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Title: Textiles; a handbook for the student and the consumer
Author: Mary Schenck Woolman
Ellen Beers McGowan
Release date: October 22, 2026 [eBook #79838]
Language: English
Original publication: New York: The MacMillan Company, 1913
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79838
Credits: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES; A HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDENT AND THE CONSUMER ***
Transcriber’s Notes
Text printed in italics or bold face have been transcribed _between
underscores_ and =between equal signs=. Small capitals have been
transcribed as ALL CAPITALS.
More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.
TEXTILES
[Illustration]
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
[Illustration]
TEXTILES
A HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDENT
AND THE CONSUMER
BY
MARY SCHENCK WOOLMAN, B.S.
SOMETIME PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION AT TEACHERS
COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, SPECIALIST IN
TEXTILES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND
ELLEN BEERS McGOWAN, A.M.
INSTRUCTOR IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
REVISED EDITION
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1926
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1913 AND 1926,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1913.
Revised edition, October, 1926.
SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED BY T. MOREY AND SON
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
THE BERWICK & SMITH CO.
PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION
The last ten years have witnessed important developments in the textile
industries in the United States. This has become the greatest silk
manufacturing country in the world. Its knitting interests, which were
once devoted to the making of hosiery, gloves, and underwear, now draw
on all the fibers to make in addition fabrics as well as garments--a
development of great value to the consumer. Machine lace, for which
this country depended almost solely on Europe, is now manufactured
here to an extent which makes it a competitor in the world’s market.
“Artificial silk,” which was just appearing, has now become the
important new textile “Rayon.” The latter is but one of the wonderful
achievements of chemistry in the textile field. The decade or more
since the first publication of this book, has seen America become
independent of the world in the manufacture of dyes also. The great war
raised the price of all textiles, and brought about conditions which
made necessary an entire reorganization of textile industries.
Textile study, as a part of education for teaching Home Economics,
now touches fields of scientific, sociological, and economic
interest. Departments of the government are working with women in the
standardization of textiles. The industries are seeking the coöperation
of the woman consumer. Honest advertising, the training of the sales
force, truth in statement, and research in all textile fields are
movements which have risen since the book first appeared.
To interpret these new conditions, to meet the needs of the women who
have been brought into new and vital relations with the industrial
world, to keep pace with the widespread strengthening of the Home
Economics Movement and the awakened interest in textiles of the three
million consumers in the General Federation of Women’s Clubs not
only in the home, but in a feeling of responsibility for conditions
within the industry, have made necessary a complete revision of this
book. Many of the best known experts have coöperated with the authors
in bringing forth this edition. Consumer, manufacturer, cutter, and
retailer are recognizing their common interests, and are asking for
information on the problems they are meeting, and the effort has been
made to give them this assistance.
The chapter in the first edition, entitled _Consumers’ Judgment of
Textiles_, does not appear in its original form in the present edition,
but the contents are spread throughout the book so that each topic may
have its rightful background.
Other marked changes in the present text include the addition of: a
chapter on _Knit Goods_; new sections devoted to (1) the manufacture
and uses of rayon; (2) the lace industry, with photographic
illustrations of important laces; (3) suggestions for the application
of textile tests and dyeing to many practical problems; and a
comprehensive appendix containing statistics and useful tables.
The authors wish to express their indebtedness and gratitude to the
many specialists in industrial, economic, and scientific fields who
have lent their aid to this revision. The United States Department of
Commerce through Mr. E. T. Pickard, Chief of the Textile Division,
and Mr. Eugene Hartley, Chief of the Bureau of the Census; the
United States Department of Agriculture through heads of the Cotton
Division; the United States Chamber of Commerce through Mr. Alvin E.
Dodd, director of the Domestic Distribution Department; the National
Association of Wool Manufacturers, through the Secretary, Mr. Walter
Humphreys; the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, through
the Secretary, Mr. H. G. Meserve; Mr. S. A. Salvage, President of
the Viscose Company; Mr. Austin Cheney, of Cheney Brothers, silk
manufacturers; Mr. George F. Smith of the Smith & Dove Manufacturing
Company, and Dr. Ernest Cadgene of the Lyons Piece Dye Works have
rendered valuable assistance. Those who gave special service in
reading parts of the manuscript are Mr. John Bruce McPherson,
Statistician of the National Wool Manufacturers’ Association; Mr.
Marland C. Hobbs, of the Arlington Mills; Mr. Charles E. Baldwin of
the Viscose Company; Mr. Charles B. Nichols, Statistician of the
National Association of Cotton Manufacturers; Professor Thomas Nixon
Carver of the Economics Department of Harvard University; officers
and members of the Silk Association of America; Mr. Joseph Farber,
of the Friedman-Blau-Farber Knitting Mills; Mr. Alvin Cook of the
United States Testing Company; and Professors Bogert, Vulté, Lynde,
Broadhurst, and Balderston of Columbia University or Teachers College.
M. S. W.
E. B. McG.
October, 1926.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
This book is the result of twenty years’ experience in teaching
textiles to college students. It is intended as a textbook for college
classes or for study clubs and as a guide for the housekeeper or
individual consumer of textiles and clothing, the teacher, the club
woman, the saleswoman, and as an introductory survey of the subject
for the student who contemplates professional work in the textile
industries.
The growing emphasis upon textile study in college departments of home
economics or household arts, and the increasing use of the textile
industry as teaching material in other departments and other grades of
schools, show a recognition of the part that the textiles are playing
in the development of civilization and in our everyday life. Interest
in the subject is still further accentuated by the movements now on
foot to regulate the social-economic conditions in the textile and
clothing industries and to secure standardization and honest labeling
of textile products, as is being done for food products by the “pure
food laws.”
To meet the existing need the authors have attempted to prepare a text
suitable for use in college classes or by the public, shorter and more
readable than the technical handbooks, yet sufficiently thorough and
comprehensive to give a sound grasp of the subject as a whole with so
much of the technology as is directly helpful to the consumer and as
should be included in general courses in colleges and technical or
vocational schools.
This has been a difficult task and could scarcely have been brought to
a successful conclusion without the coöperation of the experts who have
guided the authors, read the manuscript, and suggested ways of dealing
with certain intricate and changing processes so as to make the book
scientifically and technically accurate while non-technical in form.
With full appreciation of the time this service has taken in the busy
lives of the experts, the authors express a debt of gratitude to
Mr. William B. Sleeper, Mr. James Chittick, Mr. Theodor Quasebart,
Mr. Gordon Donald, Mr. Franklin W. D’Olier, Mr. George F. Smith,
and Professor H. T. Vulté of Columbia University, who have read the
technical chapters of the book, and to Dr. Susan B. Kingsbury and Dr.
Benjamin R. Andrews, who have read the social-economic parts. They wish
to thank the manufacturers who have allowed the use of photographs and
cuts of machines and also the authors and publishers who were willing
to allow the reproduction of pictures from their printed works.
June 10, 1913.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. BEGINNING OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 3
Primitive Conditions. Carding by Hand. Spinning by Hand. Weaving
by Hand. Principles Underlying Weaving. Primitive Looms.
II. CARDING AND SPINNING 28
Carding by Machine. Spinning by Wheels. The Great Wheel. The
Flax or Saxony Wheel. Spinning Machines -- Development. Modern
Spinning Frames. Mule Spinning. Ring Spinning. The Development
of Industrial and Social Life. The Industrial Revolution.
III. WEAVING 58
The Hand Loom -- Parts -- Working. Warping. Tapestry Looms.
IV. POWER WEAVING AND DESIGN 74
The Transition to Power Weaving. The Power Loom -- Parts. The
Jacquard Loom. Various Attachments. Design and Draft. Twills.
Satins or Figured Weaves. Various Fabrics -- Pile Fabrics.
Stitched, Backed, Double-Faced, Double and Multiple Cloths.
V. KNIT GOODS 107
The Industry in the United States. Foreign Knitting Centers.
Early Inventions. What Knitting Is. Varieties of Machines. Yarns
in Use. Knit Goods.
VI. WOOLEN AND WORSTED -- RAW MATERIALS 123
Scope and Value of the Industry. Changes in the Character of
Wool Grown. Wool- and Hair-Bearing Animals. Growth and Care of
Sheep. Classifying and Grading. Variations in Characteristics
and Qualities of Fiber. Properties of Wool. Varieties of
Fabrics. Pulled Wool, By-Products of Wool, and Substitutes for
Wool. Summary of Wool Production. Wool Marketing.
VII. WOOLEN AND WORSTED-MANUFACTURE 161
Woolen and Worsted Spinning. Processes Common to Woolens and
Worsteds. Processes Distinct for Woolens and Worsteds.
Explanation of Processes. General Finishes. Other Uses of Wool
and Worsted Yarns. The Carpet and Rug Industries. Wastes and
By-Products. Cutting-Up Trade. Wool Manufacture in Leading
Countries. Woolen and Worsted Materials.
VIII. THE COTTON INDUSTRY 210
Some Economic and Commercial Conditions. Properties. Botany and
Growth. The American Cotton Belt. The Leading Cotton-Growing
Countries. Planting and Picking. Enemies of the Cotton Plant.
Cotton Ginning. Baling and Handling. The Industry in the United
States. Cotton Marketing. Classifying and Grading of Cotton.
Cotton Spinning. Representative Processes. Counts or Numbering.
Winding, Spooling, Warping, and Drawing-In. Weaving. Finishing
Cotton Cloth. Cotton Printing and Printing Machines. Cotton
Manufacturing. Cotton Materials.
IX. SILK 258
Economic Considerations. Properties. Life History. Silk
Reeling. Spun Silk. Degumming -- Dressing -- Spinning.
Producing Countries. Marketing, Classification, and
Conditioning. Silk Throwing. Doubling and Twisting. Dyeing and
Attendant Processes. Warping and Weaving. Finishing. Silk Mixed
Goods. Silk Manufacture. Representative Silk Fabrics. Rayon.
X. LINEN AND MINOR FIBERS 306
Economics and Statistics. Properties. Botany and Growth.
Preparation of Fiber. Manufacturing Processes. Method of
Counting. Finishing. Linen Manufacturing. The United States.
The Purchase of Linen. Additional Fibers used in Textile
Manufacture. Ramie -- Piña -- Jute -- Hemps -- Cocoanut, Coir,
or Coco Fiber -- Arghan -- Asbestos -- Kapok -- Hair.
Representative Linen Materials. Lace and Embroidery.
XI. MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF TEXTILE FIBERS 359
Parts of the Microscope. Directions for Use. Preparation of the
Mount or Slide. Wool and Hair Fibers. Physiology and Structure.
Reworked Wool. The Microscopic Appearance of Shoddy, Silk,
Rayon, Cotton, Mercerized Cotton. Flax. Additional Fibers.
Microscopic Analysis of Fabrics.
XII. CHEMICAL STUDY OF TEXTILE FIBERS 373
Aims. Scope. Chemical Nature of Textile Fibers. Reactions of
Wool. Felting of Wool. Reactions of Silk. Reactions of
Vegetable Fibers. Bleaches. Lignocelluloses. Experiments.
Separation and Identification Tests. Special Chemical
Processes.
XIII. DYES AND DYEING 416
Antiquity of the Art of Dyeing. Modern Dyes. Present Status of
Dyes in the United States. Processes Preparatory to Dyeing.
Bleaching. Nature of the Dyeing Process. Classification of
Dyestuffs. Temperature and other Considerations. Scope of
Experiments in Dyeing. Preparation of Dye Solutions. Forms of
Market Dyeing. Dyeing with Household Dyes. Suggestions for
Dyeing -- Procedure. Stripping Color. Physics of Color.
Classroom Exercises. Tied and Dyed Work.
XIV. LAUNDRY NOTES 446
Felting of Wool. Acids and Alkalies of the Household. Soaps.
Bluings. Fastness of Dyes. Stain Removers. Removal of Stains.
Suggested Exercises.
XV. HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 461
The Hygienic Importance of Clothing. The Body in Its Ideal
Condition. Clothing in Relation to Body Heat. Clothing in
Relation to Absorption. Clothing and Cleanliness. An
Unrestricted Body. Dangers in Textiles.
XVI. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF TEXTILE PURCHASE 478
Some Statistics of the Textile and Clothing Industries.
Viewpoints. Factors in Cloth Endurance. Selection of Textiles
and Clothing. Shopping. Making Clothing at Home. Some Simple
Tests. Significance of Dress. The Consumer’s Influence.
Employment of Women. Waste in the Home. The Clothing
Industries. The American Home Economics Association.
Legislation, Federal and State.
XVII. CLOTHING BUDGETS 519
Accounts. The Service of a Budget. The Idea of a Budget.
Determining the Main Annual Expenses and the Income Needed to
Supply Them. The Clothing Division of the Budget. Tentative
Clothing Budgets. The Layette. A Clothing Survey.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 535
GLOSSARY 543
APPENDIX 553
INDEX 565
TEXTILES
TEXTILES
CHAPTER I
BEGINNING OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES
The development of the textile industries has been one of the greatest
factors in civilization. The object of this chapter is to present the
principles of textile manufacture as they existed in their simplest
form, before they were obscured by the elaborate parts and adjustments
of modern machinery. Modern woman owes a debt to primitive woman,
for until machinery was invented, she held, in truth, the textile
industries in her hand. She was the original inventor and workman. In
the earliest times she bent her whole mind to improving the conditions
immediately around her. Her work had to do with shelter, clothing,
food, and the growing of simple things. She had to gather as well as to
manufacture. If she could not find what she wanted, she tried something
else, using everything around her which her strong fingers, her sharp
teeth, or her rude tools could render available.
=Primitive Conditions.=--To consider the development of industry in
primitive communities is the best way to understand the reasons for
some of the present industrial, social, and economic conditions. The
need of food, clothing, and shelter caused the early inhabitants of the
earth to use the materials spread about them by nature to supply their
wants. They were at a great disadvantage in their struggle, for they
had not the strength of the animals, nor had they weapons for defense
or for obtaining food. They had to fight with nature for life itself,
but the results show that they were able to think and act, for they
made progress toward control of their environment, and their labors
and inventions made the modern world. The sharp stones at their feet
were fastened to handles of wood or bone by the aid of rushes, strips
of skin, or sinews of animals, and used for weapons. Branches of trees
were interlaced to form carriers, to cover the wet or rough floors
of rocky caves, to make a shelter above the entrance, or a defense
outside of it. The skins of slain animals were used for many purposes,
being laid on top of interwoven branches to form a shelter, thrown on
the floor, worn about the body, or dried, cut into strips by sharp
stones, and used for binders and for decorations. Thorns, bones, and
twigs served for pins or for fasteners of the rude skin cloaks. Sinews,
rushes, brakes, grasses, reeds, quills, rawhide, and vines were useful
for twines, ropes, and handles. Birds’ nests, spiders’ webs, and other
animal industries offered suggestions for using nature’s materials
at hand. The gourds, the covering of some varieties of palm buds,
the cocoanut, and the barks of cedar and other trees were ready for
immediate use. Adaptations and changes were made, which opened the way
to greater inventions.
Mats for various purposes were made at an early period by tying,
twisting, twining, knotting, and interlacing grasses, rushes, twigs,
sinews, strips of skin, and fibers of plants when soft material was
needed, or split canes, vines, willow, and other branches when rigid
forms were desired. Two kinds of materials were often combined in such
articles as carriers or baskets. Nets for fishing or for carrying
burdens, and traps for catching fish or game, were made in a similar
way. Crude attempts at decoration show the birth of design and the
instinct for beauty. Mats were woven showing variations of color in
design from the turning over of rushes. Fringes of rushes, grasses, and
shells were used for decorating and clothing the body. A network of
knotted grasses was often placed next to the skin with the fringe on
the outside, which added to the comfort and endurance. Such garments
are still worn in parts of the Orient.
The skins of animals were worn with the fur inside to make them
comfortable. The felting of the wool of sheep as it touched the body
led the way to the making of felt for cloth. The dried skin was later
tanned to lessen its roughness. In some warm countries the soft, juicy,
inner bark of certain trees is cut off in strips about six feet long
and two inches wide. It is dried to rid it of sap and later soaked in
water until soft, after which it is beaten into a flexible mass. It is
again soaked and beaten with mallets and carved rollers, which give it
a decorative appearance. Patterns are made in various ways by dipping
leaves and flowers in dye and pressing them on the material. This
material is still in use in parts of the East. It is called Tapa or
Kapa cloth. It can be beaten into large sheets and varnished with oil
to waterproof it. Torn or damaged garments made of it can be mended by
beating in fresh bark. It was a forerunner of wool felt, it is said.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--WICKERWORK BASKET.]
Basketry was at first very simple, being made with splints, but it
soon developed patterns in diagonals and diapers. The alternation of
rigid with pliable materials gave a wide scope for design, and the
twined and sewed basketry of some primitive people was an art (Fig.
1). Basketry and weaving have much in common, and improvements in one
helped the other. Pottery soon developed, probably from the habit of
lining baskets with clay in order to hold water. Into this clay-lined
basket a hot stone was placed to heat water for cooking. From learning
how to make pottery bowls and pots it was but a step to discover that
they could be put directly over the fire and the water heated without
the stone. The hardening of the clay by heat was also learned. Some of
the most primitive pottery shows the form of the weaving of the basket
on the clay (Fig. 13).
[Illustration: FIG. 2--WATTLING.]
The men were occupied in food getting, in fishing, hunting, and in
war, while the women were working at the camp. The discovery of the
use of fire tended toward further division of man’s and woman’s work,
for she was the caretaker of the children, and naturally stayed by the
fire. As the early people were wanderers, they needed carriers for
transporting their young children and their household goods, and mats
and baskets served many useful purposes in the life on the march, as
well as in the tree, cave, or shelter homes. The cave as a shelter gave
way before huts which could be quickly constructed of branches of trees
with various coverings to keep out the rain. Inventions were adapted to
various purposes; for example, a method of holding rigid materials by
softer fibers twined about them at right angles, now called wattling
(Fig. 2), was used for shelters by fastening several heavy sticks
together in a point, with their loose ends stuck into the earth, laying
grass and rushes on top, and holding down this covering by laying
sticks at intervals across it, and tying it down by intertwining
pliable material around the sticks; for defenses, by holding together
the great stakes used for stockades around primitive huts; for early
weaving of soft materials, or for very coarse basketry, as well as
the fine basket weaving of the Pacific Coast of the United States.
Wattling is really a form of weaving. Such a principle once grasped
by awakening minds became a means of development as the environment
offered new materials for use, and the many needs gave an impetus.
The man, with the women and children dependent upon him, formed a
family group. By degrees such families entered into alliances, thereby
increasing their safety, and gaining knowledge of new methods of
fishing, hunting, and living. These social interrelations tended to
develop industries, for some families had made more progress in the
crafts than others, and additional comfort and beauty were found to
come through the use of new devices. Gradually those who excelled in
any line of industrial work attained prominence, as did the great
warrior or fearless hunter. Work in metal developed and helped to
improve the tools in use. The fertile meadows and mountain sides
provided plants and trees, the bark and fruit of which could be used
for mats, baskets, carriers, and shelters. Methods of storing food
and of transportation were needed, and as ways were found they were
exchanged with other families and were the forerunners of trade.
Although some planting was done, the homes were moved too frequently
for the maintenance of a settled agriculture. There was little
providence for the future, for all extras impeded travel.
During this wandering life important industries passed their simplest
form. Weaving had begun on simple looms, which were nothing more
than two heavy sticks between which rushes were stretched so that
the latter were held taut, while the weaver wove other rushes across
these threads. The value of fibers taken from plants and the coats of
animals was discovered, and crude forms of spindles and distaffs aided
in the spinning of yarn. At first, hair, hemp, leaf fibers, strips of
fur and sinews were in use, but when it was found that short fibers,
such as wool and cotton, could be prepared and twisted continuously
around each other, a great step was taken toward weaving (Fig. 3). The
first woven articles were more for floor or tent covering than for
clothing. The advantage of the softer materials for carriers and body
coverings was soon felt, consequently softer fibers were in demand.
Coarse hand-like wood contrivances aided in the opening (carding) of
the wool or other fibers, so that they could be twisted more easily
into yarn. Weaving which combined pattern with color gave results of
interest and even beauty, increased by knowledge of dyeing, staining,
and painting by the use of crushed berries and roots. Climate, of
necessity, had its effect. Tropical regions gave fine, soft fibers
which made exquisite weaving possible, while cold countries offered
skins and coats of animals to be used for similar purposes. The ease
of life in the tropics tended to idleness, but colder climates made it
necessary to struggle continually to obtain the necessaries of life.
It is in temperate parts that we must look for the greatest industrial
inventions and improvement in living.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PLAIN WEAVING.]
Some form of sewing was used in various developing industries, the
coiled basketry required a sort of needle, the making of netting
was with a similar tool; decorations of articles and the making of
clothing all used needle-like devices. Thorns and bones were used to
hold skins together, but by holes placed in these devices the twisted
yarn could be held, thus making a needle (Fig. 4). As people settled
in communities there was more time for work and the product of simple
looms increased. Lighter-weight strips of cloth were produced as fibers
were found that could be made into yarn. The first clothing was a sort
of a skirt wound around the body and fastened at the waist. These were
worn by both men and women. The bone needle, stiletto, and awl, so
useful to primitive women, were highly treasured and often beautifully
decorated. In the tombs of Peru are found tools of great beauty which
have been used by primitive races in that country (Fig. 5). The Incas,
who dwelt in countries south of the United States, have left textiles
of great beauty made of wool and cotton yarns.
In Switzerland primitive homes are found deep under the mud of Alpine
lakes. Hanks of linen, wool, and other yarns, and remains of cloth
indicate that spinning and weaving were well advanced, yet these people
were of the early stone age. These fabrics are similar to those found
in the cliff dwellings of southwestern United States.
Among the Eskimo there was less weaving than in warmer parts of
the world, but extremely interesting garments and boots of skin
decorated with fur and appliqué embroidery, show that according to the
possibilities of their Arctic environment they were well advanced in
some arts.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--BONE AWL.]
The increasing knowledge of animals and of means of trapping them led
to domestication of the less savage species. The effect of the keeping
of such domestic animals on problems of food, shelter, and clothing
was very great. More permanent homes were established for the women,
children, and the less able, while the strong men went out with the
flocks and herds, returning at intervals. Care of animals developed a
different and less savage temper. Warlike instincts were less constant.
Peace between neighboring families increased, and ceremonies showing
the pact between them were held around mounds of stone, which became
the center of life and government.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS.
_a_, _b_, needles; _c_, bone awl; _d_, needle pointed at both ends;
_e_, wooden spool; _f_, netting mesh; _g_, weaving band; _h_,
shuttle-like piece of wood; _i_, netting or weaving instrument; _j_,
_k_, _l_, spindles.]
When America was discovered it was inhabited by people of many stages
of development. Pottery, basketry, weaving, tool making, with metals,
and other arts were in some cases well advanced. The life of these
people, while changed, is still primitive. Nomadic and semi-nomadic
tribes such as the Pima, Papago, Navajo, and Apache, use tepees
or thatched houses for homes. Basketry is made for many household
purposes, and the food is largely game. The Navajo are examples of
those relying on a pastoral life for their support. They settle on land
good for grazing and food. Wool and hair for their rugs, blankets,
and lariats are obtained from their flocks of sheep and goats and
herds of horses. Some planting is done, but it is not far advanced.
Sedentary tribes are still living in the Southwest. Examples of these
people are the Hopi and the Zuñi. They live in pueblos consisting of
adjoining houses with walls of clay, adobe, brick, or stone. Those who
lived before the dawn of history, the Cliff Dwellers, built community
homes (supposed to be for defense) under overhanging cliffs, high on a
canyon wall. They raised corn, beans, and squash on the mesas above the
cliffs, and even had systems of irrigation. Beautifully decorated pots
were made and used. The Zuñis were weavers (Fig. 6). Remains in the
cliff dwellings far below the level of the present pueblos, show that a
race of basket makers preceded by centuries the later Cliff Dwellers,
of whom little is now known. The early race had no permanent dwellings.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--PUEBLO WOMAN WEAVING.
From Watson’s _Textiles and Clothing_, by courtesy of the American
School of Home Economics.]
The more stationary home life gave an incentive to the making of
rugs, hangings, and clothing, which were often rich and beautiful.
The uniting of many families under one leader stimulated the desire
to excel, and specialization in some particular textile craft was
not uncommon. The wish for social approval led to the adornment of
the person, and clothing became more decorative in character. It had
been adopted in many cases to show prowess or to frighten enemies, by
displaying the skins of animals slain by the wearer, or by strings of
teeth or scalps worn around the body. This custom led to the use of
woven material for ornament. A feeling of shame for not wearing clothes
came only after dress had become customary. Hats, which at first were
inverted baskets, were now made especially for the head covering. The
demand for material made from spun wool or cotton increased with the
demand for clothing. Dress now became a means not only of comfort or
of decoration, but to show the distinction of sex or of classes. Among
the Navajo Indians the chief’s blanket has its special design and
colors, and the dress of the young unmarried women is different from
that of the married ones. Special costume was used for the medicine
men and warriors, and for ceremonials. The use of dress for social
distinction has always characterized developing people. The Middle Ages
perhaps saw its height, but although moderated, it is still a part of
modern civilization, though now more practiced by women than by men.
The demand for fabrics of rare design gave great impetus to the art of
weaving. Tribes began to look to each other for exchange of products,
and so tended to assume more peaceful relations. Textile industries
had passed their primitive stages. Devices and even rude machinery to
assist the hand were common. Beauty of design and skillful handling are
evident from examples preserved in the museums. The most common of the
textile crafts in use were:--
Braiding and looping.
Tying, wattling, and thatching.
Netting for fish nets, carriers, and clothing.
Weaving for shelters, mats, rugs, hangings, and garments.
Basketry, both woven and sewed, made into carriers, hats, traps, and
household articles.
Knitting and crocheting.
Carding and spinning.
Reeling.
Needlework in sewing, embroidery, appliqué, repairing, box making,
and clothing.
Lace making, by sewing, weaving, and knitting.
Skin drying and curing.
Dyeing and staining.
Decoration in beadwork, stenciling, block printing, and picture
writing.
Felting and beating.
Making tools for use in the various crafts.
Loom building.
=Carding by Hand.=--The opening up, combing, or carding of raw fiber is
probably as ancient as the art of spinning. The first cards or combs
were evidently the fingers, with which the matted mass was opened,
dirt and knots were pulled out, and the fibers were laid in a soft,
open lap. A device for aiding the hand was later made of wood or
bone, the shape being like the outstretched fingers. This instrument
was succeeded by two flat pieces of wood covered with skin (Fig. 7),
through which teeth or thorns protruded. The fiber was laid between the
teeth of the two combs, and combed or carded thoroughly. Such cards
are in use in some modern factories, where they are used for blending
wools and trying out colors. The Navajo Indian woman of Arizona uses
cards to comb her wool. They are made like the primitive ones, but the
flat surfaces are now covered by card clothing (bent wires closely
set together in leather or rubber). After the Indian woman washes
and opens her raw wool,--always a very necessary part of successful
carding,--she sits down on the ground and spreads a small quantity
of wool on one card, which she holds face up with the left hand. The
other card she holds with the right hand, having the card clothing
down. She firmly presses one card on the other, and draws toward her
the one in her right hand, thus combing through the fibers on the other
card. By repeating this process she finally has the wool in a clean,
fluffy mass. When the wool is sufficiently open and free from dirt she
lays the lap on the back of the left card, and makes it into a roll or
sliver with the back of the other. With these rolls she spins her yarn.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--HAND CARDS.
_A_, Cards; _B_, Wool Roll. From Hooper’s _Hand-Loom Weaving_, by
courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
=Spinning by Hand.=--Spinning is the twisting of a succession of fibers
into a continuous cord, rope, or yarn. It was one of the earliest
industries of the human race, and the necessary opening of the fibers,
which were often matted and rough, to make them twist more smoothly,
was the beginning of carding. It is supposed that both processes began
about the same time. The need of some form of binding twine, and later
of mats and shelters, led to the use of rushes, strips of skin, the
hair and sinews of animals, the bark of trees, the fibers of the agave
and other plants. These fibers were limited in length, and had to be
knotted or twisted together to serve the purpose required. They were
not spun. It was later discovered that some fibers lent themselves to
continuous twisting. Wool spinning may have been the earliest, for
wool was accessible and easily twisted on account of its natural oil
and crimp. Flax (linen), though difficult to prepare, was in use even
before the age of metals. Pictures on Egyptian tombs show the processes
of flax preparation as conducted there at an early age. Cotton was
used in India, and the laws of Manu, 1000 B. C., give regulations
concerning its manufacture, seriously objecting to the heavy sizing of
the yarn, showing that spinning was an old industry at that time. In
South America at a very early period cotton was spun into fine yarns
and woven into cloths of great beauty. Silk, too, was taken from the
cocoons, slightly twisted, and woven into cloth in China and Japan at
the dawn of their history.
Early spinning was done by the fingers alone, the fibers being held in
the left hand and twisted with the right. It is a very simple process.
