The Project Gutenberg eBook of Mexico
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Mexico
a history of its progress and development in one hundred years
Author: Marie Robinson Wright
Release date: August 5, 2026 [eBook #79275]
Language: English
Original publication: Philadelphia: George Barrie & Sons, 1911
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79275
Credits: Karin Spence and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO ***
MEXICO
A HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT
IN ONE HUNDRED YEARS
[Illustration: _Copyright 1911 by G. Barrie & Sons_
_Porfirio Diaz_
GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ
PRESIDENT
OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO]
MEXICO
A HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT IN
ONE HUNDRED YEARS
BY
MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT
MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
OF BRAZIL, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF LA PAZ, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF
MEXICO, HISTORICAL AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTE OF SÃO PAULO
[Illustration]
PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY
GEORGE BARRIE & SONS
LONDON: C. D. CAZENOVE & SON, 26 HENRIETTA STREET,
COVENT GARDEN, W. C.
PARIS: 19 RUE SCRIBE
COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY GEORGE BARRIE & SONS
TO HIS EXCELLENCY
General Porfirio Diaz
PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO
A GREAT MAN AMONG THE EMINENT MEN OF THE WORLD, WHO ON HIS
EIGHTIETH BIRTHDAY IS STILL ACTIVE IN BODY AND SOUL; A
POWERFUL ADMINISTRATOR OF THE SPIRITUAL AND
MATERIAL GOOD OF HIS COUNTRY
Is Dedicated
THIS STORY OF A HUNDRED YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE
MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT
CONTENTS
PAGE
DEDICATION 5
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9
INTRODUCTION 13
CHAPTER I
THE CONQUEST 17
CHAPTER II
VICEROYALTY 49
CHAPTER III
THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 65
CHAPTER IV
THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC 83
CHAPTER V
HISTORICAL EVENTS 105
CHAPTER VI
GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 127
CHAPTER VII
THE CABINET 147
CHAPTER VIII
THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 159
CHAPTER IX
THE CENTENNIAL 179
CHAPTER X
CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE 203
CHAPTER XI
ART AND LITERATURE 219
CHAPTER XII
CHURCHES AND CHARITIES 235
CHAPTER XIII
EDUCATION 257
CHAPTER XIV
MEXICO 269
CHAPTER XV
PUEBLA 287
CHAPTER XVI
TLAXCALA 303
CHAPTER XVII
HIDALGO 315
CHAPTER XVIII
TRANSPORTATION 325
CHAPTER XIX
OAXACA 339
CHAPTER XX
VERA CRUZ 353
CHAPTER XXI
TAMAULIPAS 359
CHAPTER XXII
COAHUILA 369
CHAPTER XXIII
NUEVA LEÓN, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ, AGUASCALIENTES 373
CHAPTER XXIV
QUERÉTARO 383
CHAPTER XXV
ZACATECAS 387
CHAPTER XXVI
DURANGO 395
CHAPTER XXVII
CHIHUAHUA 401
CHAPTER XXVIII
JALISCO 411
CHAPTER XXIX
GUANAJUATO 421
CHAPTER XXX
COLIMA 425
CHAPTER XXXI
THE WEST COAST 433
CHAPTER XXXII
MICHOACÁN, MORELOS, GUERRERO 453
CHAPTER XXXIII
YUCATÁN 467
CHAPTER XXXIV
CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS 479
CHAPTER XXXV
CUSTOMS 487
CHAPTER XXXVI
RESOURCES 493
CHAPTER XXXVII
RUINS 505
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ _Fronts._
ARMS OF MEXICO _Title page_
BAS-RELIEF ON THE STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC 17
HERNANDO CORTÉS 18
THE VISIT OF CORTÉS TO MONTEZUMA 20
CARVING OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYALTY 22
HOUSE OF CORTÉS AT COYOACAN 25
THE NOCHE TRISTE TREE 26
THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF MEXICO 28
THE WOODS OF CHAPULTEPEC 30
THE AZTEC CALENDAR STONE 32
XOCHITL PRESENTING PULQUE TO TEPANCALTZIN 35
AZTEC IDOL 39
BANNER CARRIED BY CORTÉS 43
PORT MARQUEZ WHERE CORTÉS BUILT HIS FLEET 46
CARVINGS: CHURCH OF SANTA ROSA, QUERÉTARO 48
BURNING OF THE FEET OF CUAUHTEMOC 49
DOOR OF THE HOUSE OF CONDE DE SANTIAGO 51
SACRIFICIAL STONE 53
PALACE OF ITURBIDE, NOW A FAMOUS OLD HOTEL 54
STATUE OF CHARLES IV. 55
CARVINGS ON THE CHURCH OF LA SANTISIMA 56
IDOLS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM 57
FOUNTAIN IN MEXICO CITY 58
STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC 60
OLD CARVING OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS 62
THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC 64
GATEWAY: MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC 65
HIDALGO 67
JOSÉ MARIA MORELOS 68
HIDALGO’S PRISON AT CHIHUAHUA 69
ITURBIDE 71
THE LIBERTY BELL: NATIONAL PALACE 73
CYPRESS TREE, CHAPULTEPEC 76
HIDALGO ON HORSEBACK 77
RESIDENCE OF HIDALGO, AT DOLORES HIDALGO 80
THE NATIONAL PALACE 82
THE TOMB OF JUAREZ 83
BENITO JUAREZ 85
SEÑOR GENERAL DON RAMÓN CORONA 88
SEÑOR GENERAL DON MARIANO ESCOBEDO 89
RURALES ON THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 91
SEÑOR GENERAL DON MANUEL GONZALES 94
GENERAL CARLOS PACHECO 95
PICTURESQUE SPOT IN THE ALAMEDA 97
A COUNTRY ROAD IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO 100
GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ 102
NATIONAL MUSEUM, SHOWING AZTEC RELICS 104
NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 105
GENERAL DIAZ AND PRESIDENT TAFT 107
STATUE OF COLUMBUS 109
THE POST OFFICE 111
POST OFFICE, WEST CORRIDOR 113
NATIONAL LIBRARY 115
HISTORICAL CORNER IN MEXICO CITY 118
A PART OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT OF CHAPULTEPEC 120
ROAD IN PUEBLA, SHOWING POPOCATEPETL 122
PRIVATE LIBRARY OF A PROMINENT LAWYER 124
CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 126
THE PROCESSION OF THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 127
SEÑORA DOÑA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ 130
ESCORTING THE PRESIDENT ON THE 5TH OF MAY 132
THE TRIBUNAL, 5TH OF MAY 133
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL PORFIRIO DIAZ 135
CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC 137
STAIRWAY TO THE CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 138
RECEPTION AT THE PALACE 139
CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC 141
PORFIRIO DIAZ, THE THIRD 143
SOLDIERS IN PARADE, 16TH OF SEPTEMBER 144
THE CORBIAN PALACE 146
PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 147
SEÑOR DON RAMÓN CORRAL, VICE-PRESIDENT 148
SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL 149
SEÑOR LIC. JOSÉ LIMANTOUR 150
SEÑOR ING. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ 150
SEÑOR LIC. OLEGARIO MOLINA 151
GENERAL MANUEL GONZÁLEZ COSÍO 152
SEÑOR LIC. JUSTO SIERRA 153
SEÑOR LIC. JUSTINO FERNÁNDEZ 154
THE LATE IGNACIO MARISCAL 155
CORRIDOR: SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING 156
STREET SCENE IN MEXICO CITY 158
COLONIA JUAREZ 159
SEÑOR DON GUILLERMO DE LANDA Y ESCANDON 161
HOME OF GOVERNOR LANDA Y ESCANDON 163
THE NEW LEGISLATIVE PALACE 165
HOME OF VICE-PRESIDENT CORRAL 167
THE PALACE OF MINES 169
SAN FRANCISCO STREET 171
POLICE HEADQUARTERS 172
AMERICAN EMBASSY 173
POLICEMAN 174
MEXICAN LETTER CARRIER 175
FEDERAL PENITENTIARY 176
GREAT HISTORICAL PARADE, SEPTEMBER 15, 1910 178
EMPEROR MONTEZUMA IN HIS PALANQUIN 179
MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE 182
PRIESTS AND SERVANTS OF CORTÉS 184
A PART OF THE HISTORICAL PARADE 186
NOBLEMEN WITH ESCORTS 189
SITE OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. PRESENTED BY THE AMERICAN
COLONY 192
MONTEZUMA’S ARMY IN MILITARY PARADE 194
UNVEILING OF THE HUMBOLDT STATUE 196
THE JUAREZ MONUMENT 198
THE ARMY OF CORTÉS IN PARADE 200
RECEPTION HALL OF THE SPANISH CASINO 202
PATIO OF THE SPANISH CASINO 203
HISTORICAL STAIRWAY OF JOCKEY CLUB 206
THE JOCKEY CLUB 208
SEÑOR DON SEBASTAIN CAMACHO 210
FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE JOCKEY CLUB 212
SEÑOR JOSÉ SANCHEZ RAMOS 214
STAIRWAY IN THE SPANISH CASINO 216
“ANAHUAC.” BY SEÑOR JORGE ENCISO 218
“THE MENDICANTS.” BY SUAREZ 219
GALLERY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTING 221
“AN EPISODE OF A FIRE.” BY G. CARRASCO 222
“THE FORTUNATES.” BY SATURNINO HERRAN 224
“THE ETERNAL VICTIM.” BY F. ROMANO 226
“A PORTRAIT.” BY HERMAN GEDOVIUS 228
“CHILDREN OF MISERY.” BY SOSTENES ORTEGO 231
“THE ROUND UP.” BY JUAN URRUCHI 232
CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO 234
WALL AROUND THE SHRINE AT CHURUBUSCO 235
DR. JOSÉ MORA, ARCHBISHOP OF MEXICO 236
THE CROWN OF THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE 237
THE SHRINE OF GUADALUPE 239
SANTA MONICA, GUADALUPE 240
ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY 241
CHURCH NEAR COYOACAN 243
FAÇADE OF SAN AGUSTIN 244
THE SACRED WELL AT GUADALUPE 245
LUNATIC ASYLUM 247
THE GENERAL HOSPITAL, CITY OF MEXICO 250
THE CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL, FEDERAL DISTRICT 252
PAVILIONS OF THE GENERAL HOSPITAL 254
STAIRWAY IN THE COLLEGE OF THE MASCARONES 256
NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 257
PATIO OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 258
NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 259
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR MEN 260
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR WOMEN 261
ENTRANCE TO SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 262
SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS 262
STAIRCASE, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS 263
NATIONAL PREPARATORY SCHOOL 264
COMMERCIAL SCHOOL 265
SAN CARLOS ACADEMY 266
MORELOS PARK, TOLUCA 268
STREET SCENE, TOLUCA 269
GENERAL FERNANDO GONZALEZ 271
GOVERNOR’S PALACE 272
MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS 273
MUNICIPAL PALACE 274
TEMPLE OF VERA CRUZ, TOLUCA 275
LEGISLATIVE PALACE, TOLUCA 276
PALACE OF JUSTICE 277
INDEPENDENCE AVENUE, TOLUCA 278
SCHOOL OF LAW 279
NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS 280
MATERNITY HOSPITAL 281
TEMPLE OF MERCED 282
STATE BANK 283
GENERAL HOSPITAL 284
MUNICIPAL PALACE 286
RESIDENCE OF GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ 287
MONUMENT TO NICOLAS BRAVO 288
GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ 289
STATUE OF GENERAL ZARAGOZA 290
STATE COLLEGE 291
CATHEDRAL 292
LA MATERNIDAD, PUEBLA 293
MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE, PUEBLA 294
RIM OF THE CRATER OF POPOCATEPETL 295
AN OLD CHURCH DOOR 296
THE ARCADE, PUEBLA 298
THE PENITENTIARY, PUEBLA 300
PORTALES, FACING THE PARK, TLAXCALA 302
AVENUE LEADING TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT 303
OLD CHURCH TOWER, TLAXCALA 305
SEÑOR CORONEL PROSPERO CAHUANTZI 306
ARCHWAY ENTRANCE: SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT 307
SACRED WELL OF OCOTLAN 308
RUINS OF THE ROYAL CHURCH, TLAXCALA 309
LA PARROQUIA 311
OLDEST PULPIT AND ALTAR IN AMERICA 312
ZOCALO IN REAL DEL MONTE 314
PANORAMA OF MINERAL DEL CHICO 315
GOVERNOR SEÑOR DON PEDRO RODRIGUEZ 316
THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE 317
SAN JULIO MINE 318
STATUE OF HIDALGO 319
HACIENDA LORETO 320
XATAL MINE 321
REAL DEL MONTE MINE 321
SAN RAFAEL MINE 322
OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL RAILWAY OF MEXICO 324
DEVIL’S BACKBONE, TOMASOPO CAÑON 325
OLDEST RAILWAY STATION IN THE WORLD 327
NOCHISTONGO CUT, BUILT BY THE AZTECS TO DRAIN THE VALLEY
OF MEXICO 328
ROCK BELOW CHONEBRIDGE, NATIONAL RAILWAY 329
TEQUIXQUIAC TUNNEL 330
CAÑON WEST SALAZAR, NATIONAL RAILWAY 331
VIEW ON THE INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY 332
DRY DOCK, SALINA CRUZ 333
TELEGRAPH OFFICE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT 334
TOMASOPO CAÑON 336
THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE 338
THE CATHEDRAL 339
STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ 341
STATUE OF GENERAL ANTONIO DE LEÓN 342
FAÇADE OF THE CASINO 343
STAIRWAY: INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE 344
STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ, ON THE MOUNTAIN OVERLOOKING HIS
NATIVE CITY 345
SEÑOR EMILIO PIMENTEL, GOVERNOR OF OAXACA 346
NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN 347
CORRIDOR: INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE 348
THE PORFIRIO DIAZ HIGH SCHOOL 350
THE CITY OF ORIZABA 352
THE PEAK OF ORIZABA 353
POST OFFICE, VERA CRUZ 354
OLD GATEWAY, ORIZABA 355
INDIAN WOMEN IN THE TROPICS 355
NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, JALAPA 356
PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR SALAZAR 357
THE HARBOR, VERA CRUZ 357
OLD FORT OF SANTIAGO 358
TAMESI RIVER FRONT, TAMPICO 359
SEÑOR DON JUAN B. CASTILLO, GOVERNOR OF TAMAULIPAS 360
AVENIDA PRIETO, GOVERNOR’S PALACE, VICTORIA 361
PLAZA JUAREZ, VICTORIA 361
PLAZA DE ARMAS, TAMPICO 362
A FIELD OF ZAPUPE 363
A TARPON 364
PLAZA, VICTORIA 365
TAMPICO PLAZA 366
NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, SALTILLO 368
JUAREZ MARKET, SALTILLO 369
SEÑOR DON JESUS DE VALLE, GOVERNOR OF COAHUILA 370
GOVERNMENT PALACE, SALTILLO 371
STATE CIVIL COLLEGE, SALTILLO 372
GOVERNOR’S PALACE, MONTEREY 373
PLAZA ZARAGOZA 374
PALACE OF GOVERNOR, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ 375
CATHEDRAL, AGUASCALIENTES 376
THE BATHS AT AGUASCALIENTES 377
STREET SCENE IN AGUASCALIENTES 378
THE BISHOP’S PALACE, MONTEREY 379
TEMPLE OF SAN MARCOS, AGUASCALIENTES 380
THE FEDERAL PALACE, QUERÉTARO 382
CONVENT OF THE CROSS WHERE MAXIMILIAN WAS IMPRISONED 383
AQUEDUCT AT QUERÉTARO 385
MEMORIAL CHAPEL TO MAXIMILIAN, MARKING THE PLACE OF
HIS EXECUTION 386
A GENERAL VIEW OF ZACATECAS 387
THE CATHEDRAL, ZACATECAS 388
FAÇADE OF CATHEDRAL 389
STREET SCENE, ZACATECAS 390
THE CHURCH OF GUADALUPE, ZACATECAS 392
THE CATHEDRAL, DURANGO 394
THEATRE, DURANGO 395
SEÑOR DON ESTEBAN FERNANDEZ, GOVERNOR OF DURANGO 396
GOVERNOR’S PALACE, DURANGO 397
SEÑOR DON ALBERTO CINCUNEGUI, SECRETARY OF STATE 398
CERRO DEL MERCADO 398
ENTRANCE TO PENITENTIARY, DURANGO 399
ALAMEDA, DURANGO 400
THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA 401
STREET SCENE IN CHIHUAHUA 402
MONUMENT TO JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA 403
STATUE OF HIDALGO, CHIHUAHUA 404
INTERIOR OF THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA 405
RESIDENCE OF SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL, CHIHUAHUA 406
THEATRE OF THE HEROES, CHIHUAHUA 407
ARCHWAY OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT, CHIHUAHUA 408
FALLS OF JUANACATLAN, JALISCO 410
STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA 411
GOVERNMENT PALACE, GUADALAJARA 413
STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA 414
DEGOLLADO THEATRE, GUADALAJARA 415
THE HOSPICIO, GUADALAJARA 416
PATIO: AMERICAN CONSULATE, GUADALAJARA 417
LAKE CHAPALA, JALISCO 418
THE JUAREZ THEATRE, GUANAJUATO 420
VIEW OF THE PORFIRIO DIAZ TUNNEL, GUANAJUATO 421
EL CARMEN CHURCH, CELAYA 422
STREET SCENE, GUANAJUATO 423
THE MANUEL GONZALEZ DAM, GUANAJUATO 424
PLAZA, COLIMA 425
STREET SCENE, COLIMA 426
CATHEDRAL, COLIMA 426
AT THE FOOT OF COLIMA VOLCANO 427
MAGUAY GROWING AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA VOLCANO 427
RESIDENCE OF COLONEL EDGAR K. SMOOT, MANZANILLO 428
COLIMA IN ERUPTION 429
SUMMIT OF COLIMA VOLCANO 429
PACK TRAIN ON THE ROAD TO COLIMA 430
IRRIGATING CANAL, CULIACAN 432
ENTRANCE TO MAZATLAN 433
GOVERNOR DIEGO REDO, SINALOA 434
NEW MOUNTAIN ROAD AT MAZATLAN 435
THE HARBOR, MAZATLAN 436
PLAZA DE LA REPUBLICA, MAZATLAN 437
STREET SCENE, CULIACAN 438
SEÑOR DON JOAQUIN REDO 439
CUTTING SUGAR CANE, EL DORADO 439
AQUEDUCT, CULIACAN 440
PORTALES, CULIACAN 441
GENERAL LUIS TORRES, GOVERNOR OF SONORA 443
GOVERNMENT PALACE, HERMOSILLO 444
CATHEDRAL AT ALAMOS, SONORA 445
SEÑOR DON ALBERTO CUBILLAS, VICE-GOVERNOR OF SONORA 446
BAY AT GUAYMAS 447
BANK OF SONORA, GUAYMAS 448
RAMÓN CORRAL PARK, HERMOSILLO 448
YAQUI INDIANS 449
MUNICIPAL PALACE, GUAYMAS 450
LAKE PATZCUARO, MICHOACÁN 452
THE PLAZA, ZAMORA 453
CHURCHYARD GATE, TZINTZUNTZAN 455
SEÑOR DON PABLO ESCANDON, GOVERNOR OF MORELOS 456
PALACE OF CORTÉS, CUERNAVACA 457
FLYING BUTTRESS, CUERNAVACA 458
LA BORDA GARDEN, CUERNAVACA 459
SEÑOR DON DAMIAN FLORES, GOVERNOR OF GUERRERO 461
THE PALACE, CHILPANCINGO 462
TAMARINDO TREES, IGUALLA 463
BALSAS RIVER, GUERRERO 464
HOME OF SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO PEON, MERIDA 466
THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE, GRAND PLAZA 467
SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE M. ARISTEGÚI, GOVERNOR OF YUCATÁN 468
SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO PEON 469
VIEW OF MERIDA 470
HIS GRACE, MONSEIGNOR MARTIN TRISHLER, FIRST ARCHBISHOP
OF YUCATÁN 471
CORRIDOR OF THE CURATE HOUSE, MERIDA 472
MODEL SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MERIDA 472
THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE 473
FAÇADE OF THE MONTEJO HOUSE, MERIDA 474
INDIAN HEMP CUTTER 474
JUAREZ PENITENTIARY, MERIDA 475
STAIRWAY IN THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE 476
ARCH TO CELEBRATE THE CENTENNIAL, MERIDA 476
PLAZA DE LA INDEPENDENCIA, CAMPECHE 478
THE CATHEDRAL, CAMPECHE 479
PALACE OF JUSTICE, CAMPECHE 480
STATUE OF HIDALGO, CAMPECHE 481
GENERAL ABRAHAM BANDALA, GOVERNOR OF TABASCO 482
STREET SCENE, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 483
STATUE OF JUAREZ, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 484
PARK IN SAN JUAN BAUTISTA 485
PAROCHIAL CHURCH, CHIAPA 486
YAQUI INDIAN DANCE 487
INDIAN MAIDEN WATER CARRIER 488
TYPE OF TEHUANTEPEC WOMAN 489
IN RIDING COSTUME--CHARRO SUITS 490
A TYPE OF THE MAYA WOMAN, YUCATÁN 491
MEXICAN BASKET SELLERS 492
SAN BARTOLO MINE, ZACATECAS 493
SUGAR MILL, ATEQUIZA HACIENDA 495
PULQUE VATS 496
BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN JALISCO AND TEPIC 497
AVENUE OF DATE PALMS, SONORA 498
A COFFEE AND BANANA PLANTATION 499
COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR CORDOBA 500
PACK TRAIN WITH SUGAR ON THE ROAD TO MARKET 502
“GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN 504
CHAC-MOOL IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, CITY OF MEXICO 505
RUINS AT MITLA 506
SEPULCHRE, NEAR MITLA, OAXACA 506
ARCH OF THE “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN 507
CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATÁN 508
RUINS AT MITLA, OAXACA 509
PYRAMID OF THE SUN, SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN 509
RUINS OF PALENQUE, CHIAPAS 510
“HOUSE OF THE DOVES,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN 511
INTRODUCTION
In 1896 I travelled throughout Mexico and made a complete study of the
country, visiting every State and Territory, gathering valuable data
for my book, _Picturesque Mexico_, which was published in 1897. With
the exception of the warm welcome extended me on my return in 1910, I
scarcely knew Mexico of fourteen years ago. Everywhere is progress and
the social development was a revelation to me. This time I travelled
over highways and byways in palace cars instead of stage coaches,
litters, and muleback.
Through intimate knowledge of Mexico and her people gained during these
extended tours, and through the enjoyment of official courtesies and
private hospitality of a most gracious nation, I have been able to get
from the best sources interesting features of the national life and
history.
I realize more than ever how meagre is the information of the general
public outside Mexico, of the beauties and resources of this marvellous
country. She holds her proud place in the world as a demonstration of
what statesmanship and good government can accomplish.
Mexico has just completed her hundredth anniversary of freedom from
Spanish rule. The Sociedade de Geographia do Rio de Janeiro, of which I
am an honorary member, sent me as a delegate to this centennial, and as
a participant in these festivities gathered much accurate information
concerning this jubilee, which not only marked a great era in the
history of Mexico, but celebrated the eightieth birthday of the Grand
Old Man of the Americas, General Porfirio Diaz, who for nearly half a
century has been the honored and beloved president.
This present MEXICO tells a story of a hundred years of the republic;
of a struggle for independence and her freedom. It is historical and
descriptive, but does not in any way deal with the political affairs of
the day. I am grateful for all the courtesies which I have received in
this hospitable land.
To the President of the Republic, to the Governors of the States, and
to the distinguished officials of the National Railways of Mexico, I
wish to extend my sincere and kind appreciation. I am indebted to Mr.
C. B. Waite for permission to use some of his copyrighted views, and to
Mr. C. F. Clarke, for many photographs.
M. R. W.
_Chislehurst, New Rochelle, N. Y., December 26, 1910._
MEXICO
[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF ON THE STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC.]
CHAPTER I
THE CONQUEST
The history of Mexico is an inspiring one, filled with tragic eras.
The earliest inhabitants known were the Toltecs, who came from Central
America in the seventh century. They were proficient in many crafts and
erected gigantic temples, traces of which have been found in all parts
of the Republic. This race was followed by the Aztecs, or Mexicans,
in the fourteenth century. These were scattered throughout the Valley
of Mexico and their warlike deeds of bravery have formed many a theme
for beautiful stories. After two centuries they became a semi-barbaric
nation, living in the glory of the natural wealth of their country. A
great chieftain, Montezuma, was their monarch, and at the head of their
vast army.
When the resources of this great land became suspected by European
powers, four hundred years ago, each nation greedily sought to grasp
her opportunity of adding to her riches this new field. Spain was more
determined and appointed willing subjects to make voyages of discovery
to the great unknown country. The first explorer to visit Mexico was
Hernandez de Cordova, in 1517, but his discoveries lay about the coast
of Yucatan and his brilliant reports caused a thirst for the conquest
of the new land.
The siren voices of gold and glory perpetually sounded in the ears of
Spanish adventurers, stirred their ambitions and nerved them to deeds
of unforgotten bravery.
Columbus had found gold in the strange lands he had discovered in the
West Indies, he had tracked it westward in 1498, as he found the Island
of Trinidad, threaded the waters of the Gulf of Paria, sighted the
great continent southward and later discovered the Isthmus of Panama,
then called Veragua. But Mexico, the land of surpassing beauty and
wealth that was to be the rarest jewel of the Spanish possessions, the
land that was to give forth inexhaustible riches to fill the dwindling
treasury of Spain, and to sustain her waning power, was yet unknown.
Spanish rule had been planted in the Islands of San Domingo, Cuba and
Porto Rico. The thirst for gold and glory grew with the enjoyment of
their possession. Settlement established, the representatives of the
Spanish Crown made seats of government new centres for extension of
Spanish dominion.
[Illustration: HERNANDO CORTÉS.]
When the news reached Spain, in 1499, of the discovery of Paria by
Columbus a year previously, Alonso de Hojeda, who had been one of the
companions of Columbus, set out with Juan de Cosa, as chief pilot, and
Americo Vespucci. They followed the route and took a course south of
his, sighting the coast of Surinam, thence to the Gulf of Paria to the
Island of Curaçao, and afterward to the Gulf of Venezuela. As a result
of this marvellous accomplishment vast and undreamed of wealth soon
poured into Spain.
The governors of the settlements established were men whose
imaginations were soon fired with the prospect of vast powers and
unlimited wealth to be seized. Even yet it was not known what continent
had been found. The barrier, narrow as it was, that stood between
the Pacific and Columbus had not been penetrated. The mystery of the
continent was still unsolved, the vast and prolific countries that
stretched north and south of the Gulf of Mexico were unknown lands.
Among the numerous Spaniards who sought to unveil the mystery of the
continent and to plant new colonies for Spain was Nuñez de Balboa,
who undertook to colonize Darien, and in 1513 crossed the Isthmus of
Panama and in defining the limit of the continent there discovered the
Pacific, which he named the South Sea, and claimed it and the islands
lying on it in the name of his sovereign.
The first navigator of the Gulf of Mexico was Hernandez de Cordova,
who, in 1517, sailed from Cuba, where he was stationed in the service
of Spain, on a slaving expedition among the Bahamas. Contrary winds
drew him to an unknown coast, where he landed and found the first
sign of that advanced culture which distinguished Mexico among
the discovered countries. This place he called Yucatan. Here the
natives were found to be dwelling in houses of stone and mortar and
wore garments of well-woven cloth. They worshipped in magnificently
carved temples adorned with idols and ornaments of gold. But to gain
possession of this prize the Spaniards had a long and bitter struggle.
At Champoton they narrowly escaped destruction by the natives, whose
military organization proved remarkable. Against such a force the valor
and arms of the invader had to yield. But Cordova had sailed around the
peninsula to Campeche, Champoton and the River Estero de los Lagartos;
thence he returned to Santiago de Cuba, laden with wonderful spoils.
Amongst his acquisitions were crowns and ducks of gold, fish and idols.
Much encouragement was found in the declaration of two native captives
of the expedition that there were gold mines and gold dust in abundance
in their country, the fame of which soon reached Spain.
[Illustration: THE VISIT OF CORTÉS TO MONTEZUMA.]
The governor, Velasquez, elated with the reports of Cordova fitted out
a large expedition the following year, of which his nephew Juan de
Grijalva was given chief command. Following the course of Cordova, Juan
de Grijalva found difficulty at first in securing the friendship of the
natives, but he was able later to obtain much gold in barter. Learning
that precious metals could be found in a country called Mexico, he
sailed northward and made many discoveries along the Mexican Coast,
among others the Island of San Juan de Ulua, in the harbor of Vera
Cruz, and the Tabasco River. It is recorded by Bernal Diaz, who was a
contemporary of Cortés, that on one occasion the explorers, believing
that the highly polished axes, with curiously carved handles, of the
people of Guascasualco, were made of an inferior gold, were to discover
when they exchanged trinkets for them, that they were simply finely
polished copper. Notwithstanding this fact, Velasquez was determined on
a thorough exploration of Mexico and he appointed Cortés to the command
of a new expedition, which set out from Cuba on the tenth of February,
1519, in twelve vessels carrying seven hundred men. It was not without
jealous misgivings that the governor saw this intrepid leader depart,
nor, as events proved, was he mistaken in his suspicion regarding
the great ambition of Cortés. The expedition reached Trinidad, where
Velasquez having determined to replace Cortés sent vessels to detain
him, but he had departed on February 18, 1519, and reached the shores
of the unknown land in March, 1519. His little force was awaiting him
at the Island of Cozumel, near the extreme point of the Peninsula of
Yucatan, whence it sailed with two hundred Indian slaves and sixteen
horses. This was the power with which the great Aztec land was to be
won and the proud ascendancy of Montezuma to be overthrown. The roll of
companions of the daring leader included many names that were to become
imperishably recorded in the history of Spanish America. Among them
were the brilliant Pedro de Alvarado, Alonso de Avila, Cristobal de
Olid, Francisco de Montejo, Diego de Ordaz, Velasquez de León, Alonso
Puertocarrero and Antón Alaminos.
The solemn directions to Cortés were that he should explore the country
discovered by Cordova; restore to freedom the Spanish held in captivity
by the Indians; convert the natives to the Christian faith and barter
with them; and, finally, to use the most scrupulous care to omit
nothing that might redound to the service of God or his sovereign.
Reaching the Tabasco River, which Grijalva had discovered a year
before, following the course of that explorer, Cortés landed and gained
the first glimpse of that civilization of which had been told such
wonderful stories. The people were of advanced culture, the houses were
substantially built and the natives wore rich and beautiful garments.
That first intercourse was also to give a foretaste of the struggle
before him. The Totonacs were the rulers of the land, they were subject
to the authority of the Aztecs, but made desperate because of the
tribute they were compelled to pay and the severe treatment accorded to
them, they were not unwilling to see in the new comers allies to them
in their struggles against Montezuma. With their natural instinct of
self-preservation they resisted the approach of the Spaniards and only
after a sanguinary battle, on the 25th of March, in which they were
defeated, would they enter into friendly relations with the invaders.
In testimony of their goodwill they presented many female slaves to the
conqueror, among whom was the celebrated Marina, whose affectionate
loyalty and intelligence later proved a great assistance to the
Spaniards. This woman, who in Aztec was called Malintzin, was born in
Coatzacoalcos, she was the daughter of a great cacique, on whose death
her mother sacrificed her in the interest of a brother and sold her to
the cacique of Tabasco.
Besides his victory in arms, Cortés won over a large number of converts
who were received into the bosom of the church with great ceremonial
pomp. Thus did he lay the foundation of his great work by fulfilling
the obligations imposed upon him by his sovereign. This auspicious
beginning elevated the hopes of the Spanish and they sailed northward
on April 18th and after delays by storms reached San Juan de Ulua. Here
the natives manifested a friendly spirit and barter was readily entered
into. Establishing himself in this place, the commander desired that
messengers should be sent to Montezuma to notify him of the wish of the
Spaniard to visit him.
[Illustration: CHURCH CARVING OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYALTY.]
Montezuma sent his ambassador, Teuthile, with wonderful gifts, in pomp
and glory, and in this representative of the great monarch, Cortés
found a person of different attainments from those of any native
he had hitherto met. His dress was costly and he wore ornaments of
precious metals; his manners were dignified and with diplomatic skill
he made it known that he desired to learn the wishes of the stranger.
He was informed that Cortés desired to visit Montezuma to meet him on
behalf of his own monarch. After an interval the ambassador returned
accompanied by a distinguished cacique and attended by one hundred
men bearing beautiful gifts of exquisitely wrought feather work and
receptacles filled with grains of gold and other artistic articles,
all demonstrating the possession of rich materials and an advanced
knowledge of the handicrafts. Such gifts served only to stimulate the
Spaniard’s purpose to conquer this rich country. To the request that
Cortés should return to his own land, the reply was only a still more
earnestly expressed desire to interview the Mexican monarch. Failing
by diplomacy to gain an audience with the monarch, Cortés now realized
that force alone could give him possession of this wonderful land that
he conceived to be his by right of his discoveries.
While awaiting the outcome of negotiations with Montezuma, the
audacious leader had busily occupied himself in acquiring information
concerning the country and its wealth and in considering means by
which he should seize the possessions he coveted. He learned that the
Totonacs had occupied their territory for seven or eight centuries;
that they had lost their independence to the Aztecs two or three
generations before; and had suffered very great indignity and borne
many heavy burdens. He shrewdly used his opportunities to contract a
firm friendship with these people.
Cortés observing that some of his companions were mistrustful of him,
began to chafe under the burden of his obligation to Velasquez. He
decided now to throw off his duty to the governor, and strengthen
his own independence and power before his plans could be interfered
with and his great prospect should become known. Sagaciously, if not
loyally, therefore, he founded the City of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz
and created it a Spanish municipality; then resigning his commission
from Velasquez, he caused his own appointment as commander-in-chief
of the expedition, and placed himself directly under the authority of
the Spanish crown. To advance his interests with his sovereign in this
course, he sent Montejo and Puertocarrero to Spain with instructions
to explain his situation and plans, and in order to demonstrate the
wonders of their new territory he dispatched some natives and a large
treasure with them.
So adroitly had Cortés acted toward the Totonacs whom he had thus far
met that he received an invitation from the chief of the tribe to
visit the capital at Cempoalla. He proceeded toward that city, the
fleet sailing along the coast, while the expedition penetrated the
strange country. As they progressed the dreary and arid lands changed
to a scene of luxuriant and verdant vegetation, a flora bewilderingly
beautiful to their eyes, with evidences everywhere of a civilization
they had not expected, and also of the barbarism of their native
religion in the remains of numerous victims who had been immolated to
propitiate their gods. Giant hills broke the distant view, and the
snow-covered peak of Orizaba, majestically stood above the valley. The
people wore rich mantles and robes of finely woven cloth, crudely
wrought golden chains hung on their necks, and rings adorned their
nostrils and ears. They welcomed the Spaniards with friendly acclaim
and bore before them in profusion tropical fruits and flowers.
The city entered was substantially and attractively built, and the
prospect was gladdening to the heart of Cortés. Their houses were of a
primitive brick and mortar, were surrounded by gardens of fruit trees
and shrubbery, while around the city stretched rich fields of grain,
giving the scene a picturesque appearance.
Cortés was soon convinced that the Totonacs and other tribes who
were subjects of Montezuma were hostile to their monarch. Ever alert
to forward his plans, he soon seized on an incident that gave him
an occasion to make lasting friends of the Totonacs. Some Aztec
tax-gatherers had arrived to demand a tribute of twenty young men and
women to be sacrificed to the gods in expiation of the reception the
tribe had given to the Spaniards. The chief, feeling the assurance of
Spanish protection, cast the tax-gatherers into prison. Thereupon,
conceiving an adroit plan to gain the favor of both Aztecs and
Totonacs, Cortés rescued two of the five captives, whom he caused to be
safely conducted to Montezuma, and preserved from sacrifice the other
three. By this diplomatic stroke he was able to establish alliances
with several chiefs against Montezuma.
At this time, the audacious genius of the commander was manifested
in a crisis that threatened not only his dominion but all that his
imagination had conjured up. The friends of Velasquez in his army
having stirred up a conspiracy against Cortés and intending to seize
one of the vessels and return to Cuba, the leader made a desperate
hazard to compel the allegiance of his companions and cut off all
chance of defection. In August, 1519, he ordered eleven of his ships to
be sunk in the harbor, alleging as the cause that they were worm-eaten.
There was now no course open to him but to remain in the country and
conquer the people, or be destroyed.
Cortés thereupon garrisoned Vera Cruz with a hundred men, and set out
on his march to the City of Mexico, first destroying the idols in the
_teocalli_ at Cempoalla. His force now consisted of about four
hundred and fifty Spaniards, six light guns, fifteen horses, a number
of Totonacs and a numerous body of Indian carriers.
[Illustration: HOUSE OF CORTÉS AT COYOACAN.]
Continuing his progress the Spaniard approached the territory of the
Tlascalans, an independent people, who were said by the Totonac chief
to hate the Aztecs so bitterly that the Spaniards would be sure of a
friendly reception. They were doomed to a bitter disappointment. The
Tlascalan country lay on the east of the Plain of Anáhuac and was
closely encircled by high ranges and when the Spaniards reached the
boundary of the territory they found it defended by a strong stone
wall. Messengers were sent to request a free passage through the
country, but this was denied. They regarded this as a challenge and
scaled the enclosing wall, but met a most stubborn foe. Again and again
did the little Spanish force tremble for their fate as they received
the attacks of the enemy, who numbered thirty thousand brave warriors,
but their arms and skill proved too much for the Tlascalans, with their
primitive weapons, and after a great struggle they were defeated. Not
all their bravery could avail them against the desperate and determined
Spaniards. The natives had made a mistake in believing that the
Spaniards were children of the sun and that they could be defeated in
a moonlight attack. Acknowledging their defeat, they soon made peace
and Cortés and his allies entered the city on September 22, 1519. No
more faithful men could be found than these Tlascalans, whose enmity
to Montezuma the able Cortés knew well how to turn to account. Binding
firmly the bonds of friendship and alliance, the conquerors were able
to move forward, on October 13th, on their way to Cholula, the next
main city between them and Tenochtitlan.
[Illustration: THE NOCHE TRISTE TREE.]
The sight of the magnificent temple with its hundred towers, with its
rich carvings and decorations of gold, dazzled the eyes and exalted
the hopes of the small Spanish force, with its intrepid leader, and
its six thousand Totonac and Tlascalan allies, as the Sacred City of
Cholula was approached. The ruler of the beautiful city was ready to
welcome Cortés, until he learned that their enemies, the Tlascalans,
were among his forces, and became suspicious and unfriendly toward the
Spaniards and refused to permit them to enter unless the Tlascalans
were left outside of the city. With his usual promptitude of action
Cortés notified the ruler that he would leave the city the following
day and requested that the caciques furnish him with two thousand
guides. Pursuing this plan, apparently, he drew up the greater part of
his troops within the court of one of the temples, and ranged the rest
without, with a full command of the avenues; then he issued orders that
at a given signal the Tlascalans should enter. The caciques arrived
at the appointed hour with the number of men requested, who not
realizing the strategy of the Spaniard came unarmed and not prepared
for any unfriendly attack. Cortés ordered an attack upon this body
of men, and for several days a horrible slaughter of the unprepared
Cholulans lasted, until at least six thousand were massacred. Their
own peril and the right of self-preservation could not justify such an
act of treachery on the part of a Christian invader. Men who practised
the sublime teachings of Christ, and were horrified at finding in
Mexico pagans and idol worshippers, still felt they could by a lawless
disregard of what was really right, slaughter human beings in their
greed for conquest. This is one among many blots on the history of
Spain. On November 1st, the ambitious conqueror resumed his determined
march to the Aztec capital. The success he had achieved over the
Cholulans proved to Montezuma that the intrepid Spaniard could not
be turned from his purpose. In vain did he send his representatives
bearing royal gifts, with the intention of becoming friendly with
Cortés, but the richness of the gifts only served to strengthen the
ambition of the Spaniard to gain all those riches for the crown. With
unwearying steps, and with still greater determination, the conquering
force moved on to Tenochtitlan. Neither the frowning barriers of the
valley, nor the dangers before them, could turn their steps aside. Even
the huge Popocatapetl was made an instrument of their will, a minister
to their necessities, for Diego de Ordaz led a party of Spaniards to
the mouth of its vast crater to test its accessibility and find out if
sulphur could be obtained for making gunpowder. Everything gave courage
to the Spaniards.
Nature unfolded vistas of most enchanting beauty; luxuriant vegetation
clothed the land with a verdure so intense in color and dense in its
exuberance as to insure an inexhaustible source of wealth; and the
capital product gold was in evidence everywhere, furnishing a prize to
be won that was well worth every sacrifice.
As Cortés approached, the Aztec ruler’s perplexity knew no bounds. He
appealed to his council, they were divided in opinion as to the course
he should pursue. His brother, Cuitlahua, or Cuitlahuatzin, counselled
an immediate attack, while Cacamatzin, the ruler of Texcoco, urged that
the Spaniards be received with all the courtesy due to the ambassadors
of a foreign ruler. Already had Ixtlilxochtil, Cacamatzin’s brother,
entered into friendly alliance with the Spanish leader. Distracted,
Montezuma, inspired by his religious superstitions, believed that the
gods had decreed against him. He dispatched Cacamatzin, accompanied by
many of the principal caciques and an imposing retinue of attendants,
to greet Cortés at Amaquemacan and bid him welcome to the capital. Thus
invited and well attended, the invaders passed through Iztapalapan
amid great throngs of astonished natives eager to get a look at the
wonderful beings and their strange dress and accoutrements. At last the
proud, magnificent city was before them, the goal of their enterprise.
Over the causeways on the lakes, foot and horse marched, an unwonted
spectacle. What hopes and fears tormented them as, step by step, they
moved toward the entrance to Tenochtitlan and beheld the city in all
its splendor stretched along the shores of Lake Texcoco! A handful of
Spaniards, less than five hundred, supported only by native allies
who might at any time turn against them, marching to a city whose
inhabitants they had been repeatedly told were treacherous. But the die
was cast.
[Illustration: THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. FROM A
PAINTING BY JOSÉ JARA.]
On November 8th, Montezuma proceeded to the outskirts of his capital
and personally invited Cortés and his companions into the Aztec
capital. It was no barbarian, in outward guise at least, that greeted
the Spaniard. Instead, a proud and dignified ruler attired in
sumptuous princely robes, and surrounded by a pomp and ceremony as
exacting as that of any of the Old World courts, received with marked
politeness and courtesy the unwelcome guest. All pointed to the extreme
exclusiveness and dignity of Montezuma, and when Cortés, following
the Castilian custom, sought to embrace the Aztec, he was forcefully
prevented by the attendant chiefs, who deemed the act disrespectful to
so great a personage as their ruler. The reception completed, Montezuma
appointed an escort, consisting of his brother and his nephew, to
conduct Cortés within the city and to the quarters assigned to them as
a residence.
The original Aztec capital was built on an island in one of the cluster
of lakes occupying the Valley of Anáhuac. Here on the western side grew
the settlement about the temple of rushes, till the capital spread over
the islands, the dwellings being raised on piles and filled ground as
it was required. Ruler after ruler added to its extent and endeavored
to beautify it, till at the time of the Conquest, its structures
resembled fairy castles. The great avenues constructed of hard
cement crossed the city running from north to south and east to west
crossing at the centre. That running north and south extended in both
directions, by means of causeways, to the mainland, and the other to
the mainland on the west. The causeways were carried on piles and were
broad enough to allow of ten horsemen riding abreast, and at intervals
were bridged to permit of the passage of boats. The aqueduct conveying
the water to the capital was supported on a similar causeway. The
dwellings of the people were one story high and were frequently built
on terraces. Each stood by itself and was separated from the others by
narrow lanes or little gardens and enclosing an open court. High above
these rose the many temples, on mounds, and above all, soared the great
temple of the god of war.
Cortés entered the capital with all the honors of a victor, to
the strains of music and with colors flying, and was conducted to
the palace of Axayacatl, the father of Montezuma, as his place of
residence. No resistance was offered, the ruler yielded to the gloomy
predictions of the priests, he who had always been so proud and valiant
in war, that, but a few years before, he had been elected chief in
preference to his elder brother. Yet almost abjectly, at the approach
of the Spaniards, he humbled himself and his people in awe, influenced
by the superstitions of his religion.
It is possible to form a correct idea of the person and character of
Montezuma from a description given by one of Cortés’s party. He was
about forty years old, tall, slender and thin, but well-proportioned.
His complexion, like that of the other inhabitants, was not very brown.
His hair was long only over his ears, which it covered; his beard was
black and handsome. His face was somewhat long and its expression
cheerful, and his fine eyes were full of expression. He had many
concubines, all of whom were of note and rank, besides two lawful wives
of lineage equal to his.
[Illustration: THE WOODS OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
The palace occupied by the Spaniards was situated near the temples,
a locality selected in conformity with the belief that they were of
divine character and should, therefore, be domiciled near the gods.
The apartments were very large and those appropriated to Cortés were
furnished with carpets. Each of his companions was provided with a
separate bed, and given all the comforts and luxuries suitable to his
rank.
On the day after their arrival in the city, Montezuma visited Cortés
and invited him to his palace where he made acknowledgment of Spanish
supremacy. It is impossible to suppose that Montezuma could have
regarded the presence of the Spaniards as other than inimical to his
country’s interest, especially in view of the fact that their native
allies and companions were his bitter enemies. The evidences that each
succeeding day furnished of the great strength of the Aztec nation and
of the powerful organization by which the country was governed brought
clearly to the mind of Cortés the magnitude of the undertaking to which
he was committed and the stupendous difficulty that must attend his
work of conquest. Everything he saw of the riches of the Aztecs, of the
resources of the country both pricked him on and gave him pause. Wealth
and magnificence, order and discipline were apparent on all hands.
From the top of the great temple, Cortés had viewed the surrounding
country. The great causeways; the system of defensive drawbridges;
the busy canoes laden with the produce brought regularly to the great
markets, thronged with active traders; the vision of temples towering
one above the other glistening white in the clear atmosphere; all spoke
of strength and organization; of a political system that was directed
with care and ability. Cortés had succeeded thus far through audacity
and a bravery even to madness. The conditions were such that the same
qualities must be largely relied on for further gains.
The Totonacs had by the terms of their contract with Cortés cast off
their allegiance to Montezuma and refused to continue the payment
of tribute, so when an Aztec chief sought to compel the people of
Cempoalla to do so, they refused and took up arms and Escalante, the
Spanish commander at Vera Cruz, came to their support. Though the Aztec
Cuauhpopoca was defeated in the encounter, Escalante was killed. There
had also been a real or imaginary plot against the life of Cortés. Here
was his occasion. He saw in it a means of promoting his purpose, no
matter what the rights involved might be. Promptly deciding, he called
five of his most trusted and audacious companions, Pedro de Alvarado,
Gonzalo de Sandoval, Francisco de Lujo, Velasquez de Leon and Alonso de
Avila and to them imparted his plan to seize and hold Montezuma, and
with them called on the ruler, at the same time ordering a small body
of soldiers to assemble in Montezuma’s palace while the major part was
stationed in the courtyard and the avenues leading thereto.
[Illustration: THE AZTEC CALENDAR STONE.]
Montezuma, unsuspicious of the plot, received Cortés with accustomed
courtesy, and offered him one of his daughters in marriage; but as
such an alliance was not likely to further the conqueror’s designs it
was declined. Throwing off the mask, Cortés charged Montezuma with
treachery, as being the instigator of Cuauhpopoca’s demand on the
people of Cempoalla and of the subsequent conflict, and called upon him
to summon the chief. To this Montezuma assented, but it availed him
naught, for Cortés further required that he should reside in the palace
of the Spaniards in order to establish his innocence in the matter. He
was finally seized and held to prevent any treachery on the part of his
subjects. Captivity was not to be Montezuma’s only fate; his relentless
foe humiliated him for awhile by riveting fetters on his ankles. To
strike terror into the hearts of the Mexicans, Cortés ordered the
chief, Cuauhpopoca, his son and fifteen men of rank to be burned at
the stake in view of a great multitude of Aztecs, as a punishment for
having fought against Escalante.
If Montezuma was broken, other members of his court were not.
Cacamatzin, the nephew of Montezuma, realized that the Spaniards had
come to dispossess his nation and had striven to arouse his people to
an effort to drive out the Spaniards. He, too, had been made prisoner.
But besides the military supremacy that Cortés was fastening upon the
Aztecs, there was on his part a constant activity in other directions.
Montezuma was still a captive, but Cortés used his victim to legalize
his actions. Five vessels were built, to be used on the lakes. The
coast was surveyed for about one hundred and eighty miles south of
Vera Cruz and the site chosen for a fortified post at the mouth of
the Coatzacoalco River. He obtained land in Oaxaca and established a
plantation for the crown. He brought his puppet ruler to take the oath
of allegiance to the Spanish crown and to become a feudatory prince,
his oath and those of his principal chiefs being duly attested and a
record made by the royal notary. In pursuance of this scheme, tribute
was ordered to be paid to the Spaniards and the vast treasure of
Axayacatl was bestowed upon them by Montezuma.
All the indignities heaped upon their ruler and all the spoliation
suffered by the people were unavailing to rouse them to open revolt
against their despoilers. The yoke of the Spaniards seemed to be
riveted upon them and Cortés may have been satisfied that the prize of
Mexico was safely in his grasp. His thoughts now turned to the task of
overthrowing the superstitious idolatry of the Mexicans and erecting in
its stead the worship of Christ. With this purpose in view, he entered
the temples and threw out the idols, and converted one of the buildings
into a Christian church. This act infuriated the Aztecs and Montezuma
urged Cortés to seize the opportunity to leave the country, while it
was possible to get safely away. Such advice fell on unappreciative
ears, but unwilling to disclose his real intention and desiring to keep
his captive tractable, Cortés pointed out that he lacked ships, but
would endeavor to build some.
After a brief interval, news arrived of the coming of some Spanish
ships to Vera Cruz, of which Montezuma learned and he again urged
Cortés to take his departure. On his part, the conqueror supposed
that reinforcements had arrived for him as the result of the reports
of Puertocarrero and Montejo to their sovereign. The fleet, however,
was not so friendly to Cortés; it had been dispatched from Cuba, by
Velasquez, in order to wrest from him the fruits of his enterprise.
The reports of the great progress and treasure that Cortés had made
and gained aroused anew the cupidity and ill-will of the governor
and he had determined to overthrow his former commander. The new
expedition was under the command of Pedro de Narvaez and comprised
eighteen ships with a force of nine hundred men. Arrived at Vera Cruz,
Narvaez demanded the submission of Sandoval, the commander, to himself
as the representative of Velasquez. The fearless Sandoval answered
the insolently-addressed demand by seizing Narvaez’s emissaries, and
sending them to Cortés lashed to the backs of Indian carriers, but
on their approach to the capital they were released and mounted on
horses and courteously treated, by order of Cortés. The new situation
thus presented was most grave and called for extraordinary measures.
Leaving Alvarado in command at Mexico, Cortés marched against Narvaez
with about three hundred Spanish troops and a large force of Indians
and joined by Sandoval and de Leon he surprised and overcame Narvaez at
night, capturing him and his force. The result increased the troops of
Cortés, for most of Narvaez’s men joined the conqueror and the ships
were dismantled. This fortuitous event was overshadowed, however, by
the news from the interior.
In the absence of Cortés, Alvarado, whom the Mexicans called Tonatiuh,
because of his fair complexion, had cruelly massacred hundreds of
Mexicans of the highest rank in their temple during a war festival,
on May 20th. The pretext urged by Alvarado for his cruel act was
that an attack on the Spaniards was planned to follow the feast and
that he had merely outwitted them in anticipation, as his leader had
done at Cholula. As Cortés returned to the capital from his campaign
against Narvaez, signs multiplied of the growing unpopularity of his
occupation. Among the tribes, few were friendly, except the loyal
Tlascalans. His ships on the lake had been destroyed and thus a great
difficulty, if not an insurmountable one, was opposed to his escape, in
case of the need of leaving the capital. The people of that place were
in full revolt and constantly attacking the Spaniards.
In this crisis, Cortés endeavored to pacify the natives; he released
Cuitlahuatzin, the brother of Montezuma, whom he had captured earlier
with Cacamatzin. But for once his course was faulty. Cuitlahuatzin
was welcomed by the people as the representative of Montezuma. His
character was unlike that of Montezuma, and instead of giving aid to
the Spaniards, he applied all his activity and zeal in attempting to
overthrow them. Shut within their stone palace, the great commander and
his companions were attacked by an immense host of Aztec warriors who,
scorning the destruction of thousands of their number by the artillery
of the Spaniards, pressed their siege unceasingly until night. The next
day Cortés sallied out against his assailants, driving them back with
great slaughter, but in no way breaking their force or weakening the
courage of the foe. In his extremity, he made use of his captive and,
decking him with his robes of state, he caused him to mount the central
turret of the palace and order the people to lay down their arms in
accordance with his will. His authority evoked no sympathy; his plea
that the Spaniards should be allowed to depart and his promise of a
restoration of the old state of affairs were disregarded. The people,
for an instant manifesting reverence for their ruler, soon became
enraged and insulted him. The day, June 27, 1520, was a fateful one. An
arrow pointed by his nephew, Cuauhtemoc, was the signal for a general
attack with stones and Montezuma was severely wounded. He died three
days later, it is claimed, at the hands of the Spaniards, who are also
said to have murdered his nephew, Cacamatzin, and other rulers, besides
priests and men of rank whom they took prisoners.
[Illustration: XOCHITL PRESENTING THE FIRST PULQUE TO
TEPANCALTZIN.]
Meantime, the position of the Spaniards was nearly hopeless. The enemy
had taken a stand on the pyramid of their great temple, whence they
could rain a tempest of missiles on the quarters of the Spaniards,
which must become untenable unless the pyramid was cleared. Inch by
inch, Cortés and his men fought the Mexicans up the lofty steps to the
topmost platform of the pyramid, where the most desperate struggle was
continued for three hours till all the natives, except two priests,
were either killed or had been hurled to the pavement below. Then,
casting the great idol of Huitzilopochtli to the square below, the
Spaniards set fire to the temple. The victory was vain, however, for
the fate of Cortés’s enterprise was sealed. Two courses only he saw,
escape from the city as best he could; or death for himself and his
companions. He had failed to beat off his assailants by his sorties;
they were but more infuriated.
In the palace of his father, the corpse of Montezuma lay, at midnight,
while the Spanish priest, Olmeda said the mass for the dead. All
preparations for flight had been made and hardly had the solemn service
been ended before the Spaniards filed out of their quarters to take up
their march out of the city which they had dreamed was their own, and
which with most of its treasures and the great empire they had hoped
to establish they were now relinquishing as terrified fugitives; not
however, entirely oblivious of gain, for by permission the men were to
take all the gold they could carry.
The night march was favored because the Aztecs rarely fought at night,
and because darkness would serve, in part, to cover the retreat. The
once proud and victorious soldiers moved forward, still orderly and
with discipline. Sandoval, Ordaz, and Lujo led with a part of the
infantry; Cortés, with the artillery, the treasure, the women and the
prisoners formed the centre; and with him were Olid, Morla and Avila;
in the rear were Alvarado and Leon, with the main body of the infantry
and the heavier guns. Scattered throughout the three divisions marched
the loyal Tlascalans, who in the darkest hour had never failed in
loyalty and valor.
The organization and discipline of the Aztecs find no better
illustration than in the measures they had taken and in their action
on this memorable _noche triste_. The bridges on the canals had been
destroyed, and sentinels had been carefully posted to give immediate
alarm, and the great drum of _huehuetl_ was served so as to bring the
native soldiers in arms instantly on its being sounded.
The night was very dark, a drizzling rain was falling as the heartsick
Spaniards cautiously proceeded through the silent streets of the city
and neared the causeway of Tlacopan. No foe had opposed them thus
far, but, as they were about to retreat along the causeway, sentinels
gave the alarm, the dreaded sound of the great drum was heard and
innumerable warriors attacked the Spaniards; they assailed them
from canoes, in the streets, from the flat house-roofs,--from every
direction came the assailants. Plan, purpose and bravery combined to
make the task of the retreating force almost impossible of execution.
With the foresight characteristic of Cortés his equipment included a
portable bridge, but its sufficiency fell short of the present urgency.
Fighting with the stubbornness of valor and desperation, the first
canal was crossed, but its capacity gave passage so slowly that before
it could be moved forward to the second canal the vanguard was attacked
savagely. Meantime, the weight of the artillery and the troops had
forced the bridge into the earth so that it could not be removed. The
situation was indescribable. Thronging the narrow causeway, surrounded
by a daring and capable enemy bent on exterminating the Spaniards,
trapped in fact, escape seemed impossible.
Desperate men dashed on horseback across the openings in the causeway,
swam, or passed across on a sinister bridge formed of corpses; but
far the greater number perished in that fateful hour. No one could
tell of the horrors of that passage, nor of the heroic bravery of the
Spaniards. The great leader, in defeat, was the equal of himself in
victory. He led the way and had crossed the last canal by a ford, but
wounded as he was, he returned with a few of his horsemen to aid those
in the rear. Alvarado, also, was severely wounded, and the story of
his escape is a favorite one. History has enshrined the legend: he
fixed his long lance in the bottom of the lake and then vaulted across
the breach in the causeway. The rear guard of the army returned to
their quarters in the city, where after a siege of three days they
surrendered and were sacrificed on the altars of the Aztec gods. The
motto that had inspired the conqueror when he added it to his standard,
bravely adorned with the arms of Charles V. and signed with the crimson
cross: _Amice sequam crucem et nos fidem habemus vere in hoc signa
vincemus_ (Friends, let us follow the cross and if we have faith,
we shall conquer), must have seemed a reproach or a mockery to the
Spaniards as they fled from the city over the Tlacopan causeway only to
meet, most of them, a horrible death.
On legend also must we rely for the statement that on bringing his
thinned ranks, depleted by five hundred of his brave compatriots and
four thousand equally brave and loyal Indians, to a native temple on
the mainland, Cortés rested under a large tree, since called the Tree
of La Noche Triste, and shed tears as he contemplated the forlorn
and desperate state of his soldiers. His was not a nature to succumb
to defeat. Bereft though he was of some of his bravest comrades, of
troops, of most of his horses, of all his artillery, almost without
firearms, and his treasure lost, his plan was ready; he would seek a
place of safety in Tlascala and there define his plans for recovery of
his position.
The retreat continued and Otompan, or Otumba, was reached on July 7th.
The way was there barred by an immense army led by Cihuacoatl. The
main reliance of the Spaniards was now on the pike and the sabre, with
which they defended themselves, but so valiant was the defense, and
often the attack, that after seventy-five days of consecutive fighting,
during which terrible carnage took place, against inconceivable odds,
the Aztecs were put to rout. It is believed that final success was due
to the bravery and strategy of Cortés, who had learned that with the
lowering of the banner of their chief, the Mexican soldiers would flee.
He therefore, supported by Sandoval, Alvarado, Olid, and Dominguez,
attacked the chief and hurled him to the ground and killed him.
Thereupon, the army fled, having lost one hundred thousand men, while
of the Spaniards one hundred and of the allies twenty thousand fell.
Taking up the march again toward Tlascala, not without grave misgiving
as to the possibility of a reversal of the friendly spirit and fidelity
of his allies, they reached the capital and were greeted with most
friendly welcome. Here, Cortés fell a prey to a fever that resulted
from the wound he had received on the Dismal Night; here, too, he was
to learn that the treasure of gold he had left behind him when he
went on to conquer Tenochtitlan had been taken by the Mexicans, who
destroyed the messengers bearing it to him. He had also to put down
the opposition of some of his soldiers who desired to go back to Cuba,
but having received reinforcements and made gunpowder from the sulphur
taken from the crater of the great Popocatepetl, he determined to
reopen his campaign by operations against Tepeaca and took and sacked
the capital and established the settlement of Segura de la Frontera.
It was evident to Cortés that his military task was more difficult than
at first. The new Aztec ruler, Cuitlahuatzin, was of different mould
from Montezuma. The leaders were very able and extremely courageous.
Every effort had been made by them to displace the loyalty of the
native allies, but in this they had failed, for their number was
increased. Cortés determined that every place that lay on the road to
Tenochtitlan must be friendly or conquered. Betrayed by their cacique,
Cuauhquechollan was subdued; Iztocan was taken and sacked and a hundred
temples given to the flames. Adding further to his native forces, and
releasing some of the companions of Narvaez, the conqueror completed
his plans for the recapture of the Aztec capital, including the
building of thirteen flat-bottomed boats to be used on Lake Tezcoco.
Before siege was laid to the capital, the successor of Montezuma
died, on November 26th, of smallpox, to which thousands of Aztecs had
succumbed. This scourge was of great service to the Spaniards. The new
ruler was Cuauhtemoctzin, or Guatemotzin, the nephew and son-in-law
of Montezuma. Preparatory to his final march on Tenochtitlan,
Cortés formulated a drastic code for the regulation of his army and
significantly declared that the pending war and its acquisitions would
be robbery unless its principal aim was the conversion of the heathens.
Thus, with an apparently more serious purpose than before, the army,
with its eight thousand carriers, bearing the thirteen brigantines,
moved on Tezcoco, on December 28th, and following the most difficult
route, took it without contest. Establishing a friendly ruler here,
Cortés then took Tlacopan and entered the southern border of the
Valley of Mexico. At this time he was captured in the course of a
reconnaissance, but was liberated by his soldiers before the time of
his sacrifice had arrived. He was also obliged to quell an insurrection
in Tezcoco, which aimed at his assassination.
[Illustration: AZTEC IDOL.]
Cortés was now ready for his attempt on Tenochtitlan. His brigantines
were launched on the lake on April 28th and with his army divided into
three bodies under Alvarado, Olid, and Sandoval, consisting of nine
hundred Spaniards, one hundred and twenty-five thousand native allies,
eighty-seven horses, and with three large and fifteen small guns,
chiefly disposed throughout the fleet, the march on the capital began
on May 20th. Cortés took command of the fleet of thirteen brigantines
and a great number of native canoes. The three commanders occupied,
respectively, Tlacopan, Coyoacan, and Iztapalapan, which they made
their bases of operations. In a few days, Cortés had taken several
lake positions; the capital was completely blockaded; the water supply
was also cut off and the way was opened for an attack on the city
itself. This he succeeded in entering and reached the principal square
and seized the great temple of the war god, withdrawing, however, at
nightfall.
Three days later, being largely reinforced from Tezcoco, he again
attacked the capital and entered it, setting fire to the palace in
which he had formerly resided and to Montezuma’s aviary. The resistance
of the Aztecs was so formidable and their bravery and steadfastness so
terrible that the retreat at night to camp could be accomplished by
Cortés only with great difficulty. But little real progress was being
made by this method as the enemy destroyed the military works of the
invaders as soon as the latter had retired. Such operations promised
little and yielding to the counsel of his lieutenants, Cortés decided
on making a general attack.
On June 28th, all plans being communicated to his leaders, an advance
on the market place of Tlatelolco was ordered. Through a misadventure,
the forces were separated. Alderete, who had already almost reached the
objective point, was greeted with the din of the great sacred drum and
he was immediately attacked by the Aztec hosts. He had omitted to close
the breaches in the causeway, and the other divisions could not follow.
The advance body was routed and fled back on the causeway. There with
Cortés on the other side of the opening, a terrible battle raged.
Cortés was wounded and narrowly escaped capture, but he rallied the
soldiers and led a retreat. Pedro de Alvarado and Sandoval, having also
nearly reached the market-place, retreated. The exultant Aztecs taunted
their enemies on their defeat and flung among them three dripping heads
of Spaniards, shouting as they did so “Malinche” (the name they applied
to Cortés), “Tonatiuh” (Alvarado), and “Sandoval.” To this they added
the abominable torture attending their barbarous sacrifices as they
offered the bodies of their captives on the altars of their demon-gods
and feasted at a banquet on their corpses at evening.
This defeat seemed to threaten the destruction of the Spaniards. It is
to the eternal credit of the native allies that not all the efforts
of Guatemotzin and his emissaries the priests, nor his threats could
undermine their loyalty to Cortés.
Realizing the disadvantages under which he labored by reason of
the difficulty of keeping open the approaches by the causeways, of
operating his forces and of defending them under these conditions,
Cortés developed a new plan of attack; he would fill the canals.
Accordingly, he led his fighting men and utilized the Indian
auxiliaries to destroy with hoes every building they reached. The great
_teocalli_ had been put to the torch; the objective point was at
hand. Slowly, but steadily, the invaders advanced and the enemy crowded
closer and closer within narrowing limits, pressed by a determined and
relentless foe, and ever falling under the combined blows of growing
famine, want of water, and pestilence. Guatemotzin at first scorned to
surrender when called upon to do so; then, as the sufferings of the
Aztecs grew past endurance, he promised to arrange terms, but failed
to appear, preferring death. The last shortening of the living chain
about them had been made; the eager soldiers leaped at the command
for a general attack, and pouring into the city after his fighting
men, the Indians fell upon the Aztecs sparing none on that day of
fearful revenge and continuing the carnage on August 13, 1521. The
Aztec chief was captured as he sought to escape on a _piragua_,
and was led before the conqueror, from whom he begged the boon of
death by his dagger, now that he was a prisoner after having done
all that he could in defence of his country and people. Their leader
captive, the surviving Aztec warriors submitted and were permitted to
leave the capital. Tenochtitlan and the Aztec dominion were destroyed.
The conqueror left a garrison in the city and his victorious forces
withdrew to their respective bases of operation. The cost of life to
the invaders during the almost three months’ siege was about one-tenth
of their strength.
The victors’ joy was tempered with disappointment. The treasure they
had hoped to find was not forthcoming. Guatemotzin was believed by the
Spaniards to possess a knowledge of its whereabouts and Cortés ordered
him to be tortured to extort a revelation which he had declared he
could not make. He averred that some treasure had been cast into the
lake, but like many another reputed vast hoard, it was not discovered,
in spite of a careful search of the waters of Lake Tezcoco.
Master of the prize that had been won at the cost of many thousands
of lives, vast treasure and heroic deeds, Cortés decided to reclothe
the fallen city with the dignity of chief place in the conquered
dominions. The aqueduct he soon restored and canals were filled and
additional causeways built. He was as able an administrator as he was
a commander. The Indians he had dispossessed were allowed to settle
in prescribed districts in the new city. With an immense number of
Mexicans whose labor he could utilize, the City of Mexico soon became a
solid and imposing place.
Not long after the conquest was completed, new troubles arose that
threatened the power that Cortés had acquired. Velasquez, the governor
of Cuba had so contrived that the royal government authorized both an
investigation of the conqueror’s conduct and the taking over of the
government of New Spain, but the official sent proved no match for
the conqueror and he returned to Cuba. Soon thereafter, Charles V.
conferred on Cortés the titles and powers of governor, captain-general,
and chief justice of New Spain. His acts confirmed, his companions
rewarded, and his dignities established, Cortés began to explore and
settle the new dominion. On the Pacific he threw out the settlement
of Zacatula, on the Atlantic, San Estevan, Medellin, and Antigua,
which latter he projected as the principal port. Regulations were made
to encourage the settling of the country and great inducements were
offered to those who married. In the appropriation of lands, Spaniards
only were recognized, the natives being held in a condition of slavery,
save only the Tlascalans, whose loyalty was rewarded by immunity from
tribute and the entire control of their lands, besides the enjoyment
of other privileges and the bestowal of titles of distinction on their
leaders. Later, their capital became the seat of the first bishopric,
they elected their alcalde and he became their governor. But no honors
bestowed on them could repay their services, for without their aid, no
Spaniard would have survived, no nation would have been possible.
One of the consequences of the capture of the City of Mexico was the
effort on the part of the southern provinces of Mexico bordering on
Guatemala to conciliate the great conqueror and secure his goodwill.
These sent ambassadors laden with gifts of such value that Cortés was
fired with the ambition to acquire lands on the southern sea, for
which purpose he fitted out an expedition that soon accomplished its
object. This was supplemented by an expedition sent in aid of the
people of Tehuantepec against the adjoining province of Tututepec.
This resulted in the invasion of the latter province by Alvarado, its
defeat and the settlement of Spaniards in the territory; while he
proceeded to Guatemala and discovering its wealth determined on its
conquest when the opportunity occurred. Fitting out a strong force,
chiefly of natives, Alvarado marched south and was loyally treated by
the people of Tehuantepec but resisted by those of Soconusco, whom he
defeated and thus conquered their provinces. He continued his march
through Guatemala, with which we need not here deal, except to say that
Alvarado remained loyal to Cortés, by whom he was recommended for the
governorship of Guatemala.
[Illustration: BANNER CARRIED BY CORTÉS.]
During one of his expeditions, Cortés disposed of his faithful friend
Marina, by gift to a Spanish knight, whom she married. Though she was
endowed with large grants of land from the government of Spain, her
abandonment was but a mean requital of her affection and inestimable
services to Cortés and the Spanish cause, and the romantic interest
associated with “Malinche,” and the popularity accorded to her, better
measure the appreciation of her services.
On his return from Honduras, Cortés was received in Mexico with
great rejoicing by the people, his enemies had been active in Spain
and he had been accused of aiming at an independent sovereignty. An
investigation was committed to Juan Ponce de Leon, with the power
of governor meantime. His death in a few weeks and also that of the
successor he named brought the duty to the task of Alonso de Estrada,
a bitter enemy of Cortés, who was still captain general. Under these
circumstances, Cortés determined to appeal in person to his sovereign
and accordingly sailed from Villa Rica with rich presents and specimens
characteristic of the flora and fauna of the country. With him were
Sandoval and Tapia, and two sons of the late Montezuma and Maxixca, and
several native chiefs.
Arrived in Spain, he went to the convent of La Rabida, where Sandoval,
one of his ablest companions, died. The arrival of Cortés created
intense interest and he was accorded the greatest distinction by the
sovereign, who conferred on him the title of Marquis of the Valley of
Oaxaca and bestowed on him large estates in Oaxaca, in Mexico City, and
elsewhere. His governorship of New Spain was not restored, however,
but he was appointed captain general of that dominion and empowered to
make discoveries and settlements in the southern ocean. The conqueror
now married a lady of royal blood, Doña Juana de Zuñiga and in 1530
embarked for Mexico.
In the closing days of 1527, Charles V. had appointed an _audiencia_ to
govern New Spain, at the head of which was Nuñez de Guzman, governor of
the Province of Panuco, aided by four _oidores_. This administration
was vicious in the extreme; barbaric cruelty was exercised toward the
natives, who were capriciously murdered and enslaved; charges against
Cortés were encouraged and considered with foregone determination;
the clergy was tyrannized over and abused for their efforts to obtain
justice and humane treatment of the natives; till in 1529, Zumarraga,
the first bishop of Mexico, related in a letter to Spain the tale of
the misdoings of the _audiencia_. Guzman, dreading the exposure of
his evil deeds and hoping to avert disaster to himself, set out on
December 20, 1529, on an expedition to conquer the province of Jalisco,
or Amazonas, which had been discovered by Cortés. Guzman, during his
rule of Panuco, harassed and plundered the native inhabitants with
utter disregard of even the semblance of justice and descended to acts
of the most petty despotism. He even caused the Indians to be put to
death because they had omitted to clean the streets in his path. At the
least manifestation of discontent on the part of the Huastecas, during
his absence from his province as governor of Mexico, he caused whole
towns to be subdued by force of arms as rebels, and the inhabitants to
be sold as slaves, so that this monster’s cruelty resulted in almost
the depopulation of entire districts. Now that he was entering on the
conquest of Jalisco he raised funds by seizing and exporting as slaves
the natives of his own province, those who fled in terror to the deep
forests and mountain fastnesses being pursued by slave-hunting parties
to take them.
This inhuman conqueror left a trail of desolation behind him as he
marched through Michoacan and Nueva Galicia. He tortured and burnt
those chiefs who could or would not furnish him with gold, or even
a token of his displeasure; the chief of the Tarascans of Michoacan,
who had manifested the extreme of friendliness toward him, stripping
himself and his people of all their gold and possessions, giving him
free passage through his country and furnishing him with hosts of
burden bearers, was in spite of all, put to daily torture and, when
this ceased to afford diversion, was then burned. The tyrant was
fiercely fought in the territory he invaded, but the natives were
defeated and he founded the cities of Guadalajara and Compostella.
During this campaign, Chirinos, one of Guzman’s officers, invaded the
Zacatecas, a so-called Chichimec tribe.
The depredations and maladministration of the _audiencia_ did not cease
even during the absence of Guzman, so that the Crown, forced by the
representations of the ecclesiastical authorities, resolved to govern
Mexico by a viceroy and appointed Antonio de Mendoza, but displaced the
old _audiencia_ and appointed another to govern until the arrival of
Mendoza in Mexico.
The royal commission to Cortés to make discoveries was henceforth
the sole motive of the conqueror’s activity in Mexico. He landed at
Villa Rica in July, 1530, and, being forbidden to come within ten
miles of the capital until the new _audiencia_ was installed, he
took up his abode at Tezcoco. He was never again, however, to reside
permanently in the capital, for he found himself in conflict with the
new _audiencia_ and withdrew to Cuernavaca, there to manage and
cultivate his estates.
In 1532, he dispatched an expedition to explore the Pacific coast
northward, but the fleet was lost. The next year he sent two vessels in
the same direction one of which in 1534 touched the Peninsula of Lower
California, which was supposed to be an island. Even such a succession
of disasters could not crush the spirit of Cortés, who, in 1535, led
an expedition which established a colony on the eastern shore near the
southern extremity of the Peninsula of California, but owing to the
barrenness of the land it was a failure, the few survivors making their
way back to Mexico in 1536. In 1539, he sent out another expedition
under Francisco de Ulloa who, with three ships explored the western
coast of the same peninsula to about the twentieth parallel of north
latitude, or certainly as far as Cedros Island. But his adventures were
interrupted by the viceroy, Mendoza, who had arrived in October, 1535,
and who claimed that the right of discoveries in the southern ocean was
vested in him.
Again Cortés left Mexico, in January, 1540, to seek redress at the
Court of Spain, but his efforts were without success. He enlisted to
fight against the Moors at Algiers; then returned to Spain, where,
after much discouragement and even, it is said, contempt, he finally
obtained permission from Charles V. to return to Mexico. He died,
however, near Seville, on December 2, 1547, on his return journey to
the magnificent land that he had conquered and added to the dominions
of Spain, with all its limitless resources, rich in all that country
needed to support its tottering power and for a time to restore and
even to increase its former greatness.
[Illustration: PORT MARQUEZ WHERE CORTÉS BUILT HIS FLEET FOR
A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY ON THE PACIFIC.]
[Illustration: CARVINGS OF THE TIME OF THE VICEROYS. THE
CHURCH OF SANTA ROSA, QUERÉTARO.]
[Illustration: BURNING OF THE FEET OF CUAUHTEMOC AND HIS
GENERAL TO FIND THEIR HIDDEN TREASURE.]
CHAPTER II
VICEROYALTY
The old order had passed. On the ruins of the Aztec dominion was
established a military government, a sort of proprietary dominion; to
this succeeded a short-lived civil government by commissioners; then
came the final stage of Mexico’s dependency and provincial government
under a viceroy. These successive governments saw in the great dominion
only a field for the exploitation of riches for their sovereign’s use
and their own. The natives of the country had been ruthlessly despoiled
of their possessions and to a large degree enslaved by the Spaniards;
they had no rights save such as their masters might arbitrarily grant.
Except for the noble protection and kindness of Las Casas and the
missionaries, their lot had been hopeless indeed. The first viceroy,
Don Antonio de Mendoza, Conde de Tendilla, arrived in Mexico on October
15, 1535. As before said, his authority soon clashed with that of
Cortés. He was a man of superior parts and great probity and earnestly
strove to direct the province of New Spain in the path of progress and
stability. Among the enlightened measures of his administration was
the introduction of the printing press, and in 1537 appeared _La
Escala de San Juan Climaco_, a Latin work translated by Fra Juan de
Madalena. The establishment of a mint for the coinage of silver money
was another important work, inasmuch as the natives had become opposed
to the copper coin, of which they had cast some two hundred thousand
pesos in value into the lake. The viceroy also founded a college for
Indian nobles at Tlatelolco and with a spirit of consideration for the
natives he caused the hated Nuñez de Guzman, who as president of the
first _audiencia_ had been guilty of great cruelty and greed,
to be cast into the common jail. Under his direction, Coronado led
the expedition to the fabled Quivira in the northeast, the Eldorado
of the north, the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” so wonderfully described
to De Vaca by the Indians. The town of Guadalajara was founded in
New Galicia; and Valladolid in 1541; this latter, in 1828, was named
Morelia in honor of the patriot Morelos. During his rule, the famous
Mixton War occurred in the new province of New Galicia and was finally
suppressed by Oñate aided by the viceroy.
The period was marked by the introduction of the benign measures known
as the “New Laws,” promulgated by Charles V. in 1542, chiefly at the
instance and through the exertion of the Indian-loving Bartolomé
de las Casas. The intent of these laws was to prohibit absolutely
further enslavement of the natives and, as far as practicable, to give
freedom to those already slaves, but their enforcement was found to be
impracticable.
In 1545, an appalling epidemic spread among the natives, of whom
eight hundred thousand were said to have perished. During this period
the viceroy Mendoza unremittingly cared for the sick and earned the
proud and affectionate title of “Father of the poor.” The justice
of his rule won the loyalty of the natives to the crown, and during
the insurrection of Pizarro the emperor conferred on the former
Tenochtitlan the title of _muy noble insigne y leal_. In 1551,
Mendoza was rewarded for his excellent administration by transfer to
the government of turbulent Peru.
Don Luis de Velasco succeeded in November, 1551, as the second viceroy
of New Spain. He directed assiduously the enforcement of the “New Laws”
and in this succeeded measurably, earning for himself the title of “the
Emancipator,” as he liberated from the mines one hundred and sixty
thousand Mexicans, whose freedom he said, “was more important than all
the mines in the world, and that the revenues derived therefrom by the
crown were not of such a nature as to defy the laws of God and man.” In
1551, the University of Mexico was created and in 1553, was founded.
Velasco died in Mexico in 1564, and was interred there with great pomp
and honor in appreciation of his able administration.
Martin Cortés, the second Marqués del Valle, who had left New Spain
with his father when eight years old, now returned to Mexico, enriched
by profit in the service of the king, and sought to enjoy his
hereditary possessions and honors. His arrival, in 1563, was attended
with great splendor, and his state and pretensions gave offence to the
viceroy, although no serious trouble had occurred during his lifetime.
[Illustration: DOOR OF THE HOUSE OF CONDE DE SANTIAGO.]
The third viceroy, Gaston de Peralta, Marqués de Falces, arrived
during the investigation of the charges against Martin Cortés and his
friends. He found no proof of conspiracy, stopped the proceedings and
released most of the prisoners and commuted the death sentence passed
on Luis Cortés to ten years’ service in Africa and loss of property;
he sent the Marqués to Spain. This procedure enraged the members of
the _audiencia_ and they accused the viceroy of favoring the
conspiracy and sought his recall. A commission sent by the king to
investigate determined on the prosecution of all traitors and four
were executed, while Martin Cortés, son of Marina, was tortured and
then exiled. The ordinary jails were insufficient to hold the victims
of the persecution; the viceroy was deposed. But so exceedingly cruel
and arbitrary was the action of the persecutor that he was himself
deposed in 1568, and the viceroy was exonerated of all blame. This
extraordinary and romantic affair ended, after a protracted trial, in
the restoration to the Marqués of his confiscated property in 1574.
