmetry.

{64}[Illustration: FIG. 18.–Wandering Albatros. _Diomedea exulans._ × ⅑.]

He raises his wings, his head goes back, and his back goes in; down drop
two enormous webbed feet straddled out to their full extent, and with a
hoarse croak, between the cry of a Raven and that of a sheep, he falls
'souse' into the water. Here he is at home again, breasting the waves like
a cork. Presently he stretches out his neck, and with great exertion of his
wings runs along the top of the water for seventy or eighty yards, until,
at last, having got sufficient impetus, he tucks up his legs, and is once
more fairly launched in the air."[67] _D. regia_, of the New Zealand seas,
has no undulations on the back; the similar _D. chionoptera_, of the
Southern Indian Ocean, has nearly white wing-coverts; and _D. albatrus_, of
the North Pacific, has buff crown and nape. Of the smaller forms, or
Mollymauks (p. 65), _D. irrorata_, of West Peru, is sooty-brown with
plentiful white mottlings and white head; _D. nigripes_, of the North
Pacific, is the same colour, but shews white only at the base of the tail
{65}and bill, and near the eye; _D. immutabilis_, found from Laysan to
Japan, is darker, with white head, neck, rump, base of tail, and lower
parts; _D. melanophrys_, of the southern oceans, which has occurred in
California, and in summer in England as well as at the Faeroes,[68] is
white, with a blackish band on each side of the eye, slaty back,
brownish-black wings, and grey tail; _D. bulleri_, of the New Zealand seas,
is greyish-brown, with white rump and lower surface, and ashy or whitish
head; _D. culminata_ and _D. chlororhyncha_, of the southern oceans, _D.
cauta_ of Tasmania, _D. salvini_ of the New Zealand Seas, and _D. layardi_
of those of the Cape, have similarly coloured plumage; the last five being
distinguished by some writers as _Thalassogeron_, and having a strip of
naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its base. _D. bulleri_
has red, _D. chlororhyncha_ flesh-coloured, and the others yellow feet; the
amount of yellow on the bill varying with the species.

Sub-fam. 2. _Oceanitinae._–The genera recognised are _Cymodroma_, _Pealea_,
_Pelagodroma_, _Garrodia_, and _Oceanites_; they are sooty- or slaty-black
birds, of small size, having in some cases the rump, under parts, nuchal
collar, forehead, superciliary streaks, or margins to the feathers of the
dorsal region white. Their range extends over different portions of the
southern seas, whence _Oceanites oceanicus_, Wilson's Petrel, has strayed
to Labrador and Great Britain, and _Pelagodroma marina_ to the latter and
Massachusetts, while breeding in the Salvage Islands south of Madeira and
the Cape Verds. The habits do not seem to differ appreciably from those of
the Storm-Petrel.[69]

Sub-fam. 3. _Procellariinae._–As here arranged, this comprises three groups
typified by the Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Storm-Petrels respectively. Of
the first, _Ossifraga gigantea_, the Giant Petrel, or "Nelly" of the
southern seas, recorded also from Oregon, is dark brown, often with white
on the head when immature, and sometimes almost entirely white. _Fulmarus
glacialis_ of the North Atlantic, the Fulmar of St. Kilda, and the true
Mollymauk of sailors, which is represented in the North Pacific by the
barely separable _F. glupischa_ and _F. rodgersi_, is bluish-grey with
dusky quills, white head, neck, and lower parts; the dark phase being
uniform dusky grey. It is smaller {66}than _Ossifraga_, yet equal to a
medium-sized Gull, though easily distinguished by its light gliding flight
with little motion of the wings; in rough weather it skims very near the
waves, while the croaking note is seldom heard. _Daption capensis_, the
Cape-Pigeon, ranging from Ceylon and Peru throughout the southern oceans,
is black and white above and nearly white below; it is well known as a
constant companion of ships, especially off South Africa, hovering or
swimming around, uttering its harsh cackle, or plunging into the water to
fight for scraps thrown overboard. _Halobaena caerulea_, extending from
lat. 40° to 60° S., is grey-blue above and white below, with a little white
on the head, scapulars, and tail; the habits resembling those of _Prion_, a
genus of four species, remarkable for the fringe of lamellae on the bill,
and having blue-grey upper parts varied with black, white under parts and
superciliary streak. These forms are found throughout the southern seas,
while _P. ariel_ has occurred in Madeira. _P. desolatus_, the Whale-bird of
sailors, is frequently seen flitting round vessels, uttering its whistling
or cooing note, or taking food from the water upon the wing; the slight
nest is formed in an extremely small burrow.

Little object would be served by describing in detail the twenty members of
_Puffinus_ (Shearwater) or the thirty of _Oestrelata_, the main
constituents of our second group of Procellariinae. The former are
sooty-brown or greyish, commonly with white below, and in some cases with
white or pale edges to the feathers above; all are much alike except the
uniform species, but it should be carefully noted that Petrels are often
best distinguished by the colour of the bill and feet. The habits of these
birds, which are distributed throughout the greater part of the world, have
been already sufficiently treated. _P. anglorum_, the "Manx" Shearwater,
breeds along the west of Great Britain, in the Orkneys, Shetlands, and
Ireland, _P. major_ or _gravis_, _P. griseus_, _P. obscurus_, _P.
assimilis_, and _P. yelkouanus_, the âme damnée of the Bosphorus, being
occasional visitors to our shores. In _Oestrelata_ the coloration is grey,
brown, or blackish, with a decided tendency to lighter margins on the upper
feathers, and in a few of the members more or less white on the tail, wing,
or head; the under parts, moreover, being frequently white. The various
forms reach from the southern temperate regions to Japan and also to
Britain, where _Oe. haesitata_ and _Oe. brevipes_ {67}have each been
recorded once. The latter breeds on mountain-tops in islands, and of its
other congeners some at least do likewise, many having an extremely limited
range at all seasons.

_Priofinus cinereus_, the "Night-hawk," perhaps more noisy at night than
even certain Shearwaters, is greyish-brown above and white below; it
inhabits the southern oceans. _Thalassaeca antarctica_, restricted to the
Antarctic regions, is brown with white lower parts and some white on the
wing, tail, and their coverts. _Priocella glacialoïdes_ of the southern
seas, which ranges northwards to Washington State in the Pacific, and seems
to have the habits of a Fulmar, resembles that bird in its pearl-grey hue,
with nearly white head, neck, and under surface. _Majaqueus aequinoctialis_
of the regions south of lat. 30° S., known as the "Cape Hen," is
sooty-black with a white chin, _M. parkinsoni_ of New Zealand being uniform
in tint. The cry is a soft whistle, but the manners are in other respects
as in Shearwaters, except that a conical nest is constructed in a burrow,
whence a curious cackling noise issues during the period of incubation.[70]
_Pagodroma nivea_, of the icy regions of the south, is pure white with
black bill and yellowish feet; it remains on the wing until late at night,
and resembles _Prion_ generally in its ways. _Bulweria bulweri_, met with
once in England, inhabits the temperate parts of the North Atlantic and the
North Pacific, and breeds as near us as the Desertas; it is almost uniform
sooty-brown, and has the habits of a Storm-Petrel rather than of a
Shearwater, being bold but wary, and rapid in flight, with a loud, cheerful
quadruple note. It lays its pure white eggs without any nest in crevices of
rocks, breeding as late as June near Madeira. _B. macgillivrayi_, with
stouter bill, is known from the Fijian waters.

Our third group includes the true Storm-Petrels (_Procellaria_) and their
close allies the Fork-tailed Petrels (_Oceanodroma_), as well as
_Halocyptena microsoma_, a dark blackish bird from Western America, between
California and Panama. _P. pelagica_ of the Mediterranean and North
Atlantic from Greenland to South Africa, which breeds in Scotland, Ireland,
and the West of England, is sooty-black with the tail-coverts white, except
at the tips, and a little white on the wing-coverts. Named Mother Carey's
Chicken by sailors, who look upon it with superstitious dread, it is often
seen paddling along the waves in {68}stormy weather, thus gaining the name
of "Petrel" from the Apostle Peter; while it may be heard singing among the
boulders towards the end of June in Scotland, where it breeds more than a
month later than the "Lyrie" or Manx Shearwater. The note is shrill and the
flight somewhat butterfly-like. _P. tethys_, of the Galapagos and Western
Central America, has entirely white tail-coverts. _Oceanodroma_ contains
ten members inhabiting the northern hemisphere, and ranging southwards to
Peru and St. Helena, all being sooty-black except _O. furcata_, which is
chiefly ashy-grey, and _O. hornbyi_, which is brown, with white collar,
forehead, and under surface, and blacker head and wings. _O. leucorrhoa_
(Leach's Petrel) and _O. cryptoleucura_ possess white tail-coverts tipped
with black; the former having some breeding stations in Britain at St.
Kilda and a few islands on the west of Scotland and Ireland, and the latter
as far north as Madeira, though it extends to St. Helena, the Galapagos,
and the Sandwich Islands, and has recently occurred in England. The other
species are apparently met with only in the Pacific north of Panama, while
in habits the genus is not dissimilar to _Procellaria_.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.–Storm-Petrel. _Procellaria pelagica._ × ⅖.]

Sub-fam. 4. _Pelecanoïdinae._–These Diving-Petrels include _Pelecanoïdes
urinatrix_, of the vicinity of Australia, New Zealand, Cape Horn, and the
Falkland Islands, a glossy black bird with white under parts, some grey on
the sides of the neck, and grey and white on the scapulars; _P. exsul_, of
the Southern Indian Ocean, with grey throat; and _P. garnoti_ of Western
South America, {69}which is larger and quite white below. Of the first
Darwin says[71] that it "never leaves the quiet inland sounds. When
disturbed it dives to a distance, and, on coming to the surface, with the
same movement takes flight. After flying by the rapid movement of its short
wings for a space in a straight line, it drops as if struck dead, and dives
again." The egg is deposited in a small burrow; the note is a cackle or
moan.

Fossil remains are recorded from the Pacific, Australia, and New Zealand,
which are referred to the genera _Puffinus_, _Ossifraga_, and _Diomedea_,
and probably belong to existing species; _Puffinus conradii_ is from the
American Miocene, _P. cyermani_ from Tavolara, off Sardinia; but a much
more remarkable fact is the discovery in the Suffolk Red Crag of portions
of a distinct form, named _Diomedea anglica_ by Mr. Lydekker.[72]

{70}CHAPTER IV

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONTINUED_

BRIGADE I–LEGION II (PELARGOMORPHAE). ORDERS: CICONIIFORMES–ANSERIFORMES–
FALCONIFORMES

ORDER V. CICONIIFORMES.

The Order Ciconiiformes is a somewhat unwieldy assemblage consisting mainly
of Water-birds, which may be classed under the Sub-Orders STEGANOPODES,
ARDEAE, CICONIAE, and PHOENICOPTERI. Of these the first contains the
_Phaëthontidae_ or Tropic-birds, the _Sulidae_ or Gannets, the
_Phalacrocoracidae_ or Cormorants and Darters, the _Fregatidae_ or
Frigate-birds, and the _Pelecanidae_ or Pelicans; the second the _Ardeidae_
or Herons and Bitterns, and the _Scopidae_ with the Umbrette; the third the
_Ciconiidae_ or Storks and Wood-Ibises, and the _Ibididae_ or true Ibises
and Spoon-bills; while the fourth comprises the _Phaenicopteridae_ or
Flamingos, and the extinct genus _Palaelodus_, for which Dr. Gadow
recognises a separate family _Palaelodidae_. Among these the greatest
affinity to the _Procellariiformes_ is exhibited by the _Steganopodes_,
whereas the _Phoenicopteri_ are so closely allied to the _Anseriformes_
that not a few writers prefer to include them in that Order.

The STEGANOPODES are aquatic and chiefly marine birds, so far homogeneous
in structure that the details may well be set forth in common; while in
some points they bear a great resemblance to the _Cathartidae_.[73] Each
Family contains a single genus, except the _Phalacrocoracidae_, where
_Phalacrocorax_ and _Plotus_ may be considered the equivalents of
Sub-families.

The sternum is long, especially in _Sula_, while the large head and short
thick neck of _Phaëthon_ and _Fregata_ may be contrasted with the small
head and remarkably long neck of _Phalacrocorax_, and still more of
_Plotus_; _Sula_ and _Pelecanus_ being moderate in {71}both respects. The
bill, which is more or less compound, is long, pretty straight, and
generally compressed: in _Phaëthon_ and _Sula_ it is strong, conical, and
pointed; in _Phalacrocorax_ either stout with a long hooked nail, or less
robust with the hook at the tip shorter, the sides being scabrous; in
_Fregata_ similar, in _Plotus_ slender and tapering, in _Pelecanus_ weak,
much flattened, hooked, and scaly. The maxilla is furrowed in _Sula_,
_Pelecanus_, and _Phalacrocorax_, with the median part concave in the
latter, while the cutting edges of both mandibles are serrated in
_Phaëthon_, _Sula_, and _Plotus_. The legs are placed far back, especially
in _Phalacrocorax_, the tibiae being partly bare in _Phaëthon_ and
_Pelecanus_, but feathered in the other forms, of which _Fregata_ has the
clothing continued to the toes. The metatarsus is short, stout, and
compressed, that of _Fregata_ being extremely abbreviated, as in the
Spheniscidae; it is entirely covered with hexagonal scales, becoming almost
reticulated behind, while the toes exhibit distinct transverse scutes in
_Phalacrocorax_, and have a similar tendency elsewhere. The hallux, which
is somewhat elevated in _Phaëthon_, is turned inwards or forwards, and is
connected with the remaining toes by full webs, except in _Fregata_, where
the membranes are excised to about half their extent; this unique
"Steganopodous" foot giving the name to the whole group. The stout curved
claws–weaker in _Fregata_–are of medium length, that of the middle digit
being serrated on the inner side in the last named, _Sula_, and
_Phalacrocorax_. The wings are long and pointed, reaching their maximum in
_Fregata_, their minimum in _Phalacrocorax_, and having a very ample spread
in _Sula_ and _Pelecanus_. There are eleven primaries, and from fifteen to
twenty-nine incurved secondaries, which may even exceed the former. In
_Pelecanus_ the short, broad, roundish tail consists of from eighteen to
twenty-four soft acute rectrices, but in the remaining genera the feathers
are strong and stiff, being particularly rigid in _Phalacrocorax_ and
_Plotus_: _Phaëthon_ has sixteen, which are moderate and graduated, with a
long filiform median pair in the adult; _Sula_ and _Phalacrocorax_ from
twelve to fourteen in a more or less wedge-shaped formation; _Fregata_
twelve, arranged in a fork; while _Plotus_ has the same number, forming a
fan, the webs being very broad and showing curious transverse corrugations
in mature birds, found also on the scapulars. The tail is fairly long in
the four last {72}mentioned, except in some members of _Phalacrocorax_. The
V-shaped furcula ancyloses with the sternum in some of the Sub-Order, but
_Fregata_ differs from all other ornithic forms in the fact that the
furcula also coalesces with the coracoids at its extremities, while the
coracoids again unite firmly with the scapula, producing an almost rigid
framework, considered by Professor Newton to be connected with the power
which the bird possesses of sustaining itself nearly motionless in the
air.[74] The peculiar angular articulation of the long eighth cervical
vertebra in _Plotus_, which causes the Z-shaped "kink" in the neck, must
also be noticed here.[75] The tongue is rudimentary; the nostrils are
pervious in _Phaëthon_, impervious elsewhere, being practically obliterated
in adults; the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial, except in _Sula_ and
_Pelecanus_, where the usual muscles are entirely absent. The subcutaneous
air-cells of _Sula_ are most remarkable. The newly-hatched young are blind
and helpless, being naked and covered with blackish skin in _Sula_,
_Phalacrocorax_, _Plotus_, and _Pelecanus_, though they soon acquire a
white downy coat; in _Phaëthon_ and _Fregata_ they are similarly clothed on
breaking the shell. The down of the adults is uniformly distributed, the
aftershaft is diminutive or wanting. The gular sacs, horny excrescences on
the beak, crests, and so forth, are noted below.

Fam. I. PHAETHONTIDAE.–_Phaëthon aethereus_, _P. flavirostris_, and _P.
rubricauda_ are chiefly found in the tropical regions of the south; but the
first two species breed about as far north as the tropic of Cancer, while
they frequent the West Indies, and occasionally stray to the Eastern United
States, or even Newfoundland.[76] The third inhabits the southern seas and
the Indian Ocean. All these Tropic- or Boatswain-birds, as they are
denominated, have satin-like white plumage–often with a tinge of
pink–varied by blackish bars or patches above, and black marks near the
eye; the bill is red, or in _P. flavirostris_ yellow, the metatarsi
yellowish and the toes chiefly black. In _P. rubricauda_ the long stiff
median rectrices are dull red with black shafts and very narrow webs, in
_P. flavirostris_ they are pinkish with similar shafts, and in _P.
aethereus_ entirely white. The sexes are alike, the young being more
irregularly marked and having no long tail-feathers.

The members of this Family are true denizens of the ocean, {73}often met
with many hundred miles from land; they will then hover constantly about a
vessel, or even alight fearlessly on the rigging. They traverse the air
with rapid sweeping flight, accompanied by constant quick pulsations of the
wings; at one time soaring aloft to wheel in circles, at another plunging
into the water from an immense height, though appearing again in a moment
to float upon the surface. Their gait on land is shuffling, while they can
hardly rise from level ground; the note is a harsh croak or chatter; the
food consists of fish, squids, and other produce of the sea. No nest is
made, but a single reddish-brown or buff egg, with spots and frecklings of
red-brown, purplish or grey, is deposited in a hole or crevice in a cliff,
among rocks, or even in a cavity in a rotten tree, both sexes assisting in
incubation.[77] The parents sit very closely, screaming, pecking, and
snapping when disturbed; in some places they are habitually caught while
breeding, and deprived of the long tail-feathers, which are used for
decorations.

[Illustration: FIG. 20.–Tropic Bird. _Phaëthon aethereus._ × ⅛.]

Fam. II. SULIDAE.–_Sula bassana_, the Gannet or Solan Goose, which nests at
several stations off the west of Great Britain, in Ireland, and on the
well-known Bass Rock, extends thence to Iceland, and down the American
coast to Nova Scotia, while it strays to Greenland, and in winter reaches
the Gulf of Mexico and northern Africa. The plumage is white, with a buff
tinge on the head and neck, and black primaries; the bill is whitish, the
feet dusky, and the naked skin round the eye and down the centre of the
throat blackish-blue. _S. capensis_ of South Africa and _S. serrator_ of
Australia are similar to the above, but the former has the rectrices black,
the latter the four median feathers blackish-brown.

{74}[Illustration: FIG. 21.–Gannet. _Sula bassana._ × ⅐.]

The remaining species, often called "Boobies," have the whole lower jaw and
throat bare. Of these _S. cyanops_, common in the South Pacific and ranging
through the intertropical seas to the Bahamas in summer, is white with
sooty-brown remiges, the wing-coverts and the lateral portion of the tail
being partly of the same colour; the bill is yellow, the feet are reddish,
and the naked parts bluish. _S. leucogaster_, extending from tropical and
sub-tropical America over the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans,[78] has
the upper parts and chest brown, the remaining lower surface, and
occasionally the head and neck, white; the bill is yellow, the feet are
greenish or yellowish, the bare skin is tinged with red or yellow. _S.
piscator_, also of the intertropical seas, resembles _S. bassana_, but has
slate-grey wing-quills, purplish-grey bill, reddish feet and naked parts.
_S. variegata_, of the shores of Chili and Peru, is dark grey-brown with
white head, neck, and under parts, and white markings above. _S. abbotti_,
of Assumption Island, north of Madagascar, is allied to _S. cyanops_. In
this Family the sexes are alike, while the young are usually dusky with
white streaks and spots; but those of _S. cyanops_ are white below, and
those of _S. leucogaster_ and _S. piscator_ chiefly sooty-brown, with
{75}grey head, neck, and under surface in the latter. It apparently
requires six years to attain the full adult plumage.

Gannets are oceanic birds, only frequenting the land in stormy weather;
they traverse very great distances, and the northern species move southward
in winter. The flight is easy and powerful, with alternate flapping and
sailing motion, the head being carried in a line with the body and the feet
drawn up. The food consists of surface-swimming fish, squids, and the like,
while the young obtain their nutriment by thrusting their bills into those
of the parents, though it is disgorged for them when newly hatched. The
prey is chiefly captured by diving, the plunge being made with great
velocity from a considerable height and the body being submerged for
several seconds; on coming to the surface the bird generally remains
quiescent for a short period before again taking to the air, but
occasionally swims for a longer period. When diving the wings are kept open
until the last moment, and are then quickly closed. Gannets find the same
difficulty in rising from a level spot as do Tropic-birds, and are less
prone to perch than many other sea-birds. The note is a hoarse reiterated
sound or, less commonly, a plaintive cry, much noise being often made by
the large colonies when breeding. The nest is a mass of sea-weed and grass,
placed on a ledge of some high cliff, on the top of a stack, or even on a
low tree; while the eggs–never more than two in number–are occasionally
deposited on the bare sandy beach, and are greenish-blue, thickly coated
with a white chalky substance, which soon becomes soiled. Incubation lasts
about six weeks. The adults, especially in the case of the Boobies, are
often absurdly fearless on land, while the female, when on the nest, grunts
at an intruder, and pecks or bites sharply. They are frequently caught on
shipboard by fixing bits of fish on floating pieces of wood, in which the
beak is transfixed by the violence of the plunge; they do not, however,
afford palatable food, though in Scotland the Solan Goose is half-roasted
and so preserved for eating.

Fam. III. PHALACROCORACIDAE.–The genus _Phalacrocorax_ includes the
Cormorants and Shags, birds of similar coloration, which differ chiefly in
the brilliancy of their metallic hues and the proportion of white to black
or brown in the plumage, the following examples giving a fair idea of the
whole.

{76}[Illustration: FIG. 22.–Cormorant. _Phalacrocorax carbo._ × ⅛.]

_P. carbo_, the Common Cormorant, with fourteen rectrices, has the head and
neck glossy blue-black, interspersed with white hair-like feathers, the
remaining upper parts bronzy-black, the throat white, the bill and feet
grey-black. In spring a slight crest adorns the occiput and white patches
appear on the thighs. In common with its congeners this species has naked
lores, orbital and gular regions, which are here of a yellow colour,
becoming redder below the eye; the iris is emerald-green. The skin of the
throat is dilatable and forms a pouch for food. It breeds on most of the
British coasts, except between the Humber and the Thames, and occasionally
inland; while it ranges to Greenland northwards, and thence down the
Atlantic to New Jersey in the west, and to North and even South Africa on
the east, as well as through Europe and Asia. The Australian and New
Zealand _P. novae hollandiae_ is doubtfully distinct. _P. dilophus_, of
which several forms occur on the shores and in the interior of North
America as far south as Mexico, is not unlike _P. carbo_, but has a tuft of
long narrow recurved plumes on each side of the crown in the nuptial dress,
which are black, white, or particoloured according to the locality. The
bare loral region and gular sac are orange, and no white is visible on the
throat or flanks. The splendid _P. pelagicus_, on the contrary, has white
flank-patches in addition to white filaments on the neck and rump, the head
and {77}neck are violet-black, and a bronzy-purple tinge extends thence to
the wings, the naked areas being brownish-red. It ranges from Kamtschatka
to Western Mexico, and even winters in North Japan. _P. urile_, of the
extreme north of the Pacific, is very similar, but has the gular pouch
bluish with red hinder margin, the lores, orbits, and an additional strip
of bare skin on the forehead being orange. _P. perspicillatus_, of Bering
Island, now considered extinct, is another close ally, in which the
filamentous feathers are yellowish and the orbits white. _P. graculus_, the
Green Cormorant or Shag, breeding in Britain chiefly on the western side,
and occurring rarely on our inland waters, is found in many places along
the coasts of West Europe to Morocco and the Mediterranean; it is dark
green with black remiges and twelve black rectrices, and metallic hues on
the head, neck, and under surface, the irides being green and the bill and
feet black, as are the naked regions, which are spotted with yellow. In
spring a recurved crest overhangs the forehead. _P. lucidus_, of South,
East, and apparently West Africa, differs from the last in having a brown
head and nape, and grey tints on the mantle and tail, while the chin and
most of the lower parts are white. _P. africanus_ occupies South and East
Africa. _P. varius_, of New Zealand, is greenish-black above with grey
middles to the dorsal feathers, white cheeks and under surface; the bill is
horn-coloured, the feet black, the orbits bluish, the gular skin yellow,
with an orange spot before each eye. _P. carunculatus_, of New Zealand,
has, according to Sir W. L. Buller,[79] no crest and a white band on the
back, but otherwise resembles the crested _P. onslowi_ of the Chatham
Islands, and _P. imperialis_ of Chili and Patagonia,[80] two fine
iridescent species with the under surface and an alar bar white, the bare
papillose skin in front of the eyes, orange-red, and the bill and feet
brownish. _P. featherstoni_ of the Chatham Islands, which is remarkable for
possessing both an occipital and a frontal crest, is greenish-black and
brown above with white filoplumes on the nape, and greyish-white below; the
beak being dark brown, the feet orange-yellow, and the naked parts bluish.
Similar tufts are met with in _P. punctatus_ of New Zealand, wherein the
upper plumage is mainly brown with terminal black spots on the
{78}feathers, the thighs show a few white markings, and a broad white
stripe reaches from above the eye down each side of the neck, where the
coat is somewhat elongated and silky. _P. pygmaeus_, the Pigmy Cormorant,
which breeds across South-East Europe and South Asia to Java and Borneo, as
well as in North Africa, is greenish-black with greyer mantle,
reddish-brown head and neck, and small white spots on the lower surface,
the naked parts being black. The sexes in _Phalacrocorax_ are alike, or
nearly so. The young are browner above–with little of the characteristic
gloss–and brown, or white mottled with brown below, the bill and irides
often differing in colour from those of the adult.

The members of this family as a rule frequent salt water, yet not
uncommonly breed on inland lakes and swamps, especially in the proximity of
trees; they are often to be seen in companies, and are decidedly shy and
cautious in most cases. The heavy flight is strong, steady, and rapid,
bearing a certain resemblance to that of the Duck-tribe, while the birds
experience considerable difficulty in starting, and laboriously flap their
wings until fairly launched in the air, when they rise to some height, or
skim the waves, as fancy dictates. They swim and dive to perfection,
remaining a long time submerged, and indulging in many a turn and twist as
they pursue their slippery prey, both wings and feet lending their aid to
the performance. Ordinarily a spring precedes the plunge from the surface,
but in presence of danger they disappear more quietly. Though the gait on
land is an awkward waddle, Cormorants perch with ease on rocks, posts, and
limbs of trees, where their upright posture gives them the appearance of
black bottles or objects hung out to dry; they are stated, moreover, to be
able to cling to the face of a cliff, and certainly can climb among thick
vegetation, as in the case of _P. pygmaeus_. Not unfrequently they roost in
trees, with the head drawn back upon the shoulders. The food, normally of
fish, is varied by crustaceans, or even frogs and newts; the young are fed
by regurgitation, and, when old enough, thrust their heads into their
parents' bills to help themselves.[81] The note, comparatively seldom
heard, is a harsh guttural croak, while the female hisses during
incubation, in which she is said to be assisted by the male. The nest,
placed {79}in caves, on ledges of cliffs, tops of stacks, or low islands,
and less commonly on trees, bushes or reeds, is a mass of sticks, grass,
seaweed, rushes and the like, according to situation; the smaller species
constructing a slighter platform when the trees are chosen, and a lining of
green leaves being occasionally added. Early in spring colonies, often of
very large dimensions, are formed by many–but not all–of the species for
breeding purposes, the stench from the remains of decaying fish at such
spots being decidedly unpleasant. Incubation lasts about four weeks.
Cormorants were of old used in England for catching fish, and this has been
a regular business from time immemorial in China and Japan; but with us it
is a mere sport, the chief exponent of which is now Captain F. H. Salvin,
whose chapters on "Fishing with Cormorants" will be read with pleasure by
those interested in the subject.[82] The bird rises to the surface to
swallow its prey, but a strap round the neck allows it to dispose of the
smallest only of its captures, while it is forced by its master to disgorge
the remainder before it is rewarded with a portion of the catch.

_Plotus anhinga_, the Snake-bird or Darter of tropical and sub-tropical
America, ranging northwards to West Mexico and South Carolina, is glossy
greenish-black with beautiful silvery-grey markings on the scapulars and
wing-coverts, a broad brown tip to the tail, which becomes white
terminally, and long whitish hair-like feathers on the sides of the occiput
and neck, merging into a black mane on the nape. The filoplumes are absent
in winter, and are inconspicuous in the female, which differs, moreover, in
having a grey-buff head, neck, and breast, the latter being divided from
the belly by a chestnut band. The young resemble the mother-bird, but are
duller and lack the chestnut tint. The peculiar long thin neck and
corrugated rectrices have been mentioned above; the plumage is unusually
close, and is chiefly composed of small soft feathers of very uniform
distribution; the lores, orbits, chin, and throat are naked, the two former
being apparently greenish, and the latter, which is moderately dilatable,
orange. The bill is olive above and yellow below, the feet mainly olive
with yellow webs. Three other species are recognised, but the variability
in the amount of rufous in all makes their validity somewhat questionable.
They are _P. novae hollandiae_ of Australia, New Zealand, and New Guinea,
with a {80}white stripe on the sides of the head and a white border to the
gular sac; the almost identical _P. melanogaster_ of the Indian Region,
extending to Celebes; and _P. levaillanti_ of the Ethiopian
Region–described also from Antioch as _P. chantrii_–which has a rufous
crown, buff throat, and chestnut greater wing-coverts.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.–Indian Darter. _Plotus melanogaster._ × ⅕. (From
_Nature_.)]

Darters cannot be classed as marine birds, though they frequent inlets of
the sea as well as lakes and rivers, where they sun themselves with
outspread wings on some stump, rock, tree, or even tuft of rushes, while
seldom admitting of a near approach. When disturbed, they circle in the air
with the neck drawn back upon the shoulders, as do the Pelicans; but the
flight is laboured, and they are much more at their ease in water, where
they swim very low, exposing only the head and neck, or even the bill, if
danger threatens, and having a very snake-like appearance, as they {81}sway
gracefully from side to side in their endeavours to keep the intruder in
view. Hardly a ripple follows the prolonged dive, while below the surface
the wings are but slightly used, the tail being often expanded, and the
feet acting as powerful paddles. On reappearance a fish is generally to be
seen grasped in the bill or transfixed by it, the peculiar mechanism of the
vertebrae of the neck allowing the head to be darted forward at a moment's
notice for the capture;[83] subsequently the prey is jerked up into the
air, cleverly caught and swallowed. The food, which seldom varies, is
sometimes obtained by the bird standing with the body immersed to waylay
the passing shoals; but if Gould is correct in adding frogs, newts, and
aquatic insects to the diet, these must be procured very differently. The
nest, generally situated over water, is a flat or concave fabric of sticks,
lined as a rule with leaves, moss, or roots, and often used for several
years in succession. High trees or bushes are indifferently chosen, and
colonies are usually, but not invariably, formed, several pairs being
accustomed to breed in proximity on the branches. The two to five eggs are
greenish-blue with chalky incrustation, like those of Cormorants, though
smaller and more delicate. The note is short and hoarse. Both sexes are
said to incubate, and to regurgitate food for the young.[84] Jerdon says
that the scapulars of the Indian Darter were royal badges among the
Khasias. It is tamed by boatmen in Bengal.

Fam. IV. FREGATIDAE.–_Fregata aquila_, the Frigate- or Man-of-War-Bird, the
latter of which names is sometimes transferred to the Albatroses and
smaller Skuas, is met with throughout the tropical regions, and has even
strayed as far north as Nova Scotia. It is blackish-brown with green and
purple reflexions; the bill is bluish, the feet are black, the orbits,
lores, and pouch–inflated in flight–scarlet. The female is browner above
and white below, with pinkish feet and no perceptible pouch; while the
young resemble her, but shew some white on the head and neck. _F. minor_,
found from Madagascar to Papuasia and North Australia, but seldom beyond
these limits, is smaller, with less purple gloss and a white mark on each
flank.

{82}[Illustration: FIG. 24.–Frigate Bird. _Fregata aquila._ × ⅛.]

These birds are usually seen singly or in pairs, and are pre-eminently
oceanic, seldom coming to land except near the breeding quarters, where
they roost on the trees; the normal flight is extremely rapid, graceful,
and long-sustained, with sudden deviations from the course, but they often
soar until they appear mere specks in the sky, descending thence with great
abruptness. At times they float aloft with little apparent movement of the
wide-spread wings, alternately opening and shutting the forked tail and
inclining the head from side to side, while in hurricanes they fly low
before the gale. At rare intervals they are found sitting asleep upon the
shore. Flocks frequently pursue the surface-swimming fish, constituting
their main aliment, which are seized almost without ruffling the water;
squids, small crabs, flying fish, and young turtles being also eaten. To
see a Frigate-bird plunge, however, is no uncommon occurrence, and the
habit of forcing Terns, Boobies, and the like to disgorge their prey, which
is caught before it reaches the waves, must not be forgotten.[85] If
secured in an awkward position the captures are tossed up in the air,
caught again and swallowed. The note, a harsh croak or cackle, is seldom
heard. The nest of small sticks, which the birds tear off upon the wing, is
generally in trees or bushes, though occasionally on the ground or on a
bare rock; it is often {83}very slight, and almost invariably contains one
egg, resembling that of the Cormorant. The young are fed by regurgitation,
and both sexes are said to incubate, sitting very closely, and merely
snapping at an intruder. The feathers are used for head-dresses in the
Pacific Islands.

Fam. V. PELECANIDAE.–_Pelecanus onocrotalus_, the Pelican, of South-East
Europe, North-East and South-West Africa, reported also from France,
Germany, and Denmark, is white with a rosy or salmon tinge, the primaries
being black, and the moderate occipital crest and stiff elongated feathers
of the lower fore-neck washed with yellow. The lores and orbits are naked,
while an enormous dilatable semi-transparent pouch fills the space between
the branches of the lower jaw. According to Mr. Dresser,[86] these parts
and a fleshy knob appearing on the forehead in spring are yellow, the bill
is bluish-grey with pink sides marked with red, and the feet are also pink.
These colours, however, may vary with the season. In this species, and to a
certain extent in _P. erythrorhynchus_, the feathering on the forehead ends
in a point, but elsewhere is more or less concave anteriorly. Closely
allied forms of doubtful validity are _P. minor_, with a somewhat similar
range, _P. sharpii_ of West Africa, and _P. mitratus_ of South Africa. _P.
crispus_, occupying a slightly more eastern area than _P. onocrotalus_, is
distinguished from it by the curled filamentous plumes which overhang the
sides of the head, the lack of rosy tints, and the flesh-coloured orbits.
_P. erythrorhynchus_ of temperate North America, found in winter down to
Guatemala, resembles the last-named, but has a still more pendent nuptial
crest, and in the breeding season develops a curious triangular horny
excrescence on the middle of the culmen, shed about May. The chest and
wing-coverts show a little yellow, the bill and naked parts are reddish,
the feet orange-red, while the lower jaw is densely feathered. _P.
rufescens_ of the Ethiopian Region, apparently identical with _P.
philippensis_ of South Asia, is white, with black primaries, and a grey
shade on the secondaries, tail, crested head, or even lower surface; the
back is rose-coloured; the stiff feathers on the fore-neck, the bill and
pouch, are yellowish, with vertical red lines on the latter. The remainder
of the bare skin is flesh-coloured, and the feet are pink. _P. fuscus_ of
the warmer coasts of North America, the range of which south of Panama is
uncertain, and depends upon the {84}validity of _P. molinae_ of Peru and
Chili, has a white or occasionally yellowish head, silvery-grey upper parts
with dusky streaks, and browner under parts. The crested nape is chestnut,
varying to blackish; the bill and loral region are grey or bluish, the
dark-tipped maxilla being spotted with red; the pouch is red, or dusky,
like the feet; the bare orbits are blue. _P. conspicillatus_ of Australia
and Southern New Guinea is white, with black wings and tail and a yellow
wash on the chest; the bill, feet, and naked parts are yellowish-white,
with a blue tinge on the two first and a similarly coloured ring round the
orbits, which are divided by a feathered space from the lores. In this
Family the sexes are similar; the young being usually crestless, and of a
brown hue, with yellowish or dusky pouch and occasionally white mottlings.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.–Crested Pelican. _Pelecanus crispus._ × ⅑.]

Pelicans inhabit not only tidal waters, but also swampy districts and
inland lakes, traversing in some cases vast distances on migration, and
being usually found in company. Though {85}heavy, and of enormous size,
they fly buoyantly and swiftly, with the neck drawn in upon the shoulders
and the feet extended behind; while at times they soar in spiral fashion to
great altitudes, and circle around with alternate flapping and sailing
movements. On land the gait is awkward and waddling, and great difficulty
is experienced in rising; but some species habitually perch, and all are
very proficient in the water, swimming, diving, or plunging from great
heights, according to their various customs. The food consists almost
entirely of moderate-sized fish taken by the bird either by pouncing down
sharply from above, or, when quiescent on the surface, by immersing the
head or disappearing totally from sight with a somersault. The prey is
chiefly sought in shallows, and is retained in the pouch until the birds
return to land, or until it is transferred half-macerated to the young;
occasionally the adults may be seen gorged after feeding, sitting upon the
water or basking in the rays of the sun. The deep loud note is very seldom
heard. Pelicans usually breed in colonies in wild districts, though
occasionally near villages,[87] the nest, when on the branches of trees,
being of sticks with a lining of twigs or roots, as in _P. philippensis_;
at other times it is a rough mound of gravel and rubbish on the ground with
a slight cavity above, as is often the case in the American species, which
also lay in mere depressions in the sand, the localities chosen being
generally islands in lakes or rivers; the European forms amass a pile of
reeds and grasses among aquatic herbage in like places or swamps, while the
Australian constructs a large fabric of sticks and water-plants in similar
spots or on the summits of rocky islets. The eggs, varying from one to
five, but ordinarily two or three in number, are white or bluish-white with
a chalky incrustation, soon becoming soiled and often stained with blood.
The parents are as a rule shy and easily scared from the nest, where the
smell from the refuse fish and excrement is in many cases intolerable.
Incubation lasts about four weeks. Bands of these birds sometimes unite to
systematically beat the water for their prey, stowing it in the distensible
pouch. In India they are used–frequently with the eyes sewn up–to decoy
fish by their oily secretions,[88] and in various countries they are
slaughtered for the sake of the latter. The fable of the young being fed
with blood from the {86}female's breast may have arisen from confusion of
the Pelican with the Flamingo, which ejects a blood-like liquid from its
mouth.[89]

Of fossil Steganopodes we have _Phaëthon_ from the Pliocene of India; three
species of _Pelecanus_ from the same formation of the Siwalik hills, one
from the Miocene of Bavaria, one from that of Allier in France, and one
from the Queensland drifts; while in England that genus is recorded, on the
strength of the humerus, radius, and ulna from the Plistocene of Norfolk
and from the Isle of Ely. _Sula_ has occurred in the Miocene of Carolina,
and of Auvergne and Ronzon in France; the giant _Pelagornis_–akin to _Sula_
and _Pelecanus_, but perhaps indicating a distinct family–has also been
found in the Miocene near Bordeaux; and _Argillornis_, related to _Sula_,
in the Lower Eocene (London Clay) of England. From the same beds we have
the remarkable _Odontopteryx toliapica_, with coarsely serrated edges to
the jaws; _Phalacrocorax_ has been met with in the North American Pliocene,
the same strata of the Siwalik hills, the Miocene of Allier and the
Orléannais in France, and the Pampean of Argentina, _Actiornis anglicus_ of
Lydekker being a close ally from the Hampshire Eocene; _Plotus nanus_ has
been described from the Mare aux Songes in Mauritius and from Central
Madagascar, _P. parvus_ from Queensland.

The Sub-Order ARDEAE contains the Families _Ardeidae_ and _Scopidae_, in
which the body is often compressed, the head and eyes are large, and the
neck is long. Most members of the former have a long, straight, sharp bill
with rounded culmen and flattened sides, the edges being commonly serrated
and the maxilla notched; it may be comparatively small, as in _Zebrilus_,
but is usually stout, and in _Cancroma_ is extraordinarily broad and
depressed, with prominent keel and somewhat dilatable skin beneath, the
form resembling that of an inverted boat. _Balaeniceps_ (Fig. 27) has a
huge beak, which is not only flattened and swollen, but has a ridge on the
culmen terminating in a hook, the maxilla having an undulating outline
above and following the strong upward curve of the mandible below, while
its sides are grooved. So peculiar, indeed, is this bird that it might well
stand alone in a Sub-family _Balaenicipitinae_, as opposed to the
_Ardeinae_, if not referred to the Storks, where many writers have placed
it. In _Scopus_ the bill is acute, keeled, greatly compressed, and
laterally grooved, with a small hook at the tip. The tibia is usually bare
{87}below, though occasionally feathered, as in _Ardetta_ and _Zebrilus_;
the metatarsus being remarkably long, except in such forms as _Nycticorax_,
_Botaurus_, and _Ardetta_. The latter member is covered anteriorly with
transverse or hexagonal scales, which become smaller or reticulated behind,
and show a decided tendency to fusion in many cases. The toes are long,
with a distinct web between the middle and outer; the claws are generally
short and curved, though elongated, slender, and nearly straight in
_Botaurus_ and _Ardetta_; that of the middle digit being toothed on the
inner side, save in _Balaeniceps_. The wing is somewhat rounded, yet long,
and has eleven primaries–reduced to ten in _Scopus_–and from eleven to
eighteen secondaries; the fairly even tail is short or moderate, with from
ten to twelve broad stiffish feathers, except in _Botaurus_ and _Ardetta_,
where the ten rectrices are soft and abbreviated. The tongue is usually
long and pointed, but in _Cancroma_, _Balaeniceps_, and _Scopus_ it is very
short; the lores and orbits are naked, save in _Scopus_, as is the malar
region in _Tigrornis_ and _Tigrisoma_, while the last at times has the
throat bare, or merely feathered centrally. The nostrils are impervious
only in _Cancroma_ and _Balaeniceps_. The nestlings are uniformly covered
with sparse hair-like down. The state of the chick is unrecorded in
_Balaeniceps_ and _Scopus_. The furcula is generally V-shaped, the syrinx
is tracheo-bronchial, and an aftershaft is present, the latter and the
syringeal muscles being much reduced in _Balaeniceps_. Crests and
decorative plumes are common, as will be seen below.

Of especial importance are the large, thick, "powder-down patches," or
greasy yellow spaces covered with tufts of grey or black filaments,
disintegrating into bluish or whitish powder. _Balaeniceps_ has a big pair
on the lower back, _Botaurus_ and _Ardetta_ an additional couple on the
breast, and the remainder of the Ardeidae two more on the abdomen, except
_Cancroma_ which possesses still another pair on the upper back. In
_Scopus_ they are absent. The use is uncertain, and the occurrence quite
irregular.

Fam. VI. ARDEIDAE.–There are few persons in Britain who are not to some
extent acquainted with the habits of the Common Heron or Hern, for it may
be seen on the coast as well as on inland waters, and now breeds in more
localities than formerly, though in smaller numbers; while of the remainder
of the Family the Bitterns alone differ conspicuously in their mode of
life. Herons are shy, solitary birds, frequenting lakes, fens, and rivers,
where they {88}may often be seen standing ankle-deep in the water, and
watching with untiring patience for the prey which never seems to satisfy
their appetite. They rarely swim and walk but little. The majority breed in
large colonies; but Bitterns (_Botaurus_), Little Bitterns (_Ardetta_), and
Green Herons (_Butorides_) are notable exceptions, being, moreover,
skulking and nocturnal in habit, and agreeing in the latter respect with
Night-Herons (_Nycticorax_). The mud-flats commonly found on sandy shores
provide excellent feeding ground, and thence old and young may be seen
winging their way at considerable altitudes with leisurely flapping
flight–rarely accelerated–to roost at night on the customary trees or
rocks. Bitterns and their nearest allies are seldom seen far from marshes,
flying noiselessly with laboured action and at a comparatively slow pace;
they are, however, adepts at running or climbing among the water-plants,
and perch with ease; while they often assume an upright position with the
bill vertical, and thereby closely resemble the surrounding reeds, the
deception being occasionally enhanced by the bird turning as if on a pivot
and facing the spectator constantly.[90] Herons fly with the head drawn
back, therein differing from the rest of the Order, and in some cases roost
or bask in the sun on one leg; they are usually graceful and stately, the
beautiful Egrets moving more easily on land than their kindred, and being
somewhat less wary. The voice is a harsh croak or guttural sound, that of
the Night-Heron verging upon a quack; while the Bitterns, besides the
common cry, utter a booming or bellowing note in the breeding season,
generally heard at night or early in the morning, the method of production
of which is not at present quite clear. _Ardetta_ gives vent to a somewhat
similar but weaker boom or grunt, and most species are noisy at the nest,
hissing or screaming sharply. The diet consists largely of fish, but is
varied by small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, grasshoppers and
other insects, molluscs, crustaceans, and worms, the digestion being very
rapid and the birds seldom gorged. In the shallows the majority of the
family stand motionless, and spear their prey with the beak as it passes,
occasionally mauling it before swallowing; but some move from place to
place, while the Buff-backed Heron (_Ardea bubulcus_) habitually picks
insects from the backs or sides of the cattle. The nest, commonly situated
{89}on lofty trees, though frequently on low bushes, ivy-covered cliffs,
flat rocks, or reeds and herbage in swamps, is often a large fabric of
sticks without lining or with a slight bedding of grass, leaves, and the
like, but may be a mere mass of rushes and flags; the tree-building forms
at times resorting to the ground and _vice versâ_. Bitterns generally crush
down the aquatic vegetation and add softer materials on this substructure,
depositing four or five olive-drab eggs; _Ardetta_ in some cases does the
same, but the eggs are bluish- or greenish-white; whereas those of the
Herons proper are of a greenish- or whitish-blue colour of varying depth,
and exceptionally amount to six or seven. _Butorides_ not uncommonly lays
only two. If the first set is removed a second is often produced after a
short interval; but the young remain long in the nest. Incubation lasts
from sixteen to thirty days. Herons were of old protected by law, as
affording an excellent quarry for Falcons, while the flesh was highly
esteemed; when wounded, however, they must be carefully approached, as they
use the bill with deadly effect, and aim at the captor's eye. In India they
are used as decoy-birds with the eyes sewn up.

The following will sufficiently shew the coloration; the largest species is
_Ardea goliath_; _Ardetta_ furnishes the smallest forms.

_Botaurus stellaris_, the Bittern, which bred so lately as 1868 in Norfolk,
and occurs throughout the warmer parts of the Palaearctic and the whole of
the Ethiopian Region, is buff, with black bars above and streaks below,
black crown, nape, and stripes down the side of the neck, and chestnut
bands on the primaries. _B. lentiginosus_, distinguished by the nearly
uniform brown primaries, is rarely found in Britain, but inhabits North
America, probably meeting about Nicaragua with _B. pinnatus_ of tropical
South America, which lacks the neck-stripes; while _B. poeciloptilus_ of
the Australian Region has much of the back brown. The neck-feathers in
these birds form an elongated ruff. _Ardetta minuta_ of Central and
Southern Europe, Western Asia, and the northern half of Africa, formerly
known to have bred in England, is greenish-black, with buff neck,
wing-coverts, and under surface, the latter slightly streaked with dusky.
These streaks are more decided in other species, which are often greyer,
browner, or more ruddy above; _A. cinnamomea_ of the Indian Region is
almost entirely rufous, while all have a slight head-tuft. A fuller crest
marks _Zebrilus pumilus_ of northern South America, wherein {90}the upper
parts are black with fulvous undulations, and the lower parts
correspondingly mottled. The "Tiger-Bitterns" (_Tigrisoma_) extend from
Central America to North Argentina, the four or five forms varying chiefly
in the amount of naked skin on the throat. _T. brasiliense_ is blackish
with rusty vermiculations above, and reddish-grey below, the head being
mainly chestnut, and the tips of the remiges and spots on the breast white.
_Tigrornis leucolophus_ of West Africa has a narrow white crest, the
neck-feathers hanging loosely down, as in _Tigrisoma_. _Zonerodius
heliosylus_ of New Guinea is black above with fulvous bands, and has white
bars on the wing; the rump and fore-neck are white with dusky markings, the
lower parts yellowish-white. The genus _Butorides_, connecting the Bitterns
and the Herons, exhibits somewhat elongated plumes on the crown, fore-neck,
and scapular region. These small birds, variegated with glossy green,
black, grey, and chestnut, and often streaked with white, occur chiefly in
the Neotropical and Australian Regions, though _B. virescens_ at least
inhabits North America and _B. atricapilla_ the Ethiopian countries.

_Nycticorax_ (Night-Heron) is an almost cosmopolitan genus, remarkable for
the long linear blackish or white occipital feathers, from two to ten in
number, apparently lost for a time after breeding. In our occasional
visitor, _N. griseus_, of the Palaearctic, Indian, and Ethiopian Regions,
and the barely separable _N. naevius_ of America, the colour is
greenish-black, with grey neck, rump, wings, and tail, white cheeks and
lower parts. _N. leuconotus_ of the Ethiopian Region has the neck rufous,
the back white, and the under surface spotted with dusky; _N._
(_Pilerodius_) _pileatus_ of tropical South America is white with black
crown; _N._ (_Nycterodius_) _violaceus_ of the same districts, which
extends to the United States, is plumbeous, with yellowish-white crown and
black stripes above, the scapulars being somewhat decomposed; _N. pauper_,
confined to the Galapagos, is very similar; _N._ (_Syrigma_) _sibilatrix_
of South Brazil, Chili, and Argentina, is grey, with blackish head and
remiges, rufous markings on the face and wing-coverts, and yellowish-white
breast; _N._ (_Gorsachius_) _goisagi_, ranging from India and the Malay
countries to Japan, is red-brown, with buff and white lower parts, the
whole plumage being marked with dusky; while _N. caledonicus_ of the
Australian Region has the upper parts rich buff, the lower parts white, and
only the head black. _Cancroma cochlearia_, the Boat-billed Night-Heron of
South {91}America, is blue-grey with white on the forehead and neck; the
head, crest, and flanks being black, and the belly cinnamon. _C. zeledoni_
of Central America differs in its reddish fore-neck.

_Ardea_, another world-wide genus, may be subdivided as below if
desired,[91] but the supposed generic characters are hardly satisfactory.
_A._ (_Buphus_) _bubulcus_, the Buff-backed Heron of South Europe, Africa,
and Asia to the Caspian, is white, with buff crown and nape, and elongated
occipital, scapular, and jugular plumes of the same colour, developed in
the breeding season; _A. coromanda_, with orange head, neck, and scapulars,
replacing it from the Caspian eastward and reaching Japan. The former has
once visited Britain, while _A._ (_Ardeola_) _ralloides_, the Squacco
Heron, has done so frequently. This bird, which ranges from the Canaries
and Central Europe to South Africa and Persia, is warm buff, with white
wings, tail, breast, and belly, the darker back possessing long hair-like
plumes which cover the tail, the jugulars being buff, and the head graced
by a tuft of long white feathers, margined with black. _A._ (_Lepterodius_)
_gularis_ of tropical Africa and Madagascar, and _A. asha_, extending from
the Persian Gulf to India, are dusky-slate with white throat, and have
moderate scapular and pectoral plumes, with a nuptial crest. _A._
(_Demiegretta_) _sacra_, ranging from Bengal to Japan, Australia, and the
Pacific, differs in having only a white streak down the throat, _A. greyi_
being a white phase. _A._ (_Melanophoyx_) _ardesiaca_ of the Ethiopian
Region is almost entirely slaty-black, with elongated occipital, dorsal,
and jugular feathers; _A._ (_Notophoyx_) _picata_ of Australia, New Guinea,
and the Moluccas, is bluer, and nearly white below; while _A. pacifica_ of
that country is greener, with white head and rufescent dorsal plumes. _A._
(_Dichromanassa_) _rufa_ of the warmer parts of North America is plumbeous,
with reddish head and neck, its white phase being denominated _A. pealii_;
here nearly all the head- and neck-feathers are elongated, and the
filamentous scapulars extend beyond the tail. _A._ (_Hydranassa_)
_tricolor_, found from the Southern United States to Brazil, is grey-blue,
purple, rufous, and white, with shorter seasonal plumes than the preceding;
_A._ (_Florida_) _caerulea_, with a slightly more northern range, is
slaty-blue, with maroon head and neck, a variable amount of white when
immature, and extremely long scapulars; while _A._ (_Agamia_) _agami_ of
central and northern South America is metallic green, with rufous and white
throat, rufous belly, black cheeks and nape; the very long occipital and
dorsal plumes being grey, as is the fore-neck, and the recurved feathers of
the sides of the neck reddish.

{92}[Illustration: FIG. 26.–Common Heron. _Ardea cinerea._ × ⅐.]

_A._ (_Garzetta_) _garzetta_, the "Little Egret," which has strayed to
Britain, and extends from South Europe to the whole of Africa, India, and
Japan, is entirely white, with long filamentous scapular and moderate
jugular plumes and two lengthened crest-feathers, all of which are said to
be temporarily lost after breeding. _A. nigripes_, ranging from Java to
Australia, is barely distinguishable, but the American representative, _A.
candidissima_, has a large occipital tuft. _A._ (_Herodias_) _alba_, the
Great White Heron, another of our rare visitors, extends from the middle of
Europe to most of Africa, Central Asia, and the Burmese countries, beyond
which a doubtfully distinct species, with yellower bill, reaches Australia
and New Zealand; the American _A. egretta_, however, differs in its black
legs. The breeding adult is white, with very long decomposed scapular and
lengthened jugular plumes, but no crest. The most typical forms of _Ardea_
are large slaty-coloured birds, varied by black, rufous, and white, the
head being commonly darker and the lower parts striped; while two slender
occipital plumes are, {93}in most cases, developed in the nuptial period,
and the scapular and jugular feathers are elongated, though not decomposed.
The Common Heron (_A. cinerea_), ranging through Europe, Africa, and Asia,
to Japan and Australia, needs no description, but the Purple Heron, _A._
(_Phoyx_) _purpurea_, though it often occurs in Britain, is less well
known. It is grey, with black crown and black stripes down the sides of the
buff neck, chestnut scapulars, rufous, grey, and black jugular plumes, and
maroon breast; the range being from Central and Southern Europe to South
Africa, China, and the Philippines. _A. herodias_ of North America meets in
northern South America the white-necked _A. cocoi_, both species resembling
_A. cinerea_, but the former having rufous thighs and edge of the wing. The
white _A. occidentalis_, of Florida and Cuba,[92] was formerly thought to
be an instance of dichromatism. The African _A. goliath_ has the head and
neck rufous and the under surface chiefly maroon.

[Illustration: FIG. 27.–Whale-head or Shoe-bill. _Balaeniceps rex._ ×
1/14.]

The sexes are usually alike; but the female has ordinarily shorter plumes,
and may be duller, as may the young, though the stages of plumage are not
yet completely worked out. White or rufous markings are often noticeable,
especially in immature specimens of _Ardea_; there is little red about the
head in those of _Dichromanassa_, though in _Hydranassa_ the amount is
greater than in the adult; those of _Florida_ are generally very white;
and, conversely, white {94}species often shew grey tints in early life;
while immature examples of _Nycticorax_ differ entirely from their parents,
being brown with white or buff spotting above, and white with dusky stripes
below.

The bill, feet, naked lores, and orbits may be reddish, bluish, green,
yellow, brown, or black.

_Balaeniceps rex_, the Shoe-bill, of the White Nile, has a short crest, and
is brownish-grey with blackish wings, tail, and feet, the bill being yellow
with dusky mottlings. It usually forms large flocks, and frequents bushy
morasses. The flight is Heron-like, and the birds will often settle on
trees; the young run about with extended wings and clattering bills.[93]
The food consists of fish, frogs, snakes, molluscs, and even carrion. A
mere hole in the dry soil often contains the chalky white eggs, from two to
twelve in number, but a lining of herbage is frequently added.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.–Hammer-head. _Scopus umbretta._ × ⅙. (From
_Nature_.)]

{95}Fam. VII. SCOPIDAE.–_Scopus umbretta_, the Hammer-head, of Madagascar
and a large part of the Ethiopian Region, is purplish-brown, with black
tail-bars, wider towards the tip; the head exhibits a thick erectile crest,
generally carried horizontally; the bill is black and the feet are
brownish. It frequents wooded districts near water, and is usually found in
pairs; not being very shy, except when breeding, and being more active at
dusk than in the daytime. At night it roosts in trees. The neck is slightly
curved in flight, but the feet are outstretched, while the gait on the
ground is deliberate. The note is a harsh quack or weak metallic sound; the
food consists of fish, reptiles, frogs, worms, molluscs, and insects
captured in shallow water, and while feeding the birds have a curious habit
of skipping round each other with extended wings. The nest is an enormous
structure of sticks, lined with roots, grass, rushes, or clay, having a
hole at the side, and ordinarily a flat top; it is placed in a tree, on a
rocky ledge, or exceptionally on the ground. Three to five white eggs form
the complement. Native imagination associates this species with witchcraft.

Besides the extinct brevipennate _Nycticorax megacephalus_ of Rodriguez,
known to the first colonists, and the fossil _Butorides mauritianus_ of the
Mare aux Songes, this Sub-Order furnishes _Proherodius oweni_ from the
London Clay (Lower Eocene); _Ardea_ from the Miocene of France and Germany,
and the Pliocene of Oregon.

Fam. VIII. CICONIIDAE.–Of the Sub-Order CICONIAE, the first Family is that
of the Storks, which have long necks and also long stout beaks, usually
straight and fairly cylindrical, but occasionally compressed, as in
_Leptoptilus_, upturned towards the tip, as in _Mycteria_, or decurved, as
in _Tantalus_; in _Anastomus_ there is a wide gap between the grooved
mandibles, the edges of the maxilla possessing fine horny lamellae. Very
remarkable, moreover, are the unprotected pervious nostrils, which are mere
perforations in the bony sheath. The tibia is partly bare, while the
elongated metatarsus is covered with hexagonal scales, becoming more
reticulated behind in _Leptoptilus_ and _Mycteria_; the partially webbed
front toes and flattened claws are in most cases very short–though
lengthened and more slender in _Tantalus_–and rest upon horny pads,[94] the
hallux being slightly elevated. The wings are ample and fairly long, with
eleven stout primaries in _Ciconia_ and twelve elsewhere, and from fourteen
to twenty-five secondaries, the inner of which are often greatly
{96}developed. The short tail is normally even or slightly rounded, with
twelve broad feathers, but in _Dissura_ it is deeply forked[95] and rigid,
while the unusually stiff coverts extending from beneath are easily
mistaken for rectrices. In _Leptoptilus_ these elongated coverts are soft,
and are the genuine "Marabou feathers." The furcula is U-shaped, the tongue
rudimentary, the aftershaft present or absent, and there are no powder-down
patches; the trachea in the male of _Tantalus ibis_ has several
intrathoracic convolutions,[96] while there is an entire want of syringeal
muscles. The adults and young possess uniform down, that of the nestlings
being greyish or whitish.

Storks, though easily tamed, are naturally shy, solitary birds, which
frequent wooded or open country on plains or hills, usually near inland
waters, creeks, or salt-water lagoons; the White Stork and the Adjutant
are, however, instances of somewhat different habits, the former showing a
predilection for homesteads, and the latter being protected as a scavenger
in some parts of India; while _Ciconia abdimii_ is considered a "bird of
blessing" by the natives of Africa. Flocks are occasionally seen. The
flight is graceful and noiseless, but powerful and rapid, the neck and legs
being carried in line with the body, and immense heights being often
attained by soaring and circling movements. No difficulty is experienced in
walking, and many species stalk solemnly about in pursuit of prey, whether
in water or on dry land; not uncommonly they rest with the whole metatarsus
upon the ground, or stand on one foot with the bill touching the breast.
They are ordinarily quiescent during the heat of the day, and at night
frequently roost in trees. _Mycteria senegalensis_ and _M. indica_ are said
to dance around their mates, the former skipping and bowing, and the latter
fluttering its extended wings, which touch those of its partner, while
advancing the head and making a clatter with the bill.[97] Generally
speaking, this is the only noise Storks produce, owing to the want of
voice-muscles; but Adjutants are said to utter a loud grunting croak or
bellow, and the young of _Ciconia nigra_ to give vent to a guttural cry.
The food consists of fish, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs,
grasshoppers, and beetles, with small mammals, or even eggs and young of
birds; but _Leptoptilus_ is nearly omnivorous and enjoys carrion, including
human carcases, {97}_Dissura maguari_ having like habits. _Anastomus_ is
called the Shell-Ibis from its cleverness in extracting _Unio_ and other
molluscs from their shells, and _Mycteria_ thrusts its bill into the ground
in search of grubs. The nests are frequently in tall trees, but may be on
ledges or in cavities of cliffs, or on flat tops of rocky hills; the
shallow fabric, often of enormous size, being composed of sticks with or
without a lining of grass, leaves, moss, rushes, feathers, down, or,
exceptionally, clay. Colonies are in most cases formed, but White Storks
occupy separate sites on houses, farms, towers, or even cart-wheels
purposely erected, and Black Storks breed apart in woods and precipitous
gorges. On the other hand, more than thirty nests of _Anastomus_ have been
observed in one tree. The eggs, numbering from three to six, are white and
chalky, and stain easily. Incubation lasts nearly four weeks. The adult
inserts its bill into that of the helpless nestling to feed it, while the
male attends constantly upon his sitting mate; we may, however, safely
disregard the more fabulous instances of affection recorded.

Wood-Ibises are similar in habits, but they are more gregarious; and build
smaller nests of twigs lined with moss, laying as many as eight white eggs,
rarely streaked with pale brown.

_Tantalus loculator_, the "Wood-Ibis" of the warmer parts of America, is
white, with metallic greenish-black remiges and rectrices, the bare head
and upper neck being covered with dusky corrugated skin, and the crown with
a smooth plate. The beak and feet are lead-coloured, the under wing-coverts
pinkish. _T._ (_Pseudotantalus_) _ibis_ of the Ethiopian Region has only
the front of the head naked, but is rosy towards the upper and under
wing-coverts, the smooth face and feet being red and the bill yellow. _T.
leucocephalus_ of the Indian and Indo-Chinese countries differs in its
yellow face, while the Indo-Malay _T. cinereus_ has it red and black.

_Anastomus oscitans_, the "Open-bill," another Indian and Indo-Chinese
species, is white, with black scapulars, remiges, and rectrices, yellow
bill and feet; the Ethiopian _A. lamelligerus_ is metallic black varied by
a little rufous, the shafts of the feathers of the fore-neck and lower
parts in adults expanding into flat shining, horn-like plates at the tip.
_Leptoptilus dubius_, the "Adjutant" of the Indian Region, is
greenish-black above and white below, the fleshy-red head and neck being
naked with a few hairs, and a white ruff surmounting the shoulders, while a
huge ruddy pouch, communicating with the nasal cavity, hangs below the
throat. The {98}bill is greenish and the feet greyish, the former being
yellowish and the latter black in the two following species. The Ethiopian
_L. crumenifer_ has the bare portions spotted with black; _L. javanicus_ of
Manchuria and the Indian Region has some white on the wing-coverts, yellow
naked parts with a horny greenish crown, a line of hair on the nape, and a
tuft on the fore-neck.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.–White Stork. _Ciconia alba._ × ⅒.]

_Mycteria americana_, the "Jabiru," ranging from Texas to Argentina, is
white, with black head, neck, bill, and feet; the naked head having a hairy
patch on the occiput, and the bare neck a red distensible basal band. The
Australian and Papuan _M._ (_Xenorhynchus_) _australis_ is black with
purple and green gloss, except the back and lower surface, which are white;
the head and neck are feathered, the bill is black, the feet are red. The
Indian _M. indica_ is barely separable. _M._ (_Ephippiorhynchus_)
_senegalensis_, the Ethiopian "Saddle-billed Stork," differs in having a
triangular frontal shield of yellow skin, a naked crimson pectoral spot, a
crimson bill with black median band, and black metatarsi with reddish
joints. _Dissura episcopus_ of the Indian and Ethiopian {99}Regions is
metallic black with white abdomen and under tail-coverts, downy white head
and neck with black crown, reddish bill and feet. _D. maguari_ of South
America has the head and neck feathered, naked red lores and sides of the
throat, white plumage with black wings and tail, yellowish bill and red
feet.

_Ciconia_ (_Abdimia_) _abdimii_ of the Ethiopian Region is bronzy-black
with white lower surface; the chin, membranous forehead, and tip of the
bill being orange-red, the remainder of the bill greenish and the bare
cheeks bluish. _C. nigra_, the Black Stork of British lists, is iridescent
black, with white breast and belly, red bill, feet, and orbits; _C. alba_,
the White Stork, a much more common visitor here, is white with black wings
and orbits, red bill and feet. The former–reckoning for the irregular
distribution characteristic of the Family–may be said to inhabit Europe,
Palaearctic Asia, and North Africa, wintering southward to India and Cape
Colony; the latter is more abundant within a like area, and is represented
in East Siberia, China, and Japan by _C. boyciana_ with black bill and red
orbits.

The sexes in this group are similar; but when immature the whiter species
are often more dusky, and the blacker species brownish, while the bill and
legs may then be greenish instead of red, as in _C. nigra_, or the head and
neck more feathered, as in _Tantalus_.

The Fossils referred to this Family are _Propelargus_ of the Upper Eocene
of France, _Pelargodes_, _Tantalus_, and possibly _Leptoptilus_ of its
Miocene; _Amphipelargus_ of the Pliocene of Samos; _Palaeociconia_ of the
Plistocene of Brazil; _Palaeopelargus_ and _Xenorhynchus_ of that of
Queensland.

Fam. IX. The IBIDIDAE, connected with the Storks through _Tantalus_, may be
divided into the Sub-families (1) _Ibidinae_ or Ibises, and (2)
_Plataleinae_ or Spoonbills. In the former the long bill is weak, nearly
cylindrical, and strongly curved; in the latter flattened, narrowed in the
middle, and dilated into a terminal spoon, which finally turns downwards.
The nasal grooves are remarkably elongated, the skull is somewhat square in
_Thaumatibis_ and _Graptocephalus_. The tibia is partly bare, the
metatarsus of medium length and often stout, with transverse or hexagonal
scales becoming almost reticulated behind, or even in front in _Hagedashia_
and _Carphibis_; the toes are generally long, with short anterior webs and
variable claws, that of the third digit being sometimes serrated. The
moderate wings have eleven primaries and from fourteen to {100}nineteen
secondaries; the tail of twelve rectrices is usually short and even, or
slightly rounded, but may be long, as in _Comatibis_, _Geronticus_,
_Cercibis_, and _Theristicus_; in the last two of which it is cuneate. The
furcula is U-shaped, the tongue rudimentary, the nostrils are pervious, an
aftershaft is present, but there are no powder-down patches or syringeal
muscles. _Platalea leucorodia_ has the trachea convoluted like a figure of
8 in old birds. Adults and nestlings are uniformly downy, the latter
varying from black with a white band over the crown in _Plegadis_ to white
in _Platalea_.

Sub-fam. 1. _Ibidinae._–Ibises are shy birds, which inhabit not only marshy
spots and wooded country, but also the driest of plains and rocky gorges,
being found both in pairs and in flocks. The flight is tolerably high and
rapid, with extended neck and legs, most species habitually sailing or
circling aloft, though _Plegadis_ rises with a whirr and skims along at no
great elevation. On the ground the gait is graceful, and swimming is
certainly practised at times, nor are perching or roosting on trees or
reeds uncommon habits. The usual note is loud and harsh, _Ibis
melanocephala_ being said to have a booming call[98] and _Inocotis_ a
melancholy scream[99]; the food consists chiefly of aquatic insects,
molluscs, crustaceans, and worms; but small fish, lizards, newts, frogs,
grasshoppers, and beetles form part of the diet; _Geronticus_, which does
not despise carrion, acts as a scavenger. Most Ibises wade in pursuit of
prey, whether in fresh or salt water, moving the bill to and fro, and
probing the subjacent mud. Some species breed apart, others in colonies;
the nest being placed on trees or low bushes, and more rarely among reeds,
or, as in _Geronticus_ and _Comatibis_, in holes in cliffs or on ledges.
The structure is not remarkably large, and is composed of sticks or stems
of plants, with or without a lining of herbage, straw, or roots; the eggs,
from two to four in number, being deep green-blue in _Plegadis_, pale blue
in _Graptocephalus_, similar or darker in _Inocotis_, olive-green in
_Hagedashia_, and greenish-white in _Ibis_ and _Eudocimus_, or even
brownish in the last-named. In all except the first two there are generally
reddish or brownish markings. Incubation lasts about three weeks.

_Eudocimus ruber_ and _E. albus_, the Scarlet and White Ibises of tropical
America, are respectively coloured as the names import, the tips of the
longer primaries and of the bill being black, while the {101}bare front of
the head and throat, the remainder of the bill and the feet are red. The
former, of more eastern range, strays to the southern United States, the
latter occurring farther north, and breeding in Florida. _Lampribis
olivacea_ of West Africa is coppery olive-green, with buff centres to the
feathers of the loose occipital crest and under parts, the wings being more
metallic, and the naked forehead and loral region black. The bill and feet
are red. _Plegadis falcinellus_, the Glossy Ibis, which occasionally visits
Britain, is found irregularly in Northern Europe and commonly in the south,
extending through most of Asia and North Africa, and migrating as far as
Australia and Natal. It also occurs in the South-Eastern United States and
the West Indies. The head, neck, mantle, and lower surface are chestnut,
the remaining parts purplish-green and bronzy, with bare greenish lores and
blackish bill and feet; _P. guarauna_, which represents the genus from the
Western and Southern United States and the Hawaiian Islands to Patagonia,
having red lores, white feathers round the beak, and at times red bill and
feet. _P. ridgwayi_ of Peru and Chili is purplish-black below, with
reddish-grey bill and black feet. _Cercibis oxycerca_, found from Colombia
to Upper Amazonia, is dark olive-green with a little purple and blue gloss,
the naked face and throat being pinkish and the bill and feet yellowish.
The crest is slight, while a line of feathers ascends the throat.
_Lophotibis cristata_, confined to Madagascar, is reddish-chestnut, with
white wings, blue-green tail, and an enormous crest combining all three
colours; the bill is greenish, the feet and the bare orbital region are
red. _Phimosus infuscatus_, ranging from Colombia to Argentina, is
bronzy-green with purple reflexions, the feet, bill, and face being pink,
with papillae on the forehead and cheeks. The slightly crested _Harpiprion
cayennensis_, occurring from Panama to South Brazil, is similarly coloured,
but has greenish-grey bill, feet, and naked skin on the lores, chin, and
sides of the throat. _Molybdophanes caerulescens_ of Brazil and Argentina
is greyish-green with dark bluish remiges, grey-brown crown, nuchal crest
and lower parts, white frontal band, naked black chin and warty lores,
black bill and yellow feet. _Theristicus caudatus_ of Guiana is
greenish-brown, with orange-buff head and neck, blackish under parts, and
partially white wing-coverts; the papillose lores, upper throat, and orbits
being naked and black, and a whitish tuft adorning the chin. The bill is
black with greenish tip, and the feet are red. {102}_T. melanopis_,
differing in its rufous breast, inhabits America from Peru and Brazil
southwards; _T. branickii_ being probably identical. _Bostrychia
carunculata_ of North-East Africa is greenish-brown with metallic
reflexions and white on the wing-coverts, the crested head and under
surface having whitish margins to the feathers, and the bill, feet, and a
long thin gular caruncle being red. _Hagedashia hagedash_, of the Ethiopian
Region generally, is somewhat similar but brighter, with no white on the
wing and no crest or wattle; the dusky lores are bare and warty, the bill
is black with crimson base to the culmen, and the feet are chiefly red.
_Geronticus calvus_ of South Africa, except for its shorter crest and
greenish-white fore-neck, is not unlike _Comatibis comata_ of Northern
Africa, Arabia, and the Euphrates, which is metallic greenish-black with a
large bronzy-red patch on each wing, a fine nuchal tuft of narrow feathers,
red bill, feet, and bare skin of the head and throat. There is some
question here as to the colour of the naked spaces. _Nipponia nippon_, of
East Siberia, Corea, Japan, China, and Formosa, is white with pinkish
remiges and rectrices; a long pendent crest graces the nape, the bare face
is vermilion, the bill black with red tip, while the feet are lighter red.
_Graptocephalus davisoni_ of the Burmese Countries and Cochin China and
_Inocotis papillosus_ of India are both dusky brown, with bluish-black
wings and tail, a white patch on the wing-coverts, greyish bill, and red
feet; but whereas in the former the black naked head is separated by a bare
bluish-white collar from the neck, in the latter the hinder crown is dotted
with red papillae. _Carphibis spinicollis_ of Australia is black with
purple and coppery sheen, the sides of the downy neck, the tail, and the
abdomen being white, and the feathers of the chest, which are converted
into stiff straw-like processes, yellowish. The naked head and throat are
black, the bill is black with brown bars at the base, the tibiae are
crimson, and the metatarsi dusky. The huge _Thaumatibis gigantea_ of Cochin
China is blackish-brown glossed with green, and shows much grey on the
wing; the scapulars are decomposed and the head and upper neck bare; the
nape is crossed by black bars, and the bill and feet are dull red. _Ibis
aethiopica_, the Sacred Ibis of the ancient Egyptians, of which mummies are
so often found in the temples, represented to that people the moon-god
Thoth, and is now the Abou-Hannes or Father John of Abyssinia. It inhabits
the Ethiopian Region, {103}being most plentiful on the Upper Nile, though
wandering to the Persian Gulf, Egypt, and Algeria. The bare head and neck,
the bill, feet, and tips of the primaries are black; the decomposed inner
secondaries and scapulars, which in summer curve gracefully over the hinder
parts, are iridescent black, the remainder of the plumage is white. _I.
bernieri_ of Madagascar, and probably Aldabra Island, has white primaries,
as has _I. melanocephala_, ranging from India and Java to Japan. The
latter, moreover, develops in the breeding season a ruff of long plumes on
the fore-neck, similar to that of _I. molucca_ of Australia, Papuasia, and
Ceram, which is distinguished by ten pink bars crossing the occiput and
nape, and pink spots on the crown.

The sexes are similar, but young Ibises are comparatively dull, and have
feathered heads and necks, while crests and ornamental plumes are generally
absent. In immature examples of _Ibis_ and elsewhere the head and neck are
black and white, in _Nipponia_ the plumage is apparently grey, in
_Eudocimus_ chiefly brown.

Sub-fam. 2. _Plataleinae._–Spoonbills are shy gregarious birds, frequenting
creeks of the sea or marshes, where they may be seen wading ankle-deep in
water, hunting for the fish, frogs, crustaceans, molluscs, beetles, and
insect-larvae on which they live, or searching the ground in drier spots.
They walk sedately, and fly with easy flapping action and outstretched head
and legs, now and then rising spirally to float aloft; while swimming,
perching, or standing on one leg are ordinary habits. In feeding, the beak
is moved from side to side in semicircular fashion, the body acting in
unison. There are no true vocal muscles, the voice being a harsh quack or
deep Heron-like note; but a clattering of the bill is heard at times, less
noisy than in Storks. The nest, when in reed-beds, is a mass of twigs,
flags, and the like, placed on the ground or on low bushes; but it is
commonly a large platform of sticks in a tree, the three to five roughish
eggs being dull white with red-brown spotting. Colonies are nearly always
formed.

_Platalea leucorodia_, the Spoonbill, which once bred regularly in England,
ranges over Central and Southern Europe and Northern Africa, to Central
Asia, Ceylon, and China; _P. regia_ inhabits Australia, and probably
Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea, straying also to New
Zealand; _P. minor_ occurs in China, Corea, Japan, and Formosa; _P. alba_
in the Ethiopian Region with Madagascar. The plumage is white, with bare
lores orbits, and throat, and a fine nuchal crest in the breeding season,
the fore-neck being tinged with buff, except in the last-named.

{104}[Illustration: FIG. 30.–Spoonbill. _Platalea leucorodia._ × ⅙.]

_P. leucorodia_ has yellow naked areas, black feet and bill, with yellow
bars and tip to the latter; _P. minor_ differs in having the neck-feathers
produced to a point on the black throat; _P. regia_ has the above parts,
except a portion of the orbits, black, and _P. alba_ all of them red. The
maxilla is transversely corrugated, at least in summer.[100] _Platibis
flavipes_ of Australia is white, with no crest, but with black outer webs
to the decomposed inner {105}secondaries, and elongated straw-yellow plumes
on the fore-neck in the nuptial period; the naked forehead, ocular region,
throat, bill, and feet being yellow; while a black line separates the gorge
from the feathered parts in the adult. _Ajaja rosea_ of tropical America,
which reaches the South-East United States, is rose-pink, with white neck,
back, and breast, pinkish-buff tail, and carmine wing- and tail-coverts;
the bare head is yellowish-green, the orbits and throat are orange, the
bill is greenish-blue with grey and black base, the feet are crimson, while
a curly pink tuft is developed on the fore-neck in the breeding season.

The female Spoonbill is like the male. The young seem to be duller, with no
crest or ornamental plumes; in some cases the primaries are tipped with
black, in _Ajaja_ the head is entirely feathered.

Of fossil forms, _Ibidopsis_ occurs in the Upper Eocene of England, _Ibis_
and _Ibidopodia_, the latter of which connects the Ibises with the Storks,
in the Miocene of France, _Ibis_ also in that of Bavaria, _Protibis_ in
that of Patagonia, _Platalea_ in the Queensland drifts.

Fams. X.-XI. The Sub-Order PHOENICOPTERI, including the PHOENICOPTERIDAE or
Flamingos and the extinct PALAELODIDAE, stands midway between the Storks
and the Geese, having been on that account termed AMPHIMORPHAE by Huxley, a
term equivalent to the ODONTOGLOSSAE of Nitzsch. The extraordinary
Flamingos have very long slender necks and unwieldy-looking bills, high at
the base and abruptly bent down in the middle, the maxilla being highly
movable and in some cases smaller than the nearly immovable grooved
mandible–a condition of affairs seldom found elsewhere, and correlated with
the peculiar method of feeding. As in the Anseres, the beak–which is short
and straight in the young–is covered with a soft membrane, and ends in a
black nail-like process rich in nerves, the margins being furnished in the
adult with horny lamellae. The legs are unusually long, with nearly bare
tibiae and laterally compressed metatarsi, covered with broad scutes which
become smaller posteriorly; the hallux is absent or somewhat elevated and
reduced, while the short anterior toes are fully webbed and have flat
stunted claws. The wing is fairly long, with twelve primaries and about
twenty-two secondaries; the tail is even, with fourteen small weak
rectrices. The furcula is U-shaped, the nostrils are pervious, the tongue
is thick, an aftershaft is present, and the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial.

{106}[Illustration: FIG. 31.–Flamingo. _Phoenicopterus roseus._ × 1/11.]

_Phoenicopterus ruber_, ranging from Florida to Pará and the Galápagos, is
light vermilion with brighter wing-coverts, the yellowish bill having a
black tip and the feet being red; the other forms are rosy-white with the
coverts scarlet, while all have black remiges; the naked orbits and lores
vary from rose-coloured to yellow, _P. minor_, _P. andinus_, and _P.
jamesi_ having feathered chins. _P. roseus_, recorded thrice from Britain
and several times from North Germany, while extending from Central Europe,
the Canaries, and Cape Verds to the whole of Africa, Lake Baikal, India,
and Ceylon, has red feet and a pink bill with black tip; _P. chilensis_, of
America south {107}of Central Peru, Uruguay, and perhaps Brazil, has
green-grey metatarsi with red joints, the black on the bill reaching above
the bend; _P._ (_Phoeniconaias_) _minor_, of the Ethiopian Region,
Madagascar, and North-West India, is very like _P. roseus._ _P._
(_Phoenicoparrus_) _andinus_, of the Andes of Bolivia, Chili, and
Argentina–the largest species of the Family–and _P. jamesi_, of South Peru
and Chili, lack the hallux, and have the base of the bill yellow and the
middle red, with yellow and red feet respectively.

The young are chiefly greyish- or buffish-white, with brown or black
markings, rarely seen beneath, and duller naked parts; the adults are
uniformly downy, the nestlings white and woolly.

Flamingos are shy birds, sometimes found singly, but usually in immense
flocks, which fly gracefully in V-shaped formations with alternate flapping
and gliding motion, or circle around with outstretched neck and legs after
rising with some difficulty. They spend their time chiefly in wading, the
gait being slow and stiff; yet they can swim on occasion, and give evidence
of their Anserine affinity by loud harsh cries, much resembling the
gaggling of Geese, and by their helpless state in late summer, due to the
loss of the flight-feathers. Very curious is their method of feeding, the
head being completely inverted and directed backwards, as they tramp about
in the shallows and seek for the aquatic herbage, frogs, crustaceans,
molluscs, and so forth, which constitute their food, the lamellae of the
bill acting as a sifting apparatus. The breeding colonies are situated on
some lake, salt lagoon, or "marisma" of little depth, with bare shores, the
conical or cylindrical mud nests being slightly hollowed at the top and
varying in height from two to fifteen inches according to the amount of
water. Several hundred individuals commonly breed together, though they not
infrequently change their quarters annually; they are said to fashion the
nest with their feet, and lay one or two eggs with bluish shell and chalky
incrustation, incubation lasting four weeks or more. Mr. Abel Chapman,[101]
Sir Henry Blake,[102] and Mr. Maynard[103] have shewn that the bird sits
with her legs doubled under her, and her head directed forwards, though
reliable persons have asserted that the feet hung down, and Dampier (prior
to 1683) alleged that the parent stood erect and covered the structure with
her rump. Eggs are often dropped {108}promiscuously by the hen. The young
run from the shell, and even when fully grown can be driven in flocks by
intending captors.

Of extinct forms the allied _Agnopterus_ occurs in the Upper Eocene of
France and possibly of England; _Helornis_, with somewhat shorter bones, in
the Lower Miocene of France and the transition beds of the two formations,
as well as the Middle Miocene of Germany; and several species of
_Phoenicopterus_, in the French Lower Miocene, the Pliocene of Oregon, and
the Mare aux Songes in Mauritius. Lastly, there are five species of
_Palaelodus_, constituting the family _Palaelodidae_,[104] in which the
bill was probably straight, and the tibia and metatarsus were much shorter
than in _Phoenicopterus_, but the toes longer. They are found in lacustrine
deposits of the French Lower Miocene and the German Middle Miocene, while
remains resembling them, to which the name _Scaniornis_ has been given, are
met with in the Chalk of South Sweden.[105]

ORDER VI. ANSERIFORMES.

The Order Anseriformes consists of the Sub-Orders PALAMEDEAE and ANSERES,
each containing a single Family, _Palamedeidae_ and _Anatidae_
respectively. Lying between the Ciconiiformes and the Falconiformes, the
connexion of this group with the former is much the most easily recognised,
as it shows decided affinities to the PHOENICOPTERI, while between the
ANSERES and the Birds of Prey there occurs one of those gaps common to
every linear system of classification. All the members agree in having the
furcula U-shaped and the nostrils pervious. The large spiral penis is
unique among the Carinatae, though comparable with that of the Ratitae. The
down is uniformly distributed in both adults and nestlings, the aftershaft
is rudimentary or absent, the tongue is thick and fleshy, and has bristly
sides in the _Anatidae_; while the possession of two pairs of
sterno-tracheal muscles is a marked point of distinction from other
Carinate Birds. All the species are aquatic, and live almost entirely on
vegetable matter. The young leave the nest within a few days, or even
hours.

Fam. I. PALAMEDEIDAE.–In this group the head is small and the neck long,
while the ribs have no uncinate processes, an archaic feature only found
elsewhere among Birds in _Archaeopteryx_. The {109}bill is short and
Fowl-like, with a blunt decurved tip, a covering of soft skin, and more or
less of a cere; the tibiae are partly naked, the entirely reticulated
metatarsi moderately long and fairly stout; the toes are elongated and have
strong claws, but only rudimentary anterior webs; the wings are ample and
somewhat rounded, with eleven primaries and about sixteen large
secondaries; the tail has fourteen broad feathers in _Palamedea_ and twelve
in _Chauna_.[106] Very noticeable are the two sharp spurs on the carpal
portion of each wing, of which the foremost is the biggest; while in the
even distribution of the body-plumage this Family recalls the Ratitae and
the Spheniscidae. The sexes are alike; the nestlings, where known, are clad
in yellowish-brown and grey down, the wing-spurs being developed in the
earliest stages.

The following account of the habits of _Chauna cristata_,[107] the Chajá or
Chaka, must stand for those of the Family, in default of further details
concerning the more northern forms. This striking species is a common
resident in the swamps and brackish lagoons of Argentina, where the islands
of the intricate morasses often hold flocks of more than a hundred
individuals, the separate pairs being said to mate for life. The flight is
slow, with powerful strokes of the wing, the birds being greatly addicted
to soaring in spiral circles until they are hardly visible, and at times
floating lazily upon the breeze. They rise noisily from the ground with
laboured action, and are occasionally seen to perch in trees; but they are
by nature waders which swim with considerable facility, and, when they do
so, their bodies shew well above the water, owing no doubt to the same
pneumaticity which causes a crackling noise to be heard when the skin is
compressed. The food consists of succulent water-plants, seeds, clover, and
so forth. The loud cry, uttered with the head thrown back when the
performer is on the ground, may be heard at a distance of two miles, the
male giving vent to a "cha-ha" and the female replying with a "cha-ha-li."
The regular period for reproduction is the southern spring–September and
October–but it is a remarkable fact that breeding takes place also in
autumn and even winter; the nest being a massive structure of reeds and
rushes slightly hollowed above, and standing some two feet high with its
foundations in water, or, {110}in exceptional cases, floating. This nest is
placed in some narrow channel or near the side of a lagoon, and contains
from four to six oval buffish-white eggs. The female rises silently when
disturbed, nor do the parents usually attack an intruder; but wounded birds
are dangerous to approach, and make good use of their sharp spurs. The
voice of the young is a feeble chirp; they are often trained, as they grow
up, to act as guardians to the poultry of their owners. The flesh is coarse
and dark, with a duck-like flavour.

_Palamedea cornuta_, the Horned Screamer, found from Guiana, Venezuela, and
Amazonia to Ecuador and Eastern Peru, is glossy black with an admixture of
white on the crown, lesser wing-coverts, and carpal edge; greyish foreneck,
white abdomen, brownish-grey bill, and ashy feet. The lores are feathered,
and a long, slender, yellowish-white horn adorns the forehead. The female
is said to have buff on the wing-coverts. _Chauna chavaria_ (_derbiana_
auctt.) occurs in Venezuela and Colombia; it is glossy slate-black with
greyer head and occipital crest, white cheeks and throat, and a little
white on the wing. The naked lores are pink, the bill and feet apparently
red. _C. cristata_ (_chavaria_ auctt.) differs in being dark grey, with a
black ring round the neck and whitish-grey cheeks and throat. This is the
largest form, and is bigger than a Turkey; it ranges from South Brazil to
Argentina, and shares with _Cariama_ (p. 258) the name of Crested Screamer.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.–Chajá. _Chauna cristata._ × ⅒.]

Fam. II. The Sub-Order ANSERES contains the single {111}cosmopolitan Family
ANATIDAE, with the Swans, Geese, and Ducks; where, in spite of many
attempts at subdivision, the lines of demarcation cannot yet be finally
determined. Count Salvadori, however, having lately propounded a
carefully-elaborated arrangement,[108] I have adopted his Sub-families in
the present volume, viz. (1) _Merginae_, (2) _Merganettinae_, (3)
_Erismaturinae_, (4) _Fuligulinae_, (5) _Anatinae_, (6) _Chenonettinae_,
(7) _Anserinae_, (8) _Cereopsinae_, (9) _Plectropterinae_, (10)
_Anseranatinae_, and (11) _Cygninae_.

The skull is short and robust; while the neck is abnormally developed, with
extra vertebrae, in the Swans, and is usually long, though less so in the
Sea-Ducks; in the _Merginae_ and some _Fuligulinae_ the customary posterior
notches in the sternum are converted into two complete fenestrae or
apertures. The bill is almost entirely covered with a soft sensitive
membrane, ending in a horny process termed the nail, the skin being warty
in _Anseranas_ and _Chen rossi_; _Cereopsis_ has a large tumid cere; both
sexes of _Cygnus melanocoryphus_ and _C. olor_ have a knob at the base of
the culmen, as have the males of _Plectropterus_, _Tadorna cornuta_, and
the domesticated form of _Cycnopsis cycnoïdes_; the same sex of _Somateria
spectabilis_ has the posterior portion of the maxilla spread into a disk;
_Oedemia_ has it considerably swollen even in the female; _Cairina_ and
_Plectropterus_ have caruncles on the forehead; _Sarcidiornis_ has a fleshy
comb at the proximal extremity of the beak in the male; while _Biziura_ has
a dependent flap on the chin, and a small subgular pouch. The bill is
usually broad and depressed, and may be sub-conical, as in many Geese;
spatulate, as in _Spatula_ and _Malacorhynchus_; or somewhat less dilated,
as in _Chaulelasmus_, and so forth. There is a distinct hook at the tip in
_Mergus_, _Dendrocycna_, and _Aex_; the culmen is concave in _Marmaronetta_
and _Stictonetta_; the nail is bent inwards in the latter and _Erismatura_,
while the maxilla may overlap the mandible, or the covering membrane may
even hang over the latter, as in _Malacorhynchus_, _Hymenolaemus_, and to a
less extent in _Elasmonetta_ and _Nesonetta_. The length is very variable,
but the thin elongated "sawbill" of _Mergus_, with its serrated edges, is
especially remarkable. Most characteristic of the Family is the presence of
highly-developed lamellae or transverse tooth-like processes on both
maxilla and mandible, which are visible when {112}the jaws are closed in
many cases, and are comparable to the similar formations in _Prion_
(Procellariidae) and the Phoenicopteridae. They act no doubt as a sifting
apparatus, but may assist in nipping off herbage and gripping fish, the
piscivorous Mergansers having them directed backwards. The metatarsus is
normally short or moderate, though occasionally long, as in _Plectropterus_
and _Dendrocycna_; it may be stout and roundish, as in _Anser_, or
laterally compressed, as in _Fuligula_; and is usually reticulated with
transverse scutellae in front, though wholly reticulated in the Cygninae,
Anserinae, and _Dendrocycna_. The anterior toes are fully webbed,
_Anseranas_ and _Cereopsis_ alone having the foot semi-palmated; the hallux
is short and elevated–except in the former species, where it is long and
incumbent–and possesses a broad membranous lobe in the Merginae,
Merganettinae, Erismaturinae, and Fuligulinae, while a very narrow membrane
may be observed in the Anatinae and Chenonettinae. The claws are as a rule
small and curved, but are long and sharp in _Anseranas_, _Dendrocycna_,
_Nettopus_, and _Plectropterus_. The wings vary considerably, but are
usually ample and rather long, though short in _Cosmonetta_, _Erismatura_,
and _Tachyeres_; the number of primaries is eleven, and of secondaries from
fifteen to twenty-eight, a horny spur being developed on the pollex, or
even on the index, in _Plectropterus_, _Sarcidiornis_, _Chenalopex_, and
_Merganetta_. The tail is, generally speaking, short, and may be narrow and
pointed, as in _Anas_, _Dafila_, and _Harelda_; in _Aex_, _Querquedula_,
_Tadorna_, and so forth, it is rounded; in _Chenalopex_ squarer; and in
_Sarcidiornis_ and _Asarcornis_ more cuneate. In _Tachyeres_ the two median
rectrices are long and recurved, and in the males of _Harelda_ and
_Dafila_, they are inordinately produced; while all the feathers have spiny
shafts and narrow webs in the Erismaturinae and Merganettinae. The number
varies from twelve to twenty-four, with even more in Swans. In _Eunetta_
the upper and under tail-coverts exceed the tail itself.

The formation and disposition of the trachea[109] are of great importance.
_Cygnus musicus_, _C. buccinator_, _C. bewicki_, and _C. columbianus_ have
a peculiar cavity in the sternum, while the windpipe, entering in front of
the clavicles, traverses and retraverses the swollen keel, which in old
birds it penetrates to its furthest extremity, the direction being changed
in the two last from vertical {113}to horizontal. _Anseranas_ shews a
double loop in this organ,[110] and in the males of many Ducks an
enlargement is found at its junction with the bronchial tubes, consisting
of a round bony structure, termed the _bulla ossea_ or "labyrinth." Similar
structures have been noticed in _Chenalopex_, _Dendrocycna_, _Chloëphaga_,
_Plectropterus_, and _Sarcidiornis_; and in the Fuligulinae they shew
apertures with membranous coverings; _Metopiana peposaca_, _Mergus
merganser_, _M. serrator_, _Tadorna cornuta_, _Oedemia fusca_, and
(doubtfully) _Oe. perspicillata_ are stated to have an additional bulb, but
_Oe. nigra_ has none. _Clangula glaucion_ and the Merginae have a swelling
in the middle of the trachea.

The headquarters of the Family are in the north, while Dr. Sclater's
calculations,[111] though modified by subsequent discoveries, give a good
idea of the distribution. He assigns as residents about seventy-seven
species to the Northern Regions, forty-one to the Neotropical, twenty-nine
to the Australian, twenty-two to the Ethiopian, and twelve to the Indian;
twenty Geese out of thirty-three, seven Swans out of ten, and twenty-six
Sea-Ducks out of thirty-one belonging to the first. Polynesia is especially
poor.

The Anatidae are for the most part of similar habits, and frequent seas,
lakes, rivers, and watery spots generally, being found to a great extent in
winter on the shore, especially where mudflats are exposed by the ebbing
tide, and beds of such food-plants as _Zostera_ (grass-wrack) are
uncovered. Large flocks, which include many migrants, are formed at that
season, and in spring the ganders and drakes commonly collect into parties
while the female is incubating, which she does during twenty-one to
forty-two days. Later in summer the majority of the Family shed their
quills simultaneously, and conceal themselves until again capable of
flight, the males then becoming dull in colour for several weeks, and
resembling the other sex.[112] _Merganetta_ is found only on the torrents
of the Andes; _Hymenolaemus_ and _Salvadorina_ being also residents on
mountain streams. The noisy flight is extremely powerful, and much swifter
than it appears, the wedge-shaped formation which Geese affect being
especially noticeable; some forms, however, are practically flightless,
such as _Nesonetta_ and the adult Steamer-Duck (_Tachyeres_). All the
Anatidae swim exceptionally well, diving being carried to its perfection in
the marine Fuligulinae; while the partially-submerged {114}position with
erect tail when feeding is known to every one. The various Swans have a
whooping, trumpet-like, or hissing note; that of Geese is a harsh cackle, a
gaggling sound, a clang or a "honk." Ducks do not always quack, but have
whistling or grating cries in addition. The usual food is vegetable,
consisting of grass, _Chara_, _Zostera_, _Ulva_, and other plants; but
Mergansers live chiefly on fish, and the bill of fare is varied by grain,
pulse, berries, frogs, insect-larvae, worms, molluscs, and crustaceans. The
nest is placed on the ground in thick herbage, or sometimes almost in the
water; holes in banks, hollow trees, or even branches at a slight elevation
being chosen in certain cases: it is composed of heather, grass, moss,
leaves, or rarely seaweed and twigs, and is lined with down, added
gradually from the parent's breast during incubation. The eggs, which vary
in number from two (_Biziura_) to about a dozen, are smooth and
hard-shelled, with a plain white, creamy, or green coloration, and are
commonly covered when left. The young return for a time to the nest at
night, and are carefully tended by the female, who is occasionally assisted
by the male, especially in Swans. It is not certain how tree-building Ducks
convey the nestlings to the water, though it has been stated that they are
carried in the bill; but it is no uncommon sight to see ducklings and
cygnets climb upon their mother's back and hide beneath her wings when
danger threatens.

The sexes in Swans and Geese are usually alike, though exceptions occur, as
in _Chloephaga_; in Ducks the male is generally much the finer bird, and
has peculiar decorations, such as the elongated scapulars and rectrices of
_Harelda_ and _Dafila_; the sickle-shaped secondaries of _Eunetta_,
_Heniconetta_, _Arctonetta_, and _Somateria_; the stiff feathers on the
face in the last three and Camptolaemus; the curly tail of _Anas boscas_;
the crest, ruff, and sail of _Aex galericulata_; or the crests of many
Fuligulinae and Merginae. Some females have similar but less striking
adornments. Among the many instances of fine coloration may be mentioned
the Red-breasted and Emperor Geese, the Harlequin, Mandarin, Pink-headed
and Shoveller Ducks, the Sheld-Drake (Fig. 34), and the Goosander; while
most Swans are pure white. The blue, green, or white speculum–or
wing-bar–in various Ducks adds greatly to their appearance. The young are
comparatively dull, the nestlings being thickly covered with yellowish
down, furnished with barbs and barbules; the colour is, however, whitish or
grey {115}in Swans, and occasionally brown, blackish, or greenish
elsewhere.

Sub-fam. 1. _Merginae._–The commonest British species is _M. serrator_, the
Red-breasted Merganser, which breeds plentifully in the Scotch Highlands
and Ireland, and ranges over the northern parts of the globe, extending in
winter from the Mediterranean to China, Japan, and the Bermudas. The head
is glossy green-black with a long hairy crest, the neck is white with a
black nuchal line, the upper parts are chiefly black, the large white
wing-patch is crossed by two black bars, while white feathers edged with
black adorn the sides of the breast, which is rufous with black streaks,
and becomes reddish-white towards the abdomen. The female is brown, with
reddish head and nearly white under surface. The bill and feet are red in
this species and the next. _M. merganser_, the Goosander, nests sparingly
in North Scotland, and has a similar range to the above abroad, though less
abundant; it has a green-black head with little crest, a black back, almost
white wings, and pinkish-white lower neck and under parts. The female has a
blue-grey back, and lacks the wing-bars of the hen Merganser. The American
species, with a black alar band, is separated as _M. americanus_, and the
Central Asiatic form as _M. comatus_; _M. australis_, of the Auckland
Islands, has a brown head and neck with long crest, a dark grey body with
white bands below, a white speculum, and red-brown bill and feet; _M.
brasilianus_, of Brazil, is black above with two bars on the white
speculum, and white below barred with black, the bill and feet being
greenish-black. The female has the crown and long occipital feathers brown.
_M. albellus_, the Smew, ranging from Lapland eastward to Bering Island,
but not to North America, and found in winter from Britain and the
Mediterranean to North India, China, and Japan, is mainly white, with
blackish cheeks, occiput, back, remiges, rectrices, and two crescentic
bands on each side of the breast, the bill and feet being lead-coloured.
The female has a red-brown head and nape, brownish-grey upper parts, and a
smaller crest than the male. _Lophodytes cucullatus_, the Hooded Merganser
of North America, which has strayed to Greenland and Britain, has black
upper and white under parts; the dense compressed crest has the posterior
part white in the middle, the white speculum shows a pair of black bars,
two black crescents mark each side of the breast, the long inner
secondaries {116}are black and white, the bill is black, the feet are
brown. The female has a red-brown crest, brown chest, and upper surface.

The members of this Sub-family are shy and wary sea-birds, seldom found on
fresh water except during the breeding season; they fly well, walk
clumsily, and dive admirably, swimming low in the water. The cry is a
plaintive whistle or loud harsh note; the food consists of little but fish.
The Red-breasted Merganser breeds in holes in banks, or among grass and
heather, laying up to ten brownish-green eggs; the Goosander deposits from
eight to thirteen, of a fine creamy colour, in similar places, or in hollow
trees; the Smew and the Hooded Merganser prefer the latter, and lay some
eight creamy or ivory-white eggs respectively.

Sub-fam. 2. _Merganettinae._–_Salvadorina waigiuensis_ of Waigiou has the
head and neck blackish-brown with paler edges to the feathers, a white
chin, black upper parts barred with white, and buffish-white under parts
with brown abdominal spots; the sides are barred with black, and the black
and green speculum is bounded by two white bands. The bill and feet are
yellowish-brown. _Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus_, the Blue Duck of New
Zealand, is lead-blue, tinged with olive on the head and spotted with
chestnut on the breast, the outer secondaries shewing a little white and
the inner black. The whitish bill has the dependent membrane (p. 111)
black, the feet are brown. This peculiar and tame torrent-duck is rarely
seen on the sea, though it can fly from one gorge to another; it swims and
climbs the boulders with ease, has a whirring note, and feeds chiefly on
insect-larvae. It deposits five creamy eggs in holes or under tussocks of
grass. _Merganetta armata_, of Chili, is black above with white edges to
the feathers, and rufous with black streaks below; the head and neck are
white, with black crown, vertical eye-stripe, throat, chest, and streaks
down the back and sides of the neck; the bronzy-green speculum has a white
band on each side, the bill is yellow, the feet are reddish. _M. frenata_,
of Chili, is very similar; _M. turneri_, of South Peru, has a white throat
and rufous edges to the feathers of the back; _M. leucogenys_, of Peru, has
a whitish throat and breast; while _M. garleppi_, of Bolivia and Tucuman,
and _M. columbiana_, of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, differ but little
from the last-named. The females are grey and black above and uniform
cinnamon below. These curious Ducks are restricted to the torrents of the
Andes, where they {117}are found in pairs, plunging in the cascades, diving
below the boulders, or stemming the impetuous current with equal facility.

[Illustration: FIG. 33.–Musk Duck. _Biziura lobata._ × ⅐. (From _Nature_).]

Sub-fam. 3. _Erismaturinae._–_Biziura lobata_, of Tasmania and
Australia–except the north–is brown with buff mottlings, the bill and its
leathery appendage being greenish-black and the feet dusky. The smaller
female has less chin-lobe. This species frequents the sea as well as lakes,
roosts in trees, and when diving remains long submerged; the food consists
of mussels, leeches, and aquatic worms; the note resembles the dropping of
water. The nest, placed on a stump or in a bank, contains two olive eggs;
the musky smell of the sitting female having suggested the name of Musk
Duck.

_Erismatura_ contains seven "Lake Ducks," inhabitants of fresh-water
lagoons, which dive like Grebes, and remain with only the bill exposed;
they are often tame, and when disturbed splash along the surface like a
Moor-hen, to settle again almost immediately; in swimming the spiny tail is
carried erect, suggesting a comparison to a "two-peaked saddle." The note
is said to be a curious inward sound; the food is of fish, {118}molluscs,
and insects; while the nest, built in rushy places, contains up to ten
coarse-grained white eggs.[113] _E. leucocephala_, ranging from the
Mediterranean to Southern Siberia, and in winter to North-West India or,
exceptionally, to Holland, is rufous-brown with black vermiculations and
bars, black crown and neck-ring; the rest of the head and neck being white,
the bill blue, the feet dusky. _E. jamaicensis_, of Central and temperate
North America, _E. ferruginea_, of Bolivia and Peru, _E. aequatorialis_, of
Ecuador, _E. maccoa_, of South and East Africa, _E. vittata_, of southern
South America, and _E. australis_, of South and West Australia and
Tasmania, are brown with greyer belly mottled with dusky; the head and neck
being black, except for the white cheeks and chin in the first-named and
the chin only in the second and third. _E. aequatorialis_ has white instead
of rufous under tail-coverts; _E. maccoa_ has white axillaries as opposed
to grey in _E. vittata_; _E. australis_ is much deeper chestnut. The
females are decidedly duller. _E._ (_Nomonyx_) _dominicus_, of Central,
Southern, and, accidentally, Eastern North America, has the feathers of the
back black in the middle and a white speculum. _Thalassiornis leuconota_,
of South and East Africa with Madagascar, is variegated with black and
ochreous yellow, the rump being white, the wings, tail, and feet brownish,
the bill blue-grey. It dives much, flies little, and lays about four
greenish eggs.

Sub-fam. 4. _Fuligulinae._–_Somateria mollissima_, the Eider Duck, breeds
commonly in Northern Britain, and thence to the Taimyr Peninsula eastwards
and the Coppermine River westwards, birds from North-East America being
separated as _S. dresseri_; while _S. v-nigrum_, differing in its black
V-shaped throat mark, occupies North-East Asia and North-West America. In
winter the first-named strays as far as South Europe and the United States;
the second has occurred in Holland. The male Eider has white upper parts
and buff chest, black lower back, abdomen, and crown, the last showing a
white streak; the wing- and tail-quills are brown, the stiff nape-feathers
green, while the plumage extends in a peak on the culmen. The female is
brown, with blackish bands or stripes and two white alar bars. The bill and
feet are olive-green. _S. spectabilis_, the King-Eider of the Northern
Arctic Regions, rarely wandering in winter to Britain, France, New Jersey,
and California, has the head blue-grey with green and white cheeks, and a
black chevron on the throat; the remaining portions {119}being black except
for the buff breast, white neck, upper back, lesser wing-coverts, and a
patch on each side of the rump. The feet and the bill, with its vertical
black-edged disc at the base, are orange. The female is redder than in the
Eider, with a more feathered culmen. These species are essentially
maritime, only coming to shore to breed; they are semi-gregarious, and form
a nest of grass and rubbish, a quantity of down underlying the five to
eight oily-green eggs. Eider-down is chiefly procured from Iceland,
Greenland, and protected islands in Norway. The flight is low and heavy,
the food consists of mussels, starfish, and other sea creatures.
_Arctonetta fischeri_, the Spectacled Eider of Alaska, is chiefly white,
with dark grey rump and under parts; the head being varied with green and
decorated with pendent bristly plumes on the occiput, stiff frontal and
loral feathers, and a satin-like quadrangular patch outlined with black on
each side. The tail- and wing-quills are brown, except the falcate inner
secondaries; the feet are brownish, the bill is orange in the male. The
female is fulvous and black with bluish beak. _Heniconetta stelleri_ breeds
on the Arctic shores mainly between the Taimyr Peninsula and Alaska, and
has strayed to Britain and even France. The head, falcate scapulars, and
inner secondaries are white with blue-black outer webs to the two latter,
the rest of the wing-quills and tail brown; the back, throat, neck, and a
spot on each side of the breast purplish-black; the lores and short
occipital tuft green, the lower parts mostly tawny. The female is brown
with darker markings, and duller wing-bar. _Camptolaemus labradorius_, the
extinct "Pied Duck" of the North Atlantic coast of America, was black, with
white head, neck, chest, scapulars, and most of the wings except the
primaries; it had a black stripe down the crown and stiff cheek-feathers.
The brownish female shewed a white speculum.

_Oedemia nigra_, the Scoter or Black Duck, which nests in North Scotland,
ranges over Northern Europe and Asia to the Taimyr Peninsula, sometimes
reaching the Azores and the Mediterranean in winter. It is black, with a
yellow nasal patch and a swollen base to the culmen, the female being dark
brown with greyish face and throat, and no protuberance or yellow mark.
_Oe. americana_ of North-East Asia and North America, migrating to Japan,
California, and New Jersey, has the knob yellow with red sides, while the
female is grey-brown. _Oe. fusca_, the Velvet Scoter, extends from
Scandinavia to West Siberia, and occurs {120}exceptionally in Greenland,
visiting us in winter, though rarely reaching Spain and the Adriatic; it is
black with a white speculum and mark under each eye, the bill being orange
with black posterior swelling and lateral line, and the feet dull
crimson-red. The brownish female has the white speculum, but a brown bill.
The very similar _Oe. deglandi_, of North-East America, has the base of the
maxilla entirely feathered, as has the still blacker _Oe. carbo_, of
North-East Asia. _Oe. perspicillata_, the Surf-Scoter, accidental in
Britain and North-West Europe, inhabits the far north of America and the
Asiatic coasts of Bering Straits, wintering down to Jamaica and California.
The black plumage is relieved by white patches on the crown and nape; there
is a black mark on each side of the crimson, scarlet, and orange bill, the
feet are crimson, orange, and black. The brown female has yellowish-orange
feet. Scoters are gregarious birds, usually found some way from land except
when breeding; the flight is strong; the note guttural, but softer in
spring; the food consists of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. They nest
near fresh-water lakes and pools, among heather or grass, and lay from five
to eight yellowish-white eggs.

_Cosmonetta histrionica_, the Harlequin Duck of Iceland, North-East Asia,
Arctic America, and possibly the Urals, which reaches Japan, the United
States, and exceptionally Britain and elsewhere in winter, is grey-blue,
curiously marked with black and white on the head, neck, wings, and chest;
the superciliary streaks and flanks are chestnut, the speculum being
purple, the bill plumbeous, the feet brown. The female is brown with
whitish cheeks and mottlings below. The habits of tumbling and diving in
rocky torrents have been well described by Mr. Belding;[114] the nest is in
banks or under boulders, and contains seven or eight buff eggs. _Harelda
glacialis_, the Long-tailed Duck of the Arctic Regions, which appears to
breed in Shetland, and in winter even reaches the Mediterranean and China,
but more commonly the Caspian, Lake Baikal, Japan, and the middle United
States, is at that season white with brownish patches on the sides of the
neck, brown-black back, wings, central rectrices, and chest. In summer the
crown, neck, and scapulars become brown, with rufous edges to the dorsal
plumage. The bill is pinkish and black, the feet are bluish. The female is
brown, with white ocular region, neck-ring, and lower parts. This noisy
species is called, from its musical chattering note, "Calloo" in Shetland
{121}and "Old Squaw" in America; it flies very swiftly and nests near
water, laying from six to twelve oblong grey-green eggs.

_Clangula glaucion_, the Golden-Eye, not yet proved to breed in Britain,
though it does so in North Germany, the Caucasus, Siberia, and Maine,
besides the Arctic Regions generally, is found in winter to the
Mediterranean, and thence to North India, China, Japan, Mexico, and Cuba.
The glossy head is green, with a slight crest and white cheek-patches; the
upper parts are black with white on the wings and scapulars, the lower
surface being white, the bill black, the iris golden, the feet orange. The
female has the head and back brown, the chest grey. Similar to _Fuligula_
in general habits, the Rattlewing, as it is often termed from its noisy
flight, is more partial to inland waters in winter, while for breeding it
prefers hollow trees, or nest-boxes set up by Lapps and Finns, the ten or
twelve eggs being bright green. _C. islandica_, the ordinary species in
Iceland, differing from _C. glaucion_ in its purplish head, inhabits Arctic
America also, and winters in the United States, rarely straying to Britain
or the rest of Europe. _C. albeola_, the Buffel-head, of North America,
which has visited the Commander Islands and Britain, has the head
purplish-green with a large white occipital patch, the iris brown and the
feet pinkish. It breeds to the northward, the eggs being whitish.

_Tachyeres cinereus_, the Logger-head or Steamer Duck, of Chili, the
Falklands, and Straits of Magellan, is grey in both sexes, with lighter
head, rufous throat, white secondaries and belly, orange-yellow bill and
feet. The narrow median rectrices are curled up, the wings very short;
while the adults apparently lose the power of flight. Darwin well describes
the noisy splashing action, the rapid and flapping swimming movements, the
weak diving powers, the strong beak adapted for extracting shell-fish, and
the voice like that of a bull-frog.[115] From seven to nine eggs are laid
among herbage or low bushes.

_Fuligula marila_, the Scaup, of Northern Europe, Asia, and America, which
migrates to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, North India, China, and
Guatemala, has the head, neck, and chest greenish-black, the back
vermiculated with black and white,[116] the wings and tail dusky, the
speculum and under parts white, the bill and feet plumbeous. The female is
chiefly brown above, with {122}white round the base of the bill. _F.
affinis_, of North America, has the head purplish; _F. cristata_, of the
whole Palaearctic area, breeding freely in Britain and apparently in the
Abyssinian highlands, while wintering in India, Japan, China, the Malay
Archipelago and Polynesia, is distinguished by an occipital crest, and in
the male by a black back. _F. novae zealandiae_, of New Zealand, the
Auckland and Chatham Islands, has a purple and green gloss above, a few
white dots on the back, and rufous-brown abdominal feathers, the latter
being brown and white in the female. _F. collaris_, of North America
generally, has a violet tinge on the black portions, a chestnut collar, a
blue-grey speculum, and white under parts barred with dusky; the bill shows
two whitish bands; the female has white lores and throat.

_Nyroca ferina_, the Pochard, which breeds not uncommonly in Britain,
ranges from Iceland to Japan, and in winter to North Africa, India, and
China; it has a chestnut head and neck, a black gorget, and upper parts
finely freckled with black and white; the speculum is grey, the
quill-feathers and rump are black, the lower parts greyish-white; the bill
is black, banded with dull blue, and the feet are bluish. In the female, or
Dunbird, the head, neck, and chest are dull reddish and the back browner.
_N. americana_, of North America, has a purple shade on the head and neck,
a white belly, and no black at the base of the bill. The female has a
grey-brown head. The larger _N. vallisneria_, the Canvas-Back of the same
country, which breeds in the north-west, has the crown and comparatively
long bill black. The female has some white on the head and neck, and is
vermiculated with white on the back. _N. baeri_, of Eastern Asia, has a
green-black head and neck, but is chiefly brown, with a black-edged white
speculum and whitish wing-quills, the female being duller with a chestnut
cheek-patch. _N. africana_, the White-eyed Duck of British Lists, breeds
from Central Europe to the Mediterranean basin, and from the Ob Valley to
Cashmere, wintering southwards to the Canaries, Abyssinia, and Arrakan. It
has a chestnut head, neck, and chest, a white spot on the chin,
blackish-brown upper parts, a brown collar, a black-edged white speculum, a
little white on the primaries, and white lower surface, the bill and feet
being plumbeous and the irides white. The female is duller with browner
head. _N. innotata_, of Madagascar, has a darker head and no chin-spot. _N.
australis_, of most of the Australian Region, is not dissimilar, but has a
brown tip {123}to the white speculum and some brown on the belly. _N.
brunnea_, of South and East Africa, is brown, mottled with grey above, the
head and upper neck being dark purplish-chestnut, the lower neck black, the
speculum white with a black posterior band. Some white shows on the
primaries, and the bill and feet are plumbeous. The female has white at the
base of the bill, on the throat, and behind the eye. _N. nationi_, of Peru,
is hardly distinct.

The majority of these two genera are wary sea-birds, though breeding
inland; they feed at dawn or dusk on aquatic plants and seeds, molluscs,
insects, and even small fish and frogs, chiefly obtained by diving, wherein
they are great adepts. _Vallisneria spiralis_, a plant largely eaten by the
Canvas-Back, accounts for its specific name and possibly for its flavour.
The note is a grating or guttural sound, varied by a low whistle; the nest
is generally close to water, and contains from six to thirteen green eggs.
_N. africana_, _N. australis_, and _Fuligula novae zealandiae_ are rather
more skulking species with weaker flight, rarely found at sea.

_Metopiana peposaca_, of South America, northward to Chili and South
Brazil, is black with grey vermiculations above and on the belly, the
cheeks and upper neck are purplish, the speculum and inner primaries
chiefly white, the bill and its swollen base carmine, the feet yellow. The
female is brown, with whitish under parts and grey on the wing. It
frequents marshes on the Pampas, has a rapid heavy flight, utters a long
hoarse note, and lays a dozen creamy eggs.

_Netta rufina_, the Red-crested Duck, found from the Mediterranean to the
Caspian and Turkestan, or to India in winter, rarely occurs in Britain or
North Europe, and is recorded once from America; it is chiefly
greyish-brown above and blacker below, with a large crest on the chestnut
head, white speculum and sides, red beak and feet. The crestless female is
duller, with whitish cheeks and throat.

Sub-fam. 5. _Anatinae_ or typical Ducks.–_Heteronetta atricapilla_, of
South Brazil, Uruguay, Chili, and Argentina, is dark brown above with black
head and rufous vermiculations, and white below with dusky markings; the
tips of most of the wing-feathers are white, the bill is blackish with
basi-lateral flesh-coloured spots, the feet are brownish. The female's head
is brown. _Stictonetta naevosa_, of West and South Australia and Tasmania,
is brown with freckles and spots of white in either sex. _Marmaronetta
angustirostris_, ranging from South Europe and North Africa to India, and
{124}occurring in the Canaries, is greyish above, with brown and buff
marblings, and whitish below with brown bars. It flies low, utters a
croaking whistle, and lays ten or eleven buff eggs in isolated tussocks.
Both sexes of _Malacorhynchus membranaceus_, the Pink-eyed Duck of
Australia and Tasmania (p. 111), are grey-brown with lighter dots, and some
white on the face, wing, and tail; the under parts are whiter with brown
bands, while behind each blackish eye-patch is a pink mark, situated below
a dark line running to the occiput and down the nape. The bill is greenish,
and the feet are emerald-coloured or yellowish. This species is a fearless
denizen of still waters, with a habit of laying its six rich buff eggs in
old Herons' nests, in holes in trees, or on flat branches.

_Spatula clypeata_, the Shoveller, which now breeds in many parts of
Britain, extends from about the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central
Asia, and the United States, wintering southward to Casamance, Somaliland,
Ceylon, Borneo, China, Japan, Colombia, and the West Indies, and visiting
the Hawaiian islands, the Gilbert Group, and Australia. It is dark brown,
relieved by a green head, white neck, chestnut breast and belly; the longer
scapulars being black with white median stripes, the wing-coverts pale
blue, the speculum green with white anterior border, the bill plumbeous,
the feet orange. The female is red-brown with duller wings, while the bill
of the young shows the spoon-shaped form in about three weeks. _S.
rhynchotis_, of Southern Australia, Tasmania, and the New Zealand area, has
a dark brown crown, and blue-grey neck, with a white lateral line, the
chest being whitish and the lower parts chestnut, both with black bands;
_S. platalea_, ranging from Peru and Paraguay to Patagonia and the
Falklands, is reddish with round black spots, having a black crown and
rump; whereas _S. capensis_, of South Africa, has a grey-brown head and
neck, and brown mantle and under parts with darker mottlings. The wings and
scapulars are similar in all the above, except in _S. capensis_, where the
latter are dark blue-green. The females hardly differ from each other, but
that of _S. rhynchotis_ is darker, that of _S. platalea_ has a shorter
bill, while in both sexes of _S. capensis_ the speculum has a blue tinge.
Shovellers are somewhat silent birds with a peculiar habit of swimming and
feeding in circles over spots where Diving Ducks are submerged[117]; the
diet includes herbage, worms, molluscs, crustaceans, and insects; the eggs
are pale green.

{125}_Querquedula circia_, the Garganey, which breeds (p. 126) regularly in
East Anglia, ranges through most Palaearctic countries, and extends in
winter to North Africa, a great part of the Indian Region, and the
Moluccas; it has a brown crown, back, and chest, the last-named with darker
crescents, a chocolate neck with white flecks, a white streak above the
eye, bluish-grey wing-coverts, green speculum with white margins, and long
black and white scapulars. _Q. discors_, its North American representative,
reaching Ecuador and Peru in the cold season, is redder, with lead-coloured
head, a white crescent before the eye, and brighter wing-coverts. The
brownish females have a dull speculum. _Q. versicolor_, of America south of
Paraguay, and _Q. puna_, of Peru, Bolivia, and Chili, have plumbeous
wing-coverts; _Q. cyanoptera_, of western and southern South America, has
the head and lower surface chestnut.

The flightless _Nesonetta aucklandica_, of the Auckland group, hardly
differs in colour from _Elasmonetta chlorotis_, of the New Zealand area,
which is brown waved with black and rufous above, chestnut and reddish with
black spots below, the speculum being green and black, the gorget whitish.
The female is rufous brown.

_Dafila acuta_, the Pintail or Sea-Pheasant of the northern regions
generally, reaching North Africa, Ceylon, the Sandwich Islands, Panama, and
elsewhere in winter, has a brown head and nape, a white line down each side
of the neck, grey upper parts vermiculated with dusky, long black scapulars
and rectrices mostly edged with white, a purple-green speculum margined in
turn with black and white, a cinnamon bar on the wing-coverts, and a white
breast. The female is greyish with brown speculum and ochraceous barring
above, the markings being oblique on the tail. It now breeds in Scotland.
_D. eatoni_, of Kerguelen Island and the Crozets, has a grey breast; _D.
spinicauda_, ranging from Peru and South Brazil to Patagonia and the
Falklands, has a rufous head and blackish speculum, the sexes being nearly
alike, as in the next genus. _Poecilonetta bahamensis_ of the Bahamas,
Antilles, and South America, _P. galapagensis_ of the Galapagos, and _P.
erythrorhyncha_ of South and East Africa with Madagascar, are somewhat
similar birds, having reddish plumage spotted with black, whitish cheeks
and throat. In the first two the tail is buff, in the third the bill is
chiefly pink, the speculum in all being much as in _Dafila_.

_Nettion crecca_, the Teal, extending from Britain over most of Europe and
temperate Asia, and nesting even in the Azores and {126}Kuril Islands,
winters in North Africa, India, Ceylon, Siam, China, and Japan, and wanders
to North America. The head is chestnut with a green eye-patch enclosed by a
buffish line, the upper parts are vermiculated with black and white, the
speculum is black, green, and purple with a whitish border, the chest is
buff with black spots, the under parts are white. _N. carolinense_ of North
America, which strays to Europe–including Britain, has a white crescent on
each side of the breast. _N. formosum_ of East Siberia, met with in winter
in China, and accidentally in India, Italy, and France, has the head varied
with black, green, buff, and white, a bluish wash on the back and chest, a
speculum of buff, green, and white. In these three species the female is
mottled with brown and rufous, and has a duller speculum. _N. castaneum_ of
Australia and New Zealand, recorded from Celebes and Java, the doubtful _N.
gibberifrons_ of the Malay Archipelago, _N. albigulare_ of the Andamans,
_N. bernieri_ of Madagascar, _N. capense_ of South and East Africa, _N.
flavirostre_ of America south of Southern Brazil and Chili, _N. andium_ of
Ecuador and Venezuela, _N. georgicum_ of South Georgia, _N. punctatum_ of
South and East Africa with Madagascar, _N. brasiliense_ of South America
generally, and _N. torquatum_ of Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina, complete
the genus. Teal are fresh-water Ducks, feeding chiefly at night on
water-plants, seeds, worms, and insects; they are rather silent, and have
not the rattling spring-note of the Garganey. The nest is in both cases
usually placed at some distance from water in grass, rushes, or heather,
the eight to ten eggs being greenish in the Teal and cream-coloured in the
Garganey.

_Mareca penelope_, the Wigeon, which breeds in Scotland, and ranges across
North Europe and Asia to Alaska, occurring in winter as far south as
Madeira, Abyssinia, Borneo, or even Polynesia, and occasionally on the
American coasts, has a rufous head with buff crown, blackish throat and
quill-feathers, white upper parts vermiculated with black, white
wing-coverts and lower surface, and a green speculum with a black edge. The
female is mottled with brown and rufous above, and has a grey-green
speculum, and buffish lower parts. This species, which has a whistling cry,
whence it is termed "Whew," feeds chiefly by day on grass-wrack and the
like when frequenting the mud-flats in winter; the nest is among dry
heather or rushes, and contains from seven to ten greenish-buff eggs. _M.
americana_, of North {127}America generally, has a whitish head with black
spots, which cover the crown in the female only. _M. sibilatrix_, reaching
from Chili and Paraguay to Patagonia and the Falklands, is chiefly black
and white with blue-green nape and black speculum.

_Chaulelasmus streperus_, the Gadwall, which breeds in East Anglia and
South Spain, and is apparently spreading thence, occurs in the subarctic
regions of both Worlds, and migrates to Shoa, India, China, Mexico, and
Jamaica. _C. couesi_ of the Fanning group may be distinct. The head and
upper neck are light brown with dusky spots; the back is blackish with grey
markings, the rump black; the lower parts are white with black crescents on
the breast; the wing-coverts grey, chestnut, and black. The female is dark
brown varied with rufous. The speculum is white. The habits are as in most
fresh-water Ducks, the eggs being buff.

_Eunetta falcata_ of East Asia and Japan is a fine bird with chestnut
crown, bronzy-purple cheeks, green occipital crest, white neck ringed with
green, grey and black upper parts, and lower surface waved with black and
white. The white-margined speculum is green, the long thin sickle-shaped
inner secondaries are black and white, and a patch on each side of the tail
is buff. Both upper and under tail-coverts exceed the rectrices. The female
resembles that of the Gadwall, but has a black speculum.

_Anas boscas_, the Mallard or Wild Duck, ranges from about the Arctic
Circle to the Azores, North Africa, Cashmere, and the United States, being
found southward in winter to India and Panama. The head is green with a
white collar, the upper parts are grey and brown, the rump is black, the
speculum purple with margins of black and white, the breast chestnut, the
four curly central rectrices being black. The female is brown and buff with
a green speculum. In the habits there is little that is peculiar, but the
eggs are greenish. The coloration in the remaining species is usually
dusky, nor do the sexes differ greatly. _A. wyvilliana_ inhabits the
Hawaiian, and _A. laysanensis_ the Laysan Islands; _A. melleri_ Madagascar;
_A. obscura_, with its two local forms _A. fulvigula_ and _A. maculosa_,
Eastern North America; _A. diazi_ and _A. aberti_ Mexico; _A. luzonica_ the
Philippines; _A. superciliosa_ the Malay Archipelago and Australian Region;
_A. poccilorhyncha_, with red, yellow, and black bill, India, Ceylon, and
Burma; _A. zonorhyncha_, where the bill is yellow and black and the feet
reddish, Eastern Asia; _A. undulata_ and _A. sparsa_, also with yellow and
black bill, but {128}black and orange feet respectively, South and East
Africa; _A. specularis_, Chili and Patagonia; and _A. cristata_, with a
pendent nuchal crest, America from Peru southwards.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.–Sheld-Drake. _Tadorna cornuta._ × ⅐.]

_Tadorna cornuta_, the Sheld-Drake or Bargander, which ranges from Britain
across Europe and temperate Asia to Japan, and migrates to the
Mediterranean basin, North India, and South China, has the bill and the
basal knob–wanting in the female–red, the feet pink, the head glossy green;
it shews a white collar on the lower neck followed by a broad chestnut
band; blackish outer scapulars, remiges, and tip of the tail; a patch of
chestnut on the inner secondaries, a green speculum, and a brown line down
the under parts, the remaining portions being white. This bird frequents
sandy coasts and muddy flats throughout the year, nesting in burrows, or
rarely among rocks, masonry, or bushes, and laying some ten shiny white
eggs. The flight is powerful and heavy; the note is a shrill whistle or
barking quack; the food consists of aquatic plants, molluscs, and insects.
_T. radjah_, of Australia, Papuasia, and the Moluccas, is white in both
sexes, with blackish scapulars, back, rump, primaries, and rectrices; the
mantle is vermiculated with chestnut, the similarly-coloured pectoral band
is barred with black, the speculum is green with black posterior margin,
the bill and feet are whitish. It breeds commonly in {129}holes in trees,
on which it is quite at ease. _Casarca rutila_, the Ruddy Sheld-Drake or
Brahminy Duck of South Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia, which has
strayed to Britain and winters in India, Burma, and Formosa, has a buff
head, separated from the orange-brown body by a black collar in summer,
white wing-coverts, black wing- and tail-quills, purple and green speculum,
and black bill and feet. The female is lighter, with no collar. It
frequents fresh water, grazes on corn and grass like a goose, and breeds in
holes of any sort. _C. cana_ of South Africa differs in its grey head,
rufous collar, and black vermiculations above, the female having the front
of the head white. _C. variegata_ of New Zealand is black relieved by grey,
the neck being brown, the anal region and inner secondaries chestnut, the
wing-coverts white, the speculum green. The hen-bird has the head white,
the lower neck, back, and under parts chestnut, varied with black and
white. _C. tadornoïdes_, of South and West Australia and Tasmania, has a
glossy green head, white collar, rufous lower neck and chest, black body
with fulvous mottlings, white wing-coverts, chestnut inner secondaries, and
green speculum, the head of the female being brown.

_Chenalopex aegyptiaca_, the "Egyptian Goose," found in Palestine and
Africa, is rusty or buffish-grey, marked above with black, and with red,
white, green, and black on the wing. The nape and collar are rufous; the
breast shews a maroon patch, the bill is pink and black, the feet are pink.
It has a loud, harsh cry, feeds on land, and lays rather small creamy eggs
in cavities of rocks, on trees, or even among rushes. _C. jubata_, of
Amazonia and Guiana, is grey, with greenish-black back, wings, and tail,
ruddy mantle and belly, purplish-green wing-coverts, and white speculum.
The sexes are alike in this genus and the next.

In _Dendrocycna_, containing the Tree-Ducks, which occur mostly in the
tropics, the main colour is chestnut or dusky-brown, with dark nape and
black rump or belly; but the head may be lighter, the throat or
wing-coverts varied with white, or the flanks barred with black and white.
_D. viduata_, of the Ethiopian and Neotropical Regions, has the front of
the head white; _D. autumnalis_, of Central America, and _D. discolor_, its
greyer representative in northern South America, have red bills and whitish
feet; _D. arborea_, of the Bahamas and Antilles, has strongly spotted lower
parts, as has the larger _D. guttata_, of Mindanao, Celebes, New Guinea,
and the Moluccas; _D. fulva_, of the Ethiopian, Neotropical, {130}and
Indian Regions, has white upper and under tail-coverts; _D. javanica_, of
the latter area only, has them chestnut above and fulvous white below; _D.
arcuata_, ranging from the Malay Archipelago to Fiji, has the breast
chestnut barred with black; _D. eytoni_, of Australia, which has strayed to
New Zealand, has it yellowish-brown. These birds fly slowly and heavily,
and perch regularly on trees, where they sway awkwardly about upon the
branches; the note is a clear whistle or a chattering sound; the food
consists mainly of fish and water-plants, sought at all times of day. In
winter the flocks cause great damage to corn or rice near the lagoons and
other waters they frequent. The nest, placed in hollow trees, stumps, long
grass, or deserted habitations of other birds, contains from six to twelve
white eggs.

Sub-fam. 6. _Chenonettinae._–_Chenonetta jubata_ of Australia has a brown
head, long black feathers on the hind-neck, greyish upper parts with black
tail, rump, and edges to the scapulars, a green speculum with white
borders, a breast mottled with black, grey, and whitish, and a black
abdomen. The female is paler, with dull speculum and white belly. It lays
its creamy-white eggs in the bush districts in hollow trees, perching even
on the tallest of them, and uttering a barking note. _Cyanochen
cyanoptera_, of Abyssinia and Shoa, is grey-brown in both sexes, with black
wings relieved by lead-blue coverts, and green speculum tipped with white.
_Chloëphaga hybrida_, the Kelp Goose of Patagonia and the Falklands, which
lives and breeds on the beach, is white, having a black bill with basal
yellow spot, and yellow feet. The female is brownish-black with white rump,
tail, and anal region, and black lower parts barred with white; the neck
shews narrow white bands on its sides, the black and white wing has the
greater coverts green, and the bill is flesh-coloured. _C. melanoptera_, of
Western America from Peru southwards, is distinguished by brown and white
scapulars, black primaries and tail, green and purple wing-coverts, red
bill and feet; the female being similar. _C. magellanica_, the Upland
Goose, coextensive in range with _C. hybrida_, is white, barred with black
above; the rump, four median rectrices, and wings being grey-black, with
green and white on the wing-coverts, and white secondaries; the bill and
feet are dusky. The female is rufous and black, with similar wings but
yellow feet. _C. inornata_, of Chili, Argentina, and Patagonia, differs in
having black pectoral bands and a grey head in the female. _C.
poliocephala_, of the same {131}countries, with plumbeous, and _C.
rubidiceps_, of the Falklands, with cinnamon head, have in both sexes
chestnut and black plumage, the wing being as in _C. magellanica_, the bill
black, the feet black and orange. _C. melanoptera_ will nest in holes in
cliffs.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.–Red-breasted Goose. _Bernicla ruficollis._ × ⅐.]

Sub-fam. 7. _Anserinae._–In this group the female resembles the male.
_Nesochen sandvicensis_, of the Sandwich Islands, has a black head and
throat, brown plumage barred with whitish and black, and buff sides of the
neck with black stripes. It inhabits craters and "lava-flows" on hills, and
is fond of berries. The members of the genus _Bernicla_, or Black Geese,
are grey and black, with a varying amount of white, and have black bills
and feet. _B. brenta_, the Brent Goose, our commonest winter species, is
brownish-black, with darker head, neck, and breast, white tail-coverts and
lateral neck-patches. It is found in the Arctic Regions, and migrates as
far as the Mediterranean and the Mississippi. It feeds by day in shallows
on grass-wrack, laver, crustaceans, and insects, has a loud note, and lays
about four cream-coloured eggs. From western Arctic America to the Lena
occurs the form _B. nigricans_ with white collar and black belly. _B.
leucopsis_, the Bernacle Goose, migrating to the same districts as _B.
brenta_, abounding on our west coasts in winter, and occupying in summer
Arctic Europe and Greenland, where it is supposed to breed, has nested in
one place in Norway. The front of the head is white, the crown and neck are
black, the mantle is lavender-grey marked with black and white, the under
parts are greyish. Unlike the Brent Goose, it feeds at night. _B.
canadensis_, of temperate North America, wintering down to Mexico, has a
triangular white patch on each side of the black {132}head, and is
comparatively large; _B. hutchinsi_ is a smaller and more Arctic form, _B.
minima_ and _B. occidentalis_ north-western races of the same. _B.
ruficollis_, the Red-breasted Goose of West Siberia, which migrates
southwards, strays to Britain, and is portrayed in the paintings of Egypt,
is black, with white loral patch, rump, sides and belly, the ear-coverts,
fore-neck, and chest are chestnut outlined by white, and the two wing-bands
are grey.

_Philacte canagica_, the Emperor Goose of North-East Asia and North-West
America, is blue-grey with black and white bars, the head and nape being
white tinted with orange, the throat brownish, the bill purplish-blue with
white nail, and the feet orange.

_Cycnopsis cycnoïdes_, the Chinese Goose of East Asia, is mainly grey-brown
above and whitish below, with rufous edges to the feathers; the head and
neck are white with a brown band down the crown and nape; the bill is
black, or in the domesticated form red with a frontal knob; the feet are
orange.

_Anser cinereus_, the Grey-Lag, which nests in North Scotland and as far
south as Spain and Kashgaria, ranges from Iceland to China, the Eastern
race being called _A. rubrirostris_; _A. albifrons_, the White-fronted
Goose, is found in Britain and most Palaearctic countries in winter, and
chiefly eastward of Norway in summer; _A. segetum_, the Bean Goose, another
of our hibernal visitants, breeds from Scandinavia to Amurland, and
migrates southward to Madeira, North Africa, China, and Japan; _A.
brachyrhynchus_, the Pink-footed Goose, extends over North Europe, and is
common with us in the cold season; _A. indicus_ inhabits Central Asia and
North India. _A. middendorffi_ (_grandis_) of East Siberia is a large form
of the Bean Goose; while the small _A. erythropus_, once shot in Britain,
has a similar range to the White-fronted Goose, of which both it and the
big _A. gambeli_ of North America may be considered sub-species. The
general coloration in this genus is grey-brown; in the Grey-Lag the bill
and feet are flesh-coloured with white nail, in the White-fronted Goose
orange, the latter having a white forehead and white breast with black
bars. In the Bean and Pink-footed Geese the nail is black, but the bill and
feet are orange-and-black and pink respectively. _A. indicus_ is lighter,
with brown hind-neck, and two black crescents on the back of the white
head. All these Grey Geese feed chiefly by day among green corn, stubble,
peas, beans or clover, retiring at night to sand-banks or mud-flats in
{133}winter; the note, often syllabled "honk-honk," is at times almost a
cackle, whence the flocks or "skeins" are called "gaggles." The nest,
placed in herbage or heather, is of grass, moss, twigs, or aquatic plants,
and contains five or more whitish eggs.

_Chen hyperboreus_, the "Wavy" of North-East Asia and North-West America,
with its larger Eastern American race, _C. nivalis_, and _C. rossi_ of
Arctic America–which wander south in winter, while the first has occurred
in Britain and North Europe–are white, with black primaries, purplish-red
bills and feet; _C. rossi_ having a warty base to the maxilla. _C.
caerulescens_, of eastern North America, is grey-brown, with white head,
bluish rump and wing-coverts. The food consists of rushes, insects, and
berries.

Sub-fam. 8. _Cereopsinae._–_Cereopsis novae hollandiae_, the Cape Barren
Goose of South-East Australia and Tasmania, is grey-brown, with large
yellow cere, chiefly reddish-orange feet, black toes and beak. More
terrestrial than its nearest kin, it lays similar eggs. The very large
extinct _Cnemiornis_, of the superficial deposits of New Zealand, was a
close ally, with aborted keel to the sternum and short wings useless for
flight.

Sub-fam. 9. _Plectropterinae._–_Aex sponsa_,[118] the Summer Duck of North
America and Cuba, accidental in Jamaica and the Bermudas, has the upper
parts mainly glossy green, with purple cheeks, black neck-patches, and
white stripes on the face and neck; the breast is chestnut with white
spots, the throat and belly are white, the wing-coverts partly blue, the
flanks brown, black, and white; the bill is black, white, yellow, purplish,
and scarlet; the feet are yellow. It has a long occipital crest. The female
is grey-brown with metallic gloss, a white throat and eye-space, plumbeous
and black bill, and brownish feet. This inland species feeds on insects,
seeds, leaves, and acorns, and lays buff eggs in holes in trees. _Aex
galericulata_, the Mandarin Duck of East Asia, is somewhat similar, but has
a neck-ruff of narrow chestnut feathers streaked with whitish, a chestnut
and black "fan" formed by the decurved innermost secondary, a copper,
purple, and green crest, and a red-brown bill. The female is brown, grey,
and white.

_Nettopus pulchellus_, of Australia, New Guinea, and the Moluccas, has the
upper parts and neck-collar dark green, the head browner, the remiges and
rectrices black with a white wing-bar, the cheeks and lower parts white,
the sides marked with {134}green crescentic bands, and the bill and feet
black. _N. coromandelianus_, extending from the Indian Region to Celebes,
has a white neck, a brown band across the breast, and the flanks freckled
with grey; _N. albipennis_, of East Australia, is similar but larger; _N.
auritus_, of West and South Africa with Madagascar, has a sea-green patch
on each side of the occiput, the lower part of the neck and the flanks
being rufous. The females are much duller. These Pigmy Geese frequent small
lakes and dive admirably; the note is a cackle; the nest, placed in holes
in trees or ruins, if not among grass, contains from six to twelve white
eggs.

_Pteronetta hartlaubi_, of West Africa, is chestnut with black head and
blue wing-coverts in both sexes. _Rhodonessa caryophyllacea_, of India and
Burma, is rich brown dotted with whitish, the head and nape being pink, the
speculum salmon-coloured, the bill reddish-white, the feet blackish. It
lays round white eggs.

_Asarcornis scutulata_, ranging from East Bengal to Java, has a black and
white head, black mantle and under surface, greenish-olive upper parts,
with black and white on the wings, a blue-grey speculum, reddish bill and
feet. _Sarcidiornis melanonota_, of India, Ceylon, Burma, and the Ethiopian
Region, is black with metallic hues above, and white below; the head and
neck are black and white, the rump is grey, the tail brown, the feet, bill,
and its basal comb or caruncle black. _S. carunculata_, of Brazil,
Paraguay, and North Argentina, differs in its black rump. The comb is
largest in the breeding season, and is wanting in females. These
Wattle-Ducks perch on trees and breed in cavities of the trunks, laying a
dozen or more white eggs. The note is harsh and the flight slow. _Cairina
moschata_, the Muscovy–or more correctly Musk–Duck of ornamental waters,
extends from Mexico to Argentina; the crested head, neck, and lower parts
are brownish-black; the upper surface is glossy green, with purple on the
back and white wing-coverts; the bill is black and white; the feet are
black; and the frontal and orbital caruncles of the male red. It inhabits
forest-swamps, roosts in trees, eats maize, mandioc roots, and herbage, and
nests in holes in trees or between forking branches. _Plectropterus
gambensis_ of Mid-Africa, _P. rüppelli_ of the North-East, _P. niger_ of
the South-East, and _P. scioanus_ of Shoa, the four hardly separable
Spur-winged Geese, are metallic black, with more or less white on the sides
of the head, lesser wing-coverts, throat, and abdomen; the feet, bill,
frontal knob, {135}and caruncles on the forehead when present being red.
The female has no knob. They frequent marshes, appear to prefer running to
flying or perching, and lay about eight whitish eggs.

Sub-fam. 10. _Anseranatinae._–This contains only _Anseranas semipalmata_ of
Australia and Tasmania, a white bird with black head, neck, mantle, wings,
and tail, reddish beak, and yellow feet. It haunts swamps, walks easily,
and deposits some five white eggs.

Sub-fam. 11. _Cygninae._–In this group the sexes are similar. _Coscoroba
candida_, of southern South America, is white, with black tips to the
primaries, pinkish bill and feet. It feeds on land, has a loud trumpeting
cry, and a less noisy flight than the true Swans, from which it differs in
its feathered lores. _Chenopis atrata_, the Black Swan of Southern
Australia and Tasmania, occasionally domesticated in England, is
brownish-black, with white remiges, black feet, pink lores, and pink bill
banded with white, the scapulars and inner secondaries being curled.

_Cygnus musicus_, the Whooper, which used to breed in Orkney, and ranges
from Iceland through Arctic Europe and Asia, migrating to the
Mediterranean, Nepal, China, and Japan, and straying to Greenland, is white
with black feet and bill, the basal half of the latter being yellow, while
that colour extends still further on the sides. The flight is accompanied
by a rushing sound, the note is trumpet-like or whistling, the food
consists of aquatic plants, the five or more white eggs are laid upon a
pile of herbage near water. The smaller _C. bewicki_, where the yellow on
the bill does not reach the nostrils, inhabits the Arctic districts from
the White Sea to the Pacific, wandering in winter to Britain, the
Mediterranean, South Siberia, China, and Japan. _C. columbianus_ of North
America, said to have occurred in Scotland, has merely a yellow spot before
the eye; _C. buccinator_, of the interior of North America, has a black
bill; while _C. olor_, the Mute or Tame Swan, with its variety the Polish
Swan, has the fore-part of it orange. _C. olor_ ranges from South Sweden
and Denmark through Central Europe and Asia, migrating a little southwards.
_C. melanocoryphus_, reaching from South Brazil and Chili to Patagonia and
the Falklands, has the head and two-thirds of the neck black, with white
eye-streak; the bill is plumbeous with red base and knob, the feet are
pinkish. The protuberance is wanting in the young, which are marked with
rusty, and have the head brown. Of other species immature birds are greyish
or dusky, with flesh-coloured {136}and black beak, except in _C. olor_,
where it is plumbeous. In habits Swans are much alike, though the notes
differ somewhat, and the Mute Swan merely hisses or croaks in captivity;
the latter and the Black Swan are noted for the graceful curve of the neck
and their greenish eggs; while the wing-feathers and scapulars are
habitually puffed out when on the water. Swans were "Royal Birds" in
mediaeval England, and a licence was necessary to keep them, but for this
subject and that of the "Swan-marks" on the bill, as well as for accounts
of decoys, hybrids, and domestic races in the Family, the reader must be
referred to the works of Professor Newton,[119] Count Salvadori,[120] and
other authors.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.–Bewick's Swan. _Cygnus bewicki._ × ⅒.]

Fossil remains of this group are found throughout the Miocene of France,
Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, referred to _Anser_ and _Anas_, with
_Chenornis graculoïdes_; the Pliocene of Oregon has furnished _Branta_,
_Cygnus_, and _Anser_, that of Italy _Anas_ and _Fuligula_; the Plistocene
of Malta _Cygnus_ and _Palaeocycnus_, that of Brazil _Chenalopex_. The
superficial deposits of New Zealand contain _Cnemiornis_, mentioned above,
as well as _Chenopis_ and _Biziura_; the Queensland drifts the last-named,
and, it is said, _Anas_, _Dendrocycna_, and _Nyroca_; the Mare aux Songes
of Mauritius _Anas_ and _Sarcidiornis_. _Centrornis majori_ is a remarkable
form {137}from Central Madagascar, found at a depth of twelve to fifteen
feet with another species _Chenalopex sirabensis_.[121]

ORDER VII. FALCONIFORMES.

Next to the aquatic Anseriformes may be placed the large and important
terrestrial Order Falconiformes, with its Sub-Orders CATHARTAE and
ACCIPITRES. The former contains the New-World Vultures (_Cathartidae_ or
_Sarcorhamphidae_), possessing striking differences of structure from their
allies;[122] the latter, the Secretary-Bird (_Serpentariidae_), the
Old-World Vultures (_Vulturidae_), the Carrion-Hawks, Hawks, Eagles,
Falcons and their kin (_Falconidae_), and the Ospreys (_Pandionidae_). All
agree in the strong "raptorial" bill with basal cere, the U-shaped furcula,
the large crop, the carnivorous habits, the great powers of flight, the
superior size of the female, and the long nest-occupation of the young; but
the Cathartae differ in having pervious nostrils, no syringeal muscles,
less flattened metatarsi, and so forth.

Fam. I. CATHARTIDAE.–These Vultures range from tropical to temperate
America, and are often of immense size; the bill is strong, hooked, but
blunt; the feet are clumsy with small scales; the scutellated toes, of
which the mid-digit is longest and the hallux somewhat elevated, are unfit
for grasping; the claws are obtuse and little curved. The ample wings have
eleven primaries and from twelve to twenty-five secondaries; the moderate
tail is even or rounded, with twelve rectrices, or fourteen in
_Pseudogryphus_. The head and long neck are commonly bare, but the latter
may be covered with stubbly down, which in _Gyparchus papa_ extends to the
occiput; the naked skin is often brightly coloured and accompanied by
caruncles, while the crop is bare in _Sarcorhamphus_ and _Gyparchus_. The
eyes are prominent, the cere is horny and sometimes very long, the tongue
thick and fleshy, the aftershaft absent. The sexes are alike in plumage,
with evenly distributed down, and the nestlings soon develop a white or
rufous covering.

Though, generally speaking, predaceous, the members of this Family only
attack disabled animals, or often act chiefly as scavengers, whence the
smaller forms are commonly found near the abodes of man and even in towns.
The larger species sail high above the earth with easy, long-sustained, and
majestic flight, {138}accompanied by little movement of the pinions, as
they circle over the plains or mountain-sides in search of prey. In this
quest experiments have shewn that they are little guided by smell; rather
does some individual, aided by its marvellously keen sight, spy the carrion
from afar, its motives being instantly divined by its immediate neighbour;
a third bird is next attracted; and so the tidings spread, until a greedy
crowd meets to dismember the carcass, to fight over the morsels, and then
to sit stupid and gorged, with drooping wings, on or near the ground.
Except when feeding, the Cathartidae are non-gregarious, though
"Turkey-Buzzards" and "Black Vultures" roost in company; the latter are
said to take to the wing with ease, eschewing the preliminary hops of their
allies; while all walk well. The voice is a hoarse sound or hiss, owing to
the absence of syringeal muscles. The nest of sticks is placed in trees,
cavities of rocks, hollow stumps, or on the ground, and may be bulky or of
the slightest description; the one or two eggs are white, buff, or
greenish, with or without reddish-brown and grey blotches. The parents
regurgitate food–at least occasionally–for the nestlings, and eject
foul-smelling matter when disturbed.

_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_, the Condor, only equalled in size among birds that
fly by a few Old-World Vultures, and appearing still larger in clear
mountain air, ranges down western South America and up to the Rio Negro on
the east of Patagonia. The head and neck are bare, with dull red skin,
wrinkled in folds on the latter; while an oblique ruff of white down
surmounts the black plumage, which shews white edges to the wing-coverts
and secondaries. The male has a fleshy crest extending from the mid-cere to
the crown, a large wattle on the throat, and a small caruncle below; the
irides being in that sex brown, in the female garnet-red. The bill is white
with brown base. Smaller and browner examples occur in Ecuador, but larger
appendages mark those of Chili and Patagonia. In the southern portion of
their range Condors are found down to the sea-level, but Mr. E.
Whymper[123] states that in Ecuador they frequent the Andes up to sixteen
thousand feet, and rarely descend to the plains. Stupid and voracious, they
can be lassoed while feeding, and, though they will attack old horses,
calves, lambs, goats, deer, and dogs, especially when dazzled by the sun,
they seldom risk an assault on mankind. The nest, of a few sticks, is
placed on steep cliffs, and contains two white eggs.

{139}[Illustration: FIG. 37.–Condor. _Sarcorhamphus gryphus_ ♀. × ⅛-⅑.]

A young bird was hatched in London after fifty-four days' incubation, but
apparently nearly a year is taken to gain full powers of flight. _Gyparchus
papa_, the King Vulture, of tropical America, save the West Indies, has a
small fleshy crest on the cere in both sexes, but no wattles, though the
skin of the sides of the head is wrinkled; the occiput is hairy, and a ruff
of broad plumbeous feathers surrounds the neck. The rump, tail, and most of
the wings are black; the remaining plumage being creamy white, the bare
throat and back of the neck yellow, the skin of the head and neck elsewhere
orange and red with blue patches near the ears, the bill orange and black,
the irides white. This bird haunts woods near rivers and marshes,
especially towards the coast, and feeds on snakes and carrion, from which
it drives all other species; in flight, habit of gorging, and eggs, it
resembles the Condor. Little smaller is the Californian Vulture
(_Pseudogryphus californianus_), formerly extending to the Fraser River in
British {140}Columbia, in which the long flat head and neck are bare,
smooth, and orange-coloured, the bill being whitish and the irides carmine.
The plumage is dull black with a whitish wing-band, due to the margins of
the greater coverts and secondaries; lanceolate feathers form a basal ruff
round the neck, and extend over the lower parts. The habits are similar to
those of the foregoing, but the loose nest of sticks, placed in cavities of
trees or crags, contains one rough greenish-white egg. The genus
_Rhinogryphus_ or _Cathartes_ ("Turkey-Buzzard") includes _R. aura_, of
temperate and tropical America, reaching to Tierra del Fuego and the
Falklands, in which the head and upper neck are naked, smooth, and crimson;
and _R. burrovianus_, found from Mexico to Brazil, where they are orange
and the nape is feathered; the yellow-headed _R. perniger_, of Amazonia,
being hardly separable. All are black with whitish bill, red irides, and a
tuft of bristles in front of the eye; but the first has brown-margined
feathers and metallic sheen above. In common with _Catharista_, they have
the cere very long. During the day-time these quarrelsome scavengers,
ubiquitous but necessary, haunt the house-tops and roadways of towns and
villages, whence they retire at night to groves or forests in company;
otherwise their habits are those of Vultures generally. They have been said
to pair for life, while they deposit two whitish eggs with red-brown and
lilac markings in some hollow of a crag, tree, or log, often on or near the
ground, adding little, if any, bedding. _Catharista atratus_, the "Carrion
Crow" or Black Vulture, which ranges from Argentina and Chili to the West
Indies and Carolina, and occasionally further north, is most plentiful near
the coast; the fearless demeanour, flight, manner of feeding, nesting
habits and eggs, resembling those of Turkey-Buzzards, though the
wing-action is more laboured, and the gait shuffling. Audubon says that the
males strut and gesticulate like Turkeys when courting, while incubation
lasts about three weeks. The colour is black, the naked head being dusky
and the upper neck somewhat corrugated; the bill is blackish with light
tip, the irides are brown.

Fossils referred to this Family are met with in North and South
America.[124]

The points wherein the Cathartae differ from the Accipitres {141}having
been already noticed (p. 137), it only remains to discuss in detail the
several families comprised in the latter Sub-Order.

[Illustration: FIG. 38.–Secretary-Bird. _Serpentarius secretarius._ × ⅑.]

Fam. II. SERPENTARIIDAE.–This contains only _Serpentarius secretarius_, the
African Secretary-Bird–now generally recognised as an Accipitrine
form–which is most common in the south, though extending northwards to the
Gambia, Khartum, and Abyssinia. It was first accurately made known in 1769,
from an example living in the menagerie of the Prince of Orange, by
Vosmaer, who was told that at the Cape of Good Hope it was called
"Sagittarius," or Archer, from its habit of striding like a bowman about to
shoot, and that this name had been corrupted into "Secretarius."
Subsequently–about 1770–a pair was {142}brought alive to England.[125] The
appellation is evidently, however, derived from the nuchal tuft, which
bears a fancied resemblance to the pen of a clerk stuck above his ear.
Standing some four feet high on very long legs, this bird gives the
impression of a Heron or Crane, and is a striking object on its native
plains. The short strong beak is greatly arched, and is not toothed, the
neck is elongated, the body comparatively small, and the metatarsus boldly
scutellated all round, the short straight toes with their blunt claws being
joined anteriorly by small membranes. The ample wings have eleven pointed
primaries and seventeen secondaries; the graduated tail of twelve rectrices
has the two obtuse median feathers drooping and much prolonged. Down is
evenly distributed over the adults, and an aftershaft is present. The
general colour is bluish-grey, with black wing-quills, lower back and vent;
the loose pendent crest on the occiput and nape contains ten plumes in
pairs, the longer being black and the shorter grey with black ends; the
tail is grey, subterminally barred with black and tipped with white, which
sometimes shews on the short close flank-feathers. The long cere, naked
sides of the face, and feet are yellow, the irides hazel. The sexes are
similar.

In South Africa these useful birds–favoured by a protecting law–are often
brought up tame about the homesteads, where they kill reptiles and keep off
feathered intruders, though they occasionally tax the poultry-yard
themselves; the food consists of small mammals, birds, lizards, and
tortoises, but above all of snakes and insects. When the Secretary attacks
a reptile, it advances on foot and delivers a forward kick with its
powerful leg, striking simultaneously with the knobbed wings, which shield
its body; then it retreats with a bound, as the hissing snake makes a
vicious lunge; but soon, watching its opportunity, breaks through its
opponent's guard and stands triumphant with crest erect, before swallowing
the disabled foe.[126] If, however, the snake touches the bird's flesh, the
result is reversed; and so well, according to Mr. Atmore,[127] does the
latter know this, that it plucks out instantly any feather that the fangs
have reached. Possibly reptiles are occasionally killed by being carried
aloft and dropped. Usually seen stalking easily along, this graceful
species can almost out-pace a {143}horseman, while it will fly when hard
pressed, or soar to a considerable height. The huge nest, occupied from
year to year, is placed in a bush or tree, and is composed of sticks and
clay with a lining of wool and hair, the two or three eggs being white with
rusty markings. In six weeks the downy white young are hatched, which
remain some four months in the nest, often uttering a harsh cry. The legs
of both nestlings and adults are very fragile, and snap if they trip while
running.

A fossil form (_S. robustus_) has been recorded from the Lower Miocene of
Allier in France.

Fam. III. VULTURIDAE.–The Old-World Vultures have a strong hooked
bill–exceptionally slender in _Neophron_–which may be sinuate, but has no
tooth. They possess a horny cere; a comparatively short, stout, reticulated
metatarsus, often partly feathered; scutellated toes on a level, with
bluntish slightly curved claws, and a short membrane between the outer and
mid digits. They lack the bony ridge found over the eye in the Falconidae.
The somewhat pointed wings are long and broad, with eleven primaries and
from seventeen to twenty-five secondaries; the moderate tail, ordinarily of
twelve feathers, is rounded, but varies to wedge-shaped in _Neophron_,
where, as in _Gyps_, there are fourteen rectrices. The plumage is compact;
the crop prominent; the head and neck are bare or sparsely-haired in
_Otogyps_ and _Pseudogyps_, more or less downy in _Vultur_, _Lophogyps_,
and _Gyps_, and partly feathered in _Neophron_; while a ruff of down or
plumes covers the shoulders. The nostrils are circular in _Vultur_,
horizontally elongated in _Neophron_, oval and vertical elsewhere; the
fleshy tongue may show bristly or upcurved margins, and the syrinx has two
pairs of tracheo-bronchial muscles. Uniformly distributed down and an
aftershaft characterize the adults, while the white woolly nestling of
_Gyps_ is said to be hatched naked.[128] Except as regards _Neophron_, the
habits resemble those of the Cathartidae, the carrion diet producing a most
offensive odour. The plumage of the sexes is the same.

_Vultur monachus_ (_cinereus_), the Black Vulture, has its headquarters in
the Mediterranean Region, whence it extends to the Gold Coast, Nubia, the
Lower Danube, North India and China, and has strayed to Denmark. Not unlike
the more sociable Griffon Vulture in general habits, it shows a preference
for wooded country, {144}constructing a bulky shallow nest of sticks,
grass, and wool almost invariably on trees, and laying one, or rarely two,
white eggs blotched with dark red. The plumage is brownish-black, with a
ruff of lanceolate feathers below the bare neck, and black down on the
crown and throat. The naked skin and cere are of a livid flesh-colour, the
feet yellowish; the bill is black, the iris brown. _Lophogyps occipitalis_,
of East and South Africa and Senegal, is dark brown with blacker remiges
and rectrices, and some white on the wings; the reddish head and neck are
bare, except for white down on the crown, which thickens towards the
occiput; the ruff is brown, the abdomen and crop are white, the feet
pinkish; the bill is orange with bluish cere, the iris brown. _Otogyps
auricularis_, of North-East and South Africa, called the "Eared Vulture"
from the fleshy lappets (of the same pinkish colour as the naked head,
cere, and feet) on the sides of the neck, is brown, with blackish wings and
tail, varied by white down on the thighs and chest; a brown ruff covers the
hind-neck, while the bill and irides are yellow. _O. calvus_, the smaller
Pondicherry- or King-Vulture of India, Burma, and Siam, is black. These
birds usually hunt in pairs, driving all intruders except Eagles from their
prey: they construct immense stick nests, often used in successive years,
on thick bushes or trees; straw, leaves, and the like being added for
lining, and one white egg, often with red-brown markings, deposited. _Gyps
fulvus_, the Griffon Vulture, which has occurred in Germany, Poland, and
once in Britain, breeds from the Spanish Pyrenees through Southern Europe
and Northern Africa, reaching lat. 50° N. in Russia, and extending eastward
to North India, by way of Turkestan, where it overlaps the larger form _G.
himalayensis_. It is fawn-brown above and streaky buff below, with nearly
black wings and tail, the adults having a downy white ruff, represented in
the young by a brown collar; the head is thinly covered with white hairs,
the beak is horn-coloured with blue-black cere, the feet are plumbeous, the
irides orange. This active though cowardly species is often seen basking on
rocks at mid-day; it flies or hovers with easy movements, and can soar
until it almost disappears in the sky. It has a growling note. The nest, a
mass of sticks and grass of variable size, is placed on cliffs, and
contains one or even two white eggs, sometimes with rusty markings.
Incubation lasts forty days, the young remaining three months in the nest.
_G. kolbi_ of South Africa is much paler; _G. rüppelli_, of the north-east
and south of {145}that continent, has a yellower head and browner back; _G.
indicus_ of India and the Indo-Malay mainland; from which _G. pallescens_
is hardly separable, has a barer head and comparatively thin bill; the
former breeds in trees in place of rocks. _Pseudogyps bengalensis_, the
White-backed Vulture, ranging through India and down the Malay Peninsula,
is black above, but brownish below, with the thin downy ruff and lower back
white; the bill is greyish, the cere, feet, naked head and neck are black,
the irides brown. This bird snorts, hisses, or even roars, and walks
easily, though awkwardly. It nests in company on trees, and often lines the
large stick-fabric with foliage, as do so many other Raptorial forms; the
greenish-white eggs, seldom marked with red, vary much in bulk. _P.
africanus_, of North-East and West Africa, is decidedly browner.

The genus _Neophron_ contains the smallest Vultures, _N. percnopterus_
being called, from its frequent occurrence on Egyptian hieroglyphs, the
Egyptian Vulture or Pharaoh's Hen. It has wandered thrice to Britain and
also to North Europe, while it breeds from Savoy and Provence to Madeira,
the Canaries, the Cape Verds, North Africa, and India, meeting in the
last-named the smaller _N. ginginianus_; in winter it visits South Africa,
where it is called the "White Crow." The plumage is white, with black
primaries and partially brown secondaries; a ruff of lanceolate feathers
extends up to the occiput, the naked head and neck are yellow, the tip of
the bill alone being black; the feet are pink, the irides crimson. Often
seen striding sedately along in search of animal and vegetable refuse or
dung, this species also follows the plough and devours worms, grubs,
insects, reptiles, and frogs; while from its alleged habit of breaking
bones left by other Vultures, it is called Quebranta-huesos or
"bone-smasher" by the Spaniards.[129] The flight is slow and easy, the
voice a croak. The flat nest of sticks, lined with soft materials, and
especially rags, is placed on a crag or tree, and contains two white eggs
with red-brown or claret blotches. _N. pileatus_ of South Africa–which has
a larger north-eastern and western form–is brown, with black wings and
tail, downy whitish nape, purplish naked areas, dusky bill and feet, and
brown irides.

Of fossil forms there are recorded _Gyps melitensis_[130] from the
Plistocene of Malta, and _Vultur_ from that of France.[131]

{146}Fam. IV. FALCONIDAE.–This group may be divided into the Sub-families
(1) _Gypaëtinae_ for the Lämmergeiers; (2) _Polyborinae_ for the "Carrion
Hawks"; (3) _Accipitrinae_ for the Hawks, with _Circus_, _Polyboroïdes_,
and so forth; (4) _Aquilinae_ for the Eagles; (5) _Buteoninae_ for the
Buzzards and Kites; and (6) _Falconinae_ for the Falcons.

Though the skull is small in _Circus_ and some other forms, it is usually
large and broad, being considerably elongated in the Aquilinae. The short
stout bill is strongly curved, and terminates in a hook, which is often
nearly perpendicular, and is specially prominent in _Rostrhamus_,
_Leptodon_, _Harpyhaliaëtus_, _Pithecophaga_ and _Thrasaëtus_; the basal
third is straight in Eagles, while the edges of the maxilla are lobed or
festooned to a variable extent, and in the Falconinae are distinctly
toothed, or even bidentate in the case of _Spiziapteryx_, _Harpagus_, and
_Baza_. A bony ridge over the eye conduces to the fierce aspect, especially
in the larger species. The feet are robust and well-fitted for grasping,
and are enormously developed in _Thrasaëtus_; the metatarsus is much
flattened, and may be scutellated or reticulated, though the scales are
usually smaller behind; the tibia generally exceeds it in measurement, but
in Accipitrine forms is nearly equal, giving them a long-legged appearance.
Elongated bare metatarsi are characteristic of _Circus_, _Polyboroïdes_,
and the Polyborinae. The claws are sharp and curved, especially in
_Rostrhamus_; a short membrane connects the middle and outer toes, and the
inner also in the Polyborinae; while their under surface is more or less
padded, and exhibits rugose spicules below in _Busarellus_, similar to
those in _Pandion_. The powerful wings may be long and pointed, as in the
Kites, Falcons, and Harriers; moderate and somewhat rounded, as in the
Eagles and Buzzards; or short and narrow, as in Hawks. Falconers term the
long-winged forms "noble," the short-winged ignoble. The tail, usually of
medium size, but sometimes very short, as in _Helotarsus_ and _Gypohierax_,
is decidedly elongated in the Accipitrinae and _Polyborus_, and also in
_Milvus_, _Lophoictinia_, _Elanoïdes_, and _Nauclerus_, where it is
forked–very deeply in the two last: it may be wedge-shaped, as in
_Uroaëtus_, _Thalassaëtus_, _Harpyhaliaëtus_, and _Gypaëtus_; rounded, as
in _Elanus_ and _Haliaëtus_; nearly even, as in _Buteo_ and _Aquila_; or
emarginated, as in _Ictinia_ and _Rostrhamus_. Normally there are twelve
rectrices, but _Thalassaëtus_ has fourteen. The colour varies greatly with
age, {147}and it often takes four years or more to attain maturity, the
markings commonly changing from longitudinal to transverse; but the sexes
are usually alike, though the Kestrel, Merlin, Red-footed Falcon, and many
Harriers are well-known exceptions, the last having generally blue-grey
males and brown females. The occipital feathers are elongated in several of
the Polyborinae, and a full crest occurs in many genera, _Lophoaëtus_,
_Thrasaëtus_, _Harpyhaliaëtus_, _Helotarsus_, _Morphnus_, and
_Lophoictinia_ being especially noticeable; _Circus_ has a facial ruff,
coupled with exceptionally large aural apertures; the feathers of the neck
may be lanceolate, as in _Haliaëtus_, or those of the nape, as in _Aquila_;
and the plumage commonly over-hangs the metatarsus, which is feathered to
the toes in various Aquiline forms, and in _Archibuteo_. The nostrils are
circular in the Falconinae, oval or nearly linear elsewhere, with a central
tubercle in the last-named and the Polyborinae, seldom found in the other
Sub-families: they are generally in or near the cere, which is almost
always fleshy. An aftershaft is present; the down in adults is uniform;
that of the nestling being woolly and varying from white to grey, buff,
brown, or black. The feet are yellow, red, or brown; the bill is ordinarily
dark, and the cere yellow; _Gypaëtus_, however, has all these parts
bluish-grey, with a crimson sclerotic membrane (equivalent to the "white of
the eye") round the orange iris, the latter being yellow or orange in the
Accipitrinae, brown in the Falconinae, and varying to red elsewhere. The
syrinx has two pairs of tracheo-bronchial muscles; the tongue is thick and
often concave; and Nitzsch[132] has recorded single or paired powder-down
patches on the lower back of _Elanoïdes_, _Elanus_, _Regerhinus_, and
_Circus_, with similar but scattered down-feathers in _Gypaëtus_.

The members of this Family range in size from the mighty Lämmergeier to the
tiny Finch-Falcon (_Microhierax_); but they have many habits in common,
though _Polyborus_ and _Milvago_ are somewhat terrestrial and vulturine,
and a few species have crepuscular tendencies. They are decidedly
non-gregarious, though the Polyborinae, _Erythropus_, and _Rostrhamus_ form
partial exceptions; they pair very early in the year, if not for life, the
larger forms in especial breeding almost before winter is over. Birds of
the mountains, the plains, and the woods, they can bear the cold of the icy
regions or the heat of the Equator, but towards {148}either pole the number
of species decreases perceptibly. The sight is exceptionally keen, and the
flight generally powerful and rapid; Eagles and Buzzards indeed move
heavily to all appearance, as they circle or sail around with flapping
action, but the spectacle of the former in chase of a grouse will quickly
disillusion the observer. Kites are still more versatile upon the wing, nor
are the Polyborine forms always deficient in this respect, while the dash
and speed of Hawks and Falcons in their different styles is
proverbial.[133] Harriers and the like may be seen buoyantly quartering the
ground for hours, poising themselves almost motionless aloft, or gliding in
circles to great heights; and the hovering or stationary position on the
wing, which gives the name of "Windhover" to the Kestrel, is more general
than might be supposed throughout the Family. Taken as a class, few birds
can fly so well or so untiringly, though Vultures, Cranes, Storks,
Albatroses, and the larger Gulls have even greater powers of endurance;
they can, moreover, perch with great facility, and, while seldom running or
walking fast, can move with freedom upon the ground, where they generally
progress by means of hops, and aid themselves with their wings. Many of the
Falconidae are very quarrelsome, and use their talons as weapons of
offence, this trait being emphasized at the nesting-quarters, whence
feathered intruders are rigorously excluded. The cry is shrill, but varies
in depth; in the Peregrine Falcon it is a succession of short notes, in
Eagles it resembles a yelp, in Buzzards a cat's mew, in Kites a whistle,
and so forth; whereas in _Melierax_ it may almost be called a song. The
diet varies considerably, and consists of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish,
frogs, tortoises, crabs, molluscs, and insects. _Gypohierax_, _Aquila_,
_Haliastur_, _Milvago_, and _Polyborus_ certainly eat carrion, and the last
will attack newly-born lambs–a grievance made the most of by sheep-farmers
in the case of Eagles; while the larger forms kill fawns, monkeys, foxes,
hares, and other creatures of considerable size. Buzzards keep down
rabbits, and hunt rats and mice as assiduously as Harriers and the Kestrel;
the latter devours quantities of insects, as do also some of the
Polyborinae; and the so-called "Honey" Buzzard (_Pernis_) gains its name
from its fondness for grubs of bees or wasps. Kites work havoc among
poultry; the Golden Eagle, and still more the Peregrine Falcon, among
moor-fowl; the last two proving an {149}advantage in Scotch deer-forests,
where the noisy grouse disturb the stags, but being in peril of
extermination on the moorlands; yet it is questionable whether more good
than harm is not done by the destruction of weakly game. The Osprey and
Sea-Eagle eat little but fish, though they are not alone in that habit,
while _Rostrhamus_ lives almost entirely on fresh-water molluscs. Most
members of the Family do not alight to capture their prey, but seize it
with their sharp talons either sitting or on the wing, the chief exceptions
being the carrion- and insect-eaters; it is often conveyed to some
favourite spot of ground or rock to devour, smaller objects being
transported in the bill and the bigger torn to pieces and stripped before
being swallowed. Large bones may be broken up, slender bones bolted entire;
but hard substances are always ejected subsequently as pellets, after the
manner of Owls (p. 401), the nature of the diet being readily detected from
these castings. Exceptionally curious habits are credited to _Gypaëtus_ and
_Gypoictinia_, as will be seen below. After a meal, quiescence is the rule,
but none of the tribe gorge like Vultures. The predilections of species or
even of individuals determine the situation of the nest, Eagles and other
large forms preferring rocks in mountain-glens, lofty cliffs, or trees, for
their bulky fabric of sticks, heather, and the like, which is lined with
softer substances, and often bedded with foliage. The larger Falcons
frequently select ledges on sea-girt or inland crags, and merely scrape a
hole in the soil; but they, in common with the lesser Falcons, also utilize
deserted habitations of Crows and so forth, or even lay their eggs on level
ground or upon crumbling masonry; while the American "Sparrow-Hawk"
(_Tinnunculus sparverius_) commonly appropriates old holes of Woodpeckers.
Harriers, _Rostrhamus_, and other forms choose sites in reed-beds,
gorse-coverts, fern, rough grass, or corn, and eschew hard materials; Hawks
usually construct a flat platform of branches lined with thinner twigs. The
eggs are generally bluish-, greenish-, or yellowish-white, with fine
blotches, streaks, and spots of red, brown, or claret, chiefly towards the
larger end; but in Falcons they are more or less covered with ruddy or
orange markings, which often obliterate the ground-colour. Unspotted
specimens are not uncommon, and in the case of Harriers we have an instance
of a plain bluish coloration, a few rusty stains being exceptionally
visible. Alternative sites are frequently tenanted, or former nests
repaired. Incubation is often of {150}considerable duration, and the young
remain long in the nest–four months, it is said, in the Lämmergeier; the
longevity, too, of Eagles is notorious, a span of a hundred years having
been actually recorded. Unconscious mimicry is shewn by _Accipiter
pileatus_, which assumes the garb of _Harpagus diodon_ near Rio Janeiro.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.–Lämmergeier. _Gypaëtus barbatus._ × ⅛-⅑.]

Sub-fam. 1. _Gypaëtinae._–This group apparently links the Vulturidae to the
Falconidae, but seems nearer to the latter. _Gypaëtus barbatus_, the
magnificent Lämmergeier, is greyish-black with white streaks, and has a
white crown, cheeks with a black band bifurcating at the eye to meet above,
and pale tawny lanceolate plumage on the neck and lower parts. Dense black
bristles cover the nostrils and lores, and a black tuft, which gives the
name of Bearded Vulture, projects below the mandible. The sclerotic
{151}membrane is crimson (p. 147). The young are chiefly brown and buff.
From Portugal and Mauritania this species extends through the lofty
mountains of South Europe to the Himalayas and North China, though
practically exterminated in Switzerland and Carinthia; _G. ossifragus_
(_meridionalis_), with no black stripe below the eye, represents it in
North-Eastern and Southern Africa. Avoiding its own kin, the Lämmergeier
often breeds near Griffon Vultures; the large nest of sticks, lined with
wool and hair, begun very early in the year, being placed in some cavity of
a cliff or on a precipitous ledge, and containing one egg–or rarely
two–which appear pale orange owing to the confluent markings. The flight is
majestic and powerful; the cry weak and querulous, with a croak when
irritated. In parts of Spain and India, natives assert that this bird preys
only on carcases; but in Macedonia it is said to carry off lambs, kids, and
fowls, and no doubt occasionally it kills small mammals and birds, though
all statements should be carefully criticised, as it usurps the name of
"Grifo" or Griffon in Spain, and that of Golden Eagle in India; while
conversely any Eagle is pointed out in the Alps as a Lämmergeier. It has
been credited with a habit of scaring young animals over the cliffs by
descending with a sudden rush, but its nature is cowardly, and it does not
seem to attack man; yet marvellous tales have been told of its strength and
daring, some of which may in part be true, though the evidence is hardly
convincing. Like _Neophron_, it is said to carry bones up into the air,
letting them fall to break them, while land-tortoises are similarly treated
in North Africa, and possibly this species is responsible for the death of
the poet Æschylus, on whose bare head a tortoise is alleged to have been
dropped.[134] _Gypohierax angolensis_, somewhat approaching the Vulturidae,
is white, with the secondaries, most of the scapulars, the tips of the
primaries, and the base of the tail black; the bare skin of the sides of
the face and the feet are flesh-coloured, and the beak is grey-blue. Rare
in East and South Africa, though common in the West, it is generally seen
on lagoons, rivers, or sea-shores, sunning itself on some elevation, or
skimming the water with laboured flight in search of fish. It will attack
animals and eat garbage.