Even a little twist greatly strengthens the fibers. The spinner drew
from prepared (carded) fibers, such as cotton or wool, a number of
parallel threads and twisted them as they came, making a continuous
piece. It took a little practice to make a firm, even yarn. As the
fibers thus spun untwist very quickly unless held by some artificial
means, the worker probably wound the product on a stick, later
fastening the end of the yarn in a natural or manufactured cleft, or
holding it by a half hitch around the stick. It was seen that if the
stick or spindle on which the spun fiber was wound and caught slipped
from the hand while the spinner was twisting in another length, it
would revolve rapidly in the other direction and untwist the length
of yarn. Experiment would show that by giving the spindle a sharp
twirl as it descended, carrying the length of yarn, a twist might be
put in during the time the revolutions continued. A spindle on which a
quantity of spun yarn was wound would be found to revolve more smoothly
and draw out the fibers better than one which had no yarn on it; this
suggested the placing of a weight on the spindle. A lump of mud or
clay, a stone or a piece of wood were early added to the spindle to
assist the revolutions. It also kept the yarn from slipping off the
spindle. Such weights, called whorls (Fig. 5, j.), were often molded,
carved, or painted attractively.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HAND IN ACTION.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--ROCK.]
Good spinning required careful carding of the fibers. Some means other
than the hand of holding these opened-up fibers was necessary in order
to keep them in good condition. At first a simple stick was used, at
one end of which the carded mass was placed, lightly tied around with
a piece of yarn to keep it smooth. This stick was called the distaff
(Fig. 8). It was held under the left arm or in the belt, or it was
thrust into the ground beside the spinner. In Germany it was called
the rock (Fig. 9), and was placed on a block to hold it erect, while
the spinner stood or sat near by. In parts of Europe spinning with
the distaff and spindle can still be seen. The spinner draws out a
number of fibers from the underside of the carded material next to
the distaff, twists them, and fastens them to the end of the spindle.
With the right hand she gives a sharp twist to the spindle; in the
meanwhile she continues to draw out a number of fibers with her left
hand to supply the descending spindle (Fig. 10). When the spindle
reaches the ground, she picks it up, winds on it the length of thread
just spun, and catches the end in the cleft. Spindles were made of
wood, bone, and metal. They were usually from ten to twelve inches
in length, while the distaff was from twelve to thirty-six inches in
length.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--SPINNING WITH DISTAFF AND SPINDLE.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
Spinning is found among all primitive people, and although it differs
somewhat in method, the underlying principles are the same, _i. e._,
drawing out the fibers, twisting them, and winding them up. Ropemaking
was similar to spinning. The worker held the raw material, such as hemp
or flax, in the hand or apron, and after attaching some of the fibers
to a revolving device, walked backward, letting out the material. It
was thus drawn and twisted. The required length of rope was made by
extending the twisting for a hundred or more feet and then returning,
to allow it to be wound. The single ropes thus made were united in
threes, making a heavier rope. Ropewalks across fields are still found
in Europe.
In India we find a method of spinning the finest grades of cotton
yarn by revolving a thin piece of bamboo in a cup of cocoanut shell.
The fineness of the yarn to be used for Dacca muslin has never been
surpassed by machinery. A simple method of spinning coarse yarn for
hammocks or twine was found in New Guinea. The worker laid a bundle of
fibers on the left knee, pulled some threads from it with the right
hand, twisted them, and rolled them into a ball on the right knee.
Another method of spinning was to tie fibers to a stone and revolve
the stone. The Navajo Indian women of New Mexico and Arizona have for
a spindle a slender stick of wood with a circular disk or whorl at the
end of it. The woman sits on the ground with her slivers of carded wool
beside her, holds the spindle with her right hand, and puts the point
of the spindle on the ground with the whorl just above it. She lays the
long end of the spindle against her knee, attaches the end of a sliver
close to the disk, holds it out and draws it away so that it grows
thinner and is twisted as she twirls the spindle. When a length of yarn
is sufficiently attenuated and spun, she winds it on the spindle.
This process is repeated until the spindle is full (Fig. 11). The first
yarn spun is soft and only slightly twisted, consequently the process
is repeated several times until it is strong enough, especially for the
warp threads.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--NAVAJO WOMAN SPINNING.]
=Weaving by Hand.=--Weaving is the interlacing of two lines of threads
crossing each other at right angles. (See Fig. 3). Plain or pattern
effects are made according to the manner in which the threads are
interwoven. The threads running the length of the cloth are called
warp, or ends, and are set up first in the loom. Those that intersect
and run across the warp are called woof, weft, pick, or filling. The
filling threads which bind in the warp threads at either side form the
selvage (Fig. 12).
Weaving is one of the most ancient of the arts. It preceded carding
and spinning. Its development has called forth and still requires a
high order of mechanical ability. Marvelous results in fineness of
cloth and beauty of design were attained in it even when it was in its
infancy, with few devices to aid the hand, and when to make one rug
required untold labor. Even modern machinery cannot outdo the handwoven
materials from various parts of the world.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--DETAIL OF WEAVE.
_A_, Warp or ends.
_B_, Filling, woof, weft, or picks.
_C_, Selvage.]
Our present knowledge of the beginnings of weaving comes (1) from
the work of nations which are now in primitive condition and whose
work we can watch, such as the natives of the Philippine Islands, the
American Indian, and African tribes; (2) from early pottery, which was
frequently decorated with a textile design, and shows clearly that
woven cloth was laid upon it when it was in a moist state (Fig. 13);
(3) picture writing on tombs; (4) mats, rugs, and cloth which have been
preserved. These ancient materials show the art from the coarsest mat
weaving to the finest cotton and linen fabrics, having often the most
intricate designs in various colors.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--TEXTILE-IMPRESSED POTTERY.
_A._ Pottery. _B._ Weave used.]
=Principles Underlying Weaving.=--A knowledge of the principles of
weaving is found among almost all primitive people, no matter how
savage, and their first steps toward an adequate loom seem strangely
similar, when it is remembered that there was often no communication
between nations. There were three principles developed, and these same
three are the important ones in modern power weaving: (1) _shedding_,
or the raising of the warp threads as needed; (2) _picking_, or the
throwing across of the filling threads; and (3) _battening_, or the
driving up of the filling. Various devices were invented to facilitate
these motions. Weaving was done at first by the hand alone, rushes
being laid lengthwise on the ground and lifted alternately, to allow
the woof or filling to be inserted across them, and the fingers pushed
the filling into place. One of the first inventions was a way of
holding the warp stretched, that the threads of it might be raised more
easily for the insertion of the filling. The early looms (see Fig. 14)
were usually vertical, and had a heavy wooden bar or beam at the top to
hold the upper ends of the warp, and stone weights tied to the lower
end of each thread, thus keeping the warp taut. The beam was suspended
in a framework, or between trees. Some nations placed bars at each end,
which were forerunners of the warp and web beams of the modern loom.
To accomplish a more rapid raising of the warp threads, sticks were
inserted alternately in the sheds, to indicate the path of the filling,
a simple device which led finally to the harness of the modern loom. To
take the place of the fingers for throwing the filling threads across
the warp, a stick was used on which the filling was wound; this later
became the shuttle containing its quill of yarn, and the shuttle race.
As a means of widening the shed for the insertion of the filling, and
later battening it up, a sword or batten was used, which served both
purposes. The lathe or sley of the modern loom, with its reed, has
developed from the early sword.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--NAVAJO LOOM.]
=Primitive Looms.=--Many kinds of looms were invented: (1) the upright
or vertical, such as the Navajo Indian loom or some forms of the
tapestry loom (see Fig. 14); (2) the horizontal loom, like those of the
Moros of the Philippine Islands, and of the Zuñi and Pueblos of America
(see Fig. 6), a form also seen in the hand loom of colonial days and in
the power looms, and (3) slanting looms, such as are found among the
rug makers of the East.
The beautiful Chilcat blanket (Fig. 15), is used for ceremonial
purposes. It is woven by the Tlingit Indians of the northwest United
States. The old blankets were white. Later color and pattern were
introduced on the white, and finally the elaborate geometrical designs
of to-day which are said to be of a conventionalized whale. The
patterns are painted on a board in the size and shape desired. The
squaw weaves from the pattern. The warp is of shredded two-ply cedar
bark wrapped with a thread of wool. The soft hair of the mountain goat
is the filling. Two threads are twisted together. The blanket is woven
with the lower ends rounded. Heavy weights hold the warp threads in
place while the weaving is in progress. Few devices are used by the
weaver.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--CHILCAT BLANKET.]
Tools of various kinds were invented by different peoples to assist in
the making of cloth, such as knives to split material, which took the
place of the teeth of the worker; gauges to measure distances, which
replaced the finger nail; awls to assist the fingers in fine work, and
act as needles (Fig. 4), and combs to help the fingers in driving home
short sections of filling. The Zuñi Indians invented an interesting
heald shaft or heddle for making the shed (Fig. 6). It consisted of
a series of small flat sticks held in a framework, with holes in the
center of each stick, and spaces left between the sticks. The first
warp thread was passed through a slit between sticks and the second
through a hole in a stick, the third through a slit, the fourth through
a hole, until all the warp threads were disposed of, every other one
being through a slit and the alternate ones through the holes. The
shed was formed by raising or depressing the heddle, thus threads were
alternately brought up or down, through which the filling was passed
and battened up. This form of heddle is on the order of those used in
the modern power loom (Fig. 16). Heddles of simple construction are
found in many parts of the world. The Eskimo made one of bone, and the
European carved one from wood (Fig. 17). Our colonial women used a
similar heddle in their tape weaving.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HEALD SHAFT.]
The Navajo women are still weavers. Beautiful rugs were once woven
of the wool of the native sheep (Fig. 14), dyed or undyed, with
characteristic designs upon them. Unfortunately the demand for a
cheap rug is injuring their art. Few people understand the value of
these old rugs, and consequently are unwilling to give an adequate
price for them. The better grade of rug took sometimes as long as a
year to weave, but the present one is frequently made rapidly and
poorly, with a cotton warp and commercial wools for filling. Cheap
dyes and poor designs are used. In fact, these rugs are even copied
on power looms and sold in large quantities. The real Navajo rug has
the wool of the native sheep carded and spun for the warp as well as
the filling. The warp threads with their crossing are prepared and
stretched on the beams. As the warp hangs taut the lease or crossing
of the threads can be clearly seen, for every other thread is slightly
forward of the alternate ones. By slipping sticks into these sheds they
are accented. A simple harness is made by laying a long rod across
the warp threads, fastening a piece of strong yarn to the rod, and in
succession catching the yarn around each back thread in the lease and
then around the rod. When all the back threads are thus connected with
the rod, they can be drawn forward at one time, making a distinct shed
of alternating threads. Through this the sword or batten is thrust
and turned over to make a wider opening of the threads, while the
filling is inserted. A stick is placed in the alternate shed, which
preserves it. As the threads of this shed are forward in the crossing
they are easily distinguished at any time. When the forward shed is
to be used the sword or batten is placed in it and turned to its full
width. The weaver sits on the ground and usually begins to work from
the bottom up, but some work from both ends, using a needle for the
final weaving. She alternately opens the sheds, turns her batten in
them, puts her filling across, and drives it home with the batten by
turning it flat and drawing it toward the finished weaving. She uses a
rude wooden comb to drive the filling home when she wishes to batten
in a few threads at a time, in order to make a design. If she needs to
let down the warp threads, she loosens the lashings at the top, lowers
the pole with the attached warp threads, winds up the finished weaving
on the lower pole and makes all tight again. When different colors
are needed she uses separate balls of colored yarn, white, gray, and
black being favorites, though red and yellow are also used. The work
is really tapestry weaving, for the design is put in by the fingers as
desired, and is not dependent on the harness. When she has finished
with one color, she allows the roll of yarn to hang suspended while
she takes up the next color. The Navajos conduct their whole industry,
growing the sheep, shearing, cleaning, carding, spinning, dyeing, and
weaving.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PRIMITIVE HEDDLES.
From Watson’s _Textiles and Clothing_, by courtesy of The American
School of Home Economics.]
CHAPTER II
CARDING AND SPINNING
=Carding by Machine.=--Before the great machine inventions, carding was
done much as the Indian woman did it, as told in the former chapter.
When the demand for more rapid spinning came there was naturally an
equal demand for better and more rapid carding, for good spinning
depends upon it. The problems before the inventors of the eighteenth
century were to accomplish the work of the hand cards by mechanical
means at greater speed, and to make a continuous sliver instead of
short pieces or rolls. They wished to do this with the minimum injury
to the fiber and with the least possible waste. It cannot be said,
however, that the modern carding machine, wonderful as it is, works
with as little bad effect on the fibers as did the hand cards.
The beginning of the great mechanical inventions in methods of spinning
and weaving was in England in the eighteenth century. When Lewis Paul
in 1748 discovered that carding could be satisfactorily done by the
use of revolving cylinders covered with wire clothing, he gave the
principle of modern carding. James Hargreaves invented an improved
cotton carder in 1762, which had more than one cylinder rotating in
contact with the cotton. Richard Arkwright also invented one which he
used in his own mill at Cromford. Until 1772, the fiber was fed by hand
into the carding machine, but John Lees or Leigh of Manchester invented
an apron feed, which saved the labor of one worker and facilitated the
process by making it continuous. At that time the slivers received
from the carder were in short pieces like the rolls from the hand
cards. Arkwright made an invention by which the cotton was fed in a
wide lap to the machine, which carded it and passed the lap thus made
to a funnel, where it was contracted into a sliver. He also invented
a doffer or stripper to remove the sliver from the machine. The
doffer was a helpful invention; it is claimed for both Arkwright and
Hargreaves.
These inventions led to great changes in methods of manufacture.
By 1774 all of the principles of modern carding were in use,--the
continuous carding surface, the continuous feed, and the continuous
doffer. In the modern carding engine an enormous number of fine teeth
come in contact with the fiber; the object sought--of cleaning,
opening, and laying the fibers parallel--is accomplished, but the
process is a severe strain on them. Good carding often requires many
previous processes of cleaning and opening, all of which have an
effect on the strength of the fibers. On account of differences in the
characteristics of raw materials, the processes leading up to carding
and the work itself differ. Silk and flax are not carded, although the
latter undergoes a similar process called hackling.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--REVOLVING TOP FLAT CARD.
Courtesy of the Whitin Machine Works.]
The revolving flat card (Fig. 18) is used extensively in the United
States for cotton. It has a cylinder about fifty inches in diameter
and forty inches in width, called a swift, which is covered with card
clothing, having about six or seven hundred steel wire teeth per
square inch, amounting in all at times to three or four million. The
teeth are turned in the direction of the movement of the cylinder.
They are fastened in a leather, rubber, or cloth foundation, similar
to the hand cards. In the process of carding, a large roll of partly
cleaned cotton is placed in front of the machine. A revolving small
roller takes the end of this sheet of cotton and delivers it to the
“licker-in,” which in its revolution brings the cotton in contact
with the big cylinder or swift, and the teeth catch the cotton and
carry it on. Flat bars on an endless lattice above the swift are
covered with card clothing, and in rotation press their teeth into
the cotton which is on the cylinder. The contact of these slowly
moving bars with the revolving cylinder is like the contact of the
two hand cards; the cotton is thus combed and cleaned, and the poor
fiber is carried away by a stripper. This rough, broken fiber is used
for cheaper classes of goods, having machinery especially adapted
to it. The impurities drop through to a box under the machine. The
revolution of the swift carries the good carded cotton to a point
directly opposite the licker-in, where it is stripped off by another
revolving cylinder, called the “doffer cylinder,” the teeth of which
are so set that they take the cotton from the big cylinder or swift.
An oscillating knife or comb, the “doctor knife,” strikes the cotton
from the doffer cylinder, and the soft lap is then delivered to a
funnel or to two rolls which contract it into a ribbon or sliver
and deliver it to a can. The great cylinder or swift often moves at
a rate of 150 to 200 revolutions a minute. The doffer comb strikes
the cotton about a thousand times a minute. The card for wool does
not aim to lay the fibers parallel, but simply to open them into a
soft mass. A series of small cylinders, covered with card clothing,
working over the top of the swift, take the place of the flat bars
in the cotton card. These rollers or cylinders are in pairs called
workers and strippers, and alternately press the wool on the teeth
of the swift and remove it again, thus opening the fiber. (See Chap.
VIII, _Carding_.) The fiber passes from one card to another in a
transverse direction, to overcome the inclination to parallelism.
The card in use in the worsted industry differs from the train of
cards required in the wool, but the principles remain the same. The
rapidity of movement in the swift depends upon the length of staple
of the fiber. In the wool card the final stripping roller is called
the fancy. It is larger and has longer teeth than the others, in
order to lift the carded wool from the teeth of the cylinder, that
the doffer may carry it off. The speed of movement in the various
cylinders depends on the requirements of the raw material. The
principles of the modern card remain the same, but many improvements
have been made in it. Automatic motion is about perfected and waste
savers have been invented which catch the waste before the sliver is
doffed, throw out the dirt still in it and return it to the feed end
of the carding machine to pass again through the carding process.
There is an inclination to combine the action of machines or to omit
a machine when possible. (See also _Wool Card_, Fig. 85.)
=Spinning by Wheels.=--Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
spinning wheels began to take the place of the distaff and spindle. The
latter method had supplied the yarn from the dawn of history until the
Middle Ages. Fabrics in museums testify to the skill, patience, and
instinct for beauty in the women of the past. The process was, however,
so slow that a more rapid method was necessary to increase the supply
of yarn. India at a very early period invented a method of spinning by
attaching a wheel to the spindle by means of a band, causing the latter
to rotate. It was called the Gharka or teakwood wheel (Fig. 19). The
spinner sat on the ground beside the wheel and supplied the spindle
with raw material. The India wheel was a very rude instrument, but
could spin a coarse yarn; the fine spinning of India continued to be
done by the revolving spindle propelled by hand.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE GHARKA WHEEL.]
=The Great Wheel.=--In Europe early in the fourteenth century a
single-thread wheel was used which was similar to the India wheel. The
idea may have been brought from India, or it may have been original.
In England this wheel was called the Jersey, the Great, or the Wool
wheel, and in Scotland the Muckle wheel (Fig. 20). It was principally
used for wool, as its slow, intermittent motion was well fitted for
short staple fibers which easily pull apart after being carded into the
roll or sliver form. The one-thread wool wheel differed slightly in
various places. It was found in both the low and high form. At first
the great wheel directly revolved the spindle, the latter being in a
horizontal position, but later a large wheel drove a smaller one, which
again turned the spindle by means of a wharve or small grooved pulley
fastened on the end of the spindle. The wharve was a development of the
whorl.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--THE GREAT WHEEL.]
=The Parts of the Great Wheel= were: I. The standard (_A_) on three
legs, on which were the two upright posts (_B B′_) which held the
spindle (_C_) in a horizontal position. A wharve or pulley was at one
end of the spindle, and a small wheel (_D_) provided with a pulley or
groove. At the other end of the standard (_A_) was a post which held a
large wheel. II. A band or cord (_E_), which connected the large wheel
with the small grooved wheel (_D_). III. A cord (_F_) which connected
the small grooved wheel with the wharve or pulley on the spindle.
=The Motion of the Great Wheel.=--By revolving the great wheel by
hand the small wheel turned very rapidly, communicating motion to the
spindle through the wharve or pulley, consequently the spindle turned
as long as the great wheel revolved.
=The Method of Spinning on the Great Wheel.=--The wool or cotton was
first carded by hand combs into soft rolls a foot or more in length
and a little less than two inches in width. (See Fig. 7). The spinner
stood beside the wheel. An end of spun yarn had been left on the
spindle to which she attached a roll, or, if not, she drew and twisted
by hand a short length of yarn from one of the rolls and fastened that
to the spindle. She brought the end of the twisted yarn to the point
of the spindle, and held the remainder of the roll in her left hand.
In her right hand she usually held a wooden peg, with which she struck
a spoke of the great wheel, causing it to revolve and the spindle to
turn. She gently drew the roll away from the spindle almost on a line
with it. As the roll became attenuated, the revolving spindle twisted
it into yarn in the same way that the revolving vertical spindle had
twisted the yarn when it was spun by the hand of the worker. When the
ball was drawn and twisted almost to its end, she stopped the wheel.
By turning the wheel slowly in the opposite direction the spun yarn,
which extended to the end of the spindle, backed off to the center of
the spindle or to any point that the spinner desired. The yarn was now
at right angles with the spindle. The spinner again turned the wheel in
the original direction, thereby winding the length of spun yarn up on
the spindle. She was now ready to piece on another roll. She laid one
end of it over the end of the one just spun, again drew the end of the
twisted part of the yarn to the end of the spindle, and repeated the
process as described. She thus repeated the three principles required
in the earliest spinning: (1) Drawing or attenuating the fiber; (2)
twisting it, and (3) winding it up on the spindle. She did this in
two parts or intermittently; the first division drew and twisted the
yarn, the second wound it up. As has been said, the motion of the great
wheel was intermittent. For soft yarn, made of easily separated fibers,
this was a decided advantage, for it did not put too great a strain on
the yarn by winding it while it was being drawn or twisted. The wheel
was the progenitor of the modern mule, the motion of which is also
intermittent. The yarn was respun several times before it was strong
enough to be used for warp threads. When the spindle was full of yarn
the thread was wound off on a reel. (See Fig. 21). In general, the yarn
from the great wheel was more satisfactory for the filling than for the
warp threads. At the low wheel the spinner sat, but at the high one
she stood, walking back and forth at her work. It is said that twenty
miles a day were frequently covered by spinners on the wool wheel in
our colonial times. The great wheel spun several times as much yarn in
a given time as the distaff and spindle, and relieved the pressure for
more yarn, but the cry for better warp thread still continued, and was
met by the Saxony wheel.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--_A_, Swift; _B_, Clock Reel; _C_, Quill or
Plug Winder; _D_, Niddy Noddy.]
=The Flax or Saxony Wheel= was invented, it is said, by Jurgens in
Germany about 1530. It is probable, however, that wheels of a like
character had been made before that time. This wheel was an elaborate
piece of mechanism as compared with the wool wheel. The foot was used
as power, consequently the hands were free to draw out and guide the
fiber to the spindle. The Saxony wheel was well adapted to the spinning
of flax, for the principles of drawing, twisting, and winding were
continuous, which made a strain on the yarn which flax could stand
better than wool or cotton. The latter fibers were, however, spun upon
it, not from the distaff, but from rolls of carded material fed by hand
directly to the spindle, thus lessening the strain. There are several
models of this wheel. A common one, though not the earliest form of it,
is seen in Fig. 22.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE FLAX WHEEL.]
=The Parts of the Saxony Wheel= were: I. The frame (12) which stood
on three legs, the wheel end being lower than the distaff end. II. The
wheel (1) had an iron bar through its hub by which it was supported
in the deep grooves of two upright bars of wood (11a, 11b). III. The
distaff (10) was supported on a high standard at the opposite end of
the frame from the wheel. IV. At the distaff end of the framework two
upright bars (3a, 3b) supported the spindle (6), which was made of
polished steel, and had a pointed end protruding through a leather ring
on the upright bar (3b) away from the spinner, and a needle end (4) (in
which was an eye) through another ring in the bar toward the spinner.
A flyer (2) was fastened about one inch from the needle’s eye, and a
large wharve or pulley one inch from the pointed end. A cord from the
wheel caused the revolution of the spindle. The flyer (Fig. 23) had
a series of hooks or guides over which the yarn was passed before it
was delivered to the bobbin (7). The turning of the flyer twisted the
fibers, which were threaded through the needle’s eye, and wound them
up on the bobbin. The spinner changed the yarn from one hook to the
other of the flyer as she spun, and gradually filled the bobbin evenly
with yarn from end to end. The flyer went round very rapidly, but the
bobbin was kept back by the friction of the yarn which was let out as
the spinner wished, according to her ability or her desire for fine
yarn. The slower movement of the bobbin caused the yarn to wind upon
it. The bobbin or reel fitted loosely on the spindle, and was slipped
on it by removing the pulley at the end of the spindle. The bobbin had
also a groove or pulley at one end of it, around which one of the cords
from the wheel was placed. V. A band or soft cord (5) was passed twice
around the wheel; one part went over the grooved pulley or wharve on
the spindle, and the other went over the pulley on the bobbin, causing
them to revolve with the wheel. VI. A handle (13) regulated the tension
by turning it either backward or forward, thus moving the standard
on which the spindle and other parts revolved, and tightening or
loosening the band. VII. Underneath the framework was the treadle (8),
connected with the wheel by means of a rod (9), which was attached by a
crank to the iron bar through the hub of the wheel, and was tied to the
treadle.
=The Motion of the Saxony Wheel= was continuous, that is, the drawing,
twisting, and winding occurred simultaneously, and not as in the great
wheel in two divisions, requiring the stopping of the wheel and backing
off of the thread on the spindle before winding began.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--FLYER.]
=The Method of Spinning on the Saxony Wheel.=--The flax was carefully
prepared beforehand. It was hackled, which was a sort of carding (see
Chap. X), in order to have the fibers parallel and untangled. The
spinner laid the flax carefully down on a flat surface, and turned
the distaff in it until it was evenly covered. She then tied a ribbon
loosely about it to keep it in good order, and placed the distaff
on the standard. The fibers were now in good condition for drawing
steadily down as many or as few as she desired. The spinner sat beside
the wheel with her foot on the treadle, and by means of the connecting
rod gave motion to the wheel. The double band caused the revolution
of the spindle and flyer as well as the bobbin through the wharves
on each. She drew the threads down from the distaff with her right
forefinger and thumb until they reached the eye of the spindle. The
flax passed smoothly under her second, third and fourth fingers as she
held it lightly between the first finger and thumb which she slightly
turned toward her as the thread was drawn down. She used her left
hand to open up the mass of fibers next to the distaff, making them
into a wedge shape with the narrow end running toward the right hand.
She slightly twisted them, and threaded the yarn thus made through
the needle’s eye in the spindle, brought the thread over one of the
hooks of the flyer and fastened it to the bobbin by means of a thread
which had been left there for this purpose. Beginners often found it
difficult to keep the wheel revolving smoothly while drawing the flax
evenly from the distaff to the spindle. It took time to become a good
spinner. The threads of flax were kept moistened by the spinner in
order to make a tighter and smoother twist. The spindle, the iron bar
on the large wheel, and the crank connected with the treadle were kept
well greased.
The Saxony wheel was more complex than the great wheel. The flyer
(Figs. 22 and 23) on the spindle by which the thread was twisted (said
to have been invented by Leonardo da Vinci) was a great step in advance
of former spindles, and is utilized in power spinning even to the
present day. The continuous motion of this wheel made it possible to
spin more and stronger thread in a given time than had any previous
invention. The bobbin revolved at a different speed from the spindle,
consequently it was possible to wind up the yarn as it was being spun.
The flax wheel was improved upon in various ways, and two spindles were
later used on it at one time, enabling expert spinners to double the
output.
=Spinning Machines Developed from the Principles of the Wheels.=--In
England about the middle of the eighteenth century pressure for more
rapid production of cloth, especially of cotton cloth, began to be
felt. Suffering from poverty had lessened and more comforts were
demanded. The subdivision of industry had increased in the towns,
and as women no longer spun and wove in every home the demand for
textiles was insistent. There was scarcity of yarn for weaving, for
many of the spinners were not capable of making warp yarn. Wool and
flax heretofore had been the staples, but the introduction into
England of cotton fabrics from India led to a demand for the spinning
and weaving of that fiber. Some inventions were made, but little was
thought of them at first, therefore the names of the first inventors
and the dates of their inventions were not carefully preserved and are
even now uncertain. The supply of yarn and the ability of the weavers
to turn out cloth were about equal when John Kay of Bury invented
his fly shuttle and picking stick, thereby increasing fourfold the
output of the loom. This was followed by a patent of Robert Kay, son
of John Kay, of the drop box (see Chap. III, _The Parts of the Hand
Loom_), which also saved the weaver’s time. These inventions brought
the capacity for weaving far ahead of the supply of yarn. Pressure was
brought to bear on the spinners to meet the situation, (1) finding a
mechanical way of spinning a number of threads at one time by keeping
more spindles revolving, and (2) some automatic means of drawing out
the fibers. John Wyatt of Birmingham is generally conceded to have
been the first to suggest a way of spinning thread without the use of
fingers. His patent was taken out in 1738 in the name of Lewis Paul,
his partner. In his machine he uses the flyer of the Saxony wheel for
spinning, but probably he had an entirely new and brilliant idea in the
use of _drawing rollers_ to attenuate the yarn. This latter principle
is important in power spinning. Richard Arkwright later used this
principle in his water frame, but gave no credit to either Wyatt or
Paul, and is generally thought to have been the inventor.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--HARGREAVES’ SPINNING JENNY.
From Robinson and Beard’s _The Development of Modern Europe_, by
courtesy of Ginn & Co.]
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--MULE SPINNING.
Courtesy of the Mason Machine Works.]
In 1764 or 1767 James Hargreaves, a spinner and carder, living in
Blackburn, Lancashire, invented a spinning frame (Fig. 24) which was
the progenitor of the modern self-acting mule. (See Figs. 25 and 26.)