During the term of the fourth viceroy, Martin Enriquez de Almanza, the
scourge of the Spanish Inquisition was established in Mexico under the
direction of Pedro Moya de Contreras, later Archbishop of Mexico and
viceroy of New Spain. Nominally, this institution was introduced in
1529, by a council consisting of the _audiencia_ and the heads of the
Franciscan and Dominican orders, but its official establishment was
not made until later. In 1572, the Jesuits settled in the province and
founded their first college in the City of Mexico, which was devoted
to the education of the Spanish Americans and to the conversion of the
natives. _La Caridad de San Hipolito_ was another institution founded
under this administration; its purposes were wholly charitable.
Little worthy of note occurred, for strife between the _audiencia_
and the viceroys had become chronic, and government was paralyzed,
until the administration of the eighth viceroy, Luis de Velasco, son
of the second viceroy, in 1590. Having resided for some time in New
Spain he was familiar with conditions and as he was very popular the
progress of the province was marked, particularly in the direction
of manufactures and the embellishment of the capital. His successor,
Gaspar de Zuñiga y Acevedo, Conde de Monterey, appointed in 1595,
continued the territorial extension in New Mexico and accomplished
the conquest of that territory by the expedition under Oñate in 1599.
The domain was further extended into California as the result of
explorations of Sebastian Vizcaino, who discovered the Bay of Monterey
and founded the town of that name. A town of the same name was also
founded in Nuevo León. The old city of Vera Cruz was removed to its
present site, that first chosen by Cortés for Villa Rica. This viceroy
did much to allay the discontent of the natives owing to their having
been gathered in the towns, the better to secure the exaction of
tribute from them.
Already, ere the close of the century of conquest, had been sown the
seeds of discord between the Creoles and the Spaniards. The latter
enjoyed the chief profits and honors of public office and life. The
result of this policy was a growing antagonism which, in a little more
than two centuries was to wrest the country from the foreigner and give
its benefits to the native born.
In 1604, during the rule of Juan Manuel Hurtado de Mendoza y Luna,
Marqués de Montesclaros, the capital suffered from a terrible
inundation.
The second term of Luis de Velasco the eleventh viceroy is noteworthy
for the construction of the great Huehuetoca Tunnel to protect the
capital from inundation by drawing the water from Lake Zumpango. This
formidable engineering work was planned by Enrico Martinez, an engineer
of Dutch birth but educated in Spain, with the coöperation of Juan
Sanchez, a Jesuit mathematician. The work, however, was soon superseded
in favor of the ancient dike system, on the advice of Adrian Boot,
the famous Dutch engineer. During this administration the Alameda was
established, so called because first planted with _álamos_. A revolt
of the negroes in the district of Vera Cruz occurred in 1609, and only
after severe fighting in the mountains was it overcome. The defeated
blacks then formed a settlement in San Lorenzo.
[Illustration: SACRIFICIAL STONE.]
The twelfth viceroy was Fray Garcia Guerra, Archbishop of Mexico. His
administration was cut short by his death through a fall from his
carriage. Noteworthy is a mission to Japan undertaken by Sebastian
Vizcaino, accompanied by Fray Pedro Bautista, but the ambassadors
received scant courtesy, in spite of the many perils they suffered.
The founding of the important towns of Lerma and Cordova in 1613
and 1618 and the extension of the aqueduct to Santa Isabella were
accomplished during the term of Diego Fernandez de Cordova, Marqués de
Guadalcazar. He was succeeded by Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y Pimental,
Marqués de Galves and Conde de Priego, as fourteenth viceroy. His
administration was marked by sincere effort to prevent and correct
abuses and dishonesty among public officials. A struggle began between
church and state. He was soon at odds with Archbishop Juan Perez de la
Serna, who excommunicated the viceroy. The papal delegate, however,
ordered this ban removed, but the Archbishop refused; in consequence a
decree of fine and banishment was issued against him. Still resisting,
the Archbishop was forcibly taken to the coast for banishment, but
on his way having learned that the _audiencia_ had repented and
ordered his return to the capital on the ground of irregularity in
the proceedings, he took refuge in a church and defied his guards
to lay hands on him. Finally, the people of San Juan Teotihuacan
liberated him. A riot of perilous portent broke out in the capital
and notwithstanding that the viceroy consented to recall Serna, the
viceregal palace was besieged and set on fire, the viceroy escaping to
a convent. The triumph of this headstrong churchman was complete. On
the arrival of the fifteenth viceroy, Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio, Marqués
de Cerralvo, the inquisitor formally reinstated Galves and removed his
name from the excommunication tablet and he entered Mexico in triumph.
His enemy the Archbishop went to Spain whither, after the investigation
of his government had resulted in honorable credit to him, Galves
followed. In 1628, the Dutch admiral, Pieter Heyne captured a treasure
fleet bearing bullion and other valuables from New Spain to the mother
country, of a value of twelve million pesos. As a result of this, a
squadron called the _Barlovento_ (Windward) was formed to protect
the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies.
[Illustration: PALACE OF ITURBIDE, NOW A FAMOUS OLD HOTEL.]
A noteworthy feature of the administration of the seventeenth viceroy,
the Marqués de Villena and Duque de Escalona, who was of an illustrious
Portuguese family, was his removal from office on a charge of plotting
against his king in favor of the Portuguese, who had revolted against
Spain. The viceroy was later exonerated from this charge. Escalona was
succeeded as eighteenth viceroy, by Palafox, Bishop of Puebla. Though
an able administrator, his zeal in the conversion of the Indians to
Christianity led him to destroy many priceless statues and idols of
the Aztec period, the loss of which has proved of serious consequence
to succeeding generations. During the administration of the Bishop of
Yucatán, Marcos de Torres y Rueda, the twentieth viceroy, a dreadful
_auto de fé_ was ordered, of which there were one hundred and
seven victims.
[Illustration: STATUE OF CHARLES IV.]
New Mexico was colonized and the town of Albuquerque founded during the
term of the twenty-second viceroy, Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva,
Duque de Albuquerque. In 1665, during the rule of Antonio Sebastian
de Toledo, Marqués de Mancera, the great Popocatepetl erupted during
four days, and two years later a severe earthquake occurred. In 1668,
the cathedral of the City of Mexico was dedicated the second time in
celebration of the completion of the interior; its earlier dedication
having taken place in 1657. Under the wise and beneficent progressive
rule of Fray Payo Enriquez de Rivera, Archbishop of Mexico, the
twenty-seventh viceroy, the causeway and aqueduct of Guadalupe were
constructed and the coinage of gold was first undertaken in New Spain.
[Illustration: CARVINGS ON THE CHURCH OF LA SANTISIMA.]
During the administration of the Marqués de la Laguna, the
twenty-eighth viceroy, from 1680 to 1686, Vera Cruz was taken by
surprise by a band of six hundred pirates under Nicolás Agramonte
who committed great ravages, over three hundred persons losing their
lives and six thousand being imprisoned in the church for five days
without food. The twenty-ninth viceroy, Melchor Portocarrero Lazo de
la Vega, Conde de Monclova made his administration memorable by the
construction, at his own cost, of the aqueduct of Chapultepec. He also
colonized Coahuila and founded the town of Monclova. He is called “the
man with the silver arm,” because of a silver substitute for an arm he
lost in battle.
The chief event during the reign of the next viceroy, Gaspar de la
Cerda Sandoval Silva y Mendoza, Conde de Galve, the thirtieth viceroy,
who ruled from 1688 to 1696, was the extension of the domain of New
Spain to the east, including Texas. He sent an expedition in 1689,
under Alonso de León, governor of Coahuila to dislodge the French, who
were supposed to have founded a settlement under La Salle, and in 1690
a mission was established near the Neches River, in Texas. In addition,
in 1691, explorations in the interior and on the coast were made and in
1693, a town and fort were established at Pensacola, the former being
called Santa Maria and the bay was named Santa Maria de Galves, after
Bernardo de Galves.
In 1696, the thirty-second viceroy, José Sarmiento Valladares, Conde de
Montezuma y Tula, whose wife, Geronima Maria, was a lineal descendant
of the last Aztec ruler, succeeded to the government of New Spain.
Toward the close of his rule the conflict over the Spanish succession
arising out of the death of Charles II., in 1700, seriously involved
the affairs of Mexico. The treasure ships from New Spain were prizes
eagerly sought by the league of powers seeking the overthrow of the
Bourbons, and in 1702, the fleet of such ships that had sailed from
Vera Cruz with treasure valued at fifty million pesos was attacked and
destroyed in the Port of Vigo, in Spain, and to avoid the capture of
the treasure it was cast into the sea. This viceroy was removed because
of his suspected disloyalty to the Bourbons. During the administration
of the thirty-fourth viceroy, Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, Duque de
Albuquerque and Marqués de Cuellar, who assumed a magnificence of pomp
and ceremony that even surpassed the custom of kings and emperors, a
special tribunal was created, the _acordada_, for the punishment
of robbers and brigands and its severe decrees accomplished much good.
[Illustration: IDOLS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.]
During the rule of the Marqués de Valero, Duque de Arion, viceroy from
1716 to 1722, an aqueduct was constructed to supply Querétaro with
water. His successor, Juan de Acuña, Marqués de Casafuerte, effected
important reforms and works of great public utility. Such was the
esteem in which he was held that he is called the “great governor.”
During his rule the _Gaceta de Mexico_ was published. Under Pedro
Cebrian y Augustin, Conde de Fuenclara, 1742 to 1746, the colonization
of the State of Tamaulipas was effected. A noteworthy incident was the
arrest of the Italian, Lorenzo Boturini, who had contributed valuable
data to the history of Mexico, for not obtaining the sanction of the
Council of the Indies preparatory to making a collection for providing
a costly crown for the Lady of Guadalupe. His manuscript was taken from
him and he was sent to Spain. In 1743, the British fleet, under Admiral
Anson, captured a Spanish galleon bound from the Philippines.
[Illustration: FOUNTAIN IN MEXICO CITY.]
During the rule of Joaquin de Montserrat, Marqués de Cruillas, the
first regular army in Mexico was established. He also instituted the
numbering of all the houses in the capital. During the term of this
viceroy, Spain acquired (1762) from France, by the secret treaty
of Fontainebleau, the Province of Louisiana on the right bank of
the Mississippi and the City of New Orleans on the left bank. The
possession of this province was regarded as of great importance to
Mexico as a barrier between her and the British possessions. In 1763,
Spain ceded to Great Britain the territory known as West Florida.
The noteworthy events of the government of Carlos Francisco de Croix,
Marqués de Croix, whose rule extended from 1766 to 1771, were the
expulsion of the Jesuits, among whom was the historian Clavigero, and
the confiscation of their property, and the extension of the Alameda to
its present area.
In 1771, Antonio Bucareli y Urzua succeeded as the forty-sixth
viceroy and ruled till 1779. Under his able care the industry and
commerce of New Spain greatly developed, and new and important works
were established. At his personal cost, he completed the aqueduct of
Chapultepec which had been commenced by the Conde de Monclova; the
Monte Pio was founded, under the charge of Romero Terreros, Conde de
Regla, who endowed it with three hundred thousand pesos and stipulated
that loans to the poor should bear no interest. Many hospitals and
asylums for the poor were also established and a foundling asylum at
La Cuna through the benevolence of Archbishop Lorenzana. No wise work
for the good of Mexico was ignored by him. He edited the letters of
Hernán Cortés. He encouraged mining and extended the operations of the
mint. In the great church at Guadalupe a bronze tablet in the floor
marks the resting place of the good viceroy Bucareli. So highly was he
esteemed also by the king that his salary was largely increased and,
still more noteworthy, no _residencia_, or investigation, of his
administration was held at his death.
Martin de Mayorga, the forty-seventh viceroy, entered on office in
1779. Of his civil services it is to be noted that he founded the San
Carlos Academy of Fine Arts.
The aspirations of Matias de Galvez were realized in 1783, when he
succeeded as the forty-eighth viceroy; but he lived only a few months.
His son Bernardo was next appointed; his popularity in Louisiana was
fully equaled in Mexico. Amongst his popular measures was the building
of the palace of Chapultepec at a cost of three hundred thousand pesos;
and his aid during a famine, when he labored personally to ascertain
the actual wants of the sufferers and supplied them largely out of
his private means. So great was his popularity that some suspected
him of aiming at an independent sovereignty, but this suspicion was
not entertained by his king or the _audiencia_. His death in 1786,
at thirty-eight, called forth general manifestation of the affection
in which he was held and great honors were paid to his memory, his
posthumous daughter being christened with great pomp and having as
sponsors the “most noble” City of Mexico.
In 1789, Juan Vicente de Güemes Pacheco de Padilla, Conde de
Revillagigedo, succeeded as fifty-second viceroy; he was the second
Conde de Revillagigedo and the son of the forty-first viceroy. His
rule was one of active reforms in administration. The City of Mexico
was paved and lighted, a sewerage system and fire brigades and a
police force were established. Free public schools were provided for
children of both sexes and the famous College of Mining was opened.
He relentlessly pursued and executed bandits; cleansed the city
thoroughly; and caused a census to be taken of the _intendencia_
of Mexico in 1790, when the population was shown to be over one
million five hundred thousand, and of the capital nearly one hundred
and thirteen thousand. He sent out several exploring expeditions,
one of which reached within the confines of Alaska. So thorough was
his government that he sought to inform himself of every detail and
in order to learn of any abuses, he provided a letter box in one of
the halls of the palace, in which the public might deposit written
statements of complaint or suggestion. So active had been this
viceroy’s administration that the ancient city of the Aztecs had become
by the close of the eighteenth century a beautiful modern city. Yet in
spite of all his labors, he was removed from office in 1794 and died
under the cloud of royal displeasure. Only after his death was his true
merit recognized and honors were showered on his descendants.
[Illustration: STATUE OF CUAUHTEMOC.]
Miguel de la Grua Talamanca, Marqués de Branciforte, succeeded in 1794
as the fifty-third viceroy. He was a brother-in-law of Manuel Godoy,
Prince of Peace, the favorite of Charles IV., and was, consequently, in
much favor with the king, who heaped honors upon him. He reciprocated
the royal favor to the utmost of his power. He caused to be erected the
splendid bronze equestrian statue of Charles IV. in the Paseo, the work
of the celebrated Mexican sculptor, Manuel Tolsa, of which Humboldt
said that, “except the statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, there was
nothing of the kind in Europe to equal it in beauty and purity of
design.” Viceroy Branciforte was too much of a courtier to administer
his government in the interest of the people of Mexico, but he actively
sought to aggrandize his own possessions. He confiscated the property
of Frenchmen residing in Mexico and in Louisiana, and when he left his
government in 1798 he took with him an immense treasure. During his
administration that part of Florida west of the Perdido River was ceded
to France.
The fifty-fourth viceroy, Miguel José de Azanza, ruled New Spain from
1798 to 1800 with ability and justice, but the spirit of the revolution
was hovering over Mexico and he had to put down a conspiracy to expel
the Spaniards or _gachupines_ from the province, which broke out in
1799. This conspiracy is known as the “_machete_,” from the name given
to the sabres used by the conspirators, who, though insignificant in
number, represented a rapidly extending antagonism of long standing,
between the Creoles and the Spaniards, which was soon to burst forth
in an inconquerable flame. The noteworthy act of Felix Berenguer de
Marquina the fifty-fifth viceroy, from 1800 to 1803, was his effort to
put an end to the bull-fight. On his forbidding this pastime, and being
informed that the municipal government could not meet the deficiency
caused by the cost of the viceroy’s reception unless the profits of
a bull-fight were forthcoming, the viceroy covered the amount, seven
thousand pesos, out of his private purse.
José de Iturrigaray succeeded in 1803. In 1802, Spain and France
signed the definitive treaty by which the former ceded Louisiana to
France, and in 1803, Napoleon sold the Province to the United States,
notwithstanding the stipulations of the treaty with Spain. Spain
allied with France against England and at the battle of Trafalgar
her fleet and that of her ally were almost totally destroyed and
fears were entertained that an attack on Vera Cruz by the English
would follow. In 1808, owing to the weak conduct of Charles IV. in
respect of the designs of Napoleon he was compelled to abdicate in
favor of his son Ferdinand. Quarrels and misunderstandings finally
resulted in Napoleon’s putting his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the
Spanish throne, but not without intense and heroic resistance from the
Spaniards, and only to be expelled in 1814. The news of the surrender
of the Spanish crown to Napoleon bitterly incensed the people of New
Spain, and on July 19, 1808, the municipal authorities of Mexico City
petitioned Viceroy Iturrigaray not to recognize any foreign authority
or Spanish authorities if controlled by foreigners, and asserted that,
in the absence of a legitimate sovereign, the power resided in the
people. This latter claim was espoused by the Creoles and the viceroy,
but was as strongly opposed by the official Spanish party and the heads
of the Church and the Inquisition as seditious and heretical. For this
leaning toward the native claim, the viceroy became suspected by the
Spanish party and on September 15, 1808, he was clandestinely seized,
sent a prisoner to the Island of San Juan de Ulua and thence to Cadiz.
Pedro de Garibay was the next viceroy. He was elected mainly by the
_Chaquetas_, who were the volunteers of Fernando Séptimo, and who had
captured Iturrigaray at the viceregal palace. The viceroy was merely
the tool of the Spanish party in ordering the secret execution of the
Licenciado Verdad, who, as head of the municipality of Mexico City
had proposed a provisional government for New Spain at a _junta_ held
on August 9th. Verdad is regarded as the first martyr for Mexican
independence.
The Spanish _junta_ at Aranjuez, which was then recognized in Mexico,
appointed the Archbishop of Mexico, Francisco Xavier Lizana y Beaumont
viceroy. He was succeeded by Francisco Xavier Venégas, the fifty-ninth
viceroy, who was appointed by the Spanish regency. His rule was not
effective; the spirit of independence was strengthening; nor did the
decree issued in Spain in 1809, recognizing the West Indian possessions
as an integral part of the monarchy, avail to check the nascent
national movement, particularly as the Creoles were discriminated
against in the matter of representation in the _cortes_.
[Illustration: OLD CARVING OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS.]
[Illustration: THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC.]
[Illustration: GATEWAY AT THE MILITARY SCHOOL AT CHAPULTEPEC.]
CHAPTER III
THE BATTLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
It was not until the various colonies to the north of them had achieved
their independence, and had come to be known as a new nation, the
United States of America, that the Mexicans began to indulge the spirit
of patriotism and the desire for independence which are implanted
by nature in every human breast. Other patriots had succeeded in
establishing their rights to freedom and its privileges, why not they?
As the years went on, this restless desire for liberty grew among the
patriots of Mexico. The fruits, the wealth, the prodigal bounty of the
country were theirs, they felt, by inheritance; why should they go to
enrich the coffers of a foreign country while they were kept here in
poverty and oppression? In 1798, the Spanish viceroy began to discover
signs of the uprising that broke out with such force a few years later,
under the noble Hidalgo. Even then the Mexicans had decided in their
secret hearts that Mexico should no longer be New Spain either in name
or in fact. She should be free. She should govern her own country and
worship in her own church. She should come into her own Kingdom of
Liberty.
It was a bloody struggle and one that was several times repeated ere
the victory was gained and Mexico became firmly established as one of
the republics of the world.
Hidalgo and his patriots made a noble fight, but internal dissensions
and foreign invasions followed; the valuable mines, sacked for
centuries by other rulers, had to be abandoned, and the tillable lands
were left untouched. The patriots were fighting in the cause of honor
and trying to wrest the crown of liberty from their oppressors, while
starvation stared them in the face. It is always so in a desperate
revolution. Liberty is to be won only by the sacrifice of many human
lives.
And so the older patriots fought, bled, and died for their country,
while their places were taken by younger men who continued the battle
for progress and freedom, and only the Indians of the mountain
fastnesses were left free from care or ambitions.
Mexico’s history has been singularly cursed by the greed of gold and
lust of power on the part of foreign potentates. Her inexhaustible
treasures have, in past ages, been to her, in a sense, a curse rather
than a blessing; since it was only the greed of gold which brought
the cruel, grinding oppressor, who for centuries kept her under the
iron heel of the conquerors. While Mexico waited, many a less favored
settlement rose to the distinction of a nation, and smaller colonies
rose to proud prominence.
But Mexico was oppressed and despoiled in vain. Slowly, perhaps, her
courage rose to the point of resistance, but when the day of struggle
came her spirit was indomitable. Beaten repeatedly, thrust down from
temporary acquisitions more than once, she knew not the meaning of the
word defeat. Again and again she rose fresh from discouragement; and
with a persistence that was almost divine, and a courage that comes
only from the God of Liberty, cried, undismayed, “Mexico shall be free!
Mexico shall take her place among the independent nations of the
earth!”
In 1809, an independent plot had been born in Valladolid, in Michoacán,
and in the next year the revolutionists directed their plans from the
town of Querétaro. The chief guide in the incipient movement was
Ignacio Allende, who, in coöperation with the licenciados Parra, Laso
and Altamirano, and the captains Aldama and Arías, the lieutenants
Lanzagorta, Epigmenio and Emeterio Gonzalez, officers in the Queen’s
dragoons, established a _junta_ in Querétaro. The plan was to
seize the leading Spaniards in the chief towns and thereupon to
proclaim the independence of Mexico, with a government ruling in the
name of Ferdinand VII., independent of Spanish authorities. In 1810,
the leader of the revolutionists was the noble patriot _cura_
Hidalgo, who was in charge of the parish of Dolores, in Guanajúato. The
plan was for a general uprising on December 8, 1810, when the great
fair of San Juan de los Lagos would begin, but through the treachery
of some of their comrades at Guanajúato, and by Captain Arías at
Querétaro, their plan was untimely precipitated, and several arrests
were made at Querétaro on September 13th, including the brothers
Gonzalez. Warning of this was conveyed to the friends at San Miguel,
and the news of the arrests at Querétaro was brought to Hidalgo at
Dolores, who realizing the extremity of the situation exclaimed:
“Gentlemen, we are lost; there is no other recourse but to seize the
_gachupines_.” The people of Dolores were aroused; at early mass
on that Sunday morning, Hidalgo urged them to defend their rights
against the usurped dominion of the French. They seized the principal
Spaniards in the town; the priest was acclaimed their leader and by
noon of the same day a small patriot army, badly equipped, but very
enthusiastic, marched on San Miguel under the lead of Hidalgo and
Allende. On the march, they stopped at the sanctuary of Atotonilco,
where taking from the altar the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe,
Hidalgo raised it as the patriot standard and uttered the _grito
de Dolores_: “_Viva nuestra Senora de Guadalupe; mueran los
gachupines!_”
[Illustration: HIDALGO.]
Arriving at San Miguel, Allende’s regiment joined Hidalgo’s force and
the combined army marched on Guanajúato, gathering strength as it
proceeded. At Celaya, the troops guarding the town abandoned it and
Hidalgo entered on September 21st, after threatening with death the
Spanish prisoners if the place was not surrendered. The patriot army
now numbered fifty thousand, and it proclaimed Hidalgo captain-general
of America, and Allende lieutenant-general. On to Guanajúato, with
momentarily increasing force, the patriots moved. This important city
contained considerable treasure, but through fear of the people the
_intendente_ hesitated to defend it and retired to the Alhondiga
de Granaditas, or granary, with his soldiers, where he was attacked by
the patriots on September 28th and killed. The treasure seized amounted
in value to three million pesos, and the city, as was the case at
Celaya, was pillaged, though Hidalgo exerted himself to the utmost to
prevent such excess.
[Illustration: JOSÉ MARIA MORELOS.]
Viceroy Venegas now recognized the formidable character of the
revolution and took energetic steps to quell it. Volunteer troops
were enlisted. A price of ten thousand pesos was put on the head of
each of the leaders of the revolution; Hidalgo and his followers were
excommunicated, and the Inquisition cited the patriot priest to answer
charges of heresy and apostasy. Valladolid (Morelia) was occupied,
without resistance, by the patriots, who emancipated slaves and
abolished tribute payment. With his funds greatly increased in this
town, Hidalgo prepared to march on the capital with an army, or perhaps
more truly a rabble, of eighty thousand men. At this time he was
proclaimed generalissimo with Allende as captain-general and Aldama,
Ballerza, Jimenez and Joaquin Arías, lieutenant-generals.
General Torcuato Trujillo was sent with three thousand men to oppose
Hidalgo’s way to the capital and the armies met at Las Cruces, about
twenty miles from the capital, on October 30, 1810. The conflict was
bitter, the greater number of the patriots being more than offset
by the superior equipment and discipline of the royalists, who were
equipped with artillery. In the capital, the viceroy, alarmed at
the strength of the revolutionists, contemplated the removal of the
government to Vera Cruz, but finally decided to remain and defend it.
He secured the image of the Virgin de los Remedios from Totoltepec and
enshrined it in the cathedral of the capital and with much ceremony
hailed it as “lady captain-general of the army.” As a counteraction
to that of Hidalgo, he adopted a sacred banner bearing the image of
_Nuestra Senora de los Remedios_. Vigorous steps were taken by the
viceroy to meet the perilous situation and defend the capital.
[Illustration: THE PRISON IN WHICH HIDALGO WAS CONFINED AT
CHIHUAHUA.]
Meantime, Hidalgo on his retreat to Querétaro encountered Calleja
at Aculco, where he was put to rout on November 7th, and fell back
to Valladolid. On November 26th, he entered Guadalajara to join the
revolutionary force under Torres, who had defeated the royalists at
Zacoalco. In Guadalajara a government was established with Ignacio
López Rayón and José Maria Chico as chief ministers. Here, as in the
Province of Guanajúato, Hidalgo decreed the emancipation of slaves
and abolished the tribute. At Guanajúato, whither Allende had retired
after the battle of Las Cruces, the royalist army, under Calleja
and Flon, attacked the patriots on November 25th and forced them to
retreat. Before the royalist generals entered the town the people
forced an entrance into the _Alhondiga_ and massacred one hundred
and thirty-eight Spanish prisoners confined there, an act that Calleja
terribly avenged soon by the promiscuous slaughter of inhabitants
followed by the execution of forty-one prominent residents.
The viceroy now put General José de la Cruz, who had just arrived from
Spain, at the head of the royal forces. After capturing Valladolid, de
la Cruz marched against Hidalgo at Guadalajara, but was intercepted by
Colonel Ruperto Mier about twelve miles from Zamora and defeated him,
but the delay prevented him from joining Calleja in time to participate
against Hidalgo at the Bridge of Calderon, on January 17, 1811, where
the patriot forces, under Allende, who had made his way to Zacatécas
and thence to Guadalajara after his defeat at Guanajúato, joined
Hidalgo’s half-clad, ill-disciplined force of eighty thousand men. The
infantry were armed with the sling and the bow and there were less than
a hundred cannon, many of which were of wood bound with hoops of iron,
while only a few of the cavalry had sabres. This poor army, rich only
in faith and patriotism, took up a strong position at the Bridge of
Calderon and awaited the attack of the royalist forces under Calleja
and Flon, numbering six thousand well-disciplined infantry and cavalry,
with ten pieces of artillery. The battle ended in the utter defeat of
the patriots with immense loss.
The patriot force dispersed, the Province of New Galicia must be
pacified. Hidalgo was now forced to resign his office of generalissimo
in favor of Allende whose military qualities were regarded by the
leaders as superior to those of Hidalgo. Allende went to the aid of
Jimenez at Saltillo, who had secured some slight victories over the
royalists, but flight seemed the best course for the leaders and
their cause and they went north in the hope of reaching the United
States both for safety and aid. After many dramatic victories and
some disappointments, the strength of the Mexicans seemed to grow,
when the Father of his Country’s Independence, Hidalgo, was betrayed
to the enemy by a Spaniard, Mariano Galvan, and the four patriots,
Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez were captured and executed as
an example and warning to all who chose to revolt against the Crown
of Spain. Hidalgo was killed July 21st. Thirty other leaders were
executed shortly after, including Mariano Hidalgo, the cura’s brother,
and Chico, the minister of justice of the revolutionary government.
The greatest indignity was added to the execution in the case of
Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, whose heads were cut off and
sent to Guanajúato where they were placed in iron cages within the
_alhondiga_, where they remained until 1821, when they were
removed and with great pomp and honor buried with the bodies of the
patriots in the chapel of Los Reyes beneath the altar of the kings
in the cathedral of Mexico. The brutal act may have justified itself
to the advisers of “divine right” majesty, as a warning against the
assumption by the people that they possessed any rights; but humanity
abhors the deed.
[Illustration: ITURBIDE.]
If with the destruction of the great leaders and the scattering of
the armies they had led to final disaster, the royalists believed
the independence of Mexico had been made impossible, the striking
events that followed during the next year must have been painfully
disheartening. Ignacio López Rayón, who had been a member of the
revolutionary government and was later named captain-general of
the revolutionary forces was not to be subdued by the fate of his
colleagues. Neither was the spirit of the people crushed; the flame
of revolution could not be quenched; desultory war continued. Rayón,
after defeating the royalists, Ochoa and Zambrano, and meeting defeat
and success in turn, unsuccessfully attacked Valladolid on August 19,
1811, and set up a national _junta_ at Zitácuaro in Michoacán,
the members of which, besides himself, were Liceaga and the priest
Verduzco. Another leader arose who also was to sacrifice his life
for the cause of independence, after striking terror in the hearts
of the _gachupines_ and carrying the national cause to the very
threshold of success. José Maria Morelos was born on the last day
of September, 1765, on a ranch near Apatzingan, in Michoacán. His
father, Manuel Morelos, was a carpenter and his mother, Juana Pavón,
was the daughter of a schoolmaster at Valladolid. His early life was
a struggle, but at twenty-five he entered the college of San Nicolás
as a sizar and studied philosophy under Hidalgo. His course completed
he was consecrated a priest, thus realizing a long cherished ambition.
He served as _cura_ for many years and was in office at Caracuaro
when the revolution began in Dolores. The following month he offered
his services to Hidalgo which, being accepted, he was commissioned to
attempt to take the Port of Acapulco.
This great leader commenced his march from the scene of his parochial
labors with just twenty-five followers. Prevented by sickness from
active operations for some time, the Galeanas successfully held back
the royalist army. Upon his recovery, Morelos resumed his leadership
and took possession of Chilpancingo. Here he was joined by the three
brothers Bravo and the son of one of these, Nicolás, whose names are
famous in the winning of independence. After active campaigning,
Morelos routed Fuentes the royalist commander at Tixtla and took
possession of the city on August 17, 1811, following this by the
occupation of Chilapa, where he executed the officer Gago, who had
deceived him as to the surrender of the fort at Acapulco.
In order to destroy the ancient revolutionary government at Zitácuaro,
Viceroy Venegas sent General Calleja to seize the town, which was held
by Rayón. This he accomplished on January 2, 1812, and gave the place
to pillage and destruction and all the buildings save the churches and
convents were razed. While Rayón thus suffered defeat, Morelos had
triumphed over the royalists and by the close of January, had strongly
fortified himself at Cuautla de Amilpas, where he was attacked on
February 15th, by the allied forces of Calleja, Llano, and Porlier
and after a heroically defended siege was compelled to abandon the
place on May 2d; not, however, till he was absolutely starved out;
so completely had the place been invested that neither entrance nor
exit was possible. In honor of this defence the city later received
the added name of Morelos. No less heroic was the service rendered by
the Galeanas, the Bravos and Matamoros. A striking instance of the
patriotism of the revolutionists is furnished in connection with the
defence of Cuautla. Leonardo Bravo having been taken prisoner, the
viceroy offered to spare his life on condition that his son Nicolás
should abjure the cause of the revolution. Both father and son rejected
the offer as an infamy and Leonardo was executed. The conduct of
the patriotic son further furnishes a noble example of high-minded
generosity. Though Morelos authorized Nicolás to put to death three
hundred Spanish prisoners whom he had taken, he refused to follow the
base example of the viceroy, but instead set his prisoners free. This
act of chivalry has been embalmed in the pages of Mexican history and
is called a _venganza insurgente_.
Recovering from his defeat at Cuautla, Morelos worsted the royalists
at Orizaba in October of the same year and on the 24th of November he
defeated General Saravia at Oaxaca and took possession of the city
after a brilliant engagement of two hours. As Morelos advanced upon the
city, the bishop preached a Holy War against him and raised a force of
two thousand men to oppose him, but the resistance was quite feeble.
Morelos paroled the royalist officers taken in the city, except General
Regules and one or two others, who were executed on the spot where
two years earlier two spies sent by Hidalgo had been put to death.
The bodies of these men, as well as those of two deacons who had been
beheaded as patriots in 1811, were now exhumed and buried with military
honors.
[Illustration: THE LIBERTY BELL, OVER THE MAIN ENTRANCE OF
THE NATIONAL PALACE.]
The capture of Oaxaca was a serious blow to the prestige of the
royalists. This great victory was soon followed by the supersession of
Viceroy Venegas, who was succeeded by General Félix Maria Calleja del
Rey, the sixtieth viceroy in succession. A municipal government was
established in the city, with Manuel Nicolás Bustamante as president,
and a garrison was established. After securing Oaxaca, Morelos moved
toward Acapulco, which he captured on August 19th.
Morelos realized the necessity of establishing union and coöperative
effort between the revolutionists, and with this in view he caused
a congress of elected delegates to meet. The congress assembled at
Chilpancingo on September 14, 1813, the members being elected in
the case of the provinces in which the patriots were in power and
appointed by Morelos for those held by the royalists. Eight members
were present representing New Galicia, Michoacán, Guanajúato, Oaxaca,
Tecpán, Mexico, Puebla and Vera Cruz. This congress, styled the
congress of Anáhuac, issued a declaration of independence, the terms
of which asserted the absolute sovereignty of the people of Mexico and
unrestricted independence of Spain. It read as follows: “The congress
of Anáhuac, installed legitimately in the City of Chilpancingo in
North America by its provinces, declares solemnly in the presence of
the Lord God, arbiter of powers and author of society, who gives and
takes away according to the inscrutable designs of his Providence,
that, owing to the present conditions in Europe, it has recovered the
exercise of its usurped sovereignty; that accordingly its dependence
upon the Spanish throne remains forever broken and dissolved; that
it is competent to establish the laws which please it, for the best
government and interior felicity; to make war and peace and establish
alliance with the monarchs and republics of the old continent, no
less than to make concordats with the Supreme Roman Pontiff for the
direction of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church, and send
ambassadors and consuls; that it professes and recognizes no other
religion than the Catholic and will neither permit nor tolerate the
public or secret practice of any other; that it will protect it with
all its power, and will watch over the purity of the faith and its
dogmas and the preservation of the regular bodies. It declares as
guilty of high treason any one who will oppose directly or indirectly
its independence, or protecting the European oppressors by work, word
or writing, neglecting to contribute to the expenses, subsidies and
pensions to continue the war, until its independence be recognized by
the foreign nations; the congress reserving for itself the right to
present to them, by means of a ministerial note, which will circulate
in all the cabinets, the manifesto of its complaints and the justice of
this revolution, recognized already by Europe itself.”
Following the declaration of independence, Morelos planned the capture
of Valladolid and appeared before the city on December 22, 1813,
supported by a large army led by his brave lieutenants Matamoros,
Nicolás Bravo and Galeana. The capture was frustrated, Viceroy Calleja
had promptly sent the army of the north under Llano and Iturbide with
a body of nearly four hundred horsemen. This was followed on January
5th, by a complete rout and the brave Matamoros being captured, he was
shot at Valladolid on February 3d. Such was the fate of the bravest
of Mexicans fighting for national liberty against a government whose
only claim was that of an official legality decreed by an alien
power, established by a military superiority and maintained by force
and fraud. But time has avenged their memory, and their patriotism and
valor shed lustre and glory on their names and rank them among the
world’s heroes as exemplars for the human race.
A new political phase, however, gave fresh incentive to the cause of
Mexico. In 1812, smarting under French domination, Spain had granted
representation in the _cortes_ to the West Indian possessions,
which were made an integral part of the kingdom. Ferdinand, on his
restoration, in March, 1814, repudiated the constitution and this
reactionary and despotic course aroused widespread discontent among the
royalists in Mexico, and furnished a new motive for independence. It
may be said, without any disparagement of the brave patriots who first
realized the need of revolution and embarked in its work, that except
for the miserable and contemptible conduct of Ferdinand, independence
would probably not have been achieved till a much later period than it
was. But the act of the king was a blow at Mexican pride and interest
at the same time and its effect upon the Creole royalists was immediate.
The independence congress met at Apatzingan on October 22d and
proclaimed a constitution, under which Mexico was divided into
seventeen independent provinces, namely: Mexico, Puebla, Tlascala,
Vera Cruz, Yucatán, Oaxaca, Tecpán, Michoacán, Querétaro, Guadalajara,
Guanajúato, Potosí, Zacatécas, Durango, Sonora, Coahuila, and Nuevo
Reyno de Léon. Full powers of government were provided provisionally
until peace could be established, when the sovereignty should reside
in an elected congress. The executive branch of the government was
entrusted to Liceaga, Morelos and Cos, the first named being president.
The revolutionary movement continued to meet with reverses and the
congress was constantly menaced, so for hoped-for greater security,
it was proposed to meet at Tehuacán beyond the mountains. On the way
thither from Uruapán, under the lead of Morelos, the royalist forces
of Colonel Concha encountered the patriots at Tesmalaca on November
5, 1815, and the latter were disastrously routed, the brave Morelos
being captured. He asked no consideration as he had shown little. The
royalists were foes of his people and their cause and he had acted with
severity against them when it seemed that the conditions demanded it.
His trial and condemnation took place in Mexico, amid the exultation
of the royalists, and he was shot at San Cristobal Ecatepec, near
the capital, on the judgment of both the military tribunal and the
Inquisition. He had been a no less able than brave leader. During
the most difficult period of the revolution he had maintained his
forces in face of great difficulties; he had crystallized the movement
for independence into a sort of representative government, however
localized in its powers; and had secured the issue of a formal
declaration of independence; above all he had kept alive and given
consistency to the struggle. Time has but strengthened the claim of
Morelos to the affection of the Mexican people.
A momentary discord among the revolutionary leaders manifested
itself on the death of Morelos and some defections to the royalist
cause occurred. Through the influence of Manuel de Mier y Terán a
provisional executive committee was substituted for the congress whose
protection on its migration to Tehuacán had cost the life of Morelos.
At the moment when the royalist arms were so nearly triumphant over
the opposing forces, Viceroy Calleja was recalled to Spain, where he
received marked honor and was created Conde de Calderón. In contrast to
these honors in Spain, he was dubbed by the Mexicans “the wild beast,”
as a fitting recognition of his ruthless severity.
[Illustration: ONE OF THE LARGE CYPRESS TREES IN THE GROVE OF
CHAPULTEPEC.]
On September 19, 1816, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca succeeded to the
vice-royalty, the sixty-first in succession. He was an able
administrator and had been captain-general of Cuba. In the same year
the Jesuits returned to Mexico, a general desire being manifested
therefor, in view of their influence as teachers and missionaries.
On April 15, 1817, Francisco Javier Mina, a native of Navarre, reached
Mexico. He had abandoned his studies at the University of Saragossa to
participate in the resistance of his countrymen against the invasion
of Napoleon in 1808, and became famous for the guerrilla warfare he
maintained against the foreigners. He joined the liberals in resistance
to the measures of Ferdinand in 1814, on his restoration. Being
forced to flee from Spain he resolved to go to the aid of the Mexican
patriots and sailed from Liverpool in May, 1816, on a ship provided
by the contributions of a few Englishmen, to the United States where
he enlisted volunteers at Baltimore and Galveston and receiving at
the latter place reinforcements he reached with seven vessels the
River Santander on April 15th, and a few days later arrived at Soto
la Marina, where he erected and garrisoned a fort, which he left in
command of Major Sarda, while he advanced into the interior.
[Illustration: HIDALGO ON HORSEBACK.]
Mina soon found himself engaged with the royalist forces and, after
defeating them in minor engagements, he captured and sacked Pinos
and joined the patriot forces at Fort Sombrero in Guanajúato under
Moreno. Moreno was killed as he tried to escape, and Mina was shot by
Liñan’s order on November 11, 1817, on a hill in front of the fort he
had vainly tried to relieve, which stronghold, held by Father Torres,
quickly fell into the hands of the royalists and its defender was shot
soon after. The fort at Soto la Marina established by Mina had already
been taken. Again had a great leader paid with his life for the cause
of liberty.
The brave Nicolás Bravo suffered defeat on December 1st, at Cóporo and
on the 22d he was captured, with Ignacio Rayón and Verduzco, members
of the first _junta_ established at Zitácuaro. The viceroy spared
their lives and they were released in 1820.
The gap caused by Nicolás Bravo’s capture was filled by Vicente
Guerrero, who had safely conducted the congress to Tehuacán on November
16, 1816, after the capture of Morelos at Tesmalaca. But the tide of
defeat could not be turned. The _junta_ at Jaujilla was broken
up and its members taken prisoners or shot. Many of the leading
revolutionists, deeming the struggle futile, submitted to the viceroy
and were pardoned. The less severe policy he adopted seemed of more
service to his king than was the severity of his predecessor. Manuel
Félix Fernández, self-named Guadalupe Victoria, refused, however, to
forego the terrors of a patriot, at the price of submission.
The fruit of Mexican disaffection which had set at the time of
Ferdinand’s repudiation, in 1814, of the constitution of 1812, was
ripened by a revolution in Spain, resulting from his despotic rule.
The _cortes_ enacted the closing of the convents, the abolition
of the Inquisition, the freedom of the press, and the right of popular
meetings and of forming political organizations. The constitution of
1812 was restored. It was favorably regarded in Mexico by the Creoles;
but the times had changed and the official Spanish party realized
that they could not retain their influence in the province under the
new conditions; hence they chose to favor independence as offering a
better means of retaining the control of public affairs. Such at least,
would seem to be the motive of the _volte face_; at any rate a
conspiracy was formed, the pretext being put forward, in some quarters,
that as Ferdinand had accepted the new constitution under compulsion,
he should be tendered a refuge in the New World.
The man of the hour was Augustin de Iturbide. He was one of the most
formidable of the royalist leaders and had punished the patriots
without show of mercy. He, whose sword had been so active in destroying
the independence army, was the hero selected by the conspirators
to effect the independence of Mexico. He was born at Valladolid on
September 27, 1783. His father was a Spaniard and his mother a Mexican;
hence, though called a Creole, he was in truth a _Mestizo_. His
personality was remarkably prepossessing and his bravery unlimited.
His first step in the new movement for Mexican independence was to
obtain command of the royalist army of the south, in order to conquer
Vicente Guerrero and “pacify the whole kingdom,” as he himself said.
Not succeeding against this doughty patriot he made known his plan
to him, and received Guerrero’s promise of support. Accordingly, he
announced the famous “Plan de Iguala,” or the plan of “The Three
Guarantees,” on February 24, 1821. The basis of this claim was the
exclusive establishment of the Roman Catholic religion; the absolute
independence of Mexico, with a constitutional monarchy under the
rule of Ferdinand; the union and equality of Mexicans and Spaniards.
These three guarantees are emblemized in the national colors of
Mexico--_green_ representing the union of Mexicans and Spaniards;
_white_, religious purity; _red_, independence. Provision was made for
the government by a _junta_, pending the meeting of the _cortes_, and
also in case the emperor did not come to Mexico. No disqualification
for public office was permitted by reason of race or color. An army
was to be created, to be called the Army of the Three Guarantees. The
army at Iguala was sworn to support Iturbide’s plan, and the viceroy
was informed of its details and of the proposed membership of the
_junta_, at the same time he was offered its presidency. Apodaca not
only refused to entertain the plan but took measures to oppose its
execution; in consequence he was removed from office on July 5th, and
in his stead General Pedro Novella was provisionally appointed and
ruled till July 30, 1821, when General Juan O’Donojú arrived at Vera
Cruz as the regular successor--the last of the viceroys.
Iturbide’s plan made many friends for the cause of independence and
among its supporters were Anastasio Bustamante, Santa Anna and Pedro
Celestino Negrete. Iturbide held Guanajúato, Valladolid, Querétaro,
and other places. The new viceroy finding that he could not reach the
capital arranged a conference with Iturbide at Córdoba, which took
place on August 24th, and the viceroy agreed to the Plan de Iguala,
subject to his being appointed one of the provisional rulers of Mexico
until the monarch could be selected. The agreement embodied in this
plan is known as the “Treaty of Córdoba.”
The way to independence was now clear. Iturbide, after rejoining his
army, marched on the capital, which was evacuated by the royalist
forces on the order of Viceroy O’Donojú and the army of independence
entered the city in triumph, September 27, 1821. Mexico’s freedom from
Spain was accomplished for there was slight probability of a Bourbon
occupying the throne, as in default of Ferdinand himself becoming
monarch, it was provided that the _cortes_ should select the
sovereign.
To the fact that the plan of the first revolutionists was not fulfilled
is doubtless due the years of discord that followed until a republican
and popular form of government became the guerdon of the long struggle
for political freedom. Nevertheless, a national empire was an advance
upon a provincial dependency, although a further struggle must
intervene before the true aspirations of the people could be realized.
The new era opening on the birth of the nation presents the immediate
consummation of the Plan de Iguala in a provisional government, or
regency composed of Iturbide, O’Donojú, Manuel de la Barcena, José
Isidro Yañez and Manuel Velasquez de León, the first named being
president of the governing body. It is significant that the patriots
who had fought and bled and suffered for independence, the real
successors of Hidalgo, were not recognized in the new situation. The
territorial limits of Mexico included, besides all the area of the
republic of to-day, that part of the United States from the Red and
Arkansas Rivers to the Pacific Coast, extending north to the limits of
the British dominion of Canada. A few days after the establishment of
the new government O’Donojú died, October 8th, and the vacancy thus
caused was filled by the appointment of Bishop Joaquin Oton Perez, of
the See of Puebla.
[Illustration: RESIDENCE OF MIGUEL HIDALGO, AT DOLORES
HIDALGO.]
[Illustration: THE NATIONAL PALACE.]
[Illustration: THE TOMB OF JUAREZ.]
CHAPTER IV
THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC
The Spanish _cortes_ on the 16th of February, 1822, annulled the
Plan de Iguala as modified by the Treaty of Córdoba. On the assembling
of the first congress of Mexico, February 22d, at the capital, elected
according to the provisions made by a committee of the regency, in
accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Córdoba, it was seen that
the members were aligned in two factions, the “Bourbonistas” and the
“Republicans.” Perez, Barcena and De Leon were displaced and Nicolás
Bravo, the Conde de Heras Soto and Miguel Valentin were substituted.
But the purpose of Iturbide to secure the crown as emperor was soon
manifest. On May 18th, Pio Marcha, a non-commissioned infantry officer
launched a movement in favor of Iturbide, and a public demonstration
resulted in his election next day by the congress by a vote of
seventy-seven to fifteen and on July 21st, he was crowned in the
cathedral with his wife as Emperor and Empress of Mexico. The Emperor
took the title of Augustin I. Energetic as he was, he was nevertheless
a weak ruler and abandoned himself to the display of royal pomp and
power rather than to the initiation of measures for the welfare of the
people and the establishment of the nation, and he soon found himself
at odds with the Congress, which he dissolved on October 31st and
established a _junta_. A revolutionary movement was set on foot by
Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria. The old revolutionists
joined Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and on February 1, 1823, the “Plan
de Casa Mata” was promulgated, according to which a new Congress was to
be elected and a republican form of government guaranteed. Meantime,
in December, a republic had been proclaimed at Vera Cruz and only
the capital remained as the empire. In vain did Iturbide recall the
Congress he had dissolved. The opposition was determined; he shrank
from retaining power through a civil war and accordingly tendered his
abdication March 19th, but the Congress refused to accept it, declaring
instead that Iturbide’s crown had been obtained by force and therefore
his acts as Emperor were illegal. He was banished from Mexico and set
sail on April 11th, from La Antigua. Congress however voted him an
annual pension of 25,000 pesos as a reward for his great services to
his country.
The government was now vested in a _Poder Ejecutivo_, composed
of Pedro Celestino Negrete, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria, all
of whom were absent from the capital at the time of their nomination.
The second Congress, it may be called the first of the republic, met
on November 7, 1823. Nevertheless the independence of Mexico was
largely assured by the United States, whose Congress received the
message of President Monroe on December 2, 1823, in which he formulated
the doctrine known by his name which secured the governments of the
Continent of America from interference by any European power. The
course pursued by the government was little calculated to inspire
confidence in its wisdom, financially or politically. In the early
part of 1824, Iturbide addressed the Congress from London intimating
that the clergy was plotting the restoration of Spanish rule in Mexico
and offering his services in defense of the republic, but instead it
was believed that an insurrection in favor of the banished emperor
himself was on foot and a decree was issued declaring him a traitor
and condemning him to death should he return to Mexico. Not knowing
of this decree, Iturbide started from Southampton on May 11th, and on
landing at the little port of Soto la Marina, north of Tampico, he was
arrested, taken before the legislature of Tamaulipas, which was in
session, and condemned and shot at Padilla on July 19, 1824. His dying
advice was intensely patriotic and he manifested remarkable courage.
But his execution was a vengeful act, unwise, nay ungrateful, and a
blot on the page of Mexican history which the honors paid later to his
family and to his own remains, when on August 6, 1838, they were buried
with great ceremony in the Cathedral of Mexico, can never erase; while
the title of the “Liberator” which was graved on his sarcophagus but
emphasizes the self-reproach of his countrymen.
[Illustration: BENITO JUAREZ.]
Two parties, or factions, emerged in the Congress, the Bourbonistas,
or Centralists, and the Federalists. The leaders of the former were
Negrete, Bravo, Bustamante and Mier y Teran; of the latter, Victoria
and Guerrero, whose adherents were more numerous, and they were
successful in framing the Republican Constitution that was proclaimed
on October 4, 1824. It declared the Roman Catholic religion to be
perpetually the religion of the Mexican people. The Republic thus
established consisted of the States of Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila
and Texas, Durango, Guanajúato, Mexico, Michoacán, Nuevo León,
Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Sonora and Sinaloa,
Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Jalisco, Yucatán and Zacatécas and
the territories of Upper and Lower California, Colima, Santa Fé and
Tlascala--nineteen states and five territories. On the 10th of October
the first president, Nicolás Bravo, took the oath of office. Congress
was dissolved on December 24th and the first Constitutional Congress
convened on January 1, 1825. In the same year, the last position held
by the Spaniards, Fort San Juan de Ulua, was evacuated and the republic
was recognized by the United States and Great Britain.
During this administration the question of secret societies became
urgent in consequence of the influence of the freemasons in political
matters. The insurgent force was led by Vice-president Bravo who was
of the Scottish lodge faction, but Guerrero defeated him and took him
prisoner.
The election in 1828 resulted in favor of General Manuel Gomez Pedraza,
who was supported by the Scottish (Escoseses) masons, who defeated
Vicente Guerrero, whose candidacy was espoused by the Yorkinos; but a
_pronunciamiento_ was made by the liberals in favor of Guerrero, who
resorted to arms under the leadership of Santa Anna. The government
forces defeated him, when he was given command of the army at whose
hands he had suffered defeat. Pedraza, in view of the extreme
excitement, resigned and Congress declared his election null and void
and elected Guerrero president and Anastasio Bustamante vice-president
on January 12, 1829. Among the measures of Guerrero’s administration
is to be noted the abolition of slavery. Bustamante was then elected
president and Congress declared Guerrero “morally incapacitated to
govern the nation.”
The government of Bustamante began on January 1, 1830. His principal
adviser was the former historian, Lucas Alamán, who was minister of
foreign and domestic relations and who had filled the same office under
the _Poder ejecutivo_ in 1823. The country was, however, agitated
by dissensions and revolts instigated by Guerrero and his partisans and
he was driven to Acapulco where he was trapped on the _Colombo_, a
Sardinian ship whose captain had been bribed to invite Guerrero aboard
and who delivered him to his enemies, by whom he was courtmartialed and
shot on February 14, 1831.
Bustamante’s power did not last long, for in 1832 he was overthrown
by the turbulent Santa Anna, who secured the elevation of Pedraza as
the legitimate president by virtue of his election in 1828, although
he had opposed him then in favor of Guerrero. In the election that
followed, Bravo was chosen president, but Congress declared his
election void and the way to the supreme magistracy was then open
to Santa Anna who succeeded on April 1, 1833, Valentin Gomez Farias
becoming vice-president. In 1836 the complete overthrow of the federal
system was effected and centralized government established under a new
constitution, the effect of which set at a greater distance the freedom
of democratic government and the blessings of peace, thereby retarding
the real development of the nation.
One of the fruits of the rule of Santa Anna was the loss of Texas to
Mexico. On November 27, 1838, war was declared against France. Santa
Anna, who had come forth from his retirement at Manga de Clavo was
given command at Vera Cruz. The French captured the forts Santiago and
Concepcion, but failed in their attempt to capture Santa Anna in Vera
Cruz and retreat to the ships was ordered by the French admiral. In
following up the French to the shore Santa Anna acquired the laurels of
a popular hero at the cost of his left leg, which was so badly wounded
that amputation was necessary. Vera Cruz was then shelled by the French
and evacuated, but this trivial war ended by a treaty in which Mexico
agreed to pay the French demand of six hundred thousand dollars within
six months.
A revolt broke out in Tampico during the troubles with France and
President Bustamante took the field, leaving the again popular Santa
Anna provisional president, on March 9, 1839. The movement spread and
soon became a federalist revolution, involving the capital itself,
in 1840. General Urrea and Gomez Farias were its successful leaders
and Bustamante was taken prisoner. Once more the retirement at Manga
de Clavo was abandoned and Santa Anna emerged to overthrow the
federalists, to whom Bustamante, however, granted favorable conditions
and the revolution ended. So unsettled were affairs that Gutierrez
de Estrada, a former minister, publicly advocated a monarchy under a
foreign prince. His plan however, merely resulted in his fleeing the
country. Whatever the troubles of the people, they were not ready to
seek relief in a monarchy.
In 1841, General Paredes made a _pronunciamiento_ against
Bustamante’s government. On this occasion General Valencia and Santa
Anna, who had been successful in 1840, against the federalists, now
joined the new insurrection, and the government troops having abandoned
the president in favor of the insurgents, Bustamante was forced to
retire from the presidency in 1842, notwithstanding his efforts at
conciliation by the proclamation of federation. The proposals of Santa
Anna had won; he offered his “Bases of Tacubaya” proposing that the
legislative and executive functions of the government should cease
and that pending a congress, within eight months, to frame a new
constitution, a _junta_ should name a provisional president.
As a result, Santa Anna became such provisional president, but the
Congress elected showing a federalist majority a _pronunciamiento_
of the army was issued naming a council of notables and opposing the
Congress, which was dissolved by the executive, as a matter of course,
and the proposed council installed in January, 1843. In June, _Las
Basas Organicas_, the new constitution, was adopted and its terms
were less liberal than the _Leyes_ of 1836, instigated by Santa
Anna. The dictator under this new constitution did not assume direction
at the capital till June 3d, Bravo and Canalizo governing as acting
presidents. Shortly after, Santa Anna’s wife died and he was married by
proxy to a girl of fifteen. His government was truly despotic and he
affected the pomp of a monarch. In fact, the general sentiment was well
expressed when, on one of his many retirements to his estate, it was
said: “The president is going in order to return crowned.”
[Illustration: SEÑOR GENERAL DON RAMÓN CORONA, ONE OF
MEXICO’S FAMOUS GENERALS.]
The autocratic, costly, and inefficient rule of Santa Anna was at
length challenged by a combination of opponents. In October 1844, the
Guadalajara assembly declared against him and this was followed by a
_pronunciamiento_ made by General Paredes, who had previously
supported Santa Anna, on November 2d, at that place, which declared for
the suspension of the president pending investigation of his conduct.
Puebla shortly joined Guadalajara, and then immediately followed the
capital, where José Joaquin de Herrera was installed president of the
council. Santa Anna met this condition by emerging from retirement
and led an army to Querétaro. So great was the indignation at the
capital that the precious leg lost by the dictator in his attack on the
French was taken from the tomb and dragged in the streets, while the
destruction of his statue was averted only by its removal to a hiding
place. This outbreak in the capital changed Santa Anna’s plans and he
turned his army of fourteen thousand to the revolutionaries there. His
deposition had been secured and his arrest ordered by the Congress
and finding the resistance to him to be so formidable he marched to
Puebla, which he attacked on January 2, 1845. A few days later the
troops under Paredes and Bravo arrived on the scene and Santa Anna was
compelled to withdraw on January 12th. After vain proposals to make
terms with Herrera, he took flight but was captured and taken prisoner
to Perote. His impeachment followed and he was banished perpetually,
while Canalizo and four of his ministers were banished for ten years.
A general amnesty was proclaimed otherwise. Santa Anna took ship to
Havana on June 3, 1845.
[Illustration: SEÑOR GENERAL DON MARIANO ESCOBEDO, WHO TOOK
EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN PRISONER.]
Herrera now became constitutional president, September 16, 1845. His
first serious trouble was the Texan; he endeavored to compromise the
situation; but, because of opposition, he resorted to warlike measures
and sent six thousand men under Paredes to the frontier. Paredes,
however, issued a _pronunciamiento_ against the president on
December 14th, at San Luis Potosí, and on January 2, 1846, turned to
the capital and overthrew Herrera.
Reverting to Texan affairs, as being so largely the basis of the next
great event to be described in Mexican history, it will be sufficient
to notice that on several occasions since the independent government
was established, a number of conflicts had occurred in which Mexican
officers were employed. In 1839, a movement of federalists in Mexico
was effected having as its object the establishment of the Rio Grande
Republic, of which Texas was to be a member.
In 1844, an armistice was accepted between Mexico and Texas, proposed
by Great Britain, but Texas refused to ratify it in consequence of its
conditions declaring that the independent republic still constituted
a part of the republic of Mexico. Hence, Santa Anna declared that a
state of war existed. After this act by Great Britain, suspicion became
widespread in the United States that the purpose of the British was
to suppress slavery in Texas. Great Britain’s course arose out of a
request made by Texas in 1842, to Great Britain, France and the United
States to intervene and put an end to Mexico’s hostilities, but this
appeal was not fruitful. The situation was further complicated in 1843,
when the Congress of Mexico declared that if the Congress of the United
States should pass an act to incorporate Texas with the United States
such legislation would be deemed equivalent to a declaration of war.
On April 12, 1844, a secret annexation treaty was signed by the United
States and Texas, but the United States Senate failed to ratify it.
The popular sentiment in America had, however, appeared to demand
incorporation and accordingly on March 1, 1845, a resolution was passed
by Congress enabling Texas to frame a constitution, preparatory to
admission into the Union. Neither the purpose of the measure nor its
form could be acceptable to Mexico; nevertheless, on December 29th,
after Texas had adopted an ordinance of annexation to the United States
and the State constitution, Congress enacted its admission as a State
into the Union. The resultant conflict, however inevitably the logic
of events pointed to this absorption of the independent republic, was
almost a foregone conclusion.
There was ground of dispute enough to afford pretext for war. The
claims of American citizens due since 1839, were still in large part
unpaid. The boundary question, based on the claim of Texas of all
territory between the United States and the Rio Grande from source to
mouth was another. Trouble had occurred as to Upper California, when
Commodore Jones had temporarily seized Monterey. The United States had
sent a force under General Taylor to Fort Jesup with instructions to
proceed to the Sabine in case of Texas being endangered, and a naval
force was sent to the Gulf of Mexico. Such was the situation when
Congress adopted the annexation resolution.
[Illustration: RURALES ON THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER.]
It was inevitable that the Mexican minister to Washington should demand
his passports; that the United States Envoy should be graciously
dismissed from Mexico, and that preparations for war should be actively
pressed. Before the storm broke, futile efforts were made to avert it,
the United States sending Slidell as commissioner, but the essential
condition of Mexico that the United States fleet off Vera Cruz should
be withdrawn not having been complied with on his arrival in Vera Cruz
on December 3, 1845, he was not recognized and his mission completely
failed, and he withdrew from Mexico on March 21, 1846. This closed the
diplomatic procedure.
Meanwhile, General Taylor had taken Point Isabel and erected a fort
opposite Matamoros. Here he was attacked by General Arista, who
superseded Ampudia on April 24, 1846, and a formal declaration of
war by the United States followed on May 13th, on the ground that
“Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded
our territory, and shed American blood upon the American soil,” as
President Polk stated.
The second event was the attack on May 8th, at Palo Alto, which
resulted in Arista’s falling back next day to a position at Resaca de
la Palma, from which he was driven with considerable loss, the same
day, his artillery and supplies being captured. As a consequence of
this defeat, Arista, whose forces greatly outnumbered the Americans,
was deprived of command, being replaced by Ampudia. On May 18th,
General Taylor occupied Matamoros. The turn of affairs in Mexico
now brought the ubiquitous Santa Anna to the head, he following
the now familiar course of a congress, called in pursuance of a
_pronunciamiento_ issued by General Mariano Salas, and the election of
Santa Anna took place in December. He had returned to Mexico in August,
and was passed through the American fleet off Vera Cruz in the hope
that he would be a source of weakness at home rather than of strength.
In addition to the _pronunciamiento_, General José Maria Gomez declared
against President Paredes at Guadalajara and he was sent into exile.
The new president took command of the army, leaving the government in
the hands of vice-president Fariás. On the 5th of that month he began
his march against Monterey with a force of regulars and volunteers
numbering in all about six thousand men. On the 19th, he was before
Monterey, which was held by Ampudia, who had put this city in a good
defensive state. The assault was made on the 21st, the defenders
exhibiting the utmost bravery as they defended street by street.
Three days passed when Ampudia capitulated with honors, after which
an armistice of two months was agreed upon. During this time, General
Patterson was sent to Tampico with a strong force and General Winfield
Scott led a third force against Vera Cruz, previous to a march on the
capital. To effect these movements, General Taylor’s force was largely
drawn upon and Santa Anna having learned of the proposed attack on Vera
Cruz left San Luis Potosí on January 28, 1847, with twenty thousand
troops to encounter Taylor at La Angostura (Buena Vista) where he hoped
to surprise the Americans. On the 22d of February, Santa Anna demanded
the surrender in terms that indicated his certainty of success. The
following day he was repulsed, suffering great loss and retreating to
San Luis Potosí. This victory was almost decisive, the defeated Santa
Anna reaching his destination with his force reduced by one-half.
The engagement was a terrible blow to the prestige of the man who had
seemed “to hold Mexico in his despot grasp, strange as it may seem.”
Taylor’s great success gained him only the task of defending the
territory acquired and the Rio Grande frontier.
The further operations in Mexico were concluded by the American
commander-in-chief, General Scott. He landed his force of twelve
thousand men near Vera Cruz on February 15th, and invested the
city, the port being blockaded by Commodore Perry’s squadron. Siege
operations were prepared and on March 22d, the artillery and guns of
the ships opened fire. The defence, under General Morales was worthy
of a less bitter experience than that of the surrender, even with the
honors of war, which was forced on the 26th. On April 12th, in view of
the season, the American general withdrew his troops from Vera Cruz.
Santa Anna, defeated by Taylor, had resumed his duties as President
but his spirit was aroused on hearing of the defeat of Morales and
the surrender of Vera Cruz. He hurried from the capital “to wash out
that disaster.” With ten thousand men he fortified himself stoutly at
Cerro Gordo, about eighteen miles from Jalapa. Here he was attacked
by General Scott on April 18th, and utterly defeated. Then fell,
successively, Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla, and at the last named city
Scott received instructions from the State Department to arrange a
peace treaty, if the occasion served. Secret emissaries of the Mexican
president visited the American commander as to this matter and Santa
Anna has been charged with treason on account of it.
On August 9th, General Scott entered the Valley of Mexico, tracing the
route followed by the Spanish _Conquistadores_ nearly three and
a half centuries earlier, and arrived before the capital on the 20th,
defeated Santa Anna at Padierna and Churubusco where a most gallant
stand was made by General Anaya. In these last efforts, all credit is
due to Santa Anna; his operations were marked with ability, courage and
resourcefulness.
Negotiations now followed for peace. On the 22d, hostilities were
suspended and Nicholas P. Trist, chief clerk of the State Department
of the United States, who had arrived at Puebla as peace commissioner,
now proposed terms of peace on the basis of the cession of Texas,
New Mexico and Upper California, and the right of free transit
across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the payment to Mexico of a
money consideration. These terms were rejected by Mexico and active
hostilities were resumed on the night of September 7th, by an attack
on Molino de Rey, which after stubborn fighting was taken the next
day, but so strong was the position of the Mexican army that General
Scott abandoned the field. Though success was not theirs, if valor and
conspicuous ability merited it, General Antonio León and his brave
aides deserved it, as well as the splendid rank and file. Not until the
12th, did General Scott move against the Castle of Chapultepec which
was magnificently defended by General Bravo and the military cadets
of the Academy, to their imperishable honor and glory. The capture
of the stronghold was effected on the 13th. The death roll of the
Mexicans bears the names of many noble sons, among whom conspicuous
merit signalizes Colonel Felipe Xicotencatl, the descendant of a famous
Tlascaltec chief. The way to the city was now assured, and after
securing causeways and the fortified gates of Belem and San Cosme,
General Scott entered the city fighting his way step by step, valiantly
opposed by soldiers and citizens. Santa Anna did not await the final
issue but deserted both the government and the city on the successful
forcing of the gates of Belem and San Cosme and turned the residue of
his brave army over to General Reyes, having been deposed and summoned
to appear before a council of war, but he left Mexico and fled to
New Granada. In his place, Manuel Peña y Peña was elected temporary
president and he made Querétaro the seat of government.
[Illustration: SEÑOR GENERAL DON MANUEL GONZALES,
EX-PRESIDENT OF MEXICO.]
Such was the condition of affairs when the Mexican capital fell to
the Americans. New Mexico and California were conquered. Texas was
irrevocably severed. To the task of restoring peace in the face of
such disaster the new president resolutely directed his efforts.
Commissioner Trist, though no longer officially authorized, succeeded
in arranging a treaty, known as the Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which was signed
on February 2, 1848, by the terms of which Texas, the territory
between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, New Mexico and Upper California
were to pass to the United States, the latter country agreeing to pay
Mexico fifteen million dollars and to assume and discharge all claims
of American citizens against Mexico. Thus was Mexico stripped, as a
consequence of a war which President Lincoln severely criticized and
which General Grant characterized as “the most unholy and unjust ever
waged by a stronger nation against a weaker one;” nor do the vast
material advantages that have followed to the territories reach back to
palliate this view of the quarrel or justify the bitter suffering that
it brought.
The American army was soon withdrawn and on June 12th, José Joaquín de
Herrera was elected constitutional president and the government was
re-established at the capital. Its chief labor was to heal the wounds
caused by the war, to ameliorate the general condition. The spirit of
insurrection was not subdued, however, for General Paredes effected a
temporary revolt which was soon subdued, and Herrera was successful in
the difficult task of reducing the army establishment and encouraging
the building of railroads and telegraphs, the first of such latter
undertakings being that of making communication between the capital
and Puebla. With troubles also in Yucatán owing to the serious Indian
uprisings in August, 1848, the president found his entire energies
occupied, but he succeeded in establishing a union of the Province with
Mexico, and relinquished the government to his successor with a record
of great improvement accomplished.
[Illustration: GENERAL CARLOS PACHECO, FORMERLY MINISTER OF
FOMENTO.]
General Mariano Arista, who had commanded the Mexican Army at Palo
Alto was elected to succeed Herrera and he assumed the presidency in
January, 1851. But neither his high sense of honor nor his patriotic
purposes could stay the revolutionary spirit which broke out at
Guadalajara in July, 1852, and, in consequence of the “Plan of
Jalisco,” intended to overthrow him, and of the _pronunciamientos_
in its favor, Arista resigned on January 3, 1853. The true purpose of
the revolution was the installation of Santa Anna as dictator, and
after a brief direction of the government by Ceballos and Lombardini,
he was elected and assumed office on April 20th, after Ceballos had
failed in an effort to call a national convention. The government
during the next two years was one of persecution and arbitrary use
of power. The dictator relied on the army to support his despotism
and increase the military strength. He was, however, re-elected in
December, 1853, and his power was greatly augmented. He was empowered
to appoint his successor in office and virtually became dictator for
life. Pomp and ceremonial befitting his supreme power was assumed
and he obtained the title of “serene highness.” In the same month he
effected the sale to the United States of the territory known as “La
Mesilla,” in Southern Arizona, for ten million dollars.
Such rule as that of Santa Anna could not be endured and the fabric
of perpetual power which the dictator had assiduously striven to
weave was rudely shattered in 1854, by the “Plan de Ayutla,” which
was proclaimed by Colonel Villareal on March 1st. A _junta_ of
notables was to appoint a provisional president and call a constituent
Congress. This plan gained powerful support, among others who acceded
to it being Colonel Ignacio Comonfort. The president marched against
the insurgents, but failing to subdue the movement, he returned to
the capital. Simultaneously, a force under Count de Boulbon entered
Sonora from Upper California with the object of establishing there an
independent dominion.
Comonfort having equipped a powerful army, Santa Anna abandoned his
government and went to Vera Cruz, giving the executive power into the
hands of a triumvirate. Then he left Mexico, fleeing to Havana. The
provisional president, appointed in pursuance of the revolutionary
“plan,” was Carrera but his nomination was not agreeable to Comonfort
and General Juan Alvarez received the office at the hands of the
_junta_. Among the ministers he selected were Benito Juarez and
Comonfort, the latter of whom was elected as president on December 11,
1855.
Early in 1856, Comonfort faced fresh insurrections that seemed to
spring from their like as it were so many hydra-headed evils. He
adopted drastic measures against the church and the clergy, enforced
the Lerdo law, abolishing civil and ecclesiastical mortmain and
establishing individual ownership of lands. On June 5th, he suppressed
the Jesuits and on September 17th, the Franciscans, in consequence of a
conspiracy which was hatched in the convent of the latter to overthrow
the government on Independence Day, the 15th, and secure the supremacy
of the church in the nation. Comonfort took possession of the church of
San Francisco and all its appurtenances early in the morning and the
next day decreed the opening of a street, to be called Independencia,
east and west through the grounds. The following day came the
suppression of the monastic order.
[Illustration: PICTURESQUE SPOT IN THE ALAMEDA.]
Again Puebla revolted, and for the second time in nine months it was
retaken by the government troops on December 3d. This was followed by
a _pronunciamiento_ at San Luis Potosí, which was quickly put
down. The bird of peace now hovered over stricken Mexico for a short
time under the vigorous and enlightened rule of Comonfort. On February
5, 1857, a new constitution was adopted, liberal in character and
establishing a republican federal form of government. The executive
power was vested in a president elected for four years; a single house
was to constitute the legislature, the members of which were to be
elected for three years; a judicial branch was to comprise a supreme
and inferior courts. The important question of presidential succession
was regulated, so that in case of vacancy the president of the Supreme
Court was to succeed temporarily pending a regular election.
This constitution furnished safeguards against the abuses of power
which had been possible under the Ayutla plan. The election of
Comonfort to succeed himself followed, yet, inconsistently, a few days
after entering office on December 1st, he overthrew the constitution
he had sworn to maintain and adopted the “Plan de Tacubaya,” announced
by General Felix Zuloaga on December 17th, on the pretext that the
constitution was not adapted to the usages of the people. Under
Zuloaga’s “plan,” Comonfort was to remain in power and convoke a
congress to frame a more suitable constitution, to be submitted to the
electorate. Benito Juarez had been chosen president of the supreme
court and it seemed necessary to the success of the new plan that
he should be imprisoned and Congress dissolved, which was done in
December. But Comonfort’s plans failed, for on January 11, 1858, a
_pronunciamiento_ issued by the conservatives substituted General
Zuloaga as president. The opposition was too strong and Comonfort,
unable to defend the capital, abandoned it on the 21st of January and
proceeded to Vera Cruz, whence he went into exile. The reactionaries
now annulled the reform measures of the constitutionalists, who had
organized a government at Guanajuato under Juárez, who had been obliged
to abandon the capital, and began war on their opponents, but suffered
defeat at Salamanca. Later, the president was seized at Guadalajara
by the garrison there, who had mutinied, but escaping he made his
way to Panama and thence to New Orleans, and returning to Vera Cruz
administered the government from there.
Benito Juarez was born in Oaxaca, on March 21, 1806. He was imbued
with the loftiest sentiments for the public weal and his counsel and
direction had proved the greatest strength of the liberal party. He
had been one of the professors at the Institute of Science and Art at
Oaxaca, and one of his students was Porfirio Diaz, who doubtless owed
much of his political bent to the training of Juarez, the full-blooded
Indian, to whose patriotic labors Mexico owes her successful entry on
a path of liberal policies which have led to so wonderful a development
of national progress and prosperity. The keynote of his life was
devotion to the public welfare and the highest ideals of manhood. But
the time was not yet ripe for the possible accomplishment of his great
purposes. The people had yet to learn, through long years of suffering
and struggles, the true principles of republican government and the
rights of men.
During this period of legitimate or constitutional government, under
Juarez, the reactionaries maintained a government at the City of
Mexico, under Zuloaga, and hostilities were bitterly waged against the
reform party throughout the republic. Important successes were won by
them, notably in the capture of Guanajúato, in July, by General Miguel
Miramon and in Ahualulco in September, and as a result Miramon was
named his substitute by Zuloaga after _pronunciamientos_ in his
favor by Generals Echeagaray, at Ayutla, and Robles Pezuela, at the
capital. A _junta_ having elected him president, he took office on
February 2, 1859. The chief object he sought was to overthrow Juarez at
Vera Cruz, but after a vigorous siege he abandoned the vain effort.
On July 12, 1859, Juárez proclaimed the Laws of Reform, by which the
issues of the conflict were clearly manifested. The United States
recognized the legitimacy of the Juarez government and ministers were
respectively appointed in Washington and Mexico. As a sequence of this
constitutional proclamation, the Juarez government greatly abridged the
influence of the clergy; severance of church and state was aimed at;
civil marriages and civil rights were defined.
The two governments were in conflict in foreign relations as well as
domestic and their acts were on one side or the other protested against
and repudiated. Juarez made a treaty with the United States giving the
latter the right to protect its citizens in Mexico by force of arms.
Miramon, on the other hand, gave treaty rights to Spain in regard to
indemnity to Spanish subjects in Mexico.
Miramon abandoned the field after his defeat on August 10, 1860, at
the Silao Hills and repaired to the capital. Zuloaga having withdrawn
the power conferred on Miramon as his substitute, the latter procured
his own election as president by a _junta_. The resistance of the
reactionaries was fast weakening, and their party rapidly diminishing;
nevertheless, on December 20th, Miramon left the capital to meet the
liberal forces and at Calpulalpam encountered General Gonzalez Ortega,
by whom he was defeated. The capitulation of the capital followed on
January 11, 1861. Juarez entered it in triumph with the liberal army
of twenty-five thousand. Miramon escaped to Jalapa and finally reached
France on a French war vessel.
[Illustration: A COUNTRY ROAD IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO.]
With the return of Juarez to the capital he began the active
administration of the Reform Laws. One of his earliest acts was
the dismissal of the Spanish minister and the papal legate. The
half-century strife between Federalists and Centralists had triumphed
finally in the success of the Liberals, though a guerrilla warfare
was continued for some little time. Zuloaga joined the reactionaries,
declaring himself to be president in virtue of his “Plan de Tacubaya.”
Melchor Ocampo, one of the great leaders of the Reform, was seized
at his hacienda and shot by order of General Marquez; Degollado who
pursued the executioners was caught by bandits and was shot. These
outrages aroused extreme indignation and a price was put on the heads
of Marquez, Mejia and other rebel leaders. Marquez attacked the capital
in June, 1861, and was repulsed only after heavy fighting. It was
in this defence that Porfirio Diaz, who had returned to his native
state and later was elected to Congress to represent Iztlan district,
leaving his seat in the legislative chamber took a distinguished part.
A little later, in August, Marquez was totally defeated by Diaz at
Jalatlaco which brilliant event earned for the victor the rank of
brigadier-general; a month later he was again disastrously defeated
at Pachuca. The three years of war was over, and the way to domestic
peace, progress and prosperity might seem clear.
Juarez was elected constitutional president and assumed office in
June. On July 17th, the Congress, in view of the severe drain on
the resources of the people caused by the protracted war, found it
necessary to enact suspension of the sinking fund provision and the
payment of interest on the foreign-held debt, for two years. Thereupon,
France and England closed diplomatic relations and these nations
together with Spain made a treaty on October 31st, under the terms of
which they were to seize the principal ports and collect and distribute
the customs receipts among the several foreign creditors of Mexico. The
condition was also agreed that no Mexican territory should be acquired
or any interference be assumed as to the form of the Mexican government
by either of the powers. The United States refused to join in this
intervention. The French claim against Mexico was for six hundred
thousand dollars, which had been collected by Juarez and seized by
Miramon from the British legation where it was deposited for British
bondholders. There was, besides, an old debt of about eighty million
dollars contracted in the early days of the Republic. The claims of
Spain and France were together about eighteen millions, all Mexican
money.
It was soon evident that political motives were involved in the
intervention, at least on the part of France. When the allied fleet
arrived at Vera Cruz in December, 1861, bearing the commissioners
of the European powers, General Prim for Spain, Monsieur Dubois de
Saligny for France, and Admiral Wyke for Great Britain, they issued
a proclamation according to which their purpose was merely to secure
settlement of the financial questions. On December 14, 1861, the
Spaniards, whose fleet reached there earlier than its allies, occupied
Vera Cruz, which aroused the energetic resistance of the Mexicans,
especially on the arrival of the French and British fleets on January
8, 1862. The united forces numbered nearly ten thousand men.
Juarez issued a decree on January 25th calling on Mexicans to resist
the invaders and imposing the penalty of death on all who should fail
in this or who should aid or abet the invaders. This course seemed
inevitable, inasmuch as the partisans of Almonte, Miramon and Gutierrez
de Estrada, who in their exile had actively plotted in favor of a
monarchy for Mexico, were prepared to give aid to the invaders.
Juarez was anxious to avoid serious complications, if this could be
honorably done, and he invited the commissioners to a conference at
La Soledad, which resulted in a treaty on February 19th, by the
terms of which the Spanish troops were to advance as far as Orizaba
and the French to Tehuacán, and were to occupy those places until the
treaty was confirmed. The Mexican government was to be recognized
as constitutional. The ulterior aim of France was so insistent that
the British and Spanish support was soon withdrawn. Meantime, large
reinforcements had arrived from France and with them came Almonte,
Miranda, Haro y Tamaris and Miramon; the latter, however, to avoid
arrest by the British, went to Havana.
[Illustration: GENERAL PORFIRO DIAZ.]
[Illustration: NATIONAL MUSEUM, SHOWING AZTEC RELICS.]
[Illustration: NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE.]