Sub-fam. 2. _Polyborinae._–Of the American "Carrion Hawks," _Polyborus
tharus_ is dull black, with whitish neck, back, breast, {152}and tail, more
or less barred with dusky, and broad blackish tips to the rectrices. The
bare red skin of the cheeks and throat imparts a vulturine look, belied,
however, by the almost gallinaceous feet. It inhabits South America from
Ecuador and Guiana southwards; but thence the very similar _P. cheriway_
ranges to Florida and Lower California, _P. lutosus_ occurring in Guadelupe
Island off the latter. The Carancho or Cáracara, as _P. tharus_ is called,
resembles in habits the "Turkey-Buzzards" (_Rhinogryphus_), with which it
consorts, though somewhat shy and quarrelsome. Semi-gregarious, and
audacious if unmolested, it passes the hot hours in the shade, and roosts
in company at night; while the powerful and graceful flight, with its
alternate sailing or flapping movements, though not rapid, enables it to
soar in spirals to a great altitude. It walks or runs with ease. The
far-reaching grating note is usually uttered with the head thrown back; the
food of refuse and carrion is supplemented by young lambs or alligators,
birds, frogs, reptiles, land-crabs, worms, and insects. When on a tree,
bush, or cliff, the large shallow nest, often renewed yearly, is made of
sticks and lined with grass, leaves, roots, wool, or scraps of any sort;
but, when on the ground or in swamps, reeds and herbage are commonly
utilized. The three or four eggs ranging from white with red blotches to
cinnamon with a few black marks.

_Ibycter_, _Phalcobaenus_, and _Senex_ are kindred Neotropical genera of a
greenish-black colour, with a variable amount of white on the tail, lower
parts, and even the wings and nape; the cheeks and throat are naked and red
in the first, and orange in the second, while the cheeks only are yellow in
the third. _Phalcobaenus_ has a slight crest, _P. carunculatus_ a fleshy
orange caruncle at the base of the bill, _Senex_ rufous thighs. _Ibycter
ater_ occurs in Amazonia, _I. americanus_ from Guatemala and Honduras to
Brazil, _Phalcobaenus megalopterus_ from Chili to West Peru, _P.
carunculatus_ in Ecuador and New Granada, _P. albigularis_ in Patagonia,
while _Senex australis_ is the "Johnny Rook" of the Falklands. Close allies
are _Milvago chimachima_ and _M. chimango_, ranging from Panama to
Paraguay, and from about lat. 20° S. to Tierra del Fuego respectively; the
former is brown, with creamy head, neck, tail, and under-parts, and
rectrices barred with brown; the latter has the head rufous and black, the
lower surface streaky-looking yellowish-brown, the tail greyer. The lores
and naked orbits are pinkish.

These forms are similar in manners to _Polyborus_, but _Milvago_ is
{153}more terrestrial, and chiefly frequents grassy plains; it is moreover
less energetic, and has an easy and loitering though protracted flight,
with a custom of uttering its whistling or mournful notes in chorus, the
head being thrown back as in the Carancho. The nest of sticks, lined with
grass, hair, and wool, may be on trees, in grass, or rushes, _Senex_
preferring sea-girt cliffs; the eggs, from two to five in number, are
cream-coloured, or reddish with darker markings, and vary as in
_Polyborus_. Human beings are very rarely molested by "Carrion Hawks,"
though birds seem to fear them greatly.

Sub-fam. 3. _Accipitrinae._–First of this group may be placed six genera of
"Harrier-Eagles," classed as Circaëtinae by the late J. H. Gurney,[135] of
which _Herpetotheres cachinnans_, ranging from South Mexico to Bolivia and
Paraguay, is the only American representative. It is a crested bird, of a
brown colour above, relieved by creamy buff, which extends over the whole
under surface, the nape and face being mostly black. It eats snakes, and
sits aloft bobbing its head while uttering a gruff "ha-ha." Of the African
genus _Circaëtus_ one species, _C. gallicus_–Jean-le-blanc of the
French–extends from Southern and Central Europe to Palestine, India, North
China, Timor, and Flores. It is dark brown above, and white with
blackish-brown streaks and bars below, the secondaries and tail having
white tips, and the latter three dusky cross-bands. This sluggish but bold
denizen of the plains may be seen perched on trees, quartering the ground
with heavy flapping flight, or anon poising itself aloft on motionless
wings, the harsh noisy cry being varied by a twittering note. Snakes form
its favourite food, while frogs and fish from the shallows, small mammals,
birds, lizards, crabs, and insects add to its daily fare. The bulky nest of
sticks, bedded with grass or green leaves, is situated on trees, bushes, or
even rocky ledges; a single bluish-white egg–or exceptionally two–being
deposited. The female sits very closely, and both parents sometimes attack
intruders. _C. cinereus_, of most of the Ethiopian Region, has the chest
brownish-black and the belly white; _C. fasciolatus_ of Natal, and the
similar _C. beaudouini_ of Senegal and North-East Africa, have the former
part fulvous-brown, and the latter barred with dusky; _C. cinerascens_ of
the east and west of that continent is much greyer below, with narrower
bars. _Helotarsus ecaudatus_ of the whole Ethiopian Region is black, with
maroon back and tail, and a broad grey band across the secondaries;
{154}the wide crest, short rectrices, red cere, lores and feet, rendering
it most remarkable. _H. leuconotus_ is hardly more than a creamy-backed
variety. It sails aloft in powerful style, and dashes like lightning upon
the snakes, mammals, and lizards, which form its prey; the nest of sticks
is placed in trees or rocks, and contains, it is said, from two to four
white eggs. The crested _Eutriorchis_ of Madagascar, and _Dryotriorchis_ of
the Gold Coast, short of wing but long of tail, should probably be placed
here. A fine broad crest also adorns _Spilornis_, of which genus some seven
members occur in the Indian Region, and the Celebes group. _S. undulatus_
(_cheela_), extending from India to China, has the head black and white,
the remaining plumage brown, with whitish markings above, round white spots
below, and a broad light band across the white-tipped tail. _S. sulaënsis_
of the Sula Islands differs in being barred beneath; _S. holospilus_ of the
Philippines has the whole body spotted. These arboreal forms live upon
snakes, frogs, insects, and birds, the last of which they hunt in pairs,
converging gradually on the victim from each side: the note is mournful;
the small nest of twigs, lined with grass or leaves, is placed in trees;
the two eggs are rufous or white with red markings.

The slender _Polyboroïdes typicus_, of most of the Ethiopian Region,
combines the appearance of a Harrier with that of a typical Hawk; it is
grey with white tips to the black remiges and rectrices, and shews black
and white bars on the lower breast and abdomen. A whitish band crosses the
tail, while the naked cheeks and cere are yellow. _P. radiatus_ of
Madagascar is more silvery. Resembling the following group in habits, these
birds prefer grasslands, especially when newly burnt, take comparatively
short flights, and rest more frequently on trees or stumps. They are said
to be able to bend the tibio-tarsal joint either way.

_Circus_, ranging over nearly the whole world, comprises some seventeen
species, in most of which the sexes differ in coloration–an unusual fact in
Raptorial forms. They are graceful and soft-plumaged, with long legs,
wings, and tail, the partial facial ruff creating a likeness–superficial
and not warranted by structure–to the owls. Non-arboreal and by nature shy,
they may be seen hovering or circling aloft, or systematically beating over
the flats with buoyant untiring flight, the pinions flapping slowly and
regularly, and exposing a broad surface to the air. They can, however, move
with rapidity, and approach their breeding-quarters {155}with a fine
downward sweep, an exceptionally bold cock sometimes almost striking an
intruder. The cry, chiefly heard during incubation, is shrill; the food
consists mainly of small mammals, but partially of birds, reptiles, fish,
frogs, insects, or even eggs; the nest, placed among reeds, corn or
herbage, in gorse-coverts or on heathery or grassy slopes, is, according to
circumstances, a pile or layer of the surrounding vegetation lined with the
finer portions, and contains from three to six bluish-white eggs, rarely
blotched with rufous. Nesting-sites in trees are on record. Three species
still breed in Britain, _C. cyaneus_, the Hen Harrier, _C. cineraceus_,
Montagu's Harrier, and _C. aeruginosus_, the Marsh Harrier or Moor Buzzard.
The first two are much alike and easily confounded, the female in both
being brown above and buffish with dark streaks below, while the tail is
crossed by five umber bars. The male, which is bluish-grey with white rump
and abdomen in the Hen Harrier, but is streaked beneath with rufous in the
more slender Montagu's Harrier, is commonly considered a different species
from the female by rustics, who call it the "Kite." These forms range over
Europe, Asia, and North Africa; but whereas the first-named reaches about
lat. 69° N. in summer, and occurs from Morocco and Abyssinia to Canton in
winter, its congener is not found so far north, and migrates down to Cape
Colony, Ceylon, and Burma. _C. aeruginosus_, now nearly exterminated in
Britain, extends from South Scandinavia and Archangel to Japan, and to the
Transvaal and Ceylon in the cold season. The upper parts are brown with
blackish primaries, the remainder of the wings and the tail being grey; the
lower surface is buff with brownish stripes. Old males have the head nearly
cream-coloured, while the irides in the female are rather hazel than
yellow. The North American _C. hudsonius_ is very near _C. cyaneus_; South
America possesses _C. cinereus_, and, on the east, _C. maculosus_; _C.
swainsoni_ reaches from South-East Europe to India and China, with Africa
in winter; _C. ranivorus_ and _C. maurus_ occupy South Africa; _C.
spilonotus_ and _C. melanoleucus_ East Asia, the latter being coloured
black, white, and grey; _C. assimilis_ (_jardinii_)–marked with chestnut
above, and spotted with white below–inhabits Australia and Tasmania; _C.
gouldi_ (_approximans_) the same countries, New Zealand, and Fiji; _C.
wolfi_ New Caledonia, _C. spilothorax_ Papuasia, _C. humbloti_ Madagascar,
and _C. maillardi_ (with its variety _macrosceles_) that island, Réunion,
and Anjuan (Joanna).

{156}_Micrastur_, a genus found in Central and northern South America,
somewhat resembles _Accipiter_, being brown or blackish above, relieved by
rufous or grey and white, and white or reddish below with or without
cross-bars. _Geranospizias_ ranges further south, _G. caerulescens_, which
is slaty-blue, with a few white bands beneath, reaching South Brazil and
Bolivia, while the Central American _G. niger_ is nearly uniform black. The
thighs are closely feathered, and the tibio-tarsal joint is said to act
doubly. Five species of _Melierax_ or "Singing Hawk," reside in the
Ethiopian Region, especially in the south, where _M. canorus_ is plentiful.
This form is ash-coloured with black primaries, black and white tail, and
white belly with greyish bars. The habits are bold, the flight is rapid,
the food consists of small mammals, birds, reptiles, and locusts. The
haunts are in rocky places or bush country; the nest of sticks, lined with
wool and feathers, is placed in a tree, and contains from three to five
whitish eggs. The mellow whistling or piping song is heard chiefly in the
morning and evening, the wide-spread African _Asturinula monogrammica_
alone of the Family vying with it in sweetness.

_Astur_ comprises forty or more members, several of which have exact
counterparts in the genus _Accipiter_.[136] The more robust build, shorter
legs, and stouter toes serve as distinctions; but it must be noted that
short wings, long legs, and bill without a notch mark all Accipitrine as
opposed to Falconine forms. The descriptions below will be sufficient to
shew the coloration, as the species, except _A. novae hollandiae_, are very
similar. Inhabitants of the woodland and river-side, they are nearly
cosmopolitan, though absent in parts of the Neotropical Region and in New
Zealand; while several islands have peculiar races. _A. palumbarius_, the
Goshawk, called of old the "Gentle Falcon," is now seldom observed in
Britain, though once it nested in Scotland; it ranges throughout Europe and
Asia to Morocco, and thence to the Himalayas and Japan, or slightly further
south in winter. It is ashy-brown above, with four dark bands on the
white-tipped tail, and is closely barred with brown and white below. Daring
and rapacious, with marvellous power of steerage, it follows the abruptest
turns of its victims with the greatest ease, gliding after them in a low,
persistent style, termed by falconers "raking." The food consists of small
mammals and birds, but _A. badius_ and _A. tachiro_ will eat {157}frogs,
and the latter limpets; the large flat nest of sticks, rarely lined with
roots, is placed in trees, the bluish-white eggs, numbering from three to
five, being occasionally marked with rust-colour. The barely separable
North American _A. atricapillus_ exhibits very close bars below; the
crested _A. trivirgatus_, ranging from India and the Great Sunda Islands to
Formosa, is slaty-grey, having a rufous chest, a white throat with black
median streak, a tail with four brown bands, and white under parts barred
with rufous and brown; _A. badius_, the Shikra, extending in its various
sub-species from Central Russia, Servia, and Greece to China, and many
parts of Africa, is blue-grey with five or six blackish tail-bands, a less
distinct throat-streak, and salmon-coloured lower surface with narrow white
cross-bars. _A. trinotatus_ of Celebes is blackish-grey, with lighter head,
white spots on the median rectrices, uniform vinous breast, white throat
and vent; the young are ferruginous-red above with black markings. Most
remarkable of all is _A. novae hollandiae_ of Southern Australia and
Tasmania–with its smaller race _A. leucosomus_ of Papuasia and the Cape
York district–pure white in colour, with black bill, yellow cere and red
irides, which some writers consider a permanent albino of _A. cinereus_.
_A. hensti_ and _A. franciscae_ are confined to Madagascar, _A. brutus_ and
_A. pusillus_ to Mayotte and Joanna Islands of the Comoros respectively.
_Nisoïdes moreli_, also from Madagascar, a bird with stout bill and white
irides, closely approaches _Astur_.

_Accipiter_ is a genus of some thirty species, which rival Goshawks in
spirit and daring; they inhabit nearly the whole world, but hardly extend
to Polynesia. The flight is quick and vigorous, with rapid turns; the prey
being captured with a dash as the birds skim through the wooded country
they frequent; while it is subsequently devoured on the ground, as is
customary among Accipitrine forms. The large flat nest of twigs,
occasionally lined with roots or leaves, is placed on a tree or rocky
ledge; about four to six bluish-white eggs, usually with heavy blotches or
spots of red-brown, being laid in the central depression. Very puzzling are
the changes of plumage, though by no means confined to this genus; but the
longitudinal spots below in the young are said generally to change with age
to transverse bars, as is the case in the most typical Falcons.[137]

{158}[Illustration: FIG. 40.–Nest of Sparrow-Hawk. _Accipiter nisus._ (From
_Poachers_.)]

The coloration is well shewn by _Accipiter nisus_, the Sparrow-Hawk, which
breeds throughout Europe, North Africa, and Asia north of the Himalayas;
extending further south in winter, but represented in South Africa by _A.
rufiventris_ and _A. ovampensis_ with white-spotted rectrices. It is
bluish-grey above, with white mottlings on the nape and rufous cheeks, the
white-tipped tail exhibiting from three to five dark bands, and the
buffish-white under parts red-brown bars. Other species are blacker or
browner, or more rufous below; _A. rubricollis_ and _A. erythrauchen_ of
the Moluccas have the nape red; the latter, _A. rhodogaster_ of Celebes,
_A. virgatus_ of India and East Asia (including _A. nisoïdes_), _A.
hartlaubi_ of the Gaboon, and _A. ventralis_ of Venezuela, Colombia, and
Ecuador, have nearly uniform ruddy under parts; _A. erythrocnemis_ of
Brazil and Bolivia, and _A. chionogaster_, ranging from Guatemala to
Venezuela are almost white beneath; _A. bicolor_ of Central and South
America having grey-blue for the white. _A. melanoleucus_ of North-East,
West, and South Africa is deep black, with brown bars on the rectrices, and
some white on the {159}tail-coverts and breast; _A. pectoralis_ of Brazil
is brownish-black above, slightly relieved by white, the tail being greyish
with black bands, the collar and chest rufous, the fore-neck and abdomen
white, streaked and barred respectively with black. _A. minullus_ inhabits
South Africa, _A. madagascariensis_ Madagascar, _A. cirrocephalus_
Australia, Tasmania, and Papuasia, _A. chilensis_ Chili, _A. guttatus_
Paraguay and Bolivia, _A. pileatus_ Brazil, _A. collaris_ New Granada;
while the very robust _A. cooperi_ occupies North America southwards to
Mexico, and _A. fuscus_ the same country to Panama. In _A. subniger_
(_tinus_), of Central and South America, and some other species, the young
are red above. _Erythrotriorchis radiatus_ of East and Central Australia, a
rufous bird with dark markings, which lays an egg like that of a
Sparrow-Hawk, may perhaps be placed here, as may _Megatriorchis doriae_ of
New Guinea, in which the blackish upper parts have lighter transverse
stripes, and the white under parts longitudinal dusky streaks.

Sub-fam. 4. _Aquilinae._–The long-legged _Morphnus guianensis_, ranging
from Panama to Amazonia, is black, with three ashy tail-bars, brown head
and chest, and white rufous-banded abdomen; the fine crest is brown with
black tip, the wing- and tail-coverts are varied with white. This bird
haunts thick woods near water, and in habits appears to resemble the next
two genera, which have similar soft plumage, short wings and long tails.
_M. taeniatus_ of Ecuador has broader and blacker bars below. _Harpyopsis
novae guineae_ of New Guinea, and _Thrasaëtus harpyia_, the Harpy,
extending from Mexico, to Paraguay and Bolivia, have blackish-grey upper
parts with a tendency to darker transverse markings; the tail shews six
black bars; and the white under parts exhibit a greyish zone on the chest.
The former species is, moreover, relieved by white above, while a
bifurcated grey crest surmounts the white head and neck of the latter.
Marvellous stories have been told of the fierceness and strength of the
last-named, but despite its huge bill and legs, it seems never to attack
man, though defending itself with spirit when wounded. Found in low-lying
forests and near rivers, it may be seen wheeling in circles with slow heavy
flight, or digesting its meals on low boughs of trees. The diet consists
largely of mammals, including fawns, monkeys, foxes and peccaries; the nest
is in high trees or cliffs. The Indians are very proud of a living
specimen, while the down is used for decoration, and the feathers for
arrow-making. _Harpyopsis_ devours wallabies.

{160}_Pithecophaga jefferyi_, a fine forest Eagle from the Philippines,
with extremely deep and compressed bill, seems to belong here.[138]

The true Eagles–fierce but seldom courageous–inhabit wild mountains,
plains, or forests; resembling Buzzards in their slow heavy flight, and
rarely uttering their shrill cry or yelp. The prey is generally secured by
a pounce; and carrion, if fairly fresh, is eaten. The nest of sticks or
twigs, lined with grass, green foliage, fur or wool, especially the two
first, contains from one to three large white eggs, with or without red or
brownish markings.

The various species of _Spizaëtus_, _Limnaëtus_, _Lophotriorchis_,
_Lophoaëtus_, _Neopus_, and _Nisaëtus_, with comparatively short wings,
long tails, and large claws, are sometimes denominated Hawk-Eagles. Not
usually shy, they are essentially denizens of wooded country, where some
prefer the hilly districts, others the neighbourhood of streams; the food
is extremely varied, including in different cases, monkeys, bucks, lambs,
goats, hares, rabbits, birds as large as bustards and geese, lizards,
frogs, or even fish; while the flight is more graceful and Falcon-like than
in the genus _Aquila_, the note clearer and sharper. The moderately large
nest is composed of sticks, and usually lined with green leaves or
branchlets; the one or two eggs are white, ordinarily with light
reddish-brown markings. _Spizaëtus coronatus_ of South and West Africa is
blackish above, with a little white on the tail-coverts and remiges, and
brownish tips to the triply-barred rectrices, the buff lower parts being
broadly banded with black. _S. tyrannus_, extending from Guatemala to
Brazil, is black beneath; _S. ornatus_, of Central and South America as far
as Paraguay, has the nape and sides of the neck and chest tawny. These
birds have an occipital crest, as have some members of the hardly separable
_Limnaëtus_, of which _L. caligatus_, of India and the Malay countries,
deep brown in colour, with ashy inner webs to the remiges, will serve as an
example. _L. nipalensis_ and _L. cirrhatus_ inhabit India with Ceylon, and
the former Formosa and Japan; _L. philippensis_ the Philippines; _L.
alboniger_ Malacca and Borneo; _L. lanceolatus_ Celebes and the Sula
Islands; _L. gurneyi_ New Guinea and the Moluccas; _L._ (_Lophotriorchis_)
_kieneri_ India, Malacca, Borneo, and Batchian; _L. isidori_ north-western
South America. _Lophoaëtus occipitalis_, of Africa south of the Sahara, is
brown, except for a few white marks above, and has shortly-feathered white
metatarsi. {161}Here the crest is extremely long, but in the nearly black
_Neopus malayensis_, ranging from India to the Moluccas, it is much
shorter. _Spiziastur melanoleucus_, extending from Guatemala to Brazil, is
brownish-black, with white head, neck, and lower surface, the tail has four
darker bands, and black marks shew towards the crest. In this species the
inner claw and hallux are greatly developed. _Nisaëtus pennatus_, the
"Booted Eagle" of South Europe, Africa, and thence to India and Ceylon, so
called from the feathered legs, is brown above, with a white
shoulder-patch, white tip to the barred tail, and various buffish markings;
the head, neck, and under parts are fawn-coloured, with brown streaks
except on the abdomen. _N. fasciatus_, Bonelli's Eagle, has a similar
range, but reaches China, and not South Africa; it lacks the
shoulder-patch, but is streaked on the abdomen. _N. morphnoïdes_ inhabits
Australia and New Guinea, _N. spilogaster_ and _N. bellicosus_ Southern
Africa, the last being slaty-black above, and having a plain brown chest.

The typical Eagle, the bird of Jove, the emblem of Rome and of St. John,
was some species of _Aquila_. _A. chrysaëtus_, the Golden or Black Eagle,
is exceptionally shot in England in winter–especially in the north; but it
is the Sea Eagle that occurs most frequently. In North Britain the former
has bred in increasing numbers since protection has been given in
deer-forests, where it kills the grouse which startle the stalker's game; a
few pairs remain in North and West Ireland; while in times past it ranged
to the Peak of Derbyshire or even Snowdon. Abroad it occupies most of
Europe, North Asia to India and China, North Africa, and North America to
Mexico. Powerful and fierce by nature, and ready to attack animals of
considerable size, it never molests man under ordinary circumstances; both
parents, it is true, circle anxiously round when the young are in danger,
but should the nest contain eggs, the hen, which sits closely, vanishes at
once on leaving them. She does not reappear until all risk seems past,
while the cock is seldom sighted at the eyry, though usually seen in the
vicinity. The prey consists of antelopes, wolves, foxes, fawns, lambs,
hares, rabbits, marmots, geese, ducks, grouse, and so forth, with carrion,
if sufficiently fresh; the ground is often quartered at a low elevation,
and wonderfully rapid in the chase is the flight of this apparently slow
and ponderous bird, aided by its extraordinarily keen powers of vision.
Solitary individuals may occasionally be approached by stalking, but in
Britain they are generally wary, owing to constant {162}disturbance; they
may, however, often be seen circling aloft or winging their way to great
distances, while they can hardly be distinguished from Buzzards in misty
weather even by experienced keepers. Captures are made with the talons, but
Eagles are comparatively seldom trained for Falconry; yet the present
species has been so used in Europe, as well as by the Kirgiz Tartars, who
call it "Bergut" or "Bearcoot." The cry is shrill and yelping. The nest is
commonly placed in a tree, though in Scotland such sites are seldom
utilized nowadays, a projecting rock on the side of some bare mountain-glen
or a sea-girt crag being selected instead. Here a cavity, rather than a
ledge, is chosen, and a huge mass of sticks or heather is collected, with a
bedding of hair, fur, wool, moss, dry fern and an occasional feather, or
more commonly of tufts of _Luzula sylvatica_, garnished with an odd
pine-shoot. Two or three eyries are often used in turn, the pile increasing
on each occasion. At times the spot can be reached without a rope by a
skilful climber, and in some countries nests have been found upon the
ground. The two or three eggs–four being quite exceptional–are generally
marked with red-brown, crimson, purplish or grey, but, though fine blotches
are usual, one if not more of the set is frequently white. They are laid
very early in spring and–as in other Birds of Prey–not always on successive
days. The Golden Eagle is distinguished from the Sea-Eagle (p. 163) by the
feathering reaching to the toes, which have only the last joint
scutellated, and the remainder reticulated: the adult is normally
blackish-brown, with tawny lanceolate nape-plumes and tail mottled with
grey; the young have white bases to the rectrices. The colour, however,
varies much.

_Aquila clanga_, the Spotted Eagle of British lists, and its smaller form,
_A. pomarina_, range across Europe, except the most northern portions, and
extend to North Africa, India, and North China, their respective
distributions being somewhat uncertain. The colour is brown, with pale nape
and light margins to the feathers of the wings and rump; the manners are
those of Eagles generally, but the food includes frogs, reptiles, and
grasshoppers, in addition to small mammals and birds. _A. hastata_ of India
is hardly separable, and the African _A. wahlbergi_ is very similar, as is
the larger _A. nipalensis_, the Steppe Eagle of the former country, Eastern
Europe, Eastern Asia, and, exceptionally, North Africa, a plain brown bird
with a fulvous nuchal patch. It commonly builds its nest {163}upon the
ground. _A. adalberti_, the White-shouldered Eagle of Portugal, Spain, and
North-West Africa–often wrongly called "Imperial,"–preys upon lizards,
snakes, hares and rabbits, which it usually spies from a perch on some bare
tree-top. It is black, with brownish neck, greyish base to the tail, and a
broad white shoulder-patch, whereas _A. mogilnik_, the true Imperial Eagle,
ranging from Central Europe and North-East Africa to India and China,
differs in having the head and neck creamy yellow, and only the scapulars
white. _A. rapax_ (_naevioïdes_), the Tawny Eagle of most of Africa, rarely
found in Europe, is remarkable for the parti-coloured feathers of
purplish-brown and rufous on the upper parts; otherwise it is brown,
slightly streaked with fulvous below. The smaller _A. vindhiana_ and _A.
fulvescens_ of India are very like it, while _A. verreauxi_ of Abyssinia
and South Africa is jet black with white rump and lower back. _Uroaëtus
audax_ of Australia and Tasmania is black, and has a wedge-shaped tail, the
bright chestnut nape being streaked with black, and the head with white.

Of the Sea Eagles, characterized by very large bills and nearly bare
metatarsi, the biggest is the fish-eating _Thalassaëtus pelagicus_, brown
in colour, with white cuneate tail, rump, thighs, and patch on the
wing-coverts. It inhabits the coasts, lakes, and rivers of North East Asia,
the Liu-Kiu Islands and Japan, rarely wandering to America. _T. branickii_
of Corea is slaty-black, with only the tail and its coverts white.
_Haliaëtus albicilla_, the Erne or Sea-Eagle, of which a few pairs remain
in Shetland and the west of Scotland and Ireland, used to breed at least as
far south in England as the Isle of Man and the Lake District, while in
winter immature or even adult specimens still frequently occur in various
parts. Generally distributed over the Old World from Greenland to
Kamtschatka, it breeds also in the Danube valley, Turkey, Greece, and
Egypt, migrating to the Canary Islands, North Africa, Japan, China, and
occasionally the Commander Islands. It is brown with white tail, the full
plumage not being attained for nearly six years; but very old examples
become whitish on the head and neck. In most of its habits it resembles the
Golden Eagle, though the note is shriller, and the food consists largely of
fish, seized in the talons as it swoops down; it is said to be very
destructive to lambs, and, as it eats carrion, it is readily poisoned. In
Britain the eyries are now in precipitous sea-cliffs, but of old inland
rocks and trees were utilized, as is the case abroad, while {164}in Egypt
nests have been found upon the ground in marshes; the two or three white
eggs, laid early in the year, are rarely marked with rufous. The
representative American species _H. leucocephalus_, the Bald Eagle, has the
head, neck, rump, and tail white, and ranges from the North to California
and Mexico. _H. leucocoryphus_, with the middle of the tail and the cheeks
white, extends from South-East Europe to East Siberia, China, and Burma;
_H. leucogaster_, a greyer bird with white head, neck, under parts, and end
of the tail, occurs from India and China to Australia and the Friendly
Islands; _H. vocifer_ with white head, neck, breast, and tail, but chestnut
belly, occupies the Ethiopian Region; _H. vociferoïdes_ of Madagascar is
intermediate between the last-named and _H. leucocoryphus_. The
river-haunting _Polioaëtus ichthyaëtus_, of the Indian Region and Celebes,
is brown, with grey head and neck, white abdomen and tail, the latter
broadly tipped with brown; _P. plumbeus_, of similar range, lacks the white
base of the tail. The huge nest is placed in a tree and is often lined with
green leaves, the two or three eggs being white; the note is loud and
plaintive, and the food consists chiefly of fish.

Sub-fam. 5. _Buteoninae_, or Buzzards and Kites.–In this group the
Rough-legged Buzzards (_Archibuteo_) are separated from the genus _Buteo_
on account of their feathered metatarsi. _A. lagopus_, well-known in
Britain from the numbers which frequently appear in autumn, is alleged to
have bred once in Yorkshire, while in Northern Europe it is common,
extending thence to about the Lena in Asia, and migrating in winter to
South Europe, Turkestan, and even Natal. At the same season a darker
sub-species _A. sancti johannis_, which breeds north of the United States,
occurs southwards to Mexico. The former bird is cream-coloured, with brown
markings of various depth, becoming more streaky below; the tail shews a
white base and three or four dark cross-bars, of which the sub-terminal is
very broad. In Scandinavia, when there is a plague of lemmings, it is as
valuable an ally as the owls; the habits being identical with those of
_Buteo_. _A. ferrugineus_ of western North America has the upper surface
and thighs ferruginous with brown streaks, the head, neck, and tail whiter,
and the under parts nearly pure white. _A. hemiptilopus_ (_strophiatus_) of
Nepal and Tibet is nearly uniform brown with a white pectoral band.

_Buteo_ is a genus of some thirty species, which together inhabit nearly
the whole globe, except the Australian region; the {165}only form thence
recorded seeming to be _B. solitarius_ of the Sandwich Archipelago–the
_Pandion solitarius_ of Cassin and so-called _Onychotes gruberi_ of Mr.
Ridgway. All may be represented both in appearance and manners by _B.
vulgaris_, the Common Buzzard, which breeds not uncommonly in a few wild
districts of Britain, chiefly towards the west, and is found on migration
in other parts. Abroad the range includes the Atlantic Islands, West and
Central Europe, whence it strays at times to Eastern Europe, Asia Minor,
and North Africa; the resident bird of those countries, however, is _B.
desertorum_. The colour above is brown, with slight white marks and twelve
dusky bars on the tail, the lower surface being yellowish-white with brown
streaks; but varieties are very frequent in the genus, and these may be
either darker or exhibit creamy tints, a trimorphic tendency of which the
Sandwich Islands form is a notable instance. The English name Puttock and
the Welsh Cetn appear to be applied indiscriminately to the Common Buzzard
and the Kite. The flight is powerful, though slow and heavy, nor is it
uncommon to see individuals circling in the air or poising themselves aloft
on motionless wings; when quartering the ground the movements are not
unlike those of Harriers, but the style is more steady, and the operations
less protracted. Much of the food consists of small mammals, and especially
rodents; it includes, however, small birds, reptiles, frogs, beetles, and
grasshoppers; and many gamekeepers now recognise the bird's utility by
protecting its breeding-quarters. Its congener _B. jakal_ is even more
useful, and destroys large or venomous snakes. Furthermore, the custom of
darting upon the prey from some post of vantage remains to be noticed. The
nest, commonly situated in trees, is equally often in rocks; those selected
not being necessarily lofty, but frequently mere outcrops on the sides of
hill-valleys, in which case access is easy even without a rope. The
materials used are much the same as in the case of the Golden Eagle, but
finer; a like fancy being shewn for green foliage, though ivy and so forth
take the place of pine-shoots, as being more readily obtainable. The eggs
are white or greenish, commonly blotched or spotted to a greater or less
extent with dark brown, red, or lilac; the hen sits very closely, the cock
meanwhile soaring above the intruder's head, and uttering his
characteristic cat-like mew. _B. desertorum_, of all Africa, South-East
Europe, and the countries to India inclusive, which has been {166}recorded
three times in England, is smaller and more decidedly rufous than _B.
vulgaris_, though hardly distinguishable when immature; while the bigger
_B. ferox_ of similar range, though apparently limited in Africa to the
North, is closely allied; as are _B. plumipes_, extending from India to
Japan (of which _B. leucocephalus_ is a large and probably distinct form)
and _B. swainsoni_ of North America, which migrates as far south as
Patagonia, and has almost uniform upper parts and chest. _B. borealis_, the
"Red-tailed Hawk," occupying with its various races the whole of North
America, has a rufous tail with lighter tip and usually a single blackish
band, the breast being sooty-black or white, with or without a reddish
tinge; _B. albicaudatus_, reaching from Texas to Brazil, is slaty-grey,
with rusty markings on the mantle, white under parts and tail, the latter
showing grey bars and a wide subterminal black cross-belt; while _B.
abbreviatus_, found from the southern United States to northern South
America, is almost black, with three broad grey and white zones across the
rectrices. _B. augur_ and _B. auguralis_, both from North-East and West
Africa, with _B. jakal_ of South Africa, have the upper parts black, some
grey on the wings, and the tail chestnut except near the end. The first has
a black throat with white streaks and white lower surface, the second a
red-brown chest and black spots on the belly, the third is black below with
a whitish pectoral patch. Finally, omitting several American species from
want of space, _B. brachypterus_–a miniature Common Buzzard–is peculiar to
Madagascar, _B. galapagensis_ to the Galapagos, _B. exsul_ to Masafuera,
_B. poliosomus_ to Chili, Patagonia, and the Falklands.

_Parabuteo unicinctus_, ranging from the southern United States to Chili
and Argentina, a sluggish carrion eater, is sooty-brown with rufous on the
wing-coverts and thighs, and a white base and tip to the tail. _Buteola
brachyura_ and _B. leucorrhoa_ of tropical America, separated from _Buteo_
by a central tubercle in the nostril, are black above; the former being
white below and having four dark bars on the ashy tail, the latter only
shewing white at the base of the black rectrices, which are crossed by one
grey bar.

_Asturina_, placed near _Astur_ by some authors, includes two species with
Buzzard-like habits, that build slight nests and lay greenish-white eggs.
_A. plagiata_, found from the South-West United States to Panama, is grey,
barred with black on the primaries and with white below, while a white
median band {167}crosses the rectrices, of which the coverts are black and
white. _A. nitida_, reaching from Panama to south-east Brazil, differs in
having white bars above. _Rupornis magnirostris_ of Colombia, Guiana, and
Amazonia–hardly separable from _Asturina_–has three black belts on the tail
and is rufous instead of grey beneath; _R. ruficauda_ of Central America,
_R. pucherani_ of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, and its Bolivian race
_R. saturata_, have the chestnut remiges and rufous rectrices crossed with
blackish, and the under surface as in the first-named, but the second is
browner and shows a creamy patch on the primaries; _R. nattereri_, of Peru
and Brazil, combines the chestnut primaries with an ashy and black tail;
_R. ridgwayi_, of Haiti, is chiefly rufous and brown above, and
slate-coloured with white bands below. _R. pucherani_ is very noisy and
eats fish.

_Butastur teesa_ (with its sub-species _indicus_) ranges from Japan and
China to New Guinea and India; it is reddish-brown, varied with white on
the nape and rump, the tail and lower parts being rufous, with black and
white bars respectively. _B. liventer_, found from Burma to Celebes, is
ashy below; _B. rufipennis_ of North-East Africa, has streaks in place of
bars. The pugnacious Indian form has a mewing cry, feeds upon small
mammals, lizards, frogs, and crabs, and builds its nest almost entirely of
twigs, laying some three bluish-white eggs. _Geranoaëtus melanoleucus_ of
western and southern South America, the so-called Chilian "Sea-Eagle," is
black with grey wings and white belly, both barred with dusky; the flight
is vulturine with spiral gyrations, the note is piercing; the food consists
of carrion from the beach, small mammals, birds, and grasshoppers. The
nest, placed in a tree or crag, is composed of sticks and grass, the two
white eggs being blotched with pale red. It is often seen inland.

_Leucopternis_ is a genus of eleven members, of which _L. ghiesbreghti_, of
Central America, is snowy-white, with most of the wings and a zone on the
tail black. The other forms, whereof three inhabit Brazil, are black or
slate-coloured above with white markings, the lower surface being grey in
_L. plumbea_ of Ecuador and Panama and _L. schistacea_ of Colombia and
Amazonia, but barred with black and white in _L. princeps_, of Costa Rica.
_Urubitinga zonura_, a black bird with white tip and base to the tail,
ranges from Mexico to Chili and Argentina; {168}_U. anthracina_, found from
Arizona and Texas to northern South America, has in addition a white belt
across the rectrices.

The crested _Harpyhaliaëtus coronatus_, extending from Bolivia and Brazil
to Patagonia, a powerful and savage bird with a taste for carrion, is
chocolate-brown, with grey on the wing, and a tail like that of the last
species; _H. solitarius_, darker in colour and doubtfully distinct,
reaching Mexico northwards. _Heterospizias meridionalis_, of northern South
America to Bolivia and Paraguay, is mottled with rufous, grey, and black,
and has two white bands on the tail. _Buteogallus aequinoctialis_, of
Guiana and Colombia, is black relieved with rusty above, and reddish with
black bars below, the remiges being chiefly chestnut, and the tail
indistinctly barred with white. _Busarellus nigricollis_, of Guiana and
Brazil, is brighter chestnut with black streaks, the head being buffish,
the lower throat, primaries, and most of the tail black. It has a harsh
cry, and loves sitting on stumps near water, while the rugose soles of the
feet assist it to secure the fishes and molluscs on which it–as well as
_Buteogallus_–feeds.

Of the forms with comparatively weaker feet, _Haliastur indus_, the
"Brahminy Kite" or "Pondicherry Eagle," reaching from the Indian Region to
Australia and New Guinea, is chestnut with darker wings, the white head,
neck, and lower parts being streaked with black; _H. sphenurus_, of the two
latter countries and New Caledonia, named by colonists the "Whistling
Kite," is ashy-brown, with rufous head and ochraceous breast striped with
brown. The note is shrill, the flight easy and buoyant, the food composed
of garbage, small mammals, birds, lizards, frogs, crustaceans, insects and
their larvae; while fish are secured by grasping them with one foot during
gliding movements along the surface of the water. The Australian species
attacks poultry, but is of great utility in devouring caterpillars during
insect-plagues. The nest of twigs, lined with grass, roots, hair, or green
leaves, is adorned with rags and the like, the two or three eggs being
greenish-white, rarely with rusty markings.

_Milvus ictinus_, the Red Kite or Fork-tailed Glead of the Old World,
ranging from the Atlantic Islands–except, perhaps, the Azores–through most
of Europe to Palestine, Asia Minor, and Northern Africa, but leaving the
northerly districts in autumn, is red-brown above and rusty-red beneath,
the lower surface and the whitish head being streaked with dark brown.

{169}[Illustration: FIG. 41.–Red Kite. _Milvus ictinus._ × ⅛. (From _Bird
Life in Sweden_.)]

It is still known to breed in certain parts of Northern and Western
Britain, though no longer the ubiquitous scavenger of the streets, so
common even in London three or four centuries ago. Bold thefts of poultry
from farmyards and linen from drying-grounds then counterbalanced its
utility, but none the less may we regret the almost total extermination of
this fine tenant of the air, caused by the increase of fire-arms and the
discovery that its tail-feathers make the choicest salmon-flies. Not unlike
a Buzzard when aloft, the shrill whistling note, when heard, constitutes a
clear mark of distinction; while the broad wings and long deeply-forked
tail bestow such graceful ease of motion and perfect steerage power as few
birds can claim, whether for soaring and circling aloft, quartering the
ground for booty, or hovering over the water to fish. It is not always,
however, that the forked character of the tail is apparent, for when fully
open it looks square, just as a square tail seems rounded. This species
{170}is somewhat gregarious and sluggish, and feeds on offal, small
mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, amphibians, insects and their larvae. The
nest is a mass of sticks, rags, paper, and rubbish generally, placed in a
tree or rarely in a rock; the three, or exceptionally four, eggs being like
those of the Buzzard, but duller and with more lilac tints. _Milvus
migrans_, the Black Kite, once recorded in England, extends throughout
Central and Southern Europe, and probably to China, breeding in
North-Western and migrating to Southern Africa. The upper parts are dark
brown, the under parts rufous, and the head whitish, the two latter being
streaked with dusky; the bill is black and the tail moderately forked.
Barely separable from this bird are _Milvus aegyptius_ of Africa,
Madagascar, South-East Europe, and West Asia, with yellow bill; _M.
affinis_, of Papuasia and Australia, possibly reaching Ceylon; _M.
melanotis_, extending from India to Lake Baikal, China, and Japan; and the
smaller _M. govinda_ of somewhat similar range. The third and fourth have a
white patch beneath the primaries. The last-named, or Pariah Kite, is the
scavenger of Hindostan, and is even bolder than its congeners; the habits,
however, are similar, as are those of the Australian _Lophoictinia isura_,
separated from _Milvus_ on account of its square tail. This species has a
fine crest, and differs, moreover, in its browner crown and greyer
rectrices with whitish coverts.

_Gypoictinia melanosternon_ of Australia has a black head and lower
surface, chestnut occiput, nape, and thighs, and brownish- or rufous-black
upper parts, the wings and rounded tail being marked with greyish white.
Like a Kite in manners, it eats snakes and lizards, and is said to destroy
Bustard's and Emeu's eggs.[139] _Elanoïdes furcatus_, the lovely
Swallow-tailed Kite, caught once in England, and ranging from the Middle
United States to Brazil, is black, with purple and green reflexions, white
head, neck, rump, inner secondaries and under parts, bluish bill and feet.
With splendid powers of wing, it may be seen gliding rapidly through the
air, skilfully quartering the ground, or circling aloft with its long
forked tail outspread, to perform doublings and evolutions of every
description. It catches bees or other insects in one claw and eats them as
it flies, or snatches up a lizard, snake, or frog, to be devoured at
leisure, small birds and grubs varying the diet. Flocks are often seen,
which {171}hang round a wounded individual like Terns. In the nest and eggs
this species and the last resemble their kin, though using no rubbish in
building. _Nauclerus riocouri_, of inter-tropical Africa, a miniature
_Elanoïdes_, is grey, with white face and lower surface.

_Gampsonyx swainsoni_, of Trinidad, Guiana, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil, is
grey, with yellow face, white collar, under parts and tips to the
secondaries; a black patch relieving each side of the breast and one of red
the upper back. The tail is rounded in this and the succeeding genus.
_Elanus caeruleus_, the Black-winged Kite, straying to South-West Europe,
but properly ranging from the South-East to India, Ceylon, and all Africa,
is ashy-grey above with a black patch on the wing-coverts; the face,
lateral rectrices, and all the lower plumage being white, and the irides
red. A sub-species, _E. hypoleucus_, occupies Borneo, Java, the
Philippines, and Celebes. _E. scriptus_ of Australia, _E. axillaris_,
extending thence to Java, and the hardly separable _E. leucurus_ of
tropical and sub-tropical America, are marked with black on the under
wing-coverts, while the first has black axillaries also. These buoyant
birds are fond of perching, but soar with ease, quartering the plains like
Harriers, or hovering with uplifted wings to dart down upon their prey of
insects, snakes, small mammals, and more rarely birds. The cry is mournful;
the small nest, of sticks, grass, and moss, is placed in trees; the three,
four, or even eight white eggs being heavily blotched with red. _Ictinia
mississippiensis_, the Mississippi Kite, found from the Southern United
States to Guatemala, and represented from Mexico to Paraguay by the
black-winged _I. plumbea_, is lead-coloured, with black notched tail and
rufous inner webs to the primaries; its manners correspond to those of
_Elanoïdes_, but the eggs are white.

That most abnormal form _Rostrhamus sociabilis_, the Awl-billed or
Everglade Kite, ranging from Florida and Cuba to Bolivia and Argentina, is
slaty-black, with white base and tip to the brownish emarginate tail,
orange cere and feet, and crimson irides. The extraordinarily slender bill
with long terminal hook no doubt assists greatly in extracting from their
shells the molluscs, such as _Ampullaria_, on which this species entirely
subsists, while its long legs and sharp talons help to secure the prey in
the muddy swamps it frequents. Mr. Gibson[140] tells us that it is to some
extent gregarious, and is often seen slowly beating over the {172}marshes,
or poised aloft with its broad expanded tail alone in motion, a "creaking"
or "neighing" alarm-note being apparently the only cry. Twenty or thirty
nests are commonly built close together, and are slight platforms of twigs
or plant-stems, with a lining of aquatic herbage, supported on the reeds or
bushes a few feet above the water. The two or three eggs are whitish with
reddish- or yellowish-brown and grey blotches. The breeding-quarters are
constantly changed.

_Machaerorhamphus alcinus_, of Tenasserim, Malacca, Borneo, Sumatra, and
New Guinea, is especially remarkable for the wide gape of the short bill,
which recalls that of the Caprimulgidae. All the tail-coverts are unusually
elongated, a fine crest of pointed feathers adorns the occiput, and the
plumage is black with a chocolate tinge, the throat and middle of the chest
being white, with a broad black streak down the former. _M. anderssoni_, of
Damara-Land, the Cameroons, and Madagascar, known to have crepuscular
tendencies and to feed partly on bats, is smaller, and has a white abdomen;
_M. revoili_, of Somali-Land, is intermediate.

_Pernis apivorus_, the Honey-Buzzard, which still breeds occasionally in
Britain in June, when the dense foliage easily causes it to be overlooked,
inhabits Europe generally, and probably extends to Japan, migrating in
winter to Madagascar and South Africa. The extremely complex phases of
plumage make it uncertain whether it shares the Indian Region with the
similar but crested _P. ptilorhynchus_ (_cristatus_), from which _P.
tweeddalii_, of Sumatra, is doubtfully separable. The upper parts are
brown, with greyish head and three or four dark bands on the tail, the
lower white with brown spots and bars. White mottlings usually shew above,
and the female has the crown brown. The shortly-feathered lores distinguish
_Pernis_ from _Buteo_. Our woodland species feeds upon the ground, and
devours bees, wasps, and grubs–though not honey–from the comb, together
with small mammals, birds, slugs, and worms; the cry is shrill, but seldom
heard; the nest, composed of sticks lined with leaves, contains two or
three whitish eggs with rich purplish-red or brown markings. _P.
celebensis_ differs in the rufous chest, which exhibits black streaks, that
are continued to the white throat with its black longitudinal band; the
adult closely resembles _Limnaëtus lanceolatus_, both being peculiar to
Celebes. _Henicopernis longicaudatus_, of Papuasia, is brown barred with
black above, and white streaked with blackish below, {173}the tail shewing
five black bands; _H. infuscatus_, of New Britain, is a darker race.
_Regerhinus uncinatus_, and the larger _R. megarhynchus_, found from
Central America to Bolivia and Brazil, are dusky slate-coloured with a
white tail-bar; _R. wilsoni_, of Cuba, has a yellow bill; _R._ (_Leptodon_)
_cayennensis_ is glossy black, with grey head, wing and tail-bands, and
white lower surface. Immature birds are brown, with rufous and white
streaks or bars below.

Sub-fam. 6. _Falconinae._–The true Falcons are remarkable for a notched
maxilla, while _Harpagus_ and the crested _Baza_, aberrant members of the
group, and sometimes classed with the Kites, exhibit two "teeth." _B.
lophotes_, of India, Ceylon, and the Malay countries, is greenish-black
above, varied with white and chestnut on the wings; the fore-neck being
white, and the breast shewing a band of black above one of chestnut, which
is barred with buff towards the black vent. _B. verreauxi_, occurring from
the Zambesi to Natal, is dark brownish-grey, with four black bars on the
white-tipped tail, and rufous bands across the white breast and under
wing-coverts; _B. cuculoïdes_, of West Africa, having the latter plain
rufous. The somewhat similar _B. subcristata_ occupies North-East
Australia, _B. rufa_ inhabits the Moluccas and Papuasia, _B. timorlaensis_
Timor-laut, _B. erythrothorax_ Celebes and the Sula Islands, _B.
magnirostris_ the Philippines, _B. borneensis_ Borneo, _B. leucopais_
Paláwan, _B. sumatrensis_ Sumatra, Tenasserim, and Sikkim, _B. ceylonensis_
Ceylon and South-East India, _B. madagascariensis_ Madagascar, and _B.
reinwardti_, with grey-barred breast, the Moluccas, Timor, and Papuasia.
Comparatively little is known of the habits of these shy forest forms,
which occasionally soar, feed upon the ground on chamaeleons, grasshoppers
and other insects, build small nests, and lay about three whitish eggs with
brown markings. _Harpagus diodon_, of British Guiana and Brazil, is grey,
with brown wings and tail barred with whitish, white throat with a black
streak, rufous thighs and under wing-coverts. _H. bidentatus_, extending
from Panama to Brazil and Peru, has chestnut under parts, _H. fasciatus_
being hardly separable.

Of the tiny eastern "Finch-falcons," _Microhierax fringillarius_,
inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and Great Sunda Islands, is bluish-black,
with rufous throat and abdomen, the breast, forehead, a stripe down each
side of the neck, and partial bars on the wings and tail being white. It is
a bold dashing species, which feeds upon insects and birds–even as large as
quails, and lays four white eggs in holes {174}in trees upon a bed of
chips, leaves, and insect-débris. _M. latifrons_, of Borneo and the
Nicobars, has a much wider frontal band; _M. melanoleucus_ of Assam and
Cachar, _M. erythrogenys_ of the Philippines, and _M. sinensis_ of China
are quite white below; but the second has black thighs and the third a
white nape, a character shared by _M. eutolmus_, ranging from India to
Cambodia, wherein the throat and abdomen are chestnut. _Poliohierax
semitorquatus_, little bigger than the foregoing, inhabits North-East and
South Africa, the male being blue-grey with white forehead, cheeks, nape,
rump, under parts and markings on the remiges and rectrices; _P. insignis_
of Borneo and Siam is larger, with black shaft-stripes, but no white
collar. The females have the mantle, and in the last-named the crown,
chestnut. The African species rarely soars, but haunts low trees and
bushes, occasionally flocking, and feeding on mice, small birds, lizards,
and coleopterous insects. _Spiziapteryx circumcinctus_, of Chili and
Argentina, is brown above and whitish below, with numerous dark streaks;
the white eyebrows meet at the nape, and white spots and bands mark the
remiges and lateral rectrices.

_Dissodectes ardesiacus_, of Arabia, North-East and West Africa, is
slate-coloured with dark shaft-stripes, the wing-quills being brown and the
tail interruptedly barred with whitish. _D. dickinsoni_ of Benguela, the
Shiré and Rovuma valleys, is brown with pale head and white rump; _D.
zoniventris_ of Madagascar has dark bands on the mantle and on the white
under parts. _Hieracidea_ (_Harpa_) _novae zealandiae_, the Quail Hawk of
New Zealand and the Chatham Islands, is dark brown with rufous and grey
barring above; the crown and nape being blacker, the tail shewing eight
whitish bands, and the creamy-white lower surface and fulvous thigh-region
exhibiting streaks of brown. It may be seen soaring over the plains and
lower hills, hovering with expanded tail, or pouncing like an arrow on the
rodents, birds, and lizards which form its food. Insects too are captured
on the wing, and poultry fiercely attacked. The cry is screaming; the eggs
resemble those of the Peregrine Falcon, and are deposited in hollows
scraped on rocky ledges, or occasionally in rough nests among thick
creepers. A smaller and bolder race has been termed _H. ferox_ or
_brunnea_, the Bush-Hawk. _H. berigora_ of Australia and New Guinea has
brown upper parts, with rufous markings that become bands on the
white-tipped tail, creamy under parts streaked with {175}brown, and
chestnut thighs. _H. orientalis_ of the same countries lacks the red tints,
_H. novae guineae_ of New Guinea is less spotted. These three Kestrel-like
birds love swampy districts, and devour small mammals, birds, frogs,
lizards, newts, insects, and even carrion; being valuable allies in
caterpillar-plagues, but farmyard pests at ordinary times. The nest of
sticks, lined with bark or leaves, is placed in trees, the three or four
whitish eggs are blotched with reddish-brown.

The nearly cosmopolitan genus _Tinnunculus_ (Kestrel), so called from its
querulous "bell-like" note, is separated from _Falco_ rather by pattern of
colour than structural considerations. _T. alaudarius_, the most plentiful
of the British Falconidae–which is occasionally seen in winter near its
breeding-quarters, though chiefly a summer immigrant–ranges from the
Atlantic Islands and lat. 68° N. in Europe, through Asia to Japan and
China, reaching Fantee and Mombasa in Africa, and having been once recorded
from Massachusetts in America. The sub-species _neglectus_, _japonicus_,
and _saturatus_ are darker than the type; wherein the male is chiefly
bluish-grey above, and buff with black spots and streaks below; the
chestnut back being spotted with black, and the white-tipped tail having a
broad subterminal black band. The female has rufous upper parts, with dark
bars continued down the tail. The Kestrel or Wind-hover is a shy arboreal
bird of somewhat crepuscular tendencies, generally observed circling
gracefully aloft in readiness to drop upon its prey, or "hovering" with
rapid vibrations of the long wings, the tail expanded and the head to
windward. Small mammals and coleoptera furnish most of the food, a few
birds–very seldom game–lizards, frogs, worms, grasshoppers, and
insect-larvae varying the diet. Its great utility is now generally
recognised, while sensible keepers should be fast learning that all Hawks
and Owls are not vermin. It rarely builds its own nest, but occupies
deserted habitations of Crows, Pies, and other birds, relined sparingly
with twigs and grass, or scrapes a cup in the soil of some ledge or cavity
of a cliff. At times hollow trees, ruins, and chalk-pits are chosen, or
even level ground in the fens–pellets of bones, feathers, fur, and beetles'
elytra commonly marking the spot. The four to six eggs are creamy-white,
blotched or thickly mottled with bright or dull red. _T. cenchris_, the
Lesser Kestrel, with white claws, and unspotted back in the male, has four
or five times {176}wandered to England, and ranges from the Pyrenees,
Styria, and the Orenburg district to Bokhara and North Africa. It sometimes
occurs further north, and in winter reaches Cape Colony; the Indian and
Chinese race, distinguished as _T. pekinensis_, having strayed to the
Transvaal. _T. sparverius_, the "Sparrow-Hawk" of America from the Great
Slave Lake to Colombia, which occasionally feeds on snakes, and breeds in
Woodpeckers' holes, has two sub-species, _T. cinnamominus_ of Central and
South America and _T. caribbaearum_ of the Antilles. _T. dominicensis_
(_sparverioïdes_) inhabits Cuba and St. Domingo, and occurs in Florida; _T.
isabellinus_ ranges from Georgia to northern South America; _T. alopex_
from Nubia to Bogos-Land; _T. rupicolus_ and the more northern _T.
rupicoloïdes_ occupy South Africa; _T. gracilis_ the Seychelles; _T.
punctatus_ Mauritius; _T. newtoni_ Madagascar; _T. moluccensis_ the
Moluccas and the Sunda Islands; _T. cenchroïdes_ Australia and Tasmania. It
is remarkable that no Kestrel inhabits Jamaica or Bourbon, though Cuba and
Mauritius are respectively so near them.

_Erythropus vespertinus_, the Red-footed Falcon, which wanders to Britain,
but breeds from Eastern Europe and Algeria to Krasnoiarsk, where it meets
the Eastern Asiatic _E. amurensis_, is lead-grey in the male, with browner
tail, chestnut thighs and vent region; the female being barred with
blackish above, and having the head, nape, and under surface rufous. The
cere, orbits, and feet are red. Both forms migrate to South Africa, keeping
more to the west and east respectively; the latter, which crosses India and
Burma, being distinguished in the male by white under wing-coverts, and in
the female by the absence of rufous on the head, neck, and brown-spotted
breast. In general habits like Kestrels, these birds are more gregarious,
and breed in company.

_Hypotriorchis subbuteo_, the Hobby, nests sporadically in England, and
extends thence to North Africa and Japan, occurring in the Canaries and
migrating to South Africa, North India, and China. Both sexes are
slate-coloured, having buff lower parts with black streaks, reddish vent,
white throat and sides of the neck, and a black stripe down the latter.
This bold and dashing little Falcon, easily recognisable by the extremely
long wings, which give it a Swift-like appearance, is usually seen poised
aloft, or rapidly pursuing the insects and birds which form its food. The
note is shrill; the three to five eggs resemble closely freckled pinkish
specimens of those of the Kestrel, and are {177}deposited late in the
season in disused birds' nests. The statement that it broods on the eggs of
the Kestrel needs further proof. _H. eleonorae_, the largest Old World
species of the genus, occupying the Mediterranean basin from Spain and the
Atlas to the Levant, while straying to Mauritius, is uniform sooty-black;
but some individuals never become sooty, and immature examples precisely
resemble the Hobby. The habits are like those of its congener, but the two
or three eggs are larger, and are laid in holes in cliffs, or upon the bare
soil on stony flats of desolate islands. The very similar _H. concolor_
ranges from the Red Sea to Madagascar; _H. cuvieri_ inhabits the Ethiopian
Region; _H. ophryophanes_ is described from Colonia; _H. severus_ extends
from India and Ceylon to New Britain, but not to Australia; _H. lunulatus_
from Flores to the Duke of York Island, with Australia and Tasmania; _H.
fusco-caerulescens_ and _H. rufigularis_ from Mexico to Argentina, the
former moreover reaching the southern United States and Patagonia. The
powerful _H. diroleucus_–perhaps referable to the genus _Falco_–occurs from
South Mexico to Peru and Brazil.

_Aesalon regulus_, the Merlin, called the Stone-Falcon from its habit of
perching on rocks, is a lively and interesting little species, daring yet
confiding, which preys chiefly upon small birds, and flies less swiftly
than the Hobby, though both are used for Lark-hawking. The shrill note is
chiefly heard at the breeding-quarters, which in Britain are generally on
steep hill-slopes, especially where stony outcrops break the heather or
grass; from four to six eggs–duller and less blotched than those of the
Kestrel, being deposited in a hole scraped in the bare ground. Abroad–and
exceptionally in Scotland–old nests in trees or rocky ledges are utilized,
and the bird is perhaps occasionally its own architect. Fairly common north
of Derbyshire its summer range extends over the moorlands from Shetland to
Devonshire, and includes Ireland, while it visits the sea-coast in autumn.
It occurs accidentally in Greenland, and reaches thence to the Pyrenees and
the Alps, being found across Northern and Central Europe and Asia, and
migrating to North Africa, North India, and South China. The male is
slaty-blue with rusty nape and under surface, and is streaked with dusky
throughout; the throat is white, as is the tip of the tail, which, besides
six imperfect bars, shows a broad sub-terminal black band. The dark brown
female has the lower parts white, the rectrices exhibiting eight light
{178}bars. In the very similar _Ae. columbarius_, the "Pigeon Hawk" of
North America, extending to Venezuela and Ecuador, the tail-bars in the
respective sexes are four and six. This species and the following usually
build in trees, using twigs, roots, grass, and moss for their nests. _Ae._
(_Chicquera_) _typus_, the Indian "Turumti," is a larger bird, both male
and female being grey above and white below, with red head and dark barring
nearly throughout, while Ethiopian _Ae._ (_C._) _ruficollis_ is slightly
less striped.

The most typical member of the Family is _Falco peregrinus_, the almost
cosmopolitan Peregrine Falcon, of which the sub-species _F. melanogenys_
and _F. ernesti_, the commonest forms from the Sunda Islands to China and
Fiji, are more closely barred below, though not so broadly as _F. cassini_
of the extreme south of America. The colour is slaty-grey above with darker
transverse markings, the head and a stripe down each side of the neck being
blackish, and the under parts ruddy-white banded with black. Young birds
are browner, and are streaked instead of barred. Barely separable is the
smaller and darker _F. minor_ of South Africa, the Comoro Islands, and
Madagascar, with its larger race _F. punicus_, found from Morocco along
both sides of the Mediterranean to Asia Minor. _F. barbarus_, also of the
Mediterranean region, but chiefly confined to Africa north of the Niger,
and the Soudan, is distinguished by its red nape, brightest in the larger
sub-species, _F. babylonicus_, which occurs from Babylonia to North India.
The Peregrine Falcon, often erroneously called Goshawk in Scotland–a fact
accounting for many British records of the latter–is for its size the most
powerful of the Family; and, being one of the "noble" or long-winged forms,
is much used in Falconry, wherein the male is termed "Tiercel" and the
female "Falcon," as in many other species; while Hunting Hawk, "Blue Hawk,"
and, for the young, "Red Hawk," are names common to both sexes.

Far the most daring of our Birds of prey, the fierceness and courage are
especially shewn in defence of its nestlings, both parents dashing angrily
at an intruder, and, though rarely touching him, swooping down in
unpleasant proximity, as he clambers along some narrow ledge or swings upon
his rope. Should, however, the hen-bird, which sits very closely, have
fresh eggs, she disappears on leaving them, though her consort flies wildly
to and fro at some little distance, reiterating his shrill cry.
Exceptionally {179}savage adults may even strike the person; nevertheless,
Skuas and certain Owls are decidedly more dangerous, whereas the ordinary
Eagle is mild in comparison. The food consists of ducks, guillemots,
pigeons, grouse, and partridges, varied by rabbits and so forth; yet, in
spite of the undoubted damage caused to game, preservers would be wise to
spare a due proportion of individuals in view of their utility in killing
off the more weakly and diseased birds. The two to four eggs, usually
finely blotched or thickly mottled with rich red on a creamy ground–though
one is often paler or yellowish–are deposited in a hollow scraped on some
bare or grassy ledge of a sea-girt or inland cliff; but occasionally nests
in trees are utilized, or broken ground in northern regions. Two or more
sites are often tenanted in turn. Long distances are traversed in search of
food, the survivor of a pair mating again marvellously quickly, considering
the comparatively scanty supply of partners.

_F. peregrinator_ (_atriceps_), the Shaheen or Royal Falcon, of India,
Ceylon, and Tenasserim, distinguishable by the deep ferruginous under
surface and the general absence of barring, is much prized by natives for
hawking, as is the docile but delicate and less courageous Lanner (_F.
feldeggi_ or _tanypterus_) by the Bedouins. The latter is buffish-brown,
with ruddy crown and nape, a grey tinge towards the rufous-barred tail, and
fawn-coloured lower parts with brown spots; it ranges from Loango and
Unyamuesi in Africa as far as South Europe and Persia, and lays four
eggs–lighter than those of the Peregrine–in rocks, ruins, or disused birds'
nests, the Dashoor Pyramid being a well-known site. _F. biarmicus_, a close
ally from South Africa, is nearly spotless below.

Of the genus _Gennaea_ or "Desert Falcon," _G. sacer_ (_lanarius_ or
_milvipes_), the Saker, found from North Africa and East Europe to North
China, has brown upper parts mottled with fulvous, whitish crown, nape, and
lower surface streaked with brown, and white markings across the tail. A
swift and fairly bold denizen of open country, it is used for bustard-,
gazelle- or heron-hawking by Indians and Arabs, while it also preys on
hares, birds, and lizards. It deposits three or four rather pointed white
eggs, blotched or spotted with various shades of red, in a nest of sticks
and grass, normally placed in a tree. _G. jugger_, the Luggur of India and
Afghanistan, differs in being greyer above and less streaked below, with
rufous crown and nearly uniform tail, whereas _G. mexicana_ (_polyagrus_),
the Prairie {180}Falcon of Mexico and the western United States, has the
head brown. _G. hypoleuca_, of Australia, is grey and black, with barred
tail, and dusky shaft-streaks on the whitish lower parts; _G. subnigra_ of
the same country being almost plain blackish-brown.

Much controversy has arisen concerning the noble Arctic Falcons
(_Hierofalco_), especially those occupying Siberia and Northern America; it
seems, however, most probable that three grey forms inhabit the latter and
two the former region. In _H. candicans_, the Greenland Falcon, the
prevailing colour is white at all ages, transversely marked above and
spotted below with blackish; it occurs in North Greenland, Spitsbergen,
Arctic Siberia and America, the Commander Islands, and Amur-land. _H.
gyrfalco_, the Gyr- or Jer-Falcon[141] of Arctic America, Greenland,
Scandinavia, Northern Russia, and possibly North Asia, is like a large
Peregrine Falcon, but is greyer above and whiter below; _H. islandus_, the
Iceland Falcon, of South Greenland, Iceland, North Siberia, and Arctic
America is paler, having the whitish head streaked with dusky. _H.
labradorus_, of Labrador, is dark throughout. All these species move
southwards towards winter, the first three visiting Britain and the
Greenland Falcon even Southern France. They are still valued in Falconry;
but, though more powerful, they lack the spirit and dash of the Peregrine
Falcon. The food consists of lemmings, grouse, sea-fowl, and the like; the
nest of sticks, lined with softer materials, is placed on rocks or trees,
and contains three or four whitish eggs mottled or completely covered with
yellowish or cinnamon markings.

Fam. V. PANDIONIDAE.–This group is especially remarkable for the reversible
outer toe–recalling that of the Owls, the want of an aftershaft, and the
long closely-feathered tibiae. The strong short beak is arched and
decidedly hooked; the powerful feet are roughly scaled; the toes nearly
equal, with no connecting membranes, but with spicules beneath; the claws
sharp, curved, and rounded; the wings long; the tail comparatively short.
The other structural details are as in the Falconidae. The downy young are
dusky, varied with rufous; the lower breast, the abdomen, a central stripe
down the back, and several on the head, being white.

_Pandion haliaëtus_, the Osprey or Fish-Hawk, nearly cosmopolitan {181}in
range, though local everywhere, and absent from many of the Pacific
Islands, New Zealand, Iceland, Greenland, and America south of Brazil, is
dark brown above, with the short crest, head, nape, and lower parts white;
the crown being streaked with blackish, and a brown band–which becomes in
the male a series of spots–crossing the chest. The bill is dusky, the cere
and feet are bluish, and the irides yellow. The smaller Australasian _P.
leucocephalus_ and the American _P. carolinensis_ barely attain
sub-specific rank. A migrant to Britain, this bird formerly bred at
Ulleswater, and not uncommonly in Scotland, where two or three pairs still
remain. Of old it often occupied rocky islets or ruins in Highland lochs,
but the nest is usually placed in other countries on trees or sea-cliffs,
and exceptionally on the ground; trees being the favourite site in America,
in which country colonies are sometimes formed, consisting of even three
hundred pairs. The bulky flattish pile of sticks and turf, lined with moss,
grass, or seaweed, is invariably placed near water, and contains three, or
rarely four, whitish eggs, beautifully blotched or overspread with dark
brown, crimson, or claret-colour, varied with orange, buff or grey, New
World specimens being usually duller. Surface-swimming fish form the food,
and magnificent indeed is the spectacle when an Osprey, after poising
itself vertically aloft, descends with terrific dash and splashing plunge
to rise again with its captured prey grasped in its roughened toes. The
graceful flight is varied by many evolutions and spiral ascents, while the
loud piercing scream is chiefly heard at the nesting-quarters.

Of fossil Falconine forms, excluding existing species, _Lithornis
vulturinus_ is found in the London Clay (Lower Eocene); from the Upper
Eocene of France comes _Palaeocercus cuvieri_ and _Falco_–the former
possibly from England also; from the Lower Miocene of France _Teracus
littoralis_, _Palaeohierax gervaisi_, _Aquila_, _Buteo_, and _Milvus_; from
its Middle Miocene _Haliaëtus_ and _Aquila_. _Aquila_ also occurs in the
American Pliocene of Nebraska and Oregon; _Falco_ in the Italian; from the
drifts of Queensland we have _Necrastur alacer_ and _Taphaëtus
branchialis_; from the Argentine Pampean of Lujan and the Post-Pampean of
Monte Hermoso respectively _Asthenopterus minutus_ and _Foetopterus
ambiguus_; while the superficial deposits and swamps of New Zealand furnish
a sub-fossil _Circus_ and the giant _Harpagornis moorii_; and the Mare aux
Songes of Mauritius _Astur alphonsi_.

{182}CHAPTER V

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONTINUED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION I (ALECTOROMORPHAE). ORDERS: TINAMIFORMES–GALLIFORMES–
GRUIFORMES–CHARADRIIFORMES

ORDER VIII. TINAMIFORMES.

The primitive Neotropical Order Tinamiformes, with the Sub-Order TINAMI,
and sole Family TINAMIDAE or CRYPTURIDAE, is classed here in accordance
with Dr. Gadow's carefully-weighed decision;[142] yet the position must not
be considered absolutely certain, most systematists placing it near the
Ratitae. The complete fusion of vomer and palatine bones is unique among
Birds, though partially noticeable in _Dromaeus_ and _Apteryx_; the
conformation of the skull, the single head of the quadrate, the separation
of the ischium and ilium, the absence of a pygostyle, the reduced tongue,
the functionless tail, the gait and bearing are Struthionine features; but
other points of structure, the pterylosis and the habits generally, are
Galline.

The furcula is U-shaped; the sternum long and slender with well-developed
keel; the head small; the neck thin and elongated with short plumage; the
beak fairly strong, varying in length, and composed of more than one piece,
the culmen being flattened and usually arched; the moderate metatarsus is
transversely or hexagonally scutellated, and may be rough or smooth behind,
while the hallux–wanting in _Calopezus_ and _Tinamotis_–is elevated, and
the anterior toes are long or short, with moderate claws. The short wings
are concave and rounded, with ten primaries and from thirteen to sixteen
secondaries; the {183}abbreviated tail possesses ten very weak feathers,
hidden by the coverts in _Tinamus_, _Nothocercus_, and _Crypturus_, and
hardly distinguishable from them in _Rhynchotus_, _Nothoprocta_, and
_Nothura_, the coverts themselves almost forming a train in the male of
_Taoniscus_. _Calodromas_ has twelve rectrices. The tongue is small and
triangular, the crop is large and globular, the after-shaft is rudimentary
or wanting; powder-down feathers occur near the rump, and the down of the
adults is sparing, while that of the nestlings, which run from the shell,
is simple, as in Ratite birds, and of a buffish-brown or chestnut colour,
often relieved by black markings and white streaks.

Like Partridges in appearance, and varying from the size of a large Fowl to
that of a Quail, Tinamous are essentially ground-birds, and rarely perch,
some species being solitary and others forming coveys; they haunt the
undergrowth of thick forests, dry bushy and grassy flats,
or–exceptionally–rocky mountains. The flight is strong and extremely swift,
accompanied by quick vibrations of the wings, occasionally varied by a
gliding motion; so reckless moreover is the pace that individuals are
frequently killed by striking against the first obstacle they meet on
rising. To flush them, however, is often a vain attempt, as they run with
amazing rapidity, and are readily concealed by the surrounding vegetation.
The voice–a trill or mellow whistle of several notes–differs somewhat
according to the species, and may be heard even in winter; the food
consists of seeds, berries, roots, bulbs, spiders, insects and their
larvae, maize- and potato-crops being at times seriously damaged. A hole is
scraped under shelter of a tussock or bush, and scantily lined with dry
leaves or herbage, to receive the eggs, deposited in some districts almost
throughout the year; these are oval, and so wonderfully burnished as to be
totally unlike those of any other bird. They vary, according to the
species, from reddish-chocolate, wine-purple, or liver-colour to dark blue,
bluish-green or primrose, and number from four or five to sixteen; though
the smaller figures are perhaps the most reliable, as larger sets, though
not uncommon, may be the produce of more than one hen. As in the
Turnicidae, and to some extent in the Ratitae, the male alone incubates,
sitting about three weeks, and feigning disablement to decoy intruders from
the nest. The flesh is very delicate, and good sport may be had with some
species near the holes where they daily dust themselves.

{184}As will be seen from the following examples, the general coloration is
rufous or slaty-brown, which may be relieved by buff, or barred with
blackish above and even below; the under parts being often greyer, with
whitish throat and belly. The sexes do not differ greatly, but the female
is, if anything, the larger bird. Some six forms occur in Mexico, while of
the remainder _Tinamotis ingoufi_ extends the range to Southern Patagonia.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.–Great Tinamou. _Rhynchotus rufescens._ × ⅕]

The genus _Tinamus_ has ten members, _T. tao_, of South America north of
Bolivia and Brazil, being greyish-olive, with slaty breast and buff
abdomen, wavy blackish markings on both surfaces, black primaries, black
head and neck with white spots and bands on the sides, and still whiter
throat. Of the thirty or more species of _Crypturus_, _C. tataupa_,
extending from Peru and Bolivia to Brazil and Argentina, is plain
chestnut-brown, with blackish crown, grey cheeks, neck, and breast, whitish
throat and belly, buffish flanks with black crescentic bars, red beak, and
pinkish feet. It haunts dense undergrowth in forests, even near
habitations, and frequently sits bent forward with its "tail" expanded over
its back; its melody consists of several notes at diminishing intervals,
merging into a hurried trill, which is terminated by a reiterated sound
like chororó; its eggs are of a reddish chocolate-colour. _Rhynchotus
rufescens_ of the same countries except Peru, the "Perdiz grande" of
Argentina, which is represented in Bolivia by the similar _R.
maculicollis_, is grey-brown, with blacker crown, rufous cheeks, neck, and
breast, and chestnut primaries; the back being barred with whitish and
black, and the flanks with brown and white. This somewhat solitary bird
threads {185}the tall grasses of the Pampas like a Rail, and, if unable to
escape by squatting or running, will fly for some thousand yards, and
thrice repeat the effort before becoming exhausted, the rapid whirring of
the pinions sounding like a vehicle driven quickly over stones. The song,
as it may almost be called, consists of five or six flute-like notes,
several individuals sometimes joining in chorus towards evening, when they
are decidedly active. The eggs, which are dark purple, have been hatched in
confinement, and attempts at naturalization have been made in Essex and
Herts. _Nothoprocta_ contains eight members, _N. pentlandi_ of the Bolivian
and Argentine Andes having the crown and back grey, barred with black and
buff, and streaked with white, the remiges blackish and buff, the cheeks
and breast grey, the throat, mid-abdomen and pectoral spots whitish, the
flanks grey, black and white. Its powers of flying and running are
comparatively small, and it will remain stationary for hours among stones
or bushes in ravines, escaping observation by its dull hue. The note is a
full-toned whistle; the food consists of seeds, fruits, and insects; the
eggs are reddish-brown. Of seven species of _Nothura_, _N. maculosa_, the
"Perdiz comun," found from South Brazil to Argentina, is yellowish-brown
above, barred with black and streaked with whitish, the throat being white,
the wings marked with fulvous, and the lower parts rusty with brown
breast-spots and curved flank-bands. It is a fearless, solitary, and
somewhat sluggish denizen of grassy plains, which does not avoid
habitations, and may be knocked down with a whip or stone, feigning death
when captured; the note resembles that of _Crypturus tataupa_ without the
final intonation; the eggs are wine-purple or liver-coloured. _N. darwini_,
the shy "Perdiz chico" of Patagonia, is greyer. _Calodromas_ (_Calopezus_)
_elegans_, the Martineta, ranging from South Uruguay to Patagonia, has a
grey and black head and neck with long recurved crest, elevated in
excitement, two white bands on each side of the head, rufous and black
upper parts, whitish throat and marks on the primaries, and buffish under
surface with crescentic black bars and spots. It frequents dry bushy
table-lands, often in coveys of twenty or thirty, which run squealing in
single file before intruders, and utter, in summer only, a long plaintive
whistle, or chorus of notes like those of _Rhynchotus_, but weaker. The
flight, accompanied by a wailing sound, is broken by intervals of gliding;
the four to sixteen eggs are deep green or yellowish. {186}The remaining
genera are _Nothocercus_ with five, _Taoniscus_ with one, and _Tinamotis_
with two species.

ORDER IX. GALLIFORMES.

The Galliformes, or Gallinaceous Birds, constitute a large and fairly
homogeneous Order, situated between the Tinamiformes and the Gruiformes, if
we assume the former to be classified in accordance with the views of Dr.
Gadow, and not to be placed nearer to the Ratitae; the Gruiformes again
linking themselves to the Laro-Limicoline section of the Charadriiformes,
and so forth. _Opisthocomus_, however, though decidedly Galline, shows
considerable resemblance to the Cuckoo-tribe.[143] The present Order may be
divided into the Sub-Orders MESITAE, with the Family _Mesitidae_; TURNICES,
with the _Turnicidae_ or Button-Quails, and the _Pedionomidae_; GALLI, with
the _Megapodiidae_ or Mound-builders, the _Cracidae_ or Curassows, and the
_Phasianidae_ or Game-birds, Fowls, and the like; and finally OPISTHOCOMI,
with the Family _Opisthocomidae_, containing but one species, the
exceptionally curious Hoatzin. Among the _Galli_, the _Megapodiidae_ and
_Cracidae_ together compose Professor Huxley's group of Peristeropodes or
Pigeon-footed forms, where all the toes are in one plane; the _Phasianidae_
standing alone in his Alectoropodes, or Fowl-footed division, where the
hallux is elevated above its fellows.

Excluding _Mesites_, of which comparatively little is known, all the
members of the Order agree in having a more or less globular crop, and a
somewhat scanty supply of down in the adults, with a more uniform coating
in the young, which becomes thinner in _Opisthocomus_; they may be
distinguished from the Gruiformes, except _Rhinochetus_, by their
impervious nostrils, while the Tinamiformes differ in the compound
structure of their bills, the primitive sternum, and the invariably weak
rectrices.

Sub-Order MESITAE. Fam. I. MESITIDAE.–This consists of a single genus,
_Mesites_, from Madagascar, originally referred by Isidore Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire to the neighbourhood of the Pigeons, and by subsequent
writers to that of the Passerine, Ardeine, or Ralline birds.[144] W. A.
Forbes[145] classed it next to _Eurypyga_ and {187}_Rhinochetus_; but Dr.
Gadow, as may be seen from above, places it in the Galliformes, considering
it to be a connecting link between that Order, the Tinamiformes, and the
Gruiformes.

In this curious form the bill is long and slender; the legs are rather
weak, with the uniformly scutellated metatarsus shorter than the partially
bare tibia; while the toes, which are without webs, are on the same level.
The keel of the sternum is short, the anterior extremity hardly reaching
beyond the middle of the breast-bone, and the clavicles are quite
rudimentary. The wing is rounded, and has ten primaries and six
secondaries; the tail is strong and well-developed, with fourteen (or
sixteen) rectrices. Mr. E. Bartlett tells us that the quills of the soft
feathers of the back and rump are so delicate that the plumage curls
forward immediately upon the bird's death.[146] The after-shaft is absent,
the pervious nostrils are long and linear, the lores and bluish orbits are
naked. No less than five pairs of powder-down patches have been ascertained
to exist, of which two couples are dorsal, one adjoins the upper pectoral
muscles, and two are ventral. _M. variegatus_ is cinnamon, with black and
tawny markings, the lower parts being white with black spots and reddish
flanks. The female is mostly rufous below. _M. unicolor_ is not distinct.
Hardly anything is known of the habits, but the nest is said to be upon the
ground.

Sub-Order TURNICES.–This consists of the two Families, _Turnicidae_ and
_Pedionomidae_, each with one genus, _Turnix_ or _Hemipodius_, and
_Pedionomus_ respectively; the last-named, moreover, has but one species.
_Ortyxelus meiffreni_ (p. 295), may belong here.

Fam. II. TURNICIDAE.–In this group the bill is short, but commonly less
stout than that of the _Phasianidae_, which it otherwise resembles; the
metatarsus is long, slender, and scutellated, the hallux is absent, the
claws are small, curved, and sharp. The wings are broad and rather short,
with ten primaries and about fifteen secondaries; the abbreviated tail
contains twelve soft rectrices, which are not so long as the upper coverts
in _Turnix ocellata_, while in _T. sylvatica_ and several nearly-allied
species the median feathers are somewhat elongated and acute. The furcula
is U-shaped, and the crop is almost absent, but an after-shaft is present;
the pointed tongue, the impervious nostrils, and the tracheo-bronchial
syrinx calling for no special remark. Where the sexes {188}differ, the
female is almost always the larger and brighter-plumaged bird, the colours
being black, brown, buff, chestnut, and white in varying admixture, and
becoming less distinct with age.

These small, solitary, and non-migratory forms often escape observation
through their shyness, as they run strongly, and are flushed with the
greatest difficulty, dropping quickly into cover after a short awkward
flight; they frequent dry, grassy plains and localities covered with low
trees or dense bushes, and utter a pleasant ringing or triple grating cry,
with a mournful call-note at dawn and sunset.[147] The food consists of
seeds and insect-larvae; the well-concealed nest is little more than a hole
lined with dry grass, though sometimes domed with similar materials; the
three to five eggs, shaped somewhat like peg-tops, are buff or greyish,
with spots of pale grey, purplish, or dark brown. Two broods are raised in
a season, and it is a noticeable fact that the comparatively dull-hued male
performs all, or nearly all, the duties of incubation, sitting very
closely, and feigning lameness when surprised with the young, which run
from the shell. The adults frequently fight, but the sex of the combatants
is uncertain.

The genus _Turnix_ includes some twenty "Hemipodes," the Bustard- or
Button-Quails of Anglo-Indians, which range from South Europe, Arabia, and
Africa to India, China, the Liu-Kiu Islands, and Formosa, as well as to
Australia, New Britain, and New Caledonia. The female is described below,
unless otherwise stated. _T. taigoor_, reaching from India, Ceylon, and the
Malay Peninsula to the Liu-Kiu Islands and Formosa, is brown above, with
black bars and vermiculations, and buff margins to many of the feathers;
the forehead and sides of the head and neck are white spotted with black,
the mid-throat and chest are black, a whitish stripe divides the crown, and
the under parts are buff, banded with black on the sides of the chest and
on the breast. The whole chest is barred in the male, the centre of the
throat being white. Darker birds apparently inhabit wetter districts.[148]
_T. pugnax_ of Ceylon and the Great Sunda Islands is a rufous-naped race.
_T. fasciata_, with a rufous collar, but grey and black upper surface,
inhabits the Philippines and Paláwan; _T. rufilata_, of Celebes, has the
throat barred with black, {189}and a rufous vent-region, _T. powelli_ of
the Lesser Sunda Islands being similar. The males lack the rufous collar
and barred throat. _T. sylvatica_, of South Europe and Africa generally,
has in both sexes dull reddish upper parts, barred with black and relieved
by white, grey, and buff, which cause a scaly appearance; the browner wings
shew white spots, the centre of the crown and throat are white, the sides
of the head, neck, and breast whitish with black spots, the mid-chest and
abdomen ruddy and buff respectively. _T. dussumieri_, the smallest species
known, occurring in India, Pegu, Hainan, and Formosa, differs in the wide
yellowish margins of the scapulars, a feature found also in the blacker _T.
nana_ and _T. hottentotta_ of Africa, wherein the sides are barred. The
former ranges from lat. 10° S. to the Great Karroo, and the latter
southward of that district. _T. blanfordi_ is found east of the Bay of
Bengal to Siam and Manchuria, _T. tanki_ in India and eastward to Tipperah,
_T. albiventris_ in the Andamans and Nicobars; all being greyish above
varied with black, and having the nape rufous in the female only. _T.
maculosa_ of Celebes, Southern New Guinea, and Australia, and _T. saturata_
of New Britain and the Duke of York group are similar, but exhibit
yellow-edged scapulars; the latter possessing no rusty collar, but having a
white throat in the male. _T. ocellata_ of Luzon is a large greenish-brown
species vermiculated with black; in which the neck and breast are bright
ruddy, the crown is blackish banded with white, the throat and cheeks are
chiefly black, and the wing-coverts show black ocelli with whitish margins.
The male has the middle of the throat white and no rufous collar. _T.
nigricollis_ of Madagascar is grey, black, reddish, and buff above, with
much black and white on the head; and is uniform grey below, with black
mid-throat and more or less ruddy sides. The throat is white in the male.
The female of _T. melanogaster_ of East Australia has both throat and
breast black, with white markings on the latter, the male reversing the
colours. Other Australian forms are _T. varia_, with chestnut nuchal
collar, black, white, and rufous upper, and grey and buff under parts; _T.
castanonota_, with vinous red upper surface; _T. pyrrhothorax_, chiefly
greyish above and rusty buff below; and _T. velox_, reddish-chestnut in
colour with nearly white lower parts. In these four the sexes are alike.
_T. leucogaster_ inhabits Central Australia.

Fam. III. PEDIONOMIDAE.–_Pedionomus torquatus_ differs in {190}structure
from _Turnix_ by the presence of a small hind-toe. The lax upper plumage
is, in the female, reddish-brown with black barring and buff margins to the
feathers, the lower parts being pale buff marked with black. A broad white
collar spotted with black surrounds the neck, while a rust-coloured nape
and chest distinguish the above sex from the male, where the collar is
brown and buff. This curious bird, somewhat smaller than a Quail, inhabits
grassy plains in Southern and Eastern Australia, preferring the wilder
districts. The habits are much as in _Turnix_, but the nest seems never to
be domed, the four eggs being of a light stone-colour, thickly freckled and
blotched with brown and grey.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.–"Plain-Wanderer." _Pedionomus torquatus._ × ½.]

Fam. IV. MEGAPODIIDAE.–The Megapodes, or Mound-builders, commence the
section Peristeropodes (p. 186) of the Sub-Order GALLI. The bill is short,
stout, and arched, though rather slender in _Megapodius_; the feet are
exceptionally strong, and enormous for the size of the birds, _Lipoa_
having the smallest; while the metatarsi are usually scutellated, but are
reticulated anteriorly in _Megacephalon_, which has comparatively short and
blunt claws. The abbreviated wings have ten primaries and some six
secondaries. The tail is long and rounded in _Talegallus_ and _Lipoa_, with
upper coverts extending to the tip in the latter; it is short but still
rounded in _Megapodius_; long and obcordate when expanded in _Catheturus_,
_Aepypodius_, and _Megacephalon_. The rectrices number twelve in
_Megapodius_, sixteen in _Lipoa_, {191}_Talegallus_, and _Aepypodius_,
eighteen in _Megacephalon_ and _Catheturus_. _Aepypodius_ possesses an
erect fleshy frontal crest and a pendent caruncle at the base of the
fore-neck, or even a pair of lateral outgrowths near the nape; _Catheturus_
has a vascular neck-wattle: and _Megacephalon_ a rounded bony casque with a
tubercle behind each nostril. The fleshy growths are yellow or reddish, the
horny black. In _Aepypodius_, _Catheturus_, and _Megacephalon_ the naked
head is clothed with hair-like feathers or papillae; _Lipoa_ and some
species of _Megapodius_ have a short dense crest; others have the head
almost entirely feathered, others again nearly bare except the occipital
and nuchal region, as in _Talegallus_. The naked skin may be red, yellow,
orange, purplish, grey, or pale blue; the bill and feet are black, brown,
olive, yellow, red, orange, horn- or parti-coloured. The furcula is
Y-shaped, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial, the tongue sagittate, the gizzard
muscular, and the aftershaft small. The size varies from that of a Turkey
to that of a large Pigeon, the sexes being invariably similar.

Megapodes are shy terrestrial birds found in hill-valleys, among thickets
near rivers or the sea, or on gravelly and sandy beaches. Upon the ground
their gait is not ungraceful, while they run well, and only take to the
wing when hard pressed; if disturbed they usually seek the lowest branches
of the neighbouring trees, hopping gradually to the higher limbs; the
flight is heavy, but can carry them from island to island. Always difficult
of observation they are rarely seen in company, yet the larger breeding
mounds are no doubt used by more pairs than one. Hoarse croaks or clucks
are uttered in the day-time, mewing notes or noisy cackles at night; the
food consists of fallen fruit, seeds, berries, worms, snails, insects, and
even crabs. The brownish-red, salmon-coloured or whitish eggs, at least as
large as those of the domestic duck, are deposited either in mounds
constructed of soil and vegetable matter, or in holes made in sandy or
shingly ground; the decaying vegetation or the sun's heat producing the
effect of an artificial incubator, and making parental aid needless. The
young extricate themselves readily from the superincumbent soil, being
hatched in a feathered condition, and flying almost immediately. The flesh
is dark and usually unpalatable.

Though mainly confined to the Australian Region, where it extends eastwards
to Ninafou and Samoa, the Family reaches westward to the Nicobars, and
northward to the Philippines and {192}Ladrones, replacing the Pheasants
within these limits–save for the Philippines–just as the Cracidae do in
Neotropical countries. No species is yet recorded from Sumatra or Java, and
confirmation is needed in the case of the main island of Borneo.

_Megacephalon maleo_ of North Celebes and the Sanghir Islands is glossy
blackish-brown, with salmon-pink breast and belly, a vaulted tail, a black
casque of cellular tissue, and dusky bill and feet. The Maleo, as it is
called, inhabits hilly country, but resorts in hundreds to sloping gravelly
beaches to breed, holes being scratched or dug just above high-water mark,
some four or five feet in diameter. In these from two to eight pale
brownish-red eggs are laid, about six inches apart–at intervals, it is
said, of a fortnight or so–several females occasionally using one cavity.

_Aepypodius bruijni_ of Waigiou is brownish-black, with chestnut rump and
breast, dusky bill and feet; a fleshy papillose crest adorns the head, and
three wattles–one median and two lateral–occur on the neck, all probably
red in life. _Ae. arfakianus_ of New Guinea is black above and brownish
below, with no lateral wattles.

_Catheturus lathami_, the "Brush Turkey" of Eastern Australia, is
blackish-brown with greyish under surface, shewing conspicuous light
margins to the feathers. It has a bright yellow neck-wattle, reddish head
and neck, black bill and brown feet. This species forms mounds of earth and
decayed leaves, sometimes as much as six feet high and fourteen feet in
diameter at the base, and covers the coarse outer layers with fresh leaves
and sticks. The central portion is hollowed out like a cup, successive
layers of eggs being deposited from the circumference inwards in concentric
circles, and the earth gradually filled in above them. Several females
sometimes utilize the same mound, each being said to lay an egg every
second day. These eggs, placed with the small end downwards, number from
twenty to nearly forty, and are of a long pointed oval shape and of a white
colour with minute granulations. The site is usually a level clearing among
scrub, whither the materials are conveyed by being repeatedly thrown
backwards by the feet, while the cock possibly assists in building.[149]
_Talegallus cuvieri_, of Western New Guinea, Salwatti, Mysol and Gilolo, is
black with whitish throat; the naked parts are red-brown, the bill and feet
{193}reddish-orange and yellow respectively. _T. fuscirostris_, of South
and East New Guinea, with the Aru Islands, differs in its grey-black bare
areas and brown bill; _T. jobiensis_, of Jobi Island and East New Guinea,
has the bill, feet, and naked skin red. The habits resemble those of
_Catheturus_: the mounds, which reach an internal temperature of 93° F.,
are sometimes eleven feet high; the eggs are reddish with a chalky
incrustation.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.–"Brush Turkey." _Catheturus lathami._ × ⅙.]

_Lipoa ocellata_, the Native Pheasant or Mallee Hen of South and West
Australia, has grey and brown upper parts, with black, buff, and white
markings, which form eyes on the wings and back. The breast is grey with a
median black and white line, the remaining lower parts being whitish with a
rufous tinge. The naked parts are pale blue, the bill and feet brown. This
bird frequents both open parts of the "brushes" and dense thickets, while
in manners it differs but little from the members of the last two genera.
The mounds–usually in close proximity–are, however, smaller as a rule, and
are stated to be used by single hens, a fact no doubt true in many cases.
The six to eight eggs, which are pinkish-white, but become red-brown in a
few days, are very fragile, as in other Megapodes. The natives say that an
egg is {194}deposited daily, the discrepancy between _Lipoa_ and
_Megacephalon_ being in this respect very remarkable, but conflicting
assertions are only what may be expected where several females lay
together, and further investigation should easily decide the question.

The genus _Megapodius_ contains some fifteen species, about the size of a
small fowl, in which the coloration varies from olive or chestnut-brown to
blackish or grey above, and from red-brown to pale or dark-grey below, the
bill being reddish, greenish, or yellowish, and the feet black, red,
orange, yellow, or horn-coloured. _M. pritchardi_, of Ninafou, alone has
white bases to the primaries, and _M. wallacii_, of the Moluccas, exhibits
bright chestnut bands on the upper surface. _M. duperreyi_ (_tumulus_),
which ranges from the Kangeang Islands and Lombok to New Guinea and
North-East Australia, fashions mounds, occasionally ten feet high, in dense
scrub, laying pale coffee-coloured eggs in long burrows bored laterally,
and not in symmetrical circles, as does _Catheturus_. _M. layardi_, of the
New Hebrides, frequents damp wooded ravines, and is said to deposit its
red-brown eggs among leaves in hollows. _M. cumingi_, found from the
islands north of Borneo and Paláwan to the Philippines and Celebes, builds
mounds of sand, leaves, and so forth, near the sea, the chalky eggs having
a salmon hue. _M. eremita_, extending from the Solomon Islands almost to
New Guinea, buries its eggs a couple of feet deep in open sandy spots, kept
clear and fenced into allotments by the natives in Savo and Guadalcanar;
while _M. nicobariensis_, of the Nicobars, appears to flock more than other
Megapodes, and to lay its eggs at long intervals. _M. tenimberensis_, of
the Tenimber Islands, _M. sanghirensis_ of the Sanghir group, _M.
bernsteini_ of the Sula Islands, _M. forsteni_ and _M. freycineti_, ranging
from the Moluccas to Western or even Northern New Guinea, _M.
macgillivrayi_ of the Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux Archipelagos and
Eastern New Guinea, _M. geelvinkianus_, of the west of the latter with its
islands, and _M. laperousii_, of the Pelew and Ladrone groups, are like
their congeners in habits and appearance. _Chosornis praeteritus_ is an
extinct form from Queensland.

Fam. V. CRACIDAE.–These birds are almost identical in structure with the
_Megapodiidae_, though sharply contrasted in their arboreal habits and
their style of breeding. They may be divided into the Sub-families (1)
_Cracinae_ or Curassows, (2) _Penelopinae_ or Guans, and (3)
_Oreophasinae_. Of the first of these, where the maxilla is higher than it
is broad, the genus _Crax_ has a soft {195}cere, and nostrils in the middle
of the bill, with the addition in many cases of frontal excrescences and
wattles; _Nothocrax_, _Pauxis_ and _Mitua_ have the beak horny and the
nostrils basal, _Pauxis_, moreover, being distinguished by a large knob on
the forehead, and _Mitua_ by its short, highly-compressed bill with swollen
culmen. The remaining Sub-families have the maxilla depressed and broader
than it is high; _Penelope_, _Penelopina_ and _Pipile_ exhibit bare throats
with a median wattle, _Ortalis_ a mere band of bristly-shafted feathers
down the middle, and _Aburria_ a feathered throat and vermiform wattle,
while _Chamaepetes_ shews neither wattle nor bare skin, and _Oreophasis_,
the sole tenant of the _Oreophasinae_, a naked crown, surmounted by a
cylindrical helmet. The males of _Crax_, _Pauxis_, and _Mitua_, and both
sexes of _Penelope jacucaca_, have the trachea looped, and sometimes
extended to the posterior end of the keel of the sternum; other forms lack
the convolutions, but in several the state is unknown.

The range covers Central and South America, excluding the Greater Antilles,
Chili and Patagonia, but one species (_Ortalis vetula_) even reaches as far
north as Texas.

These handsome birds, from three feet to a foot and a half in length,
frequent forests near the coast or wooded ravines on rivers, attaining at
times an elevation of several thousand feet. They are often tame and show
great curiosity, _Ortalis_ being commonly gregarious and pugnacious; some
forms, moreover, rarely seek the ground and are only to be seen perched
among the branches, but others haunt the undergrowth in the mid-day heat,
and _Nothocrax_ is asserted to take refuge occasionally in hollow trees.
The food consists of leaves and fruit, ordinarily procured in the morning
or evening, while various species scratch among the débris like Pheasants.
The flight is generally heavy and rapid, _Chamaepetes_ in particular
descending with a noisy rush and stiffened wings; the alarm-note is loud
and harsh, and in _Penelope_ cackling, but the more usual triple cry is
clear and ringing, while _Ortalis_ utters a softer call, and vociferates in
rattling chorus. The carelessly-constructed nest of twigs, grass, moss, and
leaves is of considerable size, and is placed on the horizontal branch of a
tree, in a bush, or on a stump, the two to five eggs–smaller than those of
a hen–being white, with a hard granulated shell. The young soon climb and
hop about the boughs like the adults, of which the flesh is considered a
delicacy. Several species are {196}readily domesticated, but rarely breed
in confinement. Hybrids with domestic fowls have been recorded. Except
where mentioned below the sexes are alike.

[Illustration: FIG. 45.–Crested Curassow. _Crax alector._ × ⅐.]

Sub-fam. 1. _Cracinae._–_Crax alector_ is black with a purplish gloss, the
belly being white, the naked lores and orbits black, the cere and base of
the bill yellow, the tip bluish, and the feet horn-coloured. Throughout the
whole genus, which is Central and South American, the female has a curly
crest barred with white. The remaining nine species differ in being
greenish-black, and–except _C. fasciolata_–have a frontal knob, with or
without a basal wattle on each side of the mandible, the colour of these
parts varying from scarlet or yellow to pale blue or purplish-black. The
tail may be tipped with white; the females often exhibit white barring
above, and have the plumage relieved by buff and chestnut. _Nothocrax
urumutum_, ranging from British Guiana to the Upper Amazons, is chiefly
chestnut above vermiculated with black, and cinnamon below; the wings and
tail being blackish with buff markings, the throat chestnut, the long crest
black, the naked lores and orbits yellow and purplish, the bill scarlet,
the feet flesh-coloured. The female has the lower parts mottled with dusky.
_Mitua mitu_ of British Guiana, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia is blue-black,
with chestnut {197}belly, white-tipped tail, red bill and feet; the crest
being well-developed. _M. tomentosa_, of the first two countries only, has
a shorter crest and chestnut-tipped tail, whereas _M. salvini_ of Ecuador
has a white belly. _Pauxis galeata_, the Cashew-bird, inhabiting Venezuela,
Colombia, and Peru, is glossy greenish-black with white abdomen and tip to
the tail; the frontal knob, supposed to resemble a Cashew nut, being dull
blue. The female shows a large admixture of chestnut and buff.

Sub-fam. 2. _Penelopinae._–The fifteen species of _Penelope_ are brown or
olive-green, more or less varied with chestnut and rufous, or washed with
purple or bronze; the feathers, moreover, have often whitish margins, the
head in _P. pileata_, and the outer primaries in _P. albipennis_ becoming
almost white. The wattled throat is generally feathered in _P._
(_Stegnolaema_) _montagnii_, but naked elsewhere, the colour being given as
carmine in _P. cristata_, where the feet are red. The orbits are also bare,
the crest is moderate, and the metatarsus in some cases is partly
feathered. Two members of the genus inhabit Central America. _P. obscura_,
the Pavo del Monte, alone reaches Northern Argentina, where _Crax
fasciolata_, _Pipile cumanensis_, and _Ortalis canicollis_, the Charata,
also represent the Family. _Penelopina nigra_, of the Guatemalan highlands,
is greenish-black, barred and mottled with brown and buff in the female;
the naked orbits are purplish, the bare throat, large wattle, bill and feet
red. _Ortalis_ contains about seventeen forms, some hardly worthy of
specific rank, of which five occur from South to Central America and
one–_O. vetula_, the Chiacalaca–extends to Texas. _O. ruficauda_ is found
in Tobago and the Grenadines. The coloration is brown or olive, with little
or no metallic gloss, but relieved by chestnut, rufous and grey; the breast
and belly being occasionally white or buff, the naked orbits and sides of
the throat apparently reddish, and the feet pinkish, grey, or blue. _Pipile
cumanensis_, of South America northwards from Bolivia and Brazil, with
Trinidad, is greenish-black; a white crest of pointed feathers reaches the
sides of the neck, some white shews on the wings and chest; the cere, naked
orbits, lores, throat and wattle are blue, the feet red. _P. jacutinga_ of
South-East Brazil and Paraguay has a purplish gloss above, and a red
wattle; _P. cujubi_ of the Lower Amazons a brown crest margined with white.
_Aburria carunculata_ of Colombia and Ecuador is greenish-black, with a
scantily-feathered throat and long thin wattle. _Chamaepetes {198}goudoti_,
of the same countries and Peru, is bronzy-brown with greyish head and
rufous under parts; the Costa Rican and Veraguan _C. unicolor_ being nearly
uniform greenish-black. In both these genera the orbits are more or less
naked.

Sub-fam. 3. _Oreophasinae._–_Oreophasis derbianus_, the splendid Faisan of
the Volcan de Fuego in Guatemala, is greenish-black with dense velvety
plumage extending from the forehead to the nostrils; the white lower parts
become brownish at the sides and vent, and shew dark streaks; a white band
crosses the tail; and a red cellular casque covered with hair-like feathers
surmounts the head. The bill is pale yellow, the feet are vermilion.

Fam. VI. PHASIANIDAE.–Of really distinct Sub-families this group may be
said to possess three, (1) the _Numidinae_, or Guinea-fowls, (2) the
_Meleagrinae_, or Turkeys, and (3) the _Phasianinae_, or Pheasants,
Partridges, and Grouse; it is, however, customary to class the Grouse apart
as _Tetraoninae_, though a difficulty at once arises in drawing the line of
demarcation. For example, Huxley[150] considered _Caccabis_, _Francolinus_
and _Coturnix_ Galline, _i.e._ Phasianine; Dr. Gadow[151] makes them
Tetraonine; while Mr. Ogilvie Grant[152] agrees with the former, but does
not make these genera the link between the sections. Mr. Grant's view may
be conveniently followed, but the division is in any case arbitrary. As a
matter of further convenience a Partridge group (_Perdicinae_) may be
formed, and the "American Partridges" may stand apart as _Odontophorinae_.

Passing mention should be made of the economical importance of this Family
as a factor in our food-supply, whether in the wild state as game, or in
the domesticated as poultry; for almost inconceivable numbers of birds are
bred, exported, or used for eating in their native countries, while the
value of domestic fowls' eggs can best be estimated by imagining the
consequence of a failure in the production. Man's custom herein is no doubt
guided by the ease with which most of the species are secured or reared,
and by the great development of the pectoral muscles or "flesh of the
breast."

The body is decidedly heavy, the head usually rather small, and the neck
fairly long. The bill is comparatively short and stout–especially in
_Ithagenes_, _Dendrortyx_, and elsewhere–but may be more elongated, as in
_Lophophorus_ and _Euplocamus_; the maxilla {199}being curved, and
overhanging the mandible, which exhibits two serrations on each side in the
Odontophorinae. The metatarsus is strong and relatively short in Grouse and
many Partridges, but in Pheasants and similar forms it is much longer; the
feathering descends to the toes in the Tetraoninae, except _Bonasa_ and
_Tetrastes_, the digits themselves being clothed in _Lagopus_, naked and
pectinate at the sides in the remaining genera. No other members of the
Family shew pectinations or have the metatarsus feathered, save _Lerwa_,
where it is half covered. The hallux, invariably elevated, has only a
rudimentary claw in _Rollulus_, _Melanoperdix_, and _Caloperdix_;
_Arboricola_, _Dactylortyx_, and _Cyrtonyx_, on the contrary, have
particularly long and somewhat straight claws. Spurs are of frequent
occurrence on the feet of the males, though rare in the females, some
species possessing as many as three pairs; they are never found in the
Tetraoninae or Odontophorinae, and are represented by mere knobs in
_Acryllium_ (Numidinae). The wings are short and rounded, with ten
primaries and from twelve to nineteen secondaries, both decreasing in
length as they near the middle of the wing, which has thus a bilobed
appearance when expanded. The primaries usually increase in length before
decreasing, but in some cases the exterior quill is the longest, while in
_Falcipennis_ two or three of the outer feathers are sickle-shaped, and in
_Argus_ the secondaries are enormously developed. The tail is extremely
variable, being long and rounded in _Lophophorus_; long and sharp-pointed
in _Phasianus_ and _Centrocercus_; moderate, broad, and rounded in
_Lagopus_, _Odontophorus_, and so forth; similar but more truncated in
_Meleagris_; short in most Partridges; and exceptionally abbreviated in
many Quails. The coverts far exceed the tail in the Peacock, forming its
splendid train, while they are much elongated in _Chrysolophus_, and to
some extent in _Coturnix_, _Excalphatoria_, and _Ceriornis_ (_Tragopan_).
In _Pedioecetes_ the two middle rectrices surpass the rest and terminate
abruptly; in _Lyrurus_ the exterior feathers fork outwards; in
_Crossoptilon_ and _Gennaeus_ the median plumes curve over the others; and
in _Lobiophasis_ not only is this the case, but the rhachis extends beyond
the webs, which are much reduced on the outer side of the lateral quills;
in _Argusianus_ and _Rheinardtius_ the middle pair is extraordinarily
lengthened. The whole tail is compressed or "vaulted" to a greater or less
degree in _Gallus_, _Chrysolophus_, _Lophura_, _Acomus_, _Gennaeus_
{200}and _Crossoptilon_. _Excalphatoria_ is remarkable for possessing only
eight rectrices; ten are found in _Microperdix_, and occasionally in
_Synoecus_ and _Coturnix_; but the usual number is from twelve to
twenty-four, while _Lobiophasis_ has thirty-two in the male and
twenty-eight in the female. The nostrils are concealed by the feathering in
the Tetraoninae alone, the aftershaft is large except in _Pavo_, the
furcula is Y-shaped, the tongue sagittate, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial.
The globular crop and muscular gizzard are decidedly characteristic, yet
_Argusianus_ has been said to lack the former, and _Centrocercus_ the
latter. In the male of _Tetrao urogallus_ and both sexes of _Guttera_ the
trachea has a loop, which in the latter case passes through a cavity in the
head of the furcula.

The plumage is of the most varied description, the winter coat of _Lagopus_
being commonly white, the males of _Lyrurus_, _Tetrao_, and _Melanoperdix_
nearly black, while the prevailing colours in _Chrysolophus pictus_ are
orange and red, in _Gennaeus nycthemerus_ black and white, in _Rollulus_
dull green and maroon, in _Gallus_ orange, red, purple, green, black, and
white, in _Phasianus_ metallic green, orange, and brown. In the _Numidinae_
white or bluish spots mark the blackish ground-colour; in the American
Grouse black, brown, yellowish-buff and white occur in varying proportions;
while the Partridges and Quails exhibit, as a rule, still more sober tints
of brown, relieved by dull red or buff. Peacocks, again, show a combination
of beautiful metallic blues and greens with copper and buff, rarely found
elsewhere in the Family; nor must _Lophophorus_, _Lophura_, _Lobiophasis_,
and _Ceriornis_ be left out of consideration. The ocelli or "eyes" on the
Peacock's train hardly require mention; _Polyplectron_ has similar
adornments on both the tail and the upper parts in the male, on the tail
alone in the female; _Argusianus_ on the secondaries and rectrices in the
male, _Meleagris ocellata_ on the latter in both sexes. The feathers of the
crown are curled in _Crossoptilon_, _Pavo_, and _Lophophorus sclateri_, and
fine crests are by no means uncommon; the component plumes being more or
less racquet-shaped in _Lophura_ and _Lophortyx_, and in _Pavo cristatus_
consisting of webs at the end of bare shafts. The crests of _Chrysolophus_
and _Gennaeus_ are recumbent, those of _Rollulus_ and _Rheinardtius_
upright; while, among others, the full head-tufts of _Ithagenes_ and most
species of _Lophophorus_, with the comparatively short ornaments of
_Haematortyx_, _Ceriornis_, and _Callipepla_ are worth notice.
_Crossoptilon_, {201}_Pucrasia_, and _Phasianus_ have elongated ear-coverts
or feathers behind the ear, the white plumes of the first-named being
especially remarkable and common to both sexes; an erectile cape surmounts
the nape in _Chrysolophus_; _Meleagris_ has a peculiar patch of long
bristles on the breast, _Bonasa_ a ruff on the sides of the neck; _Gallus_
and _Acryllium_ have hackles or lanceolate feathers in various parts,
moulted–in the former at least–during the summer. All these decorations are
absent or less pronounced in the females, which are, as a rule, dull in
colour.

The head is entirely naked in _Meleagris_, and is covered with caruncles,
an erectile process hanging from the forehead; a pair of long fleshy horns
above the eyes distinguish _Ceriornis_, which has in addition a large
wattle on the throat; a comb of similar substance is accompanied by a
single median or two pairs of lateral wattles in _Gallus_; while the sides
of the face, the orbits, or the fore-neck, are bare in many genera. The
male of _Lobiophasis_ has the head nearly naked, with no less than three
pairs of wattles; though the female has but one rudimentary pair of the
latter, and only the cheeks unfeathered. In all these cases the skin and
outgrowths are red or blue. The head and neck are bare in the Numidinae,
except for a crest in _Guttera_, a crescentic nuchal band of feathers in
_Acryllium_, and a line of plumage down the crown in _Phasidus_; wattles
occur at the angles of the gape in _Guttera_ and _Numida_, both these and
the naked skin being blue and red throughout the Sub-family, save in
_Phasidus_, where the latter is yellow, and in _Agelastes_, where it is red
and white. The bony casque of _Numida_ is red or horn-coloured. The
Tetraoninae have merely a little red or yellow skin over the eye. In
females all the fleshy outgrowths are much smaller or absent, throughout
the Family.

Air-sacs of orange skin lie below the side-feathers of the neck in the
males of _Centrocercus_, _Dendragapus_, and _Tympanuchus_, and become
visible when inflated; they are supposed to produce the booming
ventriloquistic sound, uttered in the breeding season. _Bonasa_ has a naked
space in a similar position, but its drumming is stated to be caused by the
wings. _Pedioecetes_ can hardly be said to have air-sacs, yet it also
drums, while the exact nature of the corresponding sounds made by _Tetrao
urogallus_ and _Lyrurus tetrix_ is uncertain. The "gobble" of the domestic
Turkey is a parallel instance, in so far as it is uttered during
excitement.

The members of this Family, which range in size from the {202}splendid
Capercaillie (_T. urogallus_) to the small Quail-like _Excalphatoria
sinensis_, are all weighty birds for their bulk, rising heavily and
noisily, and travelling with low and steady, though often laboured, flight;
in many cases the pace is extremely rapid, but comparatively short
distances are covered before alighting. On the whole, they are certainly
partial to dry localities, which may, however, be prairies and heaths, as
in many Grouse, wooded or open country generally, as in Pheasants, or stony
hill-sides, as in _Tetraogallus_, _Ammoperdix_, and some species of
_Lagopus_ and _Caccabis_; yet a few seem to prefer the vicinity of marshes,
and others are constantly met with at considerable elevations. The great
facility with which game-birds run, their frequent custom of lying until
they are almost trodden upon, and that of combining into coveys or packs
consisting of two or more broods, are too well-known to need lengthy
description here. The strutting and parading of the cocks of the larger
species is fully noticed below, while the habit common to most forms of
dusting themselves, instead of washing, is also noticeable. Many are almost
entirely terrestrial, a love for trees being in fact exceptional;
nevertheless, instances might easily be adduced of roosting on branches or
taking refuge there when disturbed, and though _Lagopus_, _Francolinus_,
and _Perdix_ are notoriously averse to perching, the writer himself has
seen five or six Red Grouse sitting on low trees, within half an hour.
_Tetrao_, _Lyrurus_, _Phasianus_, _Pavo_, and _Meleagris_ well exemplify
the polygamous habits not unfrequent in the Family, the males in such cases
usually deserting their mates during incubation; _Coturnix_ and _Ortyx_,
moreover, are stated to be not invariably monogamous. The nest is nearly
always on or close to the ground, and is formed of a few twigs, grass,
moss, feathers, and leaves; the hole, usually scraped as a commencement,
being sometimes barely lined. _Polyplectron_, as a rule, deposits two eggs,
but the number in most species is much greater, from sixteen to twenty
being not uncommonly found, or even more where two hens lay together–a
fairly ordinary practice in the group. The colour in Grouse is yellowish or
reddish, either with rufous spots or close blotches of black, purple, or
orange-brown; in the Pheasant and Partridge it is uniform olive, and in the
Odontophorinae pure white, with or without brown or red markings. Further
information is given {203}below. Few Galline birds, besides the American
Partridges, breed twice in a season. The male has been observed to incubate
in _Ortyx_, and in this genus and _Odontophorus_ domed nests are on record,
while many species lay their eggs in depressions under over-arching tufts
of heather or grass. Incubation lasts from eighteen to twenty-eight days,
the young running almost from the shell. The note is shrill in
Guinea-fowls, Partridges, and Quails, somewhat whistling in _Polyplectron_
and _Tetrastes_, and generally consists of two or more syllables; but in
view of subsequent details, it is sufficient to particularize the
"cok-cok-cok" of the Grouse, the crow of the Pheasant and the Cock, the
cluck and cackle of the Hen, the scream of the Peacock, and the gobble of
the Turkey. The food is chiefly vegetable, and includes shoots, buds,
leaves, grass, bulbs, seeds, berries and other fruits, with a certain
amount of grit; but worms, molluscs, ants and their cocoons, insects and
their larvae, swell the list. Juniper twigs or berries are supposed to give
a flavour to the Hazel Grouse, pine tips to the Capercaillie, whereas the
"Sage-brush" of America (_Artemisia tridentata_) bestows its name upon the
Sage-cock (_Centrocercus_), and makes its flesh bitter and unpleasant. The
Pheasant scratches in the ground for provender, as do Turkeys and Fowls,
while _Lophophorus_, _Catreus_, _Crossoptilon_, _Gennaeus_, _Pavo_, and so
forth, dig for roots with the bill. American Grouse, after eating _Kalmia_
shoots, are actually poisonous.

Pugnacious habits are prevalent in the Family, and naturally attain their
height in the courting season; but chief of all in this connection is the
genus _Gallus_, which will fight at any time of year, being highly valued
by the boatmen of Burma for the sport it provides. These wanderers commonly
keep a cock tied by the leg in their vessels, or possess a decoy-bird to
attract its wild relatives. Game-birds are easily naturalized or
domesticated owing to their terrestrial habits; they hybridize readily even
in a state of nature, the offspring being often fertile; such species,
moreover, as the Pheasant, Partridge, and Red-legged Partridge will
frequently use a nest in common. Occasionally the female assumes a plumage
like that of the male; for example, in the Pheasant, where such individuals
are called "Mules," and are stated to be barren. Further questions of great
interest are the moult, the Grouse disease, the shedding of the claws in
the Ptarmigan, and of the horny fringes of the toes in the {204}Tetraoninae
generally, besides such points as the loss of the Peacock's train in
summer, and the innumerable phases of plumage of the Red Grouse, Ptarmigan,
and "Bob-white" (_Ortyx_), none of which can be usefully discussed in a
limited space.

The range of the Family is nearly cosmopolitan; but the Meleagrinae only
occur in the United States and Central America; the Numidinae in Africa,
with Madagascar and the neighbouring islands; and the Phasianinae in the
Palaearctic and Indian Regions as far eastward as the Philippines, China
and Japan, and–in the case of _Gallus_–Celebes. The Perdicinae are found in
the Palaearctic, Indian and Australian Regions, though becoming decidedly
scarce in Oceania; the Odontophorinae occupy temperate and tropical America
to Bolivia and Brazil southwards; while the Tetraoninae are holarctic, the
New World genera being more numerous than those of the Old World, and
_Lagopus_ alone being common to both hemispheres.

Sub-fam. 1. _Numidinae._–Of the curious-looking Guinea-fowls, or Pintados,
_Acryllium vulturinum_ of East Africa has a long, wedge-shaped tail, and
elongated hackles on the mantle, chest, and lower neck; the upper neck and
head being naked and blue, with a crescentic nuchal band of short chestnut
feathers, and each metatarsus possessing four or five knobs in the male.
The hackles are black and white, mostly fringed with blue; the remaining
upper parts and the flanks are black spotted with white, having a purple
wash on the latter; the breast and belly are cobalt, marked with black
centrally. _Guttera_ contains four black species with light blue spots,
which show much white on the secondaries. A full and usually curly black
crest adorns the crown; the bare head and neck, with its posterior flap of
skin, is blue or purplish, and the throat is red, except in _G. pucherani_
of East Equatorial Africa, where the hind-neck only is blue, and _G.
eduardi_ (_verreauxi_) of South Africa, with no bright colours on the head,
neck, or throat. The latter, and _G. cristata_ of northern West Africa,
have rudimentary blue wattles at the gape, coupled with a black collar,
which in _G. eduardi_ extends to the breast and assumes a chestnut shade.
_G. plumifera_, ranging from Cape Lopez to Loango, has larger wattles and a
thin erect crest; _G. pucherani_ has the outgrowths red. This genus and the
next have no spurs. _Numida_, remarkable for the bony casque surmounting
the naked head and neck, possesses seven or more members of clumsy build,
with {205}white spots on the black plumage. _N. meleagris_ of West Africa
and several of its islands, introduced in Ascension and the Greater
Antilles, which is the origin of our present domestic stock, has the broad
gape-wattles and bare tracts red, save for a blue hind-neck; the small
conical helmet is yellowish, and a wide grey ring divides the neck from the
body. _N. coronata_ of eastern South Africa, _N. reichenowi_ of East
Africa, _N. cornuta_ of western South Africa, _N. marungensis_, found from
Benguela to Tanganyika, _N. mitrata_ of East Africa, Madagascar, and the
islands in the vicinity, and _N. ptilorhyncha_ of North-East Africa, lack
the collar and differ from each other in the shape of the large helmet,
which may be upright or inclined backwards. _N. ptilorhyncha_ has the naked
parts blue, and a bunch of horn-coloured bristles at the base of the
maxilla; _N. coronata_, _N. mitrata_, and _N. reichenowi_ have a reddish
casque, a scarlet top to the head, and blue cheeks and neck; the wattles
being red in the last, but blue tipped with red in the first two, as in _N.
cornuta_, where the helmet is vermilion. _N. marungensis_ has a stouter,
shorter helmet than _N. coronata_, which it much resembles. _Agelastes
meleagrides_ of West Africa is black vermiculated with whitish, and has a
zone of white feathers at the base of the neck; the bare skin of the head
is red, of the neck white. The male has a strong spur on each metatarsus,
as has _Phasidus niger_, ranging from Cape Lopez to Loango, which is
brownish-black with a band of feathers from the base of the bill to the
occiput; the naked head is in this case yellow, becoming orange on the
neck.

As regards habits, _Numida meleagris_ may represent the group. This wild
suspicious bird is found in flocks of a dozen or even a hundred, not
invariably of its own species, which frequent thick bushes, tall grass, or
rocky river-sides; it runs swiftly and with perfect ease, occasionally
travelling twenty miles a day; while, though the short wings and heavy body
preclude extended flights, it travels with considerable power. When
disturbed it usually seeks the trees, in which it roosts at night, and
under which it shelters from the sun. The food consists of grass, seeds,
roots, bulbs, berries, and insects, the ground being often torn up in the
search; the noisy cry is hoarse and discordant, or sharp and metallic; the
nest is a depression with little or no lining, placed in or under a
tussock, and contains from twelve to twenty yellowish eggs with undecided
{206}rusty spotting. _Phasidus_ is not gregarious. The rock-loving _Numida
ptilorhyncha_ attains an altitude of nine thousand feet.

Sub-fam. 2. _Meleagrinae._–Of the Turkeys,[153] there are only two species,
_Meleagris gallipavo_ and _M. ocellata_. The former has three
races–distinguished by the tail and its upper coverts being tipped with
white, buff, and chestnut respectively–the united range extending from
Southern Canada to Mexico through the Eastern and South-Western States.
They are coppery-bronze, with purplish-green and golden sheen and black
markings; the remiges being brown barred with white, and the tail black and
brown with broad dark sub-terminal band. The reddish head and neck are
nearly bare, shewing wrinkled warty skin and a pendent erectile process on
the forehead; a bunch of long black bristles decorates the chest of the
male, which has a stout spur on each metatarsus. The bill and feet are red.
_M. ocellata_ of Yucatan, British Honduras, and Guatemala, has black
plumage, tipped with brassy-green, and fringed with greenish-copper, that
becomes redder below; the rump region is steel-blue, and brilliant ocelli
of green-blue margined with copper mark the ends of the greyish rectrices
and their coverts. The frontal caruncle and the head are blue, with red tip
and excrescences respectively, while the pectoral tuft is absent.

The wild Turkey is wary and extremely quick of foot, spending the day
chiefly upon the ground and roosting high in the trees; it frequents wooded
country, and feeds upon plants, seeds, nuts and other fruits, with lizards
and insects. In spring the males fight viciously, and show off before the
assembled hens; strutting around with erect, outspread tails and drooping
wings, while uttering puffing and gobbling noises. Each cock having secured
a mate or two, breeding takes place, after which the sexes separate, but
combine again in autumn and wander widely in search of food. A hole,
scraped under some log or tuft of herbage, and lined with dry leaves,
receives the yellowish-white eggs with red-brown spots; the number varying
from ten to eighteen, or even more if several hens co-operate.

Sub-fam. 3. _Phasianinae._–Among these a detailed description is
unnecessary of the fine blue, green, and rufous plumage of the Peacock
(_Pavo cristatus_), or of the green, purple, copper, and gold ocelli
{207}on its elongated train of erectile tail-coverts; but other striking
points are the bare-shafted crest and naked white face; while the
comparatively dull-coloured Pea-hen lacks the train of the male and the
spur on each metatarsus. In the wild state these birds are shy, and run
particularly fast, while they occasionally fly in small flocks; they
inhabit the hill-forests or ravines near water-courses in India and Ceylon,
roosting in large trees, making a slight nest on the ground, ruined
buildings, or more rarely branches, and laying from four to about ten
yellowish or reddish eggs, sometimes faintly spotted with rufous. The cry
is a harsh mewing squeal, or a "cok-cok-cok" when flushed; the food
resembles that of the Turkey, but is at times varied by fish or flesh; and,
as in that bird, the males are said to dance or strut around when courting,
each securing three or four consorts. Peafowl are supposed to indicate the
proximity of tigers, and are sacred to various Indian castes, while foolish
superstition considers the eyed feathers unlucky! Introduced to England at
some very early date, they were formerly thought a great delicacy for the
table. _P. nigripennis_, the "Japanned Peacock," is a species, or perhaps
variety, with deep blue wing-coverts and other slighter differences, the
female being almost entirely greyish-white; _P. muticus_, a valid species
from the Indo-Chinese countries and Java, is distinguished by the
golden-green neck and chest and the blue and yellow skin of the face; the
crest feathers being here fully webbed.

_Argusianus argus_, the Argus Pheasant, has a short black crest; black,
rufous, and buff plumage with white barring on the nape and tail-coverts;
and enormously developed secondaries and median rectrices, covered
respectively with large reddish-yellow and small white ocelli, which are
margined with black; the naked cheeks and throat are blue, the bill is
bluish-white, the feet are red. It inhabits the forests of the Indo-Malay
mainland and Sumatra, the cock being said only to meet the hens
occasionally, and to reserve an open spot for courting purposes, where he
shows himself off by dancing before them with the tail and secondaries
expanded into a large fan. This bird flies little, but runs with celerity,
having a loud cry, feeding on vegetable matter and insects, nesting like
the Pea-fowl, and laying similar eggs. _A. grayi_ of Borneo shows white on
the mantle and much red on the breast, _A. bipunctatus_ is only known from
an imperfect primary. The females lack the ocelli and elongated tail. _A._
{208}(_Rheinardtius_) _ocellatus_, of the Tonkin highlands, is brown with
reddish markings and minute white dots; it has a hairy occipital crest, and
exhibits fine red spots, with black white-eyed central rings, on the very
long median rectrices and their upper coverts.

In _Polyplectron_ (Peacock-Pheasant) the male has two or even three spurs
on the metatarsus. _P. chinquis_ of the Indo-Chinese countries is brown,
with whitish dots above and mottlings below; the head is black and white
with naked yellowish sides; the upper plumage is adorned with large, round,
metallic, purple-green ocelli, ringed successively with black, brown, and
buff, of which the tail and its upper-coverts exhibit one on each web. _P.
germaini_ of Cochin China has close-set light brown specks above, and a red
face; _P. bicalcaratum_ of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra has the latter
similarly coloured, with black and buff upper surface, a narrow purplish
crest, and lateral rectrices with an "eye" only on the outer web; _P.
schleiermacheri_ of Borneo has the crest curled forward, and blackish under
parts with a white median band; whereas _P. nehrkornae_ of Paláwan, and the
doubtfully distinct _P. napoleonis_, are entirely black below. As regards
the duller females, _P. chinquis_ and _P. germaini_ have obscure ocelli on
both webs of the lateral tail-feathers, the other species on the outer web
only; moreover, _P. chinquis_, _P. schleiermacheri_, and _P. nehrkornae_
have none on the tail-coverts, the latter lacking the black blotches on the
mantle found in _P. bicalcaratum_ and _P. schleiermacheri_. _P._
(_Chalcurus_) _inocellatus_ of Sumatra is brown and buff, with purple and
black tints on the tail. Little is known of the habits, except in _P.
chinquis_, which is apparently monogamous, and frequents thick hill-forests
up to an altitude of five thousand feet. It feeds like the Peafowl, has a
fine whistling call varied by a soft cluck, and will take refuge in trees,
though preferring to escape on foot. The cock carries his outspread tail on
one side, while the hen uses hers to shelter the young. The fairly
substantial nest of twigs and leaves, usually containing two brownish eggs,
is placed on the ground.

Of the four species of _Gallus_, _G. ferrugineus_ (_bankiva_), the Red
Jungle-fowl–Bhund Moorg of the natives of India–shewing much resemblance to
the "Black-breasted Game" breed, is the origin of our domestic stock.[154]
It has a vaulted tail with long drooping median feathers, a serrated red
comb, naked red face and throat, {209}with a wattle on each side of the
latter, a spur on each metatarsus, and ear-lappets, which are whitish in
Indian examples, but red in Burmese and Malay. The crown and the hackles of
the mantle and rump are orange-red, the back is chiefly purplish-red, and
the wings, tail, and under parts are glossy greenish-black, with yellowish
outer margins to the primaries and brownish to the secondaries. Between
June and September the hackles and long tail plumes are replaced by short
black feathers. The hen has little comb, no wattles, spurs, or elongated
rectrices; the crown is reddish and the mantle yellowish, both with black
stripes; the wing- and tail-quills are brown and rufous; the remaining
plumage being reddish-brown, deeper on the fore-neck and brighter on the
chest, with black mottling above. This Jungle-fowl ranges from
North-Eastern and Central India to Hainan, and from Sumatra to the
Philippines, Celebes, and Timor; frequenting thickets and forests up to
five thousand feet, but often flocking to cultivated country, where it
feeds upon leaves, seeds, insects, and especially grain. Pugnacious towards
its kin[155] it is timid with man, running with great speed or taking
refuge in trees; the flight consists of alternate periods of flapping and
sailing, while the cluck of the hen and the crow of the cock resemble those
of domestic fowls, though the latter is less prolonged. The nest is a hole
lined with leaves, grass, or plant-stems, containing from seven to twelve
buff eggs; polygamy being apparently rare. _G. sonnerati_, the Grey
Jungle-fowl of Southern, Central, and Western India, is distinguishable by
the dilated shafts of the neck-hackles, with their wax-like yellow tips or
spangles; _G. lafayettii_ (_stanleyi_) of Ceylon by the yellow comb with
red margin, and the red breast. The former utters a broken crow, the latter
a double note, the eggs in both cases being spotted, and occasionally
whitish in ground-colour. _G. varius_ of Java, Lombok, and Flores, is
greener, with truncated neck-feathers, an unserrated comb, and a single
median wattle of red, yellow, and blue-green. The hens of _G. sonnerati_
and _G. lafayettii_ have white breast-plumage, barred and fringed with
black, the former shewing black mottlings instead of bars on the
secondaries; that of _G. varius_ has a buff breast and a blackish back. In
these three species crosses with domestic fowls are said to be usually
sterile.

_Chrysolophus pictus_, the brilliant Golden Pheasant, has the {210}crown
and full recumbent hair-like crest golden, the fine erectile cape of
truncated nape-plumes orange with blue-black bars, the mantle dark green
and purple, the rump golden, the primaries brownish, the secondaries
purplish with chestnut and black coverts, the larger tail-coverts and the
vaulted tail with its two very long median rectrices black, with brown
spots or stripes, the scapulars and under parts scarlet, and the cheeks and
throat rufous. There are generally two spurs on each metatarsus, and the
bare orbits are yellowish. The female is brown, relieved by black and buff,
and has a shorter tail, no crest or cape. This bird, difficult to
naturalize in Britain, but easily domesticated, inhabits wooded mountains
in South and West China and East Tibet, meeting in the last two countries
the equally beautiful Lady Amherst's Pheasant (_C. amherstiae_), which has
dark green crown, mantle, throat, and chest, blood-red crest, white cape
with blue-black bars, black and buff rump, glossy green and brown wings,
white breast and abdomen, and black and white tail with scarlet and orange
tips to the coverts. The orbits are blue in both sexes, the female being
otherwise as in _C. pictus_.

The original Pheasant of Britain–probably introduced by the Romans–was
_Phasianus colchicus_, ranging from the Caspian to South-East Europe; but
the Ring-necked species (_P. torquatus_) of Manchuria, East Mongolia,
Corea, Tsu-sima, and Eastern China, imported towards the end of last
century, has interbred with it so freely that typical examples are now
exceptional. The latter form has a white collar and slaty lower back with
dark green barring; while the former has the rump feathers buff, with black
mottlings and purplish-red tips. The females, hardly separable from one
another, lack the red face-wattles, the long ear-tufts, and the pair of
spurs of the male. The above-mentioned colour of the lower back and the
comparatively broad black basal tail-bands, are the distinguishing points
of a section, which comprises _P. torquatus_, _P. elegans_ of West China,
_P. vlangali_ of Tsaidam, _P. strauchi_ of Kansu, _P. decollatus_ of
Western and Central China, _P. satscheunensis_ of Sa-tscheu, _P.
formosanus_ of Formosa, and _P. versicolor_ of Japan. Another section, more
akin to _P. colchicus_, contains _P. tarimensis_ and _P. zerafshanicus_ of
the Tarim and Zerafshan Valleys, _P. persicus_ of Persia and Transcaspia,
_P. principalis_ of North-East Persia and North-West Afghanistan, _P.
shawi_ of East Turkestan, _P. chrysomelas_ of the Amu-Darya, and {211}_P.
mongolicus_, extending from the Syr-Daria to Mongolia. All these races have
the crown greenish, and differ chiefly in the colour of the scapulars,
breast, rump, and abdomen; a white collar occurring in _P. torquatus_, _P.
mongolicus_, _P. satscheunensis_, and _P. formosanus_, while _P.
versicolor_ is green below. Where two forms meet hybrids are not uncommon.
In _P. soemmerringi_ of Japan, _P. ellioti_ of South-East China, and _P.
humiae_ of Manipur and Upper Burma the crown is red-brown, the first
species having the lower back maroon with gold reflexions, the two others a
black and white rump, with white and chestnut belly respectively. _P.
reevesi_ of North and West China has the crown white encircled by black,
the nape and throat white with a subjacent black collar, the remaining
upper parts yellowish-red and black, with white and rufous on the wings,
the breast black, white, and chestnut, the abdomen black, the tail is
extremely long.

[Illustration: FIG. 46.–Pheasant. _Phasianus colchicus._ × ⅐.]

{212}Space is wanting to describe the various females, or to discuss the
sport that Pheasants afford; but the swift flight, the powers of foot, the
polygamous and pugnacious habits, the olive-coloured eggs, and the immense
numbers reared artificially, must be noticed.[156] _P. reevesi_, Reeves's
Pheasant, _P. versicolor_, the Green Pheasant, and _P. soemmerringi_, the
Copper Pheasant, have also been introduced into Britain, the two latter and
_P. torquatus_ into Oregon, _P. colchicus_ into the Eastern United States;
New Zealand has received both _P. colchicus_ and _P. torquatus_, St. Helena
and Ascension _P. torquatus_ only–the former island as early as 1513.

_Catreus wallichi_ of the Himalayas has a brown head with fine white-tipped
crest; a grey neck, yellowish and whitish upper parts, black and buff
primaries, and a rufous rump, all with black barring; the under surface is
light buff with black marks, the naked orbits are red. The male has a pair
of spurs and very long median rectrices; the female being brown mottled
with black and buff, having a smaller crest, a shorter tail, and at times
rudimentary spurs. Considerable flocks frequent the grassy forest-hills up
to an altitude of eight thousand feet, lying very closely in the day-time,
though running with great speed when disturbed, and flying heavily for a
short way; they feed towards evening on roots, seeds, berries, grubs, and
insects, reiterating the peculiar call, whence they are named Cheer. The
slight nest, generally sheltered by a bush or tussock at the base of a
hill, contains from nine to fourteen whitish or pale drab eggs, sometimes
sparingly spotted with red-brown.

_Pucrasia_ contains six species or local races of "Pukras" or Koklas
Pheasants, with long, black, erectile ear-tufts in the male, which has a
spur on each metatarsus, but no naked cheeks. _P. macrolopha_ of the
Western Himalayas has a well-developed buff crest, a greenish-black head
and neck with a white patch on each side of the latter, grey upper parts
and whitish flanks with black shaft-stripes, brownish wings marked with
buff, chestnut under parts and median feathers of the elongated,
wedge-shaped tail, and blackish lateral rectrices with white tips. The
black and rufous hen has a white throat, a short crest, and no ear-tufts or
spurs. _P. castanea_ of North Afghanistan and Kafiristan has the mantle
chestnut, _P. nipalensis_ of the Central Himalayas black varied by grey and
reddish; _P. meyeri_ of South Tibet and the {213}Upper Mekong possesses a
yellow nuchal collar; _P. darwini_ of East China has grey bases to the
outer tail-feathers; _P. xanthospila_ exhibiting both. These monogamous
birds attain a somewhat higher elevation than the Cheer, and utter a loud,
deep crow; but otherwise the habits are the same. The five to nine pointed
eggs are buff, speckled or blotched with red-brown.

_Gennaeus_[157] has a long vaulted tail, a fine crest, naked sides to the
face covered with red skin or wattles, and metatarsi with a single spur in
the male. In _G. albicristatus_ of the Western Himalayas the crest is
white, the head and upper parts being black with purple and blue reflexions
and white margins to the dorsal feathers, the primaries and abdomen brown,
and the breast whitish. The female is reddish-brown, with delicate black
markings on the grey-margined upper feathers, and shews white below and on
the wing-coverts. _G. leucomelanus_, with blue-black crest, inhabits Nepal;
_G. muthura_ (_melanotus_), without white on the lower back, occurs in
Sikkim and Bhutan; _G. horsfieldi_, with black breast, extending from East
Bhutan to North Arakan and Upper Burma. All the above species have the tail
black, or rarely vermiculated with white; but in _G. lineatus_ of Burma,
Siam, and Tenasserim, and the very similar _G. andersoni_ of Upper Burma
and West Yunnan, it is banded alternately with black and white, and the
median rectrices are even whiter. _G. edwardsi_ inhabits Annam. _G.
nycthemerus_, the Silver Pheasant of South China, embroidered as a badge on
mandarins' dresses, and introduced into England early in last century, has
an extremely long white tail, obliquely marked with black on the lateral
feathers, a purplish-black crown, crest and lower surface, white back of
the neck and upper parts with crescentic black lines on the latter, and
naked red face. _G. swinhoii_ of Formosa is easily distinguished from its
allies by the bronzy-crimson scapulars, white crest, upper back, and median
rectrices; the remaining plumage being bluish- or purplish-black with a
glossy dark green band upon the wing. The female is mottled with rufous,
black, and buff, and has a short crest, while that sex of the Silver
Pheasant is browner, and exhibits white on the outer tail-feathers. These
"Kalleges"–a name strictly applicable to the first four species
only–frequent thin forests in low valleys, and are but slightly gregarious;
they perch on trees, and {214}fly short distances when flushed; the note is
a shrill crow, a whistling chuckle or a "chirrup;" the food is as usual in
Pheasants. The pugnacious male is said to strut with outspread tail, and to
drum with his wings while courting; the nest, formed of dry herbage in a
depression of the soil, contains from nine to fourteen creamy or
reddish-buff eggs.

The "Eared" or Snow-Pheasants (_Crossoptilon_) have a vaulted tail with
decomposed webs to the long decurved median feathers, fine white ear-tufts,
and lax hairy plumage, shorter and curled on the crown. The naked papillose
cheeks and the metatarsi are red, with a pair of stout spurs on the latter
in the male. _C. tibetanum_ of West China and East Tibet is white, with
black crown, dark brown remiges, and greenish- or purplish-black rectrices.
_C. leucurum_ of East Tibet has the tail white with blue-black tip, as has
_C. manchuricum_ of Manchuria and North China, in which the mantle, nape,
and breast are blackish-brown, with a faint white band between the
ear-coverts, found also in _C. auritum_ of West China and Koko-Nor, and
well defined in _C. harmani_ of Tibet. The last two have the nape, back,
and under parts grey-blue. These elegant birds haunt lofty mountain-woods
until cold weather comes on; they are comparatively tame, feed on leaves,
shoots, roots, fruit, worms, and insects, and lay–at least in the case of
_C. manchuricum_–from twelve to sixteen drab eggs. The plumes are worn by
Tartar and Chinese warriors.

_Lobiophasis bulweri_ of Borneo is a splendid bird with maroon nuchal
collar and chest, brown remiges, white tail, and black plumage elsewhere
with blue margins to most of the feathers. The stiff spine-pointed
rectrices number twenty-eight in the hen and no less than thirty-two in the
cock, the whole tail being compressed and the median plumes decurved; in
the male the skin of the naked front of the head is blue, as are two
caruncles present behind the ears, two smaller processes on the lores, and
two wattles at the gape. The rufous, buff, and black female has only the
sides of the face bare, with diminutive lateral wattles on the throat. This
species skulks in the jungles, and prefers running to flying, having many
of the habits of a fowl, though ranging up to two thousand feet; the eggs
are stone-coloured.

The magnificent Firebacks (_Lophura_) have, so far as is known, similar
habits to the members of _Gennaeus_, though they are stronger on the wing,
and utter mellower notes in their forest retreats; {215}the tail is
vaulted, the cheeks exhibit patches of rugose blue skin–red in _L.
diardi_–while the male has a pair of spurs and an erect crest with
bare-shafted plumes. _L. nobilis_ of Borneo is purplish-blue with fiery
chestnut rump-region, golden lower breast, black head, throat, and wings,
the four median rectrices being entirely buff and the lateral black with
buff markings; _L. vieilloti_ of Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra has
the lower breast black, and the two middle rectrices white, _L. ignita_ of
China differing in its chestnut-spotted flanks; _L. diardi_ (_praelata_) of
Siam, Cambodia, and Cochin China has a grey and black mantle, neck, and
breast, a golden buff lower back, and crimson-tipped rump-feathers. The
females have the mantle red-brown or chestnut, and outer rectrices of the
latter colour in _L. vieilloti_, but black in _L. nobilis_; in _L. diardi_
the black wing-coverts have wide buff bars. This sex of _L. ignita_ seems
to be unknown. _Acomus_ has naked cheeks, but no crest or wattles; the tail
is vaulted, and a pair of spurs is found in both sexes. _A.
erythrophthalmus_ of the southern Malay Peninsula and Sumatra is chiefly
purplish- or bluish-black with fiery golden lower back, rich buff tail, and
white wing-markings; _A. pyronotus_ of Borneo exhibits white shaft-stripes
on the breast; _A. inornatus_ of West Sumatra, of which the male only has
been discovered, has black plumage margined with dark blue-green, therein
somewhat resembling the hens of its congeners, which are black glossed with
purplish-blue. In habits this genus apparently resembles _Lophura_.

_Lophophorus_ contains four gorgeous species of almost unsurpassable
brilliancy, among which the Monal, constantly misnamed the Impeyan
Pheasant, is best known. The tail is rounded, each metatarsus is provided
with a spur in the male, and bare blue skin surrounds the eye. The
Himalayan Monal (_L. refulgens_) has a crest like that of the Peacock,
uniform in colour with the purplish-green head; the neck is purple,
coppery, and green, the mantle golden-green, the lower back white, and the
tail chestnut; the wing- and tail-coverts being green or purple with blue
and green reflexions, the under parts black, and the remiges dusky. Its
habits differ somewhat from those of other Pheasants, a preference being
shown for grassy hill-forests not far from the snow-line; it roosts in
trees, though generally found on the ground during the day, and is not very
wild, trusting to its speed of foot in open spots, but readily taking to
wing in the {216}woodlands. The flight is rapid and powerful, while the
male is said to soar without perceptible movement of the pinions; the usual
cry is a loud melancholy whistle. The long stout beak serves to dig up
roots for food; but grain, fruit, grass, and insect-larvae are also eaten.
The nest, or sheltered unlined excavation in the soil, contains from four
to six oval cream-coloured eggs, closely spotted or blotched with
reddish-brown. The cocks are reported to be non-pugnacious, and the hens
semi-gregarious while breeding. _L. impeyanus_ of South Kashmir, the true
Impeyan Pheasant, differs in its golden-green lower back and under parts;
_L. l'huysi_ of Sze-chuen and Koko-Nor has an ordinary crest, and white
spots on the blue, green, and black tail; _L. sclateri_ of North-East Assam
has a curly crown with no crest, and white-tipped rectrices; the two latter
forms being black beneath and white on the lower back. The slightly-crested
females are black, buff, and white; the lower back is black and buff in _L.
refulgens_, whitish mottled with brown in _L. sclateri_, and white in _L.
l'huysi_.

Of Tragopan (_Ceriornis_) there are five species, remarkable for the fleshy
blue horn above each eye and the large gular wattle in the male, who erects
the former and inflates the latter when courting. The fore-part of the head
and throat are naked or merely hairy, while the crested cock-bird possesses
a pair of short spurs, rarely present in his mate. _C. satyrus_, the Horned
Pheasant of the Central and Eastern Himalayas, has the crown and throat
black, the occiput, neck, and lower parts orange-red with stiff
chest-plumes, the back brown, the remiges and rectrices black and buff.
Most of the body-feathers exhibit black-margined white spots, and the outer
wing-coverts additional red marks; while the wattle is orange barred with
blue. _C. melanocephalus_ of the Western Himalayas has a longer crest
tipped with red, none of that colour on the occiput, the breast black and
red, and a purple wattle with flesh-coloured sides, blue margin and spots.
_C. temmincki_ of Central and South-West China has the crest and under
parts red, the wattle blue barred marginally with red, and the
characteristic spots grey without black rings. _C. blythi_ of North-East
Assam and Manipur has the wattle yellow tinged with blue, and a plain grey
breast; whereas _C. caboti_ of South-East China has the latter region buff.
The hens are black and buff with whitish spots. These shy solitary birds
occupy the higher hill-forests, being apparently {217}monogamous, though
found in small companies at times; they run slowly, take refuge in trees,
and fly with a whirring sound. They roost aloft, but feed constantly upon
the ground, eating grubs, insects, roots, flowers, fruits, and especially
seeds or herbage; the note is a deep monotonous "bellowing" or "wailing
sound." The fleshy excrescences are said to be chiefly developed in the
breeding season, when the male, who possibly assists in incubation, struts
before his consort like a Turkey. A nest is sometimes formed of twigs,
grass, and feathers to contain the seven or eight whitish eggs with dull
lilac spots or red freckles. Tragopans are mistakenly termed "Argus" by
sportsmen in India.

[Illustration: FIG. 47.–Cabot's Tragopan. _Ceriornis caboti._ × ⅙. (From
_Nature_.)]

In _Ithagenes_, or Blood-Pheasant, the bill is short and stout, the tail
fairly long and rounded, the plumage soft and acuminate; the orbits are
naked and red, and each metatarsus is armed with two or more spurs,
generally absent in the female. _I. cruentus_ of the Eastern Himalayas and
Tibet has a full buff crest, black forehead and lores, lead-coloured back
and wings, brownish remiges and rectrices with white tips to the latter,
and a green {218}wash on the wing-coverts and rump. The cheeks, throat, and
much of the upper and under tail-coverts are crimson, the breast is
yellow-green with crimson streaks. _I. geoffroyi_ of East Tibet and West
China has a grey head and throat; _I. sinensis_ of Mongolia and North China
is similar, with rufous for green on the wing-coverts. Females are grey,
brown, and buff. Found in flocks of twenty or thirty at altitudes between
ten and fourteen thousand feet, these bold birds have limited powers of
flight, great speed of foot, and a weak cackling note; they bury themselves
occasionally in the snow, as do certain Grouse (p. 238), and feed on grass,
insects, berries, and shoots of juniper or pine.

If a Sub-family _Perdicinae_ be admitted, it may be commenced[158] with the
little known _Ophrysia superciliosa_ of North-West India, a soft-plumaged
greyish-brown species with black and white markings on the head; next to
which comes _Galloperdix_, the Spur-Fowl, with a large bare eye-space, and
two or three spurs on each foot in the male, reduced to a single pair in
the female. _G. spadicea_ of India, which has been introduced into
Madagascar, has a brown crown, and chestnut plumage elsewhere, with grey
margins to the feathers, and black vermiculations on the wing-coverts and
rump; the female being mottled with black. _G. lunulata_, another Indian
form, has the crown black with white streaks, the breast buff with black
spots, and black-ringed white ocelli on the mantle; _G. bicalcarata_ of
Ceylon has both mantle and crown black with white stripes, and the breast
whiter. These birds frequent thick jungles near the coast, or hills up to
seven thousand feet, and are extremely wild, though hard to flush; they
resort to trees in emergencies, and roost in them at night; the note is a
harsh or plaintive whistle; the food consists of grain, insects, and their
larvae. Four, five, or even ten whitish or buff eggs are deposited on a few
dry leaves below some sheltering shrub. The cocks are stated to fight as
viciously as Jungle-Fowl. _Bambusicola fytchii_, the Bamboo-Partridge,
found from North-East India to China, has the crown and ear-coverts
red-brown; the upper parts olive-brown, varied in places with black and
buff, and longitudinally marked with chestnut, except towards the rump; the
wing- and tail-quills reddish mottled with buff; the superciliary stripe,
throat, {219}and breast buff, the chest brown with chestnut and white
blotches, the flanks spotted with black. _B. thoracica_ of South China and
_B. sonorivox_ of Formosa have grey superciliary stripes, and the latter
grey ear-coverts. The females only differ from the males in rarely
possessing a pair of spurs. These species do not form coveys, but haunt
long grass and bamboo-thickets on the hills, being difficult to put up, and
uttering screaming noises; they readily challenge their neighbours to
fight, roost in trees, and lay from seven to twelve creamy-brown eggs under
shelter of a tussock or bush. _Ptilopachys fuscus_ of the northern
Ethiopian Region has brown plumage with white margins, and vermiculations
or darker barring in many parts, the mid-breast being buff and the naked
orbits red. The sexes are similar. Small parties or pairs frequent rocky
hill-sides up to nine thousand feet, and are very pugnacious; they carry
the tail folded, as do domestic fowls, have a sharp call-note and lay
whitish eggs.

In _Excalphatoria_ the short tail of eight soft feathers is entirely hidden
by the coverts. _E. sinensis_, the Chinese or Painted Quail, the smallest
of the Phasianidae, is brown above with black marking and rufous streaks, a
bluish shade appearing in places, and chestnut patches shewing on the
wing-coverts; the throat and sides of the neck are black and white, the
black forming a central patch below the chin; the remaining lower parts are
slate-blue with a median chestnut patch on the breast. It is found from
India and Ceylon to Formosa, and in Celebes; a darker race occupying the
Philippines, many of the Malay Islands, and Australia. _E. lepida_ of New
Britain, New Ireland, and the Duke of York Islands has no chestnut on the
wing, and little below; _E. adansoni_, of Africa south of lat. 5° N., is
slaty-brown above, and has chestnut scapulars, wing- and tail-coverts with
grey shaft-stripes. The females have white throats and rufous breasts
barred with black. The Australian form, or Least Swamp-Quail, abounds in
marshes, the Indian frequents dry ground as well, the coveys being composed
of single broods, which feed mainly upon seeds. The flight is very brief,
the nest a mere pad of grass, on which lie five or six olive-drab eggs,
scantily spotted with purple or red-brown. _Synoecus australis_, the
Swamp-Quail of Australia, Tasmania, and South-East New Guinea, is
reddish-brown and grey above, with more or less distinct black mottlings;
the throat is whitish, the under {220}surface is buff, with black chevrons
in younger birds. The female lacks the grey tints, and is more coarsely
barred with black. Gould describes the habits and call as resembling those
of the Common Partridge, but they are better exemplified by those of
_Excalphatoria_, while the eggs vary from ten to fourteen, and are creamy
or greenish-white, generally closely freckled with brown. _S. raalteni_ of
Timor and Flores has a rufous throat.

Of the true Quails six species may be admitted. _Coturnix communis_, the
Common Quail, though essentially a migrant in the north, ranges throughout
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and breeds not uncommonly in Britain, having also
been introduced into the Eastern United States; while another African race
(_C. capensis_ auctt.) only differs in its reddish throat. The crown is
dark brown with a light streak down the centre and above each eye; the
upper parts are brown and black with buff longitudinal stripes, becoming
mottlings on the remiges; the throat is white with a black median patch
connected with the ear-coverts by two upcurved lines: the breast is
reddish-buff, the abdomen yellowish-white, the flanks are mottled or barred
with brown. The short tail of ten or twelve feathers lies entirely below
the coverts. The hen-bird has black pectoral spots and a perfectly white
throat. _C. japonica_ of East Asia and Japan, occasionally found in Bhutan
and Burma, has a plain brick-red throat, the sides of which and the chin
exhibit lanceolate feathers in the female. Hybrids between this species and
the Common Quail occur where their ranges overlap; individuals, moreover,
present great variation. _C. coromandelica_ of India and the Burmese
countries, _C. delegorguii_ of the Ethiopian Region, _C. pectoralis_ of
Australia and Tasmania, and the nearly extinct _C. novae zealandiae_ of New
Zealand, have the outer webs of the primaries uniform brown in both sexes;
the males of the first two have the throat as in _C. communis_, with a
black patch on the breast, and buff and chestnut under parts respectively;
the third has the throat plain brick-coloured; and the fourth still
brighter red. The females have no throat-mark, the hen of _C. delegorguii_
being blackish-brown above, and that of _C. pectoralis_ shewing black
chest-bands, which in _C. novae zealandiae_ cover most of the feathers.
That Quails can traverse long distances is evidenced by the migration of
large flocks in spring and autumn; but, as a rule, their flight is short,
and they rise with great reluctance, though with considerable
{221}velocity. The trisyllabic note of the male is rendered "wet-my-lips"
by country-folk; the food consists of seeds, slugs, and insects, sought
among the grassy flats in general frequented. From seven to fifteen
yellowish or white eggs, with dark brown blotches or marblings, are
deposited in a hollow lined with bits of herbage, in standing corn or
grass, the hen sitting very closely and feigning lameness to draw attention
from the young. The male appears to be usually monogamous, while the broods
or "bevies" do not form coveys. Two of these broods are said to be
occasionally reared in a season, but how far such statements are due to the
destruction of the first complement of eggs must remain doubtful, as in the
case of so many other birds that breed on the ground.[159]

_Melanoperdix nigra_, of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra, is
glossy black with browner primaries, the female being chestnut, with black
markings and a whitish chin. It inhabits the lowlands and lays five eggs.
_Rollulus roulroul_ is a most remarkable form with a frontal tuft of long
black bristles. In the male the fore-part of the head is black, separated
by a white band from the full hairy crest of maroon, which covers the
occiput; the upper parts are dark green glossed with blue, the wing-coverts
being maroon, and the quills brown and buff. The tail and under parts are
black, a blue tint shewing on the breast; the base of the black bill, the
feet, and the naked orbits are scarlet. The female has a blackish head with
moderate crest, a grass-green body with chestnut wing-coverts edged with
maroon, and a black bill. These birds inhabit the dense forests of the
Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim, Siam, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, up to an
altitude of a few thousand feet; they hunt in small parties for seeds,
berries, and insects, are very shy, quick of movement and hard to flush,
and utter a mellow whistle. _Caloperdix oculea_ of similar range to
_Rollulus_–unless we separate _C. borneensis_ with more chestnut throat–has
the crown, neck, and under parts rufous-chestnut, the back and tail black
with crescentic white anterior and reddish posterior markings, the
wing-coverts brown with round black spots, the quills brown and buff, the
face and throat buff, a white supra-aural stripe, and black flanks with
whitish bars. The male is only distinguished by possessing a pair or two of
spurs. This bird haunts dense uninhabited forests, and eats insects, seeds,
and berries. _Haematortyx {222}sanguiniceps_, of the mountain-forests of
Northern Borneo, is brownish-black; the slightly-crested head, the throat,
upper breast and under tail-coverts being crimson with black tips to the
last-named, and the metatarsi possessing three pairs of spurs. The
rump-feathers have partly expanded shafts. The female has the throat
rufous, the upper breast deep chestnut, and no spurs. _Arboricola_ contains
nearly twenty species with almost naked throats, ranging from Northern
India to the Indo-Chinese countries, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Formosa.
The following may be taken as examples of this genus, the sexes being
usually alike. _A. torqueola_ of the Himalayas has a chestnut crown, red,
black, and white nape, olive and black upper parts, varied with chestnut
and buff on the wings, black cheeks, throat, fore-neck, and superciliary
stripe, a white line down the sides of the throat, a white band surmounting
the grey breast, and grey flanks with chestnut and white markings. In the
female the crown is brown and black, the throat, cheeks, and so forth,
rufous with black spots, the chest-band rusty-red. _A. ardens_ of Hainan,
of which the male only is known, is easily recognised by the peculiar
shining orange-scarlet patch of stiff hair-like feathers on the fore-neck.
_A. javanica_ of Java has the head rufous with brownish crown, a black band
surrounding the eyes and crossing the occiput, another encircling the base
of the neck, joined to the former by a black line down the rust-coloured
nape, and a third running from the throat to the sides of the neck. The
upper parts are dark grey barred with black, the wings exhibiting chestnut
and olive tints; the chest is grey; the remaining lower parts are chestnut.
_A. chloropus_ of Lower Burma and Cochin China has the crown and nape
brown, the superciliary stripe, throat, and lores black and white, the
fore-neck buff with black spots and margin, the upper parts and chest brown
and black with rufous on the wings and rump-region, the breast red, the
abdomen, sides, and black-barred flanks buff. In this genus the orbital and
even the gular skin is crimson or purplish, the feet are commonly red, the
bill rarely so. The various species form coveys, which frequent grassy
hill-jungles and wooded ravines up to more than ten thousand feet; they are
usually unsuspicious, and run before an intruder, but occasionally perch in
trees, and fly rapidly when forced to rise; the single whistling note is
loud but mellow; the food consists of leaves, roots, berries, seeds, grubs,
and molluscs; the four white eggs, {223}sometimes speckled with grey, are
deposited with little or no nest, at the foot of a tree, or under a tussock
among thin scrub.

_Microperdix_ and _Perdicula_, the Bush Quails of Anglo-Indians, have a
blunt tubercle on each foot in the male. _M. erythrorhyncha_ of South and
West India has the crown and cheeks black; a white frontal band continued
down the sides of the head; brown upper parts, with round buff
black-centred spots on the back, and black and buff markings on the wings
and tail; a white throat bordered by black; and a grey-brown chest and
rufous breast, with black spots on the former and the flanks. The bill and
feet are red. In the female the crown is brown, the throat and cheeks being
rufous. _M. blewitti_ of Central India is only slightly different; but _M.
manipurensis_ of Manipur has a chestnut throat, becoming grey in the hen.
These active Quail-like little birds haunt the lower mountain-thickets up
to perhaps eight thousand feet, forming small coveys, feeding on seeds and
insects, and fashioning a slight nest under some sort of cover, to contain
from ten to fourteen pointed creamy-brown eggs. _Perdicula asiatica_ of
India and Ceylon is brown above, with wavy black dorsal barring, and black
and buff markings on the wings and tail; the superciliary stripes and
throat are chestnut with whitish margins; the under parts white with black
bars; the feet red. The female is uniform buff below. _P. argoondah_ of
India has dull brick-red in place of the chestnut, and a whitish throat in
the hen. It has been introduced into Mauritius. The habits are much as in
_Microperdix_, but the nest is sometimes more elaborate, and the
reddish-white or olive-coloured eggs, with possibly a few faint spots,
number from five to seven. _Margaroperdix madagascariensis_ of Madagascar,
imported into Mauritius and Réunion, has a black head with reddish-brown
sides to the crown, a white stripe from above each eye running laterally
down the neck, two others from the gape down the margin of the throat,
rufous and black upper parts, with buff bars upon the wings and
rump-region, and white shaft-streaks except upon the quills. The red-brown
chest and black under surface are both margined with grey, and the latter
is spotted with white; the flanks are chestnut, black, and white. It is
called "Tro-tro," "Timpoy," or "Tsipoy" by the Malagasy, and inhabits
grassy hills, flying rapidly for short distances, and laying from about
fifteen to twenty eggs. Natives say that if {224}you break these eggs you
cause the death of your father, if you spare them that of your mother![160]

The genus _Perdix_ contains the Common Partridge (_P. cinerea_), so
valuable for purposes of food and sport, of which it is needless to
describe the plumage; yet attention may be drawn to the dark chestnut
horse-shoe mark on the grey breast, nearly obsolete in most adult females,
and the broad ruddy bars on the sides and flanks. The hen may be invariably
distinguished by wide-set buff bands on the black scapulars and adjoining
wing-coverts, which in the cock are light brown with black vermiculations
and chestnut blotches. The latter sex, moreover, has grey instead of brown
sides to the neck.[161] Great variation is noticeable in the coloration,
specimens from dry soils exhibiting the richest hues, while some are
occasionally obtained with a white horse-shoe mark, and a particularly dark
variety has even been denominated _Perdix montana_. Hybrids are recorded
with the Red-Legged Partridge and Red Grouse, but such are quite
exceptional. Unknown in Shetland, the Partridge has been introduced with
moderate success into the Outer Hebrides and Orkneys; but in the Highlands
of Scotland the character of the country is often unsuitable, nor is the
bird very plentiful in Ireland. From Scandinavia it occurs southward to the
Douro valley and Naples, though rarer in Northern Europe, and choosing
higher ground than the Red-legged species in the south; eastward it reaches
through Asia Minor and Persia as far as the Altai Mountains. Pairing even
in February, it does not nest until about April, the numbers of individuals
reared being naturally much affected by subsequent excess of wet or
drought. The better the cultivation the larger the stock, though grassy
heaths, gorse-coverts, tangled hedge-rows and thickets also provide
excellent harbour. Very rarely do Partridges desert the open for woods, or
perch in trees, though during the hot hours they shelter in fields of
turnips, clover, and so forth, emerging at other times to feed on the
grain, seeds, leaves, and insects found among short vegetation or stubble.
Cover is naturally eschewed when wet. They often trust to their powers of
foot for escape, or crouch motionless upon soil that matches their plumage,
while the whirring noise with which they rise is familiar to all, as is
their heavy rapid {225}flight at starting, and their easy gliding motion
afterwards. The well-known crowing note is most commonly heard towards
evening. The nest, a circular cavity lined with grass, is placed among
short herbage, often near a road, the drab-coloured–or, exceptionally,
bluish–eggs varying from nine to twenty or more in number. Both parents
tend the young and employ many devices to mislead an intruder; at night the
family parties roost upon the ground, and later in the year pack into
larger coveys. The methods of sportsmen and poachers cannot be discussed at
length in our limited space, but the general adoption of driving, instead
of shooting over dogs–due to improved systems of farming–should not be left
unnoticed.

_P. daürica_ (_barbata_), of Asia east of the Altai and Tian-shan Ranges,
exhibits lanceolate feathers on the sides of the throat, like _Coturnix
japonica_, and a black "horse-shoe" mark on the golden-buff breast; the
latter part in _P. hodgsoniae_, of South Tibet and the extreme north of
India, being white with wide bars and a large basal patch of black; _P.
sifanica_ of North-West China and North Tibet lacks the black patch, and
has less black on the sides of the head and throat. The two last-named
birds reach the snow-line at about eighteen thousand feet; the first of
them at least having a nest and eggs like the Common Partridge. _Rhizothera
longirostris_, of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra, has long sharp
curved beak and powerful whitish metatarsi, provided with a pair of stout
spurs in each sex. The upper plumage is rich brown with black and buff
markings; a grey shade pervades the neck and lower back, and chestnut tints
the cheeks, throat, and wings; the under parts are grey, merging
posteriorly into buff. The hen has a chestnut fore-neck, and is less grey
above. _R. dulitensis_ of Borneo is similar.

The genus _Pternistes_ contains the naked-throated Ethiopian Francolins.
_P. nudicollis_ of South Africa is brown above with black shaft-stripes,
the mantle being greyer, the superciliary stripes and face black, the sides
of the neck and lower parts black with white streaks. The female has a grey
and rufous chest, the male a pair of sharp spurs. The bare orbits and
throat are crimson, the bill and feet orange-red. _P. humboldti_ of East
Africa and _P. afer_ (_rubricollis_) of western South Africa resemble the
above, but have two pairs of spurs. _P. cranchi_ differs in having the
neck, mantle, and under surface {226}mottled with black and white, the
breast and abdomen shewing chestnut markings; in the similar _P. boehmi_
the naked throat is yellow. These two species occur west and east of Lake
Tanganyika respectively; the female being less black and white above and
less chestnut below in the former, while the sexes are alike in the latter.
_P. swainsoni_ of South Africa is distinguishable by its rusty abdomen with
black and chestnut blotches, the latter colour being absent in the hen; _P.
rufipictus_ of East Equatorial Africa has white neck-feathers, margined
with brown and black. _P. leucoscepus_ of North-East and the darker _P.
infuscatus_ of East Africa exhibit broken stripes of brown and white down
the whole body, with yellowish-red orbits and throat; the sexes are alike
save for the spurs in the male. In many districts the members of this
genus, as well as the Francolins proper, closely akin to them in appearance
and habits, are denominated "Pheasants." They haunt grassy places and
brushwood, often on hills near water; the coveys feeding in the open on
bulbs, seeds, berries, and insects, and roosting upon trees, preferably
those that are leafless. Flying little, but running at a great pace, they
utter harsh notes in the morning and evening, and lay six or more creamy or
pinkish eggs, frequently with chalky spots, in a grass-lined cavity
sheltered by coarse herbage.

_Francolinus_, inclusive of _Ortygornis_, _Scleroptila_, _Chaetopus_, and
_Clamator_ of some writers, contains forty or more species, ranging over
the Ethiopian Region, and from Arabia, Cyprus, and Asia Minor to Persia,
India, and South China. The coloration is rich and varied, and the sexes
are commonly alike, while hybrids undoubtedly occur. Apart from a special
study, a general idea is given by the following descriptions. _F.
vulgaris_, the Black Partridge, ranging from Cyprus, Palestine, and Asia
Minor to Assam, formerly occurred in Spain, Italy, Sicily, Greece, several
of the Mediterranean Islands, and North Africa.[162] It has the whole
plumage blackish, with buff markings on the crown, wings, and mantle, white
ocelli on the upper back and flanks, white barring on the lower back and
tail, a white patch below the eye, and chestnut collar and under
tail-coverts. The bill is black, the feet are orange with a small blunt
spur. The collar of the brownish female is confined to the nape, and the
throat is white. In _F. levaillanti_ of South Africa, the "Redwing" of
English {227}colonists, both sexes have the crown brown, edged with black
and white, which continues down the nape and widens at its base; a black
and white band outlines the throat and forms a patch below it, while the
rest of the head is rufous. The upper parts are black, brown, and buff,
with pale chestnut remiges; the under parts are of the last colour, varied
with buff and black, and barred with brown on the flanks. Spurs are
occasionally wanting. _F. adspersus_ of western South Africa is very
distinct, both male and female being brown above, with fine black and grey
mottlings and black lores; the head, neck, and lower surface are white,
with narrow black bars. The spurs are long and sharp. _F. albigularis_ of
West Africa is grey-brown, with rusty crown, white throat, buff under
parts, and bright bay patches on the wing-coverts, the upper back and neck
exhibiting white streaks edged with black. The lower back is blotched with
black, the spurs are moderate.

Of some five Asiatic species, _F. sinensis_–introduced into Madagascar,
Mauritius, and Réunion–alone reaches eastward of Assam to China; whereas
_F. pondicerianus_ has been imported into Rodriguez and the Amirante
Islands.

Francolins are found in family parties rather than coveys, and prefer
localities near water, though these may consist of rushy swamps, cultivated
lands, stony slopes, or maritime plains. Dry situations are, however,
favoured, a sufficiency of cover being the chief requisite, and an altitude
of six thousand feet being occasionally attained. Some forms roost upon the
ground and apparently never perch, others–especially in South Africa–resort
habitually to trees at night or when disturbed; but probably the style of
country and the amount of persecution account for this difference, while
the decrease of the commoner species in certain parts emphasises the fact
that they are an easy prey to gunners and other foes. These birds run with
great rapidity, and are extremely difficult to flush, still more so for a
second time; when forced to rise they do so with a whirring noise, and fly
off heavily but swiftly, to pitch again as soon as possible. Reposing in
the shade during the hot hours, they feed in the morning and evening, at
which times the loud, shrill cry of three bell-like notes, or the
"hysterical laugh," may be heard in all directions. The diet consists of
insects, shoots of plants, berries, seeds, and bulbs, the powerful bill
being used for digging. The well-concealed nest resembles that of a
Partridge, the six to fourteen eggs, found in {228}autumn as well as
spring,[163] are olive-brown or buff, occasionally with small brown spots
or a few white shell-markings.

_Ammoperdix bonhami_ of South-West Asia is a desert form of an isabelline
colour, with blue-grey crown and throat, black forehead and superciliary
stripes, white lores and ear-coverts, a few black markings near the rump,
chestnut hues on the tail and flanks, and longitudinal black bars on the
latter. _A. heyi_, ranging from Nubia to the Jordan Valley and the Persian
Gulf, has no black on the head, the frontal band being white, and the
cheeks and mid-throat chestnut. The rufous and buff females of the two
species are indistinguishable. They inhabit wastes and stony ravines up to
four thousand feet, in pairs or small coveys; crouching, to avoid
detection, on the ground, which matches their colour; flying like Quails;
and uttering a reiterated double whistle. The eight to twelve eggs, of a
plain drab tint, are deposited among stones or under tussocks, with hardly
any nest.

_Caccabis rufa_, the Red-legged or French Partridge, introduced into
England from France, and inhabiting Western Europe generally from Belgium
and Switzerland to the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Elba, and South Italy,
occurs in the Atlantic Islands, but not in Africa. The crown is grey, a
black band outlines the throat and reaches past the eyes to the forehead,
the upper parts are reddish-grey or brownish, and the tail is partly
chestnut. The abdomen is bright buff, the chest grey with black margins to
the feathers; chestnut, white, and black stripes adorn the flanks; the
bill, feet, and orbits are red. The male is only distinguishable by having
rudimentary spurs. _C. saxatilis_, the Greek Partridge, has the chest plain
and the flanks without white. It inhabits the Alps, Apennines, Carpathians,
Balkans, and Sicilian hills; the eastern race, _C. chukar_, ranging from
the Ionian Islands to Aden, Persia, Mongolia, and China, and being
naturalized in St. Helena. _C. magna_ of Tibet shews a double gorget of
black and reddish. _C. petrosa_, the Barbary Partridge, has a chestnut
crown and collar, with white spots on the latter; it occupies North-West
Africa, Sardinia, several of the Canary Islands, and Gibraltar. _C. spatzi_
of South Tunis differs slightly. _C. melanocephala_ of South-West Arabia
has a black crown, bluish upper parts, flanks marked with black and white,
{229}and a black mark down the fore-neck. The members of this genus
frequent cultivated country, grassy desert-hills, and scrub-covered ground,
up to sixteen thousand feet; they are unsuspicious in quiet parts, but such
is not the case in England. They run and fly far and fast, but are
exceptionally hard to flush, trusting almost entirely to their feet, and
occasionally when hard pressed resorting to trees. The loud note may be
syllabled chuk-chuk-chukar-chukar; the food consists of leaves, fruits,
seeds and insects; the nest is a scantily-lined excavation, containing from
seven to fourteen yellowish-white eggs with reddish specks or blotches. The
pugnacious males are used by the Cypriots to attract their wild kindred;
but in Britain they have been said–probably in error–to drive away the
Common Partridge.

_Tetraogallus tibetanus_, the Tibetan "Snow-Cock" or "Snow-Pheasant," is
dark grey above, with buff markings towards the wings and rump, and black
vermiculations; the under parts are white, with a grey pectoral band and
black streaks posteriorly. There is a yellowish naked patch behind the eye,
the bill is orange, and the feet are red. The sexes are similarly coloured,
but the male has a pair of strong blunt spurs. The range extends from East
Turkestan to West China, where _T. henrici_ occurs, with a grey chest. _T.
himalayensis_, found from the Himalayas to the Hindu Kush and the Altai
Mountains, has the pectoral band and a patch on each side of the head and
nape chestnut, the chest white with black bars, the orbits yellow, the bill
dusky, and the feet orange. _T. caspius_, extending from the Taurus to
Transcaspia and South Persia, has the upper breast grey with black spots,
and lacks the chestnut on the head; _T. caucasicus_ of the Caucasus has the
occiput and nape rufous, and the chest black and buff; _T. altaicus_ of the
Altai range has the last spotted with white, but no white bases to the
secondaries as in the two preceding forms. These large active birds haunt
stony hill-sides above the forest-zone and near the snow-line, being
gregarious, yet keeping in pairs; they are wild and wary, fly straight and
swiftly, utter shrill whistles or cackling notes, and feed upon insects,
buds, roots, grass, moss, and fern. From six to nine yellowish or olive
eggs with reddish or purplish spots, generally one-third larger than those
of the Capercaillie, are laid in a hollow in the soil, sheltered by a stone
or overhanging tuft.

_Tetraophasis obscurus_ of East Tibet is in both sexes {230}brownish-grey
above, with blackish markings anteriorly, olive tints on the mantle, and
buff on the wings; the throat and some blotches on the flanks are chestnut,
the breast is grey with black spots, the abdomen grey and buff, the tail
mainly black and white. The male has two stout spurs. _T. széchenyii_ of
Central Tibet has the throat fawn-coloured, and the whole of the under
parts blotched with chestnut. The habits are apparently somewhat similar to
those of the last genus. _Lerwa nivicola_, the "Snow-Partridge," ranging
from the Himalayas to Western China, has black upper parts with white
cross-bars, which become rufous buff on the mantle and wings; the under
surface is chestnut, with black and white markings only shewing towards the
belly. A pair of spurs distinguishes the cock from the hen. This species
inhabits broken grassy or heathery sides of mountains in the midst of snow,
up to an altitude of at least fourteen thousand feet; it is tamer than the
Snow-Pheasant, flies equally well, and nestles under jutting rocks. The
coveys feed on moss, seeds, and insects, and utter a short double
Grouse-like note or a harsh whistle.