His idea was evidently taken from the principle of the great wheel. For
power he used one hand to control a traveling carriage, and the other
to turn a wheel by means of a crank. The wheel was connected by a band
with a cylinder under the framework, and bands went from the cylinder
to the pulley or wharve of each spindle, thus setting them in motion
as the wheel turned. This machine spun from eight to eleven threads at
once. It was a great invention, but the fibers were not parallel, and
the yarn was too softly twisted to be used for warp. The pictures now
seen of the machine have improvements over the original invention. The
important principles of Hargreaves’ spinning jenny were (1) a number of
bobbins of roving (the last step in the preparation of yarn previous
to spinning) were placed vertically in a creel under the frame; (2)
the yarn from these bobbins passed through a holder and across to the
spindles. The holder was so made that it could keep the threads fast
or let them slip. (3) A carriage, which could be moved back and forth
on the framework so that the holder could be drawn away from or moved
toward the spindles. When the carriage was near the spindles the roving
was caught in the holder and fastened to the tip of the spindles, and
was attenuated by drawing the carriage away from the spindles. In the
meanwhile the stretch of roving was twisted by the revolution of the
spindles by means of the wheel. When the carriage reached its farthest
point on the track it was stopped, but the spindles were kept turning
until the yarn was sufficiently twisted. The wheel was then stopped,
and the carriage was backed slightly to allow guide or faller wires
to back off the twisted thread from the end of the spindles, as was
done in the great wheel. The carriage was now pushed back toward the
spindles while the length of spun yarn was wound up. Thus Hargreaves’
spinning jenny repeated the intermittent motion of the great wheel,
for the attenuating and twisting were done in one motion, and the
winding in another. When one length of yarn had been spun, the bar
on the holder was loosened, another length of roving was drawn from
the bobbins into the holder, and the work of drawing and twisting was
repeated. This machine was used widely, but Hargreaves had little use
of his patent, which was taken out in 1770, for the hand spinners were
infuriated, and persecuted the inventor for taking away their work. He
was obliged to flee from his home on account of the tumult. He deserves
to be remembered as one of the fathers of the modern industrial world,
for he made cotton spinning possible, and thus brought a cheaper fabric
to the poor of England. Credit for this invention is given by some to
High of Leigh.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--DETAIL OF MULE.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
The spinning jenny was known to Richard Arkwright, a clever barber
of Preston, who wandered about the towns of England in pursuit of
business. He continually heard of the need of yarn and cloth, and
probably improvements in devices were talked over with him, and new
appliances shown him. About 1768 he brought out a machine founded
on the principle of the Saxony wheel. It had an upright frame, a
continuous motion, and the spindle and flyer of the Saxony wheel placed
vertically (Figs. 27 and 28). The roving passed through twin drawing
rollers and was attenuated before being twisted. It is probable, though
not proven, that he had seen this in the machines of Wyatt and Paul.
He received much credit for his invention, but is thought to have been
a greater business man in forwarding the ideas of others than original
in inventions of his own. His ideas of factory organization are not
yet obsolete. He is, in any case, worthy of honor for what he has
given to us. The principle of his machine is as follows: The roving
was attenuated by means of a couple of twin rollers placed one behind
the other. The first two rollers which received the roving ran rather
slowly, but the two rollers ahead moved more quickly. Hence the fiber
was caught, drawn, and laid more nearly parallel. After the roving,
now of the required thickness, left the rollers, it was twisted by the
flyers of the spindles and wound on the bobbins. Arkwright probably
gave us the reciprocal vertical movement of the spindle. His first
mill was built at Cromford in 1771, where he installed his own carding
and spinning machinery. So greatly was his work appreciated that he
was knighted. His machine was too heavy to be driven by the human
hand, hence horse or mule power was used, and later water power gave
the invention the name of the water frame, or water twist frame. The
homes of that time where most of the spinning had been previously done
could not provide sufficient force, consequently small factories sprang
up where the Arkwright spinning frame spun the yarn for those having
private looms or for groups of manufacturing weavers. Steam power was
applied to it in 1790. The use of drawing rollers is the great basis of
modern spinning.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.--ARKWRIGHT’S WATER FRAME.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
Another inventor of note of this period was Samuel Crompton of Bolton.
He was a textile worker, and a capable man. He felt the need of a
greater supply of warp yarn in his daily work. His invention in 1779
was a spinning frame which combined the good points of the machines
of both Hargreaves and Arkwright. From Hargreaves he took the upright
spindle frame, but placed it on the movable carriage. (In Hargreaves’
machine it had been attached to the back of the main framework.) From
Arkwright he took the idea of drawing rollers and placed them where
Hargreaves had his spindles. It is believed by many that Crompton
invented the drawing rollers for his machine, and that he had never
seen or heard of the Arkwright patent. Crompton placed the roving or
slubbing in a creel behind the spindles. He patented his machine,
calling it the mule spinning frame. It proved to be a wonderful
machine, and has been the basis for one of the most useful spinning
frames of the present day--the self-acting mule. Crompton was not
only an inventor himself, but he knew how to take advantage of the
inventions of others, and use them in his own way. In that era before
steam power was utilized, Crompton’s mule was of more use than either
Hargreaves’ spinning jenny or Arkwright’s water frame. Many other
inventors made important additions to these inventions. The use of
steam for power, and Whitney’s cotton gin, both of which came at the
end of the eighteenth century, gave a tremendous impetus to cotton
spinning, and the inventions of Roberts in 1830 gave the world the
modern self-acting mule, which was a triumph of skill and automatic
action.
The following dates mark important eras in the development of modern
textiles:--
1. Distaff and spindle, from the dawn of history to about the
fourteenth century.
2. Spinning wheels, from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century.
3. The great eras of invention: (a) Improvements in spinning and
weaving, (b) the use of power other than the hand, and (c) the modern
factory system.
The beginning of modern spinning, carding, and weaving came principally
from such men as the following:--
JOHN WYATT, Birmingham. First thread spun without fingers, and the
use of drawing rollers, 1738.
LEWIS PAUL. In connection with Wyatt, carding, revolving cylinder,
1748. (Claimed by Hargreaves.)
JOHN KAY. Fly shuttle, 1738; improved in 1750.
ROBERT KAY, the son of John. The drop box, 1760.
HARGREAVES. Spinning jenny; the spinning of a number of threads at
once, 1764-1767.
ARKWRIGHT. Water frame (upright), 1768; the principle of rollers;
doffer comb.
CROMPTON. Mule frame, combining Arkwright’s and Hargreaves’ ideas,
1779.
LEES or LEIGH. Apron feed, 1772.
CARTWRIGHT. Power loom, 1789. Application of steam to Arkwright’s
frame, 1790.
ELI T. WHITNEY. Cotton gin, 1794.
ROBERTS. Self-acting mule with quadrant, 1830.
=Modern Spinning Frames.=--The principles of modern power spinning
follow closely the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton.
These men in their effect on the development of our factory system
may be said to have been among the principal instruments in bringing
forward the industrial and social problems of the present day. One girl
now probably spins twelve hundred times as much in a day as was done
with the old wheel. The difference between the old and the new is not
in the principles employed, but in the mechanism which is used to take
the place of the hand, _i. e._, the belts, pulleys, levers, wheels,
gears, springs, chains, and cams, which automatically handle a thousand
spindles at once, where the hand controlled one. True spinning is in
reality the final process of twisting, but the term spinning is used to
cover all of the preparatory steps as well. Before the final spinning
the twisting is only sufficient to keep the attenuated fiber from
breaking apart. The final process before true spinning is called the
roving. The final spinning may be done by the mule (Crompton’s patent),
or by a ring spinning frame on the order of the upright spinning frame
(Arkwright). Both machines may be used for tightly or loosely twisted
yarns, but the mule is better adapted to the softer yarns, and the
upright frame to the closer twisted yarns. In the present day the true
spinning machines are preceded by others which are more or less similar
in method, but they only prepare for the final twist. The principle of
rollers is used for drawing and attenuating the fiber, and the twisting
is done not only by the flyer but by other methods. The modern mule
spinning, which has developed from Crompton’s mule, is more complicated
than ring spinning, which followed Arkwright’s upright frame.
=Mule Spinning--Intermittent Motion= (Figs. 25 and 26).--The essential
features are as follows: The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel in
the back of the machine. The roving is passed over bars through three
separate twin drawing rollers, which attenuate and prepare the fiber.
It is then carried between faller wires to spindles which are on a
carriage which moves on a track. As it moves forward to its full extent
the fiber is further attenuated while the spindle twists it. Probably
five feet are covered by the movement of the carriage, the yarn being
at the extreme end of the spindle for this purpose. When the carriage
reaches its limit, it is stopped, the yarn is backed off the top of the
spindle by the faller wires, one of which guides and the other holds
taut, and the yarn is wound up on the spindles as the carriage returns
to its place at the back of the mule. As a consequence the action is
intermittent, as in the great wheel (Fig. 20). The spindles are placed
at an angle of fifteen degrees, and each is provided with a wharve,
whorl, or pulley by which it is revolved, a band around it passing to
a driving cylinder. The mule is a complicated machine, and requires
skilled attention. Men are usually in attendance. The machine has
to be adapted to differences in fiber, as between wool, worsted, and
cotton. High counts of yarn may be spun on the mule.
=Ring Spinning--Continuous Motion.=--The principle of ring spinning
has largely taken the place of the flyer spinning as found in
Arkwright’s patent. Following the Arkwright spinning frame came a
series of inventions to improve the spindles. The upright frames look
much alike. The drawing rollers were satisfactory and are found about
the same, whether the flyer, ring, cap, or top principles are used
for the spindles. A throstle frame (still used for making roving)
followed Arkwright’s patent, and combined some features of Hargreaves’
jenny with Arkwright’s water twist, giving a new spindle, but it is
seldom seen now in true spinning. The flyer (Fig. 28) principle is
seen in the bobbin and fly frames, used to prepare the rove (slubber,
intermediate, and roving) in cotton spinning. The twist depends on the
relative speeds of the bobbin and flyer. The spindle has gradually been
made more free in its motion, and runs more loosely in its bearings,
which makes it steadier. Cap spinning (Fig. 29), used much in cotton
spinning, utilizes this idea, and gives the spindle as much freedom
as a spinning top, which running at full speed balances itself. Cap
spinning is used in spinning worsted yarns, the principle at base being
a stationary spindle with a stationary cap and a revolving bobbin. The
latter has a whorl on it, and a band connected with the driving shaft
makes it revolve. The yarn comes from the rollers above, the bobbin
moves up and down, and the end of the cap keeps the yarn evenly winding
on the bobbin.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.--FLYER.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
In ring spinning (Fig. 30) the yarn is twisted immediately on leaving
the rollers. In spinning frames there are usually two rails. In the
lower the spindles rest, and through the higher, called a bolster rail,
the tops of the spindles pass. In ring spinning there is a third rail.
This rail moves up and down the spindle, causing the yarn to wind
evenly. A series of rings (Fig. 31), each with a flange, are fixed on
the rail, and move with it. The front of each spindle goes through a
ring, but does not touch it. A traveler, which is a crooked piece of
fine wire, is sprung on the flange. It can move easily, but cannot come
off. The ends of the yarn come through the rollers and each passes
through a traveler and is fastened on a bobbin which is on the spindle.
The spindle and traveler revolve rapidly. The latter is held back
slightly by the yarn and consequently winds the yarn on the bobbin. A
traveler makes as many as 10,000 revolutions per minute. Separators
of metal are often used between the spindles to keep the threads from
interfering.
The fundamental principles of spinning remain the same, but much is
being done to increase the rapidity of the spindle and the automatic
action of the machinery. Stop-motions are being perfected and minor
faults remedied.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.--CAP SPINNING FRAME.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
[Illustration: FIG. 30.--RING SPINNING FRAME.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
=The Development of Industrial and Social Life.=--The childhood of
races passes into youth, but is often recalled in the emotional and
recreational life. Festivals, dramatic representations, folk tales,
dances, songs, and religious ceremonies are instituted. Events in the
former primitive life and the all-important industrial processes become
motives for these diversions. Spinning and weaving are popular subjects
for dramatizing. When the people began to live in permanent homes, life
was duller than it was in the nomadic time, on account of the round of
constantly recurring occupations. Interest was taken in cultivating
textile plants, such as flax and cotton. Sheep were raised in order
to provide wool for spinning. Private ownership and a sedentary life
increased the demand for household goods. Two classes of textile
industries began to be developed, the extractive and the productive.
The people gathered together in groups, moved by the impulse toward
sociability and the need for mutual help. New social and political
relations arose between them, which required the establishment of
forms of government. Slaves taken in the frequent wars were made to
perform domestic services, hence a new class of industrial worker was
available, who did not belong in the home and was considered inferior.
A feeling of caste was more apparent, and dress was used to indicate
varying conditions of life. The people built their own houses and
provided for their wants with occasional help from friends. The homes
became busy workrooms, and some of the articles, yarn or cloth which
were made, were sold or exchanged with neighbors for other goods. In
early times the exchange of a few commodities was the only business
relation. Industrial towns developed as trade centers, and additional
workers had to be employed in the home workrooms to increase the
output. The women were factors in this industrial change, for spinning,
weaving, and bleaching were still home occupations.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--DETAIL OF RING.]
Entire families soon began to devote themselves to special industries
in order to sell to others or to exchange, and many households became
economic centers. This era was in progress in Bible times. In Proverbs
31, the mother of King Lemuel speaks of the work of women in the
households as comprising both home use and sale:--
“She seeketh wool and flax and worketh willingly with her hands.”
“She perceiveth that her merchandise is good.”
“She layeth her hands to the spindle and her hands hold the distaff.”
“She is not afraid of the snow for her household, for all her
household are clothed in double garments.”
“She maketh fine linen and selleth it and delivereth fine girdles
unto the merchant.”
The employer and helpers worked together in the home factories, each
owning his own tools. Apprentices learned the whole process and were
therefore fair judges of the output as well as workers on it. Great
fairs occurred at intervals at which the industrial products of the
household were sold outright or exchanged for farm products. Trade
difficulties soon made a middleman necessary to collect the goods,
sell, and exchange. The demand for bedding, for blankets, heavy
serge curtains, flannels, household linens, and homespun materials
increased the number of textile workrooms where both men and women
worked together. Wherever industries were numerous, great towns began
to develop. It was customary for workers to gather around the home
of some influential man, giving their services in return for his
protection, but the downfall of the feudal system at the end of the
fifteenth century cast them adrift and they gathered in the towns,
increasing the number of those working in its commerce and industry.
Markets were opened for selling goods, and guilds for both the merchant
and the craftsman were organized to help standardize the work, to
better conditions, and to give reliable goods at honest prices. The
textile guilds became very influential and did much to organize trade
and to train the workers. However, the passing away of the guild system
in the seventeenth century deprived the workers of a central body which
was responsible for the coördination of capital and labor, and which
understood the relation of laborers to each other. There was not at
the time any clearly defined division between the capitalists and the
working classes, and much of the textile work was still done in the
home workroom.
America was colonized about the time of the decline of the guilds,
and its industrial life was characteristic of this era of home
workshops. The life of the colonists was on the farm. Each home was a
self-sufficient unit, and consequently a center of varied occupations.
The mother directed the work of her daughters and also paid for such
additional help as she could obtain from the neighborhood. The farm
occupations were numerous and were in the stage in which homemade
machinery and devices were used by the worker. The textile activities
in each colonial household were principally carried on by the women.
They consisted of carding of wool, breaking, hetcheling, and swingling
of flax; wool and flax spinning; winding, reeling, and warping; the
weaving of cloth, blankets, and rag carpets; the bleaching of cloth and
yarns; sewing; quilting; dress and garment making; embroidery and lace
making. The devices and machines used for this work were the cards,
hetchels (Fig. 32), flax brakes, the great or wool wheel, the flax
wheel, winders, reels (clock and hand), niddy noddy, quill winder,
swifts (Fig. 21), warping bars or warping drum, skarne, bobbin frame or
creel (Fig. 33), bobbins of many kinds, healds and shafts, the raddle,
and the loom. The fathers and sons assisted in the textile work by
growing and preparing the fibers and making the machinery and tools.
Some small factories run by water power were established in the late
eighteenth century.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.--FLAX HETCHEL.]
The half century from 1750 to 1800 was full of tremendous issues. The
inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and Cartwright brought
the modern factory system and with it a new industrial era. Horse
and water power were soon succeeded by steam. Capital became more
important than labor. At first the industries of spinning and weaving
were separate. Little mills began to spring up where water power was
good, but when steam power was used the two were often united under one
management to save expense. About the middle of the nineteenth century
so much capital was required to combine the two that they were again
separated, excepting in very large plants. The twentieth century is
seeing another change, for the inclination to unite many large plants
under one management to improve organization and save expense is
evident.
[Illustration: FIG. 33.--BOBBIN FRAME.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
Markets were extended, for steam power made transportation easier.
An impetus toward increasing the output came as a result of the
possibility of selling outside of the environment. Workers of both
sexes turned toward the textile industries, for the expense of power
and big machinery had driven the work out of the homes into especially
constructed and equipped buildings. The isolated worker could not
compete with the machine. A reorganization of society was needed to
meet the situation. Capital for the mills was provided by men of means,
who, unlike the heads of the domestic workrooms, were not of necessity
textile workers themselves. They controlled the situation but often
knew little of the condition of workers. Questions of the division of
profit between capital and labor began to cause irritation. Competition
arose between mills, and subdivision of industry followed as a
means of increasing the output through rapidity of work. The worker,
therefore, soon lost his individuality and likewise his interest in the
perfection of the product. The capitalist increased in wealth, but low
wages and poor living were prevalent among the lower class of workers.
A powerful mercantile class began to have voice in national affairs.
The economic situation became acute, but gradually from it there
developed a new social conscience in all classes, and laws were enacted
which aimed to improve working conditions, to limit working hours,
to regulate the work of women and children, to prevent industrial
accidents or to compensate for them, to improve housing conditions
and the sanitation of workrooms. Leagues and societies of workers and
employers are organized now, and are at work adjusting these conditions.
=The Industrial Revolution= is responsible for bringing about great
changes for women; for as their home workrooms were taken away and the
manufacture of textiles was conducted elsewhere, the women were no
longer important economic producers. With this change their knowledge
and ability to judge of the content and value of materials passed
also. Those who had to labor became part of huge subdivided activities
in the factories and knew only the small part on which they worked.
Those who remained at home were entirely removed from participation
in the making of cloth or even knowledge of the methods. The desire
for cheap yet pretentious fabrics and the cost and difficulties in
manufacturing reliable ones have brought into the market a large supply
of untrustworthy and often adulterated materials to satisfy the demand.
Complaint of these materials is usual, but few consumers realize how
large a part they have in the conditions to which they object.
A new era has come in the twentieth century, for women are having
increased influence in affairs outside as well as inside of their
homes. They are the main textile consumers, and their demand is a
potent factor in the output. Large production is the economic aim
of the day, and markets have extended all over the world. A trained
consumer is needed as never before, who will work with the many
agencies attempting to meet the problems arising and bring forth a
better industrial America.
[Illustration: FIG. 34.--AN ANCIENT WEAVE ROOM.]
CHAPTER III
WEAVING
=The Hand Loom.=--Primitive looms were in use for centuries, but
finally the European hand loom (Fig. 35) was developed on which the
modern power loom is based (Fig. 48). The principles underlying are
the same as in the primitive one (see Chap. I, _Primitive Looms_): (1)
making the shed by means of a harness; (2) throwing the filling yarn
through it by the shuttle; and (3) battening the threads into a solid
fabric. Continuous cloth was made, instead of the rug lengths of an
earlier period. Our colonial loom was like the European hand loom, and
the weaving was at first done in the homes. It is estimated that there
were in this country one hundred twenty-five or more years ago about
three and a half million spinning wheels, and a quarter of a million
hand looms. When the inventions leading to power spinning and weaving
made it more profitable to do the work in mills, a number of them were
started in the East, and also a few fulling mills were opened. Thus
began our textile industry of to-day. The hand loom was used until
about 1850.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--HAND LOOM.
From Watson’s _Textiles and Clothing_, by courtesy of The American
School of Home Economics.]
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--HEALDS.]
=The Parts of the Hand Loom= were as follows: (1) _For the management
of the warp_: The framework, _C_, usually of wood, and clumsily made,
contained a warp beam, _A_, on which the yarn was wound, and a web,
cloth, goods, or merchandise beam, _B_, for the finished cloth. These
two beams were held in slots at each end of the framework; the warp,
_W_, was stretched between them, passing through the harness, _H_, and
the reed on the way. Weights on the beams or rollers kept the warp
stretched. When the weaving was going on, and the weaver desired to
wind up the woven cloth, and at the same time to draw out some of the
warp, she could do so without leaving her seat by taking hold of a
lever, which on being raised released a paul from a ratchet wheel, and
loosened the warp beam. When she had drawn off sufficient warp, and
had wound up the cloth, she could fasten the paul on the ratchet, thus
holding the warp tight. The earliest looms did not have this device.
Inserted through the warp threads back of the harness were two smooth
sticks called shed sticks, _D_, which kept the crossing of the warp
intact. If a warp thread broke, it could be easily traced by means of
these sticks. They were the earliest form of heddle, but are still
in use as shed sticks on account of their value. (2) _Shedding_: The
harness of the hand loom resembled somewhat a collection of heddles of
the Zuñi principle (Figs. 6, 16, and 17). A series of healds or heddles
were made of cord, and suspended on two laths or sticks. The cords were
tied in various ways (Fig. 36), but in such a manner that there was
an opening in their centers called the mail eye, through which warp
threads could pass and be raised or depressed when a particular heald
shaft was in use. Threads not needed passed between some heddles to
be threaded through others. When a number of healds were on one lathe,
it was called a shaft, sheaf or leaf of healds (Fig. 16). The office
of each heald shaft was to affect certain threads by drawing them up
to form a shed when the pattern required it. The method of threading
these shafts, the number to be used and their succession, was indicated
by the draft. (See Chap. IV, _Design_, etc.) For plain weaving two or
more shafts were in use. When the yarn was coarse two were sufficient,
but when it was fine, four shafts or even eight prevented friction on
the threads. For pattern weaving three or more shafts were used. The
method of threading the healds and fastening the shafts to the treadles
_T_ controlled the warp threads, which could be drawn down as needed to
make the shed (Fig. 37). The shafts were suspended from the framework
over a roller, or tied to jacks which worked on a pulley, and therefore
could be moved up and down. The shed was made by drawing down the
various shafts as needed. (3) _Picking_: This was accomplished by means
of a shuttle which held a bobbin or quill with the filling thread. It
was boatlike in shape, and had an eye in one end through which the
thread from the bobbin came. As part of the warp was depressed the
shuttle was thrown through by one hand and caught by the other. A new
shed was made and the shuttle returned. A selvage was formed around
the last warp thread on either side (Fig. 12). Kay’s patent of the
picking stick and the fly shuttle, and his son’s patent of the drop
box, put a quicker means of working into the hands of the weavers.
(Chap. IV, _Transitions_, etc.) (4) _Battening_: The lathe, or sley,
_E_, was set into a framework suspended from above or fastened below.
It could be easily drawn forward by the hand, and pressed against the
finished cloth, making it solid and even. In order to drive home every
thread, a reed was set in the lathe. Reeds were made of a series of
wires of a varying degree of fineness, according to the coarseness or
the distance apart of the warp threads. One or two warp threads were
passed through each dent or division of the reed. The width of the
threads as they lay in the reed was the width of the finished cloth.
The lathe with its reed was the development of the hand-shaped comb
or the sword used in early times. A temple or tenterhook (Fig. 38)
held the cloth the desired width and kept the weaver from drawing the
threads inward as she worked.
[Illustration: FIG. 37.--DETAIL OF HARNESS, SHOWING ONE HEALD SHAFT
RAISED, THUS FORMING SHED.
_A, A′_, Heald shaft. _B_, Warp threads. _C_, Shed.]
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--TEMPLE OR TENTERHOOK.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
=The Working of the Loom.=--If a plain design is to be woven, every
other warp thread must be up while the alternate threads are down.
Consequently if two shafts are used there will be one treadle tied to
each; but if four or eight shafts are used for plain weaving, two or
four will be fastened to one treadle and two or four to the other. The
usual way in hand loom weaving with four shafts is to fasten the first
and third shaft to one treadle, and the second and fourth to the other.
The healds are threaded in such a way that the odd numbers, such as 1,
3, 5, 7, 9, etc., will be in the first and third shafts, and the even
numbers in the second and fourth. It is more common in power weaving to
have the first and second shaft act together, and the third and fourth.
The drawing-in or threading the warp threads through the harness is
done from the back toward the cloth beam. After the harness is threaded
the warp yarn is put through the wires of the reed in succession and
is fastened in perfect order to the cloth beam. The weaver depresses
one treadle with the threads attached to it, which leaves the alternate
one up. For elaborate patterns there are a number of treadles to which
shafts of the harness are fastened, and it takes some skill to depress
the correct ones and to do rapid work. The shuttle is thrown through
the shed and the filling is left in it (Fig. 39). The worker draws
forth the swinging lathe or batten with its reed, through the dents
of which are the warp threads, and drives the filling home. She then
pushes back the lathe and is now ready for the alternate shed. She
removes her foot from the first treadle and depresses the next one,
proceeding as before. If a thread breaks, as frequently happens, she
stops to find it. The shed sticks are of use to her in tracing it, for
it frequently snaps and springs back all the way to the warp beam. She
must, therefore, after she has found her thread, tie a new piece of
yarn to it with the weaver’s knot, bring it under and over the shed
sticks, through the correct eye of the heald, and up to the cloth,
where she holds it in place until she has woven a few lines. After it
is well woven in, the end can be cut off. If the filling gives out, or
a new color is to be used, she opens the shed which contains the end of
the last thread, lays the new thread an inch over the old, battens the
new into place, and continues weaving as before.
[Illustration: FIG. 39.--THROWING THE SHUTTLE THROUGH THE SHED.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
=Winding, Warping, Beaming, and Drawing In.=--Weaving is a
comparatively simple matter, but threading the loom is tedious. Even
in the power loom the work is done by hand. A warp is formed of as
many threads or ends as are needed in the width of the cloth. Each
thread must be the same length and wound smoothly on the warp beam.
An important part of successful weaving is the preparation of the
warp (Fig. 40), placing it on the warp beam, sizing the yarn, placing
the beam in the loom, and the threading of the yarn into the harness,
or the drawing in. This was done by hand at first, but power now
accomplishes the same result by an elaboration of parts which take the
place of the hand. The accepted steps taken in setting up the loom
are given below. (Craft workers are still using the hand loom to make
original and exclusive fabrics, but some short cuts in the process of
warping have been made which are described later.)
1. The bobbins of spun yarn are taken from the spinning wheel.
2. The yarn is wound from the bobbins on a reel, thus making a skein
of definite length. The clock reel (Fig. 21) is still used, the click
indicating the time when the skein should be tied or removed.
3. The skein is put on a swift (Fig. 21) and the yarn is run off on
bobbins. If the threads are already on bobbins the first three steps
are omitted.
[Illustration: FIG. 40.--HAND AND SECTIONAL WARPING. THE ATTENDANT IS
REMOVING A WARP IN CHAIN FORM FROM THE DRUM.
Courtesy of The York Street Flax Spinning Co., Belfast.]
4. Bobbins to the number required to provide threads for the warp are
put on a creel, scarne, or bobbin frame (Fig. 33). When many threads
are needed the warp must be made in sections.
5. The creel with its bobbins is put in front of the warping bars or
the reel (drum) (Figs. 40 and 41). The yarn is drawn from the bobbins
to make the warp, a lease being carefully kept at one end of the warp.
6. The warp is taken from the bars or from the drum in (1) a chain
form (Fig. 42), (2) on a niddy noddy (see Fig. 21), or (3) on a
stick, the lease always being carefully preserved.
[Illustration: FIG. 41.--WARPING BARS.]
7. The chain is taken to the loom, from which the harness has been
removed. A special frame holding the warp beam is sometimes used. Two
people are required to do the work. One lets out the chain from the
end taken last from the bars or drum, standing meanwhile by the cloth
beam, and the other rolls up the warp on the warp beam as the chain
is let out. If the warp is in several chains each one should be wound
on in its own place.
8. Cords are put through the lease of sufficient length to stretch
the warp to the purposed width of the cloth. Careful watch is kept
for broken threads or for threads out of place.
[Illustration: FIG. 42.--TAKING OFF THE WARP.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
9. Beaming. The threads must now be attached to the warp beam. They
are usually tied in groups and slipped over a thin, flat stick which
is attached to a piece of cloth fastened to the warp beam. Holes have
been punched at intervals in the cloth, and strings through these
holes are tied to the stick. The warp threads or ends are stretched
the required width on the stick.
10. The warp threads are distributed evenly on a raddle (Fig. 43) to
a couple of inches wider than the cloth will be. The raddle is placed
near the warp beam, that the ends of warp may pass through it and
wind smoothly on the beam. The raddle has a removable top.