CHAPTER V
HISTORICAL EVENTS
Napoleon III. had determined to create a throne in Mexico for
Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. An excuse was soon formed for actual
hostilities. Orizaba was reoccupied in spite of the agreement that if
the terms of the treaty of La Soledad were not confirmed, the troops
of the allies should retire to the positions held by them previous
to that treaty. The British and Spanish commissioners had refused to
confirm the treaty. The French, under General de Lorencez, aided by
Mexican conservatives, resolved to attack Puebla. General Ignacio
Zaragoza strongly fortified the hills of Guadalupe and Loretta and
received battle on May 5th, completely defeating the enemy, whose
troops numbered six thousand. This great victory over the French and
their Mexican allies is celebrated as one of the national feasts, _El
Cinco de Mayo_, and the gallant Zaragoza received the appointment of
military governor of Vera Cruz and the distinction of having his name
inscribed on the walls of Congress in letters of gold, and Puebla took
the name thenceforward of Puebla de Zaragoza. Diaz won fresh laurels
for the valiant fight he led with his brigade and for his pursuit of
the vanquished enemy.
The conservatives had proclaimed Almonte president, under the “Plan de
Córdoba,” on April 19th.
General Forey arrived in Mexico during September with heavy
reinforcements and superseded Lorencez. Acting without recognizing
Almonte’s government he instituted an active campaign. He laid siege
to Puebla on March 16, 1863, with over twenty-five thousand men, but
was repulsed repeatedly till the 29th by the brave Ortega who defended
the city with twenty-two thousand troops. On that day, Fort Iturbide
was taken, but in hope of expected relief the gallant defender resisted
every forward step within the city until forced by lack of food and
ammunition, he was compelled to surrender on May 17th. Marching with
a train to the relief was Comonfort, who had returned from exile to
defend the integrity of the republic, and who on May 8th encountered
Bazaine and Marquez at San Lorenzo and was defeated. This double
disaster was only redeemed in part by the magnificent defence made by
Ortega, which placed the achievement high on the roll of fame. Twelve
thousand prisoners were taken at Puebla, including twenty-six generals.
Of the latter some of them escaped later, among them being Ortega and
Porfirio Diaz. The French under Bazaine entered on June 7th, Forey
completing the occupation on June 10th.
Forey by decree of June 16th, authorized the French minister Saligny to
name a _junta_ of thirty-five Mexican citizens who should elect
three Mexicans to constitute the executive authority. This resulted
in the choice of Almonte, Mariano Salas and Labastida, Archbishop of
Mexico. The _junta_ also chose an “assembly of notables” which
met on July 10th, and declared the adoption of a moderate hereditary
monarchy with a Roman Catholic prince as ruler, under the title of
“Emperor of Mexico;” that the crown should be tendered to Maximilian,
Archduke of Austria, for himself and his descendants; and that if
Maximilian did not accept, then the benevolence of Napoleon III. was to
be appealed to to nominate another Catholic prince.
Maximilian accepted the tendered crown conditionally on a plébiscite
in his favor, and the military aid of France so long as that might be
necessary. On April 9, 1864, he renounced all rights to the throne of
Austria and on the following day accepted the crown of Mexico.
On May 28, 1864, the new emperor arrived at Vera Cruz accompanied by
the empress, Carlota. Thence they proceeded to Puebla and thence to the
capitál, where they were enthusiastically received on June 12, 1864.
The Regency which had reigned in the name of the emperor was forthwith
dissolved and Maximilian assumed personal rule. He was too liberal for
the church authorities and soon found himself at odds with them. He
was forced to issue a decree condemning to death (October 3, 1865) all
persons carrying arms against the empire and all persons aiding them.
This fateful decree which condemned patriots to the ignoble death of
“bandits and criminals” was issued on the presumption that Juarez had
abandoned Mexico and that an official government of the republic no
longer existed, but its promulgation and the infamous execution by
Mendez served but to strengthen the patriot cause.
[Illustration: GENERAL DIAZ AND PRESIDENT TAFT.]
History has a tempered rebuke for Maximilian and a sympathetic record
for his sorrowful empress. As a man, the emperor had many excellent
qualities; as an emperor, he might of his own volition have sought the
goodwill and the weal of the people of Mexico. Mexico spurned him and
his advisers. A belief that with his accession a stable government
might ensue may have induced a large number to acquiesce in the
establishment of an empire. But the movement was conceived in treason;
it practically gave back power to tyrants from whom it had been wrested
at the price of peace, blood and life. The empire could not stand
except by the mercy and favor of France and at the cost of Mexican
blood and progress.
Following upon the French occupation of the capital on June 7, 1863,
despite frequent defeats and with lessening resources, fighting
continued. Diaz bravely and splendidly defended Guerrero, Oaxaca, and
Puebla, notably in the taking of Taxco, a brilliant operation for
which he was rewarded with the rank of major-general. Bazaine, who had
defeated Comonfort at San Lorenzo, replaced Forey, whose success had
been rewarded by recall to enjoy a marshal’s appointment, on October
1, 1863, and was to assume also the diplomatic office of Saligny.
Besides the French army, he had a Mexican division of twelve thousand
under Marquez. With such forces the constitutional army must grapple
to preserve the republic. The republican army was commanded in chief
by Comonfort, but in spite of most heroic defence, it was defeated in
nearly all its battles of 1863. The valiant Comonfort was killed on
November 14th. Querétaro, Guanajúato, Guadalajara, Oaxaca, Chihuahua
and other important places fell into the hands of the imperialists. The
defence of the city of Oaxaca, from January 8th, to February 9, 1865,
is one of the notable events in Mexican history. A siege of several
weeks could not break the defenders, but lack of ammunition forced a
surrender. The hero, Diaz, fell into the hands of the imperialists,
but escaped their toils after several months’ captivity, on September
20th. The seat of the government was continually being changed, till at
length it was forced to the frontier at Paso del Norte. Dark, indeed,
seemed the hope of the republic, but its interests were in the charge
of men who were inured to battle and defeat; who knew the spirit of the
Mexican people; whose courage and patriotism could not be quenched.
On December 1, 1864, expired the term of office of President Juarez,
but in view of the danger to which the republic would be exposed by a
change of president at that time, the president declared in November,
that his power would continue until a constitutional successor should
be regularly elected.
In the crisis that faced the government, the United States had not
been a silent onlooker. The principles of the Monroe doctrine had
provoked Secretary Seward to intimate to France that the establishment
of a European monarchy in Mexico was not approved by his government
and that, as soon as the pressure of domestic affairs relaxed, the
United States government would mark its disapproval of the occupation
of Mexican territory by the army of a European power, and that it
would not tolerate the establishment of an empire in that territory
maintained by foreign military force. With the close of the Civil War,
therefore, the United States government demanded the withdrawal of
French troops and the cessation of colonization in the country. This
ultimatum, for such it really was, resulted in Napoleon’s abandonment
of the unfortunate Maximilian.
[Illustration: STATUE OF COLUMBUS.]
Maximilian desired to abdicate and leave Mexico with the French troops
but while postponing this course, the brave and devoted Carlota
went to France and pleaded with Napoleon to maintain his troops in
Mexico. In vain did she thus appeal, in August, 1866; she next went
to Rome to secure the aid of the Pope, but there, weakened by her
trials and crushed with her misfortune, her mind gave way and she
was placed in retreat at Tervueren, near Brussels, where she still
lives, long deprived of reason. In the south, Diaz, who since his
escape from Puebla had gathered a noteworthy force was organizing a
third campaign against the invaders, whom he signally defeated in
brilliant engagements in Oaxaca, at Nochixtlan on September 23d, at
Miahuatlan on October 3d, and at La Carbonera on October 18th, the
latter victory being especially significant. The Mexicans were now
filled with enthusiasm and unwavering courage led them to make light of
the discrepancies between their military resources and those of their
opponents. Diaz then laid siege to the City of Oaxaca which surrendered
on October 31st. This victory furnished the liberal army with much
needed ammunition and artillery. Moving southward toward Tehuantepec,
Diaz won the battles of La Chitova and Tequisistlan on December
19th and 26th. In January, 1867, the government was transferred to
Zacatécas, but it was again driven forth a few days later by Miramon,
who had returned to Mexico, and the president and his ministers barely
escaped capture. Before the date for the final withdrawal of French
troops arrived, Bazaine left Mexico with the last contingent, in
February, 1867.
But not all the desperate devotion of soldiers or skill of generals
could prevent the republican armies of the North and West from uniting
and on March 10th completing the investment of Querétaro. On March 22d,
Marquez successfully got past the invading lines with a cavalry force
of twelve hundred to make his way to the capital and bring thence the
garrison to make a real attack on the invaders and allow the besieged
to escape. Proceeding to the capital, Marquez secured the garrison, but
instead of returning to Querétaro, he took his force of five thousand
men to relieve Puebla, which General Porfirio Diaz was besieging after
having driven the enemy from the south. The latter, however, captured
the city on April 2d, after a masterly and brilliant twenty-five days’
siege. On this occasion the victory was doubly remarkable as a military
operation and as an example of the magnanimity of the victor, who
spared the lives of those who surrendered, in spite of the provocation
of the enemy through the cruel and wanton shooting of many of their
prisoners. Diaz, joining forces with Guadarrama, completely routed
Marquez at San Lorenzo on April 10th, and then marched to the capital,
to which he laid siege on April 12th.
At Querétaro, the Imperialists bravely sustained the unrelaxed siege,
which was marked by many brilliant sorties against the republican
troops; but without avail. The defeat of Marquez had destroyed all
hope of relief to the besieged, and after a siege by General Escobedo
of over nine weeks the imperialists resolved on its abandonment.
Before this plan could be effected, Maximilian was seized through the
treachery, it is said, of Colonel Miguel Lopez, who betrayed him.
Maximilian spurned the opportunity to save himself, although warned of
his danger. He took his last stand at the Cerro de Las Campanas, but
finding it impossible to hold this position, the emperor surrendered
his sword to Escobedo, on the 15th of May.
Maximilian was imprisoned in the convent of the Capuchins with Miramon
and Mejia, to await trial by court martial, in pursuance of the decree
against traitors and invaders promulgated by Juarez on January 25,
1862. On June 13th, he was arraigned and condemned to death on the
15th. The sentence was approved by General Escobedo who fixed the
following day for the execution; but it was postponed until the 19th,
on the order of President Juarez, when at seven in the morning the
unfortunate Maximilian, with Miramon and Mejia, was shot on the spot
on the Cerro de las Campanas where he was captured. The appeal of the
United States to spare the life of Maximilian had been refused, but
President Juarez pardoned nineteen generals of the Imperial army who
had been condemned to be shot. The president stood firm in his belief
that his duty required that Maximilian should suffer the extreme
penalty as a warning to usurpers and foreigners who might attempt to
destroy the nation. The ex-emperor faced death as a hero, effacing
his rank in the line of the doomed by giving Miramon the centre and
his patriotic address, short and sympathetic, aroused admiration and
crowned his tragic death with honor. Time has dealt mercifully with
the memory of Maximilian and the voice of posterity has regretted the
extreme penalty he suffered.
[Illustration: THE POST OFFICE.]
At the capital, General Diaz was storming; Marquez defended the city
bravely and well. Its fate was certain in any case, but its surrender
became immediately inevitable on the arrival of reinforcements from the
republican army at Querétaro. On the night of June 17th, a determined
sortie was repulsed with considerable loss and on the 19th the
Austrian auxiliaries capitulated. On the 21st, the city surrendered,
Marquez having gone into hiding, with his family, after resigning his
position. Diaz occupied the capital and disposed of his large number of
prisoners in three prisons and carefully safeguarded the rights of the
inhabitants and administered orderly the affairs of the city so that he
was able to hand over the large sum of three hundred thousand dollars
on restoring the government to the president.
Again, Juarez entered the capital in triumph, the people manifesting
intense delight and enthusiasm on the occasion, the 15th of July. The
disposal of the sentences against Imperialists was early concluded,
great leniency being extended toward them. Marquez and some other
leaders escaped, and finally a general amnesty was proclaimed on
October 13th, 1870, excepting only Archbishop Labastida and Generals
Uraga and Marquez. Of the other disturbers, mention need be made only
of Santa Anna, who had returned to Mexico and been condemned to eight
years’ banishment. He died at the capital on June 4, 1876.
The work of rehabilitation of the political and business condition
of the nation was a task that called for great wisdom and energy
on the part of the executive. Juarez was re-elected president and
endeavored to effect some changes in the constitution, but in view of
the opposition of some of his supporters, the 1857 constitution was
re-established. The president of the supreme court was Sebastian Lerdo
de Tejada. Juarez succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with
the European powers which had recognized the Imperial government.
He instituted a change in the administrative divisions by erecting
the States of Morelos and Hidalgo, in 1868 and 1869, respectively,
in honor of the independence patriot martyrs. His first term was
disturbed by insurrections and the familiar _pronunciamientos_,
but the government promptly and firmly repressed them, so that he was
re-elected and entered again on a four years’ term on December 1, 1871.
On July 18, 1872, Juarez died suddenly. In the regeneration of his
country during a period of exhaustion that resulted from the war
against the Imperialists and from the previous insurrectionary
movements of the centralists, the labors of Juarez were directed with
patriotic sincerity and great ability, and the march toward national
consolidation was well advanced. Important railroads and telegraph
lines were projected and established and the prosperity of the republic
enlarged.
Lerdo de Tejada succeeded Juarez by virtue of the constitution, and
with the acquiescence of the followers of Diaz. He retained the
cabinet of his predecessor and quietly directed the public affairs. To
quench disaffection, he proclaimed amnesty for those who had taken up
arms against Juarez, of which, however, Diaz refused to accept. The
constitutional election placed Lerdo de Tejada in office on December 1,
1872, and he again recognized the Juaristas in making up his cabinet.
[Illustration: POST OFFICE, WEST CORRIDOR.]
A very serious insurrection broke out in 1873 in Tepic, under the
leadership of Manuel Lozada, cacique of Alica, who marched with eight
thousand men against Guadalajara, but was completely routed by General
Ramón Corona, and the district of Tepic subdued and occupied by the
government and Lozada was shot.
On May 29, 1873, Congress approved the reform of the laws as to
church and state and on September 25th, the constitution established
separation of the two; freedom of religion; civic marriage; the right
of affirmation by witnesses; free labor; the inviolable liberty of
Mexicans as to labor, education and religion. The disputes with the
clericals had become bitter, foreign Jesuit priests had been expelled
from the country, even the nuns had been driven from their convents and
the Sisters of Charity were banished in 1874. In December of this year,
Diaz was elected to the Federal Congress and his friends insisted on
his candidacy for the Presidency at the next election.
Lerdo’s popularity and his hold became weakened early in 1875, and in
May he secured from congress personal power and authority in respect
to war and finances. The Juaristas were no longer ready to support him
solidly. The conflict aroused by President Lerdo’s aspirations and the
consequent opposition of the followers of Diaz had meantime plunged
the country into warfare. Diaz especially had been indefatigable and
successful in the field. After Matamoros came Icamole and these were
followed by his culminating contest at Tecoac. He had reached Oaxaca
with great difficulty, being obliged to travel from North Mexico to New
Orleans, and thence to Vera Cruz in disguise.
He gave battle to General Ignacio Alatorre on November 16, 1876, and
completely defeated him at Tecoac. President Lerdo abandoned the
capital and went to New York. On the 24th, Diaz entered the capital and
organized a government.
Iglesias maintained that the proceedings were not constitutional and
refused to acquiesce on the conditions proposed. Diaz entrusted the
government to General Juan N. Mendez and took the field with General
Manuel Gonzalez against Iglesias with an army of twelve thousand. Diaz
returned to the capital on February 11, 1877, and resumed the executive
power provisionally. On May 5th, the people elected him constitutional
president for the term ending November 30, 1880.
Though gaining the highest office by revolutionary means, Diaz avoided
all approach to subversion of popular rights or dictatorial rule. His
life was quite unostentatious; he declined the state residence and
occupied his own modest home.
One of the president’s first tasks was the re-establishment of
friendly foreign relations; he affected an amicable arrangement
of border troubles. The task of encouraging foreign capital to
promote great enterprises, particularly railroads, was also early
taken up. The increase of the public revenue and the economic and
honest administration of public offices was zealously promoted by
the president whose labors resulted in marked advance in prosperity
and enlargement of commerce and industry and a regular businesslike
discharge of the public service with due regard to constitutional
requirements.
In 1878, an important amendment of the constitution was effected
providing that the president and the State governors should be
ineligible to re-election until an interval of four years had elapsed
from the termination of their offices. This change was absolutely
endorsed by President Diaz, who would not consent to become a candidate
for re-election in 1880. On September 25th, General Manuel Gonzalez
was duly elected and he assumed office on December 1st, without
any violence being manifested. Indeed, the new era had come; the
transmission of executive power being accomplished peacefully, for the
first time since the republic had been established. The new president
secured the co-operation of his predecessor as the minister of public
promotion, but in a few months, General Diaz resigned after initiating
several important public works.
[Illustration: NATIONAL LIBRARY.]
The new birth of the nation manifested itself in growing demands for
public improvements and a regular administration of the public service
that outran the resources, which had not acquired the stability and
elasticity sufficient to respond to the situation. Besides extension
of public works, the government successfully established diplomatic
relations with Great Britain.
At the election in 1884, Diaz was again elected to the presidency and
assumed office on December 1st. Successful as a leader in the field;
familiar with all the political and industrial conditions and needs
of the country, the popular choice of the people, he was now free to
concentrate his wonderful energy and unusual ability on the task of
making the nation. Financial chaos was the groundwork on which his
government stood. The national treasury was penniless; the credit
of the country destroyed. Only the glimmering of real progress and
financial and industrial advance and stability had so far been seen.
Plans had been proposed of great merit. Railroads, telegraphs and
other public utilities had been advocated and projected, but the
time of action had not arrived. With the clear and decisive judgment
characteristic of the man, with the firm will and wonderful capacity
with which he was gifted, Diaz imparted to his people the confidence
he entertained and his administration was so successful that before
its close, in 1888, Mexico had entered on the open path of political
solidity and financial and commercial stability. The crushing burden of
foreign debt was reduced; the means of transportation and communication
were improved and extended; mining enterprises were actively fostered.
One of the problems of serious import that early confronted the
president was the relations with Guatemala arising out of the arbitrary
decree of President Barrios of Guatemala that the control of the five
Central American republics should be in his hands. President Diaz
promptly protested against so despotic a claim and energetically
prepared to support the protest by armed force, that “the old right of
conquest should not prevail among the free peoples of America.” The
great drainage canal, one of the notable modern engineering works, was
begun at this time. Peace with the outside world, and but minor Indian
uprisings, which were quickly suppressed, gave the opportunity for
works of real advancement, which were unintermittently followed.
So imperative was the need of continuing the direction of the country
in the same hands, that an amendment was made to the constitution
providing that the president should be eligible to succeed himself
for one term. Accordingly Diaz was again inaugurated on December 1,
1888, amid popular enthusiasm. The satisfactory domestic conditions
permitted of fuller entry into international comity and of placing
Mexico into closer and better defined relations with foreign countries,
a policy that was prudently and successfully carried to the conclusion
of an extradition treaty with the United States and the creation of an
International Boundary Commission, treaties of amity and commerce with
Great Britain, Japan and Brazil, Russia and the Argentine Republic.
Mexico participated in the Pan-American Conference at Washington in
December, 1889, being ably represented by her minister of that day,
Señor Mathias Romero, and General Enrique A. Mexia.
Public improvement did not halt and a survey of public lands was
provided for. An event that marked the wide interval of domestic strife
that a few short years had bridged occurred in the funeral honors shown
to ex-President Lerdo de Tejada, who had died in exile in New York, his
obsequies in the National capital being attended by President Diaz and
all his ministers as well as the leading statesmen of the country.
In 1892, so remarkable had been the advance made, so completely had
the activities of the nation been weaned from fratricidal struggles
and directed into channels that were building a magnificent heritage,
that further constitutional provisions were adopted abolishing all
restrictions upon the eligibility of the president to succeed himself,
in order that the direction of affairs might not be jeopardized by a
change in the policy of the government.
The public enterprises under way, the extension of public instruction
throughout the country, the development of mining and agriculture and
the growing transportation and communication systems were matters
of vital importance to the welfare of the nation and could bear no
postponement except at the cost of the present and the future.
The keynote of President Diaz’s aspiration and self-imposed obligation,
is found in his message to Congress on September 16, 1892: “The potent
influence of peace, which is now fortunately consolidated, will
undoubtedly be of great service to the republic in its progressive
development.
“Even if during the presidential term that is about to terminate no
other advantage than this inestimable benefit should have been secured,
my aspirations would have been satisfied, because the obtaining of
greater happiness for the Mexican people is principally due to the
virtues that have preserved men in the critical period of their history
and to their love of order, economy and labor, which will place them
some day among the nations most apt to gather the fruits of our modern
civilization.”
During the next term, for which Diaz was practically unanimously
elected, studious care in the cultivation and extension of friendly
foreign intercourse was the dominant policy. Internal affairs were
responsive to the improved financial measures; and every opportunity
was sought in encouragement of foreign capital to sustain and extend
the industrial and commercial development.
In 1894, Mexico effected a satisfactory adjustment of boundaries with
Great Britain in respect of the Yucatán-Belize delimitations, which had
aroused perplexing controversy. The administration was called upon to
exercise prudence and jealousy in dealing with Guatemala in the same
year, when a general sentiment favored war in consequence of illegal
acts charged against Guatemalan officials within Mexican territory.
The financial affairs of the republic had steadily improved and during
this administration satisfactory terms were arranged for the service
of the foreign debt. The diplomatic relations were maintained on the
basis of the strictest and justest recognition of international right
and Mexico enjoyed the respect and confidence of the world. A memorable
incident of this period was the opinion expressed by President Diaz
on the quality and application of the Monroe Doctrine. This opinion
was both able and judicious to a high degree. It carried the principle
of maintaining the integrity of the republics beyond the limitations
of a single American republic and claimed as a right and duty the
co-operation of all American republics to secure the integrity of
either. At the same time it indicated that such co-operation should be
sought by the aggrieved nation and, moreover, that the occasion should
be such as should clearly involve the integrity of the nation and be,
moreover, reserved from outside influence questions that might affect
national honor.
[Illustration: HISTORICAL CORNER IN MEXICO CITY.]
Before the close of this term more than equilibrium had been
established between revenues and expenses, for a considerable surplus
remained in the treasury, while concurrently all branches of the public
service had been judiciously provided for and great strides taken in
public works.
On December 1, 1896, began the new term of President Diaz under the
most auspicious promise. Particular attention was early directed
to financial and commercial affairs, as required by the constantly
expanding foreign and domestic trade. A law relating to institutions
of credit was passed so as to extend commercial affairs with greater
facility and protection; under the operation of which banking
conveniences were greatly increased throughout the States.
One of the measures of Congress to which the government gave successful
effect was cause for national pride and at the same time greatly helped
its financial policy. This was the conversion of the national debt on
a gold basis, with which was coupled the reduction of the interest by
one per cent.; the release to the treasury of certain funds which had
been hypothecated to the service of the foreign debt; the unification
of such debt; and the cancellation of the mortgage of the Tehuantepec
Railway.
The year 1898, was a period when the diplomacy and influence of the
government was put to the test. Spain was at war with the United
States. Intercourse with both combatants demanded a scrupulous
neutrality between them, but the government of Mexico was skilfully
conducted without giving rise to controversy with either belligerent.
In 1899, the diplomatic rank of Mexico’s minister to the United States
was raised to that of an ambassador, a like courtesy being extended
by the United States. The same year Mexico participated in the Peace
Congress at the Hague, at the invitation of the Emperor of Russia; the
United States and Mexico being the only American republics so invited.
At this conference, the influence of Mexico was thrown in the direction
of the enlightened principles in furtherance of international peace and
amelioration of the ravages of war that were embodied in the convention
of the Congress.
The year 1900 is remarkable for the great improvements inaugurated in
the capital. Tramways and the electric lighting service were extended
and improved; private and public buildings of a splendid character were
erected, among them the Post Office, the National Geological Institute,
the Children’s Asylum and others; all of which contributed in an
important degree to render the capital more attractive and befitting
the modern standing of the city and the nation.
The last diplomatic gap was filled during the year 1901, when official
relations were re-established between Mexico and Austria Hungary, which
had been closed since the war of the French Intervention.
The delegates to the second Pan-American Conference assembled in
the City of Mexico, in 1901. The occasion was critical owing to the
strained relations then existing among some of the southern republics,
and it is a tribute to the eminent position recognized as belonging to
Mexico that the labor of the conference resulted in the conclusion of a
series of important treaties and agreements tending to the welfare of
the nations of the American continent.
For some time a controversy had continued with the United States in
regard to claims of the Catholic church in California and the case
was presented to the International Arbitration Court at The Hague,
in 1902. The decision was adverse to Mexico but it was accepted and
acted upon loyally by that country. This was the first case before the
International court to which Mexico was a party.
[Illustration: A PART OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
Diplomatic relations were officially established with Cuba, in 1902,
and with Persia, in 1903, and legations were established in the
southern republics. Arrangements for peaceful adjustment of disputes by
arbitration were made with Venezuela and further evidence is thus given
of the cordial sympathy of the Mexican people and its government with
all courts to promote international amity.
The City of Mexico, in 1903, was finally in the enjoyment of a
completed drainage system which made the condition of the capital
enviable. The same year marks the elimination of yellow fever as an
epidemic. In other directions, also, progress continued to be the
constant incentive of the government.
An important change in the constitution was made respecting the
presidential term and the election of the vice-president. The former
was extended to six years, that of the latter to be concurrent, and his
election made similar to that of the president. Following this change
came the almost unanimous re-election of Diaz and the election of Ramon
Corral to the vice-presidency.
One of the most interesting and useful incidents of late happening
in Mexico was furnished by the visit, in 1907, of Mr. Elihu Root,
Secretary of State. His reception and entertainment, splendid and
magnificent, afforded the most complete evidence of the honor in which
the government of which he was so eminent a member was held and of the
high esteem and regard entertained for the American nation by Mexico.
The contrast drawn by Mr. Root between the Mexico of 1869, as seen by
Secretary Seward and that viewed by Mr. Root so sharply points the
progress made that it may well be recorded in the speaker’s words:
“Then was a country torn by civil war sunk in poverty, in distress, in
almost helplessness. Now I find the country great in its prosperity,
in its wealth, in its activity and enterprise, in the moral strength
of its just and equal laws, and unalterable purpose to advance its
people steadily along the path of progress. Mr. President, the people
of the United States feel that the world owes this great change chiefly
to you. They are grateful to you for it, for they rejoice in the
prosperity and happiness of Mexico.”
Such was the glowing tribute to the lofty aims and the great
achievements of Mexico. So strong a sympathy officially between the
great governments of the northern continent may well inspire confidence
in the future of Mexico. Other instances of the mutual friendship of
the two republics are seen in the enthusiasm shown on the occasion
of the celebration of Mexico’s Independence Day at the Jamestown
Exposition in 1907, at which the republic displayed a noteworthy
exhibit. The great banquet of the Chamber of Commerce of New York
in November, 1908, afforded an opportunity to Americans to testify
their regard for the president and people of Mexico, which they did
enthusiastically. Finally, the meeting of the two Presidents of North
America’s republics on the frontier on October 6, 1909, was as friendly
as it was ceremonious.
The historical meeting of President Taft of the United States and
President Diaz of Mexico occurred at the frontier of the two countries
on October 6, 1909. The exchange of courtesies was initiated by the
Mexican Executive in terms eulogistic of President Taft, who in turn
paid honor and tribute to President Diaz and Mexico. President Diaz,
in full dress uniform, made brilliant with gold lace, and wearing
many decorations, driven in a carriage richly gold-mounted and drawn
by black horses, crossed the international bridge with an escort of
troops and was received with cordial greeting on behalf of the United
States by Secretary of War Dickinson, attended by a body of American
troops, on reaching the boundary of the United States. Here as a guest
of the sister republic he left his own carriage and entered into one
provided by the American authorities while a salute of twenty-one guns
was fired. Escorted by a large body of artillery he was driven through
the streets of El Paso to the Chamber of Commerce Building, where he
was awaited by the American President attended by his state and federal
officials. Along the route loud and continuous cheers greeted Diaz, who
was accompanied by General Cosio, minister of war; Olegario Molino,
minister of commerce and industry; Señor Creel, of Chihuahua, former
ambassador to the United States; now secretary of state; Colonel Pablo
Escandon, chief of the military staff; and Señor de la Barra of the
Mexican Committee of Arrangements. Formal greetings having been made
and presentation of officials, the two presidents retired for a private
interview, attended only by Governor Creel.
[Illustration: A COUNTRY ROAD IN PUEBLA, SHOWING
POPOCATEPETL.]
The conference in the chamber of commerce over, and the Mexican
president having returned within his own territory, President Taft
was soon on his way across the international bridge to Juarez. He was
received by the escort of President Diaz with all the distinction that
had been accorded to the Mexican executive. Quaint little Juarez had
put on her holiday dress and everywhere fluttered brilliant banners and
bunting; the way of the visitor was along a brilliant avenue of flower
garlands and multi-colored streamers. The greetings exchanged at the
custom house were as follows:
President Diaz: “Your Excellency, the Mexican people and I feel very
proud indeed to have you on Mexican soil. I believe that the personal
acquaintance which I have made with you and the friendly feelings
which already exist between the United States and Mexico will be
a guaranty of the continuance of the friendly, cordial and strong
relations between the peoples of the two countries, and that success
and prosperity will follow.”
President Taft: “This is the first time, so far as I know, that a
president of the United States has stepped beyond the border of the
United States, either on the north or on the south, and I esteem it a
great privilege to be the president at the time when that event has
happened. I hope it is significant of the tightening of the bonds
between the two countries. Railroads and other means of communication
like the telegraph have brought us closer to each other, so that the
City of Mexico and the City of Washington are far nearer to-day than
they ever were before.
“And that means a closer union of feeling between the two peoples, a
closer feeling between those responsible for the government of each
country; and I esteem it the greatest honor of my life to have the
privilege of representing the United States in such a significant
ceremony.”
The festivities really began with a magnificent banquet given by
President Diaz to President Taft. The scene in the patio of the custom
house was one never to be forgotten. The display of decorations was
magnificent. The flowers used, three trainloads, came from all parts
of the republic; the gold and silver plate was the service handed
down from the time of Maximilian. The courtyard was converted into
a banqueting room by means of a temporary roof and banks of flowers
exhaled an enchanting fragrance. Prominent among the decorations were
large portraits in oil of George Washington and the Cura Hidalgo,
above which, expressive of the occasion and suggestive of the similar
services of the two patriots stretched the stars and stripes of the
United States and the red, white and green of the sister republic. The
toast of President Diaz was profoundly cordial and appreciative of the
greatness of the United States and the American people and of President
Taft, and concluded with the words: “An occasion which will serve to
strengthen the bonds existing between the two neighboring nations,
whose respective elements of life and interest find in themselves
reciprocal complement and enhancement.”
Toasting the President of Mexico, President Taft said:
“The aim and ideals of our two nations are identical, their sympathy
mutual and lasting and the world has become sure of a vast neutral zone
of peace in which the controlling aspiration of either nation is the
individual’s human happiness. I drink to my friend, the president of
this great republic, to his continued long life and happiness, and to
the never-ending bond of mutual sympathy between Mexico and the United
States.”
The guests on this significant occasion numbered one hundred and fifty,
the City of El Paso presented commemorative loving cups of gold to the
two presidents. Soon after each president was on his way back to his
seat of government. The American president was escorted to his own
territory amid a bewildering blaze of light and attended by the shouts
of happy welcome of the people of the picturesque Mexican town.
This unique event, of happy promise for the mutual welfare and progress
of the sister republics inaugurated a phase of relations that should
make simpler the work of coöperation between the governments of the
United States and Mexico.
[Illustration: PRIVATE LIBRARY OF ONE OF MEXICO’S PROMINENT
LAWYERS]
[Illustration: CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
[Illustration: SCENE FROM THE PROCESSION OF THE 16TH OF
SEPTEMBER.]
CHAPTER VI
GENERAL PORFIRIO DIAZ
Of all the great men of the Mexico of to-day none has done more than
her present Chief Magistrate, perhaps none have done so much, to
advance her with giant strides but true in the paths of prosperity and
peace.
Porfirio Diaz was born September 15, 1830, in the City of Oaxaca, in
the state of the same name--the _vispera_ or evening before the
glorious anniversary of the national independence. His parents were
Don José Faustino Diaz and Doña Petrona Mory. Oaxaca has been styled
“the dwelling place of heroes in the garden of the gods,” “the Eden
of America,” “tomb of the conquerors and the cradle of patriots.”
The state, although mountainous, is rich in agricultural and mineral
productions.
Its scenery is grand, both temperate and tropical climates are found
there, and it is well adapted to be the cradle of sons who should be
the hope of the nation and who should raise aloft the standard of
liberty.
The ancestors of Porfirio Diaz were Spaniards who left their mother
country in the first years of the conquest. His father possessed in a
high degree all the natural qualities necessary to make him a patriot,
a soldier or statesman. He was tall, symmetrical, muscular and active
and carried himself in a manner indicating him to be a man of great
resolution. The son resembled his father and is most affable in his
manners, of a good heart and extremely generous, yet if an injury or
injustice is done him he resents it with the greatest determination and
energy. This quality exists in all great men who, while ever ready to
have justice done, are also prompt to punish evil. One who enters into
combat, whether physical or moral, will never come off conqueror unless
possessed of force and perseverance.
President Diaz’s mother, of the family of Morys, came from Asturias,
whose strong and valiant sons were noted for their independent spirit
and their ancient lineage, possessing the impetuosity of the Celts and
the frankness and integrity of the Goths. Her grandfather, a Spaniard,
married an Indian woman, who was General Diaz’s great-grandmother,
so that in the veins of Porfirio is mixed the blood of the proudest
provinces of Spain with that of the highest nations of America, as the
Miztecas were fully as advanced in civilization as were the Aztecas.
His father rented in Oaxaca the property known as the Meson de la
Soledad, where Porfirio was born. There were six other children, two
of whom died in infancy. In 1833, the Asiatic cholera invaded Mexico
and among its victims was Captain Diaz. This was a great blow to the
family, as the mother’s health was delicate and her children young,
but she had all the energy of her race, and at her husband’s death
she continued with the inn (_meson_) and showed in every way
great firmness and intelligence, maintaining with vigor in all her
acts her integrity as wife and mother. She possessed fine feelings,
was industrious and hospitable, courteous and dignified. With all her
modesty and delicate instincts she was brave, and in those tumultuous
times, if necessary, could use arms in defence of herself and children.
Her great desire was that her children should receive such intellectual
development as should fit them for any place which they should be
called to occupy.
Porfirio was in a primary school until he was seven years old.
At fourteen he entered the seminary directed by Roman Catholic
ecclesiastics. There were several reasons for his entering this
seminary rather than the Government institution of arts and sciences.
Business matters had not been prosperous with his mother, and little by
little, she was obliged to sell her belongings to maintain and educate
her family. In the seminary aid was rendered bright students. The
father had desired that his sons be educated for the church.
After studying for a time to prepare himself, he felt that he should
do something to aid his mother, whose means had become exhausted, and
he commenced to give lessons in his leisure hours. While doing this
he came in contact with Don Marcos Pérez, Judge of the Supreme Court
of the State and Professor in the Government Institute of Arts and
Sciences. He became very fond of Porfirio, whom he often took to the
institute, discussing with him the tendency of extending civil and
religious liberty.
One day Pérez invited him to be present at the distribution of prizes
in the Civil College of the State. The Governor, Benito Juarez, was
present and Porfirio was presented to him. Juarez had known Porfirio’s
father slightly, and had heard of the many efforts which the son
was making to get an education so as to be his mother’s staff and
comfort. The Governor spoke encouragingly and young Diaz found therein
the fountain of ambition and a source of desires, hopes and noble
aspirations.
As he realized the condition of his country he saw nothing but
perdition, the curse of Spain and the pernicious results of ill
directed efforts to force upon the Mexican people religion and European
civilization, and he resolved to consecrate his life to his country.
As a little boy in his play he had ever been a soldier, and had
always been made the leader or general by the other boys, so that his
inclinations to and capacity for a military life were early seen by his
friends.
When the war with the United States commenced in 1847, Porfirio’s heart
was filled with enthusiasm to fight for his country, and, with several
of his college mates, he petitioned the Governor to send them to the
front that they might help fight the enemy. Governor Guerque placed
their names on his list, and the youths were inscribed upon the roll
of the national guard, which consisted of one battalion, and which, by
reason of the extreme youth of those composing it, received the epithet
“Better than nothing.”
When Porfirio was nineteen and had finished his preparatory studies,
the Bishop offered to confer on him in the following year the lesser
orders, and to give him a scholarship. Diaz then declared his intention
of studying jurisprudence in the institute. The prelate was surprised
at a young man in needy circumstances disregarding such valuable aid.
It was considered a mad decision. His uncle, the Bishop, withdrew his
help and forbade him his house.
Maternal tears affected the heart of the affectionate son, and although
insensible to the counsels of the Bishop as also to his threats, he
promised to do as his mother desired. Although a pious and devoted
churchwoman, with great desires for his spiritual and temporal
prosperity, she did not wish to go contrary to his will and to oblige
or persuade him to follow a calling that would be disagreeable to him.
She left him free to follow his inclinations.
She lived long enough to see the practical wisdom of her son’s
determination, as after a few years came that blow which destroyed the
power of the Church and placed a limit upon its influence, while men of
intelligence and position found free scope in the profession of the law.
Porfirio Diaz entered the institute and commenced in a systematic
manner the study of jurisprudence, helping himself by teaching. Juarez,
who had not forgotten him, gave him the position of librarian. After
four years of study, having been elected assistant professor of Roman
law even before graduating, he had, in compliance with the law, to
enter a law office and practise two years, as the course of study
required.
[Illustration: SEÑORA DOÑA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ.]
During this time--1853--Santa Anna, who was made Dictator, improved
every opportunity to destroy his opponents, and Juarez was arrested
and taken to Vera Cruz, whence after receiving most cruel treatment
in prison, he embarked for Havana, going eventually to New Orleans to
live. His business affairs were passed over to his associate, Señor
Pérez, but the latter having been imprisoned shortly after for holding
correspondence with some of the opponents of Santa Anna, Porfirio Diaz
took sole charge. He gave proof of his honesty and activity and showed
great skill in the exercise of his profession.
Seeing the injustice exercised in voting for the Dictator, he and other
students were indignant at the unjustifiable display of power. However,
when he saw the frauds committed, the young patriot could support it no
longer, and he and one other went to the table where the negative list
was to be voted. An order was soon out for their arrest and they were
obliged to flee.
Shortly after Diaz was called to put into practice what he had learned
in his military drill, and, although only twenty-five, he was found
fully competent to direct soldiers, and in the mountains of the Mizteca
joined a small company of patriots, two or three hundred in number,
commanded by Captain Herrera, who opposed the Dictator. Herrera,
recognized his competency and took his advice. Soon after, though but
few in number and having but few arms and being but poorly disciplined,
they gained a victory at Scotongo over the large and well-disciplined
forces of Santa Anna.
When Santa Anna was overthrown and the Liberal Government was
established, Porfirio returned and was rewarded by being made Chief of
Police in the District of Ixtlan.
In 1857, he went out under Lieutenant-Colonel Velasco to put down an
uprising in Jamiltepec. In Ixcapax he was badly wounded, but seeing
that one of the lines was in great danger, with blood streaming from
his wounds, without heeding them, he went forward and with rare
military courage so diverted the enemy as to defeat them.
His mother died about the end of 1858, while he was in Tehuantepec.
Through all his vicissitudes he had ever been an affectionate and
obedient son, and her death caused him great sorrow.
It was in that year he went to Tehuantepec under General Ignacio Mexia
to fight Cobos, who was defeated at Jalapa, and while there he was left
as military commander of that district. He maintained the Government
in that region, contending against an enemy superior in strength,
without receiving aid from the General Government, and counting only
upon the resources that he himself knew how to obtain. He remained in
Tehuantepec two years, fighting almost every day against large odds.
Again he was wounded, but the victory was complete.
Discretion and prudence united to patriotism and noble aspirations have
ever been the base of his military character.
The extraction by a surgeon from the United States of a ball that he
had carried in his body for years, relieved him from the acute physical
suffering that he had so long endured. Soon after he received his
commission as lieutenant-colonel for a victory obtained in June, 1859,
in Mixtequilla. For another one gained in Tehuantepec in November,
1859, the Government rewarded him with the rank of colonel. On the 5th
of August, 1860, Diaz won another victory over Cobos in Oaxaca.
[Illustration: ESCORTING THE PRESIDENT TO THE NATIONAL
PALACE, 5TH OF MAY.]
Diaz loved above all things a military life, and could not bear the
thought of separating himself from the army. On the battlefield,
surrounded by his faithful companions, he experienced more than
anywhere else the pleasure of satisfied ambition. There he could
open up for himself a way without so greatly contending against the
jealousies and envy which might be encountered in legislative halls.
The hardships of war had been until now his sweets of life, and the
noise of battle still resounded in his ears like harmonious music. But
he had to submit to his lot and repair to the Capital of the Republic,
there to work as a legislator, having gained another step in the ladder
of fame.
Although virtually the Conservative forces were destroyed, some chiefs,
who could find no better occupation than to live by war, were aided
by the church and the prospects of booty. Leonardo Márquez, one of
the most prominent of these revolutionary chiefs, on June 24, 1861,
attempted an attack on the Capital. Congress was in session when the
unexpected news reached them of his arrival. Diaz, “a soldier first of
all,” asked permission to retire and hastened to the scene of danger.
The forces from Oaxaca, which were quartered in the convent of San
Fernando under General Mejia, resisted Márquez’s attack, and Colonel
Diaz’s arrival was celebrated with cheers from his old companions in
arms, whose enthusiasm he served to revive. Mejia gladly accepted his
aid, and the victory was theirs.
The importance of the support that Diaz here gave can be better
understood by the reward that the Government conferred on him by
giving the command of the brigade of Oaxaca to him with the order to
join Ortega’s division, and to march on and destroy the rest of the
Conservative forces.
[Illustration: THE TRIBUNAL, 5TH OF MAY.]
On the 13th of August, 1861, the fourth anniversary of one of his
first triumphs, Diaz, with his few soldiers, gained another victory
over Márquez and his four thousand men. In his attack upon Márquez
he had disobeyed General Ortega. It was not pleasant to this brave
soldier to feel that all the glory of that campaign belonged to a
subordinate. The victory was remarkable, Diaz had less than three
hundred men and Márquez four thousand. In this encounter Diaz’s life
was in peril. He had entered the ranks of the enemy unattended, as he
led the attack, but the instinct of his charger seemed to realize the
danger and he carried him back safely to his own troops. The command
on this occasion had been given to Diaz, Mejia being ill and gladly
accepting his aid. For his great service Diaz was promoted to the rank
of brigadier-general.
Marquez, with the remnant of his broken army fled in haste but made a
stand at Pachuca and Real del Monte, but suffered signal defeat on the
20th of October. With these events, the Conservative force was broken
and the War of Reform practically closed.
A new stage in the career of Diaz was about to open. The French
intervention was aimed against the true nationalization of Mexico.
Here the Mexicans were traitorously engaged with the foreign invader
in an effort to overthrow the republic. Juarez, who had been elected
constitutional president, sent the army against the enemy, who had
broken the convention of La Soledad. Diaz was ordered to lead his
brigade to the Pass of Acultzingo to aid in its defense. He first
engaged the enemy at Escamela between Orizaba and Cordova and reaching
Puente Colorado he strongly established his force and then did valorous
and effective work in holding back the vanguard of the enemy, affording
saving help to the vanquished and by his marked skill and bravery
giving much-needed confidence to the national troops, whose lack of
organization and means of defense were the crucial tests that proved
the quality of generalship. The great victory of Acultzingo on April
28th, proved that Diaz was a master of strategy and alertness coupled
with the most remarkable measure of audacity and bravery.
The Mexicans retired to Puebla and reached there May 3d. On the next
day, General Zaragoza addressed his officers urging his army “to
fight to the last, so that even though it were not possible to be
victorious.” The battle on the 5th proved a victory for the patriots,
the record of which is enshrined in the hearts of the people and serves
to thrill them and their children with patriotic fervor. The part that
Diaz took in this memorable victory was a most decisive one and none
knew the service he rendered in that “forlorn hope” better than the
great general who was in chief command. Diaz again met the French at
Orizaba on June 14th.
Civil and military duties now devolved on Diaz, to whom was confided
the administration of the State of Vera Cruz. The French had been
reinforced and again Puebla was invested. The Mexican army was now
under the chief command of General Ortega, the gallant Zaragoza having
died. Puebla had been besieged for two months since the 6th of March
1863. Its defense evoked most thrilling deeds of heroism which mark the
siege as among the memorable events in history. General Diaz earned
proud laurels for his personal bravery and wonderful resources. His
defense of the Mesón de San Marcos was a brilliant deed and the general
and the man demonstrated the highest qualities. But the vain struggle
ended by surrender on May 16th. Diaz, with a noble inspiration, refused
to burn his flags; instead, he buried them, assured that he would some
day return and recover them to float in advance of a victorious army.
[Illustration: LIEUTENANT-COLONEL PORFIRIO DIAZ.]
A prisoner to the foreign invader, Diaz with other Mexican officers
refused to sign an agreement not to take up arms for his country, or
endeavor to escape. The large number of prisoners, eleven thousand
soldiers and fifteen hundred civil officials, proved too many for
complete vigilance, so adopting a bold ruse, Diaz soon escaped as did
Berriozábal and, later, many others. He made his way at once to Mexico
City and placed himself at the disposal of President Juarez who desired
him to become Secretary of War. This Diaz refused believing that such
an office should be conferred on a senior or ranking officer. He
assented to the alternative proposal of taking command of a division.
When Juarez determined to abandon the City of Mexico, Diaz went to
Oaxaca to organize the army of the East and for some time maintained
a desperate fight in that State and in Guerrero and Puebla, relieved
by the assault and capture of Taxco on October 28, 1863, a feat
accomplished against great odds and due only to the tactics and valor
of Diaz. Discouragement and defeat seemed to be no force against him,
and treachery seemed but to feed his valor and love of independence.
The promise of honor and emolument at the hand of his country’s foe,
as the price of abandoning the struggle for independence only aroused
his scorn. Not long after the victory of Taxco he was promoted to the
rank of major-general.
Slowly and with difficulty had Diaz created an army when Marshal
Bazaine took command of the Imperial army, a force of eighteen thousand
men with forty-eight guns, and laid siege to Oaxaca. Diaz, governor as
well as commander, maintained a most stubborn defence during several
weeks, but he could not, in spite of his brilliant efforts, fight
starvation and, lacking ammunition, surrender was inevitable. Without
a flag of truce or other safeguard, and under the fire of the enemy,
this intrepid general sought the headquarters of the French commander,
accompanied only by Colonels Angulo and Echegaray, and surrendered on
February 9, 1865. To the greeting of Bazaine “that he had returned to
his promise and would not again take up arms against his sovereign,”
Diaz replied unhesitatingly that he owed allegiance only to the
Mexican nation and no other would he serve or recognize. Bazaine
believing that Diaz had been liberated earlier on _parole_, severely
reproached him for his breach of faith, but finding on reference to
the register that Diaz had not signed any document, he gave orders for
his imprisonment. First, he was confined in San Loreto, then in Santa
Clara, and finally in the convent of La Compania. While in the first
named prison strong efforts were made to induce the prisoners to take
the oath of allegiance to Maximilian, many officers succumbed to the
temptation, and to intimidate the others, several officers were led
forth and shot at midnight. Four at least, including Diaz, could not
be shaken in their allegiance. In the convent of Santa Catarina, Diaz
worked for nearly five months digging a tunnel to lead to the street.
Before it was completed, he was removed to the convent of La Compania.
The story of his escape from this convent so strikingly illustrates the
determination and resourceful character of the hero, that in spite of
frequent telling, it should be repeated here.
Diaz had secured ropes, which were smuggled into the bath room under
his clean clothes. He wound these around his body under his clothes,
to avoid their being discovered. He had a well-sharpened dagger. In
preparation for his attempt, he rolled three of the ropes, which, with
a third in reserve, and his dagger he hid under the bed clothes on
the afternoon of September 20th. When the signal sounded at night for
retirement of the prisoners, he stepped out on an open balcony close
to the roofs which overlooked an inner courtyard. The three ropes
he carried concealed in a cloth and not being observed cast them on
a neighboring roof. The remaining rope was then tied to a projecting
stone gutter that promised sufficient strength. This was not easily
or very quickly accomplished as it was very dark, but it was done and
after testing its strength carefully, by this Diaz climbed to the roof.
He then tied his four ropes together.
[Illustration: CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC.]
To reach the point from which the captive would descend was very
hazardous, the convent being overlooked by a neighboring church,
where a sentinel was always on guard. Cautiously crossing the roof,
frequently on hands and knees, the general passed along two sides of
the courtyard, exposed to the danger of discovery by the flashes of
lightning that frequently lighted up the sky and also by the danger
of betraying himself through the noise he might cause by treading on
fragments of broken tile and glass scattered over the roof. He then
proceeded erect and seeking to ascertain if an alarm had been given,
his foot slipped on the wet masonry and he was almost precipitated
through a window. A very hazardous part of the roof had yet to be
crossed before the point of descent could be reached, namely the side
where the chaplain dwelt. This chaplain had denounced some time before
several political prisoners who had cut their way through his rooms
and on his evidence they were shot. Almost breathless, Diaz let himself
down to the chaplain’s roof at a point opposite the place where he had
ascended and finally reached the San Roque corner where he had planned
to descend. At this corner was a statue of San Vincent Ferrer about
which he intended to fasten his rope, but on touching it, it appeared
ready to fall and although he supposed it might have an iron support,
he deemed it safer to tie the rope around the base of its pedestal,
which seemed strong enough to bear his weight.
[Illustration: STAIRWAY TO THE CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
It occurred to Diaz that he might be seen if he descended at the corner
of the street, so he decided to lower himself by the side of the
building away from the corner and in the shadow. On reaching the second
story his foot slipped and he fell quite a distance into a pigsty. At
the same time his dagger slipped from its sheath and falling on one
of the pigs probably wounded it, and when he stumbled among them they
squealed loudly. Fortunately, no one was passing at the moment and his
discovery was avoided. He waited till the animals quieted down and then
leaped over a low garden fence into the street, only to beat a quick
retreat on seeing a policeman making his round. The man soon passed and
Diaz, much relieved, but almost exhausted from fatigue, hastened to
a house where he knew a horse, a servant and a guide would be found.
Arrived there, the three, with loaded pistols, leaped into the saddle
and after evading a mounted patrol reached the outskirts of Puebla.
Contrary to his expectation he was not stopped at the city gates by the
sentinels, on the contrary, the gate was open and unguarded and at full
trot the party passed through and then galloped off along the road.
He gathered together a small force, and here and there would have
engagements, with varying success. But the brilliant triumphs of
Miahuatlán and La Carbonera over the Austrians brought back to General
Diaz all the lustre and fame that he had gained as the most prominent
General of the country. While the battles in themselves were eclipsed
by many of his previous victories, they were most notable for the
indisputable establishment of republican supremacy in all the vast
region of the South--the result of more than a year of untold and
persevering efforts.
He again organized new troops and defeated Visoza in Tulcingo, State of
Puebla, on the 1st of October, 1865. He then went to La Providencia,
and General Juan Alvarez gave him some two hundred arms, and he
again defeated Visoza at Comitlipa, State of Guerrero, on the 4th of
December, 1865.
[Illustration: RECEPTION AT THE PALACE ON THE EIGHTIETH
BIRTHDAY OF GENERAL DIAZ.]
From Miahautlan, he marched to the City of Oaxaca, and while besieging
the capital learned that the Imperial government had sent a column
under command of Baron Luker, an Austrian officer, to relieve the
besieged garrison of Oaxaca. General Diaz decided at once to march on
the approaching relief column, which he met at La Carbonera on the
18th of October, 1866, and after routing it completely he returned to
Oaxaca, when the garrison surrendered on the 31st of the same month. He
thus obtained forty-two pieces of artillery, two thousand five hundred
muskets and all the garrison provisions and stores.
The 1st of November, 1866, General Diaz entered his natal city to
be crowned with laurel as its liberator. On April 2d, 1867, he won
in Puebla another most glorious victory which made the walls of the
empire totter, as this was one of the invader’s three strongholds.
Among the prisoners were eleven generals and three bishops. By law
all the officers taken prisoners were to be shot as traitors, and
even foreigners were to receive the same fate after the French armies
had been withdrawn. Presenting himself before the eleven generals,
Diaz politely invited them to follow him, without being guarded, to
the episcopal palace, where were six hundred officials, many of them
occupied with confession and making their final arrangements, as they
knew the fate that had befallen other prisoners. “Gentlemen,” said
Diaz, “it is impossible for me to execute the punishment which the
law imposes, and there is no other alternative for me but to make you
prisoners; but I remember well my own sufferings while a prisoner in
this same place, and I wish to avoid your being put to such straits.
Go, then, you are free. All that I ask of you is that you promise me
to put yourselves at the disposition of the Supreme Government if you
are so ordered. The nation will pronounce its sentence upon the empire,
but it will be indulgent to its misguided sons.” This general amnesty,
which later found its parallel at Appomattox, caused on all sides a
great tumult of satisfaction. Men who had before been enemies pledged
themselves hereafter to be friends. Many turned away to hide their
tears. General Diaz himself was profoundly moved. Among the prisoners
was a colonel who was ashamed and fearful at the same time, and could
not believe that he was free; as when the Count Von Thun had fixed
the price of ten thousand dollars for the head of General Diaz when
he escaped from Puebla this Colonel Escamilla (then Chief of Police
of Izucar) offered another thousand from his own pocket. The General
understood well his captive’s fear and shame, and said: “Colonel, that
imprudent action was suggested by blind duty; let us forget it.” From
that time Escamilla was one of his most loyal partisans.
The tempering with magnanimity the rigor of the law, avoiding the
baptism of blood, had its influence in the fall of the City of Mexico,
procuring for Diaz great praise among friends and enemies. General
Tamariz, who died shortly afterward, said with emotion: “Twice Diaz
has conquered me by his military talent and once by his generosity;
with pleasure I would serve such a man, although it were as a common
soldier.”
After the capture of Puebla, General Diaz went to meet the Imperial
General Márquez, who had left Querétaro to relieve Mexico, and who was
marching against Puebla. On the 5th of April, General Diaz overtook
Márquez at San Diego Notario, where a battle was fought, ending in the
defeat of Márquez. General Diaz followed up his victory and met Márquez
again at San Lorenzo on the 10th of April, defeating him completely.
[Illustration: CORRIDOR AT CHAPULTEPEC, OVERLOOKING THE
VALLEY OF MEXICO.]
Diaz then marched to Mexico, establishing himself in Tacubaya, and
commenced operations to put the City in a state of siege. On the 14th
of May, General Escobedo took Querétaro. Maximilian was tried by
court-martial and was condemned to death by his own decree of the 3d of
October, 1865, that all officers taken prisoners should be shot.
Diaz had continued with great vigor the siege of the capital, and on
the 20th of June the Conservatives yielded and he entered the city
quietly and took a small house in the suburbs, having his office in the
School of Mines. No banner of any sort was raised on the palace until
the 15th of July, when Juarez himself hoisted the flag.
The day following the surrender of Mexico, Diaz presented his
resignation as commander of the line and Army of the East, and after a
few months returned to his native city, Oaxaca, which with open arms
welcomed the hero home again. It was one triumphal march from the
capital to his home. He was given by the Legislature of Oaxaca the
Hacienda de la Noria, to which he retired, living there quietly for two
years, resting from his labors and fatiguing marches.
He had formed, even when quite young, an attachment for Delfina
Ortega y Reyes and on the day of the surrender of Puebla, the 2d of
April--that memorable day in which he gave liberty to the captives--he
was joined in matrimony to the woman of his choice. Señora de Diaz
possessed great sweetness of character and kindness of heart, and her
greatest pleasure was in works of charity and in aiding the elevation
and education of her sex--taking upon herself the care of a college for
girls which her husband had founded.
Benito Juarez was now president, and Diaz was elected as Deputy to
Congress for his state. On July 18, 1872, Juarez died and Sebastián
Lerdo de Tejada succeeded him. Lerdo was afterward elected to the
presidency, but there being much dissatisfaction by reason of his
attitude against the church party and of a feeling among the soldiers
that General Diaz should be the president, the revolutions continued
throughout the country. He went to the United States, but the siren
voice of Adventure called him back to his native land. He took passage
on an American vessel but was recognized by some passengers. Fearing
arrest at Vera Cruz, he attempted to escape by jumping overboard, but
was rescued by the sailors. He invoked the aid of the friendly purser,
who hid him in a locker and smuggled him ashore at Vera Cruz.
Diaz passed through many vicissitudes, and at last, on November 16,
1876, with an armed force gained a victory over the Lerdistas at Tecoac.
Lerdo, hearing of the loss to his party and of the brilliant victory
of Diaz, started with some of the faithful members of his Cabinet and
with what money he could lay his hands on, on November 20, 1876, for
Acapulco, there taking passage for the United States. General Diaz
entered Mexico on the 23d of the same month and five days afterward
assumed the executive power. He formed his Cabinet, raised a loan of
five hundred thousand dollars to commence the new administration, and,
leaving General Méndez as president ad interim, went out to finish up
with the revolutionary element.
There were then really three presidents of Mexico: Lerdo, who had
abandoned the country; Iglesias, who had been Chief justice, or
Vice-President under the Lerdo government, and Diaz. Iglesias, seeing
the desperate condition in which he was placed, followed Lerdo’s
example, embarking at Manzanillo for San Francisco, Cal., the 17th of
January, 1877. For two months General Diaz marched from the central
States toward Guadalajara, capturing all the Lerdist troops without
firing a single shot. At the end of the two months he relieved General
Méndez and assumed the actual presidency of the republic.
After having served his term as president, General Manuel González,
who had distinguished himself as a military man by the side of General
Diaz, was elected to succeed him.
For a time under González, General Diaz was _Ministro de Fomento_,
but retired in May, 1881. Soon after he was elected Senator from
the State of Morelos and Governor of Oaxaca, which position he took
November 30, 1881. Two years after the death of his wife he married
Carmen, a notably beautiful brunette, eldest daughter of Señor Don
Manuel Romero Rubio. They harmonized well--he the personification of
strength, she of beauty and purity. Simple, without affectation, she
unites to a kindly heart a most admirable presence of mind and dignity.
She speaks with facility English and French. Everyone is delighted
with her affability and the sweetness and melody of her voice. They
spent part of their honeymoon in the United States, where they were
everywhere received with ovation, special trains being put at their
disposal and great courtesy shown them by all.
[Illustration: PORFIRIO DIAZ, THE THIRD.]
On December 1, 1884, the second presidential period of General Diaz
was inaugurated. The ceremony took place in Congress Hall, which was
formerly the Iturbide Theatre. The Diplomatic Corps were in full dress,
while General Diaz had on a simple black suit. In five minutes after he
took the chair he had taken the oath of office and retired as quietly
as he came, to the palace, there to receive welcome and congratulations
from General González, and to appoint his Cabinet.
Under President Diaz’s administration many reforms in the constitution
and laws of the country have been made, and the result is that there
reigns under him a security which was never before known in the
republic. His liberal ideas, his enthusiasm for the development of the
country and his previous honest administration enabled him to begin his
second term under much better conditions than existed during his first;
and again the confidence of the public was not misplaced, since during
this second administration Mexico progressed more than ever.
Diaz’s life has been identified with that of the Mexican Republic for
the last forty years. The life of this really wonderful man presents
many points and lessons for future generations to study. He is to-day,
as he has been for many years, the first soldier of the Republic, and
what is better, its first citizen. From the very bottom of the ladder,
from a young lieutenant at the age of twenty-three, to the highest
commission in the army as its General-in-Chief, his career is spotless
and brilliant.
But it is not most as a soldier that he has won the admiration and
fame which he enjoys to-day, at home as well as abroad. It is as a
statesman, in his civil duties, in the many political, financial and
diplomatic questions which he has so successfully solved, that the
greatness of Porfirio Diaz must be considered.
He has been the savior of the republic, the creator of the real nation,
the defender of the people; whose success was possible only because of
his inflexible integrity and singleness of purpose, his goal was never
obscured by the shadow of personal advantage and ambition; whose hand
was never palsied by questionable intrigues. Friend or foe were such to
him only because for or against the unification of the nation. Among
the names of the wonder-workers of the world the name of Porfirio Diaz
will shine and remain imperishable.
[Illustration: SOLDIERS IN PARADE, 16TH OF SEPTEMBER.]
[Illustration: THE CORBIAN PALACE.]
[Illustration: PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.]
CHAPTER VII
THE CABINET
General Porfirio Diaz has been elected and inaugurated to his eighth
term of the presidency. This is something unprecedented in the history
of republics. He has surrounded himself with honorable and judicious
ministers of his Cabinet, who have devoted their entire lives to the
interests of their country. At the expiration of their term it is the
custom for the Cabinet to resign in a body, leaving the selection
of a new Cabinet to the president. This is a delicate and courteous
custom that would relieve the head of the nation from an embarrassing
position, but with the exception of some changes in the Department of
War and Navy, the same ministers have remained in office unless ill
health has forced their resignation, or death intervened. The Secretary
of State sends in his resignation through the sub-Secretary of his
department, but all the others tender theirs through the Secretary of
Foreign Affairs. To these letters the president replies that their
resignations are not accepted, and begs their co-operation in the
public administration. This is but another proof of his statesmanship,
as each of his ministers is carefully chosen with a view to his fitness
for the work entrusted to his judgment and abilities.
The Cabinet consists of eight Secretaries: the Secretary of State
(Foreign Affairs), the Secretary of Finance, the Secretary of Public
Works, the Secretary of Industry and Colonization, the Secretary of the
Interior, the Secretary of Justice, the Secretary of Public Instruction
and Fine Art, and the Secretary of War and Marine.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON RAMÓN CORRAL, VICE-PRESIDENT.]
These members of the Cabinet must be native born Mexicans, and the
Minister of War must be a soldier holding distinguished military rank
and record. The office of Vice-President was created in 1904. Before
that time the Secretary of Foreign Affairs stood next in rank to the
President. Señor Don Ramón Corral has the distinction of being Mexico’s
first Vice-President and is one of the progressive spirits of Mexico.
For many years he was Governor of the State of Sonora and is regarded
by the people of that State with great respect and affection. He did
many things while Governor to merit their kindly regard, and his
integrity of purpose and wise supervision of the affairs of the State
of Sonora attracted the attention of Mexico to him, and he now holds
the distinctive position of being a great factor in the affairs of the
Republic.
During the Centennial Celebration he was the head of the Commission
which accomplished so many great things for the entertainment of
foreign envoys to the capital. He is a quiet but shrewd man and,
unlike most Vice-Presidents of republics, he has a great power in
the affairs of the State, and in his high office he brings to bear
his rigorous and unquestioned talent. He speaks French and English
perfectly and is a friend to all foreigners who have occasion to invoke
his aid.
The Ministry of the Interior has charge of general elections, relations
with the Federal Congress, Citizens’ Rights, Police, Public Health
and Immigration, Federal District and Territories, the National Guard
in the Federal District, all hospitals, public buildings, national
festivities and the Government Printing Office. Señor Corral is the
Minister of Interior as well as Vice-President and Speaker of the
Senate.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has charge of all relations with
foreign countries, treaties and diplomatic affairs, boundary questions,
the naturalization and rights of foreigners, the National Archives,
the arrangement of ceremonies, and is custodian of the Grand Seal of
the nation. This seat was held for nearly half a century by Señor
Licenciado Don Ignacio Mariscal until April 16, 1910, when Mexico
sustained a great loss in the death of so noble a man. He had served
his country and his President faithfully, and besides being a diplomat
of great talent he was a brilliant litterateur and his poems are widely
read and loved.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL, MINISTER OF
FOREIGN AFFAIRS.]
Señor Don Enrique C. Creel, Governor of the State of Chihuahua and
former ambassador for Mexico to the United States, succeeded him. Señor
Creel has long been noted as a great statesman. His brilliant mind and
diplomatic tact have already demonstrated the wisdom of selecting him
for so important a post.
The Department of Finance, Public Credit and Commerce has charge of
taxation, customs tariff, commerce, national prosperity, loans and
public debt, the valuation of lands and the budget.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. JOSÉ LIMANTOUR, MINISTER OF
FINANCE.]
[Illustration: SEÑOR ING. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, MINISTER OF
COMMUNICATIONS AND PUBLIC WORKS.]
Señor José Yves Limantour, the Secretary of Finance, has an
international reputation as a great financier. He has been in the
political life of the republic since 1893, and during that time he has
safely engineered financial feats that have surprised and enlightened
the world. He is a man of very strong personality. One might call him
unsympathetic, not knowing that his wonderful reserve is merely a part
of his education, but a closer acquaintance with him draws out many
characteristics of his remarkably strong nature. He has been sent to
Europe on many diplomatic errands, and has always succeeded in showing
the financial powers abroad his wonderful accomplishments and strength
as a man of diplomacy and political wisdom. He was born in Mexico of
French parents in 1853, and his education while a boy was gained in the
best home schools and in travels abroad. He graduated from the School
of Jurisprudence and has fulfilled more important missions abroad than
any official in Mexico.
The Department of Communications and Public Works has charge of the
interior mail service, telegraph and telephone lines, postal union,
railways, port-works, all public improvements and the drainage of the
Valley of Mexico.
Señor Ingeniero Don Leandro Fernández, whose brilliant career as a
civil engineer won him this important position in the Cabinet, has
made a life study of all engineering questions and his travels abroad
in the interest of his work have given him a great experience. He was
formerly the Governor of Durango and made a great name for himself in
the important office he held in that State.
The Department of Public Instruction and Fine Art has charge of all
matters pertaining to education in the Federal District and all
territories, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Conservatory of Music
and Elocution, Arts and Crafts, Commercial College and all future
educational institutions, all normal schools, copyrights, museums and
libraries, archæological and historical monuments, encouragement of
culture, art and science, and all conventions of this nature.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. OLEGARIO MOLINA, MINISTER OF
FOMENTO.]
Señor Justo Sierra, Minister of Public Instruction, is one of Mexico’s
literary men. His beautiful poems are widely read. In 1905, Señor
Sierra took his seat in the Cabinet and has held his position with
dignity and honor, and all educational interests have in him an able
administrator. He was the Secretary of Justice before he became the
Minister of Education. Speaking many languages, his magnificent
personality and bearing make him a great favorite in Mexico.
The Department of Fomento includes all matters relative to agriculture,
vacant lands, colonization, agricultural colleges, trade marks,
patents, weights and measures, observatories, survey, making of maps
and all industrial, agricultural or mining statistics.
This office is held by Señor Licenciado Olegario Molina, who was
Governor of Yucatán until he was called to the Cabinet three years ago.
He has shown himself able and has aided much in the development of
his country’s welfare since taking his seat. He was born in Campeche
in 1843, and has been identified with all the commercial progress
of Yucatán, having been Governor of that State, and under his able
generalship much was done toward the rapid advancement which has marked
Yucatán within the past decade. He has borne his great dignity with
intelligence and discrimination and is regarded as a wise administrator.
Señor Cosío, the Minister of War and Marine, was born in the State of
Zacatecas, and, besides having occupied the position of governor of
that State and that of congressman and senator, he displayed great
ability as mayor of the City of Mexico. He is one of the most popular
men of the Cabinet.
[Illustration: GENERAL MANUEL GONZÁLEZ COSÍO, MINISTER OF WAR
AND MARINE.]
There is quite a romantic episode in the life of General Cosío. During
the Civil War of the United States he was in New York in company with
two other young officers, destitute, but anxious to return to Mexico to
fight for his country against the French. None of the three had enough
money to take him back, so they decided that one of them should be
selected by lot and enlist in the army of the United States, obtain the
eight hundred dollars in greenbacks which were given as bounty to each
enlisting man at that time, and give the money to the other two to go
back to Mexico and fight for their country.
The lot fell to Cosío, who was on the point of presenting himself at
headquarters in New York and enlisting in the army so that his two
companions could go back to Mexico with the money thus obtained, when
General Mejía arrived in New York. He was visited by the three young
officers and acquainted with their intention, and he gave them all
passage-money and sent them back to Mexico as commissioned officers.
Thus it was that instead of fighting for the American Union, as
Cosío came very near doing, he battled for his own country until the
French were banished from Mexico. The popularity of General Cosío
is unquestioned. He is a man of large intelligence, long experience
in civil affairs, and proved capacity. A man who has fought in
revolutions, won distinction for gallantry in the war against the
empire, suffered imprisonment in France as an incident of that
conflict, served twice as governor of Zacatecas, been a deputy and
a senator in the Federal Congress, and for ten years held the most
conspicuous place in the municipal council of the City of Mexico, is
surely qualified to hold an important ministry in a great country.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. JUSTO SIERRA, MINISTER OF PUBLIC
INSTRUCTION AND FINE ARTS.]
The War and Marine Department controls a standing army, navy and
merchant marine, the National Guard, Military Legislation, Military
Justice, Pardons, Naval and Military Schools, Hospitals, Fortresses,
Warlike Indian Tribes and Military Colonies.
General Manuel González Cosío is a war veteran and has given his
life to the service of his country. He was Secretary of the Interior
before his appointment to the War Department. Few men in Mexico have
the ability and energy that he has developed in the numerous offices
he has held for his Government. His record as a soldier is brilliant
with success and his career forms part of the history of Mexico. He
is called “El Ministro Perpetual.” His family are all scientists and
around him are always gathered people of brilliancy and talent.
The Department of Justice has charge of all relations with the
Courts, pardons and commutations of sentences for offenses against
the Federation and ordinary offenses, relation with the Courts of the
Federal District, Prosecuting Attorneys and Notaries and all criminal
statistics.
Señor Justino Fernández, the Secretary of this Department, is one of
the most intellectual men in the Republic, being very active in war
politics.
As an opponent of General Santa Anna, he suffered the political fate of
one who dared to express his opinions, but he rendered his Government
many good services and for a time retired to the practice of law,
winning a great name as a man of letters. He was one of the signers of
the Declaration of Independence. He has filled many important offices,
Congressman, Governor of one of the States and Director of the National
School of Jurisprudence. He has devoted his life to his country and has
met with the appreciation he so justly merits.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. JUSTINO FERNÁNDEZ, MINISTER OF
JUSTICE.]
The brotherly love that exists among these splendid administrators and
the manner in which they co-operate in the government of their country,
makes Mexico’s Cabinet conspicuous among those of Republics and the
eyes of the great outer world are centred upon them with wonder and
admiration.
Congress granted permission for the officials of state to receive
decorations from the monarchs of different nations. Besides the Grand
Collar of Charles III., which was conferred upon the President by the
King of Spain, the Grand Collar of the Red Eagle was the honor sent to
him by the Emperor of Germany, and the Order of the Imperial Dragon
granted by the Emperor of China.
Minister Enrique C. Creel was empowered to receive the decoration of
the Imperial Order of the Double Dragon, first grade, third class
(grand cross) conferred upon him by the Emperor of China; the Grand
Cross of Isabella Catolica from the King of Spain; and the Grand Cross
of the Order of the Crown of Prussia from the Emperor of Germany.
Minister José Yves Limantour, now absent in Europe, received the same
Chinese decoration of the Double Dragon.
Lic. Francisco León de la Barra, the Mexican ambassador at Washington,
was decorated with the Double Chinese Dragon, double cordon.
[Illustration: THE LATE IGNACIO MARISCAL, MINISTER OF FOREIGN
AFFAIRS FOR NEARLY FORTY YEARS.]
Señor Francisco Gamboa, who has been for so many years the
sub-secretary of Foreign Affairs, the Chinese decoration of the Double
Dragon but of the first grade (grand cordon), also the Order of the
German Red Eagle, second class with badge.
Lieutenant-Colonel Porfirio Diaz, Jr., received also several
distinguished decorations.
Among the distinguished men who surround the President and have his
confidence are Governor Guillermo de Landa y Escandón, Señor Joaquín
Don Casasus, who was at one time the Mexican Ambassador at Washington;
Señor Pimentel y Fagoaga, Señor Pablo Macedo, and Señor Rosendo Pineda.
These gentlemen are all intellectual and progressive, and wield a great
power in the affairs of the state.
A peculiar custom of the country is the “Bando.” From time immemorial
it has been the fashion in Mexico to proclaim publicly any changes in
the government; this was the custom long before the day of newspapers,
and is still followed, on instructions from the War Department. This is
done in Mexico City, soon after the election of the President, in the
following order. A division is organized consisting of two brigades,
one of infantry and one of cavalry, accompanied by a light battery.
The chief of staff is attended by an adjutant with two captains and
three subalterns. The infantry brigade is commanded by its general,
accompanied by two captains and two subalterns. The cavalry brigade is
led by its general, a major, two captains, and two subalterns; and a
platoon of mounted gendarmes accompanies both generals. The “Bando” is
inaugurated at nine in the morning. The aldermen and the city notary
accompany the military parade in carriages, affixing the proclamation
at certain street corners, and otherwise making known the result of
the presidential election to the inhabitants of the city, with proper
formalities and the pomp and circumstance of military parade. This is a
curious and highly interesting custom.
[Illustration: CORRIDOR OF THE NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING.]
[Illustration: STREET SCENE IN MEXICO CITY.]
[Illustration: COLONIA JUAREZ.]
CHAPTER VIII
THE FEDERAL DISTRICT
Mexico has reached the pinnacle of her glory as a metropolis, with her
palatial buildings, her public offices and her illustrious men in whose
hands rests the administration of a great nation. It is an established
fact that there are many circumstances which powerfully contribute
both toward the development of a country’s material resources and its
advancement on the high road to civilization, but at the same time
it must not be denied that there are necessary men whose character
and ability determine a marked progress on a city’s history and whose
brilliant career and worthy deeds impress their seal on the historical
period that witnesses their success.
In 1893, the Superior Council of the Government of the Federal District
was formed. The important offices were appointed by the President and
are held by three distinguished statesmen to whom the Capital City owes
much of its progress and advancement: Honorable Guillermo De Landa y
Escandon, the President of this Council, which gives him the title of
Governor; Señor Guillermo Beltran y Puga, Director General of Public
Works; and Señor Doctor Eduardo Liceago, Director General of the Board
of Health.
This Superior Council is the principal factor in bringing about the
actual improvement of the city. Public parks and gardens, noble
buildings, modern lighting equipment, sewerage, streets and avenues,
and order and discipline have made Mexico the best regulated city in
the world. It is Paris with its beauty and light, London with its
busy thoroughfares, Madrid with its color and picturesqueness, and
Mexico City alone with its unique characteristics that stand out like
a glowing banner of triumph. The population of this city has greatly
increased within the past decade. The French, German, Italian, English
and American colonies are steadily growing. The modern residential
section is very beautiful, homes being erected in a new and pretty
style, with gardens of flowers, while the streets are paved and double
rows of trees make the avenues on which they are built very attractive.
Little parks intersperse and fountains surrounded by tropical plants
dot the city, giving it a picturesque appearance.
While Mexico is a modern city, it is not without its charms as a former
Aztec capital. With all its marked advancement from centuries of
paganism it still holds some of the marks of those times. The aqueduct
built in the time of Montezuma, while no longer needed in the vast
city, is still retained in part as a _recuerdo_ of former days.
There is a romantic side of the nature of all Mexicans, who never
forget the influences of ancient times, and have kept many relics of
the oldest civilization of the continent, that enshroud this modern
city with a poetic drapery of antiquity, giving it a charm that is
irresistible. It has been said that nowhere in the world can a more
splendid scene be presented than the first view of Mexico City. Against
a magnificent sky that defies all attempts of the painter’s art are
outlined domes and spires. Belfrys and towers mark the numerous
churches and palaces and the background of tall sierras and lakes all
make a picture never to be forgotten. Switzerland furnishes no more
grandeur, England and France show no more beautiful villages, all
typical of this great wonder-country. The wide, handsome streets are
clean, electric lights and street cars are in every part of the city,
the busy thoroughfares are alive to public interests, the fashionable
districts with their flow of stately carriages, the people in their
Parisian as well as native dress, the Indian with his pack or his wares
to sell, the call of the vendor as he passes the doorway--all go toward
adding interest and charm.
The Castle of Chapultepec, one part of which is a National Military
Academy, and the other part the summer home of the President, towers
two hundred feet above a grove of ancient cypress trees. It was built
in the time of the Viceroy Galvan in the fifteenth century, and stands
on a mass of rock on which remain signs of Aztec carvings. From this
point the great valley of Anáhuac unfolds itself to view, the noble,
snow-capped volcanoes rise majestically above the clouds in the
distance; lakes, outspreading villages, fields of green and domes of
multi-colored temples lie beneath the vision. The great cypress trees
of the Bosque de Chapultepec stand stately and solemn, hoary with the
flowing moss, and adorn the deep solitude.
It was here that the great Aztec chieftains met, held their councils
and determined on their plan of defence. Here, beautiful Indian
princesses kept their tryst with sturdy braves and in the springs
that bubble in every nook and corner they sported in all their glory,
unaware of the changes soon to come to their primitive lives.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON GUILLERMO DE LANDA Y ESCANDON,
GOVERNOR OF THE FEDERAL DISTRICT.]
Beautiful avenues lead to the Castle, winding around the ascent, and
from salient walls and parapets the bugle call echoes throughout
the forest. It is on these avenues that automobiles and magnificent
liveries are seen in the afternoon social parade.
Tenochtitlan, which was afterward changed to Mexico, after the God of
War, Mexitla, was described by Cortés as being a very large and well
populated city. There were imperial palaces, temples of high priests,
important public buildings, and many handsome dwellings.
From a razed city of the reign of Montezuma, Cortés and the nobles of
Spain had great ambition to make it a beautiful metropolis and some of
the buildings now form a most interesting feature of the Capital. On
the site of the Aztec monarch’s palace, with its hundred rooms, was
laid the foundation of the Cathedral, which stands to-day a magnificent
structure of pinkish-gray stone, with marble altars, priceless
paintings and rich tapestries. It is five hundred and twenty feet long,
and four hundred and twenty feet wide, and the plan is a Latin cross.
It was estimated by a Spanish historian that over sixty thousand men
had perished in human sacrifices upon its site. When these massive
foundation stones were laid, Elizabeth was Queen of England; Philip II.
reigned over Spain, Charles IX. in France, Cervantes was writing _Don
Quixote_, Titian and Paul Veronese were painting their masterpieces;
the Turks were over-running the Plains of Hungary with the intention of
wiping Christendom out of existence.
Poland was a mighty empire extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
Sir Francis Drake was just beginning his career as a navigator. The
first pipe-full of tobacco had not been smoked in Europe; there were
no telescopes; Shakespeare and Spenser, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben
Johnson and Bacon, were in their prime; and Russia was a savage and
insignificant power.
Passing through the Cathedral, on either side there are different
apartments filled from floor to ceiling with paintings, statues, vases,
huge candle-sticks, waiters and a host of other articles of gold and
silver. This too, is only the everyday display of articles of least
value; the more costly ones are stored away in chests and closets.
[Illustration: HOME OF GOVERNOR LANDA Y ESCANDON.]
The National Palace is a relic of the days of Cortés and was improved
in the course of time by the Count De Revillagigédo and others who
reigned after him did much toward beautifying it. It is now the
official home of the President and other Government Officials; the
Secretary of Finance, the War Department, Federal Treasury, and
Public Archives. The Central Meteorological Observatory is on the
_Azotea_, and the National Museum and Academy of San Carlos form
another part of this great edifice. In this palace the President of the
Republic receives his Ministers and the people and on the days of his
public receptions the poorest persons meet with a courteous and patient
audience.