Sub-fam. 4. _Odontophorinae_,[164]–The "American Partridges," are
Quail-like birds, rarely attaining the size of a Red Grouse, and readily
distinguished from their kin by the doubly-toothed mandible and the lack of
spurs. The sexes are alike, if not otherwise stated.

Of some four species of _Dendrortyx_, ranging from South Mexico to Costa
Rica, _D. macrurus_, of the former country, has a black head and throat,
with a long white streak above and below each eye, and a rufous tip to the
short, full occipital crest. The neck and back are chestnut and grey; the
rump, wings, and tail are browner with black mottlings; the breast is
greyish with rufous streaks. The bill, feet, and naked orbits are
coral-red. _Callipepla squamata_, of the South-Western United States and
Mexico, has a grey-brown head, with white-tipped crest and buff throat; the
wings, rump, and tail are brownish-grey with white inner margins to some of
the scapulars and secondaries; the mid-breast and belly are fawn-coloured.
The remaining plumage is grey, with black margins to the feathers which
cause a scaly appearance, and shews dusky triangular spots beneath.
_Oreortyx pictus_ of the Western United States possesses two very long
black occipital plumes; olive-brown upper parts with white edges to the
scapulars and outer secondaries; slaty head, neck, {231}and lower surface,
with chestnut throat and abdomen, of which the former is laterally margined
with white; a white band from the chin to the lores; and chestnut flanks,
barred with black and white. _Lophortyx californicus_, of the same
countries, has the head and crest of two club-shaped feathers black, a
yellow forehead, olive-grey upper parts, a black throat outlined with
white, buff mid-breast, and chestnut belly, each feather of the last two
being edged with black. A white band connects the eyes and continues behind
them, while white streaks grace the sides and flanks. The female lacks the
black and white pattern on the head, and has whitish lower parts with
yellow-brown throat. Two other species extend the range to Mexico,
_Philortyx fasciatus_ of South Mexico has an olive-brown upper surface,
washed with rufous on the crown and the greyer neck and mantle, and barred
or blotched with black and buff on the lower back, wings, and tail; the
blackish crest is tipped with red; the throat and lower parts are white,
with a few median spots and pronounced black bars on the chest, sides, and
flanks, where the feathers have rusty margins. _Eupsychortyx cristatus_ of
Curaçao and Aruba has half a dozen congeners, ranging through Central and
northern South America. It has a buff crest, crown, and throat; black and
white nape and cheeks; reddish-grey upper parts mottled and blotched with
black and buff; and rufous lower surface, barred with black, and spotted on
the chest, sides, and flanks with white. In the female the black on the
head is replaced by buff. _Ortyx virginianus_ of the Eastern United States
is rufous and grey above with black blotches, the crown is blackish, the
sides of the head are transversely striped with black and white, the white
throat is margined with black, the lower parts are reddish-white with black
chevrons. The hen-bird has a buff throat, and shews little black on the
cheeks. This genus contains eight members, often called Colins, which range
as far south as Mexico and Cuba. The three species of _Cyrtonyx_ extend
from the Southern United States to Guatemala; they all have full crests,
highly-developed wing-coverts, and very short, soft tails. The sides of the
head and neck exhibit a peculiar black and white pattern, while those of
the body are grey, ocellated with white or varied with chestnut. The
females lack the pattern on the head. As an example, _C. montezumae_ is
rufous above, barred with black, and streaked with buff and white; the
breast being chiefly {232}chestnut and the abdomen black. _Dactylortyx
thoracicus_ of Central America has brown upper parts, with black blotches
and rufous and buff mottlings; the superciliary stripes, cheeks, and throat
are chestnut, with a black patch on each side of the last; the under
surface is reddish-grey with white shaft-stripes. In the hen the chestnut
is replaced by whitish. The crest is not so full as in _Odontophorus_, of
which some fourteen species extend from South Mexico to Bolivia and South
Brazil. _O. guianensis_, ranging from Panama to Bolivia and Amazonia, has
the head and throat mainly chestnut, the neck and mantle grey, the lower
back reddish-brown–all except the grey portions being marked with buff and
black; the mid-throat is grey, the under parts orange-brown, with dusky
barring on the chest and sides. The naked orbits are reddish; the bill is
black, the feet are rather lighter, as in the Sub-family generally.
_Rhynchortyx spodiostethus_ of Veragua and Panama has the crown brown, the
rest of the head chiefly rusty-red, the mantle grey and brown, the lower
back buff relieved by grey and black, the wings more chestnut, the lower
parts dark grey, with white and buff centres to the throat and breast
respectively, and black-barred flanks. _R. cinctus_ of Veragua has a rufous
chest and olive-brown cheeks.

As an instance of the habits we may take _Ortyx virginianus_, called
Bob-white from the shrill triple whistle of the male, which resembles
"Ah-bob-white." It is a wary denizen of open woods and pastures, found in
coveys, and roosting on the ground, though habitually taking refuge in
trees, where it crouches upon the branches. It runs very swiftly, but
rises, when hard pressed, with a whirring noise to fly for a short
distance. The food consists of succulent shoots, seeds, berries, acorns,
beech-nuts, and insects; the nest is imbedded in grass or placed at the
foot of a tree, and is made of a little herbage, which may even arch over
it; the white or drab eggs number from nine to eighteen. The male is said
to assist in incubation, two broods being occasionally reared in a season.
The female utters a clucking sound, and will feign lameness when with her
brood.

Other forms prefer pine-forests, rocky ground, or dry sandy flats overgrown
with cactus and sage-brush; their cries being in some cases louder or more
guttural, while the eggs may be blotched or spotted with reddish-brown.
Nests have even been recorded low down in trees. _Ortyx virginianus_ has
been {233}introduced into the West Indies and the Old World, though
unsuccessfully in the latter; _Lophortyx californicus_ into Europe, the
Sandwich Islands, and New Zealand, in the last two of which it is firmly
established. In America, moreover, some species seem to have lately
extended their range. Hybrids are occasionally found.

Sub-fam. 5. _Tetraoninae._–_Bonasa umbellus_, the Ruffed Grouse, which
inhabits the greater part of North America, is remarkable for the frills of
black or chestnut feathers surmounting a bare space on the sides of the
neck, and for the partially naked metatarsi. Both sexes are rufous or
greyish above, with buff and black markings, a short blackish crest, and a
black subterminal tail-bar; the under parts being buff, relieved by brown
and white. Great variation, however, is shown, and sub-species may be
easily differentiated. When undisturbed, the "Pheasant" or "Partridge," as
it is variously called by local sportsmen, is tame, and prefers undulating
wooded country in the neighbourhood of cultivation, though it is also found
in proximity to the hills. The habits resemble those of the following
species, but the food is somewhat more varied, and includes beech-nuts,
chestnuts, and acorns. In spring the cock often struts upon some log, and
drums after the manner of other American grouse; but the habit is not
confined to that season, nor is the sound produced by inflated neck-sacs,
but by the wings. The absence of the hens, moreover, suggests that the
performance is not amatory. From eight to fourteen or more eggs are laid,
of a whitish or buff colour, with or without round reddish spots. _B.
sylvestris_, the Hazel Grouse–the Gelinotte of the French–is a smaller and
darker bird, with white markings on the wings, and a black throat
surrounded by a white line, which reaches to the forehead. There is no
ruff, and the female differs from the male in her whitish throat. It
inhabits hill-forests in Europe and Asia up to three thousand feet,
extending southward to Northern Spain, North Italy, Transylvania, China,
and Japan, but not occurring in Britain. The food consists of shoots and
buds of birch and hazel, seeds, berries, and other fruit, worms, insects,
and their larvae. The flight is noisy, but not protracted, the birds
resorting to trees and squatting on the branches. The usual note is a
melancholy whistle, followed by a chirping sound. The slight nest contains
from six to fifteen yellowish eggs, spotted with a little rufous, which are
deposited early in spring, as is commonly the case in the Family. _B.
{234}griseiventris_ and _B. severtzovi_ are the representative forms in the
Government of Perm in Russia, and the districts from Koko-Nor to South
Mongolia respectively. The Old World species, sometimes denominated
_Tetrastes_, are monogamous, and do not "drum."

Different races of _Pedioecetes phasianellus_, the well-known Prairie
Chicken, occupy America as far southwards as North California, New Mexico,
Wisconsin, and Illinois. Both male and female shew black, red-brown, and
yellowish tints above, with white streaks on the scapulars and spots on the
wings, the lower surface being white with dusky markings. The short tail,
with two elongated, but truncated median rectrices, gives it the name of
Sharp-tailed Grouse. This shy denizen of the woods and prairies extends
almost to the Arctic barren grounds in spring, that season being remarkable
for the conduct of both sexes, which meet to hold regular dances on
elevated spots, aptly compared to the hills of Ruffs. No doubt the cocks
are the chief performers, but they are said to be monogamous, though their
actions resemble those of their polygamous allies. The flight is strong and
rapid, with alternate periods of flapping and sailing; the note is a triple
whistle or a "cack-cack-cack." The food includes shoots of plants, grass,
berries, and insects, the last-named being the chief diet of the young, as
in the case of many other American Grouse. About fourteen eggs are
deposited in a cavity scraped amidst rank herbage, and but slightly lined;
their colour is brownish with darker spots, or occasionally creamy with
marks of red.

_Centrocercus urophasianus_, the Sage-Cock of the Western United States and
the adjoining portions of British America, has the upper parts mottled with
black, grey-brown, rufous, and buff, the lower parts black, relieved by a
white chest. The tail is long and wedge-shaped, with attenuated feathers;
the sides of the neck and lower throat possess stiff spiny plumage, and the
former bare orange air-sacs, as in the species next to be mentioned. The
female lacks the black spots on the white throat. This bird, the largest of
the New World Tetraoninae, is generally unsuspicious, and runs ahead of the
traveller uttering cackling or clucking notes; when hard pressed it rises
with fluttering action, and flies off rapidly to a considerable distance.
The food consists chiefly of "sage-brush" (_Artemisia tridentata_), but
other leaves and flowers, seeds, berries, grain, and insects vary the fare.
The habits at the mating-time resemble those of _Dendragapus_ and
{235}_Tympanuchus_, while the eggs, from seven to seventeen in number, may
be found placed in an excavation of the bare soil, or resting on a slight
lining; they are drab or olive in colour, with roundish brown spots. What
seems to be the ground colour is easily rubbed off before incubation
commences, a fact noticeable in other Galline birds and Plovers. The
Sage-Grouse reaches a considerable elevation, as does the sage-brush, which
gives its name to the bird.

_Tympanuchus americanus_, the Prairie-hen, found in the districts drained
by the Mississippi and its confluents, and thence northwards to Ontario, is
brown above, barred with buff and black, and chiefly paler brown below,
marked with white. The small crest is tipped with white, and a tuft of
long, stiff, black feathers covers the inflatable yellow air-sacs on the
sides of the neck, the sacs being absent and the tufts shorter in females.
In spring parties assemble after daybreak on dry knolls, and conduct their
love affairs after the fashion of the Dusky Grouse (p. 236), a booming
noise being audible from afar, and the skin of the neck being expanded
below the erected tufts. The cocks are most pugnacious when the
pairing-time is nearly over. Shoots of plants, berries, grain, acorns, and
insects constitute the food. The flight is powerful and rapid, but
individuals often run and squat. For a Grouse the nest is considerable; and
from eleven to fourteen, or even twenty, creamy or olive-coloured eggs are
deposited, with very small reddish-brown spots. _T. cupido_, the Heath-Hen
of the eastern United States, now only found on the island of Martha's
Vineyard, off Massachusetts, has smaller neck-tufts of pointed feathers,
and more conspicuous whitish marks on the scapulars. _T. pallidicinctus_,
the Lesser Prairie-Hen, ranging from Texas to Kansas, is barred with brown,
margined on each side with black.

_Dendragapus obscurus_, the Dusky, Blue, or Pine-Grouse of the Rocky
Mountain districts, has black upper parts mottled with grey and a little
brown, and pure grey under surface; the female having a considerable
admixture of buff, and the male possessing air-sacs like those of
_Tympanuchus_. A darker race, _D. fuliginosus_, extends the range to Sitka
and California. Another northern form, which lacks the broad grey
tail-band, is termed _D. richardsoni_. These birds frequent wooded ravines
up to nine thousand feet, preferring the neighbourhood of water, and
feeding as do their allies. The characteristic booming noise, common to
this species and others, may be heard throughout the day in spring, the
male {236}choosing some horizontal bough or convenient spot of ground
whereon to display himself with drooping wings, expanded tail, and inflated
air-sacs. Rarely can an observer gain a view, so misleading is the
ventriloquistic effect of the sound. The nest, commonly placed beneath a
branch or near a tussock, is a mere depression in the soil lined with
herbage, leaves, or fir-needles. The eight to twelve eggs are creamy-buff,
with round brown dots.

_Canachites_ (_Canace_) _canadensis_, the Canada Grouse or
"Spruce-Partridge," found from Alaska and British America to the
north-eastern United States, is black, with lead-coloured bars above, and a
white pectoral band below, the tail having a chestnut tip, which is wanting
in the browner _C. franklini_ of the north-western Rocky Mountains. In the
female the grey is chiefly replaced by orange. It is a tame species, and
flies but a short distance before alighting on some tree. The food consists
of "spruce" buds and larch needles, with berries of _Vaccinium_ (bilberry,
cranberry, etc.), _Empetrum_ (crowberry), and so forth. It is not
polygamous; but a most curious account of the cock's habits of showing off
and drumming is given by Bendire.[165] The hen constructs a nest of dry
moss, leaves, and twigs upon the ground, under shelter of some overhanging
bough, and lays from eight to eighteen reddish-buff eggs with brown spots.
_Falcipennis hartlaubi_, a very similar species, distinguished by slender
sickle-shaped outer primaries, occurs in North-East Siberia, Kamtschatka,
and Saghalien.

_Tetrao urogallus_, the Capercaillie, apparently not uncommon in Scotland
until 1770, and exterminated in Ireland about the same date, was
reintroduced at Taymouth Park, Perthshire, in 1838, and is now fairly
plentiful in Central North Britain. Failure has attended similar attempts
in Ireland. The discoveries of bones in Teesdale and near Torquay shew that
this bird's range once extended to Yorkshire and Devonshire, while similar
finds have been made in Aquitaine and Denmark. At the present day it
inhabits sub-alpine pine-forests from Scandinavia, the Pyrenees, North
Italy, and Greece to Lake Baikal and the Altai Mountains, being represented
in the Urals by a sub-species, _T. uralensis_. The male is almost entirely
blackish-grey above, with somewhat darker tail, and black below with
greenish chest. The female is smaller, and is mottled with brown, buff,
black, and white, merging into rufous on the breast, which is barred with
black. A variable {237}amount of white occurs beneath in both sexes. The
brown hair-like feathers on the legs are longest in winter, a fact true
also in the Ptarmigan and elsewhere. A cross between the hen Capercaillie
and the Black-Cock is known in North Europe as the Rackelhahn (_T.
medius_).[166] The "lek" or "spel," as the love-performance is called, has
been described in detail by many authors;[167] it takes place in spring,
and occasionally in autumn, when the excited male struts with drooping
wings and erect outspread tail before the assembled females, uttering
curious noisy cries, to which they reply with softer plaintive notes. He is
said to be deaf during the "play." At times he takes up a position on some
lofty bough with the evident intention of challenging his rivals, who
quickly respond to the provocation; ere long they join in combat upon the
ground, leaping and rushing upon one another in their blind rage, and using
bills, wings, and claws as weapons of offence. The flight of the
Capercaillie is heavy though strong. The food consists chiefly of young
pine-shoots, which are apt to give the flesh a flavour of turpentine, but
includes berries, insects, and worms. About a dozen yellowish-white eggs,
freckled with dull orange, are deposited in a hole scraped for the purpose
near the foot of a tree, a slight lining being sometimes added. _T.
parvirostris_ (_urogalloïdes_) of North-East Siberia, with comparatively
slender bill and purplish-green head, and _T. kamtschaticus_ of
Kamtschatka, are distinguished by their white-tipped scapulars.

_Lyrurus tetrix_, the Black Grouse, called according to the sex Black Cock
or Grey Hen, ranges over Europe north of the Pyrenees and Apennines, as
well as through Northern Asia to the Tian-Shan Mountains and Pekin. It
inhabits the wilder moorlands of the north and west of England, being much
less plentiful in the Midlands, and very rare in the east. It has, however,
been introduced into Norfolk, and unsuccessfully into Ireland, while it has
been restored to Surrey, Sussex, and Berks, and still occurs in Wilts,
Dorset, Hants, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. In Scotland it frequents most
suitable districts, but does not reach Orkney, Shetland, or the Outer
Hebrides. The male, remarkable for his lyrate tail with its outwardly
curved rectrices, is black with steel-blue reflexions, exhibiting a little
brown in parts, {238}a white bar on the wing, and white under tail-coverts.
The female is rufous and buff, barred and spotted with black, and shewing
but little white. This bird is usually found on broken ground or in open
woodlands, where it conceals itself among long heath, bracken, or grass.
The polygamous cocks meet at dawn in spring to fight for the hens, parading
before them in great excitement with depressed outspread tails, while
uttering a drumming or cooing noise. At other times the call-note is loud
and clear. The flight is powerful but heavy; the food includes berries,
seeds, grain, shoots, buds, and insects. The nest is merely a
scantily-lined hollow, situated at the foot of a tree, or in heather and
the like, often near plantations. The six to ten eggs have a yellowish
ground-colour, with scattered orange-brown blotches, the markings being
larger than in the Capercaillie. In some winters these Grouse allow
themselves to be snowed up, as occasionally do other species. _L.
mlokosiewiczi_ of the Caucasus has the rectrices only slightly curved, and
black under tail-coverts. Hybrids between the Black Cock and the Willow
Grouse are called Riporre in Scandinavia.

_Lagopus scoticus_, the Red Grouse or Muirfowl, the only bird entirely
confined to our islands, differs from its congeners in never becoming white
in winter. It varies considerably in coloration,[168] but is usually
considered a local form of the Willow Grouse (_L. albus_) of the north of
Europe, Asia, and America. The male in both summer and winter is more or
less chestnut-brown above, with black markings and a reddish head; the
lower parts are similar, but are usually spotted with white. In autumn the
brown of the upper parts becomes buff, and the lower surface is barred with
buff and black. Mr. Ogilvie Grant[169] recognises three types of plumage in
the male, a red form with no white spots, from Ireland and Western
Scotland; a blackish variety comparatively rarely found; and another
largely spotted with white below or even above. Intermediate specimens
constitute the bulk of our birds. The female exhibits, moreover, a
buff-spotted and a buff-barred form; but in summer she is typically black
above with concentric buff markings, and buff below with black bars. Her
autumn plumage, which continues throughout the winter, is black, spotted
with buff and barred with rufous.

{239}[Illustration: FIG. 48.–Red Grouse. _Lagopus scoticus._ × ¼.]

Little need be said of the habits of this well-known species, nor will
space allow of a description of the methods of killing it by driving and so
forth; but it may be observed that it utters a clear ringing note, us well
as the familiar cok-cok-cok, and feeds upon grain and tender shoots of ling
(_Calluna_) and heather (_Erica_), besides other plants. The nest of moss,
grass, and the like is placed amidst heather, and contains from six to ten,
or even more, yellowish-white eggs, thickly blotched and spotted with fine
red-brown, purplish, or black. In England the Red Grouse is found as far
south as Derbyshire and Shropshire, in Wales to Glamorgan; while
unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce it into Surrey and
elsewhere. In Ireland it is rather thinly distributed, but in Scotland it
reaches the Orkneys, and an occasional brood has been known to be reared in
Shetland, where a few pairs were turned down between 1858 and 1883. It has
also been acclimatized in Southern Sweden. _Lagopus albus_, the Willow
Grouse of Northern Europe, Asia, and America, termed the "Dal-riporre" in
Scandinavia, is completely white in winter, except for the lateral
rectrices, which are chiefly black; in summer it resembles the Red Grouse,
but is distinguished by the white wing-quills. The female is smaller. The
habits {240}are similar to those of the last-named, but a preference is
shewn for willow- and birch-scrub; shoots of these trees or of _Vaccinium_,
with various moorland berries, furnishing the food. A performance recalling
the "lek" of the Capercaillie is said to be given by the male in spring, a
fact also true of the succeeding species.[170] _L. mutus_, the Ptarmigan or
Fjeld-riporre, is in summer blackish-brown with grey and rufous markings,
the median tail-feathers, abdomen, and most of the wings being white. The
back becomes grey in autumn. The female is reddish-buff, barred with black.
In winter both sexes are white, with black and white rectrices, and in the
male with black lores. Nearly all the so-called Ptarmigan in English
poulterers' shops are Willow Grouse. The haunts are on the higher parts of
mountain-ranges, where stony ground abounds, but somewhat lower altitudes
are sought after the breeding season. The food consists of shoots and
berries; the cry is croaking, and best heard in misty weather. From five to
ten eggs, with blacker markings than those of Red Grouse, are deposited in
a hole scraped in the earth, with little or no lining, the nest being
commonly quite exposed, though equally often under shelter of a boulder.
Ptarmigan are decidedly difficult to see among the similarly-coloured
stones. In Scotland they occur on most of the higher hills from Arran
northwards, though no longer in Dumfries and Galloway; while abroad they
occupy Northern Europe, with the Pyrenees and the Alps, and possibly
Northern Asia. In the lighter _L. rupestris_ the adult male never has a
black breast or a grey back in autumn. This form occurs in North Asia and
North America, with Greenland, Iceland, and Japan, many local races having
been described as distinct species or sub-species; while the larger _L.
hyperboreus_ (_hemileucurus_), with a white base to the tail, inhabits
Spitsbergen; and _L. leucurus_, with entirely white rectrices–the smallest
member of the genus–ranges along the Rocky Mountains from British Columbia
to New Mexico.

Of fossil forms _Coturnix_ and _Palaeortyx_ occur in the Upper Eocene of
the Paris Basin, _Taoperdix_ in the calcareous deposits of Languedoc of the
same age; _Palaeortyx_ is again found with three species of _Palaeoperdix_,
in the Middle Miocene of France, while _Phasianus_ is not only recorded
from {241}this formation, but from the Upper Miocene of Oeningen and the
Pliocene of Attica, in the latter of which _Gallus_ accompanies it.
_Meleagris_ has been discovered in the Miocene of Colorado, and the
Post-pliocene of New Jersey; _Gallus_ in the Pliocene of France,
_Palaeotetrix_ and _Pedioecetes_ in that of Oregon; and, finally, bones of
_Lagopus_ have been brought to light in the French Plistocene, and those of
_Tetrao urogallus_ at Kent's Hole near Torquay and in the caves of Teesdale
in England.

Fam. VII. OPISTHOCOMIDAE.–The curious and highly specialized Hoatzin
(_Opisthocomus cristatus_) has been the subject of much discussion among
systematists, as the outcome of which it is necessary to adopt for it a
special Sub-Order OPISTHOCOMI. Buffon classed it with the Curassows, P. L.
S. Müller and Gmelin placed it in the Linnean genus _Phasianus_; but
Illiger recognised a genus _Opisthocomus_, while Huxley and Garrod fully
admitted its claim to higher rank than that of a Family. The habits are to
some extent Ralline, and certain points of structure indicate a
considerable affinity to the _Cuculi_.

The sternum is utterly unlike that of any other species, the anterior
portion of the keel being aborted, and the posterior correlated with a
flattened area of thick naked skin, on which the bird mainly rests. These
modifications are no doubt connected with the extraordinarily large crop,
which is supported by the furcula and the fore-part of the breast-bone,
being received in a cavity of the pectoral muscles; the whole organ is
decidedly muscular, and contains two divisions with a partial constriction
between them. The body is long and thin, the bill is strong with basal
serrations on the maxilla; bristles surround the gape, and the eye-lids
have distinct lashes–a rare fact among birds. The reticulated metatarsi are
fairly stout; the toes are long; the hallux being unusually developed and
the claws slightly curved. The short rounded wings have ten primaries and
nine secondaries. The nearly even tail is elongated, with ten stiff
feathers. The plumage in both sexes is olive above with white markings, and
dull rufous below; the long loose crest and the tip of the tail are
yellowish, and a patch of bare bluish-black skin surrounds the eyes. The
tongue is sagittate, the furcula is Y-shaped and ossifies anteriorly with
the coracoids, an aftershaft is present, the down of the adults is sparing,
while a small amount–of a reddish-brown colour–is observable in the
newly-hatched {242}young. The syrinx has one pair of muscles inserted on
the distal end of the trachea.

The Hoatzin or "Anna," which is about the size of a Pigeon, ranges from
Colombia to the Lower Amazons and Bolivia, where it haunts the sides of
lagoons, creeks, and rivers covered with a thick growth of low trees or
bushes, which project over the stream or the mud left bare by the tide. In
these tangled solitudes it skulks during the heat of the day, while at
other times it may be observed squatting upon the branches, mainly
supported on the patch of hardened skin already mentioned. When disturbed
the bird flies off awkwardly for some forty yards with a violent flapping
motion, or progresses by leaps from bough to bough, erecting its crest and
expanding its wings and tail. The note is sharp and shrill, and has been
described as a hissing screech. The food consists of leaves and fruit of
the prickly _Drepanocarpus lunulatus_, of the Aroid _Montrichardia
arborescens_, of _Avicennia nitida_, and of a species of _Psidium_. The
conspicuous nest, placed on low trees or shrubs, is a loose platform of
spiny twigs and sticks with a softer lining, which contains from three to
five yellowish-white eggs of a Rail-like appearance, spotted with
reddish-brown and lilac. The young, which can see and run as soon as they
are hatched, have a claw on both index and pollex, by means of which they
creep about the thickets and hook themselves over the branches, assisted by
the bill and feet. They can also swim and dive. A strong musky odour is
given off by the adults, whence they are termed "Stinking Pheasants" in
Guiana. The male has been asserted to be polygamous.

[Illustration: FIG. 49.–Hoatzin.

_Opisthocomus cristatus._ × ⅕.]

{243}ORDER X. GRUIFORMES.

The Gruiformes, which lie between the Galliformes and the Charadriiformes,
compose a somewhat heterogeneous Order, which includes forms so different
as the _Rallidae_ (Rails), _Gruidae_ (Cranes), _Aramidae_ (Limpkins),
_Psophiidae_ (Trumpeters), _Cariamidae_ (Seriemá and Chuñia), _Otididae_
(Bustards), _Rhinochetidae_ (Kagu), _Eurypygidae_ (Sun-Bitterns), and
_Heliornithidae_ (Finfoots). Of these a large number are Waders, but the
Land-Rail, the Wekas, the Kagu, the Bustards, and others, cannot be classed
in this category. All agree in having no true crop, a tracheo-bronchial
syrinx, and an elevated hallux; while the front toes are never completely
webbed, though nearly so in _Heliornis_; the nares, moreover, are pervious,
except in _Rhinochetus_. In the last-named the condition of the
newly-hatched young is unknown, in _Heliornis_ they are said to be naked at
first, but in the remainder of the group they are covered with simple down.
In structure the nine Families differ widely, a fact which would seem a
strong argument against combining them under one head; but the aggregate of
such points must be considered, and in any linear system the relationships
within every Order cannot possibly be equally close. The present
arrangement does not differ greatly from that adopted by Mr. Sclater,[171]
wherein he accepted the names _Alectorides_ and _Fulicariae_, used by
Nitzsch, but made the former to consist of the _Aramidae_, _Eurypygidae_,
_Gruidae_, _Psophiidae_, _Cariamidae_, and _Otididae_, and the latter of
the _Rallidae_ and _Heliornithidae_. Some writers, both modern and ancient,
have placed the _Otididae_ in the Limicoline group.

Fam. I. RALLIDAE.–The Rails constitute a somewhat generalized and very
homogeneous Family, found in almost all parts of the world. The body is
peculiarly compressed–enabling them to move with ease in dense
vegetation–while the keel of the sternum is especially reduced in those
flightless forms for which the group is remarkable. The strong bill varies
in dimensions, being long in typical Rails, shorter and thicker in Crakes,
decidedly curved in _Himantornis_, and reaching its maximum size among the
Gallinules in _Porphyrio_ and _Notornis_, where it is subconical. A horny
shield is present upon the forehead in _Megacrex_, _Habroptila_, the
Gallinules and the Coots, which is usually rounded or truncated
{244}posteriorly, but is reduced to a point in _Porphyriops_. This
excrescence is in most cases red, but is sky-blue, light green, or dusky in
_Porphyriola_, green in _Tribonyx_, blackish in _Megacrex_, white, yellow,
or brown in _Fulica_. The lower part of the tibia is bare; the anteriorly
scutellated metatarsus is seldom short, though occasionally very stout; the
toes are long and slender with the elevated hallux weakest; the claws are
fairly long, curved, and sharp. Somewhat shorter digits are found in
_Tribonyx_ and _Pareudiastes_, _Fulica_ has broad lobes of skin along the
front toes, while _Porphyriops_ and _Gallinula_ have narrow entire
membranous margins to them. The wings are generally short and rounded, with
ten or eleven primaries, and from eleven to sixteen secondaries, all the
feathers being obtuse; but in many species these members are imperfectly
developed, and their coverts actually hide the quills in such cases as
_Ocydromus_ and _Notornis_. This retrograde tendency is clearly evidenced
in the "Island Hen" of Tristan da Cunha (_Gallinula_ or _Porphyriornis
nesiotis_) and the Mountain Cock of Gough Island (_G. comeri_), which
flutter along without flying; in the Moho of Hawaii (_Pennula ecaudata_),
_Ocydromus_ and _Notornis_ of New Zealand, and _Habroptila wallacii_ of
Halmahera; not to mention _Eulabeornis_, _Porzanula_, _Nesolimnas_,
_Cabalus_, _Pareudiastes_, and the extinct _Aphanapteryx_, _Aptornis_,
_Diaphorapteryx_, and _Erythromachus_. In several flightless forms, as in
the Dodo, the angle between the scapula and the coracoid is obtuse. The
tail has from ten to fourteen rectrices, the usual number being twelve;
these are short and usually soft, frequently with decomposed webs, and may
be concealed by the coverts, as in _Megacrex_, _Amurolimnas_, and
_Pennula_. Its form varies from narrow and pointed to comparatively broad
and rounded. A large caruncle rises behind the frontal shield in
_Gallicrex_ and _Fulica cornuta_, two knobs being found there in _F.
cristata_: the wing, moreover, is often armed with a sharp spine. The nasal
grooves are commonly long and deep; the pervious nostrils being in the hard
sheath of the bill in Gallinules, and partially covered by a bony or horny
growth in _Rallicula_, _Pareudiastes_, and _Thyrorhina_. The furcula is
U-shaped, the tongue lanceolate, the aftershaft very small. Down is
plentiful in both adults and young, that of the nestlings being commonly
black, while the chicks of our Moor-Hen and Coot have the head adorned with
red and blue. Rails, not being born blind, run from the shell, and swim at
once.

{245}Ralline birds are under ordinary circumstances non-gregarious, and
inhabit tangled marshes or damp localities near rivers and lakes; but many,
and especially the flightless forms, have a predilection for dry plains, as
for instance _Pennula_ of Hawaii, _Ocydromus_ of New Zealand, _Cabalus_ of
the Chatham Islands, _Habroptila_ of Halmahera, _Tricholimnas_ of New
Caledonia, and _Pareudiastes_ of Samoa. _Crex pratensis_ of the Palaearctic
Region also haunts dry lands. _Fulica gigantea_ occurs only on the lakes in
the Andes of Chili, Bolivia, and Peru. Some species are partly crepuscular,
and in Britain the Spotted Crake is certainly little heard except towards
evening. Rails walk easily with bobbing head and jerking tail, while they
prefer running to flying, as the flight is laboured and requires continuous
action of the wings. As may be readily seen in the case of Coots and
Moor-Hens, some difficulty is experienced in rising from water, the feet
trailing along the surface for several yards; but, when once fairly
launched in the air, the legs, which at first hang down, are drawn up below
the tail, and a steady pace is maintained for considerable distances. Most
species swim and dive with facility, and will even remain with only the
bill above water; perching and climbing, too, are common habits. Generally
speaking, the members of this Family are silent birds, though they may be
constantly heard calling towards dusk; the more or less melancholy notes
are less varied than in many other groups, but may be harsh and sonorous,
or loud and clear. The groaning noise uttered by the breeding Water-Rail,
the somewhat frog-like sound made by the Moor-Hen, the continuous craking
of the Corn-Crake, the "cackling" of the Clapper-Rail, the shrill whistle
of the Wekas, the rasping cry of _Ocydromus sylvestris_, the deep
trumpeting of the Purple Gallinule, and the clearer call of the Coot are
some of the most notable exceptions. The food consists of worms, molluscs,
insects and their larvae, green herbage, tubers, roots of aquatic plants
and seeds; _Porphyrio_ and _Tribonyx_ cause serious damage to potato-,
rice-, and corn-crops: while the former bird is said to have a curious
habit of holding the larger edibles in its claws and nibbling them like a
Parrot. Some of the stronger species occasionally prey on mice, lizards,
young birds, and eggs. The nest may be a large mass of aquatic plants or
dry flags, as in the Coots, or a similar but smaller structure, as in the
Gallinules; the former being commonly founded under water, though raised
above it, whereas the latter is generally near the bank
{246}or–exceptionally–at the height of a few feet in a tree or bush. Rails
and Crakes make a more or less substantial fabric in sedges, grass, clover,
and so forth, _Creciscus_ and _Porzanula_ a spherical mass with an entrance
at the side; but _Pareudiastes_, _Cabalus_, and _Ocydromus_ are stated to
breed in most cases in burrows. _Gallicrex_ occasionally fashions its nest
on floating leaves, and the writer has seen a Moor-Hen's nest in a similar
situation. The eggs, from two to ten or more in number, are generally white
or cream-coloured with red-brown, olive, or blackish markings, and often
with faint lilac spots; those of the Coot are stone-drab with small black
specks; those of _Cabalus modestus_ are white with a few indistinct rufous
and grey flecks; those of _Zapornia parva_ and _Porzana bailloni_ are
instances of a thick olive-brown mottling. The adults are stated sometimes
to carry their young in their claws.

Exceptionally the plumage of the Rallidae is nearly black, as in
_Limnocorax_, _Fulica_, and _Habroptila_; slightly browner, as in
Gallinula; blue or greenish-blue as in _Porphyrio_: but the coloration is
normally sober, with a tendency to olive, brown, or chestnut. This may be
relieved by stripes of white, especially on the flanks; the under parts may
be nearly red as in _Creciscus levraudi_; and both surfaces may be spotted
with white as in the male of _Corethrura pulchra_, or flecked and barred
with it, as in _Rallus maculatus_. The sexes are usually alike, but
_Rallicula_, _Zapornia_, _Gallicrex_, and _Corethrura_ are instances of the
contrary.

Space, however, is wanting to give in detail a description of every form,
which is the less necessary in view of their general similarity; but the
following examples will enable a fair idea to be gained of the group.

_Rallus aquaticus_, the Water Rail of Europe and Central Asia, which
winters in North-West India and North Africa, is olive-brown above with
darker streaks, and lead-coloured below, the flanks being barred with black
and white. The genus is found in most parts of the world, with the apparent
exception of North-West Africa and the Australian Region. _Rallus elegans_,
the King-Rail, _R. longirostris_ (_crepitans_), the Clapper-Rail, and _R.
virginianus_ are well-known North American species, while _R.
madagascariensis_ is confined to Madagascar.

In _Hypotaenidia_, which ranges from India and South China to the Pacific
Islands generally, the whole lower parts are barred with black and white,
except in _H. striata_ and _H. mülleri_, where {247}these markings are
restricted to the sides and abdominal region, and in _H. brachypus_, where
the belly is plain.

_Cabalus modestus_ and _Nesolimnas dieffenbachi_ of the Chatham Islands are
curious little brown forms with no visible tail, closely allied to the next
genus, which they resemble in being flightless, and apparently in general
habits. _Ocydromus_ contains the Wood-Hens, or Weka Rails, of New Zealand,
of which _O. greyi_ of the North Island is tawny above with dark
shaft-stripes or bars, and grey below with fulvous fore-neck and sides. _O.
carli_ of the South Island is more cinnamon in hue; _O. australis_, also of
the South Island, is less grey below, and usually has barred flanks; _O.
fuscus_ of the south-west of the South Island is blacker than the
first-named; _O. hectori_ is a paler race of _O. australis_. These Rails
are semi-nocturnal, and sometimes excavate burrows, in which, or in the
scrub, they pass much of the day; the localities preferred are dry woods,
ravines, and sandy shores, _O. fuscus_ obtaining the name of Kelp-Hen from
the stretches of sea-weed that it frequents. This species feeds on
sea-molluscs, but its congeners will eat young birds, lizards,
caterpillars, worms, insects, and berries. The cry is a sharp whistle,
often preceded by a growl, the birds being very tame when unmolested. They
are pugnacious, inquisitive, and thievish, stealing articles from tents or
houses, attacking fowls, or sucking their eggs. Their own eggs are from
five to seven, both these and the nest, which is generally in a burrow,
much resembling those of other Rails. _Ocydromus sylvestris_, of Lord Howe
Island, is nearly uniform rufous above and brownish below, with barred
wings and tail; it lays similar eggs upon the ground.

The dusky _Tricholimnas lafresnayi_ of New Caledonia is remarkable for its
soft hair-like plumage, and the purplish-brown and black _Gymnocrex
rosenbergi_ of Celebes for its bare yellowish orbits.

_Aramides_ includes eight species found in Central and South America, of
which _A. ypecaha_ may be taken as a representative. It is olive-green
above, with chestnut nape, black rump and tail, and greyish below with
white throat and vinous belly; the bill is yellow, the feet are scarlet.
Cautious when danger threatens, it is sufficiently audacious to attack
poultry; among its native swamps it usually walks in stately style or
struts on the branches of trees, though it can run quickly; while it lies
closely when surprised on open ground, dashing up with the whirring flight
of a Partridge. The alarm-note is powerful, unearthly shrieks being uttered
{248}during both day and night. Companies are described by Mr. Hudson as
meeting to dance about with expanded wings and open beaks.[172] Somewhat
similar in colour to certain members of the last genus is _Megacrex inepta_
of South New Guinea, one of the largest Rails known, which is usually seen
running swiftly along water-courses; while the black _Habroptila wallacii_
of Halmahera loves forests. The curious _Himantornis haematopus_ of West
Africa is brown, with black and rufous mottlings above, whitish throat,
stout green and black bill, and red feet. _Dryolimnas cuvieri_ of
Madagascar, Mauritius, and Aldabra Island, and _Canirallus kioloïdes_ of
the first-named and West Africa must be briefly mentioned, as must
_Rallina_ reaching from India to North-East Australia, which has half a
dozen small brown species, with chestnut on the head and chest, and black
and white barring below.

[Illustration: FIG. 50.–Land-Rail. _Crex pratensis._ × ¼.]

_Crex pratensis_, the widely-ranging Corn-Crake or Land-Rail, extends from
most of Europe to the north of Central Asia, wintering in Africa, and
occurring accidentally in North America, or even Greenland and Australia.
_Zapornia parva_, the Little Crake, _Porzana maruetta_, the Spotted Crake,
and _P. bailloni_, Baillon's Crake, are somewhat similar British Birds, the
two latter of which have bred in our islands, _P. maruetta_ still doing so
in some districts. This species is brownish-olive with white flecks above
and below, grey belly, and flanks showing black and white bars. Of its
dozen congeners, covering nearly the whole globe, _P. carolina_, the Sora
Rail of North America, is particularly well-known. In the Ethiopian genus
_Corethrura_, extending to Madagascar, the males are blackish, spotted or
streaked with white, and have fine chestnut heads, necks, or even breasts,
the female being dusky with rufous mottlings: in _Rallicula_ of New Guinea
the chestnut extends over most of the body. _Porzanula_ {249}_palmeri_ of
Laysan, an interesting little flightless form with a soft chirping note,
which the first discoverer caught with a hand-net, makes its nest under
grass-tussocks. Closely allied to _Porzana_ is _Creciscus_, a genus of a
dozen species ranging from the United States to the Galápagos, Chili, and
Paraguay; two at least of them being remarkable for building a spherical
nest with a side entrance in coarse herbage or low bushes, while one is
said to make a sort of ladder to reach a platform before its porch.[173]
_Limnocorax niger_ of the Ethiopian Region is a glossy black bird with red
feet and greenish bill, which walks upon the leaves of water-lilies and
such plants, like a Jaçana.

_Amaurornis_, inhabiting the Oriental Region and extending to New Britain,
links the foregoing genera to the Gallinules. _A. phoenicura_ is a dark
greyish bird with white under parts and chestnut flanks, the other three
species being duller.

_Tribonyx mortieri_, the "Native Hen" of Victoria, South Australia, and
Tasmania, and _T. ventralis_ of considerably wider range, are respectively
ruddy- and olive-brown forms, with blackish tail and vent, slaty lower
surface, and white flank-marks. They appear at times in flocks, which
arrive and depart with equal suddenness, destroy the settlers' crops, strut
about like fowls, and in many respects resemble Moor-Hens in habits, nests,
and eggs. The legs are unusually powerful.

_Gallinula_ extends over the greater part of both hemispheres, and is
represented in Europe, Asia, and Africa by our common Moor-Hen (_G.
chloropus_), dark olive-brown above and grey below, with white lower
tail-coverts, white flank-stripes, red frontal plate, and scarlet garter on
the tibia. _G. galeata_ of most of the New World differs in the posteriorly
truncated shield, but _G. sandvicensis_ of the Sandwich Islands is barely
separable. The smaller African _G. angulata_, _G. tenebrosa_ of Australia
and New Guinea, and _G. frontata_ of the two last-named countries, the
Moluccas and Borneo, complete the group; unless _G. pyrrhorhoa_ of
Madagascar and _G. dionysiana_ of St. Denys be accounted distinct from _G.
chloropus_. The flightless _G._ (_Porphyriornis_) _nesiotis_ of Tristan da
Cunha and _G. comeri_ of Gough Island have already been mentioned.
_Gallicrex cinerea_, the "Water-Cock" of the Indian Region, which reaches
Japan, is dull black, with lighter edges to the feathers above, a yellow
and red bill, and red frontal shield. A pinkish {250}fleshy horn springs
from the forehead, said to become very small in winter, and to be wanting
in the female, which is varied below with white and buff. It has a loud
booming cry, and fights like a domestic Cock, but otherwise resembles the
Gallinules in habits.

_Porphyrio_ comprises some dozen fine species with blue plumage, found in
Africa and Madagascar, and from the Mediterranean to South China and
Polynesia; several individuals, probably escaped from captivity, being
recorded from Britain. _P. caeruleus_ (_veterum_) is purplish-blue above
with blacker remiges and rectrices, and purplish-black below with bright
blue cheeks, throat, and chest, and white under tail-coverts; the bill,
shield, and feet are red. It is chiefly a Mediterranean bird, but reaches
Mesopotamia. Others of its congeners are greener or blacker. The habits,
nest, and eggs are like those of the Coot, whereas the next genus–in the
writer's opinion inseparable–appears more akin in manners to the Moor-Hen.
_Porphyriola alleni_ occurs in Africa, with Madagascar and Rodriguez, and
strays to the Canary Islands and South Europe; _P. martinica_ ranges from
Florida, Texas, or even New England, to the West Indies and Brazil; _P.
parva_, from the last-named to Amazonia and Guiana. _Porphyriops
crassirostris_ and _P. melanops_ occupy South America.

_Notornis mantelli_ of New Zealand,[174] now probably extinct, was
olive-green above with only a tinge of blue; the head, neck, and under
surface being dark purplish-blue, the bill, shield, and feet red. It was
practically a gigantic _Porphyrio_ with very stout legs, short wings, and
soft tail, which was unable to fly, but ran with great swiftness, being
solitary and retiring. Its native name Moho is that also given to other
Rails in New Zealand, and _Pennula ecaudata_ in Hawaii; it therefore may
only mean "Rail." The white _N. alba_ of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands
certainly exists no longer.

_Fulica_ includes twelve species, of which the majority are South American,
though the genus extends over most of the globe; Polynesia possesses only
_F. alai_ of the Sandwich Islands, but three of the members reach
Patagonia. _F. atra_, our grey-black Coot, with flesh-coloured bill, white
shield and greenish legs relieved by an orange garter, ranges through
Europe and Asia, and to North Africa and the Philippines southwards; its
habits are well-known, {251}while the lobed toes are noticed above. The
smaller _F. lugubris_ of Sumatra, Java, and Celebes is hardly distinct; the
North American _F. americana_ and the Australian _F. australis_ are very
similar; the Andean _F. gigantea_ is extremely large; while the red frontal
caruncles of the Bolivian _F. cornuta_ and of the African and
South-European _F. cristata_ have already been mentioned.

Of fossil Rallidae an extraordinary number are found, ranging from the
possibly toothed _Telmatornis_ of the American Cretaceous rocks,
_Gypsornis_, _Orthnocnemus_, _Elaphrocnemus_, and _Tapinopus_ of the French
Upper Eocene, and _Rallus_ of both Eocene and Miocene of the same country,
to _Fulica minor_ of the Pliocene of Oregon. Of more recently exterminated
forms we have _Tribonyx_ (?) _roberti_ from Central Madagascar, the
long-billed flightless _Aphanapteryx broecki_ and _Fulica newtoni_ from the
Mare aux Songes in Mauritius, _Porphyrio caerulescens_ from Réunion, and
the "Poule Rouge" (_Erythromachus leguati_) from Rodriguez. In New Zealand
are found the large _Aptornis defossor_ and _A. otidiformis_, with two
species of _Notornis_; in the Chatham Islands _Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi_ and
_Ocydromus insignis_–all six flightless; in the latter islands, too, an
extinct _Fulica_ (_Palaeolimnas_) occurs, and in Norfolk and Lord Howe
Islands _Notornis alba_, as above. Queensland furnishes _Porphyrio
mackintoshi_, _P. reperta_, _Tribonyx effluxus_, _Gallinula strenuipes_,
_G. peralata_, and _Fulica prior_. The Sandwich Islands may possibly yet
contain _Rallus sandvicensis_ and _Pennula ecaudata_, further instances of
flightless species, but this is improbable.

Fam. II. GRUIDAE.–The Cranes are very old forms, superficially somewhat
like Herons, and often confounded with them in local parlance–as is the
case in Scotland and Ireland. They are among the largest of Waders, and are
scattered over most of the globe, except the Malay islands, Papuasia, and
Polynesia; but in the Neotropical Region they are mere migrants from the
north, never found south of Mexico. Their headquarters are in North-East
Asia, while America possesses only three species, and Australia one.

These long-necked and long-legged birds have a moderate bill, straight and
rather compressed, which varies from slender to stout, with a lateral
groove on each side of the mandible and nasal furrows about halfway down
the maxilla; in _Balearica_ this feature is comparatively short. The
metatarsus is scutellated in front, reticulated behind; the tibia is partly
bare; the toes are short and stout, the anterior being more or less
connected at the base by a {252}membrane; the hallux is small, much
elevated, and furnished with a sharp hooked claw. The wings are described
by different writers as long or moderate, but are certainly ample and
rounded, with about thirty-three quills, of which eleven are primaries; the
decomposed inner secondaries exceed the last-named, and are either
lanceolate and drooping, or broad and erectile, while in _Bugeranus_ and
_Tetrapteryx_ they are extraordinarily extended. The short tail has twelve
rectrices. _Anthropoïdes_ has long silky auricular plumes, _Balearica_ a
bristly crest and a naked gular wattle, _Bugeranus_ a feathered lappet on
each side of the throat, _Antigone australasiana_ a pendulous pouch, and
most species, as will be seen below, a partly bare carunculated head. The
tongue is lanceolate, the nostrils pervious; while, except in _Balearica_,
the trachea of the adult is convoluted within the keel of the sternum, but
enters it behind the clavicles,–which are often ancylosed with it,–and not
in front of them, as in certain Swans, the development varying according to
the species and the age. In _Anthropoïdes_ the cavity of the keel is open
laterally. The furcula is Y-shaped, the aftershaft is very small, the down
is uniform in both adults and young.

Cranes are inhabitants of morasses and plains, being especially fond of the
neighbourhood of lagoons, tanks, and fields of corn or rice; yet they are
also found in boggy openings in forests, on sandy flats, or even on the
sea-shore. They are gregarious after the breeding season, when they often
collect into flocks of immense size, which pass the night together and
traverse vast distances in company. The northern species all migrate
southwards in winter. Erect and tall, they may be seen striding swiftly
along with head thrown back, or strutting around their mates; while in
spring they often stand in rows and proceed to stalk about in single file,
or dance to meet one another with nodding heads, necks advanced, and wings
widely outspread. Thereafter they bow towards the ground, jump in the air,
and perform graceful antics of all descriptions. The chosen spot for these
dances is commonly near water. The male courts his spouse in somewhat
similar fashion, and twigs or feathers are often tossed in the air in
sport, to be caught again ere they touch the ground. Rising from a level
spot appears to be a difficult matter, the birds running awkwardly for a
few yards, and labouring heavily with their wings to gain their purpose;
when once in the air, however, the flight is steady and swift, with head
{253}and legs outstretched, though this is varied by countless elegant
evolutions and gyrations, as they rise higher and higher until they become
mere specks in the heavens, and finally disappear from sight. The
characteristic utterance is a harsh guttural or resonant trumpeting sound,
uttered on the ground with the head thrown back and the bill open, or
repeated incessantly at great elevations; but the Whooping Crane has a
clear, piercing cry, the Asiatic White Crane a feeble but mellow whistle,
and the Crowned Cranes a plaintive but fairly sonorous set of notes. The
varying calibre of the voice has been thought to be connected with the
convolutions of the trachea mentioned above, the young giving vent to a
weak pipe or trill. Virgil's lines concerning the noise made before rain,
and the flight, are well-known to Latin scholars. The food consists of
grain, pulse, acorns, shoots, flowers, roots, tubers, bulbs, and the like,
with the occasional addition of small mammals and birds, reptiles,
amphibians, worms, insects, and even fish; the members of this Family,
however, dislike wading, and only swim under compulsion. Feeding chiefly in
the morning and evening, when they post sentinels, as Rooks do, they often
stand or doze upon one leg, with the head drawn back upon the shoulders.
Cranes, which are said to pair for life, return to the same breeding haunts
annually, where they either construct a large fabric of reeds, rushes, and
aquatic herbage, or use straw and small twigs for their nest. The conical
pile, with its moderate depression on the top, is commonly placed in
shallows, fresh materials being added if the water rises. Several species,
on the other hand, merely scrape a hole in marshy ground, on dry plains,
among standing corn or grass, or on sandy beaches, while occasionally
reed-beds are selected. The eggs, two, or rarely three in number, are
generally creamy white, olive-brown or buff, with reddish-brown, red, or
purplish-grey spots and blotches; those of the Indian Sarus Cranes have a
bluish- or greenish-white ground, while those of the Crowned Cranes are not
uncommonly plain bluish-white. The male is said to incubate in some cases,
and both parents tend the young carefully for a considerable time, though
the latter run from the shell; the female sits with her head drawn in upon
her shoulders, and is usually loth to leave her charge. When wounded these
birds are very dangerous, fighting boldly with bill and wings. They are
very palatable when fed on grain, the breast in particular {254}resembling
beef-steak. Cranes are easily domesticated, and, in certain districts of
India, in Japan, and among the Kalmuks, they are held in reverence, though
elsewhere they are often killed for the sake of their decorative plumes.

_Grus communis_, the Common Crane of Europe and Northern Asia, which used
to breed in Britain until the end of the sixteenth century, and reaches
North Africa, India, and China on the winter migration, is ashy-grey, with
white cheeks, nape, and sides of the neck, black primaries and inner
secondaries; the crown being bare, with blackish bristles and red warty
skin. _G. lilfordi_ of East Siberia is a lighter race. _G. canadensis_ is a
smaller species, hardly different from _G. mexicana_, the "Sandhill Crane"
of the United States, which is slaty-grey, with a brownish wash. _G.
monachus_, another similar form from Eastern Asia, has all the head white
except the bare portion. _G. nigricollis_ of Koko-nor has the feathered
part of the head, the upper neck, the wings, tail, and inner secondaries
black; _G. japonensis_ of North Eastern Asia is white, with grey-black
throat and fore-neck, the dark colour extending to a point on the
hind-neck. _G._ (_Limnogeranus_) _americana_, the Whooping Crane of the
United States and Mexico, is pure white with black primaries, the bristly
head, lores, and cheeks being bare, and covered with warty red skin. _G._
(_Sarcogeranus_) _leucogeranus_, the Asiatic White Crane, is entirely
white, except for the black primaries, and has all the front of the head
bare, the red skin extending beyond the eye, and showing a few scattered
hairs. This bird ranges at certain seasons to South-East Europe. _G._
(_Antigone_) _collaris_ of India and the Caspian is light grey, with
brownish-black primaries, a white ring round the lower neck, and white
inner secondaries; the grey-green crown is bare, the occiput and upper neck
are red and papillose, with black bristles on the latter. The Burmo-Malay
_G. sharpii_ is distinguished by the absence of white; while both enjoy in
common the name Sarus. _G._ (_A._) _australasiana_, the "Native Companion"
of East Australia, has the neck feathered, and possesses a red and green
gular pouch, covered with the same black hairs as the face, the general
coloration resembling that of its congeners. _G._ (_Pseudogeranus_)
_leucauchen_, the "Tan-cho" or national Crane of the Japanese, part of the
crown and the cheeks bare, warty, and red, with black hairs. often seen in
their clever drawings, is grey, with white hind-crown, nape, throat, and
inner secondaries; the rest of the wing-quills and the tip of the tail are
black, the fore-part of the crown and the cheeks bare, warty, and red, with
black hairs.

{255}[Illustration: FIG. 51.–Crowned Crane. _Balearica pavonina._ × ⅛.]

It is found westward to Lake Baikal, and southward in winter to the Yangtse
basin. _G._ (_Bugeranus_) _carunculata_, the Wattled Crane of South Africa,
is slaty-coloured, becoming blacker towards the tail, and browner towards
the mantle; the cheeks and the whole neck are white, with elongated chest
plumes; a lappet, with white feathering, hangs from each side of the
throat; and the fore-part of the head is covered with bare red papillose
skin. _G._ (_Tetrapteryx_) _paradisea_, the "Stanley" Crane of the same
districts, is leaden blue, with black ends to the inner secondaries, and a
white crown; the head is entirely feathered, and the chest plumes elongated
as in the next species. _G._ (_Anthropoïdes_) _virgo_, the "Demoiselle"
Crane, inhabits South Europe, and extends to Central Asia and North China,
migrating to {256}Northern Africa and India in winter. It is silvery-grey,
with white ear-tufts, black sides of the head, neck, chest, primaries, and
tips to the inner secondaries. _Balearica pavonina_, the Crowned Crane of
the northern Ethiopian Region, is greenish-black above and dark grey below,
most of the feathers being lanceolate; the neck is delicate grey all round,
the secondaries are chestnut–the inner being somewhat decomposed; white and
yellow shew on the wing-coverts; a spreading tuft of twisted yellow and
white bristles with black tips surmounts the occiput, while the sides of
the face are bare–white above and pink below, and the throat is covered
with black down. There is a very small throat-wattle in this form, but _B.
chrysopelargus_, the Kaffir Crane of South Africa, has it much larger and
chiefly red, differing moreover in its greyer plumage, and white
cheek-patch with only a border of crimson above. In _B. gibbericeps_ of
East Africa, the bare skin of the face extends almost to the nape.

In Cranes the sexes are alike; but the young are browner, with rusty or
buff tips to the feathers, or even with downy instead of more or less naked
heads, as in adults. Immature birds lack the elongated plumes. The bill is
usually greenish-grey, brown, or black, at times with a little red, but it
is yellow in _Limnogeranus_; the feet vary from greyish- or bluish-black to
dull green or flesh-colour; the iris is generally crimson, orange, or
yellow.

The Upper Eocene of Hampshire furnishes the fossil _Geranopsis_ as well as
_Grus_, the Italian Eocene _Palaeogrus_, that of Wyoming four species of
_Aletornis_; Grus occurs, moreover, in the Miocene of France, the Pliocene
of Attica and the United States, while _G. primigenia_ of the French and
Italian Plistocene, with _G. melitensis_ of the Zebbug cave in Malta,
complete the list.

Fam. III. ARAMIDAE.–In this group, as in the _Psophiidae_ (p. 257), the
osteology and pterylography are Crane-like, the digestive organs and style
of plumage Rail-like; a link being thus formed between the two Families.
The long, hard bill is slender and compressed, with slightly curved tip;
the tibia is partly bare, the metatarsus scutellated. The wing has eleven
primaries and some dozen secondaries. The long tongue is said to end in
horny filaments, the trachea is sometimes convoluted in males, the nostrils
are pervious.

_Aramus pictus_, the Clucking Hen or Limpkin of the Greater Antilles, South
Florida, and Central America, is chocolate-brown {257}with white flecks;
the upper parts are glossed with bronzy-purple, the bill is greenish. _A.
scolopaceus_, the Carau, Courlan, Lamenting Bird, or Crazy Widow, ranging
from Guiana to Argentina, has only the head and neck streaked. Generally
solitary or found in family-parties, these birds conceal themselves by day
among reeds or damp forest-vegetation; they rise with difficulty after a
preliminary run, and take low, brief flights, the legs hanging down and the
wings flapping slowly, while the latter are elevated for a descent. They
walk quickly and in stately fashion, limping and jerking the tail; at night
they roost on trees. The resonant, melancholy wail is varied by a clucking
note, or by an angry cry when breeding. The shallows of streams or marshes
are diligently searched for molluscs, which the formation of the beak
enables the bird easily to open or break, but small reptiles, insects, and
worms are also eaten. The flat nest of herbage, placed among reeds,
contains from ten to twelve white eggs, as large as those of a Turkey,
clouded with pale brown and purple.[175]

[Illustration: FIG. 52.–Trumpeter. _Psophia crepitans._ × ⅙.]

Fam. IV. PSOPHIIDAE.–The so-called Trumpeters form a single genus of six
species inhabiting tropical South America, and somewhat resemble
long-necked and long-legged Fowls, the beak being gallinaceous and the
tibia partly bare. The long metatarsi are scutellated in front; the wings
and tail are short, the ten primaries, {258}just equalling the twelve
secondaries. The nostrils are pervious. The downy nestlings are chestnut
streaked with grey.

_Psophia crepitans_, the Agami, ranging from British Guiana to Amazonia, is
a black bird with velvety plumage on the head and neck, and lax feathering
below; a golden-green and violet sheen adorns the lower fore-neck, a rusty
brown patch crosses the back and wing-coverts, the bare orbits are pinkish,
the beak is greenish or greyish, and the legs are variously stated to be
bright green or flesh-coloured. _P. napensis_ of Ecuador has the sheen on
the neck dull purple, _P. leucoptera_ of Peru and Upper Amazonia lacks the
brown above, and has the inner wing-coverts and inner secondaries white,
these feathers being ochraceous in _P. ochroptera_ of the right bank of the
Rio Negro. _P. viridis_ of Amazonia–from Pará up the right bank of the Rio
Madeira to the Rio Mamoré–perhaps identical with _P. obscura_, has the back
and inner secondaries glossed with green. The sexes are similar.

These birds love moist forests, and sometimes form flocks of three hundred
individuals; they are so sociable and easily tamed that the natives use
them to protect poultry. They perch, but seldom fly, and run swiftly with a
peculiar gait, while they swim on an emergency. The deep-toned
ventriloquistic, but not strictly trumpeting, cry is uttered with widely
opened beak; the food consists of fruit, corn, and insects. The nest, said
to be at the foot of a tree, contains creamy- or greyish-white eggs, like
those of a Bantam.

Fam. V. CARIAMIDAE.–These birds have given rise to much discussion, and
have been placed by several authors in the Accipitres, near the
Secretary-Bird, which they somewhat resemble in their erect carriage,
general appearance, and habits. The beak is short, broad, and slightly
hooked, the neck is rather long, the legs decidedly so; the tibia is
partially bare, the metatarsus is entirely scutellated, the claws are sharp
and curved. The wings are short, with fourteen elongated secondaries and
ten primaries; the long, graduated tail has twelve rectrices. The nostrils
are pervious. The internal anatomy and pterylosis are Gruine, an aftershaft
is present, and the downy young are either grey and brown (_Cariama_) or
rufous and black (_Chunga_). _Cariama cristata_, the Seriemá, or Crested
Screamer (p. 110), extending from Pernambuco to Paraguay and Matto Grosso,
is ochreous-grey above with zigzag umber markings, and whitish below with
brown stripes. Vertical feathers on the lores form a conspicuous crest,
while those of the neck and throat {259}are long and loose; interrupted
white bands cross the remiges, and the bases and tips of the lateral
rectrices. The iris is yellow, the beak and feet are red, the naked orbits
greenish. The female is yellower, and exhibits less crest. _Chunga
burmeisteri_, the Chuñia of Tucuman and Catamarca in Argentina, is smaller
and darker, with shorter legs and little crest; it has a broad white
superciliary streak, and two wide black bars on the tail-feathers, except
the median pair. The bill and feet are black, the iris is grey.

[Illustration: FIG. 53.–Seriemá. _Cariama cristata._ × ⅐.]

Both species are chiefly diurnal, the former frequenting the high grass of
the open "campos" in pairs and parties of five or six, the latter forests
or bushy districts; they roost on trees, {260}stalk about in stately
fashion, stoop when running, and fly a little when hard pressed. The
barking or screaming cry is chiefly heard towards dusk; the food consists
of small mammals, snakes, lizards, snails, worms, insects and their larvae,
as well as berries, _Chunga_ preferring the insect diet. Easily
domesticated, and in Brazil protected by custom, these birds will guard
their owners' fowls; while the male at times incubates and shews off to the
females in spring, like a Bustard. _Cariama_ builds a nest of twigs in low
trees or bushes; _Chunga_ generally chooses the ground; but in either case
the young soon leave their quarters; the two eggs have a pale ground-colour
with rufous blotches, as in so many Rails. The Seriemá has been hatched in
the Zoological Society's Gardens in London.

The fossil _Phororhachos_ and certain others of the so-called Stereornithes
(p. 44) probably belong here.

Fam. VI. OTIDIDAE.–The Bustards are here admitted as a Family of the
Gruiformes, though many writers have preferred to refer them to the
Limicolae, and the question is by no means finally settled. The head is
flat, the neck thick, the bill somewhat blunt and depressed, being either
short, as in _Otis_ and _Trachelotis_, or longer, as in _Neotis_ and
_Lissotis_. The metatarsus varies much, the length for instance being
comparatively great in _Houbaropsis_, and small in _Otis tetrax_, while
both surfaces are covered with reticulated scales; the short, stout toes
have flattish nails, and the hallux is absent, as in many Limicoline forms.
The wings are moderate, with the secondaries almost equal to the primaries,
the latter–which are acuminate in _Sypheotis_–being eleven in number, and
the former about twenty; the tail, of medium length, has a more or less
rounded outline, and possesses from fourteen to twenty rectrices.
Ornamental plumes are characteristic of this group, and take the form of
decided crests on the crown and nape, or on the latter alone, in all the
genera except _Otis_, _Neotis_, _Lissotis_, _Trachelotis_, and _Sypheotis_;
the last-named, however, has elongated cheek-feathers with bare shafts and
spatulate webs. The plumes of the throat and fore-neck are lengthened and
shield the breast in _Houbaropsis_ and _Eupodotis_, those of the sides of
the neck form a ruff in _Houbara_; while _Otis_ is remarkable for the
prolonged ear-coverts, and for the tuft of long bristly feathers on each
side of the base of the mandible in the male.

The nostrils are pervious, the tongue is sagittate, the furcula {261}is
Y-shaped, and often ancylosed with the sternum, the syrinx is
tracheo-bronchial. An after-shaft is present, and the down, which is
uniform in the young only, is in them mottled with black and lighter tints.
A most remarkable phenomenon, moreover, is the gular pouch, opening under
the tongue, found in the male of some examples of _Otis tarda_ during the
breeding season. This pouch becomes very small or vanishes altogether at
other times of the year, and seems to be restricted to adult birds.
Similar, but smaller, processes have been observed in _Eupodotis kori_, _E.
edwardsi_ and, it is said, _Otis tetrax_; while dilatations of the
oesophagus have been recorded in _E. australis_ and _Neotis denhami_.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.–Great Bustard. _Otis tarda._ × ⅑ or ⅒.]

_Otis tarda_, the Great Bustard, which, as a native, only became extinct in
Norfolk about 1838, used to extend from East Lothian to Dorset, but is now
merely an occasional visitor to Britain. The upper parts are mottled with
rufous, buff, and {262}blackish-brown, the head is blue-grey, with long
white bristles at the base of the mandible, the lower surface is white,
relieved in the male by a tawny gorget for a short time during the breeding
season. The primaries are black, most of the secondaries and wing-coverts
white. Some other Bustards seem to have a similar vernal change of plumage.
The female is smaller and has no bristles. _O. tetrax_, the Little Bustard,
a straggler to our shores, is somewhat like the last species in colour, but
has the cheeks and throat grey, bordered by a white line, and below this
comes a broad black collar divided in front by a median white band in the
nesting time. The female is brown and black, with white breast and no
collar. The remaining members of the Family vary considerably in pattern of
colour, being spotted, streaked, or vermiculated above, and being
occasionally very dark; the head and the lower parts, moreover, are not
uncommonly quite black, or the latter may be greyish-blue, as in
_Trachelotis coerulescens_. The bill and feet are usually yellow, more
seldom greyish or dusky. Females and young exhibit a more uniform mixture
of brown, black, and buff, while rufous bases to the feathers are
characteristic of the group.

Bustards are Old World birds, reaching eastwards to Australia, where
_Eupodotis australis_ is called the "Native Turkey." _E. edwardsi_ inhabits
the plains of India, _E. arabs_ extends from Arabia to North Africa, and
_E. kori_ from the East to the South of that continent. _Otis_ ranges over
South and Central Europe, and thence to North Africa, inhabiting also
Mid-Asia to North-West India, the Yangtze-Kiang River and Japan. _Houbara
undulata_, the African Ruffed Bustard, reaches from the Canaries,[176]
through the Mediterranean basin to about Armenia; its congener _H.
macqueeni_, which strays westward to Britain, being resident in Persia,
North India and Central Asia. _Houbaropsis bengalensis_ and _Sypheotis
aurita_ are the Florican and Lesser Florican of India; _Lophotis_,
_Compsotis_, _Heterotetrax_, _Neotis_, _Lissotis_, and _Trachelotis_
inhabit the Ethiopian Region. The members of the Family are to some extent
migratory, and perhaps the Great Bustard was partly so of old in Britain.

The members of this Family flock in winter, and occasionally form small
parties at other seasons, the males being very possibly polygamous, though
the fact is hardly proved. Typically inland birds, they haunt dry grassy
and sandy plains, or cultivated ground {263}where the crops are low, yet
sometimes they choose more bushy flats, or stony tops of elevated ridges.
Their flight is prolonged and often rapid, though invariably heavy, the
neck and legs being outstretched; the Great Bustard rises from the ground
slowly, the Little Bustard with a rattling noise, but they are frequently
loth to leave it, crouching to escape detection on the similarly coloured
soil. They stalk about rapidly and run with ease, being shy, wary, and
far-sighted, while they are more easy to approach when they resort to
water. The quill-feathers are said to be lost after breeding.[177] In
spring the pugnacious cocks strut around the hens, swelling out their
plumage, and inflating the gular pouch when it is present; the head
meanwhile is thrown backwards, the wings droop, the tail is usually erected
and outspread, and booming or crooning utterances with leaps diversify the
performance. At times the notes are described as scolding, drumming,
craking, and clucking, or resemble "cok-cok" or "prut-prut." The diet
consists chiefly of juicy plants, such as young corn and turnips, clover
and plantains, but it includes berries and seeds, insects and their larvae,
molluscs, myriapods, frogs, or even small reptiles and mammals. The
Gom-Paauw[178] (_Eupodotis kori_) is so-called from its love of mimosa gum.
The eggs, varying from two to four or five in different species, are
deposited in an excavation in the soil–sometimes lined with grass–under
shelter of a bush, tussock, or growing crop; they are oily-green, olive,
drab, red-brown, or exceptionally bluish-green, and are generally blotched,
clouded, or zoned with purplish or dull red. The hen sits very closely.
Bustards can be circumvented by riding round them in constantly diminishing
circles, and they are also captured with Falcons.[179]

A fossil _Otis_ is recorded from the Miocene of France and Germany.

Fam. VII. RHINOCHETIDAE.–This contains only one species, _Rhinochetus
jubatus_, the Kagu of New Caledonia, a very old and generalized form,
somewhat bigger than an ordinary fowl, which was originally referred to the
Herons and then to the Cranes, but is undoubtedly nearly allied to the
latter, and approximates rather closely to _Eurypyga_.[180]

{264}[Illustration: FIG. 55.–Kagu. _Rhinochetus jubatus._ × ⅕.]

The head and eyes are large; the neck is strong; the bill is Heron-like,
but somewhat flat above, with a wide nasal groove. The sternum is weak and
narrow, having no posterior notch; the furcula is U-shaped; the legs are
moderately long and slender, the toes Rail-like, with curved claws; the
tibia is half bare, the metatarsus scutellated, with smaller scales behind.
The wings are moderate, broad, and rounded, though less developed than in
_Eurypyga_, the primaries being ten in number, and the secondaries–of which
the inner exceed the primaries–thirteen; the tail is fairly long and ample,
with twelve rectrices. The aftershaft is large; the nostrils are
impervious, contrary to the rule in the Order, being severally overhung by
a peculiar rolled-up membrane, said to protect them when the beak is thrust
into the soil; the tongue is lanceolate. Powder-down patches are profusely
distributed over the whole body, except towards the remiges and rectrices.
The plumage is slaty-grey, with indistinct dark bars on the wings and tail;
but when the former are expanded, rufous and white bands appear, varied by
black markings; while a long, erectile whitish-grey crest adorns the
occiput and nape. The bill and feet are orange-red. In adults down covers
the whole surface. Possibly the chicks remain a {265}considerable time in
the nest, but this is by no means certain; those of _Eurypyga_ do so, it is
true, but those of Cranes and Rails do not. Immature specimens are more
rufous, with black bars above.

Though formerly the Kagu was not rare in its native island, it is now
restricted to the wilder portions, where it is to be met with among the
rocks of craggy ravines or near stagnant waters, sleeping throughout the
day and issuing from its concealment towards evening. It walks quickly, yet
in a stately manner, often coming to a standstill or crouching, and
remaining motionless for a long period; but it can also run rapidly with
the head and neck outstretched, and the body carried after the manner of a
Rail. The habits in confinement, however, make it somewhat doubtful whether
the bird is as nocturnal as is asserted, for in the daytime it is quick and
lively in its motions, chasing its fellow-captives, dancing round with the
tip of its outspread wing or tail held fast in its bill, tossing about dry
leaves or pieces of paper, spreading out its wings and thrusting its beak
into the ground, kicking with its legs, and finally tumbling about as if in
a fit. The note is guttural and rattling, or almost a scream; the food
consists of molluscs, worms, and insects, sought for among the grass or in
crannies, while the bill is often plunged into the soil, and worms pulled
out, shaken and swallowed. When in quest of food the bird often paws the
earth with gentle strokes, and snails are usually beaten upon the ground to
break the shell. It will bathe in captivity, and is said to like wet
weather in its native haunts. The nest is unknown, but eggs laid at the
Zoological Society's Gardens in London are reddish-buff with brown and grey
markings, and recall those of the Woodcock or Corncrake.[181]

Fam. VIII. EURYPYGIDAE.–Two species of _Eurypyga_ are comprehended herein,
namely, _E. helias_ of the countries from Venezuela to Bolivia and Central
Brazil, and _E. major_ of Central America, Colombia, and Ecuador. These
are, like the Kagu, very ancient types, but whereas that bird shows some
affinity to _Scopus_, these trend rather towards _Nycticorax_, both being,
however, essentially Gruiform. The neck is long and thin, the bill rather
slender, with grooves on the maxilla and mandible: the whole leg and foot
are as in _Rhinochetus_, but shorter, weaker, and reticulated behind; the
wings and tail are even more ample, while the number of primaries and
rectrices are the same, but the secondaries are only {266}eleven, and the
inner feathers comparatively short. The nostrils are pervious, the tongue
is lanceolate, the furcula is U-shaped, the after-shaft is diminutive, and
the powder-down patches are abundant, though writers differ as to their
extent. _E. helias_–as Prof. Newton says in his excellent account[182]–is
not to be described in a limited space otherwise than generally; it has a
black head, with a white stripe above and under each eye, and a white
throat: the remaining plumage "being variegated with black, brown,
chestnut, bay, buff, grey, and white–so mottled, speckled, and belted
either in wave-like or zigzag forms, as somewhat to resemble certain moths.
The bay colour forms two conspicuous patches on each wing, and also an
antepenultimate bar on the tail, behind which is a subterminal band of
black. The irides are red; the bill is greenish-olive; and the legs are
pale yellow." _E. major_ is larger and more uniform in colour. Both adults
and nestlings have copious down, that of the latter being lightish brown
with lines and spots of darker brown and white. The sexes are similar.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.–Sun-Bittern. _Eurypyga helias._ × ¼.]

The "Sun-Bittern," to use its common but misleading name, is found on the
larger rivers, where the banks are wooded and swampy; it is shy but easily
tamed, and, according to Bates, is kept in captivity by the Brazilians. It
walks quietly and circumspectly with horizontal body and outstretched head,
and probably flies but little. Like the Kagu, it executes a fantastic
dance, but in this case the wings and tail form a semicircle which nearly
conceals the body. The note is a soft or plaintive long-drawn {267}whistle,
the food consists mainly of small fish and insects, which the bird spears
by darting out its head quickly. The nest, said to be made of sticks,
grass, and mud, with a lining of the latter, is placed on low branches, and
contains several eggs similar to those of the Kagu, but smaller. Both
parents incubate and attend to the young, which have several times been
reared in the Zoological Society's Gardens in London.[183]

Fam. IX. HELIORNITHIDAE.–The Finfoots, comprising three genera and four
species, now generally coupled with the Rallidae, have been placed near the
Divers and Grebes by several authors. The head is small, the neck thin, the
bill Rail-like and fairly stout; the metatarsus, which is scutellated
anteriorly and reticulated posteriorly, is short, twisted outwards, and
deeply grooved; while the toes have short, sharp claws, and broad scalloped
webs, extending in _Heliornis_ to most of their length. The long pointed
wings have twenty-one remiges, of which eleven are primaries, and are armed
with a curved spine; the tail consists in _Podica_ of eighteen elongated,
stiff, ribbed rectrices, which are narrow and pointed, and in _Heliopaïs_
and _Heliornis_ of rather soft, short, rounded feathers. The plumage is
close, but not glossy as in Grebes; there is no after-shaft, the U-shaped
furcula ancyloses with the sternum, the tongue is lanceolate, and the
nostrils are pervious.

These birds, which frequent the swamps or rocky streams of inland woods,
are very shy; their flight is heavy, and they rise with difficulty from the
surface of the water, aiding themselves by their feet. They swim and dive
well, and will remain half-submerged for hours, or will sit upon a low
branch over a stream, dropping down and scrambling up the bank when
disturbed, or hiding at its base. They are said, moreover, to run swiftly
on land. The note of _Heliornis fulica_ is like a dog's bark; the food is
in all cases of small fish, crustaceans, insects, and seeds. The nest and
eggs are unknown, but in the species just mentioned the nestlings are
stated to be naked. This form, about thirteen inches long, which ranges
from Guatemala to Paraguay, is olive-brown above, the black head and nape
being separated by a white band down each side of the neck from a blackish
line which encloses the white throat; the chest is buff, the sides are
brown, the remaining underparts whitish; the bill is red, the feet are
yellow, banded with black. _Podica senegalensis_ of West Africa, and the
doubtfully distinct {268}_P. petersi_, reaching from the Lower Congo to
South East Africa, are larger forms, with round ochreous spots above, and
red feet. _Heliopaïs personata_, extending from Assam to Sumatra, has a
black throat, orange bill, and light green feet.

ORDER XI. CHARADRIIFORMES.

The Charadriiformes are here taken to consist of five Sub-Orders. Of these
the LIMICOLAE contains the Families _Charadriidae_ (Plovers, Sandpipers,
Snipes, and so forth), _Chionididae_ (Sheath-bills), _Glareolidae_
(Pratincoles, Coursers, and Crab-Plover), _Thinocorythidae_ (Seed-Snipes),
_Oedicnemidae_ (Stone-Curlews), and _Parridae_ (Jaçanas); the LARI
possesses one Family, _Laridae_ (Gulls, Terns, and Skuas); the ALCAE only
the _Alcidae_ (Auks); the PTEROCLES, the _Pteroclidae_ (Sand-Grouse); but
the COLUMBAE may be divided into _Dididae_, _Didunculidae_, and
_Columbidae_. The first three may again be combined into a Laro-Limicoline
group, and the last two into a Pteroclo-Columbine, in accordance with their
affinities.

In structure the LIMICOLAE are sufficiently uniform to be considered
simultaneously.

The bill furnishes a useful means of subdividing the _Charadriidae_. It is
hardest in _Haematopus_, _Ibidorhynchus_, _Strepsilas_, and so forth, being
in them bony throughout. In _Charadrius_, _Aegialitis_, _Lobivanellus_,
_Vanellus_, and the like, it has a hard tip, but is comparatively flexible
towards the base. These may compose Sub-family (1) _Charadriinae_. In
_Totanus_, and its nearest allies, it is still hard at the tip, but more
flexible at the base. In _Tringa_, and similar genera, it ceases to be hard
at the tip, and is slightly endowed with nerves. These may constitute
Subfamily (2) _Tringinae_. In _Scolopax_, _Gallinago_, and _Rhynchaea_ it
becomes highly nervous at the tip, and therein differs from that of all
other birds. These form Sub-family (3) _Scolopacinae_. In _Himantopus_ and
_Recurvirostra_ the bill is so attenuated as hardly to be called hard at
the tip, but it has no nerves there. The form of the beak varies greatly,
being asymmetrical and twisted to the right in _Anarhynchus_, up-curved
from the middle in _Avocetta_, wedge-like in _Haematopus_, much flattened
in _Tringa platyrhyncha_, spade-shaped in _Eurynorhynchus_, arched in
_Numenius_, and strongly decurved in _Ibidorhynchus_. In the Chionididae a
horny sheath covers the base of the maxilla, and is indicated by faint
lines in the young; in _Glareola_ the bill is short, curved, and very
{269}deeply split, making a wide gape; in _Dromas_ it is hard, deep, and
compressed; in _Cursorius_ thick and little bent; in the Thinocorythidae
Fowl-like; in the Oedicnemidae short, stout, and blunt; in the Parridae
narrow and pointed, with a skinny frontal plate, and occasionally with
rictal wattles. The nasal grooves are very long in _Ibidorhynchus_,
_Totanus_, _Scolopax_ and elsewhere.

The tibia is often partly bare, and the metatarsus is extremely variable;
the legs are longer in _Himantopus_ than in any other bird of its size, and
long also in _Recurvirostra_, _Cursorius_, _Dromas_, the Parridae, and so
forth, while _Haematopus_, _Aegialitis_, _Scolopax_, _Glareola_, _Chionis_,
_Tringa_, and the Thinocorythidae are instances of the contrary. Both the
front and back of these members are scutellated in most Scolopacinae and
Tringinae, but the Charadriinae differ considerably in this respect; in
_Glareola_ the fore-part only is transversely scutellated, in _Cursorius_,
_Dromas_, the Thinocorythidae and Parridae the whole of the surface, while
in the Chionididae and Oedicnemidae both aspects are reticulated. The
anterior toes are ordinarily free, or have the third and fourth digits
slightly connected; but _Dromas_ and _Recurvirostra_ have them partly
webbed, as to some extent have _Himantopus_, _Totanus semipalmatus_, and a
few other forms, while in _Phalaropus_ the metatarsus is much compressed,
and the toes have lobed margins. The hallux, normally set rather high, is
frequently aborted, as in _Charadrius_, _Ibidorhynchus_, _Calidris_,
_Cursorius_ and _Oedicnemus_; in the Thinocorythidae and _Glareola_ it is
very small, in _Dromas_ larger; in the Parridae all four digits are on a
level and abnormally long, as are the claws, so that the birds walk easily
on floating vegetation. The nail of the mid-toe is pectinated in the
Glareolidae, recalling that of the Caprimulginae (Night-jars). The digits
are often somewhat fleshy, _Oedicnemus_ moreover, has an enlarged
tibio-tarsal joint.

The wings are usually long, having a bilobed appearance owing to the
equality of the inner secondaries and outer primaries; _Himantopus_,
_Dromas_, _Glareola_, and the Thinocorythidae have them much elongated,
_Phegornis_ and some other forms very short, while in _Vanellus_ the
expanse is most noticeable. In this genus, _Lobivanellus_, _Hoplopterus_,
the Chionididae, and the Parridae, is found a carpal spur, often large and
sharp; _Metopidius_, and, apparently, _Hydralector_ have the radius dilated
into a sub-triangular lamina[184]; {270}_Hydrophasianus_ has peculiar
filamentous appendages to the first and fourth primaries; _Scolopax minor_
has the three exterior of the normal eleven primaries particularly
attenuated. The secondaries in the Limicolae vary from ten to twenty.

The rectrices are usually twelve; though _Rhynchaea_ and the Parridae have
ten, while _Scolopax stenura_ and _S. megala_ possess twenty and twenty-six
respectively, the outer of which are exceedingly stiff and narrow–not to
give further instances. The tail in _Glareola_ is deeply furcate and
Swallow-like, in _Hydrophasianus_ it has the four median plumes very long
and decurved in the breeding season; but it is often quite short, as in
_Scolopax_. The form may be slightly forked, as in _Chionis_; somewhat
graduated or cuneate, as in the Thinocorythidae, _Totanus hypoleucus_, and
_Oedicnemus_; rounded, as in _Cursorius_; or almost even, as in _Vanellus_.

The tongue is rather long and pointed, being, however, rudimentary in
_Numenius_; the nostrils are pervious, except in the Thinocorythidae,
Glareolidae, and perhaps _Dromas_, and have at times a leathery operculum
in Plovers; the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial, the furcula U-shaped; _Parra_
has a decidedly muscular gizzard, and the Thinocorythidae possess a
globular crop. The convoluted trachea of _Rhynchaea_, the papillae on the
orbits of _Chionis_, the caruncles on the face of _Machetes_, and the loral
wattles of _Lobivanellus_ are fully described below. The aftershaft is very
small in the Parridae, rather large elsewhere. In adults the down is
sparing; in the young it is short, thick, and commonly of a yellowish hue,
with brown longitudinal stripes; though it may be grey, as in _Chionis_ and
_Haematopus_; mottled with reddish and white, as in Snipes; or with black,
orange, yellow, and white, as in Phalaropes.

The plumage is usually plain brown or grey, with an admixture of white, or
less commonly chestnut; _Vanellus_, _Lobivanellus_, and _Cursorius
chalcopterus_, however, exhibit metallic hues, and _Chionis_ is white. Red
or yellow beaks or feet adorn many forms. Crests occur in certain species
of _Vanellus_, _Hoplopterus_, and _Lobivanellus_; the male of _Machetes_
(Ruff) is most remarkable for its lateral head-tufts and fine neck-frill,
developed for the breeding season; _Numenius tahitiensis_ has peculiar
bristly-pointed flank-feathers. In _Scolopax_ the large eyes are set
unusually far back in the skull. The sexes are generally similar, but in
_Eudromias_,[185] _Phalaropus_, and _Rhynchaea_ the female is brighter than
{271}the male, as well as larger, the latter fact holding true of a
considerable number of the Tringinae and Scolopacinae, and of the Parridae,
though a special study of the subject is still needful. In several species
the breeding plumage differs remarkably from that of winter.

The _Limicolae_ often flock together in the cold season, but are by no
means uniform in their habits, and divergencies will be noticed under the
various genera. They run well, often bobbing the head up and down, and fly
strongly, wheeling round sharply in the air; while some Snipes rise in
zigzag fashion. Typically waders, many, if not all of them, can swim on
emergency, but few habitually do so, like Phalaropes. Exceptionally they
perch on trees, or soar. Swamps, river-sides, and in winter the sea-coast,
are the general haunts; but Coursers, Stone-Curlews and "Seed-Snipes"
frequent arid or stony localities, _Dromas_ sandy islets or shores,
_Chionis_ maritime rocks. _Vanellus cayennensis_ and _Parra jacana_ are
said to indulge in dances, while Lapwings and other species feign to be
wounded if their young are in danger. The food consists of crustaceans,
molluscs, worms, and insects; rarely of small fish or eggs of other birds;
but not uncommonly of vegetable matter, on which the Thinocorythidae
entirely subsist. The usual note is shrill, but the "scape, scape" of the
Snipe, the melancholy whistle of the Curlew, the yelp of the Godwit, the
reiterated scream of the Oyster-catcher, and the sweet song or trill of
Temminck's Stint and of the Green Sandpiper should be noticed among the
exceptions. Usually four pyriform eggs, varying from brownish or
olive-green to stone-colour, with double markings of lighter and darker
shades, are arranged in a hole scraped in the ground, with or without
lining, the small ends pointing to the centre. Those of Oyster-catchers and
Stone-Curlews are more oval, while the Dotterel and some other species lay
only three, and Stone-Curlews two. The Parridae amass a considerable pile
of water-plants, _Chionis_ usually breeds in holes among rocks, the Green
and the Wood-Sandpiper often use deserted nests of other birds. The young
run almost from the shell, the Stone-Curlews and _Dromas_, which lays a
white egg in sandy burrows, being to some extent exceptions. The male
performs most of the duties of incubation in _Rhynchaea_, _Phalaropus_, and
apparently the Dotterel, Bar-tailed Godwit, and Purple Sandpiper–if not
elsewhere; while the Ruff is well known to be polygamous. Stone-Curlews and
{272}Woodcocks are certainly somewhat crepuscular, and the drumming of the
Snipe (p. 291) must be mentioned in passing. Nearly all Limicoline birds
are migrants, and may frequently be heard overhead at night, when on
passage. The flesh is generally excellent.

Fam. I. CHARADRIIDAE.–Sub-fam. 1. _Charadriinae._–The Dotterel (_Eudromias
morinellus_), breeds on the fells and tundras of Northern Europe and Asia,
as well as on the mountains of Scotland, Transylvania, Styria, and
Bohemia–if not still in the English Lake District; in winter it migrates to
Palestine and North Africa. The colour is ashy-brown, with black crown and
nape, towards the latter of which the white superciliary streaks run down;
the throat is whitish, the fore-neck brown, divided by a white gorget from
the orange-chestnut lower breast; the abdomen is black, the lateral
rectrices are tipped with white. The young are more rufous above, and grey
and white below. Three olive eggs with brown blotches are laid in a
depression of the mossy ground, the parents being tamer than most Plovers
at the nest. _E. veredus_ inhabits Mongolia, wintering in the Sunda
Islands, the Moluccas, and Australia; _E. australis_ is confined to the
last country; _E._ (_Zonibyx_) _modestus_, the only four-toed species of
the genus, ranges from Tarapacá and Buenos Aires to Tierra del Fuego and
the Falkland Islands. _Charadrius pluvialis_, the Golden Plover, breeds on
the higher British moorlands, and reaches from Northern Europe to the Lena
in Asia, overlapping about the Yenisei _C. fulvus_, with grey instead of
white axillaries, which extends to Bering Sea and–as the stouter,
shorter-toed race _C. dominicus_–to Greenland. Both the latter have
occurred in England. The plumage is black, densely spotted with yellow
above, the forehead and superciliary streaks are white, as are the sides of
the body. In winter the under parts are nearly white. At that season the
various species migrate southwards as far as Cape Colony, India, Australia,
New Zealand, Polynesia, and Chili. The loud clear whistle of the Golden
Plover is a characteristic sound in summer on our sub-alpine hills, where
the bird deposits four rich olive-brown eggs in a hollow in the herbage; it
is very wary at the nest. The Grey Plover, _Squatarola helvetica_, with a
distinct hind toe and black axillaries, is browner than the foregoing
three-toed species in summer, and greyer in winter; it visits us from
autumn to spring, but breeds in the far north of Eastern Europe, Asia, and
America, reaching Cape Colony, Ceylon, and Tasmania on migration.
_Erythrogonys cinctus_ of Australia, and {273}the long-billed _Oreophilus
ruficollis_ of South America from Peru and Argentina to Patagonia and the
Falklands, are nearly allied forms; while the rufous New Zealand
_Charadrius_ (?) _obscurus_ apparently somewhat resembles the Dotterel in
its habits and eggs.

[Illustration: FIG. 57.–Ringed Plover. _Aegialitis hiaticola._ × ⅖.]

_Aegialitis hiaticola_, the Ringed Plover, Sand-Lark, or Stone-runner,
mistakenly called the "Ring Dotterel," which is common on the British
coasts and even inland, extends from Smith's Sound eastwards to Bering
Strait, and migrates to South Africa, North India, or accidentally,
Australia. It breeds as far south as the Atlantic Islands, North Africa,
and Turkestan. The plumage is light brown, with white forehead, post-ocular
streak, upper neck, alar bar, outer rectrices, and under surface; the
crown, lores, cheeks, and a collar–broader in front–being black. The young
lack the black crown. The habits and "peeping" cry hardly require
description. When nesting on the warrens of the Eastern Counties it is
called the Stone-hatch, because it there lays its black-spotted drab eggs
in a hole paved with small stones. _Ae. curonica_, the Little Ringed
Plover, which strays to Britain, the Färoes, and Iceland, breeds on inland
waters from Scandinavia to Japan; reaching southwards to North Africa,
Turkestan, and China, and on migration to the Gaboon, Mozambique, Ceylon,
and New Guinea. It is distinguished from the last species by the shafts of
all the primaries, except the outer one, being dusky. _Ae. cantiana_, the
Kentish Plover, which still nests in Kent and Sussex, occupies
Europe–though very locally–North Africa, and Central Asia to China and
Japan; it comparatively seldom breeds inland, and is found in winter as far
as South Africa, India, and Australia. The collar is incomplete in front,
the female has no black crown, while the black legs distinguish it from
{274}the Ringed Plover. _Ae. semipalmata_, with a distinct web between the
outer and middle toes, replaces the latter in North America, ranging in
winter to Peru and Brazil; whereas _Ae. placida_ represents it in China,
Japan, and India. The place of the Kentish Plover is taken in western North
America by _Ae. nivosa_–with white lores instead of black–which migrates to
Chili. _Ae. vocifera_, termed "Kill-deer" from its cry, inhabits North
America, and extends in winter to northern South America, while it has been
shot even in the Scilly Islands; the lores are brown, and the fore-neck
exhibits two black bands. It nests in the interior on grass or ploughed
fields. In _Ae. monachus_ of Southern Australia, the breeding male has a
perfectly black head; in _Ae. asiatica_ of Central Asia, which has wandered
to Britain, the head is brown, and the breast shews a black-edged chestnut
band, somewhat similar to that in _Ae. bicincta_ of the Australian Region,
and other species; _Ae. bifrontata_ of Madagascar has grey lores, and two
black bands on the breast. Space fails to mention all the species of this
large three-toed genus; but _Ae._ (_Thinornis_) _novae zealandiae_ of the
New Zealand area, _Ae. falklandica_ of America from Chili and Argentina
southwards, and _Ae. sanctae helenae_, the "Wire-bird" peculiar to St.
Helena, should be noticed.

[Illustration: FIG. 58.–Wry-bill. _Anarhynchus frontalis._ × ⅖.]

_Anarhynchus frontalis_, the Wry-bill of New Zealand, is grey, with a black
gorget and whitish lower parts; the habits are as in _Aegialitis_, but the
laterally-twisted bill enables the bird to pick up insects from around
stones with the greatest ease.

Thirteen species may perhaps be included in _Lobivanellus_ (Wattled
Lapwing); but here, as in the next genus, _Vanellus_, there are many
diversities of opinion. The two groups are fairly similar in habits, nests,
and eggs. Some have a hallux, some not. _L. pectoralis_ of Australia and
Tasmania, _L. indicus_, ranging from Arabia and Mesopotamia to Cochin
China, _L. cinereus_ of China and Japan, which migrates as far as Bengal,
_L. {275}melanocephalus_ of North-East Africa, _L. superciliosus_,
extending from West Africa to Lake Tanganyika, and the crested _L._
(_Sarciophorus_) _tectus_, found from Senegal to East Equatorial Africa and
Arabia, have small loral wattles; _L._ (_Lobipluvia_) _malabaricus_ of
India, Ceylon, and Burma, _L. miles_, reaching from Timor Laut to New
Guinea and Australia, _L. cucullatus_ of Sumatra, Java, and Timor, _L.
lobatus_ of Australia, accidental in New Zealand, _L. lateralis_ of the
southern, and _L. senegalensis_ of the northern Ethiopian Region, with _L.
albiceps_ of West Africa and the Upper Congo, have large wattles, and,
except the first, a wing-spur. _L. lobatus_ is olive-brown above, with
black crown, nape, and wings; the cheeks, tail-coverts, and lower parts are
white; the tail is white with black tip; the bill, wattles, and spurs are
yellow, the feet purplish-red.

_Vanellus_ comprises the true Lapwings; it is a closely allied genus to the
last, and varies as to the possession of a hind-toe. _V. cristatus_, the
English Peewit or Green Plover, has the upper parts and motile crest
bottle-green, with a purple and copper gloss; the throat and upper breast
black; the cheeks, sides of the neck, base of tail, and under surface
white; the upper and lower tail-coverts bay. The slow flapping flight and
shrill cry are as familiar to us as are the cock's aerial evolutions, and
the habit of tumbling on the ground with an apparently broken wing to decoy
intruders from the brood. This species frequents alike cultivated ground,
marshes, and wastes, depositing its four olive eggs with black markings in
a scraping in the soil lined with a little dry herbage; towards autumn it
feeds in large flocks upon the shore, being semi-crepuscular, as might be
expected from the large eyes. Breeding in most of Europe, Northern Asia,
and even North Africa, it strays to Greenland and Jan Mayen, occurs
plentifully in Japan, and at times in Alaska, and migrates as far south as
Barbados, North India, and China. The somewhat similar Téru-téru (_V.
cayennensis_),[186] with long crest and large blunt yellow spur, occupies
the east, and the larger _V. chilensis_ the west and south of South
America; _V. resplendens_ inhabits the Andes of North Chili, Peru, and
Ecuador; _V. coronatus_ South and East Africa; _V. melanopterus_, the
latter and Arabia; _V. inornatus_ West and South-East Africa. The long
legged _Chettusia gregaria_, which, like the next genus, possesses a
hallux, has occurred in Britain and South-West Europe, but breeds from
South-East Europe to Lake Saisan, and migrates to North-East {276}Africa,
India, and Ceylon. _C. leucura_, of similar range, winters in North-East
Africa and North India. _Defilippia crassirostris_ of North-East, and _D.
leucoptera_ of South-East Africa, with very long toes and much white on the
wing, are nearly akin to the above. _Hoplopterus spinosus_, the three-toed
Spur-winged Lapwing of Egypt and the northern Ethiopian Region, which
wanders to South-East Europe and Persia, is a crested black and white
species with a brownish back. The Arabs call it "Zic-zac" from its cry,
while it attacks birds on the wing with its spur. _H. speciosus_ occupies
South Africa, _H. cayanus_ most of South America, _H. ventralis_ ranges
from North and Central India to Hainan.

_Strepsilas interpres_, the Turnstone, has the head, rump, tail, and
remiges black and white, the upper parts varied with chestnut and black,
the breast black, the belly white, and the feet orange, with the hind toe
turned inwards. In winter the coloration is chiefly grey and white. From
its extensive migrations, it is possibly the most cosmopolitan of Birds,
while it breeds in Northern Europe, Asia, and America, and as near us as
Denmark, though not proved to do so in Britain. In autumn and spring this
lively little species frequents our muddy shores or seaweed-covered rocks,
often turning over the pebbles in search of food; the note is a twitter or
whistle; the nest a slightly-lined excavation under shelter of some
maritime shrub or stone, containing four grey-green eggs, marked with
olive-brown. _S. melanocephalus_, of the Pacific coast of North America,
lacks chestnut tints. _Aphriza virgata_, the Surf-bird, a brownish species
with white alar bar, rump, and abdomen, found from Alaska to Chili, may
perhaps be placed here. The position of the scarce Patagonian _Pluvianellus
sociabilis_, which is chiefly grey above and white below, is equally
doubtful. Both species lack the hallux. _Haematopus ostralegus_, the
Oyster-catcher, inhabits Europe and Central Asia, extending–as the form _H.
osculans_–to China and Japan; in winter it reaches Senegambia, Mozambique,
Ceylon, and South China. From the black head, neck, and mantle, white lower
back, underparts, wing-bar, and base of tail, it is called the Sea-Pie;
while a habit of opening mussels with the long wedge-shaped bill gives it
the name of Mussel-picker. Oyster-catcher seems a misnomer, but worms,
crustaceans, and so forth vary the diet. It frequents shores and inland
rivers, depositing three, or rarely four, oval drab eggs, with blackish and
grey markings, on sand, shingle, or rocks. {277}The scream in the breeding
season is often quite deafening, but at other times these wary birds are
seldom noisy. Their flight is powerful, and they can swim and dive. The
bill is orange and the feet flesh-coloured in this species, as well as in
_H. longirostris_ of the Moluccas, Papuasia, Australia, and New Zealand,
with longer bill and entirely black primaries. _H. leucopus_ of Chili,
Patagonia, and the Falklands, has a black lower back and pale feet; _H.
palliatus_ (with its races _frazari_, _galapagensis_, and _durnfordi_),
ranging from Nova Scotia and California to Patagonia, has a brown mantle.
Of the perfectly black or brownish-black species, _H. niger_, of both
coasts of the North Pacific, has pale flesh-coloured feet; _H. moquini_, of
the Ethiopian Region, the Canaries, and Madeira, has them deep red; _H.
ater_, found from Peru to Patagonia and the Falklands, has the scarlet bill
compressed and upturned; _H. unicolor_ of Australia and New Zealand has the
feet brick-red. This genus has three toes, as has the remarkable
_Ibidorhynchus struthersi_, with long decurved red bill and greenish-grey
feet, found from Turkestan to China, and in the Himalayas. The front of the
head is black, margined laterally with white; the upper parts and neck are
grey, with white on the wings and outer rectrices, and black undulations on
the tail, which has the tip and coverts mostly black; the under parts are
white with a black gorget. The bill is black in the young. The note is
whistling, the habits are like those of an Oyster-catcher, while islands in
stony or sandy rivers furnish breeding sites.[187]

_Himantopus_ contains the extraordinarily long-legged Stilts, of which _H.
candidus_ visits Britain and Northern Europe, but breeds only in the
southern parts, including Hungary. It also nests in India and Ceylon, and
in Africa–though chiefly in the north. In the cold season it reaches Timor,
New Zealand, and elsewhere. The head, long neck, lower back, and under
surface are white, the remaining parts greenish-black; the iris is carmine,
the legs are pink. Females are browner above, while immature males have the
crown and nape black or brownish. The note is clear and reiterated, the
habits are Plover-like, but the nest, placed on mud or in grass-tufts, is
more substantial than in those birds, and contains four olive eggs with
black scrawls or blotches. Whether searching the shallows for insects or
other food, hovering overhead with dangling feet, or flying with them
outstretched, the appearance is equally remarkable. _H. mexicanus_ of
temperate {278}North America, migrating to Peru and Brazil, has a black
occiput and nape; _H. knudseni_ of the Sandwich Islands has the sides of
the neck also black; _H. brasiliensis_ of southern South America has the
nape only black, with a white collar below; _H. leucocephalus_ of Australia
and New Zealand, which visits the Malay Islands, the Philippines, the
Moluccas and Papuasia, is similar, but the black does not reach the eye;
_H. melas_ of New Zealand is uniform black. _H._ (_Cladorhynchus_)
_pectoralis_ of Southern Australia has webbed feet like the four-toed
Avocets, though itself three-toed like other Stilts, from which a bay
pectoral band distinguishes it. Of the Avocets with their curious up-curved
beak, _Recurvirostra andina_, of the Chilian Andes, alone resembles the
Stilts in possessing a black mantle. _R. avocetta_, which bred in England
until at least 1824, now ranges from Denmark and Holland to Mongolia and
South Africa, though decidedly local; in Asia it migrates southwards to
Ceylon and Hainan. The plumage is white, with the crown, nape, inner
scapulars, and part of the wings black, the legs light blue. It is called
Cobbler's Awl, from its long, flexible bill, or Yelper, from its loud clear
cry. Its general habits and slight nest recall those of Plovers, though the
eggs are larger; while it seeks for aquatic creatures, in shallows or pools
left by the tide, with a curious scooping sidelong action of the beak. _R.
americana_, with a pale rufous head and neck, inhabits temperate America,
extending in winter to the West Indies and Guatemala: _A. rubricollis_
(_novae hollandiae_), with those portions chestnut, ranges from Australia,
where it breeds, to New Zealand.

Sub-fam. 2.–The _Tringinae_ of the present work–four-toed unless otherwise
stated–are often separated into the groups _Phalaropodinae_, _Totaninae_,
and _Tringinae_ proper; the first being remarkable for the Coot-like digits
with lobed webs. _Phalaropus fulicarius_, the Grey Phalarope, which visits
us in winter, and has even reached Chili and New Zealand, breeds in
Spitsbergen, Iceland, Greenland, Arctic America, and Asia. It is blackish
and chestnut above and rufous below, with a little white on the face,
wings, and tail; but the plumage differs remarkably in winter, the upper
parts becoming grey with a black nuchal patch, and the lower white. As in
all the genus, the female is said to court the male, which is duller, and
performs most of the duties of incubation. The eggs are larger and rounder
than in the next species, the nest less concealed. _P._ (_Lobipes_)
_hyperboreus_, the Red-necked Phalarope, {279}with more tapering bill,
breeds in Scandinavia, Russia, and Siberia, as well as from Alaska to
Greenland, Iceland, Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides; it rarely migrates
to Western Europe, but reaches India, New Guinea, Guatemala, and Peru. It
has dark grey and rufous upper parts, a white alar bar, throat, and belly,
a grey breast, and chestnut sides of the neck nearly meeting in front. By
winter the red tints have vanished and the white has increased. This
attractive little bird is often so tame that it will feed at the feet of an
intruder, or will even proceed to settle itself on its small and rather
deep nest, placed in some tuft of herbage; the four eggs are greenish-olive
with black markings. When disturbed from them it flies around with a shrill
reiterated "tweet." It breeds in swamps or by hill-lakes, and can swim
well, but is not found so far out to sea as the Grey Phalarope. _P._
(_Steganopus_) _wilsoni_, of temperate North America, migrating as far as
Patagonia and the Falklands, is a larger, longer-billed bird, with a white
nape and a black stripe down each side of the head and neck.

_Tringa alpina_, the Dunlin or Oxbird, is familiar to most autumn visitors
to our flatter coasts. Breeding not uncommonly in Britain, though chiefly
in the north, it is found in the colder parts of both the Old and the New
World, while exceptionally its eggs have been obtained in Southern Spain;
in winter it extends to the Canaries, Zanzibar, India, China, California,
and the West Indies. When first they arrive on the shore the large flocks
are remarkably tame, and allow even gunners to walk among them, as they
forage with head bent down over the mud or sand, or rise with a cheeping
cry, only to alight again at close quarters. The slight nest, placed
amongst heather or short grass on some moory hill-pasture or seaside marsh,
contains four greenish-white eggs with brown or rufous spotting. The
plumage exhibits a mixture of rufous, grey, and black above, and is chiefly
white beneath, with a large, black, pectoral patch; the decurved bill and
the feet are black. Most of the rufous and all the black disappear in
winter. _T. minuta_, the Little Stint, a miniature Dunlin with no black on
the breast, and a short, straight bill, visits Britain regularly on
passage, and breeds from the coasts of Northern Norway and Russia to Arctic
Asia, a red-throated species or race (_T. ruficollis_) occurring east of
the Lena; in winter the birds reach South Africa, the Indian Region,
Australia, and Tasmania. _T. minutilla_, the darker American Stint, with
olive feet, which occupies the Arctic New {280}World, has been obtained in
England, and migrates at least as far as Ecuador and Brazil; the very
similar Eastern Asiatic _T. subminuta_ reaches Bering Island, and winters
southwards to the Indian Region and Australia. The habits and eggs of the
Little Stint resemble those of the Dunlin, but the latter are smaller; the
note, too, is more like the twitter of a swallow. _T. temmincki_ is
greyish-brown above and more buff below, with dark markings throughout,
white belly, alar bar and four outer rectrices. In winter the dusky
markings vanish, and the birds resemble miniature Common Sandpipers. They
frequently visit Britain, and breed in Northern Europe and Asia, chiefly
beyond the limits of forest growth; migrating southwards to Senegambia,
North-East Africa, India, the Malay countries, and China. Temminck's Stint
has a hovering, butterfly-like flight, and habitually perches on posts and
the like, uttering a continuous trilling note or song; the four buff or
greyish-green eggs with their brown spotting are deposited on a little
herbage among sedge or grass. _T. subarquata_, the Curlew-Sandpiper, is
grey, black, and rufous, with chestnut under surface and black bars on the
white rump, both these parts becoming white in winter; the bill is long and
decurved. As far as is yet known, the breeding-quarters lie in the far
north of Asia, eggs having recently (1897) been taken near the mouth of the
Yenesei: but the bird occurs in Arctic Europe in spring and autumn, and
visits our shores irregularly in company with other small waders in autumn,
wandering occasionally to Eastern America and Alaska, and migrating to Cape
Colony, India, and Tasmania. _T. fuscicollis_, Bonaparte's Sandpiper, with
white upper tail-coverts, but dusky rump and short bill, inhabits Arctic
America, reaching the whole of South America in winter, and even straying
to Britain. It has also occurred in Franz Josef Land in summer. It somewhat
resembles the Dunlin in appearance, and the Purple Sandpiper in habits. The
closely allied _T. bairdi_ of nearly all America, which breeds towards the
North, is distinguished by the median tail-coverts being brownish; it has
once been observed in South Africa. Another dark-rumped species is _T.
maculata_, the Pectoral Sandpiper, blackish-brown and rufous above, and
buff with dusky streaks beneath, the belly being white. It has occurred
several times in Britain, but inhabits the "Barren Grounds" from Alaska to
Hudson's Bay, and migrates as far as Patagonia. Four greenish-buff eggs
with brown blotches are deposited in dry grassy spots. {281}The male is
especially remarkable for his habit, apparently unique in the Family, of
inflating the oesophagus during his courting performances, until it hangs
down like a bag; meanwhile he takes short flights or rises with stiffened
wings in the air, uttering a muffled booming note.[188] The Old World form,
_T. acuminata_, extends from East Siberia to Alaska, migrating to the Malay
Archipelago, New Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand; it differs in its
white chin and distinctly streaked flanks. _T. maritima_ or _striata_, the
Purple Sandpiper, is brownish-grey above, with rufous spotting on the
blacker mantle, and some white on the wing; the throat and breast are
greyish with dusky streaks, the abdomen is white. In winter, when the upper
parts are purplish-black and the breast is unspotted, it occurs from
Scandinavia and temperate America to the Mediterranean and the Bermudas,
arriving in Britain later than its congeners, and frequenting spray-washed,
seaweed-covered rocks in search of small molluscs. It is usually tame, can
swim well, and utters a soft low note. The eggs, often of a very green
ground-colour, are deposited in mossy or grassy places on hill-tops, from
the Färoes northwards, though in the more Arctic regions of Europe and
Eastern America the bird breeds at the sea-level. It nests in Franz Josef
Land, but is rare in Asia. The Prybilof Island form has been called _T.
ptilocnemis_, the Alaskan _T. couesi_. _T. canutus_, the Knot, possibly,
but not probably, named after Canute, has in summer a reddish head and
neck, black, cinnamon, and white upper parts, chestnut under surface, and
white tail-coverts barred with black. The plumage varies greatly according
to age and season, but the winter adult is grey above and white with dusky
flecks below. While no absolutely identified eggs exist, this species
undoubtedly breeds on the North Georgian or Parry Islands, Melville
Peninsula, Grinnell Land, Smith's Sound, and Lady Franklin Bay, but
apparently not in Arctic Europe, though possibly in Asia. Large flocks
migrate to our shores, and some individuals reach Brazil, Damara-Land, the
Indian Region, Australia, and New Zealand; they are tame on arrival and
used to be netted for the table in England. In Arctic America _Saxifraga
oppositifolia_ and _Algae_ vary the diet of insects and molluscs, but other
Sandpipers are known to eat plants. {282}The East Siberian _T.
crassirostris_, with no chestnut beneath, migrates to Japan, the Indian
Region, and Australia.

_Ereunetes pusillus_, called the Semipalmated Sandpiper from its partly
webbed toes, resembles the western form of the Little Stint in coloration;
it breeds in the extreme north of America, and has reached Patagonia in
winter. _Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus_, the Spoon-billed Sandpiper, on the other
hand, is coloured like the eastern red-throated Little Stint, but is
especially remarkable for its large, broad, shovel-shaped bill. The
breeding grounds are not known, but it has been obtained on both sides of
the North Pacific, and on migration in Japan, China, India, and Burma.
_Calidris arenaria_, the Sanderling, easily recognisable by the want of a
hind-toe, is rufous and black above, and white below, having a chestnut
throat spotted with black. It reaches us in August, while some individuals
remain throughout the winter, being at that season uniform grey with white
under surface. The eggs, which have a peculiar greenish tint, and are like
those of the Curlew in miniature, have been taken in Greenland and Arctic
America, but, except perhaps in Iceland, never yet in Northern Europe or
Asia. Sanderlings are almost as cosmopolitan as Turnstones, and on
migration are commonly observed running at the edge of the surf, uttering a
weak, shrill cry. _Limicola platyrhyncha_, the Broad-billed Sandpiper, has
a wide flat beak with the pointed tip slightly decurved; the upper plumage
is mottled with dark brown, rufous, and white; the breast is reddish-white,
spotted with brown; the abdomen white. It occasionally visits Britain, and
breeds on the fells of Norway, the fens of Lapland, and thence eastwards to
Russia, but is rarely met with in Asia until the Sea of Okhotsk is reached;
in winter, when it becomes grey above and white below, it resorts to North
Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, the Philippines, the Moluccas, and China. It
soars like a Snipe, utters a rapid, double note, and is somewhat skulking.
The parent sits very closely on the eggs, in which the greenish or buff
ground-colour is commonly nearly hidden by chocolate or rufous markings.
_Tryngites rufescens_, the Buff-breasted Sandpiper, which has wandered to
Britain and Heligoland, breeds in the extreme north of America, and just
reaches East Siberia; in winter it ranges to Peru and Argentina. Light
brown and black above, and reddish-buff with a few black spots below, the
distinctive black marblings beneath the quills are well seen as the bird,
according to its habit, runs along with one wing raised.

{283}Here may be mentioned _Aechmorhynchus cancellatus_ (_parvirostris_),
of Christmas and Paumotu Islands in the Pacific, which is rufous-brown with
white under surface mostly barred with brown; and _Prosobonia leucoptera_,
Latham's White-winged Sandpiper, from Tahiti and Eimeo, with brown head and
mantle, chestnut rump and lower parts, white wing-patch and superciliary
streak–species of doubtful affinity, which are both presumably extinct.

The large genus _Totanus_ is more inland in its haunts during the breeding
season than _Tringa_. _T. calidris_, the Redshank, is resident in Britain,
and ranges through Europe, the Mediterranean, and Asia south of lat. 60°
N., migrating to South Africa, the Indian Region, and Japan. The upper
parts are light brown with darker bars and streaks, the primaries being
black; the rump, secondaries, tail, and lower surface are white, but the
two latter are barred with blackish and flecked with brown respectively;
the feet are orange-red, or yellowish in the young. In winter the colour is
ashy-grey, with nearly white under parts. This bird breeds in salt marshes
or swamps, not uncommonly far inland, and deposits four buff eggs with
reddish or purplish-brown spots in grass or rush-tufts, making little or no
nest, but drawing the herbage together over the spot to conceal it. Both
parents usually rise a long way ahead of the intruder, and fly wildly
round, uttering their shrill whistling cry of "pitotoi." Redshanks are
especially wary on the coast in winter, and, like Curlews or Lapwings, are
the bane of the shooter; they can swim and dive, and not uncommonly perch
on trees; the food, procured on sandy spots or sea-weed-covered rocks,
consists of molluscs, crustaceans, worms, and aquatic insects. _T. fuscus_,
the Dusky or Spotted Redshank, a scarce visitor to our shores, breeds in
Europe and Asia, chiefly north of the Arctic Circle, and has a similar
winter range to its congener. It generally nests in forest-clearings some
way from water, and lays fine greenish eggs, blotched with varied browns.
The female sits very closely. Less noisy than its kindred, unless
accompanied by young, it flies comparatively strongly, perches on trees,
and recalls the Greenshank by its habits. The plumage is black, with white
spots above, white rump and barred tail; in winter it resembles that of the
Redshank, and the crimson legs become orange-red. _T. flavipes_, the
Yellowshank, which has wandered to England, inhabits the colder parts of
North America, and migrates as far as Patagonia; it is black, grey-brown,
and white above, and white with dusky {284}markings below, the legs being
bright yellow. _T. melanoleucus_, of the same districts, is similar, but
larger. _T. guttifer_ is a rare North Pacific species, recorded in winter
from Calcutta and Burma. It is not unlike _T. glottis_, the Greenshank,
which ranges over Northern Europe and Asia, and extends in winter to Cape
Colony, the Indian Region, and Australia. This bird has wandered to
America, and breeds in the hill-districts of Scotland, resembling the Dusky
Redshank in its selection of dry nesting sites, habit of perching, and so
forth. It is, however, much more noisy, uttering a strident note, or one
dimly recalling a Woodpecker, while it lays large, buffish-white eggs with
rich brown blotches. It sometimes eats small fish, as does its congener _T.
incanus_. The plumage is grey and black above in summer and grey in winter,
with white rump and tail, the latter being barred with dusky; the white
breast is spotted with brown in the breeding season; the slightly up-turned
beak is blackish; the legs are olive. _T. stagnatilis_, the Marsh
Sandpiper, a miniature Greenshank of somewhat similar winter range,
occupies South Europe and Central Asia. _T. glareola_, the Wood Sandpiper,
is olive-brown above, with small whitish spots and white rump; the white
cheeks, fore-neck, and breast are heavily streaked with brown; the
tail-feathers and axillaries are also white with black bars and brown
flecks respectively, the feet are olive. The nest has once at least been
found in Britain, whence the bird ranges over North Europe and Asia; it has
apparently bred in Spain and Italy, and migrates to Cape Colony, the Indian
Region, and Australia. In this species and the following the note is shrill
and often tremulous, while the former occasionally, and the latter
habitually, lays its greenish eggs with reddish-brown spots in deserted
nests of other birds near inland waters, instead of on the ground. _T.
ochropus_, the Green Sandpiper, which is less spotted above, has much wider
black tail-bars, and blackish axillaries with white chevrons. It has been
suspected of breeding in Britain, and occupies a similar though somewhat
more northern range than the last-named, but does not reach Australia. _T.
solitarius_, with almost uniform brown median rectrices, inhabits
temperate, and migrates to tropical, South America; it has been shot in the
littoral marshes of western England. _T._ (_Symphemia_) _semipalmatus_,
largest of the genus, the Willet of temperate North America, which extends
to Brazil in winter and wanders to Europe, is brownish-grey with black
mottlings, the outspread {285}wing shewing a white patch, and the white
under parts brownish streaks. In the cold season all the dark markings
vanish. _T._ (_Heteractitis_) _incanus_, having uniform grey upper, and
white under surface, closely barred in summer with dusky, is found through
the Eastern Pacific Islands, and on the mainland from Alaska to the
Galápagos. _T. brevipes_, with white-banded upper tail-coverts, occurs from
Kamtschatka and East Siberia to the Malay Islands and Australia. Both breed
to the northward.

_Machetes pugnax_, the Ruff–with its consort the Reeve–was formerly
well-known in England from the large numbers netted or snared for the
table. Our nesting birds are now reduced to a few pairs, but considerable
numbers visit us on passage, while they breed through northern Europe and
Asia, and migrate to South Africa, the Indian region, and Japan, wandering
rarely to Iceland and Eastern America. The Ruff's nuptial plumage, which
varies extraordinarily and individually, may be chiefly black, white,
chestnut, buff, grey and white, and so forth, often with metallic hues or
concentric barring. A tuft of stiff curled plumes springs from near each
ear, the feathers of the face are replaced by yellowish or pinkish
tubercles, and an ample distensible ruff overhangs the breast. Males regain
the same colours annually, but after breeding become like the females,
which are dark brown and buff, and one-third smaller. The polygamous
tendencies and habit of "hilling," _i.e._ sparring on some slight eminence
for the Reeves, have been frequently described;[189] the note, though
seldom heard, is said to resemble ka-ka-kuk; the food includes seeds,
insects, and worms; the nest, placed among herbage in the drier parts of a
swamp, contains four greenish, snipe-like eggs, with rich brown blotches.
The Ruff performs many antics while courting, but leaves all the work of
building, incubation, and the care of the young to his mate.

_Bartramia longicauda_, which accidentally visits Britain, Continental
Europe, and even Australia, inhabits North America, and migrates southward
to Chili and Argentina. It is light brown above, varied with black, buff,
and white, the long wedge-shaped tail and the under surface of the wing are
barred, the rufous lower parts spotted, with black. The throat and belly
are white. In winter it is a shy bird, crouching, running with jerks of the
tail, or taking short flights; it utters a soft whistle, and lays
pinkish-yellow {286}eggs with brown spots in a slight nest on cultivated
lands.

_Actitis hypoleucus_, the Common Sandpiper, breeds in many parts of
Britain, and ranges from the Arctic Circle in Europe and Asia to the
Atlantic Islands, the Mediterranean, the Himalayas, and Japan; it leaves us
before winter, however, and migrates to most of the Ethiopian, Indian, and
Australian Regions. The coloration is greenish-brown above, with dusky
markings, and some white on the wings and tail; the breast is grey with
dark streaks, the belly white. In winter the upper parts are more uniform.
Rapid pebbly streams with islands, or flat stretches of sand are the birds'
favourite resorts, where their shrill whistle and somewhat Wagtail-like
habits make them very conspicuous; they fly, run, perch, or swim with equal
ease. The nest, usually partly sheltered by rough vegetation or drifted
rubbish, contains four reddish-buff eggs with brown and lilac spotting. _A.
macularius_, the Spotted Sandpiper of North America generally, found in
winter southwards to Amazonia and Brazil, is smaller, with round black
spots beneath in summer; it lacks the nearly white eighth and ninth
secondaries of its congener.

_Terekia cinerea_, with the up-curved beak of a Greenshank, but the habits
and eggs of the last genus, breeds from Archangel eastward to the Pacific,
leaving these haunts for the Indian Region to winter, when it is also found
in South Africa and Australia. It is grey and black above, with white on
the secondaries, and black scapulars, and white below streaked with dusky.

_Micropalama himantopus_, the long-legged Stilt-Sandpiper, inhabits the
extreme North-East of America, migrating to Peru and Argentina. It has
black, rufous, and greyish-white upper parts, white tail-coverts, and under
parts with blackish bars; in winter the back is grey, while the bars nearly
disappear beneath. The habits, nest, and eggs are much as in other
Sandpipers.

The Godwits (_Limosa_) have long legs and bills, the latter being slightly
up-curved. _L. belgica_, the Black-tailed Godwit, nested regularly, up to
about 1824, in the eastern counties of England, and, like the Ruff, was
netted for eating. It now breeds from Iceland, the Färoes, and Holland to
Siberia and Amurland, the smaller eastern form being sometimes denominated
_L. melanuroïdes_; the winter range reaches to the Atlantic Islands,
Abyssinia, Ceylon, the Malay Islands, Japan, Australia, and Polynesia.

{287}The breeding plumage is reddish-brown and black above, with rufous
crown, neck, and breast, marked with dusky; the rump and terminal portion
of the tail are black, the basal portion, tail-coverts, alar bar, and belly
white: in winter the upper parts are brownish, the lower grey. The American
representative, _L. hudsonica_, occupies the barren grounds of the north,
and migrates to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands; it has black instead of
nearly white axillaries. Though rarer in Britain than the succeeding
species during the passage in autumn and spring, small flocks of fairly
tame Black-tailed Godwits then frequent our muddy shores and
sands–especially in the south; the summer note, or yelp, is louder than the
winter cry. Four elongated pear-shaped eggs, of a dull olive shade with
brown markings, are deposited in a slightly lined hollow in some grassy
marsh. The males of Godwits constantly incubate. _L. lapponica_, the
shorter-legged Bar-tailed Godwit, inhabits the countries from Finmark
eastward to about the Taimyr Peninsula, where it meets the race _L.
uropygialis_, which extends to Alaska. The western form migrates to the
Gambia, Somaliland and North India, the eastern through Japan and China to
the Malay Archipelago, Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania, rarely
occurring in south-western North America. In summer the mantle is
rufous-brown and black, the head and under parts are chestnut, with dark
markings from the crown to the sides, the rump is white with a few dusky
streaks, the tail and axillaries are white barred with brown: in winter the
upper surface is chiefly grey, and the lower white. _L. uropygialis_ has
the rump also barred. The nest of the Bar-tailed Godwit is usually in
comparatively dry spots, or even on forest-clearings, the eggs being
brighter green and more finely marked than those of the Black-tailed
species. _L. fedoa_, the Marbled Godwit of northern North America, which
winters southwards to Central America and the West Indies, is distinguished
by its large size and buff axillaries.

The almost cosmopolitan genus _Numenius_ is remarkable for its prolonged
decurved bill, and its elongated legs. _N. arquata_, the Curlew or Whaup,
breeds freely on the moorlands of Britain, and extends throughout Northern
Europe and Asia to Lake Baikal; after breeding it visits the Atlantic
Islands, the whole of Africa, and the Indian Region.

{288}[Illustration: FIG. 59.–Curlew. _Numenius arquata._ × ⅕.]

The plumage is pale brown with darker streaks, the rump, tail, and
axillaries being white, and the two latter barred with dark brown; the
belly is white, the breast nearly so in winter. Found on our shores from
autumn to spring, its wary habits are as well-known as its wild rippling
note; the food consists of insects, worms, berries, and so forth; while
four large pear-shaped olive-and-brown eggs are deposited in an ample
depression formed on boggy or heathery ground. _N. cyanopus_, a distinct
East Siberian form, met with in Australia and occasionally from New Guinea
to Borneo in winter, has the rump-region brown and black. _N.
tenuirostris_, of the Mediterranean and South Russia, resembles the Curlew,
but is much smaller; _N. longirostris_ of temperate North America,
migrating to Central America and the Antilles, has cinnamon axillaries–like
all the New World members of the genus–and a dark rump. The remaining
species, or Whimbrels, have a pale central streak down the crown, less
distinct in _N. borealis_, the Eskimo Curlew, which has rufous axillaries
barred with brown, and a rump like the back. This bird wanders to Britain,
but breeds in the extreme north of America, and in winter reaches the south
of that Continent. _N. phaeopus_, the typical {289}Whimbrel or May-bird,
nests in the Shetlands and perhaps still in the Orkneys and North Ronay in
the Hebrides; in summer it takes the place of the Curlew in the Färoes and
Iceland, strays to Greenland, and occupies Northern Europe and Asia; while
it visits the Azores, the whole of Africa, the Indian Region, and Australia
in winter. Specimens from Eastern Asia, with more streaked rumps, have been
separated as _N. variegatus_. In general plumage and habits the Whimbrel
resembles the Curlew; it is, however, much smaller, the cry consists of
sharper and more quickly repeated notes, and the parents, though anxious,
are less shy at the nest. They often descend in a gyrating fashion, closing
one wing. _N. hudsonicus_, of Arctic North America, which winters
throughout South America, and has once occurred in Spain, resembles _N.
borealis_ in its cinnamon axillaries, but is larger and less ruddy beneath.
_N. tahitiensis_, common in the Pacific Islands, and probably breeding in
Alaska, is recognisable by the bristly-pointed flank-feathers; _N.
minutus_, ranging from East Siberia in summer to the Malay Islands and
Australia in winter, has the back of the metatarsus as well as the front
scutellated.

Sub-fam. 3. _Scolopacinae._–_Macrorhamphus griseus_, the Dowitcher,
breeding in the extreme north of North America, and its larger and brighter
western race, _M. scolopaceus_, are rufous birds with darker variegations,
the lower back and tail being white, but the latter and its upper coverts
shewing blackish barring. The bill is widened towards the tip, while in
winter the plumage is grey and white. One form or the other has strayed to
Britain, Western Europe, and Eastern Asia, the range on migration reaching
Brazil and Chili. The habits resemble those of Redshanks. _M.
taczanowskii_, with black-mottled rump, occupies East Siberia, and winters
in India, Borneo, and thence to China.

_Scolopax rusticula_, the well-known Woodcock, brown, grey, and buff in
colour, with blackish vermiculations and blotches above and bars below, has
two transverse buff stripes on the black hind-crown. It inhabits Northern
and Central Europe and Asia–with the Atlantic Islands and Japan–and
migrates to the Mediterranean, Persia, India, Ceylon, and China, or even
strays to eastern North America. Breeding freely in Britain, where large
additional flocks arrive in autumn, it frequents leaf-strewn woods in which
marshy spots or rivulets alternate with dry ground; the food consists of
worms, small molluscs and insects, the first being {290}obtained by probing
the soil with the long sensitive beak. The flight is rapid and steady, the
note–not uttered when flushed–is whistling; while during incubation a
curious habit prevails among the cocks of "roading" or traversing fixed
routes at twilight, and uttering hoarse notes. The nest is a depression,
usually lined with dry leaves; the four eggs, much larger and rounder than
those of the Snipe, are creamy-buff with pale brown, grey, and lilac
markings. The young are often carried by the parents between their thighs,
the bill probably aiding to steady them. Woodcocks are now seldom snared or
netted in England. _S. saturata_ of Java and North-West New Guinea is a
darker bird with almost uniform black primaries, and a white abdomen with
dusky bars. _S. rochusseni_ of the Moluccas has partly bare tibiae, like
many Snipe, and a nearly plain buff breast. The Woodcock of eastern North
America is _Philohela minor_, which has the three outer primaries curiously
attenuated.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.–Woodcock. _Scolopax rusticula._ × 2/7.]

The genus _Gallinago_ differs from the above in having longitudinal stripes
on the head. _G. caelestis_, the Common or Full Snipe,[190] breeds in
Northern and Central Europe and Asia, and even in North Italy; it is
recorded from Greenland and the Bermudas, and migrates to the Atlantic
Islands, the Gambia, the Upper Nile, and the Indian Region. Its brown,
black, and buff plumage, with three buff streaks on the head, is
well-known, while there are normally fourteen rectrices. _G. sabinii_ is
merely a dark form. As regards its autumnal influx and food the Snipe
resembles the Woodcock, but the cry of "scape-scape" and twisting
{291}flight on rising, remain to be mentioned, while the alternate zig-zag
rise and fall of the bird when circling in the air near its nest, with the
curious drumming or bleating noise produced at each descent must not be
omitted. The method of production of this sound is still uncertain, but is
either due to the vibration of the wings, or more probably to that of the
webs of the outer rectrices. The slight nest is formed in a tuft of herbage
in some marshy place, the four pointed eggs being olive, with spots and
oblique blotches of brown. Snipe occasionally perch on trees or squat upon
the ground until touched. The very similar _G. delicata_ (_wilsoni_),
breeding northwards from the northern United States, and migrating to
northern South America, has usually sixteen rectrices, as have the six
following species. _G. major_, the Double or Solitary Snipe, nests as far
south in Europe as Holland and Poland, and reaches the Yenesei; it is known
from the Tian-Shan Mountains, Turkestan, and Persia, and winters even in
Natal and Damara-Land, visiting Britain annually on passage. It rises
silently and heavily when flushed, is to some extent nocturnal, and drums
when on the ground. The three outer tail-feathers are chiefly white.[191]
_G. frenata_, ranging from Argentina and Tarapacá to Venezuela and Guiana;
_G. nobilis_ of Colombia and Ecuador, _G. paraguaiae_, reaching from
Amazonia and Bolivia to the Falklands, _G. macrodactyla_ (_bernieri_) of
Madagascar, and _G. aequatorialis_ (_nigripennis_), of the Ethiopian Region
generally, conclude this section of the genus. _G. australis_ is similar to
our Snipe, but larger; it breeds in Japan, and migrates through Formosa to
Australia; _G. nemoricola_, the Wood-Snipe of the hills of India and Burma,
has the lower parts distinctly barred; _G. solitaria_, breeding at
considerable elevations from Turkestan to Assam and Japan, and wintering in
those countries and China, exhibits distinct white streaks above. In the
three last-named species the rectrices number about eighteen, in the next
six they may be as few as fourteen. South America furnishes five forms
somewhat like Woodcocks in their habits and eggs, namely, _G. gigantea_ of
Brazil and Paraguay, the largest of the Snipes; _G. undulata_ of Guiana;
_G. jamesoni_, ranging from Colombia to Bolivia; _G. imperialis_ of the
former country; and _G. stricklandi_ of Chili and Patagonia. All these
recall the Common Snipe by their coloration, as does the small short-winged
_G. aucklandica_, which, with its different races, {292}occupies the
Auckland, Snares, Chatham, and Antipodes Islands, and has visited New
Zealand. _G. stenura_, the Pin-tailed Snipe, with twenty-six rectrices, the
eight outer of which on each side are stiff and attenuated, breeds from the
Yenesei to the Pacific, and winters in the Indian Region; _G. megala_, with
twelve of its twenty tail-feathers narrowed, inhabits East Siberia and
passes through Japan to China, the Philippines, Borneo, and the Moluccas in
winter. _G._ (_Limnocryptes_) _gallinula_, the Jack Snipe, found in Britain
from autumn to spring, breeds from Scandinavia to Siberia, and migrates to
North Africa, the Indian Region, and Japan. The upper parts show a greenish
and purple gloss, while it has only twelve rectrices. Like _G. major_, it
frequents drier spots than the Common Snipe, and rises without a sound in
the shooting season, the flight being butterfly-like; the habits in summer
are similar to those of the last-named species, and the eggs even larger
for its size.

Of the so-called Painted Snipes the female of _Rhynchaea_ or _Rostratula
capensis_ has a brown head with chestnut cheeks and collar, a
brownish-green back with blackish freckling, scattered golden-buff ocelli
and streaks on the upper parts, a black fore-neck, a white under surface
and ring round the eye. The male is duller, without the chestnut tints.
This species inhabits the whole Ethiopian and most of the Indian Region, as
well as Egypt, Arabia, and Japan; the larger _R. australis_, with only a
chestnut patch on the nape, occupies Australia. _R. semicollaris_ of Chili
and Patagonia, which visits Peru and Brazil, shews no chestnut collar, but
has black upper wing-coverts with round white spots; the sexes being alike.
In mature females of the Old World forms the trachea extends in a loop or
loops over the furcula, or even over the pectoral muscles.[192] The habits
of these birds are Snipe-like, but the flight is slower, and the hen's note
purring; the whitish eggs with plentiful black spots are somewhat
Plover-like, while _R. semicollaris_ apparently lays only two. The Indian
species is said to hiss at intruders, with its wings and tail expanded into
a disc.

The short-winged _Phegornis mitchelli_, which lacks a hallux, is brown
above, and white with very close dusky bars below; the head is black, save
for a white band which surrounds the occiput; while a neck-collar is formed
by a fine orange patch behind and a white area in front. It inhabits the
Andes from Peru to Chili.

Fam. II. CHIONIDIDAE.–This group–with _Dromas_–possibly {293}connects the
Charadriidae and the Laridae. The peculiar bill and short, entirely
reticulated metatarsus have already been mentioned (pp. 268-269), while
both sexes are pure white, the downy young being grey. _Chionis alba_, the
"Kelp Pigeon" of the Falklands, which inhabits the Straits of Magellan, New
Year Island, South Georgia and Louis-Philippe Land, and has once been shot
in Ireland, has the bill pinkish or yellowish with a black tip and flat
sheath; the bare face is covered with whitish papillae, and the feet are
bluish. _C. minor_, of Kerguelen Land, Prince Edward and Marion Islands,
and the Crozets, has the sheath protuberant, the bill and facial caruncle
black, and the feet pinkish. There is said to be a blunt black carpal spur,
less prominent in the female. Both species are often found at sea, flying
strongly, or sailing with outspread wings; but on land their appearance,
gait, and manner of courting are curiously like those of Pigeons. The note
is a gentle chuckle; the food consists of mussels–which they break with
ease–crustaceans, sea-weed, and even eggs of other birds; their own eggs,
two or rarely three in number, are of the Oyster-catcher type, but commonly
redder in the markings, so that they recall those of the Razor-bill or
Tropic-bird. When the flocks separate into pairs for breeding, they are
tame and inquisitive, while they fashion a nest of dried plant-stems in
hollows among rocks, or occasionally in Petrels' burrows.

Fam. III. GLAREOLIDAE.–Of these Old World forms Sub-fam. 1, _Glareolinae_,
includes the genera _Glareola_, _Cursorius_, _Pluvianus_, and perhaps
_Ortyxelus_, the first two having the middle claw pectinated, and
_Glareola_ a short, stout bill with wide gape, a forked tail, and long
pointed wings. _G. pratincola_, the Pratincole, which occasionally visits
Britain by way of Western France, breeds in Southern Europe and North
Africa, and extends to Sind and the Tian-Shan Mountains in Asia, migrating
to other parts of India and to South Africa. It is brown above, with
blacker wings and tail, the secondaries having white tips, and the
rectrices white bases and coverts; the throat is buff, surrounded by a
black line, the breast brownish, the abdomen white; the axillaries and
inner under wing-coverts are chestnut, the bill and feet blackish, with red
base to the former. _G. orientalis_, found from Mongolia to Ceylon, the
Malay Archipelago, and North Australia, has the tail less forked and little
white on the secondaries; _G. ocularis_, of Madagascar, recorded from
Mauritius and East Africa, has a pale chestnut {294}breast, and the outer
pair of rectrices white with broad black ends; _G. melanoptera_
(_nordmanni_) of South-East Europe and West Asia, migrating to South
Africa, has black axillaries and under wing-coverts, as have the
long-legged _G. grallaria_ (_isabella_) with slightly forked tail and
chestnut flanks, which breeds in Eastern Australia and occurs from New
Guinea to Borneo, and the small grey-backed _G. lactea_ of India, Ceylon,
and Burma, with much white on the wings. The other species have reddish
feet, fading to yellow; _G. cinerea_, ranging from the Niger to the Congo,
possesses a rufous nuchal collar and white axillaries; _G. nuchalis_ of the
White Nile, and the hardly separable _G. emini_ of Foda in Equatorial
Africa, have a white collar and grey axillaries; _G. megapoda_, extending
from Liberia to the Niger, shews a rufous collar and grey axillaries. The
last five forms, and _G. ocularis_, have the tail merely emarginated.
Pratincoles have a shrill, screaming note and Swallow-like flight, insects,
on which they feed, being ordinarily captured on the wing; but the general
habits are those of Plovers, the birds running very fast, and the parents
often swooping down upon an intruder, or cowering on the ground to draw
attention from their brood. They frequent sand-banks, lagoons, bare plains,
or coast-lands, laying two, three, or rarely four oval greenish-buff or
greyish eggs, with purplish-black, brown, and grey marblings, without any
nest, on the sun-baked mud.

The genus _Cursorius_, or Courser, inhabits the hotter portions of the Old
World. _C. gallicus_, the Cream-coloured Courser, which visits Britain and
the southern half of Europe irregularly, is met with in the Canary and Cape
Verd Islands, North Africa, and the countries from Arabia to Northern
India. The brown bill is thick and decurved, the whitish legs are long; the
plumage is buff, with slaty nape, black remiges, axillaries, under
wing-coverts, and subterminal tail-bar; the face is white with a black
post-ocular streak. Seldom found in flocks, this bird frequents dry sandy
plains and deserts, crouching to avoid notice, running with extraordinary
speed if approached, but rarely rising on the wing. The flight, however, is
at times protracted. The food consists almost entirely of insects, such as
grasshoppers, yet it includes small molluscs; the note is harsh; while two,
or exceptionally three, round stone-coloured eggs with grey and brown
markings are deposited on the bare ground. The axillaries and under
wing-coverts are greyish-buff in _C. somalensis_, of Somaliland, but
brownish-grey in _C. {295}rufus_, of South Africa, which has a black
abdominal patch. _C. temmincki_ (_senegalensis_), of most of the Ethiopian
Region, and _C. coromandelicus_, of India and Ceylon, are similar, but have
the nape black and white, the latter possessing white tail-coverts.

In the remaining species (_Rhinoptilus_ of some authors) the bill is almost
straight. _C. bicinctus_ of South Africa is mottled with brown above,
having much chestnut on the wings, white tail-coverts, and buff under parts
crossed by two black pectoral bars. _C. bisignatus_, ranging from East
Africa to Benguela, and _C. hartingi_ of Somali-Land, are hardly more than
races of the above. _C. cinctus_ of East Equatorial Africa, and the barely
separable _C. seebohmi_ of South-West Africa, are easily recognised by the
four bands on the white lower surface, the highest and lowest being brown,
and the two intermediate black, with a streaky buff space between them. _C.
chalcopterus_, of the Ethiopian Region generally, and _C. albifasciatus_
with a more distinct white alar bar, are plain brown birds with metallic
purple hues on the black primaries, white post-ocular streak and throat,
and white belly surmounted by a black band. _C. bitorquatus_, of the
districts near Madras, differs in shewing below three successive bands or
gorgets, one of rufous and two of brown, separated by white. Though all
Coursers agree in general habits, the last three seem to prefer bushy
ground, and _C. rufus_ will perch in trees.

_Pluvianus aegyptius_, apparently allied to _Cursorius_, inhabits West and
North-East Africa, wandering to Palestine and South Europe, and being even
recorded from Sweden. The head, nape, and long mantle-feathers overhanging
the grey back are glossy black; the wings and tail are black and white
varied with grey, the lower parts rufous-white with a black pectoral band,
while a line of white encircles the crown. This bird, called "Zic-zac" from
its noisy chattering cry (cf. p. 276), is usually seen skimming swiftly
over the water, or running and feeding along the shores. The yellowish
stone-coloured eggs, with umber and grey markings, are commonly found
buried in the sand, but so are those of the Ringed Plover in wind-swept
spots. Probably this species, and not _Hoplopterus spinosus_, is the
τροχίλος of Herodotus, the Crocodile-bird of later writers, which enters
the Crocodile's mouth to feed.

Here may possibly be placed the mottled rufous, black, and white _Ortyxelus
meiffreni_ of West and North-East Africa.[193]

{296}Sub-fam. 2. _Dromadinae._–This contains only _Dromas ardeola_, the
curious Crab-Plover, with its straight, hard compressed bill, long legs,
webbed toes, and pectinated middle claw. It is white, with the elongated
dorsal feathers and most of the wings black, the tail chiefly grey. Found
from the Red Sea to Natal, and through the Indian Ocean to the Bay of
Bengal, it haunts sandy islands or sandbanks on the coast, flying, running,
or walking with equal ease. This bird feeds on small crustaceans, and
breeds in company, depositing a single large white egg on the bare sand in
a deep burrow, where the young remain for a considerable time.

Fam. IV. THINOCORYTHIDAE.–The so-called South American Seed-Snipes are a
generalized group of somewhat Fowl-like birds, with long wings and short
legs. _Thinocorys rumicivorus_, of Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentina, and
Patagonia, is yellowish-brown and black above, with whitish tips to the
dark remiges and rectrices, and creamy white below with a black pectoral
band, which sends a streak upwards to bifurcate round the white throat. The
female has a less extensive band, and an ashy-brown fore-neck. _T.
orbignianus_, of Peru, Chili, and Bolivia, differs in its grey breast with
no central streak; it has a black border to the throat, and a grey nape,
which is absent in the female. _Attagis gayi_, of the same countries, has
grey and rufous upper parts with black spots and vermiculations, and pale
cinnamon under parts, with a greyish fore-neck shewing fine black lines.
_A. chimborazensis_ of Ecuador is blacker above and darker below; _A.
malouina_, of the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, has a white
lower surface and a rufous chest with round black spots. These forms
usually frequent hill-country, and to the north of their range even haunt
the higher Andes, living on vegetable substances, and especially seeds of
docks and other plants. They run with great celerity over the stony ravines
or grassy plains, but they often squat or creep away from intruders; when
flushed they rise sharply with twisting flight like the Snipe, and utter a
similar cry. On the ground they make curious hollow or whistling noises,
the flocks answering one another as they sit, and being very hard to
distinguish, from their earthy coloration. The nest of _Thinocorys_ is a
depression slightly lined with grass, and contains some four drab or
pinkish-buff pear-shaped eggs, thickly speckled with chocolate and
purplish-grey, which the female is said to cover when she leaves them,
while the male anxiously keeps watch from some neighbouring stone.

{297}Fam. V. OEDICNEMIDAE.–Of these birds, which lack the hind toe,
_Oedicnemus scolopax_, the Stone-Curlew, or Norfolk Plover, a summer
visitor to the warrens of East Anglia, and the downs or stony flats of the
South of England, ranges from our shores and the Atlantic Islands through
temperate Europe and North Africa to Lake Saisan and Burma in Asia. This
largest of European Plovers is light brown above and buff below, with
blackish streaks throughout; the throat, belly, a line below the eye, and
two narrow alar bars are white, the remiges otherwise black, the tail
brown, black, and white. The feet, base of the bill, and very large iris
are yellow. This skulking semi-nocturnal species flies strongly, though it
prefers to squat or run, and takes to the wing reluctantly; towards winter
it is gregarious, as are so many of the Charadriiformes. The mournful
whistling cry, more mellow than that of the Golden Plover, is chiefly heard
at twilight, when the bird feeds upon worms, insects, molluscs, or even
reptiles, frogs, and mice. Two oval stone-coloured eggs, blotched or
scrawled with black, are laid on bare ground or among stones, and in India
sometimes under bushes; while the newly-hatched young are decidedly torpid,
contrary to Limicoline custom. Other species with streaked breasts are _Oe.
senegalensis_, of West and North-East Africa, with only one white wing-bar;
_Oe. vermiculatus_, of East and South Africa, with vermiculated upper
parts; _Oe. capensis_, of much the same districts, with coarse blotches and
bars above; and the large _Oe. grallarius_ of Australia with a broad brown
stripe down each side of the neck. _Oe. affinis_ of North-East Africa is
barely distinct from _Oe. capensis_. The forms with almost uniform breasts,
and a black patch or line over the eye, are _Oe. bistriatus_,[194] ranging
from Mexico to North Brazil, with mottled, and _Oe. superciliaris_ of Peru
with vermiculated, back; as well as two fine birds separated as _Aesacus_.
_Ae. recurvirostris_, of India, Ceylon, and Burma, has a stout, slightly
recurved bill and nearly plain upper surface; _Ae. magnirostris_, extending
from the Andaman Islands to the Philippines, Australia, the Solomons, and
New Caledonia, differs in its straight bill and blackish lores. The former
breeds on sand-banks up rivers, the latter on sea-beaches, both feeding
upon crustaceans and molluscs. Some of the Family occasionally frequent low
hills, and _Oe. bistriatus_ is kept to destroy insects in Nicaragua.

Fam. VI. PARRIDAE.–Of the extraordinary long-toed Jaçanas, {298}_Parra
jacana_, ranging from Ecuador and Guiana to Bolivia and Argentina, has a
red frontal lappet, bilobed posteriorly, a red wattle at each side of the
gape, an orange bill, olive feet, and a well-developed yellow carpal spur.
The plumage is chestnut, with greenish-black head, neck, and under parts,
maroon sides, and yellow remiges, the wing- and tail-quills being tipped
with brownish-black. _P. melanopygia_ of Panama and Colombia is darker and
more maroon above; _P. nigra_, of those countries and Venezuela, is
entirely greenish-black, except for the wings; _P. gymnostoma_
(_variabilis_), found from South Texas to Costa Rica, with Cuba, Porto
Rico, and Haiti, has the frontal lappet trilobed, lacks the rictal wattles,
and in colour resembles _P. melanopygia_, though the maroon extends to the
belly. The young in this genus are chiefly bronzy-brown above and
buffish-white below; and the nestlings–at least in _P. gymnostoma_–are
curiously marked with tawny, black, buff, and white. _Metopidius indicus_,
occurring from India to Cochin China, and in Sumatra, Java, and Celebes,
has a large blue frontal shield, small blunt spurs, and no rictal wattles;
the bill is pink, blue, and green; the feet are slaty. The head, neck,
remiges, and under parts are greenish-black, varying to purple, the chin
and superciliary streak are white, the mantle is bronze, the lower back
maroon, and the tail chestnut. The young are much greener above than in the
last genus. _M. albinucha_ of Madagascar and _M. africanus_ of most of the
Ethiopian Region have a smaller shield, loosely connected behind, which is
grey in the former, leaden blue in the latter, as are the bill and feet.
The cinnamon-brown plumage is varied in the first-named by a black occiput
and throat and white nape, in its congener by a white neck, black nape, and
golden upper breast. The tail is chestnut and the primaries black. The very
small _Microparra capensis_, of South and South-East Africa, has no shield
or wattles, and is greyish-brown, becoming orange on the crown, rump, and
tail; the nape and upper mantle are purplish-black, the wings blackish with
a white alar bar, the under parts white with golden sides to the neck. The
bill and feet are brownish, the spur in this genus and the next being as in
_Metopidius_. _Hydralector gallinaceus_, ranging from Borneo and Celebes to
New Guinea and Australia–if _H. novae guineae_ be not separated–is chiefly
black; the back being greyish-olive, the throat and abdomen white, the
cheeks, with the sides and front of the neck, golden. A red lappet with an
erect central protuberance covers the forehead; the bill is {299}red,
yellow, and black; the legs are red and olive. Young birds are mainly
reddish-brown, with white below. _Hydrophasianus chirurgus_, of most of the
Indian Region, is bronzy-brown above and purplish-black below, with no
fleshy outgrowths, but a large, sharp spur. The head is white with black
occiput, the neck golden behind and white in front, with an intervening
black lateral stripe; the wings are mainly white, with curious filamentous
appendages to the attenuated blackish outer primaries; the four median
feathers of the dark brown tail are enormously elongated and decurved. The
winter and immature plumage is almost entirely bronzy-brown, with white
under surface crossed by a black gorget; but the young have a rufous head.

[Illustration: FIG. 61.–Indian Jaçana. _Hydrophasianus chirurgus._ × ¼.]

All the members of this Family frequent lakes and swamps, whether inland or
near the coast, _Hydrophasianus chirurgus_ occurring at considerable
elevations; while at least that species, _Parra jacana_, and _Metopidius
indicus_, are gregarious in winter. On their favourite lagoons, bordered by
a dense fringe of aquatic plants, these active birds may be seen gracefully
striding or running upon the floating leaves of water-lilies and like
plants, as their long toes easily enable them to do. When danger threatens
they crouch or submerge themselves partially, _Hydralector_ being perhaps
the best diver, where all are good. Tame when unmolested, they rise
reluctantly, scuttling over the water with {300}trailing legs after the
fashion of a Moor-hen, or fluttering and gliding in turn to the nearest
shelter at a good pace. On the ground the gait is easy. Small parties of
_Parra jacana_ are said to gather together when feeding, and to utter
quick, excited cries, while going through a singular performance or dance,
with outstretched, agitated wings and alternate slow and fluttering
movements.[195] Some species are especially quarrelsome; _Microparra_ has a
habit of bobbing its head up and down like a Plover; the male of _Parra
jacana_ is particularly sedulous in warning the female from the nest; and
both parents commonly "sham wounded" to protect their young. The cry is
loud and harsh, or mewing in _Hydrophasianus_; the food consists of
insects, molluscs, seeds, and roots; the nest is a small cup, or not
uncommonly a large mass, of aquatic herbage, placed in grass or rushes, or
on floating vegetation. The four beautiful eggs are more or less
pear-shaped, and are glossy buff, olive, green, or brown, thickly covered
with fantastic scrawls, and occasionally with black or brown blotches.
_Metopidius indicus_, however, is said to lay as many as ten, while those
of _Hydrophasianus_ are plain brown or green.

A fossil Limicoline form, _Palaeotringa_, occurs in the Cretaceous rocks of
New Jersey; France furnishes _Limosa_ and _Tringa_ from the Eocene,
_Camascelus_ (allied to the Plovers) from the transition beds, _Milnea_
(near _Oedicnemus_), _Tringa_, _Himantopus_, and _Numenius_ from the
Miocene. The same formation in both France and Germany provides _Helornis_
(akin to _Limicola_), and _Totanus_; the Pliocene of Italy the latter;
_Gallinago_ is found in the Chatham Islands; _Charadrius_ in North America.

Fam. VII. LARIDAE.–This consists of four Sub-families (1) _Stercorariinae_
or Skuas, (2) _Larinae_ or Gulls, (3) _Rhynchopinae_ or Skimmers, and (4)
_Sterninae_ or Terns. Mr. Saunders[196] is, however, probably right in
distinguishing a second Family, _Stercorariidae_; and possibly a third,
_Rhynchopidae_, might be admitted.

In the _Larinae_ the strong, horny bill is of moderate length, though
exceptionally small in _Rhodostethia_, the maxilla being curved, but hardly
hooked; in the _Stercorariinae_ there is a distinct hook, and the base is
covered by a cere, said to be hard or soft according to the season, and
possibly, shed after the manner of certain Auks.[197] In the _Sterninae_
the beak is nearly straight and {301}pointed, while comparatively slender;
in the _Rhynchopinae_, the maxilla, which moves vertically with ease, is
much shorter than the mandible, and both are compressed anteriorly until
they resemble truncated knife blades. The tibia is generally partly bare;
the metatarsus is fairly long in the first two Sub-families, and is
scutellated in front, being usually smooth behind, though rougher in
_Pagophila_; the anterior toes are fully webbed, with claws which vary from
weak to moderate, or even to strong and hooked, as in the _Stercorariinae_.
The elevated hallux is joined by a membrane to the inner toe in
_Leucophaeus_, and is rudimentary or absent in _Rissa_. In the _Sterninae_
and _Rhynchopinae_ the metatarsus is short–especially in the latter, where
the web between the inner and middle digits is deeply incised, as are both
webs in _Hydrochelidon_ and _Gygis_; the claws are long, slender, and
curved. The pointed wings, excessively lengthened in the two last-mentioned
Sub-families, have eleven primaries, of which the outer is particularly
small, and from fifteen to twenty-three secondaries. The tail may be nearly
even as in _Larus_, deeply forked as in _Sterna_ generally, less excised as
in _Xema_, _Hydrochelidon_, _Naenia_, and _Rhynchops_, graduated or cuneate
as in _Rhodostethia_, _Anous_, and _Gygis_; all the twelve feathers being
rounded or acute: in the _Stercorariinae_ the two central rectrices project
beyond the others, being decidedly pointed in _Stercorarius crepidatus_ and
_S. parasiticus_, but rounded and twisted in the shaft until the webs are
vertical in _S. pomatorhinus_. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx
tracheo-bronchial, the tongue lanceolate, the nostrils are pervious; an
after-shaft is present, while both adults and young have abundant down,
that of the latter commonly shewing a mixture of white, with grey,
yellowish, slaty, or brown. _Naenia_ has elongated plumes at the gape, and
a few Terns have slight nuchal crests.

Gulls and Skuas are widely-ranging and essentially marine birds, even those
species which nest inland being commonly observed near salt water, and
seeking the coast when incubation is over. They are always inclined to be
gregarious, and are more or less resident in Britain, but the undoubted
influx of birds from abroad in autumn makes it difficult, or even
impossible, to determine their exact status in every case. Their untiring
and easy flight is only second to that of the larger Petrels; the majestic
style of the Great Black-backed Gull, and other forms, being a great
contrast to the wavering but graceful movements of the Kittiwake or
{302}Bonaparte's Gull. All walk well, though sedately, swim to perfection,
and rise easily both from land and water, usually breaking into a run
before taking to the wing from the ground; while they almost invariably
alight with uplifted pinions. The wild characteristic note varies less than
in most large groups, that of the bigger species being harsh and querulous,
that of the smaller laughing or screaming; the lesser Skuas give vent to a
curious mewing cry, and the Great Skuas to a similar but deeper sound. At
the breeding-quarters the utterances are naturally more agitated and
shrill, and the parents hang excitedly above a visitor's head. The food
consists mainly of fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and worms, but is varied in
the stronger forms by small mammals, young birds, and eggs: the Great
Black-backed Gull undoubtedly attacks lambs and weakly ewes; carrion is not
uncommonly devoured; and _Larus maculipennis_ acts as a scavenger at Buenos
Aires, besides clearing the country of grasshoppers, and robbing the
Cayenne Lapwing of its insect booty. Skuas give chase to their smaller kin,
and force them to disgorge the fishes they have just caught, while even
Solan Geese are sometimes victimized; _Larus scopulinus_, moreover, which
robs the Oyster-catcher of New Zealand, is a further instance of parasitic
habits. Insects and their larvae, turnips, berries, and grain are also
eaten by these omnivorous but useful creatures. Their main sustenance is
naturally derived from the ocean, or its oozy shores; but flocks are
commonly seen on pastures and arable lands near the beach, or following the
plough further from the sea, though not being of the species which breed in
the interior, nor driven inland by stress of weather. At times Gulls
almost, if not quite, disappear below the water when swooping on their
prey, and Kittiwakes have been said to pursue it beneath the surface. A
common habit is that of preening and washing the plumage in company at
favoured spots, while one that is less well-known is that of casting up the
indigestible parts of the food in pellets, as do many other birds. The
nesting sites are very frequently precipitous rocks and stony islands, but
inland marshes and lakes accommodate many species, while in certain
localities trees as high as thirty feet are selected. Skuas breed on moors
or hills near the sea in Scotland, on the fells of Scandinavia, and on the
tundras and barren grounds of the Arctic Regions, the nest being a mere
depression in the herbage or moss; the {303}remainder of the tribe
generally collect a mass of grass, moss, flags, sedges, heather, twigs, or
sea-weed, though a mere hollow in the soil or sand often serves their
purpose. The eggs vary in number from two in the case of the Ivory Gull and
the Skuas to three or exceptionally four; they are brown, drab, or green,
with blotches and spots of brown, black, grey, and lilac, and recall those
of Plovers. Both sexes have been said to incubate in _Larus minutus_ and
_Rissa brevirostris_; the young are comparatively helpless for a few hours
or perhaps days, and are at first fed by the parents.

Terns resemble Gulls in many of their habits, but are more cosmopolitan,
and decidedly migratory in Britain; they are essentially marine, yet some
species breed on inland waters in summer. Particularly slender and
graceful, these long-winged birds may usually be distinguished by their
irregular or hovering flight, and are known as Sea-swallows; while their
method of beating up and down maritime streams or shallows, singly or in
pairs, in search of fish, is quite peculiar to themselves. At such times
they make constant plunges into the water, often completely immersing their
bodies, or occasionally discontinue their operations to engage in trivial
and seemingly amicable quarrels. The note, though hoarse in some cases, is
usually a squealing or grating sound, the latter especially when disturbed;
the food consists of fish and crustaceans, insects–said to be sometimes
taken on the wing–frogs, newts, locusts, grasshoppers, caterpillars,
leeches, molluscs, and medusae. Terns are wary but bold, commonly circling
around a wounded companion until several are shot; the Noddies (_Anous_),
however, are much more sluggish and silent. On the ground all move with
comparative ease. The nest of _Hydrochelidon_ is a mass of water-weeds
placed on some tussock in a wet inland swamp; that of _Anous_, when
situated on trees, bushes, or rocky ledges, is composed of twigs, sea-weed,
and like materials; but most species merely make a hole in the sand or
soil, with little or no lining. Depressions on level rocks, the surface of
prostrate plants, and heathery, grassy, or muddy flats are often utilized
as alternatives, while colonies are usually formed. Two or three olive,
reddish-brown, green, or stone-coloured eggs, with blotches, spots,
scrawls, or oblique streaks of black, brown, grey, or lilac, are deposited;
the Noddy and Sooty Terns, however, have a single white egg with red
markings, and _Gygis_ one, which is buff, marbled, spotted, or often
scrolled with brown and grey, and is laid on any slight cavity of {304}a
branch, a broad leaf-stalk, or a coral reef. The nesting habits of _Naenia_
are unknown, but it frequents rocky, cavernous shores.

_Rhynchops_ has a peculiarly low flight, rapid and gliding, with many a
turn and twist, which has gained it the name of Skimmer. The food, often
sought towards evening, appears to consist of small fish and crustaceans;
it is procured by keeping the bill wide open, with the long mandible
ploughing through the water or mud, and leaving a distinct furrow in its
track. The cry is a low harsh scream or shrill twittering note. A hollow in
some sandy river-bank or island serves to contain the three or four grey,
green, buff, or white eggs, with blotches and streaks of purplish-grey and
dark brown. The female is said to sit only at night or in stormy weather,
and the young to be unable to fly for several weeks,[198] but the remaining
habits resemble those of Terns.

The sexes in the Laridae are invariably similar, the plumage being grey and
white, or more rarely blackish or brown, details of which will be found
below. The young are duller, being mottled with brown or black in immature
Gulls. The frequent black or brown heads, often lacking at certain ages or
times of year, the seasonal changes generally, the neck-collar of _Xema
sabinii_ and _Rhodostethia_, and the rosy tint on the breast in the latter
species, _Larus franklini_, and _Sterna dougalli_ may be noticed in
passing. The members of the Family range in size from the Glaucous to the
Little Gull; the largest Tern being the Caspian, and the smallest, as its
name indicates, the Least Tern.

Sub-fam. 1. _Stercorariinae._–Of this widely spread but curiously
distributed group, _Megalestris catarrhactes_, the Great Skua or Bonxie, a
fine rufous-brown species, with a white wing-patch which is very
conspicuous in flight, breeds in Shetland, the Färoes, Iceland, and
possibly north of Hudson Strait, occurring in South Greenland and Norway,
and reaching New England and Gibraltar in winter. It nests in colonies,
though each pair occupies a distinct area, which the parents defend with
exceptional boldness, swooping down swiftly with a heavy rush, and dropping
the feet when at close quarters, as if to strike an intruder. Unlike their
smaller kin, which will attack a man from any side and hit him with their
wings, these birds commonly aim directly at the face, and their onslaught,
if not averted, is really dangerous, while they only just clear the head
when threatened with a stick. The two eggs, deposited in a depression
{305}in the herbage, are dull brown or greenish, with somewhat indistinct
umber markings. The food consists chiefly of fish, which the smaller Gulls
are forced to disgorge, while Kittiwakes and the like are themselves
occasionally devoured in default of other prey. _M. chilensis_, spotted
with chestnut above, and more rufous below, occupies America south of Rio
de Janeiro and Callao; the sooty-brown _M. antarctica_–the stouter-billed
Port Egmont or Sea Hen–replacing it from the Falklands to the Australian
and New Zealand seas, and reaching northwards to the Comoros and
Madagascar. In the Antarctic Victoria Land occurs a paler form, _M.
maccormicki_.

_Stercorarius pomatorhinus_, the Pomatorhine Skua, breeds on the tundras of
Siberia and possibly from Greenland to Bering Sea, migrating to Britain and
as far as South Africa, North Australia, and Peru. The plumage is brown,
with blacker head and gorget, white breast, and acuminate white
neck-feathers tipped with yellow. The projecting median rectrices with
their vertically twisted vanes are mentioned above (p. 301). Uniform brown
specimens may be immature. _S. crepidatus_, the Arctic Skua, is smaller,
and nests as far south as Northern and Western Scotland, but properly
occupies Arctic and sub-Arctic Europe, Asia, and America; in winter, it
reaches South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil. The elongated
rectrices are not twisted, but are pointed, while a uniform dark phase–the
true _S. richardsoni_–is common to both sexes. _S. parasiticus_, Buffon's
Skua, distinguished from the last-named by its extremely prolonged
rectrices and greyer upper surface, breeds on the Scandinavian fells and
throughout the Arctic tundras and barren grounds, migrating as far south as
Gibraltar and lat. 40° N. in America. The habits of the members of this
genus are similar to those of _Megalestris_, but their quicker flight
enables them to rob even Terns, and the mewing cry is most peculiar, while
the eggs are intermediate in style between those of Whimbrels and Gulls.
These small Skuas often destroy Lemmings.

Sub-fam. 2. _Larinae._–_Rissa tridactyla_, the Kittiwake, breeds from the
circumpolar regions southwards to the Kuril Islands, the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and North-West France; in winter it reaches western North
America, the Bermudas, the Canaries, the Mediterranean, and the Caspian.
The feet are black, the hind-toe is absent or rudimentary. From _Larus
canus_, which it closely resembles when flying, it can be distinguished by
the absence of white spots at the ends of the primaries. The young bird, or
{306}Tarrock, is much variegated with dark grey or black, and has a
blackish tip to the tail, as is the case in most fresh-water Gulls. Many
fine colonies inhabit the loftier cliffs of Great Britain, the nests of
sea-weed and grass being closely crowded together, and the eggs exhibiting
softer colours than is usual in the Sub-family. The darker _R.
brevirostris_ of Bering Sea has red feet.

_Pagophila eburnea_, the Ivory Gull, seems truly circumpolar, while it
accidentally visits Britain, Northern Europe, and New Brunswick. It is pure
white, with black feet, the young shewing grey and black variations. It
will eat whale- or seal-offal.

_Leucophaeus scoresbii_, of South Patagonia, the Falkland Islands, and the
neighbouring Antarctic seas, has a crimson bill, coarse red feet, with
somewhat excised webs, a dark hood in immature examples, and a white tail.
_Gabianus pacificus_ of Australia and Tasmania is somewhat like _Larus
marinus_, but has a very short stout bill and a black-banded tail.

In the genus _Larus_, as throughout this Family, the arrangement followed
is that of Mr. Howard Saunders,[199] much of whose admirable work is here
incorporated. His first section comprises species with a white tail but no
hood, the young having the head striated. Of these, _L. glaucus_, the
Burgomaster or Glaucous Gull, and _L. leucopterus_, the Iceland Gull, are
the only members of the group with nearly white primaries, the former being
larger, with proportionately shorter wings. In summer the former is
circumpolar, and the latter occurs from Jan Mayen to Greenland and perhaps
the west side of Baffin Bay; in winter both visit Britain, but the latter
only reaches the Gulf of Gascony, and Boston in America, whereas its ally
extends to the Mediterranean, the Caspian, Japan, California, and the
Bermudas. At this season the head shows brown markings; while the young are
entirely mottled, though they apparently become creamy white just before
assuming the grey mantle. _L. glaucescens_ of the North Pacific, _L.
nelsoni_ of North-West America, and _L. kumlieni_ of Cumberland Sound have
the quills chequered with grey, and connect the above with the following or
blacker-quilled group.

_L. argentatus_, our Herring Gull, has a blue-grey mantle; the black
primaries shew white tips and "mirrors" or round white marks, as well as a
grey wedge on the inner web; the feet are flesh-coloured, {307}the orbits
yellowish. In winter the head is streaked, and in the young the plumage is
mottled with brown. This species extends over Northern Europe and most of
North America, ranging to the south of those countries in the cold season;
its representative in the Mediterranean and Central Asia is _L.
cachinnans_, with yellow feet and red orbits, and in Arctic Siberia _L.
vegae_, chiefly differing from the last-named in its pinkish legs. _L.
audouini_ of the Western Mediterranean has blackish feet, and a crimson
bill with black band. _L. canus_, the Common Gull, found throughout
Northern Europe and Asia, and migrating to the Mediterranean, the Nile, the
Persian Gulf, and China, has white mirrors on the first three primaries,
yellow bill, and greenish-yellow feet. It has occurred in Labrador, and
breeds in North Britain on islands, lakes, and flat stacks, though rarely,
if ever, on cliff-faces; the shrill note is more like that of the Herring
Gull than the harsh cry of our Black-backs. The smaller and darker _L.
brachyrhynchus_ occupies North-Western America, reaching California in
winter; the paler _L. delawarensis_, with a subterminal black band on the
yellowish bill, frequents lakes and marshes in North America, and breeds
towards the north; _L. californicus_, with little black on the beak,
inhabits western North America.

Of the Black-backed Gulls, _L. marinus_, the Great Black-back, largest of
the Family except _L. glaucus_, is found from Arctic Europe to North-East
America, migrating as far as the Mediterranean, the Canaries, and Florida;
it has a grey wedge on the primaries like the Herring Gull, and pinkish
feet. Somewhat scarce in Britain in summer and comparatively
non-gregarious, it is noted for its fierceness, and will even attack sheep.
The smaller _L. dominicanus_, with olive feet, ranges from lat. 10° S. in
South America to South Africa and New Zealand, with the corresponding
Antarctic Seas; _L. schistisagus_ of the North Pacific being intermediate
between this and the next species. _L. fuscus_, the Lesser Black-back,
found both on our shores and inland, has yellow feet; its main range covers
North Europe, excluding Iceland; but it even breeds in Morocco and on the
Red Sea, extending in winter still further southwards. The similar _L.
affinis_ of North Russia and West Siberia, with coarser feet, migrates to
Somaliland, India, and occasionally other districts; the very stout-billed
_L. occidentalis_ represents our species on the Pacific coast of North
America.

Mr. Saunders's next section contains five Gulls resembling {308}the last
group in having no hood and a white tail; but here the young have the head
and tail-coverts unspotted. To this belong _L. bulleri_ of New Zealand, the
Chatham and Auckland Islands, with black bill and feet, which haunts inland
rivers; and also four marine forms with crimson bill and feet. These are
_L. scopulinus_ of New Zealand, the Chatham and Auckland Islands; the
larger _L. novae hollandiae_ of Australia, Tasmania, and New Caledonia; the
South African _L. hartlaubi_, found in Madagascar; and _L. gelastes_,
ranging from North-West Africa and the Mediterranean to the Caspian and
Sind, which lays its Tern-like eggs on sand-banks.

The third section differs in having a subterminal black band on the tail,
and, in the young, an irregularly striated hood. _L. crassirostris_, of the
Chinese and Japanese Seas, has the base of the tail and the under parts
white, the bill yellow, banded with red and black, the feet yellowish; _L.
belcheri_, of Peru and Chili, has a blackish mantle and stouter beak; _L.
heermani_ of western North America has the tail black except for a white
tip, a grey lower surface, red bill, and black feet; _L. modestus_, also of
Peru and Chili, differing in its decidedly grey tail and black beak.

The last-named is a connecting link with the fourth section, containing the
Hooded Gulls; that is, those with hoods in mature plumage, but no marked
hood in the young. Of these, all except the first three have the mantle
grey and the head more or less white in winter; they are rather small
birds, which chiefly inhabit the north, commonly breed in marshes, and
utter a shrill querulous cry.

_L. fuliginosus_ of the Galápagos, and _L. leucophthalmus_ of the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden, are deep lead-coloured above with black head; but the
former is grey below with no admixture of white, while the latter has a
white nuchal collar, as has the much browner _L. hemprichi_, extending from
East Africa to Bombay. _L. cirrocephalus_ of Brazil, Argentina, and West
and Central East Africa, which occurs in Peru and Natal, has a pale grey
head; whereas a brown hood distinguishes _L. brunneicephalus_ of
Central–and in winter Southern–Asia, _L. maculipennis_, ranging from Brazil
to Patagonia and Chili, _L. glaucodes_ of Chili, Patagonia, and the
Falklands, and _L. ridibundus_, the British Black-headed or Peewit Gull,
which occupies Europe and temperate Asia, migrating to North Africa, India,
and China. These four differ considerably in the pattern of the
primaries,[200] {309}but all have red bill and feet. The colonies of our
marsh-breeding species supply large quantities of eggs for eating.

[Illustration: FIG. 62.–Great Black-headed Gull. _Larus ichthyaëtus._ ×
2/13.]

Of the black-hooded, grey-mantled forms, which have as a rule red bill and
feet, _L. atricilla_, the Laughing Gull, of the Atlantic coast of North
America and Western Mexico, alone has black outer primaries; this species
and _L. franklini_, of the interior of sub-Arctic America, having
exceptionally dark mantles, and the latter pinkish under parts. Both
migrate south in winter. _L. philadelphia_, Bonaparte's Gull, of all North
America, which, like its two following congeners, strays to Britain, has
the bill black; _L. melanocephalus_, of the Mediterranean and Black Seas,
has a jet black head, a partly red bill, and nearly white quills; the very
large _L. ichthyaëtus_ ranging from the Black Sea and the Levant to Tibet,
and wintering in Southern Asia, has the bill almost orange. _L. saundersi_,
a slender-legged stout-billed bird, inhabits the rivers and coasts of China
and Mongolia; _L. serranus_ of the Andes from Ecuador to Chili being a near
ally. _L. minutus_, the Little Gull, frequenting marshy districts in
sub-Arctic and temperate {310}Europe and Asia in summer, and reaching the
Mediterranean in winter, is quite the smallest of the genus.

The lovely _Rhodostethia rosea_, or Wedge-tailed Gull, of the North Polar
seas, supposed to breed on islets north of Asia and America if not of Franz
Josef Land, is easily distinguished by its small black bill, red feet,
black collar, and rosy lower parts. One specimen is on record in Britain.
_Xema sabinii_, or Sabine's Gull, which nests on maritime marshes from
Greenland westward to the Taimyr Peninsula, wanders to Britain, France, the
Bermudas, and Texas, and annually visits Peru; it may be recognised by its
plumbeous head, black collar, and forked tail. Of the larger collarless _X.
furcatum_, with a white basal band on the maxilla, the only five examples
known are from the Galápagos and Peru.

Sub-fam. 3. _Rhynchopinae._–Of this group the curiously compressed beak and
the habits have already been described (pp. 301, 304). The sole genus
_Rhynchops_, or Scissor-bill, contains five species, of which _R. nigra_ is
black, with white forehead, cheeks, and lower parts; the wing-quills being
also broadly tipped, and the tail-feathers varied, with white. The bill and
feet are red, with a black end to the former. In winter the nape is whiter,
while the young are buff and blackish above. Breeding from New Jersey to
Florida, this bird strays to New Brunswick and migrates to Trinidad,
occurring also in South-West Mexico. _R. intercedens_ of South Brazil and
Argentina, and the larger _R. melanura_, of the North and West of South
America, have nearly uniform brown rectrices, but the latter has little
white on the secondaries. _R. flavirostris_, extending from Senegal to
Damara-Land, and from Egypt and the Red Sea to Nyassa-Land, has a red and
orange beak; _R. albicollis_, of India and Lower Burma, differs from it in
having the back of the neck white.

Sub-fam. 4. _Sterninae._–The Terns may be commenced with the snow-white
_Gygis candida_, which ranges from the islands east of Brazil to Ascension,
St. Helena, Madagascar and its vicinity, the Indian Ocean, the Malay
countries, Australia, the Ladrones, the Sandwich Islands and Polynesia
generally. The form and habits have been already noticed (pp. 301, 303).
The smaller slender-billed _G. microrhyncha_ seems to be peculiar to the
Marquesas.

_Anous stolidus_, termed with its congeners the "Noddies" from their stolid
indifference at times to man, chiefly frequents tropical and sub-tropical
regions, and has occurred once in Ireland. It is {311}sooty-brown, with
whitish forehead, grey head, black bill and lores, and reddish-brown feet;
_A. galapagensis_ of the Galápagos being entirely sooty-black above. _A.
(Micranous) leucocapillus_, with a weaker bill and a white crown, has a
somewhat more restricted range; _A. (M.) tenuirostris_, with grey lores,
ranges from the neighbourhood of Madagascar to Australia; _A. (M.)
hawaiiensis_, with lighter upper parts, occurs around the Sandwich Islands.
These species make a large flat nest of twigs, leaves, grass, and sea-weed,
on trees, bushes, or even on the ground, laying one buffish-white egg with
scattered red-brown markings. Several pairs often use one tree. _A.
(Procelsterna) cinereus_, extending from Australia to Chili, and _A. (P.)
caeruleus_ of Central Polynesia, are nearly grey above, but the former is
white beneath. The egg is ordinarily deposited with little or no nest on a
bare rock or on sand.