11. The warp beam is slowly revolved by one worker and the chain is
let out by the other, who stands on the other side of the raddle. The
threads pass through the raddle and the lease and are wound up evenly
on the beam until the end of the warp is reached. A coarse brush is
often used to lay the threads parallel.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.--RADDLE.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
12. Two sticks are placed through the lease in place of the cords.
They are tied together at each end to keep the threads from slipping
off. The raddle is removed, the threads of the warp are tied in
bunches of ten or twenty on the harness side of the lease. It is
extremely important that the threads shall go through the harness in
the exact order that they come from the lease.
13. The ends of warp are now threaded carefully through the eyes in
the healds of the harness. The order in which this shall be done
depends upon the particular pattern required, and is indicated by a
draft. (See Design and Draft, Chap. IV.)
14. When the threading of the harness is complete, the warp threads
are taken one by one through the correct dents in the reed (Fig. 44).
15. The warp threads are passed over the breast beam and fastened
evenly to the cloth beam in the same way as on the warp beam.
[Illustration: FIG. 44.--REED.]
In general, when a warp comes to an end in a loom the threads are
not pulled through the harness, but are left hanging in small groups
and are tied together so that they cannot slip through. When that
arrangement of harness is needed again, the new warp threads are tied
to the old by a flat or weaver’s knot, or twisted one by one to each
of the former threads. This method saves much time. A good worker can
twist in seven thousand new threads in a day. Machinery which does
this work as well and more rapidly is on the market. It is expensive
and not found in the smaller mills. Hand threaders are generally
employed. Two workers are usually found sitting on either side of
the harness. One pushes the warp thread through the mail eye with a
little metal device, and the other receives it. Single warp threads
are sized before weaving and after they are on the beam, to give
them strength to bear the strain. Filling threads are not sized. For
numerous details of warping and drawing in, see _Hand-loom Weaving_,
by Luther Hooper.
Several processes mentioned in the above outline are given in greater
detail below.
The creel (see Fig. 33) is an upright frame with a number of wire rods
across it on which bobbins filled with yarn may be slipped. Threads are
drawn from all the bobbins at once. The creels used by hand workers are
of various sizes, carrying from ten to eighty bobbins. Those used for
power warping frequently hold many hundreds. In hand warping the creel
filled with its bobbins is placed beside the warping bars or drum, that
the threads may be drawn from it for the warp. (See big reel in Fig.
40.)
=Warping.=--The purpose of warping is to lay in parallel order the
required number of threads for the width of the cloth. These threads
must be the length of the finished cloth. The method used is to draw
a small number of threads to the required length and repeat until
the full number for the width is secured. If a drum three yards in
circumference is used and ten threads from the creel are carried ten
times around it, the result will be ten threads thirty yards long. By
reversing the movement of the drum and carrying other ten threads back,
there will be twenty threads thirty yards long. The same work may be
accomplished by a series of pegs, called warping bars (Fig. 41), set at
a distance of three yards apart, on which the yarn is carried back and
forth.
Making the lease is an important part of warping, for thereby the
threads can be kept in perfect order, or if they become tangled can be
set right again. Three pegs are placed on the warping bars or on the
drum for the purpose. The threads are drawn from the creel, the ends
knotted together and placed over the first peg on the drum, the two
remaining pegs being used for the lease. The warper begins by grasping
the threads coming from the lowest row in the creel in the palm of
her hand, twists her hand as she takes the second row, so that these
threads pass over its back, and continues this alternation through the
succeeding rows. She now has the lease in her hand and places it on the
pegs, noting the order of placing. She revolves the drum, letting the
threads from the creel lie on its surface, until she has drawn out the
length of the warp. At this point there are two pegs, around which the
threads are wound under and over (but not in a lease), before bringing
them back over the same track. She ties the bunch of threads together
that she may later count them more rapidly. By reversing the drum she
brings the threads back to the lease pegs. She must now make the lease
again, remembering that she is reversing the manner of making it, but
preserving the first plan. If the manner of placing has been such
that the threads on the palm are on the second peg and those on the
back of the hand on the third, on the return the reverse order brings
the threads on the back to the third peg and those on the palm to the
second. When the warp is complete and ready for removal two cords are
inserted in the lease to keep the alternation perfect, and a cord is
tied over all the groups of threads at the end. The first peg, to
which the threads from the creel were tied, is removed, which loosens
the warp, and it is taken off by looping it into a chain or taking it
around a stick or niddy noddy (Fig. 42).
An easier method of warping for the hand loom is in use among hand
workers when the design is simple, the yarn not too fine, and the
length and width of the cloth is not great. The warp is made in a chain
or in a series of chains as described above (Winding, Beaming, etc.),
but no lease is placed in the threads. The warp is entered from the
front of the loom (where the cloth beam is) and goes first through the
reed and then through the harness (Fig. 45). Whenever possible the ends
of the former piece of cloth are left through the harness and reed and
tied in bunches to await the new warp. The part of the chain that has
come last from the bars or drum is brought to the ends of warp hanging
through the reed. The chain is let out enough to tie each thread to one
which hangs through the reed. When the width is tied, the old threads
are drawn through reed and harness, and the chain gradually let out. A
brush is often needed to keep the threads separate as they pass through
the reed and harness. Every broken thread must be repaired carefully.
The warp must pass straight through reed and harness. A cloth with
a series of eyes across the width is fastened to the warp beam. To
these eyes the warp threads are tied in small bunches, beginning in
the middle and then finishing both sides. The width of the threads on
the beam should be the purposed width of the cloth. The warp beam is
now revolved, that the threads may be wound on it. There must be an
even tension on them. As the beam revolves four sticks in succession
are laid on the threads that the winding may be more even. There must
be no piling of the threads on each other. The winding continues until
the chain is all let out and a short length of yarn is left through
each dent of the reed. These threads are tied in groups on the cloth
beam side of the reed and are gradually fastened in succession to the
eyes in the apron of the cloth beam. The center threads are tied first
and then both ends. The threads must be taut and evenly held. If this
is not the case the slack in the loose threads must be taken up. A
well-stretched and even warp helps to make a good cloth. Careless work
in drawing in and stretching the warp will cause continual trouble in
the weaving.
[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SHOWING ENTERING OF WARP.
_A_, Warp Beam.
_B_, Harness.
_C_, Reed.
_D_, Tie of new threads to old which have been left through reed.
_E_, Cloth beam.]
When the ends of old threads have not been left in the harness the
new warp must be, thread by thread, passed through the mail eyes of
the harness, and through the reed. (The method of threading will be
indicated by the draft.) It is well to put on first a warp of only a
yard in length for it is easier to manipulate. The longer warp can be
tied to this. The tie used is a weaver’s or flat knot. No shed sticks
are required in these short warps, for a broken thread can be detected
from a vacant dent in the reed or a mail eye without a thread. In very
fine yarn, defects cannot be seen so readily. The careful keeping of
the lease is also unnecessary unless very elaborate patterns are made.
Much time is therefore saved in the preparation of the warp. Yarns are
generally bought on the spool and can be placed immediately on the
creel to be drawn off for the warp. It is even possible to take the
threads directly from the creel to the warp beam through the reed and
harness, when a narrow piece of cloth with coarse threads and not too
great a length is to be woven. The creel is put in front of the loom,
twenty threads or more are drawn off at a time, run through reed and
harness and fastened to the warp beam.
=Taking Off the Finished Cloth.=--The warp threads are cut a few at a
time far enough from the finished cloth to prevent raveling, and from
the harness so that they will not pull through. They are then tied with
a flat knot in small bunches, to keep them from slipping through the
mail eyes of the harness. The paul is released from the ratchet and the
cloth beam is taken out and the cloth unrolled.
=Tapestry Looms.=--The modern tapestry looms are found in horizontal
or vertical form, the latter looking much like the vertical looms of
antiquity. The warp is stretched tightly in the frame, and the pattern
is put in by the fingers. The filling is inserted as a plain weave,
but the use of color forms the pattern. Many colors often are used for
the filling, and are usually put in by a sort of needle or bobbin. Two
heald shafts are generally used, so that the alternate threads can be
raised together and simplify the weaving, not only when the filling is
to be thrown all the way across the warp, but also when only a small
section is needed. The vertical loom was quite usual in Europe until
about 1400, when a horizontal loom took its place. France developed
tapestry weaving in the time of Francis I, especially in the city of
Arras, the weaving being called Arras work. Raphael and his students
were designers for these tapestries. The Flemish tapestry weavers were
considered the finest. Ghent formerly had seven streets devoted to this
class of weaving. Although the industry has declined, tapestries are
still woven. Some of the noted modern studios are the Gobelin atelier
in Paris; the weaving sheds at Merton Abbey in England, where William
Morris revived tapestry weaving (the discontinuance of this work is
under discussion); and the studios of Albert Herter in America, where
French Aubusson weavers are employed, the work being done on horizontal
looms.
CHAPTER IV
POWER WEAVING AND DESIGN
=The Transition to Power Weaving.=--During the early Middle Ages an
increased demand arose in Europe for rich and elaborate materials. It
was difficult to weave these on the plain hand loom. The Crusaders
are given the credit of introducing the Draw Loom into Europe from
Damascus, the term damask, used for elaborately designed linen, being
taken from this city. The hand loom was naturally limited in the number
of heald shafts and treadles which one worker could control. The draw
loom allowed a wide scope in patterns. The shed was controlled by a
series of cords attached to the heald shafts, which were pulled down in
succession by an attendant called the “draw boy.” The weaver gave his
attention to the weaving. Later an automatic attachment providing for
mechanical shedding was invented, which took the place of the boy. A
similar loom without the automatic attachment is still used in the East.
[Illustration: FIG. 46.--FLY SHUTTLE.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
In 1678 a loom was invented by M. de Genres of France, which embodied
many modern principles, but little was heard of it. In 1745 another
Frenchman, M. Vaucanson, brought forward his loom, which had the
principle of shedding later used by Jacquard. It also had an embryo
friction roller and a take-up motion, which are now found on the
modern power loom. The invention of automatic spinning in England
gave an impetus to weaving in that country. In 1733 John Kay invented
the fly shuttle (Fig. 46) which increased the power of the weaver
many times. He placed a shuttle race on the lathe, with a box at each
end to receive the shuttle which the hands of the weaver had caught
heretofore. Each shuttle box had a picker stick or driver connected
with it, which when moved threw the shuttle across the race and
through the shed. The motive power for the picker stick was a cord
extending from one driver in a shuttle box to the other, and a peg in
the center of the cord was held by the weaver. If he wished the shuttle
to fly from either side, he drew the handle sharply to the opposite
side, which caused the driver to give a sharp blow to the shuttle. The
hand looms before Kay made twenty picks per minute, but the fly shuttle
increased this to forty picks, and further improvements made possible
sixty picks per minute. The early power loom brought the record up to
a hundred picks per minute with one man in attendance. To-day one man
can attend to from four to six looms, which according to the kind of
materials woven will make generally from two hundred to two hundred
sixty picks per minute, and have even made four hundred. On plain goods
at the present time, one weaver has watched as many as two dozen looms.
[Illustration: FIG. 47.--LOOM WITH DROP BOX AND DOBBY ATTACHMENT.
Courtesy of Crompton and Knowles Loom Works.]
In the middle of the eighteenth century it was still necessary to
stop the hand loom every time a new color was needed in the filling,
in order to place a bobbin or quill with this color in the shuttle.
This difficulty was met in 1760 by Robert Kay, the son of John Kay, by
his drop box. (Fig. 47. Left hand side on level with cloth.) Several
shuttle boxes were placed at one or at both ends of the lathe in place
of one at each end. The shuttles held bobbins of different colors, and
the boxes fell into place automatically. These two inventions of the
Kays were of great importance in the history of weaving. They made more
cloth possible, but the spinning wheels of the day could not provide
enough warp. The inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton,
however, made increasing quantities of yarn possible, and more
effective weaving was soon needed. (Chap. II, _Spinning Machines_.) In
1775 a power loom was invented which had much merit, but unfortunately
was not pushed. It was 1785 before Dr. Cartwright, of England, a
clergyman of the Established Church, who had mechanical genius, brought
out a heavy automatic loom. It was later improved and became the
basis for the power looms of to-day. It required mechanical power to
move it, the hand not being strong enough.
=The Power Loom= (Fig. 48).--The hand looms passed away slowly before
the power looms. In 1830 Roberts invented his power loom which had a
majority of the parts of the modern loom, and therefore required little
attention. The hand weaver spent much of his time letting out the
warp, winding up the cloth, moving the temple or tenterhook, changing
bobbins in the shuttle, and mending broken threads. The modern power
loom is a time saver, for everything is automatic. The harness, the
pacing, or the let-off and take-up motions of warp and cloth, the
self-acting temple, the fly shuttles and drop boxes move smoothly
without attention. A detector in connection acts when the bobbin in
a shuttle is empty, and causes the magazine to pass a new bobbin to
the waiting shuttle, which can then finish its path. The empty bobbin
falls into a receptacle below. A loose reed invented in 1841 (a fast
reed had been used previously and is still in use) is so placed on a
movable retaining board on the lathe that it can be pushed out when
there is sufficient warp obstruction, thus stopping the loom and
preventing further damage. When a shuttle leaves its race and plunges
into the warp, technically called a smash, much harm will be done, if
the loom continues running. The electrical “stop-motion” prevents this.
It consists of wires which drop between the warp threads. If a thread
breaks, the wire falls and completes an electric circuit which stops
the loom. The filling stop is a weft fork which drops as the thread
breaks.
It is easier to understand the power loom of to-day, if the principles
underlying warp preparation, entering and weaving, and the simple
parts of the regular hand loom of colonial days are understood. The
power loom differs only in the multiplicity of parts necessary to take
the place of the human hand. Warping, beaming and sizing are the
same in principle as in the hand loom, but are done more rapidly by
power machinery. (See Chap. II, _Winding_, _Warping_, etc.) Huge drums
or reels which wind the entire warp at one time, and also sectional
warpers are used (Fig. 40). The yarn is prepared for warping on a
spooling frame and the bobbins or spools are placed on the creel.
The threads are drawn through a reed and a lease is made in them
automatically, a measurer indicates the length of threads passed
through, and a distributor winds the threads evenly on the beam.
The peculiarities inherent in the different fibers make a slightly
different handling necessary for each.
The warping of silk has difficulties, as the fiber is very fine. The
warp is in sections, yet there may be several hundred ends in each
section. The creels hold perhaps 300 bobbins. They slant toward the
warping machines which may have the ends of a previous warp hanging
through a reed to which the new warp is to be tied, pulled through a
lease as it passes along, and fastened to a drum. The warp is cleaned
as it goes through. The lease or crossing is most important in silk,
for threads break frequently and could not be placed in the correct
order were it not for the lease. The ends are fastened to the drum, the
lease rods inserted, and the drum revolved slowly that each section may
be evenly placed. The operator uses a brush to keep the threads from
overlapping and sticking together.
The drawing in or entering are still done by hand. The harness may
have either cotton or steel healds. Two workers are required if a new
pattern is to be threaded through the mail eye. The way of threading
is determined by the pattern. The operator sits on one side of the
suspended harness and the assistant on the other. The operator pushes
a reed hook through the correct heald eye and the assistant lays the
correct warp thread on it. It is then drawn through by the operator.
Very fine warps are sometimes entered double. The number of shafts in
the harness depends on the pattern. For instance, a five leaf satin
will require five shafts. The threads of warp must also be entered
through the reed on the batten or lath. The process is simpler when the
ends of the old threads have been left through the reed to which the
new warp can be twisted. An ingenious machine twists or ties the new
threads. (See Chap. III, _Winding_, etc.)
[Illustration: FIG. 48.--POWER LOOM.
Courtesy of The Draper Company.]
=Parts of the Plain Power Loom.=--(1) _The Framework_, _A_, usually
of cast iron, which holds the working parts. (2) _The Warp and its
Manipulation._ The warp (ends) is wound on a beam, _B_, placed at the
back of the loom. (The figure does not show the beam; the letter _B_
indicates that it is below.) It passes over the whip roll, _C_ (not
shown in the figure), through lease rods or shed sticks to the harness,
_D_, through the reed, _F_, which is in the lathe or sley, _E_, and
over a breast beam, _G_ (the place is indicated), to the cloth or
goods beam, _H_. A temple, _K_, holds the width of the cloth near the
last threads woven. An automatic letting out and taking up motion,
_M_, gradually winds up the cloth on its beam as it is woven, and
proportionately lets out the warp. The action is regulated through a
cogged wheel set to the number of picks per inch in the cloth. In case
of breakage the warp stop motion stops the loom. (3) _The Shedding._
This is effected by the motion of the harness, _D_, which is composed
of as many shafts or leaves of healds as the pattern demands (Chap.
III). If a drawer-in has made an error and placed a wrong thread
through any mail eye of the heald, it is sometimes rectified by
removing the thread from the eye, taking a new bobbin, threading the
heald with a thread from it, and carrying this thread through to the
cloth beam. The bobbin is put on a spindle at the back of the loom to
unwind with the warp threads. There are two methods of shedding, the
closed and the open, based on different ways of separating the warp
threads. (4) _The Picking._ By means of the picker stick, _L_, on each
side, the shuttles, carrying filling bobbins, are thrown across the
race on the lathe, _E_, when a shed is made, entering the shuttle boxes
first on one side and then on the other. A stop motion is connected in
case the filling breaks. Single or drop boxes or a magazine, _I_, are
used to hold the shuttles. (5) _The Battening._ This is effected by the
reed, _F_, combined with the weight of the lathe, _E_. The reed may
be fast or loose in the lathe. (6) _The Temple_, _K_, holds the cloth
firmly at either selvage. As threads are often strained by the temple,
it is customary to have a close weaving near the selvage, or twisted
or stronger threads are used in the warp at each side. Mistakes made
in weaving because of broken warp threads sometimes do not show until
the finishing, and are then hard to repair; therefore in some kinds
of cloth weavers will raise the shafts of the harness several times a
day to be sure each mail eye is filled with its thread of warp. Warp
threads are frequently sized beforehand to make them smooth and strong
for the strain of weaving. The jar on the warp is often so great in
stopping the loom that a spring has been put on the framework to lessen
the shock.
=The Driving Parts of the Plain Loom.=--Methods of actuating the
loom differ somewhat in the various makes, but the following is
representative of the direct loom control by the main shaft: The main
or crank shaft, 1, extends a little beyond the framework, _A_. It is
driven by a pulley, and is connected by wheels with the lower shaft;
consequently the motion of the former is communicated to the latter
or is reciprocal. The main shaft is cranked, and has connecting rods
which give motion to the lathe, _E_, which oscillates on sley swords.
The number of movements of the lathe is governed by a wheel which is
set for the number of picks per inch in the cloth. The taking-up or
pacing motion of the warp and cloth beams is connected with the motion
of the lathe, and causes the cloth roller to move forward with each
oscillation. The taking-up roller is a friction roller which moving
against the cloth beam winds up the cloth. The other parts of the loom
are moved by the lower or tappet shaft, 2. The transfer of power from
this shaft to the other working parts is by a tappet wheel or by cams.
By means of this lower shaft, the harness, _D_, which forms the shed,
is depressed as needed by a tappet or by cams acting on the treadles.
The picking motion is also controlled from this lower shaft through the
arms of rocker shafts hitting the picking sticks alternately and thus
throwing the shuttle back and forth through the warp each time the shed
is made.
The loom is sometimes controlled through the lower shaft or by indirect
motion. Many consider this gives a more uniform action of the parts.
Whatever method is pursued, the important thing is the careful timing
of each motion, so that one will succeed another without interruption,
injury to the cloth, or too constant attention of the weaver or the
loom fixer.
Looms vary somewhat according to the materials woven upon them.
The terms “ribbon looms,” “gingham looms,” “worsted looms,” “plush
looms,” “double cloth looms,” and “carpet looms” are illustrations of
adaptations to needs. The fineness of cloth is expressed by the number
of picks and ends per inch with any count of yarn; thus in cotton 32
ends and 26 picks is coarse and 80 picks and 92 ends is very fine.
The modern power loom has become an almost perfect machine, the modern
weave room a bewildering, throbbing mass of machinery (See Fig. 106).
The inventions of the present are toward greater speed in order to turn
out more goods, automatic action, special devices, prevention of slack
threads in the warp or bunches in the cloth from almost spent filling,
skips or unevenness in the weaving, lessening floor space, lowering
cost of upkeep, and price of product. Illustrations of some of these
are devices to take the place of the drawer-in, electro-magnetic power
applied to the loom, a shuttleless loom on the order of the Jacquard to
do away with the elaborate making of cards, the storage room required,
and to increase speed in operation.
=The Jacquard Loom= (Fig. 49).--Harness looms are limited in pattern,
but the Jacquard loom allows four hundred or more changes--practically
an unlimited variety. The cost of working on the Jacquard is greater
than on the plain loom. A twill containing sixteen changes (16-end) can
be made on either the Jacquard or the harness loom, but the expense
would be less on the latter.
The Jacquard was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, a straw hat
manufacturer of Lyons, France, in response to a demand for a method of
weaving more elaborate designs in silk and linen materials. His ideas
were undoubtedly drawn from the Vaucanson model. The loom which at
present is known by the name of Jacquard has many improvements over
the original. The invention consists of a new method of shedding (Fig.
50), influenced from above the harness, whereas the harness loom is
worked from below. It may be said in a general way that the principle
of making the shed in the Jacquard loom is the raising of the harness
cords (healds), _A_, by means of wire hooks, _B_, to which each cord
is attached at its upper end. Each harness cord has a mail eye, _C_,
through which a warp thread passes; consequently if the cord is drawn
up, the warp thread rises also. Weights or lingoes, _D_, are attached
to each cord at its lower end, which draw the cords back into place
after the hooks have raised them. The warp threads are stretched
between beams, as in the plain loom. In the Jacquard harness each warp
thread is influenced singly, including the repeats of any one. In the
simple loom the warp threads are controlled in the groups on any one
shaft.
[Illustration: FIG. 49.--JACQUARD LOOM.
Courtesy of Crompton and Knowles Loom Works.]
[Illustration: FIG. 50.--DETAIL OF JACQUARD LOOM.
_A_, Neck cords. _B_, Hooks. _C_, Mail eye. _D_, Weights or lingoes.
_E_, Griffe or hook lifter. _F_, Needles. _G_, Spring box. _H_, Needle
eye. _I_, Cylinder. _K_, Catch of needles. _L_, Hook rest. _M_,
Additional harness cords. _N_, Couplings joining upper and lower parts
of harness. _O_, Knots holding heald lingoes to cords. _P_, Comber
board.]
There are single and double lift Jacquard machines. The principal
parts of the single lift Jacquard harness are the harness cords, _A_,
the hooks, _B_, the mail eyes, _C_, the lingoes, _D_, and the beams
(these have been mentioned already); the griffe or hook lifter, _E_,
consisting of a series of blades, knives, or bars, which lift
the sheds as do the tappets or cams of the plain loom; the needles,
_F_, which work horizontally, and have one end bent back to come in
contact with the spring in the spring box, _G_, and an eye in each
needle, _H_ (the double lift machine has two eyes in the needle),
to allow the hooks to pass through. The duty of the needles and
cylinder, _I_, is to press forward against cards, which indicate the
pattern and are against the batten. The needles govern the hooks,
_B_, which pass through their eyes. The hooks work vertically and
are made with a catch, _K_, at one end, which goes over the griffe
but can be easily detached. They rise automatically with the griffe
unless the needles are pushed back by the cards, which will throw the
hooks from the griffe, thus lowering the warp threads and making a
shed. The cylinder (Fig. 51) has four sides, and cards pass over it,
coming in place alternately and indicating the pattern by pressing
back those needles which are not required to raise the shed. The
cylinder makes one quarter of a revolution with each pick of the
pattern, thus placing one of its four sides in contact with the
needles. The complete design is on the cards (Fig. 52), and each
one represents one pick of the pattern. The cards are laced or tied
together in perfect order at each end and in the center (Fig. 53).
When the pattern is completed the succession of cards begins again.
The cards fall in place at the right moment against the cylinder.
If there are holes in the card, they come directly opposite those in
the cylinder. All the needles advance automatically, and some of them
pass through the holes in the card. Those that do not pass into holes
are thrown back and the hooks attached to them are thrown from the
griffe, thus lowering the shed.
[Illustration: FIG. 51.--CYLINDER OF JACQUARD LOOM.
_A_, Cylinder. _B_, Cross section with cards.]
[Illustration: FIG. 52.--CARD OF JACQUARD LOOM.]
Figure 50 shows only a part of the threads of the harness. For the
complete loom see Figure 49. The neck cords, _A_, are attached to
additional harness cords, _M_, which give repeats to the pattern if
any one of the neck cords is raised. At _N_ are a series of knots or
couplings, which connect the upper and lower portions of the harness,
and at _O_ are the knots which hold the heald lingoes to the cords.
The comber board, _P_, keeps the harness cords from tangling, for
each cord is passed through a hole in the board up to the neck cords.
The number of cords in the comber is regulated by the threads per
inch in the warp. The comber is divided into as many sections as
there are hooks in the machine. An iron frame incloses the working
part of the Jacquard loom. The power is applied as in the plain loom.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--LACING OF CARDS (JACQUARD LOOM).]
There are many varieties of Jacquard looms, from the small one hundred
needle to the two or more thousand needle machine. While they vary
in some particulars, there is a general standard. The double lift
machine generally has eight hundred hooks, two to each thread, and
also two griffes. Two patterns can be made at one time upon it, one for
background and one for figure, as in damask table linen. The expense
of the Jacquard lies in the making of the cards, the setting up of
the harness, and the slow motion of the loom. To set up the entire
harness for a new and elaborate design would take a skilled man several
weeks; an exceptionally elaborate design of twenty thousand cards would
be almost prohibitive in the time and cost of skilled labor, but it
occurs at intervals for special ceremonies. Old damask designs are used
repeatedly in linen manufacturing countries to save expense of setting
up.
Some knit goods and lace curtains are woven on special Jacquard looms
in which there are three lines of threads, a warp beam holding those
which run straight, bobbins holding the zigzag threads, and the pattern
is made by threads coming from spools. In the ordinary Nottingham
curtain as many as seventy-two hundred threads are often in the harness
of the Jacquard. The lace curtain looms are very wide. (Chaps. V and X,
_Machine Lace_.) Carpets, such as Brussels, Wilton, and Axminster, are
woven on specially adapted Jacquard looms.
The making of the cards requires special machines, one for cutting and
another for duplicating. Each design is made first on squared paper
in the usual way. The cards are first printed with a series of dots
upon them. Each card is to represent one pick of a pattern, therefore
holes are punched through the dots when the pattern is to appear on
the surface. The worker has the design before him and reads a line
across, punching the cards as he reads. His machine is similar to the
typewriter. The cards are carefully numbered as they are punched, and
are later laced together and hung over the cylinder of the Jacquard.
(See _Design and Draft_, below.)
=Various Attachments.=--The expense in Jacquard weaving led to further
inventions by which the effect could be attained without the cards
and elaborate harness. An English invention, the _dobby_ attachment,
which is placed on the harness loom, is an illustration (Fig. 47. Dobby
in upper left-hand corner). The result of its work is similar to the
Jacquard, but the shedding is effected by a chain of narrow strips of
wood (lags) into which pegs are placed which indicate the pattern and
take the place of the cards. Each lag represents a pick of the pattern.
On reading the design for the pattern a peg is inserted when the
pattern is to be on the surface. In the loom the work of the pegs is to
raise the harness. They travel around the cylinder and come in contact
with the levers which lift connected hooks, and the latter raise the
shafts attached to the hooks and make the shed. A second chain controls
the shuttle. Multiplier chains duplicate the pattern and save time
which would otherwise be taken in preparing the lags. The modern dobby
offers almost unlimited possibilities.
Another method of weaving intricate patterns without the use of the
Jacquard harness is by the _head motion_ attached to the harness loom
(Fig. 54 showing detail). This is an American invention and is used
extensively in the United States. The heald shafts in the loom are
elevated or depressed by pulleys, but the series of mechanical devices
which actuate the pulleys is quite different from the English dobby
system. It is claimed that the head motion is simpler and more steady
than the dobby. The pattern chain consists of high and low links,
which control the elevation and depression of the shafts. The chain
is made of a series of rods on which bowls or small pulleys (lifters
or risers), and tubes called sinkers, are arranged according to the
requirements of the design. The chain lifts the shafts by means of the
bowls or risers which come in contact with vibrators, and they again
with the lifting cylinder connected with the heald shafts. A second
chain is used to control the shuttle. A reversing motion is connected
which is of great value when mistakes in weaving have been made.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--HEAD MOTION.
Courtesy of Crompton and Knowles Loom Works.]
Patterns may be woven on the surface of cloth to resemble hand
embroidery, with an attachment to the regular loom called the _lappet_.
It affects the shedding, and is used extensively for decorative cotton
goods and madras curtains. The work is used on both plain and gauze
weaving, and may be continuous or intermittent. The floating threads
left on the wrong side of the cloth by the lappet frame are shorn off
later by a finishing machine especially adapted to the purpose.
[Illustration: FIG. 55.--LENO WEAVE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 56.--CLOTH ILLUSTRATING GAUZE.]