The Municipal Palace is a splendid remodeled structure where the
Governor of the Federal District has his executive office. Its halls
and salons contain priceless paintings of the viceroys and Mexican
patriots. It is here that all the affairs pertaining to the City
Government are conducted, and the Honorable Governor holds his public
receptions, and where petitions are heard. Governor De Landa has
proved himself an able governor and conducts the City Government with
extreme rigor. He has caused many reforms and controls with an iron
will everything that comes under his régime. He takes the interests of
the people to heart, he makes his city a noted metropolis, condemns
and wipes out vices, corrects irregularities. The sanitary conditions
of the shops and the excellent police force, said to be the best
regulated in the world, owe their reputation to the indefatigable
work of Governor De Landa y Escandon. He has a system of controlling
traffic to such an extent that the busy hour finds the streets clear
of congestion, an example set by this official in the government of a
city that could well be imitated by others. In his splendid reception
hall the Governor receives all classes of people. Here great ladies and
military men rub elbows with the laborer, and his reception of them
all is characterized by exceeding good fellowship and courtesy.
He receives the poorer classes who fall at his feet with petitions
of mercy, perhaps on the imprisonment of a son or father, and he
reassures and consoles, many times giving aid from his own purse,
and makes personal investigation of cases brought before him, when
others of his exalted position might casually pass them by unheeded.
He has established houses of correction, one for boys at Tlalpam, and
one for girls at Coyoacan, and the results of this benevolent work
have been most encouraging to Governor De Landa. In years gone by,
drunkenness and vice were rampant in the city through the excessive use
of _pulque_, which was sold extensively, and many crimes resulted
from this, but since his election as Governor all of this has been
stamped out, and the drink that stimulates the mind of the laborer
is now sold in moderation; and the Anti-Gambling Act, passed and put
into execution in the early days of his administration, has proved
a great blessing to the middle class. An intimate knowledge of this
Governor’s character proves that all this interest in the welfare of
his people and his city is inspired not by love of notoriety, for he is
very modest in his work of reform. The poor and lowly worship him, the
mighty respect him, and it is to this man that Mexico owes much of its
greatness.
The Museo Nacional is in point of antiquarian value the place of chief
interest in the capital. Here are preserved the principal discovered
records of prehistoric Mexico; the story of the original inhabitants in
stone and on paper of the Maguey plant; here too are very many relics
of the periods of the conquerors and the viceroys.
The museum collection originated in a department of the university,
which was closed in 1865. The interest taken by the government in the
archæology of Mexico has led to many important discoveries during the
last twenty years, and by virtue of the law of national ownership in
all antiquities found within the republic the museum is gathering all
discovered records of the ancient people and country.
Among the Aztec relics of chief interest are the sacrificial and
calendar stones. There are here also many monoliths of large size,
types of deities worshipped by the ancient Mexican. Of these the
idol known as the Goddess of Water is colossal being eleven feet
high and weighing nearly twenty tons. It came from Teotihuacan, near
the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. Another hideous idol is that
of Huizilopochtli the War God which is ten feet high and three in
diameter. The sculptures on these idols are very elaborate. Chacmol,
the God of Fire, claimed also as the Toltec Deity Tlaloc, is a
symmetrical figure in stone, recumbent, lying on its back and holding
in both hands that meet on the stomach a circular disk emblematic
of the sun. There is a colossal head in serpentine said by some
authorities to be the Goddess Centeotl, by others to be related to the
Aztec calendar as evidenced by the shell sculptures, of which there
are thirteen in front of the cap and twenty at the back respectively
indicating, perhaps, the thirteen sacred days and the twenty civil days
of the month.
[Illustration: THE NEW LEGISLATIVE PALACE.]
The great temple of Tenochtitlan was surrounded by a stone wall in
which was the wall of serpents, or _cohuatepantli_. Two of the
heads of these serpents, colossal in size, are among the relics of
the ancient Aztec; so is the “feathered serpent,” or Quetzalcoatl, a
sculpture clearly indicating a coiled reptile. Of this latter many
smaller examples have been found in various parts of Mexico. The
tradition of Quetzalcoatl, the good teacher, who was fair of complexion
and wore a long beard, and who prophesied the coming of the white men
is elsewhere mentioned. Aztec arms, and missiles and armor and domestic
articles and implements offer object lessons of prehistoric life of
great service to the student and of fascinating interest to all. Here
is a shield worn by Montezuma made of carefully quilted cotton; there
the strange drum _huehuetl_, whose sinister sounds carried fear to
the Spaniards; here the vicious looking sword with four long blades set
in the wooden staff on each of its faces, blades of obsidian, so keen
that as Bernal Diaz wrote, they cut off a horse’s head clean.
Then there are the _pinturas_ or picture writings, of which many
are preserved. One of the most curious is an ancient Mexican painting
of the Deluge, and the dove is there with the olive branch; their
tradition of this event largely agreeing with the Scriptural narration.
Of the Spanish period, there is the armor of Cortés--a very precious
treasure, priceless indeed, for it was worn by him in all his wonderful
battles--the banner of the Conquistadores, arms of soldiers, a helmet
and cuirass of the _Tonatiuh_--Pedro de Alvarado--and portraits of
viceroys. But the exhibit most venerated among such memorials is the
Banner of our Lady of Guadalupe, which Hidalgo took from the Santuario
of Atotonilco on that morning of September 16th, when he started out on
his war of independence with his ragged patriot army and raised as his
standard this banner. His musket and some other personal possessions
are here; also, contrasting with these are the state chariot of the
Maximilian period and the magnificent and costly dinner service of the
same period, which latter was permitted to be used at Juarez on the
occasion of the meeting of President Taft and General Diaz in October,
1909.
The mystery of the ancient peoples, traces of whose culture invest
them with uncommon interest; the romance of the conquest of powerful
and well organized nations by a mere handful of invaders who were
absolutely cut off from all communications and means of home support,
yet who overthrew vast armies defending their own territories; the
wonders of the land opened to the knowledge of the old world; the tale
of its treasures transcending the exaggeration of fable; and finally,
perhaps of greater interest than all else, the greatness of the
republic established by patriot martyrs maintained by the prowess of
heroes and at length cemented by a patriotism and wisdom that are the
wonder, admiration and illumination of the world; these are among the
thoughts aroused in the minds of the musing visitor to this wonderful
museum.
The calendar stone was originally set in the great temple of
Tenochtitlan, but on the destruction of the latter it remained buried
beneath the ruins. On its discovery it was placed in one of the towers
of the Cathedral and later, in 1860, was removed to the museum. It is
a circular stone of porphyritic character about ten feet in diameter.
Tradition asserts that this stone was one of a second pair prepared,
the first having broken down the bridge of Xoloc and lost in the lake.
The stone was engraved by order of Axayacatl, and at its dedication
seven hundred and twenty-eight victims were sacrificed. The hieroglyphs
that cover its surface are still only a matter of surmise, though the
numeral system of the earlier races has been determined and great
steps and considerable advance has been made in determining the order
in which the glyphs are to be read. The year was divided for civil
purposes into three hundred and sixty-five days, eighteen months of
twenty days and a supplemental month of five days after the eighteenth.
Puzzling as seems the method of enumeration, the Maya priest could
correctly calculate, as Thomas shows in his _Study of the Manuscript
Troano_, a period of twelve million three hundred and eighty-one
thousand seven hundred and twenty-eight days, and determine the exact
year, month and day that will be reached in such calculation.
[Illustration: HOME OF VICE-PRESIDENT CORRAL.]
The general plan of this stone is as follows: A relief sculpture of a
human head with the tongue protruded is in the centre, about this are
five concentric circles of hieroglyphs, the symbols marking the various
divisions of time in the ancient Mexican calendar.
The sacrificial stone is not difficult to associate. Its shape and
sculptures around and upon it indicate its ghastly use. In shape it
is similar to the calendar stone, circular, eight feet in diameter
and four in height; but the sinister basin hollowed out in the top
and the canal leading therefrom to the groove at the edge also lead
to the conclusion that on this stone the victims of the Aztecs were
laid and killed by the priests in sacrifice. The sculptured figures
represent the victims of conquering chiefs being dragged by the hair to
the place of sacrifice. This monumental stone was found in 1791, near
the cathedral and was doomed for the pile of paving stones when its
archæological value was discovered and the vandal’s hand was stayed. It
is the best sculptured of the antiquities of Mexico.
Among the places of prominent interest is the Monte de Piedad, an
institution almost singular to Mexico, having regard to its methods
and the extent of its operations. This great national pawn shop was
founded in 1774, by the Conde de Regla. He endowed the institution with
a gift of over three hundred thousand dollars and the crown approving
the institution, business began in 1776, in the old College San Pedro
y Pablo. The plan was an eleemosynary one, complementary to the many
other charities of the Count. No interest was charged on loans; an
arrangement intended to protect the poor from the exactions of the
usurers; instead it was expected that the borrower on repaying his loan
would make some gift in aid of charity.
For three-quarters of a century the profits were appropriated to the
payment of masses for the repose of the soul of the founder, but for
the last half a century they have been used in establishing branch
institutions in leading cities.
It is a fine building and occupies the site of one of Cortés’s palaces.
The staircases are hewn out of huge blocks of lava from Popocatepetl
and ornamenting the windows and doors are the hideous heads placed by
Cortés in his earlier palace edifice.
The Artillery Museum is under the Department of War, and is a
depository of all historic relics of Mexico’s great events. It was
founded fifteen years ago and is full of interesting data. The patio is
roofed with steel and glass and is converted into an exhibition hall.
The high walls are ornamented with alto-reliefs of the Aztec kings.
These bronzes are the work of the artist, Jesus F. Contreras, and are
said to be the finest in Mexico.
There is a large picture of Hidalgo with the flag used in battle, and
a large faded flag used by Cortés. Here you can see the gold pen with
which General Escobedo wrote the death sentence of Maximilian, the
sword of the Emperor and the brilliant uniform of General Escobedo,
complete with helmet and sword. There is also a splendid library which
contains many volumes devoted to military science.
The School of Mines, _La Minera_, occupies a palatial structure
erected at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars in 1813. The school
was founded in 1777, through the munificence, chiefly, of Señor
Velasquez de Leon and Lucas de Lasaga. The splendid edifice is the
work of Manuel Tolsa whose master hand is seen in the great columned
galleries, the noble pillars, stairways and patios. The chapel is
an exquisite work, here is a magnificent bronze altar and the lofty
ceilings are richly ornamented with frescoes by Rafael Jimeno. The
collection of minerals is very valuable and extensive and varied, and
forces on the most thoughtless visitor a sense of the immense mineral
resources of Mexico. An exhibit of much interest is the meteoric
stones, some of which weigh tons that rest under the front portal.
These uncanny visitants reached earth in various parts of the republic.
[Illustration: THE PALACE OF MINES.]
The Plaza de la Constitucion, or Zocalo, as it is called, is the centre
of the great city. On this spot stood one of the great Aztec temples,
erected to the deity Huitzilopochtli, where human sacrifices were daily
offered. One of the fiercest battles ever fought between the forces of
Cortés and the Aztecs took place on this spot. It is surrounded by most
pretentious buildings. Fifty years ago this was the social centre of
the city and a principal place of gathering in the evening for families
who, as they do now, in the smaller cities, donned their most becoming
toilettes, promenaded and met their friends, and enjoyed the sweet
and soulful music for which the Mexicans are so noted. Now the poorer
class enjoys this privilege with the military band discoursing the same
beautiful strains as if the gayer and higher world was the audience.
Starting from this point one can drive straight to the Castle of
Chapultepec, a distance of three miles, passing through the principal
thoroughfare of San Francisco, with its array of wonderful old churches
and time-stained palaces now turned into business houses.
Here stands in its solemn dignity the old Palace of Iturbide, richly
carved and retaining much of the beauty of the days when it was built
by the Emperor Augustin I. This is now one of the principal hotels
of the city, a rendezvous for tourists and students of the country.
The Alameda, with its grand old trees, its beautiful walks and its
fountains dancing in the sunlight and shade, was once a fashionable
park. On Sundays and days of _fiesta_ it was the custom of
Mexican society to meet there after church, and enjoy music and social
intercourse. Many a charming love affair has grown out of these
meetings and Mexico is full of beautiful romances.
Amusement is varied and Mexicans freely embrace the opportunity for
diversion. The theatres are numerous and of considerable importance,
as well in the life of the people as architecturally. The chief are
the Teatro Principal and the Virginia Fabregas; the latter enjoyed the
distinction of being the most fashionable theatre until the New Opera
House was constructed. It was the home of Italian and French opera
and on its stage have been presented the best of Spanish and Mexican
dramatic productions.
The Folies Bergères is a new theatre lately opened, and is one of the
best in Mexico.
The Arbeu is one of the popular playhouses. The New National Theatre
is the work of the noted Italian architect Adamo Boari, and in beauty
and design will equal any playhouse in the world. It is of a modern
steel construction and the first national theatre absolutely fireproof.
The site is one of great historical value as it was on this spot that
Cortés retreated on the Noche Triste. It covers a square on Avenida
Juarez and is built next to the Alameda and made to harmonize with it.
The front is magnificent with statues, flowers and fountains. On each
side terraces lead up to the entrances. The theatre is surrounded by
lawns and gardens to be kept always green and beautiful. On each side
of the theatre is a carriage entrance. The balconies are supported
by great marble pillars and columns representing the lyric muse. The
interior decorations are exquisite and harmonious in effect. Italian
marble and Mexican onyx are seen everywhere.
[Illustration: SAN FRANCISCO STREET.]
The _Frontons_ located in many parts of the city are devoted to
the favorite Mexican ball game. This sport is ancient in Mexico, it was
a favorite pastime of the Aztecs; it was almost a religious custom as
the places devoted to the games were consecrated by the priests and the
victors were held in very high regard.
Racing is a favorite diversion in Mexico. There are two fine tracks at
Indianilla and Penon. Stakes and purses are furnished by the Jockey
Club and prizes are provided by the _Ayuntamiento_ and the Department
of Fomento of the federal government.
The characteristic, popular national sport is the bull-fight, which in
spite of spasmodic efforts to displace it still continues to chain the
interest and arouse the enthusiasm of the people.
[Illustration: POLICE HEADQUARTERS.]
The Paseo de la Reforma, once a country road, was improved by the
Emperor Maximilian. On this avenue a glittering wealth of equipages,
spirited horses and automobiles, are seen morning and evening. The
glowing sunshine, the contrasting nature-colors in the parks and along
the sidewalks add a permanent charm and nothing is more pleasing
than seeing Mexican society on días de fiesta, passing back and
forth, vivacious, beautiful and elegant. Leading into this avenue are
beautiful streets of fashionable homes and in no city of the world
are seen more beautiful residences than are found here. Elegance
and simplicity, no gaudy display, the Mexican’s home is his palace,
and while the exterior is sometimes very simple, the interior, with
its courtyard of beautiful flowers and palms, its _salas_ with
magnificent appointments and paintings from great masters is not to
be excelled anywhere. The exquisite taste of the Mexicans is always
in evidence. The women are gowned in the latest Parisian toilettes,
their jewels are as precious as those of crowned heads and their
entertainments are a glittering and beautiful display of wealth and
elegance.
The General Lunatic Asylum is situated in La Castaneda, very near
the little suburb of Mixcoac. It is one of the most picturesque
spots in the Federal District. Its construction was directed by
Lieutenant-Colonel Porfirio Diaz, Jr., son of the President. It has
all the advantages of a luxurious home and has many large pavilions.
These are modern structures of white stone and cement. The grounds
are beautifully laid out with parks, making it one of the attractive
features of the little village.
In Mixcoac the Working Man’s Colony is also a monument to the
enterprise of Colonel Diaz. He has built modern, sanitary homes at
nominal rentals, gives each man a certain amount of land to till,
offers prizes of free occupancy to the most successful and in this way
the improvident peon is taught a way to earn a living for himself and
family. These houses are built on a most attractive plan; bathrooms,
bedrooms, parlors and kitchens, unlike the squalid huts that most of
the poverty-stricken Indians occupy. It is a plan that has met with
great success and the products of some of the gardens have demonstrated
the fact that the Mexican Indian is a farmer by nature, and it is
thought that this movement will grow and be a valuable aid to that
class.
San Angel, Coyoacan and San Augustin, are extremely pretty villages in
the vicinity of the lake.
Coyoacan is almost a continuation of San Angel. Both villages serve as
a popular summer resort for the rich dwellers in the City of Mexico.
It was at this place that Cortés took up his residence for several
months after the total destruction of the ancient Tenochtitlan. Here he
founded a convent, too; and in his last will and testament he expressed
a desire to be buried here, in whatever part of the world he should end
his days. This request was not complied with.
[Illustration: AMERICAN EMBASSY.]
Coyoacan was always Cortés’s favorite village, and it is even now
one of the prettiest in Mexico, having one of the handsomest village
churches in that country.
The Penon baths are one of the great attractions of Mexico.
These boiling springs are said to contain sulphate of lime, carbonic
acid, and muriate of soda, and the Indians make salt in their
neighborhood much as they did in the time of Montezuma, with the
difference, as Humboldt informs us, that they use copper caldrons,
while their ancestors used vessels of clay. The solitary-looking baths
are ornamented with odd-looking heads of cats and monkeys, which grin
upon you with a mixture of the sinister and facetious that is rather
appalling.
On one of the sites where these mineral springs are to be found still
stands a little church or chapel which dates back to the beginning of
the colonial period, and suggests that, like the Pocito de Guadalupe,
the Penon waters may have been used, with prayer and supplication, for
effecting miraculous cures.
[Illustration: POLICEMAN.]
La Viga and the floating gardens or markets form another diverting and
intensely interesting phase of life in this unique and poetic land.
The canal makes a circle of over eight miles, and presents a scene
of unequalled activity and unusual features. One need not look for
gardens, as the name suggests, but rather for an aquatic market-place.
The gardens are made up of countless boats in motion, filled with every
imaginable growth of farm, orchard and vineyard, with garden flowers,
fruits, chickens, birds, and all other living and growing things that
can be sold. As soon as one leaves the car the crowd surges around
imploring the hire of their boats.
The boatmen use only one long oar, with which they pole or scull the
craft along. In no other way can be gained so accurate an idea of the
varied population of Mexico; in no other way can so many charming
effects in costume and personal ornamentation be studied; and certainly
nowhere else can such a marvellous array of products of this most
marvellous of all countries be seen.
Santa Anita is a peculiar little spot, Mexican in every detail, and a
favorite pleasure-resort for the people of Mexico City. It is a town
of reed-thatched houses, and everywhere there is a tempting odor of
Mexican culinary dainties.
Pulque may be had in various wonderful and insidious styles in which
the original flavor is merged in something far more agreeable.
At Ixtacalco are chinampas, with less gayety. A fine old stone bridge
crosses the canal at this point, with the ruins of a chapel at the
water’s edge, where in the old days the passing boatman muttered an
_ave_ and deposited an offering to the patron saint, in the hope
that good luck would follow him on his voyage and that his vegetables
would sell for a few more _tlacos_ than usual. In front of the
church, which is dedicated to San Matías and which has a Franciscan
foundation more than three hundred years old, is the customary little
plaza with a fountain of running water.
[Illustration: MEXICAN LETTER CARRIER.]
There is a fascination about the capital of Mexico which is peculiar.
Western progress in science, art, life, fashions, architecture,
government, and facilities and attractions are linked with customs
foreign to the life of Europe and characteristics exclusively Mexican.
In its splendid avenues and boulevards, magnificent buildings, the
lighting and transportation, it vies with European and American
cities. It is most cosmopolitan, yet its own charm hangs over all. The
churches suggest the Moorish influence. Its floral beauties, in size
and color matchless, its rich and peculiar foliage, its wonderful sky,
its great guardian mountains, its lakes, that recall the most romantic
stories; the historic wonders of the city and its neighborhood; the
recollection of great struggles that overthrew successively the
cultures of the several peoples that dwelt in the Valley of Anáhuac
and whose characteristics are stamped on the people of the present
city; nowhere can the picture be duplicated. There is an inexpressible
imprint in nature and art that makes Mexico singular. It is found in
its buildings, solid, convenient and of even proportions, in styles
wonderfully varied but generally ornate. It is pointed out in its
flowers, shrubs and trees--the peculiar growth of the land; it is found
in the costumes, customs of the people; it is found in the wonderful
sky, the great mountains--a something unique in each feature and in the
combination of all.
The towering form of Popocatepetl fills the eastern view, its
glistening snow covered crest rising above the level of the city ten
thousand five hundred feet and almost eighteen thousand above the
waters of the gulf, and the magnificent Iztaccihuatl, sheltering and
protecting the Valley of San Martin which spreads out in wonderful
fertility at their base. Sublime grandeur is the most sober term
descriptive of the magnificent setting of Mexico City.
[Illustration: FEDERAL PENITENTIARY]
[Illustration: GREAT HISTORICAL PARADE, SEPTEMBER 15, 1910.]
[Illustration: EMPEROR MONTEZUMA IN HIS PALANQUIN IN THE
HISTORICAL PARADE.]
CHAPTER IX
THE CENTENNIAL
After Mexico had thrown aside her burden of oppression, and had
risen to the dignity of a well-governed nation, the powers of the
world regarded her not without astonishment. After a half century of
hardships came years of reconstruction and pacification. The greater
difficulty of gaining faith in themselves was surmounted by men who in
their generalship gave the Mexicans that which they required more--a
knowledge that they had a place in the world of great republics; and
events of the past hundred years have demonstrated it.
In the earlier days, after the reign of the viceroys was over,
the Mexicans had to fight for their rights, which were overrun by
highwaymen and guerrilla bands, and until a man could be found who
would have the strength to cope with this situation there was no
safety for life or property. With the advent of General Diaz all this
changed. Mexico proudly stands before the world as one of the best
regulated governments.
The industrial and agricultural development of the country began with
Juarez. But during the periods of foreign intervention the Mexicans had
little heart for anything more than protecting their rights, for they
had to make a noble stand, and the rich mines that had yielded without
ceasing so many years were left unworked; the broad, sun-kissed acres,
which for centuries had furnished golden grain were neglected; the
miner’s pick and the farmer’s plow lay rusting while the sword dripped
with the blood of battle. This fairest country on the globe, despoiled
by human greed for gold, has at last risen into proud prominence and
when General Diaz assumed the Presidency, Mexico began to see the dawn
of a great light. She needs no poet to sing her praises, she is her own
colossal and imperishable monument, the base of which is planted on
centuries gone by and the summit of which will raise its head in the
enduring future.
Mexico is free--free to enjoy without stint the fruits of the bounty
she was forced to get through sacrifice, and having shed upon her dear
soil the red blood that surged in the patriot’s heart, the rulers of
this great nation have by their sound judgment placed her foremost in
the ranks of the world. During the reign of the viceroys when Spain was
disporting herself in the garb of her riches, gained from her golden
possessions in America, the Mexicans began to show signs of discontent,
and occasional uprisings gave these petty kings a great deal of
misgiving and concern. Foreigners were not permitted to enter the
country, the Church had the monopoly of education, only Spaniards could
hold lands and influential government offices and those great patriots
who did all in their power to uplift their country and protect their
people are revered by the Mexicans with a love that is almost divine.
It was during the reign of Francisco Javier Venegas (1810 to 1816)
that the revolutionary period began, and from that time the power
of Spain declined. Before long the country was in the throes of war
which Spanish troops could not quell. A great man appeared from the
mountains. He was a lowly priest, living in obscurity ministering
to the wants of his little band of Indian Christians. His followers
knew him to represent God and His teachings and his influence among
them was very great. He implanted in the minds of the simple people
that Mexico must be free to worship, free to govern. Foreign wars and
civil dissension followed the first and noble stand of this patriot.
The Indians were incited by him to open rebellion and in the midst
of excitement a great bell hanging in one of the church towers was
rung proclaiming liberty or death. The deep, mellow tones from this
old cathedral inspired every Mexican with the desire for a liberty
that meant more than a proclamation, and for many years there was a
bitter war in which advanced to the front many brave men whose names
are graven in the history of Mexico’s great deeds--Allende, Aldama,
Jimenez, Guerrero all seemed alive to the needs of their beloved
country. They cast their whole souls into the cause for freedom and
gave their precious lives to Mexico. This war was not without its
romances as well as its tragedies.
Like the stories of the Roman warriors, like the Judas who betrayed his
Christ, Hidalgo was given into the hands of the enemy by a friend, a
Spaniard named Mariano Galvan, on whose head many times had rested the
hands of the patriot priest in blessing.
José Maria Morelos y Pavon, a Mestizo Indian, also a Catholic priest,
called a congress in 1813, and in November declared Mexico independent.
He was a most intrepid fighter and was known as a “Hero of a Hundred
Battles.”
The centennial festivities were as much in honor of the heroes of the
wars as of the growth and progress of the country. The year 1910,
celebrated the first century of Mexico’s political emancipation. She
followed the natural outburst of her pride in the realization of her
wonderful growth during the past century. For she knows that no country
has been beset with more unfortunate events that tended to retard
rather than promote her advancement, and when she lifted her proud head
in her own triumphant recognition she invited the world to come and see
the results of her century of golden harvest.
Invitations were sent by the president to every foreign monarch and
ruler, who, excepting the King of England, whose mourning for the late
King, Albert Edward, prevented, sent special ambassadors to be the
guests of Mexico for the month of September. So magnificent were the
entertainments given, so great was the display of wealth and refinement
that those who had scant knowledge of what Mexico really is, returned
to their homes much enlightened. Mexico has long been looked upon as
a faraway land of mystery, with nothing to offer beyond relics and
romances; but here they found science, art, advancement, men and women
who could hold their own in the world of brilliancy--here they found a
warm hospitality, and gathered together in this great capital, like a
big happy family, they grew to know each other like brothers. Thus did
Mexico, in bringing together so many representatives of foreign lands,
create good feeling that will spread in many directions.
[Illustration: MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE.]
A tribute should be paid to Mayor Fernando Pimentel y Fagoago the
president of the National Commission, Governor de Landa y Escandon,
and the other members who planned this wonderful entertainment, which
will go down in history as one of the greatest jubilees that ever took
place. Thirty days of hospitality to the world! It was an unheard of
generosity and those foreign envoys who carried back reports of it to
their monarchs must have been very much impressed with it all. The
guests of the nation were treated with every consideration and courtesy
and their wants attended to with remarkable forethought. They were met
at the borders and ports and escorted with all honor to Mexico by a
selected body of society’s most brilliant men and the stations along
the line of travel were festooned with the national colors. Each city
sent delegates to meet the trains and speed them on their way to the
capital. It was like a scene of grandeur of the days when kings went
visiting, and not one representative of his ruler went from Mexico
without knowing the full measure of the manner of Mexico’s whole-souled
hospitality. At the capital, a protocol of ladies and gentlemen, met
the special trains bearing the foreign delegates and conveyed them
in all honor to their abodes, which were luxuriously furnished, some
of them being homes of citizens and officials. Fresh flowers were
sent each day, automobiles, carriages and servants were furnished and
everything the heart could desire was at the disposal of these visitors
during the Centennial. President Taft sent a special commission. The
distinguished gentlemen were selected for their fitness to represent
the United States. They were Special Ambassador Honorable Curtis Guild;
Congressman David J. Foster; Senator Overman; Senator Coe I. Crawford;
Congressman James R. Slayden; Representative George W. Fairchild;
Justice James E. Girard; General Harrison Gray Otis; and Colonel Rook.
These gentlemen occupied the Cobian Palace, one of the most magnificent
mansions in the capital city.
The other Envoys were the Marquis de Polavieja, Special Ambassador of
Spain; Monsieur Paul Lefaivre and Admiral de la Croix de Castries,
Special Ambassadors of France; Marquis di Bugano, of Italy; Special
Envoy Carl Buenz, of Germany; Chinese Ambassador, Chang Yin Tang;
Japanese Ambassador, Baron Uchida; Special Ambassadors from Chili,
Honorable Carlos Subercaezeaux and General Juan de Dios Vial Guzman;
Special Minister from Brazil, Don Antonio do Fontaura Xavier; Special
Minister from Costa Rica, Honorable Joaquin Calvo; Special Portuguese
Ambassador, Visconte de Alte; Peruvian Special Ambassador, Señor
Fedrico Alfonse Pezet; Special Envoy from Holland, Jankherr J. Loudon;
Colombian Minister, Señor C. de Corrodor Latorre; Cuban Special Envoy,
Honorable Loinaz del Castillo; Guatemalan Minister, Dr. Juan Ortega;
Salvadorian Minister, Señor Don José Antonio Rodriguez; Honduran Envoy,
Señor Don Salvador Cordóva; Bolivian Minister, Señor Don Santiago
Arguello; Austro-Hungarian Minister, Count Maximilian Hadik; Russian
Envoy, Honorable Andre Stalewski; Belgian Envoy, Monsieur George
Allart; Norwegian Envoy, Honorable Michael Lio; Ecuadorian Special
Envoy, Señor Don Leopoldo Pino; Swiss Envoy, Mr. Enrique Perret;
Venezuelan Delegate, Señor Don Eduardo Urdaneta; Argentine Special
Envoys, Señor Don Jacinto Garcia and General Enrique Fleiss, Commander
of the Warship _Presidente Sarmiento_; the resident Spanish
Minister, Señor Bernardo J. Cologan y Cologan represented Greece.
One of the first ceremonies was the opening of the lunatic asylum at
Mixcoac, one of the most splendid modern edifices erected in Mexico.
The president, bearing his eighty years with all the strength and
vigor of a man of forty, conducted the formalities with great dignity
and poise. Surrounded by representative men of all the world, he stood
out among them a figure never to be forgotten.
[Illustration: PRIESTS AND SERVANTS OF CORTÉS IN THE
HISTORICAL PARADE.]
All public buildings finished or nearing completion were formally
dedicated during this eventful month, each cabinet minister and
official taking an important part in the ceremonies. Speeches that
glided from the lips of orators from every clime seemed to mingle with
the golden atmosphere, carrying with them a spirit of good feeling.
The first ten days of the Centennial were devoted to receiving
the credentials of the foreign delegates, and impressive official
ceremonies appropriate to the occasion, but from the first day of the
month the president and his colleagues went through the ceremonies
of dedication, laying corner stones and opening schools and various
enterprises. The new Federal Legislative palace, which is one of the
most magnificent structures in America, was dedicated in the presence
of many foreign diplomats.
A flag parade of school children dressed in clothes made by the society
women of Mexico was one of the most interesting processions, because
of the youth of the participants. Notable among the events of the
Centennial was the opening of the University of Mexico in the presence
of General Diaz and other high officials and distinguished foreign
educators. In an unostentatious way the ceremonies began with strains
of the national anthem resounding throughout the large amphitheatre
of the National Preparatory School. Special delegates of foreign
universities with the caps and gowns of their respective institutions
of learning were present, among them, Dr. James Baldwin, representative
of Oxford University; Licenciado Manuel Garcia Alvarez, a delegate
from the University of Oviedo, Spain; Doctors Lendian and Dehigo y
Mestre, of the University of Havana; Professor Ernest Martinenche of
the University of Paris, founded in 1810; Dr. Benjamin Ide Wheeler,
President of the University of California, one of the best educators of
the United States; the American Commission and ambassadors from other
countries.
Before a brilliant assemblage of men and women the Minister of
Education and Belles Artes, Señor Don Justo Sierra, read a splendid
paper treating of the subject of education of the youth of Mexico, who
must be fitted to receive the reins of the government, which sooner or
later must fall to them. It was a splendid oration, and was followed
by a response from the President who in a few dignified words of
encouragement and praise pronounced the University of Mexico a thing of
reality, to endure forever. Other addresses followed and the dedication
of the University of Mexico passed into the annals of history.
The National School of Agriculture was opened and was one of the most
interesting of the ceremonies of the Centennial, being of importance
for the advancement and development of agricultural resources. An
exhibition of live stock in connection with this showed fine breeds of
cattle and horses from all parts of the republic.
A congress of education in the School of Arts and Crafts for men held
its session with important delegates from all the States of Mexico.
The new Normal Schools for men and for women, and some high schools
were opened and the new seismological station was dedicated during
the earlier days of the celebration. Following the dedication of
monuments of industry and statues, came fiestas of every kind, in
which Mexican women in all their splendor of jewels and toilettes did
their part in showing the world something of the magnificence of their
entertainments.
One of the beautiful tributes paid to President and Mrs. Diaz during
the festivities was a musicale given at the Castle of Chapultepec by La
Estudiantina musical club of young people.
Public and private balls, free theatres and bull-fights for the people,
fire-works, electrical displays and parades of every kind were the
order of this month of continued festivity.
[Illustration: A PART OF THE HISTORICAL PARADE.]
President and Mrs. Diaz extended magnificent hospitality to the
visiting ambassadors and their families, the diplomatic corps and
officials, with a banquet at the National Palace. It was a brilliant
function. The distinguished guests were received in the red hall. This
is the historical room of the Palace, filled with old paintings of the
battlefields and portraits of Mexican heroes. After the banquet the
guests attended a gala opera performance in honor of the President.
The national commission to entertain the visitors to the capital
left nothing undone to make the people enjoy the great event, from
the humblest of Indian peons to the representatives of the mightiest
monarch. Thousands of working men were given employment during the
preparations for the Centennial, and in addition to the payment given
them, each man was presented with a fitting suit of clothes for the
occasion. It would not be unusual, if the poorer classes were neglected
during festivities of this kind, to have some discord among them. With
a forethought, born of a natural tact, all this was regulated and the
poor were furnished with entertainments with such wisdom that there was
not a ripple of discontent during the great parades.
Mexicans regard the national events of the past with great reverence
and love and they enter into the spirit of hero worship whole-souled.
They do not forget the trials and sacrifices of years; they won their
right to be free and fought for their country, and having conquered
their enemy, they can afford to be magnanimous. This was demonstrated
by the kindly reception given the venerable Marquis de Polavieja, the
special ambassador from the Court of Spain, who was received with great
honors and given the greatest ovation ever accorded a foreign visitor,
on his arrival at the port of Vera Cruz, where three hundred years ago,
the envoys of the Spanish Crown came to wrest from the people their
possessions and native land. All this has been forgotten and Spain with
her great respect to the Mexican government sent her most distinguished
noble to represent her. With him came a suite of royal personages
bearing costly gifts and messages of goodwill from their sovereign. The
uniform and portrait of José Maria Morelos, the intrepid hero of one
hundred years ago, which was taken to Spain after the execution of the
patriot, was returned to Mexico with all due solemnity and reverence
and the Mexicans have a kindly appreciation of this delicate tribute.
Drawn through the streets upon a gun-wagon draped with the flag of
the nation, for which the patriot died, in a glass covered case, so
arranged that thousands could view it, the faded and blood stained
uniform was borne amid muffled drums and strains of martial music to
the National Palace, where the President of Mexico was waiting with
his Cabinet and a large assemblage of distinguished people to receive
the precious relic. It was a most impressive sight and brought tears
to the eyes of the multitude that stood on the streets, with hats in
hand, to see men of military distinction and high official life walking
with slow step before the carriage that conveyed the sacred relic. Old
warriors who had given their youth to the service of their country,
men in the prime of life who were serving their country to the best of
their ability, and youths full of the inspiration of patriotism, walked
side by side with bared heads, while the soldiers and marines kept step
with the solemn music.
This gift from a friendly country has cemented the cordial relations
between Mexico and Spain.
In the Hall of Ambassadors, the splendid representative of Spain made
the presentation in these few well chosen words:
“Mr. President--In the name of my august sovereign I have the high
honor of delivering into the hands of your Excellency, that it may
remain on Mexican territory, the portrait, the uniform, and other
objects which were the property of General José Maria Morelos y Pavon,
which, as belonging to a great general and citizen, my country kept
with great care for a long time, guarding them jealously in its museum
of artillery.
“His Majesty, King Alfonso XIII., wishes that your Excellency may
see in this act, and with you all the noble Mexican people the most
complete expression of the sincere satisfaction with which he and the
Mother Spain associate themselves with your centenary of independence.
You are to be praised for the greatness of your progress, and the rapid
strides Mexico has made toward internal and international peace.
“To-day for this reason, the Mexican republic merits and possesses the
respect, the esteem and the regard of all people. In her there shone,
in past times, all the glories of the art of war, and now all the arts
of peace, which have had brilliant development and expansion.
“May God continue to dispense to her his favors.
“These are the wishes of my King and the Mother Spain, proud of her
daughter, whom she embraces, on this momentous occasion, with all the
affection of her soul and with all the memories of her great labor as
the discoverer, explorer and colonizer of the Americas.”
The President with much feeling thanked the monarch of Spain in the
name of his people and expressed appreciation for the relic so highly
prized.
At the conclusion of the ceremony the audience of brilliant men and
women gave many “_vivas_” for the respective rulers and also for
the venerable Marquis who had the honor of presenting the gift. The
Grand collar of the Order of Carlos III. was conferred on General Diaz
at another ceremony and a painting of Alfonso of Spain was unveiled.
A marble tablet erected on the front of the Artillery Arsenal in the
Cuidadela in memory of the imprisonment of the patriot, José Maria
Morelos, was unveiled by the Governor of the Federal District, Señor
Don Guillermo de Landa y Escandon. Little children from the schools,
dressed in white, assisted the Governor in this ceremony by singing
the national anthem. The oration of the day was delivered by a noted
attorney, Licenciado Isidro Fabela.
The unveiling of the Monument of Independence, with orations from many
distinguished men, was one of the principal events of this month. This
was built to commemorate the National Independence. It is an impressive
looking column, some parts made in Mexican marble, surmounted with
a bronze winged female figure. The plaster casts of the allegorical
figures were made by native sculptors and sent to Italy, where the
castings were made. The four figures on the lower pedestal represent
Law, Progress, Resistance and Force.
[Illustration: NOBLEMEN WITH ESCORTS IN THE HISTORICAL
PARADE.]
From the base rises a column, surrounding which are figures of the
Heroes of the Independence. The central figure is of Hidalgo, and
standing on each side are figures of Morelos and Guerrero. From this
pedestal rises the shaft ten feet in diameter and sixty-seven feet
high. It is the work of Antonio Rivas Mercado and was completed in 1910.
One of the most significant ceremonies during this month was the
unveiling of the statue of Benito Juarez, first president of
the republic after the empire. Before a brilliant concourse of
distinguished Mexicans and ambassadors, and the surviving members of
the Juarez family, the president, with tears streaming, drew aside
the canvas that hid the most fitting monument ever built in Mexico.
It is of Doric style, constructed from Italian marble, severe and
magnificent, typical of the character of this great man. It is the work
of the sculptor Lazaroni, after the design of Heredia, and seems to
represent the true character of Juarez, whose intense patriotism and
upright principles immortalized him. The sculpture represents Juarez
between two allegorical figures of Glory and Mexico--these figures are
seven metres high and are most imposing. This monument is a recognition
of the greatness of the reformer who did so much for Mexico in the
closing years of his life.
Señor Ingeniero Ignacio de la Barre, in a well delivered address
explained that the massive work of construction was completed in ten
months, the workmen in a spirit of patriotism working day and night.
On this occasion the American government presented an immense wreath
of flowers which was borne to the foot of the statue on the strong
shoulders of two most distinguished ambassadors, Honorable Curtis Guild
and Honorable Henry Lane Wilson. This monument is most conspicuously
placed in the Alameda, on the avenue which bears the name of the great
patriot.
The site in Plaza Dinamarca upon which will stand the monument to
Washington presented to Mexico by the resident citizens of the United
States, was dedicated by General Diaz. The introductory address was
made by Mr. C. R. Hudson and the oration delivered by Honorable Henry
Lane Wilson, the resident American ambassador, was concluded in most
brilliant language. This monument is now in construction, and is one of
the many contributions in honor of the Centennial.
On September 14th, the statue of Baron Alexander Von Humboldt, the
magnificent gift from the German Emperor to the republic was unveiled
in the garden of the National Library. In the midst of glittering
uniforms and decorations, with the German band discoursing strains of
Tannhauser, the President and his suite arrived to hear the address
of presentation by Ambassador Carl Buenz and his diplomatic staff. It
was the most brilliantly garbed assemblage of people at any dedication
during the celebration. The chief executive drew the cord which parted
the curtains that hid the dignified statue of the man whose faith in
Mexico had inspired his predictions of its great future. The marines
and sailors of the man of war _Freya_ made a great impression by
their splendid bearing. A chorus of male voices, hidden in the recesses
of the building, rendered selections of classical music. The oration of
the German ambassador was delivered in an eloquent style. He said:
“Mr. President:
“Ladies and Gentlemen:
“This day belongs to the fraternal feeling between Mexicans and
Germans. We find ourselves to-day under the emblem: ‘The German Emperor
to the Mexican Nation.’ These are the words written on the base where
has been raised the monument which we are about to dedicate to the
Mexican nation, as a permanent symbol of our friendship.
“Marble upon granite symbolizing the purity of our sentiments and the
firmness of our friendship.
“His majesty, the Emperor, desiring of his own initiative to give to
Mexico a visible and permanent sign of his sympathy, could find no
better means to realize his intention effectively than by the erection,
in the capital of the republic, of the statue of the great explorer of
this country, Baron Alexander Humboldt.
“Over a century ago, a young German, animated by the enthusiasm of
youth and the desire for scientific knowledge characteristic of our
race, was inspired to explore the Latin lands across the seas.
“As a simple traveler, he will soon appear to our page as a hero of
science penetrating the most recondite mysteries of the New World,
despite innumerable dangers, cruel fatigues, almost insurmountable
obstacles.
“The author of ‘Cosmos,’ his immortal work, belongs to the world, the
illustrious man of science, to our nation, the author of Essay on New
Spain, to Mexico.
“The European world heard with surprise the revelations of the beauty,
the wealth, and the possibilities of a country in which he had become
interested solely for its heroic history, for its past.
“With Alexander Humboldt, modern Mexico celebrated its apparition as an
actual power, as a valiant member of the family of modern nations.
“The Mexican nation, always chivalrous, was quick to recognize the
merits of the explorer of its territory and made him an honorary
citizen. In this manner the son of Germany became the adopted child of
the Mexican nation and Germany and Mexico became brother countries.
“It is for the fraternity thus effected that the German Emperor offers
to the Mexican nation the statue of her native son, the adopted son of
Mexico.
“And Mexico? What a marvel!
“Another Alexander Humboldt, native born of Mexico, came and by his
intelligence, through his love for his country, the energy of his
character and the weight of his hand when it became necessary, he
formed a new Mexico, a state worthy of occupying a distinguished place
in the community of civilized nations.
“It is for this reason, General, that to-day the representatives
of civilized foreign nations participate in the celebration of the
Centennial of the declaration of Mexico’s independence. It is for this
reason that His August Majesty, the Emperor, has sent me to express to
Your Excellency, in the presence of the representatives of his army and
his navy, his sincere sympathy for Your Excellency, his cordial desires
for your welfare and for the prosperity of the Mexican nation, and it
is for this reason, as a permanent symbol of this goodwill and love,
that His Majesty furthered the plan of erecting in this, the capital
city of the republic, the monument we are about to unveil.
[Illustration: SITE OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT. PRESENTED BY
THE AMERICAN COLONY.]
“The erection of the monument in front of the National Library is
significant of the universality in which all the differences of races,
all the evolutions are resolved; of the universality of science, of the
harmony of ultimate ideas, of the chief ends of mankind. It is with
this idea, Mr. President, that I to-day have the honor of delivering in
the name of the Emperor, to Your Excellency as the representative of
the nation, the statue of Alexander Humboldt, sole honorary citizen of
this republic. That this monument be a ‘monumentum sere perennius’ of
the friendship which happily binds our nations and our governments, a
witness, dumb, but eloquent, of the continuous progress of this country
towards the goal of its destinies.”
After a selection from Mendelssohn, the response for the president was
delivered by the brilliant governor of the Federal District, Honorable
Guillermo de Landa y Escandon. It was an entire day of festivity.
Lunches and dinners were given at the German Club and theatrical
performances in honor of the Germans in all parts of the city. The
cadets and officers from the warship were given the freedom of the town.
Many other statues were dedicated and unveiled, among them monuments in
honor of Garibaldi and Pasteur.
In the Monumental Tribune at Chapultepec the president and his cabinet,
the foreign ambassadors and ladies and gentlemen of Mexican society
witnessed the ceremony of the dedication of the ground for the statue
of Queen Isabel, the Catholic, which was presented by the Spanish
Colony.
All honor was paid to the cadets who fell in the battle of Molino del
Rey, on whose monument were placed wreaths of flowers.
Not a day passed during this great Centennial without some wonderful
form of entertainment. The Civic parade which took place September
14th, was one in which all classes of society participated. Over ten
thousand people marched in this procession, amid waving banners. It was
headed by all the officials of the government, and took in every labor
organization and employees of the government. The president reviewed it
from the balcony of the National Palace.
On September 15th, the most unique pageant known in history took
place. It was the historical parade which comprised every character of
Mexico’s history. It was a drama enacted before the president with the
oldest site of Mexico City, the Plaza de la Constitucion, as its stage.
The actors numbered over twelve thousand and many came from parts of
the republic in which the event they were to depict was originally
enacted. All the magnificence of the Emperor Montezuma as he went
forth to greet Hernán Cortés was faithfully represented in costumes
of their times and races. The following is a translation from the
_Mexican Daily Record_, of the programme furnished by the members
of the National Commission, to whom all honor should be given for this
stupendous success:
APPROACH OF CORTÉS
The troops of Cortés, composed of four hundred Spaniards and seven
thousand Indian allies, passed the night in the town of Amecameca, in
the valley formed by the “Montaña que Numea,” (mountain that smokes),
on the 5th of November, 1519. The following day they continued their
journey toward the great Tenochtitlan, the proud Lady of the Lakes;
passed by Tlalmanalco and held to stop in Aytezinge, a village near
Chalce. On rising the next day to continue the journey, Cacama, the
king of Tezcoco called the Spanish conqueror and presented him with
rich gifts in the name of Montezuma.
The march continued, and on that day, November 6th, they arrived at
Ixtapalapan where they were received by Cuitlahuac, brother of the
emperor of Mexico, where they were comfortably lodged.
Very early on the 7th, the journey was resumed; it is said that Cortés
appeared somewhat distrustful and for that reason he formed his troops
in line of battle. The flags were unfurled and the drums made a
tremendous noise to terrorize the Indians.
[Illustration: MONTEZUMA’S ARMY IN MILITARY PARADE.]
Great was the excitement in the hearts of the Spaniards at the sight
of the panoramic view of the city, where numberless temples rose to
view majestically over the crystal lakes. The exuberant vegetation
and luxuriousness, the gifts or presents consisting of gold, precious
stones, rich plumage, and so varied vegetable products, all must have
caused a great impression on the minds of these men of insatiable
thirst for adventure.
EMPEROR MEETS CORTÉS
Emperor Montezuma prepared himself to meet the conqueror. Two brothers
accompanied the emperor and also the lords of Tezcoac, Ixtapalapan and
Coyoacan, the king of Tlacopan, the treasurer of Montezuma, Tlacatecat,
the captain general and other great personages.
Four of these men conducted the emperor in a luxurious palanquin, with
shafts of polished gold and showy blankets, under a pallium or canopy
of woven feathers. Preceding the monarch a group of ministers with gold
rods in their hands marched heralding the approach of the emperor, and
the party was completed by the members of the council, the priests, the
captains in front of their warriors and their servants.
Cortés arrived preceded by a cavalry guard, he mounted his white horse,
Molinere. The vanguard was composed of drummers and buglers and the
companies of arcabuceros and ballesteros. At the rear was a platoon of
Tlaxcalteca warriors, allies of the emperor. Cortés was surrounded by
his captains, Pedro de Alvarado, Juan Velasquez de Leon, Gonzalo de
Sandoval, Alonso de Avila, Francisco de Luga, Diego de Ordaz and the
distinguished soldier, Bernal Diaz de Castillo.
When Montezuma and Cortés finally met, the former alighted from the
palanquin and advanced to receive the latter upon several rugs which
the servants placed upon the floor before the emperor so that he need
not step upon the ground, all the great lords and members of the
cortége remaining with their heads bowed, so as not to see the face
of the monarch. Four great lords covered him with the pallium when he
approached the conqueror.
GIFTS EXCHANGED
Cortés dismounted and advanced to greet Montezuma, making two bows or
reverences. Montezuma responded by placing his hands near the ground
and then to his lips. The conqueror intended to embrace the monarch,
but the great lords advised him that the emperor was a divinity who
could not be touched. He placed on the neck of Montezuma a collar
of stones of marcasite glass in gold thread and scented with musk.
Montezuma surrounded the neck of Cortés with a rich collar set with
stones and a string of roses. He then ordered his party to offer
his presents to Cortés and the latter received flowers and birds of
beautiful plumage.
The priests passed swinging their censors and the procession continued
in the aforesaid order.
ORGANIZATION OF PARADES
The first group, which consisted of eight hundred and thirty-nine
persons, commenced its march from the Plaza de la Reforma, following
up Avenidas Juarez and San Francisco. When they reached the corner of
Empadredillo, Montezuma and his party passed in front of the portales,
and Cortés and his party to the front of the Cathedral, in order that
the meeting of the two would take place under the central balcony of
the National Palace. The order of the procession was as follows:
[Illustration: UNVEILING OF THE HUMBOLDT STATUE. PRESENTED TO
MEXICO BY EMPEROR WILLIAM.]
MONTEZUMA’S GROUP
1. Nineteen Mexican warriors with banners.
2. Grand captain escorted by eight warriors with badge of noble
distinction.
3. Fifty Mexican warriors.
4. Thirty-eight priests.
5. Lords of Tezcoco, Ixtapalapan, Coyoacan and Tlacopan accompanied by
twenty Knights of the Sun.
6. Fifteen noblemen, or great lords.
7. Twenty Indian women escorted by six warriors with fixed banners and
two Tiger Knights.
8. Servants carrying tapestries and rugs or blankets to place them on
the ground when the emperor alights from his palanquin.
9. Ten ministers with gold rods in their hands.
10. Emperor Montezuma in his palanquin, conducted by four great lords.
Another four noblemen carry large fans, fifty more great lords surround
the emperor.
11. Group of warriors, priests, who escort the emperor.
12. The procession is closed by seventy-two Mexican warriors with their
respective chiefs.
CORTÉS’S GROUP
1. A guard of six soldiers, carabiniers on horseback and twenty on foot.
2. Drummers and buglers.
3. Ballesteros.
4. Hernán Cortés, accompanied by Doña Marina (Malintzin) and his
distinguished captains.
5. Priests and servants of Cortés.
6. Archers.
7. Tlaxcalteca warriors allied to Cortés, in the following order:
Advance guard of ten warriors.
Chiefs of the republic of Tlaxcala.
Standard bearers.
Eighty warriors with their respective commanders, or chiefs.
SECOND GROUP
The second group represents the epoch of Spanish dominion in Mexico, in
the procession of the banner.
To commemorate the 13th day of August, the anniversary of the conquest,
the procession used to be organized in the following order:
Preceded by the drummers, buglers and the several foot ushers, the
cabalgada marched from the church of San Hipolito to the municipal
palace, the procession being formed by the councilmen, the mayor, the
first constable, one honorary colonel and lieutenant-colonel of Spanish
infantry, the members of the council of his majesty, the members of
the _audiencia_. In a prominent place was the alferez or chief
ensign of the town. The rear of the group was a military force and the
principal Indians of Santiago and Tlaltelolco, walking on foot with
their typical square blankets, wide trousers, a cape and sandals. As a
rule these Indians were the governor, the mayor, the judge and first
constables of the aforesaid places. On reaching the municipal palace,
the alferez real would take the banner which was placed upon a scarlet
pillow under the main balcony, and before a notary he would pledge
abject submission and return it to the place whence it came.
[Illustration: THE JUAREZ MONUMENT.]
The procession again formed, the royal alferez proceeded on the
march through the streets of Tlapalros, Refugio, Puente del Espiritu
Santo, San Angel, San Augustin, Portacoeli and Flamences to the main
entrance of the viceroy’s palace. The viceroy would come down and join
the procession, surrounded by the high dignitaries of the palace,
the alferez real to his left and to his right the oldest judge of
the supreme court. The cavalcade would take the streets of El Reloj,
Encarnacion, and Santo Domingo, to arrive at the platform erected
in front of the palace, on which four maidens and four knights were
waiting. Once on the tribune, the alferez would deliver to the viceroy
the banner to be raised above his head. This ceremony was patronized by
the provincials of Santo Domingo and San Francisco. When the ceremony
ended, the viceroy entered the palace with his party and the alferez,
with his party, returned to the ayuntamiento to leave there the banner,
the whole procession then being dispersed.
This group consisted of two hundred and eighty-eight persons and
marched in the order indicated. At the main balcony of the municipal
palace the royal ensign was placed, which is of crimson damask with
the royal emblem embroidered in gold, trimmed with a flounce of gold,
cords and silk tassels. The royal emblem is surrounded by the following
inscription:
“Non in multitudine Exercitus Consistit sed in Voluntate Dei.”
When the royal alferez returns to the municipal palace to deposit the
banner he leaves it in the hall of sessions of the ayuntamiento.
Facing the National Palace, a platform with curtains was erected for
the ceremony of raising the pennon or royal standard.
MODERN TIMES
The third group represented the era of independence and the present
time, as follows:
1. Glorification of Generalisimo Miguel Hidalgo. Allegorical float of
the Independence, offered by the government of the State of Hidalgo.
2. Float in honor of the insurgent Generalisimo José Maria Morelos y
Pavon, by the government of the State of Michoacan.
3. Representation of the entry of the army of the Three Guarantees
into the City of Mexico, under the command of Augustin de Iturbide,
accompanied by Generals Vicente Guerrero, Manuel Mier y Teran,
Guadalupe Victoria and Anastasio Bustamante, leading some sections
of the regiments who formed the Trigarante Army, among others the
following:
Imperial grenadiers. Regiment of the Crown. Regiments of Celaya, Tres
Villas, Guadalajara, Light of Querétaro, Light of Morelos, Stationary
of Puebla, Mexico and Valladolid. Regiments of Santo Domingo of
Ferdinand VII. Dragoons of Mexico. Dragoons of the King. Dragoons of
Santander. Faithful of the Potosi, Sierra Gorda and San Fernando.
Regiments from Puebla and Mexico.
This being the eve of the great day of Independence, as well as the
celebration of the eightieth birthday of General Diaz made it one
of the most brilliant days of entertainment during the Centennial.
Congratulations poured from all parts of the world to greet the Chief
Executive on the occasion of his birthday and a galaxy of men and women
at the National Palace furnished a scene never to be forgotten. True
to the yearly custom of the past century, as the hour arrived when
the ringing of the Bell of Liberty incited outbursts of enthusiasm,
the masses gathered beneath the balcony of the National Palace, the
president stepped out into the night and pronounced the Grito de
Dolores, “Long live our most holy Mother of Guadalupe: Long live
America, and death to bad government.” The peals of this great relic of
the past sounded like the silvery voice of Hidalgo embalmed in metal.
On September 16th, the great review of the army of the republic took
place. On this occasion the foreign delegates had the opportunity of
viewing the army of Mexico in all its glory.
A splendid official reception given by Governor de Landa y Escandon in
the new Municipal Palace brought together a concourse of distinguished
men and women. This was one of the great social events.
One of the most magnificent spectacles that occurred during this gala
Centennial was the ball given by President Diaz and Madame Carmen
Romero de Diaz, the Diplomatic Corps and Mexican society. The large
_patio_ of the National Palace was a fairyland with myriads of
lights and flowers, and in no part of the world could there be a more
wonderful display. It was an honor to the nation. Mexico may justly be
proud of the display at this function, she may well be proud of her
beautiful women who in their magnificent toilettes and jewels carried
themselves with such dignity. A special ambassador of one of the Courts
of Europe remarked that he had never seen among crowned heads a woman
who bore her dignity with such grace and beauty as Madame Diaz. Over
ten thousand guests assisted at this beautiful ball.
During the brilliancy of the _fiestas_, the nation’s dead heroes
were not forgotten. The urns containing the remains and relics of
Mexico’s patriots were transferred from the Cathedral to the National
Palace, and a most touching apotheosis was held in their honor.
[Illustration: THE ARMY OF CORTÉS IN PARADE.]
[Illustration: RECEPTION HALL OF THE SPANISH CASINO.]
[Illustration: PATIO OF THE SPANISH CASINO.]
CHAPTER X
CLUBS AND SOCIAL LIFE
Mexico, with majestic and snow-capped mountains, opens to the view of
the traveller who has hitherto followed the beaten paths a rich mine of
unexpected delight. A wonderful country where nature has been so lavish
that she causes to grow upon its surface a vegetation so varied that it
includes every plant of tropical lands, together with the sturdy firs
of the farthest north. Some strange magic seems to hold one within its
gates: the dreamy poetic strain of old Spain whose traditions still
tinge the country with the romance of the Cid, Manriques lays and the
last of the Moors. Echoes of the Alhambra still linger in the graceful
Moorish arches of the public buildings, while the gardens of King
Boabdil live again in the beautiful alamedas with their stately trees,
luxuriant vegetation, gorgeous flowers, graceful monuments and cool
and shady walks. In every city of any size is the alameda, a meeting
place for the people. The one in Mexico is especially artistic in
arrangement by the profusion and beauty of its flowers. Side by side
with the pushing needs of civilization and progress are to be seen
evidence of the artist’s instinct, which finds expression in splendid
forms of architecture, not of the solid unsightly blocks of stone which
so disfigure our large American cities. The progress of Mexico has been
wonderful in the last fifteen years.
The social distinction of the city is prominently marked by its
magnificent clubs. The principal of these is the Jockey Club, whose
sumptuous home is in “The House of Tiles,” on San Francisco Street.
The building is one of the finest in the capital; it was built early
in the eighteenth century and was formerly the palace of the Conde
del Valle de Orizaba. Its massive form in Moorish style and Venetian
ornamentation gives it a character wholly individual and irresistibly
attractive. The façade is entirely finished with white and blue tiles,
hence the familiar name of the building. The building is entered by a
richly carved portal of massive proportions; the great doors of cedar
are ornamented with unique copper ornaments. As the great _patios_
are reached their ample stretch suggests that one is in the precincts
of a vast deserted Andalusian palace. In the court-way stands a
memorial of the days of the founder of the palace, a fountain of
marvellous beauty, delicately and gracefully chiseled in the best style
of that day.
The first floor is carried on richly decorated cylindrical columns. At
the left is the library, an exquisitely adorned apartment with every
appointment that luxury can suggest for such a room and a special
literature befitting the establishment, complete in every respect.
As little change as possible has been made in the structural character
of the old Count’s palace. On the grand stairway, the great lamp with
its alabaster globes casts its soft light on the old walls, just as it
did when the assassin struck down the original owner. Splendid Venetian
mirrors reflect the beauties of decoration and deep set windows of
octagonal shape with their oddly designed panes of richly stained glass
serve to add decorative strength and to heighten the effect of the
curious ceiling tiled with alternate rows of porcelain and cedar.
The corridor on the main floor is also a masterpiece of tile work, like
the façade, in white and blue. A striking feature of this corridor is
the railing of _tumbago_, a bronze composite brought by Spain’s
galleons from China, which is splendidly wrought and is of great value.
Of the same metal are the club’s balconies facing San Francisco Street
and Callejon Condesa. In the main floor corridor and on the landing of
the grand staircase still remain the graved coat-of-arms of Del Valle,
and everywhere white and blue tiles, costly as silver, and unmarred by
the touch of centuries; a bit of old time splendor preciously cherished
both as being old and as reminders of the high proficiency of the art
of earlier days.
On the main floor is the little-changed chapel of the Conde del Valle
which was once the depository of the sacred relics and art treasures of
his family, but is now devoted to games of _tresillo_. Here still
is the richly carved quaint cedar portal and the fine sculptured arch
of the former oratory.
The history of the famous club begins with 1881, and its founding is
due to the late General Pedro Rincon Gallardo and Señor Francisco
Somera, who obtained the co-operation of the municipal council. On
June 8, 1881, the first president, Señor Somera, was elected. The
second was Señor Manuel Romero Rubio. At his death in 1895, General
Gallardo succeeded. Señor Yves Limantour is now the president and Señor
Sebastian Camacho, the vice-president.
The club membership is extremely exclusive; there are but a few foreign
members and introductions are very limited.
The University Club is most comfortably housed in Calle Bucareli.
Occasional introductions are permitted by members, and entertainment is
accorded as guests to visiting university men on the request of members.
The Country Club is near Tacubaya, in one of the finest club buildings
in America, being of Spanish mission style. Its hospitality is
generously extended to non-residents of the Federal district. Visitors
may be introduced in person, and two weeks’ privileges are granted on
request of members. It has a splendid tennis court and a fine golf
link. The dining room is finished in Old Flemish. This is the favorite
meeting place of distinguished Americans.
The home of the British Club in San Francisco Street is handsomely
appointed, and in great favor. The membership is, of course, chiefly
British, with a few colonists from other places and a sprinkling of
Mexicans. Visitors are entertained for two weeks on request of members.
The French Clubs, the Cercle François and the University Club, are both
noted for their attractions.
The American Club on Calle Independencia is the chief social foyer of
the leading American residents in the capital. The provision made for
accommodation of members and guests, though extensive, is often taxed
to its capacity. The privilege of guests of the Club is accorded on
request to members for the accommodation of their visiting friends.
The German Club has a fine new building and a splendid gymnasium.
The Casino Espanol Club is domiciled in a mansion, and has a membership
of eight hundred. This Club is famous for its magnificent balls. During
the Centennial it gave many _fiestas_ of note. Señor Sanchez y
Ramos, a son-in-law of Benito Juarez, is the distinguished president.
The Diplomatic Corps, which is quite large, is an important element in
the social life of the Capital, and is composed of many distinguished
representatives. The Spanish, the French and the Japanese are among
the best entertainers. The British government is represented by His
Excellency, the Honorable Reginald T. Tower. Soon after his arrival in
Mexico, he presented General Diaz with the Grand Cross of the Bath,
which was conferred on the President by His Majesty, King Edward.
[Illustration: HISTORICAL STAIRWAY OF JOCKEY CLUB.]
The American Colony in the City of Mexico is composed of many
distinguished representatives. Their social life, while in a measure
confined to themselves, is delightful. The American Ambassador,
Honorable Henry Lane Wilson, and his charming wife have endeared
themselves to everyone. Honorable Arnold Shanklin is the United States
Consul General. He is a popular favorite and has won many friends and
admirers in Mexico.
The Christmas customs of Mexico are uncommonly pretty and touching. The
Christmas-tree is not a native institution, though it gives indications
of becoming naturalized. In its stead the Mexican children have what
they call a pinata, which affords them just as much fun. The pinata is
a large earthenware jar, which is covered with colored tissue-paper.
This jar is filled with all sorts of dainties dear to children and
is hung up in the corridor or courtyard of the house. Each of the
children is blind-folded in turn, and, after being turned around once
or twice, has a stick placed in his or her hand and is invited to break
the pinata. The wielder of the stick is generally, after being turned
around, quite out of his bearings, and often brings down it within an
inch of the head of one of the party. He is allowed three trials, and
if not successful the handkerchief is removed and another takes his
turn. At length a crash is heard--some one has made a true hit--the
pinata is broken and the good things fall in a shower to the ground.
The posadas are a characteristically Mexican celebration. They
commemorate the journey of Mary and Joseph from Nazareth to Bethlehem.
This journey, performed by Mary mounted on an ass, which Joseph guided,
is supposed to have occupied nine days. Each evening they naturally
approached some dwelling to beg a night’s shelter. It is this nightly
episode that is commemorated in Mexican houses by the posadas, or the
begging of the posada (_pedir posada_), meaning shelter, lodging,
or entertainment. In the patriarchal days of the viceroys the posada
was a strictly religious custom, and in a few old-fashioned families
it is so still. The ninth night of the posadas--that is, Christmas
Eve--is celebrated on the most extensive and luxurious scale of all,
and generally the wealthiest of the families that have clubbed together
gives the entertainment. In memory of the night when the Saviour was
born, the figure of an infant is carried in procession, and is placed
in a manger between the ox and the ass in a prettily adorned cave,
which is intended to represent the stable where Mary and Joseph took
refuge when they found that there was no room for them in the inns.
The feast day celebrated by the Catholic Church on November 1st, is
called All Saints’, and ranks as one of the most solemn of the year.
It was instituted at an early period in the history of the Church as a
means of doing honor to the many saints to whom it was impossible to
assign a separate feast. The feast which follows on November 2d, is
popularly known as All Souls’, and is the day for the commemoration
of the faithful departed. On this day masses are said and special
prayers offered by Catholics for the release of souls from purgatory.
The priests wear black vestments, and in some of the churches a huge
catafalque is erected in the centre of the nave.
The origin of the feast of All Souls’ dates back to the year 827
A.D., when Amalario, the Deacon of Metz, published the office
for the dead, but it was not until 998 A.D., that St. Odillon,
abbot of Cluny, instituted in his churches this feast in commemoration
of the faithful deceased. This feast soon prevailed in the Catholic
Church. It took a rather wider range in France in the eighteenth
century, when the laborers began to dedicate gratuitous work, for
the benefit of the poor of All Souls’ day, and offered to the Church
wheat, which, according to the Pauline designation, is the symbol of
resurrection.
The idea of these November feasts is not original with Mexico; it has
found root in nearly every religion.
[Illustration: THE JOCKEY CLUB.]
The feasts of All Saints’ and All Souls’ although not celebrated with
the _éclat_ of former years, are still very interesting in certain
portions of the republic, especially along the Gulf coast. There
the Indians are in the habit of placing upon the graves dulces, or
sweetmeats, prepared with _chilacayote_ and _calabazas_. The Indians
place these dulces with large jars of water upon the tombs of their
deceased relatives and friends during the afternoon of November 1st,
so that the dead--that night at least--can have something to eat and
drink. This latter arrangement is similar to some of the customs of
Germany and Central Europe.
The “ofrenda,” or offering, is, singular to say, of Aztec origin.
The Aztecs were in the habit of cremating their dead; and they kept
the ashes in an urn with fragments of precious metals, emeralds,
etc., also putting in food and catlis, together with bows and
arrows and a quantity of a great golden-hearted flower called the
_zempoalzoichitl_, which can be found growing in Mexico profusely
at this day. This flower is used to decorate the sepulchres in company
with white roses, the ruby “_flor de noche buena_,” and velvety
forget-me-nots, as well as violets, geraniums, and marguerites. In
the country districts the ofrenda is much more elaborate than in the
city. Candles are also used by thousands in the little _panteons_
or cemeteries of the country. Among the simple folk in these Indian
villages the local poets write up more or less readable “poetry,” which
is also included in the offering to the dead. In some isolated portions
of Mexico this custom prevails to such an extent that the children beg
money from their parents to buy fruit for that purpose, or else, they
say, the departed will come on Halloween and pull their little feet. It
is impossible to give an idea of all the curious customs and incidents
that prevail in the rural districts of Mexico with respect to the
observance of these holidays. Halloween in Mexico does not partake of
the mischievous and jocose character of the day in the United States
and England.
Among the characteristic sights of these days peculiar to Mexico are
the strange toys sold on the streets and in stalls. They consist of
skull and crossbones of sugar adorned with gold leaf, lath coffins
surrounded with priests and acolytes and containing a skeleton,
miniature catafalques, altars, etc. Many of the coffins are so arranged
that by pulling a string the lid opens and the dead man sits up. No
Mexican child is content without one of these toys. The mozos and
domestic servants also look at this time for their festival, to which
they give the name of _calavera_ (skull). It is a carnival of
death; a mingling of levity with sadness.
It is the custom to visit on All Souls’ day the graves of relatives
and friends, to place wreaths and candles round about, and to offer
prayers. Any one of Mexico’s cemeteries offers an interesting scene
on that day. The French cemetery, where many of Mexico’s wealthiest
families have their vaults, is one mass of beautiful wreaths. The tomb
of Juarez, in the San Fernando cemetery, receives many mementoes from
admirers of the great Liberal statesman. The cemetery of Tepeyac, near
Guadalupe, where lie the remains of Santa Anna and members of many of
Mexico’s first families, is visited by a throng of devout mourners
bearing costly wreaths. The abundance of trees which darkens the
English cemetery even at mid-day makes it eminently harmonious with
the tendency to sober meditation. This cemetery contains the tombs of
the first Englishmen, almost the first foreigners, that ever came to
this country, away back in the twenties. The American cemetery is near
the English. There is a monument to the American soldiers who perished
in the Valley of Mexico in 1847. This receives its floral offerings
on Decoration Day. But if the tourist or resident wishes to see a
characteristically Mexican celebration of All Souls’, he should go to
the great Dolores cemetery. Except on very few tombs, he will find no
French creations in the way of wreaths, but an abundance of flowers.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON SEBASTAIN CAMACHO, VICE-PRESIDENT OF
THE JOCKEY CLUB.]
Out beyond the southwestern limits of the city, on the boundary line
formed by what is known as the Calzada de la Verónica, is the little
patch of ground which possesses such peculiar interest for Americans,
and especially for those who reside in Mexico. Though on Mexican
soil, it is American in the fullest sense of the word, for the full
and perfect title therein is vested in the United States, and its
management and control are in the hands of the War Department at
Washington. Mexico is the only country on earth where the United States
possesses a title to land for such purposes, and exercises authority
over foreign soil. It was in 1873 that the cemetery was subjected to
the rules and regulations affecting United States national cemeteries.
It was established in 1851, under an act of Congress approved September
28, 1850.
The seven hundred and fifty soldiers who were killed on the plains of
Mexico are buried together in a single grave. In memory of these, a
simple granite shaft about six feet high has been raised.
To obtain the right to bury there it is necessary to secure a permit
from the United States consul-general, the permit being a voucher
for the citizenship of the deceased. In addition to this, another
permit has to be obtained from the civil authorities, which is a
mere formality, as Americans, living or dead, have always received
magnanimous treatment and the kindest consideration from district
authorities as well as from those of the general government. No graves
are sold, and the selection of the last resting place lies with the
superintendent. No charge is made and no expense incurred. The United
States government pays the employees and superintendent out of the
annual appropriation and the friends of the deceased are at liberty to
express affection by the adornment of the graves with monuments and
flowers.
The funeral customs of Mexico are a source of constant interest to
strangers in that land, as the burial of the dead is a ceremony of
great display. The poor rent handsome coffins, which they have not
the means to buy, and transfer the body from its temporary casket to
a cheap box before it is laid in the grave. Invitations are issued
by messenger, and advertisements of funerals are published in the
newspapers or posted at the street corners, like those of a bull-fight
or a play. Announcements in faultless Spanish are sent to friends in
big black-bordered envelopes, and are usually decorated with a picture
of a tomb.
There is a very pretty custom in Mexico by which all people who call
upon a mourning family must dress in deep black. This is but one of the
many pleasant ways the Mexicans have of paying honor to the memory of
their beloved dead.
During the month of November, in every village of Spain and her former
colonies, the traditional legend of Don Juan Tenorio, dramatized by Don
José Zorrilla, is put on the stage. The sentimentality of this piece
seems to have an irresistible fascination for Spanish taste. It is
impossible to understand the Spanish character without having read or
heard of this extraordinary play. It has been said that every youth of
Spanish descent would be a Don Juan, and every Spanish maiden a Doña
Ines. The exploits of Juan in a more prosaic age and country would
inevitably have qualified him for the gallows. The drama of Don Juan
is now, however, _color azul_ and is not attended by the _beau
monde_.
The Indians observe a _fiesta_ on the 21st of August in memory
of the tortures to which Cuauhtemoc and his cousin Tlacopan, Prince
of Tezcoco, were subjected by Cortés, who endeavored to force from
Cuauhtemoc the secret of the hidden treasure. The monument dedicated
to Cuauhtemoc on the Paseo has a relief representing Cuauhtemoc and
Tlacopan standing upon stone slabs, with their feet hanging over flames
of fire. Around the tortured warriors are clustered the Spaniards,
anxiously awaiting the secret which Cuauhtemoc never disclosed. “Do
not be weary,” he said to his tormentors; “he who has resisted famine,
death, and the wrath of the gods is not capable of humiliating himself
now like a weak woman; the treasury of the kings of Mexico I submerged
in the lake four days before the siege of the city, and you will never
find it.”
One of the Easter customs is the hanging in effigy of Judas Iscariot,
which is done everywhere in the country, from the plazas of the large
cities down to the smallest hamlet. The Catholic citizens attire
themselves in deep mourning throughout all of Holy Week, and on
Saturday grotesque figures of him who betrayed his Lord are brought out
everywhere and hanged. After this they are burned with all the contempt
due to the betrayer of his Master.
[Illustration: FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE JOCKEY CLUB.]
Mexican women of the better class are noted for their beauty; and
everywhere the young girls are exquisitely pretty. The slender oval of
the face, the rich olive of the cheek, the long, sweeping, dark lashes
over superb eyes, glowing at once with passion and tenderness, the low
forehead with its rippling mass of dusky hair, the slender neck, the
lithe form, the springing step, and the dainty foot make them like a
poet’s dream of darkly brilliant loveliness, and not to be measured by
any other type in the world.
Among the upper classes of Mexico will be found as high a degree of
social and intellectual refinement as exists in Paris; as quick a
reception and as cordial a knowledge of the arts and literature as
people of the busy cities of the United States have acquired. Their
wealth is lavishly displayed; their taste is exercised to a degree
equal to that of any other people in the world; and the interior of
many of their dwellings furnishes a glimpse of happiness and cultured
elegance that, with their less active temperament, they enjoy more than
do their northern neighbors. Yet these people, who receive the latest
Paris fashions and literature by every steamer, still cling to some
ancient customs. Social law restricts intercourse between the sexes,
as in the Latin nations of Europe. The people are noted for their good
manners, their politeness, and their courtesy to strangers. They make
excellent hosts, and they throw their houses open to their guests with
the most hearty generosity.
Such are some of the aspects of life in Mexico. Wander forth in the
morning almost any day in the year and you will find the blue sky
a free expanse above, with the foliage lazily swaying against it;
birds--yellow, or black with orange and crimson spots--singing or
chattering in wild freedom. There is a glimpse of water, into which
the sun drops beams through the foliage. Plants and trees of all sorts
break the scene into fascinating patterns. Flowers in bloom beautify
and scent the dream.
Or it is evening, and electric lights cast a half shadow silent as a
tomb: the trees and flowers and birds sleep, a mysterious quiet and
suggestion of luxuriant foliage that appeals to one in a certain mood;
but all is gay about. Then the old moon swings up from behind the
ragged wall, between the heavy arches of trees, and the scene that
you thought perfect is enhanced. The moon grows bigger and the scene
lighter, and this, you remember, is but one day in beautiful Mexico.
Everywhere the people are cheerful and simple in their ways of living.
They all attend church, and are devotional in habit. Doubtless more
prayers are said in Mexico in a single day than in all the United
States together; and yet some people in the latter country want to send
missionaries to Mexico!
In several different places including Guanajuato, Mexico has a display
of comparatively modern mummies and catacombs. The practice prevails,
as in some European cities, of renting tomb space for the use of a
corpse. In Mexico, if at the expiration of the original term there
is no renewal of the lease, the corpse is dumped into an extensive
underground chamber. If in the dry air the evicted mummifies, he
stands against the wall; if he tumbles to pieces, his bones join the
vast miscellaneous heap. The Guanajuato catacomb is ghastly enough to
satisfy the most exacting connoisseur of the gruesome and bloodthirsty.
In some of the mummies which have recently been examined jade teeth
have been found, which is thought to be a proof that the Aztec princes
used to be supplied by their dentists with handsome jade teeth whenever
their own pearly ones failed.
Then there are street scenes of a strange and foreign aspect, such as
black street car hearses. There are also curious street signs, rude
but vigorous and highly colored pictures depicting scenes suggestive
of the business conducted within, and in appropriate names in staring
letters as trade-marks, so to speak, of the different stores. Imagine,
for instance, “The Last Days of Pompeii” as a business sign, of “The
Sacred Heart of Jesus,” which is the name of a score of establishments,
and names of streets--“Crown of Thorns Street,” “Fifth of May Street,”
“Holy Ghost Street,” “Blood of Christ Street,” “Body of Christ Street,”
“Mother of Sorrows Street,” “Street of the Sacred Heart,” “The Heart of
Jesus Street,” “Street of the Love of God,” “Jesus Street,” and “John
the Baptist Street.”
[Illustration: SEÑOR JOSÉ SANCHEZ RAMOS, PRESIDENT OF THE
SPANISH CASINO.]
Other governments might well take pattern from the Mexican parliament.
No other government in the world has one like it in point of courtesy
and dignity. The Mexican legislature holds its sessions in the
evenings. The seats of the members are arranged in semicircular
rows, and the presiding officer and officials of the house sit upon
a large dais, or platform. At each side of the platform is a sort
of pulpit, from which very formal addresses are delivered; but
unpretentious discussions taking a conversational and unimpassioned
form are conducted on the floor of the chamber. The orchestra and the
galleries are divided into boxes, which are reserved for spectators;
but it is only a rare occasion that brings outsiders to listen to
the deliberations of their lawmakers. There is much etiquette in the
parliament: members appear in evening dress; there is no confusion;
there is seldom any rude or improper language like that which so often
disgraces other deliberative assemblies. Speakers are courteous,
even-tempered, and apparently conscious of the dignity of their
position. Extreme dignity and decorum mark the proceedings, which are
always short and practical. The legislature meets twice in each year,
in the spring and in the fall. The House of Representatives has one
member for every forty thousand inhabitants, and the Senate has one
Senator for each state in the republic.
Mexico was christened by the conquerors “New Spain,” and to this
day it has many Spanish characteristics. The City of Mexico is as
large as Madrid or Barcelona, and far surpasses both in novelty and
interest. Outside of its wonderful picture gallery, the finest in the
world, Madrid is only an imitation Paris, while Barcelona is a bright,
attractive modern business city. Mexico is all these, and in addition,
interests with Oriental scenes and suggestions. It has many of the
sight-seeing attractions of Madrid, Barcelona, and gay Seville, with
touches of scenes from the streets of Cairo. Guadalajara and Puebla
are nearer the size of Seville, and each has manifold attractions.
Guanajuato is the Mexican reminder of Toledo and Granada, perched on
the rocky hillsides, terraced, quaint and picturesque. You hear the
same language spoken as in Spain; in both countries you pay separately
for each act at a theatrical performance; while in no other country
except old Spain is the bull-fight so popular an institution.
And, after all, bull-fighting seems more or less appropriate to the
peculiar civilization of Mexico. The picturesque setting that is given
there calls up vaguely the bouts in the amphitheatre in the days of
Roman glory.
The new bull ring in Calle Oaxaca, with a seating capacity of twenty
thousand was during the Centennial a scene of wonderful animation
when a corrida de luxo was offered by the government to the visiting
ambassadors.
Among the higher classes, social life in the republic is most charming.
While there is great ceremony and conventionality, refinement, culture,
unfailing courtesy, and delicate gallantry prevail. The scholar, the
artist, and the _litterateur_ may all find congenial society.
Hospitality is as generous as it is proverbial. One has only to be
properly introduced to be the recipient of lavish attentions. Often
gifts of flowers, birds, curios, and even valuable relics are offered
with princely generosity.