In all the rest of the Sub-family the tail is forked instead of graduated,
though less markedly in _Naenia inca_ of Peru and Chili, which is
leaden-grey, with curling white plumes below the eye, red bill and feet.

The genus _Sterna_ contains the more typical Terns or Sea-Swallows, of
which the coloration–unless subsequently mentioned–is grey above, and white
or lighter grey beneath and on the tail. _S. trudeaui_ of Brazil,
Argentina, and Chili, which strays to the United States, and _S.
melanauchen_, ranging from the Amirante and Seychelles Islands to the Liu
Kiu group and Polynesia, are the only two species with the crown white in
place of black in the breeding season; the former bird has a black streak
through the eye, the latter a band from the lores to the nape.

_S. minuta_, the Lesser Tern, breeds in many parts of Britain, and extends
from about lat. 60° N. in Europe to the Mediterranean, the Caspian, and
North India, migrating to South Africa, Burma, and Java. It has a white
forehead and belly, black lores, orange feet, and yellow bill with black
tip. The two or three whitish or drab eggs, marked with grey and black,
differ strikingly from those of the Common Tern and its allies. The larger
_S. sinensis_ occurs from Bengal and Ceylon to Japan, New Guinea, and
Australia; the greyer-rumped _S. antillarum_, the Least Tern, from northern
South America to California and New England, or exceptionally to Labrador
and West Africa; _S. saundersi_, with nearly black outer primaries, from
East Africa to Burma. _S. superciliaris_, with yellow beak, is peculiar to
eastern South {312}America; _S. lorata_, with grey belly, to Peru and
Chili; _S. nereis_, with white lores, to Australia, New Zealand, and New
Caledonia; _S. balaenarum_, with black forehead and base of bill, to
Southern Africa.

_S. fuliginosa_, _S. anaestheta_, and _S. lunata_ are the Sooty Terns,
so-called from their dark upper surface; the second being browner and the
third greyer than the typical species, wherein alone the young differ from
the adults in having brown lower parts instead of white. The forehead is
white, the bill and feet are black, while immature birds show whitish
markings above. These Terns frequent the tropics, but _S. lunata_ only
occurs from the Moluccas to Laysan, the Sandwich Islands, and elsewhere in
Polynesia. _S. fuliginosa_ has been obtained three times in England,
occasionally on the Continent of Europe, and in America northwards to
Maine. The single egg, like that of the Noddy, but with finer red, grey,
and lilac markings, is laid on sand or flat rocks; descriptions of the
colony, or "Wideawake Fair," on Ascension having been given by several
writers.[201] _S. aleutica_ of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Japan, with a
slate-grey mantle, white forehead and rump, connects the above with the
next section.

The remaining species, with white foreheads, are the large _S. bergii_,
ranging from East and South-West Africa to Japan and Polynesia, excluding
New Zealand, and _S. bernsteini_ of the Seychelles, Rodriguez, Diego
Garcia, and Halmahera, both of which have elongated nape-feathers and a
yellowish bill, but grey and white rumps respectively. _S. frontalis_, of
the New Zealand and Australian Seas, has a black bill.

Of large forms, with black foreheads, black feet, and lengthened nuchal
plumes, _S. cantiaca_, the Sandwich Tern, breeding from Britain and the
Mediterranean to the Caspian, and from New England to Honduras and both
coasts of Guatemala, possesses a black bill. It migrates to Cape Colony,
Sind, and Brazil. The large _S. maxima_, and the similar but smaller _S.
elegans_, have the beak red; the former extending from about lat. 40° N. in
America to Peru and Brazil, and in winter to West Africa; the latter from
California to Chili. _S. eurygnatha_, found from Venezuela to Patagonia,
only differs in its yellow bill; but _S. media_, ranging from the
Mediterranean and East Africa to Australia, has the tail grey instead of
white. In this section the richly marked eggs have often a creamy ground.

{313}[Illustration: FIG. 63.–Common Tern. _Sterna fluviatilis._ × ¼.]

One only of the smaller species allied to the last group has blackish bill
and feet, namely _S. longipennis_,[202] occurring from Lake Baikal and
Ceylon to Kamtschatka, Japan, and New Guinea. Of the remainder the Common,
Arctic, and Roseate Terns breed in Britain, though the Roseate is decidedly
scarce there. _S. fluviatilis_, the Common Tern, occupying the coasts and
inland waters of Europe, temperate Asia, and temperate America–chiefly on
the eastern side in the last case–and migrating to South Africa, India,
Ceylon, and Brazil, has red feet, and red bill with horn-coloured tip, the
lower parts being vinaceous grey. _S. macrura_, the Arctic Tern,
frequenting the northern regions of Europe and America from lat. 82° to
50°, and 42° N. respectively, has the bill entirely red, the metatarsus
comparatively short, and the breast French grey. The two or three
brown-spotted eggs vary from olive to green, and are frequently ruddier
than those of the Common Tern. _S. dougalli_, the Roseate Tern, differing
in the nearly black bill, the white tips to the inner webs of the
primaries, and the evanescent pink tinge on the under parts, is widely
distributed from lat. 57° N. in the Atlantic to New Caledonia, but is
apparently wanting in the Eastern Pacific. Its cry is peculiarly grating.
_S. albigena_, ranging from the Red Sea to the Malabar coast, is much
darker, and has orange feet; while _S. hirundinacea_, extending from Brazil
and Peru to the regions south of Cape Horn, _S. vittata_ of St. Paul's,
Amsterdam, Inaccessible, Tristan da Cunha, and Kerguelen Islands, and _S.
virgata_ of Kerguelen Island and the Crozets are closely allied forms, of
{314}which the last two are said to lay a single egg. _S. albistriata_,
with but slightly elongated outer rectrices, yellow bill and feet, inhabits
New Zealand and strays to Norfolk Island; _S. forsteri_, with white under
parts, orange bill, and reddish feet, inhabits most of North America. _S.
melanogaster_ of India, reaching northwards to Afghanistan and Bhutan, has
a black belly.

Of forms with much stouter bills than _Sterna_, _Seena aurantia_, of India,
the Burmese countries and Yunnan, has the bill and feet orange;
_Hydroprocne caspia_, the Caspian Tern–largest of the Sub-family–has a very
short tail, red bill, and black feet. The latter occupies most of the
world, except tropical South America and the Pacific Islands, visiting
Britain, and breeding as near to it as Sylt. _Gelochelidon anglica_, the
Gull-billed Tern, with a long metatarsus, reddish-black beak and feet,
occurs in Britain and is found through the temperate and tropical parts of
the Old and New Worlds, but not in South Africa, and rarely in Western
America. _Phaëthusa magnirostris_, of the warmer portions of North America,
has a short tail, yellow bill, and olive-yellow feet.

The genus _Hydrochelidon_, or Marsh Tern, is distinguished by a short tail,
a comparatively small bill, and feet with much indented webs. The note is
shrill; the food consists of aquatic insects, varied by frogs, newts, and
small fish: the nests, placed in close proximity on swamps or pools, are
formed of water plants and are sometimes mere floating masses of them; the
three eggs are often very dark olive or brown. _H. nigra_, the Black Tern
or Blue Darr, ranges from Europe south of lat. 60° N. and the Mediterranean
to Turkestan, wintering as far as Loango and Abyssinia. It bred in the east
of England up to 1858, since which date a nest is quite exceptional, while
its two congeners are only chance visitors. The colour is lead-grey, with
blacker head, black bill and reddish-brown feet. The darker race _H.
surinamensis_ inhabits temperate America from Alaska and Canada southwards,
migrating to Chili and Brazil. _H. leucoptera_, the White-winged Black
Tern, is found in Central and Southern Europe, temperate Asia and North
Africa; reaching accidentally to America, and in winter from Cape Colony to
Australia and New Zealand. It is chiefly black, with white carpal region,
rump, tail, and vent, the bill and feet being red. _H. hybrida_, the
Whiskered Tern, has a similar range, but breeds also from India to
Australia. The main colour is slate-grey, the head and nape being black,
the bill {315}and feet red, and a white streak marking each cheek. In the
winter and immature plumage the under parts are entirely, and the head
partially white, throughout the genus.

Of fossil Laridae _Halcyornis_ occurs in the Lower Eocene of England,
_Aegialornis_[203] in the Upper Eocene of France; while the Lower Miocene
of the latter country, the Middle Miocene of Germany, and the Pliocene of
Oregon furnish _Larus_.

Fam. VIII. ALCIDAE.–The Sub-order ALCAE contains only this Family, or the
Auks, wherein the body is heavy and compact, the head large, the plumage
close and elastic. The stout bill varies extraordinarily, as will be seen
under the various species. The abbreviated metatarsus is reticulated,
usually with a row of scutellae in front; the long anterior toes are fully
webbed, the hallux is absent or rudimentary, the claws are stout, acute,
and slightly curved. The wings are very short, and the Great Auk was
absolutely flightless; but most species fly strongly and rapidly to varying
distances, the pinions not being flipper-like as in the Penguins, to which
these birds have no affinity; like them, however, they commonly sit upright
upon the metatarsus, and walk awkwardly from the feet being placed so far
back, while they swim and dive to perfection. The primaries are eleven, the
secondaries from fifteen to nineteen. The short tail may be rounded as in
_Uria_, or graduated with pointed rectrices as in _Alca_; the quills
numbering twelve, except in _A. impennis_, which has eighteen. The furcula
is U-shaped, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial, the tongue lanceolate; the
nostrils–covered with feathers in _Alca_, _Uria_ and _Mergulus_, and with a
horny membrane elsewhere–are pervious. An aftershaft is present, and down
is plentiful on both adults and nestlings, being in the latter fluffy, and
of a black, grey, or brown colour, sometimes relieved by white. Elongated
feathers, crests, and horny outgrowths are common, as described below.

Auks are entirely pelagic birds, breeding from the Polar Seas southwards to
Japan, Lower California, Maine, and the Berlengas off the Tagus, while
wandering further in winter; but the North Pacific may certainly be
considered their headquarters. In the case of the British species a small
proportion remain near shore after the autumn, but it seems to be quite
uncertain where the majority spend the colder months. The members of this
Family can hardly be called gregarious, except in the breeding time,
{316}when vast flocks arrive with great regularity, or even to an exact
day. In England this occurs at the end of March or beginning of April, the
latter part of August or the first week of September being as punctually
observed for departure. Except for purposes of procreation, or during
violent storms, individuals are rarely seen on land, as might be expected
from the clumsy style of gait; yet Puffins and Black Guillemots are fairly
good walkers, and the former fly particularly straight and swiftly. Auks
either splash along the surface of the waves before diving, or plunge
suddenly, and when immersed use their wings much as if flying. The usual
voice is a harsh-toned croak or grunt, but in addition _Simorhynchus_ is
said to chatter, _Cyclorhynchus_ to whistle; _Ptychorhamphus_ utters a
musical ringing sound, the Little Auk a wild cry, and Black Guillemots a
shrill, plaintive note. Fish, crustaceans, worms, and the like, with chance
ship-refuse, compose the diet; the birds frequently disgorging it when
scared, and sometimes in order to feed the young.

The great pear-shaped egg of the Guillemots proper, and the more oval one
of the Razorbill, is deposited on some bare ledge of a cliff, on a stack,
or on an island rock. In the case of the latter bird the egg is usually in
a crevice, being white or buff with black or brown markings, and generally,
if not invariably, green inside. Guillemots' eggs vary from white or buff
to brilliant green or blue, and are spotted, streaked, or covered with
intricate wavy patterns of black, brown, or rufous; the same bird probably
always producing similar specimens. The Black Guillemots lay two
greenish-white eggs with blotches of brown, rust-colour, and grey, under
close-packed boulders or in holes low down in cliffs; that of the Little
Auk is pale bluish-green, with or without faint rufous stains, and is found
in similar, but commonly much higher, situations; _Synthliborhamphus_ and
various other forms use burrows in the turf, like Petrels, as an
alternative to chinks in rocks; but the first-named produces two buff eggs,
spotted with brown and grey, while the remainder lay only one, which is
either white, or very indistinctly marked. Of these, Puffins fashion a
considerable nest of dry materials. In some instances at least, both sexes
incubate, the period being nearly five weeks. When hatched in holes the
young remain there for a considerable time, otherwise they are soon
assisted by their parents to reach the sea. Where unmolested, Auks are
sufficiently tame; Puffins, {317}Razorbills, and so forth, however, bite
severely if handled, and the first-named will fight with each other to the
death.

As will be seen, the colour of both sexes in summer is black or dusky,
varied by white, and occasionally brown; the winter plumage being duller
and less decorative, and resembling the garb of the young. The size varies
from that of the Great Auk to that of the Least or Knob-billed Auklet, the
Family being confined to the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions.

_Lunda cirrata_, the Tufted Puffin, ranging from South California to Japan,
and straying to Eastern America, is sooty above and greyish below; the
sides of the head being white anteriorly, a "rosette" of naked red skin
adorning the gape, and a nuptial tuft of long straw-coloured feathers
hanging from above each eye. The feet are red, and become flesh-coloured in
winter. The highly compressed bill is red in front and yellowish behind;
while its base consists of three portions, separated from each other and
from the transversely grooved fore-part by furrows, which deepen until the
pieces become detached and expose a soft brownish skin, that hardens again
towards spring. _Fratercula arctica_, the Puffin, occupies in vast numbers
many of the precipitous coasts and islands of Britain, laying its large,
dull white, granulated egg–faintly marked with brown and speedily
begrimed–in a rock-crevice, or a burrow, often made by the bird itself. The
upper parts and gorget are black, the cheeks greyish, the lower surface
white, the rosettes yellow, and the feet orange-red. The base of the huge
compressed and grooved bill, blue, yellow, and red in colour, is shed in
nine pieces towards winter, when the cheeks become white, the rosettes
reddish, and a blunt, fleshy, horn-like appendage on the upper eyelid also
disappears. This species breeds northwards in the Atlantic, from the Bay of
Fundy and the Berlengas off the Tagus, and (as the larger form _F.
glacialis_) eastwards to Novaya Zemlya, migrating a little further south:
in the Pacific, _F. corniculata_, with longer horns and more developed
deciduous bill-sheath, takes its place.

_Cerorhyncha monocerata_, the Rhinoceros Auklet of the North Pacific and
western North America, has a stout, curved orange and black bill, with a
large compressed horn between the nostrils, and an accessory piece on the
mandible; the upper parts are dusky, the lower whitish with plumbeous
cheeks and throat, while a row of narrow white feathers decorates each side
of the {318}head. In winter the horny processes disappear, but not the
plumes. _Ptychorhamphus aleuticus_, Cassin's Auklet, of the Pacific coast
of North America, is black above and white below, with a lead-coloured
throat, a white iris, and a bill which is mainly black, and becomes
wrinkled in summer. _Cyclorhynchus psittaculus_, the Parrot Auk of the
North Pacific, has an extraordinary compressed orange-red beak, to which
the blunt decurved maxilla and narrow up-curved mandible give a rounded
appearance; the upper parts and the throat are dusky; the lower surface,
the iris, and a row of filaments behind each eye are white, as is the
throat in winter. Three species of _Simorhynchus_, from the North Pacific,
have a stout orange-red or purplish bill, a white iris, and black upper
parts. _S. cristatellus_, the Crested Auklet, has several deciduous plates
at the base of the beak, including a round piece at each side of the gape;
the lower parts are grey; a tuft of dusky plumes curls over the forehead,
and a line of narrow white feathers stretches across the ear-coverts–both
being permanent: in winter the bill is horn-coloured. _S. pygmaeus_, the
Whiskered Auklet, is without conspicuously deciduous plates, but has an
additional patch of white plumes, reaching from the beak above and below
the eye at all seasons. _S. pusillus_, the Least Auklet, has on the short
maxilla a small compressed basal tubercle, which is shed in winter, but
exhibits no crest. The scapular region shews a good deal of white;
filamentous white feathers grace the forehead, lores, and ear-coverts; and
dusky spots mark the lower parts, in summer only. _Synthliborhamphus
antiquus_, of the Pacific north of Vancouver Island and Japan, but
accidental elsewhere, has a short, compressed, yellow and black beak, with
plumbeous upper and white lower parts; the head and throat are black with a
white line on each side of the occiput, the upper back is streaked with
white. In winter all the stripes vanish, and the throat is white. _S.
wumizusume_, of the Eastern Asiatic seas southward to Japan, has a nuptial
crest of long narrow plumes, but no streaks on the back. In the cold season
the whole malar region and throat are white. _Brachyrhamphus marmoratus_ of
the North Pacific, reaching California in winter, has a small slender black
bill, dusky upper parts barred with rufous, and white under parts varied
with brown; _B. kittlitzi_, of the Aleutian Islands east to Unalashka,
Kamtschatka, and North Japan, is thickly {319}spotted with buff above; _B.
hypoleucus_ and _B. craveri_ of Lower California are plain slate-coloured
with white lower surface, the former having white and the latter grey
wing-lining. The first two species have a white nuchal collar and irregular
white markings above in winter, with nearly white lower parts.

_Cepphus grylle_, the Black Guillemot of the Atlantic northwards from
Britain and Maine, and of the Arctic coasts of Europe, is black with a
white wing-patch, the feathers of which are black at the base; in winter
the plumage is white, relieved above and sometimes below by black, and the
red feet become pinkish. The compressed pointed bill is always black. _C.
mandti_, occupying, as it seems, the North Polar seas generally, and
breeding as far south as Labrador, has a more slender bill, and no black
wing-patch. _C. columba_, ranging from Bering Strait and Japan to
California, has a large wedge-shaped black mark on the white wing-patch;
_C. carbo_, of North-East Asia, Japan, the Kuril and Bering Islands, shews
no white except round the eye. All these forms wander southwards in winter.
The Black Guillemot or Tystie still breeds in the Isle of Man, and sparsely
on the East of Scotland and Ireland, in the north and west of which
countries it is not uncommon. It is remarkably tame when it breeds in the
wilder districts, uttering a plaintive cry, and making its way to land in
the face of an intruder. The two whitish or greenish eggs, beautifully
spotted with black, brown, and grey, are deposited among large boulders, or
in holes at the bases of cliffs, without any nest.

Of the last group of Auks, with feathered nostrils, _Uria troile_, the
well-known Common Guillemot, Willock, or Murre, breeds numerously in
Britain, where the cliffs are suitable; it extends from Bear Island near
Spitsbergen to the Magdalen Islands in America and the Tagus in Europe,
occurring on migration southwards to the New England States and the
Canaries. The plumage is dusky above and white below, with a brownish head
and white alar bar. The throat, cheeks, and a few feathers on the head are
white in winter; the long pointed bill and feet are blackish. The Ringed
Guillemot is a mere variety with a white ring round the eye and a streak
behind it; but _U. californica_, with stouter bill, from the Pacific coast
of North America, may be considered a sub-species. _U. brünnichi_,
distinguishable by its blacker crown, and deeper beak with a white edge to
the maxilla, {320}ranges from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Iceland to the
Arctic Seas of both worlds in summer, moving further south in winter; the
North Pacific race being denominated _U. arra_. Descriptions of the
colonies of Guillemots in the icy seas, and of the smaller but equally
crowded stations in Britain, have been too frequently given to need
repetition here; but it may be mentioned that during incubation, which
lasts about a month, the parent holds the egg between its thighs, and not
unfrequently carries it off a ledge, when suddenly scared. On flat-topped
stacks these eggs (p. 316) often lie in the closest juxtaposition.

[Illustration: FIG. 64.–Great Auk. _Alca impennis._ × ⅙. (After Hancock.)]

In _Alca_ the black bill is deep and highly compressed, with a curved
culmen; and shews oblique or transverse grooves, which are wanting in the
young. _A. torda_, the Razorbill, less common in Britain than the
Guillemot, ranges from Jan Mayen and Greenland to Maine and Brittany,
visiting North Carolina and the Canaries in some winters. It is
greenish-black with brown throat-region and white lower parts, a white line
stretching from the top of the {321}beak to the eye, and another crossing
both mandibles in the adult only. The tips of the secondaries are white,
forming an alar bar, the feet are black. The throat and cheeks are white in
the winter and immature plumage. _A. impennis_, the extinct Great Auk or
Garefowl, inhabited the North Atlantic, chiefly in the neighbourhood of
Iceland and Newfoundland, but apparently never reached north of the Arctic
Circle. Remains have been found in the kitchen-middens of Denmark, North
and West Scotland, and North and South Ireland; in a cave on the coast of
Durham; and abundantly on Funk Island in the Newfoundland Seas, where the
bird was called "Penguin"; that name being subsequently transferred to the
Spheniscidae. The last two living examples were obtained at the isle of
Eldey, off Iceland, in 1844, while 1812, 1821, and 1834 are the last dates
of capture in Orkney, St. Kilda, and Ireland respectively, allowing for a
possible instance in St. Kilda (Borrera) in 1840. This species, extirpated
chiefly by the persecution of fishermen, but subsequently by collectors,
resembled a flightless Razorbill, though double the size; it had no white
stripes on the head or bill, but shewed a large white patch before each
eye. The huge egg was white or buff, with scattered round spots or
plentiful fine scrawls of black or brown; about seventy of these eggs, and
a somewhat greater number of birds, existing at present in
collections.[204]

_Mergulus alle_, the Little Auk or Rotche, occurring on migration in
Britain, and occasionally in the Canaries, Azores, and New Jersey, breeds
from Greenland and the Kara Sea to North Iceland. It is black above and
white below, with a spot over the eye, streaks on the scapulars, and an
alar bar also of white; the throat is black in summer only. The short,
broad, arched bill is black, the feet are brownish. The single greenish- or
bluish-white egg, often shewing faint rufous markings, is deposited in a
deep crevice of a cliff, or among boulders on beaches.

As regards fossil forms, _Uria_ has been found in the Miocene of Maine and
North Carolina, and in the Pliocene of Tuscany.

* * * * *

Of the second or Pteroclo-Columbine group of Charadriiform Birds (p. 268)
the Old World Sub-Order PTEROCLES contains only–

Fam. IX. PTEROCLIDAE, or the Sand-Grouse, equally interesting as regards
their structure and their habits. Originally considered {322}akin to
Grouse, they have since given rise to much discussion; Dr. Gadow's
view–here adopted–being that they are highly specialized forms, analogous
to the Galli in their digestive organs, but homologically constituting a
link between the Limicolae and the Columbae.[205] From the Pigeons they
certainly differ remarkably in the condition of the chicks, which are
covered with brown, creamy, and black down, and run almost immediately from
the shell; yet they agree with them in most points of osteology, myology,
and pterylosis, while the eggs recall those of Rails, and the flight
resembles that of a Plover.

The body is compact; the bill short, arched, and fairly stout; the
metatarsus abbreviated and feathered anteriorly, or entirely in
_Syrrhaptes_. In this genus, moreover, the hallux, much reduced elsewhere,
is totally absent; and the short front toes are enclosed in a sort of
casing, which is covered as far as the thick claws with hairy plumage, the
whole forming a padded foot unique among Birds. The long pointed wings have
sixteen or seventeen secondaries, and eleven primaries, of which the outer
has its shaft produced into a thin filament in _Syrrhaptes paradoxus_; the
wedge-shaped tail has sixteen rectrices, the median pair being elongated
and pointed in that genus and _Pteroclurus_ (Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse), if
the latter be allowed to stand. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx
tracheo-bronchial, the tongue lanceolate; there is a small aftershaft, and
a large crop; while the down of the adults is sparingly distributed.

Sand-Grouse are true desert-birds, affording excellent instances of
protective coloration in their buff or brownish tints, slightly varied with
grey, black, orange, and white; _Pterocles fasciatus_ and _P.
lichtensteini_, however, prefer bushy and rocky ground to bare, sandy, or
stony plains. Gregarious yet monogamous, they are shy and wary, but very
pugnacious among themselves; their flight is swift, strong, and noisy;
their powers of walking and running good, though rather clumsy, owing to
the extremely short legs. All the species lie closely until flushed, and
are fond of basking in the sun on their sides, in holes scraped out for the
purpose. Migration probably prevails to some extent throughout the Family,
while the irruptions of _Syrrhaptes paradoxus_ into Europe (p. 324) are
quite unparalleled. The cry, often uttered upon the wing, is a piercing
whistle, or a twittering {323}or clucking sound; though that of
_Syrrhaptes_ appears to be hoarser, and has been syllabled as
"truck-turuck" and "caga-caga" in _S. paradoxus_ and _S. tibetanus_
respectively. The alarm-note is of a croaking nature. The food consists of
seeds, tender shoots, bulbous grass-roots, and insects, or even of berries,
peas, and beans; while the birds flock to drink at certain favourite spots,
and are variously stated to take continuous or interrupted draughts. The
nest is a mere hollow in the soil, frequently lined with a little grass;
the three oval, but peculiarly cylindrical, eggs vary from whitish to buff,
or greenish in _Syrrhaptes_, and are marked with brown, reddish, and
violet. Both sexes assist in incubation, which lasts from twenty-five to
twenty-eight days. Opinions vary as to the edible quality of the flesh.

[Illustration: FIG. 65.–Pallas's Sand-Grouse. _Syrrhaptes paradoxus._ ×
3/10.]

_Pterocles arenarius_, ranging from the Canary Islands, North Africa, and
Madagascar to South Europe and Central Asia, has dark grey upper parts,
with orange-yellow markings, except on the white-tipped primaries and tail;
the chestnut throat surmounts a black patch, which is succeeded by a breast
of the same dove-colour as the head, crossed by a black band; the belly
being black also. The bill is horn-coloured, the feet are greyish. The
female is buff, barred above and spotted below with black; her throat is
yellowish-white, and the black areas on her lower surface are as in the
male. _P. decoratus_ of East Africa, _P. bicinctus_ and _P. variegatus_ of
South Africa, _P. coronatus_ and _P. lichtensteini_, extending from the
Sahara and Kordofan respectively to North-West India, _P. gutturalis_ of
East Africa, _P. personatus_ of Madagascar, _P. fasciatus_ of India–the
only species peculiar to Asia–and _P. quadricinctus_, found from Senegambia
to Abyssinia, are fairly similar to the above, though chiefly sandy in some
cases.

_Pteroclurus alchata_, absurdly termed "Perdrix d'Angleterre" {324}in
France, and Rock-Pigeon in India, is grey above, with yellow tips to the
dorsal feathers; it has black, brown, and greyish-white wings, shewing
chestnut and yellow on the coverts; yellowish rump and long median
rectrices barred with black. The cheeks are orange, the throat is black
with a little yellow beneath, the upper breast is chestnut-red, bordered by
a black line above and below, the remaining under parts are white, the bill
and feet brownish. The female differs in her white throat, and in her upper
surface irregularly marked with buff, grey, and black. This species occurs
in South Europe, North Africa, and South-West Asia; _P. namaqua_ inhabits
South Africa; _P. exustus_ ranges from Senegal to the Pangani River in East
Africa, and through Palestine to Central Asia and India; while _P.
senegallus_ extends from the Sahara to Palestine, Arabia, and North-West
India.

_Syrrhaptes paradoxus_, Pallas's Sand-Grouse, has buff upper parts barred
with black; mainly blue-grey wings and tail, with black and chestnut
markings on the former, and white tips to the lateral rectrices; dull
yellow crown and cheeks; orange nape and throat; greyish-buff neck and
breast, white abdomen and metatarsal plumage, an interrupted black gorget,
and a broader black band towards the belly. The female has less elongated
median tail-feathers, black streaks on the buff head, a black bar across
the throat, and is duller generally. _S. tibetanus_, with entirely white
belly, the largest of the Family, extends from the Sutlej and South Kashmir
to Koko-Nor; but its congener reaches from the Lower Volga or the Kirghiz
Steppes to the north of Lake Baikal and North China, while some erratic
impulse of uncertain origin causes it to invade the plains of China and the
whole of Europe at irregular intervals. One specimen was obtained at
Sarepta on the Volga in 1848, and again in 1860, when flocks visited Pekin;
in 1859 a few examples occurred on the Continent, and between July and
November three wandered to Britain; while in 1863 some 700 individuals
reached our shores by May 21, straying as far as Ireland, but vanishing
towards autumn. Several pairs bred on the sand-hills of Holland and
Jutland. In 1872 and 1876 small parties visited us; and in 1888 another and
incalculably larger invasion took place, which extended farther southward
than that of 1863, and after entering Europe before the beginning of April,
occupied Britain between May 6 and May 15, to remain there throughout
{325}that year and the succeeding. Besides breeding in Denmark, Holstein,
and no doubt elsewhere on the Continent, two pairs nested in 1888 in the
east of Yorkshire, and one or more on the Culbin Sands in Moray, whence in
1889 Professor Newton received on August 8 a chick of two or three days
old. This was exhibited at the Newcastle Meeting of the British
Association, and subsequently figured in _The Ibis_.[206] Doubtless the
above were not the only cases of reproduction in England, and it was hoped
that a protective Act, which came into force in February 1889, would lead
to permanent colonization; but by 1890, or, according to some, 1892, all
the birds had disappeared.

As a fossil, _Pterocles_ occurs in the Eocene and Miocene of France.

* * * * *

The Sub-Order COLUMBAE must certainly be divided into the Families
_Dididae_ for the Dodo and Solitaire, and _Columbidae_ for the Pigeons,
while a third, _Didunculidae_, may be added to contain the Tooth-billed
Pigeon of Samoa, to which _Otidiphaps_ of Papuasia is possibly allied. For
convenience sake we may accept four Sub-families of the _Columbidae_,
namely (1) _Gourinae_, (2) _Peristerinae_, (3) _Columbinae_, and (4)
_Treroninae_, though the arrangement is somewhat arbitrary. Dr. Gadow[207]
segregates _Caloenatinae_, but not _Peristerinae_, while he and Count
Salvadori[208] agree in considering _Didunculus_ merely on a level with
these subdivisions.

Throughout the group the body is compact, while the bill varies from stout
to slender, being swollen and hardened at the decurved tip, which forms a
hook in the Dididae and Didunculidae. The base of this feature is covered
with a soft skin or cere, containing the nostrils; _Globicera_, _Vinago
calva_, and _Ptilopus insolitus_ have a fleshy or bony knob at the
posterior part of the culmen, said to be most prominent in the breeding
season; and _Didunculus_ has the mandible toothed and truncated. The
metatarsi, reticulated in the Gourinae, but scutellated elsewhere, are
usually partly feathered, especially in Fruit-Pigeons; some species of
_Columbigallina_, however, have them naked; _Drepanoptila_ has them
entirely covered; and in many domestic breeds the plumage extends over the
toes, which are all on the same level, and possess moderate claws. The skin
is more or less expanded {326}on each side of the digits. The rounded wings
are commonly long, but are short in Ground-Pigeons, and aborted in the
flightless Dididae, the primaries numbering eleven and the secondaries from
ten to seventeen; the former are bifurcated at the tip in _Drepanoptila_,
attenuated in some members of _Ptilopus_, _Oxypelia_, _Peristera_, and
_Leptoptila_, while one or more of the three outer feathers is not
uncommonly scalloped. The tail varies considerably in form and dimensions,
being wedge-shaped in _Sphenocercus_, rounded in _Zenaida_, _Phabotreron_,
and _Megaloprepia_, acuminate in _Ectopistes_, long and graduated in
_Oena_, _Macropygia_, and _Reinwardtoenas_, and so forth. The rectrices
range from twelve to twenty, sixteen being the normal number in the
Gourinae, twelve in the Columbinae, and fourteen in the Treroninae. The
neck-feathers may be bifurcated, as in _Alectoroenas_, _Columba guinea_,
and occasionally in _Turtur_, or those of the breast, as in some species of
_Macropygia_, _Ptilopus_, and _Phaenorrhina_; the neck, moreover, is
hackled in _Caloenas_ and _Lopholaemus_, and the body-plumage is generally
narrow with widely-separated barbs in _Chrysoenas_. Five members of
_Phlogoenas_ have a patch of stiff feathers over the crop; while the
splendid decomposed crest of _Goura_ is exceptionally striking, and more
ordinary tufts grace the head in _Lopholaemus_, _Coryphoenas_,
_Lophophaps_, _Ocyphaps_, and elsewhere. The forehead is sometimes nearly
bare, as are the lores and eyelids in _Gymnophaps_; naked red or yellow
orbits are found in _Gymnopelia_, _Reinwardtoenas_, _Macropygia_,
_Turacoena_, _Didunculus_, and _Columba gymnophthalma_, not to mention
other instances; while the tendency reaches its height in the huge
circumocular wattles of several fanciers' races. In _Serresius_ a feathered
"saddle" extends over half the culmen.

The furcula is U-shaped, being much reduced in the Dididae; the syrinx is
remarkable for the asymmetrical union of the sterno-tracheal muscles; the
tongue is lanceolate; the impervious nostrils are linear in the Columbidae
and Didunculidae, oblique in the Dididae. The crop is more highly developed
than in other Families. The gizzard of _Caloenas_ is remarkable for an
indurated horn-like patch on each side of the epithelial lining, that of
_Carpophaga latrans_ has the interior beset with similar conical
prominences, correlated with a diet of hard fruit. _Phaenorrhina_ has these
cones still more developed, and _Ptilopus_ agrees with _Drepanoptila_ in
possessing four pads in the above organ instead {327}of two, the regular
number in Birds. The after-shaft is rudimentary or absent, the adults have
no down, the young are hatched blind and naked, and remain for a long time
in the nest. The plumage is commonly dull blue or brown, with an iridescent
sheen; but remarkably brilliant purple, red, yellow, and green hues
manifest themselves in forms such as _Ptilopus_, _Chrysoenas_, and
_Caloenas_ from the islands of the Eastern Seas, the headquarters of the
Family. Though smaller, the female usually resembles the male; but
_Turturoena_, _Oena_, and _Peristera_ are examples of diversity, while
immature examples are duller than adults. _Goura_ approaches the size of a
goose, whereas _Columbigallina_ is little larger than a sparrow. Of
domestic Pigeons the Rock-Dove is undoubtedly the origin, but the breeds
are now infinite in their variety.[209]

Omitting the abnormal Didine Birds, the habits of the members of this group
are fairly uniform, the majority of them inhabiting wooded country; while
even those like _Phaps_, _Lophophaps_, and _Geophaps_, which occupy the
arid plains of Australia, are to be found at times where vegetation is
plentiful; and in all cases the proximity of water seems indispensable.
Fruit-Pigeons frequent trees, and the most typical Columbine forms are
found in woods or among rocks, though the smaller Doves naturally prefer
the lower bushes. Wood-Pigeons towards winter, and Passenger-Pigeons when
nesting–not to mention other instances–gather in large flocks; in some
cases, however, the parties only number about half a dozen, and more
solitary habits are by no means uncommon. The flight is strong, rapid, and
direct, though the Ground-Pigeons remain a comparatively short time upon
the wing, and some species prefer to run unless forced to rise, _Oena_
being an especially good walker. The well-known "homing" powers of trained
birds, the curious backward somersaults of the Tumbler, and the sudden rise
and clap of the wings so noticeable in the Wood-Pigeon when courting, merit
a passing mention. Every member of the Family perches, and many delight to
bask in the sun. The note is always of the nature of a coo, but is
especially loud and deep in _Myristicivora_, _Megaloprepia_, and some
members of _Carpophaga_, guttural in _Haplopelia_, mournful in _Peristera_
and _Zenaidura_, harsh and trumpet-like in _Goura_; the voice of the
Turtle-Dove suggests a purr, while _Tympanistria_ and _Starnoenas_ possess
powers of ventriloquism. {328}The food of the Wood-Pigeon is grain,
beech-mast, acorns, turnips, and tender shoots of plants; that of
Fruit-Pigeons consists of figs, palm-nuts, grapes, and so forth, plucked
from the tree, and in the case of _Myristicivora bicolor_ and _Globicera
myristicivora_, largely of the mace which encases the nutmeg; Ground-Doves
and other small forms subsist mainly on seeds of grasses; and it may be
safely inferred that in most cases the diet varies considerably.
_Turturoena_ is stated to eat Cicada larvae; _Leucosarcia_ those of
Diptera; _Goura_ and _Otidiphaps_ worms, snails, and insects. Pigeons,
unlike birds generally, take continuous draughts of water, immersing the
bill to the base. The nest is usually a slight platform of sticks, placed
aloft on a branch or in a bush; but our Rock-Dove and _Columba phaeonota_
of South Africa breed in caves or holes in rocks; the Stock-Dove prefers
hollow trees, rabbit-burrows, and the like; _Geophaps_ the bare soil; and
so forth. _Phaps_, _Peristera_, and _Zenaida_ nest either on the ground or
in bushes, but the latter appear to be almost invariably chosen by
Ground-Doves like _Columbigallina_ and _Geopelia_. The white eggs are two,
or exceptionally three, in number; the Dodo, however, laid only one, and so
do _Caloenas_, _Ectopistes_, _Didunculus_, and some species of _Carpophaga_
and _Columba_, as well as _Goura_, where it is larger than that of a tame
Duck. Societies, such as those of _Ectopistes_ and _Caloenas_, are most
unusual. Some Pigeons breed three times a year, the male commonly assisting
in incubation, which lasts from fourteen to twenty-eight days. The members
of this Family are shy, but readily tamed; yet the Collared Turtle-Dove is
perhaps the only really good cage-bird. Most of them are excellent for the
table, _Leucosarcia_, _Geophaps_, _Goura_, and the Treroninae being
accounted particularly delicate, while the Wood-Pigeon and the domestic
breeds speak for themselves. The great damage, however, done to crops, such
as turnips, peas, or barley, by the flocks counterbalances their economic
value to a considerable extent, the most typical forms being undoubtedly
the worst offenders.

Fam. X. DIDIDAE.–This consists of three extinct species–_Didus ineptus_,
the Dodo of Mauritius, _D. borbonicus_ of Réunion (Bourbon), and _Pezophaps
solitarius_, the Solitaire of Rodriguez.

The Dodo, familiar to all by name, if not by pictures, was an immense
Pigeon-like bird bigger than a Turkey, with an aborted keel to the sternum
and the wings also aborted. The coracoid and scapula met at an obtuse
angle, as in many other flightless species. {329}The huge blackish bill
terminated in a large horny hook, the cheeks were partly bare, the short
yellow legs were stout, scaly, and feathered on the upper portion; the
plumage was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail,
yellowish-white wings, and black tips to their coverts. The short rectrices
formed a curled tuft, and the first four primaries were directed backwards.

[Illustration: FIG. 66.–Dodo. _Didus ineptus._ (After Savery's Vienna
picture.)]

This uncouth and unwieldy species, of which a full account will be found in
the works mentioned below,[210] which have been largely utilized here, was
noticed as early as 1598 by the Dutch, who called it Walghvogel, or
Nauseous Bird, from their dislike of its flesh, and the island, where it
was then found abundantly, Mauritius. The earliest representation was given
in 1601 by De Bry, who stated that an example was brought alive to Holland.
Other Dutch fleets subsequently visited the island, and several sketches of
the Dodo were made, while one of the captains records that it was
indifferently called Dodaars or Dronte. Roelandt Savery of Courtrai
(1576-1639) painted the Dodo–probably from life–more than once, pictures by
him still existing in {330}Berlin (1626), Vienna (1628), the Hague,
Pommersfelden, Stuttgart, and London, the last-named belonging to the
Zoological Society. The British Museum also possesses an undated picture,
another is at Haarlem, a third at Oxford; while one by Goiemare at Sion
House (dated 1627), and one said to be by Hoefnagel in the library of the
late Emperor of Austria (_circa_ 1620) were possibly taken from living
birds. In 1628 Englishmen appeared on the scene, Emanuel Altham having sent
a specimen home alive to his brother, while Herbert, accompanying the same
fleet, mentioned the Dodo and figured it. About 1634 an example was given
to the Anatomy School at Oxford by a Mr. Gosling, and some four years later
Sir Hamon Lestrange saw a captive bird in London. Finally, we may note that
individuals existed in Mauritius until 1681, as proved by the journal of
Benjamin Harry.

In 1865 the discovery of a large quantity of remains in the Mare aux
Songes, by Mr. G. Clark, enabled Owen and others to confirm the suggestion
of the Danish naturalist, Reinhardt, of the Dodo's affinity to the Pigeons;
while in 1889 M. Sauzier, acting for the Government of Mauritius, sent to
the late Sir Edward Newton a series of bones from the same spot, enabling
the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton to be returned
for the museum of that island, and the important paper, noticed above, to
be published by the last-named and Dr. Gadow. Nearly perfect specimens
exist at Cambridge, in the British Museum, and at Paris.

The Dodo is said to have inhabited forests, to have swallowed pebbles, to
have uttered a cry like that of a gosling, and to have laid one large white
egg on a mass of grass. Hogs and other imported animals seem to have
conduced to its extermination, as well as the hand of man.

_Didus borbonicus_ had white plumage, varied with yellow, the first four
primaries being directed forwards and downwards. It is mentioned by Tatton
(1625), Du Bois (1669), and Carré (1699); while Bontekoe (1646) gave a
figure apparently intended to represent it, and another by Pierre Witthoos
(_ob._ 1693) was in existence a few years ago. It was originally called the
Solitaire, but this name was also applied to _Pezophaps solitarius_ of
Rodriguez by the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured the
latter about 1691. _Pezophaps_ was subsequently briefly noticed by
D'Heguerty (1751) and again by Pingré (1761), who heard {331}that it still
existed in inaccessible districts; while it is also mentioned in an
anonymous manuscript discovered at Paris, written perhaps about 1729.
Remains came into the hands of Desjardins in 1789 (not fully recognised
until 1832), and others were forwarded to England; but much the most
important finds were those of the late Sir Edward Newton in 1864, followed
up by Mr. Jenner in the succeeding years, and of Mr. H. H. Slater in
1874.[211] In 1875 two complete skeletons were obtained, and fairly perfect
specimens of those of each sex are at Cambridge, with others elsewhere.

This Solitaire was larger than a Swan, the male standing about 2 feet 9
inches, and the female 2 feet 3 inches high; the colour of the former was
brownish-grey, but the latter varied from the hue of "fair hair" to brown,
and had a whitish breast. The slightly-hooked, elongated beak had a
feathered ridge or peak at the base of the culmen, the neck was elongated
and straight, the legs were longer and weaker than in the Dodo, the wings
were rudimentary, the hind part (pelvis) was rounded, the tail was hardly
noticeable, and the thigh-feathers were thick, and curved like shells at
the end. A spherical mass of bone, "as big as a musket-ball," was developed
on the wings of the males; and they used it, in addition to the beak, as a
weapon of offence, while they whirled themselves about twenty or thirty
times in four or five minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a
rattle. The mien was fine and the walk stately, the birds being seen singly
or in pairs; the nest was a heap of palm-leaves a foot or more high, the
single large egg was incubated by both parents. The food is said to have
consisted of seeds and leaves, and a stone as big as a hen's egg was often
found in the stomach.

Fam. XI. DIDUNCULIDAE.–_Didunculus strigirostris_, the Manu-meà or Red Bird
of the islands of Upolu, Savai, and Tutuila in the Samoan group, is glossy
greenish-black, with chestnut back, rump, wing-coverts, tail and under
tail-coverts, but browner wing-quills and abdomen. The hooked and toothed
bill is orange, the feet are reddish, and the naked orbits red. The sexes
are similar, the young entirely brown. First made known by Strickland on
the strength of its discovery in the autumn of 1839 by Peale {332}during
the United States Exploring Expedition under Commander Wilkes, it has since
been met with by several travellers and missionaries, three living
specimens having been exhibited in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of
London. By 1863 it was regarded as nearly extinct on Upolu, where it was
formerly abundant, though it still held its own on Savai; but in 1874 an
increase was reported from the latter island, which was attributed to a
change of habits, the birds having become arboreal instead of terrestrial.

[Illustration: FIG. 67.–Manu-meà or Tooth-billed Pigeon. _Didunculus
strigirostris._ × ¼.]

The oldest accounts, derived from native sources, stated that _Didunculus_
was essentially a ground species, living on thickly-wooded mountain-sides
in flocks of about a dozen, and feeding on berries, plantains (bananas),
and yam fruit, while it roosted on low stumps, and bred on the ground,
being rather shy, and taking to flight noisily with much flapping of the
wings. Mr. Whitmee[212] and others, however, tell us that it now feeds
almost exclusively on high trees, roosting aloft, and building in the
forks. But as early as 1852 Lieutenant Walpole[213] asserted that the bird
bred among rocks, perched and fed on trees, and flew from wood to wood, or
even from island to island, so that it is not impossible that its supposed
affinity to the Dodo led writers astray, and that its fondness for the
ground was greatly exaggerated. No doubt danger from introduced cats and
rats would force the nest to be placed higher.

{333}The Tooth-billed Pigeon was usually found in pairs or small parties,
and was in great request for food among the natives, who, moreover, kept
individuals tethered to sticks as pets, while the chiefs erected small huts
in which to feed the flocks. They were often attracted by decoys, and
caught with bird-lime. The habits are diurnal, or somewhat crepuscular; the
note apparently varies from deep and guttural to low and plaintive; and
breeding takes place from May to September, the single egg being white. The
birds are decidedly pugnacious in captivity, and occasionally nibble their
food in Parrot fashion.

[Illustration: FIG. 68.–Crowned Pigeon. _Goura coronata._ × ⅑.]

Fam. XII. COLUMBIDAE.–If we omit the Arctic and Antarctic countries, this
group forms a remarkably cosmopolitan Family, though with an irregular
distribution. Roughly speaking, there are recognised some dozen
Palaearctic, and still fewer Nearctic species, with about seventy
Neotropical and forty Ethiopian; India possesses about thirty, the Malay
Archipelago perhaps a hundred and twenty, New Guinea and the Moluccas a
hundred. Many island forms occur in Polynesia, but Australia can barely
claim twenty, the New Zealand seas only furnish two, and the Sandwich
Islands none.

{334}Sub-fam. 1. _Gourinae._–This contains seven species of _Goura_–_G.
coronata_ of Western New Guinea, Waigiou, Batanta, Salawatti, and Mysol,
_G. cinerea_ of the Arfak Mountains, _G. sclateri_ of Central and Southern
New Guinea, _G. albertisi_ of South-East New Guinea, _G. scheepmakeri_,
probably from South-West New Guinea–all of which have the erect
crest-feathers with entirely decomposed webs–_G. victoria_ of Jobi and
Mysori, and _G. beccarii_ of Central and North New Guinea–which have them
with spatulate tips. The first of these, discovered by Dampier in 1699, is
bluish-slate-coloured, with darker wings, and some black on the chin and
sides of the head; a broad chestnut band crossing the back, one of white
shewing conspicuously on the wing, and one of grey terminating the tail.
The other species differ in the amount of chestnut above, the wing-bar
being grey and the breast chestnut in some cases. These birds are found
near open or cultivated lands, ranging from the coast regions to an
altitude of a thousand feet; they feed in small flocks, and eat seeds,
berries, and other fruits, buds of plants, worms, and insects. The usual
note is long, harsh, and trumpet-like, the love-call a short mournful coo.
When disturbed they take to cover, and pitch upon low branches, where they
also roost; in the heat of the day they lie in the shade with outspread
wings and tail; and in the courting-season the cocks fight savagely for the
hens. The nest, a careless platform of sticks, contains one large white
egg.

Sub-fam. 2. _Peristerinae._–This ranges over both the Old and the New
World, _Zenaida_, _Peristera_, and their closest allies being confined to
the latter, while _Turtur_, _Phaps_, and so forth belong to the former.

Group (_a_).–_Caloenas nicobarica_, which extends from the Nicobar Islands
through the Malay Archipelago to the Solomons, is a metallic-green bird,
with bronzy reflexions and blackish head, neck, and upper breast, most of
the remiges being black, and the tail with its coverts white. The long
narrow neck-hackles, the roughly-scaled legs, and the black knob at the
base of the bill are also remarkable features. Partly but not entirely
terrestrial, it walks at a great rate, feeds mainly upon the ground on
seeds, utters a croaking note, often builds in societies on trees, and lays
one white egg. _C. pelewensis_, of the Pelew Islands, is smaller and bluer.

Group (_b_).–This section of the Sub-family contains several robust forms,
with fairly long, stout legs, and short, rounded wings. {335}_Otidiphaps
nobilis_ of Western New Guinea and Batanta, _O. cervicalis_ of South-East
New Guinea, and _O. insularis_ of Fergusson Island, are greenish-black,
chestnut, and purple, with the bill red, the feet reddish with rough yellow
scales, and the nape green, grey, and black respectively. They have no less
than twenty rectrices, while the first two have an occipital crest. These
Pigeons, said to resemble Megapodes in habits, frequent hills or dense
thickets, often near the sea-coast, but are difficult of observation, owing
to their shyness; they run swiftly with erect outspread tail, perch on low
boughs, and have a harsh cry, varied by a plaintive note; the food consists
of fruits, roots, and snails. The nest, containing one egg, is said to be
placed at the foot of a tree. _Starnoenas cyanocephala_, of Cuba and the
Florida Keys, is brown above and purplish-rufous below, with a blue crown
surrounded by black, a black throat with a white basal line, a white stripe
across each cheek, and red bill and feet varied with bluish. This bird, the
"Perdiz" of the Cubans, frequents wooded hills and has somewhat
gallinaceous habits; the food consists of seeds, berries, and snails, the
hollow note having the effect of ventriloquism. Another long-legged,
terrestrial genus from New Guinea is _Eutrygon_; _E. terrestris_ being
olivaceous lead-coloured, with rufous outer margins to the brown remiges,
while _E. leucopareia_ has a reddish hue on the wing-coverts. _Leucosarcia
picata_, the white-fleshed Wonga-wonga of Eastern Australia, is blue-black
with white forehead, pectoral band, and central abdomen. It inhabits the
brushes, and feeds chiefly upon the ground on seeds, fruits, and
insect-larvae; the flight is of short duration and the habits somewhat
Pheasant-like; the nest is in a tree. _Phlogoenas_ contains a score of
members ranging from the Philippines and Timor to the Society Islands. _P.
luzonica_ of Luzon has purplish upper parts, a greyish-blue head, and
yellowish-white lower parts, with a patch of stiff red decomposed feathers
over the crop; the inner webs of the remiges are more or less rufous, a
characteristic found also in _Chalcopelia_, _Columbigallina_,
_Scardafella_, and _Leptoptila_, from very different parts of the world.
_P. rufigula_, of New Guinea and the islands to the north-west, has the
crop-patch yellowish-ochre; _P. tristigma_ of North Celebes is perhaps most
striking of all, with its yellow breast and forehead, green head, purple
nape, and green and purple tints on the brown upper back; _P. stairi_ of
the Fiji and Tonga {336}Islands has a greenish-grey head and brownish upper
surface, with brilliant violet-purple on the wings and a vinous breast,
while the female differs in being olive-brown, with the head and breast
dull cinnamon. _P. kubaryi_ of the Caroline group is almost entirely
violet-purple above, the head being grey, the forehead, sides of the neck,
throat, and breast white. _Geotrygon_ with some dozen and a half species
extends from South Mexico to Paraguay, several of them being peculiar to
the West Indies. _G. montana_, the "Mountain-Partridge," ranges from Key
West and Cuba to Paraguay. It has a purplish-rufous upper surface, while
the lower parts are whitish-fawn colour, with a purplish breast. The female
is olive with a tinge of gold above, and chiefly buff below, with browner
breast. _G. chrysia_ of Haiti, Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Florida Keys has
reddish-brown upper parts, with reflexions of brilliant purple, green, and
gold, and vinaceous-white lower parts. _G. violacea_ of Central America and
Brazil, _G. cristata_, the Mountain-Witch, of Jamaica, _G. linearis_ of
Colombia, and other species, bear a general resemblance to the above. These
birds frequent thickly-wooded districts or mountainous tracts, where they
feed upon the ground on seeds, fallen berries, snails, and slugs. They
often have recourse to running, yet the flight is rapid and whirring; the
note is a moaning coo, the nest a slight structure on bushes, trees, or
even the ground. _Osculatia purpurea_ and _O. sapphirina_ are two beautiful
Ecuadorian Pigeons, of which the former has a rich purple crown and
occiput, a purplish-violet mantle with duller wings, a violet rump, a
bronzy-green hind-neck, a white forehead, throat, and abdomen, a greyish
breast, and white cheeks with a black transverse stripe below. The latter
has the crown grey, the occiput golden-green. _Leptoptila_ (_Engyptila_ of
some authors), distributed from Texas to Argentina, contains about
seventeen somewhat similar forms, which have olive-brown upper parts, with
red, green, and dove-coloured reflexions, and usually pinkish-white or
greyish under parts. The wing-quills almost invariably shew some cinnamon
on their inner webs, while in _L. rufinucha_, the region of the nape is
rufous. The White-bellied Pigeon of Jamaica (_L. jamaicensis_) is an
unsuspicious bird which habitually lives on the ground in woods, eats seeds
and fruits, runs, walks, or flies for short distances, and sometimes uses
straw instead of sticks for its nest. The genus _Haplopelia_ is restricted
to the Ethiopian {337}Region, _H. larvata_ of South Africa, _H. bronzina_
of Abyssinia and Shoa, _H. principalis_ of Prince's Island, _H. simplex_ of
St. Thomas, _H. johnstoni_ of Nyassa-Land, and _H. inornata_ of the
Cameroons, being all much alike. The first-mentioned–common in woods near
Cape Town–is plain brown, with green and purple gloss on the crown and
nape, a white forehead and throat, and vinaceous breast with coppery
reflexions. It is the Cinnamon or Lemon Dove of the colonists, and feeds
chiefly on berries, obtained upon the ground.

Group (_c_).–The third section of the Peristerinae is confined to the Old
World, and shews metallic blue or green wing-spots or patches. _Ocyphaps
lophotes_, the swift Crested Bronze-wing of the interior of Australia, is
found in flocks, especially near water, and has a remarkable habit, when
alighting, of erecting its long, black crest and elevating its tail until
they almost meet. It is a grey bird, possessing bronzy-green wing-coverts
tipped with white, a metallic purple gloss on the secondaries, and
peacock-blue outer rectrices. _Lophophaps plumifera_ of North-West
Australia, which has a western race, _L. ferruginea_, and a southern, _L.
leucogaster_, is a terrestrial species, frequenting creeks in the desert,
and running on the ground like a Quail. The nest is a mere hole in the
ground lined with a little grass; the eggs are said to be creamy-white. The
Plumed Bronze-wing, as it is called, has the general plumage and full crest
pale cinnamon, the throat white, with a black median stripe, a black
gorget, a crescentic band of grey on the chest with a black line below, and
a few purple spots on the secondaries. _Geophaps scripta_, the Partridge
Bronze-wing or Squatter of North-West and East Australia, has a peculiar
habit of squatting on the ground or on the branches of any tree in which it
takes refuge. It is light brown above and grey below, with curious black
and white markings on the sides of the head and throat; the wing-coverts
have pale tips, and the innermost of the greater series greenish-purple
outer webs. _G. smithi_ of North-West Australia is browner. From the same
parts comes _Petrophassa albipennis_, which frequents rocks, though its
nest has not yet been recorded; it is a reddish-brown bird with greyer
head, grey centres to the feathers, and concealed purplish spots on the
wing-coverts; the throat is black and white, the primaries brown with white
bases. _Histrioniphaps histrionica_, of the interior and North-West of
Australia, has brown upper {338}and grey under parts; the head is finely
varied with jet-black and pure white, the secondaries shew patches of
metallic-purple, and the primaries have white tips and partly rufous inner
webs. The female is much duller. It is essentially a Ground-Pigeon, and
breeds on the bare soil of the plains; but the flight is much stronger than
might be expected, as is also the case with _Geophaps_. _Phaps chalcoptera_
and _P. elegans_, of Australia and Tasmania, in their mode of life resemble
the preceding, though the latter species is the more terrestrial, while
both usually build in low trees or bushes. _P. chalcoptera_, the Common
Bronze-wing, is extremely handsome, the greyish-brown upper surface being
relieved by a purple band on the crown and most brilliant bronze and green
spots upon the wing; the breast is pinkish, the throat white, and the
forehead white with a wash of yellow. The inner webs of the remiges are
partly rufous. _P. elegans_, the Brush Bronze-wing, is a shorter-winged
bird, with chestnut throat and grey breast. _Henicophaps albifrons_ of New
Guinea and the adjacent western islands has the forehead whitish, the neck
and under parts rich reddish-purple, the back blue-black, the wings glossed
with golden-green and bronze, and their coverts margined with chestnut. The
beak is longer and stouter than in the allied forms, and the bird is partly
arboreal. _Calopelia puella_ of West Africa is a fine cinnamon-coloured
bird, with blue head and iridescent green spots on the wings. Of
_Chalcophaps_, ranging from India, Burma, and South China, through the
islands to Australia and the New Hebrides, Count Salvadori makes two
divisions, though the species are little more than local races. Of the
first of these, with golden-green mid-back and scapulars, _C. indica_, the
Emerald Dove or Beetle-wing, may be taken as typical; the head is blue with
white forehead and sides, the upper back is purplish, the wing-coverts
golden-green, the lower back bronzy with two grey bars, the rump nearly
black, and the under parts purplish-pink. The female is brown and somewhat
redder below, with grey forehead. This species covers nearly the whole
range of the genus, but only stretches eastward to Geelvink Bay in New
Guinea. _C. chrysochlora_ reaches from Timor to the New Hebrides; _C.
sanghirensis_ occurs in Great Sanghir Island; _C. natalis_ in Christmas
Island, Indian Ocean. _C. stephani_, of Celebes and Papuasia, and _C.
mortoni_, of the Solomon Islands, constitute the second division, where the
mid-back and {339}scapulars are reddish-cinnamon. These Pigeons frequent
bushy districts, feed on the ground on seeds and fruits, run fast, and fly
swiftly for short distances. They have a mournful note, breed on low trees,
and make a fairly compact nest of roots, grass, or twigs. _Chalcopelia
afra_ inhabits Africa south of Abyssinia and Senegambia. It has olive-brown
upper parts, with two black stripes across the lower back, and a few large
spots of brilliant purple and green on the wing; the under parts are
pinkish, and the inner webs of the primaries and their coverts bright
rufous. _C. chalcospilus_, with the spots golden-green, is probably a
variety. They inhabit bushy country in pairs, the flight, food, note, and
nest being similar to those of _Chalcophaps_. _Tympanistria bicolor_ is a
similar but greyer bird, with the purple spots almost black and the lower
parts white; it inhabits Southern Africa, Madagascar, the Comoros, and
Fernando Po. The very long-tailed _Oena capensis_ is pale brown above and
white below, with black face and throat, grey crown, two black bands across
the lower back, and steel-blue patches on the wings. The inner webs of the
primaries and their coverts are cinnamon. The female has a white face and
throat. It is a bird of rough bushy country, which is seldom found in
flocks, utters a deep plaintive note, and breeds in low trees. This species
walks with the utmost rapidity, and feeds upon the ground on seeds of
grasses and grain. It is found in tropical and Southern Africa, in
Madagascar, and at Aden and Jeddah.

Group (_d_).–The most typical Peristerinae constitute a fourth section,
usually with metallic wing-spots, restricted to America. _Metriopelia
melanoptera_ and _M. aymara_ range from Ecuador and Peru respectively to
Chili and the borders of Argentina. The former is greyish-brown above and
vinaceous below, with black wings and tail, the latter has golden spots on
the wing-coverts. They are found in small flocks in the valleys of the
Andes, and in winter on the coast, being called by the natives "Tortola
cordillerana," or "Cordillera Dove." _Peristera cinerea_ is bluish-grey in
the male, with lighter under parts, black remiges and outer rectrices, some
velvety black spots being very conspicuous on the wings and scapulars. The
female is brown, with cinnamon wing-spots. This species ranges from South
Mexico to Paraguay; while _P. geoffroyi_, with white-tipped lateral
tail-feathers and a grey breast, inhabits South-East Brazil; _P.
mondetoura_, with {340}chestnut breast, occurs from South Mexico to Peru.
They frequent wooded and hilly districts, forming small flocks and uttering
a cry resembling "huup-huup." _Oxypelia cyanopis_, of the interior of
Brazil, and _Uropelia campestris_, of that country and Bolivia, link the
above genus to _Columbigallina_, which contains six species. _C. passerina_
extends from the southern United States and the West Indies to Peru and
Paraguay; _C. minuta_ occupies a similar range, except for the United
States; and _C. cruziana_ reaches from Ecuador to North Chili–all with
naked feet; _C. buckleyi_ inhabits Ecuador and Peru; _C. talpacoti_, most
of South America north of Paraguay; _C. rufipennis_ ranges from Mexico to
the north of South America, these three having the metatarsi feathered
laterally. _C. passerina_ is olive-grey, with violet spots on the wing and
purplish coverts; the feathers of the forehead and under parts being
vinous, with dull brown centres to the latter, and those of the hinder
portion of the head bluish, with dusky margins, which cause a scaly
appearance. The female lacks the purple and red tints. _C. minuta_, the
most diminutive Pigeon known,–though _Oena_ would be smaller but for its
tail,–is uniform below. The other species differ but little, though only
_C. rufipennis_ has, like the above, the under surface of the wing
cinnamon. Flocks of the Ground-Dove or Tortolita, as _C. passerina_ is
called, are found amongst open woods and pastures, running about with
elevated tails, and feeding chiefly upon the ground on seeds, berries,
peas, and grain; if disturbed, they betake themselves with low and noisy
flight to a tree; but they are usually very tame, and may often be heard
uttering their mournful notes on the roofs of outbuildings. The nest,
placed in low bushes or on the ground, is carefully constructed and lined
with grass, two or three broods being reared in the season. The hen is said
to feign disablement at its nest like a Plover, while the birds apparently
dust themselves in gallinaceous fashion. _Columbula picui_, distinguished
by a blue band on the wing-coverts, occurs in South America from Bolivia
and Chili eastward.

Group (_e_).–The fifth section of the Peristerinae exhibit no metallic
spots or lustre, while the wings are rounded and the tail is rather long.
_Gymnopelia erythrothorax_, of the mountains of Peru, Bolivia, and North
Chili, is brown, with vinaceous head and breast, and remarkably large naked
orbits of orange margined with black. _Scardafella_ has crescentic black
edges to the feathers, the upper parts being brown and the lower pinky
white, while the {341}primaries have cinnamon inner webs. _S. squamosa_, of
Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia, has a white wing-patch, absent in _S.
inca_, extending from Texas to Nicaragua. These "Scaly Doves," as they are
called, seem to be essentially terrestrial. _Geopelia humeralis_, of
Australia and Southern New Guinea, is brown above, with black scale-like
markings, a rufous nape, a bluish forehead and chest, a pinkish breast, and
a white mid-belly. The remiges are rufous on the inner web. _G. cuneata_,
of Australia only, has small white wing-spots, and no black marginal
markings on the feathers. _G. tranquilla_, of the same country, _G.
striata_, ranging from South Tenasserim to the Philippines and the
Moluccas–introduced into Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands, and St.
Helena–and _G. maugei_, found from the Timor group to the Ké Islands, are
distinctly banded with black and white, the first round the neck only, the
other two on the breast also. These long-tailed species, resembling
miniature Turtle-Doves, frequent grassy plains, thickets, or swampy
river-sides in small flocks, and flit tamely from tree to tree, alighting
with upturned tail; the coo is rarely loud; the food consists of seeds and
berries, usually obtained upon the ground; the nest, placed rather low, is
of twigs or grass.

Group (_f_).–_Turtur_ contains twenty-eight Old World forms, reaching
eastward to Japan, the Ladrones, and the Moluccas. In habits resembling the
members of the genus _Columba_, they are browner in coloration, and about
three quarters of the size; while some exhibit lateral patches of dark
feathers tipped with blue, grey, or white on the neck, the plumage whereof
in other species is bifurcated and spotted with rufous or white. Many have
a black nuchal collar, and a few somewhat fawn-coloured upper parts; the
lower surface is more or less vinaceous, and the rectrices, except the two
median, are tipped with white or grey. The following may exemplify the
range of this sixth section of the Peristerinae:–_Turtur communis_, the
Turtle-Dove of Europe, winters in Northern Africa and Western Asia; _T.
douraca_ or _risorius_ (our common cage-bird), extends from Turkey to India
and Japan; _T. orientalis_, accidental in Europe, only from India to Japan;
_T. tigrinus_ from the Malay countries to the Moluccas; _T. dussumieri_
from Borneo to the Ladrones; _T. semitorquatus_, _T. isabellinus_, and so
forth, inhabit Africa; _T. picturatus_ Madagascar, _T. aldabranus_, _T.
comorensis_, _T. coppingeri_, _T. abbotti_, and _T. rostratus_ the
neighbouring {342}Islands. The African _T. senegalensis_ is found in the
Canaries, and several introduced species occur in Madagascar or Mauritius.

Group (_g_).–The seventh section of the Peristerinae is characterized by
metallic spots near the ear-coverts and an iridescent gloss on the sides of
the neck. _Melopelia leucoptera_, found from Texas to Costa Rica and the
West Indies, and the very similar _M. meloda_ of Peru and Chili, have a
white wing-patch. One of the notes resembles a cock's crow. _Nesopelia_, of
the Galápagos, links these closely to _Zenaida_, with six members, found
from the Florida Keys, Yucatan, and the Antilles, through South America to
Patagonia. _Z. amabilis_, the Pea- or Mountain-Dove of the islands from the
Florida Keys to Antigua, is reddish-olive, with vinous head and breast, two
peacock-blue ear-spots, black blotches on the scapulars and wing-coverts,
black remiges, and a white band across the secondaries. Chiefly
terrestrial, it roosts and nests either on trees or on the ground, the
flight being swift, and the note very soft. _Zenaidura carolinensis_, the
Mourning-Dove of North America, including Southern Canada, is not unlike
the above, but has the crown, sides of the body, and edges of the wings
blue, and in the male the breast purplish. Small flocks often frequent the
neighbourhood of houses, while the flight is strong, the note guttural and
melancholy, the food of grain, berries, acorns, shoots of plants, and
apparently worms. The nest is placed indifferently on the earth or aloft.

Sub-fam. 3. _Columbinae._–_Ectopistes migratorius_, the well-known
Passenger-Pigeon, breeds in eastern North America, chiefly in Canada and
the adjoining United States, and wanders to the Pacific and Cuba. Its
immense colonies are seemingly a thing of the past, though as lately as
1888 a northward flight crossed Michigan, where in 1878, at Petosky, the
"roost," or area occupied, is said to have been twenty-eight miles long by
three or four broad. The trees were often laden with nests, and during a
stay of five weeks several millions of birds are stated to have been
captured, chiefly by means of nets and decoys; though earlier authors, such
as Wilson, mention many different methods of slaughter. The parents were
very noisy, and covered vast distances in search of food; but, save for the
sharp call-note, and the single egg, the other habits were as in most
arboreal Pigeons.

_Coryphoenas crassirostris_, of the Solomon Islands, a slate-coloured
species with brownish head and crest, resembles in its {343}very stout bill
and long graduated rectrices _Reinwardtoenas reinwardti_, ranging from
Celebes to Papuasia, and _R. browni_, of the Duke of York Island and New
Britain. In the two last-named the head is grey, the under parts are white,
and the naked orbits red, the former having the back chestnut, the latter
black. Closely allied are the two dozen Pheasant-like members of
_Macropygia_, with elongated wedge-shaped tails, from the Indian and
Australian Regions, which have rich chestnut, purplish-brown, or cinnamon
plumage, with darker shading and iridescent sheen, chiefly confined to the
upper surface. The head is usually lighter, the under parts are often buff
or vinaceous, and the irides parti-coloured; the naked orbits vary in tint.
Inhabiting bushy country or hills up to about eight thousand feet, they fly
but short distances, feeding upon the ground on seeds and berries, and
uttering a loud monotonous note. _M. tusalia_, the Cuckoo-Dove, occurs from
North India to West China; _M. leptogrammica_ inhabits the Malay Countries;
several other species carry the range to the Moluccas; _M. tenuirostris_
occupies the Philippine and Sulu Islands; _M. phasianella_ the eastern half
of Australia; _M. doreya_ and so forth New Guinea and its islands; _M.
rufa_ the New Hebrides; _M. rufo-castanea_ the Solomons. The two last-named
have bifurcated breast-feathers.

_Turacoena menadensis_, of Celebes, the Togian and Sula Islands, is
slate-black with golden-green occiput, neck, and breast, white face and
throat, and naked red orbits; _T. modesta_, of Timor, has the orbits
yellow, and lacks the white. _Turturoena delegorgii_, of Natal, is
slaty-black, with a chestnut mantle surmounted by a white band, lilac and
green reflexions on the occiput, neck, and chest, vinous under parts, and
bare pink orbits. The female is brownish-grey, having a cinnamon head and
nape glossed with green, but no white collar. _T. sharpii_, of East
Equatorial Africa, differs in its green crown and nuchal region; _T.
iriditorques_, found from the Gaboon to Liberia, lacks the white band, and
has the lateral rectrices tipped with buff; _Nesoenas mayeri_, of
Mauritius, is reddish-brown, with pink head, neck, and lower surface.

The cosmopolitan genus _Columba_ contains nearly sixty members, of which
comparatively few inhabit the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions; the general
coloration is blue, relieved by black and rufous, or a metallic red and
green sheen. Want of space forbids a description of every form, and the
following are in no definite order: but _C. palumbus_, _C. laurivora_, _C.
bollii_, _C. trocaz_, {344}_C. leucocephala_, and so forth, are
Wood-Pigeons; _C. livia_, _C. schimperi_, _C. affinis_, _C. intermedia_,
and _C. leuconota_ are true Rock-Pigeons; _C. oenas_ and its nearest allies
being somewhat intermediate. _C. rufina_, extending from Guatemala to Peru
and Brazil, and _C. speciosa_, ranging further north to Mexico, are
especially ruddy; _C. ianthina_, of Japan and the Liu-Kiu Islands, is
unusually metallic; _C. grisea_, of Borneo and Sumatra, is mainly light
grey; _C. polleni_, of the Comoro Islands, olive-brown; _C. arquatrix_, of
Eastern and South-Western Africa, is flecked with white above and below;
_C. speciosa_, only on the hind neck; _C. guinea_, of Western and
North-Eastern Africa, has bifurcated neck-feathers and triangular white
wing-spots; _C. leucocephala_, of the Florida Keys, Bahamas, Antilles, and
Honduras, and _C. leucomela_, of East Australia, have the crown, and the
latter the neck and under parts white; _C. leuconota_, the "Snow-Pigeon" of
Kashmir, Yarkand, and Tibet, has the neck, lower back, and breast white;
_C. palumbus_, our Ring-Dove, Wood-Pigeon, Cushat, or Queest, the habits of
which are universally known, extends through the Palaearctic Region from
Madeira and the Azores to Persia; it differs from the smaller and darker
Stock-Dove (_C. oenas_), of the same Region eastward to Turkestan, by the
white patches on the sides of its neck and the white wing-bar. _C. livia_,
the Rock-Dove, from which our domestic races have sprung, is easily
distinguishable from other British species by the white rump and the two
black alar bands. The breeding habits of our native birds, and the damage
done by flocks of Wood-Pigeons, partly composed of immigrants, have already
been mentioned (p. 328). _Columba laurivora_ and _C. bollii_, which lays
but one egg, are peculiar to the Canary Islands; _C. trocaz_ to Madeira,
_C. torringtoniae_ to Ceylon, _C. palumboïdes_ to the Andamans and
Nicobars, _C. metallica_ to Timor, _C. gymnophthalma_, apparently to
Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, and several forms to Samoa, the Liu-Kiu,
Bonin, Fiji, and other groups. _C. araucana_ reaches the Straits of
Magellan.

_Gymnophaps albertisi_, of New Guinea, is grey, with whitish breast,
purplish-chestnut under parts elsewhere, and naked red orbits.

Sub-fam. 4. _Treroninae._–This includes the Fruit-Pigeons in the widest
sense, natives of the Old World, of which the bigger are contained in the
first eight genera. _Hemiphaga novae zealandiae_, of New Zealand, is green,
with brilliant coppery reflexions, brownish-purple back, and white abdomen;
_H. spadicea_, of {345}Norfolk Island, and _H. chathamensis_, of the
Chatham group, have greyer wing-coverts and green nape. _Lopholaemus
antarcticus_, of Eastern Australia, is grey, with a fine rufous crest,
black remiges, black rectrices banded with grey, and bare reddish orbits;
the neck-feathers being hackled as in _Caloenas_. In _Myristicivora_ the
general plumage is white, but _M. bicolor_, of the Malay Archipelago, has
black wing-quills and tip to the tail; the similar _M. spilorrhoa_ of
Australia and Papuasia, the yellower _M. subflavescens_ of New Ireland, and
the blacker-tailed _M. melanura_ of the Moluccas, have black spots near the
vent; _M. luctuosa_, of Celebes and the Sula Islands, has the remiges
nearly grey.

_Phaenorrhina goliath_, of New Caledonia and the Isle of Pines, is
slaty-black, with maroon patches on the wing-coverts and abdomen, black
quills, and a broad chestnut tail-bar.

The forty to fifty species of _Carpophaga_ range from India to Hainan and
Fiji. _C. concinna_, found in the Moluccas, Tenimber, Ké, and Aru Islands,
is metallic bronzy-green with grey head and lower surface; _C. aenea_,
extending from India and Ceylon to Hainan and Flores, has more vinaceous
lower parts and greener tail; _C. latrans_, of Fiji, is nearly brown above;
_C. zoeae_, of Papuasia, has a chestnut mantle and black pectoral band. _C.
griseipectus_, of the Philippines, has a grey back with blackish-green
spots, and a chestnut lower breast; _C. basilica_, of the Halmahera group,
has a pinkish-white head and upper breast, a rufous lower breast, and a
broad grey tip to the tail; _C. cuprea_, of Southern India, is brown, with
white throat, greyish-pink head, neck, mantle, and under parts; _C.
poecilorrhoa_, of North Celebes, is glossy greenish-black above with grey
head, mantle, and chest, and brown breast with ochre markings; _C. pinon_,
of New Guinea and the Western Papuan Islands, is slaty-grey with a white
forehead, a ring of white feathers round the naked red orbits, and a
purplish-chestnut lower breast. Large flocks commonly gather after
breeding. The seven species of _Globicera_, remarkable for a fleshy knob at
the base of the bill, may be represented by _C. pacifica_, ranging from New
Guinea to Samoa, and _C. rubricera_, of New Ireland, New Britain, New
Hanover, and the Duke of York Island. The former has a grey head,
bronzy-green upper parts, bluer remiges and rectrices and pinkish lower
surface, the knob being black. The latter has a vinous head, grey mantle,
chestnut abdomen, and red knob. {346}_Serresius galeatus_, of the Marquesas
Islands, noted for the feathered skin or "saddle" covering half the culmen,
is deep glossy green, with dark grey head and under parts. All these
Fruit-Pigeons feed and build on lofty trees, and seldom, if ever, descend
to the ground–possessing short legs and broad-soled grasping feet; they
have a powerful rapid flight and utter varied notes, occasionally deep and
booming like a wild beast's roar; they eat vast quantities of fruit, and
some are very fond of mice; while they normally lay two eggs, but
exceptionally one.

The five splendid species of _Megaloprepia_ occupy the Northern Moluccas,
Papuasia, and Eastern Australia. _M. magnifica_ of the latter country has a
greenish-grey head and neck, golden-green upper parts with an oblique
yellow band on the wing-coverts, rich purple breast and abdomen, and yellow
vent. _M. formosa_ of the Halmahera group lacks the yellow on the wings and
has, in the male only, a crimson patch on the greenish breast. The other
three species are barely separable. The habits resemble those of
_Carpophaga_, the note being peculiarly hoarse.

_Alectoroenas_ comprises four remarkable forms from Madagascar and the
neighbouring islands, of which _A. nitidissima_ of Mauritius has become
extinct within historic times, three specimens being still extant at Port
Louis, Paris, and Edinburgh respectively. This species, called "Pigeon
hollondais" from its colours, which are those of the Dutch flag, is
indigo-blue, with white head and neck, vermilion tail-coverts and tail
edged with black, and red carunculated orbits, lores, and forehead. _A.
madagascariensis_, of Madagascar and Nossibé Island, has most of the neck
slaty-grey, but the head blue, and the tail crimson with a wash of blue and
green at the base, while the naked skin only surrounds the eyes. _A.
pulcherrima_ of the Seychelles, to which the name of "Pigeon hollondais"
has been transferred, has the neck and breast grey, the upper parts,
including the tail, black with blue reflexions, the crown crimson, the
orbits, lores, and forehead wattled. _A. sganzini_ of the Comoro Islands
differs in having a grey head and only the orbits bare. Throughout the
genus the long, loosely webbed and bifurcated neck-feathers resemble
hackles in appearance. The members are, according to circumstances, tame
and stupid, or shy and wary; they are arboreal and fly powerfully, while
they feed on dates, figs, berries and grain, the flocks being very
destructive to rice-crops. _Drepanoptila holosericea_, of New Caledonia and
{347}the Isle of Pines, with its feathered white metatarsi and fork-tipped
primaries, is green, with grey wing- and tail-bars, white throat and yellow
abdomen, the last being divided from the breast by a yellowish-white and a
black band.

Of the smaller Fruit-Pigeons, which differ but little in habits from the
larger, the lovely genus _Chrysoenas_ is confined to Fiji. _C. luteovirens_
has an olive-yellow head, and a bright yellow abdomen and collar; the
remaining plumage being yellow, more or less tinged with green, especially
on the wings and tail. The feathers of the neck and back are narrowly
lanceolate and the tail-coverts long. The female is green, with a yellow
wash below, and has nearly brown remiges. _C. victor_ is bright orange,
with olive-yellow head and throat and browner wing-quills; the coverts
almost conceal the tail, but the long decomposed body-feathers are not
especially narrow. The female is green, with yellowish head and
orange-margined remiges. _C. viridis_ is dark green, with a golden hue on
the back and breast, the head being almost yellow, as are the edges of the
quills. The female is green, with grey vent-region. The seventy or more
brilliantly coloured members of the genus _Ptilopus_ range from the Malay
Peninsula to the Marquesas; New Guinea and Polynesia accounting for a large
majority. The following are some of the most striking. _P. jambu_ of the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Bangka, and Billiton has the front half
of the head crimson, the upper parts bright green, the primaries black,
margined with bluish-green, the tip of the tail yellowish, and the under
parts white, with a purplish-brown streak down the throat, a rosy smear on
the breast, and a red-brown anal region. The female has dull purple on the
head and a greyish-green breast. The following three species have
bifurcated breast-feathers. _P. dupetit-thouarsi_ of the Marquesas has the
crown whitish, encircled by a yellowish line, the upper surface green with
yellow margins to the wing-quills and tip to the tail, the scapulars and
inner secondaries spotted with blue, the under parts yellowish-green, with
a cherry-coloured patch surrounded by orange on the breast, the throat and
vent pale yellow. _P. swainsoni_ of Eastern Australia, straying to
South-East New Guinea, has a rose-lilac forehead and crown with a yellow
margin behind, bright green upper parts with yellow edges to the
wing-quills and peacock-blue tips to the inner secondaries and scapulars, a
yellow tip to the tail, a {348}pale yellow throat, a dull green breast with
silvery grey tips to the feathers, and a lilac band dividing this from the
orange abdomen. The female is rather brighter green. _P. superbus_ of the
Moluccas, Papuasia and North Australia, has a purple cap, rufous-orange
nape and sides of the neck, rich green upper surface, with deep blue spots
on the scapulars and wings and a patch of the same colour at the bend of
the latter, black primaries with yellow margins, a whitish throat, and a
purple and grey breast, separated from the white abdomen and green and
white vent by a broad violet-black band. The female has green upper parts,
with blue spots on the wing-region and one on the occiput, and a grey and
green breast. _P. insolitus_ of New Ireland, New Britain, and the Duke of
York Island, with its curious orange frontal knob, is green, with grey
lesser wing-coverts and inner secondaries, a grey-tipped tail, an orange
abdomen, and a yellowish vent-region. _P. aurantiifrons_ of Papuasia has a
yellowish-green head with orange forehead; a white throat; grey neck, upper
breast, tip of the tail, and spots on the scapulars and wing-coverts; the
remaining plumage being chiefly green. _P. nanus_ of the same districts,
the smallest of the Sub-family, is bronzy-green with a greyish band on each
side of the breast, a yellow vent, and a purple abdominal patch, lacking in
the female. _Phabotreron_ is a group of similar species confined to the
Philippines. _P. amethystina_ is bronzy-brown with an amethystine nape and
lower surface, the cheeks are crossed by a black line over a white one, the
throat is reddish, the tip of the tail grey. The lines on the cheeks and a
rounded tail are characteristic of the genus.

The remaining members of the Treroninae are of a greenish or yellowish
coloration, generally varied with patches or bands of dull purple, red,
orange, or lilac–nearly or quite absent in the females, except in _Vinago_,
where the sexes are similar. This genus is Ethiopian, while the others
reach from India eastward to Japan, Formosa, and the Moluccas. _Osmotreron_
contains a dozen and a half species, of which the following may serve as
examples. _O. vernans_, ranging from the Malay countries to Cochin-China,
the Philippines, and Celebes, has a greyish head and throat,
vinaceous-purple neck, dull green upper parts, yellowish-green lower
surface with an orange pectoral patch, rufescent upper and chestnut under
tail-coverts; the wing-quills are black with yellow margins to the coverts,
and the grey tail exhibits a black {349}subterminal bar on the lateral
feathers. The small _O. olax_ of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo,
has the back maroon, the head and neck grey. _O. pompadora_ of Ceylon has
the forehead and throat yellow, the mantle maroon, and the median rectrices
green. _O. aromatica_ of Bouru differs in having no yellow forehead, and
the bend of the wing blackish.

_Treron nipalensis_ and the very closely allied _T. nasica_ are found from
Bengal and Nepal to the Indo-Malay Islands, the Philippines, and
Cochin-China; they have grey heads, chestnut mantles, black wings with
yellow edges to the coverts and secondaries, cinnamon under tail-coverts,
grey lateral rectrices banded with black, and green plumage elsewhere.
_Butreron capellii_, of the Malay Peninsula and neighbouring islands, has
the head and upper parts greyish-green, the wings nearly as in the last
species, the throat and abdomen yellowish-green, the breast orange, and the
under tail-coverts chestnut.

_Crocopus_, with its three similar members, extends from India and Ceylon
to Cochin-China. _C. chlorigaster_ has a grey head and tail, a
yellowish-green neck and under surface, a grey band across the mantle, a
yellow alar bar, an olive-green back and rump, a purple patch at the bend
of the wing, and rufous and white lower tail-coverts.

Half a dozen species of _Vinago_ range from Senegambia and Abyssinia to
Madagascar and Cape Colony. _V. waalia_, found from West to North-East
Africa, has a greenish-grey head and neck, olive upper parts,
blackish-brown remiges with yellow outer margins, a rich vinous patch on
the wing-coverts, a slaty-blue tail, a bright yellow breast, and a buff
abdomen. _V. calva_, of the Ethiopian Region northward of Angola and the
Zambesi, has a curious bare forehead and frontal swelling, a
yellowish-green head, neck, and lower surface, and a grey collar at the
base of the hind-neck. _V. crassirostris_ is confined to St. Thomas and
Rollas Islands, West Africa; _V. australis_ to Madagascar. _Sphenocercus_,
with some eight members, having wedge-shaped tails and a general
resemblance in colour, reaches from North India, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java,
to Japan and Formosa. _S. sphenurus_, of the Himalayas and the Burmese
countries, has the head, neck, and under parts greenish-yellow with a
rufous tinge, the back purplish- and bluish-green, the rump and
wing-coverts olive with a maroon patch on the latter, and the remiges
slaty-black with yellow {350}margins. _S. sieboldi_ is peculiar to Japan,
_S. sororius_ and _S. formosae_ to Formosa, _S. permagnus_ to the Liu-Kiu
Islands.

Comparatively few fossil forms of the Columbidae have been discovered, but
_Columba_ occurs in the Lower Miocene of France and in Malta, while
_Lithophaps ulnaris_ and _Progura gallinacea_ are recorded from the
Queensland Drifts, and _Alectoroenas? rodericana_ is an extinct species
from Rodriguez.

{351}CHAPTER VI

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONTINUED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION II (CORACIOMORPHAE). ORDERS: CUCULIFORMES–CORACIIFORMES

ORDER XII. CUCULIFORMES.

The Order Cuculiformes commences the last great division of Carinate Birds.
It contains the Sub-Orders CUCULI and PSITTACI; the former consisting of
the Families _Cuculidae_, or Cuckoos, and _Musophagidae_, or
Plantain-eaters; the latter of the _Psittacidae_, or Parrots, Parrakeets,
Macaws, and Cockatoos, and the _Trichoglossidae_, or Lory group.
Zygodactylous feet (p. 10) are characteristic of the Order, while further
structural details are to be found below. Dr. Gadow confirms the close
connexion of the two Sub-Orders.[214]

Fam. I. CUCULIDAE.–Here we may accept, in default of full anatomical
investigation, the Sub-families of Captain Shelley,[215] namely, (1)
_Cuculinae_, (2) _Centropodinae_, (3) _Phaenicophainae_, (4)
_Neomorphinae_, (5) _Diplopterinae_, and (6) _Crotophaginae_.

The bill is generally long and curved, being strongly arched in
_Hyetornis_, _Piaya_, _Taccocua_, and _Zanclostomus_; it is straight in
_Saurothera_ and _Rhinortha_, abnormally large in _Rhamphomantis_ and
_Scythrops_, and has the maxilla compressed into a thin elevated plate in
_Crotophaga_. The scutellated metatarsi are commonly stout, and are
especially long in the cursorial genera _Coua_ and _Geococcyx_; in
_Centropus_ the hallux terminates in an elongated spur-like claw. The wings
are long and straight in the Cuculinae, Diplopterinae, and Crotophaginae,
short and curved elsewhere; the primaries numbering ten, and the
secondaries usually nine or ten, but thirteen in _Scythrops_; in the
Neomorphinae the quills are about equal in extent. The rounded {352}or
wedge-shaped tail is nearly always long, and has ten feathers, except in
the Crotophaginae, which have eight; it is forked in two species of
_Surniculus_. _Diplopterus_ has the upper coverts half as long as the
rectrices, _Dromococcyx_ has them of the entire length. The impervious
nostrils, usually pierced in a swollen membrane, are hidden by bristly
plumes in _Dasylophus_ and _Lepidogrammus_. The furcula is Y-shaped, the
tongue is sagittate with retroverted spines on the posterior margin, the
syrinx is tracheo-bronchial or occasionally bronchial. Distinct eyelashes
are often visible, the after-shaft is rudimentary or absent, the nestlings
are naked, and down is only found in adults on the unfeathered spaces.

The plumage of the more typical Cuckoos is brownish or grey, usually with
barred under parts, the long flank-feathers covering half the metatarsi;
_Chrysococcyx_, however, contains several beautiful emerald-green forms;
while _Chalcococcyx_ is scarcely less brilliant; but _Surniculus_ and
_Cuculus clamosus_ are black. _Crotophaga_ is also black. _Coccystes_, and
several species of _Coua_, have well-developed crests, while
_Lepidogrammus_ has a rounded tuft, _Guira_ one of long narrow plumes, and
_Geococcyx mexicanus_ an erectile patch. Fork-tipped feathers on the head
and neck are not uncommon. The colour of the bill, feet, and iris varies
much; the cheeks and orbits are often naked, and may be bright red, blue,
or greyish, as in the Phoenicophainae and Centropodinae. Strong glossy
feather-shafts, often with filiform extremities, are found in _Coua_,
_Taccocua_, _Phoenicophaës_, _Rhopodytes_ and elsewhere, on the head, neck,
mantle and chest; _Crotophaga_ has stiff, scale-like borders, and
_Lepidogrammus_ metallic horny tips, to the feathers of the first two of
these; _Dasylophus_ has fine crimson hair-like tufts springing from above
each eye. The beak may be black, green, yellowish, or even, as in
_Rhamphococcyx_, chiefly red. The sexes are alike in most cases.

The Ethiopian and Indian Regions are richest in Cuculidae. New Zealand
possesses only two species; but Madagascar, besides other forms, claims the
entire genus _Coua_. In all there are more than a hundred and sixty species
of some forty-two genera.

Sub-fam. 1. _Cuculinae_.–_Cuculus canorus_, the familiar Cuckoo of Britain
and nearly all the Old World, is greyish-brown above and on the throat, the
lower parts being white barred with dusky, and the wings and tail shewing a
few white markings. A chestnut-brown or "hepatic" phase is sometimes met
with. {353}The young are brown mottled with white on the nape. Its flight
and general coloration give the Cuckoo a distinctly Hawk-like appearance,
and cause it to be systematically mobbed by small birds, while ignorant
peasants persecute it mercilessly, and assert that it "changes to a Hawk"
in winter. Certain other members of the Family have the same raptorial
aspect, notably the Asiatic Hawk-Cuckoo (_Hierococcyx_); whereas several of
the Centropodinae unconsciously mimic Pheasants in their colour, in their
red orbits and their wedge-shaped tail. _Geococcyx_ is still more like a
Galline bird in some respects; and _Surniculus_ is a decidedly good
imitation of a Drongo (Dicruridae).

[Illustration: FIG. 69.–Cuckoo. _Cuculus canorus_. × 2/7.]

In early April the Cuckoo's note heralds the approaching summer in Britain,
and continues to be heard until June, after which it becomes hoarser and
the first syllable is doubled; in July the adults begin to disappear, yet
stray examples–chiefly, if not entirely, young–remain up to October, when
they migrate as far as South Africa, Ceylon, and Celebes. None breed south
of North Africa and the Himalayas. The eggs are invariably deposited in the
nests of other birds, which rear the intruder and feed it until it leaves
the country; but it is doubtful how many are {354}produced in a
season–possibly five or six–or whether the same hen ever places two or more
in one nest. It is now certain that the egg is laid on the ground and
conveyed to the chosen nursery in the bill, an occurrence said to have been
actually witnessed by Adolf Müller, a forester in Darmstadt.

Closely connected with the above parasitic habit is the question of the
colour of the egg. Red or blue specimens have undoubtedly been found in
Germany and elsewhere, as well as the typical brown or greyish varieties;
but they do not always assimilate to those of the foster-parent, albeit to
the eggs of Pipits, Wagtails, and so forth, that of a Cuckoo is often
exactly similar. The theories advanced to account for this are by no means
conclusive, though hereditary habit may afford a clue; we may, however, be
sure that the hen cannot determine the colour of her egg.

With us the most usual foster-parents are the Meadow-Pipit, Pied Wagtail,
Reed Warbler, Hedge-Sparrow and Robin, perhaps in the above order. They
seldom, if ever, seem to resent the intrusion, or to notice their
consequent losses. The careful observations of Jenner, Hancock, and Mrs.
Blackburn shew that the young Cuckoo, when some thirty hours old, begins
unaided to remove from the nest the rightful progeny or unhatched eggs by
means of its broad back, which has a central depression for the first
twelve days; but after this hollow is filled up the desire is said to
cease. It pushes below a nestling with its wings, and raises it with much
exertion to the edge of the nest, finally ejecting it by a supreme effort.

The probable reason why the Cuckoo's egg often hatches first is the hen's
habit of selecting nests with only one or two fresh eggs. Subsequently she
neglects her offspring entirely. It is stated that the males, who alone
utter the well-known notes, decidedly outnumber the females, and that no
strict pairing takes place; while in the courting season a curious bubbling
sound, attributed to the hen, may be heard as two or three individuals
chase each other along the hedgerows. Wooded districts and bare hill-moors
are equally frequented, trees being constantly used as perches. The quick,
straight flight is varied by twists and swoops; the food consists of
insects and their larvae, the stomach often becoming lined with hairs of
caterpillars. Our Cuckoo does not eat eggs, but various foreign species add
to their diet seeds and other fruits, land-molluscs, worms, frogs, lizards,
small snakes, birds, and mice. _Chalcococcyx lucidus_ bruises its food
before swallowing it.

{355}The genus _Coccystes_, of South Europe, Africa, and Tropical Asia,
includes the Great Spotted Cuckoo (_C. glandarius_), which has twice
occurred in Britain, a crested greyish-brown bird, with a yellowish throat,
white under parts and markings above. In Southern Spain and Northern Africa
it deposits from two to four eggs in the nests of the Magpies, _Pica
rustica_, _P. mauritanica_, and _Cyanopica cooki_, or of the Grey Crow,
_Corvus cornix_; these eggs, like those of the foster parents, being pale
green with brown and lilac markings. The note of the male is "kee-ou,
kee-ou" or "kark-kark", of the female "burroo-burroo." _C. coromandus_,
chiefly greenish- and bluish-black above with rufous wings and white nuchal
collar, and buff below with grey abdomen, ranges from India and Ceylon to
China and Celebes, laying roundish, plain green-blue eggs in nests of
_Crateropus_ and other birds, and having a true Cuckoo's note. _C.
serratus_ of South Africa, which is greenish-black with a white alar band,
is somewhat terrestrial, and lays a white egg in nests of _Pycnonotus_ and
_Sigelus_.

_Surniculus lugubris_, extending from India to China and the Malay Islands,
is black, with green and purple reflexions and a few scattered white
markings. The tail is sometimes forked. _Cacomantis passerinus_, of India,
Java, and Sumatra, is grey, having an olive gloss above, blue-black
rectrices with white bars, and white abdomen. It frequents jungles, utters
a plaintive series of whistles, continuing for hours, and lays bluish eggs
with purplish, markings in various birds' nests. _C. virescens_ of Celebes
and Bouru is said by Dr. Meyer to build its own nest. _Chrysococcyx
smaragdineus_, of Tropical and Southern Africa, is a lovely emerald-green
bird, with yellow breast and white-barred lateral rectrices. The female has
a partially rufous head and mantle, coppery, bronze, and green upper parts,
and white lower surface banded with green. The males whistle loudly to
their mates for long periods, perched on tall trees, or hawk for insects in
the air. _C. cupreus_, of the same countries, is in both sexes
coppery-green varied with white above, and white with bronzy bars below; it
is called "Di-dric" from its cry, and lays white eggs in Sun-birds' and
Finches' nests. The similarly coloured _Chalcococcyx lucidus_ of Australia,
New Zealand, and the Chatham Islands has a reiterated plaintive note, with
the effect of ventriloquism, and foists its greenish-white eggs with brown
spots upon _Acanthiza_ and _Gerygone_.

Of _Eudynamis_, ranging from India and Ceylon to Australia {356}and
Polynesia, the black males are barely distinguishable, but the females
vary, and are black, brown, rufous, and white. _E. honorata_, the noisy
Indian Koël, has a loud melodious or hoarse whistling note, supposed to
portend rain; it feeds on fruit, and lays from one to four greenish eggs
with brown and grey blotches in nests of Crows. _E. melanorhyncha_ is the
"foreteller at night" of Celebes.[216] The extraordinary _Scythrops novae
hollandiae_, or Channel-bill, of Australia, Papuasia, and the Moluccas, has
a grey head, brownish back, and whitish under parts with indistinct dusky
bars, the tail exhibiting a subterminal blackish and a terminal white band.
The large maxilla has two lateral grooves, the bare lores and orbits are
scarlet. This big bird flies like a Hawk, and is possibly parasitic; while
eggs, taken from the oviduct, are white with pinkish-brown spots. The weird
cry or shriek is syllabled krok, and the flocks feed on fruits and insects.

_Coccyzus americanus_, the Yellow-billed Cuckoo of America, has occurred in
Britain, and ranges from the Great Plains, Canada, and New Brunswick to
Argentina; it is an arboreal species, pairing and building–apparently twice
a year–a slight flat nest of twigs, grass, and moss, lined with leaves. It
lays from three to five light greenish eggs, and the hen feigns lameness
when danger threatens the young. _C. occidentalis_ is a more western form.
_C. erythrophthalmus_, the American Black-billed Cuckoo, has been killed in
Ireland and Italy. The coloration in the eight members of this genus is
brownish-grey, relieved by rufous, the under parts being buff or white.

Sub-fam. 2. _Centropodinae._–This group comprises only the thirty or more
large Coucals (_Centropus_) of the Ethiopian Region, Egypt, Madagascar,
India, and the countries thence to China, Papuasia, and Australia. _C.
sinensis_, the Crow-Pheasant, extending from India and Ceylon to China, is
black with purple and green reflexions, the mantle being chestnut; _C.
unirufus_ of the Philippines is entirely rufous. They are strong-billed,
long-legged birds with terrestrial tendencies, noisy yet often shy, which
fly heavily, run, climb, leap, or glide with up-turned tail about the trees
in forests and jungles, and utter a mellow "hoo-too" or a chuckle. The food
consists of insects and their larvae, molluscs, reptiles, small mammals,
and nestling birds. They make a large globular nest of twigs and leaves, or
even of rushes, grass, and rags, {357}with a lateral hole; it is placed in
a tree, a thorny bush, or a tuft of herbage. The three to six oval eggs are
white or bluish with a readily-stained chalky coating; the young are soon
able to skulk among the foliage. _C. toulou_ is held sacred in Madagascar.

Sub-fam. 3. _Phoenicophainae._–_Taccocua sirkee_, the Indian Sirkeer, has
somewhat similar habits, but makes a flat nest. It is olive-brown above,
relieved by black and white, and rufous below. _Coua_ is peculiar to
Madagascar, _C. caerulea_ having loose blue plumage, glossed with violet on
the tail, and dark blue naked orbits; but the other species are more olive
or grey, with black or rufous on the head, throat, or mantle. The large,
shy members of this handsome genus frequent the edges of forests; but
whereas five species fly heavily and climb well, jumping from branch to
branch with elevated rectrices, occasionally assisted by their beaks, the
remaining seven rarely leave the ground, where they run about with the tail
trailing. The note is a harsh "tashu" or a sharp "turruh"; the food
consists of seeds, insects, worms, small mammals, birds, and molluscs–the
last broken on stones; the nest of twigs and fibres is placed in high
trees, and contains two or three white eggs.[217]

_Saurothera_, _Hyetornis_, and _Piaya_ are the "Rain-birds" of the Bahamas
and Antilles, the latter genus extending to Bolivia and Argentina. They are
inactive, wary birds, which hide and creep about with outspread tails when
in the trees, but are more at ease upon the ground; the cry is a loud harsh
scream or cackle; the food consists of insects, berries, lizards, and mice;
the flat nest contains two or three white eggs. _P. cayana_ is
reddish-brown above with a violet tinge, and grey below with pinkish
throat; the tail shewing a subterminal black bar and a white tip, and the
bare orbits being red. _Phoenicophaës pyrrhocephalus_ of Ceylon is dark
green, with bluish wings, blackish head and chest, tail varied with white,
and white breast; the forehead and sides of the head being red and rugose.
It is a fruit-eating forest species, said to be parasitic, though the
allied _Rhopodytes_ of the Indian Region lays two or three white eggs in a
slight nest of sticks and leaves, while the pugnacious _Rhamphococcyx
calorhynchus_, the "foreteller by day" of Celebes, builds a similar
structure.[218]

Sub-fam. 4. _Neomorphinae._–_Geococcyx mexicanus_, the curious
Chapparal-Cock or Road-runner of the South-Western United States and
Mexico, frequents thinly-wooded country, hilly cactus-regions {358}or
barren plains. The plumage is brownish, with white margins to the feathers
and a purple tinge on the rufous-mottled head, neck, and breast; the back
is greener, the tail more lilac, the abdomen white, the bare orbits blue
and red. With its long stout legs this species covers the ground very
quickly, running with outstretched neck, elevated crest, slightly expanded
wings, and jerking tail, or springing into trees and taking brief flights:
it is even difficult to outpace it with dogs or on horseback. It eats
insects, snapping some in the bill as it leaps into the air, and enjoys
grasshoppers, mice, and lizards; in captivity it is thievish. The note is
low, the beak being occasionally clattered. The nest of twigs and grass,
placed in bushes, contains from three to nine white eggs, the male
apparently assisting in incubation. _Carpococcyx radiatus_ of Borneo, and
_C. viridis_ of Sumatra, are the only Old World species in this group.

[Illustration: FIG. 70.–Radiated Ground-Cuckoo. _Carpococcyx radiatus._ ×
⅙. (From _Nature_.)]

Sub-fam. 5. _Diplopterinae._–_Diplopterus naevius_, a pale brown {359}bird
with darker streaks and white under surface, may represent this Central and
South American group, of which the only other members are two species of
_Dromococcyx_.

Sub-fam. 6. _Crotophaginae._–Of these birds, peculiar to the New World,
_Crotophaga ani_, the Ani, Black Parrot, or Savannah-blackbird, extending
from the Southern United States and the Antilles to most of South America,
is glossy purplish- or greenish-black, and has the smooth maxilla
compressed into a thin vertical plate, which, like the bare orbits, is
black. Its grotesque appearance and alleged malpractices have given it the
name of Black Witch in the West Indies. _C. sulcirostris_, ranging from
Texas to Peru, has the bill grooved; _C. major_ of South America is larger
and greener. Far from shifting the burden of incubation upon other species,
the females form huge co-operative nests of interlaced twigs lined with
green leaves in trees, wherein each deposits some five bluish eggs with a
chalky incrustation, amounting in all to twenty or more. Around or upon
these structures they sit in company. Bold but wary, the Anis flit from
bush to bush, or creep and jump about the branches, uttering a mewing sound
or a sharper double cry. They are often mobbed by other birds. Flocks
gather in wooded or marshy spots, and feed on insects, berries, lizards,
and so forth; occasionally digging for their prey, or picking the ticks off
cattle.

_Guira piririgua_, of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, is brown and buff
above with darker streaks, and buff below, the back and tips of the lateral
rectrices being white. From the similarity of habits to _Crotophaga_ it is
termed the White Ani in Brazil. Flocks draw near the houses in winter, and
sit miserably huddled together on the trees; the note is a long disyllabic
whistle, or in the young an hysterical laugh. Usually each pair makes a
rough nest of twigs and leaves, laying six or seven pale blue eggs with
reticulated chalky coating; though fourteen have been recorded.

Fam. II. MUSOPHAGIDAE.–The Plantain-eaters are striking birds, peculiar to
the Ethiopian Region, without Madagascar. They have large eyes and long
necks; while the bill, though small in _Gallirex_, is generally stout and
broad with compressed or rounded culmen and serrated margin, and in
_Musophaga_ expands into a broad frontal plate behind. The feet are
semi-zygodactylous, with reversible outer toe and strong claws; the robust
metatarsi are scutellated anteriorly and coarsely granulated posteriorly.
{360}The wings are rather short and round, with ten primaries and twelve or
thirteen secondaries; the rounded tail of varying length has ten rectrices.
The furcula is U-shaped; the tongue sagittate–with bristly apex in
_Gallirex_; the nostrils–hidden in _Turacus_–are usually oval, but are
linear in _Schizorhis_ and _Gymnoschizorhis_; the aftershaft is large; the
nestlings lack down. The red or grey orbits are naked, save in
_Schizorhis_; in _Gymnoschizorhis_ the cheeks and throat are bare and
blackish.

[Illustration: FIG. 71.–Green-mantled Turaco. _Gallirex chlorochlamys._ ×
¼.]

The six genera comprise two dozen or more species from about thirty to
fifteen inches in length; the general coloration being metallic blue and
green or greyish-brown, usually varied with crimson, and in the large
_Corythaeola_ with yellow; all have erectile crests of different sizes,
except _Musophaga violacea_. The bill is red, yellowish, or black, the feet
are black. The sexes are alike, the young duller. The red feathers yield a
peculiar pigment, containing copper, called Turacin, which is reducible to
a powder; this is so soluble that the colour is washed away during rain or
in a bath, though regained subsequently.[219]

Plantain-eaters are found in pairs, or in small flocks of four to ten, over
wooded country near inland or tidal waters, reaching an altitude of some
ten thousand feet. The tops of high trees are {361}a favourite haunt, but
they are not uncommonly seen amongst the tangled creepers below, flitting
from shrub to shrub with undulating flight when disturbed, and alighting
with crest erect and up-turned tail. Of some species the flight is clumsy
and jerky, of others light and graceful; at times they hover in the air
with outspread wings and tail, at times they sport and hop among the
branches, expanding and depressing the rectrices. Familiar yet extremely
shy and restless, these birds, when wounded, are particularly hard to
secure, as they run with great swiftness, and even take refuge in holes in
trees. During rain or in the mid-day heat they rest quietly on some bough,
but at other times are usually noisy, their harsh reiterated screaming or
ringing notes being varied by a cat-like mewing or dove-like sound. The
food consists of bananas, tamarinds, papaw-apples, and other fruits, with
insects, worms, caterpillars, molluscs, or even small birds. They are
occasionally mobbed by their kin, as Cuckoos are. Though some species have
been asserted to breed in holes, _Schizorhis concolor_ makes a flat nest in
trees, and _Gymnoschizorhis leopoldi_ a loose platform of thorny twigs and
roots, both species laying three round greenish- or bluish-white eggs. The
flesh is considered a delicacy by the natives.

_Turacus_ (_Corythaix_) _fischeri_ of East Africa is green, washed with
blue on the wings and tail, having a crimson crest tipped with black, a
crimson hind neck with white nape, a blackish lower chest and abdomen, and
black cheeks margined above and below with white; the remiges are crimson,
edged with black, the bare orbits red. _T. corythaix_ is called the Lory in
South Africa. _Musophaga violacea_ of West Africa is glossy violet-blue
with darker tail, the crown and hind-neck being covered with short, hairy,
crimson feathers and partially outlined with white; the chest is greenish,
the frontal plate yellow; the wing-quills and orbits are as in _T.
fischeri_. _Schizorhis concolor_ of South Africa is nearly uniform
ash-coloured; _Gymnoschizorhis personata_ of Shoa is greyish-brown with
paler crest, whitish head and neck, blackish naked cheeks and throat, and
dirty green breast.

The remarkable fossil _Necrornis_ occurs in the Middle Miocene of France.

* * * * *

Of all existing Birds the Parrots (Sub-Order PSITTACI) are perhaps the most
interesting to the public, being easily procurable, {362}docile, and
long-lived pets of gorgeous coloration and amusing habits. The red-tailed
Grey Parrot of Africa (_Psittacus erithacus_) is considered the best
talker, yet, apart from individual ability, many species of _Palaeornis_,
_Chrysotis_, and other genera, are equally clever, if we cannot say
intelligent. Professor Skeat identifies the name Parrot with the French
_Pierrot_; but, however that may be, Indian species have been known in
Europe since the time of Alexander the Great, and one or more African forms
were kept in ornamental cages, and even eaten, at Rome under Nero.

In default of a really satisfactory arrangement we may accept that of Dr.
Gadow,[220] who agrees in the main with Count Salvadori,[221] and
recognises the Family _Psittacidae_, with Sub-families _Stringopinae_,
_Psittacinae_, and _Cacatuinae_; and the Family _Trichoglossidae_, with
_Cyclopsittacinae_, _Loriinae_, and _Nestorinae_.

There are in all about eighty genera containing some five hundred species,
but the variety arises chiefly from colour, while the beak alone would
sufficiently determine the Family. This feature is usually short and stout,
with strongly arched maxilla and mandible, the former being moveable and
hinged to the skull, and the latter truncated. In _Nestor_ and _Loriculus_
the curve is more gradual and the depth less; in the Cyclopsittacinae and
some Psittacinae the bill is distinctly notched; in the Stringopinae,
Nestorinae, and other Psittacinae it is grooved; while a file-like surface
with transverse ridges, below the overhanging hooked tip, distinguishes the
Psittacidae from the Trichoglossidae. At the base is generally a large
swollen cere, or a similar but very narrow band in various Psittacinae; in
the Platycercine group this is very small, and it is more or less hidden by
feathers in certain Psittacinae, Cacatuinae, Cyclopsittacinae, and
Nestorinae. The feet are permanently zygodactylous, the metatarsus being
short–except in Ground-Parrots–compressed, and covered with rugose scales.
The abbreviated rounded wings of the terrestrial _Stringops_, where the
keel of the sternum is correspondingly reduced, are comparatively useless;
while these members, though usually moderate, may be long, as in
_Nasiterna_ and _Cacatua_, or more acute, as in the Loriinae; the primaries
are ten in number, the secondaries from eight to fourteen. The tail varies
much, being short and square with projecting spiny shafts in _Nasiterna_,
longer with {363}acuminate feathers in _Stringops_, moderate in the
Loriinae and Cyclopsittacinae, elongated and wedge-shaped in _Conurus_,
_Ara_, _Psittacula_, and many species of _Palaeornis_, long and broad in
_Platycercus_ and _Cacatua_, and so forth. _Oreopsittacus_ possesses
fourteen rectrices, every other genus twelve; in _Prioniturus_ the median
pair have bare shafts and racquet-tips.

The U-shaped furcula is sometimes entirely absent; a completely ossified
orbital ring occurs in the Cacatuinae, Stringopinae, and many Psittacinae;
the tongue is short and fleshy, being fringed in the Nestorinae, or having
a brush of hairs towards the tip in the Loriinae and _Nanodes_; the
uniquely modified syrinx has three pairs of tracheal and tracheo-bronchial
muscles; and a crop is present. The aftershaft is large, the down of the
adults and young is uniform, the latter being naked when hatched.

[Illustration: FIG. 72.–Uvaean Parakeet. _Nymphicus uvaeensis._ × ½. (From
_Nature_.)]

The coloration is commonly gaudy, and particularly so in {364}Macaws; yet
some species are sober in tint, and that of the beak and feet varies
considerably in different forms. _Stringops_ has a disc of stiff feathers
round the eye, _Nymphicus_ and the Cacatuinae possess crests, _Deroptyus_
broad erectile nape-plumes. Bare foreheads, cheeks or orbits, of a red,
pink, blue, yellow, black, grey, or white hue are found in _Microglossus_,
_Cacatua_, _Licmetis_, _Anodorhynchus_, _Cyanopsittacus_, _Ara_,
_Poeocephalus_, _Psittacus_, _Coracopsis_, and _Dasyptilus_; while
powder-down patches or tufts occur on the neck, shoulders, and sides of the
Cacatuinae, _Psittacus_, and _Chrysotis_. The length varies from some
thirty inches in the Great Black Cockatoo (_Microglossus_) to about three
in the diminutive _Nasiterna pygmaea_. The name Macaw is applied to _Ara_
and its nearest allies, Love-bird to _Agapornis_ and _Psittacula_, Parakeet
to _Platycercus_ and _Palaeornis_, Lorikeet to _Loriculus_, _Charmosyna_,
and _Coriphilus_, Lory to _Eclectus_, _Trichoglossus_, _Lorius_,
_Chalcopsittacus_, and _Eos_, King Lory to _Aprosmictus_.

Parrots usually feed and roost in company, though in _Eclectus_ the habits
are said to be more solitary; the males are, however, monogamous, each
courting a single female, which twitters and rolls the head from side to
side when love-making. The haunts include wooded districts, grassy plains,
or even rocky hills and sandy flats; _Stringops_ being almost entirely
terrestrial, _Melopsittacus_ and _Neophema_ (Grass-Parakeets), with
_Geopsittacus_ and _Pezoporus_ (Ground-Parakeets), being mainly so, while
Cockatoos and many other forms habitually frequent high trees, though
_Cacatua galerita_, _Licmetis nasica_, and several species of _Platycercus_
spend much time upon the ground. Most Parrots walk with considerable ease,
and climb well; their flight is commonly low and undulating, but is
comparatively strong in _Nestor_, the Macaws, the Lories, and the like; the
last-named climb less, and often hop along the ground. _Loriculus_, when
sleeping, generally hangs by one foot. Little drink seems necessary, as the
vegetable food is ordinarily succulent; plantains, papaw-apples, figs, and
tamarinds being varied by flowers, buds, leaves, hard palm-nuts, and fruits
of _Platanus_, _Casuarina_, _Banksia_, _Cactus_, or _Capsicum_.
Grass-Parakeets and their nearest allies subsist almost entirely on
grass-seeds and grain, _Licmetis_ and some other Cockatoos dig for tubers
and bulbs, _Calyptorhynchus_ and _Nestor_ search the bark of trees for
insects, while the latter and the Loriinae suck honey from the flowers of
_Phormium_ and _Eucalyptus_. _Nestor notabilis_, {365}the New Zealand Kea,
eats the flesh of living sheep, an acquired taste as remarkable as it is
destructive. Parrots alone among Birds habitually manipulate their food in
their claws, these claws, moreover, greatly aiding them to creep about the
branches or to cling to the mouth of their breeding-holes. The usual cry is
harsh and discordant, Lories and Macaws making an especially deafening
noise; but Cockatoos, besides their scream, utter a softer sound,
_Loriculus_ has a monosyllabic note, _Nymphicus_ and _Melopsittacus_ quite
a pretty warble. The female hisses when caught upon her eggs, and in
captivity many forms talk and whistle. Holes in trees, crevices in cliffs
or caves, cavities under stones or roots, and even shallow depressions in
the soil, seldom with any bedding, serve for a nest; the spherical or
somewhat pointed eggs, which are often deposited in confinement, being dull
white, occasionally with a greenish tinge or brownish incubation-stains.
The larger species usually lay one, two, or three, some of the smaller as
many as twelve, the size varying greatly (pp. 367, 372). _Palaeornis_
habitually cuts a circular hole in rotten trees, and even bores to a depth
of three feet; _Pezoporus_ is said to make a mass of grass and rushes in
tussocks, _Myiopsittacus monachus_ a globular fabric with a side entrance;
_Nasiterna_, _Psephotus_, _Cyanolyseus_, and _Conurus_ will breed in holes
in ants' nests or steep banks. The male occasionally assists in incubation,
and two broods may be reared in a season. Small or large colonies are
sometimes formed, and in both the Old and New Worlds large flocks seriously
damage ripe maize and corn, or oranges and other fruits. The birds are
often killed for eating, and their feathers used for ornament; for caging,
they are limed, captured with decoys, or taken from the nest.

The headquarters of Parrots are in the Australian Region and the Malay
countries, which possess a majority of the genera and peculiar species;
next follows the Neotropical Region; the Indian and Ethiopian are
comparatively poor; the Palaearctic possesses no existing representative;
and the Nearctic but one, _Conurus carolinensis_, which early in this
century extended northwards to the Great Lakes, but now only inhabits
Florida, Arkansas, and Indian Territory. _Cyanolyseus patagonus_ and
_Microsittace ferruginea_ occur at the Straits of Magellan, _Poeocephalus
robustus_ at the extreme south of Africa, _Cyanorhamphus erythrotis_ in
Macquarie Island; while many forms occupy most limited areas, especially in
the West Indies and the Pacific. Of _Coracopsis mascarinus_ {366}of
Réunion, _Nestor productus_ of Phillip Island, and _N. norfolcensis_ of
Norfolk Island, only a few specimens exist, and those in collections;
_Palaeornis exsul_ of Rodriguez and _Conurus pertinax_ of St. Thomas in the
West Indies are verging upon extinction. A Macaw seems to have disappeared
from Jamaica, and six Parrots from Guadeloupe and Martinique.

The sexes of all the species described below are alike, unless otherwise
stated, the young being commonly duller.

[Illustration: FIG. 73.–Kakapo. _Stringops habroptilus._ × ⅕. (From
_Nature_.)]

Fam. III. PSITTACIDAE.–Sub-fam. 1. _Stringopinae._–_Stringops habroptilus_,
the Kakapo or Tarapo of New Zealand, has sap-green upper parts, with yellow
middles to the feathers and transverse brown markings; yellower lower
surface; and browner cheeks, remiges, and rectrices. The soft plumage, the
disc of feathers round the eye, and the nocturnal habits have given this
bird the name Owl-Parrot. During the day it usually hides in holes near the
ground, emerging towards evening to feed greedily on mosses, bracken,
seeds, berries, such as those of _Coriaria sarmentosa_, and even lizards;
while the companies make tracks a foot or more wide across the herbage. The
Kakapo inhabits alpine districts or open {367}forests; it climbs well and
walks swiftly, but has such limited powers of flight that the natives hunt
it on foot by torch-light, or with dogs, which are often seriously wounded
by the powerful bill. The note is a croak, grunt, or shriek. Two or three
eggs, as large as those of a pullet, are deposited in burrows under
tree-roots or rocks, without any nest. It makes a tame and playful
pet.[222]

Sub-fam. 2. _Psittacinae._–Of this group the nocturnal _Geopsittacus
occidentalis_ of South and West Australia, and _Pezoporus formosus_ of the
same countries and Tasmania, somewhat resemble _Stringops_ in general
coloration. The latter, which has an orange frontal band, rarely resorts to
trees, but crouches, skulks, or trusts to its great running powers, flying
at most only some hundred yards, with a rapid twisting motion. It haunts
sandy plains or marshy districts, laying two or three eggs on a bedding of
grass and rushes in long tussocks of herbage.

Our common cage-bird, _Melopsittacus undulatus_, the Australian
Grass-Parakeet or Budgerigar, has a yellow head, with three black
cheek-spots surmounted by a blue patch; the nape, back, and wing-coverts
are yellow with black transverse markings, the remiges brown with green
outer webs and yellow margins, the rump and under parts green, the two long
median rectrices blue, the lateral tail-feathers green banded with yellow.
These graceful and lively little birds are partly terrestrial, often
flocking in thousands to feed upon the seeds of grasses, while they sit
motionless during the heat among the foliage. The flight is quick and
direct; the note shrill, or warbling; the conduct of individuals towards
one another amicably quarrelsome. From three to six eggs are deposited in
hollow branches, with no nest. The name Grass-Parakeet is shared with
_Neophema_ of Southern Australia and Tasmania, distinguished by a blue
frontal band sometimes extending around the eyes. _N. petrophila_, the
Rock-Parakeet, breeds in holes in steep cliffs near water, _N. pulchella_
also shewing a liking for rocks. _Porphyrocephalus spurius_ of West
Australia has a maroon crown and nape, green upper parts, black remiges
with blue bases and primary coverts, and blue lower surface with scarlet
and yellow vent. The flight is swift, the note clucking.

Of the beautiful Australian genus _Platycercus_, _P. elegans_, also found
in Norfolk Island, may serve as an example: it is crimson-red with black on
the dorsal feathers; the cheeks, bend of the wing, {368}primary-coverts,
outer webs of quills and the tail being blue. The dozen species haunt
grassy hills, feed upon seeds, berries, insects and their larvae, run
easily, take short flights, rise with outspread tail, and lay from four to
seven eggs in holes in trees without a nest. _P. eximius_ is the Roselle
Parakeet of dealers.

_Loriculus vernalis_ is green, tinged with yellowish below and with orange
on the back; the rump is red; the throat, the inner webs of the
wing-quills, and the under surface of the tail are bluish. The female has
little blue on the throat. The flight is rapid, but the birds are not shy;
they are found in pairs or small flocks, and are said to suck honey from
the flowers. They breed as does the last-mentioned species.

The Ethiopian genus _Agapornis_ shares with the Neotropical _Psittacula_
the appellation Love-bird, due to their habit of sitting huddled together,
their mutual caresses, and their intense devotion to each other. If one
dies, its mate not uncommonly pines away. _A. roseicollis_ of South Africa
is green above and yellower below, the forehead being red, the cheeks and
throat rose-coloured, the rump and median rectrices blue; the lateral tail
feathers exhibit blue tips, red bases, and a black band. It is found in
flocks near water, flying quickly, uttering shrill, rapid notes, feeding on
berries and the like, and commonly breeding in Weaver-birds' nests. _A.
cana_ of Madagascar, introduced into the neighbouring islands, has the
head, neck, and breast grey; _A. taranta_, of North-East Africa, the
forehead red, the rump and tail green; _A. pullaria_, of West Equatorial
Africa, the face orange-red. The sexes differ only in these three species,
wherein the under wing-coverts are black in the male, but green in the
female, which lacks the grey or red, and in the third case has the face
yellowish.

Two dozen members of _Palaeornis_ range from Senegambia to Abyssinia, the
Mascarene Islands, India, Ceylon, the Burmese Countries, South China, and
the Great Sunda Islands. _P. eupatria_, the Rose-banded Parakeet or
Alexandrine, and _P. torquata_, the Rose-ringed Parakeet, are similar
species from the Indian Region; they are green, with rose-coloured nuchal
collar, black neck-stripes, bluish median and yellow and green lateral
rectrices, all tipped with yellow, and in the former a red wing-patch. The
female shews no pink or black. These birds frequent both hills and plains,
being often found in societies; they have a loud musical note, feed on
fruits and grain, and lay some four eggs on the chips in a hole cut out by
themselves.

{369}The genus _Eclectus_, extending from the Moluccas with the Tenimber
Islands to the Solomon Archipelago, has green males and red females. _E.
pectoralis_ of Papuasia is green, with red sides, blue remiges and lateral
rectrices edged with green, and yellow-tipped tail. The female differs in
having the head, chest, and upper parts bright red, the end of the tail
lighter, the breast, abdomen, edge of the wing and a dorsal band blue.

_Dasyptilus pesqueti_ of New Guinea is black, with the tail-coverts,
abdomen, sides, much of the wings, and a lateral band on the occiput red;
the crown- and nape-feathers are narrow and pointed, the face and throat
nearly naked and black. It lives at considerable altitudes in couples or
small companies, eating fruit, and uttering a loud, harsh cry. _Coracopsis
vasa_, the Vasa or "loud-voiced" Parrot of Madagascar, sacred to royalty in
one of the tribes, and its lesser compatriot, _C. nigra_, are
blackish-brown, with grey wings, rump, and tail, and yellowish naked
orbits. The small flocks are partly terrestrial, but fly high; the cry is
shrill; the food consists of seeds and other fruits and roots. _C. vasa_
has been introduced into Réunion, _C. comorensis_ and _C. sibilans_ inhabit
the Comoros, _C. barklyi_ the Seychelles.

That clever talker, _Psittacus erithacus_, the Grey Parrot, which ranges
across Equatorial Africa, is ashy-grey, with black primaries, red tail, and
whitish naked face. It walks well, and climbs admirably by the aid of its
beak, flying with chattering screams at considerable elevations, consorting
in large companies, and probably nesting in holes in trees. _P. timneh_ is
not known to talk.

_Poeocephalus robustus_ of Southern Africa is green, with brownish head,
neck, remiges and rectrices; it has vermilion thighs, bend of the wing,
and, occasionally, forehead; and naked orbits. The habits call for no
special mention. _Caica melanocephala_ of Guiana and Amazonia is green,
with yellow cheeks, throat, sides and tip of the tail, a rufous nuchal
collar, whitish lower parts, black primaries margined with blue, and green
and black naked orbits. _Gypopsittacus vulturinus_ of the Lower Amazons is
chiefly green, yellow feathers tipped with black covering the throat, and
forming a band at the back of the naked but hairy black head; the thighs
are yellow stained with red; the upper wing-coverts blue margined with
green, except the lesser, which are orange and red; the primaries are blue
and black; the secondaries greener; the rectrices green and yellow, tipped
with blue.

{370}The two score members of _Chrysotis_, commonly termed Amazons, range
from Central America to Argentina. _C. aestiva_, not found north of Brazil,
has the plumage mainly green with black edgings, the forehead and lores
blue, the crown, cheeks, and throat yellow, the primaries black, blue, and
green. The secondaries exhibit red outer webs, the lateral tail-feathers
red bases and yellowish tips. Entirely yellow varieties rarely occur in the
wild state, but are often produced artificially. These birds breed in holes
in high trees, and fly in small flocks, which utter screaming cries, and
feed on plantains, berries, oranges, and so forth.

[Illustration: FIG. 74.–Grey Parrot. _Psittacus erithacus._ × ⅓.]

_Psittacula_ contains the green Love-Birds of Central and Tropical South
America; they are sometimes tinged with yellow, and have blue on the rump
and wings in the male.

_Myiopsittacus monachus_, the Monk or Loro, of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay,
and Argentina, is green, with grey throat, breast, and head, except the
occiput; a blue tinge shewing on the wings, and yellow on the lateral
rectrices. It is very common and tame near Buenos Aires, being devoted to
favourite spots, and playing havoc with garden fruit, which it pecks and
leaves hanging, while at times companies feed on thistle-seeds or devastate
grain-fields. {371}Its flight is swift but unsteady, with rapid strokes of
the wing and folded tail; yet it mobs Birds of prey, while its noisy
chatter disturbs the other woodland species. A nest of thorny twigs, used
for shelter throughout the year, is usually woven round the end of some
branch, and has a vestibule and an inner chamber, which are repaired before
the thin-shelled eggs, from six to eight in number, are laid. Though the
entrance, with its overhanging eaves, is in the side or beneath, Opossums
and Ducks occasionally take possession. A tree may contain several of these
dwellings, which often jointly form a mass sufficient to fill a cart,
though not communicating with one another.[223] _Cyanolyseus patagonus_, of
Argentina and Patagonia, is brownish-olive, with red on the belly, yellow
on the rump and flanks, blue on the primaries, green on the secondaries,
and a whitish gorget. The flight is strong though wavering; the cry loud,
short, but pleasing; the food consists of shoots, buds, and seeds; the
breeding places are holes in banks. _Conurus carolinensis_, of Florida,
Arkansas, and the Indian Territory, is green, with paler lower parts,
yellow head and upper neck, orange forehead and cheeks. It frequents wooded
creeks or swamps, feeding on cypress-seeds, beech-mast, and so forth, and
breeding in company in holes in trees without any nest. Nearly thirty
species of the genus range from Mexico and the West Indies to Bolivia and
Argentina, _C. guarouba_ of North-East Brazil being yellow with green
remiges, _C. solstitialis_ of Guiana and Brazil mainly reddish-yellow with
blue and green wings and tail.

Of the fifteen or more large members of _Ara_, _A. chloroptera_, the
Red-and-blue Macaw, _A. macao_, which differs in its yellow and green
wing-coverts, and _A. militaris_, the Red-and-green Macaw, occur from
Mexico and Central America to Bolivia; _A. ararauna_, the Blue-and-yellow
Macaw, and _A. severa_, the Green-and-blue Macaw only extend from Panama
southwards. The naked flesh-coloured face is crossed by lines of feathers,
except in _A. macao_. The four closely allied Brazilian species of
_Anodorhynchus_ and _Cyanopsittacus_, or Hyacinthine Macaws, are almost
uniform blue. The flight of these gorgeous birds is powerful, their note
harsh and screaming, while they crush and eat hard nuts of various kinds.

_Nasiterna pygmaea_, one of some nine Pigmy Parrots, is green, with dusky
markings on the upper surface, yellowish crown, reddish forehead and middle
of the lower parts; the two median {372}rectrices are blue, the rest
chiefly black, with yellow spots on the outer. The female lacks the red and
yellow tints. Small flocks of these birds frequent high trees, creeping
about them with the aid of their wings and tails, like Tree-creepers, and
at midday dozing in fancied security on the lower branches. They feed upon
seeds, and are stated by von Rosenberg to lay two eggs, no larger than
those of the Long-tailed Tit, in holes in trees.[224]

[Illustration: FIG. 75.–Leadbeater's Cockatoo. _Cacatua leadbeateri._ × ¼.]

Sub-fam. 3. _Cacatuinae._–Of the Cockatoos, which are restricted to the
Australian Region, the Philippine and the Sulu Islands, _Cacatua galerita_
of Australia and Tasmania, one of the forms with narrow recurved
crest-feathers, is white, with the erectile tuft and ear-coverts yellow,
the plumage being lax and powdery. _C. leadbeateri_ has a red crest banded
with yellow and tipped with white, and a rosy tinge on the head and lower
surface. Other species exhibit broad straight white, yellow, or red crests,
_C. roseicapilla_ being decidedly pink below and grey above. In this group
the bare orbits may be blue, red, grey, or white. These tame and active
birds love open wooded country, and often form immense flocks; they fly
strongly, hop well, utter loud shrill screams, doze in the heat, feed on
roots grubbed up from the ground, seeds and grain, and play havoc with
crops of maize and the like. Two or three somewhat pointed eggs are
deposited in holes in trees or crevices of rocks. {373}The half-dozen
crested members of _Calyptorhynchus_, which are brown or black with a
greenish gloss, and a whitish, red, or yellow band across the lateral
rectrices, have a more laboured flight and a comparatively low whining cry;
they feed on seeds of _Banksia_ and _Casuarina_ and on caterpillars.
_Callocephalon galeatum_ is grey, with a scarlet head and crest. In these
two Australian genera the supposed females exhibit yellow markings.
_Microglossus aterrimus_, the Great Black Cockatoo of North Australia and
Papuasia, is greyish-black with a long narrow crest, and naked red and
yellow cheeks. It is a retiring bird, found in pairs among high trees in
thick forests; the flight is comparatively weak, the note a plaintive
whistle; the food consists of seeds of _Pandanus_, _Canarium_, palm-shoots,
and the like; the egg is laid on a bed of twigs in a hollow tree.
_Calopsittacus novae hollandiae_, the crested Australian Cockatoo-Parakeet,
is dark grey, with yellow forehead and cheeks, orange ear-coverts, and
white wing-patch. The female has yellow marks on the tail and under parts.
By no means shy, the flocks feed chiefly on the ground, while individuals
fly well and love perching on dead branches.

Fam. IV. TRICHOGLOSSIDAE.–Sub-fam. 1. _Cyclopsittacinae._–This includes
_Neopsittacus_ and _Cyclopsittacus_ of Timor, North-East Australia and
Papuasia, which are coloured red, green, blue, and yellow; the
peculiarities of structure have already been mentioned.

Sub-Fam. 2. _Loriinae._–_Trichoglossus novae hollandiae_, Swainson's Lory,
is blue, with green head and central abdomen; the remaining under parts
being red, the sides, nuchal collar and inner webs of the lateral rectrices
yellow. Flocks haunt the _Eucalyptus_-forests of Eastern Australia and
Tasmania, uttering incessant screams, flying swiftly and directly from tree
to tree, settling again with a dash, creeping and clinging around the
branches, and extracting honey from the flowers with their brush-tipped
tongues, besides eating seeds. From two to four eggs are deposited in holes
in trees. The various species of _Trichoglossus_ range from Celebes and
Timor to Australia and the New Hebrides. _Ptilosclera versicolor_, of North
and West Australia, is green, with yellowish streaks on the body, bluish
cheeks and nape, red crown, lores and breast. _Coriphilus taitianus_ of the
Society Islands is dark blue, with the lower surface chiefly white; _C.
ultramarinus_ of the Marquesas shews a combination of light and dark blue.
_Lorius_ extends from the Moluccas to the Solomon {374}Archipelago; _L.
lory_ of Papuasia being red, with black crown, blue nape, upper back,
central breast and abdomen, and tip of the tail; while the wings and middle
portion of the rectrices are green. In habits these three genera seem to
resemble _Trichoglossus_. The members of _Eos_ (Red Lory) are red, relieved
by blue, except _E. fuscata_, which is dusky, with red and yellow markings;
they extend from the Sanghir and Tenimber Islands and the Moluccas to the
Caroline and Solomon groups. _Chalcopsittacus_ of Papuasia has
purplish-black, olive, or green species, usually varied with red.

Sub-fam. 3. _Nestorinae._–This contains only the genus _Nestor_, with five
species, of which _N. norfolcensis_ of Norfolk Island, and _N. productus_
of Phillip Island are extinct, while _N. esslingi_ is hardly valid. _N.
meridionalis_, the New Zealand Kaka Parrot, is olive-brown, with reddish
cheeks and collar, crimson rump, abdomen and under wing-coverts, brown tail
and breast, and grey crown. Several races have been described, varying in
the amount of red. The Kaka is fearless, social, sprightly, and noisy,
though semi-nocturnal and apt to retire to the deep forest during daylight.
It utters harsh rasping and chuckling notes, or musical whistles; while it
climbs trees with the aid of its beak and feet, and searches the dead wood
for insects. It flies in lofty circles, or at times hops about the ground;
the food consists largely of juicy fruits, blossoms, and nectar from the
Rata (_Metrosideros robusta_) or the New Zealand flax (_Phormium tenax_).
In semi-captivity this bird is a good mimic and talker, but terribly
destructive to furniture, clothing, and orchard produce; the Maories keep
it as a lure, encircling the metatarsus with a bone ring fastened by a cord
to the perch. Four oval eggs are laid in hollow trees, in crevices of
rocks, or under stumps and roots, occasionally on fragments of bark.
_Nestor notabilis_, the Kea of the south island of New Zealand, has
olive-green plumage with blackish margins; the wings and tail are varied
with blue and yellow, the latter having a brown subterminal band; the rump
and under wing-coverts are scarlet. The female is duller. It frequents
rugged slopes of high snowy mountains, descending to the lowlands in
winter; the small companies soar aloft, fly from peak to peak, or search
for insect-food among the stunted vegetation. Tame, inquisitive, and
destructive, the natural habits and food resemble those of the Kaka,
allowing for the difference of haunts; but this bird will scream or mew,
and lays larger and {375}rougher eggs in crevices of rocks. As is well
known, the Kea has of recent years become carnivorous, chasing sheep and
devouring their flesh. Perching near the tail and clinging to the wool, it
digs a deep hole with its powerful beak, and apparently aims at the
kidney-fat, the mandible cutting while the hooked maxilla ensures a firm
grip. The propensity is said to have originated from the bird pecking at
sheep-skins hanging outside country stations. As it sometimes necessitates
the abandonment of sheep-runs, or even attacks horses, a price has been set
upon its head.

[Illustration: FIG. 76.–The Kea or Mountain Nestor. _Nestor notabilis._ ×
¼. (From _Nature_.)]

Of fossil Parrots, _Psittacus_ occurs in the Lower Miocene of France, the
large _Necropsittacus rodericanus_ in Rodriguez, and the still bigger
_Lophopsittacus mauritianus_, known from an old picture to be crested, in
the Mare aux Songes in Mauritius.

{376}ORDER XIII. CORACIIFORMES.

The Order Coraciiformes contains the Sub-Orders CORACIAE, STRIGES,
CAPRIMULGI, CYPSELI, COLII, TROGONES, and PICI, and includes a large number
of arboreal forms with comparatively short legs, which often nest in holes,
and have blind and helpless young. The group coincides with the _Picariae_
of Nitzsch and Mr. Sclater, except in so far that the former author
included the _Psittaci_, the latter the _Cuculi_, while both kept the
_Striges_ separate.

The Sub-Order CORACIAE consists of the Families _Coraciidae_ or Rollers,
_Momotidae_ or Motmots and Todies, _Alcedinidae_ or Kingfishers,
_Meropidae_ or Bee-eaters, _Bucerotidae_ or Hornbills, and _Upupidae_ or
Hoopoes.

Fam. I. CORACIIDAE.–Two Sub-families may be recognised of these Old World
birds, (1) _Coraciinae_, and (2) _Leptosomatinae_; the latter containing
only the remarkable "Kirombo" of Madagascar.

Sub-fam. 1. _Coraciinae._–Most of the twenty or more species of Rollers are
brilliant blue and green, varied with reddish, and bear a resemblance to
certain of the Crow-tribe, especially to the genus _Cissa_. The short
metatarsus, however, scutellated in front and reticulated behind, is a
clear distinction, as in _Cissa_ and so forth it is longer and smooth
behind, with elongated scutes anteriorly. It is comparatively long in
Ground-Rollers, but they are quite unmistakeable. The bill is strong,
decurved, and slightly hooked, being broad and depressed in _Eurystomus_;
the toes are moderately stout with curved claws, while the second and third
are united basally; the wings are long, broad and rounded, or shorter in
Ground-Rollers, with ten primaries and about thirteen secondaries; the
twelve tail-feathers vary in length, five species of _Coracias_ having them
very long, and one spatulate. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx is
tracheo-bronchial, the nostrils are hidden by bristly feathers, the tongue
is thin and horny, the aftershaft is small, while there is no down on
adults or nestlings. The sexes are similar, the young duller.

The genus _Coracias_ ranges over temperate Europe, all Africa, and Central
and Southern Asia eastwards to Celebes, where _C. temmincki_ alone occurs.
_C. garrulus_, which strays to Britain, and breeds from Sweden and Omsk to
North Africa and North India, has the head, most of the wing-coverts, and
the lower surface light greenish-blue, a red-brown back, dusky and blue
remiges, ultramarine bend of the wing and rump, and greenish {377}tail with
light blue on the lateral feathers, the outer pair alone having black tips.
In the similar _C. abyssinicus_ the two outer rectrices are elongated and
tapering; in the more purple _C. spatulatus_ they are cobalt-blue with
black shafts produced into small racquets. _C. naevius_ has an olivaceous
back, reddish-lilac head and under parts, a white nuchal patch, white
streaks on the breast, blue rump, bend of the wing, lateral rectrices and
outer portion of the remiges. The genus _Eurystomus_ occupies Tropical
Africa, and extends from India to Manchuria, Australia and the Solomon
Islands, occasionally reaching New Zealand. _E. glaucurus_, of Madagascar
and Anjuan Island, is bay above and lilac below, with nearly ultramarine
wings and cobalt tail tipped with blackish; _E. orientalis_ is
bluish-green, with blackish head, remiges and rectrices, some blue on the
wing-coverts, an azure patch on the primaries, and a purple throat. _E.
australis_ is similar, and is termed the Dollar-Bird from exhibiting its
circular light wing-patch when flying.

The members of these two genera are active, noisy, and pugnacious, though
shy; they are usually diurnal, but are occasionally observed hawking for
insects at dusk; when disturbed they attempt to hide in some neighbouring
tree, while they also roost or take refuge from the heat among the foliage.
The flight is swift, though not sustained, the wings being closed from time
to time; at the courting season the male darts through the air with many a
turn and twist, expanding and contracting his tail; and both sexes have the
habit of rolling or turning somersaults in their course, and of puffing out
their cheeks and throat. The note is a harsh "rack-rack-kack" or
"racker-racker," uttered while perched or flying; the food, largely
procured when hopping on the ground, and frequently jerked into the air
before being swallowed, consists of small reptiles, frogs, beetles, worms,
slugs and grasshoppers, if not of grain. Rollers frequent wooded country up
to an altitude of about two thousand feet, in pairs or moderate-sized
flocks; they occasionally sit huddled together on some branch, but love to
perch on tall bare trees or wires, whence they energetically challenge
Hawks and Crows. The four or five oval glossy white eggs are sometimes laid
on a mass of roots, grass, hair, and feathers, in cavities in walls or
under eaves of buildings; but more usually with little or no bedding in
holes in trees or banks. In the breeding season the cock summons the hen
from her nest, if danger threatens, while both parents {378}dash at an
intruder, or settle near him, jerking the head and tail. Many adults are
slaughtered for decorative purposes.

The Ground-Rollers, _Atelornis_, _Uratelornis_, _Geobiastes_ and
_Brachypteracias_, are curious forms, peculiar to Madagascar. _A.
pittoïdes_ has green upper parts with a ruddy tinge, white bars across the
short primaries, a fine blue head and tail, except for the two brown median
rectrices, and a reddish-fawn lower surface divided by a blue band from the
white throat. _A. crossleyi_ has a rufous head and black gular stripes.
_Uratelornis chimaera_ is a nearly allied form. _Geobiastes squamigera_ has
the upper back reddish-brown, the lower green; the head and under parts are
buff, with black scale-like markings, and a black line down the crown. The
primaries are brownish, the tail shews a curious combination of green,
blue, black, and brown. _Brachypteracias leptosomus_ is yellowish-green
above, with bluish margins to the feathers, and a purplish-brown head and
neck, while the brownish tail has a subterminal black and a terminal white
bar; it is white below, banded or striped with chestnut and black. These
forest-species are almost entirely terrestrial and crepuscular, running
about in solitary fashion in the dusk, and carefully examining the ground
for insect-food, or scratching for worms and the like; occasionally they
fly to a low branch, jerking the tail as they alight. The eggs are said to
be white.

Sub-fam. 2. _Leptosomatinae._–This contains only _Leptosoma discolor_, the
Kirombo or Vorondreo of Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which has a big
crested head; a long, slightly hooked bill, overhung at the base by
recurved loral feathers; linear nostrils, placed far forward and covered by
a horny plate; metatarsi scutellated on both aspects; and a partly
reversible outer toe. The wings are moderate, having ten primaries and
twelve secondaries; the long, square tail has twelve feathers; the tongue
is tapering, horny and channelled; a large aftershaft is present, and there
is a considerable powder-down patch on each side of the rump. The head is
grey, glossed with copper and green, the neck duller; the upper parts are
shining green and coppery-red, the under parts grey with white abdomen. The
slightly larger female is reddish-brown above, with buff markings and only
a dull gloss; the head is chiefly black, and the lower surface
fawn-coloured spotted with black. This curious bird is very noisy
throughout the day, uttering its note, which resembles the {379}syllables
"tu-hou" thrice repeated, either while hovering in the air or while
ascending or descending in vertical fashion. Meanwhile the wings are struck
against the body, and the throat puffed out like a bag. It is found in the
forests in flocks of about a dozen, perching and squatting lazily on the
branches, and scarcely moving when its neighbours are shot; the food
consists mainly of grasshoppers, chamaeleons, and lizards; the nest is said
to be made of rushes and placed in holes, the eggs to be white. One female
is often accompanied by several males. The Malagasy consider that the "Reò"
brings ill-luck, and make it the theme of various tales and chants.[225]

[Illustration: FIG. 77.–Kirombo. _Leptosoma discolor._ × 2/7.]

Fam. II. MOMOTIDAE.–The Motmots and Todies fall naturally between the
Rollers and Kingfishers, but are also closely connected with the
Bee-Eaters, which do not occur in the New World. They compose the
Sub-families (1) _Momotinae_ and (2) _Todinae_, the former ranging from
South Mexico and the Antilles to Paraguay, while the latter are restricted
to the Greater Antilles.

{380}Sub-fam. 1. _Momotinae._–Motmots have loose-webbed green, blue,
cinnamon, and black plumage; the sexes being barely distinguishable, and
the young similar to the adults, but with less developed tail. The length
varies from six and a half inches to twenty. The head is generally rather
narrow; the bill is Crow-like, with a few rictal bristles, and has the
margins of the mandibles more or less serrated; in _Prionirhynchus_ it is
unusually broad and strongly keeled. The scutellated metatarsus is of no
great length, the third digit being united to the fourth for about a third
of its extent; the wings are rather short and rounded, with ten primaries
and eleven secondaries. The tail-feathers are generally twelve, though
_Baryphthengus_ has only ten; they are very distinctly graduated, as is
well seen from beneath, the median pair being much elongated with
racquet-tips, except in _Hylomanes_, _Aspatha_ and _Baryphthengus_. The
furcula is U-shaped; the tongue is long, thin and frayed out towards the
apex into laminae which point forwards; the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial;
the aftershaft is small; while neither adults nor nestlings possess down.

Motmots are not shy birds, though they inhabit dense forests and seldom
visit the outskirts; they prefer the vicinity of streams, where they may be
seen, solitary or in pairs, flitting before the traveller from tree to
tree, or sitting motionless on the lower branches, whence they make sudden
dashes to secure their prey. This consists of insects caught in the air,
small reptiles, or fruit; but in captivity they will eat bread, raw meat,
small birds and mammals, often rapping live creatures on the ground or on
their perch before swallowing them, as is done by Todies, Kingfishers, and
Hornbills. The flight is brief, while the short legs are ill-adapted to the
ground. The long, soft, "flute-like" note recalls that of the Hoopoe, and
may be syllabled Hu-tu, this being a native name in some parts; it is most
commonly heard at dawn, while the bird's habit of jerking its tail up and
down as it utters each syllable is comparable to that of Barbets and
Toucans. Three or four round, creamy-white eggs are deposited, without any
nest, in holes in trees or banks, probably bored by the birds themselves;
both sexes being said to incubate in turn. Motmots with racquet-tipped
rectrices have been shewn to produce that shape by nibbling off the
vanes.[226]

_Urospatha martii_, ranging from Costa Rica to Amazonia, is {381}oil-green
above, with a blue tinge on the blackish primaries and the end of the tail,
the two median rectrices being much elongated and having terminal blue
racquets; the under parts and head are cinnamon, the cheeks black, while a
tuft of long black feathers adorns the neck below. _Eumomota superciliaris_
of Central America is green above, with cinnamon mantle and blue remiges
and rectrices tipped with black, the two median tail-feathers having
elongated bare shafts with broad racquet-tips, half blue and half black. On
the sides of the head are black bands and light blue eyebrows, while the
throat is black with long blue lateral feathers, and the abdomen chestnut.
_Momotus brasiliensis_, extending from Guiana to Northern Brazil, is
somewhat similar in colour, but has little red on the back; the head is
cobalt-blue with black on the crown and sides; the under parts are green
with a rufous tinge. The long throat-feathers are black with light blue
edges. _Aspatha gularis_ of Guatemala is bright green above, and has a
yellowish breast; the abdomen and throat are pale blue, with a black tuft
at the base of the latter; the sides of the head are reddish-fawn with
black ear-coverts. The tail is normal.

[Illustration: FIG. 78.–Motmot. _Momotus brasiliensis._ × ⅓.]

Sub-fam. 2. _Todinae._–This includes four diminutive species of the genus
_Todus_, structurally resembling the Motmots; the tail, however, being
short and square, the wings abbreviated with only ten secondaries, the beak
flattened and but faintly serrated, and the rictal bristles well-developed.
The long metatarsus is {382}covered with one scale; the marginal laminae of
the tongue point backwards.

Todies frequent hilly districts and woods, and especially the vicinity of
ravines, being very active on their feet, and taking short rapid flights
from branch to branch when disturbed. They used to be considered close
allies of the Flycatchers, probably owing to their habit of darting out
upon their prey from some branch, to which they return immediately. They
sit with upturned bill and head drawn in, their wings vibrating and their
plumage puffed out, and when thus perched they are so unsuspicious that
they may sometimes be caught with a butterfly-net, or even with the hand.
The pugnacious males chase each other, clattering their bills, and, while
courting, ruffle themselves up and droop their wings. The three or four
globular white eggs are laid in a hole low down in the face of some bank,
which is excavated to a considerable depth and commonly turns at right
angles; the terminal chamber usually containing a slight nest of fibres,
grass, moss, or cotton. In captivity Todies make engaging pets.

The coloration is green, with a bright red throat, yellowish-white or
pinkish under parts, and yellow, green, or pink feathers on the flanks. The
bill is dull red. _Todus viridis_ inhabits Jamaica; _T. subulatus_
Hispaniola; _T. multicolor_, which has a blue spot on each cheek, Cuba; _T.
hypochondriacus_ Porto Rico. The length varies from three and a half to
four and a half inches.

[Illustration: FIG. 79.–Tody. _Todus viridis._ × ⅝.]

Fam. III. ALCEDINIDAE.–The Kingfishers, with the Sub-families (1)
_Halcyoninae_, or Wood-Kingfishers, and (2) _Alcedininae_, or
Water-Kingfishers, are remarkable not only for the aberrant species found
among them, but also for their peculiar forms and particularly brilliant
colours, at once strikingly contrasted and tasteful. The head looks
disproportionately large, an appearance often heightened by the crest and
the long, stout bill. This feature in the Alcedininae is compressed and
sharp-pointed, with keeled culmen and upcurved genys; in the Halcyoninae it
is broader and rounder, and sometimes grooved. In _Syma_ the maxilla is
{383}serrated, as in the Momotidae; in _Carcineutes_ and _Dacelo_ it
exceeds the mandible, and in _Melidora_ it is hooked. The feeble metatarsi
are scutellated or rarely reticulated; the third and fourth toes are joined
for most of their length, the second and third for one joint, all being
broad below; the claws are sharp and curved. _Ceyx_ and _Alcyone_ have the
second digit aborted. The wings are short and rounded, yet powerful, the
primaries being eleven in number, with the outer much reduced, the
secondaries from eleven to fourteen; the tail is commonly abbreviated, but
in _Tanysiptera_ has a median pair of greatly elongated racquet-tipped
feathers; that genus, moreover, possesses but ten rectrices instead of
twelve. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial, there is
no aftershaft, the adults are uniformly downy, the nestlings are naked. The
tongue is rudimentary, though said to shew an approach to that of the
Motmots in _Pelargopsis_. The sexes may be similar or dissimilar, even in
the same genus; the young are like their parents, or somewhat duller. The
colours of the Family are most variable, a combination of blue, green, and
chestnut being frequent, while almost uniform red, or black and white, are
not uncommon; the beak may be black, red, yellow, or parti-coloured. About
twenty genera, with some hundred and fifty species, occupy nearly the whole
globe, though by far the greater number are found from Celebes to Papuasia,
while _Ceryle_ alone is American.

The habits in the Family are as diverse as the styles of plumage. The
Water-Kingfishers love shady haunts by quiet lowland streams, where the
fishes which form their chief diet abound; in such situations they may be
seen sitting patient and motionless on some favourite overhanging bough or
projecting stone, from which they dart out like an arrow upon their prey.
If successful, they return immediately to their perch, on which they beat
the fish before jerking it down the throat. At other times they hover over
the water with vibrating pinions, or dive perpendicularly with closed
wings. They are not, however, entirely piscivorous, but eat insects and
small crustaceans, especially when they seek the sea-shore, as do several
species of _Halcyon_, _Alcedo_, and _Ceryle_, including our native
Kingfisher, chiefly towards winter. In tropical countries reeds and
sugar-canes serve for perches. The flight is straight and quick, but not
long sustained; the note is either high-pitched, and of two or three
syllables, which may be {384}likened to "tit-it-it," or is loud and harsh;
it is most frequently heard as the birds skim over the streams in the
anxious time of breeding, while the young have similar cries, and are very
noisy just before leaving the nest, which they render extremely foul. The
eggs are laid in holes in perpendicular river-banks, disused gravel-pits
and the like, or even in cavities in walls or rotten stumps, the circular
tunnel usually penetrating to a depth of two or three feet, and forming an
enlarged terminal chamber. The number of eggs varies from four to ten in
different species; they are round, white, glossy, and thin-shelled, and
look very pink when they are fresh; they usually lie on a bed of
fish-bones, consisting chiefly of vertebrae, not uncommonly deposited
before laying begins. _Ceryle rudis_ is stated to make a nest of grass, _C.
amazona_ one of sticks and straw, the former at times breeding in colonies.
The male has been known to assist in incubation, which lasts a fortnight or
more; while two broods are occasionally reared in the season, especially in
warmer climates. The Wood-Kingfishers prefer shady forest-regions, not
necessarily near water, but also frequent the vicinity of houses; their
food consists of insects caught in the air, caterpillars, reptiles, frogs,
crustaceans, worms and molluscs, though they occasionally eat fish. The
nests, placed in holes in trees or banks, are said in some cases to be of a
few straws, dry leaves, or moss. The genus _Dacelo_ and its allies,
including the largest forms of the Family, are natives of Australia and New
Guinea, where they often inhabit very dry situations. They will even eat
small mammals or birds, bruising them before deglutition, and lay two or
three white eggs in holes in trees without any nest. The note is an
extraordinary loud gurgling or barking sound, from which they are called
"Laughing Jackasses."

Kingfishers are difficult to keep in captivity, while hard frosts cause
much mortality, though the use of the feathers for artificial flies or for
ornament adds to the scarcity. The males are at times very pugnacious. Many
fables are connected with the Family; for instance, _Ceyx_ and _Alcyone_
were said to have been changed by Zeus into Kingfishers, while Aeolus,
father of Alcyone, kept the weather calm in midwinter (the fourteen halcyon
days), when the birds formed a floating nest upon the deep. A dried
specimen, if hung up, was supposed to act as a weathercock with its bill,
as Shakespeare intimates.

{385}[Illustration: FIG. 80.–Racquet-tailed Kingfisher. _Tanysiptera dea._
× ½. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

Sub-fam. 1. _Halcyoninae._–_Tanysiptera sabrina_ of the Moluccas, one of
the members of a large and very beautiful genus, is white, except for the
crown and wing-coverts, which are bright blue, and the cheeks, nape,
remiges, upper back and scapulars, which are bluish-black. The two median
rectrices have bluish shafts with white racquet-tips; the bill is red. _T.
nympha_ of New Guinea differs in its blue tail, vermilion rump and under
parts. _Cittura cyanotis_ of Celebes has a rufous head and chestnut tail, a
brown back with partially buff scapulars, bluish-black wings with blue
coverts, a blue eye-streak (black in the female), a lilac under surface,
and a dark red bill. _Halcyon coromandus_ of Eastern Asia is brown with a
lovely lilac tinge above and a sky-blue rump, the lower parts being
orange-rufous, and the bill red. _H. cyaniventris_ of Java is rich blue
above; the head and wing-coverts are mainly black, the lower parts
ultramarine, the throat and cheeks rufous, extending as a collar to the
nape; the bill is dark red. _H. semicaeruleus_ of Arabia, West and East
Africa, has a whitish head and under parts, with a chestnut {386}abdomen;
the upper parts are black, with azure lower back, tail and wing-quills, the
bill is red. _H. saurophagus_ of Papuasia and the Moluccas is blue, with
white head and under surface, and black bill. _H. nigrocyaneus_ of the
former region is black and blue, with white throat, pectoral band and
dorsal markings, the bill being black. The female is whiter below. _H.
lindsayi_ has dingy green upper parts with buff spots, and a black
eye-stripe surmounted by an azure band, both of which extend round the back
of the head; the neck and throat are cinnamon divided by a blue stripe, the
under parts white mottled with green; the bill is black. The blue parts are
green in the female.

_Dacelo gigas_, the "Laughing Jackass" or "Settlers' Clock" of Australia,
is mainly brown above with a white stripe on each side of the head; the
tail is rufous and black, the rump of the same colour in the female,
greenish-blue in the male; the lower surface is dirty white, the bill
blackish. _Clytoceyx rex_ of New Guinea has an immensely thick, blunt, and
rather short bill; it is brown above, with a rufous collar, blackish back
and neck-stripes, light azure rump, greenish tail and wing-quills; below it
is light chestnut with white throat. _Carcineutes pulchellus_ of the Malay
countries, Sumatra, and Java has the forehead, cheeks, and collar chestnut,
the crown azure, the upper parts black with blue and white bands, the under
parts rufous with white throat, the bill red. The female is rufous with
black bars above, and white with black spotting below. _Syma torotoro_ of
Papuasia is greenish, with blue tail and rump, orange-rufous head and under
parts, and a black collar. The crown is black in the female. The serrated
bill is yellow. The genera _Ispidina_ and _Ceyx_ furnish the pygmies of the
Family, varying from about four to six inches in length; the coloration in
the former is usually blue and black above and chestnut below, with a red
bill; but _I. madagascariensis_ of Madagascar is entirely rufous, except
for some white on the neck and lower surface. _C. euerythra_, of the Malay
countries and the Philippines, which is red with a lilac tinge above, has
several similar congeners; here again, however, blue, black, and orange are
not uncommon hues.

Sub-fam. 2. _Alcedininae._–_Alcyone azurea_ of Australia has dark
azure-blue upper parts, reddish-orange lower surface with lighter throat,
and a whitish patch on the sides of the neck. _Corythornis cristata_ is
ultramarine with light chestnut under {387}parts, the crest being green
with black transverse stripes, and the bill black. _Alcedo ispida_ of
Britain, the whole of Europe, and the greater part of Asia, has
greenish-blue upper parts, brighter blue head and tail, chestnut under
parts and broad eye-streak, white throat and patches at the side of the
neck, and black bill, often orange at the base. _A. beryllina_ of Java and
Lombok differs in being entirely greenish-blue above, and white with a blue
chest-band below. _Ceryle_ is the sole genus found in the New World, though
it occurs also in South-East Europe, most of Asia and Africa; _C. alcyon_,
the Belted Kingfisher, alone reaches the Northern United States and Canada.
The half dozen large crested species are generally black and white,
relieved by chestnut or grey, but _C. amazona_ and its nearest allies are
dull green above.

_Pelargopsis gurial_ of India and Assam, one of the "Stork-billed
Kingfishers," has a brown head, yellowish-fawn collar and under parts, dull
green mantle and tail, greenish-blue lower back, and red beak.

Fam. IV. MEROPIDAE.–The Bee-eaters are extremely brilliant and graceful
birds, which range over the temperate and tropical portions of the Old
World, being especially plentiful in the Ethiopian Region, and somewhat
less so in the Indian. The Palaearctic countries possess only four species,
but Celebes alone has three, one of which (_Merops ornatus_) extends
through the Moluccas to Papuasia and Australia.

The bill is long and gradually curved, with a culminar ridge and deflected
mandible, the maxilla being grooved and more arched in _Nyctiornis_. The
short, stout metatarsus, which is weaker in _Merops_, is scutellated
anteriorly and reticulated posteriorly; the abbreviated toes–rather longer
in _Nyctiornis_–have slender curved claws, and are united in the case of
the third and fourth to the last joint, in the second and third to a less
extent. The usually short and rounded wings are long and pointed in
_Merops_ and _Dicrocercus_; the primaries number eleven, or ten in
_Nyctiornis_, and the secondaries twelve or thirteen. The tail of twelve
rectrices is even in _Melittophagus_ and _Nyctiornis_, deeply forked in
_Dicrocercus_, and square with two elongated and tapering median feathers
in _Merops_ and _Meropogon_. The furcula is U-shaped, the tongue is
lanceolate, the nostrils are concealed by dense feathers in _Nyctiornis_
and _Meropogon_; {388}the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial, the aftershaft is
rudimentary; while there is no down in adults or nestlings.

The flight of Bee-eaters is rapid and Swallow-like, and they have a habit
of sitting on dead branches or even upright sticks, from which they dart in
pursuit of their prey, to return again promptly after the manner of
Flycatchers. They skim actively over the surface of the earth, sail aloft
in circles, or float with slightly upturned wings in the air; while they
rest among the foliage at mid-day, and not uncommonly roost in a row on
some branch at night. Occasionally they may be seen dusting themselves like
Larks. _Nyctiornis_ is less energetic, and loves dense forest-shades or
woods of lofty trees, as does _Meropogon_; but the other forms prefer more
open country, and frequent the neighbourhood of swamps or rivers, as well
as arid districts. _Merops_ is constantly seen in flocks, _Melittophagus_
less often; _Nyctiornis_, with rare exceptions, lives singly or in pairs.
The last-named sometimes will not stir even when shot at, and none of the
Family are by nature shy. The note is, according to circumstances, a loud
harsh whistle or a soft flute-like sound; but _Nyctiornis_ utters a deep
croak, ending in a churring noise, puffing out the gular plumes meanwhile
and nodding the head up and down. The birds are not ordinarily noisy. It is
when hawking in the air that the brilliant colours are most strikingly
displayed, the snap of the bill being at such times distinctly audible;
insects are also picked off the backs of cattle, and, more rarely, captured
on the ground; while _Merops philippinus_, and no doubt other species,
bruise their prey against their perch. The name Bee-eater is well deserved,
for in Spain _Merops apiaster_ is a perfect pest to the bee-keeper,
catching the workers as they enter and leave the hives. The indigestible
portions of the food are cast up as pellets, often found in the nest. The
four to six round, glossy white eggs are deposited in holes in banks, or
even in tunnels bored vertically downwards in level ground, which extend to
a depth of from three to ten feet. _Merops superciliosus_ and _M. nubicus_
alone are said to make a slight nest of straw and feathers, the members of
this genus and of _Melittophagus_ often forming large colonies. The flesh
is palatable, while the plumage is in great request for decorative
purposes.

The sexes are similar, the young duller, with the rectrices {389}never much
elongated; _Meropogon_ and _Nyctiornis_ have the gular feathers broad and
lengthened into a tuft.

[Illustration: FIG. 81.–Bee-eater. _Merops apiaster._ × 3/7.]

The Family contains five genera with some thirty-five species, varying in
size from fourteen inches in _Merops natalensis_ to about six and half in
several forms of _Melittophagus_. _Nyctiornis amictus_, of the Malay
countries, is green, with lilac forehead and crown, scarlet cheeks and
throat-tuft, and a few greenish-blue plumes at the base of the bill.
_Meropogon forsteri_ of Celebes is also green, but has the crown, gular
plumes and breast cobalt-blue, the occiput and nape brown, the abdomen
dusky, and the lateral tail-feathers reddish-brown margined with green.
_Merops apiaster_ has ruddy-brown head, neck, upper back, and broad alar
bar, buff lower back, green wings and tail with black tips to the long
median rectrices, light blue upper tail-coverts, pale green and white
forehead, black ear-coverts, and bright yellow throat, divided from the
greenish-blue under parts by a black band. It not unfrequently visits
Britain–as the Blue-tailed Bee-eater, _M. philippinus_, is said to have
done once–and ranges from South Europe to Central Asia and North Africa,
wintering in North-West India and South Africa. _M. viridis_, extending
from Senegambia to North-East Africa and Cochin China, is yellowish-green,
with a rufous tint on the hind-neck, much buff on the wing- and
tail-quills, a black band washed with blue on the fore-neck, and some blue
and black on the face. _M. nubicus_ of the northern half of the Ethiopian
Region has crimson-pink upper parts, blue-green head and throat, light blue
rump and abdomen, {390}rose-pink breast, black markings on the sides of the
head, and black tips to the remiges and rectrices. _Melittophagus gularis_
of West Africa is glossy black above, with bright blue on the forehead,
rump, wings and median tail-feathers; the throat is crimson, the lower
surface black with blue streaks; the wing-quills are for the most part
rufous margined with black.

The Old World Families Bucerotidae and Upupidae are united under the latter
appellation by Dr. Gadow,[227] who recognises the Sub-families
_Bucerotinae_ or Hornbills, _Upupinae_ or Hoopoes, and _Irrisorinae_ or
Wood-Hoopoes; but the two aforesaid groups should decidedly be kept
separate.

Fam. V. BUCEROTIDAE.–The Hornbills derive their name from the immensely
developed bill and casque, or helmet, found in such forms as _Buceros_
(p. 395), though the excrescence in _Aceros_ and some species of
_Lophoceros_ is rudimentary. It may be mentioned that the huge beak of the
Toucans denotes no affinity to this group. The casque–open in front in
_Bucorvus_–is more or less filled with cellular bony tissue, or with an
almost solid mass of bony columns in _Rhinoplax_; the mandibles are
occasionally serrated. The metatarsi are short, save in the terrestrial
_Bucorvus_, and are rough and scaly; the toes have broad flat soles, the
second and third being united for one phalanx, the third and fourth still
further. The powerful wings have eleven primaries, and from ten to sixteen
secondaries, while the under coverts do not perfectly cover the base of the
quills. The tail has ten rectrices and is usually long, though shorter in
_Bucorvus_; it is either square or graduated, and has the two median
feathers much elongated in _Rhinoplax_ and _Ortholophus_. The furcula is
U-shaped, the tongue rudimentary; the aftershaft is wanting; there is no
down on the adults or callow young; and the eyelashes are prominent, a rare
feature among birds. In most forms the atlas (p. 5) fuses with the axis.

These arboreal birds, termed "Calaos" in French, frequent deep tall jungle
or cultivated districts near rivers, up to five thousand feet; most, if not
all, of the species descending from the trees in the morning and evening,
when they have been observed bathing in streams, and digging up loose soil
with their beaks. _Bucorvus_ spends much of the day upon the ground
searching for food.

{391}[Illustration: FIG. 82.–Hornbill. _Dichoceros bicornis._ Female and
young. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

The flight, often prolonged to considerable distances, is heavy and slow,
the unwieldy body acting as a great drag, though counterbalanced by the
pneumaticity, or air-containing nature of the bones, which is perhaps
greater in Hornbills than in any other birds. On the wing a sound is
generally produced like that of a steam-engine, possibly due to the open
nature of the quills; but _Rhinoplax_, _Berenicornis_, _Anorhinus_, and
_Anthracoceros malabaricus_ are said to fly noiselessly. In some species
the wing-action is regular; in others, rapid strokes alternate with sailing
movements on outspread pinions; the head is usually drawn in and the tail
depressed; while flocks proceed in single file. Individuals alight heavily,
and {392}from their bulk are restricted to the stronger branches, along
which they shuffle awkwardly, even assisting themselves with their beak.

Hornbills may be met with singly or in pairs, but ordinarily form parties
of five or six, if not of larger numbers, gathering together to feed or to
roost at fixed spots, which they leave before sunrise. They are not
naturally shy, and if disturbed only resort to some neighbouring tree,
where they may be often observed sitting on the boughs during the mid-day
hours, with puffed out plumage, open bill, and head sunk upon the back as
if overcome by the heat. From time to time while perched they elevate or
depress the crest and utter loud yelping cries, not uncommonly flapping
their wings and bowing their heads; when feeding they constantly chatter in
chorus like Parrots, and vanish with shrill screams if intruders appear.
The characteristic note, however, is a harsh, continuous sound,
intermediate between the bray of an ass and the shriek of a railway engine;
that of _Bucorvus abyssinicus_ has been syllabled "hūm-hūm," and that of
_B. cafer_, the "Bromvogel" of South Africa, has been said to resemble a
lion's roar, and to be audible for a mile. All the species are apparently
most noisy in the morning and evening, or before rain.

Fruits and insects–the latter occasionally hawked for in the air–constitute
the normal food, but the larger forms devour small mammals, birds, eggs and
reptiles, with grubs, flowers, and young shoots; while _Bucorvus_, which
feeds chiefly upon the ground, and hops rapidly, will eat tortoises,
mandioc-roots, and so forth. Berries of _Strychnos_ and figs seem greatly
in favour. Nearly everything is swallowed entire, with a backward jerk of
the head, animals having the life beaten out of them previously, and most
substances being tossed up into the air. The male has a most curious habit
of casting up the lining of the gizzard with its contents enclosed,
possibly to feed the female or young.[228]

A hole in a tree or a cavity at the junction of two branches serves for the
nest, wherein the hen is enclosed by a plaster of dung or like material;
there, under penalty of death, she remains until she emerges dirty, wasted
and enfeebled, when the brood is hatched. From one to four dingy white eggs
with coarse pores are deposited upon the débris or a few feathers. Contrary
to expectation, observations seem to shew that the female walls herself in;
but, however that may be, the cock feeds her through {393}the small opening
left, and is even said to knock with his bill to attract her attention as
he clings to the bark. He shews great anxiety about his charge, and the hen
screams and bites if molested. Various members of the Family expand the
tail and inflate the throat when courting; some thrive fairly well as pets;
while _Aceros nipalensis_ of India, and _Dichoceros bicornis_, the Homrai,
ranging thence to the Malay countries, are said to be excellent eating. The
latter is sacred to Vishnu; the immured female of _Rhytidoceros
subruficollis_ serves as a type of virtue to the Burmese; and natives
believe that the plaster for the holes is composed of gum and earth from
the four quarters of the globe. In South Africa the Fingoes think that
their cattle will contract disease if Hornbills are shot; Kafirs consider
that drought will cease if one of them is sunk under water and drowned;
Ovampos pretend that the eggs are too brittle to be handled.

Some nineteen genera may be admitted, from the Ethiopian, Indian, and
Australian Regions, with about seventy species, more than thirty of which
occur in each of the first two areas; a couple inhabit Celebes, and one
ranges over the Moluccas and Papuasia to the Solomon Islands. None inhabit
Australia.

The somewhat scanty plumage is usually black, white, and grey; but a
greenish or bluish tinge, or rufous heads and lower parts are not
unfrequent. Crests are present, except in _Bucorvus_; _Ceratogymna_ has a
gular wattle; _Berenicornis_ and _Ortholophus_ exhibit long upcurved loral
plumes; while the orbits and throat are more or less naked, and usually of
brilliant colours, these with the bill and casque being often a
distinguishing mark between the sexes. The last develops gradually in the
duller young.

_Rhinoplax vigil_ of the Malay countries, termed the Helmet Hornbill, has a
line down the back and the neck naked and red. The casque is yellow in
front and red behind, and is much used by Eastern artists for carving and
making brooches. _Berenicornis comatus_, of the same districts, has a
moderate black keeled casque, and bare blue orbits and throat. The female
exhibits less white. _Bycanistes buccinator_ of East Africa has a large
blackish furrowed casque and purple naked areas. _Lophoceros nasutus_ of
North-East and West Africa, has the bill and rudimentary casque black, with
a yellow streak on the maxilla and several oblique yellow ridges on the
mandible, the bare orbits apparently grey. In the female the bill shews red
in place of black.

{394}[Illustration: FIG. 83.–Plait-billed Hornbill. _Rhytidoceros
undulatus._ × ⅕-⅙. (From _Nature_.)]

_Ceratogymna elata_ of West Africa has the gular wattle, orbits, and bare
throat blue, with red on the first and a median line of feathers on the
last, and an abrupt, high whitish casque, which is black at the base in the
male. The hen has a rufous head and neck. _Rhytidoceros plicatus_ of
Papuasia and the Moluccas has a reddish and white casque with obliquely
overlapping plates, pale blue naked orbits and throat. The head and neck
are chestnut in the male, black in the female. _Cranorhinus cassidix_ of
Celebes has a red casque, high in front and rounded posteriorly over the
skull; both mandibles are yellow with red bases, and exhibit grooved
plates, the bare parts being chiefly blue with a black bar on the throat.
{395}The head and nape are chestnut and black in the respective sexes, the
hen having the casque yellower. _Penelopides manillae_ of the Philippines
has the moderate, compressed casque transparent brown, and the naked areas
white, becoming purplish in the female. _Anthracoceros coronatus_ of India
and Ceylon has a large yellow subcrescentic casque blotched with black, a
bare white throat and blackish orbits, the latter being white in the hen.
_Dichoceros bicornis_ (Fig. 82) of India and the Malay countries has a
large yellowish-red casque, hollowed and ending in two points anteriorly,
which shews black markings in the male; the naked orbits are pinkish.
_Buceros rhinoceros_ of the Malay Peninsula and Indo-Malay Islands has a
large red, orange, and black casque, curved up in front, and red orbits;
the female having less black on the former. _Bucorvus_ (_Bucorax_) has a
large black casque, nearly or quite closed in _B. cafer_ of South and East
Africa, but open anteriorly and ridged in _B. abyssinicus_ of North-East
and West Africa. In the respective species the naked parts are red and blue
in the male, blue and purple in the female. Some writers adopt a Sub-family
_Bucorvinae_ for this genus.

The fossil _Cryptornis_ of the Upper Eocene of France is referred to the
Hornbills.

Fam. VI. UPUPIDAE.–Sub-Fam. 1. _Upupinae._–This consists of a single genus
with five similarly-coloured graceful species, which have the beak long and
slightly arched, the metatarsi short and scutellated throughout, the toes
rather long and the claws curved. The third and fourth digits only are
joined at the base. The broad wing has ten primaries and an equal number of
secondaries, the short, square tail has ten rectrices, the nestlings
possess a little down. Otherwise the structure resembles that of Hornbills.

Generally found solitary or in pairs, Hoopoes stalk proudly along the
ground, nodding their heads, expanding and contracting their crests, and
uttering the soft reiterated "hoop" or "hoo," from which is derived their
name. Besides probing the soil, the bird taps the ground with its bill or
foot, and some persons think that worms are brought to the surface by the
vibration; but it will also tap any perch, whether on branch, stump, or
wall. The food consists of flies taken on the wing, insects generally, and
worms; individuals being frequently observed climbing rocks or branches of
trees in search of prey, and carefully examining heaps of refuse. Before
being swallowed the larger objects are {396}smartly rapped on some hard
surface, and most are tossed into the air. The flight is strong,
undulating, and seldom protracted, though Hoopoes often escape from Hawks;
they can also run rapidly. The nest, placed in holes in trees, walls, or
rocks, consists of a little straw or a few twigs, with some feathers or
hair; it is always, however, marked by the addition of ordure to the
lining, and sites are on record in coffins or decaying bodies.[229] During
incubation the cock feeds the hen, who hardly stirs from her post; the eggs
number from four to seven, and are pale greenish-blue with distinct pores.
These birds are fond of dusting themselves in loose soil; the male is
decidedly pugnacious, except in captivity; and the flesh is considered a
delicacy in Southern Europe. Arabs venerate them and ascribe to them
medicinal properties. Most persons are familiar with the story of Allah
granting to Epops a golden crest, exchanged afterwards at the bird's
request for one of feathers.

[Illustration: FIG. 84.–Hoopoe. _Upupa epops._ × ¼. (From _Natural History
of Selborne_.)]

_Upupa epops_ not unfrequently visits Britain, where it has nested on
several occasions; it breeds from Southern Scandinavia to Northern Africa
and the Atlantic Islands, migrating a little {397}further south; while it
extends through most of Asia and reaches Japan. The fine erectile crest,
the head, neck, and lower parts are cinnamon-coloured; the remaining
plumage is black, varied with buff and white; a band of the latter crosses
the tail; and the head plumes are tipped with black and white. _U.
marginata_ of Madagascar has a larger outer primary and a narrower
tail-band; _U. indica_, with darker cinnamon tints, extends from India to
Hainan, and intergrades with _U. epops_; _U. somalensis_ of Somali-Land is
intermediate between the last and _U. africana_ of South Africa, which
exhibits no white on the primaries or crest. Females and young are duller
and less crested.