The _swivel_ is somewhat similar to the lappet. It is used extensively
in weaving silk ribbons and broad silk materials. The attachment
affects the picking motion and produces small continuous or
intermittent figures without extending the thread from one side of the
material to the other. It thus prevents the waste of valuable silk by
using it only when necessary. The cards of the Jacquard machine can
control the swivel patterns. The attachments are expensive and the
action slow. The lappet frame is more economical.
_Gauze and Leno_ attachments cause a departure from the usual straight
lines of the warp. Adjacent warp lines are made to twist about each
other, letting the filling pass through, thus holding the cloth
together (Figs. 55 and 56), and keeping the threads from untwining.
The work is a sort of wattling and may be simple or elaborate. There
is, usually, a standard heald and a doup heald. The latter can be
drawn first to one side and then to the other of the standard heald
and form the gauze pattern. Marquisette is woven in this way and it
may be a strong weave. In some textiles, as in many housecloths, there
are two doup healds. This method is used in making cotton chenille
for curtains. The crossed warp threads hold the filling tightly, and
when the cloth is finished the lines of filling are cut apart the
length of the warp and make a soft yarn which is used for the filling
of the chenille cloth. The effect of a pile fabric is thus gained
inexpensively. Leno weaving has sometimes lacy stripes or pattern
effects. When closely woven the fabric may be enduring, but often does
not launder well.
=Design and Draft.=--In the designing and drafting for the weaving of
textiles, whether by hand or power, there are two lines of threads to
consider: first, the warp or ends, which run lengthwise of the goods;
second, the filling, picks, woof, or weft, which crosses the warp at
right angles. The manner in which the latter threads intersect the
former makes the design, complex as well as simple weaving depending
on the succession of sheds. Textile design may be structural, that
is, made by the weave, or it may be applied to the surface of the
cloth. Pattern may be obtained, even with the plain weave, by the use
of vari-colored yarns, making stripes, checks, and plaids; by cords
or ribs; or the interlacing of warp and filling threads may give an
elaborate pattern as in some brocades. A surface design is made after
the cloth is woven, by printing, stenciling, tied-dyeing, batik,
discharge dyeing, embroidery by hand or machine, embossing or moiréing.
The principal structural methods may be reduced to a few fundamental
principles: (1) the plain or tabby weave and its variations; (2) the
twill weave and its variations; (3) the satin and its variations; the
latter including figure weaving, pile fabrics, double cloth, and the
designs made by the various attachments such as lappet, swivel, and
curved warp weaving. A draft of the design is made to show the weaver
the manner in which the filling should cross the warp. Squared or point
paper (Fig. 57) is used generally for these drafts, eight by eight
being a common variety. At regular intervals one line is made heavy for
facility in reading.
[Illustration: FIG. 57.--DESIGN OR POINT PAPER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 58.--PLAIN WEAVE.]
The simplest alternation of threads is called the _plain_, _tabby_, _or
cotton weave_ (Figs. 3 and 12). It is found in some of the best known
fabrics such as muslin, gingham, cambric, and outing flannel in cotton;
taffeta and habutai, in silk; tweed, flannel, and homespun in wool,
and crash and handkerchief linen in linen. A draft for the plain weave
is given in Fig. 58, and looks like a checkerboard. The shaded blocks
represent the warp and the white ones the filling. The numbers at the
side show that under the first heald shaft a warp thread is up and
then a filling thread, followed again by a warp thread. In the second
shaft the filling thread rises first. Two alternations complete the
pattern. When coarse yarns are in use, a two-heald shaft is sufficient
(Fig. 59 _A_). In finer yarns, four or even eight shafts are used
(Fig. 59 _B_ and _C_), as a better distribution of the warp threads
can be made, thus lessening the strain and liability to break. The
threads are so inserted and the shafts connected that they act as two,
the odd numbered threads being raised at one time and the even at the
other. There are variations of plain weaving which give considerable
latitude in design. Basket or Panama weaves (Fig. 60) have two or more
warp threads crossed by two or more filling threads, or there may be a
greater number of threads one way than the other. Hair-line stripes,
warp or filling way, can be made in the plain weave by alternating
colored yarns in the warp and filling, or by alternating one way and
having it plain the other. Bedford cords (Fig. 61) have a line stripe
and raised cord effect running lengthwise of the cloth. The face effect
is generally plain. Poplin or rep effects are made by very heavy warp
threads or by groups of warp threads shot over by one or more filling
threads (Fig. 62). The very twist of the yarn will affect the pattern
(Fig. 63). If after interlacing the threads the twist is in one
direction, a smoother effect results in the finishing.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.--SHAFT COMBINATIONS FOR PLAIN WEAVES.]
[Illustration: FIG. 60.--BASKET OR PANAMA WEAVE.]
=Twills= are the first variation from plain design. The three-shaft,
three-harness, three-end, or three-leaf twill, as it is variously
called, is much used. (See Figs. 64 and 65.) The names given to twills
indicate the number of shafts which it takes to complete the pattern.
In the three-shaft twill the filling threads go under one and over
two warp threads in the first line, but instead of alternating in the
second line, as would be done in plain weaving, the filling skips one
thread to the right or left of the crossing of the preceding line, as
the case may be, thus forming a diagonal line across the material.
In the three-shaft twill, the pattern begins to repeat itself in the
fourth line. Twills may run to the right or to the left or both ways.
In the latter case the design is called chevron, herring-bone, diaper,
bird’s- or fish-eye. Twills may be so made that either warp or filling
may be thrown on the face of the material. In the four-shaft twill
(Fig. 65 _A_) the filling is on the face, for three filling threads are
up and one down. In _B_ the warp is on the face, as three warp threads
are on the surface and one below; consequently the twill is made by the
filling. For the warp faced twill there would be three risers and one
sinker on the chain of a head motion loom, expressed as 3/1. If it
were a four-shaft twill, filling face, there would be three sinkers and
one riser, throwing the filling on the face, and expressed by 1/3.
[Illustration: FIG. 61.--BEDFORD CORD.
_A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, plain weave throughout, forming line effect.]
[Illustration: FIG. 62.--POPLIN OR REP.
_A_, Warp ways. _B_, Filling ways.]
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--SHOWING TWIST OF YARN.
_A_, Left twist. _B_, Right twist. _C_, Combination.]
Drillings and jeans are often made on the three-shaft twill. Twills
are among the most popular weaves. They may run as high as forty-eight
or fifty shafts, each added number of shafts allowing a greater number
of variations in the designs; therefore it may be said that there is
an almost unlimited possibility of pattern. Twills may be even-sided,
filling and warp balancing; or uneven-sided, filling and warp uneven,
each additional shaft having its own advantages and variations. The
principle of designing for the twill can be understood from the
simplest ones. The following varieties are in use: broken, skip,
corkscrew, double, curved, combination, steep, wide-waled, entwining,
checker-board, pointed, and fancy. The four-shaft twill is very useful
in woolens and worsteds, being found in blankets, cassimeres, and
shepherd’s checks. It is much employed in double-backed and stitched
cloths for the backing weave. The five-shaft twill is used extensively
in heavy materials, in doeskins, satins and sateens, Venetians,
drillings, diapers, and damasks.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--CLOTH SHOWING TWILL WEAVE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--FOUR-LEAF TWILL.
_A_, Filling for face.
_B_, Warp for face.]
_Satin weaving_ combines the characteristics of the twill and the
figure, and may be included under twill weaving as well as figure
weaving. The term satin or sateen (Fig. 66 _A_ and _B_) is used to
designate certain classes of design, such as five-shaft or eight-shaft
satin. These same terms are often used interchangeably, but according
to some authorities the warp-faced design, _A_, is the real satin
and the filling-faced is the sateen, _B_. The expression often seen,
“weft-faced satin,” would according to these authorities refer to
sateen, and “warp-faced sateen” would be satin. The word sateen was
first used for cotton satin made to look like silk satin. Damasks are
often woven with the background sateen and the figure satin, that is,
the figure weave is a lengthwise twill and the background a crosswise
one. The corkscrew weaves are on one of these principles; they are a
steep twill. The twill effect is made clearer to the eye if it runs
in the direction of the twist in the yarn. Smooth-faced serges are
woven in this way, and the effect of clear light is increased by the
finish. Rough twills are often woven with the twist of the threads
running opposite to the pattern. Twills of various kinds are used
extensively in elaborate floral figures and conventional designs, as a
binder or stitch to hold together the warp and filling threads, that
too long floats will not be on the surface. Elaborate combination
twills look like Jacquard weaving, but are really only clever repeats,
alternations, or reversals of pattern.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--SATIN WEAVE.
_A_, Real satin; warp face.
_B_, Sateen; filling face.]
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--DOUBLE CLOTH.]
[Illustration: FIG. 68.--DOUBLE CLOTH WEAVE.
_A_, Weave for the face. _B_, Weave for the back. _C_, Arrangement for
combining back warp with face filling. _D_, The complete weave. Repeat:
16 ends; 16 picks.]
The stitches used to hold together double cloths are usually twills
which come at intervals to the surface. (See Fig. 67 for enlargement
of cloth, Fig. 68 for explanation of the method of drafting, and Fig.
69 for interlacing of the two lines of threads.) In some classes of
worsted goods the binder is frequent. The stitching requires care
in planning, so that it does not make itself evident on the face of
the cloth. The stitching stitches are now frequently employed in all
classes of patterns. Cheap stock is often used for them, as it gives
weight and does not show on the face. Cloths backed with shoddy or poor
wool are usually rough on the wrong side.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--DOUBLE CLOTH INTERLACING.
1. Weft back. 2. Double cloth interlacings.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
=Satins or Figured Weaves.=--The step between twills and figured weaves
is short. Satin really belongs to both, for it is a broken or skip
twill. The object in satin or sateen is to throw a series of closely
twisted threads on the face of the material, with a cross thread at
intervals, that the floats of warp or filling may reflect the light.
When the warp is constantly crossed by the filling, the reflection
of light is interfered with. In the satin the cross thread binds
sufficiently to hold, yet it is not noticed. Cotton-backed satins save
expense, and the cotton thread coming to the surface is not seen.
When well woven of good materials this class of satin is enduring.
An odd number of shafts is preferred for the satins; the five-shaft
is much used, but the seven-shaft is considered a perfect satin.
Diaper patterns (Fig. 70) and spots are illustrations of simple figure
weaving, and Jacquard designs of intricate figure work. The damask
designs are reversible, but brocades are woven with the patterns on the
face only, though sometimes faintly indicated on the back. The filling
threads which are not in use in an elaborate design are sometimes
interwoven into the background until needed, and at other times are
left in long floats on the back to be cut off in the finishing.
Damask weaving is usually beyond the powers of the simple loom, and
the Jacquard harness is used. If the designer has a four hundred hook
Jacquard and a cloth with one hundred threads in an inch, by dividing
four hundred by one hundred he has four inches in which he must confine
his design in width (the length is as he wishes it). He must avoid
parallel and cross lines. Damasks are usually designed with warp satin
for background, and with weft satin or sateen for figure.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--DIAPER PATTERN.]
In figure weaving, the background is generally a plain or satin weave.
In designing, the relation of the pattern in the figure to the twill
in the background has to be most carefully worked out, or the design
will run into stripes or oblique lines. The number of needles in
Jacquard weaving is also limited. The five- and eight-shaft satins
for figure work are generally preferred by designers to the higher
number of shafts. The use of color in silk designing brings in a large
item of expense. As few changes as possible will reduce the cost of
dyeing. The expense of the thrown silk is so great that computations of
the amount of each color in a design have to be brought to the exact
amount required, that nothing may be wasted. The silk designer must
know these points. The design in Fig. 71 _A_ is a lozenge or diaper
pattern, with six changes in length and nine in width, used frequently
in damask weaving. The complete diaper is made by a reversal. Fig.
71 _B_ gives the arrangement of pegs in the lags for the dobby and
Fig. 71 _C_ the arrangement of the cards for the Jacquard harness.
This design is a very simple one and perhaps would not be used on the
Jacquard, unless an elaborate central or border design were included,
but it illustrates the method of designing and preparing the cards.
The numbers at the bottom represent the warp threads affected, and
at the side the number of picks. In the cards the needles will pass
into the holes and the connected hooks will remain on the griffes,
but the other needles will strike the cards where the dots are, will
be battened back, and the shed will be made by the hooks falling from
the griffes; consequently in the first line the first, fourth, fifth,
sixth, and ninth threads falling will make the shed and the filling
will be uppermost, as seen in the design. The repeats of the pattern
are provided for by the harness cords. In the lags of the dobby the
pegs are inserted when the warp threads are to rise, consequently the
filling passes under them. The first, fourth, fifth, sixth, and ninth
will be down, and the second, third, seventh, and eighth up, which is
what is required by the design. The repeats are controlled by the dobby.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--LOZENGE DESIGN.
_A_, Draft. _B_, Arrangement of pegs in the lags for the dobby. _C_,
Arrangement of cards for the Jacquard harness.]
=Various Fabrics.=--=Pile Fabrics.=--A number of attractive and useful
materials come under this head which are made in various ways. The
term pile is sometimes used to cover napped goods, but it should be
employed only when the fabric is so woven that a pile is formed on its
surface. Napped goods are woven and the surface raised by gigging. The
surface is cut to make a pile. Chinchilla is a napped fabric. It has
two sets of warp threads, one for the face and one for the backing, and
one filling thread. The cloth is woven loosely and well fulled; it is
napped when still damp. The nubs on the surface are formed by a special
machine which by a rotary motion rubs up the nap into rolls.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--PLUSH WEAVE.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
_Turkish toweling_ is one variety of pile goods; the construction is
called a Terry weave. It has loops on the surface which assist in
absorbing water. There are two sets of warp threads; one is held taut
and the other is slack. The filling threads are inserted until several
are in, and then beaten up. The slack warp is formed into a loop.
There are many grades of this toweling. When the loops are made with
two or more ply yarn, the filling interlaces the ground warp several
times between the loops, the ground warp is strong and the weaving
is close, an enduring towel results. Another form of pile weaving is
used for velvets and plushes (Fig. 72). A double cloth is woven on
which some threads from each cloth interlace the other. A knife moves
between the cloths, cutting the threads and leaving a pile on each
side. In the finishing the pile is cut even. Corduroy is made by two
sets of filling threads, one for the ground and the other for the pile.
When the material is woven it has floats of filling, forming stripes
running warp way. The floats are cut by hand with a sharp pointed
knife. An imitation of corduroy is made by shearing a plain pile fabric
in rows or cords. Cotton velvets, corduroys, velveteens, and filling
plushes are really varieties of double cloth. They are woven in a rib
pattern, the cord being along the filling. The surface loops are cut
by hand with a long cutter in the direction of the length. Cotton
velvets require a great deal of finishing to make them look well. In
their weaving the backing threads are brought forward to form part of
the pile, and also to connect the two rows of warp threads. Different
weaves are used to form the face and the back respectively, but the
two must be designed to work in harmony with each other, or the finish
will be defective. Still another method is to have the warp pass over
wires, leaving loops which the filling holds down. Brussels carpet is
made in this way, but the loops are left uncut. For velvets, the wires
have a knife edge which as they are withdrawn sever the warp threads
and make a pile. Wilton carpet is thus cut. There are two sets of warp
for ground and pile. The finishing of velvets is important. Panne and
mirror velvets are pressed, and embossed velvet is made by pressure of
rollers. Chiffon velvet is finished to be especially pliable.
_Crêpe_ and other crimped fabrics are woven in a variety of ways,
plain, ribbed, or twilled. Some are made by using a sateen twill
for the filling and a satin twill for the backing, the aim being to
confuse the surface of the material by the way the stitches from the
back break the face. In other cases filling yarns are given a hard
right-hand twist and are alternated every few picks with a yarn of a
left-hand twist. Crêpe is also woven with the warp yarn twisted in one
direction and the filling in the opposite. In the dye vat these yarns
are differently affected and the cloth is inclined to cockle. They may
be woven also with an extra special warp beam which allows the warp
to be a little loose, while the threads on the regular warp beam are
tight. When the filling is beaten up, the looser threads are rather
full and the finishing gives them the crêped appearance. Wool crêpons
are sometimes made with the backing threads of cotton. By mercerizing
the material after weaving it, the floats of wool are drawn together by
the cotton, which is contracted.
=Stitched, Backed, Double-faced, Double, and Multiple Cloths.=--Looms
are constructed to weave double and multiple cloths, but by special
warps and double harness the regular loom can serve the purpose. Backed
cloths referred to above are made by weaving them in such a way that
extra backing warp is held by filling stitches to the face, making the
cloth heavier. (For Draft see Fig. 68.) The stitch on the surface comes
under adjacent face threads and is invisible. Double-faced cloths are
made similarly to backed cloths, but are well finished on both sides,
silk-faced ribbons being illustrations. Figuring on a plain surface
by extra warp and filling threads is done in a similar way to the
double-faced cloth, except that the design appears only at intervals.
Cloths having long floats of warp or filling on the surface to carry
out the design are made with a double warp or filling, and stitches
come from the back to hold down the floats. Satin and sateen twills are
much used for backing stitches. The double, triple, and multiple cloths
have both double warp and double filling. They can be so woven as to be
entirely separate, and when unfolded make a wide sheet of cloth several
times the width of the loom, or they may be fastened together on one
edge or on both edges and make tubular fabrics for bags, hose, or lamp
wicks, or the two cloths may be held together at regular intervals and
thus make reversible material for heavy coating and rugs. Backing yarn
is frequently made of much cheaper fiber in order to decrease the cost
while adding to the warmth and weight. Reworked wool, coarse new wool,
and cotton are used for backing threads.
CHAPTER V
KNIT GOODS
=The Industry in the United States.=--The knit goods industry in the
United States was begun in the latter part of the nineteenth century,
and had a rapid growth, for by 1909 the value of its products was
quoted at $200,143,527.[1] By the census of 1923 the value had risen
to $848,176,734, which was a gain of 33.8% over 1921. The number of
establishments in 1923 was 2323.
[1] _Daily News Record_, April 17, 1923.
The main classes of knit goods are hosiery, underwear, garments, flat
goods, bathing suits, gloves, and fancy knit goods. The industry is in
most of the states, but the main establishments were (in 1923): New
York, 886; Pennsylvania, 610; New Jersey and North Carolina each 109;
Massachusetts, 87; Tennessee, 72, and Wisconsin, 66. Illinois, Ohio,
California, Georgia, Michigan, Connecticut, and Rhode Island follow in
order, and twenty-one other states have been making some form of knit
goods.
All-silk hosiery is an important part of the hosiery industry. In 1923
the value was:
Women’s} Full fashioned $25,158,309
Hosiery} Seamless 12,452,613
Half } Full fashioned 142,915
Hose } Seamless 8,175,210
-----------
Total: $45,929,047
Underwear (knit) was valued in 1923 at $5,923,360.
The large jobbing centers are New York, Philadelphia, the Mohawk Valley
in Massachusetts, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Omaha, and St. Paul.
The South is entering the field.
=Foreign knitting centers= are in England, France, Germany,
Switzerland, Italy, and Austria.
A large and increasing variety of articles are made from knit goods,
for under and outer wear, neckwear and miscellaneous uses, and the flat
knitting machines produce laces which combined with the plain knit
goods make attractive fabrics for scarfs, sweaters, and other garments.
=Early Inventions.=--Knitting is perhaps the oldest form of textile
fabrication, as it is on the order of the netting used for fishing
among primitive tribes. Knitting by hand was for many centuries a
familiar method of making useful articles and garments, but in England,
in 1589, a clergyman, named William Lee, invented the hand knitting
machine with spring-bearded needles. He is entitled to high rank as an
inventor, but was unable to obtain from Queen Elizabeth the right to
construct his machine, for she feared the livelihood would be taken
from hand knitters. The use of machinery did not progress rapidly, for
the possibilities in looped fabrics were not realized at first.
Stocking making had become a thriving industry in England by 1772,
and 8000 frames of the Lee order were in use, being worked by hand.
The invention of a rib knitting machine came about 1740, and in 1769
the addition to the frames of a revolving shaft turned by a handle,
increased the speed. Luther Barton, who built rotary frames, introduced
a mechanically controlled mechanism by which shaped or fashioned pieces
could be made for hosiery or underwear. In 1775 the Warp Knitting
Machine appeared, which has since become a factor in the making of
gloves, scarfs, ties, lace, and outer wear. The first circular frame
was invented by a Frenchman, named Descroix, in 1798. In 1816 a noted
French engineer, Marc Brunel, brought out a machine with radiating
needles of the spring-beard variety. Machines of this order are still
in use in France, being the basis of the standard circular frame with
bearded needles.
The English loop wheel circular frame was brought into modern form by
Mellor in 1847. It was improved by American knitters, and is still
used in both countries. Lee’s spring-bearded needle continued as
the best form until about 1849, when Matthew Townsend of Leicester,
England, invented the self-acting or latch needle, which revolutionized
the industry. This invention made possible the modern plain and rib
circular and straight bar machines, and the seamless hosiery machines.
The latch needles made fast running machines possible. A “Flat Machine”
was invented in the United States by the Rev. I. S. Lamb in 1863. An
Automatic Seamless Hosiery Machine, invented in 1879, was followed by
the Scott and Williams machines. The increase in speed of manufacture
has been great. On the hand frame one worker produced a few pairs of
stockings or a couple of pieces of underwear each day, but by the
latch-needle machine of the present day one operator on a set of
machines can make daily 150 dozens of army half hose. A series of
underwear machines, making a tubular web, produce 1000 pounds weight of
fabric a week.
=What Knitting Is.=--Knitting is the construction of a fabric with
needles by a series of interlocking loops made of yarn. Both hand and
machine power are utilized at the present day. At the beginning of the
nineteenth century knitting frames were still worked by hand. The chief
outputs are classed as flat goods, ribbed goods, fleece-lined, and
mesh. The flat knit fabric is made on a machine having one cylinder of
needles. Loops are on the face of the cloth in lengthwise rows called
wales. The back of it has crosswise rows of interlocking semicircles
called courses.[2] Ribbed fabrics are made on machines having two
cylinders of needles which alternate, one cylinder drawing the loops
in, and the other drawing the alternate loops out. Ribbed garments
are very elastic. Fleece-lined fabrics are knitted on a flat machine
which has one cylinder of needles and special attachments that make
a backing of heavy yarn. Three strands of yarn are knitted at each
stitch--a fine yarn for the face, a heavy yarn for the back and a very
fine yarn connecting the two. The backing appears on the outside of
the tubing as this is the part to be fleeced. The fleecing is done by
a napper. (See Chap. VI, _Napping_, etc.) Mesh fabric is knitted on a
flat knitting machine. It is quite open and considered very hygienic
because it is porous, hence the skin is well ventilated and the
material dries more rapidly when wet. Two kinds of needles are in use,
the spring-beard and the latch (Fig. 73 _A_, _B_). The spring-beard
needle has a sort of hook on the end, which catches the yarn and yet
allows the finished loop to slip off. The latch needle has a hooked
end, against which a riveted wire latch can be pushed aside or against
the hook, thus releasing or catching the thread and making the loops of
yarn, one inside of the other (Fig. 74). The needles are set in slots,
a needle for every loop (in coarse work there may be only a few to the
inch or in fine there may be 18 to 34). The needles are set at work
by a carriage with cams which move them up and down in the process of
knitting, while a pattern chain or wheel automatically measures the
length of fabric already knit and shifts the motion-changing devices to
obtain the required results.
[2] Knit Underwear Fabrics, Lesson No. 4, Associated Knit Underwear
Manufacturers of America.
[Illustration:
FIG. 73.--_A_ (ABOVE), LATCH NEEDLE.
_B_ (BELOW), SPRING-BEARD NEEDLE.
Courtesy of Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America.]
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--LATCH NEEDLE, SHOWING STITCH.
1, Hook. 2, Latch, moving on pivot.]
[Illustration: FIG. 75.--KNIT GOODS SHOWING STRIPE.]
=Varieties of Machines.=--Knitting machines produce both plain and
ribbed effects, which can be combined in one article. When a garment
must be removed from one machine to another each loop is transferred
to a needle in the second machine. This requires great care. Stripes
can be made automatically by a system of changing yarns as they are
delivered by the feeds (Fig. 75). There are both circular and flat
knitting machines. The warp knitting frame is used largely for making
fabrics for outer wear, such as yard goods, scarfs, gloves, and ties.
It looks like a wide loom and is often so called. Some tubular warp
knitting frames are made but the fabric is usually produced flat
and later cut into the shape of the article needed. In the circular
machines (Fig. 76), the web may have a stitch left out the entire
length and the fabric can be cut apart along these threads. The webbing
can thus be laid flat and garments can be cut from it. There are many
varieties of knit goods produced by radically different machines.
Cloakings and blankets are sometimes made with a cotton knitted ground
through which woolen yarn is passed and in the finishing the wool
is napped, giving a soft surface covering the knitted background.
Knitted fabrics are found from fine glove silk to a heavy cloaking
of wool, which looks like melton cloth. A fabric resembling a heavy
velour is promised. Dress goods like tricolette or Jersey cloth are
popular, from which blouses, riding habits, or sport suits can be
made. Stockinet was imported from England as early as 1887. It was
manufactured in the United States in 1912 and has been popular ever
since. It is a flat or tubular knit fabric made on an ordinary knitting
machine. Jersey or tricot is a knitted fabric made in tubular form. It
is found in various weights and degrees of fineness. There has been
great improvement in the construction of the cloth in the stretching
and sagging. When women gave up flannel underskirts and began to wear
knickerbockers and skirts of knitted goods, an impetus was given to
Jersey cloth. Milanese knitting does not ravel, it is made on a warp
knitting frame. Gloves, knickerbockers, and other articles are made
from it.
[Illustration: FIG. 76.--CIRCULAR KNITTING MACHINE.
Courtesy of the Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America.]
It takes about one-seventh of the time to make a knitted fabric as an
equally good woven one. The cost of production is thus lowered, and
the price being less, the knitted cloth is naturally in demand. It
has advantages for many purposes. It is light in weight, comfortable
in its fit, and less solid than woven cloth, consequently it allows
for the ventilation of the body. It is found in plain colors, in
heather mixtures, and in fancies. The shoe trade uses much Jersey
cloth. Plaited goods (double faced, with one fiber on the surface and
another on the back) are attractive and economical. These are found
increasingly in winter hosiery of cotton and wool, silk and wool, or
cotton and rayon.
=Yarns in Use.=--Many varieties of yarns are used--cotton, woolen,
worsted, silk, rayon, and fancies.[3] The yarns are usually spun
especially for the knitting trade, requiring softness, strength, and
pliability. In worsted yarns both the French and the Bradford systems
of spinning are used. (See Chap. VII, _Spinning_.) In silk, reeled,
spun, and wild silk are all employed, and rayon is used extensively.
A special winding machine is required, as this process is very
important. Rough places or knots interfere with the smooth running of
the needles. The yarn is wound on bobbins or cones for the circular and
flag machines, but for the warp knitter it is on a beam as it is for
weaving.
[3] Of the fiber employed in 1922 there is the following record:
Wool and Worsted 75.9%
Rayon 12.0
Cotton 9.5
Pure silk 2.6
[Illustration: FIG. 77.--_A_, FULL FASHIONED. _B_, “MOCK SEAM.” _C_,
SEAMLESS.]
=Knit Goods.=
=Hosiery.=--Stockings were first _cut from flat knit goods_ and seamed
into the shape of the foot and leg. Shrinking into shape improved the
appearance, and inventions followed, which, by transferring stitches,
formed the heel and toe. Such hosiery is still made. The circular
machine (Fig. 76), made it possible to form a tube the length of
the leg. Cutting and shrinking were at first used to form the foot,
but soon it was made automatically on the end of the tube; these
were called _seamless stockings_ (Fig. 77 _C_). The fit at the ankle
is unsatisfactory, especially after laundering, and it is becoming
increasingly common to cut them to shape at the ankle and seam them
together from the heel up the entire length. This is called a “mock
seam,” (Fig. 77 _B_), as it looks like the seam in the “full fashioned”
stocking. A seamless stocking, so treated, fits better, is improved
in appearance and is cheaper than the full fashioned. The seamless
stocking can be distinguished from the other by the fact that there is
no seam under the foot, the seam up the leg (if there is one) stops
at the heel, and the appearance of the seam is different, as it is
more pronounced or has rougher edges. The finish at the toe differs in
the seamless stocking, for it is joined about an inch below the toe,
and the other is joined at the toe. Seamless stockings are made in
large numbers, with or without the mock seam. They are knit largely of
cotton yarn, but, other fibers are also in use. In buying a seamless
stocking it is well to notice the manner of completing the upper part
of the leg, for in some cases the fabric is very tight above the knee.
Various ways of completing the stockings are in use: the fabric is
sometimes turned back and stitched, or a facing is placed at the top
which stretches over the knee, or the end of the stocking is ribbed and
finished with a selvedge.