[Illustration: STAIRWAY LEADING TO LOUNGING-ROOM IN SPANISH
CASINO.]
[Illustration: BY SEÑOR JORGE ENCISO]
[Illustration: “THE MENDICANTS.” BY SUAREZ.]
CHAPTER XI
ART AND LITERATURE
The genius of the Mexican people has ever inclined to the artistic.
When one form of imaginative expression has been denied others have
been resorted to with greater force.
The preferred outlet for the native imagination has been architecture,
upon which but seldom has any ban been placed either by secular or
ecclesiastical authority. In the Spanish days there were occasions
when representatives of the crown refused permission to erect palaces
considered too sumptuous or colossal for private occupancy, but no
limit was ever placed upon the worthier ambition to erect great
churches as monuments of their gratitude to God for prosperity
conferred. So, to-day, Mexico inherits a very large number of wonderful
monuments. Many of these are decorated in beautiful detail with
both chisel and brush. Everywhere they present evidence that though
the general scheme of one may have been borrowed from or suggested
by architectural works of Spaniard or Moor, of Italian or Fleming,
of Roman or Greek, the native genius insisted upon its own mark.
There, is in fact, a Mexican style of architecture almost as truly
intrinsic as that of any original type. It is unfortunate that while
the names of European architects employed in the designing of some of
the most celebrated buildings are recorded there is usually no way of
identifying the native designers, builders, master masons, sculptors
and painters who left behind them this great wealth of embodied
imagination.
All the conditions favored the structural art. On one hand was the
great wealth of the crown, the church and the mine-owner, on the other
an abundance of material and of skilled labor. Even to-day there are
no more cunning stone workers in the world than are found among the
Mexican craftsmen.
The economic prostration following the wars for independence put a
stop to architectural progress, but the prosperity restored to the
country by the administration of General Diaz has led to a renewal of
construction and many notable buildings have been added while others
have been restored.
Next to architecture, the native art of which most evidences exist
is that of painting. Every condition stimulates this. Nature herself
has been lavish with scenic endowment--grand and gorgeous, tender
and delicate. All call for pictorial presentment. And the skies are
brilliantly wonderful and varied. So Mexico has naturally produced a
host of great landscape painters.
Others of romantic inclination have been stimulated by the great
military and religious pageantry of their country’s history and
episodes of this have been depicted with luxurious freedom. Nor has
portraiture been neglected. At the present time many painters of both
achievement and promise are flourishing. One of them, Gerardo Murillo,
is living in a cave on Popocatepetl, working to perpetuate the aspects
of this dying volcano.
Two of his pictures have been described by a local critic as follows:
“One large canvas, eight by six feet shows a splendid view of a bold
crag near the summit of the volcano, where the wind is blowing and
where the deep blue heavens give a tone to the snow, which is piled
smooth and deep in its unbroken mass fresh from the last storm.
“A picture somewhat smaller hangs in the studio of Mr. Murillo, in the
San Carlos Academy, which does not fail to attract the attention of all
who see it. It is the picture of a rugged precipitous scene over which
the snow of centuries is piled. The hour is twilight and the whole
scene is bathed in a deep blue light which is so realistic to any one
who has grown accustomed to the mountains.”
Francisco de P. Mendoza has turned to history for his inspiration
and has painted several pictures of notable battle scenes from the
campaigns of General Diaz. Thus he seeks to foster in those who see his
work that spirit of patriotism which is the spring of his own effort.
His chief canvases depict the battles of “The Second of April,” “The
Carbonera,” and “Miahuatlan.”
[Illustration: GALLERY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTING.]
Andres Rios has done some notable landscapes, but has received most
praise for his single figures and groups. “The Curate of San Angel” is
particularly noteworthy for skill in handling the light effects.
“Going to the Hospital” shows a suffering woman leaving her home with
the assistance of her mother and daughter while the husband and an
older daughter remain on the doorstep, he crouched, and she standing
and both showing the misery of their sorrow.
Daniel del Valle is another contemporary who is acquiring fame by
figure work, though not long graduated from the academy. He has entered
the field of ancient endeavor and devotes his work to the decorating
of churches and palaces. Visitors will find some of his best efforts in
the churches of Santa Maria la Redonda and Jesus Maria.
Leandro Isaguirre is one of the best fruits of the government system
of sending graduates of the national schools abroad for post-graduate
instruction.
[Illustration: “AN EPISODE OF A FIRE.” BY G. CARRASCO.]
Having learned what he could at the San Carlos Academy, this promising
young painter was sent at public expense to Europe for five years.
There he studied in the studios of the most noted instructors in
Spain, Italy, France, Holland and England. He made many copies of the
masterpieces in the principal galleries of the Old World. Since his
return he has settled down to work on native subjects, selected for
the most part from among the laboring classes. He has also depicted
many of the landscapes of high altitude where the effect of the lights
has usually baffled the visiting artist. Like some of the men who have
mastered this problem in the United States, after years of labor,
Isaguirre has had success even though he has remained faithful to oils,
while the Americans have been driven to water colors and pastelle to
get the clear effects that prevail a mile or more above the sea.
Herman Gedovius, though of German descent and name, is really a Mexican
and so entitled to mention among the modern painters of the country. He
was born in San Luis Potosi but received his art education in the Royal
Bavarian Academy at Munich. He devotes himself almost exclusively to
portraiture, though he has painted some ideal heads. Like most of the
others mentioned he gives up part of his time to teaching in the San
Carlos Academy.
The Dean of the present school of painters is Felix Parra, whose work
is much in the style of the modern French school. His subjects are
scenes from contemporary life which he presents with great vivacity and
some humor. His works are very popular among the wealthy and broadly
scattered in their homes.
Another artist who shows strongly the influence of the same school is
Alfredo Ramos Martinez, who received his art training partly at the
expense of interested art lovers and partly at that of the Mexican
government. All his subjects are of some manifestation of happiness
outdoors and his canvases are very popular. Several of them have been
hung in the Paris Salon.
Many of the pictorial treasures of Mexico were looted by the French
during their invasion of the country, but about two thousand have been
collected for the gallery of the National School of Fine Arts in the
City of Mexico. Many others are still preserved in churches and public
buildings throughout the various states and in private collections.
In the case of mural decoration, of which a great wealth was produced
during the Spanish domination, many of the best examples have been
destroyed by climatic influences but enough great frescoes have been
preserved to show that there were many masters in the earlier days.
Painting was first taught by Spaniards, but the teachers themselves
were of no narrow school. Spain, it must be remembered, dominated
in those days not only the Iberian peninsula but also Austria, much
of Germany, the Low Countries and great colonies in North and South
America and the East Indies. Her soldiers, priests, fortune seekers,
and government officials were the great travelers of the age. They
knew every school of art and all the materials then employed. The
teachers imparted to their pupils all there was of technique and the
pupils had the genius. To enlarge the native taste came later; many
Italian painters were attracted by the generous rewards which the rich
government and church gave for works of beauty which could be used for
the adornment of church and palace interiors.
At first copyists, the native artists soon became creators. The first
school studio in Mexico was opened about 1523, by Rodrigo de Cifuentes,
a Cordovan. His work was along the line of historic portraiture and
examples of it are still extant. His assistant was a Flemish monk,
Pedro de Gante. Another contemporary was Andres de Concha whose work
may still be seen in the church of Santo Domingo at Yauhuitlan, Oaxaca.
[Illustration: “THE FORTUNATES.” BY SATURNINO HERRAN.]
Next came the great school founded by the elder Echave. Among his
pupils were his wife (La Sumaya), his son, the two brothers Juarez, a
third Juarez and Arteaga. These filled in much of the early half of the
seventeenth century. Numerous works of theirs are still to be seen in
the National Academy and in various churches. For the most part their
subjects were devotional.
Of those who worked in the latter half of the century but two are
remembered, de Borgraf and Villalpando. There is a legend that the
wonderful Sister de la Cruz also painted, but the evidence is not
conclusive. A portrait of herself by herself (so it is claimed) was
brought to the United States and now hangs in the gallery of the
Pennsylvania Museum at Philadelphia.
Several notable painters distinguished the eighteenth century. Again
there were two brothers of the Juarez family. A Zapotec Indian, Michael
Cabrera, is by some considered the greatest painter of his time. He
first added to the colors introduced from Europe those more brilliant
pigments, knowledge of which descended from the Aztecs. He lived to be
old, was of great energy, and was a most prolific producer. His efforts
are broad and attained with startling success.
Flourishing at the same time was Ibarra, whose admirers are almost
as numerous as those of Cabrera. He was more hampered by convention,
however, and his appeal is not so forcible. Softness of coloring
distinguishes his work where that of his rival demands admiration
by harsher brilliancy. His style of work was continued by his pupil
Alzibar.
At the end of the century and through the first third of the nineteenth
the dominant figure in art was Tresguerras who was not only architect
and sculptor but painter and poet also. How one pair of hands could
have produced all that is attributed to him it is impossible to
conceive.
At the present time the government does everything possible to develop
art production. Tuition is free in the National Academy and many prizes
and scholarships are offered.
The Academy of Fine Arts (San Carlos) takes its origin from a decree of
Charles III., in 1778, when a school of engraving was authorized, which
was opened in the following year under the direction of Don Geronimo
Gil, the chief engraver of the mint. Three years later, classes in
painting, sculpture, and architecture were established with the consent
of the viceroy, followed the next year by a royal license establishing
La Academia de las Nobles Artes de San Carlos de la Nueva España, which
was opened on April 4, 1785. In 1791 the institution was removed to its
present home in the building formerly occupied by the hospital de Amor
de Dios.
Spain sent celebrated artists to Mexico to direct the affairs of
the academy; the first were the painter Aguirre and the painter and
architect Velasquez.
Before the Conquest there were no painters in oils but there were
wonderfully skilful and artistic use of the natural dyes and assembling
into artistic designs of the gaudy plumage of tropical birds and
weaving of fabrics. Also there was a knowledge of the making of glazed
pottery in rich hues. These arts survive among the people and are being
fostered by government influence.
[Illustration: “THE ETERNAL VICTIM.” BY F. ROMANO.]
In sculpture, after the Spanish invasion, there was much beautiful
work in the adornment of the churches, both by the carving of images
of saints and angels, and of architectural detail in the churches.
Afterward came an era of historic monument making leading to the
enrichment of the many public squares and government buildings. This
work of embellishment has been renewed with earnestness under the
present administration. Few names of the great sculptors have been
preserved. The three best remembered are those of Cora and Patino
Instolinque and Francisco Tresguerras.
Akin to the sculptor’s art is that of the worker in metals. Wonderfully
clever have the Mexicans ever been at the smithcraft and many of their
masterpieces rank with the best Italian work.
Of literary accomplishment the nation has not so much to show as in the
other arts, a condition due partly to the prohibition of authority and
partly to actual destruction. There was a body of native literature
before the Spaniards came, but this was almost entirely destroyed by
command of the priests who accompanied the invaders. Printing presses
were not welcome when Mexico was a colony of Castile and both religious
and secular authorities discouraged almost every form of letters. One
can hardly ascribe to Mexico the body of Spanish writers who chronicled
the Conquest. But there was an Aztec prince, Ixtlilxochitl, who did his
best to preserve some of the works of his ancestors by translating them
into Castilian.
After him were few writers of power until to-day. In the latter half
of the seventeenth century there flourished a prodigy best described
perhaps as a female Keats, who has left a number of beautiful poems.
She was Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz who forsook the viceregal court
for a convent in order that she might have more time for writing, but
who was soon silenced by the church authorities.
Almost a century later came Lizardi, a satirist, who had to send his
books to Havana to be published and who was bitterly persecuted by the
government and excommunicated by the church. Nevertheless, his work did
much to incite the struggle for independence and to-day still enjoys
a great vogue. Contemporary with him was a woman writer of patriotic
poems, Josepha Mendoza, who also did much to inspire the insurgent
cause.
In the early days of the republic two historical writers obtained fame
by careful work. These were Bustamante and Alaman. Their books are
still accepted as authoritative.
There was no actual renaissance, however, till about forty years ago,
when many of the cultured began earnest study of the public archives
and to make revelation in prose and poetry of the ancient lore, romance
and legend of the country. Ignacio Manuel Altamirano produced his
“Rimas,” “El Movimiento Literario en Mexico,” “Dramaturgia Mexicana,”
“Clemencia,” “Antonio y Beatrix,” “Luisa,” “La Navidad en las Montanes.”
The Paisajes of Leyendes deals with the customs and traditions. The
style of his work is temperate and confined to the religious feasts of
the country. His works contain pictures of primitive races, with their
Christian rites intermingled with old forms of worship. His books are
widely read.
Juan Mateos is famed abroad. He is quoted everywhere and is much
appreciated in his own land. His novels are historical, and his dramas
have received great recognition.
[Illustration: “A PORTRAIT.” BY HERMAN GEDOVIUS.]
Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta took his countrymen to original documents
of history for their information. His example was followed by José
Barcena, Dr. E. Gonzalez, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Lic. Luis Gutierrez
and Otero. Other writers in serious vein about their country have been
Matias Romero, so long minister to Washington, Antonio Garcia Cubas,
and Ignacio Mariscal, the late distinguished Secretary of Foreign
Affairs, a writer of great ability. He was a linguist, speaking
perfectly several languages. He has written important works on the
occult and was a graceful translator of some of the choicest poems in
English literature, among them Poe’s _Raven_ and William Cullen
Bryant’s _Thanatopsis_, whose noble lines expressed much of his
own aspirations.
Francisco de la Barra, the Mexican Ambassador at Washington is a writer
of note. Fredrico Gamboa is among the best writers of fiction.
Señor Justo Sierra, one of the most virile and forceful of poets, has
taken great rank in Spain as well as in his own country. He is one of
the Ministers of the Cabinet, but his literary work continues even
with his dignity of position and arduous duty attending it.
The historical works by Carlos Pereyra, author of “Lecturas Historicas
Mejicanas, Historia del Pueblo Mejicano,” which comprise a full story
of the Mexicans from the early period before the Conquest to the
present day, are very interesting and show a great knowledge of the
important events of the Mexican nation as well as the characteristics
of the people. His style is easy and graceful, avoiding the dryness of
most works of this kind, and full of romance from the beginning to the
end.
Among the Mexican novelists one finds remarkably good descriptive
power; just as the country glows with intense life and color, so do
their fiction and poetry express fervid passion and feeling. There is
a tendency to epigrammatic terseness in sentence and paragraph. There
is invariably a deep love of nature, expressed in most beautiful word
painting and always there is intense patriotism with luminous force in
the expression of it. The richness of the language and their love of
home life give the Mexican writers on this subject great opportunities.
The name of Irenio Paz, an editor as well as a novelist, is well
known, as his simple direct style appeals to the readers. Vicente
Riva Palacio, for his purity of language and elegance stands foremost
among the writers of melodramatic intensity. His “Calvario y Tabor” is
a historical novel covering the period of struggle which terminated
in the overthrow of foreign power and the downfall of Maximilian,
and treats of almost every possible range of emotion. It is a tale
of the death agony of the Old Empire and the transfiguration of the
New Republic, intermingled with loves and romances of the people,
their habits, their hospitalities and extreme charity. The historical
portions of the novel are superb and there are remarkable thoughts
forcibly expressed.
Of original poets the last few decades have produced a great number and
several indubitably had the divine fire. Manuel Acunha wrote several
fervid poems of passion which have been and still are most popular.
A master of lyrics is Guillermo Prieto, who has been acclaimed the
laureate of Mexico. His work is the best expression of the national
spirit of the people, whose patriotism grows steadily in fervor.
Singers only less great than these, are Davalos, Granados, Nervo,
Tiron, Pazaza, Othon and Urbina. Showing promise of strong work in
their maturity are many young men who are now producing plays, novels,
and poems of worth. Juan de Dios Peza, whose death a few years since
deprived Mexico of one of her best poets, wrote exquisitely “El Arpa
del Amor” and “Recuerdos de mi vida.”
Among other writers are Rebolledo, Lopez, Campos, Urneta, Delgado, and
Rivera. One of the most evident tendencies of these latter day authors
is to break away from the influence of Spanish literature. Translations
from the works of perhaps all the great writers of Europe are freely
made and the American masters especially have been treated in this way.
There is a better knowledge of American literature in Mexico than in
any other foreign country, Great Britain not excepted. Naturally this
study finds reflection in the Mexican literature, but underneath all is
the growing nationalism which eventually must find full expression. The
Golden Age of Mexican letters is not yet but there is promise of speedy
entrance thereon.
Meantime the government is patronizing efforts to collect the folklore,
ballads and songs of the nation. These are being carefully compiled
and edited and when published will afford a revelation of thought and
sentiment to the world. Persecution and warfare have always produced
the most vibrant songs and Mexico has had her share of both.
Mexico is a land of book lovers. The genuine love of literature is
universal, even the poorer classes are fond of reading love stories,
and those having the simplest knowledge of reading find pleasure in
books. There is a good market for books of the modern literature of
France and Spain, and even English literature is gaining a foothold.
Most wonderful libraries of costly editions are found in every home,
especially in the homes of professional men.
Senator Licenciado don Francisco Alfara, the great criminal lawyer of
Mexico, has the most remarkable collection of paintings of the old
masters, books long out of date, and curios from every country of the
world. His collection of original manuscript of old and famous writers
is one of his valued possessions. Not only is the literature of Spain
and France popular, the Mexicans have a literature of their own. As
far back as 1680, King Netzahualcoyotl of Tezcoco wrote a poem on the
“Mutability of Life.”
There are hundreds of cultivated men of Mexico who live in the
enchanted ground of literature, contented in retirement from political
discussions and business, devoting themselves to reading; besides
this, Mexico has so many students, so many professors graduated from
the Normal Schools, and so many Societies of different cults that it is
a University centre.
[Illustration: “CHILDREN OF MISERY.” BY SOSTENES ORTEGA.]
There are many daily papers thriving in Mexico City. The
_Imparcial_ is a very important paper, with an afternoon edition
called _El Mundo_; both of these periodicals have a large
circulation. Others are _El Tiempo_, _El Diario_, which is on
the advanced order of our popular dailies, and _Correo Espanol_, a
Spanish paper with a splendid editorial staff of young newspaper men.
The _Mexican Daily Record_, an afternoon paper printed in English,
has a very brilliant editorial staff, and the _Mexican Herald_,
another English newspaper, is edited by an American.
There are weekly papers which are very ably edited, _Artes y
Lettras_ is the most popular. _El Mundo Ilustrado_ is well
illustrated, and deals lightly with important events of the week. _La
Revista Literaria_, is edited by Señor Barron who is a popular local
poet. The first book printed in Mexico was _La Escala Espiritual_
para _Llegar al Cielo_ (The Stairway to Heaven), printed in 1537.
In music, Mexico records no great composers of old, those of her
folk songs being unknown, but music is a passion with the people and
musical education one of the chief cares of the government. Public
concerts are generally given throughout the cities and the nation
maintains a conservatory in the capital city wherein is one of the
best libraries of music extant. All the great European soloists and
directors look to at least one season in Mexico as part of their
natural experience and nowhere do they find more appreciative and
critical audiences. Two, at least, of the Mexican moderns have achieved
international fame, Antonio Zuniga, of Guanajúato, and Chang-Cilli, of
Yucatán, whose orchestrations are familiar to and frequently used by
European leaders.
Just now very intelligent efforts are being made to educate the
artistic side of the Mexican people and although many of these take the
direction of improving the arts and crafts for commercial advantage,
the result is bound to be the development of individual talent. Great
artists and great works of art are to be expected of Mexico.
[Illustration: “THE ROUND UP.” BY JUAN URRUCHI.]
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO.]
[Illustration: WALL AROUND THE SHRINE AT CHURUBUSCO.]
CHAPTER XII
CHURCHES AND CHARITIES
The churches of Mexico are remarkable for their beauty and solidity.
There is no prevailing style except originality, nor is purity of
style a characteristic of the great buildings. The Gothic, the Moorish
and the Italian are often combined, but the harmony of design is
masterfully secured and a distinctive attraction thereby obtained.
There is a sort of abandon of genius in the designs and decorations of
façades, towers and domes that make the work beautiful and uncommon,
each is a unique picture, each bears the impress of individual artistic
conception.
Of the great church structures of the capital the most notable is
the cathedral, of vast proportions and magnificent details. When
Cortés had Tenochtitlan finally in possession he determined on the
complete destruction of the Aztec city. On the spot where the great
_Teocalli_ had stood, a temple hideous in sight and memory of the
Spaniard, the Christian cathedral should be erected. This with the aid
of unlimited slave labor was quickly accomplished. In 1527, Clement
VII. established the See of Mexico and Fray Juan de Zumarraga was
instituted as the first bishop. In 1545, the bishopric was constituted
an archbishopric and Bishop Zumarraga was elevated to the dignity of
archbishop.
In 1593, the corner stone of the present cathedral was laid, forty-two
years later the foundations were completed; in 1623, the roof above
the sacristy was finished and three years later the first service was
held, but so great a delay had been caused by the great inundation in
1629–1635, that not till 1656 was the formal dedication solemnized;
even then the building was unfinished and its final dedication was not
solemnized until February 2, 1667. In 1791, the magnificent towers
were completed and the bells were hung a year later. The cost of the
completed edifice with its decorations is many millions. Its length is
over four hundred feet, its width one hundred and seventy-seven feet
and the height from roof to floor one hundred and seventy-nine feet.
The towers are two hundred and three feet high. Crowning the edifice is
a splendid and graceful dome and lantern, the work of Manuel Tolsa. The
cathedral was designed by Alonzo Perez Castaneda on the plan of a Latin
cross.
[Illustration: DR. JOSÉ MORA, ARCHBISHOP OF MEXICO.]
The principal façade faces the south. It is broken by three portals
composed of the Doric and Ionic orders, which with the exquisitely
wrought carvings, the friezes and the statuary make a most imposing
and captivating front. The towers are likewise of the two orders in
succession, the Doric and the Ionic, and many cornices carry fine
balustrades with pilasters surmounted by splendid urns and fine statues.
Within, the impression is one of severe grandeur ennobled by vastness
of space. The style is Gothic and Doric. The lofty vaulted arches are
borne on massive fluted columns of stone. The dome is illuminated with
paintings of sacred subjects, among them an Assumption of the Virgin.
In the aisles are fourteen chapels dedicated to various saints. In that
of San Felipe de Jesus are some relics of this saint, and here lie
the remains of Iturbide, the unfortunate emperor, beneath a monument
erected to “The Liberator.” In the chapel of San Pedro lie the bodies
of Archbishop Zumarraga, the first prelate of Mexico, and Gregorio
Lopez, the Mexican Man with the Iron Mask, who is said to have been
the son of Philip II. of Spain. There are some very fine altars; the
chief of which, the altar de los Reyes, is very imposing and rises to
the arches of the roof. It is most sumptuously ornamented with carving,
gilding and other decorations, and is the delight and admiration of
the Indians especially. Beneath this altar lie the remains of the
Independence martyrs, Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, which were
transported thither from Guanajuato after their dishonor in that city
and buried in the cathedral on the independence being secured. There
are many fine pictures in this great cathedral; a _San Sebastian_
by La Sumaya, the wife of Baltazar Echave, a _Candelaria_ by
Echave, the _Assumption_ and the _Epiphany_ by the Mexican
painter Juan Rodriguez Juarez; the _Entry into Jerusalem_ and the
_Catholic Church_ and the _Assumption_ by Juan Correa, the
_Triumph of the Sacrament_, the _Immaculate Conception_,
and the _Glory of St. Michael_, by Villalpando, the _Last
Supper_ and the _Triumph of Faith_, by Alcibar, the _Virgin
of Bethlehem_ by Murillo, the _Virgin_ by Cortona, and _John
of Austria imploring the Virgin at the Battle of Lepanto_.
[Illustration: THE CROWN OF THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE.]
There are many historical churches in the capital, some of which
date from the sixteenth century. Many were founded as convents and
monasteries through the munificence of private donors or through the
efforts of religious orders, and the history of Mexico is closely
interwoven with not a few of these establishments.
Santa Brigida is the fashionable church of the capital. It was built
in connection with the Order of Saint Bridget which was established in
Mexico by José de Aguirre and his wife, Doña Gertrudiz Roldan.
The Church of the Colegio de las Ninas is an ancient establishment
founded by Fray Pedro de Gante. The college was provided to furnish
free education for girls.
The church and convent of Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion was
established by a Franciscan monk, Fray Antonio de la Cruz.
The Church of San Cosme was founded in 1538, as a hospital for Indians,
the chapel being dedicated to the Arabian doctors Cosmo and Damian. It
later came under the charge of the Franciscans, who built the monastery
and the present church which, however, was not completed till 1675, and
dedicated to Nuestra Señora de la Consolacion, as an act of gratitude
by one who received shelter in the monastery during a storm. A curious
painting in the church represents the grateful donor transferring the
title of patron, which he had declined, to San José. The painting is
the work of José de Alcibar.
In the Church of Santa Cruz y Soledad, built in 1731, but which
was originally founded in 1534 as an Indian mission, are splendid
decorations of altar and chapel by celebrated Mexican artists, but the
most interesting feature is the image of Nuestra Señora del Refugio
which was formerly attached to a wall on the Calle del Refugio.
San Diego contains several paintings by Vallejo, the famous Mexican
artist, the pupil of the Indian painter, Cabrera, the chief of which
are _The Prayer in the Garden_ and _The Last Supper_, and the
famed altar pieces _The Virgin of Guadalupe_ and _San José_.
Santo Domingo is one of the finest and largest churches in the capital
and contains some fine paintings especially _The Crucifixion_ and
_San Ildefonso_. This church stands where the legend says the
Aztecs saw the eagle with a serpent in its beak, the omen that decided
on their establishing their chief seat. This church is on the Plaza de
Santo Domingo in which is erected the handsome commemorative statue of
Señora Doña Josefa Dominguez the heroine of the Independence, whose
timely warning gave the patriots at Querétaro a chance of escape.
The Church of San Francisco, now a protestant temple, is all that
remains of the great religious establishment of the Franciscan Order,
founded on the grounds once occupied by the menagerie of the Aztec
Imperial household. The original church was erected by the Twelve
Apostles of Mexico and Fray Pedro de Gante and the cost of building
was borne by the Conqueror. With the grandeur of Spanish Mexico and
with all the sorrows of Republican Mexico in its earlier days this
great establishment was intimately concerned. It was the last to
conspire against the nationality of Mexico as a republic and this
conspiracy cost it its real existence, for it never recovered either
its prestige or its entire possessions in the interval before the
monastic institution was suppressed by President Juarez, in 1860. The
great treasures of the church, the ornaments, jewels and paintings were
then forfeited and placed in the Academy of Fine Arts. Historically
the Church of San Francisco is the most interesting in the Republic.
It was the centre of all the Catholic religion. Under able and zealous
management it became the most powerful and prosperous church in the
Crown colony. From it sprang the first Indian school and the first
theological seminary and it was here the art of painting was first
taught by the Spaniards. It was the favorite church of Cortés where he
heard the mass.
[Illustration: THE SHRINE OF GUADALUPE.]
Many of the viceroys worshipped here during the three centuries of
Spanish rule. On December 27, 1821, was sung herein the Te Deum to
commemorate the Independence of Mexico. On June 12, 1859, President
Juarez signed the famous Leyes de Reforma, which aimed at the
nationalization of all church property. These took effect in 1860, and
the year after all religious orders were suppressed. This property
of the Franciscans was sold and the money given to the hospitals and
schools.
San Hipolito stands on the spot made sacred by the defeat of the
Spaniards by the Aztecs on _La Noche Triste_. On their recovery
of the city on August 13, 1521, a little adobe chapel was erected
in memory of the soldiers who fell on July 1, 1520, and in 1599
the present magnificent edifice was begun which was not completed
till 1739. For a long time, on the 13th of August, a commemorative
procession bore in march the crimson banner of the Conquest.
The defeat of the Dismal Night is commemorated on a stone tablet
surmounting a corner of this church, which translated reads: “So great
was the slaughter of the Spaniards by the Aztecs at this place on the
night of July 1, 1520, called for that reason the Dismal Night, that
after having in the following year re-entered the city in triumph, the
conquerors resolved to build here a chapel, to be called the Chapel of
the Martyrs; and which should be dedicated to San Hipolito, because the
capture of the city occurred on that Saint’s Day.”
[Illustration: SANTA MONICA, GUADALUPE.]
One of the most notable of the churches is that of Jesus Nazareno. It
was founded as Nuestra Señora de la Purisima Concepcion by Cortés on
the final occupation of the capital and furnished with ample funds for
its erection and maintenance by the provisions of his will. In this
church the bones of the conqueror rested from 1794 to 1823, when they
were removed to Italy. The building began in 1575, and it was dedicated
ninety years later, when its name was changed because of a miraculous
image of Jesus of Nazareth that was bequeathed to the church by a
pious Indian woman. The edifice contains much of the original interior
carved woodwork, altars and other decorations. In this church lie the
remains of Manuel Vilar, the sculptor, Lucas Alaman, the historian and
statesman, Manuel Calderon and Fray Juan Crisostomo Najera.
Nuestra Señora de Loreto was originally founded by the Jesuit Order
in 1573, an edifice of canes and reeds, dedicated to San Gregorio.
In 1675, Padre Juan Zappa brought the image of Our Lady of Loreto to
Mexico. The erection of chapels took place in 1686 and 1738, but the
present church was not dedicated till 1816. The tower of this church
has leaned for seventy-eight years as the result of subsidence of one
side of the edifice owing to inundation. There are some fine paintings
by Joaquin Esquivel.
[Illustration: ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL, MEXICO CITY.]
The Church of Nuestra Señora de los Angeles has a singular history. In
1580, an Indian chief, Isayoque, found on the waters of the inundation
a beautiful picture of the Virgin, to preserve which he built an adobe
chapel, but instead of placing therein the original, he had a replica
painted on the wall by an eminent artist. Later this wall was built
into a larger chapel, and in 1607 the inundation almost obliterated
the painting, save the hands and face, which was deemed a miracle. The
present church was completed only in 1808. The miraculous picture is
supplied with a dress to cover the missing parts and is now enclosed in
glass to preserve what is left.
One of the handsomest of the churches is La Profesa which dates from
1595, when it was founded by the Jesuits, whose order accumulated great
wealth and possessed great influence, till they were expelled in 1767.
The decorations of this church are among the finest in Mexico and there
are several pictures of considerable reputation, _The Adoration of
the Cross_ and _The Seven Sacraments_ being of prominent merit.
The splendid altar is the inspiration of Tolsa. This masterpiece was
designed by Pelegrin Clave and his pupils, Petronilo Monroy, Felipe
Castro and José Ramirez. It was in this church that the movement was
planned as the result of which Iturbide acquired the independence of
Mexico.
Santa Teresa La Antigua is one of the very interesting church
establishments. The convent of Santa Teresa was founded in 1616, and
the building of the present church was commenced in 1678, and its
completion and dedication was made in 1684; it was very badly injured
by the earthquake of 1845, but has been splendidly restored. It
possesses a miraculous crucifix brought from Spain in 1545, and long
kept in a church at Cardonal, in Hidalgo state. The legend as to this
crucifix says that it was once so disfigured by an accident that it was
thrown into the fire, without any change resulting, that it was then
buried and when later taken up it reassumed its original freshness and
state. To secure the crucifix a pitched battle was fought between the
partisans of Archbishop Zuniga and those of the Cardonal church, and
the former were victorious, and the treasure was deposited in Santa
Teresa.
Another church founded by Cortés was Santa Vera Cruz, in connection
with a brotherhood whose mission was to comfort condemned criminals.
The church possesses a venerated shrine encircled with seven veils and
within the shrine is a crucifix, a visit to which on a specified day
secures indulgences. The present church dates from 1730.
There are several protestant churches now in the City of Mexico. The
Christ Church, Episcopal, Trinity, Methodist Episcopal and San Lorenzo
for English speaking Catholics.
The legends of a country often have a more real and actuating influence
on its people than does its history. The miraculous or wonderworking
thread woven into the tale appeals more forcefully than the soberer
facts of very truth. The touch of mystery chains the interest while it
seems to silence the spirit of questioning. Mexico is rich in legends,
and their best lore is perpetuated in the many shrines.
[Illustration: CHURCH NEAR COYOACAN.]
Of all the shrines of Mexico, the most sacred and venerated is “Our
Lady of Guadalupe.” Here is the Christian shrine to the Mother of the
Saviour; and here, too, the Aztecs tendered homage and worship to
Tonatzin, who to them was the “Mother of Gods.” The Christian legend
tells that in 1531, a pious Indian named Juan Diego was on his way from
the village of Tolpetlac to attend mass at Santiago Tlaltelolco and
passing around the hill of Tepeyácac, he heard sweet voices singing;
terrified, he looked up and saw a lady who bade him listen to her: he
should go to the bishop and tell him that she willed that a temple in
her honor should be built on that hill. The figure vanished, and Diego
did her command, but the bishop sent him away, giving no credence to
his tale. Returning to the place of the vision, Diego found the lady
awaiting him and he told her of his interview with the bishop. She
bade him to return to the place the next day, Sunday. Diego returned
accordingly and for the third time the vision greeted him, and he
was commanded to repeat his former message to the bishop, who, still
incredulous, required some convincing token of the truth of his
message; at the same time he sent two servants to watch Juan Diego.
On the latter’s approaching the hill he was lost to the view of the
servants and passing round the side of the hill he saw the lady, to
whom he stated the bishop’s requirement. She commanded him to come
again the next day. This he was unable to do, for on returning home he
found his uncle ill and he must attend him. On the day after, the uncle
being at the point of death, Juan Diego set out for Tlaltelolco to
fetch a confessor and fearing delay if he met the lady, he went around
the other side of the hill. There to his surprise he saw her descending
the hillside and calling to him. He made known his urgent case, and
she assured him that his uncle was already cured of his fever. Then
she commanded him to ascend to the barren hilltop to gather roses,
and there, where none had ever grown, they appeared. She directed him
to take these roses to the bishop as the desired token, bidding him
to show them to none other. Happily did Juan fill his _tilma_
with the lovely blooms and set out for the bishop’s dwelling. From
the spot where the lady stood gushed forth a spring of crystal water
which has continued flowing and is a cure for all human ills. Diego
was soon before the bishop and unfolding his _tilma_ as he
dropped the roses at the feet of the bishop, he saw the image of the
Virgin depicted on the coarse fibrous material, painted in wonderfully
beautiful colors, in a cloak of blue velvet bedecked with stars of
gold. The prelate was convinced; he took the miraculous _tilma_
and deposited it in his oratory as a priceless treasure. Diego returned
to his home, escorted by the bishop’s servants, and found that his
uncle had been cured at the very hour when the Virgin assured his
recovery.
[Illustration: FAÇADE OF SAN AGUSTIN.]
On the spot where the roses had miraculously bloomed, a church was soon
built, and on February 7, 1532, the sacred _tilma_ was placed over
the altar within the shrine. From that time an annual festival has been
held on the 12th of December. But it was not until Pope Benedict XIV.,
in 1754, issued a Bull authorizing the feast that official recognition
of the Virgin of Guadalupe as protectress and patroness of Mexico was
gained.
[Illustration: THE SACRED WELL AT GUADALUPE.]
The church was the especial pride of the Indians, and they felt a new
motive for joining the Christian establishment. They now had their
Mother of God. The original portrait is richly framed in gold inlaid
with diamonds and pearls. The picture appears alike on both sides of
the rough canvas, which is without sizing or preparation. Experts have
from time to time examined it without being able to account for its
production or preservation. The coloring process is inexplicable; it
partakes of the characteristics of oil, water and distemper coloring
and relief work, and these processes are apparent in different portions
of the picture; moreover the gilding of the stars embroidered on the
cloak and in its texture, as well as in the light-rays emanating from
the figure, is not applied like any known process, but appears rather
to be woven into the fibre of the canvas than painted on it. A further
miraculous attribute is seen in the complete preservation of the
picture, which for many years was entirely unprotected by a covering,
and exposed to conditions that would have destroyed even very hard
substances.
The devotion accorded to “Our Lady of Guadalupe” is universal in
Mexico. The festival day is a religious holiday throughout the
republic, and is especially kept by the Indians, who come from all
quarters to the shrine for devotion. It was the banner of this Virgin
that was taken from the little sanctuary at Atotonilco by Hidalgo when
on his march on San Miguel and he adopted “Guadalupe” as the battle cry
of independence.
The holy image of the _tilma_ was removed from its shrine on the
occasion of the great inundation of 1629, and the saving of the city by
the Virgin implored. The image was placed in the cathedral, attended
with imposing ceremony in transmission, and there it remained for four
years. Its miracles are reputed wonderful, all manners of healing are
attributed to it.
In 1622, the image was enshrined in a new and much larger church.
In 1709, the large temple was dedicated. The altar was designed by
Tolsa in 1802, but was not completed till 1836. The great chancel was
enclosed by a heavy silver railing set on a base of white marble.
But the crowning glory of the edifice of “Our Lady of Guadalupe” was
the great aspiration and chief lifework of Father Antonio Plancarte
y Labastida, who began the work of restoration and embellishment in
1887 and completed it in 1895, when the _tilma_ was crowned by
authority of Pope Leo XIII., with attendant ceremonies of the most
imposing magnificence, in the presence of thirty-eight archbishops and
bishops, hundreds of priests and fifty thousand laymen from all parts
of Mexico and the rest of the Western Continent, on October 12, 1895.
The crown is a splendid product of the goldsmith’s art and of an
enormous intrinsic value. The gold and the precious stones were
contributed by the women of Mexico from their own most prized jewels
and represent a vast treasure. Around the rim at the base are
twenty-two enamelled shields representing the dioceses of the republic
illumined with sapphires and emeralds. Above this is a row of angels,
each bearing a brilliant ruby on its breast, and supporting six
enamelled escutcheons blazoned with the arms of the six archbishops
of Mexico, framed by exquisitely wrought wreaths and encircled with
diamonds. Rising behind the angels and extending to the apex of the
crown are festoons of roses of gold alternated with stars of diamonds,
which cluster at the top beneath an enamelled globe on which Mexico and
the Gulf are depicted. Above the globe is the Mexican eagle bearing
in one talon the globe and with the other holding aloft a cross of
diamonds. From a ring in the cross the crown is suspended over the
sacred image by a cherub. The fineness and richness of the work, in
which there is no repetition of a single decorative detail, make this
crown the most distinguished of its class in religious use.
The coronation scene was unique in the history of Mexico; the patron
saint of the nation, the especial protectress of the Indians, was to
receive divine honors with all the pomp and ceremony of official
sanction and authority. Gorgeously robed, the dignitaries of the
church surrounded the throne of the archbishop--for the church has the
recognized organization of a cathedral--who received the priceless
crown from the hands of twelve of Mexico’s distinguished women,
representing the contributors, after the papal brief authorizing the
coronation was read, and the action notarially certified. Then the
air was rent with the salute of cannon and the unchained voices of
the bells. Within the walls of the church crowded adorers knelt, and
without, multitudes with bowed heads, reverentially adoring, awaited
the solemn moment when the crown should be raised to the brow of the
Virgin of Guadalupe.
[Illustration: LUNATIC ASYLUM.]
The crown having been blessed by the archbishop, a solemn mass was
celebrated, and then in grand procession it was borne by the canons
through the crowded basilica and outside around the edifice and then
returned to the sanctuary. Here, the archbishop of Mexico, assisted by
the arch-prelate of Michoacán, ascended the lofty platform and placed
the consecrated crown above the head of the Virgin of Guadalupe over
the miraculous _tilma_. As the act of coronation was completed the
devotional enthusiasm of the people broke forth amid tears and sobs,
in shouts of “_Viva Dios!_” “_Viva Madre de Dios!_” “_Viva Mexico!_”
and the cries were taken up without till the hill and the valley had
spoken with tens of thousands of voices; then the bishops, one by one,
ascended the altar steps and in devout homage laid crosiers and mitres
before the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The great event, at the same
moment, gave tongue to every church bell in the land, which proclaimed
the glorious fact of the coronation to the devout children of the
church.
The restoration of the church was completed simultaneously with the
coronation and the sacred image of the _tilma_ was returned from
its eight-years’ repose in the neighboring church of the Capuchin Nuns
to its own repository in the basilica of Our Lady, on September 30,
1895. The benefactor, Father Plancarte y Labastida lived to rejoice in
the crowning culmination of his great work; he died in 1898.
The interior of the basilica is of the Doric order. It is about two
hundred and fifty feet long and one hundred and twenty-five wide. Its
three aisles are divided by eight Corinthian columns. Of the eighteen
arches, the central one carries the dome with its lantern, the top of
which is one hundred and twenty-five feet from the pavement of the
church. The feature of chief interest is the high altar in which is
framed the sacred _tilma_. This is of spotlessly white Carrara
marble, magnificently sculptured and exquisitely wrought with gilded
bronze, done after the designs of the celebrated Mexican artists,
Agea and Salome Pina. The marble was carved by the sculptor Nicoli at
Carrara and the bronze was wrought at Brussels. On the right and left
sides of the altar are, respectively, marble figures of Juan Zumárraga,
the first bishop of Mexico, and the Indian, Juan Diego, to whom the
Virgin of Guadalupe appeared, and in front is the kneeling figure of
Archbishop Labastida y Davalos, whose fostering care made the great
work possible. Over the frame holding the image of the _tilma_
are sculptured in relief three angels, emblematic of the archdioceses
of Mexico, Michoacán and Guadalajara and commemorative of the services
rendered by their archprelates in securing the papal authority for the
coronation of the Virgin. The baldaquin over the altar is of byzantine
style and is carried on pillars of Scotch granite; the arch is
surmounted by a gilded cross of roses. The front arch of the baldaquin
carries the arms of Pope Leo XIII., on the other three are those of
the archbishops of Mexico, Michoacán and Guadalajara, and inscribed
in Gothic letters are the Latin verses written by Leo XIII., for the
occasion of the coronation:
Mexicus heic populus mira sub Imagine gaudet
Te colore, alma Parens, præsidioque frui.
Per te sic vigeat felix, teque auspice, Christi
Immotam servet firmior usque fidem.
LEO PP. XIII.
“The Mexican people rejoice in worshipping Thee, Holy Mother, under
this miraculous image, and in looking to Thee for protection. May
that people, through Thee, flourish in happiness and ever under Thy
auspices, grow stronger in the faith of Christ.” Bronze statues are
placed between the arches, representing Prudence, Justice, Fortitude,
Temperance.
The vaulted roof is studded with gilded cedarwood stars; the beams
are richly ornamented in rich Byzantine style. The dome is profusely
decorated with gold and roses in festoons; and the panels are filled
with frescoes of the Virgin of Guadalupe, of angels bearing scrolls,
and allegorical tributes of the Virgin. In the four spaces between the
dome stand figures of the four Evangelists.
Splendid frescoes adorn the walls of the church.
The homage paid to the Virgin of Guadalupe is universal in Mexico.
In every home of rich and poor alike, her picture is to be found, an
honored possession, even in most of the shops of Mexico a lamp burns
ever before her picture and there are few churches without an altar
before which to do her reverence. When the country was rent by the
passions and fury of war and churches were stripped and despoiled of
their priceless objects and decorations, the shrine of Our Lady of
Guadalupe was too sacred for the despoiler. His hand was nerve-less to
desecrate this revered shrine.
This venerated basilica is the chief of a group of churches connected
with the legend of Our Lady of Guadalupe. To the east of the shrine is
the Chapel of the Well, built on the spot and in commemoration of the
miracle of the spring that gushed where the Virgin stood at the moment
that she dispatched Juan Diego to the bishop with the roses. The chapel
was built in 1791, and the spring is just within its door. Beneath the
dome, which is covered with glazed tiles, is the altar and a carved
pulpit upborne by a figure of Juan Diego; the mural decorations are
paintings of the Indian’s visions of the Virgin. The Chapel of the
Little Hill, is erected on the spot where, at the Virgin’s will,
bloomed the roses on the previously barren rock. The first chapel was
built in 1660, but was replaced by the present edifice early in the
eighteenth century. These auxiliary establishments are connected by a
stone stairway, about halfway up which is a votive offering, the Stone
Sails of Guadalupe, made by sailors who implored the aid of the Virgin
in their distress and, being saved, they accordingly brought before the
shrine the foremast of their vessel and the sails, which latter are
there encased in stone.
[Illustration: THE GENERAL HOSPITAL, CITY OF MEXICO.]
Besides these chapels, there is the church of the Capuchin Nuns,
forming a group of establishments more widely known and honored and
visited by more persons than any other shrine in Mexico. Our Lady of
Guadalupe is the Lourdes of Mexico, the holiest of Mexico’s sacred
places.
Another shrine highly venerated by Mexicans is the Church of “Our Lady
of Los Remedios.” The legend upon which its veneration rests antedates
that of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The story told of the image enshrined in
this church is that it was brought to Mexico from Spain by a soldier
in the following of Cortés, named Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, who,
in the flight on the _Noche Triste_ took the image from the great
Aztec temple, where it had been placed in a shrine, and carried it
as far as the hill of Totoltepec, where his strength failing, he hid
it under a broad maguey plant. It was thereafter lost to knowledge
for nearly twenty years, when an Indian chief, who was hunting on the
hill was greeted by the Virgin, who required him to seek for her image
hidden beneath a maguey plant. He searched in vain. Again the Virgin
appeared and repeated her command, with the same result. A third time
the vision appeared, and the same command was given. Further effort at
length rewarded the searcher and he took the image to his home, but
in the morning it was missing, and again was found under the maguey
plant where it had been discovered. This time the Indian placed before
the image a gourd filled with dainties of food; again it disappeared.
Once more the chief brought it home and placed it in a bolted and
locked box, on which, for further safety, he slept; but the box was
empty in the morning. These strange experiences led the Indian to seek
the advice of the _padres_, to whom he told his story, and they,
deeming that a miracle had been wrought and a command conveyed to build
a temple to the Virgin on the spot of her appearance, decided to fulfil
the command.
Soon thereafter, on the spot where the image was found, a shrine
was built and dedicated by the Spaniards to “Our Lady of Succor” in
gratitude for her salvation of their lives. The image is about eight
inches high and is carved in wood; it bears in its arms a figure of the
infant Jesus. The shrine also contains the gourd in which the food was
placed before the sacred image, while under the main altar, near the
remains of the Indian, Juan Aguila Tobar, is the box in which the image
was locked to prevent its escape. The walls of the original church
remain in the existing edifice, completed in 1575; but the church has
lost much of its former magnificence and costly decorations of precious
metals and paintings. The priceless wardrobe and jewels of the Virgin
remain in testimony of the virtue attributed to the miraculous image.
After the battle of Las Cruces, when Hidalgo was within six leagues
of the capital with his independence army, Viceroy Venegas, alarmed,
had the image of the Virgin of Los Remedios brought from Totoltepec to
the cathedral in the capital, and there kneeling before it, invoked
its aid, placed the viceregal staff in its hands, and solemnly hailed
it as “lady captain general of the army.” The royalists inscribed on
their banner the image of _Nuestra Senora de los Remedios_, just
as Hidalgo had adopted for the patriots that of _Nuestra Senora de
Guadalupe_. In seasons of drought, also, this sacred image is taken
from its hill shrine and borne in solemn procession through the streets
of the capital.
Mexico City is liberally furnished with institutions for the care of
the indigent afflicted and for orphans. The special retreats for the
blind, the deaf and dumb strikingly exhibit the conception of the
obligation of the municipality to ameliorate the distressing conditions
which the afflicted in these respects suffer. Every care and comfort is
provided for. So too, the orphans have a home that shields them from
danger, ministers to their needs, and gives them instruction that will
fit them for a life of personal advancement and state advantage.
[Illustration: THE CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL. FEDERAL DISTRICT.]
The General Hospital is a monument of enterprise. It is the culmination
of a long-cherished ambition of General Diaz, whose desire was to see
Mexico equipped with a hospital for the poor that would meet all the
needs of the City. It was completed in 1905, and is conceded to be one
of the largest and most splendidly-appointed hospitals in the world.
It has about twenty-eight pavilions and accommodations for over eight
hundred patients.
This splendid institution has every facility of a modern hospital,
being built after years of study of all the hospitals of the world. It
is conducted on scientific principles, and the system and precision
with which it is managed has created great comment from scientists who
have visited it. Its doors are always open and the poor have a refuge
at all hours. There no questions are asked, a warm bed and good food
are ready at all hours. It is under the direction of Dr. Liceago.
The maternity ward is most interesting and there is a school and
kindergarten for poor, infirm children of tender age. In connection
with this there is a school for nurses which has opened a new field for
women, as formerly all trained nurses were foreigners.
The American Hospital and the American Benevolent Society are both good
institutions, the later was founded by Honorable J. W. Foster, who was
at that time American Minister in Mexico.
There are many other charitable institutions of this kind in Mexico and
the suburbs, some of them dating back to the time of Cortés, notably
the Foundling Hospital, founded in 1767, and the Hospital of Jesus of
Nazareth, founded by Cortés in 1527. The first meeting of Cortés and
Montezuma took place on the site of the Hospital de Jesus Narareno.
The quaint architectural features are most attractive. The building is
nondescript, but surrounding this is a beautiful garden. On a tablet
let into one of the walls is the interesting inscription in Spanish--A
Hospital of the Clean Conception of the most Holy Mary and Jesus of
Nazareth. It is the oldest and was founded on this famous site of
Paganism known as Huitzillan, in the year 1527, and re-established and
remodeled in 1838.
El Hospicio De Ninos (the Children’s Hospital) at Tlalpam was founded
in 1765 by Dr. Fernando Ortiz Cortés. It is non-sectarian and is
supported by the government. It has lately been remodeled, and
accommodates a thousand children. All classes of trades and useful arts
are taught and some fine specimens of needle work are done by the girls.
There are splendid charities under the protection of Madame Carmen
Romero Rubio de Diaz, and many private institutions. The Home for
Working Women was founded by her. The object of this establishment is
the teaching and taking care of the children of working women. Madame
Sofia de Osio de Landa y Escandon, the wife of the Governor of the
district, is the president of a society for the protection of the poor.
To this belong the best ladies of the city, who devote much of their
time to the poor and friendless of the capital.
Madame Ramon Corral and her beautiful daughters are most active in all
charitable work.
Under the supervision and encouragement of Madame Diaz the School
of Nurses was established, where the native girls are educated free
in medicine and nursing. Every year diplomas are granted to at least
twenty trained nurses.
The Florence Crittenden Industrial School was established in September,
1902, under the direction of Señora Herlinda de la Guerra de Sepulveda,
beginning with a small number of inmates. Its mission is to receive and
protect poor girls, and to teach them to be self-supporting, giving
them an industrial education and fitting them to take their places well
equipped to render them good wives and mothers. There they receive the
instruction prescribed by the Department of Public Instruction, with
strict attention to the moral and physical development. The management
of this school is under the direction of ladies competent to “instruct
in the best moral training.” The kindergarten is one of the features.
The school is located in the picturesque town of Mixcoac, quite
near the city. It has lovely grounds and gardens and fine hygienic
arrangements, making the place healthy and attractive. It has now
about one hundred girls and the efficiency displayed in the management
entitles this institution to all aid and sympathy.
There are homes for disabled men and women; free hospitals for the sick
and needy. There are churches where bread and nourishing food are given
every day to those who seek it. There are homes for motherless babes,
and a haven for all unfortunates. There are industrial colleges for
wayward boys and girls, who are gently instructed in the ways of good
citizens and many splendid records have been made by former inmates. In
no country are there more charitable institutions than in Mexico.
[Illustration: PAVILIONS OF THE GENERAL HOSPITAL.]
[Illustration: STAIRWAY IN THE COLLEGE OF THE MASCARONES.]
[Illustration: NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.]
CHAPTER XIII
EDUCATION
A marked difference is presented to-day in the picture of public
instruction, sheltered under the mantle of peace, compared with
that which was offered during the times of political agitation and
revolution. This interesting feature, the principal and most solid
foundation of the future prosperity of this country, receives each day
further development, thanks to the vigorous impulse impressed upon it
from all sides. While public authorities in all branches, moved by
generous emulation, have made enduring souvenirs of their occupancy
of office, this is particularly the case of the department of public
instruction. Outside of the great cities the academy diffuses the light
of civilization, and even in the smallest hamlet public and private
schools extend the knowledge of the people in every useful department.
Primary instruction is given almost everywhere. In the largest
municipalities the governments either directly support or subsidize a
great number of these establishments. Many schools the creation of
which is due to private initiative are endowed by individuals or are
under the direction and surveillance of benevolent societies. In 1906,
there was created a new seat in the cabinet, the Secretary of Public
Instruction and Fine Arts. Since then there is an increased interest in
school work. Each year two professors from the Normal School are sent
to America and Europe to see the best physical institutes and to study
the new school systems.
As in all progressive lands, education is the foundation of prosperity,
and activity in that direction has been very great among those who
realize that it is the basis of their existence. Schools have been
established in all parts of the republic, and now the poorest Indian
child has its opportunities for learning.
Compulsory education being one of the features it is seldom that the
common people are found without elementary knowledge. This branch of
learning comprises civic instruction, the Mexican language, arithmetic,
history of the country, natural science, practical geometry, drawing,
singing, physical culture, fine needle work and plain sewing.
[Illustration: PATIO OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.]
With the administration of President Diaz there was a great change in
the educational policy. Day and night schools were opened everywhere
for the poorer classes, and every substantial branch of practical
learning has been placed within reach of not only the young but the
adult laboring class, and the interest that has steadily grown in
this movement has been of great material benefit to Mexico. In the
general system of education in pursuance of the Government’s desire
to educate the working element, there are two classes of schools,
the supplementary, which are the means of giving primary instruction
to those unable to acquire it, and the complementary, which gives an
opportunity to those having a little learning to gain more. Primary,
normal and professional schools are within the grasp of every one, the
system of education being entirely free, even books and every facility
to gain knowledge is furnished by the Government.
[Illustration: NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS.]
Education in Mexico begun with the Conquest, and some institutions of
learning were then established, among them the College of San Juan
de Letran, in 1530, and the University of Mexico, which was opened
in 1553. There was a lull in interest on account of the unstable
conditions, and some of the great seats of learning were discontinued.
When Baron Von Humboldt, the German explorer, visited Mexico in the
earlier part of the eighteenth century, one of his first reports
to his sovereign was relative to the great advancement of higher
education in the New Spain. This was said of the higher classes, not
of the poorer people, who were illiterate and superstitious. To-day
the moral precepts that are instilled into these people as well as the
development of their mental faculties, give every man an incentive to
be a good and honorable citizen, and it is with great satisfaction that
those interested in this great reform have seen its splendid results.
After the adoption of the Federal Constitution, it required a great
deal of activity on the part of the officials to establish a common
school instruction throughout the republic.
As each state was responsible for its schools it was very difficult
after years of warfare and unsettled conditions to establish a system
of education without taxation for that purpose. School buildings were
erected, teachers employed, and gradually the interest of the people
grew. Now no country can boast of a finer educational foundation than
Mexico. Greater attention is directed toward manual training and
domestic economy than in any other country in the world. The Federal
primary schools are divided into two groups, day and night schools,
for children, and the working classes of both sexes. Belonging to the
first group are the kindergarten, elementary for mixed classes, and
general high schools and special high schools. These are divided into
mercantile and industrial, and those who graduate are permitted to
enter the normal school.
[Illustration: SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR MEN.]
All the primaries of the Federal District are under the general
direction of Primary Education, except the kindergartens, which are
under the supervision of the Minister of Instruction and Belles Artes.
In Mexico City and its outlying territories much care has been taken
to organize a splendid school system; new buildings, sanitary in
every respect, suitable to accommodate the demand of the multiplying
attendance, and a standard of education so advanced that Mexico has
achieved a great thing in meeting the needs of her people. The better
classes were in former years forced to send their children abroad to
school. The best professors direct the courses of study and every
art and craft known is taught. Splendid playgrounds for children and
gymnasiums are installed in all the modern school buildings.
Normal schools for men and women in which they become masters of the
art of teaching are one of the chief features of the educational system.
The Catholic Church takes great interest in education and maintains
branches of all its well-known teaching fraternities and sisterhoods.
Besides the parochial schools many academies and colleges are conducted
throughout the land and the teaching is on the same high plane as in
other countries. The Sisters of the Sacred Heart direct the finishing
schools for girls and the Jesuits most of the colleges and seminaries
for young men. There are many private schools with a high standard
of study, besides finishing schools of splendid order. They are
patronized by the better classes and the result is that Mexico boasts
of delightful men and women, well informed boys and girls, and the
Nation’s younger element are developing well in the progress of their
country, and are being fitted for important positions they must surely
fill some day.
[Illustration: SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FOR WOMEN.]
The National Conservatory of Music sends yearly into the world finished
artists and professors and the many histrionic and musical societies in
the Capital are ample proofs of the splendid training received in this
institution. Languages are taught in every school, and most versatile
linguists are found in Mexico, from the tradesmen to the Ministers of
the Cabinet. Some of the greatest men of Mexico, whose names are of
universal fame, graduated from the National School of Jurisprudence and
the School of Medicine.
In the penitentiaries of every state in the Republic there are schools
conducted with the finest masters to be obtained, and each prison has
an orchestra or band which has the full benefit of instruction in
music. The School of Engineering gives as good a course as may be had
at any university. A School of Mines and a School of Agriculture exists
and are splendid institutions. The Colegio de la Paz, once a religious
school, is now controlled by the Government, and largely supported by
its own endowment. Its building is one of the greatest in the city. In
rank just below these great public institutions of instruction come
the Schools of Industry for men and women, for deaf mutes and for the
blind, reformatories, business colleges and a school of arts and crafts.
[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS.]
[Illustration: SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS.]
Amid wars and the care of material affairs, Mexico has never neglected
the æsthetic and the intellectual. Institutions devoted to culture
of every kind are important and are very liberally maintained. The
national library--_biblioteca national_--occupies the beautiful
old edifice once the church of San Agustin, which has been modified
to meet the purposes of a library while preserving the beauty of
the old church. Along two sides of the building stretches a pretty
garden enclosed by a high iron railing, the posts of which bear
commemorative busts of eminent Mexican writers beginning with the Aztec
Netzahualcoyotl, Ixtlilxochitl, and coming through the list of colonial
writers brings us to the modern Mexican literati. The classic interior
of the building lends a dignity and grace befitting the place. Statues
of didactic writers adorn the walls, including the biblical teacher
Isaiah and the great oriental master Confucius, and at the other
extreme are the figures of Humboldt and Cuvier.
Of the literature housed in this library a large portion consists
of devotional and dogmatic works collected from the convents and
monasteries on their suppression, numbering about two hundred thousand
volumes. There are many very precious tomes in this library, unique
specimens of priceless value, dating from early in the fourteenth
century, and some Mexican pinturas done in deerskin by Montezuma
as dispatches to his allies at the time of the invasion. Curios in
literature are of deep interest to the lover of antique songs. Modern
books on every subject make the National Library one of the valuable
and interesting depositories of the world.
[Illustration: STAIRCASE, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS.]
Besides this great library there are several others containing works of
special interest to publicists and students--as those of the government
departments, the National Museum, the Fine Arts Academy, the School of
Engineering, the Law School, and the library at the National Palace.
Higher education has its protection and many schools for the
development of talent are found in Mexico. Besides a school for thought
which comprises advanced ideas, Mexico is very proud of her Escuela
Nacional de Artes y Oficios. It was established to give women and girls
an opportunity to gain a profession that could give them a livelihood
or fit them for the serious duties of life. In this school are taught
all the branches of work, nursing, elementary learning, photography,
upholstery, lace-making and in fact everything that the trained hand
can do. This school has elevated the humble class to a condition of
self respect, and the women who have had advantage of this training
have been able to earn a good living, and liberal remuneration for
their work and some have been known to establish little shops which
have grown into good commercial standing. This institution is one
of the great safeguards to women, who are protected by a feeling
of independence and self-confidence. It is under the direction of
the Government and the ladies of the highest society of Mexico, who
do everything for the advancement of this class of women. The best
teachers are employed, many of them having been sent abroad to make
studies of schools of this kind.
[Illustration: NATIONAL PREPARATORY SCHOOL.]
Realizing that many of the students were too poor to have proper food
and nourishment, the influence of Madame Sierra, wife of the Minister
of Education, and Madame Luz Cosio de Lopez, daughter of the Minister
of War, resulted in plans to give them free meals, and the good
nourishment given these girls, whose lots in life are not too easy, is
one of the aids to the great success of the institution.
[Illustration: COMMERCIAL SCHOOL.]
There are several English and American schools, among them the Sarah L.
Keen College.
It will be appreciated that the educational system has its practical
as well as its æsthetic side. A fair amount of intelligence and a
willingness to profit by the experience of other countries are the
keynotes of educational propaganda. The many agricultural colleges
throughout the country are modeled after those of Canada, where the
idea of such schools was first worked out. From Germany the scheme of
manual and industrial training was borrowed, while from the United
States came the plans for the mining and applied science colleges.
Already the beneficial effects of the training given are being noted;
better farming, more economical mining, more skill in weaving, in
dyeing, in metal working and thrifty housekeeping. The newly organized
Federal Department of Public Instruction is zealously directed by the
Secretary, Lic. Don Justo Sierra, ably assisted by the Sub-Secretary,
Lic. Don Ezequiel Chavez. “Co-operating” is the federation of
education: a convention of educators which meets from time to time
makes practical recommendations for improvement wherever such should
and can be undertaken. In another generation there will be no
illiteracy among the Mexicans, a condition of which no European country
can boast. Irresistibly, the mark of progress goes on, welding the
races into one people. One man’s life, that of Porfirio Diaz, spans the
whole improvement; and its inspiration is his, although the working out
of the plans for betterment has been in the capable direction of his
ministers supported by the whole-hearted efforts of an awakened people.
[Illustration: SAN CARLOS ACADEMY.]
[Illustration: MORELOS PARK, TOLUCA.]
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, TOLUCA.]
CHAPTER XIV
MEXICO
It would require many years of study to present an adequate idea of the
progress and enterprise that exist in the republic, and each state has
contributed its share toward the rapid advancement that has marked the
conditions within the past fifteen years.
The State of Mexico is one of the most important in the republic. It
is rich in mineral resources and picturesque in scenery. The people of
this state are active and ambitious.
Many extensive tracts of territory have been shorn from the empire
which was granted to Cortés as his reward for the conquest. Two other
whole states, Hidalgo and Morelos, were created out of Mexico and
Guerrero and the Federal District have also had parts of this state
added to them. Nearly ten thousand square miles are left, and upon this
territory live more than a million industrious people, many of whom
are of Indian descent. For purposes of government it is divided into
fifteen districts but Nature has divided the state by means of mountain
ranges into three almost distinct territories. The Valley of Mexico,
which extends into the Federal District is paralleled to the west
by the Valley of Toluca, in which the capital of the state, bearing
the same name, is situated. The third district comprises the slope
southwest of the main range toward the lowlands of Guerrero.
The soft named and beautiful capital of this interesting state nestles
at the foot of snow-crowned mountains, one of them the extinct volcano
from which it is named, whose peak looks silently down with the calm
of centuries upon this city of restless progress, as the still ages
might look down upon the on-rushing to-day. Her wide and well-paved
streets, her spacious plazas and shaded squares, the imposing
buildings, some gray with centuries, some new with the modern spirit
of the day, combined with the delightful situation and the grandeur of
the surrounding scenery, make the city one of surpassing interest and
beauty. Modern institutions devoted to education, progress, charity and
humanity have given Toluca the well-deserved reputation of being one of
the finest and best governed cities.
In the Valley of Mexico, which averages throughout the state the same
altitude as Mexico City, the principal pursuits are farming, cattle
raising, and manufacturing. The numerous small towns are reached by
branches of the national railroad system. Equally well provided with
transportation facilities are the towns in the Toluca Valley. The
average altitude here is above eight thousand feet, a thousand higher
than the Valley of Mexico, and the temperature is proportionally lower.
The air is wonderfully pure and the sanitary conditions exceptionally
good.
Toluca is only forty-five miles from Mexico City but, owing to the
intervening mountains, the journey occupies three hours. Here, almost
at the base of an extinct volcano, called the “White Mountain” by
the Spaniards, Cortés set up the headquarters of his seigniory. The
city to-day is one of the most pleasing in Mexico, with a large and
intelligent population and contains many buildings of interest. It is
built on both banks of the Xicualtenco River which is parallel to the
main thoroughfares. The streets are for the most part straight and are
always kept clean. The public squares and gardens are adorned with fine
monuments. There are many delightful spots and interesting places found
throughout the State of Mexico. Lofty peaks and deep barrancas, broad
meadows and narrow vales, inaccessible height and cultivated fields
succeed one another in delightful variety. The beauty of the scenery is
indescribable, now and then through the arched forest trees the snowy
volcanoes with their distant domes and the silvery lakes of the Valley
of Mexico greet the vision.
The ruins of an old Carmelite Convent standing on the slope of a
hill are surrounded by noble forests of pine and oak and cedar--long
and lofty forest-aisles, where the monks of former days wandered in
peaceful meditation. Some poor Indians live among the ruins and possess
the undisputed sovereignty of the woods. It is said that a benighted
traveler who had lost his way in these solitudes and was miraculously
saved from dying of cold, founded this rich convent of Carmelite
Monks, in gratitude for his deliverance, expressing his desire that
all travelers that passed that way should receive hospitality from the
convent. Certainly no place more fitted for devotion could have been
selected than this mountain retreat.
[Illustration: GENERAL FERNANDO GONZALEZ.]
The way to Lerma is through a massive stone gateway from which the
gates were removed long ago. The streets are broad but straggling,
the houses comfortable rather than grand or even elegant and the many
eucalyptus trees planted around the picturesque adobe and stone church
date back to the time of Maximilian. Across the way from the church
is an old grave-yard which is indisputably ancient, as the graves of
the Spanish conquerors, nine in number, are marked with limestone slabs
dated over four centuries ago. It is a custom among the Mexican Indians
to sell pebbles from these graves to tourists who are always eager to
carry away souvenirs from a spot of historical renown.
[Illustration: GOVERNOR’S PALACE.]
High in mid-air the climate of the State of Mexico leaves nothing to be
desired by those to whom pure air without clean cutting winds, bright
sun that does not scorch, and abundance of pure water melted from the
eternal glistening snows, are indispensable. It is such that brings
contentment and peace the year around, without undue lassitude at any
time. Its variety permits the production of all classes of crops;
wheat, Indian corn, and other cereals grow in abundant harvests in
the valleys of Toluca, Iztlahuaca, Tenango, and Tezcoco, while sugar
cane, coffee, and other tropical products grow in the districts of
Temascaltepec, Tenancingo and other southern districts. The forest
products are remarkable for their diversity and richness.
The raising of cattle is one of the principal resources of this state,
and is increasing rapidly each year. The annual product is exceedingly
great, but pastoral life is giving way to more modern methods of
existence. The railroads going through these vast plains around
and among these lofty mountains are doing away with the primitive
conditions that have existed.
Toluca, the capital of the State, is united to Mexico City by the
Mexican National Railway which traverses a most picturesque route
all the way to San Luis Potosí. All the railways which centre in the
metropolis cross the state giving it ready exportations for all its
products. The Mexican National route also gives communication northward
with the rest of the world.
[Illustration: MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS.]
Practically all of the towns in the two valleys are lighted by
electricity generated from hydraulic sources. In Tenancingo is the
plant of the Toluca Electric Light and Power Company, which furnishes
light and power to the home town, to Tenango, Calimaya, Tienguistenco
and Toluca. In Tenancingo a local stream runs the big cotton spinning
and weaving plant of La Guadalupe. In Sultepec water runs the smelter
of La Concepcion, lights a district, supplies power to the mines
and other reduction plants and has five hundred horse-power for the
machinery of the Toluca Brewery. Mills at Calimaya, San Ildefonso and
numerous other points making cotton cloth, woollen goods and paper all
get their power from similar sources. Besides having plenty of water
power, an abundance of labor, fertile farms and pastures, the two
valleys are also rich in mineral wealth. Some of the most beautiful
marble found in the world is quarried here and the mining industry is
very much developed. There are mines producing gold, silver, lead and
quicksilver. The best known of these are El Oro and Esperanza, whose
British and American owners are quite frank in making their gains
public.
In the Sultepec district is another great producer, “La Quimica,” owned
by Germans who are more reticent but who are known to ship a great
amount of bullion. Besides these there is a host of minor shipping
mines and the possibilities of a great range of country which has not
been thoroughly prospected, notwithstanding the fact that the mines of
this state have been worked for hundreds of years. Many of the mines
now yielding rich ores are those once worked by primitive processes and
were deserted because they were thought not to be worth the trouble.
Modern crushing machinery, smelters, and chemical reduction works find
a rich profit in these mines.
[Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE.]
In the mines of Temascaltepec and Zacualpam, as in those of Oro, the
profits are large; gold, silver, lead, iron, and copper being obtained
in large quantities. The supply of sulphur from the great snow-capped
mountain, Popocatepetl, is enormous. There is in this district coal of
excellent quality and zinc is found in the form of blendes, accompanied
by silver ore. The mining activity in this state is increasing every
year, the Tejupilco district is being steadily developed and the
Sultepec district, eighty kilometres southwest from Toluca is the
centre of an extensive metalliferous zone running from Angangueo to
Taxco, both famous mining camps. There are many veins in exploitation
though some of them remain to be worked. Among these are: El Cobre,
Maravillas, Laura, La Providencia, Alejo, La Soledad, San Luis and
others. In all these it is observed that the richness of the vein gives
great promise although the prospectors are very reticent concerning
their yieldings.
Besides having the mineral wealth itself, this state also is
particularly well provided with the means of uncovering its buried
riches. There is an abundance of lumber for timbering shafts, of
water power to run hoisting and crushing machinery, and of the most
docile labor, which is still cheap, though the competition of mills is
gradually raising the scale of compensation.
[Illustration: TEMPLE OF VERA CRUZ, TOLUCA.]
The third great natural section of the state drops in terraces in the
southwest from an altitude of a mile and a half almost to sea level. On
the upper ranges, as in the valleys of Toluca and Mexico, the crops are
those of the temperate zone, corn predominating, and there is also much
cattle raising. As the slopes fall, however, the natural products verge
into the tropical: sugar, coffee, cotton, rubber and the citrous fruits
abound.
The Indian population of the state is a peaceful, law abiding people
understanding and speaking Spanish and having entirely forgotten their
primitive tongues. They do not mix in political matters but manifest
a great interest in education, for which reason the governor of the
state has insisted on plenty of schools being built in the districts,
to which these Indians, in most cases, gladly contribute their personal
labor.
Toluca lies in the centre of the fertile plains west of the Sierra
Madre. It is one of the cleanest cities in the country. The citizens
are intelligent and well educated and their school system is of the
highest standard. There is a splendid Girls’ and Boys’ Normal School
of Arts and Trades, largely for the purpose of elevating the ignorant
and inferior classes. In this school are many of the Mazahuatl, Otoli,
and Aztec indigenes, whose ambition is to become teachers in their
respective villages.
[Illustration: LEGISLATIVE PALACE, TOLUCA.]
The literary institute of Toluca has been reorganized as the Scientific
and Literary Institute of the State of Mexico. Public charities are
also well organized. There is a general hospital in the city and local
hospitals in each of the cities of Sultepec, Jilotepec, Tlalnepantla,
Tezcoco, Valle de Bravo and all the small villages and mining
districts. There are asylums for boys and girls and education is
compulsory.
The penitentiary is a spacious and sanitary institution where all
the machinery is run by steam power and the establishment lighted by
electricity. The object of this institution is the reformation of the
criminal and the abolition of the death penalty. Humanitarian ideas are
evident at all stages of one’s progress through this model prison. Each
prisoner has his hour for instruction and the classes run from primary
to the higher standard according to the knowledge of the prisoner, and
by this system he is able to earn an honest livelihood by handicraft
when he is liberated.
Industrially the city is very well advanced. There are woollen mills
which produce handsome cloths. In this country industry has made such
rapid strides that it is fast becoming a manufacturing centre. Most of
the factories of the state are located near water powers, notably in
the capital is the site of one of the largest breweries in Mexico.
[Illustration: PALACE OF JUSTICE.]
Most of the public buildings are of comparatively recent construction.
The Palace of the Government, though it occupies the site of one built
by Martin Cortés, son of the Conqueror, was not erected till 1872. It
faces the Garden of the Martyrs. In its main hall is a collection of
portraits of the early Governors of the State. The public offices are
elegant and commodious and the reception room is magnificent in every
detail. Other handsome buildings are the City Hall, the Maternity
Hospital, Schools of Law, School of Arts and Crafts, and the Normal
School, all of which are modern and beautifully constructed. The Public
Library, containing many thousands of volumes, is also rich in original
manuscript archives, and is much consulted by historians of the earlier
periods of Mexico. The public market is of late construction and is one
of the finest and most sanitary in the republic. Here all classes of
goods are sold, from the products of the country, pottery and meats to
the cloth that is woven in the mills, and the most picturesque sight
that one can imagine is the Indians in their native costumes squatting
in the market square, offering their goods. It is here that one sees
the people face to face in their native dress, and receives valuable
impressions of their customs and the products of the country.
[Illustration: INDEPENDENCE AVENUE, TOLUCA.]
The Parochial Church dates back to the days of the Conquest. It
was restored and enlarged in 1585. There are a number of other old
churches, some of very large size, all noted for their beautiful
paintings, their altars, and rich tapestries, one of which has a famous
chime of bells and a very large organ. The public monuments are very
notable. There are two of Hidalgo, one of Columbus and many others. In
almost every park there are evidences of patriotic feeling, either a
fountain dedicated to some hero or a tablet inscribed to the Martyrs of
the War of Independence.
[Illustration: SCHOOL OF LAW.]
The beautiful alameda, the rendezvous for the élite of the city on
fête days and on Sundays is one of the most perfect parks in the
republic. It is the result of the strenuous efforts of all the public
officials to make the State of Mexico famous for its advancement and
improvement. In this beautiful display of verdure, drive, and lakelets,
worthy features have been added to the well-known beauty of Toluca.
Entering this lovely park by wide arched gateways one is confronted by
a masterpiece of art and industry. Swans gliding in the waters of the
lakes curve their long necks to greet the visitor; deer already tamed
by young children come forward sniffing a glad welcome, and on days of
fiesta gather lovely señoritas, clad in delicate gowns, gay parasols,
colors, everything pertaining to gladness and beauty. There one has
the opportunity of studying a phase of life among the young folks in
this vast country of beautiful customs. The women of this country are
gentle, beautiful, tender, loving mothers, gracious and gifted, devoted
to their husbands, and make their home-life all that is to be desired.
[Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS.]
[Illustration: MATERNITY HOSPITAL.]
In 1519, Cortés found the people of Toluca the most prosperous and
advanced of the subjects of Montezuma. From the deposits of precious
stones in Toluca the Spanish had a splendid revenue and the mountain
sides yielded emeralds, sapphires and garnets for the markets of
Europe. Near the city may be seen the stone foundations laid for the
structure of a home which the Conqueror began for the comfort of
his old and wounded soldiers. This plan was not carried further on
account of the changes in the fortune of this ambitious man. There is
a splendid automobile road which leads from Mexico City to Toluca and
it is very popular on account of the beautiful scenery. Many tourists
find this a pleasing trip to make. Leaving the capital, one passes
Chapultepec and all the outlying villages of the Valley of Mexico.
Old temples rise majestically before the traveler and the swift ride
up the Sierra Madre over cañons on the mountain crest looking down
hundreds of feet into the valleys one has a vision of Toluca that can
hardly be described. In going there from Mexico City, the way leads
down the beautiful Paseo de la Reforma and takes one through Tacubaya
and over a great mountain wall. The climbing begins to get very steep
especially after leaving the pine belt. The fir trees in this region
resemble the hemlock spruce but have a different arrangement of the
needles. Polypodium ferns grow in tufts on every hand and cardinal
flowers abound. Scarlet and blue tanagers fly about everywhere. There
are also sparrow hawks even more beautiful in plumage; doves unusually
brilliant in color and parrots of every hue and variety. On the crest
of the mountain that divides the country of the Tolucans from the City
of Mexico the character of the vegetation suddenly and marvelously
changes. Here in the same altitude, but facing a warmer sun and milder
winds, are forests of tropical trees. Mahogany and tangerine orange
trees are seen and the ground is green with the grazing plant known as
_alfilerea_. Half way down the mountain range is a wide plateau,
and about half a mile from it, is the historic field, Las Cruces. The
spot is marked by an obelisk, about thirty feet high made of limestone
set upon a heavy foundation of concrete. This is the scene of the
first real victory of the Mexicans over the Spaniards in the war of
1810. It was here that the great patriot Hidalgo with his band of
followers drove back the royalist troops with heavy loss. It was this
great victory that gave the Mexicans self-confidence and proved to them
that they might, under proper conditions, defeat the well-trained and
completely armed soldiers of the Spanish viceroys.
[Illustration: TEMPLE OF MERCED.]
On the same plateau is the old town of Las Cruces. The population
is very small and its livelihood is derived entirely from the sale
of toys, silver filigree work and beautifully polished woods of the
mountain forests. Leaving Las Cruces the soil becomes well-watered and
very fertile. Hundreds of farmers at their work in their fields of
alfalfa, barley and maguey, and laborers in orchards of olives, prunes
and native fruits, give life to the country. The peak of Toluca is more
than sixteen thousand feet high but is not snow covered. There is an
extensive snow field on its summit but this is hidden from view. The
wind blows fine jets from the hidden snow field and this gives the
mountain the appearance of smoking. In the early days of Montezuma the
Aztecs regarded Toluca as having a supernatural power and many stories
told of spirits hovering over the people lend attractive legends to the
folklore. On the plains, the Lerma River, which is one of the great
waters of Mexico, flows like a ribbon of silver toward Lake Chapala,
from this it runs north and taking the name of Rio Grande de Santiago
rolls onward to the Pacific Ocean, into which it flows near San Blas.
The City of Lerma is on the rocky eminence, and the bell tower and dome
of its famous church are very conspicuous, gleaming in the air. The
whole plain rises gently from the marsh land at the foot of the hills
and sweeps up to the base of the great mountain range of which the peak
of Toluca is the culmination. Far as the eye can reach the soil is
cultivated and gives evidence of lavish care. The variegated coloring
of the fields planted in different varieties of grains, gives it the
appearance of a mammoth checker-board. Everywhere are big villages or
imposing haciendas. One of these, perched upon the last slope of the
hillside, might have been taken bodily from one of the Italian cantons
of Switzerland.
In the outskirts of Toluca are two elaborate shrines where, often, one
may see a group of farmers and laborers who have stopped on their way
home to offer prayer. This is not confined to the class of Indians, for
often a rich haciendado is seen passing on his horse to oversee his
workmen, stopping there, too, to offer his prayers of thanksgiving.
[Illustration: STATE BANK.]
The little village of Otumba, about thirty miles from Mexico, was the
scene of one of Cortés’s greatest battles. Chalco is a little Indian
town, and has great historical value. The Chalcas were a determined
enemy of the Aztecs, and only after struggles, in which they were
notably brave and daring, were they defeated by the combined forces of
the armies of Mexico and Atzcapotzalco. They afterward became a part of
the Aztec confederacy. The land of Chalco is one of the most productive
parts of Mexico, as what was once a great lake is now the most fertile
land that exists in the valley.