A fossil form, _Limnatornis_, occurs in the Lower French Miocene.

Sub-fam. 2. _Irrisorinae._–The Wood-Hoopoes, differing from their allies in
the longer and more decurved bill, especially noticeable in
_Rhinopomastus_, the long wedge-shaped tail, and the absence of a crest,
are commonly seen in flocks of from six to eight; they are shy, restless
and noisy, flitting from bush to bush with undulating motion and expanded
rectrices, while they also creep about probing the crannies of the highest
trees–to the great detriment of the tail–or search the ground for grubs and
insects generally. The note is harsh and chattering; the nest, said to be
foul like that of their allies, is placed in holes in trees, the eggs being
apparently white. The plumage is metallic purple, blue or greenish, with
white wing-patch and tail-markings, the females and young being less
bright, with shorter beaks.

_Irrisor_ occupies the Ethiopian Region, _I. viridis_ and _I.
erythrorhynchus_ having the head and throat bluish-green, _I. bollii_ those
parts buff, _I. jacksoni_ nearly white. Three species of _Scoptelus_
inhabit North-East and West Africa, three of _Rhinopomastus_ extend from
the former country and the Congo to South Africa.

* * * * *

The Sub-Order STRIGES, containing the natural and well-marked group of the
Owls, was until lately usually treated as a mere Family situated next to
the diurnal Birds of Prey (_Accipitres_ of this work), whatever name or
rank may have been given to the combined assemblage. Gradually, however, a
conviction has arisen that these nocturnal–or chiefly nocturnal–Birds of
Prey deserve a higher position than that of a Family, while Dr. Gadow, in
the classification here mainly adopted, agrees with those who would
separate them widely from their former associates, and places {398}them in
close proximity to the Nightjar alliance (_Caprimulgi_), the members of
which they certainly resemble in their soft plumage, large eyes, and
crepuscular tendencies.

Fam. VII. STRIGIDAE.–This, which contains all the Owls, may be divided into
two Sub-families, (1) _Striginae_ and (2) _Buboninae_.[230] In the former,
or Screech-Owl section,[231] the sternum has its broad keel joined to the
furcula, and exhibits no notches behind; in the latter, containing the
remaining genera, the clavicles do not always form a furcula, nor do they
meet the sternum, which shews one or two pairs of projections posteriorly.
In this section, moreover, there is a bony loop bridging the channel in the
metatarsus which contains the common extensor tendon of the toes, as is the
case in the Osprey. Pterylography would lead to the same subdivisions.
Between the two groups lie _Photodilus_ of the Indian Region, now referred
to the Buboninae, and _Heliodilus_ of Madagascar, which is classed with the
Striginae.

The head is large; the neck short and thin; the bill moderate in length,
but stout, with a sharp hook at the tip; the culmen is usually curved, but
is straighter in _Strix_, while the basal cere is more or less covered by
feathering, especially in _Nyctea_. The short, strong metatarsi–somewhat
longer in _Speotyto_ and _Sceloglaux_–are flattened in front and covered
with small scales. They are usually feathered, though in _Ketupa_ and
_Scotopelia_ they are all but bare, while they are partly so in _Scops
gymnopus_ and _S. nudipes_, the two former having the toes provided with
spicules below, as in _Pandion_. Many forms have the plumage extended as a
thick covering of soft feathers or bristles to the claws, which are
normally long, sharp, and curved, that of the middle toe having a serrated
margin in the Striginae. The digits are padded beneath, and the fourth of
them is reversible at will, enabling Owls to perch with either one or two
toes behind. The wings are long, or fairly so, very broad, and more or less
rounded, _Scops_ and _Strix_ being instances of greater length, _Bubo_,
_Sceloglaux_, _Speotyto_, and _Photodilus_ of shortness; the primaries
number eleven and the secondaries from eleven to eighteen. The tail of
twelve rectrices is generally short and somewhat rounded, though longer in
_Surnia_. The large {399}eyes are directed obliquely forwards, but those of
_Ninox_ are said to have a less staring look; Owls, moreover, have little
power of turning the eye-ball, and consequently add to their grotesque
appearance by constantly moving the head from side to side. The upper
eye-lid shuts over the eye, and not the lower, as in birds generally; the
iris is extremely sensitive, contracting and expanding continually. The
external ear varies in an extraordinary way, the "conch," or large
shell-like aperture, often having its ample membranous margin developed
into an elevated operculum or flap which stretches partially or entirely
down the anterior side. In _Asio_ and _Syrnium_ the ear-openings are
asymmetrical, those of the former reaching nearly the whole height of the
skull and being directed respectively upwards and downwards; in _Nyctala_
this asymmetry extends to the bones of the skull itself. The large ear is
apparently correlated with a keen sense of hearing in some cases, but not
in all.

The furcula, when complete, is U-shaped; the tongue is fleshy, and somewhat
horny below; the nostrils, placed towards the front of the cere, are rather
large, and usually concealed by bristles; the syrinx is bronchial; the
after-shaft is absent or rudimentary; down occurs in the adults only on the
unfeathered spaces, but in the nestlings forms a woolly coating, which may
be brown or dusky, as in the Snowy Owl, white as in the Screech-Owl,
yellowish or grey, as in many species.

The sexes are alike, the female being larger than the male. The young
resemble the adults, but, at least in certain cases, are more rufous or
buff; further information is, however, needed as to the successive stages.
All Owls exhibit a certain similarity, while their ample plumage creates an
erroneous impression of bulk; the feathers–most compact in _Surnia_–are
soft, with an admixture of hairs and with weak, brittle shafts, to which
facts the noiseless flight is largely due. An erectile tuft decorates each
side of the crown in _Bubo_, _Asio_, _Scops_, and _Ketupa_; but the most
striking outward characteristic is the ruff of several series of small,
stiff-shafted, recurved feathers, originating from a fold of the skin round
the cheek, which support the larger feathers of the overlying disc around
the eye. The latter is very complete in _Strix_, _Syrnium_, and _Asio_,
being in the first-named rather triangular than circular; but in _Surnia_,
_Speotyto_, _Bubo_, and _Scops_, not to mention other cases, it is far less
perfect.

{400}_Syrnium cinereum_, one of the largest members of the Family, is
thirty inches long, though _Bubo_ possesses species that are perhaps more
powerful; on the other hand, _Micrathene whitneyi_ and _Glaucidium
cobanense_ measure about five inches. Omitting the white or yellowish-white
forms, the coloration of Owls may be stated to be a mixture of black,
brown, rufous, grey, yellow, and white, while barring is frequent on the
wings and tail. The pattern is always difficult to describe, nor can more
than an indication of it be given in the space available below. Permanent
rusty-red and grey phases occur in many species, or more rarely a brown
phase; such species as exhibit two of these being termed dimorphic, though
dichromatic would better express the meaning. The bill is blackish, dusky,
or yellowish. The moult in the Strigidae appears to be very gradual.

Owls are an exceptionally cosmopolitan group of birds, a large proportion
of the genera being common to both hemispheres; _Ketupa_, _Scotopelia_,
_Ninox_, _Heteroglaux_, _Sceloglaux_, _Carine_, _Photodilus_ and
_Heliodilus_ are, however, peculiar to the Old World, _Speotyto_,
_Gymnasio_ and _Micrathene_ to the New. The Short-eared Owl (_Asio
accipitrinus_) is found at various seasons throughout the globe, except, it
would seem, in West Africa, Australia, the Moluccas, Papuasia, and Oceania;
it occurs even in the Sandwich, Galápagos, and Falkland Islands. The
Screech-Owl (_Strix flammea_) has an even wider range, but is not met with
in Norway, the north of North America, or New Zealand. Authorities differ
as to the genera and species to be recognised, but certainly many more of
the latter are now known than the one hundred and ninety at which Dr.
Sharpe put the total in 1875.[232]

The members of this Family frequent districts of the most varied
description, whether they be wooded highlands, rocky ravines, or cultivated
lowlands; the Snowy Owl (_Nyctea scandiaca_) nests chiefly on the fjelds
and barren lands towards the North Pole; while the Burrowing Owl (_Speotyto
cunicularia_), which is equally at home on the sandy plains of North or
South America, is exceptional as an instance of gregarious habits in the
group. The majority, being nocturnal, are ill at ease in sunlight, a fact
which may explain the apparent discrepancy between their habitual shyness
and their bold conduct at the nest or when wounded; many are then
positively dangerous, and prove worse adversaries {401}than Falcons or
Eagles. In the perpetual day of the Arctic summer the Snowy Owl and the
Hawk-Owl (_Surnia ulula_) cannot of course be nocturnal, while to a limited
extent various species of _Bubo_, _Scops_, _Ninox_, _Glaucidium_, _Carine_,
_Nyctala_, and _Asio_ may be seen abroad in the hours of light; so that in
many cases sight may aid in the capture of prey as much as hearing.

The noiseless flight is buoyant, but usually slow and somewhat wavering,
with frequent beats of the wing; occasionally it is more direct, and in
_Surnia ulula_ almost Hawk-like. Owls apparently prefer to perch with the
first and fourth toes behind, and on a level surface to stand with three
toes in front; their gait on the ground is awkward, and being arboreal
birds–with the exception of _Speotyto_ and _Sceloglaux_–they rarely walk to
any extent.

The food consists of small mammals, such as lemmings, rats, voles, and
mice; of insects, with perhaps beetles in especial; and to a less degree of
birds, reptiles, bats, worms, slugs, and snails. The stronger forms even
capture young fawns, rabbits, hares, large grouse, and so forth, _Ninox
connivens_ being a great enemy of the young of the Koala (an Australian
marsupial); while the Snowy, Mottled, Screech-, and Wood-Owls occasionally
take fish, which, with crabs, constitutes the chief diet of _Ketupa_. The
manner of procuring sustenance varies with the object sought. Insects are
frequently caught upon the wing, but ordinarily the ground is quartered
after the manner of Harriers, and a pounce made upon the prey, which is
secured in the long curved talons. The smaller creatures are swallowed
entire or carried in the bill; the bigger are conveyed, hanging between the
feet, to some convenient spot, where they are torn to pieces and sometimes
plucked. Bones, fur, feathers, beetles' elytra, and the like are ejected as
round or cylindrical pellets, which commonly lie thickly around the nests
or feeding-places, and clearly shew the nature of the food.

The note varies from a loud hoot to a low, muffled sound or a clear,
musical cry; the utterance of both young and adults being in some cases a
cat-like mew, while the Screech-Owl snores when stationary. The "hoot" is
said to be produced by closing the bill, puffing out the throat, and then
liberating the air, a proceeding comparable to that of the Bitterns
(p. 88). On the whole the voice is mournful and monotonous, but
occasionally it resembles a shrill laugh. If a nest be made, it is commonly
placed in a hole in a tree or on a ledge of rock, but many species
{402}simply deposit their eggs on the débris naturally found in cavities.

To descend to a few particulars, the Snowy and Short-eared Owls, certain
other species of _Asio_, and in some cases the Eagle-Owls (_Bubo_) breed
upon the ground, often near some sheltering tuft, and use little or no
bedding; _Speotyto_ collects a mass of grass, dry leaves, feathers, and
rubbish in burrows; the Wood-Owls (_Syrnium_), the Long-eared Owl (_Asio
otus_), and several other forms utilize deserted nests of Pies, Crows,
Squirrels, and the like, commonly adding a fresh lining; the first-named
alternatively choose holes in trees or in the ground; while _Carine glaux_
has been known to breed in ant-hills. The Screech-Owl (_Strix_) and most of
the smaller members of the Family deposit their eggs in crevices in rocks
or banks, in natural cavities in trees, or even at the junction of two
large branches; towers, lofts, dovecots, and belfries being well-known
sites for the former. Apparently none of the above excavate their own holes
in the wood, or do more than clear them out; a few, however, decorate the
nests they usurp with green foliage, as do so many Buzzards and Eagles. The
habits sometimes undergo a decided change, as when the Short-eared Owl in
the Aleutian Islands, and the Screech-Owl in Texas and India take to fairly
deep burrows.

The Strigidae are exceptionally early breeders; for instance, Long-eared
Owls' eggs have been found in England at the end of February, and those of
_Bubo virginianus_ in that month in the United States; it is true the
Screech-Owl is later in this country, but this does not seem to be the case
with its American race. Where fresh sets are found late in the year, the
first have generally been destroyed, and a second brood is uncommon, though
the contrary holds true during vole- or lemming-plagues, when food is
unusually abundant; at such times, moreover, the number of eggs is
abnormally large for the species. The usual tale varies from two to ten,
while the bigger forms as a rule do not deposit so many. Much has been made
of the fact that the Screech-Owl (with the Eagle-Owl and other forms) lays
at considerable intervals of time; but this is certainly not always true,
and in many cases the varying size of the embryo is easily accounted for by
supposing the parent to sit as soon as the first egg is deposited. On the
other hand, occasional breaks certainly occur in the laying, and pairs of
eggs are often produced almost simultaneously; yet the bird has {403}no
regular habit of allowing the subsequent eggs to be hatched by the warmth
of the oldest nestlings; and the reader may be reminded that in other
groups, such as the Harriers and Divers, a very similar inequality in the
development of the eggs may be observed. Exceptionally the white shell is
said to be tinted with blue or yellow, or to be even marked with lilac and
brown in _Bubo coromandus_.[233] The shape is normally oval or nearly
spherical, but longer or even pointed specimens are not uncommon, while the
larger the size the less glossy is the texture. The male is generally to be
found near at hand if the nest is disturbed, and undoubtedly assists in
some cases in incubation, which lasts about four weeks. The hen hisses when
caught in a hole, and invariably sits closely; while both parents
frequently remain near an intruder, and "click" their beaks at him in
exactly the same manner as the pugnacious nestlings do.

Owls are constantly mobbed by other birds, especially when dazed by
sunlight, the Little Owl being used as a lure on the Continent. They
migrate to a greater or less extent, the autumnal visits of the Short-eared
Owl being especially well-known in Britain; yet the Snowy Owl often remains
in the far north in winter. The flesh is not generally reckoned palatable,
but _Bubo_, _Asio_, _Nyctea_, _Carine_ and _Scops_ at least are eaten by
the natives of various countries; superstition, however, usually prevents
the murder of an Owl, which is usually supposed to entail evil, though in a
few places good luck. In Andalucia the Scops- and Screech-Owls are believed
to be the devil's birds, and to drink the oil from the lamps in saints'
shrines; the Malagasy consider the members of the Family embodiments of the
spirits of the wicked; and country folks' belief in their connection with
death and the churchyard dates back at least to the time of Shakespeare,
who makes one of his characters call the owl's hoot or screech a "song of
death." Many species are well-adapted for aviaries, and breed freely; and
the Little Owl (_Carine noctua_) has done so when liberated in Britain.

Sub-fam. 1. _Striginae._–_Strix flammea_, the nocturnal White, Screech-, or
Barn-Owl, is orange-buff above, with brown, grey and white markings, but is
white below and on the complete facial discs. The dark grey phase has the
white parts tinged with orange and a few distinct blackish spots beneath.
The legs are entirely, and the toes partially, covered with bristly
{404}feathers. As mentioned above (p. 400), the bird is almost
cosmopolitan, if we disregard the sub-species proposed. It is rare in
northern Scotland. It lays its four to six dull white eggs, without any
nest, in hollow trees, crevices in masonry or rocks, towers, belfries,
lofts, and so forth, and has been known to breed in holes in banks or
cliffs in America, between forking branches in the Philippines, and on the
ground in Madagascar. The eggs are not uncommonly deposited at considerable
intervals. The food consists chiefly of small rodents, though birds, bats,
insects, and even small fish are eaten; the note is a weird screech, while
young and old make a snoring noise at the nesting place. When this bird
frequents dovecotes it destroys the rats which prey upon the eggs and young
of pigeons, and is itself practically harmless. According to Dr.
Sharpe[234] the following may also be admitted as valid species: _S. novae
hollandiae_ of Australia, _S. tenebricosa_ of that country and New Guinea,
_S. capensis_ of South Africa, and _S. candida_, the Grass Owl, ranging
from India to China, Formosa, North Australia, and Fiji. _S. castanops_ of
Tasmania may perhaps be added, and _S. aurantiaca_ of New Britain is
certainly distinct, but may not belong to this genus.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.–Screech-Owl. _Strix flammea._ × ⅖.]

_Heliodilus soumagnii_ of Madagascar is cinnamon-rufous above, with a few
black spots on the head, and bars on the wing and tail; it is lighter below
and pinker on the face. The toes are bare.

Sub-fam. 2. _Buboninae._–_Photodilus badius_, found from the Eastern
Himalayas to Ceylon, the Burmese Countries, Borneo, {405}and Java, is a
somewhat similarly coloured bird to the last-named, and utters a single
reiterated note. The habits are unknown.

_Nyctala tengmalmi_, Tengmalm's Owl, inhabits the forests of Northern and
Central Europe, Siberia, and Arctic America; it has brown upper parts
barred and mottled with white, and whitish lower surface banded and
streaked with brown; the facial discs are fairly complete, the legs
feathered to the end of the toes. Only partially nocturnal, it utters a
soft whistle or bell-like note, feeds on small rodents, birds, and beetles,
and lays from four to six, or exceptionally ten, eggs in holes in trees.
Its only congener, _N. acadica_, called the Saw-whet Owl from its grating
cry, occurs in America from Mexico northwards.

_Syrnium aluco_, the Tawny, Brown, or Wood-Owl of Great Britain–not found
in Ireland–ranges through most of Europe and Northern Africa to Palestine,
and it is said to Tibet; the colour above is grey and brown, with white
spots on the wing-coverts and tip to the tail; the lower parts being
rufous-white, mottled and streaked with brown. The perfect facial discs are
greyish, the legs are feathered to the claws. A rufous phase is even more
common in this country. It is an arboreal and entirely nocturnal species,
which makes the woodlands ring with its note in the autumn gloaming, and
less frequently in the morning; the sound resembling hŏo-hŏo-hŏo-hōo once
or twice repeated, rather than the Shakespearean tu-whit, to-who.
Surface-swimming fish vary the usual diet. From the middle of March onwards
three or four large oval eggs are deposited in hollow trees or deserted
nests of other birds; or even in caves, lofts, and rabbit-burrows, though
trees may be near to hand; sometimes a scanty lining of twigs, grass, down,
feathers, or fur is added. This genus, with about thirty species, extends
over nearly the whole globe, except Madagascar and the Australian Region;
some of the best known members being the northern _S. lapponicum_, the Lapp
Owl, and its American race _S. cinereum_–much larger and greyer birds than
_S. aluco_, with curious concentrically marked facial disks–and the whiter
broadly streaked _S. uralense_ of Northern and Central Europe and Siberia,
which is said at times to bleat like a goat. India furnishes _S. nivicola_
and _S. newarense_ of the Himalayas, _S. ocellatum_ and _S. indranee_, the
last-named extending to the Malay Peninsula; _S. sinense_ occurs in that
district Burma, Cochin China and Java, _S. leptogrammicum_ in Borneo.
{406}_S. nebulosum_ of eastern and _S. occidentale_ of southern North
America extend to Mexico; whence _S. virgatum_, _S. perspicillatum_, _S.
albigulare_ and other species range to the middle of South America. _S.
rufipes_ is a native of Chili and Patagonia. Finally, _S. nuchale_ inhabits
Western, _S. woodfordi_ Southern and North-Eastern Africa.

_Asio otus_, the Long-eared Owl, is buff, streaked, mottled and
vermiculated with brown and grey, especially on the upper parts, which
appear almost brown. The buff facial discs are complete; the feathering of
the legs extends more or less over the toes; the two long head-tufts are
erectile. It occurs throughout Europe, in Asia ordinarily north of the
Himalayas, in China, Japan, the Atlantic Islands, and North Africa, being
replaced in America southwards to Mexico by the sub-species _A. americanus_
(_wilsonianus_). _A. accipitrinus_, the Short-eared Owl, one of the most
widely distributed of birds, inhabits or visits nearly the whole globe
(p. 400). It is lighter and less streaky than the last form, with much
shorter tufts. _A. mexicanus_, ranging from Mexico to Brazil, _A.
madagascariensis_, peculiar to Madagascar, _A. capensis_ of that island and
most of Africa, which strays to Spain and Arabia, _A. stygius_, found from
Mexico and Cuba to Brazil, and its Jamaican representative, _A. grammicus_,
complete the genus. The last three have comparatively bare toes. The
Long-eared Owl resembles the Wood-Owl in general habits, and even, it is
said, breeds at times upon the earth; but it almost invariably relines
deserted habitations of other birds or of squirrels with a scanty supply of
twigs, grass, fur, down, or feathers, and lays from four to six oval eggs
from the end of February onwards. Pies' nests are in great request,
especially those of the preceding season. This somewhat silent species
utters a single hoot, or else a mewing cry, often erroneously attributed to
the young alone; the parents sit on the tops of trees when the nursery is
disturbed, and click their beaks, just as the nestlings do. The Short-eared
or Marsh-Owl makes a nest of the surrounding substances, with a few
feathers, among heather, sedge, or marshy herbage, sometimes sheltered by
some tussock or bush, and normally deposits from four to eight eggs; but
during the vole plague on the Scottish Borders in 1890-92, when these birds
abounded, they produced as many as thirteen each. In Unalashka a similar
structure is made in holes in banks. Should the sitting parent be
disturbed, it commonly utters a harsh scream, and hovers or circles around
{407}with continued cries, which summon its mate, if near; at other times
little noise is made, though this species is unusually diurnal. If
quartering the flats for food its flight is sufficiently powerful; but if
suddenly flushed it is wavering or zig-zag, as is well seen in autumn, when
the bird is named "Woodcock-Owl" in Britain, from its arriving at the same
time as Woodcocks.

_Micrathene whitneyi_, of the South-Western United States and Mexico, is
grey, mottled with brown and a little rufous; the lower parts being whiter,
and some white also shewing on the nape, wing-coverts, and throat. It
breeds in holes in cacti and the like. The genus _Glaucidium_, or
Pigmy-Owl, comprises some twenty members, distributed over most of the
globe, except the Australian Region, while one inhabits Europe. The
coloration is blackish- or ashy-brown, greyish, or rufous; browner and
redder phases often occurring in the same species. The upper parts exhibit
the usual dark mottlings, and yellowish or white markings; the under
surface is lighter; a whitish collar sometimes occurs above, or a dusky
gorget below. The facial discs are rather imperfect, the toes may be
thickly feathered or only hairy. The habits of _G. passerinum_ of Northern
and Central Europe are apparently representative of these forms, which are,
according to circumstances, shy or fearless, though strong and rapacious
for their size; they capture birds bigger than themselves, bats, rodents,
moths, and large insects generally. By preference arboreal, and denizens of
hilly woodlands, gardens, and orchards, they doze in trees during the day;
yet they are not entirely nocturnal, and may be seen after sunrise pursuing
their prey with rapid, jerky flight, very different to that of the more
slowly-flapping crepuscular species. The note varies from a loud clear
whistle to a short hissing or longer gurgling sound; the three to five
roundish eggs are laid in hollow trees. The largest form, _G. cuculoïdes_,
found from the Himalayas to Siam, does not attain twelve inches (_G.
whitelyi_ of China and Japan being barely separable), while _G. cobanense_
of Guatemala is only five inches long, and is the smallest Owl known. _G.
radiatum_ inhabits India, _G. brodiei_ the Himalayas, _G. castanonotum_
Ceylon, _G. sylvaticum_ Sumatra, _G. castanopterum_ Java, _G. pardalotum_
Formosa, _G. perlatum_ most of the Ethiopian Region, _G. capense_ South
Africa; _G. gnoma_ ranges from British Columbia to Guatemala, _G. ferox_
(with its races) from Texas to Bolivia and Brazil; _G. siju_ occupies Cuba,
_G. jardinii_ New {408}Granada and Venezuela, _G. pumilum_ Brazil, _G.
nanum_ Chili and Patagonia.

_Sceloglaux albifacies_, the Laughing Owl of New Zealand, is rufous-brown,
with the middle of the feathers dark, and a few marks of white and buff
above; the tail is barred with fulvous, the fairly perfect facial discs
exhibit radiating brown streaks; the toes are hairy. For an Owl this
peculiar species has the head small, the wings short, and the metatarsi
long; it strides along or hops at a considerable rate on the ground, and
flies only at night, uttering a peculiar shrill laugh or a loud barking
call-note. It is fast becoming extinct in its bleak mountain-haunts, where
it conceals itself by day–and also nests–in dry crevices of rocky gullies;
it lays from one to three eggs at considerable intervals, if we may judge
from captive specimens. The female is smaller than the male, who
occasionally incubates. As the Maori rat of New Zealand is extinct, the
food now consists of the introduced _Mus decumanus_, with insects, birds,
and so forth.

In the genus _Ninox_ the prevailing colours are grey, brown, and rufous,
relieved by a little black and white, the question of dichromatism not
being yet settled. The facial discs are somewhat imperfect. The thirty or
more species extend from Madagascar, India, and Ceylon to Japan, Australia,
New Zealand, and the Solomon Islands, having their headquarters in the
Moluccas and Papuasia; but, with the exception of _Scops_, there is perhaps
no group in the Family where the status of the members is more doubtful.
They are sometimes termed Hairy or Hawk-Owls, though the true Hawk-Owl is
_Surnia ulula_. _N. scutulata_, ranging from India to Japan, Formosa,
Ternate and Flores, frequents forests and gardens, sallying forth at dusk,
darting upon insects from its perch on some dead branch, uttering a
reiterated double note, and laying its eggs on dried leaves in hollow
trees. _N. strenua_, _N. connivens_, and _N. boobook_ are Australian
species, of which the first is a powerful bird with a hoarse, mournful
voice, mainly nocturnal, but wakeful and speedy in the daytime. It
frequents lonely forests and thick "brushes" on hills, being less widely
distributed than the more diurnal _N. connivens_ and _N. boobook_. The
latter may be seen in sunlight capturing birds or insects in the woods, but
the note of "boobook," or "buck-buck," from which it gets its native name,
is only heard at night. The colonists compare the cry with "cuckoo," and
believe that the {409}Cuckoo visits Australia and there assumes nocturnal
habits. The flight is rapid and Woodcock-like, the three eggs are deposited
in holes in trees, with no nest. _N._ (_Spiloglaux_) _novae zealandiae_, of
New Zealand, called from its cry "More-pork,"[235] is dark brown above with
white spots on the scapulars and wing-coverts, and is tawny with brown
streaks below. By day it hides in trees or crevices of rocks, and appears
at dusk to prey on rats, mice, birds, lepidoptera, beetles, and crickets.
Besides the usual note, a shrill scream or croak is not unfrequently heard;
the young make a snoring noise, and adults click the beak when angry. Two
or three eggs are laid in hollow trees or under boulders. Of other species
_N. maculata_ is restricted to Tasmania and Norfolk Island, _N. albaria_ to
Lord Howe Island, _N. obscura_ and _N. affinis_ to the Andamans and perhaps
the Nicobars, and _N. natalis_ to Christmas Island, Indian Ocean; while
from the Philippines and Celebes to the Solomons the numbers increase
greatly, and many islands have their own peculiar forms.

_Gymnoglaux nudipes_ of the Antilles, remarkable for its unusually bare
metatarsi, is brown above and white below, with rufous barring throughout;
_G. lawrencii_ of Cuba having the leg-feathers less extended, and being
spotted with white on the more uniform upper surface. _Speotyto
cunicularia_, the Burrowing Owl, a comparatively long-legged and
short-winged bird with incomplete facial discs and unfeathered toes, is
umber-brown varied with yellowish and white, the lower parts becoming
lighter. From the confines of British Columbia it extends through the
Western and Southern United States, a few of the Antilles, and the greater
part of the Neotropical Region, several fairly distinct races having been
described. Large communities in North America occupy the burrows of
prairie-dogs, rats, ground-squirrels, or badgers; in South America those of
the biscacha, the Patagonian hare, and even of armadillos and large
lizards; but they are said to make their own holes, if necessary. The homes
seem usually to be shared by the separate pairs with the original owners,
and sometimes with intruders such as rattlesnakes; while a nest of grass,
feathers, and rubbish is made at the further end, where from five to ten
eggs may be found, surrounded by castings. Mainly diurnal and generally
fearless, these birds fly strongly for short distances, and procure their
food of small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects, {410}chiefly on the
ground, where they are quite at ease. A croaking sound is made while
courting, but the ordinary cry is long and shrill; both parents, moreover,
fly chattering over an intruder at the breeding colonies, while individuals
often sit bowing or twisting their heads about on the roofs of houses.

[Illustration: FIG. 86.–Burrowing Owl. _Speotyto cunicularia._ × ½. (From
_Nature_.)]

_Carine noctua_, the Little Owl of British authors, is greyish-brown above
with white markings, and white with brown streaks below. The facial discs
are imperfect; the toes are bristly–or {411}feathered in the race from
Northern and Central Asia (_C. plumipes_ or _bactriana_). Another race (_C.
glaux_), of a more sandy colour, occupies North Africa, whence the species
ranges to Denmark, the Baltic and the Urals, and through Palestine and
Afghanistan to East Siberia and North China. It occurs in England, where
liberated specimens breed, but possibly diminish in numbers. _C.
spilogastra_ is found in Abyssinia, _C. superciliaris_ in Madagascar, _C.
brama_ in India and Baluchistan. The Little Owl is semi-diurnal, and haunts
wooded country and orchards; the flight in the day is undulating and slow
with many flaps; the note is a muffled monosyllabic or disyllabic cry, a
noisy bark, a mew, or a wail; the food consists of rodents, birds,
reptiles, frogs, insects, snails, and worms. From three to five eggs are
deposited on débris in crevices of rocks or masonry, in buildings, hollow
trees, or even ant-hills. Of old the European form was the bird of Pallas
Athene and the emblem of wisdom, but whether from its grave appearance when
quiescent, or–sarcastically–from its buffoon-like contortions and bowings
must remain doubtful; we may, however, compare the Malagasy name of _Scops
magicus_, "atoroko," which means "I am going to say," and the similarly
philosophic look that it can put on.

_Surnia ulula_ or _funerea_, the Hawk-Owl, ranges from Scandinavia and
North Russia to Kamtschatka or even Alaska, whence a race with a blacker
head, and broader, redder bands below, stretches through Arctic America,
and visits Britain more commonly than the typical form. This is dark brown
above, freely marked with white, and white below, with distinct but narrow
brown bars; the facial disks are very imperfect, the toes are feathered to
the claws. The exceptionally compact and firm plumage, the short, acuminate
wings, and the long tail conduce to its Hawk-like appearance, heightened
still more by the quick flight, the fierce manners, and the shrill
Kestrel-like cry. From their native pine-forests a few individuals wander
southwards towards winter; while at home they feed on lemmings and rodents
generally, Willow Grouse and other birds, and insects. They sit watching
for prey on bare branches or stumps in the sunlight, occasionally dashing
after a Jay or the like; not unfrequently they quarter the ground like a
Harrier, and of course hunt at night also. From three to eight eggs are
deposited on a few chips in hollow stumps, in boxes set up by the Lapps, or
in a relined nest of some other species; the parents being perfectly
fearless in their attacks on an intruder.

{412}_Nyctea scandiaca_, the white Snowy Owl, occasionally exhibiting spots
or broken bars of black, has ill-developed facial discs and hardly visible
tufts, but very thickly feathered feet. It inhabits the circumpolar fjelds,
tundras, and barren grounds, straying as far as Britain, France, Lower
Austria, the Indus Valley and the Bermudas in winter; but when rodents
abound on the fells of Norway and Sweden a greater number remain there to
breed. The flight is strong and easy; the habits are diurnal; the food
consists of lemmings, rats, mice, squirrels, hares, birds large or small,
fishes, and doubtless insects. It is called Harfäng (hare-catcher) in
Scandinavia. This Owl either catches the fishes in one claw as it skims
over the water, or crouches on some stone or piece of ice till the moment
comes to strike; at times, moreover, it will follow sportsmen in the field.
The cry, seldom heard, is wild and wailing. The large, oval eggs, numbering
from three to five, or even ten when food is plentiful, are deposited in
holes scraped in the soil on ledges of rocks or other eminences, sometimes
lined with moss and feathers; they appear occasionally to be laid in pairs
at intervals. The parents, though usually wary, will attack a man at the
nest.

The cosmopolitan genus _Scops_, found almost everywhere except in the
extreme north, Australia, Oceania, and the southern portion of South
America, contains some fifty so-called species which it would be useless to
discuss in the present state of our information, though certain of them are
mentioned below. Rufous, brown, and grey phases undoubtedly occur, but the
various plumages are still very imperfectly understood. Perhaps two-thirds
of the forms occur in the Old World, yet only one (_S. giu_) inhabits the
Palaearctic Region west of Japan, though there we find _S. semitorques_.
The general coloration is a mixture of grey, brown, chocolate or rufous,
with a less amount of black, yellowish, and white; some species are finely
vermiculated, others hardly at all, while several are almost barred below
and many are distinctly banded on the tail. The facial discs are
incomplete, but the head-tufts are well developed; the metatarsi and toes
are feathered, or bristly, or the latter are occasionally bare. _Scops
giu_, the Petit Duc of France, which visits Britain and Holland, extends
over Central and Southern Europe, Asia Minor, Palestine, Persia, and
Turkestan, occurring in North Africa, and migrating as far southwards as
Abyssinia and Senegal. Sub-species occupy the Ethiopian Region, and Asia to
Japan and {413}Siam; _S. brucii_, ranging from Transcaspia to India being
possibly separable. The type species is grey above with the middle of the
feathers dark, the back being vermiculated with brown and the wings spotted
with white; the whitish lower parts are more streaky and the toes bare. It
feeds by night on mice, small birds, grasshoppers, moths, and beetles; and
utters a melancholy metallic single note, which rings monotonously through
the woods it haunts; in the day it hides in thick cypresses and the like.
Five or six roundish eggs are deposited in holes in trees, rocks, and
buildings, or rarely in deserted birds' nests; no bedding being added,
though the opposite is the case in some Indian species. _S. asio_, the
Mottled or American Screech-Owl, reaches with its different races from
Alaska and Canada to Guatemala, and is said to have a wailing cry, varied
by deep guttural trills. _S. flammeola_ occurs from Colorado and California
to Guatemala; and thence various species carry the range to Brazil. The
Ethiopian Region generally is tenanted by _S. leucotis_, the Gold Coast by
_S. icterorhynchus_, Anjuan in the Comoros by _S. capnodes_, Madagascar by
_S. rutilus_–though this is said to be a form of _S. magicus_, extending
from Celebes to about New Guinea; the Indian Region and the Moluccas
possess a large number of species, among which _S. gymnopus_ of India (with
half-naked metatarsi like _S. nudipes_ of Veragua) may be mentioned.

_Bubo ignavus_, the Eagle-Owl, which visits Britain, and is the Grand Duc
of the French, is blackish-brown above, with yellowish-rufous mottlings and
interrupted wing- and tail-bars; it is yellowish-buff below with blackish
streaks and indistinct transverse markings. The facial discs are fairly
distinct, the head-tufts are long, and the toes thickly feathered. This
fierce species, one of the largest of the Family, inhabits rugged mountains
and forests throughout Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas to Japan, and
North Africa; it is partly diurnal, and preys chiefly upon hares, rabbits,
large game birds, and rodents, being said moreover to attack fawns. The
flight is powerful, though undulating and flapping; the cry is a deep "hoo,
hoo," occasionally sounding like a laugh or neigh. Two, or rarely three,
roundish eggs are deposited in holes scraped in the soil on rocky ledges or
on banks, in disused birds' nests, in hollow trees, or even between their
branches or roots; little lining, if any, being added. Nearly allied forms
are _B. turcomanus_ of South-West Siberia and Turkestan, {414}_B.
blakistoni_ of Japan, and _B. dorriesi_ of East Siberia; _B. milesi_ is
found at Muscat, _B. abyssinicus_ in Somali-Land, _B. bengalensis_–which
eats reptiles and crabs–in India, _B. nipalensis_ and _B. coromandus_–which
occasionally lays eggs spotted with lilac and brown–in the same country and
Burma, _B. orientalis_ in Malacca and the Great Sunda Islands, _B.
philippensis_ in the Philippines. _B. lacteus_ covers all the Ethiopian
Region, except the west, where _B. shelleyi_, _B. lettii_, _B.
leucostictus_ and _B. poënsis_ occur, the last being also met with in
Fernando Po. _B. ascalaphus_ inhabits North Africa and Palestine, _B.
cinerascens_ North-East and _B. maculosus_ South Africa, _B. capensis_
extending from the South to the East. All North America is occupied by _B.
virginianus_, barred instead of streaked below; the species or sub-species
_B. nigrescens_ and _B. magellanicus_ coming respectively from Ecuador and
the districts from Peru and Brazil to the extreme south. Some forms have
more white in the plumage than the British Eagle-Owl, or bare toes. All
seem destructive to game and often to poultry. _B. ignavus_ and _B.
virginianus_ have been kept in confinement in England, and the former has
propagated freely.

_Scotopelia peli_, of West Africa and the Zambesi Region, has rufous upper
parts with black bars, and fawn-coloured lower surface with the bars less
regular; it feeds on reptiles and fish as well as small animals. This fine
large bird has two congeners, _S. ussheri_ of Fantee and _S. bouvieri_ of
the Gaboon. _Ketupa ceylonensis_, a still bigger species, ranging from
India and Ceylon to Hong-Kong, is buffish-brown above, with the middle of
the feathers blackish, and fulvous below with dark streaks and closely set
brown bands, the throat being white. _K. flavipes_, of the Himalayas and
China, and the smaller _K. javanensis_ of the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and
the Great Sunda Islands, have no bands below; but all have fine head-tufts
and naked legs. They frequent coasts or wooded streams, where they can
easily procure their main diet of fish, crabs, and insects; they remain
under cover in the day, and the last-named at least utters a soft, low
whistle. The two roundish eggs, which have the surface pitted like those of
the Eagle-Owl, are often laid on ledges or in recesses of rocks, in hollow
trees, or at the junction of the larger branches, but more commonly a
deserted nest is relined for the purpose.

Of fossil forms referred to the Family, _Necrobyas harpax_ and _N.
rossignoli_ are described from the Eocene of France, together {415}with
_Otus_ (i.e. _Asio_) and _Bubo_; the latter genus and _Strix_ occur in the
Lower Miocene of the same country, _Strix_ also in the Malta caverns and in
the Mare aux Songes in Mauritius, _Nyctea_ at Torquay and in France, _Bubo_
in Wyoming, _Badiostes_ in Patagonia.

* * * * *

The Sub-Order CAPRIMULGI consists of the Nightjar or Goat-sucker group,
with the Families _Caprimulgidae_, _Podargidae_, and _Steatornithidae_, of
which the latter contains only the remarkable Guácharo. The _Caprimulgidae_
may be divided into the Sub-families (1) _Caprimulginae_ and (2)
_Nyctibiinae_. Authorities disagree as to the exact relationship of these
birds to their allies, here classified as Coraciiformes; but that all are
allies is certain, while both in appearance and habits Nightjars are
decidedly Owl-like.

Apart from the Steatornithidae, the skull is flattened, the eyes are large,
the beak is short and extremely broad, being hooked and toothed in the
Nyctibiinae and occasionally decurved in the Caprimulginae and Podargidae;
the gape is enormously wide, and is in many cases provided with stiff
bristles, which in _Aegotheles_ have long lateral filaments. An appearance
of great size is given to the head by the loose plumage. The feet are
fairly strong, with the digits somewhat united basally; the anteriorly
scutellated metatarsi vary from comparatively long and bare in
_Nyctidromus_ and the Podargidae to very short and feathered in
_Nyctibius_. The outer toe of the Caprimulginae has only four joints, and
the mid-toe has a pectinated claw, while in the Podargidae and some
Caprimulginae the hallux is partially reversible. The pointed wing has ten
primaries, sometimes much elongated (p. 418), and eleven or twelve
secondaries; the tail may be square, rounded, graduated, or forked, and has
ten rectrices, occasionally lengthened or even racquet-tipped (_loc.
cit._). The furcula is U-shaped, the tongue short; the slit-like nostrils
are basal and overhung by a membrane and feathers in _Podargus_ and
_Batrachostomus_, whereas they are open and near the tip of the bill in
_Aegotheles_, but soft, tubular, and often elongated in the Caprimulginae.
The syrinx is bronchial, sometimes tending to tracheo-bronchial; the
aftershaft is rudimentary; the adults have down only on the unfeathered
tracts, while the nestlings have a thick covering of it, which is generally
buff or grey, but white in _Podargus_ and _Batrachostomus_.

The length varies from about twenty inches in _Nyctibius_ and _Podargus_ to
seven or eight in _Caprimulgus parvulus_ and {416}_Phalaenoptilus
nuttalli_. The characteristically soft plumage shews an intricate mixture
of brown, grey, fawn, black, and white, and is ordinarily barred and
minutely freckled, but frequently patched or spotted with white; it is,
however, impossible in a limited space to describe the species in detail,
though it may be noticed that several have reddish nuchal collars; and some
exhibit rufous and grey phases–unless, as may be the case, the rufous forms
are females–while others from arid districts have a protective coloration
of a more or less sandy hue. In the Podargidae large powder-down patches
occur laterally on the rump, in the Nyctibiinae on the breast and sides.
The sexes are often alike, the young either resembling the female, or
assuming the full plumage at once. _Lyncornis_, _Otophanes_, and
_Batrachostomus_ have head-tufts like those of some Owls, the constituent
feathers in the last genus being bristle-pointed.

Nightjars are found in most parts of the world, while the northern species
habitually move southwards for the winter, _Podager_ and _Chordiles_, at
least, flocking in August and September. The most typical forms are
distinctly crepuscular, and pass the day–as our British bird does–quiescent
on the soil, or upon some post or fence, often concealing themselves below
shrubs or herbage, or in hollow stumps. At such times they will almost
permit themselves to be trodden upon before rising from the ground, and sit
with their eyes closed; on branches the body is ordinarily placed
lengthwise, but on thin palings or wire this is of course impossible.
_Nyctidromus_ exhibits more terrestrial habits, and walks instead of
shuffling; the American Bull-bat (_Chordiles virginianus_) hawks in the
full glare of the sun. The more diurnal species frequently rise to a
considerable height in the air, sailing backwards and forwards with an
easy, flapping motion, descending with undulating swoops, or remaining
momentarily poised aloft, and then darting suddenly upon their prey; the
flight of their nocturnal allies is weaker and more lowly, being jerky,
twisting, and erratic. Some forms, if not all, when inspecting an intruder
turn the head almost completely round. The vibrating sound often
accompanying the passage through the air may be produced by the wings
coming into contact, as is the clapping noise occasionally heard; but the
cause is not certainly ascertained, nor is that of the far-resounding churr
uttered by the male of the Common Nightjar while stationary. The birds are,
however, often quiet on the {417}wing, and steal upon the listener
noiselessly with the mouth widely opened. The voice is generally hollow,
but is described in various cases as a "croak," a "loud shrill cry," a "sad
whistle," a "jarring note," or a "moan"; while the American Whip-poor-Will
(_Antrostomus vociferus_), Chuck-Will's-widow (_A. carolinensis_), and
Poor-Will (_Phalaenoptilus_), as well as the Tasmanian More-pork (_Podargus
cuvieri_), are so called from the sounds they rapidly utter. The second of
these is said to be silent when breeding, contrary to the habit of our
Nightjar. The food consists as a rule of insects, and especially beetles,
captured in the air; but the Podargidae are asserted to pick Phasmidae and
Cicadidae off the trees, and even to eat fruit–as _Steatornis_ does–or
mice.[236]

Most Nightjars make no nest, but lay one or two white, yellowish, or
pinkish eggs, beautifully marbled or scrawled with black, gray, brown, or
violet, on the ground in open spots, frequently shaded by trees, ferns, or
gorse. More rarely lichen-covered rocks or flat house-tops are chosen.
_Phalaenoptilus_ has white eggs, like those of the Podargidae, among which
_Podargus_ makes a flat, loose structure of twigs and grass upon some
branch to contain its complement of three, and _Batrachostomus_ deposits
one on a peculiar pad of brown or greyish down, which is fixed to a bough
and is at times based on a little bark, lichen, moss, or leaf-refuse.[237]
_Aegotheles_ lays from three to five in hollow trees, the parent hissing if
caught upon them. Eggs of _Ae. wallacii_ are stated to shew pale streaks.
_Nyctibius_ appears to breed in hollows of branches or stumps, and not on
the ground.[238] Nightjars sit very closely, and are said to remove the
contents of the nest if disturbed; the young, though hatched helpless,
quickly learn to escape from danger; while the parents occasionally feign
lameness to divert attention from them. The males sometimes incubate.

The superstitious of all classes are inclined to view these birds with
dread, a fact due to their nocturnal habits and Owl-like aspect, coupled
with their strange utterances and sudden apparitions. The Indians of
Central and South America think that they portend serious evil, but refuse
to kill them; while in England gamekeepers and others are only too ready to
shoot them under the unfair designation of "Night-hawk."

Fam. VIII. CAPRIMULGIDAE.–Of this group some eighty species {418}occupy
nearly the whole globe, except the coldest parts, the Eastern Pacific
Islands and New Zealand.

Sub-fam. 1. _Caprimulginae._–_Caprimulgus europaeus_, the Nightjar,
Goatsucker, or Fern-Owl, visits Britain for the summer, and extends from
Europe and North Africa to South Mongolia in Asia, reaching North-West
India and South Africa in winter. _C. ruficollis_ of South-West Europe and
the neighbouring portions of Africa has once occurred in England, as has
_C. aegyptius_ of North-East Africa and West Asia. The genera
_Heleothreptus_ of Brazil and Argentina, and _Macrodipteryx_ of Tropical
Africa, contain respectively one and two members, remarkable for the
extraordinary elongation of the remiges in the male. _H. anomalus_ has the
first six primaries curved inwards, the seventh, eighth, and ninth
prolonged–especially the eighth; _M. vexillarius_, the Pennant-winged
Nightjar, has the same three feathers produced, but the ninth in
particular; _M. macrodipterus_ has the ninth alone extended, with long bare
shaft and racquet-like tip: and this is at times erected when the bird is
sitting on the ground. _Scotornis climacurus_ of the north of Tropical
Africa, the four species of _Hydropsalis_, inhabiting South America
southwards to Argentina, and the three of _Macropsalis_, ranging from
Panama to Bolivia and South-East Brazil, have enormously elongated
rectrices, the median pair being highly developed in the first-named, the
whole number in the second, and the lateral pair in the last. These long
feathers seem to impede the flight but little, though _Hydropsalis_
constantly opens and shuts its tail in the air.

[Illustration: FIG. 87.–Nightjar or Goatsucker. _Caprimulgus europaeus._ ×
⅓.]

Sub-fam. 2. _Nyctibiinae._–Six species of _Nyctibius_ occur in Tropical
America, including Jamaica, and utter wailing cries.

{419}Fam. IX. PODARGIDAE.–This group includes some five and twenty members
of the genera _Podargus_, _Batrachostomus_[239] (Frog-mouth), and
_Aegotheles_. The first and last occupy Papuasia, Tasmania, and Australia,
the second ranges from the Himalayas to Ceylon, the Philippines, and Malay
Islands.

Fam. X. STEATORNITHIDAE.–This contains only the curious Guácharo, or
Oil-bird (_Steatornis caripensis_) discovered in 1799 by Humboldt and
Bonpland at Caripé in Venezuela, but now known to breed also in Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru, as well as in Guiana and Trinidad. Somewhat intermediate
between the Owls and the Nightjars, this species is about the size of a
Crow, with a similar hard beak, hooked and deeply notched, while it has
twelve long stiff bristles on each side of the gape. The tibiae and
metatarsi are covered with smooth, flesh-coloured skin, the toes being
deeply cleft, and not basally united. The tongue is thin and triangular,
the nostrils have a horny covering, the after-shaft is fairly large, while
the rest of the structure is mainly Caprimulgine. The acuminate and not
particularly soft feathers are chocolate and grey, with darker barring
above, and shew white spots, often surrounded by black, in various parts.
This bird inhabits sea-side or mountain-caverns, only issuing forth at dusk
to traverse considerable distances in search of its food, which consists
mainly, if not wholly, of fruits. The flight is noiseless, and occasionally
high in the air. Visitors to the breeding caves are suddenly surrounded by
a circling crowd of Oil-birds uttering loud croaking or rasping cries, the
effect being enhanced by the rush of multitudinous wings. A more plaintive
note is uttered by individuals at rest. The numerous nests, each containing
from two to four white or dirt-begrimed eggs, are flat circular masses of a
clay-like substance, placed on ledges or in holes; while the nestlings are
considered a table delicacy, though said to be scented like cockroaches.
The natives systematically kill large numbers at certain seasons by
knocking them down with poles when scared by torchlight, and melt out the
abundant fat to procure the oil, which gives the bird its name. This oil is
used for illumination or cooking, and keeps admirably.

* * * * *

The Sub-Order CYPSELI consists of the Families _Cypselidae_ or Swifts, and
_Trochilidae_ or Humming-birds,[240] which were first {420}grouped together
by Nitzsch as _Macrochires_ (long-handed forms) from the length of their
manual bones, though really the parts of the wing nearer the body are
proportionally most elongated.

Swifts certainly differ from Humming-birds in the broad, flat skull, the
short curved bill, and the extremely wide gape, besides their comparatively
sombre coloration; but these facts cannot be allowed to militate against an
alliance so strongly confirmed by many points of structure, while nothing
but the pardonable ignorance of former times caused the Family to be united
with their Passerine analogues, the Swallows. The _Cypselidae_ agree with
the _Trochilidae_ in the number and colour of their eggs, and the
extraordinarily deep keel of the sternum, which, with the long wings, gives
so great a power of flight.

Fam. XI. CYPSELIDAE.–Of this group three Sub-families may be recognised,
(1) _Macropteryginae_, (2) _Chaeturinae_, and (3) _Cypselinae_.

The short but robust metatarsi are scutellated anteriorly, the scales being
nearly obsolete in the Chaeturinae; fairly powerful claws terminate the
free toes, which are all directed forwards in the Cypselinae, though the
hallux is somewhat laterally inclined in _Panyptila_, and is said to be
occasionally versatile in the other Sub-families. The middle and outer
digits in the Cypselinae have the further peculiarity of possessing only
three joints, while the metatarsi or even the toes are feathered. The ten
primaries, and especially the exterior, are extremely long, with thick
narrow outer webs; the short secondaries vary from six to eight. The square
or forked tail has ten rectrices–not uncommonly rigid and pointed–as
against twelve in Swallows. The furcula is U-shaped; the tongue sagittate;
the syrinx tracheo-bronchial (the muscles not being inserted on the
bronchial rings); the aftershaft is large or small; the adults have a
little blackish down on the unfeathered spaces; the nestlings are blind and
naked.

The coloration is usually greenish-black or mouse-brown, occasionally with
a white chin, breast, or rump; a rufous collar or chestnut ear-coverts
occur in _Macropteryx_ and _Cypseloïdes_, where alone the males differ from
the females, and the young from both. The Family ranges over the whole
world, with the exception of the extreme north and south, New Zealand and
some other islands; the six genera containing about eighty species varying
in size from about four to fourteen inches.

{421}Swifts are essentially aërial, seldom alighting upon the ground, or
perching except at night,[241] though they will cling to the entrance of
their breeding quarters for a few seconds before entering. From a smooth
flat surface they can hardly rise, but in the air they are perfectly at
home, whether wheeling and circling at great altitudes, chasing each other
aloft, consummating their love affairs, or sweeping over the earth's
surface in pursuit of insects attracted by the damp. The exceptionally
rapid flight is strong and practically unlimited in duration, two or three
quick movements of the wings being repeatedly succeeded by a gliding
motion. Though not gregarious in the ordinary sense, they habitually breed
in company, and _Collocalia_ nests in vast colonies; a solitary bird,
moreover, is comparatively seldom seen, and both before and during
incubation our Common Swift flies in screaming flocks around the chosen
sites. This species will pass and re-pass close to a pedestrian's head with
noisy and apparently vicious rush, even when far from the nest; yet it is
not really the intruder but insects that are the attraction, the food being
entirely of that nature, and invariably captured in the air, while the beak
may be seen filled to repletion when nestlings require to be supported. The
voice is a shrill scream, constantly repeated. The districts frequented are
of every description, _Cypselus andicola_ and _C. horus_ being particularly
alpine; the nest varies to a considerable extent, though a glutinous
substance secreted by the highly developed salivary glands is a constant,
or frequently almost the sole, material. The situation may be a hole under
thatch, slates or tiles; a crevice in a building, cliff, or tree; the
perpendicular wall of a cave; the upper side of a branch, palm-leaf, or
broad stalk; the lower surface of a rock, and so forth. The shape of the
structure is tubular in _Panyptila_, where it is composed of seeds of
plants; but generally it is saucer-like, the materials being straw,
feathers, twigs, moss, or cottony vegetable matter, the first two of which
have been stated to be caught floating in the air. The American
Chimney-Swift plucks off branchlets as it flies. _Cypselus affinis_ and the
species of _Collocalia_ commonly join their nests together in masses; Palm
Swifts do so more rarely; _Cypselus caffer_ even utilizes those of other
birds. The dull white eggs are oval and almost uniform at each end;
{422}two or four being the usual complement, though three are exceptionally
found, and _Macropteryx_ lays only one.

Sub-fam. 1. _Macropteryginae._–The Tree-Swifts, as they are called, have
very soft plumage, a long, deeply-forked tail, a patch of downy feathers on
the flanks, and elongated plumage on the top or sides of the head. They
range from India and Ceylon through the Burmese and Malay countries, and
the islands thence to the Solomon Group. _Macropteryx coronata_ of India,
Ceylon, Burma, and Siam has bluish ash-coloured upper parts, glossed with
metallic green, especially on the crested head, wings, and tail; the under
surface is greyish and white, the chin and ear-coverts are rufous. The
female lacks the chestnut. The nest is a half saucer of bits of bark and
feathers, gummed by saliva to a branch some twenty feet from the ground,
trees being usually selected in rough jungle on low hills. It contains one
egg, and is so small that the sitting bird quite conceals it. Other species
are _M. longipennis_, _M. wallacii_, _M. comata_, and the larger and most
eastern _M. mystacea_.

Sub-fam. 2. _Chaeturinae._–Of the three genera, _Chaetura_, _Cypseloïdes_,
and _Collocalia_, the first occurs from Central Asia and India to Japan,
New Guinea and Australia; in Tropical Africa; and in the Nearctic and
Neotropical Regions, except the extreme north and south. All the species,
numbering about fifty, have rigid tail-feathers with more or less
projecting spiny shafts, save in _Collocalia_.

_Chaetura caudacuta_, which has strayed to Britain and New Zealand, ranges
from Mongolia and Japan to China and the Eastern Himalayas, wintering
southwards to Australia and Tasmania. It is dusky-brown with greenish-black
head, wings, and tail, white forehead and breast. The nest, placed on
cliffs or in hollow trees, is probably similar to that of the next species,
several pairs nidificating together. _C. pelagica_, the "Chimney Swallow"
of the United States, chiefly found in the east, but extending to the Fur
Countries and the Great Plains, and in winter at least to Mexico and
Yucatan, is dark grey, with lighter lower surface, blackish head and wings.
It has almost ceased to breed in trees, but fastens its semicircular nest
of small twigs, glued together with salivary secretion, to the inside of
chimneys, laying from four to six white eggs. _C. zonaris_, extending from
the West Indies and Mexico to Argentina, is uniform blackish-brown with
white collar and breast; _C. novae guineae_ of Papua is glossy
greenish-blue above, and grey below, with an {423}exceptionally short tail;
_C. ussheri_ of the Gold Coast is dark brown, varied with a good deal of
white; _C. cassini_ of the Congo and Gaboon, and _C. boehmi_ of East
Equatorial Africa, are glossy black with less white. _C. acuta_ of the West
Indies, _C. grandidieri_ of Madagascar, and other forms, complete the
genus.

In _Cypseloïdes_ the shafts of the rectrices scarcely project perceptibly;
while the tail is emarginate in _C. niger_ of western North America, the
Antilles, and Guiana. The coloration is plain black or brown, with a
reddish collar round the neck in the males of _C. rutilus_ and _C.
brunneitorques_. The genus ranges to Peru and Brazil. The nest, placed in
holes in houses and so forth, is made of straw, leaves, and rubbish; the
eggs are four or five.

_Collocalia_ is an especially interesting section of the Family, on account
of the nests furnishing the birds'-nest soup of the Chinese. Being formed
of the dried secretions of the salivary glands,[242] these are almost
entirely glutinous, and when newly built are termed white or "first
quality." The thirteen diminutive species are black or brown above,
occasionally with a blue gloss, and white on the rump or tail; the under
parts being whitish or grey. They are not migratory, but extend over most
of the Indian and Australian regions, except the northernmost portions,
being found as far south as North Australia. One form reaches the Mascarene
Islands. Huge numbers breed in company in dark caves, sticking their nests
close together upon the rocky walls, or even joining them in masses; the
materials may include moss, straw, lichen, and so forth, but inspissated
saliva is the chief, and often the only, constituent, especially in _C.
fuciphaga_. Brown nests are those discoloured by use, or spoilt by an
admixture of foreign substances, and are considered hardly worth
collecting. Two eggs are the usual complement. The caverns are entered from
boats below, or by ladders from above, other ladders or poles notched for
the feet being fixed in the rocky flooring of the interior. These are
ascended by natives armed with long-pronged forks, who obtain hundreds of
nests at one gathering. Bats occupy the caves by day, the birds by night or
when incubating; while at any time the noise of the escaping denizens is
almost deafening. The breeding sites are a very lucrative property. The
especially valuable _C. fuciphaga_, which obtained its specific name from
the erroneous idea that it built {424}with partly digested sea-weed,
extends (if we include several more or less distinct races) from the Duke
of York Island and the Ladrones in the east to the hills of India, Ceylon,
and the Mascarene Group in the west, a small species of slightly more
eastern range with whitish band on the rump being known as _C. francica_.

Sub-fam. 3. _Cypselinae._–This contains only the genera _Panyptila_ and
_Cypselus_, granted that the latter is not further divided. The former has
feathered toes, a deeply forked tail with pointed outer feathers, and soft,
silky black plumage, varied with white. The very remarkable architecture of
_P. sancti hieronymi_ of Guatemala is described as follows by Mr.
Salvin:[243] "The nest of this species is composed entirely of the seeds of
a plant, secured together and hung from the under surface of an overhanging
rock by the saliva of the bird. The whole structure measures 2 feet 2
inches in length, and is about 6 inches in diameter. The entrance is at the
[lower] end, and the hollow for the eggs at the top." The cavity in the
above case was in the shape of a walking-stick, with its knob bent
laterally at the top, while a false entrance shewed at one side. _P.
cayennensis_, ranging from Nicaragua to Brazil, makes a similar nest on
trees.

The coloration of the twenty or more species of _Cypselus_ is sooty-black
or mouse-brown, frequently exhibiting a metallic gloss, while the collar,
rump, abdomen, or edges of the feathers may be white. A forked tail is not
uncommon, and the strong toes are feathered in _C. melanoleucus_ and _C.
squamatus_. _C. apus_, the Common Swift or Deviling of Britain, is found
through Europe, North Africa, and Asia southward to the Himalayas,
migrating to South Africa, Madagascar, and Southern Asia. A paler race (_C.
pallidus_ or _murinus_) extends from the Atlantic Islands and the
Mediterranean basin to Bogos Land and Sind. The habits are well-known; but
it may be observed that in flying the wings take the form of a bent bow,
and that on the Continent it builds in hollow trees instead of in holes
under eaves, in walls or cliffs. Few individuals remain with us after early
September. _C. unicolor_ is peculiar to Madeira, the Canaries, and the Cape
Verd Islands; _C. affinis_ reaches from Africa and Palestine to India; _C.
melba_, the "Alpine Swift," inhabits the same Asiatic countries, extending
westward to South Europe and North Africa, and wandering north to Britain
and Heligoland.

{425}[Illustration: FIG. 88.–Swift. _Cypselus apus._ × ⅓. (From _Natural
History of Selborne_.)]

_C. caffer_ occurs in South Africa, Abyssinia, and Uganda, and
exceptionally on the Congo; _C. horus_ across Tropical Africa; _C.
andicola_ in Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia: _C. montivagus_ in the last two
countries. _C. pacificus_ of East Asia, with Japan and the Burmese
countries, reaches Australia in winter. Some species lay four or five eggs,
and _C. melanoleucus_ of western North America utters a peculiar twitter in
its nest, placed in clefts of rocks.[244] Five species of _Tachornis_, or
Palm-Swift, here included under _Cypselus_, are found throughout the
Ethiopian Region, from India and the Malay countries to China, and in the
West Indies; _T._ (_Claudia_) _squamata_ occupying Guiana, Brazil, and East
Peru. The toes point forward in two pairs, the tail is forked. These birds
usually attach their nests {426}of cottony down and feathers to the leaves
or spathes of palms with their saliva, but also breed on native huts.

Fossils referred to _Cypselus_ and _Collocalia_ occur in the Lower Miocene
of France, while _Aegialornis_ of the Eocene (p. 315) is placed here by M.
Milne-Edwards and re-named _Tachyornis_.

Fam. XII. The TROCHILIDAE, or Humming-birds, so called from the sound often
made by the vibrating wings, are New World forms noted for their grace and
beauty. The English name dates back to at least 1632, while one species
from Hispaniola is mentioned as "paxaro mosquito" by Oviedo in his
_Hystoria general de las Indias_, as early as 1525. This appellation still
remains as the French "Oiseau-mouche," that of _Trochilus_ having been
borrowed from Pliny by Barrère, who believed Humming-birds to be allied to
the Wren, the _Trochilus_ in part of the Latin author. Τροχίλος, however,
was applied by the Greeks to the smaller Plovers (p. 295), and apparently
ὄρχιλος to the Wren, so that Pliny or his copyists originated a chain of
errors. From native sources we have the names Guainumbi, Ourissia, and
Colibri, from the Spanish "Picaflor" and Tominejo (atom); from Mexico
"Chupa-rosa" and "Chupa-myrta" (Rose-sucker and Myrtle-sucker); from the
West Indies "Murmures" and "Bourdons."[245]

The sternum is enormously developed both in length and depth of keel, thus
furnishing a wide base for the attachment of the particularly strong
wing-muscles, which support the untiring flight. Herein Humming-birds
resemble Swifts, but the head is much more compressed, and the bill is
slender and elongated, except in nestlings; they are in fact the longest
billed members of the Class _Aves_ in proportion to their size, which in
this Family reaches the minimum. Both mandibles may be serrated, and the
maxilla is hooked in _Androdon_ and _Rhamphodon_; but for details of the
variable beak, remiges and rectrices, reference must be made to the species
described below. The metatarsus, feathered in such genera as _Eriocnemis_
and _Loddigesia_, is short; the toes being usually diminutive, but
sometimes stronger, and the claws either small and rounded, or elongated,
curved, and sharp. The ten primaries, of which the outermost is the
longest, except in _Aithurus_–where it is shorter than the next–are
frequently rigid; in the male "Sabre-wings" (p. 435) the shafts of two or
three are extraordinarily dilated and curved; while the tenth is
occasionally {427}filiform at the tip or narrowed throughout. The
secondaries are only six, or rarely seven. The tail of ten feathers may be
long or short, but differs profoundly in shape, texture, and colour; being
for example cuneate in _Phaëthornis_ and _Sphenoproctus_, nearly square in
_Urosticte_ and _Hylocharis_, rounded in _Adelomyia_ and _Polytmus_, deeply
forked in _Sappho_, _Lesbia_, and the four genera next named, of which
_Prymnacantha_ has the outer pair of rectrices very narrow and pointed,
_Loddigesia_, _Spathura_, and _Discura_ spatulate.

The very characteristic tongue consists of a double tube, tapering and
separating into two externally lacerated sheaths at the tip, which contain
the extensile portion. The "horns" of the hyoid apparatus are greatly
elongated, and pass round and over the back of the head, meeting near the
top, and thence stretching in an ample groove to terminate in front of the
eyes. This arrangement, analogous to that found in Woodpeckers, allows the
tongue to be suddenly protruded to a considerable distance, and withdrawn
again in an instant. The furcula is U-shaped; the syrinx has one or two
pairs of tracheo-bronchial muscles; the aftershaft is very small; a crop is
present; while down is absent from both nestlings and adults.

Except in the "Hermits" (p. 435), the brilliant coloration almost defies
description, the most exquisite metallic[246] or jewel-like hues glorifying
a background of green, blue, or brown; while crests, ear-tufts,
neck-frills, and pendent beards ending in points or forks, add to the
effect. Only among the Passerine Sun-birds (Nectariniidae) of the Indian
and Ethiopian Regions can a fitting parallel be found; but these, though
often erroneously termed Humming-birds, have no connexion with our New
World group. _Eulampis_ and _Pterophanes_ are exceptional in not having
dusky remiges. The females are usually sombre in comparison, and lack the
ornaments of their consorts, which are said to be occasionally smaller. The
statement that young males have no distinctive plumage seems incorrect.

These gems of Ornithology extend from the north to the extreme south of
America, the habits differing slightly with the climate; _Selasphorus
rufus_ of the Western United States reaches Mt. St. Elias in Alaska,
_Trochilus colubris_ occurs in the east up to lat. 57° N., _Eustephanus
galeritus_ frequents Tierra del Fuego {428}even in snowy weather, while
_Oreotrochilus chimborazo_ and _O. pichincha_ brave the storms of the
volcanic regions of the Andes of Ecuador, close to the perpetual snow at a
height of sixteen thousand feet. The forms found in the furthest north and
south are few, and draw towards the equator at the cold time of year; while
the successional flowering of insect-attracting plants, and the seasonal
alteration of the snow-line, cause latitudinal or altitudinal movements of
the same nature. Only eighteen species are recognised as occurring north of
Mexico by New World ornithologists, but many more inhabit Central America,
which are either peculiar to that region and even its elevated tablelands,
or range into South America; none, however, being migrants in the strict
sense of the word. The headquarters of the Family lie in Colombia and
Guiana, though Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil claim many, and some of
the finest, forms: on the other hand, the dry Peruvian plains and the
Argentine Pampas lack sufficient insect-food to be favourite residences.
With regard to the West Indies the numbers increase from the Bahamas to
Trinidad, each island often having its own species; _Eustephanus
galeritus_, _E. fernandensis_ and _E. leyboldi_ occupy the Juan Fernandez
group, and the first-named Chili and the Straits of Magellan also.
Humming-birds may be roughly divided as alpine, sub-alpine, and lowland,
while it may be noticed that comparatively few inhabit the great
forest-clad delta of the Amazon, the congenial centre of so much bird-life.

The Trochilidae live almost entirely in the air, and fly powerfully, though
seldom to great distances; they will flit from flower to flower for hours,
darting off to each new blossom with arrow-like speed, and remaining
suspended before it, with the body vertical and the wings in a state of
tremulous motion, while probing the inmost recesses. This is commonly
accompanied by a vibratory movement of the tail, which in some cases opens
and shuts like a fan. The humming sound, produced at each new departure or
change of course, and audible for several yards, is due to a pulsation of
the wings, so rapid that little can be seen of the bird but an indistinct
misty outline. Messrs. A. and E. Newton give the following charming account
of _Eulampis holosericeus_[247]:–"One is admiring the clustering stars of a
Scarlet _Cordia_, the snowy cornucopias of a _Portlandia_, or some other
{429}brilliant and beautiful flower, when between the blossom and one's eye
suddenly appears a small dark object, suspended as it were between four
short black threads meeting each other in a cross. For an instant it shows
in front of the flower; an instant more, it steadies itself, and one
perceives the space between each pair of threads occupied by a grey film;
again another instant, and emitting a momentary flash of emerald and
sapphire light it is vanishing, lessening in the distance, as it shoots
away, to a speck that the eye cannot take note of,-–and all this so rapidly
that the word on one's lips is still unspoken, scarcely the thought in
one's mind changed. It was a bold man or an ignorant one who first ventured
to depict Humming-birds flying; but it cannot be denied that
representations of them in that attitude are often of special use to the
ornithologist. The peculiar action of this, and probably many or all other
species of the Family, is such, that at times, in flying, it makes the
wings almost meet both in front and behind at each vibration. Thus, when a
bird chances to enter a room, it will generally go buzzing along the
cornice; standing beneath where it is, one will find that the axis of the
body is vertical, and each wing is describing a nearly perfect semicircle.
As might be expected, the pectoral muscles are very large, indeed the
sternum of this bird is a good deal bigger than that of the common Chimney
Swallow (_Hirundo rustica_, L.). But the extraordinary rapidity with which
the vibrations are effected seems to be chiefly caused by these powerful
muscles acting on the very short wing-bones, which are not half the length
of the same parts in the Swallow; and accordingly, great as this alar
action is, and in spite of the contrary opinion entertained by Mr. Gosse
(_Nat. Sojourn in Jamaica_, 240), it is yet sometimes wanting in power,
owing, doubtless, to the disadvantageous leverage thus obtained; and the
old authors must be credited who speak of cobwebs catching Humming-birds."

[Illustration: FIG. 89.–Humming-bird. _Eulampis jugularus._ × ⅔.]

{430}Darwin[248] writes of _Patagona gigas_: "Like others of the genus, it
moves from place to place, with a rapidity which may be compared to that of
_Syrphus_ among diptera and _Sphinx_ [especially the Humming-bird Sphinx
(_Macroglossa stellatarum_)] among moths, but whilst hovering over a
flower, it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful movement, totally
different from that vibratory one, common to most of the species, which
produces the humming noise." This slower movement has been observed also in
_Pterophanes temmincki_, and no doubt in other large forms, of which the
aerial course is perhaps more zigzag and jerky than elsewhere. Certain
species habitually sit with puffed out plumage and somewhat elevated bills;
others soar, or skim the surface of water like Bats; the tail-feathers,
moreover, are often moved sideways or twisted during flight, especially
when they are elongated or spatulate; and _Loddigesia_ constantly extends
them perpendicularly to the body, if not further forward, though the
racquet-tips may at other times be almost in contact.

The food consists almost entirely of insects, while the alimentary canal
shews but little trace of honey, which the birds nevertheless seem to
enjoy, when swallowed with the creatures which it allures; and as these
appear on the lips of flowers chiefly after wet, or in the morning and
evening, their feathered foes are naturally then most active. Cacti,
alstroemeriae, orchids, and composites seem particularly attractive, and
tubular blossoms to the long-billed species especially. Those with shorter
beaks, being unable to penetrate the deepest tubes, are said to pierce the
hinder portions, while it is asserted that those with extremely curved
mandibles even make use of a twofold process, first inserting the tips, and
then raising themselves slightly so as to penetrate the recesses.
_Rhamphodon_, _Phaëthornis_, _Eutoxeres_, and _Chlorostilbon_ examine the
crevices of trees and walls for spiders, which they habitually eat; while
the "Hermits," balanced in the air, pass the bill carefully though quickly
over the lower surface of leaves in search of insect-diet. _Oreotrochilus
pichincha_ has been observed clinging to rocks and feeding upon the ground;
_Aithurus_, _Petasophora_, _Pygmornis_, _Lampornis_, _Patagona_ and other
species, take up posts on dead branches or twigs, thence darting upon their
prey in Fly-catcher-like style. Gould once managed to reach the shores of
England with two examples, kept alive on sweetened water and yolk of egg.

{431}The males are extraordinarily pugnacious, and one will furiously set
upon another who interferes in the least with his comfort, the pair
circling around with reiterated, high-pitched notes, attacking and
withdrawing in turn, almost heedless of a fall or collision; finally, beak
grasps beak, and the struggle grows more intense, until the defeated
combatant retreats to some friendly tree, only to renew the fight with
vigour unimpaired should his defiant note exasperate his rival beyond
control. Or again, should a prowling hawk, an inoffensive heron or thrush,
or even a human being, pass perilously near a nest, the cock will make a
determined onslaught, often with complete success; the hen following his
example, if she feels called upon to protect her charge. These tiny
creatures seem absolutely fearless, and frequently feed at once from the
hand when caught.

The twittering voice is variously described as a chirp, a squeak, a
querulous warble, a whistle, a loud clear piping cry, or a shrill screech,
while the absence of proper song-muscles makes it difficult to credit
Gosse's statement that _Mellisuga minima_ utters a weak, sweet warble,
lasting for ten minutes.[249]

The nest is usually a moderately deep, round or oval cup-like structure,
which may be no larger than a walnut-shell; this is formed of the cottony
down of plants, moss, wool, or like materials, felted into an extremely
light and spongy mass, and often decorated externally with lichens,
cobwebs, shreds of bark, or even feathers and dry leaves. It is placed in a
small fork, saddled upon a bough, hung from creepers, laced among
branchlets, or exceptionally fastened to thatch. In _Rhamphodon_,
_Phaëthornis_, _Cephalolepis_, _Heliothrix_, and possibly elsewhere, a
fabric of very delicate twigs, fibres, and bark is attached to the lower
part of a palm or similar leaf, several rings of supporting fibre
encircling the portion near the stalk, and spiders' webs or silky threads
aiding to sustain the sides of the structure, which in depth and make
recalls that of the Reed-Warbler. _Oreotrochilus_ forms a peculiar
"hammock" of moss, grass, and so forth, attached by like contrivances to
rocks; or at times suspends a mass of wool, hair, moss, and feathers, as
large as a child's head, with a small depression above for the eggs, from
pendent roots, tendrils, or creepers. This is said to be weighted on either
side, if necessary, with small stones or morsels of earth, and is repaired
for use in {432}successive years. Humming-birds never lay more than two
eggs, and sometimes only one; these are plain dull white, and similarly
shaped at both ends. The young are hatched blind and naked, and are then
about the size of humble bees: but they leave the nest comparatively soon,
and are precocious as regards flight. The duration of incubation, which is
apparently not shared by the male, is variously stated at ten, twelve, or
even more days, and two broods are said to be reared in a season; the first
point is clearly doubtful; but, considering the extent of the season fit
for nidification, the latter is not improbable. The parents have been known
to add to a nest, as the young outgrew it. The cock courts the hen most
assiduously, circling around her with dilated throat and swelling plumage,
and searching for food to offer, while he carefully watches over her when
sitting. Humming-birds have been often said to be killed with water in
place of lead, but in truth diminutive pellets of the latter are used, as
an alternative to the blow-pipe with its clay ball, or to bird-lime.
Immense quantities are exported for decorative purposes, and the Mexicans
make pictures of the feathers.

The late Mr. Salvin, who divided the Family into groups by the serration of
the beak,[250] recognised a hundred and twenty-seven genera with some five
hundred species, while Audubon, Bates, Gosse, Gould, Mulsant, Wilson and
Waterton, Count Berlepsch, Messrs. Elliot, Hartert, Ridgway, and Wallace
may be mentioned among other Trochilidists. The largest form, _Patagona
gigas_, measures nearly nine inches, _Mellisuga minima_ and others about
two and a half.

(1) Forms with distinctly serrated beaks. _Heliothrix_ of Central and South
America southward to Brazil contains three members with wedge-shaped bills
and blue tufts behind the ears. The females differ little from the males in
colour, but have longer tails. _Augastes_ contains the two "Vizor-bearers"
of South-East Brazil, so-called from the appearance of the head and throat;
_A. lumachellus_ is bronzy green, with a very brilliant green throat
terminated by a red line, a little blue shewing between these two colours;
the crown is velvety black, the pectoral band white, the tail bright
bronzy-red. The female is less highly coloured and has a green head.
_Rhamphodon naevius_ of the same country, and _Androdon aequatorialis_ of
Colombia and Ecuador, have the bill strongly hooked; the latter is
brownish-green above and greyish below, with a blue nape and white
rump-bar.

{433}[Illustration: FIG. 90.–Long-tailed Humming-bird. _Aithurus polytmus._
× ½.]

_Chlorostilbon_, ranging from Mexico to Argentina, possesses some dozen
green species with blue or purplish tails, which are forked or rounded;
_Panychlora_ of Colombia and Venezuela is similar; _Sporadinus_, differing
in its bronzy-black rectrices, inhabits Florida, the Bahamas, and the
greater Antilles. In _Aithurus polytmus_, peculiar to Jamaica, the two
tail-feathers next to the outer pair are immensely elongated, and, after
crossing one another, bend outwards in a curve; the lateral rectrices are
bluish-black, as is the head with its divided crest; all the other parts
being luminous green, and the bill red with black tip. The female is
chiefly green above and white below, with brownish crown. The two species
of _Microchera_ of Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, change with the light
from coppery-red to black, and have a greenish throat, a white crown, and a
partly white tail, except the median feathers. The hen is green above and
white below. _Lampornis_, with about ten species, ranges from South Mexico
and the West Indies to Brazil. _L. violicauda_, the South American "Mango,"
is green with velvety black abdomen and throat, the latter being edged with
blue; the lateral rectrices are violet. _Avocettula recurvirostris_ of
Guiana, with its golden green coloration, emerald breast, and tail fiery
red beneath in the male, has an upturned tip to the bill, recalling that of
the Avocet. The female is chiefly white below. _Eulampis holosericeus_,
extending from Barbados to St. Thomas, is golden-green, {434}with
glittering blue tail-coverts and chest; the rectrices are steel-blue, the
wings and abdomen blackish. _E. jugularis_, of the Windward Islands, has
green wings and red throat. _Petasophora_ contains some seven members,
ranging from South Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil, with fine blue or purple
ear-tufts, which occasionally meet in front. _Chrysolampis mosquitus_,
extending from New Granada to Guiana and Brazil, with Trinidad, is often
called the Ruby-and-Topaz Humming-bird, from its ruby-red head and nape,
and topaz-orange throat and breast; the upper surface is velvety brown, the
tail chestnut, the abdomen olive. The plumage of the male is largely used
for decoration; but the female is chiefly dull bronzy-green with whitish
lower parts.

(2) Forms with feebly serrated beaks. The large musky-scented _Pterophanes
temmincki_, of the Andes from Colombia to Bolivia, is dark green, with the
whole wing blue above and below, except for its black tip. The hen-bird is
rufous beneath and has purplish-black remiges. _Diphlogaena iris_, the
lovely fork-tailed Rainbow, has a golden-green forehead, an orange-scarlet
crown with a rich violet-blue median stripe, a black nape, a lustrous lilac
throat-spot, a chestnut rump-region, tail and abdomen, and green plumage
elsewhere. The female has little or no copper or blue tints. This species
inhabits the Andes from Ecuador to Bolivia, and has two similar congeners.
_Cyanolesbia gorgo_ of Colombia and Venezuela is green, with the throat
sapphire-blue and the tail violet-blue in the male, these parts being white
and nearly green respectively in the hen, which has the under parts
chestnut. _Sappho_, of Peru, Bolivia, Chili, and Argentina, includes two
exceptionally lovely birds with long forked tails and luminous throats. _S.
sparganura_, the "Sappho Comet," is bronzy-green with crimson back and
fiery orange rectrices, which are black at the tip and brown at the base.
_S. phaon_ has both the above parts lustrous crimson. The females have
short tails and lack the red back. The four members of _Lesbia_, another
genus with a long forked tail, occupy the Andes from Colombia and Venezuela
to Bolivia; _L. victoriae_, the "Train-bearer" of Bogota, being golden
green with glittering throat and purplish-black tail tipped with green; the
hen is green and white below, and has the narrow rectrices shorter.
_Metallura_, with about nine species, is found in the same countries.
_Eustephanus galeritus_ of Chili, the Straits of Magellan, {435}and Juan
Fernandez, which haunts damp shady spots, is bronzy-green, with fiery red
crown, and greyish-white under parts spotted with green. The female has the
crown green. _E. fernandensis_ inhabits Juan Fernandez, and _E. leyboldi_
Masafuera. _Panterpe insignis_ of Costa Rica is bluish-green, with
glittering blue crown and breast, blue-black tail, and bright scarlet
throat shading into orange laterally. _Cyanomyia verticalis_ of Mexico is
brownish-green above and white below, with shining cobalt head and sides of
the neck, and a reddish bill. The hen has a duller crown. _Amazilia_
contains some thirty diverse members ranging from North Mexico to Peru,
Guiana, Trinidad, and Tobago. _A. pristina_ of Peru is greenish-bronze,
with chestnut sides, rump, and tail, emerald throat, and white middle to
the breast and abdomen. _A. cyanura_ of Guatemala and Nicaragua is entirely
green, though bluer towards the tail, and shining below. _Cyanophaea
caeruleigularis_ of Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia is bright green, with
glittering violet-blue chest. _Hylocharis_ ranges from Guiana to South
Brazil, _H. sapphirina_ being deep green, with bronzy rump and tail,
chestnut chin, sapphire-blue throat and breast. The female is whitish below
with little blue.

(3) Forms with smooth beaks. _Eutoxeres_, which has the bill curved almost
into a semi-circle, was placed by Gould with _Rhamphodon_ and _Phaëthornis_
in a Sub-family _Phaëthornithinae_, as opposed to _Trochilinae_, but this
has not been generally accepted. The sixteen or more species of
_Phaëthornis_, extending from South Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil, are often
termed "Hermits" from their sombre tints of dull green, grey, and brown, or
from their habit of frequenting dark forest-recesses. The tail is cuneate
and the claws rather large. _Eupetomena macrura_ of Brazil and Guiana,
termed the "Swallow-tail" from its forking rectrices, has the two outer
primaries in the male with curved and dilated shafts; the three outer
feathers being similar in _Campylopterus_ and _Sphenoproctus_, which range
through Central America, and in the last case northern South America. The
members of these three genera are denominated "Sabre-wings." The above
species is green, with deep cobalt head and throat, and steel-blue tail.
_Eugenes fulgens_ of South Arizona, Mexico, and Guatemala is bronzy-green
changing to black, the throat being lustrous green, and the crown rich
violet. The female has a brownish crown, and greyish lower surface. _E.
spectabilis_ of Costa Rica is similar. {436}_Docimastes ensifer_ of
Colombia and Ecuador, which has a straight bill, longer than the head and
body together, is coppery-green, with black cheeks and throat, and
glittering green breast; the last being green and white in the hen.
_Florisuga mellivora_, the Jacobin, occurring from South Mexico to
Amazonia, is green, with the head and entire neck blue, the base of the
hind-neck, the abdomen, and the middle of the lateral rectrices white. The
female is chiefly green, varied with white below. _Topaza pella_, the
"Crimson Topaz" or "King Humming-bird" of Guiana, is golden-red above, with
greenish-orange rump, dark purple and cinnamon wings, and rufous lateral
rectrices. The two median tail-feathers are bronzy with black tips; the
next pair, which are elongated and curve outwards, are purplish-black; the
throat is lustrous golden; the narrow pectoral band is black; the remaining
lower parts are crimson. The hen is grass-green, with crimson on the
throat, and black and cinnamon on the outer tail-feathers. The nest has
been stated to be made of a fungus, and certainly the appearance justifies
the assertion; but Dr. Paul, a great authority on Fungi, writes of an
example which he brought home for the author from the Pomeroon river:–"The
felt is formed of the fluff which clothes the young flower-spathes of the
Kokerite Palm (_Maximiliana martiana_)," and his evidence ought to settle
the question. _T. pyra_, of the Rio Negro and Eastern Ecuador, is redder
above, with no cinnamon on the wings or lateral rectrices. The genus
_Oreotrochilus_, and the four next succeeding, have particularly strong
feet. In common with some half a dozen congeners which range southwards to
Chili, _O. pichincha_ of Ecuador inhabits the cloudy regions of the Andes
near the snow-line; it is olive-green above, and has an entirely
violet-blue head and throat, the latter being followed by a black line and
white lower parts, while the lateral tail-feathers are steel-blue and
white. The female is green above, ashy and white below. _Oreonympha
nobilis_ of Peru, which has a peculiar habit of suddenly stopping in its
flight, is a large bird with somewhat forking rectrices. The main colour is
bronzy-brown, with a blue crown divided in the centre by a brown bar; the
black of the cheeks runs to a point below; the chin is green and the beard
crimson; the lower parts are greyish-white; the tail has the external pair
of feathers white. The hen has a brown and greenish crown and a black
throat. _Oxypogon guerini_ of {437}Colombia, the "Warrior" or
"Helmet-crest," is dark green, with blackish sides to the head, a black and
white crest, a green and white chin margined with black, a white beard, a
greyish abdomen, and purplish and white lateral rectrices. The female lacks
the elongated feathers, and has white under parts spotted with dusky.
_Rhamphomicron heteropogon_ of Colombia, one of the sharp-beaked
"Thornbills," is greenish-bronze, with browner tail and abdomen, and a long
amethystine beard surrounded by bronzy-black. _R. microrhynchum_, having
rich purple upper parts and a lustrous green throat, extends to Ecuador,
while other members of the genus range to Bolivia. The hens are
comparatively dull. _Opisthoprora euryptera_ of Colombia, which is
bronzy-green with a little rufous and white below, has an upcurved bill,
like _Avocettula_. _Patagona gigas_, the largest Humming-bird known,
inhabits the Andes from Ecuador to Chili; it is greenish-brown, with white
rump and rufous under parts. In _Aglaeactis_, of the Andes from Colombia to
Bolivia, the coloration is brown, dark buff, or black, with glittering
amethystine or green lower back, and a white or buff pectoral tuft. The
chief marvel of the Family is, however, _Loddigesia mirabilis_, originally
found in Northern Peru by a botanist named Matthews, and rediscovered by M.
Stolzmann[251] in almost the same locality. It is shining bronzy-green,
with whitish under parts surrounding a black central area; the head and its
crest are lustrous cobalt-blue, the throat is emerald-green with black
margin, the metatarsi are covered with white feathers. The two lateral
rectrices are extraordinarily prolonged, and resemble black wires with
large steel-blue terminal discs; the shafts normally cross each other at
their bases and again near their tips, but the discs are frequently brought
together in flight, or extended horizontally, if not turned above the head.
The median tail-feathers are much reduced. The female is green, varied with
white below; the external pair of steel-blue lateral rectrices shewing
small spatules. _Cephalolepis delalandi_, of South-East Brazil, is
bronzy-green above, and fine violet-blue bordered with grey below, while
the long glittering green crest terminates in a single black plume. The
crestless hen is grey below. _Eriocnemis_, of the Andes from Colombia and
Venezuela to Bolivia, shares with _Panoplites_ and the spatulate-tailed
_Spathura_ of the same regions the characteristic of possessing
{438}muff-like tufts of black, white, or buff, which cover the metatarsi.
To take an example of the twenty or more species, where the sexes are
fairly similar, _E. cupreiventris_ is bronzy-green, with brighter under
surface, purplish-black tail, reddish abdomen, and lustrous blue under
tail-coverts. _Calothorax lucifer_, the "Mexican Star," is golden-green
above and white below, with shining lilac-red throat; it has purplish-black
lateral rectrices tipped with white, of which the outer is filiform, as are
the external four in _Acestrura_ of northern South America. _Selasphorus
rufus_, of western North America, from Alaska to Mexico, is cinnamon above
and white below, with golden-green crown and glittering red throat; the
head-feathers are bordered with rufous, and the sub-median tail-feathers
are emarginate. The female has chiefly green upper and white under parts.
_S. platycercus_, resembling the next species, but with a rosy-red throat,
occupies the Rocky Mountains and extends to Guatemala, the genus reaching
Panama. They constantly have the outer primary or outer rectrix attenuated.
_Trochilus colubris_, found at different seasons from the Fur Countries and
the Great Plains to Guatemala, is green above and whitish below, the chin
being black, the throat glittering ruby-red, and the forked tail chiefly
bluish-black. The hen lacks the red colour. _T. alexandri_ of western North
America differs in its violet-purple throat. _Calypte annae_ and _C.
costae_ of the South-West United States are green birds with mainly whitish
lower surface, and have the crown and throat rosy and lilac respectively.
The latter form has elongated gular plumes, as has the bluer Cuban _C.
helenae_, where they are crimson. The minute _Mellisuga minima_, or "Bee
Humming-bird," of Jamaica and San Domingo is green above and white below,
with dusky throat-spots in the male. The equally small _Chaetocercus
bombus_ of Ecuador is green, with rosy throat, buff breast, and chiefly
purplish-black rectrices, of which the outer four are short and spiny; the
female is green above and cinnamon below.

_Thaumastura cora_, the "Peruvian Sheartail," is golden-green, with crimson
throat shading into blue, and white under surface; the black and white tail
has two enormously elongated sub-median feathers. The hen is white below,
with buffish throat and flanks. _Prymnacantha popelairii_, one of another
group of Thornbills (p. 437), has a yellowish-green crest with two long
black filamentous plumes; the upper parts are bronzy-green with a white
rump; the lower parts are black, with a glittering green {439}throat and
rufous tibiae. The forked tail has the pointed narrow feathers steel-blue
with white shafts. The hen has a dark green crown and black and white
throat. This genus extends from Costa Rica to Bolivia and Brazil.
_Lophornis_ covers the same area, but reaches Mexico. _L. ornatus_ has
beautiful fawn-coloured tufts with green terminal spots, on the sides of
the neck; and is chiefly bright green and cinnamon, with a rufous and
purplish rump and a chestnut crest; the female exhibits more white below
and lacks the crest and tufts. The remaining half score of species are
similar or even more brilliant. _Heliactin cornuta_ of Brazil alone of the
Family has resplendent purple, green, and gold tufts above and behind the
eyes. The coloration is shining green, with a bluer crown, black cheeks and
throat, and white lower parts. The hen is green above and white below, with
buff throat.

* * * * *

Fam. XIII. COLIIDAE.–This group is the only constituent of the Sub-Order
COLII or Colies, termed Mouse-birds in South Africa from their creeping
habits. They were formerly classed among the Passerine Fringillidae, to
which they bear a certain outward resemblance, while at a later date a
partial study of the anatomy seemed to point to an affinity with the
Plantain-eaters; but it is now generally recognised that they should be
placed among those Families which in this work form the Order
Coraciiformes. They are small, tough-skinned birds, which would appear
larger were it not for the short, dense feathering; the bill is stout and
Finch-like, the long metatarsus exhibits one series of scutes in front, and
reticulations behind; the toes with their slender claws are all directed
forwards, but the hallux and apparently the outer toe can be turned
backwards. The wings are weak and rounded, with ten primaries and nine
secondaries; the very long tail has ten rectrices, the outer pair not being
greatly developed. The furcula is U-shaped; the syrinx has one pair of
tracheo-bronchial muscles; the tongue is flat and cartilaginous with horny
papillae; an after-shaft is present; the adults, and probably the
nestlings, have no down.

Colies frequent forest-districts, especially where the bush is thick; they
are active, yet not very shy, and are usually found, except during the
breeding season, in flocks of some six to eight individuals. The flight is
laboured, with many a quick beat of the wings; but it is direct and fairly
rapid, though seldom sustained beyond some neighbouring tree, where the
bird may be seen stealing {440}through the foliage, and aiding its creeping
movements with its bill. The most peculiar habit, however, is that of
climbing with the whole metatarsus applied to the branch, a fact which adds
greatly to the mouse-like appearance. When roosting, Colies are said to
pack themselves together in masses, and to hang by the feet; rarely are
they seen perching or hopping, though they often cling to the boughs with
the head downwards. The note is disagreeable and harsh. The cup-shaped nest
of twigs, roots, and grass, with a lining of wool or finer grasses, is
placed in thick bushes, or near the ground in low trees; the three or four
eggs, hardly pointed at either end, are dull white, sometimes streaked with
orange or brown. Fresh leaves are not uncommonly added below them. The food
consists almost entirely of fruit, though green shoots, or even insects,
are believed to be occasionally eaten.

[Illustration: FIG. 91.–Cape Coly. _Colius capensis._ × ⅓.]

The eight or nine species of the single genus _Colius_, ranging through the
whole Ethiopian region except Madagascar, vary in coloration from brown
with darker vermiculations or bars to {441}grey or ash-colour, the abdomen
being buff. Fine crests add to the general appearance. _C. macrurus_ is
remarkable for a tuft of blue feathers on each side of the nape; _C.
leucocephalus_ has a white head; _C. leucotis_ white ear-coverts; _C.
nigricollis_ a black forehead and throat; _C. capensis_ two stripes of
black on the back enclosing one of white; while that species and _C.
castanonotus_ have maroon rumps. The bare skin surrounding the eye is
scarlet in _C. erythromelon_, _C. macrurus_, and _C. capensis_, and
apparently bluish-grey elsewhere. The legs are red in life, fading to buff
after death. _C. striatus_ is very nearly uniform brown, _C. erythromelon_
shews a greenish tinge and has some buff on the head. The sexes are
similar, nor are the young very different. The length is from eleven to
fourteen inches. Kafirs consider these birds very good eating.

Fam. XIV. TROGONIDAE.–The Trogons are the sole tenants of the Sub-Order
TROGONES, a very distinct group of birds of brilliant coloration–the
Quezal, as will be seen below, being the most splendid of all. Their
general aspect is somewhat heavy; the neck is abbreviated; the bill,
stoutest in _Pharomacrus_ and most slender in _Euptilotis_, is short and
strong, with a wide bristly gape, and a curved culmen terminating in a
hook. The maxilla in these genera, as well as in _Harpactes_ and
_Hapalarpactes_, has a terminal notch, while both mandibles are more or
less serrated in adults of _Trogon_, _Hapaloderma_, _Tmetotrogon_, and
_Prionotelus_. The foot is comparatively small and weak, with the short
metatarsus feathered and somewhat scaly; the second toe is reversed, a
heterodactylous arrangement (p. 10) unique among birds. The moderate wing
has ten primaries, and from eight to ten secondaries; the upper
wing-coverts being elongated in _Pharomacrus_, especially in the males. The
long rectrices are twelve in number, and are concave at the end with
divergent tips in _Prionotelus_; the feathers, moreover, are often square
at the extremity–a noticeable peculiarity in the Family; while in the
Quezal, _Pharomacrus mocinno_, the male has enormously developed upper
coverts to the tail, which extend far beyond it, the two median being the
longest; in its congeners and in females generally they equal the
rectrices; in _Euptilotis_ they are only half the length. The furcula is
U-shaped; the tongue flat; the syrinx tracheo-bronchial; the aftershaft
long; the nostrils are bristly; the adults have no down; and the nestlings
are said to be naked for a short period. The large soft {442}feathers are
easily detached from the delicate skin. The male of _Pharomacrus mocinno_
has a fine rounded crest, less developed in the female and in its other
congeners. _Euptilotis_, _Tmetotrogon_, and _Prionotelus_ have the
ear-coverts filamentous and hair-like. _Pharomacrus pavoninus_ has a red
bill, as has _Prionotelus_ in part; the usual colour in the former genus,
and in _Trogon_ and its allies, being yellow for the cock and more
horn-coloured or black for the hen, but in _Harpactes_ violet or bluish,
with a duller tip in the female. The orbits are partially or entirely bare
in _Hapaloderma_, _Harpactes_, and _Hapalarpactes_, the skin being, it
would seem, yellow, violet, or blue. The Family ranges through the tropical
portions of the Indian, Ethiopian, and Neotropical Regions, _Harpactes_ and
_Hapalarpactes_ being found in the first, _Hapaloderma_ in the second, and
the other five genera in the third. _Trogon ambiguus_ reaches northwards to
Arizona and Texas. The number of species is nearly fifty, of which the
largest (_Pharomacrus mocinno_) measures some fourteen inches, the smallest
(_Harpactes duvauceli_) about nine.

Trogons are usually seen singly or in pairs, though sometimes in small
flocks; they are rarely shy, and often so unsuspicious that they may be
killed with a stick. They customarily sit almost motionless in the mid-day
heat, with the head drawn in upon the shoulders and the body vertical,
every now and then opening and shutting the tail. Their haunts are in the
thickest forests, which they seldom leave for more open or sunny places;
here they creep about the trees or sit some half-way up on leafless
branches, darting off to catch a passing insect or to secure a tempting
fruit, since nearly all their food is taken on the wing. The noiseless
flight is rapid, but short and jerky, with occasional undulations. The
Quezal, at least, clings to trees like a Woodpecker, but the feet are ill
adapted to climbing, and perfectly unfit for walking. The voice of this
species consists of two plaintive sibilant notes, gradually swelling into a
loud cry, and varied by discordant sounds; many forms, however, utter a
reiterated "cou-cou," and will also cluck, whistle, or chatter, though
ordinarily silent, except when breeding. The food of the New World species
is stated to consist principally of fruit, but lizards, grasshoppers,
lepidoptera, caterpillars, ants, beetles, small crabs, and terrestrial
molluscs are eaten; while the Old World forms seem to prefer an
insect-diet. No nest is made, but a hole is usually bored or enlarged in
the top or side of a rotten stump or branch, in which {443}are deposited
from two to four roundish eggs of a white, bluish, greenish, or buff
colour. _Trogon surucura_ has been observed clinging to a tree-trunk and
excavating a cavity in an ants' nest. The male at times incubates. The
flesh is not unpalatable.

_Hapalarpactes reinwardti_ of Java is dark bluish-green above with a more
olive crown, and yellow below with orange abdomen; the primaries are black
and white, the secondaries and their coverts green with yellow bars, the
rectrices purplish as compared with the back, the lateral pair freely
marked with white. The female has brown instead of yellow on the wing. _H.
mackloti_ of Sumatra has the rump chestnut in the male. The genus
_Harpactes_ ranges from India and Ceylon to Cochin China, the Indo-Malay
Islands, and the Philippines. _H. kasumba_ has the crown, throat, and chest
black, the nuchal collar and under parts crimson, while a white band
divides the two colours below; the upper parts are orange-rufous; the two
median rectrices chestnut tipped with black; the rest of the tail and the
wings black and white. The hen is brown above, becoming rufous towards the
rump; the throat and chest are grey, the remaining lower surface and the
wing-markings buff. _H. orescius_ has an olive-yellow head, a brilliant
orange breast, and a chestnut back; the female being more sombre.
_Hapaloderma narina_, ranging from North-East Africa to Cape Colony and
thence to Angola, is brilliant bronzy-green above; the wings and tail are
black and white with a blue and green wash, the secondaries and
wing-coverts being vermiculated with white; the chest is green; the breast
and abdomen are crimson. The hen has the throat and chest brown, the breast
duller. _H. constantia_ extends from the Calabar River to Fantee, _H.
vittatum_ is East African. The genus _Trogon_ is found from South Arizona
and Texas to North Argentina. _T. mexicanus_ is bronzy-green above and on
the chest, the sides of the head and the throat being black, and the
remaining under parts crimson, surmounted by a white band; the wings are
blackish with white vermiculations on the secondaries and coverts; the two
median rectrices are green with black tips, the others black and white. The
female has the chest and upper surface, including that of the tail, brown,
the wing-vermiculations buff. _T. surucura_ has the most southerly range of
the two dozen species. _Prionotelus temnurus_, peculiar to Cuba, has the
sexes similar; the upper parts are bronzy-green, the head is black, glossed
with purple and blue, the under parts are grey with crimson abdomen.

{444}[Illustration: FIG. 92.–Quezal. _Pharomacrus mocinno_. × ¼.]

The six middle tail-feathers are bronzy-green, tinged with purple, the
remainder and the wings black and white. In _Tmetotrogon rhodogaster_,
restricted to San Domingo, the upper surface is bronzy-green, the lower
grey with crimson abdomen. The blackish wings have white-edged primaries,
the median pair of rectrices are purple and green, the others
purplish-blue. The female has white bars on the upper wing-coverts.
_Euptilotis neoxenus_ of Mexico has a greenish-black head and throat, and a
crimson breast and abdomen, while the rest of the plumage is bronzy-green,
except for the black and white wings and the six purplish-black median
rectrices. The hen has a greyish head, throat, and chest. _Pharomacrus
mocinno_, the Quezal of the higher districts from Guatemala to Veragua, is
brilliant iridescent green above, tinged with blue on the far extended
tail-coverts; the throat is green, the under parts are gorgeous crimson,
the remiges and the six median rectrices are black, the remainder chiefly
white. A full crest and elongated wing-coverts add to the bird's
appearance. The female has the long feathers less developed; the head and
under surface brownish-grey, with a {445}green tinge on the former and on
the chest; the vent crimson. Three other species range from Colombia to
Bolivia. The decorative feathers of the Quezal were reserved for chiefs in
olden times.

Trogons are ancient forms which once occurred within the Palaearctic
countries, as is shewn by the discovery of the fossil _Trogon gallicus_ in
the Lower Miocene of France.

* * * * *

The Sub-Order PICI contains, according to Dr. Gadow, the Families
_Galbulidae_, or Jacamars and Puff-birds, _Capitonidae_, or Barbets and
Honey-guides, _Rhamphastidae_ or Toucans, and _Picidae_, or Woodpeckers and
Wrynecks. All these undoubtedly belong to that author's Order
Coraciiformes, though Garrod and W. A. Forbes included the _Galbulidae_ and
several of the allied Families in their Passeriformes.

Fam. XV. GALBULIDAE.[252]–This may be divided into the Sub-families, (1)
_Galbulinae_, or Jacamars, and (2) _Bucconinae_, or Puff-birds.[253] The
former have a long straight bill, compressed and pointed, with angular
genys; _Jacamerops_, however, having it curved, ridged, and dilated
basally. The feet are weak, the metatarsi being scutellated in front and
smooth behind, with the toes zygodactylous; while _Jacamaralcyon_ alone
lacks the hallux. The rounded wings have ten primaries, with the outer much
reduced, and from ten to twelve secondaries; the tail of twelve feathers is
sometimes short and square, sometimes long and more or less graduated, the
external pair of rectrices being diminutive or absent. The furcula is
U-shaped, the tongue long, tapering, and membranous; the nostrils are
slightly bristly, with an internal membrane in _Jacamerops_; the aftershaft
is rudimentary; and there is no down on the adults or the blind nestlings.
The plumage is particularly soft.

Sub-fam. 1. _Galbulinae_.–Jacamars are ordinarily brilliant coppery- or
golden-green above, and more or less rufous below; though the upper parts
may be metallic blue, chestnut, or greyish-black. The bill and feet are
generally blackish; but in _Galbalcyrhynchus_, _Brachygalba albigularis_,
and _B. melanosterna_, the bill is white, in _Galbula albirostris_ and _G.
cyaneicollis_ it is yellow and black. The largest species (_Jacamerops
grandis_) is not eleven inches long. The females resemble the males, or are
paler below, {446}and lack the usual white throat. The Sub-family ranges
from Mexico to South Brazil.

These birds are usually found towards the outskirts of forests near water,
where they frequent lofty trees, and commonly sit crouched upon some dead
or slender branch for hours, merely moving the head from time to time. The
food consists of insects–especially flies or moths–which are often caught
upon the wing, and crushed against the boughs before they are swallowed,
the bird sallying forth and returning to its perch like a Fly-catcher. The
regular note is short and seldom heard; but _Jacamaralcyon_ has, according
to the natives, an agreeable whistling song. The flight is quick and jerky.
Generally found solitary or in pairs, the various species occasionally
bathe in small flocks. The three or more roundish white eggs are laid in
holes in banks, or possibly in old stumps. In some districts names
equivalent to "Large Humming-birds" are given to Jacamars; while early
writers confounded them with Kingfishers.

_Urogalba paradisea_ of Guiana, Peru, and Brazil, and _U. amazonum_ of
Upper Amazonia, characterized by an extremely long and tapering median pair
of tail-feathers, are dark blue, with bronzy and green reflexions, brownish
heads, and white throats. Seven out of ten members of the genus _Galbula_
are also Amazonian; the remainder reaching South Mexico, Bolivia, and
South-East Brazil, and one of them Trinidad and Tobago. _G. albirostris_ is
brilliant bronzy-green above, with rufous lower parts and white throat;
most of its congeners being fairly similar, though _G. chalcothorax_ has a
decided red and blue gloss on both surfaces and a white abdomen.
_Brachygalba_, which extends from Colombia to Amazonia, includes six
diminutive forms, with a varying admixture of green and brown above, of
black, brown, rufous and white below. _Jacamaralcyon tridactyla_ of
South-East Brazil is greenish-black, with a brown, rufous-streaked head,
and a white mid-breast and abdomen. _Galbalcyrhynchus leucotis_ of East
Ecuador and Upper Amazonia is chestnut, with white cheeks and darker head
and quills. _Jacamerops grandis_, ranging from Veragua to Amazonia and
Ecuador, is bright coppery-green, with blackish wings and tail, a white
throat-patch, and a chestnut abdomen.

{447}[Illustration: FIG. 93.–Puff-bird. _Bucco hyperrhynchus_. × ⅜.]

Sub-fam. 2. _Bucconinae._–The Puff-birds differ structurally from the
_Galbulinae_ only in having shorter and stouter beaks, with hooked or
incurved tips; stronger metatarsi, which are scaly behind; fully developed
lateral rectrices; and no aftershaft. The habits of the two groups are
similar, while the aforesaid English name probably refers to the puffy
appearance of the head while the birds are resting. They are black, brown,
or rufous in hue, relieved by white markings; the bill being red in _Bucco
chacuru_, _B. maculatus_, _B. striatipectus_, and _B. collaris_, and red or
yellow in _Monacha_. The entire range of the Family, extending from
Guatemala and Honduras to Argentina, is occupied by the twenty hook-billed
species of _Bucco_. _B. dysoni_ is blue-black, with a white under surface
crossed by a broad black band, and a white forehead and nape; _B.
hyperrhynchus_ is similar with a larger bill; _B. collaris_ differs in its
rusty-red upper parts barred with black; _B. bicinctus_ has these mottled
with brown, and two black bands on its buff breast; _B. maculatus_ has a
rufous chest and black spots on the white belly; and so forth. The
half-dozen species of _Malacoptila_, extending from Guatemala to Brazil,
are brownish birds, striated with rufous; the lower parts being more or
less fulvous, often with black and white breast-bands. The diminutive
_Micromonacha lanceolata_ of Upper Amazonia is rufescent above; the
forehead and under parts are relieved by black, while each outer rectrix
has a black bar. The Nunlets (_Nonnula rubecula_ and its congeners) are
also among the smallest of the Family, and are distributed from Panama to
Peru and Brazil; they are brown above and ferruginous beneath, with a
little white. _Hapaloptila castanea_ of Colombia and Ecuador is a
hook-billed species, with olive-grey upper and chestnut under parts, a
white forehead and throat. _Monacha_ comprises about seven large blue-black
forms, ranging from Nicaragua to South-East Brazil and Bolivia, some of
which have white on the wings {448}and round the base of the bill.
_Chelidoptera tenebrosa_, the Swallow-wing, of Venezuela, Guiana, and
Amazonia, has long wings and a short square tail; the colour being
blue-black, with a chestnut lower abdomen and white tail-coverts. The
larger _C. brasiliensis_ inhabits Brazil. This is apparently the only
member of the group of which the nest has been found; it was a mere hole in
a bank, containing two shining white eggs.

Fam. XVI. CAPITONIDAE.–This is here taken to contain the Sub-families (1)
_Capitoninae_, or Barbets, and (2) _Indicatorinae_, or Honey-guides. Much
confusion has arisen from the fact that Brisson included the former in his
genus _Bucco_, while subsequently Garrod and W. A. Forbes combined the
_Rhamphastidae_ (Toucans) with the above-mentioned groups in their
_Capitonidae_.

Sub-fam. 1. _Capitoninae._–Barbets are heavy, ungraceful birds, with large
stout bills, which are swollen at the base, occasionally sulcated, and more
or less beset with bristles. _Pogonorhynchus_ and _Tricholaema_ have the
maxilla toothed–generally strongly, while that of _Tetragonops_ fits into a
fissure in the truncated tip of the mandible. The scutellated feet are
fairly powerful, with zygodactylous toes and rather long claws; the
moderate wings have ten primaries, and ten or eleven secondaries; the tail
of ten rectrices is more usually short than long, and may be square,
rounded, or graduated. The clavicles are somewhat reduced; the tongue is
said to be thin, short, and cartilaginous; the nostrils are often bristly,
an aftershaft is present; while both adults and young lack down.

The brilliant plumage commonly exhibits vivid contrasts of scarlet, blue,
purple, or yellow on a green ground, but _Calorhamphus_ and _Gymnobucco_
are sombre in hue; different species, moreover, have crests, naked orbits,
or brightly coloured bills. The sexes are alike, except in _Capito_; the
young are duller.

The members of this Family are strictly arboreal, and inhabit forests, or
well-timbered cultivated districts and gardens; not being usually shy, or
easily disturbed while feeding in flocks. The tops of trees are their
natural resort, yet pairs frequently descend to the bushes, where they hop
from branch to branch; they also climb up and down the trunks, and some
African forms are said thus to search the cracks for insects. The flight is
powerful and undulating, but Barbets are inactive birds, and often sit
motionless for hours, their plaintive whistle, or noisy ringing note of two
or three syllables being heard at intervals {449}throughout the day or on
moonlight nights. The latter cry is variously syllabled kuttooruk, tok-tok,
or poo-poo-poop, while its likeness to the sound of striking metal has
given the name of "Copper-smith", "Tinker-bird," and "Iron-smith" to
_Xantholaema haematocephala_, _Barbatula pusilla_, and _Cyanops faber_.
While uttering their protracted notes Barbets often move their heads from
side to side, and certain American species jerk their tails over their
backs like Toucans. The food consists of fruits of every sort, buds and
petals of flowers, and even green bark, or in many cases almost entirely of
insects; in captivity pieces of meat or small birds seem acceptable, the
latter being usually battered upon some hard substance before being
swallowed. When feeding on trees these birds are so noiseless that the
falling berries alone betray their presence, while they quit the feast with
great reluctance. They cut neat circular nesting-holes, which turn
downwards and widen out below, in soft or decaying wood, generally on the
under side of a branch; and lay three, four, or even five eggs, oval,
thin-shelled, white and somewhat shining, on a few chips or sometimes other
substances. A week or two may be occupied in excavating the cavity, while
it is a moot question whether the tapping that goes on in spring is made in
finding suitable breeding quarters or in obtaining insects. Von Heuglin saw
two borings in banks. The young accompany their parents for a considerable
time. Barbets do not thrive well as cage-birds.

The range extends throughout Tropical Asia, Africa, and America, and even
slightly beyond those bounds in the two former; but America possesses only
the large genus _Capito_ and the two species of _Tetragonops_, whereas the
other regions divide the remaining groups fairly evenly between them.
Captain Shelley[254] admits nineteen genera and a hundred and ten species.
The former are difficult to diagnose, and depend largely on colour; of the
latter the subjoined are merely a few of the most typical or remarkable
forms. _Pogonorhynchus_ (including _Erythrobucco_ and _Melanobucco_) and
_Tricholaema_, including respectively some fifteen and ten species, are
exclusively African groups, noticeable for the long, black bristles before
the eye and below the beak. _P. dubius_ of West Africa has bluish-black
upper parts, with a little crimson on the wing-coverts and a white dorsal
patch; the cheeks and ear-coverts are crimson, separated by a black line;
{450}the anterior under parts are crimson, the posterior scarlet, these
being divided by a black pectoral band, and relieved by yellowish patches
on the sides; the bill is reddish-yellow, the naked orbits are orange.
_Tricholaema leucomelan_ of South Africa is blue-black above, with
plentiful yellow and scanty white markings, but white below with black
throat. The forehead is crimson, the eyebrow and orbits are yellow, the
bill is blackish. The breast-feathers have hair-like shafts. _Gymnobucco
calvus_ of West Africa is brown with paler streaks; having the bill and
chin-bristles yellowish, and browner bristles round the nostrils in at
least one sex. The naked head is blue. _Barbatula_, of the Ethiopian Region
generally, contains a dozen small species, which exhibit soft loose plumage
of black, varied with red, yellow, or white. _B. minuta_, extending from
North-East Africa to Senegambia, has the forehead scarlet, the rump and
under surface yellowish, the bill black, and somewhat scanty bristles.
_Stactolaema anchietae_ of Benguela, and _S. olivaceum_ of East Africa, are
respectively brown with yellowish head and throat, and olive-green with
those parts blackish. The bill is black. _Calorhamphus hayi_, found from
South Tenasserim to Sumatra, is yellowish-brown above and yellowish-white
below, with black-shafted spiny crown-feathers, rufous throat, black bill,
reddish orbits and no chin-bristles. _C. fuliginosus_ of Borneo is similar.
_Megalaema_, _Chotorhea_, _Cyanops_ and _Mesobucco_, with about thirty
members in all, extend from India and Ceylon to China, Formosa, Hainan, and
the Great Sunda Islands. They are soft-plumaged green birds, having
parti-coloured heads and throats tinted with blue, yellow, red, and black,
or merely brown and white; the bill and feet are yellowish, greenish, or
black. The bristles vary in their development. _Psilopogon pyrolophus_, of
the mountains of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, is green, with a black
forehead, a brownish head crossed by a greyish-white band, and a double
belt of yellow and black below the green throat. The long nasal bristles
are black, tipped with scarlet; the superciliary stripe and lower eye-lid
are green; the upper eye-lid is yellow; the bill is yellowish-green with
black central band; the legs and orbits are greenish. The unusually long
tail is much graduated, and has pointed median rectrices, while these are
square in some ten Ethiopian species of _Trachyphonus_, where the tail is
similar. _T. cafer_ of South-East Africa is bluish-black above with white
markings; {451}the rump being yellow; the upper tail-coverts scarlet; the
forehead, sides of the head and lower parts yellow, with a tinge of scarlet
on the throat, which is followed by a black and white gorget. The fine
occipital crest is black, the beak green; the feet and orbits are dusky.
_T. margaritatus_, of North-East Africa, has brown upper parts with round
white spots; the upper and lower tail-coverts are crimson; the rump, head,
neck, and under surface are yellow, except for the crown and marks on the
hind-neck and throat, which are black, and for an indistinct chest-band of
red, surmounted by one of brown. The beak is red, the feet are bluish. The
exclusively Central and South American _Capito_ is the only genus in which
the sexes differ; the dozen or more species have, moreover, few bristles
round the bill. _C. niger_ of Guiana is black above, varied with yellowish
and buff, and sulphur-yellow below with a few black spots, which become
plentiful in the female. The forehead, cheeks, and throat are
orange-scarlet, the bill is plumbeous. _C. salvini_ of Costa Rica and
Panama has green upper and yellow under parts; most of the head and the
throat being scarlet, the flanks green and white, and a whitish band
descending the sides of the neck. The female lacks the scarlet, but has a
dull golden crown and nape, pale blue cheeks, and an orange gorget below
the green throat. The bill is greenish-yellow, the orbits are yellowish.
_Tetragonops rhamphastinus_ of Ecuador, in which the nostrils lie in
grooves, has the crown black, with white sides merging gradually into a
blue-grey throat; a glossy black nuchal crest; a rufous-olive mantle;
orange lower back and upper tail-coverts; blackish-blue wings and tail;
scarlet breast with orange sides; and yellowish-green abdomen. The bill is
orange-yellow with dusky tip. _T. frantzii_ of Costa Rica, called
"Gallinita" from its chicken-like cry, has greenish-olive upper and
yellowish-green lower parts, with golden-orange forehead, cheeks and
throat, a plumbeous bill, and a similar crest to its congener. This genus
bears a certain resemblance to the Toucans.

Sub-fam. 2. _Indicatorinae._–The Honey-guides are contained in the two
genera _Indicator_ and _Prodotiscus_, with nine and two species
respectively, which were formerly placed among the Cuckoos. Their chief
interest centres in the fact that they are said to conduct travellers to
bees' nests, as will be seen below.

From the Capitoninae, _Indicator_ differs in the stout {452}Finch-like bill
with ridged and laterally swollen maxilla, while that of _Prodotiscus_ is
more slender and pointed. Moreover, the metatarsi are short; the nostrils
possess a narrow membrane and are not bristly; and the rectrices number
twelve, save in the last-named genus, which has ten. The curiously
interrupted range includes the whole Ethiopian Region, except Madagascar;
the Himalayas; and the Malayan and Bornean mountains. The sexes are
generally similar, while almost all the forms, which hardly exceed a Lark
in size, are chiefly dull brown, with a yellow wash, and some white on the
rump, tail, or wings.

_Indicator xanthonotus_ of the Himalayas is blackish above, with golden
forehead and orange rump-region, and greyish below; the latter colour
merging into yellow on the throat and black on the abdomen. _I.
archipelagicus_ of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and _I. sparrmani_ of
Tropical Africa, except the western forests, exhibit a yellow
shoulder-patch; while the males of the latter and of _I. major_ of the same
districts have black throats, which are whitish and yellow in the
respective females. _I. minor_, and the remaining Ethiopian species, differ
from the last two forms in having no white on the lower back. _Prodotiscus
regulus_ of Natal, and _P. insignis_, ranging from the Gaboon to East
Equatorial Africa, are particularly dull.

Circumstantial accounts of eye-witnesses so clearly shew that bees' nests
are found through the instrumentality of these birds, that their intention
can hardly be doubted, and it has been said that not only man but the ratel
(_Mellivora capensis_) is conducted; the object of attraction, however,
occasionally turns out to be a leopard, cat, snake, or dog. Honey-guides
call attention by a shrill cry or hiss, and will even fly in the face of a
traveller, as if enraged at not being followed; they eat bees, grubs, and
honey, and are asserted to lay white eggs in the nests of Barbets and the
like.[255] Sir John Kirk writes[256] of the habits of _Indicator
minor_–"The Honey-guide is found in forests, and often far from water, even
during the dry season. On observing a man it comes fluttering from branch
to branch in the neighbouring trees, calling attention. If this be
responded to, as the natives do by whistling and starting to their feet,
the bird will {453}go in a certain direction and remain at a little
distance, hopping from one tree to another. On being followed it goes
further; and so it will guide the way to a nest of bees. When this is
reached, it flies about, but no longer guides; and then some knowledge is
needed to discover the nest, even when pointed out to within a few trees. I
have known this bird, if the man after taking up the direction for a little
then turns away, come back and offer to point out another nest in a
different part. But if it do not know of two nests, it will remain behind.
The difficulty is, that it will point to tame bees in a bark-hive as
readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the bee is the same;
the bark-hive, 'Musinga' as it is named, being simply fastened up in a tree
and left for the bees to come to. The object the bird has in view is
clearly the young bees. It will guide to nests having no honey, and seems
equally delighted if the comb containing the grubs be torn out when it is
seen pecking at it."

Fam. XVII. RHAMPHASTIDAE.–The Toucans[257] are easily recognisable by their
huge beak, only paralleled by that of the Hornbills, of which some authors
have considered them the Neotropical representatives; but whereas in the
latter this beak is usually surmounted by a casque of varying size, in the
Toucans it is shaped much as usual, though abnormally developed. It does
not seem to interfere with the bird's powers of flight or feeding, and
indeed the structure of both mandibles is admirably calculated to combine
bulk with strength and lightness; the external walls being so thin and
elastic that they are said in some species to be compressible by the
fingers, while the inner cavities are filled with a network of bony
columns, to which the air has constant access. Moreover, the maxilla is so
perfectly hinged to the skull that the utmost ease in mastication is
secured, the serrated edges further aiding in the process. In
_Aulacorhamphus_ the mandibles are grooved, and _Andigena laminirostris_
has a square basal plate on each side of the culmen. The metatarsi are
stout and scutellated on both aspects, the toes are papillose below, the
claws sharp and curved. The somewhat weak wings have ten primaries and
twelve secondaries; the square, rounded, or graduated tail of ten rectrices
is capable of free vertical motion, and is frequently jerked up over the
back. The furcula is U-shaped; the tongue is long, thin and narrow, with
feather-like margins towards the tip; the nostrils {454}open backwards
behind the bill-sheath in _Rhamphastus_, upwards or sideways near the hind
part of the culmen in the other genera; the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial;
the aftershaft is rudimentary or absent; and neither adults nor nestlings
shew any down.

The coloration of the long, loose plumage, and of the beak and naked
orbits, is most brilliant and varied; the females are smaller and duller
than the males, and quite unlike them in _Selenidera_; while the young
resemble the former, but have softer and differently-tinted bills. The feet
are grey or green. _Pteroglossus beauharnaisi_ has the black shafts of the
crown-feathers dilated and coalescent with the barbs, producing an
appearance like curls of horn.

Toucans, except just after moulting, are shy and restless; they are more or
less gregarious, and small flocks gather to feed or bathe in the morning or
evening; at noon they sit motionless on some lofty tree, but at other times
may be seen jumping about the branches. At night they roost with the tail
thrown forward upon the back, and the head turned to meet it. Their flight
is easy, graceful, and direct, accompanied by occasional noisy flaps of the
wing, the bill being carried horizontally; they rarely seek the ground,
where they hop about obliquely in awkward fashion. All the species live
chiefly on fruits, including seeds; but Azara's statement that they destroy
small birds, and devour both eggs and young, is possibly quite correct, as
in captivity they exhibit great excitement and delight when furnished with
meat, mice, reptiles, and so forth,[258] tearing the food to pieces and
masticating it with their serrated mandibles. Should, however, the object
be small, they throw back the head and swallow it at a gulp; while a
curious habit has been observed of regurgitating the substances for further
mastication. Caterpillars, ants, and the like are added to the diet in the
breeding season. When feeding in company, Toucans, like Rooks, post a
sentinel, whose harsh, chattering scream can be heard for at least a mile:
they are especially noisy in the morning and evening, or in wet weather.
The unmelodious cry seems to vary considerably in the different species;
being described as a croak, a hoarse note, a clear yelp, or a jarring sound
like that of a Mistletoe Thrush. Owls and diurnal Birds of prey are often
surrounded by a noisy mob of Toucans, which jerk their tails as they
follow. Two oval and somewhat glossy white eggs are deposited in hollow
limbs of tall trees. These birds are frequently eaten by {455}the colonists
and natives, the latter using their plumage to decorate their bows or their
persons, while the beaks make convenient powder-flasks. They are easily
tamed, and become amusing pets. The various forms extend throughout the
forests of Tropical America down to the mangrove swamps of the coast, some
occurring at an altitude of from six thousand to ten thousand feet on the
mountains; northwards _Rhamphastus carinatus_, _Pteroglossus torquatus_,
_Aulacorhamphus prasinus_, and _A. wagleri_ reach South Mexico; southwards,
_Rhamphastus toco_ ranges to Argentina; but westwards no species crosses
the Andes south of the Gulf of Guayaquil. They are not represented in the
Antilles, though _Rhamphastus vitellinus_ extends to Trinidad. Dr.
Sclater[259] recognises five genera, comprising fifty-nine species, the
majority inhabiting Amazonia and Guiana.

[Illustration: FIG. 94.–Ariel Toucan. _Rhamphastus ariel._ × ⅓.]

The genus _Rhamphastus_ contains fourteen members, with {456}nearly the
same range as that of the Family, including the type and sole Argentine
species _R. toco_, one of the largest forms, two feet in length. This is
black, with white rump, throat and fore-neck (the last bordered with red),
crimson vent, blue orbits, and orange bill terminally blotched with black,
which has been likened to a lobster's claw. Several species have the throat
and rump yellow or orange, or the latter scarlet, as in _R. ariel_. The
brilliant bill and orbits vary considerably in colour; the tail is square.
_Andigena_ comprises some five forms from the highest forests of Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, olive-brown or dark green above, and with
hair-like bluish-grey plumage below; the crown is black, the nape black or
grey, the vent scarlet, the rump yellow, and the tip of the graduated tail
chestnut, except in one instance. The bill shews black, yellow, or red, in
varied combination, _A. laminirostris_ having a square ivory-white basal
plate on each side of the maxilla. _A. bailloni_, of South-East Brazil,
doubtfully placed in this genus, has a scarlet rump, yellow under parts,
greenish and reddish bill, and red orbits. _Pteroglossus_, the most
brilliant genus in the Family, exhibits green, scarlet, and yellow hues,
with areas or bands of black and scarlet on the lower surface in thirteen
out of eighteen species. The tail is graduated, and the feathers below are
somewhat hair-like. These Araçarís, as they are called, range from South
Mexico to Bolivia and South Brazil. The lovely _P. beauharnaisi_, of Upper
Amazonia, has dark green upper parts, with crimson on the rump and mantle;
and light yellow lower parts, tinged with red, which shew a scarlet ventral
band and black spots on the throat; the maxilla is black with orange
culmen, the mandible white. _P. aracari_ of Guiana and Lower Amazonia has
no red on the mantle, the smooth head and throat are black, the maxilla is
white with black culmen, the mandible black. Some six species of
_Selenidera_, remarkable for the dissimilar sexes, and generally for the
transversely striped or blotched beak, range from South-East Brazil and
Upper Amazonia to Nicaragua. The males, except in _S. spectabilis_, have a
distinct nuchal crescent of yellow, less marked in the females; the former
have the head and breast black, the latter usually chestnut; but the hen of
the above species has the under surface black, that of _S. piperivora_
greyish-green. The general colour is dark green, with brown tip to the
tail, yellow or orange ear-coverts, and scarlet vent; the beak is whitish,
reddish, or greenish, with black markings. {457}_Aulacorhamphus_ has some
dozen fairly uniform green members, relieved by a white, bluish, or black
throat. The rump may be crimson or rufous, the rectrices tipped with
chestnut, and the bill a mixture of red, black, yellow, or horn-colour,
usually with a white line at the base. The range is from Mexico to Guiana
and Bolivia.

Fam. XVIII. PICIDAE.–The Woodpeckers form a very large Family of scansorial
birds with zygodactylous feet, which is so natural that Huxley raised it to
higher rank as _Celeomorphae_, while Parker separated it still further as
_Saurognathae_. The two Sub-families are (1) _Picinae_, or Woodpeckers, and
(2) _Iynginae_, or Wrynecks.

Sub-fam. 1. _Picinae._–The chief external peculiarities of this section lie
in the form of the large head, the neck, and the tail-feathers. The neck is
often much compressed, with exceedingly powerful muscles, which, coupled
with the strong, wedge-shaped bill, enable the bird to operate with ease
and celerity upon the boles and limbs of trees, whence it procures much of
its food, and where it excavates a deep hole for the reception of its eggs.
The shafts of the twelve tail-feathers, of which the outer pair are very
small, are in the majority of cases stiff and spiny, and therefore well
adapted to keep the body close to the bark while climbing; parallel cases
being those of the Tree-Creeper (_Certhia_) and the Dendrocolaptinae. The
shape of the tail is rounded or cuneate; the wings are moderate and not
very much pointed, with ten primaries and from ten to thirteen secondaries.
The metatarsus is short, with a single row of anterior scutes; the claws
are large, sharp, and curved.[260]

The tongue is excessively long and "worm-like," with horny, barbed tip, and
is capable of marvellous protrusion owing to the elongated "horns" of the
hyoid apparatus, which in some forms curve round the skull and have their
origin near the base of the bill. Facility is thus secured for searching
narrow cracks or deep hollows for insects, while the secretion from the
large salivary glands secures the adhesion of the objects aimed at. The
furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial, the after-shaft
rudimentary, while neither adults nor young have down at any stage.

The prevailing colours are green, yellow, black, and white, in various
combinations, with spots and bars; brilliant scarlet being commonly present
on the crown and frequently also on the back {458}or under parts. From the
males the females and young in first plumage may be distinguished by their
duller coloration; but in the intermediate stages of growth the latter
exhibit a considerable amount of red. Many species have fine crests.

According to Hargitt[261] the number of genera is fifty, including three
hundred and eighty-five fairly defined species; though both genera and
species depend chiefly on colour. He mentions _Colaptes_ as an instance of
the possible formation of races by hybridization or climatic influences,
and _Gecinus_ as an example of diversely coloured forms, perhaps
originating from a common ancestor. The well-known colour-phases of
_Dendrocopus major_ and of the genus _Iyngipicus_ may be mentioned in this
connexion; the species becoming larger and whiter as they range eastwards
through Central Asia to Japan, and the former also shewing a tendency to a
crimson tint on the breast as it nears Africa southwards.

Woodpeckers are, with a few exceptions, solitary woodland birds of a
particularly shy and retiring nature, and therefore somewhat difficult of
observation. When seeking food they usually ascend a tree in spiral fashion
assisted by their tail and claws, and carefully examine every chink or
cranny in the bark; on reaching the higher limbs they betake themselves at
once to fresh hunting-grounds, often alighting at the very base of a trunk,
but equally often flying straight to some promising half-decayed branch. In
some cases, however, high flights are essayed. The species of _Colaptes_
and _Geocolaptes_ feed upon the ground; many forms, such as _Picus
martius_, _Gecinus viridis_, and _Melanerpes formicivorus_, prey largely
upon ants and take great pains to make a thorough clearance of the nest;
the last-named stores up acorns; while _Sphyrapicus varius_ and its
congeners suck the sap of trees and also hawk for flies: others again
devour a large quantity of fruits, seeds, and perhaps even Indian corn.
Omitting, however, the sap-sucking propensities of the American species,
the harm done is outweighed by the good.

In spring the laughing, ringing, or other cries may be heard in most wooded
districts; the sounds being somewhat harsh, and consisting of more or less
continuous notes according to the species, while the duration is commonly
about thirty seconds. The curious "drumming" noise produced in particular
by the Spotted and Black Woodpeckers is also chiefly heard early in the
year, though it ceases not with the courting, but when the young {459}are
hatched. This sound, which can be heard for a mile, is caused by the bill
hammering on the bark–usually of some rotten branch, while the bird's head
moves backwards and forwards with extraordinary rapidity; a stationary
position, however, is not invariably preserved, nor the quest of food
interrupted. The hen sometimes hisses loudly if disturbed upon her eggs;
both parents are said to "purr" in certain American species when the hole
is interfered with, and they certainly utter continuous, sharp alarm-notes
in Britain. It is probable, but perhaps hardly certain, that the female
drums as well as the male. The sense of hearing is extremely acute in the
Family. The flight is strong and undulating with constant "dips," and when
once witnessed can be recognised at considerable distances. Both sexes help
to excavate the hole for their eggs, which is a neat circular aperture,
worked from the centre outwards, and carried inwards to the core of the
wood, to descend thence for at least a foot; as soon as it turns downwards
it gradually enlarges, until the whole presents the form of a long-necked
bottle. Abortive borings are often made, of considerable depth; while the
chips may be found lying at the foot of the tree in a heap, if not removed
by the birds, as occasionally happens. Firs, oaks, poplars, beeches, ashes,
and willows, both high and low, furnish many breeding places, but wooden
walls or towers are also utilized, and two species, mentioned below, bore
like Kingfishers in banks. The same hole is occasionally tenanted in
successive years, but natural cavities are rarely used. It is commonly
stated that Woodpeckers always choose for their excavations decayed or
decaying limbs; but the soundest branches, or even the thickest parts of
the trunks of huge oaks, are not unfrequently selected. The oval, glossy,
white eggs are deposited on a few chips, and usually number from three or
five to ten; nevertheless as many as seventy-three are recorded as the
produce of one Woodpecker, and forty-two in the case of the Wryneck, when
robbed on successive days.[262] Both sexes are known to incubate in certain
cases: they sit very closely towards the end of the period, which lasts
fourteen days or more, yet often leave their hole quite readily at first.
Many species have been tamed, but they are wild and destructive in
captivity.

The Family ranges over the greater portion of the globe, except the
Australian Region, Madagascar, and Egypt. Its members are {460}most
abundant in the Indian and Neotropical Regions, several forms occurring in
the Antilles.

_Geocolaptes olivaceus_, an olive-coloured bird with whitish marks on the
wings and tail, crimson rump, and crimson-washed abdomen, is common in the
Cape Colony and Natal, and is remarkable for nesting in holes in banks or
mud-huts: it feeds upon the ground, and family-parties are stated by Mr.
Layard to keep together until the following breeding-season. Similar habits
have been observed in _Colaptes agricola_ of the Argentine Republic and
Patagonia, in timberless districts; but, as the trees grow, it recurs to
its natural habits. _C. auratus_, the golden-winged Flicker of North
America, has a phase (_C. mexicanus_) found west of the Rocky Mountains and
in Mexico, with red coloration of the wings in place of yellow,
intermediate races occurring in the intervening regions; considerable
controversy has consequently arisen as to whether hybridization has taken
place, or whether this is a case of specialized forms of a generalized
ancestor, due to climatic or other causes. The colour above is dove-brown
with black streaks; the head being lead-coloured with a crimson band on the
nape, the rump white, the lower throat black, the under parts pinkish-brown
with round black spots, and the wings strongly washed with yellow on both
surfaces. The bill is more arched and less wedge-shaped than usual. The
food consists of fruit, wood-lice, ants, and so forth, much of which is
procured upon the earth.

_Gecinus viridis_, our well-known Green Woodpecker, Yaffle, or Rain-bird,
the "laugh" of which is supposed to predict wet weather, is a green bird
with yellow rump and red head; the habits being those common to the whole
group, though a certain preference is shewn for feeding on the ground or on
ant-hills. It ranges throughout Europe to Asia Minor and Persia, while
other nearly allied forms, differing in their black occiputs or scarlet
rumps, extend over nearly the whole Eastern Palaearctic and Indian Regions.
_Chloronerpes_ is a Central and South American genus of smaller birds,
among which _C. rubiginosus_ has golden-rufous upper parts, with a red
nape, and yellowish under surface crossed by dark bars. Akin to this is the
Ethiopian _Campethera_, _C. punctata_ being yellow, olive, and brown above,
with a crimson head, and yellow below with small black spots.
_Chrysophlegma_ extends from the Himalayas to China and the Malay Islands.
_C. flavinucha_ is about the size of the Green Woodpecker, but {461}is much
yellower, and has a splendid orange crest on the nape, a yellow throat and
a grey breast; _C. miniatum_ has the crest and upper parts washed with red.

The three-toed _Gauropicoïdes rafflesi_ of the Malay countries has a long
black crest, and narrow, pointed tail-feathers, which contrast well with
its golden back; the under parts are brownish. _Asyndesmus torquatus_ of
the Western United States has very peculiar hair-like plumage below, in
which the first subdivisions of the whitish webs are not again divided; the
upper surface is bronzy-green, the front of the head crimson, and the
collar white. _Melanerpes_ is a large genus with many brilliant forms,
which range throughout America; _M. flavifrons_ being black above, with
white rump, crimson head and breast, broad golden forehead and throat, and
brownish chest; _M. candidus_ having the head and breast pure white, and
the blackish back only relieved by a yellow band on the nape; whereas _M.
formicivorus_ is intermediate in coloration. The last-named, often called
the Californian Woodpecker, extends southwards to Mexico and northwards up
the Pacific Coast to British Columbia; it stores up acorns by inserting
their upper halves in holes bored in the limbs of trees, which may be
sometimes seen studded with them to a height of forty feet or more.[263]
Apparently this is done for the sake of the grubs in the acorns; while, as
its name implies, the bird also devours ants.

_Sphyropicus_ contains the three Sap-suckers, which together range
throughout North America, an individual having strayed to Greenland. _S.
varius_ shews a striking combination of colours in its black and white
back, crimson head and throat, black chest, and yellow breast, while it has
the curious habit, shared by its congeners, of puncturing trunks of trees
to obtain the sap, in which they delight. Sometimes the entire bole is
encircled by these borings.

Nearly all that has already been said of the Family in general,
particularly with regard to the "drumming," may be repeated of the Spotted
Woodpeckers, of which _Dendrocopus major_ and _D. minor_ are the British
representatives. The colours in this genus are black and white in varied
proportions, with crimson on the head and often on the lower parts; a small
amount of buff and brown being not uncommonly added, while in _D.
brunneifrons_, a {462}Himalayan form, there is an admixture of yellow with
the red on the crown. Our Greater and Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers extend
throughout Europe and North Asia, and reach the Atlantic Islands; while
some thirty congeners widen the range until it includes nearly all the
Palaeartic, Nearctic, and Indian Regions. They are also found south of lat.
20° S. in the Neotropical. _D. leuconotus_ and _D._ (_Dendrocoptes_)
_medius_ are other European forms, with varying races. _Picoïdes_ is a
similarly coloured genus of three-toed birds, with yellow instead of red on
the head. They inhabit the most northern forests of both Worlds, reaching
southward to Central Europe, China, and (west of the Rocky Mountains) to
New Mexico. _P. tridactylus_ is well-known in Europe.

[Illustration: FIG. 95.–Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. _Dendrocopus minor._ ×
½. (From _Bird Life in Sweden_.)]

_Iyngipicus_ is a large group of small species, which stretch from India to
the Kuril Islands, Chira, Flores, and Celebes; and, if Hargitt is right in
considering _Picus obsoletus_ congeneric, from North-East Africa to
Senegambia. The colours are black or olive above, relieved by white and
fulvescent below with dark stripes or spots, the occiput shewing a band, or
two streaks, of red; the lateral tail-feathers, moreover, are hardly rigid,
approaching in that respect those of _Picumnus_. _Dendrobates_ is a still
larger genus of similarly sized birds, varying from nearly uniform olive
with a red crown, or bright red with white under parts, to dull
gold-colour, where the lower surface is buff barred with brown; the head
being in the last case red, but the nape yellow. They range from Northern
Argentina to Central America. _Mesopicus goertan_, one of half a dozen
finely-coloured species found throughout most of the Ethiopian Region, has
an olive back, long crimson feathers on the head and rump, and a greyish
breast.

Thus far all the members of the Family agree in having the nostrils covered
with bristles. Among those in which the bristles are wanting may be
mentioned _Celeus_ and the three-toed _Tiga javanensis_ and its congeners,
extending from India to Cochin China. The last-named has a brilliant
golden-orange back, a crimson {463}head, crest and rump, black tail, neck
and wings, and dark brown under parts with white spots. _Celeus_ ranges
from Mexico to South Brazil, _C. flavus_ being canary-yellow with brown
tail and wings, a large crest of the former colour, and a crimson stripe at
the gape. This genus, and the five following, are characterized by having
the neck extremely narrow and compressed.

[Illustration: FIG. 96.–Great Black Woodpecker. _Picus martius._ × ⅕. (From
_Bird Life in Sweden_.)]

_Campephilus_, ranging from the Gulf States and the Lower Mississippi to
Argentina, and _Ipocrantor_, of Chili and Patagonia, are noticeable for the
concave ends of their tail-feathers. _C. principalis_, the Ivory-billed
Woodpecker of the Southern United States–almost the largest member of the
Family–frequents the highest timber, where, according to Wilson, it used to
strip off cart-loads of bark, and make huge quantities of chips. It
appears, however, that it only attacked trees infested by insect-larvae.
When it was common the Indians used the head as a charm, and considered
that it gave them the creature's courage. Its main colour is bluish-black
with white wing-markings; the crimson and black occipital feathers together
forming a long crest. Both this bird and the Pileated Woodpecker of North
America (_Dryotomus pileatus_) are locally known as "Log-cocks," with which
name may be compared that of "Stock-eagle," _i.e._ "Stump-eagle," given in
the West of England to the Greater Spotted Woodpecker. {464}_Ipocrantor
magellanicus_, of Chili and Patagonia, has an even longer crest.
_Hemicercus_ is a genus of curious little crested black and white species,
with very short and hardly rigid tails, occurring in India, the Malay
countries, and Cochin China. _Hemilophus pulverulentus_, a larger bird of
similar range, is remarkable for its enormous bill and curious
dusty-looking slaty plumage.

Under the head of _Picus_, which gives the Family its name, is placed by
Hargitt only _P. martius_, the Black Woodpecker, an inhabitant of the
pine-forests of Europe and Asia to Japan, quite erroneously asserted to
have occurred in England. The colour is black with the exception of a red
head, while the feathering extends down two-thirds of the metatarsus in
front. It feeds chiefly on ants, insects, and their larvae, utters a loud
rattling cry, drums on trees, and lays four or five eggs in holes bored in
rotten wood.

The Piculets are considered by most writers to form a Sub-family
_Picumninae_, and connect the _Picinae_ and the _Iynginae_, being the least
specialized of the former; they constitute the genus _Picumnus_, of which
the thirty or more members have short, rounded tails without spiny shafts,
and nostrils hidden by bristles. These diminutive birds occupy America from
Honduras to Northern Argentina, as well as most of the Indian Region, one
being a native of Africa; they are duller than most Woodpeckers, and are
rufous, olive, or greyish, while often marked with black, or with red or
yellow on the head. _P. micromegas_ is confined to Hispaniola, _P._
(_Verreauxia_) _africanus_ to the Gaboon districts, _P._ (_Sasia_)
_ochraceus_ and its two congeners are found in Northern India and the Malay
countries. Of these only the first has any bright colour on the head.
_Sasia_ lacks the hallux.

Sub-fam. 2. _Iynginae._–The Wrynecks may be distinguished from the typical
Woodpeckers by their soft tails without spiny shafts, and naked nostrils
with a partial covering. The plumage shews a peculiar mixture of black,
brown, grey, and white, somewhat similar to that of a Nightjar. They feed
chiefly upon the ground on ants and the like, and do not seek for insects
under the bark of trees to the same extent that Woodpeckers do; while,
instead of cutting out their own nesting-hole, they utilize cavities in
stumps, posts, or even banks, to contain the white eggs, from five to ten
in number, and often choose the same site annually. These birds have a
curious habit of erecting the head-feathers and twisting the head itself
from side to side, or almost over the back, either when sitting quietly on
a branch or when molested. They {465}utter a loud, triple note, frequently
reiterated, which has been compared to that of the Kestrel, and somewhat
resembles the spring cry of the Nuthatch. Owing to the non-spinous tail the
members of this genus cannot climb so well as Woodpeckers, while on the
ground they are awkward and move with constant hops. The extensile and
worm-like tongue is not barbed at the tip. _Iynx torquilla_, the
Cuckoo's-mate or Snake-bird, is fairly common in England, and extends
thence to Japan, Kordofan, and Senegal. The remaining species are all
Ethiopian, _I. pectoralis_ with a reddish-brown fore-neck and chest
inhabiting the southern half of Africa, the similar _I. pulchricollis_
occurring in East Equatorial Africa, and _I. aequatorialis_, in which the
red extends to the whole breast, being met with only in Abyssinia.

[Illustration: FIG. 97.–Wryneck. _Iynx torquilla._ × 3/7. (From _Natural
History of Selborne_.)]

Of fossil forms referred to this Family, _Uintornis_ occurs in the Eocene
of the United States, while _Picus_ and _Homolopus_ have been found
respectively in the Lower and Middle Miocene of France.

{466}CHAPTER VII

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONCLUDED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION II (CORACIOMORPHAE _CONCLUDED_)

ORDER: PASSERIFORMES

ORDER XIV. PASSERIFORMES.

This Order contains about five thousand five hundred species, being more
than half the birds yet known. Their classification is attended with much
difficulty, and the anatomy of many more forms must be investigated before
anything approaching a satisfactory–not to say final–scheme can be
proposed. The earlier taxonomers often based their systems largely on
European genera, and were therefore obliged to interpose others, or even to
recognise new Families, as their knowledge extended, among the many new
discoveries, to various American and Australian forms.

The foundation of recent arrangements of the group, depending on the number
or position of the song-muscles, was laid between 1845 and 1847 by Johannes
Müller, who divided the then generally accepted Order _Insessores_ into
three tribes: (1) _Oscines_ or _Polymyodi_ [Song-birds, or those with many
(usually five or seven) pairs of song-muscles]; (2) _Tracheophones_ [where
the bronchi take no part in the formation of the voice-organ]; and (3)
_Picarii_ [corresponding in the main to Nitzsch's _Picariae_]; the two
former of which included most of the Passerine forms. Simultaneously with
Müller, Cabanis proposed a system grounded on similar principles; while in
1867 Huxley recognised of his group _Coracomorphae_ the divisions
_Polymyodae_, _Tracheophonae_, and _Oligomyodae_ [birds with few
song-muscles]. About ten years later Garrod, who was followed between 1880
and 1882 by W. A. Forbes, divided the Passeres into _Desmodactyli_, with a
band joining the muscles of the {467}hallux to the front toes, and
_Eleutherodactyli_, where the hind toe is free. The former contained only
the _Eurylaemidae_; the latter the _Mesomyodi_ (where the syringeal muscles
join the bronchial semi-rings in their middle or lateral portion), and the
_Acromyodi_ (where they are attached to the extremities). The subdivisions
need not be discussed here; but it should be noticed that, as opposed to
Müller, the attachment, and not the number, of muscles was the point relied
upon. Want of space forbids an account of the subsequent labours of Mr.
Sclater,[264] Professors Newton[265] and Fürbringer,[266] and others; but
the last-named no doubt influenced considerably the views of Dr. Gadow,
mainly accepted below. This author[267] takes into consideration not only
the attachment, but also the disposition of the muscles of the syrinx, and
distinguishes his _Passeriformes_ as (1) _Passeres anisomyodae_, where the
syringeal muscles are unequally inserted, either in the middle, or upon the
dorsal or ventral end only, of the bronchial semi-rings; (2) _Passeres
diacromyodae_, where some of the muscles are attached to the dorsal, and
some to the ventral ends. The former of these groups may be subdivided into
A. _Subclamatores_ and B. _Clamatores_; the latter into C. _Suboscines_ and
D. _Oscines_. Even the groups (1) and (2) are expressly stated not to rise
to the rank of Sub-Orders, while the _Oscines_ and other equivalent
divisions are of hardly more than Family value.

The great number of species in the Order _Passeriformes_ makes it necessary
to treat the various sections less fully than has been the case in the
foregoing portion of the work, while the Families are not, of course, on
the same level here as elsewhere.

1. PASSERES ANISOMYODAE.

A. _Subclamatores._

Fam. EURYLAEMIDAE.–The Broad-bills, a curious Old World group, have been by
various authors regarded as allied to the Rollers or to the Flycatchers.
They are distinguished from all other Passerine forms by the fact that the
hallux is connected with the front toes by a vinculum or band joining the
deep plantar tendons, and is thus incapable of independent motion. The beak
is very {468}broad, while it is comparatively small in _Calyptomena_;
_Corydon_, and to a less extent _Eurylaemus_ and _Sarcophanops_, have a
decided terminal hook to the maxilla. The metatarsus is scutellated in
front and smooth behind (laminiplantar); the hallux is weak; the third and
fourth toes are distinctly united, the claws are very short. The moderate
wings have ten primaries in _Calyptomena_, eleven elsewhere, _Eurylaemus_
having the eleventh very small; the secondaries are nine or ten; the tail
of twelve rectrices is usually long and rounded, but is graduated in
_Psarisomus_, short and square in _Calyptomena_. The adults have no
aftershaft or down, the tongue is sagittate, and _Sarcophanops_ has naked
orbits. The plumage in _Calyptomena viridis_ of the Indo-Malay countries is
bright green, with a large black post-auricular and a yellow pre-ocular
spot, three black bars on the wing-coverts, and blackish wing- and
tail-quills. The duller female has no black spots or bars. The dense
frontal feathers project forward over the beak. _C. whiteheadi_ of Borneo
has a black throat. These somewhat inactive birds inhabit thin jungles,
utter soft whistles, and feed on fruit; the rest of the Family eat little
but insects, though _Cymborhynchus macrorhynchus_, the Rain-bird of the
Malays, enjoys berries.

[Illustration: FIG. 98.–Broad-bill. _Calyptomena viridis._ × 7/16.]

_Eurylaemus javanicus_ is blackish, with yellow markings on the back, tail,
and wings; the head, neck, and under parts being vinous purple, with a
black crescentic chest-band, which is absent in the hen. _Corydon
sumatranus_ is black, with a white alar bar and a buffish-white throat and
fore-neck. They cover much the same area as _Calyptomena_. _Cymborhynchus_
shews black and crimson colours, while the beautiful _Psarisomus
dalhousiae_, found from the Eastern Himalayas to Borneo, has a green back
and under {469}surface, black and blue head and wings, yellow face and
throat, and blue tail becoming black below. _Serilophus_ contains two
grey-brown species with chestnut rumps, ranging from Sikkim to Tenasserim.
_Sarcophanops_ is peculiar to the Philippines.

The quiet and solitary Broad-bills inhabit forests, thickets, and gardens,
flying little, sitting sluggishly on the branches, taking insects on the
wing, and uttering whistling or metallic notes. They make large roughish
oval nests, with a large entrance near the top often protected by an
overhanging roof, while a sort of tail is commonly added; these are
suspended from low branches or plants close to water; the materials being
twigs, roots, tendrils, moss, or leaves, felted together and smoothly lined
with green foliage, flags, bamboo-spathes, or grass, sometimes renewed when
dry. From three to five eggs are laid, pale yellowish in _Calyptomena_,
white or rarely spotted with red in _Psarisomus_, and pinkish, buff or
white elsewhere, with markings varying from black to rufous.

B. _Clamatores._

This group includes the _Pittidae_, _Philepittidae_, _Xenicidae_,
_Tyrannidae_, _Oxyrhamphidae_, _Pipridae_, _Cotingidae_, _Phytotomidae_,
_Dendrocolaptidae_, _Formicariidae_, _Conopophagidae_, and
_Pteroptochidae_.

Apparently the furcula is U-shaped; the tongue varies; the aftershaft is
small, if present; the down is sparing or absent.

Fam. I. PITTIDAE.–The members of this Old World Family, nearly fifty in
number, range from India to North China, East Australia, New Guinea, and
New Britain; while one species is West African. They are stout,
strong-billed forms, with short rounded wings and tail, the long metatarsus
being more or less scutellated all round; the primaries number ten–the
outer being decidedly long–the secondaries eight, the rectrices twelve. The
plumage exhibits vivid scarlet, blue, and green tints, in addition to
yellow, purple, black, brown, and white; elongated neck-feathers occur in
_Anthocincla_, erect frontal plumes in _Coracopitta_. The tail in _Pitta_
is nearly square, but is pointed in _Eucichla_, and _Coracopitta_. The
habits seem to be fairly uniform, all the species haunting thickish jungle
or dense scrub, whether in the rock-strewn glens of India, or the damp
Malayan, Australian, and Papuasian forests. The birds are more often heard
than seen, though the plaintive, oft-repeated double whistle of the smaller
forms, or the mournful, triple cry of the larger, is seldom audible in the
mid-day heat, both being recognisable by the long-drawn final syllable.

{470}[Illustration: FIG. 99.–_Pitta brachyura._ × 3/7.]

They are chiefly terrestrial, and jump from rock to rock or branch to stump
with great agility; their apparently leisurely movements being really so
quick that a mere glimpse is usually obtained through some opening in the
foliage, while their habits are consequently difficult to observe. The
quiet watcher may, however, hear the birds pattering over the beds of
leaves, and see them hunting for molluscs and insects, or digging for worms
and ants, but the slightest movement causes them to depart with long rapid
hops, exchanged under pressure for a low, direct noiseless flight of short
duration. Pittas are habitually, though not invariably, solitary, and are
especially shy when breeding. _P. moluccensis_ ascends the trees to call,
_P. oatesi_ occasionally whistles at night, while _P. novae guineae_ flirts
its tail like a Wagtail. The exposed nest, with its lateral entrance, is
frequently placed on the ground at the foot of a tree or shrub, but
sometimes amongst undergrowth or in very low forks; it is a rounded fabric
of twigs, roots, bark, moss, leaves, and grass, often cemented with earth;
the larger species making a clumsier and looser structure, the smaller a
more compact mass. Unspotted eggs are rare, the usual colour being
creamy-white with brown, reddish, grey, or purplish-black spots or scrawls;
the number is from three to six. _Anthocincla phayrii_ and _Pitta
cucullata_ are said occasionally to build a platform of sticks before their
doorway, and the latter a projecting roof over it. The former species,
which inhabits Burma, is brown with a black coronal streak, black and white
superciliary stripes, white throat, and pink vent; _Pitta caerulea_ is
bright blue above, with black occiput and nape, but an otherwise ashy head;
it is greyish-buff below, with a partial black collar. The female {471}has
a brown back, and a buffish head, with black cross-bars and collar. This
very large form ranges from Tenasserim to Sumatra and Borneo; the smaller
_P. cyanea_ of Bhutan, Burma, and Siam is somewhat similar, but has a
scarlet nape, and bluish under parts with black bars. _P. maxima_ of Gilolo
is glossy black, with blue wing-coverts, a white alar bar, green edges to
the secondaries, white lower surface, black chin, and crimson belly. _P.
granatina_ of Borneo is purplish-black, with scarlet occiput and nape, blue
superciliary stripe, some blue on the wing, purplish throat, and scarlet
belly. _P. baudi_ of the same island is crimson above, with blue crown and
tail, black nape, and white alar bar; the lower parts being black, with
purple and blue abdomen: the female is dull brown below. _P. cyanoptera_,
reaching from Burma and Borneo to South China, is dull green above, with a
dark central stripe and a black margin to the brownish crown; the black
wing shews a white bar, and azure on the coverts; the tip of the black tail
and the rump are blue; the lower surface is buff, with crimson on the
belly. Several species have green under parts, a blue pectoral band, or no
blue on the rump and wings. _P. angolensis_ inhabits West Africa, _P.
nympha_ North China and Tsu-shima Island, _P. iris_ and _P. strepitans_
Australia; the latter reaches New Guinea, where it meets, among other
forms, the entirely black _Coracopitta lugubris_, as well as _P. mackloti_,
which extends to New Britain.

[Illustration: FIG. 100.–_Philepitta jala._ × ⅜.]

Fam. II. PHILEPITTIDAE.–This contains only the two species of _Philepitta_,
peculiar to Madagascar, which have bare orbits surmounted by a green
caruncle in the male, and metatarsi with a regular series of scales behind
(taxaspidean). _P. jala_ is black, with yellow at the bend of the wing; the
female is olive-green with yellow markings below. _P. schlegeli_ is green
above and yellow below in {472}both sexes, the male having a black head,
the female white streaks on that part. The outward form and habits recall
those of _Pitta_, but the latter are more arboreal. The young are
apparently spotted, unlike those of the Pittidae, which resemble the
adults.

Fam. III. XENICIDAE.–This contains the genera _Acanthidositta_ and
_Traversia_, each with one species, and _Xenicus_ with two; they are
remarkable New Zealand forms, in which the weak syringeal muscles only
reach the lowest tracheal ring. The slender metatarsi are almost smooth,
the claws acute and elongated; the short rectrices number ten, and the
tenth primary is nearly equal to the next; the secondaries are eight. The
tongue is lanceolate and horny. The stout-billed, long-legged _Xenicus
longipes_ has dark green upper parts, a brown crown, a yellowish rump and
sides, black cheeks, whitish superciliary stripes and throat, and silky,
bluish-grey under parts. The female is chiefly brown. _X. gilviventris_ is
olive-brown on the back and cheeks, and purplish-brown beneath, with some
rufous and a black spot on the wing. Both forms inhabit the South Island,
and are called "Bush-Wren" and Rock-Wren respectively. The former frequents
dark sub-alpine forests, restlessly searching the trees for insects, their
chrysalids and larvae, and uttering a weak note or a trill. It is seldom
seen on the ground, yet flies but little, as might be expected from its
short, rounded wings. The compact domed nest of moss, placed in low forks
or in tree-roots, contains five or six white eggs with pink blotches; when
built in holes it is open. The other species lives among débris high up the
hills, being almost entirely terrestrial, skulking round the boulders, and
eating dragonflies, lepidoptera, and insects generally, with scraps of fat
from any traveller's camp. The nest of roots, twigs, and leaves, lined with
feathers, is placed in crevices, and contains some five white eggs. The
similar _Traversia lyalli_ of Stephens Island is said to be nocturnal.
_Acanthidositta chloris_, the Rifleman, is dull green above with yellower
rump, and fulvous white below; the moderate wings are blackish, with green
edgings and yellow bars; the eye-stripe is white; the short rounded tail is
black with light tip. The female has an olive upper surface with brown
markings, a yellow rump, and buffish under parts. This species inhabits the
hill-forests of both the main islands of New Zealand, where it actively
searches the trees for food with quivering wings, and utters a feeble
"cheep." The more or less bottle-shaped nest, placed in holes in trees,
{473}buildings, and so forth, is formed of bents, roots, and feathers, and
contains from three to five white eggs.

Fam. IV. TYRANNIDAE.–This comprises some four hundred species, chiefly of
an olive or black-and-grey coloration, which is occasionally relieved by
bright scarlet as in _Pyrocephalus_, orange-red as in _Muscivora_, or
yellow as in _Todirostrum_; but these hues are not necessarily common to
whole genera. _Agriornis_ and _Megarhynchus_ are exceptionally large forms,
but the majority are small, and in habits and appearance resemble the Old
World Flycatchers, or even Shrikes. From the former, however, they are
easily distinguished by their normal outer primary and the exteriorly
scutellated back of the metatarsus (exaspidean). Dr. Sclater[268]
recognises four Sub-families, _Taeniopterinae_, _Platyrhynchinae_,
_Elaineinae_, and _Tyranninae_.

The curved bill, varying in length and stoutness, is compressed and bristly
at the gape in the Taeniopterinae, hardly bristly in the Elaineinae,
depressed and decidedly bristly in the Platyrhynchinae and Tyranninae;
while the culmen is most strongly hooked in the larger species, being much
curved in _Oncostoma_, particularly broad and flat in _Platyrhynchus_,
_Megarhynchus_, _Muscivora_, _Todirostrum_, and _Euscarthmus_, swollen and
very wide in _Rhynchocyclus_. In the first and last of the Sub-families the
metatarsus is strong and often long; in the remainder it is comparatively
weak; _Centrites_ has an extremely elongated hallux, correlated with
Lark-like habits. The wing is usually short, but is often long in the
Taeniopterinae and Tyranninae; the outer of the ten primaries are at times
acuminate in _Tyrannus_, _Hapalocercus_, _Cnipolegus_, and _Taenioptera_,
whereas in _Colopterus_ and _Alectrurus_ these quills are unusually
reduced. The secondaries are nine. The tail, normally of twelve rectrices,
varies much in length, and is very deeply forked and graduated in
_Milvulus_, _Muscipipra_, and three members of _Tyrannus_, moderately
divided in _Contopus_ and certain species of _Taenioptera_, and so forth;
it is not infrequently nearly square; while it is long and rounded in
_Capsiempis_ and the like; long and graduated, with only ten
narrowly-barbed feathers in _Culicivora_; of the same shape in
_Cybernetes_; and excessively reduced in _Orchilus ecaudatus_. _Copurus_
possesses two very long median rectrices; the male of _Alectrurus tricolor_
has the two fairly long outer feathers with their inner webs abnormally
developed, and that of _A. risorius_ has them enormously lengthened and
broadened.

{474}The Taeniopterinae, which are generally black, grey, and white,
frequent the open parts of wooded districts, river-sides, or exceptionally
marshes, in South America, a few of them extending north of Panama; the
Elaineinae and Platyrhynchinae are olive, grey, brown, and yellow, and
inhabit dense forests from South Mexico to Patagonia, _Ornithion imberbe_
ranging as far north as Texas; the Tyranninae–with many large
species–normally exhibit olive, grey, yellow, or white in varying
proportions, and include most of the Nearctic genera, such as _Contopus_,
_Empidonax_, _Myiarchus_, and _Tyrannus_, as well as many Neotropical
forms, and the entirely Antillean _Blacicus_ and _Lawrencia_. Erectile
crests occur in some cases in _Tyrannulus_, _Cnipolegus_, _Colopterus_,
_Pseudotriccus_, _Lophotriccus_, _Machetornis_, _Muscivora_, _Empidonax_,
_Anaeretes_, _Elainea_, _Pyrocephalus_, _Myiobius_, and _Mitrephanes_;
white eye-rings are found in _Euscarthmus zosterops_, _E. orbitatus_, and
_Capsiempis orbitalis_; a fleshy yellow caruncle surrounds each eye in
_Lichenops_; and in the breeding male of _Alectrurus risorius_ the throat
and cheeks shew bare orange skin.

The following are examples of the coloration, which is often similar in
both sexes. _Tyrannus pipiri_, the King-bird of temperate North America,
ranging to Peru in winter, is dark grey, with a concealed orange patch on
the black crown, black and white wings and tail, and white under parts.
_Pyrocephalus rubineus_, of South America north of Buenos Aires, is dark
cinereous with crimson head and lower surface, the female being grey above,
and chiefly white below with grey stripes. _Muscivora regia_ of Guiana and
Amazonia is brown, with a scarlet crest tipped with purplish, and has
ochraceous under parts with brownish bars. The crest is yellower in the
hen. _Megarhynchus pitangua_, of Central and South America to Paraguay, is
brown, with yellow lower surface, a black head, white superciliary streaks
joining on the nape, a concealed orange coronal patch, and a white throat.
_Elainea pagana_, ranging from South Mexico to Brazil, is dull olive above,
and greyish-white below with yellow belly; a spot on the crown and two alar
bars being white. _Cyanotis azarae_ of La Plata, Chili, and West Peru has
bronzy-green upper and yellow lower surface, with a partial black band
beneath and a crimson vent; the head is black with a crimson spot, the
wings and tail are black and white. _Todirostrum cinereum_ of Central
America and eastern South America is greyish above and yellow below, with
black crown, wings, and tail, the primaries having yellow edges and
{475}the tail a white tip. _Taenioptera dominicana_, of South-East Brazil
and Argentina, is white with the wings and tail mainly black; _Cnipolegus
unicolor_ of Upper Amazonia is uniform black.

Tyrants are active and restless birds, chiefly met with near rivers or
marshes, where they are constantly seen sitting alone on the branches of
trees, bushes, dead thistles, and giant pampas-grasses, or more rarely, as
in the Chat-like _Muscisaxicola_, on clods and boulders; thence they dart,
like Flycatchers, upon their prey. _Centrites_ frequents bare plains and
loves the ground; _Serpophaga_ and _Sayornis_ haunt streams, and flirt the
tail like a Wagtail; _Fluvicola_, _Alectrurus_, and _Cyanotis_ inhabit
reed-beds, and climb about the bending stems in Tit-like fashion; the
Taeniopterinae are mainly terrestrial, and often form flocks,
_Myiotheretes_ running and flying like a Thrush, and even accompanying
bands of Plovers; _Machetornis_ searches the backs of cattle for insects,
and dusts itself like a Lark. Many members of the family are decidedly shy,
but the majority are otherwise, and in especial the Tyranninae, which are
excessively bold and pugnacious when breeding, attacking even the
Carrion-Hawk (_Milvago_), and bullying their smaller relatives. In a fair
number of species the sexes are usually observed apart; in others they are
as invariably in company. The range extends to ten thousand feet or more in
the Andes, _Muscisaxicola macloviana_ being found at that altitude, as well
as down to the sea-coast in Patagonia; while in some cases semi-migratory
movements take place at certain times of year. The powers of wing are
commonly great, especially in the agile King-bird and its congeners;
_Taenioptera_ and _Agriornis_ can fly as well as hop; _Centrites_, though
of terrestrial habits, moves swiftly or circles easily in the air;
_Pitangus_ and _Empidonax minimus_ quarter the ground for food with
undulating movements. _Pyrocephalus rubineus_ soars with upraised vibrating
wings to a considerable height, with many a rise and fall; _Alectrurus
tricolor_ goes slowly and vertically up with rapid pulsations of the
pinions, and then comes slanting down; while the graceful Scissor-tail
(_Milvulus_) twists and turns about in the air, alternately opening and
shutting its long forked rectrices, or whirling aloft at will to dart
earthwards again like a rocket.

{476}[Illustration: FIG. 101.–Scissor-tail. _Milvulus tyrannus._ × 2/7.]

The usual note is shrill, piercing, and often harsh or angry, as in
_Tyrannus_, _Myiarchus_, and _Machetornis_; it is loud, grating, and rarely
mellow, in _Pitangus_ and _Cybernetes_; a low plaintive whistle or pipe is
uttered by _Myiotheretes_, _Cyanotis_, and most of the Taeniopterinae,
_Sayornis_ having a ringing cry, _supposed_ to resemble "Phoebe," which
name it bears in North America, and _Fluvicola_ and _Cnipolegus_ giving
vent to clicking sounds. Many species twitter, chirp, or chatter, while
_Pyrocephalus rubineus_, _Hapalocercus flaviventer_, _Ornithion imberbe_,
_Contopus ardesiacus_, and _Empidonax flaviventer_ are stated to have a
pleasant trill approaching a song. These notes may be uttered by the birds
either when soaring in the air or when stationary. The food normally
consists of insects, caught upon the wing with an audible snap of the bill;
but _Taenioptera_ often, instead of hawking from a perch, pounces upon
crawling beetles, grasps them in its claws, and devours them upon the
earth. _Pitangus bolivianus_ and some other forms even eat mice, young
birds, small snakes, lizards, fishes, frogs, spiders, molluscs, worms, and
insect-larvae, beating the larger creatures upon a branch to kill them.
_Elainea strepera_, _Myiarchus crinitus_, and some species of _Tyrannus_,
will eat berries and seeds. A bulky nest is often fashioned of rough twigs,
moss, grass, straws, wool, hair, and rags; which may be open as in
_Tyrannus_, or domed as in _Pitangus bolivianus_, and placed in trees in
either case: or it may be beautifully felted with moss, lichens, and
spiders'-webs, and lined with hair and feathers, as in _Elainea_ and
_Serpophaga_. _Sayornis_ commonly makes a foundation of mud pellets, adding
coarse materials above with feathers for bedding, the fabric being fixed to
rocks or buildings. Again, many species build slight or fairly compact
nests of grass, twigs, and softer materials {477}in bushes, forks, or
outgrowths of trees. _Copurus_, _Taenioptera_, _Machetornis_, and
_Myiarchus_ commonly use old holes of Woodpeckers; _Todirostrum_ and
_Fluvicola_ often make hanging purse-like structures; _Cyanotis_ attaches
its conical nest of papery reeds to the stems of those plants; _Serpophaga_
frequently suspends its domicile to twigs, roots, or _grasses_ overhanging
water; _Alectrurus_, _Lichenops_, _Hapalocercus_, and _Centrites_ build in
rush- or grass-tufts, and _Muscisaxicola_ under stones. _Taenioptera_ and
_Machetornis_, moreover, will lay in the "ovens" of _Furnarius_, or in the
nests of _Anumbius acuticaudus_ (pp. 486, 487). _Muscivora mexicana_ makes
a curious hanging spindle-shaped nest, surrounded by loose materials. The
eggs are usually whitish, salmon- or cream-coloured, and may be unspotted,
or dotted and ringed with red, purple, or brown; those of _Pyrocephalus
rubineus_ have black and grey markings, those of _Machetornis_ dense brown
stripes or spots, those of _Myiarchus_ tangled purple or red-brown lines
and marblings, while those of _Centrites niger_ are plain bluish-green.

Fam. V. OXYRHAMPHIDAE.–The members differ from the _Tyrannidae_ in the
straight bill, and the serrated outer web of the tenth primary of the male.
The sole genus _Oxyrhamphus_ has three greenish forms, with red crests, and
black-spotted yellow or white lower parts.

Fam. VI. PIPRIDAE.–The Manakins, often considered a sub-section of the
Cotingidae, are for the most part small thick-set birds, though
_Heteropelma_ and some other genera have greater dimensions. The seventy or
more species may be divided into the Sub-families, _Piprinae_, with
brilliant males, and _Ptilochlorinae_, where the sexes are usually
dull-coloured and similar;[269] the former ranging from South Mexico to
North Argentina, the latter to South-East Brazil. The curved bill is
generally short and wide at the base in the Piprinae, with an indistinct
terminal notch; but is somewhat elongated, much compressed, decidedly
notched, and usually provided with rictal bristles in the Ptilochlorinae.
The metatarsus is exaspidean (p. 473)–though nearly smooth in _Metopothrix_
and _Masius_–and is comparatively slender in most of the Piprinae, stronger
in the Ptilochlorinae, _Piprites_, and _Ceratopipra_; the outer and
mid-toes being partially united. The exterior of the ten primaries is
always short, while the wing is much elongated in _Chloropipo_; the
secondaries are nine or ten. {478}In the males of some forms the remiges
differ from those of the females; thus the shafts of the primaries are
thickened and pointed in _Chiroxiphia_, similar but incurved in _Helicura_
and _Chiromachaeris_, with much attenuated barbs in the latter; in
_Ptilochloris_ the seventh primary is modified and bends outwards. In
_Machaeropterus_ the wing-bones are flattened; the secondaries have thick
stems bending inwards towards the tip, and shew reduced vanes, save the
eighth and ninth, while the sixth and seventh have the shaft terminally
developed into a horny excrescence. The tail is usually short and square,
but is long in _Chloropipo_ and _Metopia_, rounded in the latter and
_Masius_, graduated in _Metopothrix_ and _Heterocercus_. The outer of the
twelve feathers are much elongated in _Cirrhopipra_, being acuminate in _C.
heterocerca_, curved and filiform in _C. filicauda_; the two median
rectrices are lengthened in _Helicura_; while in three species of
_Chiroxiphia_ they are also long, or even linear in _C. linearis_. Frontal
crests occur in _Metopia_, _Masius_, and _Metopothrix_; vertical crests in
_Pipra serena_, _P. suavissima_, and four species of _Chiroxiphia_;
_Ceratopipra_ has a peculiar extended nuchal tuft, _Chiromachaeris_ an
elongated beard.

[Illustration: FIG. 102.–Manakin. _Pipra mentalis._ × ½.]

As examples of coloration we may take the following:–_Chloropipo
flavicapilla_ has a yellow head, neck, and under parts, a green back, and
brownish wings; _Xenopipo atronitens_ is uniform black; _Ceratopipra
cornuta_, black with scarlet head, neck, and thighs; _Cirrhopipra
filicauda_ similarly coloured, with yellow forehead and lower surface.
_Pipra leucocilla_ is black with a white crown; _P. velutina_ has a blue
cap, _P. suavissima_ an erect white vertical crest, lilac rump, and orange
mid-abdomen. _Machaeropterus regulus_ exhibits green upper parts, a scarlet
crown, slaty wing- and tail-quills, and white, green, and rufous under
surface. _Chiroxiphia pareola_ is black, with blue mantle and crimson
crest; _Chiromachaeris aurantiaca_ is also black, with orange nuchal band,
cheeks and breast, green rump, and yellow abdomen. The females are green,
with yellowish or whitish tints below. {479}_Ptilochloris squamata_ is in
both sexes olive-green, with blackish cap and wings, and yellowish under
parts marked with black; others again of the Ptilochlorinae are chiefly
olive or rufous,[270] three species of _Heteropelma_ having concealed
coronal patches of yellow.

Manakins as a rule inhabit deep forests, or thick undergrowth near marshes,
where they incessantly creep about the branches like Tits, and take short
flights after passing insects. _Chiroxiphia caudata_ is called in Brazil
the "Fandango-bird," from the fact that one individual often sits and
sings, while its fellows dance up and down to the music. Two males of _C.
linearis_ have been seen skipping before a female, and uttering meanwhile
their cry of "to-le-do." _Chiromachaeris_ makes a sound like a whip
cracking, followed by a continuous rattle–possibly caused by the wings; but
this noise seems peculiar to the genus, the usual cry being loud and
whistling. Fruits of all sorts, especially berries and seeds, and
occasionally insects, form the food. _Chiromachaeris manacus_ and
_Chiroxiphia caudata_ hang loose, shallow nests of grass–the latter with
slight additions of wool, hair, tendrils, and leaves–from the forks of low
shrubs; the two eggs being reddish-or yellowish-white, thickly blotched
with red or brown.

Fam. VII. COTINGIDAE.–This group, divided by Mr. Sclater[271] into the
Sub-families _Tityrinae_, _Lipauginae_, _Attilinae_, _Rupicolinae_,
_Cotinginae_, and _Gymnoderinae_, contains more than a hundred species; but
the _Attilinae_ are sometimes placed in the Tyrannidae or the
Formicariidae, _Iodopleura_ and _Calyptura_ in the Pipridae. The range
extends from South Mexico to Argentina, _Carpodectes_ being restricted to
Costa Rica and Nicaragua, _Phoenicocercus_, _Haematoderus_, and
_Gymnocephalus_ to Guinea and Amazonia, _Doliornis_ to Central Peru,
_Tijuca_, _Phibalura_, and _Calyptura_ to South Brazil.