The _full fashioned stockings_ (Fig. 77 _A_) are made on a complicated
frame which forms the shape of the leg and heel in one process, and
another machine completes the stocking, the work being begun at the
widest end. Yarn guides are thrown into action to knit the heel pieces
on each side of the ankle; when this is completed the loops are cast
from the needles. The separate footing machine is now used. The loops
are transferred from the first to the second machine. The web is
narrowed at each side for instep gussets and again for the toe. The
shaping is done automatically. Great care is needed in reeled silk
hosiery especially, or an imperfect stocking will result. For fine
silk stockings there may be as many as thirty-four needles to the inch
in the frame. For ordinary hose a series of machines which make from
eighteen to twenty-four stockings are connected. As the full fashioned
stockings are knitted flat, they must be seamed together on another
machine, toe and heel, up the sole and back of the leg, with strong
thread. The seam is neat and small. A perfectly fitting stocking is
the result. Spring-beard needles are in use on full fashioned hosiery
machines. Both latch and spring needles are used on the circular
frames. (See Fig. 76.)
The stockings are examined by an inspector for flaws. They are
frequently dirty, with the knitting puckered and loose when coming
from the machines. Various methods are used to finish them. They are
dampened, drawn on a wooden form, and hung up in a hot box which
takes out the wrinkles and gives some luster to silk stockings. They
are reinspected to be sure they are without imperfection. Scouring,
pressing, steaming, and shaping make them into the attractive article
we are accustomed to see.
Knitting machines are now made which produce stripes and patterns and
elaborate lace or embroidered clocks at a comparatively small expense.
The Jacquard machine can be used to control patterns. (See Chap. IV.)
Any number of colors can be used in the designs.
Reeled silk stockings are expensive, but spun silk is less so and is
much used. The best stockings are dyed in the yarn, but hosiery is
often knit in the “gray” and dyed after it is in stocking form. Cotton
stockings are often plaited over with silk, with wool, or with rayon,
making an attractive appearance, but the surface fiber is apt to wear
rough. Such stockings sell for lower prices than if made entirely of
the surface fiber. Mercerized cotton hose are made in large numbers. A
mercerized cotton lining is also made for wool hose for warm climates.
Rayon hosiery is a comparatively new industry in the United States, and
has grown up largely since 1917. In 1922 there were exported 20,000,000
pairs of stockings of this fiber. (See _Rayon_, Chap. IX.)
Balbriggan and lisle hosiery are made of fine cotton yarn closely
twisted, and with the nap singed off to improve the appearance. Woolen
and worsted hose are used increasingly for cold weather and for sport.
As low shoes are now worn in winter the wool hose are desirable. The
ventilation of the feet is more satisfactory in a low shoe, but cotton
and silk hosiery are not warm enough. The slip-over golf stocking is
especially useful in winter therefore, for it can be pulled over the
silk stocking worn in the house when going into the open air and thus
keep the body at more even temperature. The term “ingrain” silk is used
for silk dyed in the yarn. (See Chap. XIII, _Diazotized and Developed
Colors_.) These stockings hold the dye well, but are often weighted,
hence may easily deteriorate.
Good hosiery is well knit, elastic, firm in feel, and is strong at
toe, heel, and knee. The top is strengthened that it will not break
easily. The garter catch should be placed on this part. The knitting
is not cloudy, with irregularities of yarn thickness, but clear and
even. These things should be noticed when buying hosiery. The customer
should not carelessly push her hand through the stocking, for a broken
finger nail or a ring will often catch a thread and a bad break will
be started. Manufacturers complain of the number of stockings returned
as defective which have been made so by careless examination. Silk
stockings should be bought one-half size longer than the foot, as they
will wear better. All stockings should be amply long. It is well for
the purchaser to know something of makes of stockings, and, having
found a satisfactory one, to keep to that. Some retailers have their
own “brands” on stockings. This differs from a “make” in that the
stockings may have been bought from many sources or makes, yet all
bear the same brand. The names of manufacturers do not appear on these
stockings, but in the makes the name is frequently on the boxes.
=Wear.=--It is well to wear stockings in rotation and wash out after
each wear. This is necessary in silk stockings, but also advisable with
other fibers. Wool and silk require care in laundering. Soap should
not be rubbed on the stocking nor very hot water used. A warmish water
with a solution of a mild soap in it, dipping rather than rubbing, and
rinsing in warm water give good results. It is stated that practically
all hosiery is now fast to crocking. Nevertheless it is well to wash
carefully, lest the dye run. In a silk stocking the gray that appears
at the toe and heel is often due to wear and not loss of color.
Care should be taken in putting on a stocking. After placing the end
of it on the toe it should be drawn on gently, so that the loops may
not be broken. The stocking should be darned at the first break or
the hole will spread beyond repair. The shoe should be smooth inside,
or the rough place will wear upon the stocking. A light sheer fabric
cannot stand much wear, and the chiffon silk hosiery of the day is not
satisfactory for steady wear.
Hosiery is sold by the manufacturer to the jobber, who again sells, or
it is sold to the retailer direct. Some manufacturing firms sell to the
consumer without a middleman, claiming they thus can sell at a lower
price. A house to house method of selling is also prevalent, but is not
yet thoroughly satisfactory.
=Underwear= is made on the same principle as hosiery--seamless and
full fashioned. The circular machines (Fig. 76) are much larger than
for hosiery. Fashioning, narrowing and widening the knit web is done
by transferring the loops from several of the edge needles which are
in use, to a separate machine. In a full-fashioned garment the work is
begun at the widest part and narrowed as needed. The modern machine
of the circular order produces the garment without joins and seams
throughout. The garment fits well, and improvements come from time
to time. From stockinet, made on circular machines, many garments
can be cut out at one time. The making up and trimming are done by
mass production, consequently the price is moderate. The waste in the
cutting-up is, however, a heavy item. This waste of material is not
found in full fashioned underwear. The knit fabric is cut into strips
in size according to the garment to be cut out. The strips are laid
in a pile about twelve inches high and the pattern is laid on top. A
workman follows the pattern with an electric cutter which cuts through
the pile. The parts are separated into dozen lots and assembled in
bundles for stitching. The development of knit underwear has been a
blessing, for elastic, hygienic fabrics have taken the place of the
former stiff, unyielding ones.
Special machines have been invented to unite the parts of garments
and overcast the edges. The invention of the overlock and flat lock
machines, by leading sewing machine makers, has made it possible to
finish both inner and outer clothing so that the wear and appearance
are satisfactory.
Underwear should be laundered in thick suds made of lukewarm water and
mild soap. If the water is hard it should be softened. The garment
should be squeezed but not rubbed hard. The rinsing should be thorough
and if the garment is of wool the temperature of washing and rinsing
water should be the same.
Tests show that bleached underwear is more absorbent of water than the
unbleached for the latter is covered with a natural wax which prevents
moisture from entering.
=Outer Wear.=--The making of outer wear is increasing rapidly. In 1912
the United States had 345 enlarged knitting machines, but in 1922
there were 150,000. The industry is located principally in the eastern
states, New York having in 1923 the majority of the mills. Knitting
outer wear is, however, well distributed over the country. In 1922
there were 1352 mills and the wholesale production was $266,717,385.
Sweaters, cardigans, sleeveless garments, slip-ons, headwear, bathing
suits, knitted fabrics for garments, infants’ wear, neckwear, scarfs,
and miscellaneous articles are made. For such garments as sweaters
there are machines which complete the entire article. The locks and
cams are changed by carriers, so that shoulders, armholes and sleeves
can be made as if by hand. The finishers add a little hand work to
complete the garment, and it is as attractive as if made by a skilled
hand worker. Various methods of finishing complete the article, such as
shrinking into shape, steaming to give an attractive appearance, and
napping to soften the surface.
A committee is working on standardization.[4] The great success of
this industry should be realized by the consumer. The frequent false
labeling of our domestic product as “imported” in order to sell it
comes from a lack of knowledge of the work of our own factories
and should not be tolerated by consumers. The knitted outer wear
manufacturers, believing that the highest standards of conduct bring
about the best interests of the industry, have formulated a code of
ethics which shall be their ideal of business management to fellow
manufacturers, distributors and employees. The spirit underlying all
dealings shall be one of courtesy, coöperation and consideration.
[4] _Standard Sizes for Knit Underwear_, Associated Knit Underwear
Manufacturers of America.
The knitting of _gloves_ began as early as 1760 in America, when
several glove knitters came from Scotland bringing their patterns with
them. The value of the industry in Fulton County, New York, is now
about $10,000,000. Silk, rayon, suede cotton, wool, and plain cotton
gloves are made here.
=Standardization of Knit Goods.=--The National Association of Hosiery
and Underwear Manufacturers and the United States Bureau of Standards
are working to eliminate wastes and conflicts in specifications and
distribution. If the suggestions can be carried out it is said
that many millions of dollars will be saved. The reforms are in the
following directions:
_In the Purchase of Yarns._ Eliminating imperfect yarns that a
satisfactory article may be assured.
_In the Sizes of Hosiery._ Eliminating variations in the size of
foot, by all mills uniting on a method of reckoning length. Knitting
stockings in the “gray” in quarter sizes only, and relying on boarding
for the full and half sizes. The change would tend to economy.
_In the Sizes of Underwear._ Standard sizes and measurements of knit
underwear have been under discussion. The object of the setting up
of standards and the use of the standard label is that a standard of
value may be set up by which merchandise may be compared, that more
intelligent buying may be possible for consumer, jobber and retailer,
and that there may be a lessening of extreme competition between
manufacturer, jobber, and retailer. Standard measures have been
developed from the most careful investigations of sizes already in use
in leading mills and averages were taken from them. In May, 1925, the
suggestions were adopted to go into effect in the spring of 1926 for
underwear made of bleached cotton in ribbed union suits and flat knit
union suits for men, boys, and children.
_In Tests._ The industry has had no standard tests for breaking,
bursting, tearing, absorption, heat retention, fastness of dyes, and
abrasion. Methods of testing are being worked out.
_In Defining Terms._ There have been differences of opinion as to the
meaning of many terms in use. The following are being standardized: Cut
goods, cut hosiery, seamless, full fashioned, ingrain, lisle, and mock
seam. The following are questioned: “Merino” and “Cashmere,” used in
hosiery or underwear for the designation of part cotton and part wool
content. As the terms are taken from the names of wool-bearing animals
they are misleading and should not continue. The term “fashioned”
has been used for seamless stockings with a mock seam. The term is
confused with “full fashioned” and should be eliminated. The term
“silk” should not be used when rayon is the true fiber, or where there
is an admixture of cotton in a silk stocking to give strength to toe,
heel, and upper part. The exact facts should appear in any mention for
advertising purposes. (See _Better Business Bureau_, Chap. XVI.)
The shortening of the length of stockings has been advocated as a
method of reducing price.
_Containers and Boxes._ There has been a great variety in the boxes
used by the different mills. It has been found that these can be
reduced from hundreds of styles to a dozen. About 5,000,000 boxes are
used each year.
Knit goods have a promising future. The latest inventions increase
speed, perfection of movement, and automatic action. One machine serves
where several were required formerly. The garter hold is stronger.
Fancy stitches and the use of several colors of yarn in one stocking
make pleasing variety possible without reduction of speed. The seamless
stocking has become a more attractive article, for by automatically
dropped stitches in the modern machine the shape at the ankle is
better. The mock seam is smaller and neater, and the top is more
elastic, thus fitting with more comfort at the knee.
CHAPTER VI
WOOLEN AND WORSTED--RAW MATERIALS
=Scope and Value of the Industry.=--Cloths made from woolen and worsted
yarns are among our most useful and valued textiles. Such materials are
essential in the greater part of the United States, as no other fabric
can take the place of wool for warmth and endurance. The raw stock is
procured from fleeces of various breeds of sheep, goats, and other
animals which come from many parts of the world. The appearance of the
cloths varies greatly, as the fiber ranges from the short staple, soft,
crimpy, dull Merino wool to the long, lustrous, hair-like fiber of the
Lincoln sheep of England, the glossy hair of the Angora goat of Asia
Minor, or the coarse, long hair of the Chinese sheep. The length of the
staple varies from two to even twenty inches. (See Fig. 78.)
[Illustration: FIG. 78.--RELATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE.
_A_, Merino. Average length 2¹⁄₄″-2¹⁄₂″
_B_, Fine Crossbred. “ “ 3″
_C_, Alpaca. “ “ 7¹⁄₂″
_D_, Mohair. “ “ 8″
_E_, Lincoln. “ “ 10¹⁄₂″]
Vast numbers of workers are employed in the various branches of the
wool industry, from growing wool to making the finished cloth into
garments. The commercial value of the raw stock is enormous, and much
is added by processes of manufacture. In the census of 1919 the value
of raw wool used in our industries was estimated at $759,193,319, the
value added to it by manufacture was $475,463,773, so the value of the
product was consequently $1,234,657,992.[5] A table of the wool-growing
countries and their production, taken from the latest available
estimates in the _Annual Wool Review_ of 1924, National Association of
Wool Manufacturers, is found in the Appendix, Section I.
[5] Fourteenth Census, 1919. _Textiles and Their Products._
The price of wool changes frequently, as it is influenced by climatic
conditions, by market irregularities, and by dictates of fashion.
The world’s shorn wool supply is far from sufficient for the demand,
and for this reason experts say that the price of wool will continue
to be high.[6] In order to keep the price from being prohibitive for
the majority of people, the by-products of the industry, such as
pulled wool, mill wastes, noils, and reworked wool or shoddy, are all
utilized. (See _Pulled Wool and Other By-Products_, below.) In addition
to these by-products of wool, the cotton, silk, and rayon industries
are called upon for raw stock and yarns to use in union with wool. Thus
by various means the short wool crop is lengthened, the prices of
cloth brought where those of moderate income and the poor can buy, and
strong, enduring, attractive, warm cloth is provided.
[6] Albert W. Elliott: _The Course of Wool Prices for the Last
Ten Years_, in the Bulletin of the National Association of Wool
Manufacturers for January, 1923.
=Decrease in Wool Growing.=--The production of wool in the world is not
increasing; on the contrary, in some of the leading wool countries it
seems to be decreasing. The high prices paid for wool during the war
tended to increase the output, especially of wool from crossbred sheep.
The reasons for the smaller output at present are mainly economic, as
the prices received for the raw stock have not made it an advantageous
crop for the grower. It is a fortunate circumstance that more careful
breeding of sheep is increasing the weight of fleece, so that the loss
in numbers is not so keenly felt.
Many reasons are given for the decrease in wool growing in the United
States. Beyond the Missouri River farm lands are encroaching on the
open range where free pasture was once obtained, and small towns are
appearing. The price of land is higher, and fodder has had to be raised
on the ranch, as huge flocks can no longer range at will. Land has had
to be fenced to prevent sheep from wandering on adjacent farm lands.
Prices paid for labor have risen, and it is difficult to obtain, so
that altogether the cost of wool raising has become almost prohibitive.
Other products, such as beef cattle and dairying, are found more
desirable. There are sections of the inter-mountain states which are
only fit for grazing, and sheep husbandry will continue, but in other
parts large flocks will not be practical. The hope for an increased
growing of sheep for wool depends on (1) whether a higher price can
be maintained for wool; (2) on the use of waste lands not suited for
farming; (3) on the development of irrigation systems in dry sections;
(4) on adequate methods of storing fodder to use in case of failure of
a year’s crop; (5) on increased use of crossbred sheep, thus making
larger profits, as both mutton and wool are sold; and (6) on the
increase of small flocks on the regular farm lands. One difficulty
in growing sheep in a farming community is that dogs worry and kill
them, thus causing large losses. There are, however, some encouraging
indications that the industry will not permanently decrease, for more
study is being given to successful sheep husbandry in small flocks.
The Government forest ranges are being used by thirty states for
grazing sheep, goats, and cattle, and the great demand for the
privilege overtaxes the capacity of them. About thirty thousand permits
are taken out yearly. The net area of the National Forest in 1924 was
approximately 157,502,000 acres. These ranges are important in the
success of the western sheep industry.
=Changes in the Character of Wool Grown.=--In the past the Merino sheep
was the main breed in the United States, for it was especially fitted
for the great ranges of the West. It required less constant care than
other varieties of sheep. It does not, however, yield good mutton, but
the crossbred sheep does. Breeds of sheep with long, coarse hair are
crossed with the Merino to produce the crossbred. Sheep of one-half,
three-eighths, and one-quarter blood now predominate in the United
States. There is some fine wool grown. The Delaine wools of Ohio and
adjacent states are noted as the strongest Merinos in the world. They
compete with the Merino combing wools of Australia. Much fine wool is
imported to meet the consumer’s demand for fine cloths.
There has been a reduction of Merino wools in other parts of the world.
Australasia and South America have been growing much less. This has had
its effect on the price of cloths of fine wool, and brought forth much
speculation as to future prices.
=Wool- and Hair-Bearing Animals.=--The fleeces of many varieties of
hair- or wool-bearing animals are used in the manufacture of cloths
which are included under the wool industry. The fibers vary greatly in
length. Below four inches they are called “short-stapled,” and beyond
that length, “long-stapled.” (See _Classification of Wools_, below.)
[Illustration: FIG. 79.--AMERICAN MERINO RAM.
From Collins’ _Woolen and Worsted Spinning_, by courtesy of the
American School of Correspondence.]
The _Merino Sheep_ (Fig. 79) is descended from sheep originally from
Spain. The Spanish Merino has been crossed with native or imported
sheep in the leading countries, so that each has its own variety.
The Rambouillet of France is imported into this country for breeding
purposes. Australia has developed the Wanganella; Germany, the Saxony,
and the United States has its special Merinos in the Vermont and
Delaine. Merino wool is grown in South America, South Africa, New
Zealand, and Australia, but the latter country is the largest producer.
_The Crossbred Sheep._ In the United States the favorite long-haired
sheep for crossbreeding are the Cotswold, the Lincoln, and the Romney
Marsh. Other English sheep with medium length wool are also used, such
as the Shropshire, Hampshire, and Dorset. The United States Department
of Agriculture has developed a good crossbred sheep by crossing the
Lincoln with the Rambouillet; the wool grades from ³⁄₈ to ¹⁄₄ blood,
the shrinkage is about 48 per cent, and the mutton is good. It is
called the Columbia, and promises to be valuable.
_British Breeds._ These sheep are bred with the production of mutton as
well as wool in mind. One class has very long wool and another has a
medium length of wool. Important breeds of the first are the Lincoln,
Cotswold, Leicester, Romney Marsh, and Roscommon. The Lincoln grows the
heaviest fleece. These sheep are less hardy than the Merino and are
not as well adapted to life on the open range. The wool is hair-like,
twelve inches or more in length, coarse, glossy, wavy, and adapted to
spinning by the Bradford system for hard worsteds, braids, linings, and
lustrous dress goods. The sheep are not grown to a great extent in the
United States, but are imported for breeding purposes, and the wool
is also imported. The class of British sheep with medium length wool
is divided into the mountain type, which includes the Cheviot sheep,
and the Down type, of which the Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, and
Dorset are well known in the United States. The wool of the Down breeds
is three to five inches or more in length, and grades ¹⁄₄ to ¹⁄₂ blood.
It is used largely in French Combing for soft worsteds. The Cheviot
sheep are from the southern part of Scotland. The wool is used for
Cheviot suitings, fine tweeds, and overcoatings.
_Coarse Wool Breeds._ Scotland, the Pyrenees, Iceland, and some
Oriental countries such as China, East India and Turkey, grow sheep
with coarse wool fleeces. The lack of breeding is the main reason for
the low condition of the wool. The United States imports these wools,
for, with the exception of the lower crossbreds, such wool is not grown
in this country. The wool is used principally for carpets and other
floor covering. The better part of such fleeces is used at times by
cloth manufacturers, for the domestic clip is insufficient for the
demand. Under the tariff of 1922 (Fordney-McCumber) the coarse imported
wools (carpet wools) pay a higher tariff when used for cloth than when
used for floor coverings.
[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ANGORA GOAT.
From Collins’ _Woolen and Worsted Spinning_, by courtesy of the
American School of Correspondence.]
_Hair-like Wools._ The hair and down of goats, camels, and
other animals are also used in the wool industry. (See Chap. X,
_Hair_.) For tariff purposes they are included under one of the
three classes--Clothing, Combing, and Carpet--according to their
characteristics. (See _Classification of Wools_, below.) The _Angora_
goat (Fig. 80) is a native of Asia. The Turks have raised them for
two thousand years. South Africa now breeds a larger quantity, and is
said to be the main producer. The United States produces them in large
numbers in southwestern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, and
to a smaller extent in Oregon (Willamette Valley). The Angora goat is
valuable for clearing brush from cut-over land. Kansas City is the
important goat market of the United States. Bradford, England, is the
principal manufacturing center. Fabrics made from the hair of the
Angora, called mohair, are very enduring. They are used for cloakings,
plush for car seats, astrakhans and other artificial furs, and for
dress goods. The skins are often tanned with the hair on and used for
coats, muffs, and robes. The _Cashmere_ goat is from Tibet and the
Himalayan Mountains. The fleece has long, glossy outer hairs and a soft
down of wool, which is shed or combed from the goat in the springtime.
It is silky to the touch and grayish in color. The amount from one goat
is small. The down hair is used to make the noted Cashmere and India
shawls. The _Alpaca_, _Llama_, and _Vicuña_ are from Peru and from
adjacent countries in South America. The hair of the Alpaca resembles
the mohair, but is less strong. The animal thrives in a small area of
that continent. The Llama hair is coarse and shorter than the hair of
the Alpaca. The animal is gradually disappearing. The _Vicuña_ gives an
exquisite, fine, soft fiber about two or three inches in length. It is
used at times in the United States. The original Montagnac overcoatings
contained this wool. The outer hair of these goats is used largely for
plushes, lustrous fabrics, linings, and carpet yarns. The down is used
by itself or combined with wool for coatings and dress goods. _Camel’s
Hair_ from Russia and China is strong and coarse and is used when
strength or special effects are desired. The down beneath the hair is
very soft and varies in color from yellow to brown, the average length
being about 2¹⁄₂ inches. _Horsehair, Cattle Hair, and Hair of the
Common Goat_ are all used. The manes and tails of horses are used as
the filling in haircloth, which is used in tailoring as a stiffener.
Cattle hair and goat’s-hair are often blended with wool waste, reworked
wool or cotton, and made into yarn for low-grade tweeds, horse
blankets, rugs, and carpets. (See Chap. X., _Additional Fibers_.)
=Growth and Care of Sheep.=--The best fleeces are obtained from a
wise system of flock husbandry. Success must be attained through
careful methods of breeding, feeding, shepherding, shearing, packing,
and marketing. Sheep ranches which are intelligently conducted have
increased in number. The health of the sheep is quickly affected by
climatic conditions, food, water, and incidents of life. When these
factors are good a natural oil or yolk secreted in the skin gives
softness and vitality to the wool. A very cold winter, though hard
on the sheep, often develops a heavy fleece, but when the climate is
harsh and the rainy season prolonged, the yolk is apt to be washed out,
consequently the fiber grows unevenly and is likely to be brittle.
Wool from poorly bred sheep is apt to be tinged in color and does not
spin well; the dead hair will not take the dye, and cloth made from
it wears unsatisfactorily. When the climatic conditions are good, the
quality of the wool and its soundness depend upon the shepherd’s care
and knowledge. The very soil has its effect. Sheep crop very close and
must be moved frequently. Some soil tends to weeds, and the wool will
gather the burrs, or poisonous plants will injure the health of the
sheep. The herder must keep his flock calm and well fed, he must see
that the feeding is regular between seasons, and must lead the flock
to shelter when extremes of heat or storms menace. The well trained
shepherd and his ally, the sheep dog, are almost as important in the
final condition of the cloth as is the superintendent of the mill with
his heavy responsibilities.
The flockmasters of the _British Isles_ have come from long lines of
ancestors who took pride in successful sheep raising. Special forage
crops are grown for the sheep; the flocks are moved frequently in order
to obtain better food and make a wise distribution of manure. Many
sheep are raised for breeding purposes, for they are in demand in other
sheep-raising countries. The cost of sheep is merged with other work of
the farm; meat is the chief aim, and wool is a by-product. The cost,
therefore, is easily carried.
_Australia_ is, in general, well fitted for a sheep run. The results
show the wisdom of the care and thought given to sheep husbandry.
A large number of the grazing lands are leased, but the former
possibility of long tenure is passing. The policy of the United
States Government is against large holdings of land, consequently the
Australian sheep owner had once a great advantage. An Australian sheep
station, with its large number of workers on perhaps 10,000 to 60,000
acres of land, is a community in itself. The paddock system of fencing
the feeding ground is usual. Under the shepherding system in the United
States more labor is required, for one herder and a dog can take care
of not more than 1500 sheep, an average number being 600. Rabbits
are a pest in Australia, and wire netting boundary fences are used
around the pastures to keep them out. The sheep are moved regularly
to new feeding grounds. The shearing of sheep in Australia is done by
shearing crews who go about from place to place under the supervision
of the “classer,” who is responsible to the sheep owner for the work
he does. The same crews frequently come to the United States, as the
seasons are reversed, and the time of shearing in one country precedes
the other. Each ranch in Australia is equipped with a well arranged
shearing plant. The sheep are shorn by both hand and machine cutters.
The fleeces are classified, sorted, and placed in bags for shipment.
The bags, if made of jute, are carefully singed inside so that no fiber
will get into the wool and injure it for manufacture. The kind of
wool, its grade, and the name of the station are stenciled on the bag.
A buyer can thus know from what station his wool comes.
In the _United States_ the herding or shepherding system is in general
use, which makes a high cost per capita for the sheep. The Northwest
has long cold winters, and the sheep have to be brought to the ranch to
be fed and protected. The bulk of the flock is sometimes lost by cold,
by storms, by poisonous plants, by predatory animals, and other causes.
Water is often scarce, owners are fencing in their water supplies, and
conservation of forests prevents the herder from grazing his flock at
will. On the great western ranches huge flocks were once common, but
the number owned by one man is less now than formerly. The flocks are
composed chiefly of ewes. A band under one herder is usually about 1250
ewes and their lambs. The bands vary in size from 1200 to 3000. After
the lambs are weaned, as many as 3500 ewes can go in a band. When a ewe
is too old for shearing she is fattened and sold for mutton, and the
wethers are sold when young for the same purpose. The shearing life of
a sheep is about five years.
Herders, camp tenders, shearers, and extra laborers are required on
a sheep ranch. Provisions, reading matter, and other necessities are
carried to the herders by camp tenders, who come once in several weeks.
The sheep wagon, also, is moved when necessary by the camp tender.
The work of shearing begins very early in the spring in Mexico and the
southwestern part of the United States, and gradually extends to the
north. In some states the sheep are shorn twice a year, because they
thrive better when not too heavily burdened with wool in warm weather.
There is still much carelessness in shearing, and the skin of the sheep
is often badly cut. The shearing sheds, the equipment, and the methods
of shearing and packing are crude and inadequate compared with those
of Australia. The sheds are long buildings with shafting run by a
gasoline engine. Machine shearers are placed at regular intervals (Fig.
81). The rolling and placing of the fleece are far from satisfactory.
Instead of specially constructed tables, such as are used in Australia,
the fleece is rolled on the floor or ledge, and these are frequently
dirty. Sisal strings are still used to fasten the fleeces, but paper
strings are being urged. Some of the wool packs are of jute, and the
small fibers get into the wool, which is not recognized until after
the cloth is woven. Both the sisal and jute do not take the wool dye,
therefore ugly flecks appear which have to be removed by the burlers or
final finishers. (See Chap. VI., _Burling and Mending_.)
[Illustration: FIG. 81.--MACHINE SHEARING.
Courtesy of the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company.]
The fleeces are taken to the wool packer (jamber), who sits on the top
of a framework like a very high stool. A long bag hangs down in the
middle of it, and there is a shelf at one side to hold the fleeces
handed to him. He drops them into the bags and treads them down. One
bag holds about forty fleeces, and weighs from 150 to 300 or more
pounds. In 1923 the weight of the fleece averaged 7.3 pounds, and the
shrinkage was about 59 per cent.[7] The packing of like kinds of wool
together and adequate classification of it are needed.
[7] _Annual Wool Review_ (1923) _National Association of Wool
Manufacturers_.
Better methods of branding sheep are needed. After shearing, the
owner’s name is branded on, usually with paint. As the wool grows
the name remains on the tip of the wool. The painting on of the name
is a trial to the manufacturer, for it has to be cut away or the
wool is spoiled. Better methods of marking have been suggested, for
instance the use of a soluble fluid instead of paint, so that it can be
removed readily. Sometimes the brand is placed on the best part of the
fleece, causing considerable loss, especially if carelessly made, when
drippings injure other parts of the fleece. Territory wool is apt to
have brands of paint which sometimes cause a loss of sale in the best
market.
[Illustration: FIG. 82.--POSITION OF SORTS.
From Collins’ _Woolen and Worsted Spinning_, by courtesy of the
American School of Correspondence.]
=Varieties of Wool on One Sheep.=--A fleece is far from being equal in
value in all parts (Fig. 82). It differs in length of fiber, fineness,
strength, working quality, and shrinkage. These sorts are used for
varying purposes, and bring higher or lower prices. A fleece is named
from the most representative wool on it. The best wool is on the
shoulders; the sides are next in value, and the top of the back is
similar in quality but not quite so good. The back of the sheep from
the tail down gives the coarsest wool called the britch. Under the body
the wool is short, irregular, stained, dirty, and apt to be tender. The
upper part of the neck is usually faulty in growth. The lower legs give
an inferior wool which is short and heavy with impurities. The head,
chest and neck have stiff, coarse wool, often very dirty. The fleece
of a Merino sheep is more apt to be even in value than a crossbred or
a long-haired sheep. Good wool grows on tender flesh, consequently
good wool and good mutton come from the same part of the sheep. Some
mills use only one class of wool from a fleece and sell the remainder,
whereas others can make use of the entire fleece except the skirtings.