The Governor of the State, Brigadier-general Fernando Gonzalez, is
the son of an illustrious father, Manuel Gonzalez, who is known to
history as one of the great presidents of Mexico. Governor Gonzalez
has a brilliant record of thirty-two years of splendid service to his
country, and the people of the State of Mexico, recognize in him an
able and enthusiastic ruler. He is progressive, strong and able to
handle affairs pertaining to the welfare of his State, and universal
satisfaction is felt at his continuing in office a second term. No
governor has ever had the ovation he received on the occasion of his
re-election. Under his administration the State has greatly prospered
and he maintains the strictest discipline among the rural guards,
causes the roads to be kept in repair, and has greatly advanced the
public school system in efficiency. The rural schools and those in
the mining districts are the objects of his great interest and the
reputation that this State enjoys for a splendid school system has been
the result of the indefatigable labors of this distinguished man.
During the feast of the Centennial, the State of Mexico entered into
the spirit of the celebration with great enthusiasm, entertainments
being most brilliant.
The State of Mexico has earned her laurels as a well governed
progressive State, probably as much as any State in the Union for she
is better supplied with good roads, splendid railway communications,
good service of telegraph and telephone lines, while the postal system
is said to be the best regulated in the republic.
[Illustration: GENERAL HOSPITAL.]
It is not difficult to understand why the State of Mexico is considered
the most prosperous in the republic. It is one of the fertile States
and occupies one of the most beautiful positions that can be seen in
any part of the world. Nature is seen in almost all her phases; forest,
green fields, snow-covered volcanoes, fertile lands and flowing rivers.
What more superb setting can be found for so fair a jewel!
[Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE.]
[Illustration: RESIDENCE OF GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ.]
CHAPTER XV
PUEBLA
It is not mere acreage or population, nor public institutions or
monuments of any kind, however imposing, historic, or beautiful, that
constitute a state. It is the men of thought and action who have
brought Mexico from under the yoke of the Spaniard, who in three
hundred years wrung so much treasure from a suffering people, and made
of the down-trodden province a free and independent country among the
nations of the globe.
[Illustration: MONUMENT TO NICOLAS BRAVO.]
The State of Puebla is eminent in the annals of the Republic, alike
for the great resources it has yielded from the time of the Conquest
and its participation in the history-making of the nation and not
less so for the distinction gained by its people. Puebla is the
capital city; it was founded soon after the Conquest by Cortés, and
at that time was one of the social centres. Its location near the
Federal capital has brought the city into intimate acquaintance with
the affairs of the world. It is finely laid out, with every modern
improvement, and is exceedingly picturesque with alamedas and public
squares. Its ancient palaces have been turned into offices for the
chief officials. It is considered one of the most attractive cities in
the republic. The people are noted for their refinement and culture,
having many splendid public institutions of learning. There are over
sixty churches and theological schools, charity schools, hospitals and
benevolent establishments. It is one of the oldest cities in America,
founded in 1531, and is considered, next to the Federal District, the
most important. It is the cradle of manufacturing industry in Mexico,
being one of the first to establish spinning and weaving factories. In
addition to being an industrial centre, Puebla is connected with all
parts of the republic by railroads which traverse the rich district
of sugar plantations and other industrial centres. The climate is
delightfully mild and agreeable and the country around is green with
fertile fields. The view of the great volcano of Popocatepetl, seen at
sunrise, is unrivalled. The snowy top and sides stand out like a great
dome of alabaster and then the sun, rising higher and higher, from the
radiant brow sheds its glory on all below. Puebla is a beautiful city
with handsome houses built in the finest style of architecture, with
broad and remarkably clean streets and avenues. It has a population
of more than a hundred thousand; is the seat of an archbishop; and its
historical associations make it exceedingly interesting. Some of the
buildings are relics of the days of the viceroys. The architecture,
distinguished by its Spanish influence, is very picturesque, with its
multi-colored tiles of Talavera, for which the city was famous. This
pottery ware was manufactured in this city in the seventeenth century
and some of the wonderful relics are still found, though very seldom.
[Illustration: GENERAL MUCIO MARTINEZ.]
The character of the citizens is marked by conventionality,
conservatism being the keynote to everything in which they participate.
The influence of the Catholic church prevails and one is often
impressed at the sight of the people, from the poorest to the highest
in society, kissing the hand of the archbishop or kneeling as the
angelus is rung. From a military point of view, Puebla is considered
the key to the national capital and during several foreign wars
suffered many vicissitudes. Its history is very interesting, although a
stormy one, and it has suffered more, perhaps, in the cause of war than
any city in the republic. Augustin Iturbide, who proclaimed himself
Emperor of Mexico, captured the city in August, 1821. In 1847, it was
occupied by the United States forces. In 1862, it was the scene of
Zaragoza’s victory. It was occupied by the French in 1863, and on April
2, 1867, General Porfirio Diaz gained the most notable victory of his
military career by driving out the French. In spite of the ravages
of warfare and some of the relics of the war that exist, the city of
Puebla still retains its beauty of former days embellished by the art
of modern architecture. One of the most magnificent edifices in the
world is the Cathedral. It is noble and inspiring. A pretty legend
regarding the rapid progress of the building tells us that it was
owing to the assistance of two angels, who descended nightly and added
to its height, so that each morning the astonished workmen found their
labor incredibly advanced. From this legend Puebla derives its name,
“The City of the Angels.” This beautiful church is elegant and simple,
and in excellent taste. The floor is of colored marble; the rich and
artistically attractive high altar, of different varieties of Puebla
onyx; and the beautiful iron work and wood carving about the choir make
an interior which equals that of the Cathedrals of the old world. A
great amount of wealth exists in Puebla, principally in connection with
its churches, some of which are three hundred years old.
[Illustration: STATUE OF GENERAL ZARAGOZA.]
Other churches which claim attention are those of San Cristobal,
founded in 1532, and rebuilt in 1667; San José, the Templo de la
Compania, San Marcos, Nuestra Señora de la Soledad and Santa Catarina.
In the interior of all these one finds a collection of paintings and
beautiful carvings. The general effect is bewildering. In all these
churches, silver railings, candelabra and rich tapestries are found and
the domes and steeples of glazed Talavera tiles make the city flash in
the sun.
During the celebration of the Centennial, schools and public
institutions were dedicated and the city was festive with
entertainments of all kinds. The venerable Marqués de Polavieja was the
guest of the government, and was given the freedom of the city. Puebla
probably had more reason to celebrate the Centenary than any other
city as it was the centre of all the historical events of the Spanish
period.
Music and opera have a charm for the Mexicans, and Puebla is a musical
centre. There are some good theatres and one of the largest bull rings
in the republic is here. Hundreds of people swarm into the city from
other towns and nearby villages to witness a bull-fight and on the
occasion of this performance everyone makes it a gala holiday.
[Illustration: STATE COLLEGE.]
The oldest theatre in America is the Teatro Principal, which was
inaugurated in 1760, by the Viceroy Ahumada. It was known in those days
as the “Teatro de los Arrieros,” being the favorite amusement place
of the mule drivers who came in from the country on feast days. For a
while it was patronized by the best class of society, but is now given
over to a cinematograph. The interior was completely destroyed by fire
a few years ago. This old theatre is unusually interesting on account
of its early Spanish architecture.
The Guerrero Theatre was built in 1868, and stands on the site of the
old city prison. It is owned by the city and has been greatly improved
with modern scenery and stage fittings. Visitors are attracted to
this theatre on account of its beauty of proportion and its artistic
decoration.
The principal buildings of the city are imposing gray stone structures
with an atmosphere of the historical past surrounding them. The more
modern ones are built on the most approved plan. The penitentiary
is one of the most modern and sanitary prisons existing in the
republic. It is built on the general plan that characterizes all these
institutions and merits great attention. The Casa de Maternidad is one
of the splendid institutions that stamp the Mexican nation as the most
charitable in the world. Here, without a question being asked, a poor
unfortunate woman may find a haven of refuge.
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL.]
The Municipal Palace is a modern structure. It is situated opposite
the Cathedral and is built in the Spanish Renaissance style, and
occupies the site of the original palace, which was erected in 1536.
A fine _salon_ on the second floor is of the French Renaissance,
with allegorical paintings on the ceiling, done by native artists. The
Government Library is in the palace and comprises a large collection
of books. The entrance to this remarkable chamber is inspiring in the
greatest degree. It is noted for its marvellous carvings. The reception
rooms of the officials are exceedingly imposing and the military
atmosphere lends color to the scene.
The bronze equestrian statue of General Ignacio Zaragoza was erected
by the State of Puebla in 1896. This is a most imposing monument. At
the base of the pedestal appear the names of the generals who aided
this great soldier in his expulsion of the French troops during their
intervention. The Paseo Nuevo is a splendid avenue, which is the
pride of the Pueblans. One of its attractions is a handsome bronze
group of statuary erected to the memory of the heroes of the war for
Independence by the State of Puebla. Other statues on the Paseo are
those of Gabino Barreda and Esteban de Antuñano, founder of the cotton
industry. At the south end of the Paseo is an imposing monument erected
to General Nicolas Bravo, who was one of the heroes of the war and was
one of the members of the Council of Notables which promulgated the new
constitution for Mexico. He was president of Mexico for a short time in
1846.
[Illustration: LA MATERNIDAD, PUEBLA.]
In one of the squares is the beautiful fountain of San Miguel,
constructed in 1777.
The State College is also an imposing edifice and is a well-conducted
institution. Among the other public buildings the Library containing
about fifty thousand volumes, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Normal
School, and several hospitals all go toward demonstrating the great
progress and advancement of the people.
[Illustration: MONUMENT OF INDEPENDENCE, PUEBLA.]
General Mucio P. Martinez, Governor of the State, is one of the most
distinguished soldiers in the republic. His name is enrolled among the
other great leaders of warfare. He is the hero of a hundred battles
and has been the trusted friend and companion of General Diaz for many
years. He entered the army when a young boy in 1861, and displayed
such great bravery in many actions that in 1863 he was assigned to the
cavalry and promoted to the rank of lieutenant. He has fought in all
the wars that have taken place in his country since he enlisted and his
services have been of such great value to his country that the grade
of brigadier-general was conferred on him in 1884, which is his rank
at the present time. He has been the Governor of Puebla since 1892,
and has done so much to encourage all enterprise and progress in his
state that he has the reputation of being one of the wisest and most
intelligent administrators. The Governor has taken special interest in
the public school system, and through his efforts it is supposed to be
the best regulated in the republic. There are a number of institutions
of higher education, preparatory schools, schools of law and medicine,
and a most efficient school of engineering. Manual trades are taught
and even in the penitentiary the prisoners have the benefit of a good
common education.
The Governor is noted for his charming personality, his kindness of
heart, and his protection for all enterprises that are worthy of the
attention of an official who is interested in the welfare of his
state. He has surrounded himself with intelligent progressive gentlemen
as State officials, and through their enterprising and intelligent
administration, Puebla has been raised to the rank of second state
in importance in the republic. Licenciado Augustin Fernandez, the
Secretary of State, is an important factor in its government; he is a
scientist and linguist and a man of great ability.
[Illustration: RIM OF THE CRATER OF POPOCATEPETL.]
Industry is animated in various branches and is being actively
developed, particularly the textile manufactures; and the products of
the numerous and well-equipped mills for weaving and spinning cotton
and wool, scattered through the State, rival the foreign products,
for their variety and excellence. Commerce is very active and the
culmination of its operation is guaranteed by the complete abolition
of duties, as there are no more domestic custom houses. Merchandise
circulates freely through the state, and the industrial establishments
and mercantile houses are subject only to the payment of taxes, which
have been advantageously substituted for the odious system of excise.
The hotels in Puebla are particularly good. They are thronged with
visitors from all parts of Mexico, attracted by the beautiful climate
and noted sulphur baths that are in the suburbs. Some of these waters
are boiling as they bubble from the ground and the odor can be detected
quite a long distance away.
In this state the onyx, famous all over the world, is quarried,
near Puebla, and exquisite specimens are seen in some of the public
buildings.
[Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH DOOR.]
Few tropical localities in Mexico equal the privileged section of
Northern Puebla. Here nature has lavished its profusion ungrudgingly,
and for the man of energy, success and prosperity are assured. The
natural products are many and diversified. Building woods and those
suitable for making furniture exist mostly in dense forests, while
dye-woods and a species of wild indigo abound. Various fibres suitable
for the manufacture of brooms and brushes as well as those for ropes,
etc., clothe forest, meadow and hill. There is plenty of wild game
and large quantities of fish are found in the limpid streams. Along
the western section long stretches of natural grass well-adapted
for pasture and stock-raising bring very satisfactory results. The
cultivated products are coffee, corn, sugar cane, tobacco, pineapple,
banana and rubber. Corn yields here four hundred bushels for one;
cane produces without irrigation. Rubber and coffee yield to the
industrious planter a rich reward for his enterprise. The climate is
very acceptable for farming; fruit growing, especially the tropical
products, is a profitable occupation. Bee culture, in connection with
vanilla, is now a source of wealth. The district of Atzlan lies at the
base of the Sierra Madre Range in the State of Puebla and comprises the
extreme north end of the rich and fertile country of Huachinango. It
is located at a distance of eighty miles south of the port of Tuxpan
and one hundred and forty miles northeast of Mexico. This district
takes in an area of over one hundred and sixty square miles of the most
excellent tropical land. A large English-speaking colony has settled
in this district. The soil is a rich dark loam finely adapted for the
cultivation of every vegetable, fruit and fibre and capable of yielding
prolific products. The temperature in summer, though high at mid-day,
is low in the mornings and evenings and the winter months are generally
delightful. The lands are undulating slopes abounding with fine forests
and inviting streams while the well-drained plains are covered with
perennial grass. Every section of these lands is of easy access. The
Ward Line steamers call at Tuxpan from Vera Cruz or Tampico every week
and the Mexican mail boats every few days. The Valley of Atlixco is
noted for its fertility and its abundant crops of vegetables as well as
for the fineness of its fruit.
The Metlaltoyuca colonization lands, which lie along the Gulf slope
on the Mesa de los Coroneles, are quite important. The journey there
from Mexico City is most interesting, leading across a deep chasm and
beautiful valleys. Sometimes a road clings to the shoulder of the great
mountain; sometimes it rushes suddenly into a lovely valley carpeted
with Mexican flowers or gay with ruby coffee or tasselled corn. Wide
fields of grain and banana spread for miles along the sides of the
road, leading to the colony lands. Here and there are great forests of
cedar, mahogany and rubber trees, interlaced with rich tropical foliage
and parasites. Bright winged birds and orchids of wonderful color light
up the recesses of the forests, and groves of luscious oranges and
lemons perfume the air. Shortly before the road reaches the outskirts
of the Metlaltoyuca lands it crosses the Pantepec River, swiftly making
its way to the Gulf. The crystal waters reveal a pebbly bottom about
sixty feet wide; and the entire stream forms one of the most beautiful
rivers in Mexico.
The prospects of this colony, composed of English-speaking people, are
very promising. Extensive fields of grain may be seen here; the warm
moist climate being particularly adapted to the raising of cereals.
Nature has been lavish in gifts to this region; the climate is mild;
the thermometer seldom going above eighty in the day time, while the
nights are cool. The houses are of bamboo and comfortable. Some of
them have rosewood floors, and little gardens around them make the
region homelike and pleasant. In this small village of a few hundred
inhabitants there is a spirit of association and friendship.
The warm springs of Cuautla are reached by the Interoceanic Railroad.
Surrounding this resort are mountains perpetually white, yet no snow
ever falls on this tropical town. The arrival here is full of greatest
interest, as the train pulls into the oldest railroad station in the
world. It was built in 1657, and was formerly a church, but finally
reverted to the government and was disposed of to the railroad company.
It seems strange that a once beautiful church should end in being the
scene of excitement that attends the arrival of a train. The sulphur
baths of this resort are a little way out of town but a drive through
the rustic scenery of a primitive region repays one for the trip. In
this old town, full of peculiar legends and romances, the natural
Indian folk mingle their ancient customs with the modern.
Tehuacan is called Mexico’s Carlsbad. It is one of the popular springs
that are splendid specifics for many ills. There are some modest
hotels here. The little town is very picturesque and retains the mark
of centuries, having been founded in 1524, by the Spaniards. The
antiquity of the town, the primitive manners of the people, lend more
attraction to the searcher for health than the more modern hotels of
the fashionable resorts. There are comfort and pleasure to be found and
accommodation for the most fastidious.
Cholula is an old city that dates from before the Conquest. It was a
commercial centre and was one of the most populous and flourishing
cities during the time of the Aztec Confederacy. It was the scene,
in 1519, of a fearful battle between the Spanish Conquerors and the
Cholulans, in which many of the inhabitants were massacred.
[Illustration: THE ARCADE, PUEBLA.]
The tradition of Quetzalcoatl and his life up among the great purple
sunlit hills is a most beautiful story. Never was there a more tender
spirit than Quetzalcoatl, who loved all living creatures and could
not bear that any should suffer or live in sin and ignorance. But the
people, while they loved him, feared the other powerful gods, who were
devoted to bloodshed and battle. They built temples and altars and
daily offered human sacrifices to the gods of war. This grovelling fear
filled the great heart of Quetzalcoatl with pity and deep sorrow, and
so he left his beautiful, peaceful home to teach these people, with
a wonderful eloquence, the gospel of love and charity. Such was his
influence that at last they deserted the altars of the cruel gods, and
instead of offering human holocausts, in which quivering hearts burned
upon the sacred fires, they climbed the hills to lay upon an altar of
Quetzalcoatl flowers and fruits.
The people of Cholula began the construction of the great pyramid
in memory of Quetzalcoatl. On the top of it they built the temple
of Cholula, and dedicated it to the worship of the “fair god.” For
generations they tilled and builded until more than a century afterward
the pyramid was completed, standing bold and distinct on the dust-blown
plain, the everlasting token of a nation’s faith. They believed that
this pyramid would stand until Quetzalcoatl should come back to them.
The view from the top of the great pyramid toward evening is almost
beyond description. With the softened light of the setting sun upon the
plains and the hills one can easily understand why it was that the gods
and the angels loved this region. Back from the soft tender lights in
the valleys the great mountains stretch up bold and distinct against a
background of the palest aërial blue that contrasts wonderfully with
the varying lights on the mountain side.
The perpendicular height of the pyramid is one hundred and
seventy-seven feet. Its base is one thousand four hundred and
twenty-three feet long--twice as long as that of the great pyramid of
Cheops. It may give some idea of its dimensions to state that its base,
which is square, covers about forty-four acres and the platform on its
truncated summit embraces more than one acre. It reminds one of those
colossal monuments of brickwork which are still seen in ruins on the
banks of the Euphrates, and in much better preservation on those of the
Nile.
“Nothing could be more grand than the view which met the eye from the
area on the truncated summit of the pyramid. Toward the west stretched
that bold barrier of porphyritic rock which nature had reared around
the valley of Mexico, with the huge Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl
standing like two colossal sentinels to guard the entrance to the
enchanted region. Far away to the east was seen the conical head of
Orizaba soaring high into the clouds, and nearer, the barren though
beautifully-shaped Sierra de la Malinche, throwing its broad shadows
over the plains of Tlaxcala. Three of these are volcanoes higher than
the highest mountain peak in Europe and shrouded in snows which never
melt under the fierce sun of the tropics. At the foot of the spectator
lay the sacred city of Cholula, with its bright towers and pinnacles
sparkling in the sun, reposing amidst gardens and verdant groves, which
then thickly studded the cultivated environs of the capital. Such was
the magnificent prospect which met the gaze of the conquerors, and
may still, with slight change, meet that of the modern traveller, as
from the platform of the great pyramid his eye wanders over the fairest
portion of the beautiful plateau of Puebla.” So wrote Prescott.
The great temple was afterward purified by Cortés’s orders and the
standard of the cross solemnly planted in its midst. From this pyramid,
it is interesting to know, Baron von Humboldt made many of his valuable
astronomical calculations.
The church now standing there is dedicated to the Virgin de los
Remedios. The popular tradition among the native Indians is that the
pyramid was erected by a family of giants who had escaped inundation
and intended to raise it into the clouds, had not the gods become angry
and sent down fire from heaven to stop them where it is truncated.
Cholula probably numbers now some five thousand people. But there is no
doubt that at the time of the conquest it was one of the largest towns
in Mexico.
But what a land of romance! How can busy twentieth-century people
realize that in 1519 such events were making Mexican history, and that
even then the pyramid dated far back of legend or tradition?
[Illustration: THE PENITENTIARY, PUEBLA.]
[Illustration: PORTALES, FACING THE PARK, TLAXCALA.]
[Illustration: AVENUE LEADING TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT.]
CHAPTER XVI
TLAXCALA
Tlaxcala was the ancient republic for many years before the Conquest,
and retained its independence against the Aztecs. It is noted in
history as being the place where Cortés met with so much encouragement
and help from the Tlaxcalans, after he had fought them and shown his
strength. It looks like a place that had always been old and always
picturesque. Romance is in the air at every turn. Of Cortés’s sojourn,
there are many mementoes, an old silken banner which he presented to
the Tlaxcalan chiefs, a curious piece of silken embroidery depicting
the battle between the invaders and the natives, and a grant to
Tlaxcala made by the Emperor Charles V., whose signature it bears.
There is also to be seen a number of idols which have been dug up from
time to time in the neighborhood. The baptismal robes of the chiefs,
the genealogical tree of chief Xicotencatl, the charter of Philip
II. to the city, bearing his signature and portrait, in the form of
a beautiful parchment book bound in vellum, May 10, 1585, more than
three hundred years ago. Tlaxcala abounds in interesting relics of
ancient times. Among them are some very old portraits of the heroes of
former days, a cloak which belonged to a noble Indian of that time who
was the first to receive Christian baptism, and the wonderful standard
which once belonged to Cortés. The Church of San Francisco was the
first Catholic Church erected in the New World. Its architecture is
very original inside and out and dates from 1524. The pulpit has a very
peculiar form and exquisite filigraned work full of gilt carvings; and
the sacred vestments, beautifully embroidered in silver and gold, were
brought over from Spain and used in the first Roman Catholic service
in this country. These vestments are shown to-day, with the first
baptismal fountain. The Sanctuary is dedicated to the miraculous Virgin
of Ocotlan, and is situated on the summit of a little hill close to
the city. One curious thing about the temple is that one half of it is
an architecture of several centuries ago, the walls being covered with
the finest chiselled workmanship possible to imagine, and richly gilt,
while the other half is entirely of modern style splendidly sculptured
by modern artists. On the walls are hundreds of wax reproductions of
human limbs, left there by invalids who had been miraculously cured of
various diseases, and who celebrated their cures by giving the church
these symbols.
Tlaxcala is the capital of the State, which is bounded on the
northeast and south by the State of Puebla and on the west by Mexico.
Historically it is one of the most interesting states in the republic.
Almost every building in the capital is a relic of the olden times.
The Municipal Palace and a few modern homes, built with the open
courtyard, are the only new houses. This presents a marked contrast
with the old architecture. Through the enchanting San Martin valley
will run a new railroad that will prove a boon to the grain growers.
It will not only be an outlet for many rich properties and the grain
of the fertile valley but it will be the most picturesque route in the
republic. Wherever the railroads have gone the Indians are beginning to
forsake their native speech. In Tlaxcala one realizes that the Aztec
is not a dead language. The Governor of Tlaxcala, Colonel Prospero
Cahuantzi, has done much to develop and perpetuate Indian tradition and
institutions. He has published books to that end and also an ancient
Tlaxcalan record which gives a curious history of the conquest told in
pictures. He writes and speaks this language which is fast becoming
extinct. The Governor is a pure blooded Indian, born in Ixtulco, a
town situated a short distance from the City of Tlaxcala. For nearly
twenty years he has governed the State so wisely and so well that new
life has sprung into the old capital. Schools and private colleges are
now established and industry has entered upon a period of development.
There will be inaugurated this year an irrigation plant which will be
of great benefit to the vegetation of the State. The city is alive
with business and everything looks in a condition of prosperity. The
political division of the State consists of six districts, which are
subdivided into municipalities. Tlaxcala is the principal and most
important. It has a population of seven thousand five hundred. Three
railroads cross the State: the Mexican railroad which runs from Mexico
to Vera Cruz and the Apizaco branch to Puebla, the Interoceanic from
Mexico to Vera Cruz and Acapulco, and the Santa Anna and Tlaxcala road.
The State has various good wagon roads which lead to the neighboring
states. The telegraphic and telephonic service is good and extensive.
[Illustration: OLD CHURCH TOWER, TLAXCALA.]
The soil is productive and the lands are suitable for the cultivation
of all classes of fruits of the cold zone and all kinds of medicinal
plants. The maguey is extensively grown and produces large quantities
of pulque, a drink for the middle classes. It has excellent medicinal
qualities and is very nutritious, and is consumed greatly by the
inhabitants of the southern part of the republic. It is useful for
fibre of the best class and also makes good alcohol. The State includes
fertile and extensive plains, being occasionally broken by deep ravines
or bare hills. The most important mountain range in Tlaxcala is that
formed by the beautiful mountain of Malinche, or Malintzin. This peak
rises to a height of four thousand four hundred and sixty-one metres
above sea level and captivates the fancy by its imposing and fantastic
figure, as it represents the body of a woman covered by a shroud and
the head shining with the snow which forms a crown. Sometimes the
figure is lost among the clouds which envelop a part of the mountain.
Often these clouds are agitated by storms which render a spectacle
startling to look on and without equal in the republic of Mexico. The
climate is healthy, dry and cold, especially in the mountains, where
frosts are frequent throughout the winter. The mining in the state is
of importance. There are some silver, copper and lead mines. Iron,
lime, chalk, and clays of good quality exist.
Corn is the principal product, although everything grows in this rich
soil, and through the introduction of modern methods of agriculture the
produce of the State has been doubled.
There are distilleries for the production of alcohol, flour mills, and
factories of cotton goods and prints. These are all equipped with the
latest machinery.
In the Cuauhtemoc district there is a foundry for artistic bronze work
which has been doing work of great credit to the State.
[Illustration: SEÑOR CORONEL PROSPERO CAHUANTZI.]
Tlaxcala was the scene of much human tragedy during the Cortés
conquest. It is one of the oldest places in Mexico and it was founded
by the Chichimecs. They came on the grand plateau about the same time
as the kindred races, at the close of the twelfth century, and planted
themselves on the western border of Lake Tezcuco. Here they remained
many years engaged in the usual pursuits of a bold and partially
civilized people. From some cause they incurred the enmity of the
surrounding tribes; a coalition was formed against them and a bloody
battle was fought on the plains of Poyauhtlan in which the Tlaxcalans
were completely victorious. Disheartened with their residence among
nations with whom they found so little favor the conquering people
resolved to migrate. They separated into three divisions, the largest
of which taking a southern course by the great volcano of Mexico, wound
round the ancient city of Cholula and finally settled in the district
of country overshadowed by the Sierra of Tlaxcala. The warm and
fruitful valleys locked in the embrace of this brotherhood of mountains
afforded means of subsistence for an agricultural people, while the
bold eminences of the Sierra presented secure positions for their town.
Yellow harvests of maize and the bountiful maguey covered the rocky
hillside and contributed to the wealth of the little republic. Their
geographical position was encompassed with mountains and their warlike
bravery gave them a reputation as soldiers and excited the wonder of
Cortés and his army. Nowhere else did the Spaniards encounter such
troops or meet with such determined resistance, and the Spaniard was
quick to see that the Tlaxcalans would serve him much better as friends
than as enemies.
[Illustration: ARCHWAY ENTRANCE TO SAN FRANCISCO CONVENT.]
“Nothing could be more picturesque than the aspect of these Indian
battalions, with the naked bodies of the common soldiers gaudily
painted, the fantastic helmets of the chiefs glittering with gold
and precious stones, and the glowing panoplies of feather-work which
decorated their persons. Innumerable darts and spears, tipped with
points of transparent iztli, or fiery copper, sparkled bright in the
morning sun, like the phosphoric gleams playing on the surface of a
troubled sea, while the rear of the mighty host was dark with the
shadows of banners on which were emblazoned the armorial bearings of
the great Tlaxcalan and Otomi chieftains. Among these, the white heron
on the rock, the cognizance of the house of Xicotencatl was conspicuous
and still more the golden eagle with outspread wings, in the fashion of
a Roman signum, richly ornamented with emeralds and silver-work, the
great standard of the republic of Tlaxcala.
[Illustration: SACRED WELL OF OCOTLAN.]
“The common file wore no covering except a girdle around the loins.
Their bodies were painted with appropriate colors of the chieftain
whose banner they followed. The feather-mail of the higher class of
warriors exhibited also a similar selection of colors for the like
object, in the same manner as the colors of the tartan indicate the
peculiar clan of the Highlander. The caciques and principal warriors
were clothed in quilted cotton tunics two inches thick, which, fitting
close to the body, protected also the thighs and the shoulders. Over
these the wealthier Indians wore cuirasses of thin gold plate or
silver. Their legs were defended by leathern boots or sandals trimmed
with gold. But the most brilliant part of their costumes was a rich
mantle of the _Plumaje_ or feather work, embroidered with curious
art, and furnishing some resemblance to the gorgeous surcoat worn by
the European knight over his armor in the middle ages. This graceful
and picturesque dress was surmounted by a fantastic head-piece, made
of wood or leather, representing the head of some wild animal, and
frequently displaying a formidable array of teeth. With this covering
the warrior’s head was enveloped, producing a most picturesque and
hideous effect. From the crown floated a splendid panache of the richly
variegated plumage of the tropics, indicating by its form and colors
the rank and family of the wearer. To complete this defensive armor,
they carried shields or targets made sometimes of wood covered with
leather, but more usually of a light frame of reed quilted with cotton,
which were preferred as tougher and less liable to fracture than the
former. They had other bucklers in which the cotton was covered with
an elastic substance, enabling them to be shut up in a more compact
form, like a fan or umbrella. These shields were decorated with showy
ornaments, according to the taste or wealth of the wearer, and fringed
with a beautiful pendant of feather-work.
[Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROYAL CHURCH, TLAXCALA.]
“Their weapons were slings, bows and arrows, javelins, and darts. They
were accomplished archers, and would discharge two or even three arrows
at a time. But they most excelled in throwing the javelin. One species
of this, with a thong attached to it, which remained in the slinger’s
hand that he might recall the weapon, was especially dreaded by the
Spaniards. These various weapons were pointed with bone or the mineral
iztli (obsidian), the hard substance already noticed as capable of
taking an edge like a razor, though easily blunted. Their spears and
arrows were also frequently headed with copper. Instead of a sword they
bore a two-handed staff about three and a half feet long, in which at
regular distances were inserted, transversely, sharp blades of iztli,
a formidable weapon, which, as an eye-witness assures us, he had seen
fell a horse at a blow.
“Such was the costume of the Tlaxcalan warrior, and of that great
family of nations generally who occupied the plateau of Anahuac.”
Their weapons, even with their bravery, were no match for the military
science of the Spaniards; and after four terrible battles, preceded
by a good deal of sharp skirmishing, the Tlaxcalans were defeated.
After some political delays they were completely subdued and became
the faithful allies of the Spaniards. Had this not been effected,
it is doubtful if Cortés’s name would have descended as “the great
conqueror,” at least in Mexico.
Tlaxcala City dates far back of Cortés’s arrival in the place, where
he fought and subdued with such excellent effect. The very air is
alive with romance and tradition. Age, hoary and musty, is stamped
everywhere, although the people are wideawake and prosperous.
The houses were built for the most part of mud or earth, the better
sort, of stone and lime, or of bricks dried in the sun. They were
unimproved with doors or windows but in the apertures of the former
hung mats fringed with pieces of copper or something which by its
tinkling sound gave notice of anyone’s entrance.
The streets were narrow and dark. The people gathered in the market
places on a public day. These meetings were fairs, held, in all
great towns, every fifth day, and attended by the inhabitants of the
adjacent country, who brought there for sale every description of
domestic produce and manufacture with which they were acquainted.
They peculiarly excelled in pottery, which was considered equal to
the best in Europe. It is further proof of civilized habits that the
Spaniards found baths, both of vapor and of hot water, familiarly used
by the inhabitants. A still higher proof of refinement was discerned
in the existence of a vigilant police which suppressed everything like
disorder.
The ancient capital, through one-quarter of which flowed the rapid
current of the Zahuatl, stretched along the summits and sides of
the hills, at whose base are now gathered the remnant of its once
flourishing population. Far beyond, to the southeast, extended the
bold Sierra of Tlaxcala, and the huge Malinche, crowned with the
usual silver diadem of the highest Andes, its shaggy sides clothed
with dark green forests of firs, gigantic sycamores, and oaks whose
towering stems rose to the height of forty or fifty feet unencumbered
by a branch. The bleak winds of the Sierra gave an austerity to the
climate unlike the sunny skies and genial temperature of the lower
regions; it was far more favorable to development of both the physical
and the moral energies. A bold and hardy peasantry was nurtured among
the recesses of the hills, fit equally to cultivate the land in peace
and to defend it in war. Unlike the spoiled child of Nature, who
derives such facilities of subsistence from her too prodigal hand as
supersede the necessity of exertion on his part, the Tlaxcalan earned
his bread--not from an ungrateful soil--by the sweat of his brow.
He led a life of temperance and toil. Cut off by his long wars with
the Aztecs from a commercial intercourse he was driven chiefly to
agricultural labor, the occupation most propitious to purity of morals
and sinewy strength of constitution. His honest breast glowed with
patriotism, or local attachment to the soil, which is the fruit of its
diligent culture, while he was elevated by a proud consciousness of
independence, the natural birthright of the child of the mountains.
Such was the race with whom Cortés was associated for the achievement
of his great work.
[Illustration: LA PARROQUIA.]
Few people, perhaps none except scientists, know that in the heart of
this ancient State is a race of pygmies. They are small of stature,
with dark-brown skin, broad faces, and shocks of black tangled hair.
They are very shy and wild-looking and wear serapes made of coarse
sacking. Fine clearings on the hill-slopes extend almost to the crest
of the mountains. Flourishing fields of grain, cattle grazing in the
pastures, and log houses of substantial construction surrounded by neat
little enclosures are occupied by these peaceful little men and women.
Up in that region, between Ajutla and Juquila, is a marvelous lake
of clouds. A deep blue sky and brilliant southern sun, without a
suggestion of mist in the still air, make the place wonderful on a
grand scale. Clad with foliage clear to the summit, the great ridge
forms half of a mighty amphitheatre whose sides are furrowed by
mountain torrents. Five distant mountains form the wall of an oval
valley with lower peaks running parallel. At one side a spur juts out,
making the only notable break in the enclosing rim. The great lake
seems to approach this edge like a mighty river and pour over the great
precipice like a dozen Niagaras combined in one. It is a cloud-lake,
mighty, mysterious and noiseless, making one of the greatest wonders in
this region of wonders.
The Tlaxcala of to-day is situated in the centre of a beautiful country
and has illimitable advantages. It is a favorite spot for the artist
and student. Governor Prospero Cahuantzi has a most interesting and
unique personality, and his hospitality to strangers is one of the
reasons of the popularity of the capital city. A visit to Mexico is not
complete without seeing this remarkable old historical place.
[Illustration: OLDEST PULPIT AND ALTAR IN AMERICA.]
[Illustration: ZOCALO IN REAL DEL MONTE.]
[Illustration: PANORAMA OF MINERAL DEL CHICO.]
CHAPTER XVII
HIDALGO
Richly endowed by Nature, the State of Hidalgo contains throughout its
extent, rich metalliferous deposits exceeding the wealth of Ormuz or
of Ind. The innumerable enterprises for developing this country have
produced marvellous results in mining its great resources.
Besides silver ore, lead, gold and iron, some precious stones abound.
It is rich in woods and luxurious verdure.
This State bears the name of the great patriot, Hidalgo. It has a
cluster of prosperous cities, El Salto, San Antonio, Marquez, Nopala,
Cazbero, along the lines of the Mexican Central, Pachuca the busy
capital, Tlaxcoapan, Rosal, Temoaya and Concepcion are on a branch
line. It is a comparatively small State but it ranks as one of great
importance, being a prolific source of agriculture and manufacture as
well as mineral wealth, which has attracted the attention of the world.
With a splendid chain of railroads and tramways, all parts of the State
are easy to reach.
Majestic mountains, valleys, and plains add to the natural beauty of
the State and this part of the republic enjoys a pleasant but varied
climate.
Few rivers are found, but there is one famous water-fall, called
the Regla Cascade, some mineral springs of medicinal note, and the
beautiful lakes of Metztitlan, Tecomulco, Apam, Zupitlan.
In the district of Pachuca are the mining camps, Zimapan, Jacala, and
Cancando. Cancando, a magnetic iron mountain ten thousand feet high,
appears to be one mass of iron so rich as to contain about eighty
per cent. of pure iron. The ore, however, is so rich that a flux is
required to smelt it. These mines were not exploited until after the
war of independence, although as early as 1824 many mining claims in
that district were taken up and denounced, among them San Antonio, El
Carmen, San Cosme and Las Animas.
Encarnacion has an up-to-date works, producing a million and a half
kilos of bar iron per year and possesses all the modern equipments.
One of the best known gold mines of the early days of New Spain was
San José del Oro, ten thousand feet above the sea. It is difficult of
access and is not worked to any great extent at the present day.
[Illustration: GOVERNOR SEÑOR DON PEDRO RODRIGUEZ.]
The State of Hidalgo produces millions of dollars worth of silver per
year from its two mineral centres. Among the most notable mines of the
district are Zimapan, San Martin, San Judas; of the Real del Monte
groups, San Francisco, Santa Gertrudis, San Eugenio, San Rafael, San
Miguel Tajo and Barron.
Pachuca has twelve reduction works; El Chico, nine; Real del Monte,
eight; and Zimapan, eight. There are in this State many iron works and
in the districts of Zacualtipan and Huejutla are deposits of coal now
developed by an important company. In Molango are graphite deposits.
The mines in Pachuca were worked by the Spaniards in 1523, only two
years after the conquest and untold millions have been withdrawn from
the inexhaustible resource where busy men to-day still delve with the
same eagerness as in the days of old.
[Illustration: THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE.]
This is one of the few districts in the world where the plant vanilla
grows, which contributes to the enormous, almost fabulous, riches of
some of the Mexican planters. In this State is found the same class
of maguey as in Mexico. It is called the marvel plant and is the very
highest quality and largest yield. In Apam, Pachuca and Tula all
classes of cereals are produced and Apam and Pachuca are the greatest
centres for the production of pulque. In the hotter districts coffee,
india rubber and other valuable products yield splendid bounty to the
farmers and there is abundant supply of medicinal plants and valuable
cabinet woods. The yield of pulque is about a gallon and a half a day
for each plant during three months of the year. This industry alone
yields millions of dollars a year in the State of Hidalgo. Mescal, a
highly intoxicating liquor, ordinarily called Tequila, is made at the
Tequila Hacienda. It is one of the popular drinks among certain classes
and is noted for its fiery strength, which none but a cultivated taste
can endure.
The capital, Pachuca, is most interesting, with characteristics of
a miners’ town. The houses are built with an idea of comfort and
their appearance is somewhat different from the dwellings one sees
in other large cities. American and English capital has taken a firm
hold and the spirit of enterprise and energy has given this city the
appearance of a business centre. The hotels are alive with mining men
and travelers of staunch purpose, the colonies are alert with social
enjoyment, while the government of the city is conducted with zealous
care and attention. The conditions of the state, especially under the
present Governor, lend themselves most favorably to the establishment
of new enterprises.
[Illustration: SAN JULIO MINE.]
Señor Don Pedro Ladislao Rodriguez was born in the State of Oaxaca,
from whence came so many of Mexico’s noted statesmen. He has given his
energies and active service to his country. He fought in the War of the
Reform, the War of the Intervention, and afterward retired to a private
life of strenuous work. He became expert in all branches of telegraphy,
erected lines between Mexico City and various capitals of the states,
besides being the director and manager of telegraph offices throughout
the republic. He evinced such strong interest in political affairs
that he was elected to Congress and through his strength and splendid
bearing in public matters he rose to the prominence of one of Mexico’s
leading political powers. Since assuming this important office, he has
dedicated his best efforts to the advancement of his State. Through
his wise administration, Hidalgo has paid its public debt, has a large
surplus in the treasury, and the government has been placed on a
splendid business basis. Public instruction is one of the main features
of the administration of this able executive. He is endeavoring
to wipe out illiteracy among the people; the school system has
attracted widespread attention. There is a Scientific and Industrial
Literary Institute in which are prosecuted the studies necessary for
the occupations of assaying, topographic, hydrographic, and mining
engineering. There is also a practical mining school belonging to the
Federal Government where all practical training in mining exploitation
under professors of Metallurgy is acquired.
[Illustration: STATUE OF HIDALGO.]
Pachuca has splendid architecture and some old palaces and churches
form an interesting spectacle of the city. It is considered one of
the most prosperous cities in the republic, in proportion to its
population, and its rich metal districts make it noted as one of the
most celebrated mining centres of the world.
The churches, La Parroquia, San Francisco and San Juan de Dios are
notable for their solid masonry and size. A beautiful theatre, a
literary institute of higher education and good charitable institutions
are among the more notable buildings. Private academies flourish and a
Protestant church built by the English-speaking colony help to make
this city picturesque and interesting, with its admixture of ancient
and modern architecture.
[Illustration: HACIENDA LORETO.]
During the month of September, when the Mexicans were celebrating
their Centennial of Independence, this capital was foremost in its
enthusiasm. Triumphant arches were erected, the city was festooned
in gay national colors, myriads of lights gave a dazzling appearance
of gaiety and the ceremonials that took place were very imposing.
New schools were inaugurated, new monuments dedicated and all public
buildings opened officially.
Tula is a city built upon a series of terraces in a beautiful valley
teeming with tropical flowers and foliage. It is noted for Toltec
ruins and relics which have been found there. The old church built
three hundred years ago has walls seven feet thick and the tower is
one hundred and twenty-five feet high. It lies in the valley which the
Toltecs entered when they came southward in 648, over twelve hundred
and fifty years ago. A thousand years ago Tula was an important town
and was the capital of Mexico until 1325. Proof of this antiquity lies
everywhere--the grand houses, the broken columns, and quaint images
that are still remaining relics in the present town. Here is the
witchery of an old world, shadowy people, vague and mystical rights
and ceremonies. In the small Plaza stand the remains of old gods, and
crumbling into dust is an old pyramid, built many centuries ago. Where
once the idolatrous worship of the Aztecs took place, a purer religion
of to-day is worshipped and the people have thrown off the lethargy
of the past. There are three ancient bridges in this vicinity. It is
claimed that one of these bridges was built in 210 A.D., the ruins of
which remain, forming a picturesque bit of Tula.
[Illustration: XATAL MINE.]
“The Treasury of Montezuma,” now in ruins, is on the top of the hill.
There are two distinct kinds of fragmentary walls, eight feet thick.
There is one large room thirty-two feet long with the chunam flooring
nearly perfect. The people of Tula visit these ruins continually,
believing many treasures to be concealed there. They dream dreams, and
then go out and sink pits in the flooring, hoping to enrich themselves
with wonderful treasures of Montezuma’s time.
There are other strange relics of ancient times on another hill near
Tula. These are carved rocks resting upon a stratum of adobe, below
which the hill slopes down to the river precipitously. The carvings are
symbolical, and are supposed to have been made about 1160 A.D. in the
Chichimec era.
[Illustration: REAL DEL MONTE MINE.]
The canal of Nochistongo is an open cut about twelve miles long with an
average depth of one hundred and eighty feet and an average width of
three hundred feet, but one part is six hundred feet wide. It was built
in 1607, to save the city of Mexico from the floods of Lake Tezcuco. It
can be seen from the railroad, the trains passing along the side of the
cut.
In the Barranca of Itzala nature has been very lavish in her imposing
and majestic beauty. The mountains of this State are unusually high and
picturesque. The Sierras of Pachuca have lost much of their beauty on
account of the mining camps interspersed, but the cañon of the virgin
Omitlan affords beautiful views. The principal mountain chain is in
Zacualtipan and Metztiplan which forms deep ravines and is a beautiful
aspect to the lover of nature. Journeys through these mountains on the
road to the different mining camps are very interesting.
[Illustration: SAN RAFAEL MINE.]
[Illustration: OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL RAILWAYS OF MEXICO.]
[Illustration: DEVIL’S BACKBONE, TOMASOPO CAÑON.]
CHAPTER XVIII
TRANSPORTATION
The position of Mexico on the western continent is so commanding as
to assure it an ever-growing participation in the world’s commerce.
With the coming of the locomotive a wilderness was transformed into a
busy world. Eager miners have peopled the hills; industrious tillers,
the fruitful valleys; the lumbermen have taken from the forests great
timbers; a chain of central marts has stretched from border to border,
joined by the magic steel way; and in many sections great industries
have been established to convert raw products into materials demanded
by modern civilization. The transformation has been complete and has
given birth to new ambitions and imparted new energies to the people.
The development of the material resources of a nation is directly
dependent on the means of transportation and communication which it
possesses. For centuries the great mineral wealth of Mexico has been
liberally exploited and means of transportation secured, beginning with
the forced labor of the Indians enslaved by the conquerors and passing
through the intermediate stages of muleback and wagon-road till the
modern railway appeared, to take the treasures of the mountain afar.
Vast as these resources were, they were little better than wasted
treasure without the means of transportation to domestic and foreign
markets.
The great change in means of transportation came late to Mexico.
Political troubles long dominated national thought and absorbed the
energy of the people. It was not until 1873, that the first railroad
was opened from Mexico to Vera Cruz. From the moment that settled
political conditions had been secured the people of Mexico turned to
the task of developing railroad transportation and during the terms
of General Diaz the extension of railroads has assumed a leading and
constant policy of the government, the fruits of which are manifest
in commerce, which has been enormously expanded; the active wealth
of the nation increased; new industries introduced; cities and towns
established and the general comfort and convenience of the people
greatly augmented. With this enterprise in land transportation, there
has been a persistent activity in providing port and harbor facilities.
The progress and management of the railroads have always been
assiduously observed by the government and the laws controlling them
have been justly and liberally applied. Nevertheless, many conditions
have operated to prevent a uniformly direct and efficient supervision
commensurate with the growing importance of the service.
In order to protect the people of Mexico, the government deemed it a
duty to acquire a more efficient control by ownership of stock. In
1902, the government purchased five million dollars of the stock of
the Interoceanic Railway, which was to become the pivotal operation on
which turned the great merger-system. In 1903, the Minister of Finance
concluded negotiations with the interests in control of the National
Railroad, which were making strenuous efforts to obtain control of the
Interoceanic, by which the government acquired the majority holding in
the National, which system was to be reorganized, the government giving
as part consideration for its purchase the Interoceanic stock. It was
expected that this degree of intervention would be sufficient to enable
the government to prevent harmful combination of ownership.
In 1906, the Mexican Central road was threatened with absorption by
American financiers, an outcome that would be exceedingly in opposition
to the policy of the government. A plan was adopted by Congress
providing for the consolidation of the National and the Central
systems by means of a new company, entirely Mexican, the majority of
the shares in which the government should own. This plan required no
cash payment for such shares, but the stock of the government in the
National reverted to the new company and the government guaranteed an
issue of bonds by it. The new concern was incorporated in July, 1907,
with a bond capital of eight hundred and thirty-four millions and share
capital of four hundred and sixty millions, Mexican currency value.
[Illustration: OLDEST RAILWAY STATION IN THE WORLD, CUAUTLA.]
The merged systems included in the National Railways of Mexico are
the former Mexican Central, the National, the International, the
Interoceanic, and the Hidalgo and Northeastern, whose combined mileage
is seven thousand and twelve. Besides these, the absolute ownership of
the Tehuantepec National and the Vera Cruz and Isthmus Road is vested
in the government. The result of this master-policy is that seventy
per cent. of the trackage of roads built under concessions from the
National Government is now either actually owned or controlled by it.
The National Railways of Mexico offer six different routes between the
United States and Mexico. A distinguished American, Mr. E. N. Brown, is
the President of the National Railways.
The importance of control of the railroads by the government cannot
be overestimated in considering the development of the country. It
operates as a salutary check on the independent roads in the matter of
tolls and as an incentive to better service and enlarged facilities;
it was an indispensable policy in view of the ineffectual control or
supervision possible under the general railway law, if the government
would regulate the management of railways, to secure proper advantages
to Mexico, and prevent the growth of corporate influence which might
even menace that of the government. The broad national policy assures
full protection to industries, to capitalists, and to communities
by protection against arbitrary regulations, discriminations, and
the rest of the great brood of evils that have attended the march of
railroad financing in the United States. It will tend to general and
steady development of newer sections as the result of a comprehensive
oversight that will extend inland facilities for national development
to the full limit of the powers of the government and settlers, and
investors will not be slow to realize the great advantages to them of
stable progressive transportation facilities.
[Illustration: NOCHISTONGO CUT, BUILT BY THE AZTECS TO DRAIN
THE VALLEY OF MEXICO.]
Of the Board of Directors, twelve reside in Mexico and nine in New
York. This progressive move is part of the general effort being made
throughout Mexico to arrange for adequate land and sea transportation
of its products. New lines of railway are being opened up in the
interior on the west coast to meet the requirements of new steamship
connections, either established or projected. Additional steamers
are being put upon services already operating and branch connections
are being made over new land routes. The Tehuantepec Railway, which
crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, carrying freights received from
the steamship lines plying between the great ports of the United
States and the eastern and western termini, transported during the
first year of its operation merchandise to the value of between
twenty-five and thirty million dollars, and in the second year to the
value of thirty-eight million dollars. This road, which is nearly
one hundred and ninety miles in length, was constructed chiefly with
British capital and controlled, in part at least, by the Mexican
Government, and was built for the specific purpose of handling freight
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The harbor of Salina Cruz,
the Pacific terminus of this railway, is equipped with breakwaters
inclosing a harbor area of over one hundred and thirty acres, of which
ninety-six have a depth of thirty-three feet, and a drydock capable of
accommodating the largest ship on the Pacific Ocean. The wharves are
furnished with electric derricks and every modern appliance for the
handling of the enormous traffic of the Tehuantepec line.
[Illustration: ROCK BELOW CHONEBRIDGE, MEXICAN NATIONAL
RAILWAY.]
Principal roads which are not included in the Government’s merger
are the Mexican, the pioneer road in the republic, extending from
Mexico City to Vera Cruz; the Vera Cruz and Isthmus, from Cordoba to
Santa Lucrecia, and its branch line from Vera Cruz to Tierra Blanca
on its main line; the Pan-American, from Gamboa, Oaxaca, to the
Guatemalan frontier; and the Tehuantepec National from the gulf port
of Puerto Mexico to Salina Cruz on the Pacific. On the west coast is
the great system of the Southern Pacific of Mexico which connects
Nogales, Arizona, with Guadalajara, Jalisco. Short gaps are now
under construction. The trade is constantly increasing and there are
improvements in the service.
This system opens up a magnificent country of boundless and
varied resources unsurpassably rich in minerals and agricultural
possibilities, capable of sustaining in prosperity several million
people. It is a country with a great future that borders on the
present. Another great system in course of completion is the Kansas
City, Mexico and Orient Line, whose route within Mexico extends six
hundred and thirty-five miles from Presidio del Norte on the Rio Grande
to the port of Topolobampo, in Sinaloa.
Altogether there are some fifty railroads in operation within the
republic and the work of extension and construction is in constant
progress. The mere statement of systems, routes and mileage affords
but a meagre and uninforming presentment of the great transportation
facilities in Mexico.
[Illustration: TEQUIXQUIAC TUNNEL.]
On December 12, 1908, President Diaz formally opened the new railroad
from Guadalajara to Manzanillo.
The rail communication established between Guadalajara and Colima and
thence over the line already in operation to Manzanillo gives Mexico
a second transcontinental railway connecting the two oceans. The
Tehuantepec Railway is, of course, the principal and shortest route
across the continent, but now it becomes possible to leave the steamer
at Tampico or Vera Cruz and to travel overland through Guadalajara to
Manzanillo with only two changes of cars.
[Illustration: CAÑON WEST SALAZAR, NATIONAL RAILWAY.]
Increased exports of native products, including sugar, are reported
since the opening of the rail connections to the coast, and large
shipments of wheat are being received in Guadalajara and Zapotlan.
Steamship communication with Pacific ports and those of China and Japan
have been inaugurated, and Manzanillo, as a port of entry, will receive
much merchandise which formerly had to be forwarded overland from
Tampico.
Manzanillo is one of the oldest and most celebrated ports of the
republic. When the important port-works at Manzanillo are terminated
it will be one of the best equipped and most desirable harbors on the
Pacific Coast. The port-works are being built by Colonel E. K. Smoot,
an American engineer.
This operation has been in the course of construction since 1899,
and when completed will give the harbor an area of one hundred and
sixty-five acres and a depth of thirty-nine feet, thus enabling it to
accommodate seagoing vessels of deep draught. The breakwater is one of
the largest of its kind in the world, surpassing those of Cherbourg,
France, and Plymouth, England. It is four hundred metres long, one
hundred wide, and twenty-four deep, constructed of large stones and
granite blocks weighing from fifty to sixty tons each.
Within the coast lines of two thousand eight hundred miles on the
Pacific and one thousand six hundred miles on the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean Sea, Mexico has no less than twenty-four ports on
the Gulf of Mexico and thirty-one on the Pacific Ocean. Most of the
natural harbors of Mexico are on the Pacific side, among them the
splendid Bay of Acapulco, considered one of the most beautiful of the
world. While the Atlantic side offers but few natural ports, some of
them, especially Vera Cruz, and Tampico, have been improved and made
accessible, so much so, that these two ports are now the most important
commercial centres.
Following are the ports of entry open to foreign trade, the other ports
handling coastwise trade only:
GULF PORTS: Campeche, Coatzacoalcos (Puerto Mexico), Chetumal,
Frontera, Isla del Carmen, Isla de Mujeres, Progreso, Puerto Morelos,
Tampico, Tuxpan, and Vera Cruz.
PACIFIC PORTS: Acapulco, Altata, Bahia de la Magdelena, Guaymas, La
Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Blas, Santa
Rosalia, Todos los Santos, Tonala and San Benito.
Mexico may be reached from the sea by several lines, either from New
York or the Gulf ports of the United States, or via San Francisco, or
by one of the numerous lines plying between European and Mexican ports.
[Illustration: VIEW ON THE INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY.]
The New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, Ward Line, maintains a
regular service between New York and Vera Cruz and other Mexican ports.
The fleet of the Ward Line has an aggregate tonnage of nearly
seventy-five thousand. This embraces as staunch, fast and comfortable
ships as are operated from any port in the world. They are
full-powered, of the most modern construction, built expressly for this
service, and offer all the luxury of travel combined with the greatest
degree of safety.
[Illustration: DRY DOCK, SALINA CRUZ.]
The ships of this company are all built under contract with the United
States Government and are required to undergo a rigid examination
by naval officers before being placed in the service. They are
exceptionally seaworthy vessels, and as, in the event of war, powerful
batteries would be installed on them, they are necessarily strongly
built. The service of the company is well known. Passengers who go by
the Ward Line for the first time do not fail to remark the unusual
interest taken in their comfort and enjoyment of the voyage by the
officers of the ship, and the exceptional attention of the stewards and
attendants. It is this hospitable solicitude for the welfare of its
patrons and the splendid cuisine and comfortable quarters that make the
general passenger-service of the company equal in all respects to that
of a high-class hotel.
The itinerary of the Ward Line is very complete, covering, with
railroad connections, practically all points in Mexico.
The largest and fastest steamers are operated in the express service
between New York and Vera Cruz; steamers call at Havana, Cuba, and
Progreso, Mexico. At Vera Cruz, the terminal of this route, rail
connections are made with the Mexican Railway and the Interoceanic
Railway, connecting with the Mexican Southern Railway for all interior
points. Direct steamers ply between New York and Tampico, Mexico.
There is a fast freight line running from London direct to Havana,
Puerto Mexico, Vera Cruz and Tampico, with sailings every four weeks.
This belongs to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and is one of the
oldest steamship lines touching Mexican ports. It dates back to 1840,
and was one time a passenger service between England and Mexico.
The Mexican-American Steamship Company, the Wolvin Line, the
Compania Transatlantica and the Compania Mexicana de Navegacion, the
American-Hawaiian Steamship Company have established regular steamers
to Mexico.
The Munson Steamship Line to Cuba and Mexico has contracted with the
Mexican Government for a service of at least two round trips per month
between ports of the United States on the Atlantic Coast or the Gulf of
Mexico and one or more Mexican Gulf ports. The term of the contract is
for three years from January, 1909.
[Illustration: TELEGRAPH OFFICE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT.]
On the Pacific side, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company provides the
means of communication, its steamers sail regularly every ten days from
San Francisco, calling at Mazatlan, San Blas, Manzanillo, Acapulco, and
Salina Cruz, making the run from San Francisco to Salina Cruz in eleven
days, while the time employed between San Francisco and the other
ports varies according to their respective distances. This company have
established a through service from San Francisco to Panama, making the
trip much shorter.
This offers a splendid chance to see the Pacific side of Mexico. The
steamers are luxurious and pass through the most tropical part of the
republic. This is a favorite route to New York, as it touches at Panama
and connects with the Panama Railroad and Steamship Line for New York.
The steamers of this line are noted for comfort and elegance.
The Panama Railroad is the great International highway between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and gives the passengers an opportunity of
seeing the famous Panama Canal now under construction.
The Pacific Coast Steamship Company’s vessels leave San Francisco
on the seventh of every month, calling at Ensenada, Magdalena Bay,
Mazatlan, Altata, La Paz, Topolobampo, Santa Rosalia and Guaymas. The
steamers of the Kosmos Line sail from San Francisco every two or three
weeks and call at Mazatlan, San Blas, Manzanillo, Acapulco, Salina
Cruz, Tonala and San Benito.
The Jebsen Line issues through bills of lading to all interior points
and passenger tickets into Mexico via the newly-opened railways from
Manzanillo.
Several lines of steamers maintain a regular coastwise service between
the different ports of Mexico, the most important of these being the
Campania Naviera del Pacifico, which is subsidized by the Mexican
Government.
The French Steamship Company, the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique,
has inaugurated a regular freight service between France and Puerto
Mexico, the Atlantic terminal of the Tehuantepec Railway.
The Italian Navigation Company of Genoa also has in contemplation a
steamer service to Puerto Mexico.
It is from this port that Hawaiian sugar shipped over the Isthmian
route is forwarded on the Atlantic side. The sugar is carried by the
American-Hawaiian Steamship Company to Salina Cruz on a schedule
providing for three steamers a month, with an average cargo of twelve
thousand tons each. It is estimated that over three hundred and
seventy-five thousand tons of sugar were handled over the Tehuantepec
Railroad in 1910. Additional ships are to be added to the Honolulu, San
Francisco, and Salina Cruz service, as the requirements of the traffic
make it necessary.
In the month of November, 1908, Congress passed a law establishing a
system of receipts for postal money orders both at home and abroad, the
former being inaugurated February 1, 1909, and the latter, embracing
Canada, Germany, France, Great Britain and Salvador, on March 1, 1909.
Through the German service a system of postal money orders was also
established between Mexico and Turkey, and the parcels-post rates with
Germany are modified.
The federal telegraph lines in the republic have an extension of
forty thousand and six hundred and forty miles and new offices are
being opened in accordance with the needs of the service. Government
adherence to the International Wireless Convention, signed at Berlin,
Germany, November 30, 1906, has been announced. Wireless telegraph
stations have been installed in Lower California, placing that district
in communication with the rest of the republic.
Señor Camilo Gonzalez is the director of the Federal Telegraph of
Mexico and under his splendid supervision the system has been much
improved. In June, 1900, there were two million eight hundred and
thirty-three thousand two hundred and ninety-six messages transmitted
and in the same month of 1910, four million four hundred and sixty-six
thousand eight hundred and sixty-six messages were sent.
[Illustration: TOMASOPO CAÑON.]
[Illustration: THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE.]
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL.]
CHAPTER XIX
OAXACA
The road to Oaxaca leads through a great amphitheatre of lofty and
mighty mountains with rushing water at the base and flecks of green
fields and beautiful foliage sweeping out into the distance. This
State is known as the cradle of the patriots. The influence of the
native land of the president has been felt throughout the republic,
for no State has furnished such brilliant men, such valiant soldiers,
financiers and able statesmen. The echoes of history resound with the
brave deeds of Benito Juarez, Porfirio Diaz, Romera and Mariscal.
Oaxaca, one of the largest of the Mexican States, has an area of over
sixty thousand square miles. It lies between the States of Puebla and
Vera Cruz on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the south. The lower or
eastern end of the State is part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Here,
as in most other Mexican States, there are three distinct zones of
vegetation. In the mountains, of which there are several ranges, and on
the higher plains, the crops and timber are similar to those of the
northern United States. Below the foothills, corn, cotton, sugar and
tobacco are the principal crops and in the very deep valleys and toward
the coast the vegetation is purely tropical.
More than one-third of the population, estimated at about one
million, are pure blooded Indians, mostly belonging to tribes of the
Zapotec nation. These people are great fighters and delight in war;
notwithstanding, during the administration of President Diaz, they
realized the benefit of peace and order and the charm of industry.
Great herds of cattle are the main support in the central parts of the
State. It has long been the custom to drive the exportable surplus of
these cattle to Mexico and Puebla, the trip consuming three months,
but since the railways are finished the profits of the ranchmen have
increased by the easier transportation.
Two main lines now serve parts of the State. One, the Mexican Southern,
runs from Puebla to Oaxaca, and the other, the Tehuantepec, crosses the
foot of the State.
The hospitality of Oaxacans is well known. It is sufficient to knock
at any door in that charming State to have it opened with offers of
shelter, food, and friendliness, without money and without price. Until
within a few years, inns and hotels were unknown, the hospitality among
the private houses doing away with the need of such accommodations.
The friendship and affection of the Oaxacans for one another are
proverbial. Social reunions are constantly held, and there is much
gaiety and light-heartedness in consequence.
From its geographical position, geological formation, fuel and water,
means of communication and climate, the State of Oaxaca is a veritable
paradise for the prospector and capitalist seeking investment in mining
properties. Two vast mountain ranges traverse the State from north to
south, whose peaks in many cases rise to an altitude of from ten to
twelve thousand feet.
These mountain ranges, which are the culminations of the Rocky
Mountains of the United States and the Sierra Madre of Southern Mexico,
are highly mineralized throughout their length and breadth.
The principal metals found in these hills are gold, silver, copper,
lead, and iron, either free or in various combinations and with one
another. The veins carrying free gold are those most extensively worked
and although comparatively few mines have been opened up, those which
have been are producing large quantities of exceedingly rich mineral.
The whole State is practically an unexplored field, only a few
districts have been superficially prospected.
[Illustration: STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ.]
Oaxaca is a maritime State and extends farther south than any other in
Mexico. The great chain of the Mexican Andes crosses the State giving
it some of the most magnificent scenery in the entire republic. Chains
and ridges make a surprisingly picturesque and beautiful variety to the
country. The most remarkable summit is that of Zempoaltepec, in the
district of Villata, which rises to an elevation of eleven thousand
five hundred and forty-two feet, and from the top of which may be had
magnificent views of the country, with glimpses of both the Atlantic
and the Pacific Oceans. The climate of Oaxaca is in general very
salubrious, for, although it is nearer the equator than other states,
its high mountainous altitudes give it healthful breezes. Besides its
vast mining resources the agricultural possibilities of Oaxaca are
practically limitless. All the products of the temperate zone are
raised in great abundance, while the more profitable ones of the torrid
zone abound. The cacao raised here is the best in the world, while the
annual yield of cochineal is about five hundred thousand pounds. The
cultivation of fruit is one of the most profitable enterprises. There
are various fibrous plants such as maguey, ramie, and the sisal hemp.
These plants require no care, some of them being used as hedges to
divide fields or estates. The government encourages foreign enterprise
and favors colonists in every way, including exemption from taxation
for a period of ten years; freedom from import duties on all goods,
machinery, building material or cattle coming into the country for
their use, and exemption from military service.
Waterpowers are countless. The many in use driving large factories or
producing electric light and power for the cities and mines.
Before the Spanish rule, Oaxaca was the source of much mineral wealth,
the native records indicating this region as the principal source of
the precious metals.
Many of these old workings have been reopened in the last few years, a
smelter has been erected in Oaxaca City and many reduction works have
been built in the mining country. The ores contain gold and silver,
copper and silver, and copper.
Although Oaxaca is practically an agricultural state, there are a great
many manufactures.
The State and especially the Valley of Oaxaca and its tributaries are
rich in subjects for research and have never had the attention their
importance demands.
The city is two hundred and eighty-eight miles south of the capital of
the republic and a mile above sea level. It was founded in 1486, under
the name of Huaxyacac and fell under the Spanish rule in 1528. It has
a rapidly increasing population of forty thousand. The streets are
regularly laid out, wide and spacious, and the houses are handsome and
substantial. The principal buildings are the Cathedral, the Santuario
de la Soledad, and other churches and convents gorgeously decorated.
[Illustration: STATUE OF GENERAL ANTONIO DE LEÓN.]
There are also the Cabildo, or city hall, the Episcopal Palace, the
government buildings, and several handsome plazas, embellished with
flowers, trees, and fountains.
The surrounding country is remarkably picturesque, being literally
covered with flower gardens and cochineal groves. The hospital in
Oaxaca is one of the best in Mexico. The city is extremely pleasant.
Its houses are white and on the balconies every day may be seen groups
of young people well-dressed and cheerful, giving a festive air to
the whole city. The government palace is magnificent, recalling the
splendor of the edifices of the time of the viceroys.
[Illustration: FAÇADE OF THE CASINO.]
In the Plaza de Armas is a monument to the patriot Juarez, one of the
most elegant in Mexico. The park of Guadalupe is very delightful, large
and stately with flowers and groves of trees.
There are a great many schools in Oaxaca, including the Scientific
Institute, Seminary, Historical Museum, Public Library and many private
institutions. There are Official Schools for primary instruction for
boys and girls, and more than five hundred schools supported by the
government.
As always in Mexico, the churches present many points of interest. The
Cathedral, begun in 1553, and completed two centuries later, was one of
the grandest erected by the Spaniards and ranked with those of Mexico
City and Puebla. But it has suffered so many bombardments and been
looted so frequently that little of its former glory remains. Only the
façade, beautifully decorated with sculptures by unrecorded artists,
attests the original splendor. All the valuable paintings, statuary and
ornaments that once made gorgeous the interior have disappeared.
[Illustration: STAIRWAY IN THE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE.]
The church of Santo Domingo, with monastery attached, tells a similar
tale. Built at a cost of thirteen million dollars on a most massive
scale, the strength of its walls made of it a fortress whose strategic
importance is well attested by the scars made by shot and shell. The
interior, however, has not been altogether despoiled. An authority on
ecclesiastical art, writing of this church, says, “The interior is one
of the most splendid in Mexico, the most superb example of baroque
decoration in the country. The walls and the great barrel-arched
ceiling are covered in every part with heavily-gilded ornaments and
polychrome sculpture in high relief. The effect is one of indescribable
splendor. The scheme of decoration in the domed vaulting of the
organ-loft ceiling may be compared to an enormous tree, extending
in all directions its branches and its innumerable leaves of gold,
between which appear the busts of saints diminishing in size as the
height increases until at the apex only the faces are shown.”
[Illustration: STATUE OF BENITO JUAREZ, ON THE MOUNTAIN
OVERLOOKING HIS NATIVE CITY.]
Several times when churches were being looted it was proposed by
parties in possession to scrape the wonderful decorations from this
ceiling to recover the gold used therein, but somehow the work was
never attempted, the pillagers contenting themselves with the pictures,
statuary, altar ornaments, which could be more readily seized. The
monastery itself was reduced to bare walls and is now used as a
barracks.
Other buildings worthy of inspection are the State House, Federal
Building, and the Public Library containing fourteen thousand volumes,
in which are found many old manuscripts relating to the period of the
Conquest.
These buildings and the residences of Oaxaca impress one as being more
distinctively of Moorish design than those in other cities. It would
seem as if the note struck by the early builders had been held by all
their successors. Having this impression, the modernity of the trolley
cars and electric lights brings a curious feeling of anachronism which
may easily be enhanced by a visit to the ruins of Mitla.
Not far from the City is the big tree of Tule. It is one hundred and
fifty-four and a half feet around, six feet from the ground. It takes
forty men to reach around it. It is of the cypress family and must have
been there long before Columbus touched the western shores. On the tree
is a tablet placed there by Humboldt.
Through three centuries of its history Oaxaca has grown as an interior
town, in the full sense of the term. It lies in one of the most
beautiful and fertile valleys of Mexico, or rather at the meeting point
of three valleys. It is shut off from the ocean on the south by a solid
range of mountains; it is separated from the cities of Central Mexico
on the north by a range of rough and broken country.
Next in importance to the capital among the cities of the State is
Tehuantepec, with its twelve thousand inhabitants. It is inland
about twenty miles from the Pacific Ocean and is most noteworthy
sociologically. Here was the home, the chief fastness, of the
Zapotec people and here live to-day the purest-blooded descendants
of that race. The women show a strong and noble people and they are
distinguished for beauty of face and symmetry of form. Tehuantepec was
the base of supplies for General Diaz when he was opposing the French
invasion and his fort is still one of the sights of the town. There are
some splendid hot springs of efficacy for the cure of rheumatism, and
also many interesting sights of local color.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LIC. EMILIO PIMENTEL, GOVERNOR OF
OAXACA.]
The Isthmus is that narrow neck of land in tropical Mexico which lies
between parallels eighteen degrees and sixteen degrees N., dividing the
Atlantic and Pacific waters. The shortest transcontinental railroad
on this hemisphere is built there and its trains run across in about
six hours. It is not only a magnificent and beautiful country, but has
also the most delightful tropical climate. Twice the United States
government spent a great deal of time and money making a survey across
that neck of land with a view of cutting a canal; once in 1852, and
again in 1871, when Captain Shufeldt, of the United States Navy, was
sent with a large expedition to make surveys. Again, Captain Eads spent
a great deal of time there on his plan to build a ship railway. Now
that the Isthmus is opened up by a railway and steamship communication,
that portion of Mexico, more than any other, will participate in the
wonderful progress Mexico is now making.
[Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN.]
The distance from Oaxaca to Tehuantepec is considerably less than from
Puebla to Oaxaca. The railway connection has made this southern half
of Mexico an outlet to the Pacific. Down the cañon of Tomellin the
builders have pushed their way, solving some of the most difficult
problems ever encountered in railway construction. They not only
tunnelled to get a passage for the trains, but they bored the spurs of
the mountains in three places to give the river new channels. The bare
gray and brown and red cliffs tower two thousand feet above the track.
Tourists journey across the United States for brief half hours in cañon
scenery; on the Mexican Southern Railway the traveller rides half a day
through awe-inspiring gorges. The train reels down and then staggers
up grades which are only a fraction below the legal limit of four per
cent. The route is through masses of rock; in some places the boulders
are so poised that it seems that a slight jarring would dislodge them.
The traveller, when the train starts down these curves can look ahead
and see the route and the stations an hour in advance of the schedule
time.
The completion of the Tehuantepec Railway and its opening to traffic
have attracted much attention. The construction of the railway was
a matter of national importance. It was carried out by the Mexican
government at its own cost by the advice of President Diaz, who
recognized its strategic value.
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec can boast of advantages unequalled in the
commercial world. It is connected by the Tehuantepec Railroad with the
Atlantic and Pacific Ocean steamship facilities, making connection with
every large market in the world. The Mexican government has expended
over eighty millions upon the construction and equipment of the
Atlantic port, Coatzacoalcos, now Puerto Mexico, and the Pacific port
of Salina Cruz. Steamers, drawing over thirty feet of water, enter both
ports and discharge their tremendous cargoes in an incredibly short
time by means of great modern electric cranes and the best docking
facilities, which the government has installed.
[Illustration: CORRIDOR OF THE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE.]
Travel throughout the state is remarkably free from danger, the
officials are uniformly kind and considerate in their treatment of
strangers, gladly welcoming the investor, who they know, in seeking to
better his own condition, cannot fail to improve those with whom he is
thrown in contact.
The State of Oaxaca is notable for having been the stronghold of the
Mixtecas, a race of Indians who emigrated many centuries ago from the
north, and displacing the Chochones, occupied the state, together
with Puebla and Guerrero. They were an intelligent and progressive
race and were governed by independent chiefs. The Aztecs afterward
subdued some of the Mixtecas but those of Oaxaca remained independent,
and many of them still are found in parts of the State. Remains
of their former cities, temples and fortresses show that they had
considerable intelligence. They believed in a heaven called Sosola,
and had sacred caves in the mountains. Probably they had something to
do with the original Mitla. They had a distinct language with several
dialects. A Mixtecan grammar was published in 1593 and there are still
existing religious treatises printed in Mixtecan in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. The Mixtecans of to-day are well-bred and quiet
citizens.
After the Conquest, Oaxaca, on the arrival of the first Viceroy, was
elevated to the category of an intendency which character it retained
until 1821.
On the 31st of January, 1824, it was raised to the rank of a federal
entity, and since then it has formed an integral part of the Mexican
Confederation.
It now forms one of the twenty-seven states that compose the Mexican
Republic; free and sovereign in so far as refers to its interior
management, but in union with the other parts of the republic in
accordance with the Political Constitution of the republic of the 5th
of February, 1857, together with all the additions and amendments
thereto.
The governor of Oaxaca, who may be considered the advance agent of its
prosperity, has done much to attract to it the attention of foreign
investors. Señor Don Emilio Pimentel is a native of Oaxaca and was
educated in its public schools, its state institute and its college of
law. Sent to Congress for several terms he became a leader, and for a
number of years afterward practised law in Mexico City, of which he
was finally elected Mayor. His broad intelligence and grasp of the
problems confronting the nation early attracted the notice of President
Diaz, whose confidence he has since enjoyed. He has been sent to Europe
on government missions and represented Mexico in the Latin-American
Congress at Montevideo. At one time he was offered a portfolio by
President Diaz, but at that time his health had been broken by overwork
and he was obliged to decline. In his law practice he represented
several of the most important financial interests in the republic.
Thus, was he fitted peculiarly to be of service to his native State
when elected as its governor in 1902. Now serving his third term in
that office he bends every effort to the promotion of the State’s
welfare. Practically, all the foreign capital now employed in Oaxaca
was invested there at his solicitation.
He has endeavored to give impulse to everything that means progress and
prosperity by granting advantageous concessions to men of enterprise.
To him is also due the development of railways in the State, the
increasing network of tramways in the city, and the railway company
to San Felipe. The capital city is also indebted to him for many
improvements. All branches of public administration receive his special
attention. He has organized new schools and charities and has appointed
a commission to study the laws of primary and normal instruction. The
public treasury has, under his able and correct administration, paid
all the expenses and the State is out of debt. Governor Pimentel has
organized the rural police force and has attended to all sanitary
affairs in the capital. He has a clean political career which promises
him a brilliant future. Oaxaca will place his name on the golden page
of its great benefactors.
[Illustration: THE PORFIRIO DIAZ HIGH SCHOOL.]
[Illustration: THE CITY OF ORIZABA.]
[Illustration: THE PEAK OF ORIZABA]
CHAPTER XX
VERA CRUZ
The State of Vera Cruz is one of the important states of the republic.
The climate has a range of temperature that rises from cool and bracing
to hot and stifling. It is pre-eminently agricultural and with the
exception of rich fields of mineral oil, and cattle-raising, which is a
lucrative source of revenue, the chief products of this fertile State
are coffee, bananas, sugar, vanilla and cotton. In the northwest is
the Huasteca region, the finest cattle lands on the continent, and in
the southwest, the Sotavente district is rich in agricultural soil and
watered by the mighty Paploapam.
The southern part of the State is open to colonization and there are
many foreign enterprises engaged in the principal industry of sugar
making.
The State is very liberal and progressive and under the administration
of the present Governor, Señor Don Teodora Dehesa, port-works,
water-works and sewers, drainage, public buildings and many other
advanced ideas of reform have been inaugurated.
The Federal Quarantine Station at Vera Cruz has been declared by health
experts as the most complete and thorough in existence. It can be now
recorded that the entire absence of yellow fever is assured. Vera Cruz
now enjoys the distinction of being the cleanest city in the republic.
[Illustration: POST OFFICE, VERA CRUZ.]
The City of Vera Cruz was founded in 1519, by Hernando Cortés. It was
at one time the capital of the State, but Jalapa is now the seat of
the government. It was built in a semi-circle fronting the sea, and
was formerly enclosed by a wall six feet high and three feet thick
and defended by two redoubts on shore and by the Castle of San Juan
de Ulua which stands on an island. The streets are regular and wide
and form many squares, and little plazas or parks, beautiful in rich
tropical flowers and trees which make the city very attractive. The
houses are strongly built of coral limestone in the old Spanish style.
It is an ideal spot for the traveler who enjoys a warm climate and
beautiful sun. Old churches, public buildings bearing the marks of
centuries, old convents that have stood the test of time, and beautiful
modern buildings are found side by side in sublime contrast. The
Municipal Palace was built in 1609, and the Public Library, in which
are wonderful old volumes and archives, was founded in 1870. There are
several beautiful churches, theatres, hospitals, an artillery school,
and a new post office.
[Illustration: OLD GATEWAY, ORIZABA.]
The lately constructed port-works have converted the ancient rockbound
roadstead along the Atlantic coast line into a safe and commodious
harbor. The protected harbor covers fifty-four acres. The length of the
breakwater is three thousand three hundred and thirty metres.
The present city of Vera Cruz is not the same that was built by
Cortés in the year 1519. The Villa Rica de Vera Cruz--“the rich town
of the true cross”--is six miles distant from the present city. The
inhabitants of this busy city are renowned for their culture, their
frank and simple manners and their patriotism, of which they have given
many proofs in the various sieges which the town has sustained against
foreign foes, thus justifying the appellation of “heroic” given to it.
[Illustration: INDIAN WOMEN IN THE TROPICS.]
Nowhere in Mexico is there a more beautiful spot than the City of
Jalapa. When the atmosphere is clear, one can see the shipping in the
harbor of Vera Cruz with an ordinary spy glass and the white caps of
the waves with the naked eye. The elevation of Jalapa above the sea is
a little more than four thousand feet. It is situated on a shelf of
the mountain, the summit of which at Perote, a distance in a direct
line of about twenty miles, is four thousand five hundred feet higher
than Jalapa. The whole horizon, except in the direction of Vera Cruz,
is bounded by mountains--among them Orizaba, distant from Jalapa about
twenty-five miles, though owing to the clearness of the atmosphere and
the sun shining upon the snow with which it is covered it appears to
be much nearer. All the tropical fruits grow in the district, and are
cultivated with great care and skill. It is not an exaggeration to say
that it is impossible for one who has not been on the tableland of
Mexico to conceive of a climate so elysian.
[Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, JALAPA.]
Jalapa is indeed a rare old place. It seems to be built on edge, with
streets like stairs climbing the hills, while terraced houses cling to
the hillsides.
Orizaba lies about midway between the two extremes of the coast and the
plateau. It is one of the busiest manufacturing towns of Mexico. It is
on the line of the oldest railway in the country, within easy access of
the interior cities.
The town of Coatzacoalcos is at the mouth of the river of the same
name, and is one of the few places that look like an American town.
It is growing rapidly and has the second finest port-works on the
continent.