The bill varies from strong, elongated, compressed, and curved, as in
_Tijuca_, the Tityrinae and Attilinae, to short and broad, as in
_Phibalura_, _Querula_, and _Chasmorhynchus_; the culmen being particularly
elevated in _Gymnoderus_, and much hooked in the Attilinae. The metatarsus,
scutellated in front, and usually covered with small round scales behind
(pycnaspidean), is especially strong in _Pyroderus_ and _Rupicola_, partly
feathered in the latter, and posteriorly corrugated in _Lipaugus_; while
_Attila_ and other kindred forms have the outer toes somewhat
{480}connected. The wings may be long, as in _Carpodectes_ and
_Iodopleura_, or short as in _Phoenicocercus_ and _Calyptura_; the ten
primaries, of which the outer is small, are much reduced and twisted in
_Chirocylla_–particularly in the male; in that sex of _Rupicola_ some have
the inner web cut away at the tip, while the external secondaries have the
outer vanes filamentous; the Tityrinae have the ninth primary abbreviated
and often scimetar-shaped; the seventh has a terminal horny process in the
male of _Phoenicocercus_. The secondaries are ten or eleven. In _Xipholena_
the greater coverts are stiff and elongated. The tail of twelve rectrices
is usually moderate and square; though very short in the Cotinginae, long
in _Tijuca_, deeply forked in _Phibalura_, and nearly hidden by its coverts
in _Cotinga amabilis_. Bristles surround the gape in the Lipauginae and
Attilinae, but vary elsewhere; _Rupicola_ has a large compressed crest,
_Cephalopterus_ (Fig. 103), one like an umbrella, _Phoenicocercus_,
_Doliornis_, _Heliochera_, _Calyptura_, and _Phibalura_ moderate tufts.
Wattles and naked areas occur in _Chasmorhynchus_ and _Cephalopterus_; some
species of _Tityra_ have the lores and orbits bare; _Gymnoderus_ has the
sides of the head and the whole neck, _Gymnocephalus_ the entire head
unfeathered.

The plumage is ordinarily plain rufous, green, or grey; the females being
nearly always dull, though many of the males are very brilliant. Among
these _Tityra_ exhibits black and white hues, _Hadrostomus_ is chiefly grey
or black, with a rosy band below in three cases, _Pachyrhamphus_ is green,
black, yellow, rufous, or grey, sometimes varied with white. _Lathria
streptophora_ has a pink collar, _Aulia_ irregular black spots below.
_Phoenicocercus carnifex_ is dark brown, with scarlet crown, rump, most of
the tail and under parts; _Rupicola crocea_, the well-known Cock of the
Rock, is bright orange, with brown and white wings and partly blackish
rectrices; _Phibalura flavirostris_ is black and yellow with concealed
scarlet crest; _Tijuca_ is black, with yellow on the wing; _Ampelion_ is
green, relieved by brown, black, and yellow; _Pipreola_ is green, with
black, scarlet, yellow, or orange markings on the throat or breast;
_Cotinga_ exhibits splendid blue and purple tints; _Xipholena pompadora_
has an unusual reddish-purple hue, coupled with almost white wings.
_Carpodectes_ is snowy white, with leaden-coloured or yellow bill;
_Heliochera_ has black, grey, white, or yellow coloration, with a chestnut
crest; _Iodopleura_ shews a lilac tuft on each side of the breast; and
_Calyptura_ {481}is chiefly greenish-yellow, with a scarlet, black-edged
crest. Of the peculiar Gymnoderinae, _Haematoderus_, which has elongated
head-, neck-, rump-, and breast-feathers, is crimson with brown wings and
tail, the female having brown on the back; _Querula_ is dull black with a
red collar of lengthened plumes; _Pyroderus_ is black with crimson throat
and fore-neck. _Cephalopterus ornatus_, the Umbrella-bird, is entirely
black, with a huge expanded umbrella-like crest of bare-shafted incurved
feathers, and a long flattened and feathered gular wattle; _C. penduliger_
has this appendage extraordinarily long and cylindrical; _C. glabricollis_
a bare orange throat with a terminal tuft on the red outgrowth.
_Chasmorhynchus niveus_ is white, with a spiral erectile process on the
forehead, thinly covered with white feathers: _C. nudicollis_ has the
cheeks and throat naked and bristly, but lacks the excrescence; _C.
variegatus_ is white, with a brown head, black wings, and bare papillose
throat; _C. tricarunculatus_ is chestnut, with a white head bearing three
caruncles, on the forehead and at the gape. In this genus the females are
green above and chiefly yellow below. The bill may be orange or red in the
Family, while _Gymnoderus_ alone has large white powder-down patches on the
flanks.

[Illustration: FIG. 103.–Umbrella-bird. _Cephalopterus ornatus._ × ⅕.]

{482}[Illustration: FIG. 104.–Bell-bird. _Chasmorhynchus niveus._ × 2/7.
(From _Waterton's Wanderings_.)]

The habits of these woodland birds are comparatively little known, but most
of them frequent high trees, though some prefer low bushes; such forms as
_Lipaugus_ and _Heteropelma_ haunt dense forests, _Pipreola_ and
_Phibalura_ more open situations, while small flocks often occur at
considerable elevations, _Heliochera_ reaching ten thousand feet.
_Cephalopterus ornatus_ loves islands in rivers, _Chasmorhynchus_ and
_Xenopsaris_ marshy glades or even sedge-growth. The flight, usually of
short duration, is heavy and noisy in _Pipreola_ and elsewhere,
Swallow-like in _Phibalura_; insects are often captured on the wing, and
not only these but spiders, molluscs, and even lizards, are occasionally
sought upon the ground. Berries, seeds, and the like, however, constitute
the chief food. _Cephalopterus_ and _Hadrostomus_, at least occasionally,
beat their prey upon a branch before swallowing it. The members of this
Family are usually somewhat shy and dull, but the males of _Rupicola_ were
observed by Schomburgk to dance in turn with outspread wings before an
assembled flock, strutting and parading with frequent leaps. This bird is
credited with a voice like a monkey; _Chasmorhynchus niveus_ is termed
Campanero or Bell-bird from its clear, bell-like note, uttered with the
caruncle erected, while its congeners have also ringing cries;
_Cephalopterus_ gives vent to long deep "lowings" at sunrise and sunset.
_Tityra semifasciata_ utters frog-like sounds, _Pachyrhamphus_ a loud
whistle, and other species notes resembling those of Tanagers, Tyrants, or
Wrens. _Rupicola_ fastens a nest of mud, surmounted by twigs and lined with
moss, to projections of rocks {483}in damp, sunless caves, laying two buff
eggs with reddish-brown and lilac spots; _Pyroderus orenocensis_ deposits
similar eggs on platforms of sticks placed in tree-forks; _Tityra
semifasciata_ lines holes in decayed limbs with dry grass to receive its
white eggs; _Hadrostomus niger_, _H. homochrous_, and some species of
_Pachyrhamphus_, hang big nests of such materials as leaves, plant-stalks
and wool, with side entrances, from low branches; the two to four eggs,
where known, being chocolate, faintly marked or unspotted; _Phibalura_
fixes a cup of lichens in the crotch of a large tree, laying twice annually
two greenish-blue eggs with neutral markings; _Cephalopterus_ is said to
make a rough nest of sticks; and _Pipreola riefferi_ to deposit pale
salmon-coloured eggs, sparingly spotted with reddish-brown.

Fam. VIII. PHYTOTOMIDAE.–The Plant-cutters constitute a single genus
_Phytotoma_, of four Finch-like species, having strongly serrated bills and
pycnaspidean (p. 479) metatarsi. The primaries number ten, the secondaries
nine, the rectrices twelve. _P. rara_ of Chili is brown and black, with red
crown and lower surface, white margins to the wing-coverts, and red-banded
lateral tail-feathers; the female has yellowish-brown under parts streaked
with black, and a brown crown. _P. raimondii_ of North-West Peru is
somewhat like, but has only a narrow red frontlet; _P. angustirostris_ of
Bolivia is greyer, with white on the secondaries and tail, and a browner
breast; the hen being chiefly greyish, with black striations above and
spots below; _P. rutila_ of Argentina and North Patagonia is very similar.
Flocks or pairs of Plant-eaters are found in dry open situations, the
former often consisting solely of the comparatively unsuspicious males;
they sit aloft on bushes, but hide when alarmed. The flight is whirring
with sudden short undulations; the food consists of seeds and other fruits,
tender shoots, buds and leaves; while the voice is decidedly harsh, the
alarm-note of the male resembles the bleating of a kid, and the female's
cry is cricket-like. The slight, shallow nest of twigs and fibres is placed
in thick bushes, and contains four bluish-green eggs, flecked with brown.
The birds are said to cut plants off close to the ground without apparent
object.

The four Families that follow are often classed as _Tracheophonae_, and
have loud voices owing to their tracheal syrinx (p. 22).

Fam. IX. DENDROCOLAPTIDAE.–This group, with over 200 species, occupies the
Neotropical Region, excluding the Antilles, {484}and is divided by Mr.
Sclater[272] into the Sub-families _Furnariinae_, _Synallaxinae_,
_Philydorinae_, _Sclerurinae_, and _Dendrocolaptinae_.

The extremely variable bill is short and straight in _Geobates_ and
_Henicornis_, Warbler-like in the Synallaxinae, stouter and Shrike-like in
the Philydorinae, extremely strong in _Hylexetastes_, short and incurved in
_Xenerpestes_ and _Phacellodomus_, short with upturned genys in
_Glyphorhynchus_, _Xenops_, and _Pygarrhicus_, very long, thin, and
decurved in _Xiphorhynchus_, very long, but only slightly curved in
_Nasica_, and so forth. It is much hooked in _Ancistrops_. The
endaspidean[273] metatarsus may be long and slender, as in
_Sylviorthorhynchus_; stronger, as in the terrestrial Furnariinae and
Sclerurinae; or shorter, as in the scansorial Dendrocolaptinae, which
usually have large toes and sharp claws. The scales are almost obsolete in
_Furnarius_ and _Lochmias_; the outer and middle toes are partially
connected in the Sclerurinae and Dendrocolaptinae. The wings, which have
ten primaries and about nine secondaries, are long in _Pseudocolaptes_,
moderate in _Xenerpestes_, short and rounded in _Lochmias_, and frequently
decidedly abbreviated. The variable tail, normally of twelve rectrices, is
often graduated; the shafts of the quills are stiffened and spiny in the
Sclerurinae and Dendrocolaptinae, the latter of which climb and feed in
Woodpecker fashion; in the Synallaxinae it is generally long, with pointed
but comparatively soft feathers; in the Philydorinae it is short,
_Anumbius_ having particularly sharp rhachides. It is also short, though
rounded, in _Xenerpestes_, _Coryphistera_, and _Limnophyes_, similar but
longer in _Clibanornis_, while it has the shafts projecting beyond the
vanes in _Homorus_, _Oxyurus_, and _Sittosomus_. _Schizoeaca_ and
_Synallaxis_ have only ten rectrices, and _Sylviorthorhynchus_ apparently
possesses but six, the outer being very short and the inner excessively
long with narrow decomposed webs. _Limnornis_, at least, has the tongue
bristly towards the end.

The coloration is chiefly brown of various shades, often with the tail
chestnut–or, rarely, the body, as in _Homorus_; spots, striations, or
cross-bars, of white, fulvous, or black occur frequently, and _Margarornis_
has pearl-like markings below. The rump or under parts may be white, and
the throat occasionally exhibits a black, rufous or yellow patch, or the
breast a chestnut band; while black, rusty, brown, or grey caps are not
uncommon, that of {485}_Siptornis albiceps_ being white. The bill may be
red, or exceptionally the feet white, as in _Furnarius leucopus_. Crests
are found in _F. cristatus_, _Synallaxis semicinerea_, _Coryphistera_, and
_Homorus_. The sexes, as far as known, are similar. The large _Drymornis
bridgesi_ is over a foot long, but many forms are not half that size, and
most are comparatively small.

[Illustration: FIG. 105.–Nest of Oven-bird (_Furnarius_). × ⅕.]

The habits are extremely diverse. _Geositta cunicularia_ flits along low
and swiftly, like a Wheatear, with the tail in motion, or crouches and runs
before the pedestrian, uttering a note resembling piti-piti, varied by a
ringing trill. It frequents bare spots, and bores oblique tunnels in
biscacha burrows, sandy banks, or mud walls, ending in cavities lined with
soft grasses, where it lays five white eggs. The food consists of seeds,
insects, and their larvae, the bill being commonly used to dig. _Lochmias
nematura_ fills a similar hole with a large-domed nest of twigs and roots,
lined with leaves, which contains two white eggs. The Oven-birds
(_Furnarius_) run or hop unconcernedly among the wayfarers with the head
thrown back, or pause with one foot uplifted; they utter incessant and
loud, but not unmelodious, cries with the beak outstretched, which are even
heard at night.[274] Worms, {486}insects and their larvae are sought upon
the ground, and both sexes incubate, the pairs keeping together throughout
the year. The curious nest (Fig. 105) is placed in exposed situations on
branches, in forks of trees or shrubs, on posts, rocks, or house-roofs; it
has thick walls, almost unbreakable when dry, of clayey mud and dung mixed
with a little hair or dry grass, a lining of the same materials underlying
the three to five white eggs. This massive structure has an inner chamber
with an outer passage running partly round it, and is generally the work of
several months, the materials being only procurable in damp weather. The
above refers at least to _Furnarius cinnamomeus_, _F. minor_, and _F.
rufus_ (the "Hornero" or Baker); but White[275] states that _F. figulus_
builds a stick nest, and E. Bartlett[276] that _F. torridus_ deposits four
creamy white eggs on twigs and bents in holes in banks. _Upucerthia_,
resembling _Geositta_ in general habits, ranges to an altitude of nine
thousand feet. The lively _Cinclodes_ recalls both the Wheatear and the
Dipper, as it runs with upturned tail from stone to stone, takes short, low
flights, or hunts for crustaceans, molluscs, and insects in the water,
equally happy on the streams of the Andes, or the desolate lake-sides of
Patagonia. The note is a sharp trill, while three white eggs are laid on a
bed of grass and fur in holes. _Sclerurus_ frequents damp forests,
scratching among the leaves, and crouching, when startled, on some trunk.
_Phloeocryptes_ flies weakly, but hops actively about reed-beds in pursuit
of flies, uttering reiterated grating notes; it attaches its Wren-like nest
of grass or rushes and mud, lined with feathers, moss and hair, to a few of
the reed-stems, and builds a projection over the entrance. The two or three
oval eggs are glossy blue. The shrill-voiced _Leptasthenura_ clings to the
branches in search of insects like a Tit, and lays from three to six
pointed white eggs on soft materials in holes in trees, sometimes utilizing
nests of _Furnarius rufus_, _Siptornis sordida_, and other species.
_Synallaxis_, usually seen in pairs searching for food upon the bushes, has
a persistent harsh double call or a cat-like cry; it forms a loose, oval
structure, which would fill an ordinary wheel-barrow, of thorny sticks and
twigs in forks of trees, lining it with hair, feathers, woolly leaves,and
the like, and often capping it with more leaves. This generally possesses a
lower chamber connected by a vertical or horizontal passage with the
entrance, itself protected by a tubular fabric; while more than {487}one
nest is often found in the same tree. The three or four eggs are pale
greenish-blue or whitish. _Siptornis sordida_ appears to have similar
habits, but several of its congeners run like mice; or conceal themselves
in herbage or holes, the marsh-loving species uttering very whirring notes.
_S. sulphurifera_ fabricates a domed nest of grass among rushes, and lays
two white eggs; that of _S. maluroïdes_ is open, and lined with feathers
and wool, though the site is similar; that of _S. striaticeps_ resembles
the last-mentioned, but is placed in a tree-fork and contains four or five
white eggs. _S. hudsoni_ arches the grass over a hollow in the ground in
open spots, and deposits five pale buff eggs on a little powdered dung; its
flight is Pipit-like, and its cry melancholy. _Phacellodomus_, usually
found in hot dry valleys, is sluggish, and has a shrill, harsh voice; the
nest, containing four white eggs, being hung from the end of a branch, and
recalling that of _Synallaxis_. _Xenops_, _Sittosomus_, _Picolaptes_,
_Xiphorhynchus_, _Pseudocolaptes_, and many other forms are denizens of
damp forests, and run up the tree-trunks spirally like Creepers, searching
for prey and tapping the bark as Woodpeckers do; the cries are plaintive or
noisy, and the white eggs, apparently two in number, are laid in holes.
Large insects are sometimes battered upon the branches. _Anumbius
acuticaudus_, the "Thorn-bird" or "Firewood Gatherer," makes a bulky nest
some two feet high of thorny sticks, and places it in isolated trees. From
an entrance near the top a spiral or zigzag passage leads to a lower cavity
lined with grass, hair, feathers, and wool, where five pointed white eggs
are deposited; while sometimes an upper roosting chamber is added. This
bird utters ticking chirps or trills, and feeds mainly upon the ground,
regaining the branches with difficulty. _Homorus lophotes_, the
"Cachalote," with its strikingly white eyes and blue beak, haunts plains
with scattered trees or bushes, being decidedly shy and quick of foot,
though weak of flight; it eats insects, and turns up the earth with its
bill or claws. Rasping cries are often emitted in concert; while the
nest–even larger than that of _Anumbius_–is a loose mass of similar
structure, placed on some low branch or in a bush, the three or four white
eggs occasionally shewing through the bottom. _Drymornis_, again, has
Woodpecker-like habits, whereas _Limnornis_ and _Limnophyes_ creep about
dense reed-beds, and only appear now and then to utter jarring or
chattering sounds.

{488}Fam. X. FORMICARIIDAE.–The so-called "Ant-birds"–not known to live on
ants–are plentiful in the forests of northern South America, whence the
numbers decrease to Central America, Chili and Argentina. Of the two
hundred or more species none inhabit the Antilles, but three occur in
Trinidad and one in Tobago. Mr. Sclater[277] allows as provisional
Sub-families the strong _Thamnophilinae_, the weaker _Formicariinae_, and
the long-legged _Grallariinae_.

The beak is strong, compressed, hooked, and terminally toothed in the
Thamnophilinae, being exaggerated in _Batara_, large and swollen in
_Cymbilanius_, and exceptionally hooked in the former genus and
_Pygoptila_; _Cymbilanius_, _Neoctantes_, and _Clytoctantes_ have the genys
upturned. In the Formicariinae the bill is weaker and but slightly hooked,
being very long and thin in _Rhamphocaenus_; in the Grallariinae it is
usually elevated and compressed, though broad in _Pittasoma_. The
taxaspidean metatarsus (p. 471) is moderate or short in the Thamnophilinae,
and remarkably long in the Grallariinae, where it may be very strong, as in
_Pittasoma_; among the Formicariinae it is short and thick in _Rhopoterpe_
and _Formicivora_, long and thin in _Psilorhamphus_ and _Formicarius_, and
so forth. In _Phlogopsis_, _Psilorhamphus_, _Rhamphocaenus_,
_Heterocnemis_, _Myrmeciza_, _Hypocnemis_, _Pithys_, and _Gymnopithys_ the
scutes are nearly fused. The outer and middle toes are joined towards the
base. The wings, which have ten primaries and nine secondaries, are
normally short and rounded, though longer in _Rhopoterpe_; the tail is
commonly long and broad in the Thamnophilinae, varies greatly in the
Formicariinae, and is very short and square in the Grallariinae. It may be
rounded or graduated in the first two Sub-families, and _Terenura_ has it
remarkably thin; _Cercomacra_, _Formicivora caudata_, and _F. ferruginea_
have only ten rectrices in place of the usual twelve. _Thamnomanes_ has
well-developed rictal bristles, _Rhamphocaenus_ has the nostrils in a
groove and partly covered by a membrane.

The sexes are similar, and mainly reddish-brown, in _Rhamphocaenus_,
_Phlogopsis_, and the Grallariinae; but generally the males are black and
white, black, grey and brown, or uniform black; and the females
ferruginous, more or less relieved by black and white. Cross-bars, spots,
and striations are not uncommon, the white often shewing as a band on the
tail, an edging to the wing-coverts, or exceptionally, as in _Pygoptila
margaritata_, as {489}round spots on both wing and tail; while the
yellowish lower parts of _Myrmotherula pygmaea_, _Herpsilochmus
rufimarginatus_ and three species of _Terenura_ exhibit the brightest tints
found in the Family. Black or dark-hued caps are not infrequent; crests
occur in _Batara_, _Pithys_, and many members of _Thamnophilus_; the
rump-feathers are often dense and elongated, as in _Thamnistes_,
_Pygoptila_, _Chamaeza_, _Cercomacra_, and _Thamnomanes_; those of the
flanks are much developed in _Thamnocharis_; those of the lores are short
and erect in _Pyriglena_. Bare red or bluish orbits are found occasionally;
_Gymnocichla_ has most of the head naked and blue; and the irides may be
red, white, or brown. _Batara_ is quite fourteen inches long, _Myrmotherula
pygmaea_ about three.

The usually shy and retiring Formicariidae either skulk among dense
undergrowth in hot tropical forests, or frequent more cultivated districts;
they creep about silently, singly or in pairs, seeking spiders, insects and
their larvae, on the twigs and foliage of trees, or on parasitical plants
or grasses; while they habitually keep near the ground, though sometimes
joining flocks of other birds in their higher flights. Many carefully
search the lower surface of the leaves for food with the head downwards,
and occasionally eat seeds. The Grallariinae appear to be entirely, and the
Formicariinae to a great extent terrestrial, hops being the characteristic
mode of progress; the tail is commonly carried erect or in motion, as in
the case of _Formicarius_, and is often much abraded by the thorny
thickets. _Thamnophilus albinuchalis_ and some other species choose dry
situations, but generally the vicinity of water is preferred. The ordinary
note in the Family is deep and powerful, and is said to have the effect of
ventriloquism; it consists of monotonously repeated sounds, like ke-ke-ke
or ko-ko-ko, varied by more rasping tones or trills. The nest, a slight
shallow structure, generally hung from the lower twigs of a tree or bush,
is composed of straws, fibres, roots, and hair, or occasionally of leaves,
moss, and wool; it contains two or three white, bluish, or rufous-brown
eggs, usually spotted, streaked, or zigzagged with red-brown, but more
rarely with grey.

Fam. XI. CONOPOPHAGIDAE.–These curious birds, and their equally remarkable
allies the _Pteroptochidae_, differ from all other Passeres in having two
incisions posteriorly on each side of the sternum. The _Conopophagidae_,
extending from Colombia to Bolivia and Brazil, include the genus
_Conopophaga_, and probably {490}_Corythopis_. The head is large, the bill
depressed in the first-named, longer and more compressed in the last; the
exaspidean metatarsus (p. 473) is thick and long in the one, with broad
curved hind-claw, but is thinner, with straighter and weaker hallux, in the
other. The outer and middle toes are basally connected. The wings are
moderate and rounded, as in the next Family; the tail is very short in
_Conopophaga_, which has long, lax rump-feathers. The general coloration is
brown, with a white mark behind the eye in the last-named genus; the head
may be black, or chestnut with black sides; the throat black; the breast
banded with chestnut, black or grey; or the central abdomen white.
_Corythopis_ has black striations below.

Fam. XII. PTEROPTOCHIDAE.–This group ranges from Costa Rica to Patagonia,
occurring up to an altitude of nine or ten thousand feet. The bill is
comparatively long and thin in _Scytalopus_ and _Merulaxis_, stronger in
_Liosceles_, _Pteroptochus_, _Hylactes_, and _Rhinocrypta_, being much
arched in the last-named; the culmen expands into a peculiar oval plate in
_Acropternis_ and _Triptorhinus_; while a membrane partially covers the
nostrils. The taxaspidean metatarsus (p. 471) is generally elongated and
strong, with long claws, the hallux being long and incurved in _Hylactes_,
and similar but straighter in _Acropternis_; the whole foot is shorter in
_Rhinocrypta_, more slender in _Pteroptochus_, while the scutes are fused
in front in _Liosceles_. The short, rounded wings have ten primaries and
eight secondaries; the tail varies in length, and may be graduated, as in
_Merulaxis_ and _Acropternis_, or short and more even, as in
_Triptorhinus_. _Hylactes_ has fourteen rectrices in place of twelve. The
colour is blackish, dark grey, or brown, often barred or scalloped with
black; the crown, rump, breast, or belly are at times chestnut or rufous,
the lower parts varied with white, or even banded with orange. _Merulaxis_
has long, stiff loral plumes, _Rhinocrypta lanceolata_ a crest, and several
forms elongated rump-feathers. In _Acropternis_ the back and abdomen are
ocellated with white. The sexes are nearly similar.

These peculiar birds are commonly shy and retiring, hopping actively about
with erect tails, or running like mice, but rarely flying, except between
the boughs and the ground. They are decidedly difficult of observation,
though they follow up the pedestrian under cover, betraying their position
by their scolding cries. Many species, such as _Hylactes tarnii_, the
"Guid-guid," _Pteroptochus rubecula_, the "Cheu-can," and _Triptorhinus
paradoxus_, the {491}"Cheu-gui," inhabit damp, gloomy forests; others often
frequent dry plains, or stony and bushy hill-sides, as _H. megapodius_, "El
Turco," and _P. albicollis_, the "Tapaculo"; while _Scytalopus
magellanicus_ prefers thick woods, but also haunts grass-lands in the
Falkland Islands. _Rhinocrypta lanceolata_, the "Gallito," or Little Cock,
lives in thickets and hedges, and struts in the open like a Fowl. The food,
chiefly obtained upon the ground, consists of insects, seeds, and buds. The
noisy and generally harsh notes vary considerably, _Hylactes tarnii_
yelping like a dog, _Pteroptochus albicollis_ sometimes uttering a sound
like a coo, _Triptorhinus paradoxus_ a reiterated frog-like croak,
_Rhinocrypta lanceolata_ a hollow chirrup or a scolding cry. The nest,
commonly situated near the ground, is said in some cases to be made of
sticks; _Rhinocrypta_ forms a domed structure of grass in a bush, and lays
four eggs; _Scytalopus magellanicus_ is recorded as using a mass of moss
upon a bank to contain its set of two; _Hylactes_ and _Pteroptochus_ are
reported to nest in burrows. The eggs are white, at least in the first
three.

2. PASSERES DIACROMYODAE.

C. _Suboscines._

This group contains only the two Families _Menuridae_ (Lyre-birds) and
_Atrichornithidae_ (Scrub-birds), each with one genus, _Menura_ and
_Atrichornis_ respectively. The former possesses three pairs of vocal
muscles, the latter only two pairs;[278] _Menura_, moreover, has a
peculiarly long sternum, constricted towards the middle, while
_Atrichornis_ has but rudimentary clavicles, being thus unique among the
Passerine forms.

Fam. I. MENURIDAE.–Lyre-birds have a stout bill; very long and powerful
metatarsi, with robust elongated straight claws; and somewhat short rounded
wings, with eleven primaries and ten secondaries. The tail has sixteen
rectrices, and in the males of two species has the exterior pair of
feathers curved like a lyre, with very narrow outer and very broad inner
webs; the next six pairs have very distant barbs and no barbules, except
towards the base; while the two median plumes have narrow inner and no
outer webs, and after crossing below, curve boldly outwards. The tongue is
sagittate, the furcula U-shaped, the after-shaft rudimentary; the adults
have no down. _M. superba_ of New South Wales and South Queensland, some
thirty-three inches long, is {492}dull brown, with a slaty tinge above, and
more rufous throat, wings, and tail-coverts; while the outer rectrices
exhibit regular notch-like transparent or blackish markings on the chestnut
inner webs, caused by the absence of barbules. The naked orbits are bluish
or lead-coloured. The female has a long, broad, normal tail, the median
feathers exceeding the rest. _M. victoriae_, of Victoria, is darker, with
more boldly marked outer rectrices. _M. alberti_, of Queensland, and the
Richmond and Clarence River districts of New South Wales, is redder above,
and has the tail less lyrate, the outer feathers being shorter, with no
transparent notches.

[Illustration: FIG. 106.–Lyre-Bird. _Menura superba._ × ⅒.]

{493}Lyre-birds haunt precipitous sandy gullies in thick forests with
tangled undergrowth, whether inland or near the coast; and, though able to
fly, live chiefly upon the ground, whence they leap, when scared, to
branches even ten feet high. They run with the tail horizontal, and scratch
among fallen leaves for insects–especially coleoptera–myriapods, worms, and
molluscs; the solitary individuals or pairs which are usually observed
being particularly shy. Each cock has a walk or playground, and scrapes
little hillocks or hollows for dancing places, where he struts or
pirouettes with erect tail and drooping wings, scratching, pecking, and
singing at intervals. Apparently, however, he is not polygamous. The normal
cry is a loud, liquid, gurgling sound; but the Pheasants, as the Colonists
term them, are clever mockers, imitating a cock's crow, a hen's cackle, a
dog's bark or howl, the Laughing Jackass's note, or even the setting of a
saw. The tail-feathers are said to be shed after breeding, and to be fully
developed only by the fourth year, when males begin to sing. The oval,
domed nests, placed on ledges of cliffs, on tops of old stumps, in forks of
trees, or by fallen logs, are loose bulky masses of sticks, bark, grass,
leaves, ferns, and moss, lined with roots and the bird's feathers. The one
large egg has a stone-grey, brown, or dark purple ground-colour, blotched,
dotted, and streaked with purplish or blackish-brown. The chicks are said
to be covered with black down in _M. victoriae_, white in _M. alberti_, and
brownish in _M. superba_; and to remain six weeks in the nest. The hen sits
with her tail curled sideways or forwards. The flesh is dark, tough, and
unpalatable.

Fam. II. ATRICHORNITHIDAE.–_Atrichornis_ has a large bill; moderate
scutellated metatarsi; extremely short wings with eleven primaries, the
outer of which is very small, and some eight secondaries; and a long,
broad, graduated tail with twelve rectrices. The tongue is sagittate, the
aftershaft rudimentary, and no down is present on adults. _A. clamosa_ of
Western Australia, about eight and a half inches in length, is brown above,
barred with dusky, and reddish-white below, with a black pectoral patch;
_A. rufescens_ of New South Wales has the lower parts like the upper. The
females appear to be unknown. These very shy birds haunt dense scrub, or
grassy and bushy tracts, being very difficult of observation; they mimic
the notes of other species cleverly, and also utter a peculiar noisy cry.
They scratch in the ground, probably for insect-food.

{494}D. _Oscines._

Of this group, or the true singing birds, the anatomy is even less worked
out than that of the _Suboscines_, and consequently the relationships are
in many cases extremely doubtful. The _Hirundinidae_ stand distinctly
apart, with no other Families near them, though some similarity of habits,
and possibly of structure, may be recognised in certain _Muscicapidae_
(especially if _Artamus_ be included among them), and to a less extent in a
few _Sturnidae_; yet almost as much resemblance may be perceived in some
_Tyrannidae_, which (not being Oscinine) can have no affinity to the
_Hirundinidae_. The likeness is therefore probably one of analogy only,
and, if so, of no taxonomic value. Here again it must be stated that the
_Oscines_ hardly attain more than the rank of a Family, and that in the
Passeriformes the Families have not the same value as in the foregoing
Orders.

The _Alaudidae_ are generally recognisable by the casing of their metatarsi
(p. 496), but in other respects they seem to shew an affinity to the
_Motacillidae_ (_Anthinae_) on the one hand, and to the _Fringillidae_ on
the other. The wing-characters, on which reliance was formerly placed,
prove to be wholly untrustworthy.

As to the rest of the "Families" of _Oscines_, it is impossible to indicate
their probable relations by placing them in sequence, or even at present to
group more than a few of them with any degree of assurance. Some have not
yet been defined at all, and few of them sufficiently for anyone to be
confident as to their limits. Thus in the _Muscicapidae_ hardly any two
systematic ornithologists will agree as to which genera should be included
and which excluded. If restricted to Old World forms, there is still no
defined boundary between them and the _Campephagidae_, while there is
perhaps even less distinction between them and the _Sylviidae_ (or
_Sylviinae_, if these last be included among the _Turdidae_). Moreover, by
some taxonomers the _Mniotiltidae_ have been referred to the
_Muscicapidae_, and though there is an obvious distinction between them in
the number of the primaries, the instance of the _Alaudidae_ (already
mentioned) shews that this may be of very slight importance.

Some other "Families" may perhaps be grouped with less risk of error. The
_Troglodytidae_, _Certhiidae_, _Sittidae_ and _Paridae_ are possibly such;
but the limits of the last-named are {495}certainly not laid down, and it
would be hard to give a good reason either for admitting or refusing to
admit into it genera like _Liothrix_ or _Chamaea_, while the puzzle is
still greater in regard to some forms from Australia and New Zealand.

The two latest writers on the subject, Dr. Gadow and Professor Newton,
abstain from offering any scheme of Classification of the _Oscines_, the
latter limiting himself to the declaration, already expressed by the late
W. K. Parker, that the Corvidae should stand as the highest group. As
regards their predecessors it will be enough here to enumerate the
"Families" in the order in which they were arranged by Dr. Stejneger[279]
in 1885, and Dr. Sharpe[280] in 1891; the scheme of the last author,
however, being reversed to harmonize with the plan of the present volume,
in which the lower groups are assigned priority. The _order_ of Dr.
Stejneger, which is based on both anatomy and morphology, is that
subsequently followed, but his Families are not invariably adhered to.

DR. STEJNEGER. DR SHARPE.
_Alaudidae._ _Hirundinidae._
_Motacillidae._ _Muscicapidae._
_[H]Enicuridae._ _Campophagidae._
_Timaliidae._ _Pycnonotidae._
_Leiotrichidae._ _Timeliidae._
_Muscicapidae._ _Mimidae._
_Turdidae._ _Troglodytidae._
_Cinclidae._ _Cinclidae._
_Troglodytidae._ _Turdidae._
_Chamaeidae?_ _Sylviidae._
_Mimidae?_ _Vireonidae._
_Hirundinidae._ _Ampelidae._
_Campephagidae._ _Artamidae._
_Dicruridae._ _Laniidae._
_Ampelidae._ _Regulidae._
_Artamidae?_ _Paridae._
_Laniidae._ _Zosteropidae._
_Vireonidae?_ _Dicaeidae._
_Paridae._ _Nectariniidae._
_Oriolidae._ _Meliphagidae._
_Paradiseidae._ _Certhiidae._
_Corvidae._ _Mniotiltidae._
_Sturnidae._ _Motacillidae._
_Meliphagidae._ _Alaudidae._
_Nectariniidae._ _Fringillidae._
_Dicaeidae._ _Coerebidae._
_Certhiidae._ _Tanagridae._ {496}
_Coerebidae._ _Ploceidae._
_Mniotiltidae._ _Icteridae._
_Tanagridae._ _Oriolidae._
_Ploceidae._ _Dicruridae._
_Icteridae._ _Eurycerotidae._
_Fringillidae._ _Eulabetidae._
_Sturnidae._
_Ptilonorhynchidae._
_Paradiseidae._
_Corvidae._

As regards structure, the _Oscines_ have one posterior incision or fenestra
on each side of the sternum; the furcula is U-shaped; the tongue is
variable, as is the syrinx (pp. 13, 21, 22, 467); the nostrils may be
pervious or impervious; an after-shaft is nearly always present, though
comparatively weak; down occurs sparingly on the blind young, and is
absent, or only found on the unfeathered spaces, in adults. The primaries
number ten or eleven; the secondaries nineteen, twenty, or even more; the
rectrices normally twelve. The form of the bill, wings, and tail are
discussed under the different Families; the metatarsus exceptionally is
smooth in front, but is ordinarily scutellated, while behind it is smooth
and generally compressed, except in the Alaudidae, which, having it
scutellated posteriorly, are termed scutelliplantar, as opposed to
laminiplantar (with one horny growth behind). The hallux is the strongest
toe.

Of fossil forms of Oscines, Osteornis (_Protornis_) of the Lower Eocene of
Glarus in Switzerland may be Passerine; _Palaegithalus_ (Sylviinae) and
_Laurillardia_ (Sturnidae) have been found in the French Upper Eocene;
_Palaeospiza_ (Fringillidae) in the Oligocene of Colorado; _Motacilla_,
_Turdus_, _Lanius_, _Corvus_, _Fringilla_, and _Loxia_ in the French
Miocene or in the Breccia of Italy; _Scolephagus_ and _Corvus_ in the
Pliocene of Oregon; _Palaeocorax_ in the Chatham Islands; an extinct
_Foudia_ (Fringillidae) in Réunion.

Fam. I. ALAUDIDAE.–The Larks inhabit the Palaearctic, Indian, and Ethiopian
Regions, only one genus (_Otocorys_), with many races, being found in
America, and one (_Mirafra_) in the Australian Region. Of the former, _O.
peregrina_, occurs as far south as Bogota, while the latter is found in
Australia and Flores. _M. hova_ is peculiar to Madagascar, _M. javanica_ to
Borneo and Java, _Spizilauda_ deva to India. _Alauda arvensis_, the
Sky-Lark, and _Lullula arborea_, the Wood-Lark, alone breed in Britain: but
_Otocorys alpestris_, the Shore-Lark, is a regular winter-visitor {497}to
our shores; while _Galerita cristata_, the Crested Lark, _Calandrella
brachydactyla_, the Short-toed Lark, and _Melanocorypha sibirica_, the
White-winged Lark, occur occasionally. The Sky-Lark has been introduced
into Long Island, N.Y., Australia, and New Zealand.

[Illustration: FIG. 107.–Sky-Lark. _Alauda arvensis._ × ½.]

The bill is long and curved in _Certhilauda_ and _Alaemon_, shorter and
slender in _Alauda_, similar but more robust in _Galerita_, abbreviated and
conical in _Calandrella_, _Pyrrhulauda_, and _Melanocorypha_, and
extraordinarily stout in _Rhamphocorys_, with a gap between the maxilla and
mandible. The metatarsus is elongated, and may be more slender as in
_Certhilauda_, or stouter as in _Galerita_ and _Melanocorypha_; the
hind-claw is generally much lengthened and straight, but may be short and
curved, as in _Calandrella_, _Pyrrhulauda_, and _Alaemon_. The wing varies
much in length, many forms having the outer primary almost aborted, though
in _Mirafra_ and elsewhere it is of fair size; the inner secondaries are
nearly as long as the primaries in _Calandrella_. The tail is moderate or
short, and may be rounded, nearly square, or emarginate. The normal
coloration is light-brown with darker longitudinal streaks, the under parts
being whitish and frequently spotted anteriorly; desert forms, however,
often have uniform pale buff or rufous plumage–for example, _Galerita
isabellina_ and _Ammomanes_. _Melanocorypha yeltoniensis_ is nearly black
in the male; others of the same genus have a black gorget; the
black-cheeked _Rhamphocorys_, _Alaemon alaudipes_ and _Melanocorypha
sibirica_ exhibit white wing-patches; while _Otocorys_ has a projecting
black tuft on each side of the occiput, black cheeks, lores, and bands on
the crown and breast, the {498}rest of the face and throat, or even the
lower parts, being yellowish. _Tephrocorys cinerea_ and _Mirafra apiata_
have a rufous crown and breast respectively. _Pyrrhulauda_ is chiefly black
below, and varies above from grey to chestnut, relieved by black and white.
Ordinarily the sexes in Larks are similar. Crests are not uncommon.

_Certhilauda_, _Alaemon_, and _Ammomanes_ inhabit deserts or arid plains,
_Alaudula raytal_ frequents sandy islets, and _Otocorys_ often selects
uplands; but most forms only require open country, being chiefly
ground-birds and seldom found near woods. _Lullula_, however, loves heaths
and the outskirts of copses, and _Mirafra_ bushy spots. Larks often flock
together, and are not usually shy, since they will even enter villages; the
desert species are particularly quick runners, while the flight is
exceptionally weak in _Ammomanes_, _Calandrella_, and some others, though
as a rule sufficiently strong. Perching is not an uncommon habit, _Lullula_
and _Mirafra_ habitually settle on trees or tall bushes, and several forms
squat to avoid detection. In general dusting takes the place of washing.
The food consists of insects and their larvae, seeds, worms, small
molluscs, crustaceans, or even berries. Most Larks soar while uttering
their pleasing trills, and plaintive calls are often heard; _Lullula_ has a
more flute-like song, _Pyrrhulauda_ utters a shrill chirp. _Galerita
cristata_ and _Melanocorypha calandra_ imitate other birds successfully
when caged. The cup-shaped nest of bents, lined with finer grasses, fibres,
or hair, is placed in herbage or in some depression in the soil–wool,
cotton, rags, or even sticks being exceptionally added; but two or three
species of _Mirafra_ build a domed structure, occasionally placed on bare
rocks or roofs of houses. The eggs are generally whitish, closely spotted
or zoned with purplish-grey or brown; some specimens, however, are thickly
freckled with yellowish or marked with reddish. The number varies from two
in _Pyrrhulauda_, and about three in _Ammomanes_, to five, six, or even
seven. Both sexes incubate in some cases, while two or more broods are
often reared in the season. Thousands of Sky-Larks are netted annually for
the table.

Fam. II. MOTACILLIDAE.–This group comprises the Sub-families
_Motacillinae_, or Wagtails, and _Anthinae_ or Pipits. The bill is thin and
more or less elongated, with a slight notch, the culmen being decidedly
curved in _Oreocorys_. The metatarsus is very long in Wagtails, variable
but shorter in Pipits; it is usually slender, with the hind claw well
developed and slightly {499}curved; though it is stout, with very long
hallux, in _Macronyx_, _Xanthocorys_, and _Neocorys_. The wing is commonly
elongated and pointed, with the inner secondaries reaching nearly to the
end of the primaries, but it is shorter and more rounded in some species of
_Anthus_. The tail is very long in Wagtails, but moderate in Pipits, being
generally somewhat emarginate.

Wagtails range over the Old World, but are lacking in Australia and
Polynesia; two species extend to the extreme north-west of America, one is
accidental in Greenland, and one is restricted to Madagascar. Pipits are
almost cosmopolitan, though not found in Polynesia; only two forms,
however, inhabit North America, while one is peculiar to New Zealand, and
another to Australia; _Anthus bogotensis_ is exclusively Andean, _A.
antarcticus_ occurs in South Georgia, _A. bertheloti_ occupies Madeira and
the Canaries.

[Illustration: FIG. 108.–Yellow Wagtail. _Motacilla raii._ × ⅜. (From
_Natural History of Selborne_.)]

Wagtails are generally black and white, grey and white, grey with yellow
breast (or even head), greenish with yellow lower {500}parts and greyish or
black heads, or almost entirely yellowish. Most Pipits are brown above,
with dark streaks, and light edges to the feathers, and are buff, whitish,
or rufous below, with triangular brown spots. The outer rectrices are
usually more or less white, as are sometimes part of the others.
_Limonidromus_, however, is an olive-brown Wagtail with two black
crescentic marks below, _Anthus chloris_ a Pipit with a yellow patch on the
breast. _A. rosaceus_ has yellow axillaries; _A. tenellus_, has the wings,
tail, cheeks, and under surface chiefly yellow, with a black pectoral band.
The curious genus _Macronyx_, to its mainly brown coloration adds orange,
yellow, or pink lower parts with a black gorget, while it shews a
marvellous resemblance in other respects to _Sturnella_ (p. 580)–_M.
crocea_ to _S. magna_, _M. ameliae_ to _S. defilippii_. The bill and feet
are usually black in Wagtails; the former is brown, with paler mandible and
yellowish gape in Pipits, where the feet are brown, yellowish, or reddish.
The females are duller, and in the Motacillinae the young are usually
browner.

Wagtails frequent streams and stagnant waters, as in the case of the Pied,
White, and Grey Wagtails, _Motacilla lugubris_, _M. alba_, and _M.
melanope_; or they haunt fields of corn and meadows, as in the Blue-headed
and Yellow Wagtails, _M. flava_ and _M. raii_. All the above breed in
Britain, but the White and Blue-headed species rarely. The Grey and the
Yellow Wagtails both have yellow breasts, but the former has a grey, the
latter an olive, back.

Pipits prefer open places with rough herbage, as for instance the
Meadow-Pipit, _Anthus pratensis_; rocky shores, as the Rock-Pipit, _A.
obscurus_; or open parts of woods and banks, as the Tree-Pipit, _A.
trivialis_. These nest commonly with us, while the Red-throated Pipit, _A.
cervinus_, the Tawny Pipit, _A. campestris_, Richard's Pipit, _A.
richardi_, and the Water-Pipit, _A. spipoletta_, visit us occasionally.
Flocks are rarely seen, but a few individuals often congregate on the
sea-beaches in winter; the flight is easy, though jerky, and not
protracted; that of Wagtails being distinctly undulating. _Neocorys_ soars
like a Sky-Lark, and the Tree-Pipit in particular hovers above his perch
while singing. The songs of the last-named, and of _Motacilla vidua_ are
more Finch-like; that of _Neocorys_ Lark-like; those of other species
shrill, and less frequent than their repeated call- or alarm-note of
chit-chit (Pipits) or chis-sic (Wagtails). The food consists of seeds,
insects, worms, small molluscs and crustaceans, usually procured upon the
ground, {501}Wagtails hunting for flies round cattle, and being very
commonly seen wading. Pipits make their nests almost entirely of grass,
_Anthus correndera_ and _A. rufulus_ occasionally adding an overarching
cover; Wagtails use moss, grass, and roots, with a bedding of hair and
feathers. The four to six eggs are bluish white or brownish, with grey,
blackish, or brown spots in the Pied Wagtail and its similarly coloured
allies, yellowish-white with yellowish and greenish-brown markings in
others of the Sub-family; in Pipits they are commonly greyish or
yellowish-white with brown and grey mottlings, sometimes covering the whole
shell; while in the Tree-Pipit they vary from grey with dark brown spots
and streaks to reddish-white, with rich brown, claret-colour, or bright red
markings or close frecklings. A black line or two is a common feature
throughout the Family. Wagtails choose for nesting sites ledges of rocks,
crevices, holes in trees or walls, tops of pollarded willows, stony banks,
or–in the Yellow Wagtail group–hollows in the soil among herbage. Pipits
prefer the ground, or even spots shaded by trees, as in the Tree-Pipit.

Fam. III. HENICURIDAE.–The Fork-tails, a group of doubtful affinity,
generally placed near the Motacillidae, extend from the Himalayas and the
hills of South and West China to Burma and the Great Sunda Islands, one of
the species–some dozen in number–reaching Samarcand westwards. They are
black and white birds, with stout, straight, and usually elongated bills,
long, strong metatarsi without scutellation, moderate rounded wings,
extraordinarily long forked and graduated tails–except in _Henicurus
scouleri_, where the shape is square and the feathers short–and
well-developed rictal bristles. The outer pair of rectrices are white. _H.
ruficapilla_ has an orange-chestnut crown and hind neck, nearly the whole
back being chestnut in the female; that sex of _H. velatus_ has a brown
head; two species have the upper parts spotted with white, and two the back
slate-coloured. Several of them have crests. The bill is black, the feet
whitish. These active unsuspicious birds haunt forest-streams or
hill-torrents, and hunt for molluscs, insects and their larvae, near or in
the water. They often wag the tail when perched on stones or branches. The
large nest is formed of fibres, roots, and moss, and is placed on rocks or
tree-stumps; the three or four eggs are greenish-white, with scattered
brownish spots.

Fam. IV. TIMELIIDAE.–In this Old World assemblage are {502}included by Dr.
Sharpe[281] many genera rather referable to the Turdidae, Pycnonotidae,
Troglodytidae, and Paradiseidae; but the Family may be taken to contain
most of that author's _Crateropodes_ and _Timeliae_,[282] the Tit-like
_Liotriches_, and perhaps _Clitonyx_, _Chaetobias_, and _Myiophoneus_. The
whole question, however, is very doubtful, and no decision can yet be
arrived at. The supposed diagnostic points are the rounded wings curved to
fit the body, the lax, soft plumage, the comparatively large outer primary,
the similarity of the unspotted females and young, and the Thrush-like
bill. This bill, however, may be very strong and hooked, as in
_Myiophoneus_ and _Gampsorhynchus_; stout, deep, and wide, with festooned
maxilla, as in _Paradoxornis_; similar but smaller, as in _Chleuasicus_ and
_Suthora_; short and blunt, as in several of the _Liotriches_; extremely
elongated, slender and decurved, as in _Pomatorhinus_; or extraordinarily
so, as in _Xiphorhamphus_. It is not infrequently notched. The metatarsi
are typically strong or even clumsy, and vary considerably in length; in
_Liothrix_, however, they are slender; while _Cholornis_ has only two
anterior toes (p. 10). The tail, often broad and much graduated, may be
very long, as in _Sibia_, or no longer than the upper coverts, as in
_Oligura_; the rectrices being obliquely truncated in _Siva_, curved
outwardly in _Liothrix_, and frequently pointed or somewhat spiny.
Elongated rictal bristles are not uncommon; several species have crests,
that of _Grammatoptila_ being exceptionally large; rigid shafts occur in
the head- and mantle-feathers of _Acanthoptila_, on the forehead in
_Dumetia_, _Timelia_, and _Chaetops_; hair-like plumes decorate the back of
_Macronus_; the inner secondaries are much produced in _Cinclorhamphus_;
the cheeks are bare in _Aethocichla_.

The sexes are commonly alike, the plain rufous coloration being often
relieved by black, white, and grey; _Liothrix_ and _Clitonyx_, however,
shew tints of red or yellow; _Myiophoneus_ of purple, blue, and black, and
in some cases maroon; _Brachypteryx_ of indigo. _Hyperergus_ is partly
olive-green, while _Trochalopterum chrysopterum_ and _T. phoeniceum_
exhibit respectively golden and crimson hues, not to mention other
instances.

Many of the forms are found from the Indian Region to New Guinea, New
Caledonia, and New Britain, one reaching Fiji and two New Zealand; others
occur in the Ethiopian countries, whence a species of _Argya_ extends to
Morocco and Tripoli, and {503}a second to Arabia and the Jordan.
_Crossleyia_, _Bernieria_, _Mystacornis_, _Xanthomixis_ and _Oxylabes_ are
peculiar to Madagascar.

[Illustration: FIG. 109.–"Babbling Thrush." _Timelia maculata._ × 5/11.]

Most members of the Family inhabit woods near water with thick undergrowth,
or more rarely stony hills, scrubby gullies, and rocky torrents;
_Cinclorhamphus_ haunts grassy plains; _Crateropus kirki_ prefers reeds.
The majority are decidedly terrestrial, skulking warily among the bushes
and grass, either singly or in small companies, while some are inquisitive
and active. The flight is low, short, undulating, and laboured; but the
birds hop and climb well, bounding over the ground or clinging to the
trees. The Japanese and Chinese "Hill-Robin" (_Liothrix lutea_) and its
allies are more arboreal, as are _Paradoxornis_, _Suthora_, and so forth.
_Orthonyx_ is said to dance like a Lyre-bird (p. 493). Many species scratch
up the soil or dead leaves in search of insects and their larvae, which,
with seeds, constitute the chief food; fruit, however, or even small
reptiles, crabs, worms, and molluscs are occasionally eaten. The tail is
often carried erect; _Cinclosoma_ rises with a whirring noise;
_Cinclorhamphus_ hovers in the air. Several members of the Family are
comparatively silent, _Sittiparus_ and _Alcippe_ twitter, _Stachyridopsis_
utters clear, bell-like tones, _Timelia_ slowly repeated cries,
_Myiophoneus_ a fine whistle; but usually harsh chattering or screaming
noises alternate with chuckles, croaks, clucks, or a laughing chorus.
_Psophodes_ is called the "Coach-whip bird," from its notes ending like the
crack of a whip. The habits of _Clitonyx_ are said to resemble those of the
Meliphagidae. The nest is commonly a rough structure of leaves, moss,
herbage, and the like, often lined with roots, which is placed in low
trees, bushes, reeds, grass, holes in trees, or banks, by _Garrulax_,
_Argya_, and _Turdinus_; in crevices of rocks, by _Chaetops_; or on crags
near torrents, by _Myiophoneus_. It may consist of somewhat softer
{504}materials, frequently bedded with fur, wool, or feathers, as in
_Crateropus_, _Paradoxornis_, and _Trochalopterum_–several pairs of the
last-named occasionally using the same tree; or it may be a domed mass of
grass, leaves, bark, and moss, situated on or near the ground, as in
_Timelia_, _Orthonyx_, _Pomatorhinus_, _Pellorneum_, and _Rhopocichla_.
_Lioptila_ and some of its nearest allies build a mossy cup, adorned with
cobwebs, in high firs or other trees. The eggs of _Crateropus_ and _Argya_
are deep greenish-blue, glossy and spotless; those of _Garrulax_ are
similar, or pale blue or white; those of _Dryonastes_ light blue; those of
_Pomatorhinus_, _Stachyris_, _Orthonyx_, and _Xiphorhamphus_ white; those
of _Paradoxornis_ whitish, with yellow-brown and purple markings. The
ground-colour is frequently greenish-blue, olive, brown, salmon, creamy, or
white, and shews scattered or dense spots, streaks, freckles, blotches, or
even hieroglyphics, of reddish, purplish, chocolate, olive, grey, or
occasionally black. The coloration, however, is by no means constant in
each genus, while the number varies from two to five or six. The Australian
Pomatorhini fashion large domed nests, after the manner of Magpies, of
twigs lined with bark and feathers, and add a spout-like entrance, while
several are commonly found at the ends of the branches of the same tree;
their buff or purplish eggs, clouded with brown and purple, and streaked
with black hair-lines, number from four to ten.

Fam. V. PYCNONOTIDAE.–The Bulbuls, often included among the Timeliidae,
have a fairly long bill, usually somewhat stout and curved, which is
Finch-like in _Spizixus_, very long and thin in _Phyllostrephus_, and so
forth. The maxilla is generally notched, being minutely serrated in
_Andropadus_, and decidedly hooked in _Tricholestes_, _Aethorhynchus_, and
_Trichophoropsis_; while strong or weak rictal bristles are ordinarily
present. The abbreviated metatarsi lack scales in several genera. The wings
are normally short, rounded, and concave–though more pointed in
_Hypsipetes_ and _Irena_ (if these really belong to the Family), _Hemixus_,
_Alcurus_, and _Ixocincla_ or even long in _Tylas_–the secondaries are much
elongated in _Aethorhynchus_. The tail is sometimes square or graduated,
but is commonly rounded, being rarely forked, as in _Hypsipetes_; in
_Irena_ and _Micropus_ the coverts are much lengthened, while they nearly
equal the rectrices in _I. crinigera_. Crests occur frequently, the
constituent feathers in _Alcurus_ being obtuse, in _Criniger_ long and
pointed, in _Otocompsa_ somewhat recurved. {505}Most of the Family are
characterized by long, fluffy rump-plumage and conspicuous nuchal or dorsal
hairs, the latter reaching their highest development in _Tricholestes_. The
feathers hide the nostrils in _Irena_ and _Spizixus_; _Poliolophus_ has a
yellow circumocular wattle, and several species of _Pycnonotus_ possess
fleshy eyelids of black, red, or grey.

The usual coloration is olive-brown, olive-green, or olive-yellow, commonly
with wholly or partially yellow, white, greyish, or even orange, rufous,
and buff under parts; _Hypsipetes perniger_ is entirely black, _Micropus
melanoleucus_ black with white wing-spots, and many species are mottled
with yellowish or white. _Trachycomus_ has a yellow cap of decomposed
bristly feathers; while elsewhere the head or the throat is often more or
less black, brown, chestnut, grey, and rarely yellow or white. The tail and
rump may be rufous, yellow, or orange, occasionally barred with black; and
white or yellow markings frequently adorn the wings. _Otocompsa_ shews
crimson or scarlet ear-tufts, and crimson or yellow under tail-coverts;
certain species of _Pycnonotus_ have the latter scarlet, orange, or yellow;
_Rubigula_ has loose, stiff, scarlet plumage on the throat, and an orange
under surface. _Chloropsis_ is green and yellow, relieved by orange, blue,
purple and black, and exhibits a conspicuous blue, purple, or emerald
shoulder-patch, except in _C. cyanopogon_ and _C. flavipennis_; _Aegithina_
and _Aethorhynchus_ are green, black, and yellow; while _Irena_ (the Fairy
Blue-bird) is either brilliant turquoise, with black wings, tail, and under
parts, or purple-blue, varied by cobalt above, with or without a black
mantle and under surface. The bill and legs range from brown, black, or
plumbeous, to coral red, orange, yellow, or whitish. The sexes are similar,
except in _Aegithina_, _Aethorhynchus_, _Chloropsis_, and _Irena_.

From their headquarters in the Indian and Indo-Malay countries, the
Pycnonotidae extend to China, Hainan, Formosa, and the Moluccas,
_Hypsipetes_ even reaching Japan; they also occupy the whole Ethiopian
Region, with Madagascar and the neighbouring islands. To these latter
_Ixocincla_ and _Tylas_ (p. 533) are peculiar; while _Pycnonotus_,
_Criniger_ and _Xenocichla_ inhabit both of the above Regions, and the
first is found from Morocco to the Cyclades, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Palestine.

Bulbuls are gregarious arboreal birds of feeble flight, rarely seen upon
the ground, where they move with awkward shuffles or short hops. The
majority are sociable, and frequent gardens, {506}orchards, forests, and
low jungles; they feed chiefly upon fruits, including berries and seeds,
but also upon insects, which _Aethorhynchus_, _Aegithina_, and _Chloropsis_
in especial seek among the leaves and branches of the trees. The ordinary
note is a mellow cheerful whistle, becoming a pretty song in such species
as _Pycnonotus haemorrhous_, and _P. xanthopygus_, the Ceylon and Palestine
Nightingales; chattering and chirping sounds are, however, often heard,
while _Criniger_, _Phyllostrephus_ and _Hypsipetes_ habitually utter
reiterated jarring or croaking cries, particularly when roosting in
company. The flimsy, or occasionally bulky, nests of twigs, fibres, grass,
moss, and cobwebs are placed in low trees, bushes, creepers, or
bamboo-clumps; _Aegithina_, _Chloropsis_, and _Irena_ generally laying two
or three white or greenish eggs with brown streaks or spots, and the
remaining forms from two to four, of a pinkish white or salmon colour, with
markings of various reds and purples. The nest of _Iole_ is suspended by
the rim like that of an Oriole. The Perso-Arabic Bulbul of poets is
probably _Daulias hafizi_, a true Nightingale.

Fam. VI. MUSCICAPIDAE.–The Old World Flycatchers are a group of somewhat
vague definition, _Hemipus_ appearing closely allied to the _Laniidae_,
_Cryptolopha_ to the _Sylviinae_, _Lioptilus_ to the _Timeliidae_.
Connexion with the _Turdinae_ is implied by the more or less spotted
plumage of the young, though the metatarsus is usually scutellated
anteriorly. Typically the bill is broad and flat, with stiff rictal and
prominent nasal bristles; it is extremely wide, with the culminal ridge
strongly developed in _Machaerorhynchus_, _Myiagra_, _Bias_, and
_Smithornis_; _Sisura_ has it longer and more slender; _Chelidorhynx_
short, with a pronounced hook; and the diminutive _Smicrornis_
exceptionally small; while many species have it much less robust. The feet,
usually weak, may be stronger, as in _Chloropeta_; the wings, ordinarily
elongated and pointed, and especially so in _Hemichelidon_, are at times
abbreviated and rounded, as in _Niltava_, whereas the secondaries in
_Platystira_ and _Newtonia_ nearly equal the primaries, of which the outer
is very short. The tail is also short in _Diaphorophyia_, but is usually
moderate or long, and frequently much graduated, as in _Rhipidura_
(Fantail), _Elminia_, and _Terpsiphone_, the males of the last having the
two median feathers twice the length of the body. _Terpsiphone_,
_Cyanomyias_, _Bias_, _Trochocercus_, and so forth, have fine crests,
shorter in the female; while fleshy wattles, round or {507}above the eye,
of scarlet, blue, or yellow, are found in _Terpsiphone_, _Zeocephus_,
_Diaphorophyia_, _Platystira_, and _Arses_. The bill is sometimes reddish
or blue, and the inside of the mouth green or yellow, as in certain Birds
of Paradise.

The males of our summer visitors, the Spotted and Pied Flycatchers,
_Muscicapa grisola_ and _M. atricapilla_, are respectively brown with
whitish under parts streaked with dusky, and black and white; the hen-bird
being similar in the former case, but in the latter olive-brown, with the
frontlet, wing-patches, and lower surface buff instead of white. _M._
(_Erythrosterna_) _parva_, which is brown with grey head, and has a
reddish-orange fore-neck that becomes rufous in the female, occurs
accidentally in Britain. _Platystira_ is glossy bluish- or greenish-black
above with white markings, and white beneath with a black pectoral band,
the female having greyer upper parts, and sometimes a maroon chest;
_Erythromyias_ is black and white, with an orange-rufous breast or back;
_Pseudogerygone_ is olive-green, brown, or grey above–dark crimson in _P.
rubra_–with an admixture of black, buff, rufous, yellow, or white, and has
similar or yellow tints below; _Chasiempis_ is brownish, relieved by black,
white, and bay; _Culicicapa_ is greenish-yellow with a bright yellow lower
surface, the head being grey in one species. The hen-bird in these four
genera, where known, resembles the male. That sex of _Niltava_ is blackish
or purplish, varied with rich cobalt, especially on the neck, the under
parts being orange-rufous or purplish-grey; the female is chiefly olive,
often with a blue or lilac neck-patch. _Malurus_ commonly shews a fine
mixture of blue, purple, and velvety-black, with a little brown and white;
one of its members is chiefly brown, but has a blue tail, and a lilac crown
with black centre; a second is vermilion, black and brown above, and black
below; a third has crimson in the place of vermilion; a fourth is
bluish-black and white. The hen-birds are mainly brown, often with a blue,
or even a green, tail. _Piezorhynchus_ has two metallic black species,
while _P. chrysomelas_ is orange-yellow and black; _Metabolus_ is almost
white, with black face and throat; and lastly, _Terpsiphone_ (or
_Tchitrea_), well known on Chinese and Japanese screens and fans, contains
several long-tailed and finely crested white birds, with glossy
greenish-black head and throat, and with black markings on the wings and
tail in _T. paradisi_, the Paradise-Flycatcher. The female is rich bay
above, with similar head, but grey cheeks and throat. In {508}other species
the males are said to be maroon, cinnamon, chestnut, blue-grey, or
glossy-black above. _T. mutata_ of Madagascar may be dimorphic. Nuchal
collars, elongated silky flank-feathers, and spots or stripes below, are
not infrequent in the Family.

[Illustration: FIG. 110.–Paradise Flycatcher. _Terpsiphone paradisi._ × ⅓.]

Flycatchers are common in the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions;
and several species are Palaearctic, four or five reaching Europe. Most of
them are migratory, the Spotted Flycatcher nesting northwards to Tromsö and
Archangel, the Pied Flycatcher nearly as far. They love wooded districts,
and _Gerygone_ even gloomy forests; while they are usually silent and
solitary, feeding on little but insects, which are habitually caught upon
the wing with an audible snap of the bill, though also procured upon the
boughs or by darting to the ground. The graceful, undulating, or zigzag
flight, and the sudden dash into the air, followed by a quick return to the
perch, are especially characteristic, as is a frequent quivering of the
wings and tail; _Rhipidura motacilloïdes_ is Wagtail-like in habits; while
_Sisura inquieta_, the "Grinder" of Australia, runs along the river-sides,
or hovers like a Kestrel, making a grinding sound in the air, whence it
descends vertically to secure its prey. Other species of _Rhipidura_ pick
flies off cattle, and rise and fall perpendicularly in the air, opening the
fan-shaped tail or tumbling completely over. _Malurus_ runs quickly, or
bounds along with rapid hops. Most Flycatchers are tame, but several are
pugnacious; _Lanioturdus_ is stated to be gregarious; _Parisoma_ creeps
about thick bushes; {509}_Smicrornis_ clings to the branches like a Tit;
_Niltava_ and other forms eat berries and the like in late summer;
_Eopsaltria_ and _Gerygone_ are very fond of insect-larvae. The voice is
usually faint, but is harsh in _Terpsiphone_, _Smithornis_, and _Batis_,
croaking in _Piezorhynchus_ and _Lanioturdus_; _Sisura_ whistles;
_Gerygone_, _Malurus_, and our Pied Flycatcher, have pleasing Redstart-like
songs; while that of _Microeca_, which often soars aloft when singing, is
said to resemble the strain of the Chaffinch. The neat nest, usually formed
of grass, moss, leaves, bark, fibres, or hair, and not infrequently
decorated with lichens or cobwebs, is placed in low forks or cavities of
trees, if not among creepers or outgrowths on banks, _Terpsiphone_
preferring higher situations. _Gerygone_ builds a covered pear-shaped
structure, with or without a protecting porch, of like materials, lined
with fur or feathers, and suspends it in shrubs; _Malurus_ and _Smicrornis_
make rounder fabrics; while that of _Ochromela_ is somewhat similar, but is
composed of grass and ferns, and usually placed in low vegetation. The
eggs, in number from two to six, are greenish- or buffish-white, with red,
brown, or rarely grey, spots and blotches; exceptionally they are uniform
light blue, as in _Muscicapa atricapilla_; white, as in _Chelidorhynx_;
apple-green, green-blue, or whitish, with reddish-brown, yellowish, or
lilac markings, as in _Eopsaltria_; or white, with red or purplish spots,
as in _Malurus_, _Chasiempis_, and _Gerygone_.

Fam. VII. TURDIDAE.–This group is here divided into five Sub-families, (1)
_Turdinae_ or Thrushes and their allies; (2) _Myiodectinae_; (3)
_Sylviinae_ or Warblers; (4) _Polioptilinae_; and (5) _Miminae_ or
Mocking-birds. The first and third of these are often considered separate
Families, but they are so closely connected by the Saxicoline and
Ruticilline forms that they can hardly lay claim to such rank, while the
_Accentorinae_ and _Regulinae_ of certain authors seem unnecessary. The
_Miminae_ shew some affinity to the Wrens (_Troglodytidae_).

Sub-fam. 1. _Turdinae._–In this section the bill is usually rather long and
stout, being notched but hardly curved, with few, if any, basal bristles;
it is somewhat hooked in the so-called genus _Geocichla_–where it is much
lengthened in five species, and abbreviated in _G. princii_; large, broad,
and arched in _Turnagra_ (a doubtful member of the Family); comparatively
short and slender in _Sialia_, _Ruticilla_, _Erithacus_, _Saxicola_, and so
forth; more robust in _Accentor_. The metatarsus is long in _Catharus_,
_Calliope_, and _Notodela_, but {510}is usually moderate, being
particularly strong in _Geocichla_, _Nesocichla_, _Zoothera_, and
_Turnagra_; in _Saxicola_, _Erithacus_, and _Daulias_ it is at once slender
and elongated. Generally the anterior scales are fused together, forming an
ocreated covering (p. 10), but the opposite sometimes occurs, as in
_Accentor_, _Nesocichla_, and _Thamnobia_. Typically the wing is fairly
long and broad, with abbreviated outer primary, the next feather being
emarginated in some species of _Myrmecocichla_; but in Dr. Sharpe's group
Thamnobiae,[283] it is generally abbreviated and more rounded, in _Sialia_
it is pointed. The tail may be long and wide, as in _Turnagra_, or
comparatively short, as in _Monticola_ and _Pratincola_, but is usually of
medium length; it is normally square or rounded, though emarginated in
_Sialia_, and much graduated in _Copsychus_ and _Cittocincla_, while in
_Cossypha natalensis_ it has pointed feathers. _Turdus_ (_Geocichla_)
_varius_, _T. horsfieldi_, and _T. hancii_ have fourteen rectrices.

The coloration is ordinarily plain black or brown, more or less varied with
grey, white, rufous, or chestnut, occasionally in the form of a collar;
many Thrushes, moreover, exhibit the characteristic white breast spotted
with brown. The bill is frequently orange or yellow. As examples of the
genus _Turdus_ we may take our native Blackbird, Mistletoe- and
Song-Thrushes _T. merula_, _T. viscivorus_, and _T. musicus_; our summer
visitor the Ring-Ousel, _T. torquatus_; our winter immigrants the Redwing
and Fieldfare, _T. iliacus_ and _T. pilaris_; the American "Robin," _T.
migratorius_; and the Ground-Thrushes ("_Geocichla_,") with their light
patch under the wing. The sexes are commonly alike, but black or grey males
have usually brownish females. A bushy crest occurs in _Catharus_.

Of some ten Rock-Thrushes (_Monticola_), _M. saxatilis_ occurs
exceptionally in Britain. It has a cobalt and blackish-blue head, neck, and
upper back, a nearly white mid-back, brown remiges, chestnut lateral
rectrices and lower surface. _M. cyanus_ is almost entirely blue. The
browner hens are generally spotted and barred below. _Cochoa viridis_ is
green and black, with blue-green under parts, and blue on the head, tail,
and wings; _C. purpurea_ has the bright colours replaced by purplish-brown
and lavender; _C. azurea_ is mainly rich blue, becoming purple below. The
females are duller. Blue-birds (_Sialia_) are bright blue, often with
chestnut breast or back, the males being the most brilliant; _Grandala
caelicolor_ is indigo, with blackish wings and tail.

{511}[Illustration: FIG. 111.–Mistletoe Thrush. _Turdus viscivorus._ ×
7/11.]

In _Saxicola_ (Wheatear) the rump-region is white, except in some seven
species, where it is entirely or partly chestnut or buff; the plumage
exhibits various combinations of jet black, chestnut, brown, grey, and
white, the black shewing especially upon the breast, quill-feathers,
throat, lores, or ear-coverts. The females may be similar to the males or
browner. _Pratincola rubetra_, our Whinchat, is mottled with brown and buff
above and is buff below, having a superciliary streak and wing-bar of
whitish; _P. rubicola_, the Stonechat, is blacker on the back, and has the
head and throat black, but the breast rufous, while the hen lacks the black
head. Other species have white rumps or tails, and the breast or even most
of the plumage black. _Oreicola_ has three black members with white under
parts; _Myrmecocichla_ eight, which are grey or brown, relieved by black,
white, and buff. The Australian and Pacific Robins (_Petroeca_), of very
doubtful affinity, are blackish or greyish, with scarlet or pink breasts,
and some white above; one having a red head. Our Redstart, _Ruticilla
phoenicurus_, is grey, with brown wings, chestnut breast, rump, and lateral
rectrices, black face and throat; the hen being brownish above and buff
below, with less brilliant chestnut tints. The Black Redstart is dark grey,
with brighter rufous rump and tail, black lower parts, {512}and a white
wing-patch; brown replacing the grey and black in the female. Some species
are blacker above, one has a chestnut back and no black throat, another has
both rump and tail black, and three have blue on the forehead and crown,
one of these again having a white gular mark. _R. moussieri_, linking the
Redstarts to the Chats, is black, with orange-rufous rump, tail, and lower
surface, a white alar spot, and white extending from the forehead to the
face. The Robin,[284] _Erithacus rubecula_, needs no description; the
Persian _E. hyrcanus_ hardly differs; the similar Japanese Robin, _E.
akahige_, has a grey belly; the Corean _E. komadori_ is orange-chestnut
above, black and white beneath. The Blue-throat, _Cyanecula suecica_, is
brown, except for a white superciliary streak, bay tail-coverts, and a
bright blue throat with a central rufous spot, to which succeed black,
white, and rusty bands, and a whitish belly. _C. wolfi_ lacks the gular
spot, _C. leucocyana_ has it white. _Calliope camtschatcensis_, _C.
pectoralis_, and _C. tschebaiewi_, are brown or dark grey, with grey or
black breasts, white abdomens, some black and white on the face, and glossy
scarlet throats. _Daulias luscinia_, our summer visitor the Nightingale,
and the larger eastern _D. philomela_ are russet-brown in both sexes, with
redder rump and tail, and whitish lower parts. _D. hafizi_ of Persia is
intermediate (_cf._ p. 506).

[Illustration: FIG. 112.–Redstart. _Ruticilla phoenicurus._ × ½.]

Our Hedge-sparrow, _Accentor modularis_, is brown streaked with blackish,
and shews bluish-grey on the head, throat, and breast; but the Alpine
Accentor, _A. collaris_, which rarely visits Britain, has a white throat
spotted with black, and flanks mottled with chestnut; while their congeners
exhibit rufous lower parts or pectoral bands, black throats, or whiter
wings and tails. _Ephthianura_ is grey, brown, black and white above, with
the crown, rump, and breast crimson in one species and yellow in two;
{513}of the latter one has a black mark on the breast, as has a fourth form
with a white lower surface.

In the Thamnobiae the sexes are alike, or the females duller. The colour,
as in _Callene_ and _Copsychus_, may be dull blue and cobalt, purplish- or
bluish-black, or bluish-grey, often with white rump; or, as in _Cossypha_
and _Thamnobia_, grey, brown or blackish, with orange-chestnut or rufous
rump, tail, and abdomen. Stripes of black and white often adorn the face,
the ruddy hue occasionally tinges the breast, nape, or wing, while a blue
alar patch or a white head occur exceptionally. _Cittocincla_ is
intermediate in coloration; _Alethe_ is chiefly chestnut or rufescent-olive
above, but grey and white or creamy buff below, with orange crown in two
cases. _Turnagra_ has brown upper parts with reddish tail, and the lower
surface either grey with white throat, or whitish with dusky stripes;
_Cichladusa_ is similar, or has buff under parts, with black spots and
gular crescent. All the above frequently exhibit white on the wings or
tail. _Lamprolia_ is velvety-black, with blue spangles on the head and
neck, and white rump-region; _Tarsiger_ is either blue above, varied with
black, white, olive, or yellow, and with more or less orange below, or
lacks the blue entirely. _Aedonopsis_ and _Phaeornis_ are brown, with grey
and white under parts.

In the Turdinae the young are constantly spotted, as opposed to the
Sylviinae.

Sub-fam. 2. _Myiodectinae._–These birds differ from the _Turdinae_ in their
short, somewhat depressed bills, and strong rictal bristles. _Myiodectes_
and _Cichlopsis_ are in both sexes fairly uniform brown, grey, or blackish,
with a grey lower surface, and occasionally chestnut or orange throat and
belly; one species of the former, however, is cinnamon, with black head and
under parts, and a white band across the cheeks.

Sub-fam. 3. _Sylviinae._–Besides the typical Warblers are here included
most of Dr. Sharpe's groups _Bradypteri_ and _Cisticolae_,[285] but not, of
course, the American "Warblers" (_Mniotiltidae_). They differ from the
Turdinae in being smaller, with the bill usually weak and slender, though
it is very stout in _Rhopophilus_ and _Arundinax_; a few genera shew strong
rictal hairs; while _Regulus_ has the nostrils covered by one or more
peculiar bristly feathers. The metatarsus is sometimes scutellated
anteriorly; the wings are comparatively {514}short and broad. The tail,
which in some twenty genera contains but ten feathers, varies from square
to rounded, being rarely emarginated, but not uncommonly graduated, as in
_Locustella_, _Cisticola_, and elsewhere; it is much lengthened and widened
in _Laticilla_, broad and soft in _Bradypterus_, and so forth. In
_Sphenoeacus_, _Dromaeocercus_, and the still longer-tailed _Stipiturus_
the rectrices are spiny with curiously decomposed webs; in _Orthotomus_ the
median pair are elongated during summer in the male; in _Sylviella_ the
rump-feathers nearly hide the tail itself.

The usual coloration in both sexes is plain greyish or brown, with rufous,
buff, white, or yellowish lower parts, and frequently spots, stripes, and
streaks. Many forms, however, shew more or less black or red hues, often in
the form of a cap; others, as _Cryptolopha_, _Habrornis_, _Tickellia_, and
_Phyllergates_ exhibit brilliant yellows and greens, relieved by grey,
black, chestnut, and white; _Orthotomus_ and some species of _Prinia_,
_Hapalis_, and _Euprinodes_ are hardly duller; while _Phylloscopus_,
_Acanthopneuste_, _Regulus_, _Hypolais_, _Neornis_, and _Acanthiza_ vary
from yellow-green to brown and buff above. _Regulus_, _Phyllergates_, and
certain members of _Cisticola_, have red, orange, or yellow crowns;
_Acanthiza_ has scaly frontal feathers; the male of _Stipiturus_ a blue
throat; _Myiomoira_ is black and white, with a yellow and orange breast in
one case; _Stiphrornis_ has an orange throat in two; _Leptopoecile_ shews a
blue wash on the rump and lower surface.

Sub-fam. 4. _Polioptilinae._–The Gnatcatchers, with the sole genus
_Polioptila_, have very slender bills, moderate rictal bristles, metatarsi
scutellated anteriorly, shortish wings, and graduated tails. They are
blue-grey above, with black rectrices, externally marked with white; and
are greyish or white below. White shews occasionally on the wing, and some
males have black heads.

Sub-fam. 5. _Miminae._–The American Mocking-birds have fairly long bills,
which are little decurved except in _Harporhynchus_, but are frequently
notched, and bristly at the gape. The metatarsi are usually strong and
distinctly scutellated in front, though more slender in _Oreoscoptes_ and
_Melanoptila_, and sometimes quite smooth in the latter and _Galeoscoptes_;
the wings are shortish and rounded, with well-developed outer primary; the
tail is rather long and is generally broad and much graduated, but is
narrower and squarer in _Oreoscoptes_. The usual coloration is dull brown,
rufous, and grey, varied by white on the remiges and rectrices, and by an
occasional {515}black cap or chestnut vent; _Melanoptila_, however, is
uniform purplish- or bluish-black, _Rhodinocincla_ rosy or rufous below in
the male and female respectively, with superciliary streak to match.
_Oreoscoptes_, _Mimus_, _Cichlherminia_, and _Harporhynchus_ often shew
spots beneath and _Donacobius_ dusky bars, _Mimus trifasciatus_ has a dark
chest-band.

The Turdidae occupy the whole globe, being characteristically, though not
invariably, migratory.[286] Of the Turdinae, Thrushes abound in the
Neotropical Region, and–if we include the Ground-Thrushes–are common in the
Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian, but the Palaearctic and Nearctic are
poorly supplied: Chats, Robins, Redstarts, Nightingales, Hedge-sparrows,
and their nearest allies are mainly Palaearctic, Ethiopian, and Indian;
though _Sialia_ reaches America, _Pratincola_ Celebes, and _Petroeca_
Samoa. _Nesocichla_ is restricted to Tristan da Cunha, _Turnagra_ to New
Zealand, _Phaeornis_ to the Sandwich Islands; while Madagascar possesses
peculiar forms both of this Sub-family and of the Sylviinae. The
last-named, however, are chiefly Palaearctic, and visit the southern Old
World in winter; yet two species of _Acrocephalus_ breed in Australia,
_Miro_ and _Myiomoira_ occupy New Zealand, _Tatare_ and _Psamathia_ are
Polynesian, one species of _Phylloscopus_ reaches Alaska, _Regulus_ occurs
thence to Panama, and so forth. The Polioptilinae and Miminae inhabit North
and South America; the Myiodectinae range from the more western United
States to Bolivia and Brazil. Of the last groups several forms are confined
to the Antilles, and of the Miminae three to the Galápagos.

Thrushes inhabit wooded country, and reach an altitude of twenty thousand
feet in some latitudes; they feed chiefly on the ground, where they hop
about scratching or searching for worms, molluscs, and insects. Snails are
habitually cracked on some favourite stone by the Song-Thrush, and fruit is
also eaten. The strong rapid flight is undulating and frequently low, but
flocks cover vast distances on migration; Ground-Thrushes are naturally
more terrestrial and resident, while the solitary Rock-Thrushes haunt stony
hills, rocks, and ruins. This Sub-family comprises some of our very finest
songsters, the Song-Thrush or Mavis vying with the Nightingale, which
gladdens both day and night, and the Blackbird uttering delightfully mellow
notes; but chirping sounds and harsher screams are common. _Phaeornis_
{516}sings prettily. The typical Turdine nest is a massive cup of grass,
cemented with mud and inlaid with finer herbage; but other materials are
constantly added, while mud, dung, or rotten wood constitutes the lining in
the case of the Song-Thrush, and occasionally elsewhere. It is usually
placed in trees or bushes, but not infrequently in cavities in trunks,
walls or rocks, and sometimes on the ground in heather, banks, and so
forth. The eggs may be greenish or bluish with reddish-brown or purplish
spots and streaks, or glossy blue with or without black or brown markings;
Rock-Thrushes have them light blue with faint stains, or pinkish with rusty
freckles, _Turnagra_ whitish with black-brown spots.

As regards the Saxicoline and Ruticilline forms attention should be drawn
to the jerky, flitting flight, the "chacking" alarm-note and the rarer song
of our Wheatear, the similar habits of our Stonechat and Whinchat, not to
mention other allied forms; as well as to the pleasant notes of Redstarts,
Redbreasts, Blue-throats, and Hedge-sparrows, and the common habits of
hopping, flirting the tail, and drooping the wings. The nests of Chats
consist of grass and moss, often lined with hair, feathers, or fur, and are
usually placed in holes of various descriptions, or in rough herbage; the
four to seven blue, greenish, or even whitish eggs being spotted or zoned
with rufous, except in a few instances, such as our Wheatear, where
markings are rare. Deserts and stony or furzy flats are favourite haunts.
_Petroeca_ adds bark, fibres, cobwebs, or lichens, and chooses sites in
forks, or holes in trees and walls; the greenish or buffish eggs being
marked with purplish, brown and grey. _Cyanecula_ and _Nemura_ select
hollows in marshy spots, building with moss, grass, and leaves, like
Robins; but the former, instead of reddish-white eggs with rufous spots,
has them olive-coloured or dull greenish with faint rusty markings, as have
the Nightingales, which place their fabric of oak or beech leaves on the
ground or in low shrubs. _Copsychus_, _Cossypha_, _Catharus_, and
_Thamnobia_ nest as Robins do, in holes in banks, trees, or walls, and have
similar eggs; Redstarts deposit five or six, which are light blue or white
and very rarely spotted, in a structure of grass, moss, roots, hair, and
feathers, placed in cavities of trees or masonry; _Tarsiger_ and _Notodela_
prefer hollows in banks and rocks, and lay blue and salmon-pink eggs
respectively. _Hodgsonius_ and _Larvivora_ also have them blue.
_Chimarrhornis_ and _Rhyacornis_ nidificate like Redstarts, but their eggs
are greenish-white with rufous or yellowish spots; the shy
{517}_Cittocincla_ haunts thick woods, and deposits four oily-green eggs,
with brown and purplish spots and dashes, on a bed of leaves and grass in
holes in trees; the unsuspicious _Sialia_ utilizes cavities in stumps or
buildings, the nest and its contents resembling those of a Redstart. The
breeding habits of the Hedge-Sparrow need no description, and those of the
Alpine Accentor differ little, except that rocky sites are chosen.

In the above section the number of eggs varies from four to seven. The
flight is feeble as compared with that of Thrushes, most species feeding
chiefly upon the ground and being more insectivorous, though Redstarts and
Chats will take insects on the wing.

The habits of the active Sylviinae are much more uniform; they seldom fly
far, except on migration, and a few flit about like Wrens; while _Amytis_,
_Stipiturus_, _Sphenura_, and some species of _Aedon_ run, or hop among the
herbage, with upturned tail. They frequent trees, bushes, long grass or
reeds, seldom flocking as does _Regulus_, and live on insects and their
larvae, small molluscs and fruit, the first-named being either caught in
the air or sought upon the leaves and branches. The song is usually clear
and sweet, though often plaintive, metallic, or whistling; the Willow- and
Wood-Warblers (_Phylloscopus_) trill: the Black-cap and Garden-Warblers
(_Sylvia_) have beautiful songs, as well as grating alarm notes; the
Cataract-bird (_Origma_) runs along rocky water-courses emitting shrill
cries; the Reed- and Sedge-Warblers (_Acrocephalus_), the skulking
_Cettia_, and other marsh- and grass-frequenting forms, utter more or less
jarring sounds, generally from some bush, whence they quickly drop to
cover; while the Grasshopper-Warblers (_Locustella_) have a peculiar
cricket-like note.

The nest may be a thin or fairly substantial cup of grasses, bed-straw
(_Galium_) and the like, occasionally lined with hair, and placed in bushes
or rank herbage, as in the Black-cap, Garden-Warbler and White-throats
(_Sylvia_); or a firmer structure, including wool, moss, feathers,
reed-flowers, or even lichens, built on the ground, in shrubs, in sedge, or
between reed-stems, as is the case in _Locustella_, _Acrocephalus_,
_Aedon_, and _Hypolais_. _Phylloscopus_, as well as some African and many
Indian and Australian members of the Sub-family, fashion a round ball of
grass and a little moss, lined with finer grasses, hair, down, or feathers,
and generally place it close to the earth; _Regulus_ hangs a cup of moss
and spiders' webs, bedded with feathers, below the end of a conifer or
other {518}branch, or even builds it in creepers. Savi's Warbler
(_Locustella luscinioïdes_) makes a Rail-like nest of broad grass-blades
(_Glyceria_) in sedges, _Myiomoira_ one of bark, grass, wool, moss, and
fibres in holes in trees, _Miro_ a similar fabric on their branches,
_Acanthiza_ a domed hanging structure of like materials, _Origma_ a ragged
pendent mass of moss and roots, lined with fur or feathers, under rocks.
_Orthotomus_ (Tailor-bird) and some species of _Franklinia_, _Prinia_, and
_Cisticola_ stitch together the edges of a leaf or leaves to sustain their
nest of grass, cotton, wool, and hair.

The number of eggs is generally from three to six, but as many as twelve
are found in _Regulus_. The colour is buffish-white with brownish and
violet-grey spots in Savi's Warbler; pinker with delicate red-brown
freckling in the Grasshopper-Warbler; rich red-brown in _Cettia_ and
_Chthonicola_; similar or varying to blue, green, white or pinkish, with or
without red or brown spots, in _Prinia_–even in the same species; little
different in _Cisticola_; bronzy-brown in _Pyrrholaemus_; white or purplish
with dark markings in _Sericornis_; white in _Origma_ and _Cryptolopha_. In
_Sylvia_ the eggs are greenish- or yellowish-white with olive, brown,
green, or reddish spots; in _Acrocephalus_ they are decidedly greener; in
_Aedon_ greyer with brown and dull violet markings; in _Phylloscopus_ and
_Acanthiza_ white, usually with dark red or purplish spotting; in
_Hypolais_ lilac-pink with blackish or brown blotches or streaks; in
_Regulus_ white, freckled or entirely suffused with yellowish or ruddy
dots.

_Myiodectes_ frequents woods and thickets, and has somewhat Thrush-like
habits; the voice is powerful, clear and metallic; while the food consists
chiefly of berries, though insects are hawked for in the air. The nest,
placed on bushes, stumps, banks or rocks, is made of sticks lined with soft
materials, or of twigs, roots, and moss, and contains from three to six
eggs, not unlike those of the Redbreast.

_Polioptila_ haunts tall trees or shrubs in pairs or small companies; the
habits are restless, the flight is quick, the food consists of gnats and so
forth, commonly captured on the wing. The purse-like nest is felted with
bark, fibres, and down, and decorated with lichens; it is woven to boughs,
stems, or creepers, and contains four or five greenish- or bluish-white
eggs, marked with red-brown, lilac, and grey.

Of the Miminae, _Mimus polyglottus_ is the Mocking-bird in {519}chief; the
natural song being rich, varied, and powerful, and the imitations ranging
from the yelp of the Eagle to the noises of the farm-yard. It is found from
the United States to Mexico and the Antilles, where in isolated trees,
hedges, or brambles it makes a bulky platform of rough twigs to support the
cup of roots, wool, and so forth, which contains the four to six pale
greenish-blue–or rarely buffish–eggs, with brown and purplish markings. The
movements are energetic but graceful, the flight Thrush-like; the food
consists of insects, often taken in the air, and fruit. _Mimus modulator_,
the "Calandria," of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia, feeds chiefly on the
ground, and can hardly be said to mock, though _M. triurus_ of the same
countries does so. _Galeoscoptes carolinensis_, the Cat-bird, besides an
attractive song, utters clucks, whistles, and mewing sounds; it feeds
chiefly on insect-larvae, and deposits from three to five deep
greenish-blue eggs in a nest of twigs, bark, and plant-stalks lined with
grass. _Oreoscoptes_, of the North American sage-brush districts, resembles
_Mimus_ in its habits, nest, and eggs, but is no mimic; nor, it may be
added, are the shy Thrashers (_Harporhynchus_), which commonly haunt arid
situations, placing their large, flattish nest of coarse twigs, leaves,
fibres, bark, grass, and moss, lined with softer materials, in low trees or
thorny scrub. Their three to six eggs are white, bluish, greenish, or buff,
with yellowish, purplish, or red-brown spots or specks, those of the more
terrestrial _H. crissalis_ being uniform pale greenish-blue. _Donacobius_
frequents reeds, but possibly does not belong to this group; _Melanoptila_
has a harsh or mewing note, and lays blue eggs, as does _Melanotis_.

Fam. VIII. CINCLIDAE.–The Dippers or Water-Ousels form a single genus,
_Cinclus_, probably more akin to the Wrens than to the Thrushes. The bill
is moderate and straight, without bristles at the gape, the maxilla being
slightly curved and notched; the smooth metatarsi are fairly long and
strong; the wings are abbreviated, rounded, and concave; the tail is
extremely short, and the whole body peculiarly squat-looking. The colour
above is normally greyish-black or brown, _C. ardesiacus_ being, however,
delicate grey; the lower parts are similar or white, commonly with a black
belly, while a chestnut band crosses the breast in the British _C.
aquaticus_ and in _C. albicollis_. White spots often occur above and below
the eye; _C. leuconotus_ and _C. leucocephalus_ have nearly white heads,
and the former shews white on the back. {520}The sexes are alike, but the
young are spotted. Both plumage and down are close and nearly impervious to
water.

These birds range throughout the Palaearctic Region, just reaching the
southern slopes of the Himalayas, China, and Formosa. One species occupies
the Atlas Mountains, while others occur along the heights of Western
America, and the Andes southwards to Peru. Individuals of a dark form from
Northern Europe occasionally stray to Britain, but such migration is
exceptional.

[Illustration: FIG. 113.–Dipper. _Cinclus aquaticus._ × 5/13.]

Dippers frequent rapid streams in hill-country, which seldom freeze, and
appear as cheery in winter as in summer; their flight is powerful, rapid,
and direct, with quick wing-strokes and sudden descent; their cry upon the
wing is loud and clear, their song when stationary Wren-like. They sit on
stones in the water, bobbing up and down and jerking their tails, while
they use both legs and wings below the surface, whither they dive
noiselessly in search of insects, their larvae and pupae, or molluscs.
Fish-spawn has not been found in the stomach. The domed, but flattened,
nest is composed chiefly of moss or grass, with an inner bed of dry
materials, which are generally oak or beech leaves, though in India
sometimes ferns and roots. It is affixed to rock-faces, ledges, or boulders
in streams, placed in crevices of masonry, or even built in holes in the
soil or in débris caught on bushes, common situations being behind
water-falls, under bridges, or beside mill-wheels. _C. albicollis_ seems to
make an open fabric in Italy. From four to seven dull white eggs are laid
very early in the season, two or even three sets being often
produced–occasionally in the same nest. This the young sometimes leave by
the end of March, being able to swim before they are fully fledged.

{521}Fam. IX. TROGLODYTIDAE.–The Wrens have their headquarters in Tropical
America, but even reach Greenland, Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands.
Four genera with some eight species inhabit the Himalayas, the hills of
West China, the Burmese countries, Sumatra and Java; while _Troglodytes_,
including the common Wren, occupies most of the Palaearctic and Nearctic
Regions. An altitude of eleven thousand feet is attained in certain cases.

The bill is generally moderate, slender, and somewhat arched; being,
however, stouter and almost hooked in _Thryothorus_ and _Campylorhynchus_,
much elongated in _Catherpes_, _Salpinctes_, and _Microcerculus_, high and
compressed in _Cyphorhinus_, remarkably conical, straight, and pointed in
_Sphenocichla_. The maxilla may be notched, but rictal bristles are almost
entirely absent. The long robust metatarsi are scutellated anteriorly,
except in _Pnoëpyga_; _Salpinctes_ shews scales behind; _Cistothorus_ has a
very large hind claw. The wings are rounded and concave; the tail is
usually short and graduated, though it is exceptionally long in
_Cinnicerthia_, _Sphenocichla_, and _Urocichla_, and is hardly visible in
three species of _Pnoëpyga_. The last-named genus has only six rectrices,
_Urocichla_ has ten. The coloration is ordinarily brown, with a great
tendency to barring; spots, stripes, and streaks are not uncommon;
chestnut, bay, orange, and grey often relieve the dulness; _Troglodytes
formosus_, _Catherpes_, and _Henicorhina_ exhibit white spots above or even
below; and two species of _Microcerculus_ have a white alar bar.

[Illustration: FIG. 114.–Wren. _Troglodytes parvulus._ × 4/7.]

Wrens frequent marshy, as well as dry or rocky localities, being familiar
and yet wary; they habitually hop about with upturned tails, fly sharply
from cover to cover, and hunt for insects, their larvae, and spiders, among
fallen leaves, in crevices of rocks, and so forth, while they occasionally
eat worms, small molluscs, crustaceans, and seeds. The characteristic note
is shrill and Warbler-like, though harsher sounds accompany it, but
_Cyphorhinus cantans_, the {522}Organ-bird of the Amazons, _Troglodytes
domesticus_ (_aedon_), _Microcerculus_, and other American forms utter
melodious flute-like strains. The nest is usually a domed structure of
ferns, grass, moss, leaves, or even twigs, often lined with hair or
feathers, which is placed in bushes, hedges, cacti, reeds, and cavities of
masonry, or on trees, rocks, banks, and the like; _Salpinctes_,
_Catherpes_, _Urocichla_ and sometimes _Pnoëpyga_ make no covering;
_Campylorhynchus_ fashions a large purse-like structure, with a long
passage for entrance. The eggs vary in number from three to nine, and are
white, with or without spots or freckles of red, purplish, or brownish; in
_Thryophilus pleurostictus_ they are said to be blue.

Fam. X. CHAMAEIDAE.–This contains only _Chamaea fasciata_ and _C. henshawi_
of California, which by various American authorities have been referred to
the Wrens or the Tits, though not agreeing closely with either. This is the
only _Family_ of land birds peculiar to the Nearctic Region. In both sexes
the lax plumage is brown above and buffish below, with faint tail-bars and
pectoral streaks; the bill is short, straight, and compressed, and is
furnished with rictal bristles; the metatarsi are stout and nearly smooth;
the wings are rounded and concave; the tail is graduated. _Chamaea_
inhabits dry plains and bushy hill-sides, flits about or searches for
insects with elevated tail, utters a Wren-like trill, and builds a nest of
twigs and grass in low bushes, adding hair or feathers to the lining, and
laying three or four pale greenish-blue eggs.

Fam. XI. HIRUNDINIDAE.–The Swallows and Martins compose a well-defined
cosmopolitan Family, certainly far removed from the Swifts (p. 420), with
which they used to be joined. The latter have ten tail-feathers, and hardly
any scutellation on the legs, the former twelve rectrices, and an
anteriorly scutellated metatarsus. The bill is short, broad, and usually
much depressed, being notched at the tip and split nearly to the eyes. The
feet are very small and weak, with the middle digit more or less adherent
to its neighbours; _Tachycineta_ has a stoutish hallux, _Chelidon_
feathered toes, and _Cotile riparia_ a tuft at the back of the metatarsus.
The wings are extremely long and pointed, while the exterior margin of the
outer primary has hooked barbs in the males of _Psalidoprocne_ and
_Stelgidopteryx_. The tail varies in length, and is often very deeply
forked, _Petrochelidon_, _Stelgidopteryx_, _Chelidon dasypus_ and
_Psalidoprocne_ nitens having it {523}exceptionally square; while the
lateral feathers may be almost linear, as in _Hirundo rustica_, or even
wire-like, as in _H. smithii_.

_Chelidon_ is purplish- or bluish-black, or brown, having a white rump
occasionally barred with black, and white or buffish under parts;
_Tachycineta_ is similar, or greener and somewhat bronzy, in certain cases
lacking the white rump, in others shewing white mottlings above. _Hirundo_
is glossy metallic black, with a variable amount of chestnut or rufous on
the head, rump, or lower surface; the last of these regions exhibiting much
white or having a black pectoral band, while streaky markings are not
uncommon. _Cheramoeca_ is blue, black, white, and brown above, and white
below with a black breast-patch; _Procne_ is either entirely blue-black or
has some white beneath, _P. tapera_ alone being brown, with a longitudinal
band of the same colour on the white lower surface. _Atticora_ is
blue-black or greenish above, black and white or brown underneath;
_Petrochelidon_ is steel-blue with concealed white striations, the
forehead, nape, rump, and most of the lower surface being chestnut, rufous,
or buff, with or without stripes; _Psalidoprocne_ is uniform blue,
green-black, or sooty, _P. albiceps_ having a white crown and chin.
_Cotile_, _Phedina_, and _Stelgidopteryx_ are dull brown above, the first
being white, grey, brown, or rufous below, the second white with
longitudinal brown streaks, and the third white and rufous with yellow
middle to the breast and abdomen in two species. The plumage of most
Swallows is very metallic, and white spots are often prominent on the tail
feathers in _Hirundo_, _Chelidon_, _Cotile_, and _Petrochelidon_. The
female is duller than the male in _Procne_ only.

The range of _Hirundo_ and _Cotile_ is practically worldwide, reaching from
beyond the Arctic Circle in summer to South Africa, India, and Brazil in
winter, not to mention resident southern species; no Swallow, however,
occurs in New Zealand, nor is _Cotile_ found in the Australian Region. Four
species of _Petrochelidon_ are found in America, two in Southern Africa,
two in the Australian Region, and one in India–a remarkable distribution.
_Psalidoprocne_, _Phedina_, and _Cheramoeca_ are Ethiopian, Mascarene (with
Madagascar), and Australian respectively: _Tachycineta_ and _Procne_ extend
over the New World from its Arctic portions to Patagonia, _Atticora_ from
that country to Guatemala, _Stelgidopteryx_ from Canada and British
Columbia to Bolivia and Brazil. _Chelidon_ is confined to the Old World,
migrating in autumn to Central {524}Africa, Borneo, and Burma. The summer
migrants to Britain are _Hirundo rustica_, the Swallow, _Chelidon urbica_,
the Martin, and _Cotile riparia_, the Sand-Martin. Swallows traverse
immense distances on their periodical journeys, while all perhaps shift
their quarters to some extent for the winter.

[Illustration: FIG. 115.–Swallow. _Hirundo rustica._ × ½.]

Hardly any sort of country comes amiss to these birds, though the
neighbourhood of water is preferred, and for some species seems necessary.
Spending their life chiefly in the air and alighting comparatively little,
they rapidly dart, twist, double, sail aloft, or skim the water's surface
in company, at times chasing each other in sport or even fighting savagely.
Insects, which form the whole of their sustenance, are habitually taken on
the wing, and the young are sometimes fed, or building materials snatched
up, in full flight. A few species not uncommonly perch on trees, as
_Hirundo rustica_, _Tachycineta albiventris_, _Petrochelidon nigricans_,
_Psalidoprocne nitens_ and _Procne tapera_; the last-named, moreover, is
exceptional in being non-gregarious, while it flits about with depressed
wings and slow butterfly-like flight when not hawking. The majority are
rarely seen on the ground, unless they are procuring mud for nidification;
but many roost on reeds or in their nests, and just before migration they
settle in crowds on branches, fences, wires, and ridges of roofs.
_Hirundo_, _Chelidon_, and _Psalidoprocne_ bask in the sun on gravelly
places. The twitter or warble of Swallows–uttered on the wing or at
rest–and their squeaks of anger or alarm, are well-known; the scream of
_Procne_ and the chirp of _Stelgidopteryx_ being somewhat exceptional; when
excited, however, the bill is not uncommonly snapped noisily. The nest may
be cup-shaped as in our Swallow, _Cotile rupestris_, _C. fuligula_, and
{525}_C. concolor_, and made of agglutinated pellets of mud with a lining
of straw, chaff, leaves, or feathers; it may be similarly constructed but
semi-ovate, with a hole near the top, as in the Martin; or retort-shaped
with a tube for entrance at the side, as in several members of the genera
_Hirundo_ and _Petrochelidon_: in these cases it may be placed inside
buildings, under eaves, against rocks or walls. _Procne_–when not
accommodated with a box–some species of _Tachycineta_, _Petrochelidon
nigricans_, and other forms, not uncommonly prefer holes in trees, lining
them as usual, if at all; while many species of _Cotile_, _Psalidoprocne_,
and _Cheramoeca_ tunnel in banks, or, more rarely, choose holes in masonry.
_Procne furcata_ utilizes the holes of _Conurus patachonius_; _P. tapera_
the nests of _Furnarius rufus_ in Argentina; _Tachycineta leucorrhous_
occasionally that of _Anumbius_; _Atticora cyanoleuca_ that of the
Dendrocolaptine _Geositta_, itself within that of a biscacha. The eggs are
from four to seven in number, generally pure white in Martins, and whitish
with reddish-brown, grey, and lilac markings in Swallows; but the cases are
occasionally reversed. Two or even three broods are reared in a season, and
tended with the greatest care. Colonies are frequently formed, especially
by Bank- and Cliff-Swallows. In Britain the Sand-Martin arrives first, but
the Swallow comes early in April, while individuals have even been obtained
in winter.

Fam. XII. CAMPEPHAGIDAE.–The "Cuckoo-Shrikes" are commonly placed near the
_Laniidae_, but are possibly connected with the _Muscicapidae_ or the
_Corvidae_. The bill is usually strong, and of moderate length, being
hooked, arched, and wide at the base; it is especially stout in
_Artamides_, decidedly weaker in _Campephaga_, long and thin in
_Edoliisoma_. The metatarsus may be elongated and comparatively robust as
in _Pteropodocys_, _Lalage_, and _Symmorphus_, or short and less powerful,
as in _Pericrocotus_; the wings are normally long and pointed, and more
particularly so in _Pericrocotus_, _Lalage_, _Symmorphus_, and _Graucalus_.
The tail is also fairly long, and frequently rounded, though it may be
forked, as in _Pteropodocys_, and to a less extent in _Campechaera_, or
graduated as in _Pericrocotus_, _Campephaga_, and _Graucalus_. The plumage
is soft, with characteristically stiff shafts on the lower back; the
nostrils are nearly concealed by the feathers; the rictal bristles are
feeble. The usual coloration is either bluish-grey with a certain amount of
black and white, or chiefly black and white. The black has generally a
purplish or {526}a greenish gloss; while barring occurs occasionally in the
cocks, and much more commonly in the hens, where the tints are duller, the
grey lighter, and the hue in some cases brown or even rufous. The Mascarene
_Oxynotus_ is almost unique among Birds in having the males of the two
species alike, the females very different. Shaft-streaks on the feathers
are fairly frequent; two species of _Lalage_ have a chestnut lower surface,
and one the rump similar; while _Symmorphus_ is either brown above and
whitish below, or black and white with buff rump and under parts.
_Campechaera_ is green and golden-yellow in both sexes, but shews some
black, white, and grey as well; _Lobotus_ is olive-yellow with dark green
head and throat, orange-chestnut rump and breast, greenish tail, and an
orange lobe at the gape. _Pericrocotus_ is usually black, adorned with
lovely scarlet, crimson, orange, or yellow markings, and with a little
white, but two species lack the brilliant tints, and others replace the
black by brown or grey; the females in this genus usually have yellow where
the males have red, though they also shew red in two cases. Three African
species of _Campephaga_ vary from the ordinary grey or blackish coloration
in being glossy bluish-black, with scarlet, orange, and yellow
shoulder-patches respectively, and one in being steel-green, with purple
face and neck, and steel-blue lower surface. In these forms the females
have yellow markings. Finally, _Graucalus azureus_ is azure and black, with
a shade of cobalt.

The restless and active members of this Family are generally seen in small
flocks in wooded country, gardens, orchards, and hedge-rows. They are found
up to an altitude of ten thousand feet throughout the Ethiopian, Indian,
and Australian Regions, and even reach Amurland; _Graucalus_ inhabits all
three Regions, but _Oxynotus_ is peculiar to Mauritius and Réunion. The
flight is easy, undulating, and strong, though of brief duration; while the
birds hop and frisk about the branches, or move briskly from tree to tree,
as they examine the crevices of the bark or the leaves, and occasionally
pluck the fruit. They may occasionally be noticed darting to the earth to
secure caterpillars, of which they are extremely fond, or sallying into the
air after insects, like Flycatchers. _Pericrocotus_ is said to hang to the
boughs like a Tit; _Pteropodocys_ lives chiefly on the ground. The mellow
and lively notes are of a whistling or twittering nature, varied by jarring
sounds; but all the species are rather silent. The nest, {527}composed of
twigs and grass, or of moss and leaves, is usually very shallow, and is
covered with lichens and spiders' webs; it is placed on slender branches of
trees, or more rarely in bushes. The two to five Shrike-like eggs are
brownish, whitish, or apple-green, with markings of brown, rufous, or
purple. Those of the isabelline-coloured _Hypocolius ampelinus_, which
possibly belongs to the Ampelidae, are white with plumbeous spots.

[Illustration: FIG. 116.–Grey "Coly-Shrike." _Hypocolius ampelinus._ ×
5/12. (From _Nature_.)]

Fam. XIII. DICRURIDAE.–The Drongos, usually associated with the _Laniidae_,
range throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian regions, as far east
as New Britain and New Ireland {528}(_Dicranostreptus_). _Chibia bracteata_
is the only species in Australia, while _Buchanga leucogenys_ is said to
reach Japan; _B. waldeni_ is peculiar to Mayotte, and _Edolius forficatus_
to Madagascar and Joanna Island. Both sexes are typically black, with a
metallic gloss of blue, purple, or green, though a few are greyer or
browner, or have a little white below. The variable bill is usually large
and more or less curved, with a hooked tip, a notched maxilla, and fairly
strong rictal bristles–much developed in _Chaetorhynchus_. The metatarsi
are short, the toes small, the wings long. The tail has only ten rectrices,
and is generally very deeply forked, though less so in _Dicrurus_,
_Chibia_, and _Chaetorhynchus_. In _Chibia_ the two outer feathers are
slightly elongated and turned up, in _Dissemuroïdes_ they are produced and
recurved at the tip, in _Dicranostreptus_ they are extraordinarily
lengthened and turned to face one another. In _Bhringa_ and _Dissemurus_
the long bare shafts terminate in racquets, and have a twist that brings
the upper side inwards in the former, and one in the racquet itself in the
latter. On the forehead a large, erect tuft occurs in _Edolius_, a still
more extensive recurved crest in _Dissemurus_, a bunch of long, silky hairs
in _Chibia hottentotta_. A few similar hairs are found in _C. pectoralis_,
and scanty plumes in _C. bimaënsis_; _Dissemuroïdes_ having the one or the
other. Various species exhibit a tendency to lanceolate hackles on the head
and neck, while the feathers of the former are scaly-looking in
_Chaetorhynchus_. The bill and feet are black; the eyes red, white, or
brown.

[Illustration: FIG. 117.–Drongo. _Dissemurus paradiseus._ × 2/9.]

These wary, active birds frequent gardens, open country, and forests up to
at least eight thousand feet, more usually in pairs {529}than in companies;
their flight is strong and rapid, but undulating and not sustained, while
they are often seen perched on bushes or exposed branches, and occasionally
hover like a Kestrel. The song or whistle is ringing and melodious, varied
by harsh chattering or creaking sounds; the food consists of insects of all
kinds, which are captured on the ground, on leaves or flowers, on the backs
of cattle, or at times upon the wing, individuals often returning to their
perches like Flycatchers. Drongos are good mimics, fight viciously, and are
very courageous, mastering even Hawks and Crows. The nest is a shallow cup
of twigs, roots, leaves, fine grass, lichens, hair, and cobwebs, often so
slight that the contents can be seen from below: it is usually woven into a
horizontal fork like that of an Oriole, but may be fixed among bamboos, and
often overhangs water. The eggs, rarely more than three or four in number,
are sometimes plain white, but usually pink, buff, or white, with red,
brown, claret, purplish, or grey spots and blotches. Not uncommonly a
second set is found in a nest whence the first has been taken. A curious
instance of "unconscious mimicry" is that of _Buchanga atra_ and the Indian
Cuckoo _Surniculus dicruroïdes_, the plumage being exactly the same, though
the feet distinguish them at once.

Fam. XIV. AMPELIDAE.–In this group most forms have a short, depressed bill,
though it is longer with bristly gape in _Phaenoptila_, and stouter in
_Dulus_; they have abbreviated metatarsi, not scutellated in _Phaenoptila_;
the wings are long and pointed in _Ampelis_, shorter and roundish
elsewhere; the tails vary from short and even in _Ampelis_ to long and
rounded in _Phaenopepla_, or cuneate with elongated median feathers in
_Ptilogenys caudatus_.

Both sexes of our irregular winter-visitor the Waxwing (_Ampelis garrulus_)
are silky greyish-brown, with blackish wings, and tail relieved by yellow
and white; a black forehead, eye-stripe, and throat; chestnut under
tail-coverts and basal margin of the erectile crest; and, in the adults,
flattened wax-like tips to the shafts of the secondaries or even the
rectrices. The young are streaked below. Breeding near the Arctic Circle,
and changing its quarters erratically, it occurs in the New as well as in
the Old World, while in winter it migrates southwards to at least lat. 43°
N. The flight is easy, graceful, and often high; the notes are of a
trilling or of a chirping nature; the food consists of insects, berries,
and other fruit. The nest of twigs and fibrous lichens, or {530}of grass
and bark, is placed on firs or birches, and contains from five to seven
purplish-grey or drab eggs, with spots of black, brown, or lilac. The
smaller North American _A. cedrorum_ lacks the yellow and white on the
wing; _A. phoenicoptera_, of Japan, North China, and East Siberia, has red,
but not wax-like, tips to the remiges and rectrices.

_Dulus dominicus_, of San Domingo, is dark brown, varied with greenish and
yellow, the yellowish-white lower surface shewing broad brown streaks.
Several pairs often join their nests of twigs into a circular mass.
_Phaenoptila melanoxantha_, of the Costa Rican hill-valleys, is glossy
black, having an olive rump-band, and similarly coloured under parts with
yellow sides and grey middle. The female is olive above with black crown.
_Phaenopepla nitens_, of Mexico and the Southern United States, is
bluish-black, with white on the primaries and vent-region; it has an
erectile occipital crest. The hen is dark grey, with brown abdomen and a
different distribution of white. This shy, active bird has the graceful
movements of a Flycatcher, with a habit of jerking the tail; the song is
plaintive or whistling; the food consists of insects and fruit. The flat
nest, of fibres, grass, and down, contains from two to five greyish eggs,
speckled with brownish-black and neutral tints: _Ptilogenys cinereus_, of
the highlands of Central America, is plumbeous, with black remiges, black
and white rectrices, loose broad lavender crest-plumes, and yellow under
tail-coverts and flanks; the female is chiefly brown.

[Illustration: FIG. 118.–Waxwing. _Ampelis garrulus._ × ⅓. (From _Bird Life
in Sweden_.)]

Fam. XV. ARTAMIDAE.–The "Wood-Swallows" constitute a group of very doubtful
position, ranging from the Australian to the Indian Region and in one case
(_Pseudochelidon_) to West Africa. In the last-named the bill is broad, but
elsewhere it is {531}long, pointed, and slightly curved, with wide gape.
The metatarsi are short and strong; the wings are much elongated; the tail
is short and occasionally emarginate, with soft, exserted shafts to the
rectrices in _Pseudochelidon_, which is glossy greenish-black with red beak
and feet. _Artamus_, where powder-down patches occur on the sides, thighs,
and lower back, exhibits black, brown, rufous, or grey tints, relieved by
white–especially below, or towards the tip of the tail; the bill is blue
with black extremity, the feet are greyish. The sexes hardly differ.

These woodland birds often float nearly motionless in the air, occasionally
moving ahead with a few strokes of the wing; at other times they wheel and
twist about like Swifts. They hawk for insects, or sally after them from
their perches, feeding also upon the ground, on the larvae and on seeds.
Congregating like Swallows, they have in Australia a curious habit of
hanging in ball-like masses from the branches; the note is plaintive or
chirping. The nests, often found in close proximity, are placed in forks of
trees, on their side-shoots, in holes, behind loose bark, in deserted
habitations of other birds, or in bushes; the outer materials being twigs
and grass, those of the lining fibres and feathers. From two to four white,
greenish, or flesh-coloured eggs are deposited, spotted and streaked with
umber, red-brown, grey, lilac, or occasionally black.

Fam. XVI. LANIIDAE.–Few Families are more difficult to define than this. A
typical Shrike is easily recognised; but such forms as _Pachycephala_ and
_Hemipus_ are closely connected with the _Muscicapidae_; _Calicalicus_ and
_Neolestes_ with the _Pycnonotidae_; _Gymnorhina_ and its allies with the
_Corvidae_; while some authors include the _Campephagidae_. Dr. Gadow[287]
recognises five Sub-families: (1) _Gymnorhininae_, (2) _Malaconotinae_, (3)
_Pachycephalinae_, (4) _Laniinae_, and (5) _Vireoninae_; but the last-named
is here allowed Family rank, while _Prionopinae_ is admitted in its place.

The bill is stout, notched, and often strongly hooked, while it is either
curved or straight; in _Falcunculus_ it is more than usually compressed, in
_Rhectes_ the maxilla has the edge finely serrated, in _Xenopirostris_ the
mandible is upcurved, leaving a distinct gap above it. In the
_Gymnorhininae_ the culmen is long, straight, and slightly rounded, with
slit-like nostrils near {532}the middle. The variable metatarsus is very
strong in the larger forms, and much weaker in the _Prionopinae_; it is
perhaps shortest in the _Malaconotinae_, where–as in all the Family–the
scutes tend more or less to fuse. In _Calicalicus_ and _Nicator_ the basal
joints of the third and fourth toes are united. The wings–usually
moderate–may be very long and pointed, as in _Gymnorhina_ and _Pityriasis_,
or abbreviated and much rounded, as in _Telephonus_ and _Laniarius_; the
rather short tail is rarely emarginate, but frequently has acuminate
feathers; while it may be square or rounded, or at times graduated, as in
_Laniarius_, _Laniellus_, _Paeoptera_, _Telephonus_, _Ptererythrius_, some
species of _Lanius_, and still more _Urolestes_, where the two median
rectrices are exceptionally elongated. _Falcunculus_ and _Oreoeca_ have
well-developed erectile crests; _Rhectes_, _Sigmodus_, _Pseudorhectes_, and
_Melanorhectes_ also exhibit lengthened head-plumes; _Platylophus_ has
these feathers broad and extraordinarily long; while _Prionops_ has in
addition frontal feathers overhanging the nostrils. _Pityriasis_ has a bare
yellow crown, the ear-coverts and lower throat being covered by brown
bristles with red bases: _Leptopterus_, _Prionops_, and _Sigmodus_ have a
fleshy wattle round the eye. Rictal and nasal hairs may be highly developed
or absent. The sexes are generally similar, except in the Pachycephalinae,
and to some extent in the Prionopinae.

Sub-fam. 1. _Gymnorhininae._–The remarkable red and black _Pityriasis
gymnocephala_ inhabits Borneo; the black and white _Gymnorhina_ Australia,
with Tasmania; the black, white, and grey _Strepera_ the same countries,
_Cracticus_ Papuasia also. _Gymnorhina_ and _Cracticus_ have the beak
bluish-white. _Strepera_ occurs in parties in open wooded districts or
swamps, feeding chiefly upon the ground on insects, their larvae, and a
little fruit; while it runs, hops, or leaps from branch to branch with
great agility, but generally flies low and feebly. It is a bold bird with a
shrill, ringing, oft-repeated cry. The nest, as large as that of a Crow, is
placed in the fork of a low tree, and is formed of sticks and twigs with a
lining of bark, grass, leaves, wool, or hair; three or four pale chocolate-
or reddish-brown eggs, with faint red or lilac markings, being deposited.
_Gymnorhina_, the Piping Crow, resembles _Strepera_ in habits, though its
single, clear notes are somewhat different, and it can be taught to whistle
or mimic. _G. hyperleuca_ of Tasmania is called the Organ-bird, as
_Cyphorhinus_ (p. 522) is in Amazonia. The eggs vary from brown to whitish,
{533}bright green, or sky blue, with smears, dashes, spots, or freckles of
lilac and brown. The shy _Cracticus_ is more arboreal, and eats mice, young
birds, lizards, and even crabs, in addition to insects, upon which _C.
destructor_ darts like a Flycatcher, impaling its prey subsequently after
the fashion of a Shrike. The cry in this genus bears a general resemblance
to that of the above forms; the eggs are equally variable, and may have
zonal markings.

Sub-fam. 2. _Malaconotinae_.–These African and Indian birds are commonly
black, white, and chestnut; _Laniarius_, however, is chiefly red, green,
and yellow; _Nicator_, _Neolestes_, and several species of _Ptererythrius_
shew much yellow and green; while _Artamia leucocephala_ is greenish-black,
and _A. bicolor_ chiefly cobalt, both having the head and under parts
white. The feathers of the back are very broad, soft, and fluffy. _Vanga_,
_Artamia_, _Xenopirostris_, and _Calicalicus_ are peculiar to Madagascar;
unless _Clytorhynchus pachycephaloïdes_ of New Caledonia and the New
Hebrides be referred to _Xenopirostris_. Between _X. polleni_ and _Tylas
eduardi_ (Pycnonotidae) a most curious instance of "unconscious mimicry"
exists. The retiring members of this Sub-family are commonly seen hopping
or climbing about thick undergrowth in search of insects and their larvae,
or hunting for worms and spiders on the ground; they run well and fly
fairly, while some forms, as _Dryoscopus cubla_ and _D. rufiventris_, puff
out their feathers until the body resembles a black and white ball. The
voice of _Laniarius rubiginosus_ has been compared to that of a
Nightingale, and other species utter ringing notes, sweet or melancholy
whistles, or at times loud, discordant cries or "churrs." The nest–where
known–consists of twigs, grass, wool, hair, and feathers, and contains from
three to five greenish-white eggs with brown spots; it is placed in a bush,
or among close-growing plants. The male occasionally incubates.

Sub-fam. 3. _Pachycephalinae_.–This group, which extends from most of
Polynesia and Australia to Tenasserim and the Great Sunda Islands, shews
brown, black, white, grey, yellow, and olive hues, the yellow being
somewhat characteristic. The majority of the members hop actively about
leafy trees, or search the ground for insects, their larvae, and berries;
_Falcunculus_ takes short, quick flights, clings to the boughs like a Tit,
and often tears off the bark; while _Pachycephala simplex_ prefers swampy
ground, and behaves like a Flycatcher. Some species have a low, mournful,
reiterated note, others a continuous whistle, often ending with a
{534}smacking sound, others again have a sweet song. The nest of
_Pachycephala_ is a neat, though sometimes frail, cup of twigs, roots, and
grasses, often placed on horizontal boughs, and containing three or four
creamy or brownish eggs, with scattered or zonal umber markings and a few
lilac spots; _Falcunculus_ usually selects a gum-tree, and uses bark,
grass, and cobwebs, laying two or three elongated whitish eggs, with olive,
black, and greyish dots or lines; those of _Oreoeca_ are bluer.

[Illustration: FIG. 119.–Great Grey Shrike. _Lanius excubitor._ × 5/13.]

Sub-fam. 4. _Laniinae._–The Shrikes proper extend over the Palaearctic,
Indian, and Ethiopian Regions, and alone of the Family occur in the New
World, _Lanius borealis_ and _L. ludovicianus_ inhabiting North America.
The lax plumage is either black, grey, and white, or is varied with rich
red-brown. _Urolestes_ has the feathers of the crown and neck lanceolate,
and those of the sides long and fluffy; _Laniellus_ is exceptional in being
spotted. The young are browner, and are often transversely barred below, a
fact also true of the _Gymnorhininae_. In the large genus _Lanius_ are
included all the British Butcher-Birds, _L. excubitor_, _L. minor_, _L.
pomeranus_, _L. collurio_, the Great Grey, Lesser Grey, Woodchat {535}and
Red-backed Shrikes, of which only the last-named breeds in our island. The
Sub-family contains many of these quarrelsome, rapacious birds, often seen
perched on the tops of bushes, or chasing each other along the hedge-rows.
The flight is strong and rapid, but undulating and brief; the food, which
may be taken on the wing, or procured upon the ground, consists of small
mammals and birds, insects, snakes, lizards, frogs, or even crabs and
fruit, the creatures not devoured at once being impaled on thorns or spiky
leaves. The larders are usually near the nest, which is a bulky mass of
twigs, grass, and the like, with a softer lining, placed in a thick bush or
fairly high up a tree; the four to seven eggs vary from green to
reddish-buff or whitish, and are spotted, blotched, and generally zoned,
with brown, red, olive, green, or a little grey. Sometimes the male
incubates. The usual note is harsh and grating, but shriller cries or
sweeter songs are not uncommon, while certain species are good mimics.
Pellets of the indigestible portions of the food are ejected after eating,
as in Birds of prey, and elsewhere.

Sub-fam. 5. _Prionopinae._–The "Wood-Shrikes" are usually dull in colour,
though some have the normal browns, greys, and blacks relieved by bright
chestnut, fawn, or yellowish-white, and several are black and white, or
uniform black. They frequent trees and bushes, and eat molluscs and fruit;
but live chiefly upon insects captured on the branches or on the ground, if
not by darting into the air from a perch. Their flight, rapid but short, is
commonly performed with quivering wings; they hop easily upon the ground;
while their notes take the form of a rather pleasing Thrush-like song or a
harsh chatter. The slight, loose nest, built in a low fork, in the hollow
of a stump, or even on a rocky ledge, is made of moss, grass, bark, roots,
wool, feathers, lichens, cobwebs, or downy seeds; the three eggs being
white, greenish, or buff, often with brown, black, and grey blotches,
dashes, freckles, or zones.

_Grallina_, the "Magpie-Lark" of Australia and New Guinea, doubtfully
placed here, possesses vocal organs abnormal for an Oscinine bird.[288]
Graceful and tame, it frequents homesteads, stream-sides, and swamps,
having a heavy, flapping flight, uttering a shrill, plaintive whistle, and
plastering a nest of mud and grass on some horizontal bough. The three or
four eggs are white or pinkish, marked or zoned with red, brown, and lilac.

The Helmet-bird of Madagascar (_Euryceros prevosti_), a purplish-black
{536}and chestnut species, with a compressed, swollen and hooked steel-blue
beak exhibiting a pearly interior, should perhaps stand in a separate
Family, _Eurycerotidae_, and not with the Shrikes.

Fam. XVII. VIREONIDAE.–The small group of "Greenlets" ranges from Winnipeg
and Nova Scotia to Argentina. The compressed or depressed beak varies from
stout and strongly hooked, as in _Vireolanius_ and _Cyclorhis_, to small
and comparatively weak as in _Hylophilus_; both mandibles being notched,
and the gape bristly. The metatarsi are usually short and robust with
slightly united anterior toes, but are longer and more feeble in _Vireo_;
the wings may be elongated and pointed, as in _Vireosylvia_, or abbreviated
and roundish, as in _Vireo_ and _Neochloe_; the tail is normally short and
even, with narrow feathers, but is rounded in _Neochloe_. The frontal
feathers are somewhat erect. The coloration is olive, or green and grey
above–with a black, brown, ashy, or reddish cap–and is grey, whitish, or
yellow beneath; the wing frequently exhibits white bands, and the head
white, dusky, or rufous stripes. White or yellow orbital rings occur in
_Lanivireo_, a red-brown tail in _Hylophilus ochraceiceps_, a blue crown in
_Vireolanius pulchellus_, a chestnut pectoral band in _V. melitophrys_. The
bill and feet are sometimes red; the eyes white, red, or yellow. The sexes
frequently differ in colour.

These active and fearless birds inhabit forests up to an altitude of ten
thousand feet, as well as ravines, swamps, or even streets of towns; they
are usually observed in pairs among the higher branches of trees, creeping
and hanging to the twigs, or chasing one another about in play. Seldom do
they seek the ground, but they take fairly long flights, and dart out after
passing insects, which, with the larvae and a few berries and seeds, form
the diet. The continuous song consists of loud, reiterated, flute-like
notes, supposed in one case to resemble "Whip-Tom-Kelly"; some forms also
utter harsher chirps or mews. The nest, a deep, firm cup of leaves, grass,
bark, lichens, spiders'-webs and cottony materials, lined with fibres,
fir-needles, delicate stems, or rarely down, is supported by some
horizontal fork, over which the rim is commonly turned; the four or five
eggs are white, generally spotted with red-brown, black, or purplish.

Fam. XVIII. SITTIDAE.–The Nuthatches, though closely allied to the
_Paridae_, show a certain affinity to the _Certhiidae_ (p. 571). Typically
they are stout little birds with long, pointed wings, and short nearly
square tails; the bill is fairly long and strong, and is straight and
awl-like, being notched only in _Sitella_ and _Hypositta_, and slightly
upcurved in the former.

{537}[Illustration: FIG. 120.–Nuthatch. _Sitta caesia._ × 4/11. (From
_Natural History of Selborne_.)]

Bristles usually occur at the gape, while the nostrils are concealed by the
same or feathers. The metatarsi are short and powerful, the scutes being
fused in _Hypositta_; the hind toe is unusually developed; the claws are
long, curved, and sharp. The colours in _Sitta_, which ranges over nearly
all the Palaearctic and Indian Regions, and throughout North America to
Mexico, are slaty-blue and rusty-red of various shades, relieved by black
and white; the slaty tints shewing chiefly above, often in combination with
a black or brown cap. _Dendrophila_ and _Callisitta_, of the Indian Region
and Timor, are blue and black, with creamy or ochreous lower parts.
_Sitella_, of Australia and New Guinea, exhibits brown, grey, black,
rufous, and white, often having a white head, or a rusty or white
wing-patch; _Daphoenositta_, of the latter country, adds to these hues pink
at the base of the bill and on the graduated tail; _Hypositta_ of
Madagascar is greenish-blue, with browner head and under surface, and
coral-red bill.

{538}Nuthatches are quiet, non-migratory birds, which frequent forests or
open country with old timber, where they may be seen darting quickly from
tree to tree with undulating flight, or creeping jerkily in Tit-like
fashion up and down the trunks or over rocks. They seldom seek their food
upon the ground, but search every cranny, and dig in rotten wood for
insects, their larvae, and so forth, or collect nuts, acorns, beech-mast,
and seeds; while the nuts are cracked by fixing them in chinks and
hammering them with the whole weight of the body, which swings backwards
and forwards from the hip-joint. In winter they are exceedingly tame. The
spring call is a noisy, querulous "whit-whit," recalling that of the
Wryneck, but sibilant sounds and sweeter cries are not uncommon, few
persons being aware that the British species (_Sitta caesia_) has at least
four sets of notes, one of which is very Thrush-like. _Sitella_ has a weak,
piping voice. In England the nesting-cavity is usually chosen in a tree,
but occasionally in a wall, haystack, or the like; this is commonly lined
with scales from conifer trunks, and the entrance blocked up with a plaster
of clay pierced by a round hole: abroad, however, holes in rocks are often
utilized, and nests made of moss, bark, hair, and feathers. The Indian
species do not always plaster up their holes, and the American apparently
never do so. _Sitella_ forms a curious funnel-shaped nest with a very thin
rim, in forks or on branches, using as materials bark, moss, down, cobwebs,
and lichens, the bark being applied externally like shingles. The three or
four greenish or bluish-white eggs, with blackish, grey, or lilac markings,
are very unlike those of _Sitta_, which are white, with fine pinkish-red
and lilac spots or blotches, and number from five to eight.

Fam. XIX. PARIDAE.–The Tits usually have a moderate and slightly decurved
bill, though it is elongated in _Sphenostoma_ and _Certhiparus_,
abbreviated with roundish outline in _Acredula_, _Psaltria_, and
_Psaltriparus_, more pointed in _Aegithalus_ and _Auriparus_; the maxilla
having little trace of a notch, or the gape of bristles. The metatarsi are
short, except in _Acredula_, where the legs are longer and the scales tend
to fuse; the robust front toes are partially united, and possess strong
claws. The wings are rounded and abbreviated, especially in _Aegithalus_;
the tail varies considerably, being short and nearly square in _Parus_,
long and graduated in _Acredula_ and _Psaltriparus_, intermediate in
_Psaltria_ and _Sphenostoma_, and emarginate in _Aegithalus_. The nostrils,
generally hidden {539}by bristly feathers, are exposed in _Xerophila_ and
_Sphenostoma_. Crests occur in the last-named and at times in _Parus_.

The colour of the soft, lax plumage is commonly dull; but _Parus_ may be
glossy greenish-black and yellow, as in the Sultan-bird (_P. sultaneus_);
black with white on the wings, tail, or lower parts, as in _P. niger_ and a
few other African species; blue and white, with a little black and grey or
a yellow fore-neck, as in _P. cyanus_ and _P. flavipectus_; blue, black,
greenish, yellow, and white, as in the British Great and Blue Tits (_P.
major_ and _P. caeruleus_); olive, brown, or grey, varied with black,
white, chestnut, or buff, as in our Crested Tit (_P. cristatus_); or
lastly, the tints while including but little yellow or blue, as in our Coal
and Marsh Tits (_P. britannicus_ and _P. palustris_), may be greyish or
olive on the back, with a black head, white cheeks, and buffish-white under
parts, the former species having a white nuchal patch. _Psaltria_ is brown,
grey, white, and buff; _Psaltriparus_ is similar; _Xerophila_ and
_Sphenostoma_ are brown, with yellowish-white, buff, or brown and white
lower surface; _Certhiparus_ is red-brown, with a grey nape and dull white
breast. _Acredula_, containing the Long-tailed Tits, is black and white
with a more or less pronounced rosy wash, or may be rufous, or brown and
grey, with pinkish or fawn under parts, two species having chestnut heads.
_Aegithalus_ and _Auriparus_ are rufous-brown, yellow-green, or greyish
above, with black and white, orange-red, or yellow heads; and are commonly
rufous and white, yellow, or whitish below, occasionally with bay marks.
The sexes are very similar, the young often yellower.

[Illustration: FIG. 121.–Great Titmouse. _Parus major._ × ⅝.]

Titmice are ordinarily non-migratory, _Parus_ occupying most of the globe,
except South America and the Australian Region east of Lombok and Flores;
_Psaltria_ is confined to Java, _Acredula_ to the Palaearctic and Indian
countries, _Aegithalus_ to {540}the same with the Ethiopian Region,
_Psaltriparus_ and _Auriparus_ to North America, _Xerophila_ and
_Sphenostoma_ to Australia, _Certhiparus_ to New Zealand.

These familiar birds, active and often noisy, are found in flat or hilly,
open or wooded districts, up to an altitude of ten thousand feet or more.
They are decidedly arboreal, seldom frequenting the ground, and usually
combining into flocks, except when breeding. The food consists mainly of
insects, their eggs, larvae, and pupae, but at times of conifer-seeds,
acorns, beech-mast, nuts, and the like; while in winter a suspended
meat-bone, fat, or crumbs, prove great attractions. No doubt a certain
amount of fruit is eaten in summer, and buds are plucked in spring; but the
latter commonly contain injurious grubs. The Great Tit will kill smaller
birds. The flight is weak and undulating, but on the trees the birds hop,
climb, cling head downwards, and pry into the crannies in most workman-like
style. _Xerophila_ is, however, more terrestrial. The sharp reiterated
notes are varied by sibilant sounds, those of the Blue Tit being fairly
representative; yet some are harsher; others, as in the Long-tailed Tits,
softer; while certain Crested Tits are credited with a song. The nest is
normally a mass of moss–and sometimes grass–with a felted lining of wool,
hair, or fur, containing from five or six to twelve or more white eggs,
which are in most cases spotted or freckled with various shades of red, but
rarely with purplish or chocolate-colour. Sometimes more than one is laid
in a day. The fabric is placed in holes in trees, stumps, rocks, walls, or
the ground; pumps, post-boxes, and so forth are frequently selected: nooks
behind loose bark, deserted habitations of other birds, or the foundations
of those of Hawks and Crows are sometimes chosen; while _Sphenostoma_, and
occasionally _Xerophila_, build open nests in shrubs. _Acredula_,
_Aegithalus_, and _Psaltriparus_ make a purse-shaped structure with an
entrance near the top; the first-named, thence called Bottle-Tit, placing
it in hedges, bushes, undergrowth, forks of trees, or even ivy, and using
as materials, moss, wool, lichens, and cobwebs, with a thick
feather-lining; the two latter generally suspend it to branches and fashion
it of grass, fibres, and leaves, often adding twigs externally or down
internally. _Aegithalus_ occasionally makes a tubular passage. _Auriparus_
deposits in a similar or bulkier nest pale bluish or greenish eggs with
red-brown specks, while those of _Sphenostoma_ are blue with blackish
{541}markings. _Acredula_ apparently incubates with its tail over its back.
The hen's bravery when sitting, her hissing challenge, and her speedy
return when driven off, are characteristic of Tits.

Fam. XX. PANURIDAE.–Family rank is now pretty generally accorded to
_Panurus biarmicus_, the "Bearded Tit" or "Reed-Pheasant," though its
affinities are still doubtful. Dr. Gadow,[289] judging from the internal
structure, inclines to the view that it is akin to the Finches, but others
place it next to the Tits. The bill is short, curved, rather conical, and
without a notch; the metatarsus is long and scutellated anteriorly; the
wings are short and rounded, the tail is extremely long and graduated. The
plumage is orange-brown above, with a grey crown and a black streak from
the lores down the cheeks, where the feathers are elongated and point
backwards; the wings are varied with black and white; the throat is
greyish, the breast pinkish; the abdomen coloured like the back; the under
tail-coverts are black, the bill is yellow. The hen has a buff head, while
she lacks the black "moustache" and under tail-coverts.

[Illustration: FIG. 122.–Reed Pheasant. _Panurus biarmicus._ × ½.]

This pretty species, which ranges through most of Europe, except
Scandinavia and Northern Russia, and reaches Central Asia, may be seen to
advantage on the Norfolk Broads, where it is resident, and still breeds in
diminished numbers. In windy weather the separate pairs keep hidden, but at
other times, though shy, a quiet observer may see them flitting above the
reeds, uttering their clear "ping-ping," or clinging to the flowering tops.
Insects and small molluscs, with seeds in winter, constitute the food. From
April to August a nest of broad grasses, sedges, and the like, lined with
reed-flowers, or exceptionally with vegetable-down, {542}is built in
aquatic herbage, or rarely in moderately high plants, to contain the round
creamy eggs with sparing brownish-black lines and scrawls. These number
from four to eight, or even ten, should two hens lay together. The
alarm-note is plaintive. Towards autumn the adults and young form large
flocks.

[Illustration: FIG. 123.–Golden Oriole. _Oriolus galbula._ × 3/7.]

Fam. XXI. ORIOLIDAE.–The Old World Orioles, not to be confounded with the
so-called "American Orioles" (_Icteridae_), inhabit the Palaearctic,
Indian, and Australian Regions, reaching eastward to Turkestan, China, and
Papuasia. The bill is strong, rather long, straight, and notched, or, in
_Sphecotheres_, curved; the metatarsus is short, the toes are small, the
wings are long, the tail is moderate and slightly rounded. _Sphecotheres_
has naked lores and orbits. The Golden Oriole (_O. galbula_) which breeds
exceptionally in England, is orange-yellow, with black lores and mainly
black wings and tail; the similar Indian Mango-bird (_O. kundoo_), has a
black post-ocular streak; other species shew black napes or heads. _O.
viridis_ and its allies are olive-yellow or brownish, often with dusky
streaks, _O. steerii_ being white beneath with broad black stripes; _O.
cruentus_ is blue-black, with crimson wing-bar and mid-breast; _O. ardens_
chiefly crimson, with black head and fore-neck; _O. trailli_ maroon, with
black head, throat, and wings; _O. hosii_ black, with {543}chestnut under
tail-coverts. The bill is crimson, pinkish, or bluish. _Sphecotheres_ is
yellow-green or olive-yellow, at times brighter below, and is relieved by
black, grey, and white, the orbits being yellowish or flesh-coloured, the
bill blackish.

These shy, restless, and quarrelsome birds frequent gardens, groves, and
mangrove swamps, avoiding the ground, flying heavily but swiftly from tree
to tree, and hopping among the higher branches. They eat insects and fruit;
and utter flute-like notes, varied by mewing calls or "churrs" of alarm.
The nest is a pocket of bark, grass, and fibres, with the rim woven over
two forking twigs–leaves, moss, and hair being occasionally added. The
three to five white or salmon-coloured eggs have dark purplish or
brown-pink spots, and more rarely streaks; those of _Oriolus viridis_ being
more dusky with brown and lilac markings. _Sphecotheres maxillaris_ makes a
shallow nest of twigs, and lays three olive or green eggs, blotched or
zoned with red-brown.[290]

Fam. XXII. PARADISEIDAE.–The Birds of Paradise have no rivals in splendour,
unless it be the Humming-birds, among which, however, there is no such
marvellous development of accessory plumes. They are undoubtedly allied to
the Corvidae, as is evidenced in particular by _Lycocorax_ and _Manucodia_,
while these also connect the more typical forms with the comparatively
plainly garbed Bower-birds, often placed in a separate Family,
_Ptilorhynchidae_. Few species are as large as Crows, and some are not
bigger than Thrushes. Whether known to earlier traders or not, the first
undoubted account of Birds of Paradise published in Europe was that of
Maximilianus Transylvanus (1523), followed by that of Antonio Pigafetta,
both relating to a couple of birds brought by Magellan's company from
Batchian,[291] where they were called Manukdewata, or "Birds of the gods."
Natives when preserving the skins used to cut off the wings and the feet, a
fact which gave rise to absurd stories of Paradise-birds (_Paradisea
apoda_) never perching, gazing perpetually at the sun (_passaros de sol_),
suspending themselves by the tail-feathers, and so forth. The hen was also
said to lay her eggs on the back of her spouse.

{544}[Illustration: FIG. 124.–D'Albertis' Bird of Paradise. _Drepanornis
albertisi._ × ⅖. (From _Nature_).]

The bill is usually short and stout, but is Crow-like in _Manucodia_ and
_Lycocorax_, long and decurved in _Ptilorhis_, _Paryphephorus_,
_Ianthothorax_, _Seleucides_, and _Falcinellus_, and becomes slender and
sickle-shaped in _Drepanornis_; the maxilla is in some cases notched, and
in _Scenopoeetes_ bidentate. The metatarsi are strong and fairly long, the
outer and middle toes are slightly united, and the hallux is large. The
wings are moderate or short, being especially rounded in Bower-birds; the
tail may be enormously elongated and graduated, as in both sexes of
_Falcinellus_, _Astrapia_, and _Paradigalla_; less graduated and shorter,
as in _Drepanornis_; of medium length, {545}and square or rounded, as in
many forms; or much abbreviated, as in _Cicinnurus_. _Astrapia stephaniae_
has the two median rectrices concave and decurved over; those feathers in
the males of _Paradisea_, _Cicinnurus_, _Diphyllodes_, _Schlegelia_,
_Paradisornis_, and _Uranornis_ exhibiting more or less wire-like shafts,
which terminate in large racquets in _Cicinnurus_, smaller discs in
_Paradisornis_. They are broader, convex above, wavy, and horny in
_Uranornis_, and are curled outwardly in _Diphyllodes_ and _Schlegelia_,
while they cross each other twice in the last, but once in _Cicinnurus_.
_Pteridophora_ has an extraordinary streamer behind each eye. That these
however, are by no means the only remarkable developments, will be seen
from the following descriptions of the most striking species, all of which
are confined to Papuasia and Australia, except the Moluccan genera
_Semioptera_ and _Lycocorax_. The feathering often extends over part of the
bill.

_Manucodia_ and _Phonygammus_ are the only Passerine birds known to have a
convoluted trachea.[292]

_Ptilorhis paradisea_, the Rifleman-bird,[293] is velvety-black with a
purple gloss, having the head, throat, and median rectrices green, the
abdomen bronzy; the crown-feathers are scale-like, and the silky
flank-plumes considerably elongated. _P. magnifica_ is somewhat similarly
coloured, with a stiff pectoral shield of metallic green; _Ianthothorax_
and _Paryphephorus_, with erectile nuchal collars, are near allies.
_Seleucides ignotus_ the Twelve-wired Bird of Paradise, which has six long,
recurved and filiform appendages to the lax, projecting feathers of each
side, is black, with purplish head, wings, and tail, bronzy back, broad
erectile breast-plumes margined with emerald, yellow sides and belly.
_Drepanornis albertisi_ is rufous-brown, with green throat and ante-ocular
region, white belly and dusky breast; the sides of the last exhibit
dark-edged bronzy plumes, which can be expanded like a fan, succeeded by
long grey decomposed feathers with lilac margins; and small bluish tufts
surmount the bare orbits and post-ocular region. _Falcinellus speciosus_ is
black with rainbow-like reflexions; the broad plumes of the sides of the
upper breast being banded with metallic blue and green, and having wide
tips which open upwards into a fan; while the long pointed flank-feathers
compose similarly coloured tufts.

{546}[Illustration: FIG. 125.–Long-tailed Bird of Paradise. _Falcinellus
speciosus._ × ⅐. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

_Astrapia nigra_, the Paradise-Pie of old authors, is bronzy-black above
and green below, with golden-green occiput and nape, purplish black throat,
coppery fore-neck, and violet tail, the feathers round the head forming an
erectile frill. _A. stephaniae_ has the head and neck bluer, the breast
purplish-bronze. The smaller _A. splendidissima_ has a more brilliant
nape-region, red fore-neck, and much buff on the tail. _Macgregoria
pulchra_ is black, with mainly orange-buff primaries, and an orange wattle
covering most of the face. _Paradigalla carunculata_ is black, with green
and bronzy sheen above; the front of the head being naked, with three
wattles on each side–one broad and yellow above the bill, another moderate
and blue at the gape, a third small and red below it. _Paradisea apoda_,
the Great Bird of Paradise, is rich brown, becoming purplish beneath; the
head and neck are pale yellow, the forehead, lores, cheeks, and throat
metallic green. The wiry median rectrices have very slight apical and basal
webs, while long, thick, extensile tufts of delicate decomposed
golden-orange feathers, tipped with brown, grace the sides. Of its
congeners, _P. minor_ has the mantle straw-coloured; _P. raggiana_ has a
light yellow gorget, and red lateral plumes like those of _P._
(_Uranornis_) _rubra_, the Red Bird of Paradise. _P._ (_Paradisornis_)
_rudolphi_ is greenish-blue and dusky above, with blackish head, neck, and
under surface, and a purplish occipital patch. From the sides of the body
spring two series of elongated, decomposed feathers; the outer and stiffer
being ultramarine, changing terminally to lilac with a brown external
tinge, the inner smaller and deeper blue. Below these come a row of short
chestnut plumes and finally a set of black. The two long median rectrices
are violet-black with small blue racquet-tips.

{547}[Illustration: FIG. 126.–Magnificent Bird of Paradise. _Diphyllodes
magnifica._ × 3/7. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

_Cicinnurus regius_, the King Bird of Paradise, hardly seven inches long,
is glossy crimson, with a metallic green band dividing the throat from the
white lower parts. An expansible fan of ashy plumes tipped with emerald
arises from each side, while the long median tail-wires have the terminal
green inner webs coiled into discs. The feathering reaches far down the
orange bill; the feet are cobalt, contrasting with the black, yellowish, or
fleshy tints usual in the Family. _Diphyllodes gulielmi tertii_ is
orange-red with mainly dusky wings and tail; the long nuchal ruff being
orange, the lateral neck-tufts purplish-brown, the pectoral shield green
edged with emerald, the long side-plumes brown with green ends, the belly
purple. _D. magnifica_ has a brown head and under surface, green throat and
breast-shield, orange-brown back surmounted by a double cape of
straw-yellow upon red-brown, and long, curved steel-blue tail-wires.
_Schlegelia respublica_ is remarkable for its naked blue head, with two
lines of brown feathers crossing each other at right angles, and for its
blue feet. The upper parts are successively green, yellow, crimson, black,
and brown; the silky gular shield is green, with metallic blue spots above
and coppery marks below; the lateral breast-plumes shew coppery and green
hues. _Parotia sexpennis_, the Six-wired Bird of Paradise, is bronzy- and
purplish-black, having scale-like golden throat- and breast-feathers with
green and blue reflexions. A satiny white {548}patch crosses the forehead;
the occiput is green, blue, and purple, having two lateral tufts, from each
of which spring three wires terminating in small black discs; while large,
soft, erectile masses of black adorn each side of the body. _Semioptera
wallacii_, the Standard-wing, is mouse-coloured, with somewhat bronzy back
and violet head; the pectoral feathers have green edges; the green shield
on the fore-neck extends in lateral tufts to the flanks; and two long,
narrow white plumes, erected at will, adorn the bend of each wing.
_Lophorhina superba_ is black, with blue, green, and bronzy gloss on the
head and neck; the bluish-green breast-shield is prolonged at the sides,
and a metallic black erectile ruff graces the nape. _Lamprothorax_ has
coppery, green, purple, rosy, and brownish hues, and two long blue-green
median rectrices. _Phonygammus jamesi_ is purplish-violet, with blue-green
head, under surface, lanceolate neck-feathers, and acuminate occipital
tufts. The extraordinary _Pteridophora alberti_ possesses a wonderful
streamer behind each eye, twice as long as the body. This has, on the outer
side only, about thirty-seven thin quadrangular enamel-like lobes, which
are light blue with dusky backs. The plumage is black, with olive
rump-region and ochraceous lower parts, the head and neck shewing elongated
plumes.

[Illustration: FIG. 127.–Six-wired Bird of Paradise. _Parotia sexpennis._ ×
⅙. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

_Manucodia atra_ is steel-green and black, with purple reflexions; _M._
(_Eucorax_) _comrii_ has the head and neck-feathers curly, _M. chalybeata_
those of the fore-neck. The Crow-like _Lycocorax pyrrhopterus_ is
greenish-black with brown wings; _Xanthomelus aureus_ is orange-yellow, and
has a deeper-coloured crested head and neck, black throat, tail, and part
of wings and back, and a cape of hackled plumes falling over the last.

Of the Bower-birds, _Prionodura newtoniana_ is bright orange, olive, and
brown; _Cnemophilus macgregori_ is golden-yellow above and black below,
with brownish wings and tail; the thin recurved {549}crest merging into a
compressed frontal ridge, whence chestnut feathering extends over the
culmen. _Loria loriae_ is chiefly purplish-black with an iridescent violet
nasal shield of scale-like feathers. _Loboparadisea sericea_ is
rufous-brown and yellow, with a wattle, apparently bluish, extending
upwards from the gape on each side. _Amblyornis inornata_ and _A.
subalaris_ are respectively olive and reddish-brown, with a huge orange-red
crest. _A. flavifrons_ has the crest yellower. _Sericulus melinus_, the
Regent-bird, is black, with orange head, neck, and most of the remiges;
_Ptilorhynchus violaceus_, the Satin-bird, is purplish-black, with much
feathered culmen; _Scenopoeetes dentirostris_ is olive-brown above, and
fulvous with dusky streaks below. _Aeluredus viridis_, the Cat-bird, not to
be confounded with that of America (p. 519), is bright green, with a blue
wash on the back, and with white streaks, bars, or spots on the nape,
wings, tail, and yellowish under parts. Other species of the genus have
mainly black or brown heads, while some have white throats with black
markings. _Chlamydodera nuchalis_ has grey-brown plumage above with whitish
tips, a lilac nuchal band backed by stiff feathers, and a yellow-grey lower
surface.

[Illustration: FIG. 128.–Satin Bower-bird. _Ptilorhynchus violaceus._ × ⅓.]

Female Paradise-birds generally have brown upper parts with lighter
markings, though they are occasionally blacker, as in _Astrapia_ {550}and
_Paradigalla_; below the colour is rufous, buff, grey, yellowish or white,
with bars, stripes, or chevrons of blackish or brown. In the female of
_Schlegelia_ the bare head is duller than in the male, while a little red
and gold shews above; the hen of _Ptilorhynchus_ exhibits grey-green and
brown tints; the sexes are almost alike in _Phonygammus_, _Manucodia_,
_Lycocorax_, and _Aeluredus_; in _Paradisornis_ the female has blue wings
and tail. Young birds usually resemble their mother; but with regard to
their progress to maturity, the elongation and abrasion of the webs of the
median rectrices, and the growth of the decorative tufts, the works of Mr.
Wallace,[294] Dr. Guillemard,[295] and Mr. Rothschild[296] should be
consulted.

Except in the Bower-birds the habits vary but little. Paradise-birds are
lively and active, shy though curious, taking refuge in the thick foliage
when disturbed; small flocks are not unfrequently observed, usually of one
species, while for considerable periods the males appear to live apart.
Closely wooded hills and ravines are the chief resorts, _Falcinellus_,
_Astrapia_, _Lophorhina_, _Diphyllodes_, and the like preferring the inland
heights of New Guinea up to an altitude of about nine thousand feet;
_Parotia_ of that country and _Scenopoeetes_ of Queensland range to about
four thousand feet; but such forms as _Cicinnurus_, _Xanthomelus_,
_Phonygammus_, _Ptilorhis_, and the Australian Cat-birds and Bower-birds,
occupy lower elevations on the coast or elsewhere. _Falcinellus_,
_Astrapia_, _Paradisea_, _Parotia_, _Ptilorhis_, _Sericulus_, and doubtless
others, love high tree-tops; _Semioptera_, _Cicinnurus_, and so forth, live
nearer to the ground. The brief flight is rapid, though undulating and
often heavy; in _Cicinnurus_ it is noisy, in _Ptilorhis_ the sound produced
resembles the rustling of silk. Most species hop constantly about the
boughs; _Paradigalla_ often rests on dead trees; _Drepanornis_,
_Seleucides_, _Semioptera_, and _Ptilorhis_, search under the bark for
insects, and move about like Creepers. The pugnacious males of _Paradisea_
collect to "dance" on favourite trees at the breeding season, when they fly
about with elevated and vibrating plumes; while in the Family generally the
cock courts the hen in Pigeon-like fashion, _Diphyllodes_ making meanwhile
a complete circle of its expanded mantle- and throat-plumes. _Parotia_
scratches and rolls in the dust like a Fowl.

The voice may be a shrill reiterated "wake-wake," as in _Paradisea_; a
harsh or sonorous cry, as in _Falcinellus_, _Chlamydodera_,
{551}_Phonygammus_, _Ptilorhynchus_, _Sericulus_, _Seleucides_, and
_Semioptera_; a long, grating or triple sound, as in _Ptilorhis_; a mewing
or flute-like note, as in _Cicinnurus_; or a sharp whistle, as in
_Aeluredus_; the last-named and _Amblyornis_ being especially excellent
mimics. The diet consists largely of berries, seeds, fruits of _Pandanus_,
and _Freycinetia_, the fig, nutmeg, and so forth; frogs, lizards, worms,
snails, and caterpillars, however, are also eaten; insects are in great
request; and _Seleucides_ sucks honey from the flowers. The nest and eggs
of several species have now been discovered; the former being a loose, open
fabric of sticks and leaves in _Ptilorhis_, _Ptilorhynchus_, _Sericulus_,
and _Phonygammus_; or of twigs, roots, moss, and grass in _Eucorax_,
_Chlamydodera_, _Prionodura_, _Aeluredus_, and _Drepanornis_; it is placed
in bushes, if not in low or even high trees. The eggs are glossy
reddish-buff, with dark rufous or chestnut blotches and streaks, and a few
black spots, in _Paradisea apoda_, _P. augustae victoriae_, _P. raggiana_,
and _Ptilorhis victoriae_; similar or whiter, often with purplish or
purplish-grey markings in _Eucorax, Manucodia_, and _Drepanornis
cervinicauda_; yellower with additional wavy scrolling in _Ptilorhynchus
violaceus_; yellowish-grey with pale brown freckles and blotches in
_Prionodura newtoniana_; bluish or greenish-white, with or without
red-brown dots and lines, in _Aeluredus maculosus_ and _Ae. viridis_;
greenish-white with a network of narrow brown and black lines in
_Chlamydodera maculata_ and _C. cerviniventris_; pale lavender with sienna
and lilac spots and scrawls in _Sericulus melinus_. The number of eggs
found varies from one to three.

_Parotia lawesi_, _Aeluredus viridis_ and _Scenopoeetes dentirostris_,
though not said to form bowers, make clear spaces where from six to eight
males meet to sport, the last two species decorating them with green or
coloured leaves, berries, and flowers. _Prionodura_ fashions a bower or
play-place of from four to six feet high by eight broad, piling sticks
round two trees and roofing over the intervening space with creepers; white
moss, ferns, and green fruit serving as ornaments. Small structures of
over-arching grass capped with twigs are often observable close by.
_Amblyornis inornata_ heaps a cone of moss round a sapling, leaving a
circular gallery between this and an outer conical cover of sticks two feet
high, covered with orchid sprays. Before the entrance lies a bed of green
moss decked with bright flowers and berries, which are renewed daily, the
withered decorations being piled at {552}the back. _A. subalaris_ fashions
a domed bower of sticks and moss, with one or two openings, round a shrub
which is itself entwined with twigs; the centre of the floor shewing a
cheese-like mass of moss ornamented with flowers and seeds. _Sericulus
melinus_ builds a run about a foot long on a platform of sticks, composing
it of arched twigs and decorating it with shells, berries, and leaves.
_Ptilorhynchus violaceus_ makes a like structure of twigs and grass, which
scarcely meet above, and adorns it with bright feathers; scattering other
feathers, bones, shells, rags, berries, and the like over the space which
Bower-birds habitually clear in front. In _Chlamydodera nuchalis_ the
similar bower, about three feet long, is lined with grasses, a large heap
of ornaments lying before each entrance.

Paradise-birds are shot with blunt arrows, snared, caught in nets, in
cloths, or with bird-lime; they have been kept in captivity by the
Zoological Society of London, and in Italy.

Fam. XXIII. CORVIDAE.–The Crows and their kin compose a fairly uniform
tribe, often divided into the Sub-families _Corvinae_ (Crows), _Garrulinae_
(Magpies and Jays), and _Fregilinae_ (Choughs).

The bill is generally stout and fairly straight, with no distinct notch,
being very strong in _Corvultur_ and _Corvus corax_, but more or less
curved in _Gazzola_, _Microcorax_, _Macrocorax_, _Urocissa_, _Garrulus_,
_Callaeas_ (_Glaucopis_), _Struthidea_, and _Pyrrhocorax_; while in the
last-named and _Heterocorax_ it is exceptionally long and slender, and in
_Nucifraga_ subulate and of diverse proportions. The metatarsus is usually
strong; the wings are long and pointed in Crows and Choughs, shorter in
Jays and Magpies, and decidedly rounded in _Corcorax_, _Callaeas_, and
_Struthidea_. The variable tail is very long and much graduated in _Pica_,
_Cyanopica_, _Urocissa_, _Cryptorhina_, _Dendrocitta_, _Crypsirhina_,
_Cissa_, and _Calocitta_, the two median rectrices often exceeding the
others; but it is usually moderate, though at the same time graduated in
some Jays.

Crests occur in _Cyanocitta_, _Platysmurus_, _Cyanocorax_, _Uroleuca_, and
_Calocitta_, those of the last two being recurved, and _Calocitta_ having
the plumes widened; sometimes the crown-feathers are dense and erectile, as
in _Garrulus_. The head of _Picathartes_ is bare and yellow, with a broad
black patch behind each eye; _Gymnocorax_ shews a large yellowish or
whitish naked space on the face; the adult Rook (_Corvus frugilegus_) has
whitish skin over the forehead, lores, and throat; in _C. pastinator_ the
throat is feathered. _Pica mauritanica_ has a blue, and the yellow-billed
{553}_P. nuttalli_ a yellow, ear-patch; _Cissa_ a fleshy vermilion orbital
outgrowth; _Callaeas_ an orange rictal wattle with blue base in one
species, a blue wattle in the other.

This Family occupies nearly all the globe, except the Australian Region
east of the Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand; while the
members are less plentiful in America, and from Panama to Uruguay only a
few genera akin to the Jay occur. The sexes are similar, the young usually
duller.

True Crows are generally black with a purplish or greenish gloss, and
frequently with white at the base of the feathers; some, however, are
browner, while the silvery-grey hind-neck of the Jackdaw and the grey back
and lower parts of the "Hooded" Crow are well known. The Chinese _Corvus
torquatus_ and the Ethiopian _C. scapulatus_ have white collars behind, and
white on the breast; in _Gazzola_ of Celebes that colour extends further;
but the African _Corvultur_ has the white collar only. The throat sometimes
exhibits hackles, and in the Antillean _Microcorax leucognaphalus_ the
feathers have hair-like extremities. Our visitor the Nutcracker (_Nucifraga
caryocatactes_) is brown, with whitish dorsal and pectoral spots, and
blackish quills; three or four other species of the genus, with most
variable bills, inhabit conifer woods in the Palaearctic Region; and a near
ally (_Picicorvus columbianus_) those of the western Rocky Mountains.
Choughs (_Pyrrhocorax_), which occur in the Palaearctic and the extreme
north of the Ethiopian Region, are glossy black, with brilliant red feet,
and red or yellow bill.

_Pica rustica_, the well-known Magpie, needs no description, nor do its
black and white congeners, _P. mauritanica_, distinguished by a naked blue
spot behind the eye, and _P. nuttalli_ with this spot and the beak yellow.
_P. rustica_ extends through the Palaearctic Region, and reaches Formosa
and North America; the other species are found respectively in Algeria and
Morocco and in California. _Platysmurus aterrimus_ of Borneo, and _Temnurus
truncatus_ of Cochin China are instances of uniform glossy black forms in
this section; _Psilorhinus_, from the centre of America, is a dull brown
Jay. _Cyanopica cooki_, of Southern Spain, represented in Eastern Asia and
Japan by _C. cyana_, is a blue Magpie, having cobalt wings and tail, an
ashy body, and a black head; while the Indo-Chinese and Sumatran genus,
_Dendrocitta_, shews brown, orange, buff, and grey tints, mingled with
black and usually white. _Cissa_ contains three species from India, Burma,
{554}Sumatra, and Java, of lovely green and blue, or cobalt and ultramarine
hues, with some red-brown on the wing, a white tip to the tail, coral-red
bill and feet, and–in two cases–a black nape. Our soft-plumaged Jay
(_Garrulus glandarius_), with its black and white crest and wings, black
tail, reddish-fawn upper and buff under parts, and patch of blue, white and
black bars on the wing-coverts, may represent a genus ranging over the
Palaearctic Region, and through the Himalayas, to the Burmese districts and
Formosa. In Japan alone four species are found. _Aphelocoma_ and
_Calocitta_ of the central parts of the New World; the Blue Jays
(_Cyanocitta_) of North America; _Urocissa_, a Magpie with red or yellow
bill and feet, from India, Burma, and China; and the Central and South
American _Cyanocorax_, all shew more blue than _Garrulus_, not uncommonly
on the under surface. _Perisoreus infaustus_, the Siberian Jay, is brown,
grey, and olive, with much chestnut on the wings, tail, and abdomen, its
congeners being plain brown, grey, and white. Lastly, _Xanthura luxuosa_,
the Green Jay of South Texas and Mexico, is green, with yellow on the
abdomen and lateral rectrices, and a black and blue head; some species of
the genus, which reaches southwards to Venezuela and Bolivia, having the
lower surface entirely yellow or black, and others being almost blue with
black on the head.

[Illustration: FIG. 129.–Magpie. _Pica rustica._ × ⅙. (From _Poachers_.)]

The habits of the cunning voracious Crows, the gregarious Rooks, the astute
but bold Magpies and Jackdaws, and the more shy or retiring Jays and
Choughs are well known; yet the habit of posting sentinels in the Rook, the
tumbling in mid-air of that bird, the Raven, and the Jackdaw, the scolding
pursuit of intruders by Magpies and Jays, and the breaking of clams, bones,
and the like by dropping them from aloft, by the Raven, Carrion-Crow, and
_Corvus caurinus_ require passing mention.

{555}[Illustration: FIG. 130.–Raven. _Corvus corax._ × 3/17.]

Crows generally inhabit wooded country, but also bare moorlands or
sea-coasts; the Nutcracker requires pine-forests–commonly at considerable
elevations; and Magpies haunt woods, yet not so invariably as Jays. The
whole Family hop, and most forms, except perhaps Jays, walk or run also.
All are active birds and fly well, the Chough, Jay, and Nutcracker in more
undulating fashion: while soaring is a common practice. Ravens have very
deep voices, and croak, "bark," or "grunt"; Jackdaws utter a clear
jake-jake; Choughs a ringing, metallic note or a hoarse "chough-chough";
Nutcrackers a "churr-churr"; Magpies a continuous rattle or "chatter." Jays
vary their harsh, grating utterances by mimicking other species, the
American Blue Jays being notorious adepts, and exhibiting meanwhile
fantastic contortions of the head, wings, and tail. Many species, such as
Ravens, Magpies, and Jackdaws, learn to imitate sounds when tamed. The
Corvidae {556}are almost omnivorous, Ravens and other strong species even
attacking weakly ewes or lambs, and preying on small mammals, birds, and
reptiles; Hooded and Carrion Crows, Rooks, Magpies. Jackdaws, and Jays suck
eggs; while Rooks, though undoubtedly beneficial, also grub up seed-corn
and potatoes. An immense amount of insect-life is, however, destroyed, and
the larger forms dispose of carrion; the American _Corvus ossifragus_ and
_C. corone_, moreover, will catch living fish. Magpies and Jays feed
largely upon the ground, and eat slugs, snails, worms, insects, nuts,
acorns, grain, seeds of conifers, and other fruits; Nutcrackers devour
quantities of the last; _Corvus tropicus_, _Macrocorax_, and _Gymnocorax_
relish fruit. Jays store provisions, and Jackdaws pick insects off cattle.
The nests of Crows and Nutcrackers are bulky structures of sticks, lined
with soft materials; the rough domed fabric of the Magpie is neatly lined
with roots upon a layer of clay; the slighter nests of Choughs and Jays are
inlaid with roots and fibres–more rarely with moss, hair, or wool–and every
variety is found between these limits. The larger species build in forks
and holes in trees, in crevices of rocks and masonry, or rarely in or on
the ground; the Chough never chooses trees; Jays nest comparatively low,
and often in bushes. Crows' eggs are normally greenish, mottled with darker
green, olive, or brownish, but _Heterocorax capensis_ has them pinkish with
red spots, while other Crows, Ravens, and _Dendrocitta_ sometimes shew a
similar tint. Jackdaws' eggs are bluish-green or white, with dark olive or
black markings interspersed with grey; those of Magpies and Nutcrackers
have a like ground-colour with greenish-olive and faint brownish spots
respectively; those of Jays are greenish, or even bluish, with close
olive-green frecklings or zones, and occasional black scrawls at the larger
end; those of Choughs are yellowish-white, with light brown and grey
markings. The number laid varies from two or three, to as many as nine in
Magpies, but is usually four or five. The hens sit rather closely. Ravens
sometimes will even attack man at the nest.

{557}[Illustration: FIG. 131.–Huia. _Heterolocha acutirostris._ × ⅓. (From
_Nature_.)]

Of genera doubtfully included in the Family, _Picathartes_ of the Gold
Coast is slaty-grey, with brown quills, white under parts, and bare yellow
head, shewing black behind each eye; it builds among rocks near
forest-streams, and feeds upon reptiles and molluscs. The egg is whitish,
clouded and dotted with brown. _Callaeas_ (_Glaucopis_) _cinerea_, which is
blue-grey, with black on the head, and an orange and blue rictal wattle,
and its congener _C. wilsoni_, with entirely blue wattle, inhabit the lower
hill-forests of the South and North Islands of New Zealand respectively.
They have deep, rich, long-drawn notes, diversified by "cackles," mews, or
"bell-like" sounds, the male performing antics when courting. The food
consists of fruit, flowers, and insects; the flight is feeble. The large
nests of twigs, moss, and grass are placed in trees; the two or three eggs
being purplish-grey with brown blotches or frecklings. _Corcorax_ and
_Struthidea_ are peculiar to Australia, the former being glossy black with
white on the wing, the latter brownish-grey with black tail.[297]
_Corcorax_ haunts open forests, brook-sides, and lagoons in little flocks,
running about actively, or leaping upon the boughs with motile, outspread
tail. The food consists of insects; the note is grating or mournful; while
{558}the male courts the female like a Pigeon. The nest, a sort of basin of
mud with a straw lining, is fixed on a horizontal branch, and contains from
four to seven yellowish-white eggs with olive and purplish-brown markings.
_Struthidea_ frequents pine tracts, and has similar habits and nest, the
eggs being white with red-brown and grey blotches. In _Heteralocha[298]
acutirostris_, the New Zealand Huia, the female has a remarkably long,
curved bill, that of the male being short, stout, and nearly straight. The
plumage is greenish-black, with a white-tipped tail; the bill is whitish,
the feet are blue-grey, the large rictal wattles orange. This bird
frequents wooded gullies in the North Island, seldom flying above the
foliage, but bounding or hopping along the ground or upon the branches.
Natives attract and noose it by imitating the whistling note. The cock
chisels away the decayed bark, and the hen probes the crevices for insects;
"huhu" caterpillars and berries varying the main diet. The nest, of dry
grass, leaves, and stalks, is placed in hollow trees, the eggs being
apparently whitish, with or without brown and grey spots. _Creadion
carunculatus_, the Saddle-back of the same country, is black, with chestnut
back, rump, wing- and tail-coverts, and small yellow or red gape-wattles.
It haunts wooded hills, hopping actively or moving spirally up the trunks
and branches, while the flight is short, rapid, and laboured. The notes may
be soft and sweet, or noisy and shrill; the food resembles that of
_Heteralocha_. The nest of dry leaves, ferns, fibres, moss, and bark is
built in hollow trees or large ferns, the three or four greyish-white eggs
shewing purplish-brown markings.

_Podoces_ includes four desert species, with elongated, strong, curved, and
pointed bills; long, stout legs; short, rounded wings; and moderate square
tails. The colour is fawn, grey, and brown, generally with black and white
wings and black tail; _P. hendersoni_ and _P. biddulphi_ have a black cap,
the former shewing white spots on it, _P. panderi_ has a black
throat-patch, _P. humilis_ is brown with whitish nape and lower parts. They
haunt sand-hills covered with saxaul (_Anabasis ammodendron_) or tamarisk,
from Transcaspia to Tibet, running swiftly, occasionally flying like a Jay,
feeding on the ground upon insects, their larvae, and seeds, uttering harsh
reiterated Woodpecker-like cries, and making a nest of twigs lined with
bark, grass, and hair in low trees, bushes, or rarely holes in the ground.
The four eggs are greenish-grey {559}with olive spots. _P. humilis_
frequents more grassy ground up to eleven thousand feet.

Fam. XXIV. STURNIDAE.–The Starlings, apparently connecting the _Corvidae_
and the _Icteridae_, are divided by Mr. Oates[299] and Dr. Sharpe[300] into
_Eulabetidae_ (Tree-Starlings) with rictal bristles, more arboreal habits,
and usually spotted eggs, and _Sturnidae_ (Starlings proper) where the
contrary holds good.[301] To these _Buphaga_ may be added for the present,
in default of a better position.

The bill is generally long and pointed–especially in _Sturnopastor_,–but is
exceptionally slender in _Cinnamopterus_, shorter and stouter in
_Basilornis_, _Buphaga_, _Pastor_, _Pholidauges_, and _Aplonis_; being
curved in the last three, and also in _Fregilupus_ and _Necropsar_; where
it is longer. The anteriorly scutellated metatarsus is ordinarily strong,
and is shortest in the Tree-Starlings. The wing is usually moderate, with
small first primary, though it is more elongated and pointed in _Sturnus_
and _Dilophus_, rounded in _Sturnopastor_, _Temenuchus_, and so forth,
short in _Coccycolius_ and _Buphaga_; the secondaries have long filamentous
basal appendages in _Psaroglossa_, and loose hair-like exterior webs in
_Onychognathus_. The tail varies from short to long, from square to much
graduated; it is forked in _Sturnia_, and may have acuminate feathers;
while _Macruropsar_ and _Lamprotornis_ possess exceptionally developed
rectrices, _L. caudatus_ having the broad median pair longer than the body.
Lanceolate feathers commonly adorn the neck and breast; bushy crests occur
in _Pastor_ and _Temenuchus_, smaller tufts in _Sturnia_, _Basilornis_,
_Enodes_, _Fregilupus_, _Graculipica_, _Sturnornis_ and _Acridotheres
cristatellus_; recurved plumes may cover the nostrils, as in
_Acridotheres_, _Ampeliceps_, and _Basilornis_; while bare chins, orbits,
or ear-patches of brown, yellow, and the like are frequent. _Charitornis_
has the throat and cheeks naked; _Dilophus_ the head and throat bare, with
two erect wattles above and one below; _Sarcops_ dull-red naked orbits, and
merely a narrow feathered line down the crown; _Eulabes_ a yellow
post-ocular lappet forking to the back of the eye and the eyebrow, and a
yellow patch below; _Enodes_ a broad, superciliary wax-like red line; and
_Scissirostrum_ similar crimson feathers on the rump.

{560}[Illustration: FIG. 132.–Starling. _Sturnus vulgaris._ × ½. (From
_English Illustrated Magazine_.)]

Most of the brighter species exhibit purple, coppery, blue and green
reflexions, our familiar Starling (_Sturnus vulgaris_) being iridescent
black, with buff marks above, and, after the autumn moult, white spots
below. The female is duller, but in this Family the sexes usually differ
little. _S. unicolor_ is unspotted. _Spodiopsar burmanicus_ has grey upper
and pinkish under parts, with brownish wings and tail, white head, and
white-tipped rectrices; _Sturnopastor contra_ is blackish-brown and white
above, and greyish beneath, with green-black head and throat and white
cheeks; _Pastor roseus_, which wanders to Britain, is glossy black, with
pink back and abdomen; _Graculipica melanoptera_ is almost pure white, with
black or bronzy remiges and rectrices. _Eulabes religiosa_, the Myna,–a
name also popularly applied to _Acridotheres_ (sacred to the god Ram Deo)
and several other Indian forms,–is black, with purple and green reflexions,
and a white patch on the wing-quills; _Cinnamopterus tenuirostris_ is more
highly coloured, with mainly chestnut primaries; _Melanopyrrhus orientalis_
adds to its metallic black hue an orange head, neck, rump, and breast;
_Lamprotornis_ and the shorter-tailed _Lamprocolius_ exhibit lovely greens,
purples, and peacock-blues, relieved by golden-bronze; _Coccycolius_ is
golden-green with purple cheeks and abdomen. _Pholidauges leucogaster_ is
rich purplish-violet with white belly, {561}the female being brown and buff
above, and whitish below with dusky striations; _Calornis_ and _Aplonis_
are usually dullish green; while the extinct _Fregilupus varius_ was
ashy-brown, grey, and white. _Falculia_ is white with blue-black back,
wings, and tail. It frequents trees or streams, and utters plaintive,
melodious notes. _Buphaga_ is dull-brown, with fulvous rump and lower
surface. The bill is commonly black throughout the group, but is sometimes
red, pinkish, bluish, greenish, orange, or yellow; the feet also vary in
colour. Albinos are rather frequent.

This Family occupies almost all the Old World, but not America proper,
though _Sturnus vulgaris_ has strayed to Greenland; the headquarters lie in
the Indian and Ethiopian Regions, wherein several forms have a very
restricted distribution. Instances of this are _Charitornis_ of the Sula
Islands, _Scissirostrum_, _Enodes_, and _Streptocitta_ of Celebes,
_Hagiopsar_ of the Dead Sea and Sinaitic districts, _Hartlaubius_ and
_Falculia_ of Madagascar, _Sarcops_ of the Philippines, _Mino_ of Papuasia,
_Melanopyrrhus_ and _Macruropsar_ of New Guinea and its islands, _Aplonis_
of the Pacific and the Tenimber group. _Fregilupus_, of which only a few
examples exist in collections, was confined to Réunion, _Necropsar_ is an
extinct form from Rodriguez. _Calornis_ alone inhabits Australia.