Australia sends her wool to us with the poorer parts removed, but the
American clip is usually unskilled.
=Classifying and Grading.=--Classifying should begin on the farm or
ranch, and does in the most up-to-date ones. In some cases wool is
bought by the mill directly from the growers, but the greater amount
goes to a warehouse or some pool organized to sell the growers’ wool.
The wool is placed in bins where the buyers can see it. The warehouse
or pool aims to grade sufficiently, so that unnecessary sorting does
not have to be done at the mill. The wool is graded without untying the
fleece, according to the fineness of the wool in the bulk of it, and
the length of staple; that is, whether it is a clothing or a combing
wool. Some wool is “off grade” on account of the amount of dirt, burrs,
straws or seeds contained in it, and is termed “unmerchantable.” Tender
wool, patches of white, black or gray in it, kemped or cotted wool will
ruin the salable quality. Wool from diseased sheep is rejected. If it
were not for the grading or classifying at the warehouse, the mill
would receive much wool which it could not use and would have to sell
again.
=Variations in Characteristics and Qualities of Fiber.=--Wool fibers
differ widely in their nature. Some are short, soft, crimpy, and
covered with minute scales which usually draw together or felt in moist
heat, but at times are without the felting quality. Other wools are
long, harsh and hair-like, with only imperfectly developed scales. If
the scales are very close together the fiber is stiff, but when uneven
in growth and arrangement it is wavy or crimpy. Some wools spin to very
fine counts or numbers, whereas other wools make a coarse yarn. (See
Chap. XI, _Physiology and Structure_.) In the natural condition sheep
grow two kinds of hair, a long stiff fiber called beard, and a softer,
more crimpy fiber which is the true wool. Domestication and cultivation
eliminate the coarse fibers. There should not be coarse hairs or kemps
in the best wool. _Kemps_ are fibers with a dense, shiny appearance.
They remain uncolored in dyeing, or reflect the light differently from
other fibers, and thus make a blemish in the cloth. They are sometimes
found even in the best wool, but are more likely to appear in sheep
that have not been well bred or have lived a rough life. The kemp is
often shorter and larger than the wool in the rest of the fleece. It is
only when the environment and life of a sheep are satisfactory that the
important qualities of trueness of breed, soundness of fiber, strength,
elasticity, length, softness, and white or bright color are attained.
=Properties of Wool.=--_Absorption of Moisture._ Wool is very
hygroscopic, that is, it is capable of slowly absorbing a large amount
of moisture, and holding it between its cells and in the very center of
the cells. Under ordinary conditions it takes in between 12 to 17 per
cent of its weight, but when exposed to very damp air it will absorb
as much as 30 to 50 per cent. Those who wear great coats of wool have
perhaps noted the increase of weight when they have been exposed to a
very damp atmosphere. The weight of a given amount of wool will vary
under different conditions, which will affect the price. Deceit can be
practiced so that a higher price may be obtained for the wool, hence
conditioning houses have been opened in wool centers where the wool can
be tested. The standard weight of a given lot of wool can be found and
also the condition of the wool.
_Felting or Shrinking._ The outer layer of the wool fiber consists
of flattened scales (cells). In some kinds of wool they are very
numerous. These project outward and overlap each other; they are called
serrations and are composed of gelatinous material which softens under
heat and moisture. This characteristic is made use of in some classes
of goods which are felted and later finished by napping and shearing,
making a satiny surface to the cloth as in broadcloth. The cloth is
loosely woven and in the fulling mill may contract 30 per cent to 50
per cent in length and 75 per cent to 80 per cent in width. The fabrics
are not usually shrunk more than 15 per cent to 25 per cent. Merino
wool is in demand for making felted cloths.
_Grease, Suint, and Foreign Matter._ Natural grease, called yolk, is on
the wool fiber, which keeps it from matting together on the live sheep.
The grease comes from glands in the skin around the hair follicle and
is insoluble in water. Some wools are so full of grease and dirt that
they lose heavily in weight when scoured. The absence of grease in wool
comes from poor vitality in the sheep--from old age, lack of food, or
disease. Cotted or matted wool is of little worth commercially. Suint
or dried perspiration is also found along with grease. It contains
potash salts which are valuable, and efforts are made to save them in
the cleansing tanks. They are soluble in water.
_Shrinkage._ The amount of loss in weight due to the removal of foreign
matter in scouring wool is important to know, and very difficult
to estimate. The term “shrinkage” has been given, but must not be
confused with the quality of felting or shrinking (drawing up in a
warm moist atmosphere) which is inherent in many short staple wools.
The fine grades of wool generally lose more weight than the coarser.
The loss varies from 25 per cent to 80 per cent in the wools in the
United States. (See Appendix, Section II.) Wool is bought usually “in
the grease” (that is, the wool is as it was on the sheep’s back), but
the price paid for it is based upon the buyer’s estimate of the weight
it will be after scouring. The method is increasing in England, when
the wool arrives at a warehouse and is graded, to send a sample to a
conditioning house in order to have the shrinkage determined by testing
it. (See Chap. VIII, _Conditioning_.) The weight of a given lot in
the grease is found, the wool is scoured and again weighed. Shrinkage
tables have been worked out to aid buyers, by which if their estimate
of shrinkage is correct, they can tell what price the wool should be.
_Luster._ The scales of some wools are regular and smooth, and fit
together closely, reflecting the light. The long staple wools have
this quality more than the short staple. By the use of chlorine an
artificial gloss can be given. (See Chap. XII, _Chlorinated Wool_.)
Careless breeding decreases the luster in wool ordinarily bright.
_Softness or Pliability._ In the Merino and other fine wool sheep
the scales fit closely and have projecting points. The fiber is very
pliable and soft in feel.
_Affinity for Dyes._ (See Chap. XIII.) Wool has affinity for dyes in
general. It is dyed in stock, in the slub, in the yarn, and in the
piece. In wools containing kemps the dyeing is unsatisfactory, for the
kemp does not take the dye. Some wools have black hairs appearing at
intervals, which injures the appearance of the dyed cloth.
_Tensile Strength._ Wool is high in tensile strength, although the
quality varies in different parts of the fleece, in different classes
of wool, and with the size of the fiber.
_Elasticity._ Natural wool is very elastic, as may be noted if a lot
of it in the raw state is pressed in the hand. Elasticity adds to the
strength of cloth, and to its comfort as a covering for the body, but
this quality is impaired by careless manufacture or laundering. An
instrument called the dynamometer or cloth tester is used to test wool
for strength and elasticity.
_Electricity and Heat._ Wool is a good generator of electricity
and a poor conductor of both heat and electricity. It is excellent
for clothing where warmth is needed, for the heat of the body is
not carried away as rapidly as it is in some other textiles. High
temperatures make wool harsh and brittle. Heat makes the wool fiber
expand, and moist heat causes the fibers lying near each other to felt
together. (See Chap. XV.)
_Color._ Wools that will scour white are in demand. It is this quality
which the buyer is looking for in wool for the best uses. Wools yellow
with grease and yolk are not desirable, for they are whitened with
difficulty. If packed damp, they are apt to become yellowish from mold,
and the value for manufacture is lessened. Some soils stain the wool
and the color is hard to remove.
=Classification of Wools.=--There are, it is stated, about two hundred
breeds of sheep, and the wools from them are graded according to
diameter and length of fiber. For tariff purposes foreign wools,
imported into the United States, are classified, according to the breed
of sheep, into three groups:--
_Class I._ _Clothing Wools_, also called carding wools, are the
short-staple fibers from full-bred Merino sheep (Fig. 79) or the higher
crossbreds (one-half to five-eighths blood). These wools come largely
from Australia, New Zealand, and the western and central part of the
United States. They are carded and spun on the mule frame, and the
appearance of the yarn is soft, fuzzy, and lofty. The woven or knit
cloth is frequently felted or shrunk so the weave is obliterated.
Reworked wool stock is frequently used in blends for these cloths. The
fabrics called woolens are soft, elastic, dull in finish and may be
very enduring. Typical woolens are tweeds, cassimeres, and broadcloths.
_Class II._ _Combing Wools_, often called staple, are long, hair-like
wools coming from British sheep such as the Lincoln, Leicester,
Cotswold, and other sheep; the lower crossbreds (one-half to
one-quarter blood); the camel, the Alpaca, Angora goat, and other like
animals. These wools come from Great Britain, South America, the United
States, and other countries. They are carded and also combed until the
fibers are parallel, and twisted closely on the upright spinning frame.
The appearance of the yarn is smooth, hard and bright. The cloth,
called worsted, is usually unfelted, showing the weave more or less
distinctly. The appearance is firm, the pattern clear and the wear may
be excellent. As wool is not plentiful, some of the third class, or
carpet wools, are at times blended to reduce the price.
Under the head of worsteds is now included another class of combed
wools, for the invention of special machinery (the French or Heilman
comb) has made possible the combing of the shorter or clothing wools.
Staple under 2.5 inches can now be combed, and the longer clothing
wools and the shorter combing wools are taken for this purpose. The
term “French Combing” is applied in the market to half blood or higher
quality wools--the length of fiber being about 1¹⁄₂ inches, whereas the
length of the long combing is 2¹⁄₂ inches or longer.
_Class III._ _Carpet Wools_ include many varieties of coarse, long
wools. They are imported from China, Turkey, and other eastern
countries. Inferior sorts in the Combing and Clothing classes are also
entered under Carpet Wools. Some of the coarser domestic wools are used
for this purpose, but, in general, the United States imports its Class
III wools. The stock is used principally for carpets, rugs, and other
floor covering, although at times it is used in worsted suitings. It
is combed before spinning, hence is a worsted yarn.
=Other Market Classifications.=--The following classifications are also
used in the United States market:--
_Domestic Wool._ This term is employed to cover those wools grown on
farms east of the Rocky Mountains.
_Fleeces._ Wools grown in the eastern central part of the country
(Ohio and adjacent states). They are largely fine wools, 2.5 inches
in length, free from dust and dirt. The term Delaine is used when the
staple is over three inches in length. This class of wool is used
largely in the French system of spinning for high priced dress goods,
flannels, crêpes, and Bedford cords.
_Territory Wool_ is used for wools grown in the western part of the
country. This term includes many varieties of wool, fine and coarse,
such as the pure blood Merino and various crossbreds. The Texas,
California, Oregon, Arizona, and New Mexican wools are often listed
under the name of the state and not under “Territory Wool.”
_Merino Wool_ is short, fine, crimpy, and covered with fine scales
or serrations. (See _Wool- and Hair-Bearing Animals_.) It is full of
electricity. The best wool in the fleece is carded for fine woolens
such as broadcloths, or if long enough, is used in French Combing for
voiles and soft dress goods. The next grade is used in blends for
less expensive dress goods, and the lower grades and “skirts” are
often combined with cotton and used for cheaper fabrics. Some of the
Australian and the Saxony (Germany) Merino wool spins to 80s and above,
but 64s to 74s is as high as the American wool usually spins. It is
used for both carding and combing, according to its length.
_Crossbred Wool._ The market terms to indicate the fineness of the wool
are in fractions, such as one-half blood, which spins to 58s or 60s,
and is used for worsteds and serges; three-eighths blood, which spins
to 50s or 56s, and one-quarter blood. The words high or low are often
used to indicate finer or coarser; for instance, low one-quarter blood
spins from 40s to 44s, but high one-quarter blood spins from 46s to
50s. The fractional terms refer to fineness rather than to an actual
count of Merino blood content. Crossbred wools below one-quarter blood
are about twelve inches in length, and are fairly strong, lustrous, and
harsh; the felting qualities are low. The wool is used in mackinaws,
friezes, carpets, and sweaters. The medium crossbreds of one-quarter
to three-eighths blood have wool of fair felting quality, which is
strong, lustrous, and soft, and is about ten inches in length. The fine
crossbreds of three-quarter and one-half blood are about six inches or
less in length and are soft, strong, fair in luster, and felt well. The
wool is used in underwear, fine worsteds, and woolens. The crossbred
wool has less electricity and oil in it than the Merino.
_Braid or Luster Wool_ is obtained largely from pure-bred, long-haired
English sheep, the length of the wool being from 4¹⁄₂ to 12 inches. The
wool is lustrous, for the coarse, smooth fibers reflect the light. It
spins 36s to 44s.
_British Sheep_ have long and medium, coarse, glossy, hair-like wool
which spins 36s to 40s. The Lincoln, Leicester, Shropshire, Cotswold,
and Southdown are examples.
_Britch Wool_ is coarse wool from the hind quarters of the sheep. It is
broken and unsatisfactory.
_Tag Locks_ are broken pieces of wool, mill sweepings or fragments of
inferior wool.
_In Grease and Scoured._ These terms indicate the condition of the
wool. If in grease, the fleece is dusty and dirty, and weighs from
thirty per cent to sixty per cent more than if scoured. If washed on
the ranch, the wool is sometimes brittle on arriving at the warehouse,
on account of the loss of grease. Before the buyer purchases, it is
important that he estimate the amount of shrinkage that is apt to occur
in the scouring. (See _Shrinkage_.)
_Skirting_ is removing from the fleece the less desirable parts, such
as the neck, belly, legs, and the low qualities of the britch.
=Varieties of Fabrics.=--The shorter, softer wools are covered with
minute scales or serrations, which draw together when subjected to
moisture, heat, and friction. This quality, called felting, is utilized
in some classes of goods such as broadcloths and kerseys, which have
a closely matted surface in which warp and woof are obliterated. The
longer, more hair-like wools have little of the felting quality, and
are used to make very different cloths in which the weave is distinct.
Fancy yarns are made to use for filling, and cotton and silk are
variously combined with wool. The wool industry, therefore, includes
many varied fabrics of which the following are representative:
(1) Cloth, frequently felted, made from short staple, soft, dull,
loosely twisted yarn of carded wool (see carding). Homespuns, tweeds,
wool cheviots, some pile goods, blankets and some flannels show the
weave, although softened by the short fibers standing on the surface.
Meltons, kerseys, cassimeres, mackinaws, friezes and pilot or polo
cloth are illustrations of the felted class in which the weave does
not show. These fabrics are called _woolens_ and are excellent
wearing materials when well made. Many overcoatings are woolens and
are frequently double cloth. Woolen yarns are used largely also in
knit goods, in hosiery, sweaters, scarfs, and Jersey cloth. Noils,
machine wastes, and reworked wool are blended with new wool or used by
themselves in woolens, as the short fibers are adapted to the machines.
Cotton also is blended with them. Excellent fabrics are thus made at a
lower price than if made of all new wool.
(2) Cloth made from carefully combed, usually lustrous, hair-like wools
spun into smooth, more or less tightly twisted yarn and woven into
such fabrics as corkscrews, hard serges, suitings, clays, diagonals,
and gabardine. The term _worsted_ is applied to these fabrics. The
weave is distinct, and the “feel” smooth and hard. Some of the worsted
cloths are slightly felted to give the surface a softened appearance,
as in unfinished worsteds. The soft finished cloths are not quite as
enduring as the hard. The latter, however, are apt to develop a shine
where the surface is subjected to any friction. The English or Bradford
system of spinning is used for the hard worsteds. These cloths are, in
general, more popular in the United States than woolens, but fashion
sometimes decrees the use of the latter. Reworked wool cannot be used
in worsteds, for the machines are not adjusted to the short length. The
better carpet wools are sometimes used in worsteds to lower the price,
and cotton warps are found in some fabrics for the same purpose.
(3) Another variety of worsted cloth is made from combed, short staple
wool. The method is called French Combing on account of the country of
its origin. The yarn is spun on the mule frame, and is soft, lofty, and
smooth. The hard worsteds are spun on the upright frame. The French
combed yarns are used for classes of dress goods which drape softly,
and in some knit goods. Soft finished serges, tricotines, challies, and
wool crêpes are made from this yarn.
(4) Novelties. Fabrics are often made of worsted warp and woolen
filling; some broadcloths are thus constructed. Silk yarns are inserted
at intervals to give attractive effects to other cloths. Fancy yarns
are made with knots or irregularities which give the material a flecked
appearance. Special machines give different surfaces to the cloth,
such as in embossed plush or in chinchilla. Silk and wool poplins and
flannels are manufactured for dress goods and shirtings.
(5) Knit Goods. Cloth and overcoatings are knit of woolen or worsted
yarns. Sometimes these are napped to give pile effects. They wear well
and are less expensive than woven goods of the same weight. (See Chap.
V, _Knit Goods_.)
(6) Union Goods. Some varieties of cloth have cotton one way, usually
in the warp. Alpaca and brilliantine are examples of this. Many serges
have a cotton warp. When these are cheaply made the dye does not always
hold well and the material will cockle, if not well crabbed. (See Chap.
VII, _Finishes_.) Shepherd plaids often have cotton both ways of the
goods, alternating with the wool. Pin-striped worsteds have the colored
stripe of cotton in lower priced goods. Gloria for umbrella covers is
made of cotton and wool. Silk noils and rayon waste are also used to
give “feel” or brightness with some classes of wool dress goods.
(7) Floor coverings and upholstery are made of worsted yarn and woolen
yarn is often used for the filling. Some upholstery materials have a
backing of linen, jute or cotton yarn. Brussels carpet has a loop face
of worsted yarn and a linen back. The cutting of these loops makes a
velvet-like surface as in Wilton carpets. Plushes made of hair-like
wool are used in automobiles and railroad service.
(8) Pile Fabrics. Velvet and plush effects for cloakings are made like
Brussels and Wilton carpets, with an extra warp or filling yarn over a
backing of wool or of another fiber. (See Chap. IV, _Special Fabrics_.)
The pile may be cut or uncut. Bolivia is a pile fabric with the extra
surface yarn in the filling.
(9) Napped Fabrics. The terms pile and nap are often used
interchangeably, but the processes are different. A napped cloth is
woven like a melton or broadcloth of woolen yarn, the pile is raised
and shorn to any length desired. Velour is a napped cloth, but the term
is often used to cover pile fabrics also.
(10) Felt. This cloth is used for industrial purposes of many kinds
rather than for clothing. Masses of wool fibers are pressed and felted
together with or without being woven. The fabric may be hard and
boardlike or elastic and soft.
=Pulled Wool, By-Products of Wool, and Substitutes for Wool.=--The
world’s wool supply is insufficient to make all of the cloth demanded,
consequently new wool in the raw state is costly and wastes from the
industry and substitutes for wool are used, that cloth may be sold at
a price within the means of the majority of people. Cloth prices are
high, and will continue so all over the world, for economic reasons,
yet this fabric is absolutely essential for warmth and endurance.
It has been stated that if the world’s new wool supply were divided
evenly among those who are, for climatic reasons, obliged to wear it,
there would be for each about enough to make a modern bathing suit.
That is, fourteen ounces would be the individual portion, whereas the
usual per capita amount runs into many pounds. Few could afford to wear
this valuable textile if it were not for the use of by-products and
substitutes, thus supplementing the wool supply and reducing the price
of cloth. Wool wastes are seldom used without being blended with new
wool, cotton, or pulled wool. Cotton at the present time costs more
than some wool wastes. Cloth containing reworked wool sells at lower
prices than when made of new wool.
The manufacture of reworked wool began in the United States about 1850,
although it had started in England a quarter of a century before. It
was well received in this country, and, before many years had passed,
there were a number of establishments engaged in this work. The use of
wastes has proved an economic blessing. During the great war the United
States saved $1,000,000 a month by its system of reclaiming equipment
left on the battle fields or at the billets, and the saving of wool
by-products was an important part of this reclamation.
The following fibers are used in the wool industry in addition to new
shorn wool:
=Pulled Wool= is removed from the pelts of dead sheep. It is a
by-product of the slaughtering houses, and pulleries are conducted
by these houses. The wool is removed from the skin by one of three
processes: sweating, lime, and depilatory; the latter being preferred
because it causes less injury to the skin and to the wool. The most
important pulleries in the United States are in Chicago, St. Louis,
New York City, Kansas City, and St. Joseph. The chief center of this
industry is at Mazamet, France; pelts being shipped there from all
over the world. Pulled wool is inferior to fleece wool of equal grade
and origin. It is deficient in spinning and dyeing qualities. The yarn
lacks elasticity. The fiber is of various lengths and grades, as all
varieties of sheep are slaughtered for meat. Very short stapled wool
from sheep that have been slaughtered shortly after shearing is called
“shearlings.” It is used largely in the making of felts and hats.
Pulled wool is classed with both combing and clothing wool, according
to its condition. It is used in low grade cloth, blankets, soft twist
knitting yarn, felts and hats. It is not closely graded, but is
classified as AA, A, B, and C. It is listed with new shorn wool.
[Illustration: FIG. 83.--_A_, BURR WASTE. _B_, NOILS. _C_, CARD STRIPS.]
=By-Products of Wool.= (Fig. 83)--Mill wastes are utilized by blending
them with new wool, and a regular business is conducted in buying
and selling them. Some of them are used in the mills where they are
made, by returning them to former machines to pass through again. The
following are listed on the market: _Soft wastes_, which come from
various machines preceding the spinning; fly and burr waste, woolen and
worsted card waste are representative. These sell at the same price as
scoured wool of an equal quality. _Hard wastes_ are yarns and hard ends
from spinning and winding frames and from looms. They are put through
a Garnet machine to release the fiber. Worsted yarns yield excellent
wastes which are used in the woolen industry. _Noils_ are short fibers
discarded from the comb in the worsted industry. The long combed fiber
is called “top,” which is spun into worsted yarn, while the noils are
used in the woolen industry. This is a very desirable product. _Flocks_
are short ends from the gigging or napping machine. The product was
formerly much used to give weight to the back of fulled cloths such as
melton and broadcloth. They are used largely in flock wall paper.
=Reworked Wool (Shoddy)= (Fig. 84) is fiber reclaimed from worsteds,
softly woven woolens, or knit goods, by reducing the cloth to fiber
again in a shoddy picker. Much unjust prejudice is felt against this
worthy product, for which the term “shoddy” is largely to blame. The
average consumer, who is ignorant concerning wool manufacture, believes
it to be a worthless, weak material masquerading as wool. It is also
asserted that it comes from filthy places and is not wholesome. These
statements are false, for reworked wool is taken largely from new clips
of cloth from ready-to-wear establishments, and is “all wool.” The
United States only uses the best classes of it, whether imported or
coming from this country. All vegetable matter is carbonized out, so
the product is a little shorter and weaker than it was originally, but
may be much stronger and more satisfactory than many kinds of new wool.
It is absolutely clean and sanitary. Far from being worthless, it is
extremely valuable, and enables the consumer to obtain warm, enduring,
attractive cloth at much less expense than if it were all new wool.
The untrained consumer does not realize how much broken, short, and
filthy wool comes from the sheep (so-called “virgin” wool), which is
cleansed with soap and water. So weak is some of the “virgin” wool
that reworked wool is added to it to strengthen it. The term “reworked
wool” better describes the fiber than “shoddy.” “Reclaimed wool” and
“regenerated wool” are also used. In France, where it is much used, it
is called “renaissance wool,” meaning reborn. The use of reworked wool
is comparable to the service of scrap iron or scrap rubber, both of
which have a permanent and accepted place in industry, and are valuable
additions to the comfort and economy of the world. The United States
exports its poorest rags and mungo to other countries, and imports rags
of high quality. This can be seen by the market prices for each. The
average value of exported rags in 1924 was 6.6 cents per pound, but for
imported rags it was 24 cents per pound.[8] The price of new wool is
much higher even for poor grades. The amount of reworked wool used in
comparison with new wool is said to be about one of the former to six
of the latter. The United States demands fumigation of all rags that
come from the East, to safeguard against the possibility of infection.
These rags are less apt to be in good condition than the European.
[8] _Annual Wool Review of National Association of Wool
Manufacturers_, March, 1925.
[Illustration: FIG. 84.--REWORKED WOOL FROM SWEATER MATERIAL.]
Reworked wool is used in woolens but not in worsteds. Short staple
fiber is used in the former, and the woolen machinery is adapted to
it. This is not the case with worsted machinery, which can only take
a longer fiber. The people of the United States, in general, show a
preference for worsteds, although, at times, fashion favors the use
of woolens in flannels, tweeds, and homespuns. As a matter of fact,
more than half of the manufactured cloths are worsteds, and a large
percentage of the woolens have no content of reworked wool. Reworked
wool is employed in the woolen industry, among other reasons, to reduce
price, to produce heather mixtures, to save the price of dyeing, to
form the plaid backing of heavy coatings, to add strength and “feel” to
weak, harsh new wool, and to make warm rugs and blankets. The better
classes of reworked wool give a softer and more pleasing product than
many classes of new wool.
The method of preparing rags and clips for use is sanitary. This is
done largely in special establishments, although some mills prepare
their own. The following processes are usual: _Sorting_ according to
grade and color. The rags are carefully looked over for cotton, and
those containing silk must be separated, for if they go into the all
wool stock the cloth made from it will show the silk on account of its
brightness. White and colored rags are kept in separate lots and sold
to manufacturers, thereby saving dyestuffs and processes of dyeing.
_Carbonizing_ is done chemically, as it is necessary to destroy all
cotton, burrs, and dirt. The system has been based on the general fact
that acids will destroy vegetable matter and caustic alkalies will
destroy animal matter. The finishing or dyeing of the original cloth
must be taken into account, inasmuch as in the processes used there
may have been left a preponderance of acid or alkali. Many methods
have been tried, but the sulphuric acid process is most generally in
use. This destroys all vegetable matter, and leaves the wool in its
previous condition as to serrations, feel, and other qualities. (Chap.
XIII, _Carbonizing_.) _Drying_ the rags follows, first by a whizzer
(hydro-extractor), and then in a drying chamber, in which the heat is
intense enough to destroy the vegetable matter but not the wool. The
rags are now crisp and the vegetable matter is in the form of dust,
which is removed by a willow or duster such as is used for cleaning
other raw material. _Washing_ in a solution of soda ash by a special
machine removes any remaining dust and makes the fiber absolutely
sanitary.
Men’s blue, black, and brown cloths are usually fast dyes, and the
carbonization processes have little effect on the color. After they are
reduced to fiber they are sold to manufacturers to be combined with
dyed wool. One color may be used, or a number of colors may be made
into yarn for heather mixtures. Women’s dress goods are lighter in
weight and brighter in color and are apt to fade in the carbonizing.
The color may be stripped from them, or they may be redyed before the
picker is used. White goods, after carbonization, are passed directly
to the shoddy picker.
The method of reducing the clips and rags to fiber again is by means
of a machine called a “shoddy picker,” which has a revolving cylinder
covered with spikes which catch the cloth and reduce it to a soft,
short mass. It is said that five hundred or more varieties of cloth are
made use of in the industry. In a very general way it may be stated
that the following are found on the market: (1) Trimmings, clippings,
and left over scraps of new material accumulating in tailoring and
garment making establishments and head and end pieces from the looms
(headings). (2) Soft woolens (loosely woven cloth and knit goods
which are unfelted). (3) Skirted goods (suits, coats and cloaks of
hard twisted worsted), and (4) rough cloth, the latter being used
principally for roofing felts and wall papers. The term “shoddy” is
sometimes used to cover Mungo and Extract wool also. _Mungo_ (Fig.
130) is fiber reclaimed from hard felted and hard woven cloths. It is
considered low grade and is largely exported, but is sometimes used
in cheap, heavy blankets. _Extract_ wool is fiber from cloth which has
had some content of cotton. The cotton is carbonized before the wool is
used.
It cannot be honestly stated that reworked wool is always weaker than
new wool, for the latter is frequently more lacking in strength than
the reworked wool. The strength of the cloth depends principally on the
way it has been constructed and finished. (See Chap. XVI, _Endurance of
Cloth_.) The felting of reworked wool makes it a very enduring fabric.
It is usually combined with new wool or with wastes, pulled wool or
noils, the blend worked out for each piece of cloth being the result
of long experience in the mills. These blends are highly valued. They
sometimes contain a number of component materials given in percentages.
The following is representative of the content of a cloth, the
percentages being omitted: Green Yarn: (1) Green Extract Wool; (2) Dark
Green Extract Wool (the extracts 1 and 2 are made from Delaine rags,
the cotton being extracted to make the fiber all wool); (3) Russian
Wool, Green; (4) China Scoured Green (3 and 4 are scoured and dyed to a
shade in the ordinary process of scouring and dyeing). These are mixed
together and passed through the card and form a green yarn. Thus the
price of dyes and dyeing is saved.
The occupations connected with the collection and preparation of rags
for reworked wool have become important. New York City is a center for
the clothing trades, and many men and women are occupied in the rag
industry. Old clothing, rags, and new clips from the ready-to-wear
workrooms are collected. The buttons and seams are cut from the
clothing, the cloth is graded according to color and quality, and sold
in lots. Rag markets are held in many countries. Batley and Dewsbury,
England, are the very center of the reworked wool production. A high
degree of skill is used in the making of fabrics composed partly or
entirely of reworked wool. Great endurance and a fine appearance are
attained. This cloth is imported into as well as manufactured in this
country, for the mass of the people need inexpensive yet strong and
attractive materials.