On the Mexican Railroad, Cordoba, nestling under the shadow of the
snow-capped peak of Orizaba is a tropical refuge for many travelers
seeking sunshine. Fruits, flowers, palms and ferns grow in abundance.
In this tropical part of Mexico one finds many beautiful pictures that
would look almost unreal if painted on canvas.
The red-brown coloring of the Indians in their costumes and the
half-naked children basking in the sun or enjoying the shade of the
verdant palms, and the perfume of the flowers that permeates the
atmosphere almost transport one with enthusiasm and enjoyment.
[Illustration: PICTURESQUE SCENE NEAR SALAZAR.]
In Cordoba grows the finest coffee in the world. The loveliest scene on
Nature’s canvas is a coffee plantation. The leaves of the plant are a
very dark green, the flowers white and freighted with a rich aromatic
incense, and the berries are deep red. This bean is cultivated with
great care. The shrub is graceful and drooping and the flower is as
sweet as the orange blossom.
The State of Vera Cruz is rapidly gaining fame for the variety, beauty
and sublimity of its scenic attractions.
[Illustration: THE HARBOR, VERA CRUZ.]
The Castle of San Juan de Ulua, which was the last foothold of the
Spaniards in Mexico, was surrendered by them to the patriots in 1825.
In 1838, Vera Cruz was bombarded and taken by the French and again in
1847, by the Americans, under General Scott. It was surrendered to the
allied British, French and Spanish squadron in December, 1861, and was
restored to Mexico in 1867.
The experience of three Mexican Revolutions makes it easier to conceive
the extent to which this unfortunate city must have suffered in the
struggle made by the Spaniards to preserve the Castle, their last
bulwark on this continent. San Juan de Ulua remains a lasting memorial
of the great works which, almost immediately after their arrival on
these shores, were undertaken by the Spanish conquerors.
[Illustration: OLD FORT OF SANTIAGO.]
[Illustration: TAMESI RIVER FRONT, TAMPICO.]
CHAPTER XXI
TAMAULIPAS
Tamaulipas derives its name from a tribe of Indians which formerly
inhabited this region. It is one of the closest Mexican neighbors of
Texas and is one of the richest agricultural and mineral states in the
republic.
Bordering on Texas on the north, with the Gulf of Mexico on the eastern
boundary and the tropical states of Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosí
on the south, and Nuevo León on the west, Tamaulipas is one of the
most accessible of the Mexican states and equal in size to many of
the western states of her northern neighbor. The principal cities of
the State are Ciudad Victoria, the capital, Tampico, the great Gulf
port, Matamoros, historically located just across the Rio Grande from
Brownsville, Texas. A majestic mountain range, the Sierra Madre, enters
the State in the southern end and runs through it in a north-easterly
direction penetrating into the neighboring state of Nuevo León. The
Sierra Madre running from east to west, covered with thick forests,
rises to a high altitude, and is cut in all directions by deep gorges
and ravines and protrudes its massive spurs east and west into
various important chains. The mountains are rich in minerals and the
mineral development of the State is in its infancy. It has an area of
twenty-eight thousand six hundred and fifty-nine square miles and a
population considerably above two hundred thousand.
The coast is low and sandy and there are several lagoons along the
shore, the largest of which, Laguna Madre, is over one hundred miles
long and in some parts over twenty miles wide. The principal rivers
of this State are the Fernando, Borbon, Santander and Tampico. In the
northern part the flat coast lands extend inward for many miles and
then rise to elevated plains; in the south the country is diversified
by many mountains and valleys and the scenery is very picturesque.
There are rich silver and copper mines which promise great and
undiscovered wealth. Valuable timber abounds on the mountains; the soil
is fertile, and all the fruits, grains and vegetables of the temperate
and torrid zones are easily raised. This is also an excellent State for
stock-raising of all kinds.
Tamaulipas was originally named Santa Anna de Tamaulipas. In area,
richness of soil and variety of climate, the State is one of the most
important in Mexico. Its location is naturally excellent. In the long
stretches of flat lands of the Tierra Caliente; there are rivers with
many branches which reach out in every direction.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON JUAN B. CASTILLO, GOVERNOR OF
TAMAULIPAS.]
Señor Don Juan de Castillo has been the distinguished governor for
the past ten years. He has devoted his energies to the development of
all enterprises in his State. He encourages colonization and gives
financial aid and concessions which promise to develop the resources
of Tamaulipas. During his administration many new schools have been
opened in the country districts and he has given special attention to
the extension of education throughout the State. In the larger cities
new school buildings have been erected, embodying all modern ideas.
Governor Castillo has caused improvement in sanitary conditions and the
State is now free from epidemics which threatened it in the past.
The general interest shown on the part of foreign capitalists and the
advantages offered to investors have resulted in the forming of several
good colonies.
There are many fertile valleys well watered and free from the malarial
diseases which afflict the hot lands. These lands are still very cheap
and suitable for colonization.
[Illustration: AVENIDA PRIETO, SHOWING GOVERNOR’S PALACE,
VICTORIA.]
Ciudad Victoria, the capital city, is situated in a beautiful and
healthful locality. It is well built and has splendid palaces and
public buildings, hospitals and good schools. There is a normal
training school for teachers, a primary normal school, the state
institute and a law school; another school which does excellent work
is the Juan José de la Gaza Institute. The state legislature has made
extension of all public roads. The city has many beautiful parks and
monuments.
[Illustration: PLAZA JUAREZ, VICTORIA.]
No sections of the republic are receiving greater evidence of the
influx of capital and the stream of immigration than the Gulf ports.
With the natural advantages of location, harbor and transportation
facilities, the port and city of Tampico are of the greatest commercial
importance.
Tampico is built upon a rocky bluff forty feet high, surrounded by
lagoons of salt water. The architecture of Tampico is more American
than most Mexican towns display, owing, doubtless, to its ready
communication with other northern ports. The houses are built both of
wood and stone, with sloping roofs and outer verandas. Color prevails
everywhere, the houses being painted in blues and yellows, each street
looking fresh, bright and clean and especially so the brilliant façades
clustering about the plaza. The latter is a densely shaded park paved
with granite and provided with seats. No flowers grow in this plaza but
the house-holders around it seem to vie with one another in window and
veranda gardening. All the houses have balconies on the street-front
with rows of blossoming orchids and amaryllis along the walls. Just
out of Tampico may be found thousands of orchids growing wild, hanging
thick on the seaward side of the rocks, where the tropical sun and
perpetual moisture give them a most luxurious growth.
[Illustration: PLAZA DE ARMAS, TAMPICO.]
Then there is a wonderful old church with ancient wood-carving and
frescoes by Spanish artists. It is a strange mixture of old and new
that is met at every turn in Tampico; the jetties built out from the
mouth of the Panuco seven thousand feet into the Gulf are, perhaps, the
most interesting of all. These jetties have great banks of stone with
easy slopes and rounded tops like those at the mouth of the Maas in
Holland. The sand-bar which once obstructed this harbor has entirely
disappeared and now the inland harbor of Tampico is one of the most
important on the American continent.
Approaching ships pass into calm water between two great jetties
extending a mile out into the Gulf and on through a wide channel kept
constantly open and deepening by the current of the great Panuco River
and its tributaries, which drain a watershed of thousands of square
miles and discharge their waters into the Gulf of Mexico through
the entrance to the harbor. These jetties, built by the Mexican
Government, are constructed of stone of a superior quality secured
from the mountains of the interior. Constant additions are being made
to them and plans are now under consideration which will result in
further extension. The Panuco River is at this point the dividing line
between the State of Vera Cruz on the south and that of Tamaulipas on
the north. Just as a ship reaches the actual mouth of the river the
government lighthouse may be seen to the best advantage looming up on
the horizon on the Tamaulipas side.
[Illustration: A FIELD OF ZAPUPE.]
Upon the bluff sloping gently to the sea level is an ideal residence
section overlooking the harbor and the system of surrounding water
ways, whose shores lined with tropical trees and vegetation combine to
form a most beautiful landscape.
The Mexican Central Railway furnishes the best transportation
facilities to Tampico, one branch running west to Aguascalientes on
the main line and tapping the great mining and agricultural centres.
Along this route some of the best agricultural lands of Mexico are
traversed. To the north another branch of the Mexican Central connects
Tampico with all Texas points via Monterey. The Mexican Central makes
a direct connection with the National capital. Running direct between
Tampico and Vera Cruz, _Progreso_ and _Puerto Mexico_ are two
steamers doing a coastwise trade.
[Illustration: TARPON CAUGHT BY THE OFFICERS OF THE BRITISH
CRUISER _BRILLIANT_.]
The good climate, the sea bathing, the excellent tarpon fishing and
hunting make Tampico the most attractive winter and summer resort
on the Gulf Coast. As one walks through the office and lobby of the
Southern Hotel and sees the specimens of large fish which are hanging
on the walls at various points it is easy to realize the importance of
the industry which the proprietor of the hotel, Mr. A. N. Poindexter,
has built up in this line.
Only a few years ago the tarpon banks near Tampico were known by very
few people, but Mr. Poindexter recognized that this was a sportsman’s
paradise and began in a small way to make known to those of his
guests who were interested in such sports the possibilities of real
active sport, with a little touch of adventure in it, and to-day many
distinguished people from all parts of the world, visit this port for
the sole purpose of tarpon fishing and wild-fowl shooting.
Within a radius of one hundred and fifty miles of Tampico there are
fifteen American colonies being located at Atascagor, La Palma,
Columbus, Colonia Americana, Alta Vista, Quaker City, Chamal, San
Diegurto, and other small colonies. Many of them are settling rapidly
and have established good schools and churches. They are employed in
agriculture and many other enterprises.
In this State are found various seams of coal and many mineral
deposits. Among the metals that are found in the State are copper,
silver, gold, lead, zinc and iron. The oil wells of Tamaulipas are
already famous. The oil belt reaches into the State of Vera Cruz and
will be found all along the State of Tamaulipas, as far as Texas.
Prominent oil experts predicted that this State would become one of the
greatest oil-producing sections in Mexico.
The cultivation of the zapupe fibre plant has received most attention
in the Tampico section. Within the last three years several companies
have been formed for the cultivation of zapupe near Tampico and in
addition a number of individuals are engaged in planting the fibre.
It is claimed that zapupe matures more quickly, that it produces more
fibre to the plant than henequen.
In Victoria and vicinity, about one hundred miles north of Tampico,
henequen growing is receiving much attention. Land not fit for any
other kind of cultivation seems to be well adapted for henequen.
[Illustration: PLAZA, VICTORIA.]
During the Civil War in the United States, 1861–1865, Tamaulipas made
a handsome income by raising cotton and exporting it to that country.
Many farmers became rich in that way; but when the war was over, and
cotton fell in price with the return of peace and the revival of the
southern states, the production declined. There is no reason why
Tamaulipas should not grow cotton as abundantly as the State of Vera
Cruz.
Matamoros is a frontier city of Tamaulipas, being only forty miles
from the mouth of the Rio Grande, and directly opposite the City of
Brownsville, Texas. It has a population of over twelve thousand, made
up mostly of Americans and people of Spanish descent. English is
commonly spoken. The City is finely situated on a bend of the river.
Its wide streets cross at right angles, and the houses are mostly
of brick and built in modern style. There is a beautiful Cathedral
as well as numerous churches and convents. There is a good public
school system, besides plenty of private schools. The climate is hot
from April to September, and cool from December to March. Matamoros
was founded early in the last century, and was named after the great
patriot, Marino Matamoros, whose bones lie with those of Hidalgo and
Morelos in the Cathedral at Mexico City.
Laredo is a name by which one of the lines of the Condes of Spain was
called. A Royal Commission called “Vista General” in 1767 laid out
the town, giving it four leagues of land, two on each side of the Rio
Grande, and laid off above and below the town tract on both sides, the
tract now called Porciones, distributing it to the settlers. Since
that time Laredo has been recognized as a town with municipal powers.
In the earlier days of its existence, savage Indians continually
committed depredations on the surrounding country and robbed the
people of their horses and cattle; but the citizens, inured to such
hardships, often chastised the savages and killed many of them in
battle, always maintaining a justly merited reputation for skill,
courage and gallantry. Laredo was a kind of supply station during the
Texas revolution, but took no very active part in the war. It remained
under the control of Mexico as a part of Tamaulipas until 1846, when it
was divided into two towns, Nuevo Laredo on the Mexican side remaining
a quiet, progressive town, whose principal industry has been stock
raising,--horses, cattle, and sheep; and several handsome fortunes have
been made in it.
The Tamaulipas Mexicans are brave, daring patriots, who are zealous to
a man for the integrity and independence of their country. This State
gave the nucleus of the heroic army of the north during the French
campaign and the stoic bravery of the Tamaulipan soldiers will never
be forgotten in the history of the siege and fall of Querétaro; many
of their illustrious names will ever stand for the bravest and most
inflexible of patriots.
[Illustration: TAMPICO PLAZA.]
[Illustration: NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PROFESSORS, SALTILLO.]
[Illustration: JUAREZ MARKET, SALTILLO.]
CHAPTER XXII
COAHUILA
Coahuila is a highly productive State. It is a hilly and mountainous
country, but its valleys are very fertile. Minerals are found
extensively but the most important product in this State is coal, which
is being shipped to all parts of the country. The Rio Grande separates
it from the United States of America, on the east it is bounded by the
State of Nuevo León, on the west by the States of Chihuahua and Durango
and on the south by Zacatécas, Nuevo León, and San Luis Potosí. It
embraces an area of one hundred and sixty-five thousand and ninety-nine
square kilometres. Its population is about two hundred and ninety-seven
thousand. Its capital, Saltillo, is an industrial and mercantile centre.
The other chief city, Torreon, founded as recently as 1887, is a
commercial emporium of the greatest importance. Cotton and all classes
of cereals and fruits are the chief products. The wines of Parras,
which is a great grape cultivating country, are famed throughout the
entire republic and the best woods grown in the country are found in
these parts.
The City of Monclova, which was for a long time the capital of the
State, is also of commercial importance.
The governor of the State is Señor Licenciado Don Jesus de Valle, is
an illustrious and progressive gentleman, experienced and well-versed
in political and administrative science, who knows so well all the
branches of State government. Since taking office he has diminished
the public debt and caused many reforms in the capital and in the
neighboring cities, and through his encouragement colonists are welcome
and all kinds of franchises are granted to those whose purpose is
the establishment of enterprises that will revert to the good of the
people and the country. With splendid irrigation facilities and all
the advantages of a rich country, Coahuila is an open field for future
prosperity.
Saltillo is reached by the Mexican National Railroad. It was founded
in 1586, and incorporated as a city in 1827. The government palace,
the Church of Santiago, and the old convent of San Esteban are the
chief edifices of interest. The climate is good, the city being a
delightful resort at all seasons. The “Coahuila” is one of the most
beautiful hotels in the republic and enjoys great popularity. Many of
the hostelries in Mexico are old private dwellings or palaces which
are to a certain extent picturesque, but this modern hotel offers
encouragement to the seeker of health and pleasure.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LICENCIADO DON JESUS DE VALLE, GOVERNOR
OF COAHUILA.]
The Plaza de la Independencia is a modern park, very attractive
with its beautiful flowers and ferns. The Cathedral is an imposing
structure filled with beautiful paintings and priceless altars. The
new penitentiary is one of the finest of its kind in the country.
Hospitals, public libraries and the finest normal school in the
republic are the results of the enterprise and progress of the State.
Some of these educational establishments are noted for their handsome
architecture. Special attention is paid to the sanitary conditions of
the school houses.
There are many philanthropic societies and charitable institutions; one
of the most important is the asylum of the Immaculate Conception.
The many brightly colored serapes, which are hand-woven and form one
of the industries of this city, cannot be duplicated, and all the
factories of the republic are making strenuous efforts to imitate those
made here. The Delft blue shade, which is noted all over the world, is
no longer made here as it has become a lost art, but other colors most
artistically and intricately woven mark one of the chief features of
the native craft.
[Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, SALTILLO.]
Some of the finest pleasure resorts on the continent are found here.
The famous Hot Springs are at Hermanas. Here are the largest springs
of hot mineral water in America, that flowing out of the hillside form
a river of hot clear water which passes through a fine grove of trees.
The natural temperature of the water is one hundred and ten degrees
Fahrenheit. With unexcelled scenery, the climate is invigorating and
the splendid conditions make it a great health resort.
The construction of the Mexican International Railroad was a very
important event in the State of Coahuila. It penetrated a country rich
in resources where splendid inducements to the miner, manufacturer
and agriculturist are offered. The prosperous condition of various
enterprises situated adjacent to the line of this road testifies beyond
question to the practicability of profitable investment.
Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, named in honor of the President of the republic,
is one of the most enterprising of the Mexican border-towns. The custom
house and post office buildings, including other federal offices are
splendid specimens of modern architecture.
Coahuila has attained commendable progress under the able
administration of Governor Jesus de Valle. The State has given to
the Mexican nation many men distinguished in politics, in war and in
science. Some of these were Don Melchor Muzquiz, who became president
ad interim and from whom the city of Muzquiz gets its name; General
Ignacio Zaragoza, hero of the glorious victory of the national army
over the French on the 5th of May, 1862, in Puebla, and from whom the
State receives the name of Coahuila de Zaragoza; Don Miguel Ramos
Arizpe, statesman, who was a deputy to the Court of Spain in 1812,
and on account of his idea in favor of independence was eleven years
a prisoner, until the Declaration of Independence; he was one of
the deputies to the Constitutional Congress in 1824, and Minister
of the State; Don Juan Antonio de la Fuente caused a law to be made
for the separation of the church and state in 1858; he was also
minister plenipotentiary from Mexico to France and England and figured
prominently in France by his indignant protest against the Preradical
Interference of Napoleon III., on Mexican Territory. Here was born
Manuel Acuña, one of the most notable and sublime writers which Mexico
produced in the nineteenth century.
[Illustration: STATE CIVIL COLLEGE, SALTILLO.]
[Illustration: GOVERNOR’S PALACE, MONTEREY.]
CHAPTER XXIII
NUEVO LEÓN, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ, AGUASCALIENTES
The kingdom of Nuevo León was once the name of the State of Nuevo León.
It is inland, bordering on Tamaulipas, Coahuila and San Luis Potosí.
Its surface is irregular, as several branches of the Sierra Madre Range
come into it and one-fourth of the State forms a part of the great
central tableland of Mexico.
Mineral productions abound in the mountains. The climate is perfect.
The atmosphere is seldom chilled with frost but sometimes it steals
in at long intervals like a thief in the night to disappear in the
darkness ere the sun has risen. Snow is unknown in the Valley of
Monterey and is seen rarely on the peaks of the mountains which
surround the city.
The Topo Chico hot springs are in the suburbs. This is a famous
health resort. The thermometer never descends to freezing point and
the condition of the atmosphere permits the weakest and most delicate
invalid to promenade in the plazas.
Monterey is fifteen hundred feet above sea level; it is one of the
oldest cities but has been made over and has now all sorts of modern
improvements. Nature is vested in gladness expressed by beauty
and wealth of color, over which flows the mellow radiance of a
semi-tropical sunshine. It is surrounded by some of the most beautiful
mountain scenery in the world. The houses are well-built and tasteful
both in architecture and interior decorations. The Casino is the
principal club.
Honorable Philip C. Hanna, the American consul general, has endeared
himself to the people of Monterey. He was appointed the special
representative of the American Red Cross and did a notable work during
the flood which came near destroying Monterey in 1909. At the Consulate
he protected hundreds of the unfortunate, giving food and clothing to
the desolate in the flooded district.
Monterey is only a few hours ride from Laredo, in Texas. It is a very
American city, with splendid churches, schools and manufacturing
establishments.
[Illustration: PLAZA ZARAGOZA.]
SAN LUIS POTOSÍ
No country is more beautiful in its picturesque vegetation and useful
products than San Luis Potosí. There the highest trees give support to
a multitude of creeping vines and to a swarm of vegetable parasites
which create an agreeable confusion and form obscure thickets where the
foot of man has never yet penetrated. The multitude of color, the green
leaves and the divers hues of the flowers, with a half-light produced
in many places by the shade of the trees, allowing an occasional vista
of purest blue sky; the silence of the bosks at certain hours of the
day; the harmonious songs of the birds at the rising and the setting of
the sun, are all poetical, and invite to meditation and the adoration
of the Author and source of so many marvels. The entire State is a gem
of varied beauty.
[Illustration: PALACE OF GOVERNOR, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ.]
In the towns to the southeast and east of the capital there are lands
well adapted for agriculture. The enterprise directed to this class of
work will find there every kind of products which temperate and torrid
climates know, not only in cereals and fibre-bearing plants, but also
in fruits and hard woods. In all portions of the State Indian corn is
cultivated as well as wheat and beans, all most useful as food for
the inhabitants; but the branches of agriculture which have been most
developed are the cultivation of coffee and tobacco. The coffee plants
number about four million, with a mean yield of forty thousand quintals.
San Luis Potosí may justly lay claim to a first rank among cities
of the Mexican Republic, whether considered from a historical,
political, or commercial point of view. Founded in the days of the
Spanish Conquest, the geographical position, some six thousand feet
above the level of the sea, secured pre-eminence from the earliest
times. The history of the city may to a great extent be read in its
outward appearance. Grand old Spanish churches, such as that of San
Francisco, dating from the sixteenth century, El Carmen with its
two-hundred-year-old carvings, and the Guadalupe, with its charming
sacred associations. The imposing French-built government palace
and the Mexican cathedral, the old Spanish Plaza with its American
tram-lines and electric lights, the old fortified mint, telling of
revolutionary times, the college hospital, the library, and the
splendid theatre, with many new and elegant buildings, speak for the
prosperity and advancement of the present day.
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL, AGUASCALIENTES.]
It has always been a very busy and flourishing place, holding the
same relation to eastern Mexico that Guadalajara holds to western
Mexico. The surrounding country is a very fertile district and San Luis
furnishes a ready market for its produce. There are many fine buildings
in the capital. The government palace is attractive in appearance;
the cathedral shows some fine stone-work on its towers. There is a
characteristic painting of high quality in the church of El Carmen. The
old church has a clock which was given by the King of Spain in return
for the largest piece of silver ore ever taken from a mine. On the
entrance to this beautiful sanctuary are these comforting and inspiring
words:
Aqui el que pide recibe,
El que busca halla,
El que toca se le abre.
(“Here he who asks receives, he who seeks finds, to him who knocks it
is opened.”)
[Illustration: THE BATHS AT AGUASCALIENTES.]
The two tall towers of this church form the most striking feature of
the city to the traveler approaching from the south.
The Theatre in San Luis Potosí, one of the handsomest in Mexico, is
a monument to the progressive spirit of the late General Carlos Diez
Gutierrez, the former governor of the State. The building is of stone,
massive and large. Immense columns of stone and iron adorn the front.
The entrance is very much like that of the Grand Opera in Paris. It is
elegant yet massive in design. There is a grand and beautiful lobby
which is approached by wide marble steps and covered by a dome of heavy
stained glass. Seen from below, this last has a magnificent appearance
with a huge balcony winding around in the interior, with a heavy iron
railing. This is entered above by beautiful glass doors, opening from
an immense hall, large enough for a ball-room, with marble-tiled
floors. The stage has all the latest improvements, and the whole
theatre is a noble example of what taste can do when backed by immense
wealth. The governor’s private box, facing the stage, is magnificently
fitted up, with the coat-of-arms of the State in silver and bronze.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE IN AGUASCALIENTES.]
The law requires that all houses shall be kept freshly painted, so
that the city is bright in every quarter. The markets are particularly
interesting, with picturesque water-carriers, many fountains and novel
scenes. The statue of Hidalgo formerly occupied the Plaza de Armas,
but has been removed to a more important place and a kiosk erected
in its place. When the evenings are warm, as most of them are in San
Luis, the Plaza presents a most attractive appearance with families
promenading to the gay music under the silvery light of the moon or the
more brilliant radiance of the electric light. This historic city has
the record that here was made the first discovery of silver in Mexico,
which went so far as to found the country’s greatness. The tradition
is that early in the sixteenth century an Indian was climbing the San
Luis hills, when his foot slipped and to save himself he clutched at a
neighboring bush, which giving way beneath his weight, was uprooted and
exposed to view the native silver beneath.
San Luis is far advanced in education. There are many magnificent
schools. In the School of Arts and Trades for Girls are taught English
and French. There are civil and military schools, and hospitals, all of
which are supported by the government.
[Illustration: THE BISHOP’S PALACE, MONTEREY.]
The governor of this State is José Maria Espinosa y Cuevas. The success
of the opening of the port at Tampico gave San Luis Potosí commercial
advantages equal if not superior to those of any other city in the
Republic of Mexico.
In the northern part of the State is the mining town of Catorce, “The
Silver City.” These mines were discovered by a group of fourteen
bandits and are the most celebrated in Mexico.
AGUASCALIENTES
Aguascalientes though one of the smallest is one of the most
interesting States in Mexico. The eastern district consists of
tablelands six thousand feet above sea-level and the western portion
includes the Sierras of Laurel and Pinal, spurs of the Sierra Madre.
The tablelands produce abundant crops of cereals. The capital is
Aguascalientes, which means hot waters. It is an attractive city, noted
for its hot springs, well-appointed bath houses and healthful climate.
One of the most celebrated and well-attended fairs of the republic,
the Feast of San Marcos, is held at Aguascalientes in April of each
year and thousands of people from all parts of the country throng the
streets and plazas of this quaint old city. There are many special
attractions notably the beautiful needle-drawn work which is made by
the Indians and excels in beauty the celebrated Fayal work which is so
much better known.
The city takes its name from the warm mineral springs in its
neighborhood. The baths are reached by long avenues of superb
cottonwood trees. They are built of soft red stone and are much
frequented. On one side through a canal flows the surplus water from
the springs, which is used for bathing by those who are unable to pay
the small charge for the baths.
There is a handsome alameda. The country around is fertile and highly
cultivated. In the tropical altitudes of Mexico and in the hot spring
sections there is a sort of Egyptian disregard of the conventionalities
in attire and the disposition to take a daily fashion hint from the
Garden of Eden, the children disregarding even the fig leaf.
The water-carrier of Cairo is much like his brother of Mexico. The
groups about the fountains all over the republic have long earthen jars
of pottery borne by the women and balanced on the shoulders of the men
and look very oriental.
The climate is healthful and is noted for its constant sunshine. Many
invalids go there from the north. It is half way between the City of
Mexico and the northern border.
[Illustration: TEMPLE OF SAN MARCOS, AGUASCALIENTES.]
[Illustration: THE FEDERAL PALACE, QUERÉTARO.]
[Illustration: CONVENT OF THE CROSS WHERE MAXIMILIAN WAS
IMPRISONED.]
CHAPTER XXIV
QUERÉTARO
Querétaro is a State around which has been cast a spirit of romance.
The interest that centres here is great on account of it being the
scene of many tragic events. Many famous men and women who have figured
in the history of Mexico were born here. It was in this State that
the first steps toward independence were taken and the efforts of the
patriot Hidalgo to incite the people to open rebellion found ready
response.
It occupies a part of the Cordilleran Plateau and while it contains
much fertile land it is traversed by numerous mountains. In these, many
minerals are found. Gold, silver, lead, copper, antimony, quicksilver
and tin abound, and fine forests of timber and precious woods are the
product of the mountains. Extensive fields of all kinds of grains,
sugar and tobacco are cultivated.
Many lakes, such as the Cerro Grande, the Concha, the San Cillo and the
Saledon, lend natural beauty to nature’s already prolific endowment.
The mining in this State is very promising, the regions are among the
richest in Mexico. Precious and semi-precious stones abound. Owing to
the extremely mountainous country it is difficult to operate many of
the mines, but new railways and modes of transportation are eliminating
that drawback.
The chief city and capital is Querétaro, one of the most beautiful in
the republic, situated one hundred and ten miles northwest of Mexico on
a plateau six thousand feet above sea level. It occupies the sides and
summits of several hills and is separated from the picturesque little
suburbs by a small river. It is an old city dating back to 1400, and
is famous for its beautiful churches, the splendid architecture of the
public buildings and dwellings, and also is of interesting historical
value on account of the tragic ending of Maximilian, the erstwhile
Emperor of Mexico, who was executed on the “Hill of the Bells.”
To one who sees the capital for the first time, it has a great
fascination. There is something different about the architecture, the
atmosphere, and even the sun seems to shine brighter here. Palms and
bananas grow in the open squares, and the many churches with their
melodious chimes ringing at almost all hours lend it an influence that
is delightful.
Napoleon took upon himself the task of exporting an Emperor to Mexico,
Maximilian of Austria, a dreamer imbued with the idea of the divine
rights of kings. He listened to the seductive assurances of an emperor
who himself had secured the right to rule by rapine and blood. Carlota
was ambitious, an ardent Catholic, and the Pope gave the new rulers
consecration and his blessing. The United States government put sixty
thousand troops into Texas on the Mexican border and then Napoleon was
told in unmistakable language that the French troops that sustained
Maximilian must be withdrawn. Maximilian was advised to abdicate,
and would have done so but for the proud and ambitious Carlota. She
volunteered to go to France to intercede with Napoleon. He was deaf to
her entreaties, and she then fled to the Pope for relief, but with no
better success. Repulsed, her finely-strung nature succumbed and she
became bereft of her reason, perhaps the best surcease, except death,
from the humiliation, the defeat, and the greater grief that were to
follow.
Maximilian with a few thousand troops was shut within the city. On the
night of May 19, 1867, the city was captured, and he was tried and
condemned to be shot, together with his two trusted Generals, Mejia
and Miramon. The execution took place two miles out from the city one
month later. Maximilian said as the fatal pilgrimage was begun, “I am
ready; it is a beautiful day to die.” Holding the crucifix over his
breast, as an indication to the soldiers where to fire, and with his
faithful generals at his side to share the same fate, he received the
death-dealing bullets. This historical spot is now marked by a chapel
which has been built in recent years, but until that time three rude
stones with an iron-railed enclosure were all that were placed to
commemorate an event so important to Mexico, for thus the last attempt
ended to plant a monarchy upon this continent.
[Illustration: AQUEDUCT AT QUERÉTARO.]
The Convent of Santa Clara and the Church of Santa Rosa, both noted
for their exterior and interior carvings, are the masterpieces of
Tresguerras, an architect, sculptor, painter and poet. He was born
in Celaya in 1765, and died there in 1833. These are churches of
which Querétaro should be proud, as they are incomparable monuments
of Mexican art. It is difficult to describe the splendor of the
wonderfully rich wood-carving, heavily gilded, the elaborate and
graceful metal work, including balconies and grills of wrought iron,
and the painting and sculpture all from the hand or design of this
great artist. The old church of San Francisco dates back to 1690.
The public buildings and educational and charitable establishments are
splendid monuments to the ambition of an exceedingly good government.
The Civil College, the Conservatory of Music, the Academy of San
Fernando, and the School of Fine Arts are among the most important
educational institutions. There are two public hospitals, the Vagara
Hospital and the Civil Hospital, and many private institutions of this
kind are extant. The palace of the governor contains all the public
offices and the halls of legislature. It has also a historical chamber,
which is full of famous relics that have a bearing on the history
of the country. Portraits of all the former rulers and many curious
objects adorn this chamber. The building is a relic of the days of
Spanish rule and is a remarkable specimen of carving and masonry. It
was once the residence of Josefa Ortiz, wife of a valiant figure in the
War for Independence. She gave valuable information which aided in the
fight for liberty, and enshrined herself in the history of her country.
Señor Coronel Don Francisco Cosio has been governor for many terms. He
is a distinguished gentleman of honorable ancestry and besides being
a statesman universally esteemed, is patriotic, public-spirited and
well-loved by the people.
[Illustration: MEMORIAL CHAPEL TO MAXIMILIAN, MARKING THE
PLACE OF HIS EXECUTION.]
[Illustration: A GENERAL VIEW OF ZACATECAS.]
CHAPTER XXV
ZACATECAS
Zacatecas is celebrated for its enormous output of silver. It is an
inland State south of Durango and surrounded by Coahuila and San Luis
Potosí, Aguascalientes and Jalisco. The hilly country of the middle and
west is interspersed with wide valleys and deep gorges and ravines,
furnishing a variety of wild and beautiful scenery. It has long ranked
first in importance among the mining regions of Mexico. The State is
poorly watered, there being no large streams. Mining is the chief
industry, although agriculture is extensively and profitably carried on.
Zacatecas is a picturesque city lying in a deep gorge of the mountains
about three hundred miles northeast of the capital. It is called the
Jerusalem of Mexico. It has many churches, hospitals, a mint and good
schools and a literary institute founded in 1868. The first mine was
discovered in September, 1546. On July 1, 1818, it was estimated that
the total output of the mines since their discovery aggregated the
sum of seven hundred million dollars. These silver mines are steadily
producing an increased quantity of ore.
The city is reached by a steep slope from the railway station and the
narrow streets are wonderfully clean. Everywhere the little courtyards
are seen through open doorways. There are many market-places and the
central one has a great stone fountain around which at almost every
hour of the day may be seen women and children with great red earthen
jars and little gourd-shaped cups which they use to fill the jars.
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, ZACATECAS]
To see Zacatecas one must go down a steep side street to the beautiful
old church with its great façade of curved freestone and three unique
spires and the arcade covered with its double row of arches. Everything
glows with color--the sky, the frescoes, the flowers, the trees, the
gaily dressed people and the broad stone seats. The inner court of
the government patio is finished with a dado and frieze of blue and
yellow; the slender pillars in double columns between the arches of
the first and second floors are brilliant with stencilled wreaths of
flowers; the broad stone steps curving away to the upper galleries are
ornamented with pots of tropical plants. From a corner of one of these
galleries one sees a beautiful picture. The red sandstone towers of the
cathedral, with their artistic carving, are barbaric in splendor and
still harmonious. Against the sapphire sky their outlines are wonderful
and there is no end of novelty.
The low-topped houses and domed churches remind one of Palestine. Far
up on the mountain called “La Bufa” is the shrine which the Mexican
devotees visit to obtain remission of their sins, many of them scaling
the steep sides of the mountain upon their hands and knees as an
exceptional self-imposed penance. The people wear their peculiarly
picturesque garb and should it be Sunday and the band playing in
the plaza the moving throngs form a veritable kaleidoscopic scene,
wonderfully pleasing to the eye.
Water is comparatively scarce in Zacatecas. The fountains in the plaza
are always thronged with people and as early as four o’clock each
morning men and women of the poorer classes are at the fountain filling
their jars with water, which they sell to later arrivals at a centavo
for four gallons, the quantity a jar holds.
There are schools, hospitals and markets, the latter with their many
varieties of fruit unknown in other countries. Many of the vendors
spread shawls on the pavement and divide their articles into sundry
little piles, each of which is sold for one cent. These sometimes
consist of cooked articles, and many a passer-by gets a meal for that
sum. One market-place is devoted entirely to potteries.
[Illustration: FAÇADE OF CATHEDRAL.]
The principal interest of the people of Zacatecas is mining. Among the
public buildings is the Aduana, built of red sandstone with handsome
carving around the entrance and the yard. Then there is the new
public market, a fine theatre with pretty decorations and all modern
improvements. Close to the market is the Cathedral, built of red
stone, with a wonderful front on three sides magnificently carved. The
interior is equally rich. Toward the back of the theatre is the old
church and convent of Santo Domingo. This formerly was very large,
and the centre of the Inquisition, as were all the convents of the
Dominican Order almost everywhere. The portion forming the convent is
now the city prison; the old church and the chapter assembly-room still
belong to the order of Santo Domingo.
This church was the first one built in the State of Zacatecas and
was erected between 1560 and 1570. All that remains to show that
it belonged to the Inquisition under the Dominican Order is the
assembly-room or “Sala de Actas.” The decoration of the church is very
fine. The next place of interest is the church and convent of San
Francisco. The church is small and very poor; the front is of carved
stone, and the interior decoration appears to have been very rich in
former years. The convent now is almost in ruins, a small part being
used as a _meson_, another as a dwelling place for the poorer
class, a small piece as a brickyard, but by far the greater portion
has become dilapidated with age and neglect. The old convent of San
Augustin has been almost entirely turned into dwelling houses, but the
church, a very fine building, has been left entire, and belongs to the
Presbyterian missions.
Huge stone walls and mountain sides are everywhere, with patches of
green here and there, making up a picturesque combination.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, ZACATECAS]
There are several silver mines in the vicinity of Zacatecas, some of
them exceedingly valuable. The principal mining districts in the State,
besides Zacatecas, are Fresnillo, Sombrerete, Chalchihuites, Nieves,
Piños, Mazapil, Ojo, Caliente and Mezquital del Oro. These furnish,
in addition to large quantities of gold and silver, copper, tin,
lead, iron, cobalt, antimony, cinnebar, arsenic, sulphur, and alum.
The products of these mines average yearly from five to six million
dollars, the mint coining five hundred thousand dollars per month.
This place is renowned for health, and no case of consumption was ever
known there.
Guadalupe, a suburb of nine thousand people some six miles distant, can
be reached by tramway. The cars, operated by the gravitation system,
start slowly but are soon whirling down the steep hills, passing by
the queer adobe houses, the track now crossing over a bridge beneath
which are seen droves of burros carrying the ore from the mines. Again,
through a gulch around some huge boulders or past the yawning mouth
of some mine, the magnificent views and the varied objects creating a
thousand vivid impressions.
The Cathedral of Guadalupe with its tiled dome and its beautiful
surroundings, presents a delightful appearance as one approaches
through the plaza planted thickly with roses and countless varieties
of flowers. Upon the altar are life-sized figures representing the
crucifixion, and in the background is a painting of the hill of
Calvary with the attending Roman soldiers and the Jews grouped around.
Attached to the cathedral is an art gallery containing many magnificent
paintings, the subjects drawn from the Holy Scriptures and in their
treatment showing the work of some master hand. The new chapel on
the north of the cathedral, the gift of a lady of great wealth, is
considered one of the finest in the world. The steps leading to the
altar are of onyx, only the rarest kind being used. The rail of the
altar is of solid silver, and the altar itself in parts is constructed
of solid silver and gold.
The remains of an old convent is occupied by a school. In this
institution there are over two hundred boys from the poorer classes
of Guadalupe and Zacatecas, who are being taught the trades of
wool-working and weaving, printing, bookbinding, carpentry, carriage
and car-building, blacksmithing, and shoemaking. The blankets made
here are equal in manufacture to any that might be bought either in
the States or in Europe. This school was awarded medals at the Paris
Exposition of 1887, and at the Exposition at Chicago, 1893, for
woollen and silk goods made on the premises. Music and the English
language are also important branches taught here. The establishment is
self-supporting and certainly is well worth visiting. This is the pet
institution of Governor Zarate, who manifests the deepest interest in
the progress of the pupils. He is an able executive and shows great
wisdom in the direction of the affairs of the State.
There is a new theatre, a magnificent hospital of rose-colored stone,
fitted with all the requirements of modern science; an elaborate system
of lighting; a school for girls, with ample grounds and all the latest
appliances known to educators; a science institute; a normal school
for boys and other public schools and improvements of importance to
the capital city. This policy has not been confined to the seat of
local government, however, as many useful improvements have been made
throughout the State, including new schools, city halls, public gardens
and markets. A word should be added in praise of the fine system of
education in Zacatecas. The State spends nearly three million dollars
in primary and higher public institutions. There are about twenty-five
thousand students with two thousand more in private schools maintained
by other individuals.
[Illustration: THE CHURCH OF GUADALUPE, ZACATECAS.]
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, DURANGO.]
[Illustration: THEATRE, DURANGO.]
CHAPTER XXVI
DURANGO
Durango is politically divided into thirteen districts, which are
subdivided into municipalities; these districts are Durango, Mapimí,
Santiago Papasquiaro, Tamazula, San Juan del Rio, Cuencamo, Nombre de
Dios, El Oro, Indé, Nazas, San Juan de Guadalupe, Mezquital and San
Dimas.
The climate varies according to the different altitudes. In the extreme
northwest the peaks of the Sierra Madre and Tarahumara are perpetually
covered with snow and in contrast to that the heat of the southeastern
portion is extremely tropical. The rest of the State possesses an even
temperature and this combined with the richness of the fields attracted
many settlers, who for generations have lived here and have enjoyed
the fruits of this bountiful land. The proof of this is that one
family having settled here remains forever. Among the natives there
is a great characteristic of hospitality, and frankness, and a certain
romanticism remains.
The principal resources are mineral and agricultural, one ranking with
the other but still unexploited to the best possibilities. Under a
reign of peace, the progress of this State is in close competition with
the other States of the Union. With natural riches and resources this
State should rank among the first.
Statistics change naturally with the progress of the country, and
with the rapid strides that are daily taking place in the affairs of
an important State it is impossible to give a correct idea of all the
enterprises.
Another great source of wealth is the fine wood, which is of such
varied production and estimable quality as to attract the attention of
the world. This branch of production is exploited on a small scale and
is not cultivated as it deserves. Also cereals and every agricultural
product are fast reaching the point of development that will elevate
this State to one of great importance.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LICENCIADO DON ESTEBAN FERNANDEZ,
GOVERNOR OF DURANGO.]
In mining the State of Durango ranks very high. This industry while
still in its embryonic state is incalculable in riches of precious
metals and building stone. Through this branch of industry, cities
with beautiful plazas, splendid homes have sprung up and changes on
the highway to prosperity under the protection of the wise laws have
demonstrated all that the progress of a country demands. Gold, silver,
lead, iron, zinc, sulphur, and coal are the principal minerals. In
the parts of the State that the railroads traverse there are many
flourishing mines. In Valardeña there is a great smelter with all the
modern improvements.
The iron found in Durango is the finest in the world. It has been
studied by mineralogists, who marvel at it. There is one large
mountain called Cerro del Mercado, which has attracted a great deal
of attention. The iron in its native state contains ninety three and
three-tenths of oxide of iron. Much iron has been extracted without
seeming to lessen the amount that exists.
[Illustration: GOVERNOR’S PALACE, DURANGO.]
At present there are one hundred and nineteen mining industries in
exploitation, employing twenty-five thousand workmen, and fifteen
million dollars’ worth of mineral is exported yearly.
Durango abounds in industries. There are small cities that have their
manufactories whose products are confined to the State on account of
the high rate of freight with which they have to contend. There are
cotton mills, distilleries, wood manufactories, dynamite factories and
flour mills, all in a flourishing condition. Financial crises that
often affect the nation seldom trouble this State. Very rarely do the
industries suffer the depression experienced in many other States.
We find also thirty electric light works, and many manufactories of
cigars and cigarettes give steady employment to the people. Telegraph
lines extend throughout the country. Telephones connect with all
parts. New roads are being built and the government officials are in
every way assisting the enterprises in the interior by proper means of
communication within their possibilities.
[Illustration: SEÑOR LICENCIADO DON ALBERTO CINCUNEGUI,
SECRETARY OF STATE.]
In the year 1892, the first railroad in this State was built. In
all, there are about ten hundred and seventy-nine miles of railroad,
including a short electric line. The prolongation of the lines through
the great merger-system will be of great benefit to this State. The
increase in the number of public schools in all districts has been
remarkable. Durango occupies one of the first places of all the States
of the Union in its rapid progress on the question of instruction. All
the schools combine the best conditions of cleanliness and sanitation.
One-fifth of the sum for public improvement goes toward instruction.
[Illustration: CERRO DEL MERCADO.]
The capital is Durango, which is beautifully situated some seven
thousand feet above the sea. It was founded in 1560, by Alonzo Pacheco
as a military station, and soon after was made an Episcopal See. The
most noteworthy buildings are the government house, the cathedral, a
number of parish churches, a spacious hospital, a penitentiary and a
state prison. There are attractive public gardens, public squares, and
public baths. Thermal springs supply the city with water and the place
is remarkable for cleanliness. The mint at Durango coined twenty-seven
million nine hundred and sixty-two thousand six hundred and sixty-eight
dollars between 1811 and 1845. There is an institute in which law,
languages, and the sciences are taught, with several very good public
and private schools.
There are large mineral districts around the capital not yet explored,
and Americans have found some good gold bearing properties. The people
are rich and contented, and the resident merchants do not care to have
competition. The fact that there are no failures is a good indication
of solidity. The developed mining district is very rich and the cattle
industry is large. Cotton, woollen, and print-mills represent large
capital. The climate is perfect all the year; never lower than twenty
degrees above zero nor higher than eighty. The people are getting
more enterprising, after nineteen years of railroad communication,
but Durango is a solid, business place, entirely able to exist
independently of the world.
[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO PENITENTIARY, DURANGO.]
The agricultural interests in the State have not been neglected, the
situation being especially favorable to the cultivation of cotton as
well as other profitable crops. A ready market is found in the City of
Mexico for all the State products.
The rich agricultural district surrounding Lerdo is under irrigation
and from eighty to one hundred thousand bales of cotton are raised here
yearly in addition to the corn, cane, beans and fruits. A few miles
out from Durango is the Fabrica del Tunal, one of the oldest cotton
factories in the country, having been established by the father of the
present owner, Señor Emilio Stahlknecht, in 1837. This establishment
includes bleaching and print works, and its products of fine cloths
are known everywhere as among the finest cotton goods of Mexican
manufacture. The governor of this State realizes that the happiness of
the people and law abiding conditions depend greatly on education.
To Governor Esteban Fernandez the State owes a great deal of the
changes, for there is nothing necessary for the progress of Durango
that this ambitious governor fails to do. He has made it a life study
to lift his State to a splendid prosperity, and with the rich resources
and the high minded people who co-operate with him, he has elevated his
country to a high standard and has carried through all his enterprises
with great brilliancy. He is an intimate friend of the President,
and during the Centennial he had many _fêtes_ in honor of the
Independence. Monuments were unveiled and schools opened and many
ceremonies were held in appropriate celebration of this great occasion.
The City of Durango is noted for its wonderful police regulation. It is
well lighted and offers every advantage for the establishment of great
enterprises. Its climate makes it a unique place for recreation as here
one finds an unbroken springtime.
[Illustration: ALAMEDA, DURANGO.]
[Illustration: THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA.]
CHAPTER XXVII
CHIHUAHUA
Separated from the United States of America by the Rio Grande,
Chihuahua is the largest State in the Republic. It cannot be termed a
beautiful State from a scenic point of view, but there are parts where
it furnishes picturesque scenery not to be outrivalled anywhere in
the world. A prolongation of the Sierra Madre mountains traverses the
western part of the State and is rich in minerals. It is practically
an undulating tableland, the plains averaging four thousand to five
thousand feet above the sea, while the mountain-tops rarely rise more
than a thousand feet higher. The climate is pleasant, the seasons being
about like those of southern Texas.
The capital city, Chihuahua, has a large mixed population: English
is as much spoken as Spanish, and many American enterprises and
manufactories give it an air of progress. It is distinctly a mining
State. Numerous and important exploitations of silver ore has been
made for many years. The mines of Chihuahua have been celebrated for
centuries. The most important are Batopilas, Santa Eulalia, Parral,
Cerro Colorado and Minas Nuevas. Santa Eulalia is the famous mining
camp to which Chihuahua owes its origin and prosperity. It is still one
of the great silver-lead producers of the world. Batopilas became noted
for its ruby silver at an early period, and is best known for both
quality and quantity.
Batopilas has only about four thousand inhabitants and is located on
the river of the same name, a mountain stream low and quiet during nine
months in the year, but during the rainy season rising to a mighty
torrent. Owing to the steady work in the mines this town is more
advanced than others in the vicinity. The Batopilas mines are among the
richest in the world, although in this State there are others which
rank almost equally well.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE IN CHIHUAHUA.]
In cattle-raising the State of Chihuahua is one of the most important.
The temperate climate and the fertile fields serve to nourish thousands
of head, which are shipped to points in the Republic and to the United
States. The price of pasture lands is low, owing to much undeveloped
land. The stock is thoroughly healthy and the government maintains a
strict quarantine on all imported animals.
The ride over the Mexican Central route down through Chihuahua
furnishes an ever-changing series of infinitely interesting views. The
distant heights are rich in mineral dyes and exquisite in outline.
Through some break in the hills one catches a glimpse of an exquisite
valley with slanting sunlight streaming across it. Silent faraway
cities, forests of cacti and yucca plants, and a host of brilliant
flowers are always fleeting backward until the approach to Chihuahua
brings one to the first distinctly Mexican city. Purpled mountains are
in the distance below, two large steeples of the cathedral dominate the
landscape, and low flat roofed houses lie along the reddish horizon
with a truly oriental effect.
[Illustration: MONUMENT TO JUAREZ, CHIHUAHUA.]
Inside the city streets, long colonnades with arches outside the houses
offer shelter from the mid-day sun, and the outer walls are frescoed
in pastel colors. Broad stone seats with high backs line the principal
streets while clumps of Mexican aloes and prickly cacti hedge the
roadway.
The Cathedral faces the beautiful Plaza de la Constitucion. It was
completed in 1789, being under construction about fifty years. There is
a barbaric richness of ornamentation about the façade of this beautiful
edifice, carved in solid stone by native artists. Within its sacred
portals and under the flickering lights of the altars many troubled
souls find solace.
Chihuahua was founded in 1698, but the town proper was not built
until 1718, and it was elevated to the dignity of a city in 1824. Its
principal public buildings are monuments of art and industry. The
governor’s palace is a gray stone building covering a square, with wide
balconies and a large courtyard. It is not only a handsome building
but it is furnished with an elegance and a refinement of taste that is
so indicative of the Mexican people. Most Mexican towns are built in
the Mexican style with plazas and garden spots and one-storied houses,
but in this city there are evidences of the foreigner and it has the
appearance of some of the Texan cities. In the Plaza de Hidalgo is a
monument commemorating the execution on the spot of the first heroes of
Mexican independence.
As the scene of several historical events Chihuahua has many monuments
to the nation’s heroes. The city is very much Americanized: banking
houses and investment companies are well organized institutions.
[Illustration: STATUE OF HIDALGO, CHIHUAHUA.]
There are hospitals, houses of correction, military schools and the
State Normal School, which has a very high standard of education. A
technical or industrial school for young ladies has been of great
benefit to young women who are called upon to support themselves by
their own efforts, and it is one of the prides of the city.
Public education receives much attention and is conducted in a most
progressive manner. Among the most important schools are the Scientific
and Literary Institute, which consists of preparatory, special and
professional courses. There are also departments of commercial,
industrial, mechanical, mining and farming and these embrace a very
practical course of learning.
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE PALACE, CHIHUAHUA.]
In Ciudad Juarez, a school of agriculture has been installed under the
supervision of the Government.
Industry is taking a firm hold in the State. All enterprises have the
full encouragement and protection of the government. There are several
smelters, a brewery, ice and gaseous water factory, canneries, and iron
and steel foundries. Arts and crafts establishments abound in all the
smaller cities.
Chihuahua has the honor of being represented in the Cabinet by Señor
Don Enrique C. Creel, who was formerly the Mexican ambassador to
Washington, and the governor of the State. His administration was noted
for the manner in which he endeavored to elevate the Indians, and
create in them an ambition to become good and useful citizens, to own
land and cultivate it. He was called to Mexico to fill the place of the
late Señor Mariscal.
Shortly after leaving Chihuahua one approaches the smelting works of
the celebrated Santa Eulalia mine, which was discovered in 1703, and
not far away is a great hacienda comprising more than sixty thousand
acres of fine land. On that estate is an adobe palace two hundred feet
long and one hundred and twenty-five feet wide. The gates and pillars
are of cut stone, finely carved by natives. It has beautiful towers
at the angles and a patio within that is as large as the plaza of
some towns and much more attractive. This hacienda has a yearly crop
of seventy-five thousand bushels of wheat and of twenty-five thousand
bushels of corn.
Agriculture was once the great resource of the State, but has given
place to mining. Farming is carried on in a primitive way. The land is
rich and all kind of fruits grow in abundance. Alfalfa produces several
crops a year. Fine timber is found on the mountain slopes.
Escalon is the junction point with the Mexican Northern Railway running
to the great mining districts of Sierra Mojada, seventy-eight miles
east of one of the largest carbonate camps in the world.
Paso del Norte, now known as Ciudad Juarez in this State, is the
connecting link between El Paso, Texas, and the republic. It gets its
name from Benito Juarez, the first president of Mexico and during the
occupation of Mexico City by Maximilian it was the seat of government.
[Illustration: RESIDENCE OF SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE C. CREEL,
CHIHUAHUA.]
The people of this city have stood foremost and served as an example
for their patriotism and loyalty and it was to them that Benito Juarez
owed his great assistance of food and money in 1865, when the Liberal
cause was passing through dark and uncertain times.
[Illustration: THEATRE OF THE HEROES, CHIHUAHUA.]
One of the most interesting spots in the State of Chihuahua is Casas
Grandes, a town of a few thousand inhabitants on the San Miguel
River. This place is noted for its ruined houses, which are probably
the relics of some Indian metropolis. The main features seem to have
been three large structures connected by ranges of corridors or low
apartments and enclosing several courtyards of various dimensions. The
extent from north to south is eight hundred feet, and from east to
west two hundred and fifty feet. A range of narrow rooms, lighted by
circular openings near the top, and having enclosures three or four
feet high in one corner, supposed to be granaries, extends along one
of the main walls. Many of the apartments are very large, and some of
the enclosures are too vast ever to have been covered by a roof. About
two hundred feet west of the main building are three mounds of loose
stone, which may have been burial places, and two hundred feet west of
these are the remains of a building one story high and one hundred and
fifty feet square, consisting of a number of apartments ranged around
a square court. For twenty leagues along the Casas Grandes and Llanos
rivers are found artificial mounds from which have been dug up stone
axes, corn grinders and various articles of pottery, such as pipes,
jars, pitchers, etc., of a texture far superior to that made by the
Mexicans of the present day, and generally ornamented with angular
figures of blue, red, brown, and black, on a red or white ground. The
best specimens command a high price in Chihuahua and neighboring towns.
On the summit of a mountain about ten miles from Casas Grandes are the
remains of an ancient stone fortress which may have been intended as a
lookout.
Santa Rosalia is famous for its hot springs, which for curative
properties are claimed by those who have used these waters, to excel
any known springs in America. They are especially noted for their
wonderful properties in cases of inflammatory rheumatism and all blood
and skin diseases.
Jimenez is a city of about nine thousand inhabitants and is the railway
shipping point for the rich silver mines of the Parral and Guanacevi
districts. Archæologists find this town interesting on account of the
enormous meteorites found here. The greatest ones picked up are now in
the National School of Mines in Mexico City.
[Illustration: PART OF THE ARCHWAY OF THE OLD AQUEDUCT,
CHIHUAHUA.]
[Illustration: FALLS OF JUANACATLAN, JALISCO.]
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA.]
CHAPTER XXVIII
JALISCO
Jalisco borders on the Pacific Ocean as well as on the States of
Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Michoacán and Colima. In
colonial times it was known as the kingdom of Nueva Galicia. There
are many beautiful valleys and rivers, the largest of the latter, the
Santiago, being six hundred miles long, rising in Lake Lerma in the
State of Mexico and flowing through Lake Chapala, which is itself
seventy miles long and from ten to thirty-five wide. Lake Sayula and
Magdalena are smaller, but noted for their delicious fish.
The climate of Jalisco varies from generally cold in the higher and
northern altitudes to delightfully mild in Guadalajara and hot on the
west coast. The capital of Jalisco is Guadalajara, the population of
which is estimated at two hundred thousand. The city is beautifully
located and is constructed with elegant blocks of houses fronting
on clean, wide and well-paved streets, and the people are noted for
hospitality, culture and refinement, cheerfulness, politeness and
frankness of character. It easily holds the position of the Queen
City of the Republic. Its cathedral, while smaller than that of the
metropolis, is much handsomer and of greater architectural merit.
One of the theatres, Degollado, is one of the most beautiful in the
country. A superb granite penitentiary, built and managed in accordance
with the latest developments and improvements in that line, is greatly
admired by visitors. An entire square is covered by the government
palace, which, while somewhat resembling the national palace in the
City of Mexico, is even more harmonious and elegant in its architecture.
Captain Juan de Oñate founded the Villa del Espiritu Santo de
Guadalajara, which name was given to the town in compliment to Guzman,
whose birthplace was the Spanish city of Guadalajara in New Castile.
But the site then chosen proved undesirable, and a year or two later
the town was removed to the Valley of Tlocatlan, not by the free choice
of the townsfolk, but by the order of the Oidor, where, by a royal
cedula of the emperor, Charles V., dated November 8, 1536, it was
granted a coat of arms as a city. But this second site became the more
distasteful the longer they remained in it, and especially because they
were exposed to the frequent and cruel assaults of the wild Indians.
Commissioners were appointed to choose a site and decided upon a fair
valley called Atamazac; and eight days later all the townsfolk went out
together in good order and in that fair valley made their home. In this
spirited fashion was the present City of Guadalajara founded in the
year of our Lord, 1541.
In this city is the celebrated “Assumption” of Murillo, which belongs
to the cathedral and hangs in the sacristy. Its authenticity is not a
matter of doubt.
The foundation of this cathedral was laid in 1548. The present building
was commenced in 1561, and the corner stone was laid in 1571, by Bishop
Ayala. The building was completed in 1618. Its towers were thrown
down by the earthquake of 1818, and the clock between the towers was
badly injured. The interior is rich in decorations and paintings. The
two towers of this cathedral are wholly unlike any others in Mexico.
In one of them is the “campanito del correo” the little bell of the
courier, which rang only in the announcement of some important event.
Another bell called San Clemente, was in former times rung during
a thunderstorm to ward off lightning. An important adjunct to the
cathedral is the Sagrario, a comparatively new structure, commenced in
1808, and completed in 1843. The churches are numerous and interesting
historically. In loyalty to the church, Guadalajara is second to no
other city in Mexico and makes good its claim by works of charity and
mercy.
One of the most famous of the institutions of Guadalajara is the
Hospicio. The building is an imposing one of white stone, handsome and
attractive, covering an entire square, and containing twenty-five
patios or courts, with fountains, flowers, shrubs, palms and trees,
from which echo the melodious reverberating songs of children and
birds, which seem to touch the hearts of all visitors, and to embody
almost a life in itself. This is not a hospital, as is popularly
supposed, but a home for the poor of all ages, from the baby in the
cradle to the aged nearing the grave. The institution is admirably
managed under authority of the State of Jalisco. Children are taught
all that may be learned in schools of the highest order, and as they
grow older they learn some useful occupation in the higher arts and
sciences. The product of their labor is offered for sale in support of
the Hospicio and includes some of the most exquisite embroideries and
laces, made by the girls.
[Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, GUADALAJARA.]
The public square and jardines in Guadalajara are pretty and well-kept.
Twice a week and on Sundays an excellent band discourses sweet music in
the plaza, attracting a large crowd of people. There the best society
and the prettiest young ladies are seen. By common consent the sexes
and classes separate on the promenade. The inner or wider promenade
is reserved for the better class. The gentlemen keep in line on one
side and in one direction while the ladies do the same in an opposite
direction, the two streams passing each other constantly.
The plaza is a beautiful garden surrounded by magnificent buildings.
On one side is the government palace, on another, the cathedral, and
on the other two sides are long rows of portales, with their graceful
arches. Guadalajara is one of the brightest of Mexican cities and has
many charms within its gates. The government building has a modern air
that is pleasing; its stucco is colored a light gray, and its white
trimmings are decidedly agreeable to the eye.
The American Club is the general meeting place for Americans of the
city and vicinity. The Country Club, just organized, is composed of
Americans and other foreigners, as well as a number of Mexicans. The
French and German colonies in the city have their respective clubs.
There are two church congregations of Americans and English--the
Union Church and St. Marks’ Episcopal Mission. The Methodists,
Congregationalists and Baptists maintain mission schools and chapels.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, GUADALAJARA.]
The government building has an inscription of a Bible passage. “Nisi
Dominus custodierit civitatem, frustra vigilat qui custodit eam.”
“Except the Lord keep the city, the watchman waketh but in vain.”
[Illustration: DEGOLLADO THEATRE, GUADALAJARA.]
In one of the principal squares is the monument commemorative of
General Ramón Corona, a brave soldier, whose memory is loved by all
true Mexicans, and who was assassinated by a lunatic in 1880.
The Chapala Hydro-Electric and Irrigation Company, which owns the water
rights and franchises, is now installing new plants on the Santiago
with a capacity of fifteen thousand horse-power to furnish additional
current to Guadalajara and the mining districts in the northwestern
part of Jalisco, and this will bring the total production of electrical
energy of that company up to twenty-five thousand horse-power.
The city is equipped with a successful modern sanitary sewer system,
constructed by Americans at an immense cost, and has an abundance of
the purest mountain water, brought through a subterranean aqueduct from
the Colomos range. Several artesian wells have been bored for auxiliary
supply to the city system.
The new colonies that have been opened in this city are very beautiful
and the houses are constructed in splendid style and the architecture
is exceedingly fine. Many of the English and American residents have
built mansions and the Country Club is one of the most exclusive clubs
in the republic. Mr. Samuel E. Magill, the American Consul, is much
appreciated in Guadalajara. Mexico glories in her watering places and
pleasure resorts. Lake Chapala is the largest lake in the republic.
The principal village on this little inland sea is Chapala, where
there are some famous hot springs and a fine new hotel of modern
equipment called the Ribera Castellanos. This resort is very convenient
to Guadalajara. No more charming excursion for a lover of beautiful
scenery can be found in all Mexico than around this beautiful lake. For
water-fowl shooting during the fall and winter months and for sailing
and bathing during the entire year, these shores are delightful. Most
all the members of Mexican society find themselves there during Holy
Week and other holidays. The President goes on his yearly hunting
trip to these parts, accompanied by his son and some members of his
cabinet and intimates. He is noted for his powers of endurance, often
outstripping the others in his ardent quest for game.
San Pedro is the favorite suburb of Guadalajara where the famous
pottery-ware is made. This celebrated pottery is known the world over.
This is a rich agricultural and fruit-growing country, producing large
crops of wheat, corn and sugar, and the finest oranges that grow in the
republic.
La Piedad, one of the quaint old places, has a population of some eight
thousand. La Barca is a city of twelve thousand people, situated on
the Lerma or Santiago River, near where it empties into Lake Chapala.
Fifty miles west of La Barca and fifteen miles east of Guadalajara, at
the station of El Castillo, a tramway conveys passengers to the famous
Falls of Juanacatlan, justly called the “Niagara of Mexico.” The river
at this point plunges over a precipice sixty-five feet in height to
the rocks below, making a picture of grandeur and interest well worth
seeing.
[Illustration: THE HOSPICIO, GUADALAJARA.]
Sixteen miles beyond La Barca lies Ocotlan. This pretty place is on
the River Sula, a short distance above its junction with the Lerma.
The station is connected with the town by street cars, which run to
the bridge just above the steamboat landing. Ocotlan is situated on a
plain which slopes southward a few miles to the shore of the lake. With
its pretty plaza, its beautiful church spire, its portales, and two
bridges, Ocotlan is very picturesque.
[Illustration: PATIO OF THE AMERICAN CONSULATE, GUADALAJARA.]
Atequisa is in sight half a mile away on the left. Atequisa hacienda
has miles of wheat-fields, hundreds of oxen and other animals and
thousands of men at work on its farms or ranches. Here are the
headquarters of the vast estate, storehouses, corrals, workmen’s homes,
mills, hospitals, school houses and a church, besides the princely
residence of the owner. There are other fine haciendas, and among those
may be found the most cordial hospitality in the world. The life of a
country gentleman here is that of a hermit, in the total absence of all
society in the nearly unbroken solitude that surrounds him. For leagues
and leagues there may be no habitation but his own, the nearest village
may be distant half a day’s journey over an almost impassable road. But
he is “monarch of all he surveys,” a king among his farm servants and
Indian workmen. Nothing can exceed the independence of his position.
Capitalists who seek a sure and productive investment for their money
should take into account not only the richness of the soil, the
mildness of the climate and the thousand attractions offered by life in
that zone, but also the assured importance of Guadalajara as a railway
centre of first rank with facilities for transportation of its varied
products rapidly, not only to the principal markets of the republic but
also to those abroad, for which it will have seven or eight points of
outlet.
One of these products that will seek speedy exportation will be the
mineral wealth of Jalisco, which exists in great quantities and which
possesses a richness of which there is now but little known.
There are more than two hundred and fifty mines, the greater number
being of silver with some traces of gold, three or four of gold, some
of copper, and others of quicksilver, iron, lead and other metals.
The city of Guadalajara has had for many years a mint in constant
activity, coining silver and gold from the mines of Jalisco.
Mining in Jalisco is in its infancy and awaits only the energetic and
decisive action of companies with sufficient capital to astonish the
continent with the fabulous riches of its veins, many of them as yet
untouched.
Guadalajara with its constant sunshine, its skies even bluer than those
of far-famed Italy, and its mellow, genial warmth, is one of the most
beautiful garden spots of the world.
The intellectual condition of Jalisco is up to the standard of modern
times and lifts the people into a state above the ordinary. The schools
are of the best, the State and the cities spending large sums of
money on them, so that the primaries are being extended even to the
distant ranches, while the secondary and professional schools rank
among the best in Mexico. Jalisco’s lawyers have attained the highest
reputation, her doctors command the respect of all, her engineers have
attained national fame and her “Seminario de los Obispos” (Seminary of
the Bishops) is known everywhere as having graduated some of the most
notable of the Mexican clergy.
[Illustration: LAKE CHAPALA, JALISCO.]
[Illustration: THE JUAREZ THEATRE, GUANAJUATO.]
[Illustration: VIEW OF THE PORFIRIO DIAZ TUNNEL, GUANAJUATO.]
CHAPTER XXIX
GUANAJUATO
The peculiar situation of Guanajuato, the capital city, with its
crooked and irregular streets and its fortress-like houses, makes it
look very ancient and feudal, and, oddly, amid all this antiquity
stretch the wires of the telegraph and telephone, linking the old
civilization with the new in a way that is strangely paradoxical.
The heart of the city is the Plaza de Mejia Mora, where there is a
tablet which states that here was born Benito Leon Acosta, Mexico’s
distinguished engineer and man of science.
It is one of the quaintest and most delightful places in the world, a
walled city among the mountains, set upon the sides of heights so steep
that the houses seem to cling to the rock, and that a misstep might
precipitate one into the midst of the plaza three or four hundred feet
below.
This lovely, bewildering spot is full of lanes and archways and winding
market-places, where the picturesque people seem to be selling every
oddity imaginable. The upper balconies of the beautiful homes are gay
with awnings and flowers; the old church of the Jesuits with its fine
arches of soft pink stone and carvings like lace-work is magnificent;
the overhanging hills show brilliantly against the blue sky wherever
one turns; through a hundred different arches some vision of
slender-pillared inner courts, bright with blossoms and fresh greenery,
continually flashes out.
The climate of Guanajuato is temperate; no extremes of heat or cold.
It is a land of blue skies and fresh breezes; the atmosphere is clear
and invigorating. Mellow sunlight pours its flood of gold on fruitful
fields. The forests are rich in timber of great value. Guanajuato is
one of the oldest mining regions of the New World. Only one-fourth of
the area of the State has been scientifically explored, and yet there
are already over three hundred mines perfectly studied and capable of
giving good profits.
[Illustration: EL CARMEN CHURCH, CELAYA.]
The celebrated mines of Valenciana, discovered in 1770, and abandoned
during the War of Independence, in 1810, had up to that time produced
two hundred and seventy-one million dollars. Baron de Humboldt, on his
visit to Guanajuato, found a shaft eight hundred feet deep. He made a
special study of these mines, an account of which is to be found in his
records.
The earliest settlers were the Tarascan Indians who, upon arriving
here, found a large stone in the shape of a frog, of which they made
an idol, and they named the site of the future city Guanajuato, or the
Hill of the Frogs. It was founded in 1554 and made a city in 1741. The
site of the city was a gift from Mendoza to Don Roderigo Vasques, one
of the conquistadores, as a reward for his military services.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, GUANAJUATO.]
The curious and picturesque cemetery of Guanajuato or “pantheón,” is
among the “sights.” The burial place is on the top of a steep hill
which overlooks the city. The pantheón is enclosed by high walls
entered through ponderous gates. The dead are buried for the little
time that the peculiar dryness of the soil and air takes to mummify
them. Then they are filed away in pigeon-holes in the walls. When the
rentals cease the partially mummified remains are taken out of the
pigeon-holes and corded up in subterranean chambers tunneled out of
solid rock. Here the skeleton-guarded walls are musty, the light is
pale and gruesome and the air is laden with the odor of the decaying
dead. On all sides are the spectral forms. They are arranged upright
around the walls, and there they keep their silent vigil until
disintegration. A few years ago, when William Jennings Bryan visited
Guanajuato he was horrified on seeing these mummies in the catacombs
and suggested to the authorities that they be covered, as the sight
was very offensive to him. Out of respect for the opinion of their
distinguished visitor the municipal authorities have voted sufficient
funds to keep these mummies properly garbed. It is almost as gruesome a
sight to see them now clothed in long flowing robes as it was when they
were disinterred and placed there.
The Manuel Gonzalez Dam was commenced on the 5th of March, 1889, during
the governorship of General Manuel Gonzalez, the former president of
Mexico, and completed in 1893. The material employed is a metamorphic
deposit known in the locality as green rock, and exceedingly handsome.
In the ornaments are used sandstone of different colors. The effect
of these combinations is beautiful beyond description, and all these
varied materials are the products of the immediate locality. A
wall, containing over forty thousand cubic metres, has been built,
measuring one hundred and sixty-six metres in thickness at the base, or
foundation, and twenty-four at the upper part. The maximum height in
the interior is thirty-three metres and eighty-eight centimetres. This
dam contains one million six hundred thousand cubic metres of water. On
account of the short distance from the capital, only about three miles,
and the difference of the height of the ground, the City of Guanajuato
is supplied with water enough for all its needs and it will be possible
to establish hydraulic motors of calculable usefulness.
The picturesque and dangerous stream which churned its way through the
centre of the town causing many times great disasters by flood and
wrecking properties at different intervals no longer wreaks this damage
as Guanajuato is now protected from this inundation by a wonderful
tunnel called the Porfirio Diaz. It is the work of Governor Joaquin
Obregon Gonzalez, who has caused so many innovations and improvements
in the city.
[Illustration: THE MANUEL GONZALEZ DAM, GUANAJUATO.]
[Illustration: PLAZA, COLIMA.]
CHAPTER XXX
COLIMA
The old realm of Colima was founded by the Aztecs, who made pilgrimages
to this part of the country thinking to find a place to establish their
empire. Their capital was situated in Cojitlan about twenty miles from
the coast. Under the dominion of Spain it was a much larger territory
than it now comprises. In 1824 it formed part of the State of Jalisco,
in 1836 it was included in the State of Michoacán, but in 1846, it
became a territory of the republic. During these distinct epochs it
was governed first by sub-delegates and later by jefe-politicos,
many of whom were foreigners. Owing to the remoteness from the seat
of government there were many abuses of the people and the lack of
transportation was a great drawback to their progress. Following the
downfall of Santa Anna, General Comonfort occupied the Plaza de Colima
in 1855, after having conquered Zapotlan, now the city of Guzman. In
1856, the popular movement of Ayutla obtained a general benefit to the
country and the War of Reform wrested the entire republic from the
crippling grasp of the church and started the people in a career of
advancement.
The geographical position is good and has been of great value to Colima
in her progress.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, COLIMA.]
The port of Manzanillo, which is a natural harbor, is an open door to
all foreign trade and lately the establishment of important commercial
intercourse has given the country fine opportunities. Every resource
which nature has so bounteously bestowed is cultivated. With ambition
and the liberal education of the people this State ranks as one of
importance. The sanitary conditions have greatly improved through the
vigilance of the Federal government, and all danger of fever that was
once a drawback to Colima has been wiped out. There is a constant
influx from all parts of the republic and foreign immigration is
steadily increasing. One of the largest colonies is composed of staunch
and representative Germans.
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL, COLIMA.]
Newspapers and other publications have a firm footing, and many
scientific and social societies are composed of the best sons of the
State.
[Illustration: AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA VOLCANO.]
The most important rivers are the Armería, Coahuayana, the Sihuatlan,
Maravasco, Chocala, Paticajo, and Mamey are all formed from one
enormous stream and flow in different directions to the Pacific. On the
south and southeast the Coahuayana separates this State from Michoacán
as far as the Puente del Naranjo or the mouth of the Apiza, while the
River Tuxpan separates Jalisco from Colima.
[Illustration: MAGUAY GROWING AT THE FOOT OF THE COLIMA VOLCANO.]
The physical aspect of this coast State presents an admirable
mixture of beautiful scenery. With chains of mountains like a great
amphitheatre, the magnificent volcanoes, covered with snow, or seething
with fire, the splendid vegetation which presents itself in every
locality and the nearness to the Pacific Ocean give it a distinctness
of type that is very interesting. Rivers coursing down the mountains
and placid lakes reflecting the rays of the sun and tropical fruits
growing in greatest abundance add to the joys of the traveller who
finds himself on the way to Guadalajara, while the magnificent view
of the stately Colima with its snow glistening in the light and
the multi-colored clouds that fleck the skies above form a striking
contrast to the deep and dangerous looking barrancas.
From the cold air of the volcanic country to the warm tropical climes,
every vegetation known exists and the richness of the products cannot
be excelled. The Volcano of Colima, which is forty miles from the
capital, is eleven thousand eight hundred and eight feet high. It has
been in eruption since 1869. The beautiful sight of this mountain with
its clouds of fire and smoke, its molten lava running down the sides,
can be witnessed for many miles.
[Illustration: RESIDENCE OF COLONEL EDGAR K. SMOOT,
MANZANILLO.]
The largest lakes are Cuyutlan, which is navigable, San Pedrito, north
of Manzanillo, and the Calabazo and Alcuzahue, in the municipality of
Ixtlahuacán.
At the port of Manzanillo the government has built a splendid
breakwater and the harbor is one of the finest in the world. The coasts
bathed by the great Pacific are ragged and dangerous, but there are
some fine pleasure resorts, notably Cuyutlán, where many families go
during the months of March, April and May. In the forests woods of all
kinds flourish. Among them resinous, medicinal, and dye-woods are found
in great profusion.
The government of this State is noted for its liberal and progressive
attitude. Public benefits supply sufficient funds for hospitals and
all establishments of charity and protection. The national railways of
Mexico unite Manzanillo to the interior and have been of great benefit
to the commercial conditions. The telephone system is well established
between the ports and the capital and many branch lines extend to the
neighboring haciendas.
The last census shows sixty-five thousand one hundred and thirty
inhabitants. In the city of Colima the principal buildings are very
imposing and beautiful. The Government Palace, the Santa Cruz Theatre,
the Market de la Madrid, the Porfirio Diaz High School and the
Cathedral are among these. The new Porfirio Diaz Hospital is being
built on a very approved plan.
[Illustration: COLIMA IN ERUPTION.]
Since the origin of the State there have been twenty-eight governors,
some elected by popular vote and others as substitutes. The present
governor, Señor Licenciado Enrique O. de la Madrid, has been eight
years in office and his splendid administration has regulated the
destiny of the State.
[Illustration: SUMMIT OF COLIMA VOLCANO.]
He was born in the City of Colima on the 22d of March, 1862, and comes
from one of the most distinguished families on the west coast. His high
moral attitude and his splendid executive ability have caused the
people of his State to realize that the reins of government could find
no better hands for guidance than his. Besides numerous public works
and great improvements in cities and ports, one of the greatest events
during his gubernatorial period is the opening of the railroad which
unites the coast to the capital of the nation. On the 12th of December,
1909, General Porfirio Diaz formally opened this railroad, assisted
by the Vice-President, Señor Don Ramón Corral, Señor Don Leandro
Fernandez, Governor de la Madrid and many distinguished people.
[Illustration: PACK TRAIN ON THE ROAD TO COLIMA.]
[Illustration: IRRIGATING CANAL, CULIACAN.]
[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO MAZATLAN.]
CHAPTER XXXI
THE WEST COAST
There is always interest in observing the progress of a people, their
gradual conquest over evil conditions and their energy in removing all
obstacles which stand in the way of advancement. The demonstration of
strength and determination which result in triumph, stimulates the
energies of men of all countries, and the gratification that is gained
through overcoming difficulties becomes a natural pride. This example
the Mexican nation has shown to the world.
SINALOA owes a great part of her progress to the people. The actual
government, comprised of sons of the State, is a body of men of
action and intelligence, and the welfare of the country is their
first consideration. All public works and improvements are jealously
protected and every class of enterprise, mineral, commercial, maritime,
industrial, educational and agricultural are prosecuted to the full
extent of possible development.
As a maritime State she possesses a wonderful future. Mazatlan has
become a great Mexican port of the Pacific and is in close competition
with the port of Vera Cruz, though neither are rivals, on account of
their geographical positions. The country is well supplied with banking
and commercial facilities and vast enterprises for land development
have taken hold here. Railroad service and quick communication with
the Pacific have given Sinaloa a wider scope, developing with greater
rapidity all this western stretch of territory which has hitherto been
confined to a small area.
The Southern Pacific Railroad connects the United States with the
port of Mazatlan and opens one of the richest undeveloped mining and
agricultural sections in the country. In a few years Sinaloa, under the
dominion of energetic and enterprising citizens, will become one of the
garden spots of America.
[Illustration: GOVERNOR DIEGO REDO, SINALOA.]
The mineral and agricultural elements have greatly advanced and
enriched the State and she is on the road to become a most powerful
industrial centre.
Sinaloa is a maritime State and compares most favorably with all coast
territories. The situation between the great Gulf of California and the
Pacific is most enviable and all active movements of communication are
practical and convenient.
The mineral zones that have been exploited are famous throughout
the world for their riches. There are many precious metals in the
picturesque mountains and judging from the prolific production of the
relatively few enterprises now at work, a rich and incalculable fortune
awaits the prospector.
In the northern part of the State is the great silver belt. El Fuerte
district has extensive gold-placer ground.
The climatic conditions are excellent. The fruit and flowers are of
superior quality and in the high and mountainous regions all the
products of a temperate climate exist in profusion and are easily
cultivated. There is plenty of good land at the disposition of foreign
colonists and the government is always eager to place every advantage
before the settler. A great number of foreigners are living in this
country and they have all the rights and obligations of the natives.
Rivers and extensive irrigating plants make the land fertile and with
many canals and plenty of water-power immense quantities of electrical
power can be supplied to all enterprises and industries that exist and
to those that may become established in the future.
[Illustration: NEW MOUNTAIN ROAD AT MAZATLAN.]
The principal sugar estates are the El Dorado, La Aurora, the
Navaolota, Los Mochis, and El Aguila.
El Dorado is one of the finest sugar plantations in the republic. It is
located on the San Lorenzo River. It is connected with the main line of
the Southern Pacific by a branch from Quila. This hacienda is equipped
with the best machinery and produces fine cube sugar.
[Illustration: THE HARBOR, MAZATLAN.]
The writer spent some days at El Dorado and was the recipient of
most charming courtesies and was initiated into the intricacies of
sugar-making.
La Aurora hacienda is in the outskirts of the city of Culiacan. This
sugar estate has been under cultivation for years and is noted for its
purity of product.
The name of Redo has been associated with the State of Sinaloa for
over half a century. Señor Joaquin Redo, the father of the governor,
founded many industries, among them sugar factories, steel plants, and
iron foundries, and it is natural that Señor Diego Redo takes such
an interest in the State his forefathers helped to build. He is one
of the most progressive men in the republic and has done so much for
the advancement of every enterprise in his State that he is loved and
respected by all, from the humblest peon to the greatest statesman.