_Lamprotornis_, _Spodiopsar_, and the Eulabetidae in general, rarely leave
the trees they haunt; on the other hand, some forms, as our Starling, spend
much time upon the ground, or roost in huge flocks on shrubs, reeds, and
the like. The habits are wary, and seldom as sociable as those of our
British species, hills being often preferred to more wooded districts or
the neighbourhood of houses. _Aethiopsar_ reaches an altitude of seven
thousand feet. The flight is strong, straight, and rapid, though heavier in
_Buphaga_; while flocks of Starlings turn, sweep along, and gyrate in
remarkable fashion, and soaring is not uncommon. The more terrestrial forms
walk and run excellently, often stopping suddenly to probe the soil for
worms or larvae, which, with insects generally, and molluscs, provide the
chief sustenance. A large amount of fruit is also consumed, including
berries and seeds; frogs and, as some say, callow nestlings are also
devoured; _Pastor_, _Dilophus_, and _Acridotheres_ destroy locusts;
_Eulabes_ and its allies prefer vegetable food; _Buphaga_ is termed
Ox-pecker or Rhinoceros-bird, from clearing ticks off those animals.
Certain species disgorge nutriment for their young. The voice is commonly
varied and pleasing, becoming {562}a rich song in _Eulabes_; but most forms
whistle, chatter, or utter harsh sounds; and many are extraordinary mimics,
or even talk, like the Starling and the Myna, under tuition. By the more
typical forms a rough nest of straw, twigs, rags, wool, or feathers is
placed in holes in trees, walls, or banks; under eaves; in burrows or
stone-heaps: from four to seven uniform light blue or whitish eggs being
deposited. _Sturnopastor_, alone or in societies, affixes a huge structure
to the outer branches of trees or bushes; _Dilophus_ makes a neater cup in
similar situations; _Calornis_, which usually forms colonies, suspends from
the boughs a bulky bottle-shaped structure with a side-entrance, and so
forth. Even our Starling at times builds an open nest. The Eulabetidae
generally lay spotted eggs, _Dilophus_ occasionally; _Calornis_ has them
greenish with reddish-brown marks.

Fam. XXV. DREPANIDIDAE.–According to the latest views, namely those of Dr.
Gadow,[302] this group contains only the curious forms below, which are all
peculiar to the Sandwich Islands. In most of them the semi-tubular tongue
is dorsally frayed out into a single brush, but in several thick-billed
species it is but slightly tubular, and is split or frayed. The
non-serrated beak varies greatly, being elongated and arched in
_Vestiaria_; very long and curved with projecting maxilla in _Drepanis_ and
_Hemignathus_; and similar, but with the upcurved or straight mandible only
about half as long as the maxilla in _Heterorhynchus_. In _Himatione_,
_Oreomyza_, _Loxops_, _Palmeria_, _Ciridops_, and _Chrysomitridops_ it is
much shorter and little decurved; in _Psittacirostra_, _Loxioïdes_,
_Chloridops_, and _Rhodacanthis_ it is stout, Finch-like, and hooked, being
enormously developed in the last two; in the extraordinary _Pseudonestor_
it is Parrot-like. In _Loxops_ the mandible is twisted indifferently to
either side, possibly by constant use. Over the nostrils an operculum is
often present; but bristles of all kinds are absent. The scutes of the
moderate metatarsus shew a tendency to fusion; the wings are of medium
length, with a hardly visible outer primary. The tail is rather short and
nearly square, having pointed rectrices in _Vestiaria_ and _Drepanis_; and
exhibits a tendency to forking. Fluffy feathering constantly characterizes
the back, flanks, or axillary region. There is a more or less {563}decided
crop, as in many Finches. In some species the females appear to have
shorter bills.

[Illustration: FIG. 133.–Mamo. _Drepanis pacifica._ × ½. (After Wilson and
Evans, _Aves Hawaiienses_.)]

_Drepanis pacifica_ is black, with golden rump, upper and under
tail-coverts, tibiae, and bend of wing, a little white shewing on the wings
and tail; _D. funerea_ is almost entirely black. _Vestiaria coccinea_ is
vermilion, with black remiges and rectrices, and some white on the
wing-coverts; the bill and feet being red. _Hemignathus_ and
_Heterorhynchus_ are greenish-olive above, with black lores, brownish
remiges, and usually yellowish or creamy lower surface; but the head is
occasionally yellow. _Palmeria dolii_ has blackish plumage with scarlet or
orange tips, a brilliant scarlet-orange nape, an orange space round the
eye, similarly coloured tibiae, a grey throat, and a dirty white crest
curving over the culmen. _Himatione_ is generally yellow-green, with
browner wings, yellow under parts, and sometimes black lores; the very
closely allied _Oreomyza_ may be duller or greyer, with buff and white
below. _H. sanguinea_ is crimson, with black and red wings, and black tail.
_Loxops_, which in one species is dimorphic, is scarlet or orange, with
brown on the remiges and rectrices; _Chrysomitridops_ is yellowish-olive,
with yellow crown and lower surface, black on the wings and tail, and
bluish bill. _Psittacirostra_ is greenish with yellow head; _Rhodacanthis_
is reddish-orange with browner back, or in one case yellow head, while the
female is green. _Ciridops_ is red, with black throat, tail, and most of
the wings, grey nape and cheeks; it approaches _Cyanospiza ciris_ (p. 585)
in colour.

{564}Hens are ordinarily duller (often brownish or green), except in
_Vestiaria_ and _Himatione sanguinea_; the young are greenish-yellow
relieved by black in _Vestiaria_, brown and buff in _Palmeria_ and
_Himatione sanguinea_, and assume the red or orange gradually.

These forms now chiefly haunt high damp hill-forests, though _Vestiaria_
still occurs near the coast; they fly comparatively little, but spend much
of their time creeping quietly and rapidly over the trunks and branches of
acacia, "ohia," "mamane," and other trees, where they hunt for insects
below the bark or on the leaves. None habitually seek the ground. The
long-billed species delight in probing the decayed wood, and insert their
mandibles into the crevices in search of food, which consists partly of
lepidopterous larvae and spiders. Fruit is largely eaten, pods being split
to obtain seeds, and honey is sucked either for its own sake or for the
insects it attracts. The stomach at times contains grit. Most forms have a
sweet song, the call-note being a reiterated "tweet" or metallic chirp;
_Rhodacanthis_, moreover, whistles. _Himatione virens_ makes a nest of
roots and decayed leaves in trees, _Loxops aurea_ apparently does the same;
the former lays whitish eggs freckled and streaked with purplish-brown, but
little is known of the reproduction. The splendid feather-cloaks of the
Hawaiian kings, the "leis" (wreaths), waist-bands, and mask-decorations,
were of old chiefly composed of the plumage of the "Mamo" (_Drepanis
pacifica_), and the Iiwi (_Vestiaria coccinea_); but when the former became
scarce, the lighter yellow tufts (p. 565) of the O-o (_Acrulocercus_) were
utilized to pay the feather tax, though the cloaks were still called
"Mamo." _Himatione sanguinea_ was also laid under contribution, as was in
later times the domestic cock.

Fam. XXVI. MELIPHAGIDAE.–The Honey-eaters, seldom bigger than a Thrush, are
remarkable for their extensile quadruple or multiple tongue, which is
frayed out latero-dorsally. They occupy the Australian Region, from which
_Ptilotis limbata_ alone crosses Wallace's line (p. 16) to Bali, and often
have very restricted ranges. Two Sub-families may be recognised,
_Myzomelinae_ and _Meliphaginae_. The thin curved bill is commonly long,
with prominent culmen and wide base; _Melithreptes_ and _Plectrorhynchus_,
however, have it short, and the latter straight. The maxilla is nearly
always notched and serrated, several species of _Philemon_ exhibiting a
basal protuberance. The metatarsi may be long, as in _Acrulocercus_, or
abbreviated as in _Manorhina_, the short anterior toes being partially
{565}connected; the wings are variable in length, _Melithreptes_ possessing
comparatively small secondaries, _Anthornis_ an abruptly narrowed second
primary. The tail also varies in size; it is much rounded in _Melidectes_
and _Meliphaga_, square in _Acanthorhynchus_, emarginated in _Anthornis_,
and particularly long and graduated with pointed rectrices in
_Acrulocercus_ and _Chaetoptila_–_A. nobilis_ having the median pair
produced and spirally twisted, _A. apicalis_ the ends upturned.
_Pogonornis_ has strong rictal bristles.

The _Myzomelinae_ are usually habited in scarlet and black, as in the
Soldier-bird of Australia (_Myzomela sanguinolenta_), with or without white
or yellowish below; some, however, are chiefly or entirely olive or
greyish-brown, while the females generally differ from the males, and the
former occasionally shew red when the latter do not. A second genus,
_Acanthorhynchus_, or Cobbler's Awl, is brown, chestnut, buff, black, and
white. In the _Meliphaginae_ the sexes are commonly alike, and exhibit a
mixture of brown, olive, yellow, black, white, grey, rufous, and buff; the
under parts frequently, and the upper rarely, being streaked or spotted.
Metallic hues are rare, but _Anthornis_ has a purplish gloss on the head.
_Leptornis_, _Entomyza_, _Philemon_, _Melitograis_, and _Pycnopygius_ are
instances of dusky or olive coloration with lighter lower surface;
_Prosthemadera_ and _Certhionyx leucomelas_ are black and white;
_Plectrorhynchus_ is brown and white; _Meliphaga_ is yellow and black,
spotted and barred below. The Hawaiian _Acrulocercus_ is black or brownish,
with a little white on the wings or tail, and possesses yellow axillary
tufts and under tail-coverts, save in _A. braccatus_, where the tufts are
grey-buff, the tibiae are yellow, the throat is barred with white, and the
lower parts are streaky. _A. bishopi_ has yellow ear-tufts. Their close
ally, _Chaetoptila_, of the same islands, is light brown and yellowish
above, with white spots, and a black cheek-stripe; the under surface being
white with brown streaks, and the rump and flanks ochreous. The neck- and
breast-plumage is lanceolate and decomposed. Many species of _Ptilotis_
have white or yellow ear-tufts; the male of _Pogonornis_ possesses white
erectile post-ocular feathers; that of _Prosthemadera_ two gular patches of
curled white filamentary plumes, which give it the name of Parson-bird, as
well as pointed white feathers curving forward from the sides of the neck.
In two members of _Meliornis_ white fan-like shields spring from the
cheeks; _Glycyphila albifrons_ has a white circum-ocular ring; while many
forms have peculiar {566}cheek-feathers, fluffy chests, rumps or sides, and
lanceolate or bristly plumage on the neck, cheeks, or throat. Naked blue,
green, scarlet, yellow, lilac, pink, or whitish areas on the head, and
pendant rictal or facial wattles, are frequent, especially in _Meliphaga_,
_Ptilotis_, _Entomyza_, _Philemon_, _Melidectes_, _Acanthochaera_
(Wattle-bird) and _Melirrhophetes_. The bill and feet vary from black to
red, yellow, blue, or green.

[Illustration: FIG. 134.–Warty-faced Honey-Eater. _Meliphaga phrygia._ × ½.
(From _Nature_.)]

The habits are fairly uniform, though certain species are comparatively
shy. Small flocks often gather together, the haunts being dense forests, or
open wooded country whether inland or littoral; some forms prefer the
tree-tops, others low bushes and shrubs. These active, pugnacious birds
dart about in zigzag fashion, or take powerful undulating flights, the tail
meanwhile being frequently thrown back or expanded; at times they hover, or
fall from aloft with closed wings.

{567}[Illustration: FIG. 135.–Tui. _Prosthemadera novae zealandiae._ × ⅓.]

Constantly seen hopping among the boughs, or climbing and hanging to the
twigs, in search of the insects which constitute so much of their diet,
they occasionally feed upon the ground–especially in the case of
_Ptilotis_; while _Meliornis_ and _Entomophila_ will dart after their prey
like Flycatchers. Figs and bananas, with other fruits and buds, are also
eaten; honey is sucked from the flowers of _Eucalyptus_, _Acacia_,
_Epacris_, and the like, in considerable quantities, the insects it
attracts being perhaps the chief object; and _Philemon_ batters large
insects upon the branches before swallowing them. The voice is commonly
loud, rich, and shrill, but varies from a whistle or a pipe to a chirp;
some species, however, are more quiet, others give vent to slow, plaintive
cries, quickly reiterated notes, or comparatively harsh sounds. The Tui, or
Parson-bird, utters a wild song, laughs, coughs, sneezes, and mimics
generally; _Acrulocercus_ gets the name of O-o from its harsh double call;
_Pogonornis_ that of Stitch-bird from its clicking cry, though it also
whistles; while _Philemon corniculatus_ is sometimes called "Four-o'clock,"
"Poor Soldier," or Pimlico, from its note. _Anthornis_, the New Zealand
"Bell-bird," usually heard in chorus, has a voice like the tinkling of a
silver bell.[303] The nest, normally a slight structure of twigs, roots,
bark, grass, and spiders' webs, lined with woolly materials, fur, or
feathers, is placed in bushes, trees, or even tall grass, and generally has
the rim woven over a supporting fork. A few species, however, including the
New Zealand forms, _Pogonornis_, _Anthornis_, and _Prosthemadera_, build a
solid fabric of twigs and rough materials {568}among the branches. The
eggs, two, three, or rarely four in number, are buffish-white,
salmon-coloured or, exceptionally, olive, with spots, freckles, zones, and
occasionally lines, of red-brown, rufous, bright red, blackish and grey.
Two or three broods are reared annually. _Entomyza cyanotis_, the Blue-eye,
re-lines deserted birds' nests, or utilizes the top of that of
_Pomatostomus_; _Glycyphila modesta_ and _G. fasciata_ make hanging domed
fabrics. The mimicry between _Philemon_–called Friar-bird, Monk, or
Leather-head, from the bare head and ruff of some species–and _Mimeta_ has
been already noticed (p. 543). Cloaks are fashioned from the Stitch-bird's
feathers, as well as from those of the O-os (p. 564).[304]

Fam. XXVII. ZOSTEROPIDAE.–The "White-eyes," so denominated from the white
ring usually surrounding the eye, form a single genus, _Zosterops_, of
doubtful position. They range through parts of the Ethiopian Region, with
Madagascar and the Comoros, and occupy most of the Indian and Australian
Regions, whence they reach to Amur-land and Japan. The straight or slightly
curved bill has the maxilla serrated and nearly always notched; the
metatarsus is of medium length; the outer and middle toes are partially
united; the wings are rather short with little or no exterior primary; the
tail is moderate, broad and square, or even emarginated. Dr. Gadow[305]
pronounces the protractile tongue to be forked and smooth in _Z.
lateralis_; Mr. Beddard[306] finds the margins folded, and the tip frayed
out in _Z. simplex_ and _Z. japonica_. The sexes are alike, the coloration
being principally olive and yellow, relieved by brown, grey, fawn, or
white. The habits are similar to those of the Meliphagidae; the eggs,
however, are pale blue. _Z. caerulescens_, the New Zealand "Blight-bird,"
destroys the "American Blight" (_Schizoneura lanigera_), a scale-insect.

Fam. XXVIII. NECTARINIIDAE.–The Old World Sun-birds, recalling the
non-Passerine Humming-birds by their brilliant metallic coloration, are
actually given the latter name in India, whence they extend through
Southern Asia to Papuasia and North Australia. They also occupy the whole
Ethiopian Region, while _Cinnyris osea_ inhabits Palestine, _C.
brevirostris_ Baluchistan and South Persia, and an undetermined species the
Muskat district in Arabia. _Promerops_ is a doubtful member of the
Family.[307]

{569}[Illustration: FIG. 136.–Splendid Sun-bird. _Cinnyris splendidus._ ×
½.]

The long slender bill, without bristles of any kind, is much produced and
curved in _Neodrepanis_; both mandibles being terminally serrated, except
in _Promerops_ and _Chalcoparia_, of which the former has the maxilla
notched. The extensible tongue is bifid, with each half frayed out
medio-ventrally, save in _Promerops_, where it is a semi-canal with
dorso-laterally frayed edges. The metatarsi are moderate, the claws curved
and acute. _Arachnothera_ has both the bill and the feet stouter. The more
or less rounded wings are of medium length; the tail varies from square or
nearly so to graduated, and has two narrow elongated median rectrices in
the males of _Hedydipna_, _Nectarinia_, _Anthobaphes_, _Aethopyga_,
_Urodrepanis_ and _Drepanorhynchus_. That of _Promerops_ is extraordinarily
long and graduated in both sexes. _Arachnothera chrysogenys_ has the loral
region naked, and the male of _Neodrepanis_ bluish circum-ocular wattles.

It is impossible to describe shortly the diverse coloration of the various
species; some shew much green, black, brown, or olive; nearly all exhibit
brilliant, if not metallic, red, blue, lilac, copper, yellow, or orange
tints; a few are chiefly purple; many are longitudinally streaked below; in
others the breast is white, or exhibits red or orange bands, while the
fore-neck may be vermilion striped with lilac. The sides of the back
frequently possess long downy feathers, and pectoral tufts are common. In
_Arachnothera_ both sexes are greyish or greenish, relieved by a little
yellow or orange. Females, however, are usually sombre, the young being
similar. The bill is black or brown, the feet vary in hue.

These small graceful forms, restless, though not shy, are rarely seen in
companies, but usually in pairs; they frequent groves and forests up to an
altitude of about a thousand feet, resorting to more open country and
gardens when the shrubs are flowering. The food consists mainly of
insects–sometimes taken on the {570}wing–with their larvae and spiders;
while the birds hop actively about, and cling to the branches and trunks of
trees, like Tits or Creepers, or even to bushes and grass. They rarely
hover before flowers as Humming-birds do, though frequently sucking honey.
When feeding or singing the wings are often opened and shut alternately.
The quick, direct flight is accompanied by rapid pulsations of the pinions,
and the males chase their rivals angrily. The shrill, but pleasing and
varied notes recall those of the Willow-Warbler. The pear-shaped or oval
nests, woven or attached by cobwebs to the ends of boughs, to the under
surfaces of leaves, or more rarely to reed-stems, are composed of grass,
moss, roots, and the like, lined with hair, feathers, and down, and usually
have a projecting porch. Beneath are attached as decorations leaves, twigs,
lichens, shreds of bark, paper, and cloth, wood-borings, or caterpillars'
excreta. _Arachnothera magna_, at least occasionally, builds an open nest.
The two or three eggs are commonly greenish- or brownish-grey, with
purplish, reddish-brown, yellowish, or dusky dots and spots; some, however,
are whiter, with blackish markings, dark zones, or hair-streaks; while
those of _Arachnothera magna_ are brownish, very thickly speckled with
purplish-black. _Promerops cafer_ makes a cup of grass, fibres, and softer
materials in forks of bushes, and lays creamy eggs like those of Buntings,
with wavy lines or irregular blotches of dark brown or purplish.

Fam. XXIX. DICAEIDAE.–The "Flower-peckers" inhabit the Indian and
Australian Regions as far eastwards as the Low Archipelago, a few possibly
kindred species occupying West Africa. The bill is usually short, broad,
and depressed, but is especially slender in _Pholidornis_, stout and
Finch-like in _Prionochilus_; while both mandibles shew minute terminal
serrations. Feathers cover the nostrils in _Pardalotus_, and in life
_Lobornis_ has three small white rictal outgrowths. The tongue is separated
into four semi-tubular fringeless projections. The metatarsus is never
long; the wings are fairly so; the tail is generally short and even, but is
rounded in _Prionochilus vincens_, longer in most Papuasian forms, and
sometimes graduated, as in _Pristorhamphus_. Many species exhibit vivid
combinations of blue or purple with black, relieved by a scarlet or an
orange head, rump, or chest-patch, the lower surface being yellow, greyish,
or greenish-white; some, however, replace the blue shades by green, brown,
or olive; others are quite plain; and _Melanocharis unicolor_ is perfectly
black. The {571}Diamond-bird (_Pardalotus_) has scattered white dots above,
and scarlet or yellow tips to the primary coverts; _Dicaeum_ often shews a
longitudinal black band below; while bars and streaks occur not
infrequently. The bill is blackish, or in _Dicaeum erythrorhynchum_
reddish. The female is almost invariably duller.

These small birds frequent woods and gardens, the little flocks often
haunting lofty trees near rivers; they hop briskly among the boughs, dart
from bush to bush, creep about and cling like Tits, and utter a long, low
warble, or in _Pardalotus_ a harsh monotonous piping note. The food
consists of insects, varied by spiders, fruit, buds, seeds, and perhaps
honey. _Dicaeum_ and _Prionochilus_ suspend from some twig a domed,
pear-shaped nest of white cottony material, frequently covered with grass
or moss, and decorated with caterpillars' excreta; _Pardalotus_ chooses old
Swallows' nurseries, or holes in trees and walls, or even tunnels a short
way into banks, making within a spherical fabric of roots, grass, bark, and
feathers. The two to five eggs are commonly white, but in _Prionochilus_
(_Piprisoma_) _squalidus_ they are redder, with dense brown-pink or
claret-coloured blotches or specks.

Fam. XXX. CERTHIIDAE.–The Creepers, a small, though widespread group,
occupy most of the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions; Africa from Benguela
to Mashona-Land; Australia and New Guinea. The bill is long and generally
decurved, but shorter and straighter in _Climacteris_; while nasal and
rictal bristles are absent. The metatarsi are of medium length and slender,
though stouter in _Salpornis_; _Tichodroma_ and _Climacteris_ have the
scutes fused; and the toes–especially the hallux–have long, curved claws.
The wings vary from moderate and rounded to elongated and pointed; the tail
is usually short and square, or very nearly so, but has stiff, graduated,
acuminate feathers in _Certhia_. The coloration of both sexes is brown,
black, rufous, buff, grey, and white, except in _Tichodroma_, which
exhibits crimson wing-patches on its grey, black, and white plumage. Bars
and spots are frequent, particularly beneath.

The majority are tame birds, inhabiting thinly wooded districts, often
close to dwellings; but the European and Asiatic _Tichodroma muraria_,
which has strayed to Britain, haunts mountain cliffs, and, when on
migration, walls also. They utter shrill cries, or, more commonly, low
reiterated notes, which in our Creeper (_Certhia familiaris_) are varied by
a sweet and fairly loud song; {572}the food consists of insects and their
larvae, ants, and spiders. Beginning at the bottom of a trunk the birds
work actively but jerkily upwards in zigzags or spirals, flitting from the
higher branches to the base of another tree; sometimes, however, they take
protracted, undulating flights, or accompany flocks of Tits in winter.
_Certhia_ uses the rigid rectrices as Woodpeckers do (p. 457), though the
soft-tailed forms also climb well, while _Climacteris_ is exceptional in
spending much time hopping or shuffling along the ground. Seeds of conifers
occasionally vary the diet. The nest, composed of twigs, with the addition
of grass or moss, and lined with bast, hair, wool, or feathers, is placed
behind loose bark, under tiles, in crevices of trees or walls, in piles of
bricks, hollow branches, or even the base of large birds' habitations. The
three to nine eggs are ordinarily white with red and lilac spots; but in
_Climacteris_ the ground-colour is sometimes reddish, in _Salpornis_ the
spots are blackish. The last-named fixes a cup-shaped fabric of leaves,
bark, and cobwebs to some horizontal bough.

[Illustration: FIG. 137.–Tree Creeper. _Certhia familiaris._ × 7/12.]

Fam. XXXI. COEREBIDAE.–The Quit-quits have the extensible tongue bifid, and
frayed out terminally. The bill may be conical, but is usually slender,
with a notch and sometimes with rictal bristles, while the long maxilla is
hooked in _Diglossa_ and _Diglossopis_; the metatarsi, wings, and tail are
moderate, the last being sometimes forked. These small, active, and
restless birds frequent bushy places and the outskirts of forests, from
South Florida to the Bolivian Andes and South-East Brazil, several species
being peculiar to the Antilles, and _Certhidea_ to the Galápagos. Though
companies are seldom formed, the flight and habits are Tit-like, and
individuals are often seen hopping about or clinging to the branches in
search of the insects which, with fruit, form the usual food. They probe
the flowers in company with Humming-birds, and probably suck the honey,
while some forms dart after flies like Flycatchers. Several have a fine
voice, but the common note is a feeble "quit-quit." The domed {573}nest,
made of grass, moss, roots, and fibres, occasionally has a projecting
porch, and is frequently lined with down or feathers; the two to four eggs
being white or greenish-blue, with dull-red or yellowish-brown blotches or
specks. In the Antilles _Certhiola_ weaves a domed structure of similar
materials, hair, and spiders' webs, between the outermost twigs of bushes.
Many nests are built without being used.

[Illustration: FIG. 138.–Sugar-bird. _Certhiola flaveola._ × ½.]

The coloration varies from black, grey, or purplish, relieved by rufous and
white, to brilliant blue, purple, or green, with the quills only black, or
with further yellow, chestnut, and exceptionally scarlet, decorations.
Uniform black, or olive and brown hues are unusual, save in females, which,
however, are often bright green, with the addition of a little blue or
yellow.

Fam. XXXII. MNIOTILTIDAE.–The "American Warblers," almost replacing the
_Sylviinae_ in the New World, are a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of
rather small birds, of which _Granatellus_ is perhaps Tanagrine. They
frequent localities of all descriptions in North and South America, being
commonest in the middle portions. _Teretistris_ is peculiar to Cuba,
_Leucopeza_ to St. Lucia and St. Vincent; _Ergaticus_ occupies the Central
American highlands, while two or three species wander to Greenland.

The bill is usually slender and straight, but varies in length and
curvature, that of _Setophaga_ and _Myiodioctes_ being broad and depressed
with bristly gape, that of _Icteria_ (doubtfully referred here) very stout
and compressed, and so forth. Other species also exhibit bristles, or have
notched beaks. The tongue is frequently bifid and fringed in _Dendroeca_,
and in _D._ (_Perissoglossa_) _tigrina_ is semitubular. The metatarsi are
naturally longest and strongest in the more terrestrial forms, such as
_Geothlypis_ and _Siurus_; _Icteria_ has partly feathered legs, _Mniotilta_
particularly long toes. The wings may be concave and roundish, as in
_Leucopeza_ and _Geothlypis_, or elongated and pointed, as in
_Protonotaria_ and _Peucedramus_; the moderate tail is square, rounded, or
emarginate, or, as in _Setophaga_, broad and graduated. The general
coloration is {574}olive-green, grey, or slaty-blue, with yellow or rarely
orange under parts; chestnut marks, white wing-bands, and the like,
occasionally relieving the plumage. The head is often particularly dark or
streaky. _Mniotilta_ exhibits black and white stripes; _Ergaticus_ shews
chiefly crimson and white; _Granatellus_ is grey, black, and white above,
but red and white with black collar below. _Setophaga_, the "American
Redstart," is mainly red and black, or red and plumbeous; _Cardellina_ is
grey, black, and white with crimson cheeks and throat; _Siurus_ has
olive-brown upper, and whitish under parts, with dusky striations. The bill
is black or brown, commonly with pinkish, yellowish, or bluish mandible.

[Illustration: FIG. 139.–Black-and-White Warbler. _Mniotilta varia._ × ½.]

These active, restless, and often shy birds either seek their food,
consisting chiefly of insects and their larvae, worms, spiders, and even
molluscs, upon the ground or upon the bark of trees. Many forms resemble
Tits in their actions; _Mniotilta_ and others ascend the trunks spirally
like Creepers; _Setophaga_ and its allies–and exceptionally
_Dendroeca_–sally after insects like Flycatchers; _D. palmarum_ and
_Siurus_ run along with the tail in motion, the former recalling a Titlark,
the latter gaining, from its appearance and habit of wading, the name of
Water-Thrush. The flight is usually swift, easy, and graceful, yet brief
and frequently undulating; _Myiodioctes_ and _Setophaga_ flit about
alternately opening and closing the rectrices. Fruits, including conifer-
and grass-seeds, vary the diet. Small parties collect in winter. A few
species, such as _Basileuterus_, _Setophaga_, _Myiodioctes_, and _Siurus_
have fine clear songs, but the usual utterances are feeble warbles, sweet
whistles, reiterated "chirrups," or mournful trills. The majority build
their cup-shaped nests in trees, bushes, and thickets generally,
_Dendroeca_ in some districts choosing a fir; they are {575}made of grass,
bark, leaves, roots, moss, hair, fur, lichens, and spiders' webs, or even
twigs, sedges, and feathers, and contain from two to six creamy or,
exceptionally, greenish or purplish eggs, more or less spotted or blotched
with red-brown, grey, and lilac, or sometimes, as in _Myiodioctes_,
scrawled with black.

Fam. XXXIII. TANAGRIDAE.[308]–The Tanagers form a New World group, hardly
distinguishable from the _Fringillidae_, except by their more feeble
conformation and their exposed nostrils. The coloration is often
particularly gorgeous, but their habits are comparatively little known. The
bill varies much in length and thickness, the hooked tip being highly
developed in _Lamprotes_ and _Sericossypha_, while _Procnias_ has a wide
Swallow-like gape. The metatarsi are short and stout; the toes are large,
with sharp curved claws in _Lamprotes_ and _Sericossypha_; the wings are
moderate and somewhat pointed, being unusually long in _Procnias_; while
the tail may be very short as in _Euphonia_, but is rarely long and
graduated as in _Cissopis_, and only occasionally forked.

These birds are characteristic of the forests and wooded country of the
Neotropical Region, whence four species of _Pyranga_ extend to the United
States, and two reach Canada and British Columbia respectively; several
forms, moreover, are peculiar to the Antilles. They are chiefly of small
size, _Euphonia_ possessing the least and _Pitylus_ or _Saltator_ the
largest members of the Family; the sexes are commonly similar, but the
female is often duller, or even quite different from the male, as in
_Rhamphocoelus_ and _Pyranga_. A short crest occurs rarely, as in
_Eucometis_ and _Stephanophorus_. The prevailing colours are black and red
or uniform red in _Pyranga_, _Phlogothraupis_, and most species of
_Rhamphocoelus_ and _Calochaetes_; blue or purplish-black and yellow in
_Buthraupis_, _Iridornis_, and their nearest allies; blue and black in
_Procnias_ and _Pseudodacnis_; orange or yellow, with black and white in
_Spindalis_ and _Lanio_; black and white in _Lamprospiza_ and _Cissopis_;
olive and brown in _Chlorospingus_; chestnut and brown in _Orchesticus_;
grey, olive, yellow, or green, with more or less blue in _Thraupis_
(_Tanagra_). _Buarremon_ and several other forms are comparatively dull;
_Tanagra_ (_Calliste_) exhibits a beautiful mixture of all the above hues;
_Euphonia_ is also varied, but lacks scarlet tints; _Chlorochrysa_ is
brilliant green, relieved by orange, chestnut, blue, and black. The bill
may be red, black, yellow, {576}leaden or horn-coloured. Roughly speaking,
_Tanagra_ contains sixty species, _Euphonia_, _Chlorospingus_, and
_Buarremon_ each over thirty.

The flight of these bold, lively, and restless birds–often met with in
small parties–is Finch-like and not uncommonly brief; the song, frequently
heard in chorus, is mellow and pleasing, accompanied by chattering,
whistling, and chirping notes; the diet consists of insects and fruits,
even the latter being occasionally snatched upon the wing; while worms,
larvae, and molluscs are eaten, and some species scratch for food among
fallen leaves. The nests are usually shallow fabrics of grass, roots,
fibres, moss, and lichens, lined with hair or down; twigs, broad leaves, or
fern-stems being commonly added below: they are sometimes placed in forks
of trees or bushes, if not at the ends of branches; sometimes in masses of
creepers, or even upon the ground; that of _Pyrrhuphonia_ is domed, while
that of _Rhamphocoelus brasilius_ is built in tall grass in marshy places.
The two to four eggs are white, bluish, greenish, grey, salmon-coloured, or
rich brown, being at times uniform, but generally blotched, spotted,
freckled, lined, or scrolled with brown, lilac, red, purple, or black.
_Procnias_ is said to lay three or four white eggs in holes in trees or in
the soil, upon a bed of roots and plant-stems.[309]

[Illustration: FIG. 140.–Brazilian Tanager. _Rhamphocoelus brasilius._ ×
9/20.]

Fam. XXXIV. PLOCEIDAE.–The Weaver-birds, closely allied to the above, and
hardly to be distinguished from the _Fringillidae_ except by the tenth
primary being distinctly developed, may be divided[310] into the
Sub-families _Viduinae_, occurring in the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian
Regions, in which this quill is small {577}and falcate, and _Ploceinae_,
peculiar to Africa and its islands–with the exception of the genera
_Ploceus_ and _Ploceëlla_ of the Indian Region–in which it is larger. The
former group includes the long-tailed Widow-birds, the red-beaked
Wax-bills, and so forth; the latter the more typical Weaver-birds; Africa
furnishing by far the greatest number of species. The bill is normally
strong and conical, but is unusually long and slender in _Emblema_, and
particularly stout with ridged culmen in _Amblyospiza_; the maxilla may be
toothed, as in _Pyrenestes_, or festooned, as in _Spermestes_. The
metatarsus is moderate, and the hind claw sometimes lengthened, as in
_Icteropsis_. The rounded or pointed wings have very long secondaries, and
the tail shews a slight fork; while in the breeding season the four median
rectrices in the males of _Vidua_ and several allied genera are
extraordinarily elongated, being then either broad or tapering, and reduced
to threads at the extremity, or bare-shafted with racquet tips.[311] Crests
are uncommon, hair-like plumes on the nape more frequent, while
_Pyromelaena_ and _Urobrachya_ have a neck-frill in summer.

[Illustration: FIG. 141.–Weaver-bird. _Pyromelaena flammiceps._ × 7/12.]

The coloration of these rather small birds is most striking, though the
females are usually much duller than the males, which have in some cases a
sober winter garb. _Vidua principalis_ is black and white; _Penthetria
ardens_ is black with scarlet gorget; _Philetaerus socius_ is brown, buff,
black, and white; _Zonaeginthus bellus_ is brown above, with transverse
black lines and crimson rump, but silver grey below with black bars;
_Hypochera ultramarina_ is entirely purplish-blue; _Sporaeginthus
amandava_, the Amadavat, is chiefly crimson with white dots; _Munia
oryzivora_, the "Java Sparrow," is blue-grey and black with white cheeks.
_M. punctulata_, the Cowry- or Nutmeg-bird, is brown, {578}with white
streaks above and spots below, a yellow rump, and a white middle to the
under parts. _Poëphila mirabilis_, one of the Grass-finches, shews a
beautiful combination of pale green, blue, lilac, scarlet, yellow, black,
brown, and white; _Neochmia phaëton_ is crimson, brown, and black; _Foudia_
is generally crimson and black; _Hyphantornis cucullatus_ is golden-yellow,
black, and chestnut; _Ploceus baya_ is yellow and brown; _Textor
albirostris_ is entirely black. The bill is not uncommonly coral-red, as in
_Estrelda_ and other "Wax-bills;" but it varies from red to horn-coloured
in _Vidua_, and may be whitish, as in _Textor albirostris_, as well as
black, grey, rose-tinted, brownish, orange, or nearly blue. The feet may
also be red, brown, purplish, dusky, or flesh-coloured.

Weaver-birds are generally tame, and often approach habitations; the larger
species frequenting woods and gardens, open country, sugar-cane fields, or
reed-beds, but many of the smaller preferring grassy flats, bushy places,
or even stony hills. They are usually social, and frequently pugnacious.
The flight, though somewhat brief and heavy, is fairly rapid; _Chera_ and
_Vidua_ rise with arched tail, and hover with flapping wings, at times
soaring almost out of sight to descend again with great velocity.
_Sycobrotus_ climbs especially well, _Donacicola_ hangs to the reeds like a
Bunting, and indeed it is doubtful whether the Australian forms are not
really generalized Finches. The usual utterance is a harsh churr, a shrill
piping cry, a chattering or a twittering noise, often preceded by a single
mournful note; but some species sing fairly well in chorus. The food,
generally procured upon the ground, consists mainly of seeds, but is varied
by insects–occasionally taken on the wing,–fruits, and flowers; while the
birds play havoc with rice and other crops, often clinging to the stems
until they have eaten every grain from the head.

The nest is almost invariably a large mass of roughish grass or flags,
bristling with the thicker ends of the stalks; it is usually lined with
finer stems, but sometimes with feathers, down, and wool, while sticks,
twigs, roots, and the like may be added exteriorly. The fabric is normally
"retort-shaped," that is to say, globular with a "spout" or tubular
passage, which curves downwards either from the middle or from the top of
one side; but some of the structures resemble flasks placed horizontally;
others have little or no spout, or hang by a sort of rope; and occasionally
the materials do not quite meet above. Weaver-birds, especially the more
typical {579}species, commonly build in colonies, the most remarkable
instance being that of _Philetaerus_, where an umbrella-shaped mass of
sticks and straw is formed among the branches of a tree, and in its flat
under surface holes for as many as three hundred nests are excavated.
_Textor_ makes a somewhat similar joint fabric. In certain cases the hen is
said to sit in the roughly-fashioned shell, and to receive the thin ends of
the straws from her mate, as he, clinging to the outside, pushes them
through with his beak; she then passes them through to him again, and so
the process is repeated in true webster fashion. An inner partition is
often made to prevent the eggs from rolling out. The structures are placed
in trees or bushes, frequently overhanging water, in sugar-canes, reeds,
foundations of Eagles' eyries, or–especially by the smaller species–in long
herbage. Exceptionally they are found under eaves. _Ploceipasser mahali_
makes two "spouts," _Ploceus baya_ counterpoises its pensile nursery with
lumps of clay. The males add to the fabric after their consorts begin to
incubate, and are asserted to make nests to sit in; the hens occasionally
lay together, though the cocks are not proved to be polygamous. _Munia_,
_Stictospiza_, _Sporaeginthus_, and in fact most Indian and Australian
forms, deposit from five to seven dull white eggs; _Ploceus_ lays two of a
like description; _Ploceëlla_ two, which have a whitish or greyish ground
with brown frecklings; the Ethiopian species about five, either plain
white, blue, or green, or of the same colours, spotted and blotched with
red or purplish-brown. In nests of _Hyphantornis_ and _Pyromelaena_ very
diverse specimens are often found.

Fam. XXXV. ICTERIDAE.–This New World group comprises the "American Orioles"
or "American Starlings," which are certainly not Orioles, though analogous
to the Starlings, and allied through _Dolichonyx_ to the Buntings. From the
_Fringillidae_ they are distinguished by the more elongated bill, which has
no notch, and by the absence of rictal bristles. Dr. Sclater[312]
recognises five Sub-families: _Cassicinae_, with long, straight, and often
large bills, widening to a frontal shield; _Agelaeinae_, where they are
conical with flattened culmen, being shortest in _Dolichonyx_ and
_Molobrus_; _Sturnellinae_, where they are more slender; _Icterinae_ and
_Quiscalinae_, where the culmen is rounded, the length and curvature
varying more than elsewhere. _Aphobus_ and _Curaeus_ have grooved
mandibles, _Gymnostinops_ a naked space at their base, _Clypeïcterus_
{580}a horny swelling there. The legs are stout, being long in the
terrestrial Agelaeinae, Sturnellinae, and Quiscalinae, and not much shorter
in the Icterinae and Cassicinae; _Dolichonyx_ has the middle toe, and the
Sturnellinae the hallux elongated. The wings are long or moderate, being
often pointed with far-extended outer secondaries in the Sturnellinae. The
tail varies in length and form, but is much graduated in the Quiscalinae
(Boat-tails), which usually carry it in flight with the outer feathers
uppermost; it has acuminate rectrices in the Sturnellinae, _Leistes_, and
_Dolichonyx_, while in the last-named it is forked. _Cassiculus_,
_Eurycorystes_, and some species of _Ostinops_ have crests, the male of
_Cassidix_ a neck-frill, _Lampropsar_ erect frontal plumes, the
Sturnellinae bristly crown-feathers, _Hypopyrrhus_, _Curaeus_, and
_Aphobus_ lanceolate feathers on the head. _Gymnomystax_ possesses naked
orbits.

The _Cassicinae_, or Cassiques, are sometimes uniform black, sometimes
black relieved by chestnut, yellow, green, or scarlet; the bill being
frequently white, instead of the usual black or brown. The Agelaeinae are
generally black, varied with red and yellow, _Dolichonyx oryzivorus_, the
Bobolink, being, however, black, brown, buff, and white, with a duller
plumage in winter. The Sturnellinae are brown, variegated with black;
having scarlet or canary yellow under parts, and in _Sturnella magna_, the
"Meadow-Lark," a black gorget. The Icterinae (all but one of which belong
to the extensive genus _Icterus_) are glossy black, with yellow, bay, or
orange patches–especially upon the rump and lower surface–and often some
white on the wing. The Quiscalinae are black, occasionally with metallic
gloss, and scarlet or brown markings. The females are commonly similar to
the males, especially in the Cassicinae, but are sometimes comparatively
sombre. _Agelaeus phoeniceus_, the "Red-winged Starling," several males of
which have been captured in Britain, _Icterus baltimore_, the "Baltimore
Oriole" and _Quiscalus versicolor_, the "Crow-Blackbird," are good examples
of their respective groups. The curious resemblance of _Sturnella_ and
_Macronyx_ has already been mentioned (p. 500).

{581}[Illustration: FIG. 142.–"Baltimore Oriole." _Icterus baltimore._ ×
½.]

Some of the Family are large birds for Passeres, _Gymnostinops_, for
instance, being the size of a Rook; they are commonly gregarious, and
frequent forests or wooded country, the Agelaeinae and Sturnellinae in
particular preferring open grassy places and marshes, and all seeming fond
of the neighbourhood of water. The Cassicinae only range from South Mexico
to Paraguay and Bolivia; but the other Sub-families occupy most of America,
except the extreme north, the Quiscalinae extending to Chili and Argentina,
the Sturnellinae to Patagonia. Several species are peculiar to the
Antilles. The flight is sufficiently strong and swift, flocks of _Agelaeus_
and _Quiscalus_ performing evolutions like Starlings; while these forms,
_Dolichonyx_, _Scolephagus_, _Xanthocephalus_, and others roost in huge
companies on migration. These lively, active, and fairly tame birds differ
considerably in habits, _Dolichonyx_ sitting continually on fences,
clinging to plant-stems, or hovering in the air, _Sturnella_ sailing or
fluttering with jerky movements, the Icterinae and Cassicinae being
particularly accustomed to perch, and many forms walking well or even
gracefully. The members of the genus _Icterus_ have melodious voices, those
of _I. vulgaris_ and _I. baltimore_ being especially rich and varied; they
are therefore favourite cage-birds. _Dolichonyx_, perhaps the finest of
American songsters, often sings in chorus; _Sturnella_ produces tuneful,
wild, but not powerful notes; the Cassicinae utter loud discordant cries or
sweeter strains; while many forms chatter, chuckle, squeak, scream, or
whistle more or less harshly, whether in the air, in the trees, or on the
ground. The food in the breeding season consists almost entirely of
insects, their larvae, and small molluscs; but fruit is also eaten, and
havoc wrought in maize- and corn-fields, _Quiscalus_ even pulling up the
shooting blades. The terrestrial species often {582}scratch amongst the
soil, but the Icterinae and Cassicinae rarely feed upon the ground.

The Agelaeinae build cup-shaped nests of grass, sedge, or rushes, sometimes
lined with hair, in bushes or reeds, generally in damp or marshy spots; and
lay five or six white, drab, greenish, bluish, or reddish eggs, with
purple, black, red, or brown blotches, dots, and lines: the Quiscalinae
deposit similar eggs in rougher structures of twigs, grass, and the like,
placed in tree-forks or bushes. Both these groups often form societies.
_Sturnella_ hides its deep fabric in grass or rushes, the eggs being
speckled rather than spotted; the Icterinae, or "Hang-nests," usually weave
pensile nests of plant-stems, tendrils, grasses, or even rags, lined with
wool, down, and so forth, which are rarely domed, and generally contain
five or six eggs of a more delicate colouring than those of their kindred,
varied by marblings, zigzags, streaks, and spots of brown, purple, black,
or red. The Cassicinae commonly join in colonies and hang their elaborate,
purse-like nurseries of grass or palm-fibres, _Tillandsia_, _Bromelia_, or
lichens, lined with feathers, from branches above water; the two to five
eggs are plain white, or greenish- bluish- or reddish-white, blotched,
dotted, dashed, or scrawled with purplish- or reddish-brown and black.[313]

The gregarious Cow-birds (_Molobrus_), included in the Agelaeinae, lay eggs
varying from white to pinkish, greenish, bluish, or brownish, often spotted
or streaked with red, brown, and grey; one or more of these are by most
species foisted in Cuckoo fashion upon other birds, the young of which
disappear at an early date. It is a curious fact that _M. rufo-axillaris_
is ordinarily parasitic on its congener _M. badius_, which itself seizes
and uses other birds' nests. Many eggs are destroyed by the males, or are
dropped promiscuously by the females, several of the latter often laying
together. Cow-birds perch on cattle or follow the plough for insects, and
utter ringing screams in concert.[314]

Fam. XXXVI. FRINGILLIDAE.–The Finches are small birds very closely allied
to the _Tanagridae_ and the _Ploceidae_; while the Buntings are here
included in the Family, though often separated as _Emberizidae_. The most
evident points of distinction in the {583}last-named are the considerable
deflection of the posterior portion of the angular gape and the bony knob
often present on the palate; a gap, moreover, commonly occurs between the
edges of the maxilla and the mandible. Extreme forms are thus easily
recognised, but it seems almost impossible to draw an exact line of
demarcation, even when the more Lark-like nest of Buntings and their
streaky eggs are taken into consideration. The _Fringillidae_ predominate
in the Palaearctic Region, but are fairly plentiful elsewhere, except in
the Australian Region, whence few are as yet recorded; many forms, however,
have very limited ranges; while some are peculiar to certain islands, as
_Geospiza_, _Camarhynchus_, and _Cactornis_ to the Galápagos, _Passer
jagoënsis_ to the Cape Verds, _Chaunoproctus_ to the Bonin Islands and
_Telespiza_ to the Laysan group, _Nesospiza_ to Tristan da Cunha,
_Melopyrrha_ to Cuba, _Rhynchostruthus_ and _Passer insularis_ to Socotra.

The bill is usually stout and cone-shaped, often with a notched maxilla,
occasionally with a ridged culmen; it is enormous in _Geospiza_,
_Camarhynchus_, _Chaunoproctus_, and some other forms, and highly developed
in _Coccothraustes_, _Pyrrhula_, and elsewhere; but is at times either
remarkably short, or longer and more slender, as in _Cactornis_,
_Chrysomitris_, and _Carduelis_. Frequently it is curved, with overhanging
tip, while a peculiar crossing of the mandibles at their extremities marks
the genus _Loxia_. An excessive summer growth has been especially noticed
in Redpolls, which is worn down by hard food in winter. The beak is seldom
abnormal in Buntings. The metatarsus is moderate; but in _Calcarius_,
_Plectrophenax_, _Nesospiza_, and _Chamaeospiza_ the hind claw is
elongated, as is the mid-claw in _Phonipara_. The wings, which have a
minute outer primary, vary from very long, as in _Hesperiphona_, to short
as in _Passer_, and from pointed, as in _Plectrophenax_, to rounded as in
_Ammodramus_; the secondaries are shaped like a bill-hook in
_Coccothraustes_, while the inner are much lengthened in _Emberiza fucata_.
The tail is fairly normal, but may be long or decidedly short, square,
round, graduated, or forked; the rectrices are unusually acute in _Spiza_,
_Coryphospiza_, and _Emberizoïdes_. Many species possess a crop. Bristles
generally occur at the gape, and the nostrils are concealed by feathers or
by a membrane.

{584}[Illustration: FIG. 143.–House-Sparrow. _Passer domesticus._ × ⅖.
(From _English Illustrated Magazine_.)]

The sexes may be similarly coloured or very different, the hues being
commonly sober, but sometimes particularly brilliant. _Cardinalis_,
_Paroaria_, _Gubernatrix_, _Melophus_, _Pyrrhuloxia_, _Schistospiza_,
_Lophospingus_, and _Tiaris_ have fine crests; _Catamblyrhynchus_ exhibits
stiff crown-feathers. The feet are usually dull, but occasionally pinkish,
as in _Embernagra_ and _Pycnorhamphus_; the bill may be blackish,
yellowish, dusky, or even red, as in _Cardinalis_ (except one form). Of
British species, the Greenfinch (_Ligurinus chloris_), the Goldfinch
(_Carduelis elegans_), the Sparrow (_Passer domesticus_), the Chaffinch
(_Fringilla coelebs_), the Brambling (_F. montifringilla_), the Linnet
(_Linota cannabina_), the Redpoll (_Aegiothus rufescens_), the Bullfinch
(_Pyrrhula europaea_), the Reed-Bunting (_Emberiza schoeniclus_), the
Corn-Bunting (_E. miliaria_), and the Yellow Hammer (_E. citrinella_)
hardly need description; while several others occur more rarely in our
islands or breed with us in limited numbers, such as the Hawfinch
(_Coccothraustes vulgaris_), which is bay, black and white; the Siskin
(_Chrysomitris spinus_) and the Serin (_Serinus hortulanus_), which are
chiefly greenish-yellow; the Pine-Grosbeak (_Pyrrhula enucleator_) and the
Crossbill (_Loxia curvirostra_), which are mainly red in the adult male,
and respectively yellow and greenish-orange in the female; the Ortolan
Bunting (_Emberiza hortulana_), which is brown, green, and yellow; and the
Snow-Bunting (_Plectrophenax nivalis_), with its black, chestnut, and
{585}white plumage, that becomes black and white in summer. The
Rose-Finches (_Carpodacus_) of the Eastern Palaearctic, the Nearctic, and
the Indian Regions exhibit fine crimson or rosy tints; the Central and
South American _Pheucticus_, and the Western North American _Hesperiphona_,
much black and yellow; the Cardinals (_Cardinalis_), of North America,
Venezuela, and Trinidad, bright red with black forehead and throat;
_Paroaria_, which replaces the last-named genus southwards, somewhat like
colours. _Guiraca_ of most of America, except the extreme north and south,
is mainly blue; _Cyanospiza cyanea_, ranging from the Eastern United States
to Panama, is even more brilliant; while the Painted Bunting (_C. ciris_),
of similar range, shews a beautiful combination of blue, red, brown, and
yellowish-green. _Volatinia_ of Central and South America is black;
_Geospiza_, _Camarhynchus_, and _Cactornis_ are the same, or decidedly
dull; _Petronia brachydactyla_ and _Passer simplex_, of the deserts from
North Africa to Persia, resemble the sand in tint. The wild Canary
(_Serinus canarius_) of Madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries–not to be
confounded with the Cape Canary (_S. canicollis_)–is greenish above with
brown striations, and yellowish below. Finally, many sober-hued North
American genera, such as _Pipilo_, _Peucaea_, and _Junco_, lead up to the
brown-streaked Bunting forms.

[Illustration: FIG. 144.–Snow-Bunting. _Plectrophenax nivalis._ × ½.]

The crimson tints exhibited by the adult male Linnet, when in breeding
plumage, afford a well-known instance of seasonal change of colour. It is
in consequence indifferently called the Red, Brown, or Grey Linnet.

{586}The members of this Family generally frequent wooded districts and
open grassy spots, Finches on the whole preferring the former, Buntings the
latter; a few occupy sandy deserts; _Petronia_ haunts rocks; _Ammodramus_
resorts to the shore. This bird clings to the reeds like a Tit, a habit
well-known to be shared by various other marsh-loving species.
_Camarhynchus_ and _Geospiza_ accompany flocks of Doves to dry bushy and
rocky spots near the sea in the Galápagos. The majority are active and
lively birds, social and seldom shy, which flock in winter to feed or
roost; while the pugnacity of the Sparrow is rather exceptional. They not
only dust themselves in dry spots, but bathe freely. _Montifringilla_
breeds in mountainous places, _Leucosticte_ and _Plectrophenax_ in similar
situations, or on rocky Arctic shores. The flight is ordinarily strong and
rapid, some species of _Sycalis_, _Phrygilus_, and _Calamospiza_ soaring,
and descending with outspread wings; _Cactornis_ climbs with ease about the
prickly pear (_Opuntia_), while many Finches hop well, and others run
readily and swiftly. The song is often exceptionally fine, as in the
Canary, Linnet, Cardinal, American Song-Sparrow (_Melospiza_),
_Chondestes_, _Zonotrichia_, and elsewhere; the Bullfinch in the wild state
has a plaintive pipe; while the chirp of Sparrows may be contrasted with
the Cricket-like strain of _Petronia brachydactyla_, the whistling cry of
the Snow-finch (_Montifringilla nivalis_), the long-drawn note of the
Corn-Bunting, or the sibilant sound at times made by the Crossbill. The
food consists mainly of seeds, but other fruits, buds, leaves, insects and
their larvae, are also eaten, not to mention peas, crocus flowers, and the
like; Crossbills and some other forms cleverly extract the seeds of
fir-cones, _Camarhynchus_ and _Geospiza_ scratch about upon the ground, and
_Cactornis_ devours seeds and flowers of the _Opuntia_. The nest varies
from the huge, untidy domed mass of straw and feathers fashioned by
Sparrows to the small compact cup of moss, wool, hair, down, lichen, and
such materials, formed by the Goldfinch, Redpoll, or Chaffinch; Hawfinches
and Bullfinches make shallow structures chiefly composed of twigs and lined
with roots; the British Buntings build with grass and horse-hair if
possible; _Phonipara_ and other species sometimes make covered fabrics;
_Sycalis pelzelni_ occasionally utilizes nests of other birds. The site may
be in a tree, bush, rock, building, or on the ground, some forms
nidificating under cover, some in the open. Sparrows have black, grey, and
white eggs; those of {587}the Linnet, the Goldfinch, and their allies are
blue, bluish-white, or greenish, with reddish or brownish spots; those of
Buntings are whitish, greenish, or ruddy, with brown, blackish, or rufous
marks, ordinarily including streaks and scrawls; those of _Petronia
brachydactyla_ are white with blackish blotches; those of the Hawfinch
green with olive and umber spots or lines; those of the Snow-finch white;
those of _Spiza guiraca_ and some other American species plain bluish or
greenish.

With the Fringillidae this volume ends, according to the Classification
which has been here adopted; but it may be well to take the opportunity of
again reminding the reader that the "Families" of Oscines are not of equal
rank to those of the Orders which precede them; and that, as regards the
arrangement of these "Families," few writers will be found to agree; the
truth being that there never can be a perfectly satisfactory linear system,
since affinities point in so many different directions. When all these
affinities have been finally investigated by anatomists, if ever that time
should come, they may very possibly necessitate an alphabetical arrangement
of the groups, with indications of their various relationships under each
head.

{589}INDEX

Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or
species; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in
following page or pages; n. = note.

Abbott, on Penguins, 57 n., 59 n.
_Abdimia abdimii_, 99
Abdomen, 20
Abou-Hannes, 102
_Aburria_, 195;
_A. carunculata_, 197
_Acanthidositta_, 472;
_A. chloris_, 472, 545
_Acanthiza_, 355, 514, 518
_Acanthochaera_, 566
_Acanthopneuste_, 514
_Acanthoptila_, 502
_Acanthorhynchus_, 565
_Accentor_, 509, 510;
_A. collaris_, 512;
_A. modularis_, 512
Accentor, alpine, 512, 517
Accentorinae, 509
_Accipiter_, 156, 157;
plumage of young, 157;
_A. bicolor_, 158;
_A. chilensis_, 159;
_A. chionogaster_, 158;
_A. cirrocephalus_, 159;
_A. collaris_, 159;
_A. cooperi_, 159;
_A. erythrauchen_, 158;
_A. erythrocnemis_, 158;
_A. fuscus_, 159;
_A. guttatus_, 159;
_A. hartlaubi_, 158;
_A. madagascariensis_, 159;
_A. melanoleucus_, 158;
_A. minullus_, 159;
_A. nisoïdes_, 158;
_A. nisus_, 157, 158;
_A. ovampensis_, 158;
_A. pectoralis_, 159;
_A. pileatus_, 150, 159;
_A. rhodogaster_, 158;
_A. rubricollis_, 158;
_A. rufiventris_, 158;
_A. subniger_, 159;
_A. tinus_, 159;
_A. ventralis_, 158;
_A. virgatus_, 158
Accipitres, 137 f., 140 f., 397;
cere, 11;
claws on manus, 48;
powder-down, 147
Accipitrinae, 146, 147, 153
Accipitrine, 141, 146, 156, 157
_Aceros_, 390;
_A. nipalensis_, 393
_Acestrura_, 438
Acetabulum, 9, 9
_Acomus_, 199, 215;
_A. erythrophthalmus_, 215;
_A. inornatus_, 215;
_A. pyronotus_, 215
_Acredula_, 538-541
_Acridotheres_, 559-561;
_A. cristatellus_, 559
_Acrocephalus_, 515-518
Acromyodi, 467
_Acropternis_, 490
_Acrulocercus_, 564-567;
_A. apicalis_, 565;
_A. bishopi_, 565;
_A. braccatus_, 565;
_A. nobilis_, 565
_Acryllium_, 199, 201;
_A. vulturinum_, 204
_Actiornis anglicus_, fossil, 86
_Actitis hypoleucus_, 286;
_A. macularius_, 286
Adams, on _Tringa maculata_, 281 n.
_Adelomyia_, 427
Adjutant, 96, 97
_Aechmophorus_, 49;
_A. major_, 53;
_A. occidentalis_, 53
_Aechmorhynchus cancellatus_, 283;
_A. parvirostris_, 283
_Aedon_, 517, 518
_Aedonopsis_, 513
_Aegialitis_, 268, 269;
_A. asiatica_, 274;
_A. bicincta_, 274;
_A. bifrontata_, 274;
_A. cantiana_, 273;
_A. curonica_, 273;
_A. falklandica_, 271;
_A. hiaticola_, 273, 273;
_A. monachus_, 274;
_A. nivosa_, 274;
_A. novae zealandiae_, 274;
_A. placida_, 274;
_A. sanctae helenae_, 274;
_A. semipalmata_, 274;
_A. vocifera_, 274
_Aegialornis_, fossil, 315, 426
_Aegiothus rufescens_, 584
_Aegithalus_, 538-540
_Aegithina_, 505, 506
_Aegotheles_, 415, 417, 419;
_A. wallacii_, 417
_Aeluredus_, 550, 551;
_A. maculosus_, 551;
_A. viridis_, 549, 551
_Aepyornis_, 43 f.
Aepyornithes, 26, 43 f.
Aepyornithidae, structure, etc., 43 f.
_Aepypodius_, 190 f.;
_A. arfakianus_, 192;
_A. bruijni_, 192
_Aesacus magnirostris_, 297; {590}
_A. recurvirostris_, 297
_Aesalon columbarius_, 178;
_A. regulus_, 177;
_A. ruficollis_, 178;
_A. typus_, 178
_Aethiopsar_, 561
_Aethopyga_, 569
_Aethorhynchus_, 504-506
_Aex_, 111, 112;
_A. galericulata_, 114, 133;
_A. sponsa_, 133
Aftershaft, of feathers, origin of, 3;
absent, in Alcedinidae, 383;
in _Apteryx_, 39;
in Hornbill, 390;
in _Mesites_, 187;
in Ostrich, 27;
in Owls, 399;
in _Pandion_, 180;
in Rheidae, 30;
in Struthionidae, 27
Agami, 258
_Agamia agami_, 91 f.
_Agapornis_, 364, 368;
_A. cana_, 368;
_A. pullaria_, 368;
_A. roseicollis_, 368;
_A. taranta_, 368
Agelaeinae, 579 f.
_Agelaeus_, 581;
_A. phoeniceus_, 580
_Agelastes_, 201;
_A. meleagrides_, 205
_Aglaeactis_, 437
_Agnopterus_, fossil, 108
_Agriornis_, 473, 475
Air-cells, in _Sula_, 72
Air-sac, 21;
in Tetraoninae, 201
_Aithurus_, 426, 430;
_A. polytmus_, 433, 433
_Ajaja_, young, 105;
_A. rosea_, 105
Ala, 21
_Alaemon_, 497, 498;
_A. alaudipes_, 497
Alar bar, 21
Alaska, to which region belonging? 16
_Alauda_, 497;
_A. arvensis_, 496, 497
Alaudidae, 494, 496 f.;
habits, 498
_Alaudula raytal_, 498
Albatros, 59 f., 61-63, 81, 148;
Wandering, 63 f., 64
Albinism, its cause, 4 n.
_Alca_, 315, 320;
_A. impennis_, 315, 320, 321;
_A. torda_, 320 f.
Alcae, 268, 315 f.
Alcedinidae, 376, 382 f.;
habits, 383 f.
Alcedininae, 382, 386
_Alcedo_, 383;
_A. beryllina_, 387;
_A. ispida_, 387
Alcidae, 49, 268, 315 f.;
bill-sheath and outgrowth shed, 5 n., 317 f.;
habits, 315 f.
_Alcippe_, 503
_Alcurus_, 504
_Alcyone_, 383, 384;
toes, 10, 383;
_A. azurea_, 386
Alectorides, 243
_Alectoroenas_, 326, 346;
_A. madagascariensis_, 346;
_A. nitidissima_, 346;
_A. pulcherrima_, 346;
_A. rodericana_, fossil, 350;
_A. sganzini_, 346
Alectoromorphae, 182
Alectoropodes, 186
_Alectrurus_, 473, 475, 477;
_A. risorius_, 473, 474;
_A. tricolor_, 473, 475
_Alethe_, 513
_Aletornis_, fossil, 256
Alexandrine–see Parrot
Alisphenoid, 11
Allantois, 21
Altham, E. and H., on Dodo, 330
Altrices, 21
Alucinae, 398 n.
Alula spuria, 9, 20
Amadavat, 577
_Amaurornis_, 249;
_A. phoenicura_, 249
_Amazilia_, 435;
_A. cyanura_, 435;
_A. pristina_, 435
_Amblyornis_, 551;
_A. flavifrons_, 549;
_A. inornata_, 549, 551 f.;
_A. subalaris_, 549, 552
_Amblyospiza_, 577
Âme damnée, 66
Ameghino, on "Stereornithes," 44
_Ammodramus_, 583, 586
_Ammomanes_, 497, 498
_Ammoperdix_, 202;
_A. bonhami_, 228;
_A. cholmleyi_, viii;
_A. heyi_, 228
Amnion, 21
_Ampeliceps_, 559
Ampelidae, 529 f.
_Ampelion_, 480
_Ampelis_, 529;
_A. cedrorum_, 530;
_A. garrulus_, 529, 530;
_A. phoenicoptera_, 530
Amphicoelous, 6
Amphimorphae, 105
_Amphipelargus_, fossil, 99
_Amurolimnas_, 244
_Amytis_, 517
_Anaeretes_, 474
Analogous, meaning, 5
_Anarhynchus_, 268;
_A. frontalis_, 274, 274
_Anas_, 112;
fossil, 136;
_A. aberti_, 127;
_A. boscas_, 114, 127;
skull, 11;
_A. cristata_, 128;
_A. diazi_, 127;
_A. fulvigula_, 127;
_A. laysanensis_, 127;
_A. luzonica_, 127;
_A. maculosa_, 127;
_A. melleri_, 127;
_A. obscura_, 127;
_A. poecilorhyncha_, 127;
_A. sparsa_, 127;
_A. specularis_, 128;
_A. superciliosa_, 127;
_A. undulata_, 127;
_A. wyvilliana_, 127;
_A. zonorhyncha_, 127
_Anastomus_, 95, 97;
sifting apparatus of bill, 12;
_A. lamelligerus_, 97;
_A. oscitans_, 97
Anatidae, 108, 111 f.;
habits, 113 f.;
shed wing-quills simultaneously, 4;
young, 114
Anatinae, 111, 112, 123
_Ancistrops_, 484
_Andigena_, 456;
_A. bailloni_, 456;
_A. laminirostris_, 453, 456
Andrews, on _Aepyornis_ and _Mullerornis_, 43 n.;
on fossils from Madagascar, 136, 137 n.; {591}
on "Stereornithes," 44
_Androdon_, 426;
_A. aequatorialis_, 432 f.
_Andropadus_, 504
Angular, 11
Ani, 359;
habits, 359;
White, 359
Anna, 242
_Anodorhynchus_, 364, 371
Anomalopteryginae, 42
_Anomalopteryx_, viii, 42;
_A. parva_, 42
_Anomalornis_, viii
_Anorhinus_, 391
_Anous_, 301, 303;
_A. caeruleus_, 311;
_A. cinereus_, 311;
_A. galapagensis_, 311;
_A. hawaiiensis_, 311;
_A. leucocapillus_, 311;
_A. stolidus_, 310;
_A. tenuirostris_, 311
_Anseranas_, 111-113;
_A. semipalmata_, 135
Anseranatinae, 111, 135
Anseres, 108 f., 110 f., 112;
bill-sheath, 11;
claws on manus, 48;
fossil, 136;
fusion of tracheal rings, 13;
lamellae of bill, 12;
_A. albifrons_, 132;
_A. brachyrhynchus_, 132;
_A. cinereus_, 132;
_A. erythropus_, 132;
_A. gambeli_, 132;
_A. grandis_, 132;
_A. indicus_, 132;
_A. middendorfi_, 132;
_A. rubrirostris_, 132;
_A. segetum_, 132
Anseriformes, 70, 108 f.
Anserinae, 111, 112, 131 f.
Ant-bird, 488 f.
Anterior limbs, 8
_Antigone australasiana_, 252, 254;
_A. collaris_, 254
Anthinae, 494, 498 f.;
habits, 500 f.
_Anthobaphes_, 569
_Anthocincla_, 469;
_A. phayrii_, 470
_Anthornis_, 565, 567
_Anthracoceros coronatus_, 395;
_A. malabaricus_, 391
_Anthropoïdes_, 252;
_A. virgo_, 255 f.
_Anthus_, 499;
_A. antarcticus_, 499;
_A. bertheloti_, 499;
_A. bogotensis_, 499;
_A. campestris_, 500;
_A. cervinus_, 500;
_A. chloris_, 500;
_A. correndera_, 501;
_A. obscurus_, 500;
_A. pratensis_, 500;
_A. richardi_, 500;
_A. rosaceus_, 500;
_A. rufulus_, 501;
_A. spipoletta_, 500;
_A. tenellus_, 500;
_A. trivialis_, 500
_Antrostomus carolinensis_, 417;
_A. vociferus_, 417
_Anumbius_, 484, 487, 525;
_A. acuticaudus_, 477;
nest, 487
_Apatornis celer_, 49
_Aphanapteryx_, 244;
_A. broecki_, fossil, 251
_Aphelocoma_, 554
_Aphobus_, 579, 580
_Aphriza virgata_, 276
_Aplonis_, 559, 561
_Aprosmictus_, 364
_Aptenodytes_, 55;
_A. forsteri_, 55, 56;
_A. patagonica_, 57;
_A. pennanti_, 56
Apteria, or unfeathered spaces, 2
Apteryges, 26, 38 f.;
finger, 9
Apterygidae, structure, etc., 38 f.
Apterygiformes, of Parker, 38
_Apteryx_, 182;
feathers, 41;
pelvis, 9;
_A. australis_, 39, 39;
_A. haasti_, 39;
_A. lawryi_, 39;
_A. mantelli_, 39;
_A. maximus_, 39;
_A. occidentalis_, sub-species, 39;
_A. oweni_, 39
_Aptornis_, 244;
_A. defossor_, fossil, 251;
_A. otidiformis_, fossil, 251
_Aquila_, 146-148, 160, 161 f.;
fossil, 181;
_A. adalberti_, 163;
_A. chrysaëtus_, 161;
_A. clanga_, 162;
_A. fulvescens_, 163;
_A. hastata_, 162;
_A. mogilnik_, 163;
_A. naevioïdes_, 163;
_A. nipalensis_, 162;
_A. pomarina_, 162;
_A. rapax_, 163;
_A. verreauxi_, 163;
_A. vindhiana_, 163;
_A. wahlbergi_, 162
Aquilinae, 146, 159 f.
Aquiline, 147
_Ara_, 363, 364, 371;
_A. ararauna_, 371;
_A. chloroptera_, 371;
_A. macao_, 371;
_A. militaris_, 371;
_A. severa_, 371
Arabia, to which Region belonging? 16
Araçari, 456
_Arachnothera_, 569;
_A. chrysogenys_, 569;
_A. magna_, 570
Aramidae, 243, 256 f.;
habits, 257
_Aramides_, 247;
_A. ypecaha_, 247 f.
_Aramus pictus_, 256 f.;
_A. scolopaceus_, 257
_Arboricola_, 199, 222;
_A. ardens_, 222;
_A. chloropus_, 222;
_A. javanica_, 222;
_A. torqueola_, 222
Arch of vertebra, 6
_Archaeopteryx_, 2;
claws, 9;
fingers, 9;
rib, 6;
teeth, 12;
vertebrae, 6;
_A. lithographica_, 23 f., 24;
_A. macrura_, 25;
_A. siemensi_, viii
Archaeornithes, a sub-class, 23 f.;
difference from Neornithes, 25
_Archibuteo_, 147, 164;
_A. ferrugineus_, 164;
_A. hemiptilopus_, 164;
_A. lagopus_, 164;
_A. sancti johannis_, 164;
_A. strophiatus_, 164
Arctogaea, 15
_Arctonetta_, 114;
_A. fischeri_, 119
_Ardea_, 91;
fossil, 95;
young, 93;
_A. agami_, 91 f.;
_A. alba_, 92;
_A. ardesiaca_, 91;
_A. asha_, 91;
_A. bubulcus_, 88, 91;
_A. caerulea_, 91;
_A. candidissima_, 92;
_A. cinerea_, 92, 93;
_A. cocoi_, 93;
_A. coromanda_, 91;
_A. egretta_, 92;
_A. garzetta_, 92;
_A. goliath_, 89, 93;
_A. greyi_, 91;
_A. gularis_, 91;
_A. herodias_, 93;
_A. nigripes_, 92;
_A. occidentalis_, 93;
_A. pacifica_, 91;
_A. pealii_, 91;
_A. picata_, 91;
_A. purpurea_, 93;
_A. ralloïdes_, 91;
_A. rufa_, 91;
_A. sacra_, 91;
_A. tricolor_, 91;
_A. würdemanni_, 93 n.
Ardeae, 70 f., 86 f.
Ardeidae, 70, 86 f.;
habits, 87 f.
Ardeinae, 86
_Ardeola ralloïdes_, 91 {592}
_Ardetta_, 87, 88, 89;
_A. cinnamomea_, 89;
_A. minuta_, 89
_Argillornis_, fossil, 86
_Argus_, 199;
_A. ocellatus_, 208
Argus, 217
_Argusianus_, 199, 200;
_A. argus_, 207;
_A. bipunctatus_, 207;
_A. greyi_, 207
_Argya_, 502-504
_Arses_, 507
_Artamia_, 533;
_A. bicolor_, 533;
_A. leucocephala_, 533
Artamidae, 530 f.
_Artamides_, 525
_Artamus_, 494, 531;
powder-down, 531
Articular, 11;
process of vertebra, 6
_Arundinax_, 513
_Asarcornis_, 112;
_A. scutulata_, 134
_Asio_, 399, 401-403;
fossil, 415;
_A. accipitrinus_, 400, 406 f.;
_A. americanus_, 406;
_A. capensis_, 406;
_A. grammicus_, 406;
_A. madagascariensis_, 406;
_A. mexicanus_, 406;
_A. otus_, 402, 406;
_A. stygius_, 406;
_A. wilsonianus_, 406
_Aspatha_, 380;
_A. gularis_, 381
_Asthenopterus minutus_, fossil, 181
_Astrapia_, 544, 549, 550;
_A. nigra_, 545;
_A. splendidissima_, 545;
_A. stephaniae_, 544, 546
_Astur_, 156, 166;
_A. alphonsi_, fossil, 181;
_A. atricapillus_, 157;
_A. badius_, 156 f.;
_A. brutus_, 157;
_A. cinereus_, 157;
_A. franciscae_, 157;
_A. hensti_, 157;
_A. leucosomus_, 157;
_A. novae hollandiae_, 156, 157;
_A. palumbarius_, 156;
_A. pusillus_, 157;
_A. tachiro_, 156 f.;
_A. trinotatus_, 157;
_A. trivirgatus_, 157
_Asturina_, 166 f.;
_A. nitida_, 167;
_A. plagiata_, 166 f.
_Asturinula monogrammica_, 156
_Asyndesmus torquatus_, 461
_Atelornis_, 378;
_A. crossleyi_, 378;
_A. pittoïdes_, 378
Atlas, 5, 390
Atmore, on Secretary-bird, 142
_Atrichornis_, 491, 493;
_A. clamosa_, 493;
_A. rufescens_, 493
Atrichornithidae, 491, 493
_Attagis chimborazensis_, 296;
_A. gayi_, 296;
_A. malouina_, 296
_Atticora_, 523;
_A. cyanoleuca_, 525
_Attila_, 479
Attilinae, 479 f.
Audubon, on Humming-birds, 432
_Augastes_, 432;
_A. lumachellus_, 432
Auk, 49, 54, 268, 315 f., 316;
habits, 315 f.;
Great, 315, 317, 320, 321;
Little, 316, 321;
Parrot, 318;
Razorbill–see Razorbill
Auklet, Cassin's, 318;
Crested, 318;
Knob-billed, 317;
Least, 317, 318;
Rhinoceros, 317 f.;
Whiskered, 318
_Aulacorhamphus_, 453, 456 f.;
_A. prasinus_, 455;
_A. wagleri_, 455
_Aulia_, 480
Auriculars, 20
_Auriparus_, 538-540
Australasia, as a Region, 15
Australian Region, 15 f.;
its contents, 16
Austro-Columbia, 15
Austro-Coraces, 531 n., 557 n.
Autumn moult, 4 f.
Aves, as a Class, 23
Avestruz, 30
Avocet, 278
_Avocetta_, 268
_Avocettula recurvirostris_, 433
Axis, 5
Azara, on Toucan, 454

Back, 20
_Badiostes_, fossil, 415
Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, on _Rhynchops_, 304 n.;
on _Melanerpes_, 461 n.
Baker, 486
_Balaeniceps_, 86, 87;
_B. rex_, 93, 94
Balaenicipitinae, 86
_Balearica_, 251, 252;
_B. chrysopelargus_, 256;
_B. gibbericeps_, 256;
_B. pavonina_, 255, 256
_Bambusicola fytchii_, 218;
_B. sonorivox_, 219;
_B. thoracica_, 219
_Baptornis_, 25, 46, 47
_Barbatula_, 450;
_B. minuta_, 450;
_B. pusilla_, 449
Barbet, 445, 448 f.;
habits, 448 f.
Barbicels, 3
Barbs, 2, 3;
absence of, 3
Barbules, 2, 3
Bargander, 128
Barrel of feathers, or quill, 3
Barrère, on _Trochilus_, 426
Barrett-Hamilton, on _Sterna longipennis_, 313 n.
Bartlett, A. D., on _Catheturus_, 192 n.;
on Flamingo ejecting blood-like liquid, 86 n.;
on Hornbill, 392 n.;
on moult of Penguin, 55 n.;
on _Plotus_, 81 n.;
on _Rhinochetus_, 263 n., 265 n.
Bartlett, E., on _Furnarius_, 486;
on _Mesites_, 187
_Bartramia longicauda_, 285 f.
_Baryphthengus_, 380
_Basileuterus_, 574
_Basilornis_, 559
Basitemporal, 11
Bastard wing, 9, 20
_Batara_, 488, 489
Bates, on _Eurypyga_, 266;
on Humming-birds, 432
_Batis_, 509
_Batrachostomus_, 415-417, 419
_Baza_, 146, 173;
_B. borneensis_, 173;
_B. ceylonensis_, 173;
_B. cuculoïdes_, 173;
_B. erythrothorax_, 173; {593}
_B. leucopais_, 173;
_B. lophotes_, 173;
_B. madagascariensis_, 173;
_B. magnirostris_, 173;
_B. reinwardti_, 173;
_B. rufa_, 173;
_B. subcristata_, 173;
_B. sumatrensis_, 173;
_B. timorlaensis_, 173;
_B. verreauxi_, 173
Beak, 11 f.
Bearcoot, 162
Beddard, on trachea of Paradise-bird, 545 n.;
on _Zosterops_, 568
Bee-eater, 376, 387 f., 389;
habits, 388;
Blue-tailed, 389
Belding, on Harlequin Duck, 120
Bell-bird, 482, 482, 567, 567 n.
Belly, 20
Bendire, on habits of _Canachites_, 236
_Berenicornis_, 391, 393;
_B. comatus_, 393
Bergut, 162
Berlepsch, on Humming-birds, 432
_Bernicla_, 131;
_B. brenta_, 131;
_B. canadensis_, 131 f.;
_B. hutchinsi_, 132;
_B. leucopsis_, 131;
_B. minima_, 132;
_B. nigricans_, 131;
_B. occidentalis_, 132;
_B. ruficollis_, 131, 132
_Bernieria_, 503
Bevies, 221
_Bhringa_, 528
Bhund-Moorg, 208
_Bias_, 506
Biconcave vertebrae, in _Ichthyornis_, and probably in _Archaeopteryx_,
6, 49;
perhaps in _Enaliornis_, 49
Bill, 11 f.;
arched, 12;
of _Balaeniceps_ and _Cancroma_, 86;
scissor-like, 12;
wedge-like, 12
Bill-sheath, 11;
in _Chionis_, 268;
nature of, 2 n.;
shed, in Auks, 317, 318
Bird, definition, 1;
differences from other Vertebrata, 1 f.;
derivation from Reptiles, 14
Bird of Paradise, 543 f.;
D'Albertis', 544;
fables concerning, 543;
habits, 550 f.;
Great, 546;
Long-tailed, 546;
King, 547;
Magnificent, 547;
Twelve-wired, 545;
Red, 546;
Six-wired, 547 f., 548
Birds'-nest soup, 423
Birds of passage, 17
Birds of prey, 108;
cere, 11;
moult, 5
Birds of the Gods, 543
Bittern, 70, 90;
habits, 87 f.;
Common, 89;
Little, 88
_Biziura_, 111, 114;
fossil, 136;
_B. lobata_, 117, 117
_Blacicus_, 474
Blackbird, 510, 515
Blackburn, on Cuckoo, 354
Black-Cock, 237 f.
Black Witch, 359
Blake, on Flamingo, 107
Blight-bird, 568
Blind-sacs, 12
Blue-bird, Fairy, 505
Blue colour in birds, its nature, 3 n.
Blue Darr, 314
Blue-eye, 568
Blue-throat, 512, 516
Boatswain-bird, 72
Boat-tail, 580
Bobolink, 580
Bob-White, 204, 232
_Bonasa_, 199, 201;
_B. griseiventris_, 233 f.;
_B. severtzovi_, 234;
_B. sylvestris_, 233;
_B. umbellus_, 233
Bontekoe, figure of _Didus borbonicus_, 330
Bonxie, 304
Booby, 74, 82
Booted, 10
_Bostrychia carunculata_, 102
_Botaurus_, 87, 88;
_B. lentiginosus_, 89;
_B. pinnatus_, 89;
_B. poeciloptilus_, 89;
_B. stellaris_, 89
Bourdons, 426
Bower-bird, 543, 548 f., 550;
habits, 551 f.;
Satin–see Satin-bird
_Brachygalba_, 446;
_B. albigularis_, 445;
_B. melanosterna_, 445
_Brachypteracias_, 378;
_B. leptosomus_, 378
_Brachypteryx_, 502
_Brachyrhamphus craveri_, 319;
_B. hypoleucus_, 319;
_B. kittlitzi_, 318;
_B. marmoratus_, 318
Bradypteri, of Sharpe, 513
_Bradypterus_, 514
Brambling, 584
_Branta_, fossil, 136
Breast, 20
Breast-bone, 6
Brewer–see Baird
Brigade, vi (Preface)
Brisson, on _Bucco_ (including Barbet), 448;
on Strigidae, 398 n.
Bristle-feathers, 3
Bristles, nature of, 2 n.
Broad-bill, 467; habits, 469
Broderip, on Toucan, 454 n.
Brodrick–see Salvin, F. H.
Bromvogel, 392
Bronchi, 13
Bronchial syrinx, 21
Bronn's Thier-reich, 14, 23
_Brontornis_, 45;
_B. burmeisteri_, 45
Bronze-wing–see Pigeon
Brown colour in birds, its nature, 3 n.
_Buarremon_, 575, 576
_Bubo_, 398-403;
fossil, 415;
_B. abyssinicus_, 414;
_B. ascalaphus_, 414;
_B. bengalensis_, 414;
_B. blakistoni_, 414;
_B. capensis_, 414;
_B. cinerascens_, 414;
_B. coromandus_, 403, 414;
_B. dorriesi_, 414;
_B. ignavus_, 413 f.;
_B. lacteus_, 414;
_B. lettii_, 414;
_B. leucostictus_, 414;
_B. maculosus_, 414;
_B. magellanicus_, 414;
_B. milesi_, 414; {594}
_B. nigrescens_, 414;
_B. nipalensis_, 414;
_B. orientalis_, 414;
_B. philippensis_, 414;
_B. poënsis_, 414;
_B. shelleyi_, 414;
_B. turcomanus_, 413;
_B. virginianus_, 402, 414
Buboninae, 398, 404
_Bucco_, 447, 448;
_B. bicinctus_, 447;
_B. chacuru_, 447;
_B. collaris_, 447;
_B. dysoni_, 447;
_B. hyperrhynchus_, 447, 447;
_B. maculatus_, 447;
_B. striatipectus_, 447
Bucconinae, 445, 446 f.
_Buceros_, 390;
_B. rhinoceros_, 395
Bucerotidae, 376, 390 f.;
habits, 390
Bucerotinae, 390
_Buchanga leucogenys_, 528;
_B. atra_, mimicry, 529;
_B. waldeni_, 528
Buck–see Chapman
Buckley, T. E., on Red Grouse, 238 n.
_Bucorax_, 395
Bucorvinae, 395
_Bucorvus_, 390, 392, 393, 395;
_B. abyssinicus_, 392, 395;
_B. cafer_, 392, 395
Budgerigar, 367
Buffel-head, 121
_Bugeranus_, 252, 255
Bulbul, 504 f.;
habits, 505 f.;
of poets, 506
Bulla ossea, 13, 113
Bull-bat, 416
Buller, on Meliphagidae, 568 n.;
on _Phalacrocorax_, 77;
on _Spheniscus minor_, 57 n.;
on _Stringops_, 367 n.
Bullfinch, 584, 586
_Bulweria_, 60;
_B. bulweri_, 67;
_B. macgillivrayi_, 67
Bunting, 578, 579, 582 f.;
Corn-, 584, 586;
Ortolan, 584;
Painted, 585;
Reed-, 584;
Snow-, 584, 585;
Yellow Hammer, 584
_Buphaga_, 559
_Buphus bubulcus_, 91
Burgomaster, 306
_Busarellus_, 146;
_B. nigricollis_, 168
Bustard, 170, 243, 260 f.;
habits, 262 f.;
Great, 261-263, 261;
Little, 262, 263;
Ruffed, 262
_Butastur indicus_, sub-species, 167;
_B. liventer_, 167;
_B. rufipennis_, 167;
_B. teesa_, 167
_Buteo_, 146, 164 f., 166, 172;
fossil, 181;
_B. abbreviatus_, 166;
_B. albicaudatus_, 166;
_B. augur_, 166;
_B. auguralis_, 166;
_B. borealis_, 166;
_B. brachypterus_, 166;
_B. desertorum_, 165 f.;
_B. exsul_, 166;
_B. ferox_, 166;
_B. galapagensis_, 166;
_B. jakal_, 165, 166;
_B. leucocephalus_, 166;
_B. plumipes_, 166;
_B. poliosomus_, 166;
_B. solitarius_, 165;
_B. swainsoni_, 166;
_B. vulgaris_, 165, 166
_Buteogallus aequinoctialis_, 168
_Buteola brachyura_, 166;
_B. leucorrhoa_, 166
Buteoninae, 146, 164 f.
_Buthraupis_, 575
_Butorides_, 88-90;
_B. atricapilla_, 90;
_B. mauritianus_, fossil, 95;
_B. virescens_, 90
_Butreron capellii_, 349
Buzzard, 146, 148, 160, 162, 164 f., 169, 170;
habits, 165;
Common, 165;
Honey, 148, 172;
Rough-legged, 164
_Bycanistes buccinator_, 393

_Cabalus_, 244-246;
_C. modestus_, 246, 247;
_C. (Ocydromus) sylvestris_, 245
Cabanis, classification, 14;
on classification by song-muscles, 466
_Cacatua_, 362-364;
_C. galerita_, 364, 372;
_C. leadbeateri_, 372, 372;
_C. roseicapilla_, 372
Cacatuinae, 362 f., 364, 372 f.
_Caccabis_, 198, 202;
_C. chukar_, 228;
_C. magna_, 228;
_C. melanocephala_, 228;
_C. petrosa_, 228;
_C. rufa_, 228;
_C. saxatilis_, 228;
_C. spatzi_, 228
Cachalote, 487
_Cacomantis passerinus_, 355;
_C. virescens_, 355
_Cactornis_, 583, 585, 586
Caeca, 12
_Caica melanocephala_, 369
_Cairina_, 111;
_C. moschata_, 134
_Calamospiza_, 586
Calamus, 3
_Calandrella_, 497, 498;
_C. brachydactyla_, 497
_Calandria_, 519
Calao, 390
_Calcarius_, 583
_Calicalicus_, 531-533
_Calidris_, 269;
_C. arenaria_, 282
_Callaeas_, 552, 553;
_C. cinerea_, 556 f.;
_C. wilsoni_, 557
_Callene_, 513
_Calliope_, 509;
_C. camtschatcensis_, 512;
_C. pectoralis_, 512;
_C. tschebaiewi_, 512
_Callipepla_, 200;
_C. squamata_, 230
_Callisitta_, 537
_Calliste_, 575
_Callocephalon galeatum_, 373
Calloo, 120
_Calochaetes_, 575
_Calocitta_, 552, 554
_Calodromas_, 183;
_C. elegans_, 185
_Caloenas_, 326-328;
_C. nicobarica_, 334;
_C. pelewensis_, 334
Caloenatinae, 325
_Calopelia puella_, 338
_Caloperdix_, 199;
_C. borneensis_, 221;
_C. oculea_, 221
_Calopezus_, 182;
_C. elegans_, 185
_Calopsittacus novae hollandiae_, 373
_Calorhamphus_, 448;
_C. fuliginosus_, 450;
_C. hayi_, 450
_Calornis_, 561, 562 {595}
_Calothorax lucifer_, 438
_Calypte annae_, 438;
_C. costae_, 438;
_C. helenae_, 438
_Calyptomena_, 468, 469;
_C. viridis_, 468;
_C. whiteheadi_, 468
_Calyptorhynchus_, 364, 373
_Calyptura_, 479, 480
_Camarhynchus_, 583, 585, 586
_Camascelus_, fossil, 300
Campanero, 482
_Campechaera_, 525, 526
_Campephaga_, 525, 526
Campephagidae, 494, 525 f., 531;
habits, 526 f.
_Campethera_, 460;
_C. punctata_, 460
_Campophilus_, 463;
_C. principalis_, 463
_Camptolaemus_, 114;
_C. labradorius_, 119
_Campylopterus_, 435
_Campylorhynchus_, 521, 522
_Canace canadensis_, 236
_Canachites canadensis_, 236;
_C. franklini_, 236
Canary, 585, 586;
Cape-, 585
_Cancroma_, 86, 87;
_C. cochlearia_, 90 f.;
_C. zeledoni_, 91
_Canirallus kioloïdes_, 248
Cannon-bone, 9
Cape-Hen, 67;
-Penguin, 57;
-Pigeon, 61, 66
Capercaillie, 202, 203, 236
_Capito_, 448, 449, 451;
_C. niger_, 451;
_C. salvini_, 451
Capitonidae, 445, 448 f.
Capitoninae, 448 f.;
habits, 448 f.
Capitulum of rib, 6
Caprimulgi, 376, 398, 415 f.;
toes, 415
Caprimulgidae, 172, 415, 417 f.;
habits, 416 f.
Caprimulginae, 415, 418;
toes, 10, 415
_Caprimulgus_, operculum of nostrils, 11;
_C. aegyptius_, 418;
_C. europaeus_, 418, 418;
_C. parvulus_, 415;
_C. ruficollis_, 418
_Capsiempis_, 473;
_C. orbitalis_, 474
Caracara, 152
Carancho, 152, 153
Carau, 257
_Carcineutes_, 383;
_C. pulchellus_, 386
_Cardellina_, 574
Cardinal, 585, 586
_Cardinalis_, 583-585
_Carduelis_, 583;
_C. elegans_, 584
_Cariama_, 44, 110, 258, 260;
_C. cristata_, 258, 259
Cariamidae, 243, 258 f.;
habits, 259 f.
Carina, 6
Carinatae, meaning, 6;
a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f.
_Carine_, 400, 401, 403;
_C. bactriana_, 411;
_C. brama_, 411;
_C. glaux_, 402;
_C. noctua_, 403, 410 f.;
_C. plumipes_, 411;
_C. spilogastra_, 411;
_C. superciliaris_, 411
Carpal spurs in Palamedeidae, 109
_Carphibis_, 99;
_C. spinicollis_, 102
_Carpococcyx radiatus_, 358, 358;
_C. viridis_, 358
_Carpodacus_, 585
_Carpodectes_, 479, 480
Carpometacarpus, 8
_Carpophaga_, 327, 328, 345;
_C. aenea_, 345;
_C. basilica_, 345;
_C. concinna_, 345;
_C. cuprea_, 345;
_C. griseipectus_, 345;
_C. latrans_, 326, 345;
_C. pacifica_, 345;
_C. pinon_, 345;
_C. poecilorrhoa_, 345;
_C. rubricera_, 345 f.;
_C. zoeae_, 345
Carpus, 8, 8, 22
Carré, on _Didus borbonicus_, 330
Carrion-Crow, 140
Carrion-Hawk, 137, 146, 151 f., 153
_Casarca cana_, 129;
_C. rutila_, 129;
_C. tadornoïdes_, 129;
_C. variegata_, 129
Cashew-bird, 197
Casque, of Cassowary, 33 f.
Cassicinae, 579 f.
_Cassiculus_, 580
_Cassidix_, 580
Cassiques, 580
Cassowary, 26;
feathers, 35;
structure, etc., 32 f.;
aftershaft, 3;
breast-bone, 7;
nestlings, 34
Casuariformes of Parker, 38
Casuarii (= Megistanes), 32 f.;
finger, 9
Casuariidae, structure, etc., 32 f.
_Casuarius australis_, 33;
_C. beccarii_, 33;
_C. bennetti_, 34;
_C. bicarunculatus_, 33;
_C. galeatus_, 33;
_C. occipitalis_, 34;
_C. papuanus_, 34;
_C. picticollis_, 34;
_C. tricarunculatus_, 33;
_C. uniappendiculatus_, 34, 35
_Catamblyrhynchus_, 584
Cataract-bird, 517
Cat-bird, 519, 549, 550
_Catharista_, 140;
_C. atratus_, 140
Cathartae, 137 f.;
claws on manus, 48
_Cathartes_, 140
Cathartidae, 70, 137 f., 143;
fossil, 140;
fossil, _Dryornis_ belongs here, 44;
habits, 137 f.
_Catharus_, 509, 510, 516
_Catherpes_, 521, 522
_Catheturus_, 190 f.;
_C. lathami_, 192, 193
_Catreus_, 203;
_C. wallichi_, 212
Cedar-bird (_Ampelis cedrorum_), 530
Celeomorphae, 457
_Celeus_, 462 f.;
_C. flavus_, 463
_Centrites_, 473, 475, 477;
_C. niger_, 477
_Centrocercus_, 199, 200, 203;
air-sacs, 201;
_C. urophasianus_, 234
_Centropelma micropterum_, 53
Centropodinae, 351, 356;
habits, 356 f.
_Centropus_, 351, 356;
_C. sinensis_, 356;
_C. toulou_, 357;
_C. unirufus_, 356
_Centrornis majori_, fossil, 136 f. {596}
Centrum of vertebra, 6;
in _Archaeopteryx_, 24
_Cephalolepis_, 431;
_C. delalandi_, 437
_Cephalopterus_, 480, 482, 483;
_C. glabricollis_, 481;
_C. ornatus_, 481, 481, 482;
_C. penduliger_, 481
_Cepphus carbo_, viii, 319;
_C. columba_, viii, 319;
_C. grylle_, 319;
_C. mandti_, 319;
_C. snowi_, viii
_Ceratogymna_, 393;
_C. elata_, 394
_Ceratopipra_, 477, 478;
_C. cornuta_, 478
_Cercibis_, 100;
_C. oxycerca_, 101
_Cercomacra_, 488, 489
Cere, 20;
in Anseriformes, 109, 111;
in Falconiformes, 137;
in Psittaci, 362;
in Strigidae, 398
Cereopsinae, 111, 133
_Cereopsis_, 111, 112;
_C. novae hollandiae_, 133
_Ceriornis_, 199-201, 216;
_C. blythi_, 216;
_C. caboti_, 216, 217;
_C. melanocephalus_, 216;
_C. satyrus_, 216;
_C. temmincki_, 216
_Cerorhyncha monocerata_, 317 f.
_Certhia_, 457, 571, 572;
_C. familaris_, 571, 572
_Certhidea_, 572
Certhiidae, 494, 536, 571 f.
_Certhilauda_, 497, 498
_Certhiola_, 573;
_C.flaveola_, 573
_Certhionyx leucomelas_, 565
_Certhiparus_, 538-540
Cervix, 20
_Ceryle_, 383, 387;
_C. alcyon_, 387;
_C. amazona_, 384, 387;
_C. rudis_, 384
Cetn, 165
_Cettia_, 517, 518
_Ceyx_, 383, 384, 386;
_C. euerythra_, 386;
toes, 10, 383
_Chaetobias_, 502
_Chaetocercus bombus_, 438
_Chaetops_, 502, 503
_Chaetoptila_, 565
_Chaetopus_, 226
_Chaetorhynchus_, 528
_Chaetura_, 422;
_C. acuta_, 423;
_C. boehmi_, 423;
_C. cassini_, 423;
_C. caudacuta_, 422;
_C. grandidieri_, 423;
_C. novae guineae_, 422 f.;
_C. pelagica_, 422;
_C. ussheri_, 423;
_C. zonaris_, 422
Chaeturinae, 420, 422
Chaffinch, 584, 586
Chajá, 109, 110
Chaka, 109
_Chalcococcyx_, 352;
_C. lucidus_, 354, 355
_Chalcoparia_, 569
_Chalcopelia_, 335;
_C. afra_, 339;
_C. chalcospilus_, 339
_Chalcophaps_, 338;
_C. chrysochlora_, 338;
_C. indica_, 338;
_C. mortoni_, 338;
_C. natalis_, 338;
_C. sanghirensis_, 338;
_C. stephani_, 338
_Chalcopsittacus_, 364, 374
_Chalcurus inocellatus_, 208
_Chamaea_, 495, 522;
_C. fasciata_, 522;
_C. henshawi_, 522
Chamaeidae, 522
_Chamaeospiza_, 583
_Chamaepetes_, 195;
_C. goudoti_, 197 f.;
_C. unicolor_, 198
_Chamaeza_, 489
Channel-bill, 356
Chapman, Abel, on Flamingo, 107;
on Woodpecker, 459 n.
Chapman and Buck, on Bustard, 263 n.;
on Egyptian Vulture, 145 n.;
on nestling of _Gyps_, 143 n.
Chapparal-Cock, 357
Charadriidae, 268, 272 f.;
operculum _C._ nostrils, 11
Charadriiformes, 268 f.
Charadriinae, 268, 269, 272 f.
_Charadrius_, 268, 269;
fossil, 300;
_C. dominicus_, 272;
_C. fulvus_, 272;
_C. obscurus_, 273;
_C. pluvialis_, 272
Charata, 197
_Charitornis_, 559, 561
_Charmosyna_, 364
_Chasiempis_, 507, 509
_Chasmorhynchus_, 479, 480, 482, 567 n.;
_C. niveus_, 481, 482, 482;
_C. nudicollis_, 481;
_C. tricarunculatus_, 481;
_C. variegatus_, 481
Chat, 511, 512, 515-517
_Chaulelasmus_, 111;
_C. couesi_, 127;
of _streperus_, 127
_Chauna_, 109;
_C. chavaria_, 110;
_C. cristata_, 109, 110, 110;
_C. derbiana_, 110
_Chaunoproctus_, 583
Cheer, 212
_Chelidon_, 522-524;
_C. dasypus_, 522;
_C. urbica_, 524
_Chelidoptera brasiliensis_, 448;
_C. tenebrosa_, 448
_Chelidorhynx_, 506, 509
_Chen caerulescens_, 133;
_C. hyperboreus_, 133;
_C. nivalis_, 133;
_C. rossi_, 111, 133
_Chenalopex_, 112, 113;
fossil, 136;
_C. aegyptiaca_, 129;
_C. jubata_, 129;
_C. sirabensis_, fossil, 137
_Chenonetta jubata_, 130
Chenonettinae, 111, 112, 130 f.
_Chenopis_, fossil, 136;
_C. atrata_, 135
_Chenornis graculoïdes_, fossil, 136
_Chera_, 578
_Cheramoeca_, 523, 525
Chest, 21
_Chettusia gregaria_, 275 f.;
_C. leucura_, 276
Cheu-can, 490
Cheu-gui, 490
_Chibia_, 528;
_C. bimaënsis_, 528;
_C. bracteata_, 528;
_C. hottentotta_, 528; {597}
_C. pectoralis_, 528
_Chicquera ruficollis_, 178;
_C. typus_, 178
_Chimarrhornis_, 516
Chionididae, 268, 269, 292 f.
_Chionis_, 269, 270;
_C. alba_, 293;
_C. minor_, 293
_Chirocylla_, 480
_Chiromachaeris_, 478, 479;
_C. aurantiaca_, 478;
_C. manacus_, 479
_Chiroxiphia_, 478;
_C. caudata_, 479;
_C. linearis_, 478, 479;
_C. pareola_, 478
_Chlamydodera_, 550, 551;
_C. cerviniventris_, 551;
_C. maculata_, 551;
_C. nuchalis_, 549, 552
_Chleuasicus_, 502
_Chloëphaga_, 113, 114;
_C. hybrida_, 130;
_C. inornata_, 130;
_C. magellanica_, 130 f.;
_C. melanoptera_, 130, 131;
_C. poliocephala_, 130;
_C. rubidiceps_, 131
_Chloridops_, 562
_Chlorochrysa_, 575
_Chloronerpes_, 460;
_C. rubiginosus_, 460
_Chloropeta_, 506
_Chloropipo_, 477, 478;
_C. flavicapilla_, 478
_Chloropsis_, 505, 506;
_C. cyanopogon_, 505;
_C. flavipennis_, 505
_Chlorospingus_, 575, 576
_Chlorostilbon_, 430, 433
_Cholornis_, 10, 502
_Chondestes_, 586
_Chordiles_, 416;
_C. virginianus_, 416
Chorion, 21
_Chosornis praeteritus_, fossil, 194
_Chotorhea_, 450
Chough, 552-556
_Chrysococcyx_, 352;
_C. cupreus_, 355;
_C. smaragdineus_, 355
_Chrysoenas_, 326, 327, 347;
_C. luteovirens_, 347;
_C. victor_, 347;
_C. viridis_, 347
_Chrysolampis mosquitus_, 434
_Chrysolophus_, 199-201;
_C. amherstiae_, 210;
_C. pictus_, 200, 209 f.
_Chrysomitridops_, 562, 563
_Chrysomitris_, 583;
_C. spinus_, 584
_Chrysophlegma_, 460 f.;
_C. flavinucha_, 460 f.;
_C. miniatum_, 461
_Chrysotis_, 362, 364, 370;
yellow varieties, 370;
_C. aestiva_, 370
_Chthonicola_, 518
Chuck-Will's-widow, 417
Chueké, 30
_Chunga_, 258, 260;
_C. burmeisteri_, 259
Chuñia, 243, 259
Chupa-myrta, 426;
-rosa, 426
Church, on Turacin, 360 n.
_Cichladusa_, 513
_Cichlherminia_, 515
_Cichlopsis_, 513
_Cicinnurus_, 545, 550, 551;
_C. regius_, 547
_Ciconia_, 95;
_C. abdimii_, 96, 99;
_C. alba_, 98, 99;
_C. boyciana_, 99;
_C. nigra_, 96, 99
Ciconiae, 70 f., 95 f.
Ciconiidae, 70, 95 f.;
habits, 96
Ciconiiformes, 59, 70 f., 108
Cinclidae, 519
_Cinclodes_, 486
_Cinclorhamphus_, 502, 503
_Cinclosoma_, 503
_Cinclus_, 519;
_C. albicollis_, 519, 520;
_C. aquaticus_, 519, 520;
_C. ardesiacus_, 519;
_C. leucocephalus_, 519;
_C. leuconotus_, 519
_Cinnamopterus_, 559;
_C. tenuirostris_, 560
_Cinnicerthia_, 521
_Cinnyris brevirostris_, 568;
_C. osea_, 568;
_C. splendidus_, 569
Circaëtinae, 153
_Circaëtus_, 153;
_C. beaudouini_, 153;
_C. cinerascens_, 153;
_C. cinereus_, 153;
_C. fasciolatus_, 153;
_C. gallicus_, 153
_Circus_, 146, 147, 154;
fossil, 181;
habits, 154 f.;
_C. aeruginosus_, 155;
_C. approximans_, 155;
_C. assimilis_, 155;
_C. cineraceus_, 155;
_C. cinereus_, 155;
_C. cyaneus_, 155;
_C. gouldi_, 155;
_C. hudsonius_, 155;
_C. humbloti_, 155;
_C. jardinii_, 155;
_C. macrosceles_, 155;
_C. maculosus_, 155;
_C. maillardi_, 155;
_C. maurus_, 155;
_C. melanoleucus_, 155;
_C. ranivorus_, 155;
_C. spilothorax_, 155;
_C. spilonotus_, 155;
_C. swainsoni_, 155;
_C. wolfi_, 155
_Ciridops_, 562, 563
_Cirrhopipra_, 478;
_C. filicauda_, 478;
_C. heterocerca_, 478
_Cissa_, 376, 552, 553 f.
_Cissopis_, 575
_Cisticola_, 514, 518
Cisticolae, of Sharpe, 513
_Cistothorus_, 521
_Cittocincla_, 510, 513, 517
_Cittura cyanotis_, 385
_Cladorhynchus pectoralis_, 278
_Clamator_, 226
Clamatores, 467, 469 f.
_Clangula albeola_, 121;
_C. glaucion_, 113, 121;
_C. islandica_, 121
Clark, on bones of Dodo, 330
Clarke, W. E., Digest of Migration Reports, 19 n.
Classification, 13 f.
_Claudia squamata_, 425
Clavicle, 7, 8, 21, 187–see also Furcula Claws, nature of, 2 n.;
of recent Birds, 9;
serrated, 10;
in _Archaeopteryx_, 9, 25;
on manus of Carinatae, 48;
in Grouse, 199;
shed in Ptarmigan, 203;
in Ratitae, 26
_Clibanornis_, 484
_Climacteris_, 571, 572
_Clitonyx_, 502, 503 {598}
Clucking Hen, 256
_Clypeïcterus_, 579 f.
_Clytoceyx rex_, 386
_Clytoctantes_, 488
_Clytorhynchus pachycephaloïdes_, 533
_Cnemiornis_, 133;
fossil, 136;
breast-bone, 7;
very little keel to sternum, 26, 133
_Cnemophilus macgregori_, 548 f.
_Cnipolegus_, 473, 474, 476;
_C. unicolor_, 475
Coach-whip bird, 503
Cobbler's Awl, 278, 565
_Coccothraustes_, 583;
_C. vulgaris_, 584
_Coccycolius_, 559, 560
_Coccystes_, 352, 355;
_C. americanus_, 356;
_C. coromandus_, 355;
_C. erythrophthalmus_, 356;
_C. glandarius_, 355;
_C. occidentalis_, 356;
_C. serratus_, 355
_Cochoa azurea_, 510;
_C. purpurea_, 510;
_C. viridis_, 510
Cock, 203
Cock of the Rock, 480
Cockatoo, 351, 364, 365, 372 f.;
Great Black, 364, 373;
Leadbeater's, 372, 372
Cockatoo-Parakeet, 373
Coël, 356
_Coerebidae_, 572 f.
_Colaptes_, 458;
_C. agricola_, 460;
_C. auratus_, 460;
_C. mexicanus_, 460
Colibri, 426
Colii, 376, 439 f.
Coliidae, 439 f.
Colin, 231
_Colius_, 440 f.;
toes, 10;
_C. capensis_, 440, 441;
_C. castanonotus_, 441;
_C. erythromelon_, 441;
_C. leucocephalus_, 441;
_C. leucotis_, 441;
_C. macrurus_, 441;
_C. nigricollis_, 441;
_C. striatus_, 441
Collar-bone, 8
Collingwood, on Sooty Tern, 312
_Collocalia_, 421-423 f.;
fossil, 426;
_C. francica_, 424;
_C. fuciphaga_, 423 f.
_Colopterus_, 473, 474
Colour of feathers, 3 f.
_Columba_, 328, 343;
fossil, 350;
_C. affinis_, 344;
_C. araucana_, 344;
_C. arquatrix_, 344;
_C. bollii_, 343, 344;
_C. grisea_, 344;
_C. guinea_, 326, 344;
_C. gymnophthalma_, 326, 344;
_C. ianthina_, 344;
_C. intermedia_, 344;
_C. laurivora_, 343, 344;
_C. leucocephala_, 344;
_C. leucomela_, 344;
_C. leuconota_, 344;
_C. livia_, 344;
_C. metallica_, 344;
_C. oenas_, 344;
_C. palumboïdes_, 344;
_C. palumbus_, 343, 344;
_C. phaeonota_, 328;
_C. polleni_, 344;
_C. rufina_, 344;
_C. schimperi_, 344;
_C. speciosa_, 344;
_C. torringtoniae_, 344;
_C. trocaz_, 343, 344
Columbae, 268, 322, 325 f.;
operculum of nostrils, 11
Columbidae, 268, 325 f., 333 f.;
habits, 327 f.
_Columbigallina_, 325, 327, 328, 335, 340;
_C. buckleyi_, 340;
_C. cruziana_, 340;
_C. minuta_, 340;
_C. passerina_, 340;
_C. rufipennis_, 340;
_C. talpacoti_, 340
Columbinae, 325 f., 342
_Columbula picui_, 340
Coly, 439 f.;
Cape, 440, 441
Colymbi, 49
Colymbidae, habits, 51 f.;
structure, etc., 49 f.
Colymbiformes, 49 f.
_Colymboïdes_, fossil, 50
Colymbomorphae, 48
_Colymbus adamsi_, 50;
_C. arcticus_, 50;
_C. glacialis_, 50, 51;
_C. pacificus_, 50;
_C. septentrionalis_, 50
Coly-Shrike, 527, 527
_Comatibis_, 100;
_C. comata_, 102
Comet, Sappho, 434
Compressed, 21
_Compsotis_, 262
Condor, 138, 139, 139
_Conopophaga_, 489, 490
Conopophagidae, 469, 489 f.
_Contopus_, 473, 474;
_C. ardesiacus_, 476
Contour-feather, 2
_Conurus_, 363, 365;
_C. carolinensis_, 365, 371;
_C. guarouba_, 371;
_C. patachonius_, 525;
_C. pertinax_, 366;
_C. solstitialis_, 371
Coot, 243-246
Copper-smith, 449
_Copsychus_, 510, 513, 516
_Copurus_, 473, 477
Coraciae, 376 f.
_Coracias_, 376;
_C. abyssinicus_, 377;
_C. garrulus_, 376 f.;
_C. naevius_, 377;
_C. spatulatus_, 377;
_C. temmincki_, 376
Coraciidae, 376 f.
Coraciiformes, 376 f.
Coraciinae, 376;
habits, 377 f.
Coraciomorphae, 351
Coracoid, 7, 7, 8, 8;
unites with furcula and scapula in _Fregata_, 72
Coracomorphae, of Huxley, 466
_Coracopitta_, 469;
_C. lugubris_, 471
_Coracopsis_, 364;
_C. barklyi_, 369;
_C. comorensis_, 369;
_C. mascarinus_, 365 f.;
_C. nigra_, 369;
_C. sibilans_, 369;
_C. vasa_, 369
_Corcorax_, 552, 557 f.
Cordeaux, W. W., on _Ibidorhynchus_, 277 n.
_Corethrura_, 246, 248;
_C. pulchra_, 246
_Coriphilus_, 364;
_C. taitianus_, 373;
_C. ultramarinus_, 373
Cormorant, 70, 75;
fishing with, 79;
habits, 78;
Common, 75, 76;
Green, 77;
Pigmy, 78
Cornay, classification, 14
Corn Crake–see Crake, Corn
Corneous, 11
Corvidae, 495, 525, 531, 543, 552 f.; {599}
habits, 554 f.
Corvinae, 552 f.
_Corvultur_, 552, 553
_Corvus_, fossil, 496;
_C. caurinus_, 555;
_C. corax_, 552, 555;
_C. cornix_, 355;
_C. corone_, 556;
_C. frugilegus_, 552;
_C. ossifragus_, 556;
_C. pastinator_, 552;
_C. scapulatus_, 553;
_C. torquatus_, 553;
_C. tropicus_, 556
_Corydon_, 468;
_C. sumatranus_, 468
_Coryphistera_, 484, 485
_Coryphoenas_, 326;
_C. crassirostris_, 342 f.
_Coryphospiza_, 583
_Corythaeola_, 360
_Corythaix fischeri_, 361
_Corythopis_, 489, 490
_Corythornis cristata_, 386 f.
_Coscoroba candida_, 135
_Cosmonetta_, 112;
_C. histrionica_, 120
_Cossypha_, 513, 516;
_C. caffra_, 512 n.;
_C. natalensis_, 510
_Cotile_, 523, 525;
_C. concolor_, 525;
_C. fuligula_, 524 f.;
_C. riparia_, 522, 524;
_C. rupestris_, 524 f.
_Cotinga_, 480;
_C. amabilis_, 480
Cotingidae, 469, 477, 479 f., 567 n.;
habits, 482 f.
Cotinginae, 479 f.
_Coturnix_, 198-200, 202;
fossil, 240;
_C. capensis_, 220;
_C. communis_, 220;
_C. coromandelica_, 220;
_C. delegorguii_, 220;
_C. japonica_, 220;
_C. novae zealandiae_, 220;
_C. pectoralis_, 220
_Coua_, 351, 352, 357;
_C. caerulea_, 357
Coucal, 356;
habits, 356 f.
Courlan, 257
Courser, 268, 294 f.;
Cream-coloured, 294
Covert, 20, 21;
Greater, 21;
Lesser, 21;
Median, 21;
Upper, 21
Cow-bird, 582
Cowry-bird, 577
Crab-Plover–see Plover, Crab
Cracidae, 186, 194 f.;
habits, 195;
replace Pheasants, etc., 192
Cracinae, 194-196
_Cracticus_, 532, 533;
_C. destructor_, 533
Crake, 243, 246;
Baillon's, 248;
Corn, 245, 248;
Little, 248;
Spotted, 245, 248
Crane, viii, 148, 243, 251 f., 263;
habits, 252 f.;
trachea enters keel of sternum, 13;
young, 256;
Asiatic White, 253, 254;
Common, 254;
Crowned, 253, 255, 256;
Demoiselle, 255;
of Japan, 254;
Kaffir, 256;
Sandhill, 254;
Sarus, 253, 254;
Wattled, 255;
Whooping, 253, 254
_Cranorhinus cassidix_, 394 f.
Crapaud-volant, 419 n.
Crateropodes, of Sharpe, 502
_Crateropus_, 355, 504;
_C. kirki_, 503
_Crax_, 194 f.;
_C. alector_, 196, 196;
_C. fasciolata_, 196, 197
Crazy Widow, 257
_Creadion carunculatus_, 558
_Creciscus_, 246;
_C. levraudi_, 246
Creeper, 571 f.;
Tree-, 457, 572
Cretaceous epoch, Birds of, 2
_Crex pratensis_, 245, 248, 248
_Criniger_, 504-506
Crissum (vent-region), 20
Crocodile-bird, 295
_Crocopus_, 349;
_C. chlorigaster_, 349
Crop, 12;
in Galliformes, 186;
in Humming-birds, 427;
in _Opisthocomus_, 241;
in Phasianidae, 200;
in Sand-grouse, 322;
in Thinocorythidae, 270;
in Tinamidae, 183
Crossbill, 584, 586
_Crossleyia_, 503
_Crossoptilon_, 199, 200, 203, 214;
_C. auritum_, 214;
_C. harmani_, 214;
_C. leucurum_, 214;
_C. manchuricum_, 214;
_C. tibetanum_, 214
_Crotophaga_, 351, 352;
_C. ani_, 359;
_C. major_, 359;
_C. sulcirostris_, 359
Crotophaginae, 351, 359;
habits, 359
Crow, 149, 175, 356, 552-556;
-Blackbird, 580;
Carrion-, 554, 556;
Grey, 355;
Hooded, 553, 556
Crown, 20
_Crypsirhina_, 552
_Cryptolopha_, 506, 514, 518
_Cryptorhina_, 552
_Cryptornis_, fossil Hornbill in France, 395
Crypturi, incisura ischiadica, 9;
no pygostyle, 6 n.
Crypturidae, 182 f.
_Crypturus_, 183, 184;
_C. tataupa_, 184, 185
Cubitals, 21, 22
Cuckoo, 351, 352 f., 353;
habits, 353 f.;
Hawk, 353;
migration, 19;
_Opisthocomus_ related to, 186;
parasitic habits, etc., 354;
toes, 10;
Black-billed, 356;
Great Spotted, 355;
Radiated Ground-, 358;
Yellow-billed, 356
Cuckoo-Shrike, 525 f.;
habits, 526 f.
Cuckoo's-mate, 465
Cuculi, 351 f., 376
Cuculidae, 351 f.;
toes, 10
Cuculiformes, 351 f.
Cuculinae, 351, 352;
habits, 353 f.
_Cuculus canorus_, 352 f., 353;
_C. clamosus_, 352
_Culicicapa_, 507
_Culicivora_, 473
Culmen, 20
Cuneate, 21
Cunningham, on _Tachyeres_, 121 n.
_Curaeus_, 579, 580
Curassow, 186, 194, 241; {600}
habits, 195;
Crested, 196
Curlew, 282, 287 f., 288;
bill, 12;
Eskimo, 288;
Stone-, 268, 297
_Cursorius_, 269, 270, 293, 294 f.;
_C. albifasciatus_, 295;
_C. bicinctus_, 295;
_C. bisignatus_, 295;
_C. bitorquatus_, 295;
_C. chalcopterus_, 270, 295;
_C. cinctus_, 295;
_C. coromandelicus_, 295;
_C. gallicus_, 294;
_C. hartingi_, 295;
_C. rufus_, 294 f.;
_C. seebohmi_, 295;
_C. senegalensis_, 295;
_C. somalensis_, 294;
_C. temmincki_, 295
Cushat, 344
Cutis, 2 n.
Cutting edges of bill, 20
_Cyanecula_, 516;
_C. leucocyana_, 512;
_C. suecica_, 512;
_C. wolfi_, 512
_Cyanochen cyanoptera_, 130
_Cyanocitta_, 552, 554
_Cyanocorax_, 552, 554
_Cyanolesbia gorgo_, 434
_Cyanolyseus_, 365;
_C. patagonus_, 365, 371
_Cyanomyias_, 506;
_C. verticalis_, 435
_Cyanophaea caeruleigularis_, 435
_Cyanopica_, 552;
_C. cooki_, 355, 553;
_C. cyana_, 553
_Cyanops_, 450;
_C. faber_, 449
_Cyanopsittacus_, 364, 371
_Cyanorhamphus erythrotis_, 365
_Cyanospiza ciris_, 563, 585;
_C. cyanea_, 585
_Cyanotis_, 475-477;
_C. azarae_, 474
_Cybernetes_, 473, 475
Cyclopsittacinae, 362 f., 373
_Cyclopsittacus_, 373
_Cyclorhis_, 536
_Cyclorhynchus_, 316;
_C. psittaculus_, 318
_Cycnopsis cycnoïdes_, 111, 132
Cygninae, 111, 112, 135 f.;
young, 114
_Cygnus_, fossil, 136;
_C. bewicki_, 112, 135, 136;
_C. buccinator_, 112, 135;
_C. columbianus_, 112, 135;
_C. melanocoryphus_, 111, 135;
_C. musicus_, 112, 135;
_C. olor_, 111, 135, 136
_Cymbilanius_, 488
_Cymborhynchus macrorhynchus_, 468
_Cymodroma_, 60, 65
_Cyphorhinus_, 521;
_C. cantans_, 521
Cypseli, 376, 419 f.
Cypselidae, 315 n., 419 f.;
toes, 10, 420 f.;
habits, 421 f.
Cypselinae, 420, 424
_Cypseloïdes_, 420, 422, 423;
_C. brunneitorques_, 423;
_C. niger_, 423;
_C. rutilus_, 423
Cypselomorphae, 419 n.
_Cypselus_, 424;
fossil, 426;
toes, 10;
_C. affinis_, 421, 424;
_C. andicola_, 421, 425;
_C. apus_, 424, 425;
_C. caffer_, 421, 424 f.;
_C. horus_, 421, 425;
_C. melanoleucus_, 421 n., 424, 425;
_C. melba_, 424;
_C. montivagus_, 425;
_C. murinus_, 424;
_C. pacificus_, 425;
_C. pallidus_, 424;
_C. squamatus_, 424;
_C. unicolor_, 424
_Cyrtonyx_, 199, 231 f.;
_C. montezumae_, 231 f.

Dabchick, 52
_Dacelo_, 383, 384;
_D. gigas_, 386
_Dactylortyx_, 199;
_D. thoracicus_, 232
_Dafila_, 112, 114;
_D. acuta_, 125;
_D. eatoni_, 125;
_D. spinicauda_, 125
D'Albertis, on _Macropteryx_, 421 n.
Dal-riporre, 239
Dames, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n.;
on _Scaniornis_, 108 n.
Dampier, on Flamingo, 107;
on _Goura_, 334
Dance of Cranes, 252
Dancing of Kagu, 265;
of Sun-bittern, 266;
of _Vanellus cayennensis_, 275 n.
_Daphoenositta_, 537
_Daption_, 60, 61;
_D. capensis_, 66
Darters, 70, 79 f.;
habits, 80 f.;
Indian, 80
Darwin, on breeds of Pigeons, 327 n.;
on _Patagona gigas_, 430;
on _Pelecanoïdes_, 69;
on _Tachyeres_, 121
_Dasornis_, 45
_Dasylophus_, 352
_Dasyptilus_, 364;
_D. pesqueti_, 369
_Daulias_, 510;
_D. hafizi_, 506, 512;
_D. luscinia_, 512;
_D. philomela_, 512
De Bry, on Dodo, 329
Decomposed feather, 3
Decorative plumes, 5
_Defilippia crossirostris_, 276;
_D. leucoptera_, 276
Deglutition, organs of, 12
_Demiegretta sacra_, 91
_Dendragapus_, air-sacs, 201;
_D. fuliginosus_, 235;
_D. obscurus_, 235;
_D. richardsoni_, 235
_Dendrobates_, 462
_Dendrocitta_, 552, 553, 556
Dendrocolaptidae, 469, 483 f.;
habits, 485 f.
Dendrocolaptinae, 457, 484 f.
_Dendrocoptes_, 462
_Dendrocopus brunneifrons_, 461 f.;
_D. leuconotus_, 462;
_D. major_, 458, 461;
_D. medius_, 462;
_D. minor_, 461, 462
_Dendrocycna_, 111-113, 129;
fossil, 136;
_D. arborea_, 129;
_D. arcuata_, 130;
_D. autumnalis_, 129;
_D. discolor_, 120;
_D. eytoni_, 130;
_D. fulva_, 129, 130;
_D. guttata_, 129;
_D. javanica_, 130;
_D. viduata_, 129
_Dendroeca_, 573, 574;
_D. palmarum_, 574;
_D. tigrina_, 573
_Dendrophila_, 537
_Dendrortyx_, 198, 230;
_D. macrurus_, 230
Dentary, 11
Depressed, 21
Derma, 2, 2 n. {601}
_Deroptyus_, 364
Desjardins, on Solitaire, 331
Desmodactyli, 466 f.
Deviling, 424
De Vis, on "_Dinornis queenslandiae_," 42;
on _Metapteryx_, 40
D'Heguerty, on Solitaire, 330
Diamond-bird, 570 f.
_Diaphorapteryx_, 244;
_D. hawkinsi_, fossil, 251
_Diaphorophyia_, 506, 507
_Diatryma_, 45
Dicaeidae, 570 f.
_Dicaeum_, 571;
_D. erythrorhynchum_, 571
_Dichoceros bicornis_, 391, 393, 395
_Dicholophus_, 44
_Dichromanassa_, young, 93;
_D. rufa_, 91
_Dicranostreptus_, 528
_Dicrocercus_, 387
Dicruridae, 353, 527 f.;
habits, 528 f.
_Dicrurus_, 528
Dididae, 268, 325 f., 328
Di-dric, 355
Didunculidae, 268, 325 f., 331
_Didunculus_, 325, 326, 328;
_D. strigirostris_, 331 f., 332;
habits, 332, 333
_Didus_, breast-bone, 7;
coracoid and scapula fused, 8;
little keel to sternum, 26;
_D. borbonicus_, 328, 330;
_D. ineptus_, 328 f., 329
Digestion, organs of, 5 f., 12
Digits, 8, 8;
of foot, 8
_Diglossa_, 572
_Diglossopis_, 572
_Dilophus_, 559, 561, 562
_Dinornis_, 42;
_D. maximus_, 42;
"_Dinornis queenslandiae_," 42
Dinornithes, 26, 41 f.
Dinornithidae, 41;
structure, etc., 42
Dinornithinae, 42
_Diomedea_, 63;
fossil, 69;
_D. albatrus_, 64;
_D. anglica_, fossil, 69;
_D. bulleri_, 65;
_D. cauta_, 65;
_D. chionoptera_, 64;
_D. chlororhyncha_, 65;
_D. culminata_, 63, 65;
_D. exulans_, 61, 63 f., 64;
_D. immutabilis_, 65;
_D. irrorata_, 64;
_D. layardi_, 65;
_D. melanophrys_, 65;
in England and Faeroes, 65;
_D. nigripes_, 64;
_D. regia_, 64;
_D. salvini_, 65
Diomedeinae, 59, 60, 63
_Diphlogaena iris_, 434
_Diphyllodes_, 545, 550;
_D. gulielmi tertii_, 547;
_D. magnifica_, 547, 547
Diplopterinae, 351, 358
_Diplopterus_, 352;
_D. naevius_, 358 f.
Dipper, 519 f., 520
Disconnected web, 3
_Discura_, 427
_Dissemuroïdes_, 528
_Dissemurus_, 528;
_D. paradiseus_, 528
_Dissodectes ardesiacus_, 174;
_D. dickinsoni_, 174;
_D. zoniventris_, 174
_Dissura_, 96;
_D. episcopus_, 98 f.;
_D. maguari_, 97, 99
Distal, 21
Diver, 54, 267;
habits, 51 f.;
structure, etc., 49 f.;
Black-throated, 50 f.;
Great Northern, 50, 51;
Red-throated, 50 f.
_Docimastes ensifer_, 436
Dodaars, 329
Dodo, 325, 328 f., 329;
breast-bone, 7;
habits, 330
_Dolichonyx_, 579-581;
_D. orizivorus_, 580
_Doliornis_, 479, 480
Dollar-bird, 377
_Donacicola_, 578
_Donacobius_, 515, 519
Dormant action of formative substance of feather, 4
Dorsal, 21
Dorsum, 20
Dotterel, 272;
Ring-, 273
Double moult, 4 f.
Dove, Beetle-wing, 338;
Cinnamon-, 337;
Collared Turtle-, 328;
Cordillera-, 339;
Cuckoo-, 343;
Emerald-, 338;
Ground-, 328, 340;
Lemon-, 337;
Mountain-, 342;
Mourning, 342;
Pea-, 342;
Ring-, 344;
Rock-, 327, 328;
Scaly, 341;
Stock-, 328, 344;
Turtle-, 327, 341
Dowitcher, 289
Down-feather, 2
Down of young suppressed, 3
Drepanididae, 562;
habits, 564
_Drepanis_, 562;
_D. funerea_, 563;
_D. pacifica_, 563, 563, 564
_Drepanoptila_, 325, 326;
_D. holosericea_, 346 f.
_Drepanorhynchus_, 569
_Drepanornis_, 544, 550, 551;
_D. albertisi_, 544, 545;
_D. cervinicauda_, 551
Dresser, on Bustards, 263 n.;
on Double Snipe, 291 n.;
on Francolin, 226 n.;
on Grouse, 240 n.;
on _Pelecanus onocrotalus_, 83;
on Quail, 221 n.
Dromadinae, 296
Dromaeidae, 36;
structure, etc., 32 f.
_Dromaeocercus_, 514
_Dromaeus_, 182;
_D. ater_, extinct, 38;
_D. gracilipes_, fossil, 38;
_D. irroratus_, 36;
_D. novae hollandiae_, 36, 37;
_D. patricius_, fossil, 38
_Dromas_, 269, 270, 292;
_D. ardeola_, 296
_Dromococcyx_, 352, 359
_Dromornis australis_, fossil, 38
Drongo, 353, 527 f., 528;
habits, 528 f.
Dronte, 329
Drumming or booming of Grouse, 233-238;
of Snipe, 291;
of Woodpeckers, 458 f.
Drum-stick, 9
_Drymornis_, 487;
_D. bridgesi_, 485
_Dryolimnas cuvieri_, 248 {602}
_Dryonastes_, 504
_Dryornis_, 44, 140 n.
_Dryoscopus cubla_, 533;
_D. rufiventris_, 533
_Dryotomus pileatus_, 463
_Dryotriorchis_, 154
Du Bois, on _Didus borbonicus_, 330
Duck, 114;
habits of, 113 f.;
fusion of tracheal rings, 13–see Sheld-Drake;
Black, 119;
Blue, 116;
Brahminy, 129;
Buffel-head, 121;
Canvas-back, 122;
Eider, 118 f.;
Gadwall, 127;
Garganey 125;
habits, 126;
Golden-Eye, 121;
Harlequin-, 114, 120;
King-Eider, 118 f.;
Lake-, 117;
Logger-head, 121;
Long-tailed, 120 f.;
Mallard, 127;
Mandarin-, 114, 133;
Muscovy, 134;
Musk-, 117, 117, 134;
Pied, 119;
Pink-eyed, 124;
Pink-headed, 114;
Pintail, 125;
Red-crested, 123;
Shoveller–see Shoveller;
Spectacled Eider, 119;
Steamer-, 113, 121;
Summer-, 133;
Teal, habits, 126;
Torrent-, 116;
White-eyed, 122;
Wigeon, 126;
Wild, 127;
skull, 11
_Dulus_, 529;
_D. dominicus_, 530
_Dumetia_, 502
Dunbird, 122
Dunlin, 279
Durnford, on _Creciscus_, 249 n.

Eagle, 137, 146, 148-150, 160, 161 f., 179;
Bald, 164;
Black, 161;
Bonelli's, 161;
Booted, 161;
Chilian Sea-, 167;
Golden, 148, 151, 162, 163, 165;
habits, 161 f.;
Harrier–see Harrier Eagle;
Hawk-, 160;
Imperial, 163;
in Falconry, 162;
Pondicherry, 168;
Sea-, 149, 161-163;
Spotted, 162;
Steppe-, 162;
Tawny, 163;
White-shouldered, 163
Ear, in Owls, 399
Ear-coverts, 20
Eaton, on Penguins, 57 n.;
on Petrels, 65 n., 67 n.
_Eclectus_, 364, 369;
bright colour of hen, 4, 369;
_E. pectoralis_, 369
Eclipse, in Anatidae, 4, 113
_Ectopistes_, 326, 328;
_E. migratorius_, 342
_Edoliisoma_, 525
_Edolius_, 528;
_E. forficatus_, 528
Eggs, burnished in Tinamidae, 183
Egg-tooth of embryo, 12
Egret, 88;
Little, 92
Egypt, to which region does it belong? 16
Egyptian Goose, 129
Eider–see Duck
_Elainea_, 474, 476;
_E. pagana_, 474;
_E. strepera_, 476
Elaineinae, 473 f.
_Elanoïdes_, 146, 147, 171;
_E. furcatus_, 170 f.
_Elanus_, 146, 147;
_E. axillaris_, 171;
_E. caeruleus_, 171;
_E. hypoleucus_, 171;
_E. leucurus_, 171;
_E. scriptus_, 171
_Elaphrocnemus_, fossil, 251
_Elasmonetta_, 111;
_E. chlorotis_, 125
Eleutherodactyli, 467
Elliot, on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.;
on Grouse, 240 n.;
on Humming-birds, 432
_Elminia_, 506
El Turco, 491
Ema, 30, 36
Emarginate bill, 12
_Emberiza citrinella_, 584;
_E. fucata_, 583;
_E. hortulana_, 584;
_E. miliaria_, 584;
_E. schoeniclus_, 584
Emberizidae, 582
_Emberizoïdes_, 583
_Embernagra_, 584
_Emblema_, 577
Embryo, 21
Emeinae, 42
Emen, 26, 36, 37, 170;
aftershaft, 3;
breast-bone, 7;
structure, etc., 32 f.
_Emeus_, 42
_Empidonax_, 474;
_E. flaviventer_, 476;
_E. minimus_, 475
_Enaliornis_, vertebrae, 25;
_E. barretti_, 47;
_E. sedgwicki_, 47
Enaliornithes, 25, 46
Endaspidean, 484
_Engyptila_, 336
_Enodes_, 559, 561
_Entomophila_, 567
_Entomyza_, 565, 566;
_E. cyanotis_, 568
_Eopsaltria_, 509
_Eos_, 364, 374;
_E. fuscata_, 374
_Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis_, 98
_Ephthianura_, 512 f.
Epidermis, 2, 2 n.
Epops, fables concerning, 396
_Ereunetes pusillus_, 282
_Ergaticus_, 573, 574
_Eriocnemis_, 426, 437 f.;
_E. cupreiventris_, 438
_Erismatura_, 111, 112, 117;
_E. aequatorialis_, 118;
_E. australis_, 118;
_E. dominica_, 118;
_E. ferruginea_, 118;
_E. jamaicensis_, 118;
_E. leucocephala_, 118;
_E. maccoa_, 118;
_E. vittata_, 118
Erismaturinae, 111, 112, 117
_Erithacus_, 509, 510;
_E. akahige_, 512;
_E. hyrcanus_, 512;
_E. komadori_, 512;
_E. rubecula_, 512
Erne, 163
Erythrism, 4 n.
_Erythrobucco_, 449
_Erythrogonys cinctus_, 272
_Erythromachus_, 244;
_E. leguati_, fossil, 251
_Erythromyias_, 507
_Erythropus_, 147;
_E. amurensis_, 176;
_E. vespertinus_, 176
_Erythrosterna parva_, 507 {603}
_Erythrotriorchis radiatus_, 159
_Estrelda_, 578
Ethiopian Region, 15 f.
Ethmoid, 11
_Eucichla_, 469
_Eucometis_, 575
_Eucorax_, 548, 551
_Eudocimus_, 100;
young, 103;
_E. albus_, 100;
_E. ruber_, 100
_Eudromias_, 270;
male incubates, 271;
_E. australis_, 272;
_E. modestus_, 272;
_E. morinellus_, 272;
_E. veredus_, 272
_Eudynamis_, 355;
_E. honorata_, 356;
_E. melanorhyncha_, 356
_Eudyptes_, 55, 57 f.;
_E. antarcticus_, 57, 59;
_E. antipodum_, 59;
_E. atratus_, 59;
_E. chrysocome_, 58, 58;
_E. chrysolophus_, 58;
_E. pachyrhynchus_, 59;
_E. schlegeli_, 59;
_E. sclateri_, 59;
_E. serresianus_, 59;
_E. vittatus_, 59
_Eudyptula minor_, 57
_Eugenes fulgens_, 435;
_E. spectabilis_, 435 f.
_Eulabeornis_, 244
_Eulabes_, 559, 561, 562;
_E. religiosa_, 560
Eulabetidae, 496, 559, 561, 562
_Eulampis_, 427;
_E. holosericeus_, 433 f.;
_E. jugularis_, 429, 434
Euler, on _Procnias_, 576 n.
_Eumomota superciliaris_, 381
_Eunetta_, 112, 114;
_E. falcata_, 127
Euornithes, 46
_Eupetomena macrura_, 435
_Euphonia_, 575, 576
_Euplocamus_, 198, 213 n.
_Eupodotis_, 260;
_E. arabs_, 262;
_E. australis_, 261, 262;
_E. edwardsi_, 261, 262;
_E. kori_, 261-263
_Euprinodes_, 514
_Eupsychortyx cristatus_, 231
_Euptilotis_, 441, 442;
_E. neoxenus_, 444
_Euryceros prevosti_, 535 f.
Eurycerotidae, 496, 536
_Eurycorystes_, 580
Eurylaemidae, 467;
habits, 469
_Eurylaemus_, 468;
_E. javanicus_, 468
_Eurynorhynchus_, 268;
bill, 12;
_E. pygmaeus_, 282
_Eurypyga_, 186, 263, 265 f.;
_E. helias_, 265 f., 266;
_E. major_, 265 f.
Eurypygidae, 243, 265 f.
_Eurystomus_, 376, 377;
_E. australis_, 377;
_E. glaucurus_, 377;
_E. orientalis_, 377
_Euscarthmus_, 473;
_E. orbitatus_, 474;
_E. zosterops_, 474
_Eustephanus fernandensis_, 428, 435;
_E. galeritus_, 427, 428, 434 f.;
_E. leyboldi_, 428, 435
_Eutoxeres_, 430, 435
_Eutriorchis_, 154
_Eutrygon_, 335;
_E. leucopareia_, 335;
_E. terrestris_, 335
Evans–see Wilson
Evolution, 15
Exaspidean, 473
_Excalphatoria_, 199, 200, 218 n., 219;
_E. adansoni_, 219;
_E. lepida_, 219;
_E. sinensis_, 202, 219
Excrescence on bill shed by _Pelecanus erythrorhynchus_, 83
Exoccipital, 11
Eyelashes, distinct in _Opisthocomus_, 241;
in Hornbills, 3, 390

Facets of vertebra, 6
Fachach, 63
Faisan, 198
_Falcinellus_, 544, 550;
_F. speciosus_, 545, 546
_Falcipennis_, 199;
_F. hartlaubi_, 236
_Falco_, 175, 177;
fossil, 181;
plumage of young, 178;
see _Gennaea_ and _Hierofalco_;
_F. atriceps_, 179;
_F. babylonicus_, 178;
_F. barbarus_, 178;
_F. biarmicus_, 179;
_F. cassini_, 178;
_F. ernesti_, subspecies, 178;
_F. feldeggi_, 179;
_F. melanogenys_, sub-species, 178;
_F. minor_, 178;
_F. peregrinator_, 179;
_F. peregrinus_, 178 f.;
_F. punicus_, 178;
_F. tanypterus_, 179
Falcon, 137, 146, 148, 149, 178;
for nomenclature of parts, 20;
skeleton of trunk, 7;
flown at Herons, 89;
Arctic, 180;
Desert-, 179;
Finch-, 147, 173;
Gentle, 156;
Greenland-, 180;
Gyr, 180;
Iceland, 180;
Jer, 180;
Peregrine, 148, 174, 178-180;
Prairie-, 179 f.;
Red-footed, 147, 176;
Royal, 179;
Stone-, 177
Falconidae, 137, 146-150;
habits, 147 f.;
markings of young, 147
Falconiformes, 108, 137 f.
Falconinae, 146, 147, 173 f.
Falconine, 156
Falconry, 148 n., 178, 179;
use of Eagles in, 162
_Falculia_, 561
_Falcunculus_, 531-534
False rib, 6
Fandango-bird, 479
Fantail, 506
Father John, 102
Feathered spaces or pterylae, 2
Feathers, nature, growth, etc., 2 f.
Female, and young duller in most birds, 4;
brighter and larger than male in _Rhynchaea_, 270 f.;
in _Turnix_, 188;
in _Phalaropus_, 278;
larger than male in _Apteryx_, 33;
in Cassowaries, 33;
in Emeus, 33;
in Falconiformes, 137
Femur, 8, 9
Fenestrae, 8
Fern-Owl, 418
Festooned bill, 12
Fibula, 8, 9 {604}
Fieldfare, 510
Filoplumes, 21
Finch, 355, 578, 582 f.;
habits, 586;
see Chaffinch, Bullfinch, Hawfinch, Serin;
Gold-, 584, 586, 587;
Grass-, 578;
Green-, 584;
Rose-, 585;
Snow-, 586, 587
Finfoot, 243, 267 f.;
habits, 267
Fingers, 8
Fireback, 214 f.
Fire-wood gatherer, 487
Fjeld-riporre, 240
Flamingo, 70, 105 f., 106
Flanks, 21
Flicker, 460
Flight, speed of, 20
Flightless, Birds, 25;
state, of Anatidae, 4, 113, 125;
of Dodo, 328;
of Great Auk, 315, 321;
of Moorhen, 4;
of Phoenicopteridae, 4, 107;
of Rails, 4, 245 f.
Florican, 262;
Lesser, 262
_Florida caerulea_, 91;
young, 93
_Florisuga mellivora_, 436
Flower, on Hornbill, 392 n.
Flower-pecker, 570 f.
_Fluvicola_, 475-477
Flycatcher, 467, 473, 506 f.;
habits, 508;
Paradise-, 507, 508;
Pied, 507-509;
Spotted, 507, 508
_Foetopterus ambiguus_, fossil, 181
Foot, 9
Foramen, 9;
for optic nerve, 11;
for trigeminal, 11
Forbes, H. O., on Frigate Bird, 82 n.;
on _Phalacrocorax_, 77 n.
Forbes, W. A., on classification, 14;
on Barbets and Toucans, 448;
on classification of Petrels, 59 n.;
on Galbulidae, 445;
on _Mesites_, 186 f.;
on _Metopidius_ and _Hydralector_, 269 n.;
on trachea of Paradise-bird, 545 n.;
on Passeres, their song-muscles, 466;
on _Plotus_, 72 n., 81 n.
Fore-arm, 8
Forehead, 20
Fore-neck, 20
Foreteller, by day, 357;
at night, 356
Fork-tail, 501
Formicariidae, 469, 479, 488 f.;
habits, 489
Formicariinae, 488 f.
_Formicarius_, 488, 489
_Formicivora_, 488;
_F. caudata_, 488;
_F. ferruginea_, 488
Fossil Birds, viii, 1 f.
_Foudia_, 578;
fossil, 496
Four-o'clock, 567
Fowl, 186, (_Gallus_) 203
Francolins, called Pheasants, 226;
Naked-throated, 225
_Francolinus_, 198, 202, 226 f.;
_F. adspersus_, 227;
_F. albigularis_, 227;
_F. levaillanti_, 226;
_F. pondicerianus_, 227;
_F. sinensis_, 227;
_F. vulgaris_, 226
_Franklinia_, 518
_Fratercula arctica_, 317;
_F. corniculata_, 317;
_F. glacialis_, 317
Freeman and Salvin, on Falconry, 148 n.;
on fishing with Cormorants, 79 n.
_Fregata_, 70-72;
coracoid and scapula fused, 8;
habits, 81 f.;
_F. aquila_, 81, 82;
_F. minor_, 81
Fregatidae, 55, 70, 81
Fregilinae, 552 f.
_Fregilupus_, 559, 561;
_F. varius_, 561
Friar-bird, 568
Frigate-bird, 70, 82;
habits, 81 f.
Fringe lost, in feathers, 5
_Fringilla_, fossil, 496;
_F. coelebs_, 584;
_F. montifringilla_, 584
Fringillidae, 439, 494, 575, 576, 579, 582 f.;
fossil, 496;
habits, 586
Frog-mouth, 419
Frons, 20
Frontal, 11
_Fulica_, 244, 246, 250 f.;
_F. alai_, 250;
_F. americana_, 251;
_F. atra_, 250 f.;
_F. australis_, 251;
_F. cornuta_, 244, 251;
_F. cristata_, 244, 251;
fossil, 251;
_F. gigantea_, 245, 251;
_F. lugubris_, 251;
_F. minor_, fossil, 251;
_F. newtoni_, fossil, 251;
_F. prior_, fossil, 251
Fulicariae, 243
_Fuligula_, 112, 121;
fossil, 136;
habits, 123;
_F. affinis_, 122;
_F. collaris_, 122;
_F. cristata_, 122;
_F. marila_, 121 f.;
_F. novae zealandiae_, 122, 123
Fuligulinae, 111-114, 118
Fulmar, 61-63, 65
_Fulmarus_, 60, 61;
_F. glacialis_, 65;
_F. glupischa_, 65;
_F. rodgersi_, 65
Fürbringer, on classification, 14;
on classification of Passeres, 467
Furcula, 7, 8;
absent in Apterygidae, 39;
absent in Dinornithidae, 42;
absent in Rheidae, 30;
absent in Struthionidae, 27;
ancylosed with sternum in Gruidae, 252;
in Otididae, 261;
in Heliornithidae, 267;
coalesces with coracoids in _Fregata_, 72;
ossifies with keel of sternum, 8–see also Clavicle
Furnariinae, 484 f.
_Furnarius_, 477, 484, 485;
nest, 485;
_F. cinnamomeus_, 486;
_F. cristatus_, 485;
_F. figulus_, 486;
_F. leucopus_, 485;
_F. minor_, 486;
_F. rufus_, 486, 525;
_F. torridus_, 486

_Gabianus pacificus_, 306
Gadow, on classification, 14, 23;
on classification of Passeres, 467;
on classification of Petrels, 59 n.;
definition of Bird, 1;
on skeleton, 5 f.;
on Archaeornithes and Neornithes, 25;
on Bucerotidae and Upupidae, 390; {605}
on Columbae, 325;
on Cuculiformes, 351;
on Drepanididae, 562;
on Gallinaceous Birds, 198;
on Laniidae, 531;
on _Mesites_, 187;
on Nightjars, 417 n.;
on Odontornithes, 46;
on _Opisthocomus_, 186;
on Oscines, 495;
on Owls, 397;
on _Palaelodus_, 70;
on _Panurus_, 541;
on Pici, 445;
on Psittaci, 362;
on Pterylosis, 2;
on Ratitae, 26 n.;
on Sand-Grouse, 322;
on Steganopodes, 70 n.;
on "Stereornithes," 43 f.;
on Tinamidae, 182;
on _Zosterops_, 568;
see Newton, E.
Gadwall–see Duck
_Galbalcyrhynchus_, 445;
_G. leucotis_, 446
_Galbula_, 446;
_G. albirostris_, 445, 446;
_G. chalcothorax_, 446;
_G. cyaneicollis_, 445
Galbulidae, 445 f.;
habits, 446
Galbulinae, 445
_Galeoscoptes_, 514;
_G. carolinensis_, 519
_Galerita_, 497;
_G. cristata_, 497, 498;
_G. isabellina_, 497
Galli, 186, 190, 322;
claws on manus, 48
_Gallicrex_, 244, 246;
_G. cinerea_, 249
Galliformes, 186 f.
Gallinaceous Birds, 186
Gallinae, early attain power of flight, 4
_Gallinago_, 268, 290;
fossil, 300;
_G. aequatorialis_, 291;
_G. aucklandica_, 291 f.;
_G. australis_, 291;
_G. bernieri_, 291;
_G. caelestis_, 290 f.;
_G. delicata_, 291;
_G. frenata_, 291;
_G. gallinula_, 292;
_G. gigantea_, 291;
_G. imperialis_, 291;
_G. jamesoni_, 291;
_G. macrodactyla_, 291;
_G. major_, 291;
_G. megala_, 292;
_G. nemoricola_, 291;
_G. nigripennis_, 291;
_G. nobilis_, 291;
_G. paraguaiae_, 291;
_G. sabinii_, 290;
_G. solitaria_, 291;
_G. stenura_, 292;
_G. stricklandi_, 291;
_G. undulata_, 291;
_G. wilsoni_, 291
Galline Birds, habits, 202 f.
Gallinita, 451
_Gallinula_, 244, 246, 249;
_G. angulata_, 249;
_G. chloropus_, 249;
_G. comeri_, 244, 249;
_G. dionysiana_, 249;
_G. frontata_, 249;
_G. galeata_, 249;
_G. nesiotis_, 244, 249;
_G. peralata_, fossil, 251;
_G. pyrrhorhoa_, 249;
_G. sandvicensis_, 249;
_G. strenuipes_, fossil, 251;
_G. tenebrosa_, 249
Gallinule, 243-245, 249 f.;
Purple, 245
_Gallirex_, 359, 360;
_G. chlorochlamys_, 360
Gallito, 491
_Galloperdix_, 218;
_G. bicalcarata_, 218;
_G. lunulata_, 218;
_G. spadicea_, 218
_Gallophasis_, 213 n.
_Gallus_, 199-201, 203, 204, 208;
fossil, 241;
_G. bankiva_, 208 f.;
_G. ferrugineus_, 208 f.;
_G. lafayettii_, 209;
_G. sonnerati_, 209;
_G. stanleyi_, 209;
_G. varius_, 209
Game-birds, 186
Game-fowl, Black-breasted, 208
_Gampsonyx swainsoni_, 171
_Gampsorhynchus_, 502
Gannet, 70, 73, 74, 75;
habits, 75–see Goose, Solan
Gare-fowl, 321;–see Auk, Great
Garganey–see Duck
Garrod, on classification, 14;
on Barbets and Toucans, 448;
on Galbulidae, 445;
on Passeres, their song-muscles, 466;
on _Tantalus ibis_, 96
_Garrodia_, 60, 65
_Garrulax_, 503, 504
Garrulinae, 552 f.
_Garrulus_, 552, 554;
_G. glandarius_, 554
_Garzetta_, 92
_Gastornis_, 45;
_G. edwardsi_, 45;
_G. klaasseni_, 45;
_G. parisiensis_, 45
Gätke, on speed of flight, 20
_Gauropicoïdes rafflesi_, 461
_Gazzola_, 552, 553
_Gecinus_, 458;
_G. viridis_, 458, 460
Geese, 105, 107;
habits, 113 f.;
Black, 131;
habits, 131;
Grey, 132;
habits, 132;
Pigmy, 134;
Spur-winged, 134
Geikie, on head of _Ichthyornis_, 48
Gelinotte, 233
_Gelochelidon anglica_, 314
Genera of Birds, 15
_Gennaea_, 179;
_G. hypoleuca_, 180;
_G. jugger_, 179;
_G. lanarius_, 179;
_G. mexicana_, 179 f.;
_G. milvipes_, 179;
_G. polyagnis_, 179 f.;
_G. sacer_, 179;
_G. subnigra_, 180
_Gennaeus_, 199, 200, 203, 213;
_G. albicristatus_, 213;
_G. andersoni_, 213;
_G. edwardsi_, 213;
_G. horsfieldi_, 213;
_G. leucomelanus_, 213;
_G. lineatus_, 213;
_G. melanotus_, 213;
_G. muthura_, 213;
_G. nycthemerus_, 200, 213;
_G. swinhoii_, 213
Gentoo, 57
_Genyornis newtoni_, fossil, 38 n.
Genys (γενυς = jaw) or Gonys (γονυ = knee and hence = bend), 20
_Geobates_, 484
_Geobiastes_, 378;
_G. squamigera_, 378
_Geocichla_, 509, 510;
_G. princii_, 509
_Geococcyx_, 351, 353;
_G. mexicanus_, 352;
habits, 357 f.
_Geocolaptes_, 458;
_G. olivaceus_, 460
Geographical distribution, 15;
variations, 15
_Geopelia_, 328;
_G. cuneata_, 341;
_G. humeralis_, 341;
_G. maugii_, 341;
_G. striata_, 341;
_G. tranquilla_, 341
_Geophaps_, 327, 328;
_G. scripta_, 337;
_G. smithi_, 337
_Geopsittacus_, 364;
_G. occidentalis_, 367
_Geositta_, 486, 525; {606}
_G. cunicularia_, 485
_Geospiza_, 583, 585, 586
_Geothlypis_, 573
_Geotrygon_, 336;
_G. chrysia_, 336;
_G. cristata_, 336;
_G. linearis_, 336;
_G. montana_, 336;
_G. violacea_, 336
_Geranoaëtus melanoleucus_, 167
_Geranopsis_, fossil, 256
_Geranospizias_, 156;
_G. caerulescens_, 156;
_G. niger_, 156
_Geronticus_, 100;
_G. calvus_, 102
_Gerygone_, 355, 508, 509
Gibson, on _Chauna_, 109 n.;
on _Myiopsittacus_, 371 n.;
on _Rostrhamus_, 171
Gizzard, 12
_Glareola_, 268-270, 293 f.;
_G. cinerea_, 294;
_G. emini_, 294;
_G. grallaria_, 294;
_G. isabella_, 294;
_G. lactea_, 294;
_G. megapoda_, 294;
_G. melanoptera_, 294;
_G. nordmanni_, 294;
_G. nuchalis_, 294;
_G. ocularis_, 293 f.;
_G. orientalis_, 293;
_G. pratincola_, 293
Glareolidae, 268, 270, 293 f.
Glareolinae, 293 f.
_Glaucidium_, 401, 407;
_G. brodiei_, 407;
_G. capense_, 407;
_G. castanonotum_, 407;
_G. castanopterum_, 407;
_G. cobanense_, 400, 407;
_G. cuculoïdes_, 407;
_G. ferox_, 407;
_G. gnoma_, 407;
_G. jardinii_, 407 f.;
_G. nanum_, 408;
_G. pardalotum_, 407;
_G. passerinum_, 407;
_G. perlatum_, 407;
_G. pumilum_, 408;
_G. radiatum_, 407;
_G. siju_, 407;
_G. sylvaticum_, 407;
_G. whitelyi_, 407
_Glaucopis_, 552, 556
Glead, Fork-tailed, 168
Glenoid cavity, 7
_Globicera_, 325, 345;
_G. myristicivora_, 328
_Glycyphila albifrons_, 565;
_G. fasciata_, 568;
_G. modesta_, 568
_Glyphorhynchus_, 484
Gnatcatcher, 514
Goatsucker, 415, 418
Godwit, 286 f.;
Bar-tailed, 287;
male incubates, 271;
Black-tailed, 286 f.;
Marbled, 287
Goeldi, on _Cassidix oryzivora_, 582 n.;
on _Nyctibius_, 417 n.
Goiemare, figure of Dodo, 330
Golden-eye–see Duck
Goldfinch, 584, 586
Gom-Paauw, 263
Gonys–see Genys
Goosander, 114-116
Goose, Bean-, 132;
Bernacle-, 131;
Brent, 131;
Cape Barren, 133;
Chinese, 132;
Emperor-, 114, 132;
Grey-lag, 132;
Kelp-, 130;
Pink-footed, 132;
Red-breasted, 114, 131, 132;
Solan, 73, 75, 302;
Upland, 130;
White-fronted, 132
_Gorsachius goisagi_, 90
Goshawk, 156, 178
Gosling, specimen of Dodo, 330
Gosse, on _Aramus_, 257;
on Humming-birds, 429, 432;
on _Mellisuga_, 431;
on _Nyctibius_, 417 n.
Gould, on Darter, 81;
on Humming-birds, 430, 432;
on Odontophorinae, 230 n.;
on _Rhynchaea_, 292 n.;
on subfamilies of Humming-birds, 435
_Goura_, 326-328, 334;
_G. albertisi_, 334;
_G. beccarii_, 334;
_G. cinerea_, 334;
_G. coronata_, 333, 334;
_G. scheepmakeri_, 334;
_G. sclateri_, 334;
_G. victoria_, 334
Gourinae, 325 f., 334
_Graculipica_, 559;
_G. melanoptera_, 560
Graduated, 21
Grallariinae, 488 f.
_Grallina_, 535;
abnormal vocal organs, 535
_Grammatoptila_, 502
_Granatellus_, 573, 574
_Grandala caelicolor_, 510
Grand Duc, 413
Grandidier, on _Leptosoma_, 379 n.;
on _Margaroperdix_, 224 n.;–see Milne-Edwards
Grant, Ogilvie, on Gallinaceous Birds, 198;
on the Partridge, 224 n.;
on Perdicinae, 218 n.;
on Petrels, 63 n., 65 n.;
on _Phaëthon_, 72 n.;
on _Pithecophaga_, 160;
on _Platalea_, 104 n.;
on Red Grouse, 238;
on _Turnix_, 188 n.
_Graptocephalus_, 99, 100;
_G. davisoni_, 102
_Graucalus_, 525, 526;
_G. azureus_, 526
Grebe, 54, 267;
habits, 53 f.;
structure, etc., 49 f.;
Eared, 53;
Great Crested, 53;
Little, 52, 52 f.;
Red-necked, 53;
Slavonian, 53
Green colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n.
Green, on _Collocalia_, edible nests, 423
Greenfinch, 584
Greenlet, 536
Greenshank, 284
Grey Hen, 237
Griffon, 151–see Vulture
Grifo, 151
Grinder, 508
_Griphosaurus_, fossil, 23
Grosbeak, Pine-, 584
Grouse, 198-200, 202, 203;
disease, 203;
hybrids, 237, 237 n.;
American, 200, 203;
Black, 237;
Blue, 235;
Canada-, 236;
Dusky, 235;
Hazel-, 203, 233;
Pallas's Sand-, 323, 324;
Pine-, 235;
Pin-tailed Sand-, 322;
Red, 202, 204, 238 f., 239;
habits, 238 f.;
hybrids, 224;
Ruffed, 233;
Sage-, 235;
Sand-, 268, 321 f.;
toes, 10, 322;
habits, 322 f.;
Sharp-tailed, 234;
Willow-, 238-240
Gruidae, 243, 251 f.;
habits, 252 f.;
trachea enters keel of sternum, 13;
young, 256
Gruiformes, 186, 243 f.; {607}
_Phororhachos_ and others of the "Stereornithes" perhaps belong here,
44
_Grus_, fossil, 256;
_G. americana_, 254;
_G. australasiana_, 254;
_G. canadensis_, 254;
_G. carunculata_, 255;
_G. collaris_, 254;
_G. communis_, 254;
_G. japonensis_, 254;
_G. leucauchen_, 254;
_G. leucogeranus_, 254;
_G. lilfordi_, 254;
_G. melitensis_, fossil, 256;
_G. mexicana_, 254;
_G. monachus_, 254;
_G. nigricollis_, 254;
_G. paradisea_, 255;
_G. primigenia_, fossil, 256;
_G. sharpii_, 254;
_G. virgo_, 255 f.
Guácharo, 415, 419
Guainumbi, 426
Guan, 194;
habits, 195
_Gubernatrix_, 583
Guid-guid, 490
Guillemard, on Bird of Paradise, 550
Guillemot, 316;
Black, 316, 319;
Common, 319;
Ringed, 319
Guinea-fowl, 198, 203, 204;
habits, 205 f.;
its specific name, 206 n.
_Guira_, 352;
_G. piririgua_, 359
_Guiraca_, 585
Gula, 20
Gull, 49, 148, 268, 300-304;
habits, 302 f.;
Black-headed, 308;
Bonaparte's, 302, 309;
Common, 307;
Glaucous, 304, 306;
Great Black-backed, 301, 302, 307;
Great Black-headed, 309, 309;
Herring, 306, 307;
Hooded, 308;
Iceland, 306;
Ivory, 303, 306;
Kittiwake, 301, 302, 305 f.;
Laughing, 309;
Lesser Black-backed, 307;
Little, 304, 309 f.;
Peewit, 308;
Sabine's, 310;
Wedge-tailed, 310
Gullet, 12
Gundlach, on _Aramus_, 257 n.
Gurney, on _Astur_, 156;
on Circaëtinae, 153
_Guttera_, 200, 201, 204;
_G. cristata_, 204;
_G. eduardi_, 204;
_G. plumifera_, 204;
_G. pucherani_, 204;
_G. verreauxi_, 204
_Gygis_, 301, 303;
_G. candida_, 310;
_G. microrhyncha_, 310
_Gymnasio_, 400
_Gymnobucco_, 448;
_G. calvus_, 450
_Gymnocephalus_, 479, 480
_Gymnocichla_, 489
_Gymnocorax_, 552, 556
_Gymnocrex rosenbergi_, 247
Gymnoderinae, 479 f.
_Gymnoderus_, 479, 480;
powder-down patches, 481
_Gymnoglaux lawrencii_, 409;
_G. nudipes_, 409
_Gymnomystax_, 580
_Gymnopelia_, 326;
_G. erythrothorax_, 340
_Gymnophaps_, 326;
_G. albertisi_, 344
_Gymnopithys_, 488
_Gymnorhina_, 531, 532;
_G. hyperleuca_, 532
Gymnorhininae, 531 f.;
habits, 532 f.
_Gymnoschizorhis_, 360;
_G. leopoldi_, 361;
_G. personata_, 361
_Gymnostinops_, 579, 580
Gypaëtinae, 146, 150 f.
_Gypaëtus_, 146, 147, 149;
_G. barbatus_, 150, 150;
habits, 151;
_G. meridionalis_, 151;
_G. ossifragus_, 151
_Gyparchus papa_, 137, 139
_Gypohierax_, 146, 148;
_G. angolensis_, 151
_Gypoictinia_, 149;
_G. melanosternon_, 170
_Gypopsittacus vulturinus_, 369
_Gyps_, 143;
nestling, 143;
_G. fulvus_, 144;
_G. himalayensis_, 144;
_G. indicus_, 145;
_G. kolbi_, 144;
_G. melitensis_, fossil, 145;
_G. pallescens_, 145;
_G. rüppelli_, 144
_Gypsornis_, fossil, 251

_Habroptila_, 243, 245, 246;
_H. wallacii_, 244, 248
_Habrornis_, 514
Hackles, 3, 21
_Hadrostomus_, 480, 482;
_H. homochrous_, 483;
_H. niger_, 483
Haemal spine, 6
_Haematoderus_, 479, 481
_Haematopus_, 268-270;
_H. ater_, 277;
_H. durnfordi_, 277;
_H. frazari_, 277;
_H. galapagensis_, 277;
_H. leucopus_, 277;
_H. longirostris_, 277;
_H. moquini_, 277;
_H. niger_, 277;
_H. osculans_, 276;
_H. ostralegus_, 276;
_H. palliatus_, 277;
_H. unicolor_, 277
_Haematortyx_, 200;
_H. sanguiniceps_, 221 f.
_Hagedashia_, 99, 100;
_H. hagedash_, 102
_Hagiopsar_, 561
Hairs, nature of, 2 n.
_Halcyon_, 383;
_H. coromandus_, 385;
_H. cyaniventris_, 385;
_H. lindsayi_, 386;
_H. nigrocyaneus_, 386;
_H. saurophagus_, 386;
_H. semicaeruleus_, 385
Halcyoninae, 382, 385
_Halcyornis_, fossil, 315
_Haliaëtus_, 146, 147;
fossil, 181;
_H. albicilla_, 163;
_H. leucocephalus_, 164;
_H. leucocoryphus_, 164;
_H. leucogaster_, 164;
_H. vocifer_, 164;
_H. vociferoïdes_, 164
_Haliastur_, 148;
_H. indus_, 168;
_H. sphenurus_, 168
Hallux, 1, 10, 20
_Halobaena_, 60, 61;
_H. caerulea_, 66
_Halocyptena microsoma_, 67
Hammer-head, 86 f., 94, 95;
habits, 95
Hamuli, 3
Hancock, on Cuckoo, 354
Hand, 8
Hang-nest, 582
_Hapalarpactes_, 441, 442;
_H. mackloti_, 443;
_H. reinwardti_, 443
_Hapalis_, 514
_Hapalocercus_, 473, 477;
_H. flaviventer_, 476
_Hapaloderma_, 441, 442;
_H. constantia_, 443;
_H. narina_, 443; {608}
_H. vittatum_, 443
_Hapaloptila castanea_, 447
_Haplopelia_, 327, 336 f.;
_H. bronzina_, 337;
_H. inornata_, 337;
_H. johnstoni_, 337;
_H. larvata_, 337;
_H. principalis_, 337;
_H. simplex_, 337
_Harelda_, 112, 114;
_H. glacialis_, 120
Harfang, 412
Hargitt, on Woodpeckers, 458
_Harpa novae zealandiae_, 174
_Harpactes_, 441, 442, 443;
_H. duvauceli_, 442;
_H. kasumba_, 443;
_H. orescius_, 443
_Harpagornis moorii_, fossil, 181
_Harpagus_, 146, 173;
_H. bidentatus_, 173;
_H. diodon_, 150, 173;
_H. fasciatus_, 173
_Harpiprion cayennensis_, 101
_Harporhynchus_, 514, 515, 519;
_H. crissalis_, 519
Harpy, 159
_Harpyhaliaëtus_, 146, 147;
_H. coronatus_, 168;
_H. solitarius_, 168
_Harpyopsis novae guineae_, 159
Harrier, 146-149, 165;
habits, 154 f.;
-Eagles, 153;
Hen-, 155;
Marsh-, 155;
Montagu's, 155
Harry, on Dodo, 330
Hartert, on Humming-birds, 432
Harting–see Mosenthal
_Hartlaubius_, 561
Harvie-Brown, on _Diomedea melanophrys_, 65 n.
Hawfinch, 584, 586, 587
Hawk, 137, 146, 148, 149, 175, 353;
Blue, 178;
Bush-, 174;
Fish-, 180;
Hunting, 178;
Pigeon-, 178;
Quail-, 174;
Red, 178;
Red-tailed, 166;
Singing, 156;
Sparrow-, 157, 158;
Sparrow-, of America, 149, 176–see Goshawk
Heath-hen, 235
Hedge-sparrow–see Sparrow
_Hedydipna_, 569
Heilprin, on Geographical Distribution, 15
_Heleothreptus_, 418;
_H. anomalus_, 418
_Heliactin cornuta_, 439
_Helicura_, 478
_Heliochera_, 480, 482
_Heliodilus_, 398, 400;
_H. soumagnii_, 404
_Heliopais_, 267;
_H. personata_, 268
_Heliornis_, 243, 267;
_H. fulica_, 267
Heliornithidae, 243, 267 f.;
habits, 267
_Heliothrix_, 431, 432
Helmet, 12;
-bird, 535;
-crest, 437
_Helornis_, fossil, 108, 300
_Helotarsus_, 146, 147;
_H. ecaudatus_, 153;
_H. leuconotus_, 154
_Hemicercus_, 464
_Hemichelidon_, 506
_Hemignathus_, 562, 563
_Hemilophus pulverulentus_, 464
_Hemiphaga chathamensis_, 345;
_H. novae zealandiae_, 344;
_H. spadicca_, 344 f.
Hemipode, 188
_Hemipodius_, 187
_Hemipus_, 506, 531
_Hemixus_, 504
Hen, 203
_Heniconetta_, 114;
_H. stelleri_, 119
_Henicopernis infuscatus_, 173;
_H. longicaudatus_, 172 f.
_Henicophaps albifrons_, 338
_Henicorhina_, 521
_Henicornis_, 484
Henicuridae, 501
_Henicurus ruficapilla_, 501;
_H. scouleri_, 501;
_H. velatus_, 501
Hermit, 430, 435
Hern, 87
_Herodias alba_, 92
Heron, 70, 86 f., 90, 251, 263;
habits, 87 f.;
Boat-billed Night-, 90 f.;
Buff-backed, 88, 91;
Common, 87, 92, 93;
Great White, 92;
Green, 88;
in Falconry, 89;
Night-, 88, 90;
Purple, 93;
Squacco, 91
_Herpetotheres cachinnans_, 153
_Herpsilochmus rufimarginatus_, 489
_Hesperiphona_, 583, 585
_Hesperornis_, 45 f.;
no keel to sternum, 26;
no pygostyle, 6 n.;
quadrate bone, 26;
restoration, 46;
teeth, 12;
_H. crassipes_, 46;
_H. regalis_, 46
Hesperornithes, 25;
structure, etc., 46 f.
_Heteractitis incanus_, 285
_Heteralocha acutirostris_, 557, 558
_Heterocercus_, 478
_Heterocnemis_, 488
Heterocoelous, 6
_Heterocorax_, 552;
_H. capensis_, 556
Heterodactylous, 10, 441
_Heteroglaux_, 400
_Heteronetta atricapilla_, 123
_Heteropelma_, 477, 479, 482
_Heterorhynchus_, 562, 563
_Heterospizias meridionalis_, 168
_Heterotetrax_, 262
Heuglin, v., on Toucans, 449
_Hieracidea berigora_, 174;
_H. brunnea_, 174;
_H. ferox_, 174;
_H. novae guineae_, 175;
_H. novae zealandiae_, 174;
_H. orientalis_, 175
_Hierococcyx_, 353
_Hierofalco_, 180;
_H. candicans_, 180;
_H. gyrfalco_, 180;
_H. islandus_, 180;
_H. labradorus_, 180
Hilling, of Ruff, 285
Hill-Robin, 503
_Himantopus_, 268, 269, 277 f.;
fossil, 300;
_H. brasiliensis_, 278;
_H. candidus_, 277;
_H. knudseni_, 278;
_H. leucocephalus_, 278;
_H. melas_, 278;
_H. mexicanus_, 277 f.;
_H. pectoralis_, 278
_Himantornis_, 243;
_H. haematopus_, 248
_Himatione_, 562, 563;
_H. sanguinea_, 563, 564;
_H. virens_, 564
Hind-head, 20; {609}
-neck, 20;
-toe, 10
Hirundinidae, 494, 522 f.;
habits, 524 f.
_Hirundo_, 523, 524, 525;
_H. rustica_, 523, 524, 524
_Histrioniphaps histrionica_, 337 f.
Hoatzin, 186, 241 f., 242;
habits, 242
Hobby, 176, 177
_Hodgsonius_, 516
Hoefnagel, figure of Dodo, 330
Holarctic, 16
Homologous, meaning of, 5
_Homolopus_, fossil, 465
_Homorus_, 484, 485;
_H. lophotes_, 487
Homrai, 393
Honey-eater, 564 f.;
habits, 566 f.;
Warty-faced, 566
Honey-guide, 445, 448, 451;
habits, 452 f.
Hoopoe, 376, 390, 390 n., 395 f., 396;
habits, 395 f.;
Wood-, 390, 397;
habits, 397
Hooting, of Owls, 401
_Hoplopterus_, 269, 270;
_H. cayanus_, 276;
_H. speciosus_, 276;
_H. spinosus_, 276, 295;
_H. ventralis_, 276
Hornbill, 376, 390 f., 391;
bill, 11, 390 f.;
habits, 390;
Helmet-, 393;
Plait-billed, 394
Hornero, 486
Horns, 12;
in Auks, 315 f., 317, 318
_Houbara_, 260;
_H. fuerteventurae_, 262 n.;
_H. macqueeni_, 262;
_H. undulata_, 262
_Houbaropsis_, 260;
_H. bengalensis_, 262
Hudson, on _Aramides_, 248;
on _Chauna_, 109 n.;
on Cow-bird, 582 n.;
on Oven-bird, 485 n.;
on _Parra jacana_, 300 n.;
on _Rhea_, 31 f.;
see Sclater
Huia, 557, 558
Humboldt and Bonpland discover Oil-bird, 419
Hume, on _Bubo coromandus_, 403 n.;
on Francolins, 228 n.;
on _Ibis melanocephala_, 100 n.;
on _Mycteria_, 96 n.
Humerus, 8, 8
Humming-bird, 419, 420, 426 f., 429, 568;
breast-bone, 6 f.;
habits, 428 f.;
nature of iridescent feathers, 4;
operculum of nostrils, 11;
Bee-, 438;
King-, 436;
Long-tailed, 433;
Ruby-and-Topaz, 434
Hurst, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n.
Hutton, on Wandering Albatros, 63 f.
Huxley, classification, 14;
on Amphimorphae, 105;
on Cathartidae, 137 n.;
on Coracomorphae and their song-muscles, 466;
on Cypselomorphae, 419 n.;
on Gallinaceous Birds, 186, 198;
on Geographical Distribution, 15 f.;
on _Palaeeudyptes_, fossil, 59 n.;
on Picidae, 457;
restoration of _Hesperornis_, 46;
Sauropsida as a division of Vertebrata, 1
Hybrids, of American Partridges, 233;
of Galline Birds, 224;
of Grouse, 237, 237 n., 238
_Hydralector_, 269, 299;
_H. gallinaceus_, 298;
_H. novae guineae_, 298
_Hydranassa_, young, 93;
_H. tricolor_, 91
_Hydrochelidon_, 301, 303, 314;
_H. hybrida_, 314 f.;
_H. leucoptera_, 314;
_H. nigra_, 314;
_H. surinamensis_, 314
_Hydrophasianus_, 270;
_H. chirurgus_, 299, 299, 300
_Hydroprogne caspia_, 314
_Hydropsalis_, 418
_Hyetornis_, 351, 357
_Hylactes_, 490, 491;
_H. megapodius_, 491;
_H. tarnii_, 490, 491
_Hylexetastes_, 484
_Hylocharis_, 427, 435;
_H. sapphirina_, 435
_Hylomanes_, 380
_Hylophilus_, 536;
_H. ochraceiceps_, 536
_Hymenolaemus_, 111, 113;
_H. malacorhynchus_, 116
Hyoid, apparatus, 5, 21;
horns, 457
_Hyperergus_, 502
_Hyphantornis_, 579;
_H. cucullatus_, 578
_Hypochera ultramarina_, 577
Hypocleidium, 21
_Hypocnemis_, 488
_Hypocolius ampelinus_, 527, 527
_Hypolais_, 514, 517, 518
_Hypopyrrhus_, 580
Hyporhachis, or aftershaft of feather, 3
_Hypositta_, 537
_Hypotaenidia_, 246 f.;
_H. brachypus_, 247;
_H. mülleri_, 246 f.;
_H. striata_, 246 f.
_Hypotriorchis concolor_, 177;
_H. cuvieri_, 177;
_H. diroleucus_, 177;
_H. eleonorae_, 177;
_H. fusco-caerulescens_, 177;
_H. lunulatus_, 177;
_H. ophryophanes_, 177;
_H. rufigularis_, 177;
_H. severus_, 177;
_H. subbuteo_, 176
_Hypselornis sivalensis_, fossil, 36
_Hypsipetes_, 504-506;
_H. perniger_, 505

_Ianthothorax_, 544, 545
Ibididae, 70, 99 f.
Ibidinae, 99, 100
_Ibidopodia_, fossil, 105
_Ibidopsis_, fossil, 105
_Ibidorhynchus_, 268, 269;
_I. struthersi_, 277
_Ibis_, 70, 99, 100;
fossil, 105;
young, 103;
_I. aethiopica_, 102;
_I. bernieri_, 103;
_I. melanocephala_, 100, 103;
_I. molucca_, 103;
Glossy, 101;
Sacred, 102;
Scarlet, 100;
Shell-, 97;
White, 100;
Wood-, 70, 97
_Ibycter_, 152;
_I. americanus_, 152;
_I. ater_, 152
_Ichthyornis_, 45 f.;
head, 48;
quadrate bone, 26;
teeth, 12;
vertebrae, 6, 25;
_I. dispar_, 48;
_I. victor_, 48
Ichthyornithes, 25, 48 f.
Ichthyornithidae, structure, etc., 48 f.
_Icteria_, 573
Icteridae, 542, 559, 579 f.;
habits, 580;
parasitic, 582
Icterinae, 579 f. {610}
_Icteropsis_, 577
_Icterus_, 580, 581;
_I. baltimore_, 580, 581, 581;
_I. vulgaris_, 581
_Ictinia_, 146;
_I. mississippiensis_, 171;
_I. plumbea_, 171
Ignoble, of Falconidae, 146
Iiwi, 564
Ilium, 6, 9, 9
Immature plumage of Birds generally, 4
Impervious nostrils, 11
Incisura ischiadica, 9
Index finger, 9
Indian Region, 15 f.
_Indicator_, 451 f.;
_I. archipelagicus_, 452;
_I. major_, 452;
_I. minor_, 452;
habit of guiding to bees' nests, 452 f.;
_I. sparrmani_, 452;
_I. xanthonotus_, 452
Indicatorinae, 448, 451;
habits, 452 f.
Ingluvies, 12
_Inocotis_, 100;
_I. papillosus_, 102
Insessores, 466
Integument, 2 n.
Intestines, 12
Intrathoracic convolutions of trachea–see Trachea
_Iodopleura_, 479, 480
_Iole_, 506
_Ipocrantor_, 463;
_I. magellanicus_, 464
_Irena_, 504-506;
_I. crinigera_, 504
Iridescence in feathers, cause of, 3
_Iridornis_, 575
Iron-smith, 449
Irregular migration, 17 f.
_Irrisor_, 397;
_I. bollii_, 397;
_I. erythrorhynchus_, 397;
_I. jacksoni_, 397;
_I. viridis_, 397
Irrisorinae, 390, 397;
habits, 397
Irruptions of Sand-Grouse, 322, 324, 325
Ischium, 9, 9
Island Hen, 244
_Ispidina_, 386;
_I. madagascariensis_, 386
_Ithagenes_, 198, 200, 217;
buries itself in snow, 218;
_I. cruentus_, 217;
_I. geoffroyi_, 218;
_I. sinensis_, 218
_Ixocincla_, 504, 505
Iynginae, 457, 464 f.
_Iyngipicus_, 458, 462;
_I. obsoletus_, 462
_Iynx aequatorialis_, 465;
_I. pectoralis_, 465;
_I. pulchricollis_, 465;
_I. torquilla_, 465, 465

Jabiru, 98
Jacamar, 445 f.;
habits, 446
_Jacamaralcyon_, 445, 446;
_J. tridactyla_, 446
_Jacamerops_, 445;
_J. grandis_, 445, 446
Jaçana, 268, 297 f.;
habits, 299 f.;
Indian, 299
Jackass, 57, 384, 386
Jackdaw, 553-556
Jacobin, 436
Jaws, 5 f., 11 f.
Jay, 552-556;
Blue, 554, 555;
Green, 554;
Siberian, 554
Jean-le-blanc, 153
Jenner, on Cuckoo, 354;
on bones of Solitaire, 331
Jerdon, on Indian Darter, 81;
on _Inocotis_, 100 n.;
on Pelican, 85 n.
Johnny Rook, 152
Jugal, 11
Jugulum, 20
_Junco_, 585
Jungle-fowl, Red, 208 f.;
Grey, 209
Jurassic System, Birds from, 2

Kagu, 243, 263 f., 264;
habits, 265;
operculum of nostrils, 11
Kakapo, 366, 366;
breast-bone, 7
Kallege, 213
Kea, 365, 374, 375
Keel of breast-bone, 6, 7
Kelp-Hen, 247;
-Pigeon, 293
Kerr, J. G., on _Erismatura_, 118 n.
Kestrel, 147, 148, 175-177;
Lesser, 175
_Ketupa_, 398-401;
_K. ceylonensis_, 414;
_K. flavipes_, 414;
_K. javanensis_, 414
Kill-deer, 274
King-bird, 474
Kingfisher, 376, 382;
habits, 383;
Belted, 387;
Racquet-tailed, 385;
Stork-billed, 387;
Water-, 382, 383;
Wood-, 382, 384
Kirk, on Honey-guide, 452
Kirombo, 376, 378, 379
Kite, 146, 148, 155, 164, 165;
habits, 168 f.;
Awl-billed, 171;
Black, 170;
Black-winged, 171;
Brahminy, 168;
Everglade, 171;
Mississippi, 171;
Pariah, 170;
Red, 168 f., 169;
Swallow-tailed, 170;
Whistling, 168
Kittiwake, 305;
see Gull, Kittiwake
Kiwi, 26, 38 f., 39;
breast-bone, 7;
feathers, 41;
structure, etc., 38 f.
Knob on bill, 12;
of Anatidae, 111;
of Pigeons, 325
Knot, 281
Koël (= Coël), 356

Labyrinth, 13, 113
Lacrymal, 11
_Lagopus_, 199, 200, 202, 204;
fossil, 241;
_L. albus_, 238 f.;
_L. hemileucurus_, 240;
_L. hyperboreus_, 240;
_L. leucurus_, 240;
_L. mutus_, 240;
_L. rupestris_, 240;
_L. scoticus_, 238 f., 239
_Lalage_, 525, 526
Lamellae, of bill, 12;
on bill of _Anastomus_, 95;
on bill of Anatidae, 111 f.;
on bill of Flamingoes, 105;
on bill of Petrels, 60
Lamenting Bird, 257
Laminiplantar, 468, 496
Lämmergeier, 146, 147, 150, 150, 151;
habits, 151
_Lampornis_, 430, 433; {611}
_L. violicauda_, 433
_Lampribis olivacea_, 101
_Lamprocolius_, 560
_Lamprolia_, 513
_Lampropsar_, 580
_Lamprospiza_, 575
_Lamprotes_, 575
_Lamprothorax_, 548
_Lamprotornis_, 559-561;
_L. caudatus_, 559
Lanceolate, 21
Land-Rail–see Rail, Land-
_Laniarius_, 532, 533;
_L. rubiginosus_, 533
_Laniellus_, 532, 534
Laniidae, 506, 525, 527, 531 f., 567 n.
Laniinae, 534; habits, 535
_Lanio_, 575
_Lanioturdus_, 508, 509
_Lanius_, 532, 534;
fossil, 496;
_L. borealis_, 534;
_L. collurio_, 534;
_L. excubitor_, 534, 534;
_L. ludovicianus_, 534;
_L. minor_, 534;
_L. pomeranus_, 534
_Lanivireo_, 536
Lanner, 179
_Laopteryx_, fossil, 25 n.
Lapwing, Cayenne, 302;
Spur-winged, 276;
Wattled, 274 f.
Lari, 268
Laridae, 59, 268, 300 f.;
young, 304
Larinae, 300, 305;
habits, 302 f.
Lark, 496 f.;
habits, 498;
moult, 5;
Crested, 497;
Meadow-, 580;
Shore-, 496;
Short-toed, 497;
Sky-, 496, 497, 497, 498;
White-winged, 497; Wood-, 496
Laro-Limicoline, 268
_Larus_, 301, 306;
fossil, 315;
_L. affinis_, 307;
_L. argentatus_, 306;
_L. atricilla_, 309;
_L. audouini_, 307;
_L. belcheri_, 308;
_L. brachyrhynchus_, 307;
_L. brunneicephalus_, 308;
_L. bulleri_, 308;
_L. cachinnans_, 307;
_L. californicus_, 307;
_L. canus_, 305, 307;
_L. cirrocephalus_, 308;
_L. crassirostris_, 308;
_L. delawarensis_, 307;
_L. dominicanus_, 307;
_L. franklini_, 304, 309;
_L. fuliginosus_, 308;
_L. fuscus_, 307;
_L. gelastes_, 308;
_L. glaucescens_, 306;
_L. glaucodes_, 308;
_L. glaucus_, 306, 307;
_L. hartlaubi_, 308;
_L. heermani_, 308;
_L. hemprichi_, 308;
_L. ichthyaëtus_, 309, 309;
_L. kumlieni_, 306;
_L. leucophthalmus_, 308;
_L. leucopterus_, 306;
_L. maculipennis_, 302, 308;
_L. marinus_, 307;
_L. melanocephalus_, 309;
_L. minutus_, 303, 309 f.;
_L. modestus_, 308;
_L. nelsoni_, 306;
_L. novae hollandiae_, 308;
_L. occidentalis_, 307;
_L. philadelphia_, 309;
_L. ridibundus_, 308;
_L. saundersi_, 309;
_L. schistisagus_, 307;
_L. scopulinus_, 302, 308;
_L. serranus_, 309;
_L. vegae_, 307
_Larvivora_, 516
Larynx, 13
_Lathria streptophora_, 480
_Laticilla_, 514
Laughing Jackass, 384, 386
_Laurillardia_, fossil, 496
_Lawrencia_, 474
Layard, on Honey-guide, 452 n.;
on _Mycteria_, 96 n.;
on Phaëthon, 73 n.;
on _Rhinochetus_, 265 n.
Leather-head, 568
Legs, 9
Leguat, on Solitaire, 330
_Leistes_, 580
Leiotrichidae, 495
Lek, of Capercaillie, 237
_Lepidogrammus_, 352
_Leptasthenura_, 486
_Lepterodius gularis_, 91
_Leptodon_, 146;
_L. cayennensis_, 173
_Leptopoecile_, 514
_Leptopterus_, 532
_Leptoptila_, 326, 335, 336;
_L. jamaicensis_, 336;
_L. rufinucha_, 336
_Leptoptilus_, 95, 96;
fossil, 99;
_L. crumenifer_, 98;
_L. dubius_, 97;
_L. javanicus_, 98
_Leptornis_, 565
_Leptosoma_, toes, 10;
_L. discolor_, 378, 379
Leptosomatinae, 376, 378;
habits, 379
_Lerwa_, 199;
_L. nivicola_, 230
_Lesbia_, 427, 434;
_L. victoriae_, 434
Lestrange, on Dodo, 330
_Leucopeza_, 573
_Leucophaeus_, 301;
_L. scoresbii_, 306
_Leucopternis_, 167;
_L. ghiesbreghti_, 167;
_L. plumbea_, 167;
_L. princeps_, 167;
_L. schistacea_, 167
_Leucosarcia_, 328;
_L. picata_, 335
_Leucosticte_, 586
L'Herminier, classification, 14
_Lichenops_, 474, 477
_Licmetis_, 364;
_L. nasica_, 364
_Ligurinus chloris_, 584
Lilford, on Francolin, 226 n.
_Limicola platyrhyncha_, 282
Limicolae, 260, 268 f., 322;
bill, 11;
habits, 271 f.
Limicoline Birds, 243
_Limnaëtus_, 160;
_L. alboniger_, 160;
_L. caligatus_, 160;
_L. cirratus_, 160;
_L. gurneyi_, 160;
_L. isidori_, 160;
_L. kieneri_, 160;
_L. lanceolatus_, 160, 172;
_L. nipalensis_, 160;
_L. philippensis_, 160
_Limnatornis_, fossil, 397
_Limnocorax_, 246;
_L. niger_, 249
_Limnocryptes gallinula_, 292
_Limnogeranus_, 254, 256
_Limnophyes_, 484, 487
_Limnornis_, 484, 487
_Limonidromus_, 500
_Limosa_, 286 f.; {612}
fossil, 300;
_L. belgica_, 286 f.;
_L. fedoa_, 287;
_L. hudsonica_, 287;
_L. lapponica_, 287;
_L. melanuroïdes_, 286;
_L. uropygialis_, 287
Limpkin, 243, 256;
habits, 257
Lines of Flight, vi, 18
Linnet, 584-587;
Brown, 585;
Grey, 585;
Red, 585
_Linota cannabina_, 584
_Lioptila_, 504
_Lioptilus_, 506
_Liosceles_, 490
_Liothrix_, 495, 502;
_L. lutea_, 503
Liotriches, 502
Lipauginae, 479 f.
_Lipaugus_, 479, 482
_Lipoa_, 190 f., 194;
_L. ocellata_, 193
_Lissotis_, 260, 262
_Lithophaps ulnaris_, fossil, 350
_Lithornis vulturinus_, fossil, 181
Little Cock, 491
Lloyd, on Capercaillie, 237 n.
Lobed bill, 12
_Lobiophasis_, 199-201;
_L. bulweri_, 214
_Lobipes hyperboreus_, 278 f.
_Lobipluvia_, 275
_Lobivanellus_, 268-270, 274 f.;
_L. albiceps_, 275;
_L. cinereus_, 274;
_L. cucullatus_, 275;
_L. indicus_, 274;
_L. lateralis_, 275;
_L. lobatus_, 275;
_L. malabaricus_, 275;
_L. melanocephalus_, 274 f.;
_L. miles_, 275;
_L. pectoralis_, 274;
_L. senegalensis_, 275;
_L. superciliosus_, 275;
_L. tectus_, 275
_Loboparadisea sericea_, 549
_Lobornis_, 570
_Lobotus_, 526
_Lochmias_, 484;
_L. nematura_, 485
_Locustella_, 514, 517;
_L. luscinioïdes_, 518
_Loddigesia_, 426, 427, 430;
_L. mirabilis_, 437;
its flight, 437
Log-cock, 463
_Lophoaëtus_, 147, 160;
_L. occipitalis_, 160
_Lophoceros_, 390;
_L. nasutus_, 393
_Lophodytes cucullatus_, 115 f.
_Lophogyps_, 143;
_L. occipitalis_, 144
_Lophoictinia_, 146, 147;
_L. isura_, 170
_Lopholaemus_, 326;
_L. antarcticus_, 345
_Lophophaps_, 326, 327;
_L. ferruginea_, 337;
_L. leucogaster_, 337;
_L. plumifera_, 337
_Lophophorus_, 198-200, 203, 215;
_L. impeyanus_, 216;
_L. l'huysi_, 216;
_L. refulgens_, 216;
_L. sclateri_, 200, 216
_Lophopsittacus mauritianus_, fossil, 375
_Lophorhina_, 550;
_L. superba_, 548
_Lophornis_, 439;
_L. ornatus_, 439
_Lophortyx_, 200;
_L. californicus_, 231, 233
_Lophospingus_, 584
_Lophotibis cristata_, 101
_Lophotis_, 262
_Lophotriccus_, 474
_Lophotriorchis_, 160;
_L. kieneri_, 160
_Lophura_, 199, 200, 214 f.;
_L. diardi_, 215;
_L. ignita_, 215;
_L. nobilis_, 215;
_L. praelata_, 215;
_L. vieilloti_, 215
Lore, 20, 21
_Loria loriae_, 549
_Loriculus_, 362, 364, 365;
_L. vernalis_, 368
Loriinae, 362-364, 373
Lorikeet, 364
_Lorius_, 364, 373 f.;
_L. lory_, 374
Loro, 370
Lory, 351, 364, 365;
of South Africa, 361;
King-, 364;
Red, 374;
Swainson's, 373
Love-bird, 364, 368, 370
_Loxia_, 583;
fossil, 496;
_L. curvirostra_, 584
_Loxioïdes_, 562
_Loxops_, 562, 563;
_L. aurea_, 564
Luggur, 179
_Lullula_, 498;
_L. arborea_, 496
_Lunda cirrhata_, 317
_Lycocorax_, 543-545, 550;
_L. pyrrhopterus_, 548
Lydekker, on _Actiornis anglicus_, 86;
on _Colymboïdes_, 50;
on _Diomedea anglica_, 69;
on _Gyps melitensis_, 145 n.;
on _Odontornithes_, 45 f.;
on _Pseudapteryx_, 40;
on "Stereornithes," 44
_Lyncornis_, 416
Lyre-bird, 491 f., 492;
habits, 493
Lyrie, 68
_Lyrurus_, 199, 200, 202;
_L. mlokosiewiczi_, 238;
_L. tetrix_, 201, 237 f.;
hybrids, 238

Macaw, 351, 364-366;
Blue-and-yellow, 371;
Green-and-blue, 371;
Hyacinthine, 371;
Red-and-blue, 371;
Red-and-green, 371
Maccaroni Penguins, 57 f.
_Macgregoria pulchra_, 546
_Machaeropterus_, 478;
_M. regulus_, 478
_Machaerorhamphus alcinus_, 172;
_M. anderssoni_, 172;
_M. revoili_, 172
_Machaerorhynchus_, 506
_Machetes_, 270;
polygamous, 271;
_M. pugnax_, 285
_Machetornis_, 474, 475, 477
_Macrochires_, of Nitzsch, 420
_Macrocorax_, 552, 556
_Macrodipteryx_, 418;
_M. macrodipterus_, 418;
_M. vexillarius_, 418
_Macronus_, 502
_Macronyx_, 499, 500;
_M. ameliae_, 500;
_M. crocea_, 500
_Macropsalis_, 418
Macropteryginae, 420, 422
_Macropteryx_, 420, 422;
_M. comata_, 422;
_M. coronata_, 422;
_M. longipennis_, 422;
_M. mystacea_, 422;
_M. wallacii_, 422
_Macropygia_, 326, 343; {613}
_M. doreya_, 343;
_M. leptogrammica_, 343;
_M. phasianella_, 343;
_M. rufa_, 343;
_M. rufo-castanea_, 343;
_M. tenuirostris_, 343;
_M. tusalia_, 343
_Macrorhamphus griseus_, 289;
_M. scolopaceus_, 289;
_M. taczanowskii_, 289
_Macruropsar_, 559, 561
Madagascar, a region or sub-region, 17
Magellan, brings Bird of Paradise, 543
Magpie, 355, 552-556, 554
Magpie-lark, 535
_Majaqueus aequinoctialis_, 67;
_M. parkinsoni_, 67
Malaconotinae, 531 f.;
habits, 533 f.
_Malacoptila_, 447
_Malacorhynchus_, 111;
_M. membranaceus_, 124
Male, incubates, in Limicolae, 271, 278, 287;
in Ratitae, 29, 32, 36, 38, 41–see also Female
Maleo, 192
Mallard–see Duck
Mallee hen, 193
Malpighian layer, 2 n.
_Malurus_, 507-509
Mamo, 563, 564
Man-of-war bird, 81
Manakin, 477 f., 478;
habits, 479
Manchots, 55
Mandible, 11, 20
Mango, South American, 433
Mango-bird, 542
_Manorhina_, 564;
_M. melanophrys_, 567 n.
Mantle, 21
Manu-meà, 331, 332
Manuals, 21 f.
_Manucodia_, 543-545, 550, 551;
_M. atra_, 548;
_M. chalybeata_, 548;
_M. comrii_, 548
Manukdewata, 543
Manus, its quills, 22;
in _Archaeopteryx_, 25
Marabou feathers, 96
_Mareca americana_, 126;
_M. penelope_, 126;
_M. sibilatrix_, 127
_Margaroperdix madagascariensis_, 223
_Margarornis_, 484
_Marmaronetta_, 111;
_M. angustirostris_, 123
Marsh, restoration of _Hesperornis_, 46;
head of _Ichthyornis_, 48;
on _Laopteryx_, 25 n.;
on Odontornithes, 45, 49 n.
Martin, 522-525;
Sand-, 524, 525
Martineta, 185
Mascarene Islands, 17
_Masius_, 477, 478
Matthews, discovery of _Loddigesia_, 437
Mavis, 515
Maxilla, 11, 11, 20
Maxillopalatine process, 11
May-bird, 289
Maynard, on flamingo, 107
_Megacephalon_, 190 f., 194;
_M. maleo_, 192
_Megacrex_, 243, 244;
_M. inepta_, 248
_Megalaema_, 450
_Megalapteryx_, 42
_Megalestris antarctica_, 305;
_M. catarrhactes_, 304;
_M. chilensis_, 305;
_M. maccormicki_, 305
_Megaloprepia_, 326, 327, 346;
_M. formosa_, 346;
_M. magnifica_, 346
Megapodes, 190-194
Megapodiidae, 186, 190 f., 194;
habits, 191
_Megapodius_, 190 f., 194;
_M. bernsteini_, 194;
_M. cumingi_, 194;
_M. duperreyi_, 194;
_M. eremita_, 194;
_M. forsteni_, 194;
_M. freycineti_, 194;
_M. geelvinkianus_, 194;
_M. laperousii_, 194;
_M. layardi_, 194;
_M. macgillivrayi_, 194;
_M. nicobariensis_, 194;
_M. pritchardi_, 194;
_M. sanghirensis_, 194;
_M. tenimberensis_, 194;
_M. tumulus_, 194;
_M. wallacii_, 194
_Megarhynchus_, 473;
_M. pitangua_, 474
_Megatriorchis doriae_, 159
Megistanes, 26, 32 f., 38
_Melanerpes_, 461;
_M. candidus_, 461;
_M. flavifrons_, 461;
_M. formicivorus_, 458, 461
Melanism, 4 n.
_Melanobucco_, 449
_Melanocharis unicolor_, 570
_Melanocorypha_, 497;
_M. calandra_, 498;
_M. sibirica_, 497;
_M. yeltoniensis_, 497
_Melanoperdix_, 199, 200;
_M. nigra_, 221
_Melanophoyx ardesiaca_, 91
_Melanoptila_, 514, 515, 519
_Melanopyrrhus_, 561;
_M. orientalis_, 560
_Melanorhectes_, 532
_Melanotis_, 519
Meleagrinae, 198, 204, 206;
habits, 206
_Meleagris_, 199, 201, 202;
fossil, 241;
_M. gallipavo_, 206, 206 n.;
_M. ocellata_, 200, 206
_Melidectes_, 565, 566
_Melidora_, 383
_Melierax_, 148, 156;
_M. canorus_, 156
_Meliornis_, 565, 567
_Meliphaga_, 565, 566;
_M. phrygia_, 566
Meliphagidae, 543 n., 564 f.;
habits, 566 f.
Meliphaginae, 564 f.
_Melirrhophetes_, 566
_Melithreptes_, 564, 565
_Melitograis_, 565
_Melittophagus_, 387-389;
_M. gularis_, 390
_Mellisuga minima_, 431, 432, 438
_Melopelia leucoptera_, 342;
_M. meloda_, 342
_Melophus_, 583
_Melopsittacus_, 364, 365;
_M. undulatus_, 367
_Melopyrrha_, 583
_Melospiza_, 586 {614}
Melville–see Strickland
Membrane on bill, in _Malacorhynchus_, 111;
in _Hymenolaemus_, 111, 116;
in _Biziura_, 111, 117;
of toes, 10
_Menura_, 491 f.;
_M. alberti_, 492, 493;
_M. superba_, 491 f., 492, 493;
_M. victoriae_, 492, 493
Menuridae, 491 f.;
habits, 493
Mercerat–see Moreno
_Merganetta_, 112, 113;
_M. armata_, 116;
_M. columbiana_, 116;
_M. frenata_, 116;
_M. garleppi_, 116;
_M. leucogenys_, 116;
_M. turneri_, 116
Merganettinae, 111, 112, 116;
habits, 116, 117
Merganser, 114;
hooded, 115, 116;
red-breasted, 115, 116
Merginae, 111-116;
habits, 116
_Mergulus_, 315;
_M. alle_, 321
_Mergus_, 111;
_M. albellus_, 115;
_M. americanus_, 115;
_M. australis_, 115;
_M. brasilianus_, 115;
_M. comatus_, 115;
_M. merganser_, 113, 115;
_M. serrator_, 113, 115, 116
Merlin, 147, 177
Meropidae, 376, 387 f.
_Meropogon_, 387-389;
_M. forsteri_, 389
_Merops_, 387, 388;
_M. apiaster_, 388, 389, 389;
_M. natalensis_, 389;
_M. nubicus_, 388, 389;
_M. ornatus_, 387;
_M. philippinus_, 388, 389;
_M. superciliosus_, 388;
_M. viridis_, 389
Merrem, on classification, 14
Merry-thought, 8
_Merulaxis_, 490
_Mesembriornis_, 44
Mesitae, 186 f.
_Mesites_, 186 f.;
_M. unicolor_, 187;
_M. variegatus_, 187
Mesitidae, 186 f.
_Mesobucco_, 450
Mesomyodi, 467
_Mesopicus goertan_, 462
_Mesopteryx_, 42
_Metabolus_, 507
Metacarpals, 8
Metacarpus, 1, 8
_Metallura_, 434
_Metapteryx bifrons_, 40
Metatarsal bones, 10;
in penguins, 55
Metatarsus, 9, 20
_Metopia_, 478
_Metopiana peposaca_, 113, 123
_Metopidius_, 269, 298;
_M. africanus_, 298;
_M. albinucha_, 298;
_M. indicus_, 298-300
_Metopothrix_, 477, 478
_Metriopelia aymara_, 339;
_M. melanoptera_, 339
Mexican star, 438
Mexico, to which region does it belong? 16
Meyer, A. B., on _Cacomantis_, 355;
on Celebes cuckoos, 356 n., 357 n.;
on hybrid grouse, 237 n.;
on _Notornis_, 250 n.
Meyer, H. v., on _Archaeopteryx_, 23
_Micranous hawaiiensis_, 311;
_M. leucocapillus_, 311;
_M. tenuirostris_, 311
_Micrastur_, 156
_Micrathene_, 400;
_M. whitneyi_, 400, 407
_Microcerculus_, 521, 522
_Microchera_, 433
_Microcorax_, 552;
_M. leucognaphalus_, 553
_Microeca_, 509
_Microglossus_, 364;
_M. aterrimus_, 373
_Microhierax_, 147;
_M. erythrogenys_, 174;
_M. eutolmus_, 174;
_M. fringillarius_, 173 f.;
_M. latifrons_, 174;
_M. melanoleucus_, 174;
_M. sinensis_, 174
_Micromonacha lanceolata_, 447
_Micropalama himantopus_, 286
_Microparra capensis_, 298, 300
_Microperdix_, 200, 223;
_M. blewitti_, 223;
_M. erythrorhyncha_, 223;
_M. manipurensis_, 223
_Micropus_, 504;
_M. melanoleucus_, 505
_Microsittace ferruginea_, 365
Migration, 17;
causes, directions, mode, 18 f.;
in southern hemisphere 19;
Committee's reports, 19 n.
Millais, on hybrid grouse, 237 n.
Milne-Edwards, on _Aegialornis_, 315 n., 426;
on _Mesites_, 186 n.;
on Palaelodidae, 108 n.;
on Strigidae, 398 n.;
and Grandidier, on _Aepyornis_, 43 n.;
and Oustalet, on _Dromaeus ater_, 38 n.
_Milnea_, fossil, 300
_Milvago_, 147, 148, 152;
_M. chimachima_, 152;
_M. chimango_, 152
_Milvulus_, 473, 475
_Milvus_, 146, 170;
fossil, 181;
_M. aegyptius_, 170;
_M. affinis_, 170;
_M. govinda_, 170;
_M. ictinus_, 168 f., 169;
_M. melanotis_, 170;
_M. migrans_, 170
_Mimeta_, mimicry, 543 n., 568
Mimicry–see _Buchanga_, _Mimeta_, _Philemon_, _Surniculus_, _Tylas_,
_Xenopirostris_
Mimidae, 495
Miminae, 509, 514, 515;
habits, 518
_Mimus_, 515, 519;
_M. modulator_, 519;
_M. polyglottus_, 518 f.;
_M. trifasciatus_, 515;
_M. triurus_, 519
_Mino_, 561
_Mirafra_, 496-498;
_M. apiata_, 498;
_M. hova_, 496;
_M. javanica_, 496
_Miro_, 512 n., 515, 518
_Mitrephanes_, 474
_Mitua_, 195;
_M. mitu_, 196;
_M. salvini_, 197;
_M. tomentosa_, 197
_Mniotilta_, 573, 574;
_M. varia_, 574
Mniotiltidae, 494, 573 f.;
habits, 574
Moa, 26, 41; breast-bone, 7;
structure, etc., 42
Möbius, on geographical distribution, 16 {615}
Mocking bird, 509, 514;
habits, 518 f.
Moho, 244, 250
Mollymauk, 64, 65
_Molobrus_, 579, 582;
_M. badius_, 582;
_M. rufo-axillaris_, 582
_Molybdophanes caerulescens_, 101
Momotidae, 376, 379 f.
Momotinae, 379 f.;
habits, 380
_Momotus brasiliensis_, 381, 381
_Monacha_, 447 f.
Monal, 215
Monk, 568
_Monticola_, 510;
_M. cyanus_, 510;
_M. saxatilis_, 510
_Montifringilla_, 586;
_M. nivalis_, 586
Moor-Buzzard, 155
Moor-hen (= Water-Hen), 244-246, 249
Mooruk, 36
More-pork, 409 n., 417
Moreno and Mercerat, on fossil Cathartidae, 140 n.;
on fossil Penguins, 59;
on "Stereornithes," 44
_Morphnus_, 147;
_M. guianensis_, 159;
_M. taeniatus_, 159
Moseley, on Penguins, 57 n.
Mosenthal and Harting, on ostrich farming, 30
_Motacilla_, fossil, 496;
_M. alba_, 500;
_M. flava_, 500;
_M. lugubris_, 500;
_M. melanope_, 500;
_M. raii_, 499, 500;
_M. vidua_, 500
Motacillidae, 494, 498 f.
Motacillinae, 498 f.;
habits, 500 f.
Mother Carey's Chicken, 67
Motmot, 376, 379 f., 381;
habits, 380
Moult, 4 f.
Mound-builders, 186, 190
Mounds of Megapodes, 191 f.
Mountain-Cock, 244;
-Witch, 336
Mouse-bird, 439
Muirfowl, 238
Mules, 203
Müller, Johannes, on classification, 14;
on classification by song-muscles, 466
_Mullerornis_, 43
Mulsant, on humming-birds, 432
_Munia_, 579;
_M. oryzivora_, 577;
_M. punctulata_, 577
Murdoch, on _Tringa maculata_, 281 n.
Murie, on classification, 14;
on emeus, 37 n.;
on hornbill, 392 n.;
on _Rhinochetus_, 263 n.
Murmures, 426
Murre, 319
_Muscicapa atricapilla_, 507, 509;
_M. grisola_, 507;
_M. parva_, 507
Muscicapidae, 494, 506 f., 525, 531;
habits, 508
_Muscipipra_, 473
_Muscisaxicola_, 475, 477;
_M. macloviana_, 475
_Muscivora_, 473, 474;
_M. mexicana_, 477;
_M. regia_, 474
_Musophaga_, 359;
_M. violacea_, 360, 361
Musophagidae, 351, 359. f., 439;
habits, 360 f.;
toes, 10;
the pigments turacoverdin and turacin in, 3 n., 360
Mussel-picker, 276
Mutton-bird, 63
_Mycteria_, 95, 97;
_M. americana_, 98;
_M. australis_, 98;
_M. indica_, 96, 98;
_M. senegalensis_, 96, 98
_Myiagra_, 506
_Myiarchus_, 474, 475, 477;
_M. crinitus_, 476
_Myiobius_, 474
_Myiodectes_, 513, 518
Myiodectinae, 509, 513, 515
_Myiodioctes_, 573-575
_Myiomoira_, 514, 515, 518
_Myiophoneus_, 502, 503
_Myiopsittacus monachus_, 365, 370
_Myiotheretes_, 475, 476
Myna, 560, 562
_Myristicivora_, 327, 345;
_M. bicolor_, 328, 345;
_M. luctuosa_, 345;
_M. melanura_, 345;
_M. spilorrhoa_, 345;
_M. subflavescens_, 345
_Myrmeciza_, 488
_Myrmecocichla_, 510, 511
_Myrmotherula pygmaea_, 489
Myrtle-sucker, 426
_Mystacornis_, 503
_Myzomela sanguinolenta_, 565
Myzomelinae, 564 f.

_Naenia_, 301, 304;
_N. inca_, 311
Nail, on beak of Anseres, 11
Nandu, 26, 30 f., 31
_Nanodes_, 363
Nape, 20
Nasal, 11
_Nasica_, 484
_Nasiterna_, 362, 365;
_N. pygmaea_, 364, 371 f.
Native-Companion, 254;
-Hen, 249
_Nauclerus_, 146;
_N. riocouri_, 171
Nauseous bird, 329
Nearctic Region, 15 f.;
its contents, 16
Neck of rib, 6
_Necrastur alacer_, fossil, 181
_Necrobyas harpax_, fossil, 414;
_N. rossignoli_, fossil, 414
_Necropsar_, 559, 561
_Necropsittacus rodericanus_, fossil, 375
_Necrornis_, fossil, 361
_Nectarinia_, 569
Nectariniidae, 427, 568 f.;
habits, 569 f.
Nelly, 65
Nelson, on _Tringa maculata_, 281 n.
_Nemura_, 516
_Neochloe_, 536
_Neochmia phaëton_, 578
_Neocorys_, 499, 500 {616}
_Neoctantes_, 488
_Neodrepanis_, 569
Neogaea, 15
_Neolestes_, 531, 533
Neomorphinae, 351, 357
_Neophema_, 364, 367;
_N. petrophila_, 367;
_N. pulchella_, 367
_Neophron_, 143, 145, 151;
_N. ginginianus_, 145;
_N. percnopterus_, 145;
_N. pileatus_, 145
_Neopsittacus_, 373
_Neopus_, 160;
_N. malayensis_, 161
_Neornis_, 514
Neornithes, 25 f.;
a Sub-Class, 23;
N. Carinatae, 25, 48;
N. Odontolcae, 25, 45 f.;
N. Ratitae, 25
_Neotis_, 260, 262;
_N. denhami_, 261
Neotropical Region, 15 f.;
its contents, 16
Nerves of bill, in Snipe, 290 n.
_Nesochen sandvicensis_, 131
_Nesocichla_, 510, 515
_Nesoenas mayeri_, 343
_Nesolimnas_, 244;
_N. dieffenbachi_, 247
_Nesonetta_, 111, 113;
_N. aucklandica_, 125
_Nesopelia_, 342
_Nesospiza_, 583
Nestlings, condition of, 21 f.
Nestor, Mountain, 375
_Nestor_, 362, 364, 374;
_N. esslingi_, 374;
_N. meridionalis_, 374;
_N. norfolcensis_, 366, 374;
_N. notabilis_, 364 f., 374, 375;
_N. productus_, 366, 374
Nestorinae, 362 f., 374;
habits, 374
_Netta rufina_, 123
_Nettion albigulare_, 126;
_N. andium_, 126;
_N. bernieri_, 126;
_N. brasiliense_, 126;
_N. capense_, 126;
_N. carolinense_, 126;
_N. castaneum_, 126;
_N. crecca_, 125 f.;
_N. flavirostre_, 126;
_N. formosum_, 126;
_N. georgicum_, 126;
_N. gibberifrons_, 126;
_N. punctatum_, 126;
_N. torquatum_, 126
_Nettopus_, 112;
_N. albipennis_, 134;
_N. auritus_, 134;
_N. coromandelianus_, 134;
_N. pulchellus_, 133 f.
Newton, A., on Anatidae, 136;
on Bird of Paradise, 543 n.;
on classification of Passeres, 467;
on Dodo, 329 n.;
on _Eurypyga_, 266;
on _Fregata_, 72;
on geographical distribution, 16 f.;
on Great Auk and its literature, 321 n.;
on habits of Shoveller, 124 n.;
on _Hierofalco_, 180 n.;
on Humming-birds, 426 n.;
on mimicry, 543 n.;
on mode of progression of young Grebes, 54 n.;
on Oscines, 495;
on Secretary-bird, 142 n.;
on Solitaire, 331 n.;
on Strigidae, 398 n.;
on _Syrrhaptes_ (chick), 325;
on trachea of Swans, 112 n.;
on Turkey, 206 n.;
on Widow-bird, 577 n.
Newton, E., on _Phaëthon_, 73 n.;
on Solitaire, 331
Newton, A. and E., on _Eulampis holosericeus_, 428
Newton, E., and Gadow, H., on Dodo, 329 n., 330
_Newtonia_, 506
New Zealand Region, 15 f.;
its contents, 16
_Nicator_, 532, 533
Nidicolae, 21
Nidifugae, 22
Night-hawk, 67, 417
Night-heron–see Heron, Night-
Nightingale, 512, 515, 516;
Ceylon-, 506;
Palestine-, 506
Night-jar, 415 f.;
habits, 416 f.;
toes, 10;
Common, 416, 418, 418;
Pennant-winged, 418
_Niltava_, 506, 507, 509
_Ninox_, 399-401, 408;
_N. affinis_, 409;
_N. albaria_, 409;
_N. boobook_, 408;
_N. connivens_, 401, 408;
_N. maculata_, 409;
_N. natalis_, 409;
_N. novae zealandiae_, 409;
_N. obscura_, 409;
_N. scutulata_, 408;
_N. strenua_, 408
_Nipponia_, young, 103;
_N. nippon_, 102
_Nisaëtus_, 160;
_N. bellicosus_, 161;
_N. fasciatus_, 161;
_N. morphnoïdes_, 161;
_N. pennatus_, 161;
_N. spilogaster_, 161
_Nisoïdes moreli_, 157
Nitzsch, on classification, 14;
on Alectorides and Fulicariae, 243;
on powder-down patches in Falconidae, 147;
on Macrochires, 420;
on Odontoglossae, 105;
on Picariae, 376;
Pterylographie, 2
Noble, on Falconry, 146, 178
Noddy, 310–see Tern, Noddy
Nomenclature of external parts, in Falcon, 20
_Nomonyx dominicus_, 118
_Nonnula_, 447;
_N. rubecula_, 447
North, on Emeu's nest, 37 n.;
on _Gypoictinia_, 170 n.
Nostril, 20;
external, 11;
in Petrels, 60;
in _Rhinochetus_, 264
Notched bill, 12
_Nothocercus_, 183, 186
_Nothocrax_, 195;
_N. urumutum_, 196
_Nothoprocta_, 183, 185;
_N. pentlandi_, 185
_Nothura_, 183, 185;
_N. darwini_, 185;
_N. maculosa_, 185
Noto-coracomorphae, 531 n.
_Notodela_, 509, 516
Notogaea, 15
_Notophoyx picata_, 91
_Notornis_, 243, 244, 251;
little keel to sternum, 26;
_N. alba_, 250, 251;
_N. mantelli_, 250
Nucha, 20
_Nucifraga_, 552;
_N. caryocatactes_, 553
_Numenius_, 268, 270, 287 f.;
bill, 12;
fossil, 300;
_N. arquata_, 287 f., 288;
_N. borealis_, 288, 289;
_N. cyanopus_, 288;
_N. hudsonicus_, 289;
_N. longirostris_, 288;
_N. minutus_, 289; {617}
_N. phaeopus_, 288 f.;
_N. tahitiensis_, 270, 289;
_N. tenuirostris_, 288;
_N. variegatus_, 289
_Numida_, 201, 204 f.;
_N. cornuta_, 205;
_N. coronata_, 205;
_N. marungensis_, 205;
_N. melaegris_, 205;
_N. mitrata_, 205;
_N. ptilorhyncha_, 205, 206;
_N. reichenowi_, 205
Numidinae, 198-201, 204;
habits, 205 f.
Nunlet, 447
Nutcracker, 553, 555, 556
Nuthatch, 536 f., 537;
habits, 538
Nutmeg-bird, 577
_Nyctala_, 399, 401;
_N. acadica_, 405;
_N. tengmalmi_, 405
_Nyctea_, 398, 403;
fossil, 415;
_N. scandiaca_, 400, 412
_Nycterodius violaceus_, 90
Nyctibiinae, 415, 416, 418
_Nyctibius_, 415, 417, 418
_Nycticorax_, 87, 88, 90, 265;
young, 94;
_N. caledonicus_, 90;
_N. goisagi_, 90;
_N. griseus_, 90;
_N. leuconotus_, 90;
_N. megacephalus_, fossil, 95;
_N. naevius_, 90;
_N. pauper_, 90;
_N. pileatus_, 90;
_N. sibilatrix_, 90;
_N. violaceus_, 90
_Nyctidromus_, 415, 416
_Nyctiornis_, 387-389;
_N. amictus_, 389
_Nymphicus_, 364, 365;
_N. uvaeensis_, 363
_Nyroca_, habits, 123;
fossil, 136;
_N. africana_, 122, 123;
_N. americana_, 122;
_N. australis_, 122, 123;
_N. baeri_, 122;
_N. brunnea_, 123;
_N. ferina_, 122;
_N. innotata_, 122;
_N. nationi_, 123;
_N. vallisneria_, 122

Oar-feathers, 21
Oates, on Sturinidae, 559
Occiput, 20
_Oceanites_, 60, 62, 65;
_O. oceanicus_, 65
Oceanitinae, 59, 60, 65
_Oceanodroma_, 61, 62, 67 f.;
_O. cryptoleucura_, 68;
_O. furcata_, 68;
_O. hornbyi_, 68;
_O. leucorrhoa_, 68
_Ochromela_, 509
Ocreate metatarsus, 60
Ocreated, 10
_Ocydromus_, 244-247;
_O. australis_, 247;
_O. earli_, 247;
_O. fuscus_, 247;
_O. greyi_, 247;
_O. hectori_, 247;
_O. insignis_, fossil, 251;
_O. sylvestris_, 247
_Ocyphaps_, 326;
_O. lophotes_, 337
Odontoglossae, 105
Odontolcae, 45 f.;
a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f.
Odontophorinae, 198, 199, 202, 204, 230 f.
_Odontophorus_, 199, 203, 232;
_O. guianensis_, 232
_Odontopteryx toliapica_, fossil, 86
Odontornithes, 2, 45 f.
Odontotormae, 45
_Oedemia_, 111;
habits, 120;
_O. americana_, 119;
_O. carbo_, 120;
_O. deglandi_, 120;
_O. fusca_, 113, 119 f.;
_O. nigra_, 119;
_O. perspicillata_, 113, 120
Oedicnemidae, 268, 269, 297
_Oedicnemus_, 269, 270;
_O. affinis_, 297;
_O. bistriatus_, 297;
_O. capensis_, 297;
_O. dominicensis_, 297 n.;
_O. grallarius_, 297;
_O. scolopax_, 297;
_O. senegalensis_, 297;
_O. superciliaris_, 297;
_O. vermiculatus_, 297
_Oena_, 326, 327;
_O. capensis_, 339
Oesophagus, 12
_Oestrelata_, 66;
_O. brevipes_, 66;
_O. haesitata_, 66
Oil-bird, 419
Oil-glands, 21
Oiseau-mouche, 426
Old Squaw, 121
Oligomyodae, 466
_Oligura_, 502
_Oncostoma_, 473
One-wattled Cassowary, 35
_Onychognathus_, 559
_Onychotes gruberi_, 165
O-o, 564, 567, 568
Open-bill, 97
Operculum of nostrils, 11;
in Caprimulgidae, 415;
in Columbae, 325;
in Plovers, 270;
in Procellariidae, 60;
in _Rhinochetus_, 264
Opisthocoelous, 6
Opisthocomi, 186, 241
Opisthocomidae, 186, 241
_Opisthocomus_, 186, 241;
affinity to Cuculi, 241;
_O. cristatus_, 241, 242
_Opisthodactylus_, 45
_Opisthoprora euryptera_, 437
_Ophrysia superciliosa_, 218
Orange colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n.
Orbit, 20
_Orchesticus_, 575
ὄρχιλος, 426
_Orchilus ecaudatus_, 473
_Oreicola_, 511
_Oreocorys_, 498
_Oreoeca_, 532, 534;
_O. cristata_, 567 n.
_Oreomyza_, 562, 563
_Oreonympha nobilis_, 436
Oreophasinae, 194, 195, 198
_Oreophasis_, 195;
_O. derbianus_, 198
_Oreophilus ruficollis_, 273
_Oreopsittacus_, 363
_Oreortyx pictus_, 230 f.
_Oreoscoptes_, 514, 515, 519
_Oreotrochilus_, 431 f., 436;
_O. chimborazo_, 428;
_O. pichincha_, 428, 430, 436
Organ-bird, 522, 532
Oriental Region, 17
_Origma_, 517, 518
Oriole, 542 f.;
habits, 543;
American, 542, 579;
Baltimore, 580, 581;
Golden, 542, 542
Oriolidae, 542 f.; {618}
habits, 543
_Oriolus ardens_, 542;
_O. cruentus_, 542;
_O. galbula_, 542, 542;
_O. hosii_, 542;
_O. kundoo_, 542;
_O. steerii_, 542;
_O. trailli_, 542;
_O. viridis_, 542, 543
_Ornithion imberbe_, 474, 476
_Ortalis_, 195, 197;
_O. canicollis_, 197;
_O. ruficauda_, 197;
_O. vetula_, 195, 197
_Orthnocnemus_, fossil, 251
_Ortholophus_, 390, 393
_Orthonyx_, 503, 504
_Orthotomus_, 514, 518
_Ortygornis_, 226
_Ortyx_, 202-204;
_O. virginianus_, 231, 232 f.
_Ortyxelus_, 293;
_O. meiffreni_, 187, 295
Oscines, 466, 467, 494;
families of, 495 f.;
structure, 496;
voice-muscles, 13, 491 n.
_Osculatia purpurea_, 336;
_O. sapphirina_, 336
_Osmotreron_, 348;
_O. aromatica_, 349;
_O. olax_, 349;
_O. pompadora_, 349;
_O. vernans_, 348 f.
Osprey, 137, 149, 180 f.;
habits, 181
_Ossifraga_, 60, 61;
fossil, 69;
_O. gigantea_, 65
_Osteornis_, fossil, 496
_Ostinops_, 580
Ostrich, 26, 27 f., 28;
breast-bone, 7;
claws of toes, 10;
farming, 30;
feathers, 30
Otididae, 243, 260 f.;
habits, 262 f.
_Otidiphaps_, 325, 328;
_O. cervicalis_, 335;
_O. insularis_, 335;
_O. nobilis_, 335
_Otis_, 260, 262;
fossil, 263;
_O. tarda_, 261, 261;
_O. tetrax_, 260-262
_Otocompsa_, 504, 505
_Otocorys_, 496-498;
_O. alpestris_, 496 f.;
_O. peregrina_, 496
_Otogyps_, 143;
_O. auricularis_, 144;
_O. calvus_, 144
_Otophanes_, 416
Ourissia, 426
Ousel, Ring-, 510;
Water-, 519
Oustalet–see Milne-Edwards
Oven-bird, 485;
nest, 485
Oviedo, on a Humming-bird, 426
Owen, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23;
on Dinornithidae, 41;
on Dodo, 330
Owl, 175, 179, 180, 397 f.;
clavicles do not always unite, 8, 398;
habits, 400 f.;
toes, 10;
American Screech-, 413;
Barn-, 403;
Brown, 405;
Burrowing, 400, 409 f., 410;
Eagle-, 402, 413 f.;
Grass-, 404;
Hairy, 408;
Hawk-, 401, 408, 411;
Lapp-, 405;
Laughing, 408;
Little, 403, 410 f.;
Long-eared, 402, 406;
Marsh-, 406 f.;
Mottled, 401, 413;
of Pallas Athene, 411;
Pigmy-, 407;
Saw-whet, 405;
Scops, 403, 412 f.;
Screech-, 398-403, 404;
Short-eared, 400, 402, 403, 406;
Snowy, 399-403, 412;
Tawny, 398 n., 405;
Tengmalm's, 405;
White, 403;
Wood-, 401, 402, 405, 406;
Woodcock-, 407
Oxbird, 279
Ox-pecker, 561
_Oxylabes_, 503
_Oxynotus_, 526
_Oxypelia_, 326;
_O. cyanopis_, 340
_Oxypogon guerini_, 436 f.
Oxyrhamphidae, 469, 477
_Oxyrhamphus_, 477
_Oxyurus_, 484
Oyster-catcher, 276, 302;
bill, 11

Paauw, 263 n.
_Pachycephala_, 531, 534;
_P. simplex_, 533
Pachycephalinae, 531 f.
_Pachyornis_, 42;
_P. elephantopus_, 42
_Pachyrhamphus_, 480, 482, 483
_Paeoptera_, 532
_Pagodroma nivea_, 67
_Pagophila_, 301;
_P. eburnea_, 306
Palaearctic region, 15 f.
_Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_, fossil, 59
_Palaegithalus_, fossil, 496
Palaelodidae, 70, 105, 108
_Palaelodus_, 70, 108
_Palaeocercus cuvieri_, fossil, 181
_Palaeociconia_, fossil, 99
_Palaeocorax_, fossil, 496
_Palaeocycnus_, fossil, 136
Palaeogaea, 15
_Palaeogrus_, fossil, 256
_Palaeohierax gervaisi_, fossil, 181
_Palaeolimnas_, fossil, 251
_Palaeopelargus_, fossil, 99
_Palaeoperdix_, fossil, 240
_Palaeornis_, 362-365, 368;
_P. eupatria_, 368;
_P. exsul_, 366;
_P. torquata_, 368
_Palaeortyx_, fossil, 240
_Palaeospheniscus bergii_, fossil, 59;
_P. menzbieri_, fossil, 59;
_P. patagonicus_, fossil, 59
_Palaeospiza_, fossil, 496
_Palaeotetrix_, fossil, 241
_Palaeotringa_, fossil, 300
_Palamedea_, 109;
_P. cornuta_, 110
Palamedeae, 108 f.
Palamedeidae, 108 f.;
habits, 109 f.;
rib, 6;
young, 109
Palatine, 11
_Palmeria_, 562, 564;
_P. dolii_, 563
Pamprodactylous, 10
_Pandion_, 146;
habits, 181;
_P. carolinensis_, 181;
_P. haliaëtus_, 180 f.;
_P. leucocephalus_, 181;
_P. solitarius_, 165
Pandionidae, 137, 180 f.;
young, 180
_Panoplites_, 437 f.
_Panterpe insignis_, 435
Panuridae, 541 f.
_Panurus biarmicus_, 541 f., 541
_Panychlora_, 433
_Panyptila_, 420, 421, 424; {619}
toes, 10;
_P. cayennensis_, 424;
_P. sancti hieronymi_, 424
Papilla of feather, 2
_Parabuteo unicinctus_, 166
_Paradigalla_, 544, 550;
_P. carunculata_, 546
_Paradisea_, 545, 550;
_P. apoda_, 543, 546, 551;
_P. augustae victoriae_, 551;
_P. minor_, 546;
_P. raggiana_, 546, 551;
_P. rubra_, 546;
_P. rudolphi_, 546
Paradise-bird–see Bird of Paradise
Paradise-Pie, 546
Paradiseidae, 543 f., 557 n.;
habits, 550 f.
_Paradisornis_, 545, 546, 550
_Paradoxornis_, 502-504
Parakeet, 351, 364;
Grass-, 364, 367;
Ground-, 364;
Rock-, 367;
Rose-banded, 368;
Roselle, 368;
Rose-ringed, 368;
Uvaean, 363
_Paramythia montium_, 559 n.
_Paraptenodytes antarcticus_, fossil, 59
_Pardalotus_, 570, 571
_Pareudiastes_, 244-246
Paridae, 494, 536, 538;
habits, 540
Parietal, 11
_Parisoma_, 508
Parker, T. J., on _Aepyornis_, 43 n.;
on Apteryges, 38;
on Megistanes, 38;
on Dinornithidae, 42
Parker, W. K., on classification, 14;
on Oscines, 495;
on Picidae, 457;
on _Rhinochetus_, 263 n.
_Paroaria_, 583, 585
_Parotia_, 550;
_P. lawesi_, 551;
_P. sexpennis_, 547 f., 548
_Parra_, 270;
_P. gymnostoma_, 298;
_P. jacana_, 298-300;
dance of, 300;
_P. melanopygia_, 298;
_P. nigra_, 298;
_P. variabilis_, 298
Parridae, 268-71, 297 f.;
habits, 299 f.
Parrot, 351, 361 f., 366;
bill, 12;
cere, 11;
clavicles sometimes absent, 8;
habits, 364 f.;
toes, 10;
voice, 13;
Alexandrine, 368;
Amazon-, 370;
Black, 359;
Grey, 362, 369, 370;
Ground-, 362;
Kaka, 374;
Monk-, 370;
Norfolk Island, 374;
Owl-, 366;
Phillip Island, 374;
Vasa, 369
Parson-bird, 567
Partial migrants, 18
Partridge, 198-200, 202, 203;
habits, 224 f.;
American, 198, 203, 230;
Bamboo-, 218 f.;
Barbary, 228;
Black, 226;
Common, 224, 229;
French, 228;
Greek, 228;
Mountain-, 336;
Red-legged, 203, 228;
hybrids, 224;
(Ruffed Grouse), 233;
Snow-, 230;
Spruce-, 236
_Parus_, 538, 539;
_P. britannicus_, 539;
_P. caeruleus_, 539;
_P. cristatus_, 539;
_P. cyanus_, 539;
_P. flavipectus_, 539;
_P. major_, 539, 539;
_P. niger_, 539;
_P. palustris_, 539;
_P. sultaneus_, 539
_Paryphephorus_, 544, 545
Passaros de sol, 543
_Passer_, 583;
_P. domesticus_, 584, 584;
_P. insularis_, 583;
_P. jagoënsis_, 583;
_P. simplex_, 585
Passeres, voice-muscles, 13;
anisomyodae, 467;
diacromyodae, 467, 491 f.
Passeriformes, 466 f.
_Pastor_, 559, 561;
_P. roseus_, 560
_Patagona_, 430;
_P. gigas_, 430, 432, 437
Patella, 22;
of Grebes, 49
Paul, on Humming-bird's nest, 436
_Pauxis_, 195;
_P. galeata_, 197
_Pavo_, 200, 202, 203;
_P. cristatus_, 200, 206;
_P. muticus_, 207;
_P. nigripennis_, 207
Pavo del Monte, 197
Peacock, 199, 200, 203, 204, 206 f.;
Japanned, 207;
Pheasant, 208
Pea-fowl, 207;
superstition about, 207
Pea-hen, 207
Peale, discovery of _Didunculus_, 331 f.
_Pealea_, 60, 65
Pectineal process of pubis, 9
Pectoral arch, 8
Pectus, 20
_Pedioecetes_, 199, 201;
fossil, 241;
_P. phasianellus_, 234
Pedionomidae, 186, 187, 189
_Pedionomus_, 187;
_P. torquatus_, 189 f., 190
Peewit, 275
_Pelagodroma_, 60, 63, 65;
_P. marina_, 65
_Pelagornis_, fossil, 86
_Pelargodes_, fossil, 99
Pelargomorphae, 70
_Pelargopsis_, 383;
_P. gurial_, 387
Pelecanidae, 70, 83
_Pelecanoïdes_, 60;
_P. exsul_, 68;
_P. garnoti_, 68;
_P. urinatrix_, 68
Pelecanoïdinae, 59, 68
_Pelecanus_, 70-72;
fossil, 86;
habits, 84 f.;
_P. conspicillatus_, 84;
_P. crispus_, 83, 84;
_P. erythrorhynchus_, 83;
_P. fuscus_, 83 f.;
_P. minor_, 83;
_P. mitratus_, 83;
_P. molinae_, 84;
_P. onocrotalus_, 83;
_P. philippensis_, 83, 85;
_P. rufescens_, 83;
_P. sharpii_, 83
Pelican, 70, 83;
habits, 84 f.;
fabled to feed its young with blood, 85 f.;
outgrowth of culmen shed, 5 n., 83;
Crested, 84
_Pellorneum_, 504
Pelvis of _Apteryx_, 9
_Penelope_, 195, 197;
_P. albipennis_, 197;
_P. cristata_, 197;
_P. jacucaca_, 195;
_P. montagnii_, 197;
_P. obscura_, 197;
_P. pileata_, 197
_Penelopides manillae_, 395
_Penelopina_, 195;
_P. nigra_, 197
Penelopinae, 194, 197
Penguin, 54 f., 315;
(Auk), 321;
habits, 55 f.;
meaning of name, 55;
moult, 5
Penis, in Anseriformes, 108; {620}
in Ratitae, 26
Pennae, 2
_Pennula_, 244, 245;
_P. ecaudata_, 244, 250, 251
_Penthetria ardens_, 577
Perdicinae, 198, 204, 218
_Perdicula_, 223;
_P. argoondah_, 223;
_P. asiatica_, 223
_Perdix_, 202, 224;
_P. barbata_, 225;
_P. cinerea_, 224;
_P. daürica_, 225;
_P. hodgsoniae_, 225;
_P. montana_, 224;
_P. sifanica_, 225
Perdiz, 335;
chico, 185;
comun, 185;
grande, 184
Perdrix d'Angleterre, 323
_Pericrocotus_, 525, 526
_Perisoreus infaustus_, 554
_Perissoglossa_, 573
_Peristera_, 326-328, 334;
_P. cinerea_, 339;
_P. geoffroyi_, 339;
_P. mondetoura_, 339 f.
Peristerinae, 325 f., 334 f.
Peristeropodes, 186, 190
Perkins, on Drepanididae, 562 n.
_Pernis_, 148, 172;
_P. apivorus_, 172;
_P. celebensis_, 172;
_P. cristatus_, 172;
_P. ptilorhynchus_, 172;
_P. tweeddalii_, 172
Pervious nostrils, 11
_Petasophora_, 430, 434
Petherick, on _Balaeniceps_, 94 n.
Petit Duc, 412
Petrel, 54, 59 f.;
breast-bone, 7 f.;
derivation of name, 68;
habits, 61 f.;
nostrils, 11;
size, 61;
Diving, 62;
Giant-, 63, 65;
Leach's, 68;
Storm-, 62, 65, 68;
Wilson's, 65
_Petrochelidon_, 522, 523, 525;
_P. nigricans_, 524, 525
_Petroeca_, 511, 515, 516
_Petronia_, 586;
_P. brachydactyla_, 585-587
_Petrophassa albipennis_, 337
_Peucaea_, 585
_Peucedramus_, 573
_Pezophaps solitarius_, 328, 330 f.
_Pezoporus_, 364, 365;
_P. formosus_, 367
_Phabotreron_, 326, 348;
_P. amethystina_, 348
_Phacellodomus_, 484, 487
_Phaenopepla_, 529;
_P. nitens_, 530
_Phaenoptila_, 529;
_P. melanoxantha_, 530
_Phaenorrhina_, 326;
_P. goliath_, 345
_Phaeornis_, 513, 515
_Phaëthon_, 70-72;
fossil, 86;
_P. aethereus_, 72, 73;
_P. americanus_, 72 n.;
_P. flavirostris_, 72;
_P. rubricauda_, 72
Phaëthontidae, 70, 72;
habits, 72 f.
_Phaëthornis_, 427, 430, 431, 435
Phaëthornithinae, 435
_Phaëthusa magnirostris_, 314
Phalacrocoracidae, 70, 75
_Phalacrocorax_, 70-72, 75;
fossil, 86;
habits, 78 f.;
_P. africanus_, 77;
_P. carbo_, 75 f., 76;
_P. carunculatus_, 77;
_P. dilophus_, 76;
_P. featherstoni_, 77;
_P. graculus_, 77;
_P. imperialis_, 77;
_P. lucidus_, 77;
_P. novae hollandiae_, 76;
_P. onslowi_, 77;
_P. pelagicus_, 76;
_P. perspicillatus_, 77;
_P. punctatus_, 77;
_P. pygmaeus_, 78;
_P. urile_, 77;
_P. varius_, 77
_Phalaenoptilus_, 417;
_P. nuttalli_, 415
Phalanges, of fingers, 9;
of toes, 10
Phalarope, 270;
Grey, 278;
Red-necked, 279
Phalaropodinae, 278 f.
_Phalaropus_, 269, 270;
bright colour of hen, 4;
male incubates, 271;
_P. fulicarius_, 278;
_P. hyperboreus_, 278 f.;
_P. wilsoni_, 279
_Phalcobaenus_, 152;
_P. albigularis_, 152;
_P. carunculatus_, 152;
_P. megalopterus_, 152
_Phaps_, 327, 328, 334;
_P. chalcoptera_, 338;
_P. elegans_, 338
Pharaoh's hen, 145
_Pharomacrus_, 441;
_P. mocinno_, 441, 442, 444, 444;
_P. pavoninus_, 442
Phases of colour in owls, 400
Phasianidae, 186, 198, 219;
habits, 202 f.
Phasianinae, 198, 204, 206
_Phasianus_, 199-202;
fossil, 240;
_P. chrysomelas_, 210;
_P. colchicus_, 210, 211, 212;
_P. decollatus_, 210;
_P. elegans_, 210;
_P. ellioti_, 211;
_P. formosanus_, 210, 211;
_P. humiae_, 211;
_P. mongolicus_, 211;
_P. persicus_, 210;
_P. principalis_, 210;
_P. reevesi_, 211, 212;
_P. satscheunensis_, 210, 211;
_P. shawi_, 210;
_P. soemmerringi_, 211, 212;
_P. strauchi_, 210;
_P. tarimensis_, 210;
_P. torquatus_, 210-212;
_P. versicolor_, 210-212;
_P. vlangali_, 210;
_P. zerafshanicus_, 210
_Phasidus_, 201;
_P. niger_, 205, 206
Pheasant, 192, 198, 199, 202, 203, 211, 493;
in Britain, 210;
Argus-, 207;
Blood-, 217;
Copper-, 212;
Crow-, 356;
Eared, 214;
Golden, 209 f.;
Green, 212;
Horned, 216;
Impeyan, 215, 216;
Koklas, 212;
Lady Amherst's, 210;
Native, 193;
Peacock-, 208;
Pukras, 212;
Reeves's, 212;
Ring-necked, 210;
(Ruffed Grouse), 233;
Silver-, 213;
Snow-, 214, 229;
Stinking, 242
_Phedina_, 523
_Phegornis_, 269;
_P. mitchelli_, 292
_Pheucticus_, 585
_Phibalura_, 479, 480, 482, 483;
_P. flavirostris_, 480
_Philacte canagica_, 132
_Philemon_, 564-567;
mimicry, 543 n., 568;
_P. corniculatus_, 567
_Philepitta_, 471; {621}
_P. jala_, 471, 471;
_P. schlegeli_, 471 f.
Philepittidae, 469, 471
_Philetaerus_, 579;
_P. socius_, 577
_Philohela minor_, 290
_Philortyx fasciatus_, 231
_Phimosus infuscatus_, 101
_Phloeocryptes_, 486
_Phlogoenas_, 326, 335;
_P. kubaryi_, 336;
_P. luzonica_, 335;
_P. rufigula_, 335;
_P. stairi_, 335;
_P. tristigma_, 335
_Phlogopsis_, 488
_Phlogothraupis_, 575
Phoebe, 476
_Phoebetria_, 60;
_P. fuliginosa_, 63
_Phoenicocercus_, 479, 480;
_P. carnifex_, 480
_Phoeniconaias minor_, 107
_Phoenicoparrus andinus_, 107
_Phoenicophaës_, 352;
_P. pyrrhocephalus_, 357
Phoenicophainae, 351, 357;
habits, 357
Phoenicopteri, 70 f., 105 f., 108
Phoenicopteridae, 70, 105 f., 112;
apparently shed wing-quills simultaneously, 4;
habits, 107
_Phoenicopterus_, fossil, 108;
sifting apparatus of bill, 12, 107;
young, 107;
_P. andinus_, 106, 107;
_P. chilensis_, 106;
_P. jamesi_, 106, 107;
_P. minor_, 106, 107;
_P. roseus_, 106 f., 106;
_P. ruber_, 105 f.
_Pholidauges_, 559;
_P. leucogaster_, 560 f.
_Pholidornis_, 570
_Phonipara_, 583, 586
_Phonygammus_, 545, 550, 551;
_P. jamesi_, 548
_Phororhachos_, 44;
fossil, 260;
_P. gracilis_, 45;
_P. inflatus_, 45;
_P. longissimus_, 45;
_P. modicus_, 45;
_P. platygnathus_, 45;
_P. sehuensis_, 45
_Photodilus_, 398, 400;
_P. badius_, 404 f.
_Phoyx purpurea_, 93
_Phrygilus_, 586
_Phyllergates_, 514
_Phylloscopus_, 514, 515, 517, 518
_Phyllostrephus_, 504, 506
_Phytotoma_, 483;
_P. angustirostris_, 483;
_P. raimondii_, 483;
_P. rara_, 483;
_P. rutila_, 483
Phytotomidae, 469, 483
_Piaya_, 351, 357;
_P. cayana_, 357
_Pica_, 552;
_P. mauritanica_, 355, 552, 553;
_P. nuttalli_, 553;
_P. rustica_, 355, 553, 554
Picaflor, 426
Picariae, 376;
of Nitzsch, 466
Picarii, 466
_Picathartes_, 552, 556
Pici, 376, 445 f.;
toes, 10
_Picicorvus columbianus_, 553
Picidae, 445, 457 f.
Picinae, 457 f., 464;
habits, 458 f.
_Picoïdes_, 462;
_P. tridactylus_, 462
_Picolaptes_, 487
Piculet, 464
Picumninae, 464
_Picumnus_, 462, 464;
_P. africanus_, 464;
_P. micromegas_, 464;
_P. ochraceus_, 464
_Picus_, 464;
bill, 12;
fossil, 465;
_P. martius_, 458, 463, 464;
_P. obsoletus_, 462
Pie, 175;
Sea-, 276
Pierrot, 362
_Piezorhynchus_, 507, 509;
_P. chrysomelas_, 507
Pigafetta, on Bird of Paradise, 543
Pigeon, 325 f.;
breeds of, 327 n.;
origin of domestic, 327, 344;
habits, 327 f.;
operculum of nostrils, 11;
Brush Bronze-wing, 338;
Common Bronze-wing, 338;
Crested Bronze-wing, 337;
Crowned, 333, 334;
Fruit-, 325, 327, 328, 344-347;
Ground-, 326, 327, 338;
hollondais, 346;
Partridge Bronze-wing, 337;
Passenger-, 327, 342;
Plumed Bronze-wing, 337;
Rock-, 324, 344;
Snow-, 344;
Tooth-billed, 325, 332, 333;
Tumbler-, 327;
Wood-, 327, 328, 344;
White-bellied, 336
Pigment of feathers, 3, 3 n.
Pigmy Parrot, 371 f.
_Pilerodius pileatus_, 90
Pimlico, 567
Pingré, on Solitaire, 330 f.
Pintados, 204
Pintail–see Duck
_Pipile_, 195;
_P. cujubi_, 197;
_P. cumanensis_, 197;
_P. jacutinga_, 197
_Pipilo_, 585
Pipit, 498 f.;
habits, 500 f.;
Meadow-, 354, 500;
moult, 5;
Red-throated, 500;
Richard's, 500;
Rock-, 500;
Tawny, 500;
Tree-, 500, 501;
Water-, 500
_Pipra leucocilla_, 478;
_P. mentalis_, 478;
_P. serena_, 478;
_P. suavissima_, 478;
_P. velutina_, 478
_Pipreola_, 480, 482;
_P. riefferi_, 483
Pipridae, 469, 477 f.;
habits, 479
Piprinae, 477 f.
_Piprisoma_, 571
_Piprites_, 477
_Pitangus_, 475;
_P. bolivianus_, 476
_Pithecophaga_, 146;
_P. jefferyi_, 160
_Pithys_, 488, 489
_Pitta_, 469 f.;
_P. angolensis_, 471;
_P. baudi_, 471;
_P. brachyura_, 470;
_P. caerulea_, 470 f.;
_P. cucullata_, 470;
_P. cyanea_, 471;
_P. cyanoptera_, 471;
_P. granatina_, 471;
_P. iris_, 471;
_P. mackloti_, 471;
_P. maxima_, 471;
_P. moluccensis_, 470;
_P. novae guineae_, 470;
_P. nympha_, 471;
_P. oatesi_, 470;
_P. strepitans_, 471
_Pittasoma_, 488
Pittidae, 469 f., 472; {622}
habits, 469 f.
_Pitylus_, 575
_Pityriasis_, 532;
_P. gymnocephala_, 532
Plain-Wanderer, 190
Plant-cutters, 483
Plantain-eater, 351, 359 f., 439;
habits, 360 f.;
toes, 10
_Platalea_, 100;
bill, 12;
fossil, 105;
young, 105;
_P. alba_, 103, 104;
_P. flavipes_, 104;
_P. leucorodia_, 100, 103, 104, 104;
_P. minor_, 103, 104;
_P. regia_, 103, 104
Plataleinae, 99 f.;
habits, 103
_Platycercus_, 363, 364, 367;
_P. elegans_, 367 f.;
_P. eximius_, 368
_Platylophus_, 532
Platyrhynchinae, 473 f.
_Platyrhynchus_, 473
_Platysmurus_, 552;
_P. aterrimus_, 553
_Platystira_, 506, 507
_Plectrophenax_, 583, 586;
_P. nivalis_, 584 f., 585
Plectropterinae, 111, 133 f.
_Plectropterus_, 111-113;
_P. gambensis_, 134;
_P. niger_, 134;
_P. rüppelli_, 134;
_P. scioanus_, 134
_Plectrorhynchus_, 565
_Plegadis_, 100;
_P. falcinellus_, 101;
_P. guarauna_, 101;
_P. ridgwayi_, 101
Pliny, on death of Aeschylus, 151;
on _Trochilus_, 426
_Ploceëlla_, 577, 579
Ploceidae, 576 f., 582;
habits, 578 f.
Ploceinae, 577 f.
_Ploceipasser mahali_, 579
_Ploceus_, 577, 579;
_P. baya_, 578, 579
_Plotus_, 70-72;
habits, 80 f.;
_P. anhinga_, 79;
_P. chantrii_, 80;
_P. levaillanti_, 80;
_P. melanogaster_, 80, 80;
_P. nanus_, fossil, 86;
_P. novae hollandiae_, 79 f.;
_P. parvus_, fossil, 86
Plover, 268, 270;
Crab-, 268, 296;
Golden, 272;
Green, 275;
Grey, 272;
Kentish, 273;
Kill-deer, 274;
Little Ringed, 273;
Norfolk, 297;
Ringed, 273, 273, 295
Plumae, 2
Plumule, 2
_Pluvianellus sociabilis_, 276
_Pluvianus_, 293;
_P. aegyptius_, 295
Pneumaticity, of _Chauna_, 109;
of _Sula_, 72
_Pnoëpyga_, 521, 522
Pochard, 122
_Podager_, 416
Podargidae, 415-417, 419
_Podargus_, 415, 417, 419;
_P. cuvieri_, 417
_Podica_, 267;
_P. petersi_, 268;
_P. senegalensis_, 267
Podicipedidae, 49, 52;
functionless tail, 26;
habits, 53 f.;
structure, etc., 49 f.
Podicipedes, 49
_Podicipes auritus_, 53;
_P. caliparaeus_, 53;
_P. cristatus_, 53;
_P. dominicus_, 53;
_P. fluviatilis_, 52, 52;
_P. griseigena_, 53;
_P. gularis_, 52;
_P. holboelli_, 53;
_P. nestor_, 53;
_P. nigricollis_, 53;
_P. pelzelni_, 53;
_P. rollandi_, 53;
_P. rufipectus_, 53;
_P. taczanowskii_, 53;
_P. tricolor_, 53
_Podilymbus_, 49;
_P. podiceps_, 53
_Podoces_, 558;
_P. biddulphi_, 558;
_P. hendersoni_, 558;
_P. humilis_, 558, 559;
_P. panderi_, 558
_Poecilonetta bahamensis_, 125;
_P. erythrorhyncha_, 125;
_P. galapagensis_, 125
_Poeocephalus_, 364;
_P. robustus_, 365, 369
_Poëphila mirabilis_, 578
_Pogonorhynchus_, 448, 449;
_P. dubius_, 449 f.
_Pogonornis_, 565, 567
_Polioaëtus ichthyaëtus_, 164;
_P. plumbeus_, 164
_Poliohierax insignis_, 174;
_P. semitorquatus_, 174
_Poliolophus_, 505
_Polioptila_, 514, 518
Polioptilinae, 509, 514, 515
Pollex, 8
Polyborinae, 146-148, 151 f.
_Polyboroïdes_, 146;
_P. radiatus_, 154;
_P. typicus_, 154
_Polyborus_, 146-148, 152, 153;
_P. cheriway_, 152;
_P. lutosus_, 152;
_P. tharus_, 151, 152
Polygamy, in Galline Birds, 202;
questionable in _Opisthocomus_, 242
Polygonal bodies imbedded in vanes, 3
Polymyodi, 466
_Polyplectron_, 200, 202, 203, 208;
_P. bicalcaratum_, 208;
_P. chinquis_, 208;
_P. germaini_, 208;
_P. inocellatus_, 208;
_P. napoleonis_, 208;
_P. nehrkornae_, 208;
_P. schleiermacheri_, 208
_Polytmus_, 427
_Pomatorhinus_, 502, 504
_Pomatostomus_, 568
Poor Soldier, 567
Poor-Will, 417
_Porphyrio_, 243, 245, 246, 250;
_P. caerulescens_, fossil, 251;
_P. caeruleus_, 250;
_P. mackintoshi_, fossil, 251;
_P. reperta_, 251;
_P. veterum_, 250
_Porphyriola_, 244;
_P. alleni_, 250;
_P. martinica_, 250;
_P. parva_, 250
_Porphyriops_, 244;
_P. crassirostris_, 250;
_P. melanops_, 250
_Porphyriornis nesiotis_, 244, 249
_Porphyrocephalus spurius_, 367
Port Egmont Hen, 305
_Porzana bailloni_, 246, 248;
_P. carolina_, 248;
_P. maruetta_, 248
_Porzanula_, 244, 246;
_P. palmeri_, 249 f.
Post-thoracic rib, 6
Posterior limbs, 9
Pouch, 21;
gular, in Bustards, 261
Poule Rouge, 251 {623}
Powder-down, feathers, 3;
patches, 22;
in Accipitres, 147;
in Ardeae, 87;
in _Artamus_, 531;
in Eurypygidae, 266;
in Falconidae, 147;
in _Gymnoderus_, 481;
in _Leptosoma_, 378;
in _Mesites_, 187;
in Podargidae, 416;
in Psittaci, 364;
in _Rhinochetus_, 264;
in Tinamidae, 183
Praecoces, 22
Praemaxilla, 11
Prairie, Chicken, 234;
-Hen, 235;
Lesser Prairie-Hen, 235
_Pratincola_, 510, 515;
_P. rubetra_, 511
Pratincole, 268, 293 f.
Pre-Tertiary Birds, 2
Presphenoid, 11
Primaries, 20, 22
Principal shaft, or rhachis of feather, 3
_Prinia_, 514, 518
_Priocella_, 61;
_P. glacialoïdes_, 67
_Priofinus cinereus_, 67
_Prion_, 60, 61, 66, 112;
sifting apparatus of bill, 12;
_P. ariel_, 66;
_P. desolatus_, 66
_Prionirhynchus_, 380
_Prioniturus_, 363
_Prionochilus_, 570, 571;
_P. squalidus_, 571;
_P. vincens_, 570
_Prionodura_, 551;
_P. newtoniana_, 548, 551
Prionopinae, 531 f.
_Prionops_, 532
_Prionotelus_, 441, 442;
_P. temnurus_, 443 f.
Prismatic, hues in feathers, cause of, 3;
structure of vanes, 4
_Pristorhamphus_, 570
_Procellaria_, 62, 67 f.;
_P. pelagica_, 67, 68;
_P. tethys_, 68
Procellariidae, 59 f.;
habits, 61 f.
Procellariiformes, 59 f., 70
Procellariinae, 59, 60, 65 f.
_Procelsterna_, 311
_Procne_, 523-525;
_P. furcata_, 525;
_P. tapera_, 523-525
Procnemial, 22;
process, of Colymbiformes, 49
_Procnias_, 575, 576
Procoelous, 6
_Prodotiscus_, 451 f.;
_P. insignis_, 452;
_P. regulus_, 452
_Progura gallinacea_, fossil, 350
_Proherodius oweni_, fossil, 95
_Promerops_, 568, 569;
_P. cafer_, 570
_Propelargus_, fossil, 99
_Prosobonia leucoptera_, 283
_Prosthemadera_, 565, 567;
_P. novae zealandiae_, 567
_Protibis_, fossil, 105
_Protonotaria_, 573
Proventriculus, 12
Provinces, 17
Proximal, 22
_Prymnacantha_, 427;
_P. popelarii_, 438 f.
_Psalidoprocne_, 522-525;
_P. nitens_, 522, 524
_Psaltria_, 538, 539
_Psaltriparus_, 538-540
_Psamathia_, 515
_Psarisomus_, 468, 469;
_P. dalhousiae_, 468 f.
_Psaroglossa_, 559
_Psephotus_, 365
_Pseudapteryx gracilis_, fossil, 40
_Pseudochelidon_, 530, 531
_Pseudocolaptes_, 484, 487
_Pseudodacnis_, 575
_Pseudogeranus_, 254
_Pseudogerygone_, 507;
_P. rubra_, 507
_Pseudogryphus_, 137;
_P. californianus_, 139
_Pseudogyps_, 143;
_P. africanus_, 145;
_P. bengalensis_, 145
_Pseudonestor_, 562
_Pseudorhectes_, 532
_Pseudotantalus ibis_, 97
_Pseudotriccus_, 474
_Psilopogon pyrolophus_, 450
_Psilorhamphus_, 488
_Psilorhinus_, 553
Psittaci, 351 f., 361 f., 376;
bill, 12;
cere, 11;
clavicles sometimes absent, 8;
habits, 364 f.;
metatarsals, 10;
toes, 10;
voice, 13
Psittacidae, 351, 362 f., 366 f.
Psittacinae, 362 f., 367
_Psittacirostra_, 562, 563
_Psittacula_, 363, 364, 368, 370
_Psittacus_, 364;
fossil, 375;
_P. erithacus_, 362, 369, 370;
_P. timneh_, 369
_Psophia crepitans_, 257, 258;
_P. leucoptera_, 258;
_P. napensis_, 258;
_P. obscura_, 258;
_P. ochroptera_, 258;
_P. viridis_, 258
Psophiidae, 243, 256, 257 f.;
habits, 258
_Psophodes_, 503
Ptarmigan, 204, 240;
claws shed, 203;
moult, 5
_Ptererythrius_, 532, 533
_Pteridophora_, 545;
_P. alberti_, 548
_Pternistes_, 225 f.;
_P. afer_, 225;
_P. boehmi_, 226;
_P. cranchi_, 225 f.;
_P. humboldti_, 225;
_P. infuscatus_, 226;
_P. leucoscepus_, 226;
_P. nudicollis_, 225;
_P. rubricollis_, 225;
_P. rufipictus_, 226;
_P. swainsoni_, 226
_Pterocles_, 268, 321 f.;
fossil, 325;
_P. arenarius_, 323;
_P. bicinctus_, 323;
_P. coronatus_, 323;
_P. decoratus_, 323;
_P. fasciatus_, 322, 323;
_P. gutturalis_, 323;
_P. lichtensteini_, 322, 323;
_P. quadricinctus_, 323;
_P. personatus_, 323;
_P. variegatus_, 323
Pteroclidae, 268, 321 f.;
habits, 322 f.;
toes, 10
Pteroclo-Columbine, 268, 321
_Pteroclurus_, 322; {624}
_P. alchata_, 323;
_P. exustus_, 324;
_P. namaqua_, 324;
_P. senegallus_, 324
_Pteroglossus_, 456;
_P. aracari_, 456;
_P. beauharnaisi_, 454, 456;
_P. torquatus_, 455
_Pteronetta hartlaubi_, 134
_Pterophanes_, 427;
_P. temmincki_, 430, 434
_Pteropodocys_, 525, 526
Pteroptochidae, 469, 489, 490
_Pteroptochus_, 490, 491;
_P. albicollis_, 491;
_P. rubecula_, 490
Pterygoid, 11
Pterylae, feathered spaces, 2
Pterylographie, of Nitzsch, 2
Pterylosis, 2
Ptilochlorinae, 477 f.
_Ptilochloris_, 478;
_P. squamata_, 479
_Ptilogenys caudatus_, 529;
_P. cinereus_, 530
Ptilonorhynchidae, 496
_Ptilopachys fuscus_, 219
_Ptilopus_, 326, 327, 347;
_P. aurantiifrons_, 348;
_P. dupetit-thouarsi_, 347;
_P. insolitus_, 325, 348;
_P. jambu_, 347;
_P. nanus_, 348;
_P. superbus_, 348;
_P. swainsoni_, 347
_Ptilorhis_, 544, 550, 551;
_P. magnifica_, 545;
_P. paradisea_, 545;
_P. victoriae_, 551
Ptilorhynchidae, 543
_Ptilorhynchus_, 550, 551;
_P. violaceus_, 549, 549, 551, 552
_Ptilosclera versicolor_, 373
_Ptilotis_, 565-567;
_P. limbata_, 564
_Ptychorhamphus_, 316;
_P. aleuticus_, 318
Pubis, 9, 9
_Pucrasia_, 201, 212;
_P. castanea_, 212;
_P. darwini_, 213;
_P. macrolopha_, 212;
_P. meyeri_, 212 f.;
_P. nipalensis_, 212;
_P. xanthospila_, 213
Puff-bird, 445, 447
Puffin, 316, 317;
Tufted, 317
_Puffinus_, 60, 66;
fossil, 69;
_P. anglorum_, 63, 66;
_P. assimilis_, 66;
_P. brevicauda_, 63;
_P. conradii_, fossil, 69;
_P. eyermani_, fossil, 69;
_P. gravis_, 66;
_P. griseus_, 66;
_P. major_, 66;
_P. obscurus_, 66;
_P. yelkouanus_, 66
Puttock, 165
Pycnaspidean, 479
Pycnonotidae, 504 f., 531;
habits, 505 f.
_Pycnonotus_, 355, 505;
_P. haemorrhous_, 506;
_P. xanthopygus_, 506
_Pycnopygius_, 565
_Pycnorhamphus_, 584
Pycraft, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n.
_Pygarrhicus_, 484
_Pygmornis_, 430
Pygopodes, 49
_Pygoptila_, 488, 489;
_P. margaritata_, 488
_Pygosceles_, 55;
_P. adeliae_, 57;
_P. taeniata_, 57
Pygostyle, 6, 8;
absent in _Archaeopteryx_, 25;
absent in Hesperornithes, 25, 26;
absent in Ratitae, 25, 26;
absent in Tinamidae, 25, 26, 182;
occasionally found in _Apteryx_, 26 n.;
occasionally found in _Struthio_, 26 n.
_Pyranga_, 575
_Pyrenestes_, 577
_Pyriglena_, 489
_Pyrocephalus_, 473, 474;
_P. rubineus_ 474-477
_Pyroderus_, 479, 481;
_P. orenocensis_, 483
_Pyromelaena_, 577, 579;
_P. flammiceps_, 577
_Pyrrhocorax_, 552, 553
_Pyrrholaemus_, 518
_Pyrrhula_, 583;
_P. enucleator_, 584;
_P. europaea_, 584
_Pyrrhulauda_, 497, 498
_Pyrrhuloxia_, 583
_Pyrrhuphonia_, 576

Quadrate bone, 11, 26;
in _Hesperornis_, 26, 47;
in _Ichthyornis_, 26, 94;
in Ratitae, 26;
in Tinamidae, 26, 182
Quadratojugal, 11
Quail, 199, 200, 203, 220 f.;
Bush-, 223;
Bustard-, 188;
Button-, 186, 188;
Chinese, 219;
Common, 220;
Least Swamp-, 219;
Painted, 219;
Swamp-, 219 f.
Quebranta-huesos, 145
Queest, 344
_Querquedula_, 112;
_Q. circia_, 125;
_Q. cyanoptera_, 125;
_Q. discors_, 125;
_Q. puna_, 125;
_Q. versicolor_, 125
_Querula_, 479, 481
Quezal, 441, 442, 444
Quill, or barrel of feather, 3
Quills shed simultaneously by Anatidae, 4, 113;
by Phoenicopteridae, 4, 107;
by Rallidae, 4 n.
Quiscalinae, 579 f.
_Quiscalus_, 581;
_Q. versicolor_, 580
Quit-quit, 572 f.

Races of birds, 15
Rackelhahn, 237
Racquet-shaped, 22
Radii, 2
Radius, 8, 8
Rail, 243-247;
breast-bone, 7;
flightless, 244;
lose wing-quills simultaneously, 4 n.;
Clapper-, 245, 246;
King-, 246;
Land-, 243, 248, 248;
Sora-, 248;
Water-, 245, 246;
Weka-, 243, 245, 247
Rain-bird, 357, 460, 468
Rain-goose, 52
Rainbow, 434
_Rallicula_, 244, 246, 248
Rallidae, 243 f., 246 {625}
_Rallina_, 248
_Rallus_, fossil, 251;
_R. aquaticus_, 246;
_R. crepitans_, 246;
_R. elegans_, 246;
_R. longirostris_, 246;
_R. maculatus_, 246;
_R. madagascariensis_, 246;
_R. sandvicensis_, 251;
_R. virginianus_, 246
Rami, 2
Ramsay, on Cassowaries, 34 n.
Raptorial, 154
Ratitae, 109;
coracoid and scapula fused, 8;
incisura ischiadica, 9;
meaning of name, 7;
no pygostyle, 6 n.;
structure, 26;
a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f.
Rattlewing, 121
Raven, 554, 555, 555, 556
Razorbill, 316, 317, 320 f.
Rectrices, 20, 21, 22;
in _Archaeopteryx_, 25;
no true, in Grebes, 50
_Recurvirostra_, 268, 269;
_R. americana_, 278;
_R. andina_, 278;
_R. avocetta_, 278;
_R. novae hollandiae_, 278;
_R. rubricollis_, 278
Red Bird, 331
Redbreast, 516
Redpoll, 583, 584, 586;
beak elongated in summer, 5 n.
Redshank, 283;
Dusky, 283;
Spotted, 283
Redstart, 511, 512, 515-517;
American, 512 n., 574;
Black, 511
Redwing, 226, 510
Reed-Pheasant, 541 f., 541
Reeve, 285
Regent-bird, 549
_Regerhinus_, 147;
_R. cayennensis_, 173;
_R. megarhynchus_, 173;
_R. uncinatus_, 173;
_R. wilsoni_, 173
Regions, of Heilprin, 15 f.;
of Huxley, 15 f.;
of Newton, 16 f.;
of Sclater, 15 f.;
of Wallace, 15 f.;
of others, 16 f.
Regulidae, 495
Regulinae, 509
_Regulus_, 513-515, 517, 518
Reinhardt, on Dodo, 330
_Reinwardtoenas_, 326;
_R. browni_, 343;
_R. reinwardti_, 343
Remiges, 21, 22;
primarii, 20;
secundarii, 20;
of Cassowaries, 33
_Remiornis_, 45
Reò, 379
Reptilia, difference from Birds, 1 f.
Reticulated, 10
Rhachis of feather, 3
Rhamphastidae, 445, 448, 453 f.;
habits, 454 f.
_Rhamphastus_, 454, 455;
_R. ariel_, 455, 456;
_R. carinatus_, 455;
_R. toco_, 455, 456;
_R. vitellinus_, 455
_Rhamphocaenus_, 488
_Rhamphococcyx_, 352;
_R. calorhynchus_, 357
_Rhamphocoelus_, 575;
_R. brasilius_, 576, 576
_Rhamphocorys_, 497
_Rhamphodon_, 426, 430, 431, 435;
_R. naevius_, 432
_Rhamphomantis_, 351
_Rhamphomicron heteropogon_, 437;
_R. microrhynchum_, 437
Rhamphotheca, 11;
of Ratitae, 26
_Rhea_, 30 f.;
breast-bone, 7;
feathers, 32;
fossil, 31;
_R. americana_, 30 f., 31;
_R. darwini_, 30 f.;
_R. macrorhyncha_, 30
Rheae, 26, 30 f., 38
_Rhectes_, 531, 532
Rheidae, structure, etc., 30 f.
_Rheinardtius_, 199, 200;
_R. ocellatus_, 208
Rhinoceros-bird, 561
Rhinochetidae, 243, 263 f.
_Rhinochetus_, 186, 187, 243;
habits, 265;
operculum of nostrils, 11;
_R. jubatus_, 263 f., 264
_Rhinocrypta_, 490, 491;
_R. lanceolata_, 490, 491
_Rhinogryphus_, 140, 152;
_R. aura_, 140;
_R. burrovianus_, 140;
_R. perniger_, 140
_Rhinoplax_, 390, 391;
_R. vigil_, 393
_Rhinopomastus_, 397
_Rhinoptilus_, 295
_Rhinortha_, 351
_Rhipidura_, 506, 508;
_R. motacilloïdes_, 508
_Rhizothera dulitensis_, 225;
_R. longirostris_, 225
_Rhodacanthis_, 562-564
_Rhodinocincla_, 515
_Rhodonessa caryophyllacea_, 134
_Rhodostethia_, 300, 301, 304;
_R. rosea_, 310
_Rhopocichla_, 504
_Rhopodytes_, 352, 357
_Rhopophilus_, 513
_Rhopoterpe_, 488
_Rhyacornis_, 516
_Rhynchaea_, 268, 270;
male incubates, 271;
_R. australis_, 292;
_R. capensis_, 292;
_R. semicollaris_, 292
_Rhynchocyclus_, 473
Rhynchopidae, 300
Rhynchopinae, 300 f., 310
_Rhynchops_, 301, 310;
habits, 304;
_R. albicollis_, 310;
_R. flavirostris_, 310;
_R. intercedens_, 310;
_R. melanura_, 310;
_R. nigra_, 310
_Rhynchortyx cinctus_, 232;
_R. spodiostethus_, 232
_Rhynchostruthus_, 583
_Rhynchotus_, 183;
_R. maculicollis_, 184;
_R. rufescens_, 184 f., 184
_Rhytidoceros plicatus_, 394;
_R. subruficollis_, 393;
_R. undulatus_, 394
Rib, 6, 7
Rictal, 22
Ridge of bill, 20
Ridged structure of vanes of feathers, 3 {626}
Ridgway, on _Ardea occidentalis_, 93 n.;
on Ciconiidae, 95 n.;
on _Dissura_, 96 n.;
on Humming-birds, 432;
see Baird
Rifleman, 472, 545 n.;
-bird, 545
Riporre, 238
_Rissa_, 301;
_R. brevirostris_, 303, 306;
_R. tridactyla_, 305 f.
Road-runner, 357
Robin, 354, 512, 515, 516;
American, 510;
Australian, 511;
Cape-, 512 n.;
Corean, 512;
Hill-, 503;
Indian, 512 n.;
Japanese, 512;
Persian, 512;
New Zealand, 512 n.
Roc, 26, 43
Rock-hopper, 56, 58, 58
Roller, 376 f., 467;
habits, 377 f.;
Ground- 376, 378
_Rollulus_, 199, 200;
_R. roulroul_, 221
Roofed, of tail, 22
Rook, 552, 554, 556
Rose-sucker, 426
Rosenberg, v., on _Nasiterna_, 372
_Rostratula_, 292
_Rostrhamus_, 146, 147, 149;
_R. sociabilis_, 171
Rotche, 321
Rothschild, on _Apteryx_, 39;
on Bird of Paradise, 550;
on Drepanididae, 562 n.;
on _Houbara_, 262 n.
Roy, on Flight, 61 n.
Royal Birds, 136
_Rubigula_, 505
Ruc, 43
Ruff, 234, 270, 285
Rump, 20
_Rupicola_, 479, 480;
dances of, 482;
nest, 482 f.;
_R. crocea_, 480
Rupicolinae, 479 f.
_Rupornis magnirostris_, 167;
_R. nattereri_, 167;
_R. pucherani_, 167;
_R. ruficauda_, 167;
_R. ridgwayi_, 169;
_R. saturata_, 167
_Ruticilla_, 509;
_R. moussieri_, 512;
_R. phoenicurus_, 511

Sabre-wing, 426, 435
Saddle-back, 558
Sage-cock, 203, 234
Sagittarius, 141
Sagittate, 22
St. Hilaire, on _Aepyornis_, 43
Saker, 179
Salmon, on _Creciscus_, 249 n.
_Salpinctes_, 521, 522
_Salpornis_, 571, 572
_Saltator_, 575
Salvadori, on Anatidae, 111, 136;
on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.;
on Cassowaries, 33;
on Columbae, 325;
on _Podicipes_, 52;
on Psittacidae, 362
_Salvadorina_, 113;
_S. waigiuensis_, 116
Salvin, F. H., on fishing with Cormorants 79;
and Brodrick, on Falconry, 148 n.;
see also Freeman
Salvin, O., on Humming Birds, 432;
on Lämmergeier, 151 n.;
on Motmots, 380 n.;
on nest of _Panyptila_, 424;
on classification of Petrels, 59 n.;
see Sclater
Sandeman, on Honey-guide, 452 n.
Sanderling, 282
Sand-Grouse–see Grouse, Sand-
Sand-Lark, 273
Sandpiper, 268;
Bonaparte's, 280;
Broad-billed, 282;
Buff-breasted, 282;
Common, 280, 286;
Curlew-, 280;
Green, 271, 284;
Marsh, 284;
Pectoral, 280 f.;
Purple, 281;
Purple, male incubates, 271;
Semipalmated, 282;
Spoon-billed, 282;
Spotted, 286;
Stilt-, 286;
White-winged, 283;
Wood-, 284
Sap-sucker, 461
_Sappho_, 427, 434;
_S. phaon_, 434;
_S. sparganura_, 434
_Sarcidiornis_, 111-113;
fossil, 136;
_S. carunculata_, 134;
_S. melanonota_, 134
_Sarciophorus tectus_, 275
_Sarcogeranus_, 254
_Sarcophanops_, 468, 469
_Sarcops_, 559, 561
Sarcorhamphidae, 137 f.
_Sarcorhamphus_, 137;
_S. gryphus_, 138 f., 139
_Sasia_, 464
Satin-bird, 549, 549
Saunders, on Black-headed Gull and allies, 308;
on Laridae, 306 f.;
on Stercorariidae, 300
Saurognathae, 457
Sauropsida of Huxley, 1 f.
_Saurothera_, 351, 357
Sauzier, bones of Dodo, 330
Savannah-blackbird, 359
Savery, figure of Dodo, 329 f.
_Saxicola_, 509-511
Saxicoline, 516
_Sayornis_, 475, 476
Scales, nature of, 2 n.
_Scaniornis_, fossil, 108
Scapula, 7, 8, 8;
unites with coracoids in _Fregata_, 72
Scapulars, 20, 22
Scapus, 3
_Scardafella_, 335, 340 f.;
_S. inca_, 341;
_S. squamosa_, 341
Scaup, 121
_Sceloglaux_, 398, 400, 401;
_S. albifacies_, 408
_Scenopoeetes_, 544, 550;
_S. dentirostris_, 549, 551
_Schistospiza_, 583 f.
_Schizoeaca_, 484
_Schizorhis_, 360;
_S. concolor_, 361
_Schlegelia_, 545, 550; {627}
_S. respublica_, 547
Schomburgk, on _Rupicola_, 482
_Scissirostrum_, 559, 561
Scissor-bill, 310
Sclater, on classification, 14;
edits translation of Nitzsch's _Pterylographie_, 2 n.;
on geographical distribution, 15 f.;
on Alectorides and Fulicariae, 243;
on Anatidae, 113;
on method of feeding in Cormorant, 78 n.;
on Cotingidae, 479;
on Dendrocolaptidae, 484;
on Formicariidae, 488;
on Galbulidae and Bucconidae, 445 n.;
on Icteridae, 579;
on incubation of Ostrich, 29;
on classification of Passeres, 467;
on Penguins, 56 n., 57 n.;
on Picariae, 376;
on Pipridae, 477 n.;
on Rhamphastidae, 455;
on Tanagridae, 575 n.;
on Tyrannidae, 473;
and Hudson, on _Aramus_, 257 n.;
and Hudson, on Bitterns, 88 n.;
and Salvin, on _Ptilochloris buckleyi_, 479 n.
_Scleroptila_, 226
Sclerurinae, 484 f.
_Sclerurus_, 486
_Scolephagus_, 581;
fossil, 496
Scolopacinae, 268, 269, 271, 289
_Scolopax_, 268-270;
drumming, 272, 291;
_S. megala_, 270;
_S. minor_, 270;
_S. rochusseni_, 290;
_S. rusticula_, 289 f., 290;
_S. saturata_, 290;
_S. stenura_, 270
Scopidae, 70, 86 f., 95
_Scops_, 398, 399, 401, 403, 412;
_S. asio_, 413;
_S. brucii_, 413;
_S. capnodes_, 413;
_S. flammeola_, 413;
_S. giu_, 412 f.;
_S. gymnopus_, 398, 413;
_S. icterorhynchus_, 413;
_S. leucotis_, 413;
_S. magicus_, 411, 413;
_S. nudipes_, 398, 413;
_S. rutilus_, 413;
_S. semitorques_, 412
_Scoptelus_, 397
_Scopus_, 86, 87, 265;
habits, 95;
_S. umbretta_, 94, 95
Scoter, 119;
habits, 120;
Surf, 120;
Velvet, 119
_Scotopelia_, 398, 400;
_S. bouvieri_, 414;
_S. peli_, 414;
_S. ussheri_, 414
_Scotornis climacurus_, 418
Screamer, Crested, 110;
Horned, 110
Scrub-bird, 491
Scutellae, 10
Scutellated, 10
Scutelliplantar, 496
_Scytalopus_, 490;
_S. magellanicus_, 491
_Scythrops_, 351;
_S. novae hollandiae_, 356
Sea-Eagle, habits, 163 f.;
-Hen, 305;
-Pheasant, 125;
-Pie, 276;
-Swallow, 303, 311
Secondaries, 20, 22
Secretarius, 141
Secretary-Bird, 137, 141, 141, 258;
habits, 142 f.
Seebohm, on _Sula_, 74 n.
Seed-Snipe, 268, 296
_Seena aurantia_, 314
_Selasphorus platycercus_, 438;
_S. rufus_, 427, 438
_Selenidera_, 454, 456;
_S. piperivora_, 456;
_S. spectabilis_, 456
_Seleucides_, 544, 550, 551;
_S. ignotus_, 545
Semi-rings of bronchi, 21
_Semioptera_, 545, 550, 551;
_S. wallacii_, 548
_Senex_, 152, 153;
_S. australis_, 152
Septum, of nostrils, 11
_Sericornis_, 518
_Sericossypha_, 575
_Sericulus_, 550, 551;
_S. melinus_, 549, 551, 552
Seriemá, 243, 258, 259, 260
_Serilophus_, 469
Serin, 584
_Serinus canarius_, 585;
_S. canicollis_, 585;
_S. hortulanus_, 584
Serpentariidae, 137, 141 f.
_Serpentarius secretarius_, 141, 141;
habits, 142 f.;
_S. robustus_, fossil in France, 143
_Serpophaga_, 475-477
Serrated bill, 12
_Serresius_, 326;
_S. galeatus_, 346
_Setophaga_, 573, 574;
_S. ruticilla_, 512 n.
Settler's Clock, 386
Shag, 75, 77
Shaheen, 179
Shank, 9
Sharpe, on genus _Ardea_, 91 n.;
on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.;
on Brachypteri and Cisticolae, 513;
on _Eudromias_, 270 n.;
on plumage of Falconidae, 157;
on _Ortyxelus_, 295 n.;
families of Oscines, list of, 495;
on Owls, 400;
on _Podicipes_, 52 n.;
on Sturnidae, 559;
on _Strix_, 404;
on Thamnobiae, 510;
on Timeliidae, 502
Sheartail, Peruvian, 438
Shearwater, 61-63, 65, 66;
Manx, 68
Sheath-bill, 268;
bill, 11
Sheld-Drake, 114, 128, 128;
Ruddy, 129
Shell-Ibis, 97
Shelley on Capitonidae, 449;
on Cuculidae, 351;
on _Promerops_ (Nectariniidae), 568 n.;
on Weaver-birds, 576 n.
Shield, frontal or on bill, 12
Shikra, 157
Shoe-bill, 93, 94
Shoulder-girdle, 8
Shoveller, 114, 124
Shrike, 473, 531 f.;
Cuckoo-, 525 f.;
Great Grey, 534, 534;
Grey Coly-, 527, 527;
Lesser Grey, 534;
Red-backed, 535;
Wood-, 535;
Woodchat-, 534
Shufeldt, on _Cypselus melanoleucus_, 421 n.
_Sialia_, 509, 510, 515, 517
_Sibia_, 502
Sibree, on _Coua_, 357 n.; {628}
on _Leptosoma_, 379 n.
_Sigelus_, 355
_Sigmodus_, 532
_Simorhynchus_, 316, 318;
_S. cristatellus_, 318;
_S. pusillus_, 318;
_S. pygmaeus_, 318
_Siptornis albiceps_, 485;
_S. hudsoni_, 487;
_S. maluroïdes_, 487;
_S. sordida_, 486, 487;
_S. striaticeps_, 487;
_S. sulphurifera_, 487
Sirkeer, 357
Siskin, 584
_Sisura_, 506, 509;
_S. inquieta_, 508
_Sitella_, 537, 538
_Sitta_, 537, 538;
_S. caesia_, 537, 538
Sittidae, 494, 536 f.;
habits, 538
_Sittiparus_, 503
_Sittosomus_, 484, 487
_Siurus_, 573, 574
_Siva_, 502
Skeat, on the name Parrot, 362
Skeleton, 5 f.;
appendicular, 5;
axial, 5 f.;
of Carinate Bird, 8;
of trunk of Falcon, 7
Skimmer, 300, 304
Skin, 2 n.
Skua, 81, 268, 300-303;
Arctic, 305;
Buffon's, 305;
Great, 302, 304;
Pomatorhine, 305
Skull, 10 f.;
of Wild Duck, 11
Slater, bones of Solitaire, 331
Smew, 115, 116
_Smicrornis_, 506, 509
_Smithornis_, 506, 509
Snake-Bird, 79, 465
Snipe, 268, 270;
bill, 11;
Common, 290 f.;
Double, 291;
Full, 290; Jack, 292;
Painted, 292;
Pin-tailed, 292;
Solitary, 291;
Wood-, 291
Snow-Cock, 229;
-Partridge, 230;
-Pheasant, 229
Solan Goose, 73, 75, 302
Solitaire, 325;
habits, 331;
of Bourbon, 330;
of Rodriguez, 328, 330 f.
_Somateria_, 114;
_S. dresseri_, 118;
_S. mollissima_, 118 f.;
_S. spectabilis_, 111, 118 f.;
_S. v-nigrum_, 118
_Sporaeginthus_, 579
Sparrow, 584, 586;
-Hawk, see Hawk, Sparrow-;
Hedge-, 354, 512, 515-517;
House-, 584;
Java-, 577;
Song-, 586
_Spathura_, 427, 437 f.
_Spatula_, 111;
_S. capensis_, 124;
_S. clypeata_, 124;
_S. platalea_, 124;
_S. rhynchotis_, 124
Spatulate, 12, 22
Species of Birds, 15
Speculum, 22;
in ducks, 114 f.
Speed of flight, 20
Spel of Capercaillie, 237
_Speotyto_, 398-402;
_S. cunicularia_, 400 f., 409 f., 410
Sperling, on Sooty Tern, 312 n.
_Spermestes_, 577
_Sphecotheres_, 542, 543;
_S. maxillaris_, 543
Sphenisci, 54 f.;
fingers, 9;
metatarsals, 10
Spheniscidae, 54 f., 71, 109;
habits, 55 f.
Sphenisciformes, 54 f., 59
_Spheniscus_, 55;
_S. demersus_, 57;
_S. magellanicus_, 57;
_S. mendiculus_, 57;
_S. minor_, 56, 57
_Sphenocercus_, 326, 349;
_S. formosae_, 350;
_S. permagnus_, 350;
_S. sieboldi_, 350;
_S. sororius_, 350;
_S. sphenurus_, 349 f.
_Sphenocichla_, 521
_Sphenoeacus_, 491 n., 514
_Sphenoproctus_, 427, 435
_Sphenostoma_, 538-540
_Sphenura_, 517
_Sphyropicus_, 461;
_S. varius_, 458, 461
Spicules beneath toes–see Toes
_Spiloglaux novae zealandiae_, 409
_Spilornis_, 154;
_S. cheela_, 154;
_S. holospilus_, 154;
_S. sulaënsis_, 154;
_S. undulatus_, 154
Spinal cord, 5
_Spindalis_, 575
_Spiza_, 583;
_S. guiraca_, 587
_Spizaëtus_, 160;
_S. coronatus_, 160;
_S. ornatus_, 160;
_S. tyrannus_, 160
_Spiziapteryx_, 146;
_S. circumcinctus_, 174
_Spiziastur melanoleucus_, 161
_Spizilauda deva_, 496
_Spizixus_, 504, 505
_Spodiopsar_, 561;
_S. burmanicus_, 560
Spoonbill, 70, 99 f., 104;
bill, 12;
habits, 103
_Sporadinus_, 433
_Sporaeginthus amandava_, 577
Spring moult, 4 f.
Spur-fowl, 218
Squamosal, 11
Square, of tail, 22
_Squatarola helvetica_, 272
Squatter, 337
_Stachyridopsis_, 503
_Stachyris_, 504
_Stactolaema anchietae_, 450;
_S. olivaceum_, 450
Standard wing, 548
Starling, 559, 560, 560-562;
habits, 561 f.;
American, 579;
Red-winged, 580;
Tree-, 559
_Starnoenas_, 327;
_S. cyanocephala_, 335
_Steatornis_, 417;
nest, 419;
_S. caripensis_, 419
Steatornithidae, 415, 419
Steering feathers, 21
Steganopodes, 70 f.;
nostrils, 12;
toes, 10
Steganopodous, 71
_Steganopus wilsoni_, 279
_Stegnolaema montagnii_, 197
Stejneger, classification, 14; {629}
families of Oscines, list, 495;
on Stercorariinae, 300
_Stelgidopteryx_, 522-524
_Stephanophorus_, 575
Stercorariidae, 300
Stercorariinae, 300 f., 304;
habits, 302 f.
_Stercorarius crepidatus_, 301, 305;
_S. parasiticus_, 301, 305;
_S. pomatorhinus_, 301, 305;
_S. richardsoni_, 305
Stereornithes, 25, 43 f., 260;
structure, 44 f.
_Sterna_, 301, 311;
_S. albigena_, 313;
_S. albistriata_, 314;
_S. aleutica_, 312;
_S. anaestheta_, 312;
_S. antillarum_, 311;
_S. balaenarum_, 312;
_S. bergii_, 312;
_S. bernsteini_, 312;
_S. cantiaca_, 312;
_S. dougalli_, 304, 313;
_S. elegans_, 312;
_S. eurygnatha_, 312;
_S. fluviatilis_, 313, 313;
_S. forsteri_, 314;
_S. frontalis_, 312;
_S. fuliginosa_, 312;
_S. hirundinacea_, 313;
_S. longipennis_, 313;
_S. lorata_, 312;
_S. lunata_, 312;
_S. macrura_, 313;
_S. maxima_, 312;
_S. media_, 312;
_S. melanauchen_, 311;
_S. melanogaster_, 314;
_S. minuta_, 311;
_S. nereis_, 312;
_S. saundersi_, 311;
_S. sinensis_, 311;
_S. superciliaris_, 311 f.;
_S. trudeaui_, 311;
_S. virgata_, 313;
_S. vittata_, 313
Sterninae, 300 f., 310 f.;
habits, 303 f.
Sternotracheal muscles, two pairs in Anseriformes, 108
Sternum, 6, 7, 8
_Stictonetta_, 111;
_S. naevosa_, 123
_Stictospiza_, 579
Stilt, 277, 278
Stint, Little, 279 f., 282;
Temminck's, 280
_Stiphrornis_, 514
_Stipiturus_, 514, 517
Stirling and Zietz on _Genyornis_, 38 n.
Stitch bird, 567, 568
Stock Eagle, 463
Stolzmann on _Loddigesia_, 437
Stomach, 12
Stone-Curlew, see Curlew, Stone-;
-Runner, 273
Stonechat, 511, 516
Stonehatch, 273
Stork, 70, 86, 95 f., 105, 148;
habits, 96;
Black, 99;
Saddle-billed, 98;
White, 96, 97, 98, 99
_Strepera_, 532
_Strepsilas_, 268;
_S. interpres_, 276;
_S. melanocephalus_, 276
_Streptocitta_, 561
Striated feathers, 4
Strickland, on _Aepyornis_, 43;
on Widow bird, 577 n.;
and Melville, on Dodo, 329 n.;
on Solitaire, 331 n.
Striges, 376, 397 f.;
clavicles do not always unite, 8;
toes, 10
Strigidae, 398 f.;
habits, 400 f.
Striginae, 398, 403
Stringopinae, 362 f., 366 f.
_Stringops_, 362, 364;
little keel to sternum, 7, 26;
_S. habroptilus_, 366, 366
_Strix_, 398, 399, 402;
fossil, 415;
_S. aurantiaca_, 404;
_S. candida_, 404;
_S. capensis_, 404;
_S. castanops_, 404;
_S. flammea_, 400, 403 f., 404;
_S. novae hollandiae_, 404;
_S. tenebricosa_, 404
_Struthidea_, 552, 557 f.
_Struthio_, toes and claws, 10;
_S. asiaticus_, fossil, 27;
_S. australis_, 27;
_S. camelus_, 27 f., 28;
_S. chersonensis_, fossil, 27;
_S. karatheodori_, fossil, 27;
_S. molybdophanes_, 27
_Struthiolithus chersonensis_, fossil, 27
Struthiones, 27 f., 38
Struthionidae, structure, etc., 27
_Sturnella_, 500, 581, 582;
_S. defilippii_, 500;
_S. magna_, 500, 580
Sturnellinae, 579 f.
_Sturnia_, 559
Sturnidae, 494, 558 n., 559;
fossil, 496;
habits, 561 f.
_Sturnopastor_, 559, 562;
_S. contra_, 560
_Sturnornis_, 559
_Sturnus_, 559;
_S. unicolor_, 560;
_S. vulgaris_, 560, 560, 561
Subclamatores, 467
Sub-classes of Aves, 23
Suboscines, 467
Sub-regions, 17
Sugar-bird, 573
_Sula_, 70-72;
fossil, 86;
_S. abbotti_, 74;
_S. bassana_, 73, 74;
_S. capensis_, 73;
_S. cyanops_, 74;
_S. leucogaster_, 74;
_S. piscator_, 74;
_S. serrator_, 73;
_S. variegata_, 74
Sulidae, 70, 73;
habits, 75
Sultan-bird, 539
Sun-bird, 355, 427, 568 f.;
habits, 569 f.;
Splendid, 569
Sun-bittern, 243, 266 f., 266
Supra-angular, 11;
-occipital, 11
Surf-bird, 270
_Surnia_, 398, 399;
_S. funerea_, 411;
_S. ulula_, 401, 411
_Surniculus_, 352, 353;
_S. dicruroïdes_, mimicry, 529;
_S. lugubris_, 355
_Suthora_, 502, 503
Swallow, 420, 522 f., 524 f., 524;
habits, 524 f.;
moult, 5;
-tail, 435;
-wing, 448;
Bank-, 525;
Chimney-, 422;
Cliff-, 525;
Sea-, 303;
Wood-, 530 f.
Swan, 114, 135 f.;
habits, 114;
marks, 136;
trachea enters keel of sternum, 13;
young, 135 f.;
Bewick's, 136;
Black, 135, 136;
Mute, 135, 136;
Polish, 135;
Tame, 135
Swift, 419 f., 522;
breast-bone, 6 f.;
habits, 421 f.;
toes, 10; Alpine, 424;
American Chimney, 421;
Common, 421, 424, 425;
Palm-, 421, 425 f.;
Tree-, 422
_Sycalis_, 586; {630}
_S. pelzelni_, 586
_Sycobrotus_, 578
_Sylvia_, 517, 518
_Sylviella_, 514
Sylviidae, 494, 495
Sylviinae, 494, 506, 509, 513, 573;
fossil, 496;
habits, 517
_Sylviorthorhynchus_, 484
_Syma_, 382;
_S. torotoro_, 386
_Symmorphus_, 525, 526
_Symphemia_, 284
_Symphysis_, 21
Synallaxinae, 484 f.
_Synallaxis_, 484, 486, 487;
_S. semicinerea_, 485
_Synoecus_, 200;
_S. australis_, 219;
_S. raalteni_, 220
_Synthliborhamphus_, 316;
_S. antiquus_, 318;
_S. wumizusume_, 318
_Sypheotis_, 260;
_S. aurita_, 262
_Syrigma sibilatrix_, 90
Syrinx, 13, 21 f.
_Syrnium_, 399, 402;
_S. albigulare_, 406;
_S. aluco_, 405;
_S. cinereum_, 400, 405;
_S. indranee_, 405;
_S. lapponicum_, 405;
_S. leptogrammicum_, 405;
_S. nebulosum_, 406;
_S. newarense_, 405;
_S. nivicola_, 405;
_S. nuchale_, 406;
_S. occidentale_, 406;
_S. ocellatum_, 405;
_S. perspicillatum_, 406;
_S. rufipes_, 406;
_S. sinense_, 405;
_S. uralense_, 405;
_S. virgatum_, 406;
_S. woodfordi_, 406
_Syrrhaptes_, 322-324;
padded foot, 322;
no hallux, 322;
_S. paradoxus_, 322, 323, 323, 324;
breeding, 325;
_S. tibetanus_, 323, 324

_Taccocua_, 351, 352;
_T. sirkee_, 357
_Tachornis_, 425 f.;
_T. squamata_, 425
_Tachycineta_, 522, 523, 525;
_T. albiventris_, 524;
_T. leucorrhous_, 525
_Tachyeres_, 112, 113;
_T. cinereus_, 121
_Tachyornis_, 315 n.;
fossil, 426
Taczanowski and Stolzmann, on _Loddigesia_, 437 n.
_Tadorna_, 112;
_T. cornuta_, 111, 113, 128, 128;
_T. radjah_, 128
_Taenioptera_, 473, 475-477;
_T. dominicana_, 475
Taeniopterinae, 473 f.
Tail, 20;
in _Archaeopteryx_, 25;
coverts, 20;
functionless in Tinamidae, 182;
in Woodpecker, 457
Tailor-bird, 518
_Talegallus_, 190 f.;
_T. cuvieri_, 192;
_T. fuscirostris_, 193;
_T. jobiensis_, 193
Tanager, 575 f.;
habits, 576;
Brazilian, 576
_Tanagra_, 575, 576
Tanagridae, 575 f., 582;
habits, 576
Tan-cho, 254
_Tantalus_, 95, 99;
fossil in France, 99;
_T. cinereus_, 97;
_T. ibis_, 96, 97;
_T. leucocephalus_, 97;
_T. loculator_, 97
_Tanysiptera_, 383;
_T. dea_, 385;
_T. nympha_, 385;
_T. sabrina_, 385
_Taoniscus_, 183, 186
_Taoperdix_, fossil, 240
Tapaculo, 491
_Taphaëtus branchialis_, fossil, 181
_Tapinopus_, fossil, 251
Tarapo, 366
Tarrock, 306
_Tarsiger_, 513, 516
Tarso-metatarsus, 8, 10
Tarsus, 10
Taste, in Birds, 12
Tatare, 515
Tatton on _Didus borbonicus_, 330
Taxaspidean, 471
_Tchitrea_, 507
Teal, 125 f.
Tectrices, 21
Teeth, 12, 25;
of _Archaeopteryx_, 24;
of _Hesperornis_, 46 f.;
of _Ichthyornis_, 49
Tegetmeier, on breeds of Pigeons, 327 n.;
on Fowls, 208 n.;
on Pheasants, 212 n.
_Telephonus_, 532
_Telespiza_, 583
_Telmatornis_, fossil, 251
_Temenuchus_, 559
_Temnurus truncatus_, 553
_Tephrocorys cincrea_, 498
_Teracus littoralis_, fossil, 181
_Terekia cinerea_, 286
_Terenura_, 488, 489
_Teretistris_, 573
Terminology, 20 f.
Tern, 82, 268, 300, 301, 310 f.;
habits, 303 f.;
Arctic, 313;
Black, 314;
Caspian, 304, 314;
Common, 313, 313;
Gull-billed, 314;
Least, 304, 311;
Lesser, 311;
Marsh-, 314;
Noddy, 303, 310 f.;
Roseate, 313;
Sandwich, 312;
Sooty, 303, 312;
Whiskered, 314 f.;
White-winged Black, 314
_Terpsiphone_, 506, 507, 509;
_T. mutata_, 508;
_T. paradisi_, 507, 508
Tertials, 22
Téru-téru, 275
_Tetragonops_, 448, 449;
_T. frantzii_, 451;
_T. rhamphastinus_, 451
_Tetrao_, 200, 202;
_T. kamtschaticus_, 237;
_T. medius_, 237;
_T. parvirostris_, 237;
_T. urogalloïdes_, 237;
_T. urogallus_, 200-202, 236 f.;
_T. urogallus_, fossil, 241;
_T. uralensis_, 236
_Tetraogallus_, 202;
_T. altaicus_, 229;
_T. caspius_, 229;
_T. caucasicus_, 229;
_T. henrici_, 229;
_T. himalayensis_, 229;
_T. tibetanus_, 229
Tetraonidae, claws shed, 5 n.
Tetraoninae, 198-201, 204, 233 f.;
shed horny fringes of toes, 203
_Tetraophasis obscurus_, 229; {631}
_T. széchenyii_, 230
_Tetrapteryx_, 252, 255
_Tetrastes_, 199, 203, 234
_Textor_, 579;
_T. albirostris_, 578
_Thalassaëtus_, 146;
_T. branickii_, 163;
_T. pelagicus_, 163
_Thalassiornis leuconota_, 118
_Thalassoeca antarctica_, 67
_Thalassogeron_, 65
_Thamnistes_, 489
_Thamnobia_, 510, 512 n., 513, 516
Thamnobiae, of Sharpe, 510, 513
_Thamnocharis_, 489
_Thamnomanes_, 488, 489
Thamnophilinae, 488 f.
_Thamnophilus_, 489;
_T. albinuchalis_, 489
_Thaumastura cora_, 438
_Thaumatibis_, 99;
_T. gigantea_, 102
_Theristicus_, 100;
_T. branickii_, 102;
_T. caudatus_, 101;
_T. melanopis_, 102
Thigh, 22
_Thinocorys orbignianus_, 296;
_T. rumicivorus_, 296
Thinocorythidae, 268-270, 296;
habits, 296
_Thinornis novae zealandiae_, 274
Thornbill, 437, 438 f.
Thorn-bird, 487
_Thrasaëtus_, 146, 147;
_T. harpyia_, 159
_Thraupis_, 575
Throat, 20
Thrush, 509 f., 515;
Babbling, 503;
Ground-, 510, 515;
Mistletoe-, 510, 511;
Rock-, 510, 515, 516;
Song-, 510, 515, 516;
Water-, 574–see also Redwing, Fieldfare
_Thryophilus pleurostictus_, 522
_Thryothorus_, 521
Thumb, 8
_Thyrorhina_, 244
_Tiaris_, 584
Tibia, 9
Tibio-tarsus, 8, 9
_Tichodroma_, 571;
_T. muraria_, 571
_Tickellia_, 514
Ticks, on _Cypselus_, 425 n.
Tiercel, 178
_Tiga javanensis_, 462 f.
Tiger-Bittern, 90
_Tigrisoma_, 87, 90;
_T. brasiliense_, 90
_Tigrornis_, 87;
_T. leucolophus_, 90
_Tijuca_, 479, 480
_Timelia_, 502-504;
_T. maculata_, 503
Timeliae, 502
Timeliidae, 501 f., 504, 506, 510 n., 513 n.;
habits, 503
Timpoy, 223
Tinami, 182 f.
Tinamidae, 182 f.;
functionless tail, 26;
habits, 183;
quadrate-bone, 26
Tinamiformes, 182 f.;
position of the Order, 182, 186
_Tinamotis_, 182, 186;
_T. ingoufi_, 184
Tinamou, 183 f.;
habits, 183;
Great, 184
_Tinamus_, 183, 184;
_T. tao_, 184
Tinker-bird, 449
_Tinnunculus_, 175;
_T. alaudarius_, 175;
_T. alopex_, 176;
_T. caribbaearum_, 176;
_T. cenchris_, 175;
_T. cenchroïdes_, 176;
_T. cinnamominus_, 176;
_T. dominicensis_, 176;
_T. gracilis_, 176;
_T. isabellinus_, 176;
_T. japonicus_, sub-species, 175;
_T. moluccensis_, 176;
_T. neglectus_, sub-species, 175;
_T. newtoni_, 176;
_T. pekinensis_, 176;
_T. punctatus_, 176;
_T. rupicoloïdes_, 176;
_T. rupicolus_, 176;
_T. saturatus_, sub-species, 175;
_T. sparverioïdes_, 176;
_T. sparverius_, 149, 176
Tit, habits, 540;
Bearded, 541 f.;
Blue, 539, 540;
Bottle-, 540;
Coal-, 539;
Crested, 539, 540;
Great, 539, 539, 540;
Long-tailed, 539, 540;
Marsh-, 539
_Tityra_, 480;
_T. semifasciata_, 482, 483
Tityrinae, 479 f.
_Tmetotrogon_, 441, 442;
_T. rhodogaster_, 444
Todinae, 379 f., 381 f.;
habits, 382
_Todirostrum_, 473, 477;
_T. cinereum_, 474 f.
_Todus_, 381;
_T. hypochondriacus_, 382;
_T. multicolor_, 382;
_T. subulatus_, 382;
_T. viridis_, 382, 382
Tody, 376, 379 f., 382;
habits, 382
Toes, 10, 20;
in _Archaeopteryx_, 25;
in Grouse and _Lerwa_, 199;
of _Hesperornis_, 47;
only two anterior in _Cholornis_, 502;
with spicules below, in Owls, 398;
in Falconidae, 146;
in _Pandion_, 180;
reversible outer in _Pandion_, 180;
shed horny fringes of, in Tetraoninae, 203 f.;
of Struthionidae, 27;
in various families, 10
Tomia, 20
Tominejo, 426
Tongue, 12;
in Coerebidae, 572;
in Dicaeidae, 570;
in Drepanididae, 562;
in Meliphagidae, 564;
in Mniotiltidae, 573;
in Nectariniidae, 569;
in Picidae, 457, 465;
in Trochilidae, 427;
in Zosteropidae, 568
Topaz, Crimson, 436
_Topaza pella_, 436;
_T. pyra_, 436
Torillo, 188 n.
Tortola cordillerana, 339
Tortolita, 340
Totaninae, 278
_Totanus_, 268, 269, 283;
fossil, 300;
_T. brevipes_, 285;
_T. calidris_, 283;
_T. flavipes_, 283 f.;
_T. fuscus_, 283;
_T. glareola_, 284;
_T. glottis_, 284;
_T. guttifer_, 284;
_T. hypoleucus_, 270;
_T. incanus_, 284, 285;
_T. melanoleucus_, 284;
_T. ochropus_, 284; {632}
_T. semipalmatus_, 269, 284;
_T. solitarius_, 284;
_T. stagnatilis_, 284
Toucan, 390, 445, 448, 451, 453 f.;
habits, 454 f.;
Ariel, 455
Trachea convoluted, in Aramidae, 256;
in _Manucodia_ and _Phonygammus_, 545;
in _Platalea_, 100;
in _Rhynchaea_, 270;
dilatation, 13;
dilated in _Chauna_, 109 n.;
enlarged or with "labyrinth" in Anatidae, 113;
looped in _Anseranas_, 113;
in Cracidae, 195;
in _Rhynchaea_, 292;
in _Tantalus ibis_, 96;
in _Tetrao urogallus_ and _Guttera_, 200;
penetrates keel of sternum in certain Swans, 112;
in Cranes, 252;
use and formation, 13
Tracheal syrinx, 22
_Trachelotis_, 260, 262;
_T. caerulescens_, 262
Tracheo-bronchial syrinx, 22
Tracheophonae, 466, 483
Tracheophones, 466
_Trachycomus_, 505
_Trachyphonus_, 450;
_T. cafer_, 450 f.;
_T. margaritatus_, 451
Tragopan, 216, 217;
Cabot's, 217
_Tragopan_, 199
Train-bearer, 434
Transverse process of vertebra, 6
Transylvanus, Maximilianus, on Bird of Paradise, 543
_Traversia_, 472;
_T. lyalli_, 472
_Treron nasica_, 349;
_T. nipalensis_, 349
Treroninae, 325 f., 344
Triarctic, 16
_Tribonyx_, 244, 245;
_T. effluxus_, fossil, 251;
_T. mortieri_, 249;
_T. roberti_, fossil, 251;
_T. ventralis_, 249
Trichoglossidae, 351, 362 f., 373 f.
_Trichoglossus_, 364, 373;
_T. novae hollandiae_, 373
_Tricholaema_, 448, 449;
_T. leucomelan_, 450
_Tricholestes_, 504, 505
_Tricholimnas_, 245;
_T. lafresnayi_, 247
_Trichophoropsis_, 504
Tridactylous, 457 n.
_Tringa_, 268, 269;
fossil, 300;
_T. acuminata_, 281;
_T. alpina_, 279;
_T. bairdi_, 280;
_T. canutus_, 281;
_T. couesi_, 281;
_T. crassirostris_, 282;
_T. fuscicollis_, 280;
_T. maculata_, 280 f.;
_T. maritima_, 281;
_T. minuta_, 279 f.;
_T. minutilla_, 279 f.;
_T. platyrhyncha_, 268;
_T. ptilocnemis_, 281;
_T. ruficollis_, 279;
_T. striata_, 281;
_T. subarquata_, 280;
_T. subminuta_, 280;
_T. temmincki_, 280
Tringinae, 268, 269, 271, 278 f.
_Triptorhinus_, 490;
_T. paradoxus_, 490, 491
_Trochalopterum_, 504;
_T. chrysopterum_, 502;
_T. phoeniceum_, 502
Trochilidae, 419, 420, 426 f.;
habits, 428 f.;
operculum of nostrils, 11
Trochilinae, 435
Τροχίλος, 295, 426
_Trochilus_, 426;
_T. alexandri_, 438;
_T. colubris_, 427, 438.
_Trochocercus_, 506
_Troglodytes_, 521;
_T. aedon_, 522;
_T. domesticus_, 522;
_T. formosus_, 521;
_T. parvulus_, 521
Troglodytidae, 494, 509, 521 f.
Trogon, 441-443;
habits, 442 f.
_Trogon ambiguus_, 442;
_T. gallicus_, fossil, 445;
_T. mexicanus_, 443;
_T. surucura_, 443
Trogones, 376, 441
Trogonidae, 441 f.;
habits, 442 f.
Tropic-bird, 70, 72, 73;
habits, 72 f.
Tro-tro, 223
Trouessart, on Geographical Distribution, 16
True rib, 6
Trumpeter, 243, 257 f., 257
_Tryngites rufescens_, 282
Tsipoy, 223
Tuberculum of rib, 6
Tubinares, 59 f.;
nostrils, 11
Tui, 567, 567
Tumbler, 327
Turacin, 3 n., 360
Turaco, Green-mantled, 360
_Turacoena_, 326;
_T. menadensis_, 343;
_T. modesta_, 343
_Turacus_, 360;
_T. corythaix_, 361;
_T. fischeri_, 361
Turdidae, 494, 509 f.
Turdinae, 506, 509 f.;
habits, 515 f.
_Turdinus_, 503
_Turdus_, 510;
fossil, 496;
_T. hancii_, 510;
_T. horsfieldi_, 510;
_T. iliacus_, 510;
_T. merula_, 510;
_T. migratorius_, 510;
_T. musicus_, 510;
_T. pilaris_, 510;
_T. torquatus_, 510;
_T. varius_, 510;
_T. viscivorus_, 510, 511
Turkey, 198, 201, 203;
habits, 206;
origin of domestic, 206 n.;
specific name, 206 n.;
Brush-, 192, 193;
-Buzzard, 138, 140, 152;
Native, 262
_Turnagra_, 509, 510, 513, 516
Turnices, 186, 187
Turnicidae, 186, 187
_Turnix_, 187, 188;
habits, 188;
_T. albiventris_, 189;
_T. blanfordi_, 189;
_T. castanonota_, 189;
_T. dussumieri_, 189;
_T. fasciata_, 188;
_T. hottentotta_, 189;
_T. leucogaster_, 189;
_T. maculosa_, 189;
_T. melanogaster_, 189;
_T. nana_, 189;
_T. nigricollis_, 189;
_T. ocellata_, 187, 189;
_T. powelli_, 189;
_T. pugnax_, 188;
_T. pyrrhothorax_, 189;
_T. rufilata_, 188;
_T. saturata_, 189;
_T. sylvatica_, 187, 188 n., 189;
_T. taigoor_, 188;
_T. tanki_, 189;
_T. varia_, 189;
_T. velox_, 189
Turnstone, 276 {633}
_Turtur_, 326, 334, 341;
_T. abbotti_, 341;
_T. aldabranus_, 341;
_T. comorensis_, 341;
_T. communis_, 341;
_T. coppingeri_, 341;
_T. douraca_, 341;
_T. dussumieri_, 341;
_T. isabellinus_, 341;
_T. orientalis_, 341;
_T. picturatus_, 341;
_T. risorius_, a cage-bird, 341;
_T. rostratus_, 341;
_T. senegalensis_, 342;
_T. semitorquatus_, 341;
_T. tigrinus_, 341
_Turturoena_, 327, 328;
_T. delegorgii_, 343;
_T. iriditorques_, 343;
_T. sharpii_, 343
Turumti, 178
_Tylas_, 504, 505;
_T. eduardi_, 533;
mimicry, 533
Tympanic cavity, 11
Tympaniform membrane, 13, 21
_Tympanistria_, 327;
_T. bicolor_, 339
_Tympanuchus_, air-sacs, 201;
_T. americanus_, 235;
_T. cupido_, 235;
_T. pallidicinctus_, 235
Tyrannidae, 469, 473, 479, 494;
habits, 475 f.
Tyranninae, 473 f.
_Tyrannulus_, 474
_Tyrannus_, 473-476;
_T. pipiri_, 474
Tyrant-bird, habits, 475 f.
Tystie, 319

_Uintornis_, fossil, 465
Ulna, 8, 8;
its quills, 22
Umbrella-bird, 481, 481
Umbrette, 70
Unfeathered spaces, or apteria, 2
Uncinate process, of ribs, 6, 7;
absent in _Archaeopteryx_, 23;
in Palamedeidae, 108
Upper arm-bone, 8
_Upucerthia_, 486
_Upupa africana_, 397;
_U. epops_, 396 f., 396;
_U. indica_, 397;
_U. marginata_, 397;
_U. somalensis_, 397
Upupidae, 390, 395 f.
Upupinae, 390, 395 f.;
habits, 395 f.
_Uranornis_, 545, 546
_Uratelornis_, 378;
_U. chimaera_, 378
_Uria_, 315;
fossil, 321;
_U. arra_, 320;
_U. brünnichi_, 319;
_U. californica_, sub-species, 319;
_U. troile_, 319
_Uroaëtus_, 146;
_U. audax_, 163
_Urobrachya_, 577
_Urocichla_, 521, 522
_Urocissa_, 552, 554
_Urodrepanis_, 569
_Urogalba amazonum_, 446;
_U. paradisea_, 446
_Urolestes_, 532, 534
_Uroleuca_, 552
_Uropelia campestris_, 340
Uropygium, 20
_Urospatha martii_, 380 f.
_Urosticte_, 427
_Urubitinga anthracina_, 168;
_U. zonura_, 167

_Vanellus_, 268-270, 274 f.;
_V. cayennensis_, 275;
_V. chilensis_, 275;
_V. coronatus_, 275;
_V. cristatus_, 275;
_V. inornatus_, 275;
_V. melanopterus_, 275;
_V. resplendens_, 275
Vanes, 2
_Vanga_, 533
Vaulted, of tail, 22
Vent, 20
Ventral, 22
Ventriculus, 12
Verreaux, on Secretary-bird, 142 n.
_Verreauxia_, 464
Vertebrae, cervical, dorsal, sacral, pelvic, caudal, 5 f.;
of Woodpecker, 6
Vertebral Column, 5
Vertebrarterial foramen, 6
Vertebrata, difference of Birds from other, 1 f.
Vertex, 20
_Vestiaria_, 562, 564;
_V. coccinea_, 563, 564
Vexillum, 2
_Vidua_, 577, 578;
_V. principalis_, 577
Viduinae, 576 f.
Vigors, on Toucan, 454 n.
_Vinago_, 348, 349;
_V. australis_, 349;
_V. calva_, 325, 349;
_V. crassirostris_, 349;
_V. waalia_, 349
_Vireo_, 536
_Vireolanius_, 536;
_V. melitophrys_, 536;
_V. pulchellus_, 536
Vireonidae, 536
Vireoninae, 531
_Vireosylvia_, 536
Vizor-bearer, 432
Vogt, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n.
Voice-muscles, 13
Voice, organs of, 12 f.
_Volatinia_, 585
Vomer, 11
Vorondreo, 378
Vosmaer, on Secretary-bird, 141
_Vultur_, 143;
fossil, 145;
_V. cinereus_, 143;
_V. monachus_, 143
Vulture, 148, 149;
Bearded, 150;
Black (of New World), 138, 140;
Black (of Old World), 143, 145 n.;
Californian, 139;
Eared, 144;
Egyptian, 145, 145 n.;
Griffon, 143, 144;
King-, 139, 144;
New-World, 137 f.;
habits, 137 f.;
Old-World, 137, 143 f.;
Pondicherry, 144;
White-backed, 145
Vulturidae, 137, 143 f., 150, 151

Wagner, on _Archaeopteryx_ (_Griphosaurus_), 23
Wagtail, 498 f.;
habits, 500 f.;
moult, 5;
Blue-headed, 500; {634}
Grey, 500;
Pied, 354, 500, 501;
White, 500;
Yellow, 499, 500, 501
Walghvogel, 329
Wallace, on Geographical Distribution, 15 f.;
on Birds of Paradise, 543 n., 550;
on Humming-birds, 432
Wallace's Line, 16, 564
Walpole, on _Didunculus_, 332
Warbler, 513;
habits, 517 f.;
American, 573 f.;
Black-cap, 517;
Black-and-White, 574;
Garden-, 517;
Grasshopper-, 517, 518;
Reed-, 354, 517;
Savi's, 518;
Sedge-, 517;
Willow-, 517;
Wood-, 517
Warrior, 437
Water-Cock, 249
Water-hen (= Moor-hen) loses wing-quills simultaneously, 4 n.
Waterton, on Humming-birds, 432
Wattle-bird, 566
Wavy, 133
Wax-bill, 577, 578
Wax-like tips to feathers, 3
Waxwing, 529 f., 530
Weaver-bird, 368, 576 f., 577;
habits, 578 f.
Webs, of feathers, 2;
of toes, 10;
in Alcidae, 315;
in Anatidae, 112;
in Colymbidae and Podicipedidae, 49;
in Laridae, 301;
in Limicolae, 269;
in Steganopodes, 71
Weka, 243, 245, 247
Whale-bird, 66
Whale-head, 93
Whaup, 287
Wheatear, 511, 516
Whew, 126
Whimbrel, 288 f.
Whinchat, 511, 516
Whip-poor-Will, 417
Whip-Tom-Kelly, 536
White colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n.
White, on _Furnarius_, 486
White Crow, 145
White-eye, 568
White-throat, 517
Whitmee, on _Didunculus_, 332
Whooper, 135
Whymper, on Condor, 138
Wideawake Fair, 312
Widow-bird, 577
Wigeon–see Duck
Willet, 284
Willock, 319
Wilson, A., on Humming-birds, 432;
on Passenger Pigeon, 342
Wilson, S. B., and Evans, on Drepanididae, 562 n.;
on Meliphagidae, 568 n.
Wind-hover, 148, 175
Windpipe, use and formation, 13
Wing, 8
Wing-coverts, 20
Wing-quills–see Quills
Wing-spurs, 9
Wire-bird, 274
Wires, of Birds of Paradise, 3, 545 f.
Witthoos, figure of _Didus borbonicus_, 330
Woodcock, 289 f., 290;
bill, 11
Wood-Hen, 247
Wood-Ibis, 70, 97
Wood-Mason, on _Rhynchaea_, 292 n.
Woodpecker, 149, 445, 457 f.;
bill, 12;
habits, 458 f.;
vertebra, 6;
Black, 458, 464;
Californian, 461;
Great Black, 463;
Great Spotted, 462, 463;
Green, 460;
Ivory-billed, 463;
Lesser Spotted, 462, 462;
Pileated, 463;
Spotted, 458, 461
Wood-Swallow, 530 f.
Wren, 426, 519, 521 f., 521;
Bush-, 472;
Rock-, 472
Wrist, 8
Wry-bill, 274, 274
Wryneck, 445, 457, 459, 464 f., 465

_Xanthocephalus_, 581
Xanthochroism, 4 n.
_Xanthocorys_, 499
_Xantholaema haematocephala_, 449
_Xanthomelus_, 550;
_X. aureus_, 548
_Xanthomixis_, 503
_Xanthura luxuosa_, 554
_Xema_, 301;
_X. furcatum_, 310;
_X. sabinii_, 304, 310
_Xenerpestes_, 484
Xenicidae, 469, 472
_Xenicus_, 472;
_X. gilviventris_, 472;
_X. longipes_, 472
_Xenocichla_, 505
_Xenopipo atronitens_, 478
_Xenopirostris_, 531, 533;
_X. polleni_, mimicry, 533
_Xenops_, 484, 487
_Xenopsaris_, 482
_Xenorhynchus_, fossil, 99;
_X. australis_, 98
_Xerophila_, 539, 540
_Xipholena_, 480;
_X. pompadora_, 480
_Xiphorhamphus_, 502, 504
_Xiphorhynchus_, 484, 487

Yaffle, 460
Yarrell's British Birds, 212 n., 285 n.
Yellow colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n.
Yellow Hammer, 584
Yellowshank, 283 f.
Yelper, 278
Young, moult late, 4;
in Turdinae and Sylviinae, 513;
of Megapodiidae fly early, 191

_Zanclostomus_, 351
_Zapornia_, 246; {635}
_Z. parva_, 246, 248
_Zebrilus_, 86, 87;
_Z. pumilus_, 89
_Zenaida_, 326, 328, 334, 342;
_Z. amabilis_, 342
_Zenaidura_, 327;
_Z. carolinensis_, 342
_Zeocephus_, 507
Zic-zac, 276, 295
Zietz–see Stirling
_Zonaeginthus bellus_, 577
_Zonerodius heliosylus_, 90
_Zonibyx_, 272
_Zonotrichia_, 586
Zoomelanin, 3 n.
Zoonerythrin, 3 n.
_Zoothera_, 510
Zooxanthin, 3 n.
Zosteropidae, 568
_Zosterops_, 568;
_Z. caerulescens_, 568;
_Z. japonica_, 568;
_Z. lateralis_, 568;
_Z. simplex_, 568
Zygodactylous feet, 10;
in Cuculiformes, 351;
in Picidae, 457

END OF VOL. IX

THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY.

Edited by S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College,
Cambridge, Superintendent of the University Museum of Zoology; and A. E.
SHIPLEY, M.A., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, University Lecturer
on the Morphology of Invertebrates.

_To be completed in Ten Volumes. 8vo. Price 17s. net each._

Intended in all respects to be a Standard Natural History accurate enough
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where possible from nature. When complete the Series is one which should
be indispensable in all Libraries, whether public or private.

NOW READY. VOLUME II.

WORMS, LEECHES, ETC.

FLATWORMS. By F. W. GAMBLE, M.Sc. Vict., Owens College. NEMERTINES. By
Miss L. SHELDON, Newnham College, Cambridge.–THREAD-WORMS, ETC. By A. E.
SHIPLEY, M.A., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.–ROTIFERS. By MARCUS
HARTOG, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge, D.Sc. Lond., Professor of
Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork.–POLYCHAET WORMS.–By W.
BLAXLAND BENHAM, D.Sc. Lond., Hon. M.A. Oxon., Aldrichian Demonstrator of
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.–EARTHWORMS AND LEECHES.
By F. E. BEDDARD, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological
Society, London.–GEPHYREA, ETC. By A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., Fellow of
Christ's College, Cambridge.–POLYZOA. By S. F. HARMER, M.A., Fellow of
King's College, Cambridge.

_CAMBRIDGE REVIEW._–"Several of the groups treated of in this volume are
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MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.

SHELLS.

NOW READY. VOLUME III.

MOLLUSCS AND BRACHIOPODS. By the Rev. A. H. COOKE, M.A., A. E. SHIPLEY,
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INSECTS AND CENTIPEDES.

NOW READY. VOLUME V.

PERIPATUS. By ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.–MYRIAPODS. By F. G. SINCLAIR,
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are certainly to be congratulated upon having furnished such a valuable
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BIRDS.

NOW READY. VOLUME IX.

BIRDS. By A. H. EVANS, M.A., Clare College, Cambridge. With numerous
Illustrations by G. E. LODGE.

_COMPLETE LIST OF SERIES._

VOLUME I.

PROTOZOA, MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., Trinity College (Professor of Natural
History in the Queen's College, Cork); SPONGES, W. J. SOLLAS, Sc.D.,
F.R.S., St. John's College (Professor of Geology in the University of
Oxford); JELLY-FISH, SEA-ANEMONES, ETC., S. J. HICKSON, M.A., Downing
College (Beyer Professor of Zoology in the Owens College, Manchester);
STAR-FISH, SEA-URCHINS, ETC., E. W. MACBRIDE, M.A., St. John's College
(Professor of Zoology, M‘Gill University, Montreal).

VOLUME II.

FLATWORMS, ETC., F. W. GAMBLE, M.Sc. (Vict.), (Demonstrator and
Assistant-Lecturer in Zoology in the Owens College, Manchester);
NEMERTINES, Miss L. SHELDON, Newnham College; THREAD-WORMS, ETC., A. E.
SHIPLEY, M.A., Christ's College; ROTIFERS, ETC., MARCUS HARTOG, M.A.,
Trinity College, D.Sc. (Lond.), (Professor of Natural History in the
Queen's College, Cork); POLYCHAET WORMS, W. B. BENHAM, D.Sc. (Lond.),
Hon. M.A. (Oxon.), Aldrichian Demonstrator of Comparative Anatomy in the
University of Oxford; EARTH-WORMS AND LEECHES, F. E. BEDDARD, M.A.
(Oxon.), F.R.S. (Prosector to the Zoological Society); GEPHYREA, A. E.
SHIPLEY, M.A., Christ's College; POLYZOA, S. F. HARMER, M.A., King's
College.

[_Ready._

VOLUME III.

MOLLUSCS, A. H. COOKE, M.A., King's College; BRACHIOPODS (Recent), A. E.
SHIPLEY, M.A., Christ's College; BRACHIOPODS (Fossil), F. R. C. REED,
M.A., Trinity College.

[_Ready._

VOLUME IV.

SPIDERS, MITES, ETC., C. WARBURTON, M.A., Christ's College (Zoologist to
the Royal Agricultural Society); SCORPIONS, TRILOBITES, ETC., M. LAURIE,
B.A., King's College, D.Sc. (Edinb.), (Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo's College, Glasgow); PYCNOGONIDS, ETC., D'ARCY W. THOMPSON, C.B.,
M.A., Trinity College (Professor of Zoology in University College,
Dundee); CRUSTACEA, W. F. R. WELDON, M.A., F.R.S., St. John's College
(Jodrell Professor of Zoology in University College, London).

VOLUME V.

PERIPATUS. A. SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S., Trinity College; CENTIPEDES, ETC.,
F. G. SINCLAIR, M.A., Trinity College; INSECTS, Part I., D. SHARP, M.A.,
F.R.S.

[_Ready._

VOLUME VI.

INSECTS, Part II., D. SHARP, M.A., F.R.S.

[_Shortly._

VOLUME VII.

BALANOGLOSSUS, ETC., S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S., King's College;
ASCIDIANS AND AMPHIOXUS, W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.S. (Professor
of Natural History in University College, Liverpool); FISHES, T. W.
BRIDGE, Sc.D., Trinity College (Professor of Zoology in the Mason
University College, Birmingham).

VOLUME VIII.

AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES, H. GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., King's College.

VOLUME IX.

BIRDS, A. H. EVANS, M.A., Clare College. With numerous Illustrations by
G. E. LODGE.

[_Ready._

VOLUME X.

MAMMALS, F. E. BEDDARD, M.A. (Oxon,), F.R.S. (Prosector to the Zoological
Society).

MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.

----

NOTES

[1] _P.Z.S._ 1892, p. 236.

[2] The integument of a Bird consists of Skin and Feathers, the former
being composed of a superficial _epidermis_ and an underlying _derma_
or _cutis_, which is rich in sensory organs but poor in
blood-vessels. The epidermis itself has a horny outer layer and a
softer (Malpighian) substratum. Feathers, hairs, bristles, scales,
claws and bill-sheaths are epidermal structures.

[3] A translation was edited for the Ray Society by Mr. Sclater in 1867.

[4] Of this nature are zoomelanin (black), zoonerythrin (red), zooxanthin
(yellow), turacin (red–only known in the _Musophagidae_), and perhaps
turacoverdin (green, from the same family). Brown is produced by a
combination of red and black; white is the appearance due to
innumerable air-spaces.

[5] Such are many yellows, oranges, greens and blues.

[6] Albinism is due to the absence of pigment; melanism, xanthochroism
and erythrism are terms implying an abnormal proportion of black,
yellow, or red in the plumage. They may be caused by food.

[7] In some cases at least Rails and Water-hens do the same.

[8] In certain of the _Tetraonidae_ the claws are shed in spring; in some
_Alcidae_ (Auks) the horny bill-sheath and the outgrowths over the
eyes are lost after the breeding season; the American White Pelican
moults a horny projection on the culmen after nesting, while the beak
of Redpolls is much elongated in summer.

[9] The _Ratitae_, _Crypturi_ and _Hesperornis_ have no pygostyle.

[10] For the best collection of facts, see the various reports of the
Migration Committee of the British Association, 1880-1888; and
especially that for 1896, containing the Digest of the observations
(made at Lighthouses and Lightships) by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke.

[11] It has been suggested that these flocks of young birds are led by
older members of their own species which, though for some cause not
breeding, have yet had experience of migration; but of this there is
no evidence whatever.

[12] Cf. W. Dames, _Pal. Abhandl._ ii. 1884, pp. 119-196; transl. _Geol.
Mag._ 1884, pp. 418-424; Vogt, _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 434-456; Hurst,
_Nat. Sci._ vi. 1895, pp. 112-122, 180-186, 244-248; Pycraft, _op.
cit._ v. 1894, pp. 350-360, 437-448; viii. 1896, pp. 261-266.

[13] A doubtful genus, _Laopteryx_, has been described from the Jurassic
by Marsh, _Ann. Nat. Hist._ (5) vii. 1881, p. 488.

[14] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 90.

[15] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 90.

[16] A pygostyle is occasionally found in _Struthio_ and _Apteryx_.

[17] P. L. Sclater, _P.Z.S._ 1895, p. 401.

[18] _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, p. 220.

[19] _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, p. 220.

[20] _Op. cit._ pp. 218, 220.

[21] _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, iii. Torino, 1882, p. 473.

[22] Cf. E. P. Ramsay, _P.Z.S._ 1876, p. 122.

[23] Cf. Murie, _P.Z.S._ 1867, p. 405.

[24] North, _Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds_, Sydney, 1889, p. 293.

[25] For an extinct gigantic bird from Callabonna, South Australia, with
enormous skull (_Genyornis newtoni_), see Stirling, _Nature_, l.
1894, p. 206; Stirling and Zietz, _Tr. R. Soc. S. Austr._, xx. 1896,
pp. 171-211.

[26] Cf. Milne-Edwards and Oustalet, _Vol. Centenaire Mus. N. H. Paris_,
1893, pp. 62-67.

[27] _Tr. Zool. Soc. London_, xiii. 1895, pp. 425-427.

[28] Rothschild, _Bull. Ornith. Club_, I. 1893, pp. lx. lxi.

[29] _Loc. cit._

[30] _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 218.

[31] _P. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_ (2), vi. 1891, p. 448.

[32] _Tr. Zool. Soc. London_, xiii. 1895, pp. 373-431.

[33] _P. Soc. Queensland_, i. 1885, pp. 23-28.

[34] _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (3) xiv. 1850, pp. 205-216.

[35] Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, _C. R. Ac. Sci._ cxviii. 1894, pp.
122-127; Andrews, _Geol. Mag._ 1894, p. 18; _id. Ibis_, 1896, pp.
376-389.

[36] Parker, _Tr. N. Z. Inst._ xxv. 1892, p. 3.

[37] _Bol. Mus. La Plata_, i. 1887, p. 24.

[38] _Revist. Argent._ i. 1891, p. 255.

[39] _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 20, 37.

[40] _Revist. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 441-453.

[41] _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent._ xv. 1895, pp. 11, 12.

[42] _Ibis_, 1893, pp. 40-47; and _Nat. Sci._ 1894, p. 125.

[43] _Ibis_, 1896, pp. 1-12; see also Gadow, _op. cit._ pp. 586, 587.

[44] _Science Progress_, v. 1896, pp. 398-416.

[45] _Amer. J. Sci._ (3) v. 1873, pp. 161, 162.

[46] _Op. cit._ x. 1875, pp. 403-408.

[47] _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 200; _id._ A. Newton, _Dict.
Birds_, 1894. p. 651.

[48] This is very doubtful, as they show quite as many points of
resemblance to other very different forms.

[49] For these refer to Prof. Marsh's _Odontornithes_, New Haven, Conn.
1880.

[50] Lydekker, _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 192.

[51] _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, iii. Torino, 1882, pp. 469-471;
cf. also Sharpe, _Bull. Ornith. Club_, iv. 1894, p. iv.

[52] A. Newton, _Ibis_, 1889, p. 577.

[53] A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1879, p. 6.

[54] Cf. Gare-fowl (_Alcidae_), _infra_.

[55] P. L. Sclater, _Ibis_, 1888, p. 330.

[56] Cf. Moseley, _Rep. Voy. "Challenger," Zool._ ii. 1880, Birds, p. 123.

[57] Cf. Abbott, _Ibis_, 1860, p. 336; Sclater, _op. cit._ 1894, p. 501;
and Eaton, _Phil. Trans._ clxviii. 1879, pp. 154-157.

[58] Cf. Abbott, _ut supra_, and Moseley, _op. cit._ pp. 124, 125.

[59] Buller, _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed. 1888, p. 301.

[60] Cf. Moseley and Abbott, _ut supra_, p. 57.

[61] Huxley, _Quart. J. Geol. Soc._ xv. 1859, pp. 670-676.

[62] _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 16-19, 446.

[63] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, p. 129. For other
classifications see W. A. Forbes, _Rep. Brit. Ass._ 1881, p. 671; and
O. Salvin, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896, p. 342.

[64] Here the late Professor Roy's article on "Flight" (A. Newton, _Dict.
Birds_, 1893, p. 260) may be consulted.

[65] Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1896, p. 52.

[66] _Id. ibid._

[67] _Ibis_, 1865, pp. 281, 282.

[68] Harvie-Brown, _Zoologist_, 1894, p. 337-338.

[69] Eaton, _Phil. Trans._ clxviii. 1879, pp. 129-134; Ogilvie Grant,
_Ibis_, 1896, pp. 51-53.

[70] Eaton, _Phil. Trans._ clxviii. 1879, p. 121.

[71] _Voy. "Beagle"_ (1890 ed.), p. 351.

[72] _Quart. J. Geol. Soc._ xlii. 1886, pp. 366, 367.

[73] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 135.

[74] A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 293, 294.

[75] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 208-212.

[76] The East American form of _P. flavirostris_ is separated as _P.
americanus_ by Mr. Ogilvie Grant, _Bull. Ornith. Club_, vii. 1897, p.
xxiv.

[77] _Cf._ E. Newton, _Ibis_, 1861, pp. 180, 276; Layard, _op. cit._ 1863,
p. 248.

[78] Cf. Seebohm, _Birds of the Japanese Empire_, 1890, p. 212.

[79] _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed. ii. London, 1888, pp. 154-160.

[80] The Chatham Island bird is _P. onslowi_ of H. O. Forbes (_Ibis_,
1893, p. 537), who discusses various other species. The American
forms need further study.

[81] P. L. Sclater, _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 458.

[82] Freeman and Salvin, _Falconry, its claims_, etc., London, 1859, pp.
327-349.

[83] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 210.

[84] These birds eject the lining of the gizzard in a most curious manner;
cf. A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1881, pp. 247, 248.

[85] H. O. Forbes. _Naturalist's Wanderings_, London, 1885, p. 32.

[86] _Birds of Europe_, vi. 1879, pp. 193, 194.

[87] Jerdon, _Birds of India_, ii. Calcutta, 1877, p. 860.

[88] _Ibid._

[89] A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1869, p. 146.

[90] Sclater and Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, pp. 103, 104.

[91] Cf. Sharpe, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xvii. 1898-9, pp. 56-59.

[92] Ridgway, _Manual N. Amer. Birds_, 1887, p. 128. _A. würdemanni_ of
Florida is a close ally.

[93] Petherick, _P.Z.S._ 1860, pp. 195-198, and _Ibis_, 1859, p. 471.

[94] Ridgway, _Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv._ iv. Art. ix. 1878, pp. 249-251.

[95] Ridgway, _Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv._ iv. Art. ix. 1878, pp. 249-251.

[96] Garrod, _P. Z. S._ 1857, p. 297.

[97] Layard, ed. Sharpe, _Birds of South Africa_, 1875-84, p. 732, and
Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 266.

[98] Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 227.

[99] Jerdon, _Birds of India_, ii. Calcutta, 1877, p. 770.

[100] For this genus see Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1889, pp. 32-58.

[101] _Ibis_, 1884, pp. 88, 89.

[102] _Nineteenth Cent._ xxii. 1887, pp. 886-890.

[103] _Naturalist in Florida_, 1884, No. 1.

[104] Milne-Edwards, _Oiseaux Fossiles de la France_, ii. 1868, p. 58.

[105] Dames, _Svensk. Ak. Handl. Bihang_, xvi. 1890, Part IV. No. 1, pp.
4-11.

[106] Gibson, _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 165-167; Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_,
ii. 1889, pp. 119-122.

[107] _Chauna_ has a dilatation near the middle of the trachea.

[108] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxvii. 1895, pp. 23, 24.

[109] For a general account, see A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp.
983-985.

[110] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 350.

[111] _P.Z.S._ 1880, p. 533.

[112] _Supra_, p. 4.

[113] For notes on the courtship, and so forth, see J. G. Kerr, _Ibis_,
1890, pp. 359, 360.

[114] _Water Birds N. Amer._ ii. Boston, 1884, p. 56.

[115] _Voy. Beagle_ (1890 ed.), p. 244; cf. Cunningham, _Voy. Nassau_,
1871, pp. 91-97.

[116] Fine alternate dusky and white lines produce a grey effect at a short
distance.

[117] A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 841-842.

[118] I can hardly agree with Count Salvadori in placing _Aex_ here.

[119] Cf. _Dict. Birds_, artt. Duck, Goose, Swan, and the references there
given.

[120] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxvii. 1895.

[121] Andrews, _Ibis_, 1897, pp. 344-355.

[122] Huxley, _P.Z.S._ 1867, pp. 463-464.

[123] _Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator_, 1891-92, pp.
200-205.

[124] _Check-List N. Amer. Birds_, 1895, p. 344; Moreno and Mercerat, _An.
Mus. La Plata, Pal. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 67-69, pls. xviii.-xx. See
also _Dryornis_ (p. 44 _supra_).

[125] Cf. A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1894, pp. 822, 823.

[126] This is abbreviated from the account by J. Verreaux, _P.Z.S._ 1856,
pp. 348-352.

[127] Layard, ed. Sharpe, _Birds of South Africa_, 1875-1884, p. 9.

[128] Chapman and Buck, _Wild Spain_, 1893, p. 207.

[129] Chapman and Buck, _Wild Spain_, 1893, p. 206. The Black Vulture,
however, may possibly be meant, as the Egyptian Vulture does not seem
to break bones.

[130] Lydekker, _P.Z.S._ 1890, p. 404.

[131] Id. _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 29.

[132] _Pterylography_ (_Ray Soc._) ed. Sclater, 1867, p. 37.

[133] Falconry is too large a subject to be considered here; but the reader
may be referred to the works of Salvin and Brodrick, Freeman and
Salvin, and others.

[134] Salvin, _Ibis_, 1859, p. 177; Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ lib. x. cap. 3.

[135] _A list of the Diurnal Birds of Prey_, 1884, pp. 14-18.

[136] J. H. Gurney, _Ibis_, 1875, p. 468.

[137] Cf., however, Sharpe, _P.Z.S._ 1873, pp. 418, 419.

[138] Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1897, pp. 214-220.

[139] Cf. North, _Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds_, Sydney, 1889, pp.
11-13.

[140] Cf. _Ibis_, 1879, pp. 413, 414.

[141] Professor Newton and other writers seem to consider that the true
Gyr-Falcon only _inhabits_ Scandinavia and _H. candicans_ Greenland
and Arctic America; but this does not preclude occurrences elsewhere.
Cf. however, _Ibis_, 1889, pp. 143-144.

[142] Cf. H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, pp.
160-164.

[143] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 176.

[144] A. Milne-Edwards, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (6) _Zool._ vii. 1878, Art. 6.

[145] _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 267-271.

[146] _P.Z.S._ 1877, p. 292.

[147] _Turnix sylvatica_ is called "Torillo" in Spain from its note, which
resembles the subdued bellowing of a bull.

[148] For the entire genus see Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1889, pp. 446-475.

[149] This species has bred in the Zoological Society's Gardens, where the
active young left the mound within twenty-four hours of being
hatched. A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1860, pp. 426, 427. _C.
purpureicollis_ has been recently described from Cape York.

[150] _P.Z.S._ 1868, p. 301.

[151] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 172.

[152] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893.

[153] This name, and the Latin _Meleagris_, seem to have originally
belonged to the Guinea-Fowl. _M. gallipavo_, the origin of our
farm-yard Turkey, was domesticated in Europe by about 1530. Cf. A.
Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 994-996.

[154] For a full account see Tegetmeier, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 304-327.

[155] Cock-fighting in England is beyond the scope of this work.

[156] Much interesting information is given in Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, ed.
4, iii. 1882-84, pp. 91-104, and Tegetmeier, _Pheasants: their Nat.
Hist._ etc., ed. 2, 1881.

[157] _Euplocamus_ and _Gallophasis_ are synonyms of the above.

[158] Mr. Ogilvie Grant begins with _Excalphatoria_. Cf. _Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus._ xxii. 1893, pp. 94-95.

[159] For more details, see art. Quail, Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii.
1878, pp. 143-154.

[160] Grandidier, _Histoire de Madagascar_, xii., Paris, 1879, pp. 489,
490.

[161] Cf. Ogilvie Grant, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893, p. 188.

[162] See Lilford, _Ibis_, 1862, pp. 352-356; Dresser, _Birds of Europe_,
vii. pp. 123-128.

[163] The nest is occasionally in a shrub, Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs
of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 435.

[164] For further details cf. Gould, _Monograph of the Odontophorinae_,
London, 1850.

[165] _Life Histories of N. Amer. Birds_, Special Bull. i. U.S. Nat. Mus.
1892, pp. 52-56.

[166] For hybrids of grouse, cf. Meyer, _Unser Auer Rackel und Birkwild_.
Vienna, 1887; and Millais, _Game Birds and Shooting Sketches_.
London, 1892.

[167] Cf. Lloyd, _Game Birds of Sweden and Norway_, London, 1867; and
Millais, _op. cit._

[168] T. E. Buckley, _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 112-116.

[169] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893, p. 36.

[170] Cf. Elliot, _Monograph of the Tetraonidae_, New York, 1872; Dresser,
_Birds of Europe_, vii. 1871-81, p. 187. To these books and those
mentioned in the note on p. 237, the reader must be referred for
fuller details regarding the Tetraoninae.

[171] _Ibis_, 1880, p. 408.

[172] _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. London, 1889, p. 153.

[173] See Salmon, _P.Z.S._ 1879, p. 546, and cf. Durnford, _Ibis_, 1877, p.
193; 1878, p. 65.

[174] Dr. A. B. Meyer considers the remains found in the North Island (_N.
mantelli_) to be distinct from the South Island species, which he
names _N. hochstetteri_.

[175] For the habits, _cf._ Sclater and Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_,
ii. 1889, pp. 159-161; Gosse, _Birds of Jamaica_, pp. 355-363;
Gundlach, _J. f. O._, 1875, pp. 353-355.

[176] Mr. Rothschild has separated the Canary Island race as _H.
fuerteventurae_.

[177] Chapman and Buck, _Wild Spain_, London, 1893, p. 342.

[178] The Boers of South Africa term all Bustards Paauw, _i.e._ Peacock
(_Pavo_).

[179] Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. 1871-81, pp. 388, 394.

[180] W. K. Parker, _Tr. Zool. Soc. London_, vi. p. 501; x. p. 307; Murie,
_op. cit._ vii. p. 465; A. D. Bartlett, _P. Z. S._ 1862, p. 218.

[181] Layard, _Ibis_ 1882, pp. 534-535; Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1862, pp. 218;
1868, pp. 114-116.

[182] _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 923-925.

[183] _P.Z.S._ 1866, p. 76.

[184] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1881, pp. 646, 647.

[185] See, however, Sharpe, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxiv. 1896, p. 741.

[186] For this bird's "dances," see Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. p.
167.

[187] See W. W. Cordeaux, _Ibis_, 1894, p. 374; 1897, pp. 563-564.

[188] Adams, _P.Z.S._, 1859, p. 130; Nelson, _Auk_, 1884, pp. 218-221; _id.
N.H. Collect. Alaska_, Washington, 1887, pp. 108-109; Murdoch, _Rep.
Polar Exped. Pt. Barrow_, Washington, 1885, p. 111.

[189] See Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, 4th ed., iii. 1882-84, pp. 426-434, and
elsewhere.

[190] For the nerves of the bill, see Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, 4th ed. iii.
1882-84, pp. 346, 347.

[191] For habits, see Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. 1871-1881, pp.
635-637.

[192] Wood-Mason. _P.Z.S._ 1878, pp. 745-751; Gould, _Birds of Australia_,
ii. 1865, p. 275.

[193] Cf. Sharpe, _Ibis_, 1892, p. 543; but it seems nearer to _Turnix_
(p. 187).

[194] _Oe. dominicensis_ of St. Domingo may be distinct from the above.

[195] Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. London, 1889, p. 163.

[196] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896, p.3.

[197] Stejneger, _Stand. N. H._ iv. Boston, 1885, p. 75.

[198] Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, _Water Birds N. Amer._ ii. 1884, p. 194.

[199] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896; _J. Linn. Soc._ xiv. pp. 390-406;
_P.Z.S._ 1876, pp. 638-672; 1878, pp. 155-212.

[200] See Saunders, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896, pp. 171, 200-219.

[201] Cf. Sperling, _Ibis_, 1868, pp. 286-288; Collingwood, _Zoologist_,
1867, pp. 980-983.

[202] Mr. Barrett-Hamilton, however, tells the author that the feet are red
in life.

[203] Since referred by Milne-Edwards to the Cypselidae as _Tachyornis_.

[204] For the literature, see A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 220-221,
303-308.

[205] _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 312-332; Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_,
pp. 207-209.

[206] For further details see A. Newton, _Ibis_, 1864, pp. 185-222; 1890,
pp. 207-214; _Dict. Birds_, 1894, pp. 805-810; cf. also _Zool. Rec._
1888-89.

[207] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, p. 210.

[208] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxi. 1893, p. 3.

[209] See Darwin, _The Variation of Animals and Plants under
Domestication_, i. London, 1868, pp. 131-224; Tegetmeier, _Pigeons,
their Structure, etc._ London: 1867.

[210] Strickland and Melville, _The Dodo and its Kindred_, London, 1848; A.
Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 155-161, 215, 216; E. Newton and H.
Gadow, _Tr. Zool. Soc._ London, xiii. 1893, pp. 281-302.

[211] _Phil. Trans._ clix. 1869, pp. 327-362; clxviii. 1879, pp. 448-451.
Further details will be found in Strickland and Melville's work _The
Dodo and its Kindred_, London, 1848, pp. 46-56; A. Newton, _Dict.
Birds_, 1896, pp. 887-892.

[212] _P.Z.S._ 1874, pp. 183, 184.

[213] _Op. cit._ 1852, p. 87.

[214] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, pp. 212-223.

[215] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891, pp. 209-210.

[216] For superstitions connected with Celebes Cuckoos, see Meyer, _Ibis_,
1879, pp. 67-70.

[217] Cf. Sibree, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 218-219.

[218] Cf. Meyer, _ut supra_ (p. 356).

[219] See Church, _Phil. Trans._ 1869, pp. 627-636; _op. cit._ 1893, pp.
511-530.

[220] Bonn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, pp. 221, 222.

[221] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xx. 1891, pp. viii. 2.

[222] Cf. Buller, _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed., i. London, 1888, pp.
176-191.

[223] Gibson, _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 3-6.

[224] Cf. Salvadori, _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, i. Torino, 1880, p.
125.

[225] For this, as most Madagascar birds, see Grandidier, _Histoire de
Madagascar_, and Sibree, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 194-228, 416-443, 557-565;
1892, pp. 103-119, 261-274.

[226] Cf. Salvin, _P.Z.S._ 1873, pp. 429-433.

[227] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, pp. 233-235. The Hoopoes
used once be considered Passerine.

[228] A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1869, p. 142; Flower, _tom. cit._ p. 150;
Murie, _op. cit._ 1874, p. 420.

[229] In the _Upupinae_ and _Irrisorinae_ the oil-gland of the incubating
female, and also of the young, produces a stinking secretion.

[230] Cf. Milne-Edwards, _Oiseaux fossiles de la France_, ii. 1871, pp.
474-492; and for further details A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1894, pp.
671-674.

[231] Brisson, who divided the genus _Strix_, made the Tawny Owl its type;
if this be accepted, Striginae must become Alucinae and Buboninae
become Striginae.

[232] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ ii. 1875, p. vii.

[233] Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 103.

[234] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ ii. 1875, pp. 290-309.

[235] Not to be confounded with the "More-pork" Nightjar of Tasmania
(p. 417).

[236] H. Gadow, in A. Newton's _Dict. Birds_, 1893, p. 69.

[237] _J.f.O._ 1885, p. 341, pl. 4.

[238] Cf. Gosse, _Birds of Jamaica_, 1847, pp. 47, 48; Goeldi, _Ibis_,
1896, pp. 299-305.

[239] Cf. the French "Crapaud-volant" or Flying Frog, applied to Nightjars.

[240] The _Cypselomorphae_ of Huxley included Swifts, Humming-birds, and
the Nightjar group.

[241] D'Albertis noticed _Macropteryx mystacea_ settling on trees in the
day-time, and Shufeldt saw _Cypselus melanoleucus_ sitting on rocky
pinnacles.

[242] Green, _J. Physiol._ vi. 1885, pp. 41-45.

[243] _P.Z.S._ 1863, pp. 191-192.

[244] Two large ticks (_Anapera fimbriata_) are usually found on this bird,
similar to _Anapera pallida_ of _C. apus_.

[245] For a fuller account, see A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp.
440-451.

[246] These are produced by the prismatic surfaces of the feathers, cf. pp.
3, 4.

[247] _Ibis_, 1859, pp. 139, 140.

[248] _Zool. Voy. Beagle_, iii. 1841, p. 112.

[249] _Birds of Jamaica_, 1847, p. 130.

[250] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xvi. 1892, p. 28.

[251] For the habits, see Taczanowski and Stolzmann, _P.Z.S._ 1881, pp.
827-834.

[252] For the Family generally, see Sclater, _Monograph of the Jacamars and
Puff-birds_, London, 1879-82; and _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891.

[253] This is Dr. Gadow's view; but two separate Families are decidedly
preferable.

[254] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891, pp. 13-121.

[255] Layard, ed. Sharpe, _Birds of South Africa_, 1875-84, pp. 166-171.
Cf. Sandeman, _Eight Months in an Ox-Waggon_, 1880, pp. 235-239.
[Extract, _Ibis_, 1880, p. 286.]

[256] _Ibis_, 1864, pp. 327-328.

[257] So called either from the note, or from two words meaning "nose" and
"bone."

[258] See Broderip, _Zool. Journ._ i. 1825, p. 484; Vigors, _op. cit._ ii.
1826, pp. 466-483.

[259] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891, pp. 122-160.

[260] The hallux is often aborted, producing a tridactylous, instead of a
zygodactylous, foot (cf. p. 10).

[261] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xviii. 1890.

[262] Mr. Abel Chapman (_Wild Spain_, p. 256) says that the Spanish Green
Woodpecker breeds twice a year; and its British congener at times
does likewise.

[263] A Mexican species stores acorns in hollow stems of plants, but
subsequently sticks them in holes bored in branches. Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway, _N. Amer. Birds_, ii. 1874, pp. 569-572.

[264] _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 340-349.

[265] _Dict. Birds_, 1896, Introduction.

[266] _Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel_, Amsterdam,
1888.

[267] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves. Syst. Theil_, 1893, pp. 270-273.

[268] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xiv. 1888.

[269] Cf. Sclater, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xiv. 1888, p. 282.

[270] _P. buckleyi_ has curious long filaments on the head of the young.
Sclater and Salvin, _P.Z.S._ 1880, p. 158.

[271] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xiv. 1888, p. 326.

[272] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xv. 1890, p. 3.

[273] _I.e._ interiorly scutellated at the back.

[274] Duets are said to be sung; cf. Hudson _Argentine Ornithology_, i.
1888, p. 168.

[275] _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 609.

[276] _Op. cit._ 1873, p. 268.

[277] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xv. 1890, p. 177.

[278] Some _Oscines_ have as many as seven pairs, but _Sphenoeacus_ has
only three.

[279] Stejneger, _Standard Natural History_, iv. 1885.

[280] Sharpe, _A Review of Recent Attempts to Classify Birds_, 1891 (2nd
Ornith. Congress).

[281] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ vi. 1881.

[282] _op. cit._ vii. 1883, pp. xii-xvi.

[283] Placed under the Timeliidae in _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ vii. 1883, p.
ix.

[284] The American Redstart is _Setophaga ruticilla_ (Mniotiltidae), the
Cape Robin is _Cossypha caffra_, the Indian Robin _Thamnobia_, the
New Zealand Robin _Miro_.

[285] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ vii. 1883, pp. x. xi. (Timeliidae).

[286] For new British species, see Saunders, _Manual Brit. Birds_, 2nd
edition, 1897-9.

[287] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ viii. 1883, p. 89. The _Gymnorhininae_ belong
to the group _Austro-coraces_ or _Noto-coracomorphae_, if such be
admitted; _i.e._ to the apparently generalized forms whence the
_Corvidae_ (p. 557) and perhaps the _Laniidae_, have sprung.

[288] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, p. 281.

[289] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ viii. 1883, p. 3.

[290] For unconscious mimicry of _Mimeta_ (Oriolidae) and _Philemon_
(Meliphagidae), cf. A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 573-574.

[291] _Cf._ A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 37-40; and for the Family
generally, _op. cit._ pp. 48-51, 534-536, 779-780, 789-790, Wallace,
_Malay Archipelago_, ch. xxxviii., Salvadori, _Ornitologia Papuasia e
Molucche_, and the Monographs of Elliot and Sharpe.

[292] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 347-350; Beddard, _Ibis_, 1891, pp.
512-514.

[293] Not to be confounded with the New Zealand Rifleman (_Acanthidositta
chloris_.)

[294] _Malay Archipelago_, ch. xxxviii.

[295] _P.Z.S._ 1885, pp. 651-656.

[296] _Das Tier-reich_, 1898.

[297] The _Austro-coraces_ (p. 531) may contain these three genera and the
Paradiseidae.

[298] This genus and the two next perhaps belong to the Sturnidae.

[299] _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, i. 1889, p. 363.

[300] _A Review of Recent Attempts to Classify Birds_, 1891 (2nd _Internat.
Orn. Congress_).

[301] For _Paramythia montium_, of New Guinea, a dull-blue bird with creamy
head, black crest and fore-neck, olive-green rump-region, yellow
vent, and brownish wings; cf. Sclater, _Ibis_, 1893, pp. 243-245;
Hartert, _Novitat. Zool._ iii. pp. 13, 14.

[302] Cf. Wilson and Evans, _Aves Hawaiienses_, pt. ii. 1891, pp. 17-21;
pt. vii. 1899, pp. 1-7; and, for the Family generally, the same work,
Rothschild, _Avifauna of Laysan_, and Perkins, _Ibis_, 1893, pp.
101-112.

[303] _Oreoeca cristata_ (Laniidae) and _Manorhina melanophrys_
(Meliphagidae) are the Bell-birds of Australia; _Chasmorhynchus_
(Cotingidae) of the Neotropical Region.

[304] Cf. Buller, _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed. i. 1888, p. 104; Wilson
and Evans, _Aves Hawaiienses_, pt. i. 1890, p. 3.

[305] _P.Z.S._ 1883, p. 63.

[306] _Ibis_, 1891, p. 510-512.

[307] Shelley, _Monograph of the Nectariniidae_, London, 1880, p. xiii.

[308] For the Family see Sclater, _Monogr. Tanag._ 1857; and _Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus._ xi. 1886.

[309] Euler, _J. f. O._ 1867, p. 411.

[310] Cf. Shelley, _Ibis_, 1886, pp. 301-359; 1887, pp. 1-47.

[311] For a full account of the tail-feathers of these remarkable birds,
see Strickland, _Contrib. Ornith._ 1850, pp. 88, 149; A. Newton,
_Dict. Birds_, 1896, p. 1030.

[312] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xi. 1886, p. 309.

[313] _Cassidix oryzivora_ is parasitic on other forms; Goeldi, _Ibis_,
1897, p. 364.

[314] For the Pigeon-like conduct of the courting male, see Hudson,
_Argentine Ornithology_, i. 1888, pp. 73, 87.

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