There is no doubt that the young governor, who not forty years old, has
set the pace for energetic and modern advancement. He has taken the
initiative in promoting every form of fruit culture and agricultural
development. In the establishment of the Agricultural Mortgage Bank
now in contemplation he will accomplish an incalculable benefit to the
State. In this movement he has the co-operation of strong interests
in the United States and in the Federal District. This will be a great
acquisition and will materially aid in the construction of irrigation
works and other enterprises which are necessary to the success of the
State.
[Illustration: PLAZA DE LA REPUBLICA, MAZATLAN.]
The building of many cities is one of the plans of the governor and
by his aggressive attitude in the actual progress of his State he is
determined to make Sinaloa one of the most important in the Union. The
first thing accomplished with the aid of the State legislators was
the establishment of an engineering corps. This corps costs the State
about sixty thousand dollars a year and is composed of the finest
engineers obtainable. Surveys of the entire country are made, sites
for cities are located and the proper locations of the big valleys
and level of the streams are obtained. In this way, it was discovered
that the Sinaloa River makes a loop of about eighteen miles and then
passes itself within a distance of only one hundred and sixty metres.
The division of the river is by a single mountain ridge through which
a tunnel is to be bored. This will afford a sufficient drop to produce
more than six hundred horse-power and at the same time supply the
immediate valley with plenty of water for irrigating purposes. Through
this means of survey the sites of some of these cities has been located.
Governor Redo is noted for his policy and perception and is always a
prominent figure in ceremonials where the distinguished men of the
country are gathered, and when a new building is dedicated or a new
railroad inaugurated, this gentleman is always present.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, CULIACAN.]
On the opening of the Tucson and West Coast of Mexico Railway an
important link was formed in an interoceanic and international line,
from the shores of the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Ocean on the west
shores of the Republic of Mexico. Citizens of the two great republics
met and ceremonies befitting so great an occasion were held. An
intelligent and delicate tribute was paid to the meeting of General
Diaz and President Taft by Governor Redo in an appropriate address, of
which is given the following extract: “The joyous echoes of the feasts
held in El Paso and Ciudad Juarez on the occasion of the meeting of
our Presidents are still resounding in the hearts of Americans and
Mexicans. We still recall the words of President Diaz affirming in the
name of the Mexican nation the reciprocity of the cordial sentiments
which on this solemn occasion were evinced by the countrymen of the
immortal Washington;” and the words of President Taft expressing in
the name of the people of the United States the same sacred sentiments
of friendship and ‘their profound admiration and high esteem for the
great, illustrious and patriotic President Diaz.’ And our present
celebration may be considered as the confirmation of those assertions
no longer in the sphere of diplomatic formalities, but in manner
more effective, as being the direct approximation of the individual
correspondents of both nations. You have invited your Mexican friends
to a great practical and symbolic feast; practical on account of the
utility which the new railroad line will bring to both countries by
quickening traffic, reducing freight rates, linking markets close
together and offering occasion and pretext for a better mutual benefit
understanding; symbolic, because this material approachment is the
concrete and plastic representation of brotherly neighborhood of two
nations, who, putting aside all possible bitterness, take pleasure in
the solace of a cordial friendship, and overcoming differences of race
and obstacles of language, seek the ideal of a human solidarity, ever
working for the common welfare.”
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON JOAQUIN REDO]
[Illustration: CUTTING SUGAR CANE, EL DORADO.]
The capital of the State is Culiacan. It occupies the site of the old
Aztec city of Colhuacan, famed in Mexican history. It has a population
of about twenty thousand and is rapidly growing in importance. Being
one of the oldest cities in the republic, many antique buildings
still exist in a state of preservation which shows the remarkable
craft of the builders centuries ago. It is in the midst of the gold
mining district and is the centre of extensive trade. There are
cotton factories, sugar refineries and several manufactories of great
importance. The city has a fine public square and the streets are
very attractive. Among the principal buildings are the Government
Houses, new schools, banking houses and a magnificent cathedral, which
has a collection of paintings of the old masters. The press is well
represented in this State, there being several interesting “Dailies.”
[Illustration: AQUEDUCT, CULIACAN.]
The fibre industry has advanced with great rapidity, and some of the
manufactories are in a flourishing condition.
Altata is the seaport of the city of Culiacan and is the outlet for
the large agricultural and mining country. The export of ores, sugar
and brazil-wood forms the trade of this port. A short railroad line
connects this town with the capital.
Mazatlan is a most important mercantile centre, but there are other
cities that follow it in close competition. There are many important
importing and exporting establishments. It is the most progressive city
on the west coast and has taken on the appearance of a busy American
port town.
The people are well educated, cultured and refined. The educational
system has every facility for mental equipment.
[Illustration: PORTALES, CULIACAN.]
The principal newspaper is _El Diario del Pacifico_.
One is impressed with the beautiful approach to this port, the flanking
mountains and the blue Pacific waters making a contrast with the
tropical palms and ferns ashore.
Silver mines are found in this locality and the chief exports are gold
and silver, dye woods and fine pearls.
SONORA
Baron Humboldt called the West Coast the “mineral storehouse of the
world.”
Sonora is notably a mining State and covers an area of seventy-seven
thousand square miles and the mining industry dates back to the time
of the Spanish Conquerors. Some of the mines worked by them are still
producing. Deposits of gold, silver and copper occur in remarkable
abundance and with modern mining facilities have developed great
commercial importance, while hundreds of mines remain unworked since
their abandonment during the revolution against Spain from 1810 to
1821. In silver production Sonora has been surpassed by the interior
States but from the beginning it has held first place as the chief
producer of gold and copper.
Since the Yaqui disturbances have been quelled by the government and
there can be no possible chance for another outbreak, on account of
the strenuous measures taken to conquer this unruly tribe, Sonora has
begun to take on an air of great prosperity. Some of these Indians
finding themselves under the absolute control of the authorities have
settled down to farming and mining and some of them have joined the
army; in consideration of this schools and churches have been erected
for them. One of the greatest benefits occurring from the establishment
of peace has been the betterment of public education. It is the object
of the officials to improve the school system in every manner possible,
and all money formerly used as a war fund against the Yaqui is now
turned to their interest.
The Chamber of Commerce has taken steps to renew public confidence and
open up old business relations with the sections of the State that
have transferred their operations to other points on account of these
troubles; the result is, that all inactive towns have taken on new life
and public improvement has made rapid strides.
This country unites all the conditions necessary for happy, reasonable
living. The climate is temperate, water excellent and abundant and
there is plenty of timber. It is a fine country for coffee, corn, cane
and cotton and the annual shipment of bananas exceeds that of any other
State. The agricultural resources should be properly developed and
although recent improved mining conditions have made them a secondary
feature, there is no doubt that farming is to be one of the best
resources of this rapidly advancing State. The fruit culture of Sonora
is gradually gaining pace with California and the oranges from this
part have been pronounced the finest in the world. The fact that all
produce ripens a few weeks in advance of that in California is a good
reason for farmers to know the value of this section. The steady influx
of earnest people anxious to cast their lot in a country so rapidly
coming to the front leads one to believe that the history of the
pioneers of the Golden West is soon to be repeated.
Hermosillo, the capital of Sonora, is one of the first and important
cities on the west coast reached after leaving American territory. It
is situated on the Sonora Railway, which is a branch of the Southern
Pacific. In a beautiful valley with majestic mountains towering in
the distance, this charming city occupies a splendid geographical
position and is destined to become the centre of great commercial and
business enterprises. Stately public buildings, grand old churches,
and beautiful parks of palms and native fruits give the city a
semi-oriental appearance and, with all its quaintness, this is one of
the most attractive cities in this part of the republic.
There are no frosts in the winter months to chill the air, and no
excessive heat in the summer. Possessed of a climate equal to that of
Southern California, it is a most delightful abiding place.
Within the past year the city has taken on a tremendous degree of
activity; improvements are being made daily, buildings reconstructed
and a company of local capitalists have laid out an addition to the
town, grading the streets, macadamizing the roadways and in every way
beautifying the city. Houses on the American plan have been built
and many beautiful residences in this new colony are adding greatly
to the appearance of the city. The energetic interest that the State
government has taken in the progress of this country has given a great
stimulus to the people and it is remarkable how many prospectors have
flocked from the United States to cast their lots in this promising
city.
[Illustration: GENERAL LUIS TORRES, GOVERNOR OF SONORA.]
Hermosillo has about fifteen thousand inhabitants. It has several
public parks that are being continuously improved. The Ramón
Corral Park is the most beautiful. It was named in honor of the
Vice-President, once the Governor of the State, and was donated by him.
The Plaza de Armas is in front of the Municipal Palace and is very
bright and pretty. It is one of the most attractive sights of the city
in the evening when lighted with its brilliant display of electricity.
A mountain in the city limits called Cerro de las Campanas has been
converted into a pleasure resort with a fine drive to its summit, with
byways laid out in a very attractive manner with rustic seats and many
features of beauty. A handsome kiosk is in course of construction where
military bands will give concerts.
A large statue of the patriot Hidalgo stands in a square facing the
Bank of Sonora, one of the most important establishments in the State.
There are many fine banking and commercial houses in this city which
give an idea of the prosperity that reigns supreme.
The Chamber of Commerce and the Chamber of Agriculture are very
active in the interests of the State and Hermosillo boasts of fine
institutions of learning, the idea of the government being to make the
schools of this State the best and most advanced in the republic.
One of the most important is the Colegio de Niñas de Leona Vicario,
named in honor of the great heroine of the Revolution. It has a
conservatory of music, a library, a gymnasium and a branch of arts and
crafts. This school has been opened lately.
[Illustration: GOVERNMENT PALACE, HERMOSILLO.]
The Academy for Boys is a large and handsome building with an excellent
system of manual training in connection with other branches. The
public schools of the city are maintained at a cost of eighty thousand
dollars a year. American interests are well protected by Mr. Louis
Hostetter, who is the Consul. He is well loved by the natives and
has the respect of all the government officials. He has enlarged the
trade with the United States and his work is much appreciated. Public
improvements are steadily going on. A concession has been granted for
a dam in the Sonora River, about ten miles from the city. This will be
of great benefit to the outlying districts as well as to the capital,
for there has been a great waste of water that should irrigate at least
five hundred thousand acres of land. There will be a larger power plant
to connect with the factories and electricity is to be generously
distributed.
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL AT ALAMOS, SONORA.]
General Luis E. Torres, the Governor of the State, is the General of
the Military Zone. His duty consumes most of his time and the acting
Governor, Señor Alberto Cubillas, uses great energy and activity in
carrying out the policies of the executive. General Torres is one of
the noted figures of Mexican history. The government of this State is
wise, fearless and impartial and all the officials are directing their
earnest efforts toward advancement.
Guaymas is situated on the bay of the same name and is a very old city.
The antique houses of one story constructed on a solid basis still
hold their own with the later structures of modern architecture, and
the contrast between the two styles is very strange. It is the second
city of importance in the State. The harbor is said to be one of the
finest in the world. The works lately built, some parts are still in
construction, have been done at great expenditure on the part of the
Federal Government. Large vessels can now enter the port. The scenery
surrounding this port city is very attractive and pleasure-seekers
from the North have made it a winter resort as the climate is mild and
equable. Fishing, hunting and boating are indulged in by those living
here, and the great commercial activity grows in importance with each
year. It is the headquarters of the Sonora Railroad whose commodious
offices are very handsome. The Pacific Salt Company is one of the most
extensive in commercial importance and there is scarcely a commodity
that is not manufactured in this city. The Custom House, with the
wireless telegraph station, and the Marine Hospital are important
buildings. The public parks are well laid out and are very attractive
with tropical palms and flowers.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON ALBERTO CUBILLAS, VICE-GOVERNOR OF
SONORA.]
Five miles from Guaymas is Empalme, a little town of Americans. It is
growing very fast. The houses are all constructed of brick and wood and
are very modern and sanitary. The terminal and machine shops of the
Sonora-Pacific Railway extension are here. Other cities, Esperanza,
Alamos and Cananea, are in close competition in mining activity. Alamos
is an old and picturesque town surrounded by beautiful scenery and its
history is full of old legends and traditions.
[Illustration: BAY AT GUAYMAS.]
Cananea is the headquarters of one of the largest mining companies in
the State. It gives employment to over three thousand Mexicans and half
as many Americans. It is a progressive little town with a variety of
enterprises, theatres, steam laundries, department stores, a newspaper
printed in English, called the _Bulletin_, and a mercantile bank
doing a thriving business.
Nogales is called the Gateway of Mexico. It is divided by an imaginary
line from the town of Nogales, Arizona. There was a great deal of
smuggling carried on at one time owing to the fact that on one side
of a street was American territory and on the other Mexican. But this
no longer exists owing to the strenuous means on the part of both
governments. The main offices of the Sonora Railway and of the Cananea
Division of the Cananea, Rio Yaqui and Pacific are located here. In
speaking of the favorable conditions which exist in Sonora the words
of General Torres are most appropriate: “So great is the area; so
varied the products and so fertile the soil of the opulent State of
Sonora that no man even after a lifetime spent within her borders can
make more than mention of her resources. This year Sonora is more than
ever prepared for the fullest development of her history, owing to
the subjugation of the Yaquis and the consequent settlement of Indian
trouble. The resources of Sonora fall naturally into three great
divisions; mining, agriculture and stock-raising.
[Illustration: BANK OF SONORA, GUAYMAS.]
“In mining it has produced millions of dollars worth of gold, silver,
copper and lead, and will produce millions more in the new wave of
progress which is sweeping over the State. Mines which have been
producing since the middle of the sixteenth century are being driven
deeper and rich new prospects are being opened up all over the State.
“Stock-raising, the original industry, suffered a severe setback during
the recent Indian troubles, but is again being raised to the place of
prominence it should occupy in the wealth-producing land of Sonora.”
[Illustration: RAMÓN CORRAL PARK, HERMOSILLO.]
South of Sinaloa along the Pacific Coast lies the Territory of TEPIC.
It originally belonged to the State of Jalisco but it was declared a
free territory during the administration of General Lerdo de Tejada.
Its agricultural products are rich and all kinds of tropical fruits
grow in great abundance.
The chief industry is salt, which is of great importance commercially.
The Tepic territory is remarkable for the number of waterfalls it
contains, and the rivers which supply water throughout the entire
territory.
[Illustration: YAQUI INDIANS.]
While the beauties of southern California are well known, the imaginary
line that separates from Baja California marks no difference in soil or
climate. It is a continuation of the same general features.
The Peninsula of Lower California was discovered by Cortés in 1536.
It is traversed by a volcanic range of mountains. The Jesuits formed
establishments there about 1690 and instructed the native Indians in
the arts of agriculture and civilization. They remained there until
1767 and the ruins of their old missions are to-day exceedingly
picturesque.
At La Paz the pearl fisheries are very extensive and some of the finest
pearls in the world are among these deposits. More than a thousand
divers are employed during the season, which lasts from May till
November.
Politically, the peninsula is a territory. The two chief cities are La
Paz, in the south, and Ensenada in the north. Ensenada is an American
town exceedingly attractive in appearance. It is beautifully situated
in a healthful location and is a natural outlet of great inland
business and mineral wealth.
Magdalena Bay is one of the beautiful places along the Pacific Coast,
and is surrounded by a green country. Orchilla is a parasitic moss
which hangs from the trees throughout this region, adding a touch of
picturesqueness to the natural beauties of the place. Large quantities
of it are gathered on the seashore and in the vicinity, pressed and
shipped to Europe, where it is used for the purpose of dyeing sealskins.
The region around Cape San Lucas is beautiful in the extreme, and not
far from there lies the picturesque little village of San José del
Cabo, which is a shipping port with a coast custom house section. The
_Orizaba_ and the _Coos Bay_, steamers of the Pacific Coast
Company, stop at all principal ports, and furnish the best possible
means of communication between San Francisco and Guaymas, Sonora.
[Illustration: MUNICIPAL PALACE, GUAYMAS.]
[Illustration: LAKE PATZCUARO, MICHOACÁN.]
[Illustration: THE PLAZA, ZAMORA.]
CHAPTER XXXII
MICHOACÁN, MORELOS, GUERRERO
Cortés took an excursion through Michoacán after the fall of Mexico
and was delighted with what he saw. It was at this time a powerful and
independent State, inhabited by one of the kindred Nahuatlac races. The
Spaniards advanced across the State and erected a cross on the Pacific
Coast in the name of their Catholic majesties. On their return they
took back samples of gold and California pearls, and the report of the
great Southern Ocean beyond. Cortés wrote: “Most of all do I exult in
these tidings of a great ocean. For, in it, as cosmographers and those
learned men who know most about the Indies inform us, are scattered
rich isles, teeming with gold and spices and precious stones.” Even
then had the Spaniards begun to look on Mexico as a great treasure
house to be drawn upon to support their own extravagant country.
Michoacán lies on the western slope of the great cordillera of Anahuac.
The territory is extremely mountainous and its scenery strikingly
picturesque, characterized by enchanting gorges, beautiful valleys and
vast plains of fertile lands along the banks of glistening streams,
whose course is sometimes impeded by huge rocks, and which occasionally
acquire great rapidity, as can be observed especially at the Falls of
Onendo. Its most noted mountain peak is the volcano of Jorullo. The
State is called Michoacán de Ocampo in honor of one of the great heroes
of Mexican independence.
The story of Ocampo adds another to the many romantic episodes of
Mexican revolutionary days. He was one of the great heroes who
sacrificed life for the sake of the country he was so determined to
free from foreign tyranny. When he was captured by the enemy and
condemned to be shot his last request was that his heart should be
taken from his dead body and carried back to his native State. This
was done and the State was rechristened Michoacán de Ocampo, in loving
memory of one of its greatest heroes.
Morelia, the capital, was founded in 1541 by the Spaniards and received
the name of Valladolid. It stands upon a rocky hill six thousand four
hundred and thirty-eight feet above the sea. The streets are wide and
regularly laid out. On one side of the Plaza de los Martires, the
principal square, stands the noble cathedral and extensive arcades are
along the others: this is the principal business centre. The houses are
very substantially built and the government building is very handsome.
The San Nicolas College, which was built in the sixteenth century
and remodeled in 1868, is one of the finest edifices in the republic
of Mexico. By moonlight Morelia is exceedingly attractive, with its
fine square, beautiful streets and houses. Near by is the hill of
Las Bateas, where by the order of Morelos two hundred Spaniards were
murdered in cold blood to revenge the death of the curate Matamoros,
who had been taken prisoner and shot by Iturbide.
[Illustration: CHURCHYARD GATE, TZINTZUNTZAN.]
Patzcuaro is a pretty little city with sloping roofs situated on
the shores of the lake and in front of the little Indian village
of Janicho, built on a beautiful small island in the midst of the
lake. There are churches bearing the date of 1580. The first Bishop
of Michoacán, Vasco de Quiroga, who died in Uruapan, was buried in
Patzcuaro, and the Indians of this State still venerate his memory.
He was the father and benefactor of the Tarascan Indians, and went to
rescue them from their degraded state. He not only preached morality,
but encouraged industry among them by assigning to each village its
particular branch of commerce. Thus, one was celebrated for its
manufacture of saddles, another for its shoes, a third for its bateas
(painted trays) and so on. Every useful institution of which some
traces still remain among them is due to this excellent prelate, an
example of what one good and zealous and well-judging man may effect.
The old church of Patzcuaro is handsome and rich in gildings. At
the door is printed in large letters, “For the Love of God all good
Christians are requested not to spit in this holy place.” In this old
town, too, one may see specimens of that mosaic work which all ancient
writers upon Mexico have celebrated and which was nowhere brought to
such perfection as in Patzcuaro. It was made with the most beautiful
and delicate feathers, chiefly of the hummingbirds, which they called
huitzitzilin. But it is now many years since the last artist in this
branch lived in Patzcuaro, and, though it is imitated by the nuns,
the art is no longer in the state of perfection to which it had been
brought in the days of Cortés. Several persons were employed in each
painting, and the work required extraordinary patience and nicety in
the blending of colors and the arrangement of the feathers. Many were
sent to Spain and to different museums both in Europe and in Mexico
but the art does not belong to the present utilitarian age. Patzcuaro
is well entitled to its name, which means “a place of delights.” The
station is on the lake shore; a diligence runs to the town, two miles
up the hill, and the drive is a most charming one. There is a little
steamer on the lake which runs from the dock to the northern shores,
making several landings where there are no railroads and perhaps never
will be. The object of the voyage on the lake, and in fact, the trip to
Patzcuaro, is the famous painting in the old church at the village of
Tzintzuntzan on the east shore of the lake--_The Entombment_, by
Titian, presented to the Bishop of Michoacán by Philip II. of Spain.
Such is the veneration of the Indians for this beautiful painting that
the bishop has refused to allow it to be removed. Enormous sums have
been offered by enthusiastic art-lovers, but the church authorities
have declined to entertain them, and the picture still hangs where it
was first placed by the loving hands of its original owners more than
three hundred years ago. The old church is fast crumbling to decay,
and its pristine glory has departed from it. Tzintzuntzan was once the
capital of the powerful empire of Tarasco, which successfully resisted
to the last the incursions of the Montezumas. After the Spanish
conquest this was the seat of the Bishopric of Tarasco and was held in
high esteem by Philip II. The steamer runs irregularly but need not be
depended on for the trip to Tzintzuntzan.
Uruapan, farther west, is the gem of the Indian villages. It has a few
good houses and fine streets; but its boast is of the Indian cottages
all so clean and snug and tasteful, surrounded by fruit trees. In this
region the finest coffee in the world is raised, the “Uruapan” being
everywhere recognized as the finest of brands.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON PABLO ESCANDON, GOVERNOR OF MORELOS.]
A number of old Indian customs are still kept up here, modified by
the introduction of Christian doctrines, in the marriages, feasts,
burials, and superstitious practices. The citizens also preserve the
same simplicity in their dress, united with the same vanity and love
of show in their ornaments that always distinguished them. The poorest
Indian women still wear necklaces of red coral or a dozen rows of red
beads.
[Illustration: PALACE OF CORTÉS, CUERNAVACA.]
MORELOS
Cuernavaca is situated at the foot of the southern slope of Ajusco,
where the cold storms which sweep the Gulf Coast in winter can hardly
gain access; hence it enjoys the perfection of a winter climate. Its
summer climate is also agreeable, for its elevation of five thousand
feet above sea level precludes oppressive heat. Moreover, the rain is
said to fall here mostly by night. From this point one has a nearer
view than from the city of Mexico of the great snowy summits rising
above forested slopes, and here the interest of the view is greatly
enhanced by the striking contrast afforded by an intermediate range of
bare red rock, disordered masses serrated, castellated, and pinnacled
beyond description. Below the town opens out into a wide valley which
is green throughout the year with plantations of cane. Streams of pure
water course down through every street, and fountains are frequent. To
this quaint and quiet town, verdant and shady under bright, warm skies,
was attracted the ill-fated Maximilian and hither he was wont to ride
by night to hide from assassins in the thick wood of his high-walled
garden.
Cuautla de Morelos has been the theatre of important historical events.
Here it was that the curate Morelos shut himself up with his troops
until the Spaniards under Calleja besieged it and the priest and his
party were compelled to abandon their position.
Among the attractions of Cuernavaca are the ancient palace of Cortés
and the famous garden of La Borda, on which over a million dollars were
lavished. Maximilian, when Emperor, had his winter home here, as had
Cortés long before. The former lived for a time on La Borda estate, and
Carlota and the Emperor breakfasted under its trees and spent long days
in the great walled garden.
[Illustration: FLYING BUTTRESS, CUERNAVACA.]
Cuernavaca, the ancient Cuauhnahuac, was one of the thirty cities which
Charles V. gave to Cortés, and it afterward formed part of the estate
of the Duke of Monteléone, representative of the family of Cortés,
as Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. It was celebrated by the ancient
writers for its beauty, its delightful climate, and the strength of
its situation. It was the capital of the Tlahuica nation, and after
the conquest Cortés built a splendid palace, a church, and a convent
of Franciscans, believing that he was laying the foundation of a great
city. The conqueror’s palace is now the government house. It is most
picturesque, standing on a hill behind which starts up a great white
volcano. There are some good houses and the remains of the church which
Cortés built, celebrated for its fine arch.
Morelos is a sugar cane State. Governor Pablo Escandon is interested in
developing the agricultural and horticultural resources; he has in view
an agricultural school and model farm where farmers may see the results
of new methods. He has made a complete reform of the public school
system. New schools are built and the best teachers employed. Taking
into consideration that the largest proportion of children of school
age in the State are those of farmers and laboring men and believing
that they should be taught in school matters the things that will be
of assistance to them in later life, he has added to the curriculum a
thorough system of manual training and domestic economy.
[Illustration: LA BORDA GARDEN, CUERNAVACA.]
The late Frederick E. Church, the painter of nature, said of Cuernavaca
“So far as I can judge from inquiry of good authorities, as well as
from personal observation, it possesses in an eminent degree all the
requirements demanded. No other place that I have visited in Mexico
can compare with it in that respect. The climate is wonderful. The
situation commands more grand and lovely views and in greater variety
than any city I have visited in all my travels. Cuernavaca will, in the
very near future, become a very great resort and will be crowded all
the year, for very few northerners have an idea of the climates of the
country and that they are even more attractive in summer than at any
other season.”
GUERRERO
The State of Guerrero was named in honor of Vicente Guerrero, who was
born at Tixtla, 1770, and executed at Cailipa, February 14, 1831.
Guerrero was a mulatto and originally a slave. In the struggle for the
independence of Mexico he exhibited great courage and after the death
of Mina became one of the leaders of the insurgents.
The State is traversed by the Sierra Madre with its many spurs, and is
consequently very mountainous, its climate varying with the elevation
from very hot in the low countries to cold in the higher portions. The
soil is very fertile; vegetation, particularly arboreal, is rich and
varied and there are extensive virgin forests, containing excellent
timber and many species of fine woods. Many of the inhabitants are
miners, and on the coast numbers are engaged in pearl fishing.
The first capital of Guerrero was Tixtla which, on its selection in
1849, was immediately raised to the rank of a city. It is picturesquely
situated in a narrow gorge of the Sierra Madre, and has not yet become
of great importance in any respect. It is five thousand feet above sea
level and its chief occupations are coarse manufactures and agriculture.
The present capital is Chilpancingo, a few miles southwest of Tixtla
and situated on a pleasant tableland on the western side of the
mountain range.
In January, 1902, an earthquake almost destroyed the old palace in
which were all the executive offices and the Senate chamber and a new
palace was built under the direction of Señor Manuel Galindo, the chief
engineer of the war department. It was completed in 1906, and was
opened on the 21st of March, which was the anniversary of the birth
of the great benefactor, Benito Juarez. This palace is a remarkable
structure with splendid reception halls and offices. The windows and
doors, the face of the public clock and many fixtures were brought
from the United States. All the furniture came from the factories of
San Luis Potosí.
One of the first duties of the governor, Señor Don Damian Flores, was
to reconstruct the prison, which presented a very bad aspect, being
in the centre of the city. This prison adjoined the Normal School for
Professors, in which was also the Preparatory School and the School
of Jurisprudence. This building was totally destroyed by the last
earthquake and in view of the fact that it was not an appropriate
situation for a school a beautiful prison was constructed. This is one
of the most magnificent buildings in the capital. Its construction
was undertaken by two young engineers, Carlos Baz and Rafael Najera,
under the direction of the governor himself, whose original plans were
carried out by the contractor, Señor Luis Pozzi. The first stone was
laid on a memorable political anniversary, February 5, 1908, and within
eleven months it was inaugurated. It is of Doric style of architecture
with some changes indicated by necessity. The Portales, of the
Greco-Roman style, are of purest interpretation.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON DAMIAN FLORES, GOVERNOR OF GUERRERO.]
Continued earthquakes, in 1907, destroyed many public buildings. Among
the most important was the Civil Hospital. A new and modern building
of the most approved style now occupies the site of the old hospital.
The plans were executed with fine detail and it is one of the most
perfect establishments of this kind in the republic. Other annexes
to this hospital are in contemplation, destined to be for general
administration and the maternity asylum. The city of Chilpancingo was
united with Iguala by an imperfect road that was impossible to pass
at times without great danger to man and beast. The government long
appreciated the great necessity of a splendid roadway. Some railroad
companies studied the conditions with the intention of constructing a
road to Acapulco touching this city and other small villages on this
same roadway. It was an impossible and expensive work. In 1905, the
late Governor of the State put in practical construction the road which
led to Mexcala by the way of Xochipala to the point called Milpillas
and which returned to the old road and by this deviation avoided the
passage over the barrancas. This work partially finished reached the
small village of Xochipala when the death of the Governor suspended
all operations. In 1907, when Governor Flores occupied the office of
first Magistrate of the State he began to make a study of the prospect
of this road being completed. In order to have a successful outcome
of this plan he appealed to the State for help--and the federation
subsidized a plan to the extent of one thousand dollars for every
kilometre finished; the respective plans being approved the work
was begun, being divided into three sections, one road from Iguala
to Mexcala, another from Mexcala to Zumpango and the other from
Chilpancingo to Zumpango.
[Illustration: THE PALACE, CHILPANCINGO.]
On the section from the capital to Zumpango, the Governor himself
directed the greater part of the work. When the road was finished
the President of the Republic formally inaugurated it on the 10th
of May, 1910, accompanied by the Vice-President, the Secretary
of Communications and Public Works and other high officials and
personages. He made the trip in an automobile to the capital. It was a
gala day when the nation’s chief executive reached Chilpancingo amid
waving banners and patriotic exclamations. Banquets and distinguished
hospitality were extended to these visitors. Besides the inauguration
of this automobile road the laying of the corner stone of the monument
dedicated in honor of the great hero Guerrero was formally done in
fitting ceremony in the midst of a great assemblage of patriotic
citizens.
[Illustration: TAMARINDO TREES, IGUALA.]
Acapulco is perhaps the most important town in Guerrero, as it has
one of the best harbors on the entire west coast. During the Spanish
dominion Acapulco was the focus of the China and East Indian route, and
was a place of considerable importance. The California trader later
gave it a period of transitory commercial life, as it was a coaling
station for the steamers between Panama and San Francisco; but with the
new railroad now in process of construction, Acapulco is destined to
see greater days than ever. The region around produces the best lemons
in the world, the fruit being large and juicy and far more desirable
than either the Californian or Sicilian product. The way will soon be
opened for marketing this product in New York and other ports, when the
lemon industry is likely to blossom out into the chief soil product of
Guerrero.
“The Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific” is a line that is to give Mexico
standard gauge connection with the old and historic port of Acapulco,
whither came once the richly freighted galleons of Spanish commerce
from China and Japan. In this connection it is worthy of note that the
first fair and equitable treaty with Japan in modern times was made in
Mexico.
[Illustration: BALSAS RIVER, GUERRERO.]
[Illustration: ARCADE, SHOWING HOME OF SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO
PEON, MERIDA.]
[Illustration: THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE, GRAND PLAZA.]
CHAPTER XXXIII
YUCATÁN
In 1517, Hernandez de Cordoba discovered the beautiful Peninsula of
Yucatán.
Bathed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and
possessing throughout immense area lakes and beautiful scenery, it is
one of the most picturesque States in the republic. Geographically
considered, the Peninsula of Yucatán extends to the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec. The natural condition and elements have made this
territory a theme for many studies on account of the great interest
that is taken in the various resources that are presented.
Lovers of art and history and students of archæology have been drawn
toward Yucatán for over a century.
The scenery impresses one as being strangely unique. Back of the coast
stretches a broad lagoon many miles in extent and varying in depth
with the sea. Here the northern birds spend their winters. Beyond the
lagoon, the bed of coral which composes the entire peninsula rises
slightly above the sea level, presenting the appearance of a dry swamp.
On the roads, which run parallel with the railways, patient oxen plod
slowly along, their heads bowed under heavy yokes, hauling great loads
of henequen in rude carts with wooden wheels.
The great industry of this State is the cultivation of hemp, which
is a species of the cacti family known as “sisal.” The magnitude and
importance of this business can scarcely be imagined. The hemp grows
wild in great profusion and seems to thrive best on barren lots and
desert sands or in very thin soil where nothing else could find its
abode. A “henequen” plant attains its full perfection in seven years.
A stem shoots out from the centre of it, the leaves gradually detach
themselves in the form of an immense spear or “Spanish bayonet,” with
sharp thorns along the edges, terminating in a strong needle-like
point. A bale of henequen fibre represents the product of about seven
thousand leaves. In most places the process of making the fibre by hand
is discarded as unprofitable, and the stripping of the leaves is done
with great machines driven with powerful steam engines. The scraper
consists of a large wheel with strong blunt knives around its rim. The
henequen leaves are pressed against this rim and by means of a lever
worked by machinery the knives remove in an instant the pulp which
covers the fibre. The pulp having been removed, the fibre is taken from
the leaves in long strips, like very fine silk thread of a beautiful
green tint. It is made into small bundles and placed in the sun to dry.
In the packing house the dried hanks are put up into four-hundred pound
bales by a cotton-press. It is then ready for market, where its value,
like other commodities, varies.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON ENRIQUE M. ARISTEGÚI, GOVERNOR OF
YUCATÁN.]
On account of the present low price of henequen it is difficult to
support the factories and meet the numberless expenses incurred during
the long period of seven years until it reaches maturity and becomes
commercially valuable. The farmers are now thinking about reducing the
area of future plantations. They are also considering the cultivation
of cotton, “pochote,” castor oil plant, and all the products indigenous
to their climate.
A great interest is awakening in the manufacture of ropes, twines of
all sizes and bagging of all description, to such an extent that the
factory La Industrial has been manufacturing these articles for more
than a year and selling them at such profit that the demand is greater
than the supply. Had it not been for the excessively low price of hemp
the farmers would not have awakened to the fact that the time had come
for them to look for new cultures and develop new industries, and the
fall in the price of henequen has deeply impressed the minds of the
growers, with the result that many new industries will soon become
established in this State.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON AUGUSTO PEON.]
Next in value to henequen comes the bromelia pita, locally known as
“ixtle” the ancient Aztec name. From this the Mayas’ clothes are
made: it formed the foundation of the beautiful feathered cloaks of
Montezuma’s time. The ixtle furnishes the poorer classes with their
garments and hammock-beds in which they are born and die, and their
baskets and household utensils and paper are manufactured from the
fibre. From the roots of the plant a favorite intoxicant is brewed;
the juice of its bruised leaves is the best known remedy for wounds;
its thorns are the Indian pins and needles. A few years ago some
ixtle fibre was sent to England for experiment in the great cloth
manufactories and from it some handkerchiefs were woven which have
since figured in several expositions, to the astonishment of all
beholders.
While the Mexican people are noted for their politeness and courtesy,
the Yucatecas seem to have more than their share of delightful
_simpatia_. The women are beautiful and cultured and in no part of
the republic is the social element more remarkable than here. Merida is
called “The White City” and has been famous for its brilliant carnival
celebrations. At these times enthusiasm and animation reign supreme.
[Illustration: VIEW OF MERIDA.]
Merida was founded by Don Francisco de Montejo in 1542. The original
home of its founder is still standing. It is located on the principal
plaza and is an object of great interest. The entrance to this house is
a wonderful specimen of antique carving.
The cathedral is one of the handsomest and largest in the republic and
the many beautiful temples are most interesting to visit. Some fine old
carvings of the time of the Spanish viceroys are seen in many of these
churches.
The new Peon Contreras Theatre ranks in beauty with any building of its
kind in the world. The splendid appointments of this theatre and its
marble columns and corridors are a marvel to those who have seen it.
It was built under the supervision of Señor Don J. Rafael de Regil,
demonstrating splendid taste and judgment.
Many prominent buildings have been erected in late years which are
a great credit to the city. The General Hospital, the Penitentiary,
the Insane Asylum and all the city government buildings are modern
structures equipped with every luxurious necessity. The Episcopal
Palace is a specimen of antique architecture and is one of the largest
in the republic. Merida has many benevolent societies and the public
benefit is well guarded. Orphan asylums, correctional schools of arts
and crafts, an asylum for beggars, and a maternity house.
[Illustration: HIS GRACE, MONSEIGNOR MARTIN TRISHLER, FIRST
ARCHBISHOP OF YUCATÁN.]
Some of the finest hammocks in the world are made in Yucatán. They are
hand woven of the sacci fibre and are of unusual size. This State is as
famous for its hammocks as Switzerland is for its clocks. The finest
come from the penitentiary at Merida.
The Paseo Montejo is one of the fashionable drives. On it are handsome
residences, among which is the palatial home of General Francisco
Canton.
The prehistoric race that peopled Yucatán and the wonderful monuments
and ruins they left behind them have baffled explorers from all parts
of the world and there are many theories advanced concerning the
builders. The natives regard these decayed cities with superstitious
awe, and they remain much in obscurity because few have braved
the wilderness in order to explore them. The ancient knowledge of
architecture is proved by these marvellous structures and amazing
relics. The ruins of Chichen-Itza and Uxmal are accessible from Merida.
[Illustration: CORRIDOR OF THE CURATE HOUSE, MERIDA.]
There are two agricultural chambers in Merida, “La Camara Agricula
Nacional” and “La Camara Agricula de Yucatán,” which are doing great
work in promoting the industries of the State. One of these recently
had an exhibit demonstrating the wonderful possibilities of the
henequen, and among the numerous articles were baskets, hammocks and
cloth, three widely different articles. The fruit and vegetable display
consisted of the products of the State.
A monthly magazine devoted to the interest of farming called _El
Agricultor_, is published by the Camara Agricula.
[Illustration: MODEL SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MERIDA.]
In the Yucatán Museum there is an interesting collection of monoliths,
statues, prints and other details of the old Maya architecture,
utensils and personal ornaments of a primitive and mysterious race that
inhabited the peninsula. Another museum which merits special notice is
that of the late Bishop De Crescencio Carrillo y Ancona, who was the
first director of the State Museum. Fine parks and public gardens help
to add to its beauty: in one of these parks stands a splendid statue
of General Manuel Zepeda Peraza, the great patriot of Yucatán.
Señor Don Augusto Peon is the mayor of the city and many reforms have
been executed during his administration. New streets and avenues have
been opened and schools have been established. He is noted for his
philanthropy and the poor have found in him a good friend. His family
is one of the most distinguished in the State and he is held in great
admiration and respect.
[Illustration: THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE.]
Public education is given the most rigid attention. Among the most
important schools are those of San Vicente de Paul, under the direction
of Obras de la Ensenanza. These schools are conducted upon monthly
subscription by those interested in the Christian education. In the
scientific and religious instruction all the precepts of modern
pedagogy are followed. The elementary schools for boys and girls are
supported by the estate of the late Leandro Leon Ayala. These schools
are divided into five branches with an inspector appointed for the
supervision of each. The literary institute founded by General Peraza
is under the personal direction of Señor Licenciado D. Olegario Molina,
who is one of the distinguished statesmen of the republic. To this
noted gentleman the State of Yucatán owes its wonderful growth within
the last ten years. He has occupied many high official positions,
having been governor of the State before assuming the cabinet office.
He was the engineer who had charge of the construction of the first
railroad that was built in the Peninsula, which connects the capital
city with the port of Progreso.
[Illustration: FAÇADE OF THE MONTEJO HOUSE, MERIDA.]
[Illustration: INDIAN HEMP CUTTER.]
This railroad was constructed with local capital and the entire
enterprise was organized with great success. In the cultivation
and development of the henequen industry, Señor Molina has been
foremost in the enterprise. He is noted for entering into everything
with enthusiasm and in the reconstruction of his State while he was
governor, he adopted the famous system of his chief magistrate, General
Diaz, of “less politics and much administration.” With perseverance,
which is characteristic of this official, Señor Molina consecrated
his attention to the irrigation and industry of the State, which are
important factors in the national good, and during his administration
agriculture assumed splendid results and the record that remains
behind him is a monument to his greatness. The present governor is
Señor D. Enrique Muñoz Aristegúi, who is progressive and enterprising
and has followed closely the example set by his predecessors.
The United Railroads of Yucatán have eight hundred kilometres of
various lines which extend to all important points of this State and to
Campeche. This company was formed in 1902, being a merger of several
independent lines, as follows: The railroad from Merida to Progreso
with a branch to Izamal; from Merida to Valladolid with a branch to
Progreso; the Peninsula Railroad; the railroad from Merida to Peto
with a branch to Sotuta. The construction of the first railroad was
organized by Señor José Rendon Peniche.
[Illustration: JUAREZ PENITENTIARY, MERIDA.]
The principal points which these railroads touch are Valladolid, which
is known as the Sultana of the East, and was at one time a city of
much more importance than to-day; Tizimin, where the three kings,
Magos, annually met; Motul, the next largest city of the State, and
a centre of importance on account of the henequen industry; Izamal,
another important industrial centre and famous for the pilgrimages to
the Virgin de la Asuncion; Tekas and Peto, important cities of the
sugar industry; Ticul, the centre of the corn region; Halacho, another
point famous for its religious feasts. The only port in the State is
Progreso. The Ward Line steamers touch this port and this company runs
excursions from the port to Merida, giving the passengers a glimpse
of this unique part of Mexico, returning to the steamer in time to
continue their voyage.
[Illustration: STAIRWAY IN THE PEON CONTRERAS THEATRE.]
Mr. W. P. Young, of the New York and Cuba Mail and Steamship Company,
has formulated plans for excursions to Yucatán on a twenty-day tour to
see the ruins and enjoy the wonders of a semi-tropical climate during
the winter months. This is an excellent opportunity for the student or
traveller.
[Illustration: ARCH BUILT TO CELEBRATE THE CENTENNIAL,
MERIDA.]
[Illustration: PLAZA DE LA INDEPENDENCIA, CAMPECHE.]
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, CAMPECHE]
CHAPTER XXXIV
CAMPECHE, TABASCO, CHIAPAS
The State is called Campeche de Baranda in honor of the father of the
late Señor Joaquin Baranda, who was in the cabinet of General Diaz in
1896.
The capital is the City of Campeche, which is also an important seaport
for all the surrounding States. It is situated on the Bay of Campeche
at the mouth of the San Francisco River. It has a population of about
twenty-five thousand, and is fast growing. The narrow streets are
irregular, and the houses remarkable for their uniform height of one
story, their square form, and for all being built of the limestone
which abounds near the city.
Campeche was founded in the middle of the sixteenth century and has
figured in history more or less ever since. It was sacked by the
British in 1659, and again by pirates in 1678, and by filibusters
in 1685. Its site has been twice changed, the present one being
honey-combed with subterranean chambers which were dug out years ago
by the Maya Indians, ruins of which structures may be seen in the
vicinity of Campeche. The city has several churches and convents, a
museum containing interesting aboriginal relics, a theatre and several
schools and colleges. It has a beautiful alameda, embellished with
alleys of orange trees and seats of the native marble. The port is
defended by three fortresses.
Carmen has the best harbor on the coast, and is one of the least known
ports. Large quantities of mahogany are felled in the interior and
floated down the stream to the port.
[Illustration: PALACE OF JUSTICE, CAMPECHE.]
The commerce of Campeche was, under the Spanish colonial system, in a
most flourishing state; but it is now confined mostly to salt, sugar,
hides, henequen and articles manufactured from it. Logwood and other
dyestuffs are still exported in quantities, but the cigar industry is
greater. The Campeche cigars are made from Tabasco tobacco and are
often sold in foreign markets for the Havana product.
Between Merida, the capital of Yucatán, and Campeche, there is a
railway line which connects the two cities. This is a delightful route
on account of the magnificent scenery. Rich forests filled with timber
and valuable dye-woods extend throughout the State. This is one of the
chief exports, finding a ready market in Europe and the United States.
The governor of Campeche is Señor Garcia Gual, whose interest in his
State is very evident. He is handicapped by many difficulties in
the climatic influences, distinctly of the tropical belt, but his
administration has been remarkable for the improved sanitary conditions
and the spirit of advancement he has instilled into the minds of his
people.
Public education is the first step of the Mexican on taking the reins
of a government. Schools and all benevolent institutions have in the
governor an able advocate, and he carries his plans of reconstruction
and enterprise with a firm hand.
[Illustration: STATUE OF HIDALGO, CAMPECHE.]
The latest-formed Territory of Mexico, Quintana Roo, lies between
the State of Campeche and Guatemala. The inhabitants are principally
Maya Indians, that race that has been so troublesome to the Mexican
Government. The language is mostly Indian and they seem to show no
disposition to speak Spanish, or to become used to the forms of modern
civilization. Most of the industries consist of hand-work and Indian
crafts, but the Territory is rich in valuable woods, and many tropical
fruits. There are some good tobacco districts and the country bids fair
to become a good agricultural section. The policy of the administration
of General Diaz is clearly demonstrated in the splendid manner in which
the Federal Government gained control over the unruly tribe of Indians
in this Territory.
On account of the condition of the country the population and the area
have not been ascertained. Military control makes it secure that there
will be no more outbreaks such as have hitherto threatened peace and
life. In spite of the characteristics of these Indians, the towns are
well equipped with schools.
TABASCO
Tabasco is the great fruit growing State. It stretches along the coast
of the Gulf of Mexico and has become greatly developed within the
last few years by various colonies from the North. The population is
largely composed of peaceful Indians, although many foreigners have
yielded to the temptations that the rich and abundant resources have
offered. There are many lagoons and inlets along the coast, and the
Islands of Laguna Carmen and Puerto Real. The surface is flat except in
the southern portion, where it rises toward the mountains of Chiapas.
There are two navigable rivers, the Usumacinta and the Tabasco. There
is a large amount of freight shipped on these streams, as they are the
principal thoroughfares of the State. An unusual amount of mahogany
and other useful woods abound. All tropical products are extensively
cultivated and magnificent opportunities for further development are
offered.
The capital and largest city is San Juan Bautista. Cortés and the
Spanish army discovered Tabasco and made a landing there before they
went on to Mexico. It was then a very popular place, with the better
houses built of stone and lime and the others of mud or adobe. The
inhabitants, the Tabascan Indians, gave proof of superior refinement as
well as unusual valor. Their stout resistance, however, did not prevent
Cortés and his soldiers from finally gaining and capturing the country
“in the name of the Crown.”
[Illustration: GENERAL ABRAHAM BANDALA, GOVERNOR OF TABASCO.]
Many of the Spanish conquerors settled in Tabasco; others, in the
cordillera toward the rich slopes and valleys of Oaxaca.
A great deal of the country is sloping and very much broken, but at
least four-fifths could be well cultivated. Coffee always require
a slope. The population, which is sparse, consists principally of
Indians. These people labor faithfully and cheerfully at light work,
such as coffee gathering.
[Illustration: STREET SCENE, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA.]
There is no finer country in the world awaiting development than this
general slope. The rainfall is abundant. The climate is very healthful.
There is a good quantity of water-power available all through this
State; the supply of it toward the wilder end of the slope is
practically unlimited.
There is plenty of building stone in the country. Part of the slope has
an unlimited quantity of marble of all colors.
The trade of the State is controlled by Spaniards, who also own nearly
all the steamers sailing under the Mexican flag in the Gulf of Mexico.
They send home to Spain about one million dollars annually. A good many
marry in the country and their children are among the best types in the
State.
This country unites all the conditions for happy, reasonable living. It
is a fine coffee, corn, cane and cotton country and the annual shipment
of bananas exceeds that of some of the larger tropical States.
The capital, San Juan Bautista, is on an island of volcanic origin
thrown up in the midst of the alluvial plain of the Grijalva, about
sixty-five miles from the sea. It has a population of about fourteen
thousand and is provided with street railroads and a first-class
electric light plant which furnishes extensive service. More than a
million dollars have been put into new buildings since 1897, about half
of that amount having been invested by foreigners. This city is noted
for its rapid advancement and great prosperity. Although at certain
seasons it is excessively hot there seems to be a bracing influence,
for the streets have an air of activity and the shops seem always busy.
[Illustration: STATUE OF JUAREZ, SAN JUAN BAUTISTA.]
The Governor of Tabasco, General Abraham Bandala, is a hard-working and
able functionary to whose heart the interest of the people under his
care is ever the first consideration. He is one of the great soldiers
of the Mexican Wars and his record is emblazoned on the history of the
country.
CHIAPAS
The general aspect of Chiapas is very unlike that of Northern Mexico.
There is very little barren country, the medium and lower regions
being covered by forests of valuable woods while the cultivated parts
show fields of all kinds and abundance of crops. Through the ports of
Tonala and San Benito, on the Pacific, the rich districts of Tonala and
Soconusco can be reached and from the former port the towns of Tuxtla,
Chiapa and San Cristobal are accessible by means of an automobile road.
Chiapas is the most southern State in the Mexican republic.
Commerce is the most important industry of this State, while
agriculture within the last few years has made rapid strides and has
added materially to the wealth of the State. On the Pacific side coffee
is extensively cultivated and there are several sugar-cane plantations,
as well as tobacco fields.
[Illustration: PARK IN SAN JUAN BAUTISTA.]
El Salto, headquarters for the department officials, is situated on the
Tulija River.
Since the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, the cacao of this
district has been famous. Large amounts of foreign capital are
streaming into the country for investment.
Tuxtla-Gutierrez is the capital and the residence of the State
officials. It is the best trading town, being in communication with
all sections of the State. A well constructed automobile road connects
Tuxtla with the Port of Tonalá and the branch near the coast extends to
the Tehuantepec Railway. Splendid roads connect the capital with the
towns of Suchiata and Chiapa and the plains that follow the left side
of the Chiapa River render the country accessible as far as Guatemala.
New colonies are being exploited and hundreds of thousands of acres of
land are being bought by settlers.
To the governor of the State, Señor Don Ramón Rebasa, is given credit
for the close attention to the extension of public roads and the
encouragement of education.
In the opening of the railroad extension from San Geronimo, on the
Tehuantepec road, to Tapachula in Chiapas, another link in the great
Pan-American Railway was completed. The inauguration on May 5, 1908,
was made the occasion of great rejoicing in the State of Chiapas, being
presided over by the governor and celebrated with enthusiasm by the
inhabitants.
[Illustration: PAROCHIAL CHURCH, CHIAPA.]
[Illustration: YAQUI INDIAN DANCE.]
CHAPTER XXXV
CUSTOMS
The characteristics of a country are always an interesting theme and it
seems that Mexico is bountifully supplied with legends and traditions
that lend to her all the charms of a poetic and romantic nation. Born
in a land of natural wealth and beauty, breathing the balmy air and
beholding the bright sunshine of this country, the Mexican must be by
nature _allègre_ and alert to all the graces of living.
The customs of the people, like those of all rapidly developing
nations, are fast changing and in a few years there will remain few
habits and fashions to distinguish this country from any other land.
At the same time, Mexico retains many charming characteristics that
she will never lose. Her warm hospitality, the frank extension of a
friendly hand, the open door of the home, the adoration and respect
paid to her women and the love and reverence bestowed upon her heroes
will always stamp the Mexican as exceedingly attractive.
In the home the life is sweet and supremely happy. Little children kiss
their parent’s hands, the old folks the hands of their elders, and the
benediction of the padre, who comes to pay a short call, is eagerly
sought by old and young. In matters pertaining to religious education
the Mexican child is reared in rigid form. He is taught to hold in
reverence all the church feasts, and the precepts of the priest in
charge of the parish are faithfully followed.
Carmen Day has been a great religious feast for six hundred years in
the Catholic calendar. Hundreds of homes are annually made happy with
visits and gifts to the Carmens, who are remembered by their friends.
Since Madame Diaz has been the first lady in the land, Carmen Day has
been more popular than ever, as it is the feast of her patron saint.
Every town in the republic has its plaza, which is always laid out with
beautiful flowers and shrubs, with walks going around the square wide
enough to permit many people passing back and forth. In the evenings
and on Sundays the Municipal Bands render popular music and the young
folks promenade for several hours. The young men take one direction and
the señoritas the opposite, so they meet face to face at every turn. In
this way the language of the eyes plays an important part. Sometimes a
tiny note is slipped, sometimes a stolen word, by a bolder aspirant.
The architecture of the Mexican house, with its barred windows and
well-guarded doors tends to incline the people to lead exclusive lives,
and yet once within these massive portals the beauty and love of the
home life are seen in many ways.
[Illustration: INDIAN MAIDEN WATER CARRIER.]
The custom of the master placing his house and everything in it at
your disposal (_esta a la disposition de usted_) is very pleasing
to note. You admire a ring, it is at your service; a horse is offered
you; letters are dated from your house (_la casa de usted_). Some,
from ignorance of the custom of these mere expressions of civility,
often place their hosts in a dilemma. A charming American lady, wife
of one of the great generals, once admired a handsome fan belonging
to one of the ladies in the official circle and on being told it was
hers accepted it with great delight, much to the consternation and
embarrassment of the señora. She carried her treasure home, but later
learned that the gracious proffer was a custom of the land and returned
the fan with a diplomatic note.
The market places are a source of great wonder and interest. Here small
tables and bits of straw matting are placed on all sides and upon these
the men and women display their wares. Vegetables, fruits, and goods of
all description are arranged in heaps, always with an eye to system and
attractiveness. The people are sheltered from the intense rays of the
sun by awnings of cloth or matting. They are all polite, and with their
bright smiles easily gain customers.
Together with the vegetables or flowers are found fat, pretty babies
with black eyes, and always sweet and charming. The flower-market is
a place of enchantment, for the love of flowers is a strong trait of
character in these people. Here are men and women arranging great
bunches of exquisite blossoms with a delicacy of taste that is
surprising.
[Illustration: TYPE OF TEHUANTEPEC WOMAN.]
One of the Easter customs is the hanging in effigy of Judas Iscariot,
which is done everywhere in the country, from the large cities to the
smallest hamlets. Mexicans attire themselves in black during Holy
Week, and on the Saturday before Easter Day these grotesque figures of
him who betrayed the Master are brought out everywhere and hanged and
burned with all the contempt due to the betrayer.
Peculiar little rattles which make a clatter representing the breaking
of the bones of Judas are sold on the streets on Good Friday.
On the twenty-first of August the Indians observe a feast in memory
of the tortures to which Cuauhtemoc and his general were subjected
by Cortés in an effort to secure information concerning the buried
treasure.
The laws of Mexico provide for the welfare of the Indians in a
liberal manner and the best means of improving their mental and moral
development is occupying the attention of the leading educators
of the country. A society has just been formed in Mexico City for
the protection of the Indians. The question as to what should be
the political responsibility of the primitive people, untrained in
independent thought and action, is not easily disposed of, and blunders
which have been committed by the most enlightened nations in this
respect prove how important is this problem.
The Indian is still a child in mental and moral growth, but he is
progressing under the benign influence of peace and security. Those who
dwell in the mountainous districts have preserved in all their purity
their ancient habits and primitive language.
In some districts, as in the region of the Sierra, they preserve their
native dances, and during certain religious ceremonies they execute
these dances in their temples before the most venerated images.
[Illustration: IN RIDING COSTUME--CHARRO SUITS.]
Many Mexican families are of noble lineage, dating back to the eight
hundred years’ war with the Moors, when their ancestors were ennobled
for gallantry of service to their kings. Some of the best families are
very poor but conserve their dignity and position always.
Newer families of social distinction are descendants of successful
soldiers who stood somewhat in the same relation to the old aristocracy
as did the marshals and generals of Napoleon I. to the old French
nobility. Descendants of presidents constitute another kind of
aristocracy, in fact, service to the State in high office gives one’s
family and descendants a claim on popular consideration and respect.
There are many descendants of the Aztec monarchs living in other
countries, but few in Mexico. One of the small number remaining is
Coronel Prospero Cahuantzi, Governor of the Aztec State, Tlaxcala. He
is a pure-blood Aztec Indian and speaks the language with a softness
that is delightful.
The ancient marriage customs of Yucatán are unusual as well as
interesting. From time immemorial the Maya women have worn a simple
form of dress which they never vary. It consists of two pieces, a very
full skirt falling to the ankles and a loose upper garment called
huipil, joined under the arms, only it hangs in graceful folds after
the manner of the Greek peplum. Cotton or linen is the material, always
plain white, though trimmed with colored embroidery. The women load
their necks and ears with beautiful hand-wrought filigree jewelry.
[Illustration: A TYPE OF THE MAYA WOMAN, YUCATÁN.]
In almost every State there are certain dances and music typical of the
people. In Yucatán there is a particular dance called the vaqueria. It
is performed at the public fiestas by the mestizos dressed in exquisite
costumes, brilliant in colored embroideries. The graceful dancers are
inspired by music from a stringed orchestra of native performers, and
their dainty feet move with a rhythm that is most fascinating.
Mexico owes much of its peculiar beauty to the religious fervor of
her inhabitants. Everywhere white crosses gleam among the trees, in
solitary paths, on mountain tops and at the openings of mines. Even the
haystacks have crosses fashioned in a rude way upon them, and buildings
in course of construction are never without the sign of the cross.
Wherever the footsteps of man pass, on rude huts, or barren rocks,
the emblem of the faith stands, and in every hamlet the temple of God
arises in comparative splendor. The symbol of the cross, strange as
it may appear, was known to the Mexican Indians before the coming of
Cortés. There was a temple dedicated to the Holy Cross by the Toltecs
in Cholula and near Tulancingo a rock stands, engraved with a cross
and other hieroglyphs or signs. Among the faithful-looking old trees
a church will be found, gray and ancient, always gleaming in the soft
light, the insignia of the Christian faith. The Indian, plodding to the
nearest village with his wares will stop for a few moments to mumble
his prayers before a cross that stands at the roadside. Wherever a
murder or an accident has occurred rude crosses are always planted;
sometimes it is only the branch of a tree fashioned in a primitive way,
but always a cross.
[Illustration: MEXICAN BASKET SELLERS.]
[Illustration: SAN BARTOLO MINE, ZACATECAS]
CHAPTER XXXVI
RESOURCES
Few Americans realize that Mexico was “discovered” and settled by
Cortés a hundred years before any settlement was made in the United
States. And in natural advantages no other portion of this marvellous
western hemisphere can claim a place above her.
Mexico is the geographical centre of the earth, an imperial place in
the great highways of the world. The country extends between fourteen
degrees and thirty minutes and thirty-two degrees forty-two minutes
north latitude, and between eighty-eight degrees fifty-four minutes and
one hundred and nineteen degrees twenty-five minutes of longitude west
of Greenwich.
The frontier line which separates Mexico from the United States starts
near the mouth of the Rio Grande from a point in the sea three leagues
from the coast, follows the line of the river to its intersection
with the parallel of latitude thirty-one degrees thirty-seven minutes
forty-seven seconds North (at Ciudad Juarez), runs in a straight line
westward one hundred miles and then bends to the south to thirty-one
degrees twenty minutes, then follows the parallel westward to one
hundred and eleven degrees of longitude west from Greenwich, and
continues in a straight line to a point at the Rio Colorado twenty
miles from its confluence with the River Gila, then it turns toward
the north of this confluence and bends toward the west, following the
line between Lower and Upper California. From Ciudad Juarez westward
the boundary lines are marked with two hundred and fifty-eight massive
stone and iron monuments. It has a northern frontier of fourteen
hundred, and a southern of three hundred and forty-five miles. It has
a seaboard of sixteen hundred and seventy-seven miles on the Gulf of
Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, two thousand and forty on the Gulf of
California and four thousand four hundred and eight on the Pacific
Ocean, making six thousand and eighty-six.
The area of this immense republic is nearly eight hundred thousand
square miles. The face of the country is extremely diversified. The
littoral regions are in general low and sandy, especially on the
Atlantic side, where they were probably submerged at no remote period
as far as the foot of the mountains. In no part of the republic within
thirty miles of the sea does the land rise higher than one thousand
feet, except, perhaps, in Chiapas, where the chain of the Mexican Andes
presents a mural barrier facing the ocean, toward which the descent is
exceedingly rapid. On the railway from Vera Cruz to the capital every
variety of climate is experienced within the space of a few hours, and
the natural productions peculiar to each are successively passed in
review, from the sugar-cane, indigo plant and plantain of the tropics
to the pines, firs, and lichens of the North.
The Valley of Mexico is an elliptical plain with an area of about nine
hundred and forty square miles, fringed on the east, south and west,
by lofty peaks, some of which are active volcanoes; the plain may be
regarded as one vast volcanic hearth, roughed at intervals by isolated
hills rising abruptly from the surrounding level. The most elevated
summits are at the southeast, where Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl tower
majestically over all the rest. So regular is the great plateau formed
exclusively by the broad, undulating, flattened crest of the Mexican
Andes, and so gentle are the slopes where depressions occur that the
journey from Mexico to Santa Fé, New Mexico, might be performed in a
four-wheeled vehicle.
There are seventeen mountains--ten of which are volcanoes--which are
over ten thousand feet in height. Popocatepetl ranks first at seventeen
thousand five hundred and forty feet, and Orizaba next at seventeen
thousand one hundred and seventy-six feet.
The volcanic zone is about six hundred miles long from east to west,
and over sixty miles wide. Its central line starts at the volcano of
Colima near the Pacific and ends in the volcano of San Andres Tuxtla,
near the north of Mexico.
The crest of these vast cordilleras, seen from the savannas of
the coast, is defined from afar sometimes against a blue and all
transparent sky, sometimes against a misty background. Granitic rocks
or snowy peaks accentuate a country which rises in vast echelons to the
central plateau. Bounded on the east and on the west by a succession
of heights, which merge into the axis of the two grand mountain chains
into which the cordillera divides, it is different in many points from
those ranges which traverse South America and of which they are the
continuation.
[Illustration: SUGAR MILL, ATEQUIZA HACIENDA.]
The mineral deposits of Mexico are richer than those of any other
country, and it is known that still more valuable mines of silver and
gold are being discovered.
The mines during the colonial period were crown property, and those
who worked them paid one-fifth of the product to the king. When Mexico
became independent they were declared public property and miners were
required to pay into the national treasury only a small percentage of
the yield. Even this tax was afterward abolished, and anyone can by
right of discovery, denounce or record a mine and obtain authority
to work a certain number of varas free of tribute. A slight tax, is
however, imposed on melting and coining the metal.
Situated below the tropics, the climate of Mexico is not less uniform
than diversified. The temperature of each locality is almost always the
same, yet the different localities present many distinct temperatures.
There is comparatively little difference between summer and winter,
except that one is the wet season and the other the dry. The climate
can, as a whole, be classified as temperate, yet the country may be
considered as divided into three zones--the hot, the temperate, and the
cold.
The hot region of this country comprises the Peninsula of Yucatán, the
State of Tabasco, and the greater part of the States of Vera Cruz and
Tamaulipas near the coast. The torrid district on the Pacific Ocean
extends to the Territory of Lower California.
The cold district and the central plateau occupy the plains on the
north of the States of Michoacán and Mexico, the Federal District,
the northern and eastern parts of the State of Puebla, the States
of Tlaxcala, Hidalgo, Querétaro, and Guanajuato, part of Jalisco,
the State of San Luis Potosí, except its western part, the States of
Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, and the Plains of Durango.
The healthiest climates are, of course, the driest ones, whether hot or
cold. Mineral springs abound on the tablelands and on the slopes of the
cordilleras.
The mean temperature of the city of Mexico is about fifty-eight degrees
Fahrenheit the year through. In no other country does the temperature
become so much cooler after sunset, and one may walk a mile even at
noon under the tropical sun without fatigue.
[Illustration: PULQUE VATS.]
The rainy season begins at the end of May and lasts into October.
During this time the sun comes out brightly in the morning, about
noon pleasant showers without wind or violence come up, and by sunset
all is bright again. On the Pacific Coast between the twenty-fifth
and thirty-fifth parallels the case is reversed, and the rainy season
falls in the winter months. The difference between winter and summer
is hardly felt. In the rainy season the climate during the day time is
slightly cooler, but altogether delightful.
The soil throughout Mexico is, for the most part, extremely fertile.
Artificial irrigation is in many places resorted to, and is effected
by dams or canals. Developed property is estimated at over one billion
pesos and the vegetation everywhere is magnificent.
Every variety of fruit known in Europe or America is found usually
growing in profusion. Owing to the peculiar structure of the country
all fruits, with every kind of garden vegetable, may be obtained in the
Mexican markets the year round.
[Illustration: BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN JALISCO AND TEPIC.]
The flowers of Mexico are among the richest and most varied in the
world. On Sunday mornings the streets of the capital are literally
enamelled with blossoms of the most fragrant perfumes and most
brilliant colors.
The fields in the hot districts are adorned with the beautiful green
of the tobacco, the sugar-cane, and the pampas grass of the coast
region; and the plantations of mangrove-trees, and the bamboo with its
branching foliage, give shade to the river banks. In the virgin forests
are gigantic fir-trees, with immense cedars, mahogany trees, and many
others rich in foliage as well as useful for their fruits and woods.
The most luxuriant vines trail from the highest branches of the trees,
and many varieties of orchids are found.
In the temperate regions the character of the vegetation changes,
but its beauty does not lessen. Magnificent forests of liquidamber,
various kinds of oak, laurel, magnolia, and myrtle, cover the base of
the mountains; mosses, ferns, and lichens carpet the smooth surface
of the rocks, as also the rough bark of the trees. Every dale or glen
is an orchard where one can gather the most palatable of fruits while
enjoying the most delightful breezes, and where the sighing of the
winds, the singing of the birds, and the murmur of the waterfalls make
sweetest music.
In a country so teeming with foliage and brilliant flowers, the soil is
naturally fertile and productive, because of its richness agriculture
is perhaps the easiest and most useful occupation.
Mr. John Barrett, Director General of the Bureau of American Republics,
says: “Mexico is not only a land of great natural resources in
the process of utilization, but of vast potentialities capable of
remarkable development. Mexico has such a variety of natural products,
such agricultural and mineral wealth, such mingling of fertile plateaus
and valleys with large timber areas, such extensive coast lines on both
the Pacific and Atlantic sides of America, such a network of railways,
and, with all, such a progressive government under the able direction
of General Diaz, that few, if any, countries in the world have, in
proportion to population and area, better prospects and greater
possibilities for the future.”
[Illustration: AVENUE OF DATE PALMS, SONORA.]
Mr. Barrett has made a study of all Latin America and has always been
particularly interested in the Republic of Mexico.
In the cultivated regions is grown the maguey, from which the national
drink, pulque, is extracted. It grows on the great plains and plateaus
at a height of over seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. On
the Plains of Apam, as far as the eye can reach it encounters long rows
of these plants, about nine feet apart.
[Illustration: A COFFEE AND BANANA PLANTATION.]
The maguey, or agave americana, grows not only in fields, which are
planted thickly, but in ditches set along the fences, and in many
odd corners which seem to be good for nothing else. It grows in good
land to a great size, the central stem often attaining a height of
twenty-five or thirty feet and a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches;
the branches in some instances are a foot and a half wide and four or
five inches thick. One maguey plant frequently yields a hundred and
fifty gallons of pulque. A single plant will often yield four hundred
and fifty-two cubic inches in twenty-four hours.
One can scarcely imagine the appearance of these immense maguey
plantations. In the country between Mexico and Vera Cruz for hundreds
of miles the plains and hillsides are seen covered with long, close
lines of agave in every stage, from the strong, large, generous beauty
of the full-grown plant to the young, tender green of the newly
transplanted shoots. The plant combines within itself a dozen different
materials for comfort and use. Growing in an absolutely dry soil, with
no help from irrigation, it has the property of condensing moisture
and coolness about its roots, which makes it yield at full growth an
incredible amount of liquid.
The maguey furnishes two other liquors, not unlike our brandy and
whiskey, very intoxicating, but very little used.
It supplies the native, besides, with a primitive needle and thread; it
gives a species of hempen cloth from the coarser tissue and of paper
from the inner pulp; it provides a good thatch for houses; and the
débris, dried, makes fuel in regions where wood is scarce.
It is said to be the most wholesome drink in the world, and remarkably
agreeable when one has overcome the first shock occasioned by its
rancid odor. At all events, the maguey is a source of unfailing profit,
the consumption of pulque being enormous, so that many of the richest
families in the capital owe their fortune entirely to the produce of
their magueys.
Of recent years Mexico has come forward with a new resource that bids
fair to outrival the United States in oil production. The oil fields in
various parts of the country have developed to such an extent that many
prospectors from Europe as well as other parts of America have reaped
great results.
There is a curious production of nature, the organos, which resembles
the barrels of pipes of an organ. The plants growing close together and
about six feet high and being covered with prickles, make the strongest
natural fence imaginable, besides being covered with beautiful flowers.
The sugar-cane was unknown to the ancient Mexicans, who made syrup of
honey and also from the maguey, and sugar from the stalk of maize.
The sugar-cane was brought by the Spaniards from the Canary Islands
to Santo Domingo, whence it passed to Cuba and Mexico. The first
sugar-canes were planted in 1520, by Don Pedro de Atienza. The first
cylinders were constructed by Gonzalez de Velosa and the first sugar
mills built by the Spaniards at that time were worked by hydraulic
wheels, and not by horses. Humboldt, who examined the will of Cortés,
said that the conqueror had left sugar-plantations near Coyoacan.
[Illustration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR CORDOBA.]
There is no enterprise in Mexico at the present time which can be
compared with coffee culture. Mexico is admirably adapted to coffee
growing, and her coffee ranks among the finest in the world. The finest
quality is produced in Colima, Oaxaca, Michoacán, Morelos, and Vera
Cruz.
The soil and climatic conditions necessary to the successful production
of the coffee-berry are so peculiar that, though it grows in all
countries between the tropics, the acreage exactly adapted to it is
comparatively small. Entire absence of extremes of heat and cold,
a moist atmosphere, fertile soil, and freedom from drought, are
indispensable to the production of remunerative crops.
Among the few districts in the world where the vanilla bean grows are
the States of Jalisco and Hidalgo, Vera Cruz, Chiapas and Oaxaca. The
exportation of this product has given Mexico an enviable reputation, as
its properties are most favorably known abroad.
Tobacco is cultivated in several places in the States of Vera Cruz,
Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatán. An excellent grade is raised and there
has been a great increase in the exportation lately. It was introduced
into Mexico during the Cuban War, and cigars were made by the refugees.
To the process of manufacture which the Cuban immigrants brought into
Mexico is due the progress made in this branch of the national industry.
There are favorable conditions for cotton culture, and Mexico might
easily rival the United States and the Indies. The use of cotton
clothes was, in fact, general with the ancient Mexicans; and from the
beginning of this century cotton was worth at Vera Cruz three or four
times less than anywhere else.
Henequen, of all the textile plants which abound in Mexico, is one
which is the most assiduously cultivated.
The “Pita,” which abounds in a wild state in Oaxaca gives a fibre
resembling that of the ramie and answering the same purposes. Ropes
made with Oaxaca pita are four times stronger than those of hemp.
The cultivation of the India-rubber tree has become very profitable.
Young trees transplanted from a forest to a cultivated field in
Soconusco have yielded rubber for more than thirty-five years, the
present annual product is averaging more than fifty pounds of gum for
each tree.
The Mexican gum deserves to be taken into consideration. The plants
which produce it are found in considerable quantities in all the
forests of the hot districts, and especially in those of the States of
Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Tabasco, and on the Pacific slope, on the
coast of the States of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tepic, etc. It is
stated that in Tuxpan the milk drawn from the rubber trees is placed in
earthenware jars and whipped with a weed called coyuntla which is an
astringent that causes the milk to curdle, making the crude rubber.
The mulberry tree, to which place is here given because it is the
indispensable complement of the silk industry, grows in both hot and
temperate climates. Under the colonial régime several successful
attempts to plant mulberry trees were made in Mexico.
The tree grows with great rapidity in this country. Besides the
plantations of small shoots, there have been made considerable
plantings of the mulberry seed, which have proved profitable.
The interest taken by Japan in the resources of Mexico was evident by
the number of representatives that country sent to make a complete
study of the conditions, in order to increase the trade between the
two countries. An exhibition of Japanese arts and crafts in Mexico
City during the Centennial was one of the interesting features. It
was under the direction of the Japanese Chargé d’affaires, Honorable
Kuma Horigoutchi, who has done so much to promote a friendly relation
between the two nations.
[Illustration: PACK TRAIN WITH SUGAR ON THE ROAD TO MARKET.]
[Illustration: “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN.]
[Illustration: CHAC-MOOL IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, CITY OF
MEXICO.]
CHAPTER XXXVII
RUINS
Mexico is pre-eminently the land of mystery of the Western World. It
contains abundant traces of a civilization far older than any other
on this continent, and now that a key to the Maya inscriptions has
been found, it is reasonable to expect that systematic exploration
will result in reconstructing, at least partially, the history of a
vanished race, and throw some light on the interesting question of its
antiquity as well as of its origin and with it give us some knowledge
of what is now the prehistoric period of North America. It is scarcely
possible to overestimate the importance of Mexico’s movement to have
the archæological treasures of the country properly investigated. A
bill has been passed by Congress to empower American scientists to make
excavations in this country, provided the objects found be divided
equally between the two nations.
The ruins of Mitla are situated in the State of Oaxaca. They cover
many acres of ground and are the best preserved ruins in Mexico. Where
vandalism has not destroyed them, the walls are as perfect as when
erected.
[Illustration: RUINS AT MITLA.]
[Illustration: SEPULCHRE, NEAR MITLA, OAXACA.]
The buildings are very extensive, and are magnificent in the skill and
art shown in their construction. They were so designed as to face a
central square. They were not connected at the corners, but the centre
court was projected by a wall of rock and mortar which filled the
spaces. Each building had only three openings, all facing the court.
There were no windows or other means of lighting the interior. The
walls were made of a very tenacious adobe, veneered both within and
without with finely cut stone laid in regular courses and interspersed
with panels that are filled with what may be denominated herringbone
work, in a profusion of patterns each cut to fill its particular
place, whether a square or a scroll, and the joints are so perfect
that only the thinnest kind of cement could be used, and, after
centuries of earthquakes, these joints are so perfect as to call forth
the admiration of all who behold them. The lintels over the doorways
are each of one solid stone, and with all our modern appliances and
engineering skill, it would be considered a great triumph to place them
in their position.
[Illustration: ARCH OF THE “GOVERNMENT HOUSE,” UXMAL,
YUCATÁN.]
Recently there have been some excavations made on the Island of
Sacrificios by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, a native of California and a member
of many archæological societies. Until this interesting woman explored
these parts no knowledge of prehistoric edifices existed. But her
discoveries of pottery and the remains of a fallen city have added
another ruin to those already explored in Mexico.
Among the ruins which have most frequently attracted the attention of
explorers in Mexico is a monument which Baron von Humboldt designated
the “Military Entrenchments of Xochicalco.” It is a few miles from
Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos. The walls of this pyramid and the
exterior are sculptured with what is supposed to be chronological
hieroglyphics. These are in a state of decay but under the clinging
moss one may distinguish serpents and warriors in oriental posture
with adornments and plumes on the head. Animals of all kinds are
distinguishable in these unique carvings. Several caves of great
importance have been discovered, chief of these is the _Cueva de los
Amates_.
The venerable pyramids of San Juan Teotihuacan are the most remarkable
remnants of ancient American civilization. They were found by the
Aztecs, according to their traditions, on their entrance into the
country. The two principal pyramids were dedicated to Tonatiuh, the
sun, and Mextli, the moon. They are not inferior to those of some of
the kindred monuments of Egypt. They were divided into four stories,
three of which are now discernible. The interiors are composed of clay
mixed with pebbles, encrusted on the surface with the light, porous
stone tetzontli, so abundant in the neighboring quarries. Over this
was a thick coating of stucco, resembling in its reddish color that
found in the ruins of Palenque. According to tradition, the pyramids
are hollow, but hitherto the attempt to discover the cavity in that
dedicated to the sun has been unsuccessful. These monuments were
devoted to religious uses, and it would be only conformable to the
practice of antiquity on the eastern hemisphere that they should have
served for tombs as well as temples.
These ruins cover an area very nearly as large as that of the present
city of Mexico and the streets are distinctly marked by the ruins of
the houses.
[Illustration: CHICHEN-ITZA, YUCATÁN.]
It has been said that America is a land without traditions, without
poetry, and without castles. Ignorance is the only excuse for those
under this impression; for in Mexico are ancient ruins of buildings
that were hoary with age when the famous castles of the Rhine and the
comparatively young strongholds of England were in process of erection.
Away back in the Middle Ages, when the romance of Europe is supposed to
have originated, there was a civilization in Mexico that was even then
historic. It is an ignorance that may, perhaps, be pardoned, since
even our wisest archæologists and deepest scientific students of modern
times cannot yet determine the age or origin of the most ancient of
these landmarks.
[Illustration: RUINS AT MITLA, OAXACA.]
[Illustration: PYRAMID OF THE SUN, SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN.]
No more interesting people for the modern student ever existed than the
Aztecs, who seem to have been the equal in intelligence and advancement
of any tribe in the world at the time. The Aztecs were most sincere
in the practice of their religious rites. They believed in a supreme
creator, invisible yet omnipresent, but requiring numerous assistants
to perform his will, each of whom presided over some special natural
phenomenon or phase of human existence. They had thirteen principal and
several hundred inferior deities. The dread Huitzilopochtli, the war
god of the Aztecs, was the patron divinity of the race, and myriads of
human victims were sacrificed to him yearly in countless pyramidal
temples throughout the realm. Quetzalcoatl, a more beneficent deity,
was described by the natives as a tall white man, with a large forehead
and flowing beard, who taught his favored people the art of government
and the various arts of peace, forbade bloody sacrifices and permitted
only those of bread, roses, and perfumes. This god of the air, as he
was named, having incurred the displeasure of one of the other chief
deities, was compelled to leave the country, but on quitting the shores
of the gulf, he promised to return, and the Mexican always looked
forward to the auspicious day.
[Illustration: RUINS OF PALENQUE, CHIAPAS.]
The ruins of Uxmal, Chichen, Izamal, Mayapan, and Labna have been
explored by Stephens and other archæologists. Those of Uxmal, the
most remarkable, are situated about fifty miles southwest of Merida.
They comprise numerous massive limestone structures built on broad
terraced platforms, and all highly ornamented. The largest single
building, called “the government house,” has a front of three hundred
and twenty-two feet, and contains twenty-four rooms. The most beautiful
structure is the “house of the nuns,” composed of four ranges
enclosing a large courtyard, with eighty-eight apartments. The “house
of the dwarf,” on a very steep mound eighty-eight feet high was a
teocalli for human sacrifices. But little definite is known of the use
of the temples and other vast edifices, which, from their size and
profuse ornamentation in carved and colored figures and bas-relief,
are, even in their ruined state, among the most wonderful architectural
relics of the Western World.
Equally interesting are the ruins of Chichen-Itza, which are perhaps
the most remarkable in Yucatán. They have the distinguishing feature
common to all--the impossibility of ascertaining the purposes or uses
of the extraordinary structures which still stand in testimony of the
high degree of civilization of a people long since forgotten.
In Campeche, where many wild animals and enormous serpents abound, the
ruins of Hôch-ob stand in a retreat of tropical verdure. Though small
in proportion to those of Yucatán, the construction has been pronounced
even superior by scientists who have braved great dangers to explore
them.
[Illustration: “HOUSE OF THE DOVES,” UXMAL, YUCATÁN.]
Transcriber’s Notes:
1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
corrected silently.
2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
been retained as in the original.
3. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg License when
you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg™ License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 41 Watchung Plaza #516,
Montclair NJ 07042, USA, +1 (862) 621-9288. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