=Substitutes for Wool= are used in cloth manufacture as well as wool
by-products. Expense is reduced and strength is also added. Cotton is
used frequently as warp in some fabrics, such as cotton warp serge,
alpaca, and mohair. Blankets and some yarns are made of part wool.
The so-called Merino underwear is part cotton, the yarn having both
fibers in it. There is an advantage in combining cotton with wool in
underwear, for it lessens the shrinkage and is more hygienic. Silk
noils are also combined with wool to give feel to harsh wool. Reeled
silk is also employed with wool in novelty goods, the silk often
appearing on the surface.
=Summary of Wool Production.=--Statistics concerning the wool supply
cannot be taken very literally, as they are made up largely from
estimates. The entire wool production is given as 2,720,070,400
pounds.[9] (See _Statistics of Wool Industry_, in Appendix, Sections
I-IV.)
[9] _Annual Report of National Association of Wool Manufacturers_,
1925.
_Australasia_ is first in production, giving a large part of the wool
of the world. Australia has the main supply. The aggregate capital in
wool growing is estimated at more than one billion dollars. Tasmania
and New Zealand also produce sheep and handle the wool with great care.
The crossbred sheep is largely grown in the latter country, for it has
a large business in frozen meat, and this sheep is valuable for both
mutton and wool.
_Europe_ was second in wool production in 1924. Spain is the original
producer of the Merino brand of sheep. The industry has declined in
value, but since 1918 has been improving, and in 1924 that country
stood third in Europe. Russia was estimated to have the largest clip in
1924, but her production is principally coarse wools used in the carpet
industry. The Donskoi sheep has long straight wool. The camel’s hair
is used for coarse yarns and bagging. _Great Britain_ is the second in
the European industry. Many long-haired breeds of sheep are produced
which are especially valuable in the worsted industry. _Germany_ has
produced some notable sheep, but has not a large production. The Saxony
gives one of the finest wools in the world, spinning to 80’s and above.
The _French_ sheep are carefully tended and yield a fine wool, for
which good prices are obtained. They run on high-priced land and the
cost of production is greater than in England, but the industry is said
to be more profitable. The French Rambouillet sheep are a factor in the
French combed yarns, and in the success of France in high-priced dress
goods. They are popular in the United States, and are found especially
in the range states. They are imported also into other countries. They
yield a heavier fleece than the American Merino. The sheep industry is
not increasing in France. The _Balkan States_ are producing much wool,
the sheep being valued for milk as well as for mutton and wool.
_South America_ was third in wool production in 1924. Argentina,
Uruguay, and southern Chile are the main wool states. Brazil and Terra
del Fuego also raise sheep. The wools vary in grade from very coarse to
a moderately fine Merino.[10] The Australian paddock system and also
the method of skirting the fleece are used. A native type of sheep,
the Lincoln, Romney Marsh, Downs, and numerous crossbreds are found.
The flocks are little disturbed by wild animals, and few herders are
required on account of the fencing. South America is not likely soon to
become agricultural. The cost of keeping sheep is little more than in
Australia. Wool manufacturing began in Argentina during the world war
on account of the high cost of imported cloth. The Alpaca, Vicuña, and
Llama are closely related in type and are native in Peru and Bolivia.
[10] _Bulletin National Association of Wool Manufacturers_, April,
1924.
_North America_ came fourth in production in 1924, the United States
being the chief producer. The growing of sheep began early, the first
Merino sheep being imported in 1801. As the country developed the
industry passed from the East to the great ranches of the West. Ohio
and adjacent states still rely largely on wool production. Some of the
other states are growing sheep and lambs for breeding purposes, and
still other states are feeding lambs for mutton. The “feeder” sheep,
purchased in the autumn, are healthy western sheep, but too thin for
meat. They are put into the fields to feed on the stubble, and are
excellent for clearing land.
More than half of the sheep of the United States are in the Rocky
Mountains and on the Pacific Coast. In many parts of the West pure bred
flocks are maintained, and Merino, Rambouillet, Cotswold, Lincoln,
Hampshire, and Oxfords are found.
On the 600,000 or more ranches or farms there are more than a million
workers in the sheep industry. The pulleries employ about 1000 workers,
and in 1918 the rag, noils, and waste industries had 5500 at work.[11]
Because conditions surrounding the growing of sheep differ greatly,
the costs also vary greatly. The Southwest has suffered less from
the scarcity and high price of land than other sections, but has had
to spend much on wells and reservoirs. Flockmasters are questioning
whether sheep husbandry is as profitable as other farm production,
but there are undoubted possibilities of success if the millions of
acres of land, which cannot be used for other purposes, are developed.
A study of the best way to keep small flocks on farms should result
satisfactorily, as it has in England. The cultivation of forage crops
for the sheep and also for sale is receiving attention. The costs
in the middle west are the highest, but the economic justification
offered is that much of the land is only fit for grazing, is not
adapted for dairy farming, but must be kept in pasture to prevent
erosions.
[11] Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1919.
_Canadian Wools_ (included in the estimate for North America), are
largely shorn from English long-haired breeds. They are used in the
United States for combed yarns for worsteds. Merinos and crossbreds are
also produced. The Canadian output for 1923 was 15,112,000 pounds.
_South Africa_, once indifferent to wool breeding, is becoming one of
the great wool-producing countries of the world. The main yield is
from the Union of South Africa, which includes the Cape of Good Hope,
Natal, Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal. The sheep are varied in
type, but the Merino is dominant. The Rambouillet endures well the dry
district in the Cape Province, but the Wanganella (a medium Merino) is
the most popular, for it is more profitable for the majority of the
wool growers. The farmers are being educated in the proper culling
and grading of the sheep, and many Australian methods are followed.
Some British breeds are imported, and the crossbred sheep are becoming
familiar. The production of mohair from the Angora goat is important.
_Asiatic wools_ belong principally to the carpet wool type (see
_Classification of Wool_, above). The United States depends on Asia,
especially China, for wool for our carpet and rug industries. The
Bactrian camel in the interior of Asia Minor is valued for its hair,
which is shipped to China. The Karakul sheep are natives of Bokhara in
Central Asia. The great value is in the pelts obtained from very young
lambs, for the wool is then in very close curl. The skins are used
for fur garments and muffs, the grades being known as Persian Lamb,
Astrakhan, and Broadtail. The color is black. About 1,500,000 lamb
skins are exported from Bokhara yearly. The sheep has a black face and
long, coarse fleece, which is classed as carpet wool. The production
of this sheep has been successful in the United States. _Cashmere
wool_ comes from Tibet and the Himalayan Mountains. The fleece has
long, glossy outer hairs and a soft under down of wool which is shed
or combed from the goat in springtime. It is silky to the touch and
grayish in color. The down hair is used in making the noted Cashmere
and India shawls.
=Wool Marketing.=--Selling the wool clip at auction is practiced
largely in some wool-growing countries. The London sales occur every
two months and govern the wool prices of the world. Wools from India
are sold at Liverpool auctions and some South American wools are sold
at open sales in Antwerp. Hamburg, Bremen, Havre, and Marseilles also
have auctions. The bulk of the Australian wool is sold at Sidney,
Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Geelong. The growers find it
advantageous to sell in the home market, for there are fewer charges
for freight, insurance, storage, and dock than when sending to England.
They also get their money for the clip sooner. New Zealand and Tasmania
sell their wool largely in Australia. Dealers from all over the world
attend the Australian sales. The wool is placed in well lighted
warehouses in which the buyer can easily judge the quality. Catalogs
are provided, leaving space for entering personal opinions and maximum
prices. Some of the Australian growers send their clips to the London
auctions. Australia puts up its wool honestly and sells to the highest
bidder. The London auctions are conducted in a similar way.
Auction sales have been tried in the United States, but have not
yet taken firm root. After the war the Federal Government disposed
of its wool stores by auction. The wool growers sell their wool in
several ways--to buyers from wool merchants or large mills; to local
dealers; by consignment to commission houses; direct to mills in the
neighborhood, or to farmers’ coöperative agencies. The bulk of the
clip is sold to wool merchants. The centers are Boston, Philadelphia,
Chicago, New York, St. Louis, and Louisville. Boston is the principal
wool market. Large warehouses where the wool is stored are maintained
in the centers. The wool merchants in these cities send their buyers
west about the shearing season to visit ranches and shearing sheds.
Local representatives of large manufacturers also go west to buy, thus
competing with the merchants in purchasing the clip. Wool is sometimes
contracted for on the sheep’s back. According to the need of the house
he represents, the buyer considers the following:--What will the
shrinkage be? Is the color satisfactory? Will the fiber spin to the
desired count? Is the length and strength of the staple adequate to the
purpose? Has the fiber the requisite “feel”? Will it dye well?
An accurate estimation marks the capable buyer. The manufacturer has
special needs. He may make both woolens and worsteds, in which case he
may need many varieties of wools and may use the entire fleece except
the skirtings. If a clip does not give the exact qualities needed the
buyer may have to select two wools which when blended are satisfactory.
Buyers also attend the London and Australian auctions, importing large
quantities of foreign wools. Efforts are made at times to eliminate
the merchant in order to reduce expense. He is the middleman between
the grower and the manufacturer, and often a speculator in wool. Wool
growers, dissatisfied with the way their product has been marketed,
have heretofore known little about grading. They are often at the mercy
of the buyers. Courses of instruction in wool economics are being
given at the state colleges to overcome this ignorance. Since the war
there has been a significant growth in coöperative wool pooling and
selling on the part of the growers. Groups of mills have also united in
employing one buyer to go direct to the grower, thus saving expense.
The fluctuations in the price of wools come from many causes, such
as supply and demand, conditions attending former sales, unsettled
national conditions, tariff discussions, unfavorable seasons, costs and
difficulties of transportation, costs of services and the handling and
commissions. For a table giving some comparative changes of prices per
pound before and after the war, see Appendix, Section III.
Market terms for designating wool differ in various countries. A table
in the Appendix, Section IV, shows some of the grades used. In the
counts of yarn, 30’s is very coarse and over 80’s is very fine. The
standard of worsted yarn is 60’s in the United States; the equivalent
in foreign (the top makers’ system) is 66s to 74s.
International wool standards are greatly needed, but the establishment
of them is no easy matter.[12] Negotiations are in progress between
special committees in the United States and members of the wool
industry in Great Britain that may lead to a common understanding
with regard to preparing such grades. A uniform classification will
“facilitate international trading and prevent misunderstandings.” The
quality terms used in England and the Colonial trade are felt by many
in the United States to have advantages.
[12] _Bull. Natl. Assoc. Wool Manufacturers_, Oct., 1923, page 523.
CHAPTER VII
WOOLEN AND WORSTED--MANUFACTURE
It has been said that the manufacture of wool requires more brains
than other industries. From the beginning of the mill processes to the
turning out of the finished product conditions may arise to injure the
cloth and reduce profits. The one responsible for the result must have
a practical knowledge of mechanics, of chemistry, and of design, color,
and weaves. He must know the workable qualities and characteristics of
both foreign and domestic wools, that he may select the right kind,
condition, and color for his varied purposes. He must have experience
in selecting by-products and substitutes, such as cotton, rayon, and
other fibers, to combine with the new wools, that his blends may be
satisfactory, and that the best results in cloth at the lowest price
may be obtained. Having selected his raw stock, he must be on the alert
in the various processes of manufacture to see that the wool shows the
right reactions and results. Each step, from the raw stock through the
preparatory processes, the spinning, weaving, and finishing, has its
special difficulties, by which the product may be weakened or marred.
Machinery must be watched, or some trifling lack of adjustment will
cause it to wear out too rapidly. Oil stains, difficult to eliminate
from wool, may occur through carelessness. Wool requires a humid,
warm atmosphere, or the natural electricity becomes too high, yet it
is hard to maintain the best condition without expensive apparatus.
Dangerous dust and gases must be removed for the protection of the
workers. Ventilation must be constantly considered, new labor-saving
devices tried, and all waste and by-products from the machinery must
be utilized to the best advantage. The superintendent must be keen as
to efficiency and economy at every turn, yet must make a product which
will please a fickle market.
[Illustration: FIG. 85.--SLIVER OF WOOL AND WORSTED.
_A_, Wool. _B_, Worsted.]
=Woolen and Worsted Spinning.=--(See Chap. II, _Modern Spinning
Frames_.) The preparatory processes for both woolen and worsted yarns
are similar (see Chap. VI, _Varieties of Fabrics_), the machines used
differing only in their adjustment to long or short combing wools.
The practice is increasing of putting several machines in a train or
series by which the wool passes automatically from one to the other
and saves handling. Each mill has its own method of procedure which
has grown up through experience. Unwashed wool contains a fatty or
greasy matter called yolk, which has been secreted from the skin of
the sheep, and dust, dirt, burrs, and straws cling to the fleece. If
the wool is fairly clean, scouring alone is required to prepare it
for carding, but if it is full of impurities, it must be dusted and
opened before scouring is advisable, and carbonizing (see Chaps. VI and
XIII, _Reworked Wool_) must follow scouring when the wool is full of
burrs. If the mill makes woolen yarns, the processes aim to clean but
not to lay the fibers parallel in the yarn. On the contrary, worsted
yarns must be well combed, that the fibers may lie side by side before
they are twisted (Fig. 85). It is impossible to present a series of
processes which are invariably used, but the general practice may be
outlined as follows:--
PROCESSES COMMON TO WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS
1. Sorting or dividing into qualities; classing.
2. Cleaning, usually required to some extent.
3. Opening, when wool is matted and very dirty. Dusting, for dirty
wools. Scouring, for greasy or half-washed wools. There are usually
three baths in a train. Cleaning by naphtha is also used.
4. Dyeing in the wool or raw stock dyeing, used often with woolens.
Dyeing sometimes follows burring by carbonizing, if the color will be
injured by the chemicals.
5. Drying.
6. Burring. Needed when wool is full of burrs. There are two methods
of removal: (1) by machinery; (2) by carbonizing. Sometimes a burr
roller attached to the carding engine is sufficient.
7. Blending or mixing the various kinds of new wools, wool
by-products or substitutes for wool for woolens, or new wools for
worsteds, needed for a particular yarn.
8. Oiling (sometimes done before blending).
PROCESSES FOR YARN MAKING OR SPINNING
_A. Woolen or Carded Yarn._
1. Picking. For opening, cleaning, and mixing. Sometimes the wool
requires several of these machines.
2. Carding. American names: (1) First Breaker; (2) Second Breaker;
(3) Finisher. English names: (1) Scribbler; (2) Intermediate; (3)
Condenser. The wool is frequently ready for spinning after the last
card.
3. Drawing. Usually omitted as a separate process.
4. Spinning.
_B. Worsted or Combed Yarn._
1. Picking or teazing. For mixing. (This machine is often omitted.)
2. Carding. These machines are similar to carding for woolen yarn (q.
v.).
3. Gilling, before combing.
4. Combing. The result of this process is the top. Dyeing is
frequently done in the top, and is called stock dyeing. It is also
done in the yarn (skein) and in the piece after weaving.
5. Backwashing. It may come before combing.
6. Gilling, after combing. Often two gill boxes.
7. Drawing. Many times repeated. The last step before spinning is
called roving.
8. Spinning.
=Explanation of Processes=
=Sorting.=--Wool usually comes to our market unwashed or “in the
grease,” and the fleeces must be sorted into their different qualities
after they reach the mill. On account of the many sorts of wool on
one fleece and the requirements of different fabrics the sorting
operation is very important, that successful manufacturing may be
assured. (See Chap. VI, _Varieties of Wool on One Sheep_.) Excellent
light is needed and the sorter must have a delicate sense of touch.
The manufacturers, in general, prefer wool “in the grease.” When the
bags full of fleeces arrive at the mill they are opened and the wool is
taken to the sorters’ tables or benches (Fig. 86). These have slatted
or wire mesh tops through which the dirt, consisting of sand, straw,
seeds, and filth, may fall. An exhaust fan below carries them away. The
sorter takes one fleece at a time on the table, shakes out the dust,
and then removes the low sorts (skirts) from the fleece and places them
in a special receptacle near by. The sorters are trained to recognize
accurately the various qualities by look and feel, and quickly divide
by hand the remainder of the fleece into a number of parts, often
six, eight, or even more, as occasion demands. Pure bred Merino sheep
vary little in their grades of wool when the skirts are removed; the
crossbred sheep have more sorts, and English breeds have the greatest
number of variations. The best wool comes from the neck, shoulders, and
sides; the poorest, from the legs. The useless parts, which are often
full of paint, tar, clay, and filth, are cut off and discarded.
[Illustration: FIG. 86.--WOOL SORTING.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.]
There have been and still are dangers to those who sort wool,
especially dirty Eastern wool from diseased or dead animals. Wool
sorters’ disease, anthrax, comes from a germ which enters the body
through a break in the skin or by the internal organs. It is one
of the few diseases which affect both man and animal. The bacillus
is difficult to kill. Medical knowledge is increasing as to the
prevention, and modern methods of constructing sorters’ benches have
minimized the trouble. Great Britain has taken special precautions
against the disease. A list of countries from which wool can be
admitted without disinfection has been made. Those handling wool at
the docks are less protected than those in the mills, for the wool is
disinfected after it arrives, not before. The United States has not had
serious trouble with the disease. Some fleeces are so dirty that they
are mechanically opened and beaten before sorting. After separating the
wool into its different qualities, the classes are piled in bins marked
with their names. Wools from all over the world--white, yellow, black,
and gray--rest side by side ready for use. When wool is needed, it is
usually blown through pipes or carried by other automatic means to the
part of the mill where it is needed.
=The Feed.=--(A species of opener.) When wool is very matted and dirty
it must be cleaned before scouring. This process is required by short
staple wool rather than by long. Wool impurities are difficult to
eliminate. Sand and dust can be beaten out, straws and burrs require
carbonizing, animal impurities are removed, in general, by washing.
As much dirt as possible must be eradicated very early, or the cloth
will be injured. In many mills automatic feeds are used before dusting,
before scouring, and before carding, as a means of opening the wool
and passing it on in better condition to the next process. Feeds are
built either high or low, according to the length of wool which is
to be passed through them. The wool is deposited in the hopper of
the machine, and an apron of spiked slats carries it upward to an
oscillating comb, which throws the surplus wool back into the hopper
and carries the remainder to a revolving beater. The coarse spikes open
the matted fiber, the dust is beaten out and falls below, and the wool
is removed from the apron and passes to the next machine.
=Dusting.=--Wool which is very full of straws, dust, and burrs requires
repeated cleaning. The duster consists of a cylinder covered with
coarse teeth or spikes, which opens the staple while a fan blows out
the dirt. There are two forms of duster, the square and the cone. The
work of scouring is simplified by this machine, consequently it is in
use even for fairly clean wool. It often follows the feed in the train.
=Scouring.=--(Fig. 87). The object of scouring is to clean the wool
thoroughly without injuring the fiber by too hot water or too strong
an alkaline cleansing solution. Dust, dirt, and a greasy matter called
suint or yolk (a natural grease) must be removed. The character of the
wool, the composition of the cleansing materials, the temperature,
and the hardness or softness of the water have to be considered.
Violent treatment of the wool in the scourer leaves it felted, ropy,
and stringy. When the process is well done the wool comes out clean,
soft, and fluffy, and free from the chemicals which have been used in
the cleansing solution. Unless the wool has been properly washed the
dyeing will be unsuccessful in color and fastness, and the spinning
and weaving will be defective. Each mill has its own washing formulas,
but potash, ammonium carbonate, and soda are in frequent use. The
washer is a long, narrow trough, divided into several tanks or bowls
of different sizes, according to the length of the wool used. The
first bowls are scourers and are filled with warm, soapy, alkaline
water; the last bowls are rinsers. A ducker plate pushes the wool on
to the liquid. Fresh water flows in continually, and the soiled water
passes out. Wringers are attached to each bowl, and the wool moves
slowly toward them, carried along by rakes attached to the sides of the
troughs. After each wringer the wool passes in cleaner condition to
the next bowl, and in the final one is washed in pure water. From the
last wringer it is carried automatically to the dryer, unless it is to
be dyed before drying. The by-products, grease and potash, left in the
scouring water, can be saved. The first is used as a basis for salves,
and the potash for soaps and fertilizers. A train of machines such as
the Feed, Duster, Scourer, and Dryer can be attended to by one or two
men without needing to handle the wool.
[Illustration: FIG. 87.--WOOL SCOURING.
Courtesy of M. J. Whitall.]
A naphtha system of cleaning is in one of the large mills in this
country and yields excellent results. The wool is placed in a
hermetically sealed tank filled with naphtha, which removes the grease.
It later passes through many washings in water, in which it becomes
perfectly clean, to the dryer. The naphtha is distilled and recovered
to use again; the grease is regained and sold. It is an inexpensive
and quick method with no bad effect on the wool. The initial cost of
installing is high.
=Raw Stock Dyeing.=--When wool is very burry it is frequently
carbonized before stock dyeing, unless the chemicals which are used in
carbonizing will affect the wool so that it will not take the color
satisfactorily. Stock dyeing (in the slub) comes after scouring. It is
a very permanent class of dye. Dyeing in the yarn and in the piece are
also practiced. (See Chap. XIII.)
=Drying.=--It is very important for the sake of future processes that
the wool shall be evenly dried. A hydro-extractor, similar to the kind
used in large laundries, removes the excess moisture by centrifugal
force. The wool is next spread on a series of frames, made of network,
placed one above another, and hot air is driven through by a fan; or
it is dried in a large drying chest, where it passes for a time over
hot air pipes and is then carried to a huge drum, on which it is turned
over and fed back to the pipes until it is dry.
=Blending.=--In many mills wool is burred and picked before blending,
for drying often entangles the fibers, and they need to be opened.
Blending is especially important in the woolen industry, as the
combination of color is often the beauty of the finished cloth. The
object is, first, to combine wools of various kinds, such as Australian
with Ohio, or with other wools of similar staple, or to mix reworked
wool, coarse wool, extracts, pulled wool, cotton or silk noils with new
wool for the purpose of lowering the price of the cloth; or to combine
new or reworked wool of various colors into attractive effects for
heather mixtures. It requires ability, knowledge gained by experience
of what can be expected of different wools in their carding, spinning,
weaving, and finishing processes, and a feeling for harmony of color.
A successful blender has many cherished recipes. Samples of different
wools or of colors are tried first on hand combs until the right
combination is reached, and then the percentages of the various wools
are weighed carefully and laid in successive layers one above the other
on the floor of the mill near the picker. Heather mixtures must often
pass through the picker several times to perfect the combination.
The following blend was in use for many years in a prominent mill. It
shows the method worked out in percentages:
Ohio Wool ¹⁄₄ blood 30%
Cotton 30%
Garnetted Thread Waste 10%
Reworked Wool 10%
Noils 10%
Pulled Wool 10%
A large number of woolen fabrics have cotton at times in the blend,
such as tweeds, flannels, and many dress goods. In a low class of
fabrics there may be 75 per cent of cotton. Raw Peruvian cotton is
preferred in the mixture, for it resembles wool in the handle, being
wiry. Reworked wool and wool wastes are also much used, largely in
inexpensive goods, and make reliable and attractive fabrics.
Blending for worsteds has a different object, for reworked wool, noils,
and other waste cannot be combined with the new wool. The object
of the blending is to combine varieties of new wool with similar
characteristics to insure a satisfactory cloth. The blending is done by
hand.
=Oiling.=--Wool loses its oil in the scouring process, and must be
reoiled to pass easily through succeeding machines. Oiling usually
follows blending, being done by hand or sprayed automatically as the
wool lies on the floor, or as it passes on an apron to the picker or
other machines. An oiler is often attached to the doffer end of the
dryer. If cotton is in the blend, it is better to keep the oil from
falling directly upon it, for it is apt to become stringy and lifeless.
The cotton is carded and the wool is oiled before it is added. Wool is
often allowed to stand one or more days after oiling, that the oil may
be thoroughly absorbed before the cotton is placed with it. The cotton
is sometimes added after the oiled wool has passed through the first
breaker card and is being stripped from the doffer. The two slivers,
cotton and wool, are united and the action of the machine causes them
to twist around each other. Mills differ in the oils they prefer, but
olive, neatsfoot, tallow, and other oils are in use. In the manufacture
of soft, serrated wools into yarns which will be fulled after weaving,
oiling before carding is very necessary, for it preserves the
serrations from injury during the passage of the fiber through the
thousands of fine teeth.
After oiling or blending, the processes for woolen and worsted yarns
begin to diverge. The machines used are often much alike, but, as
different results are required from them, modifications in structure
are necessary. Raw stock for worsteds, after oiling, goes directly
to the card. Worsted goods are distinguished by their combed, finely
twisted yarn and clear weave. Woolen goods have a soft, lofty yarn and
are often felted until the pattern is obscure. (See Chap. VI.)
=Woolen Yarn=
=Burr Extracting or Burr Picking.=--Short staple wools are often full
of burrs which persist in spite of the work of sorters, and of various
machines. These must be removed before carding, or they will injure the
machinery and be so crushed into the wool that removal is difficult.
Mills differ in the manner and time of burring. The elimination of
burrs, seeds, and leaves is, however, usually effected by two different
systems: (1) A mechanical method which consists of a roller covered
with a series of toothed rings which open the wool, and a fluted beater
or guard knife to knock out the vegetable matter. A brush strips
the cleaned wool from the machine. The mechanical burring is used
especially when fine wool is full of large burrs, the advantage of it
over the second method being that the natural strength and color of the
wool are not affected. (2) A chemical burring is also in use (see Chap.
VI, _Carbonizing_, under _Reworked Wool_). Carbonizing is repeated
after the cloth is woven, if vegetable matter is still present. Burring
rollers are sometimes attached to the carding engine. In very dirty
wools, both burr picking and carbonizing are often used.
The objects of the machines for making woolen yarn are (1) to clean
and open by the action of many wire teeth; (2) to form a web of
fibers lying in all directions; and (3) to condense the web into a
band or sliver and reduce and twist it into a roving usually for the
mule spinning frame. The length of time required to prepare and spin
woolen yarn differs. Inexpensive yarns take but a few minutes from
sorting to spinning, but the processes may be lengthened, repeated, or
supplemented by additional machines when making higher grades of yarn.
=Picking, Teasing, Opening, Willowing, and the Fearnaught.=--(Names
used in different localities for this process.) A picking machine is
usually required after scouring and drying, to open the entangled
fibers, but it often comes after the blend has been made in order to
combine the various wools or other fibers, and to prepare for carding.
The picker is much like the carder. In place of the mixing picker a
toothed cylinder is often attached to the first card. The blend is
placed on a traveling lattice or apron, and carried into the teeth of
the cylinder, where it is opened, mixed, made pliable and flexible, and
then is automatically passed to the card.
=Carding.=--The carding for woolen yarn is done usually in a set of
three machines, which are much alike except in their methods of doffing
the slivers. The principle of the cotton card (see Chaps. II and
VIII, _Carding_) is similar to the woolen or the worsted card, with
some adjustments to meet specific needs. In America these machines
are called the first breaker, second breaker, and third breaker or
finisher; a condenser often is connected. In England they are called
scribbler, intermediate, and condenser card. The first breaker card
(Fig. 88) is often preceded by an automatic feed, which opens and
blends the wool, delivers it to a weighing pan, and evenly deposits the
correct amount on an apron to be carried to the breaker. The method of
feeding the fiber to the machine is important in the final spinning.
Each breaker card consists of a large cylinder or swift against which
small cylinders called workers and strippers revolve. Thousands of
teeth clothe the surface of the cylinder, becoming finer in each
succeeding breaker, and open up the wool. The first card opens the wool
into a film or sheet, which in that form or in a sliver passes to the
second; from the second breaker the film is delivered in various ways,
but often is contracted into a wide sliver and fed diagonally (“on the
bias”) to an apron by an oscillating feed, which carefully deposits it
back and forth, one layer half over and yet alongside of the other.
The licker-in of the third breaker receives the wool from the side of
the sliver, consequently the tendency to the parallelism of the fibers
which has been given by the teeth of the card is counteracted. The
product of this third machine is made ready to go to the drawing frames
in the manufacture of some classes of yarn, or in others is condensed
by a ring doffer or rollers covered with leather into a coarse, lightly
twisted roving wound on bobbins, which goes directly to the spinning
frame. The heavy edges of the folded-back sliver are separated from the
rest of the wool automatically when they issue from the breaker, and
are later returned to the hopper of the feed to be carded anew.
[Illustration: FIG. 88.--FIRST BREAKER CARD.
From Collins’ _Woolen and Worsted Spinning_, by courtesy of the
American School of Correspondence.]
Many modifications of carding have been made, but no change in the
principles underlying the work. Some of these modifications aim to
increase production or to improve the quality of yarn. In England the
rovings are generally formed by a tape condenser. The doffer takes the
material from the last swift of the carder by means of rings of card
clothing, each ring producing one ribbon or sliver. These are stripped,
passed into the condenser, and rubbed into rovings, which is the last
step before spinning.
There is much waste from the cards which never reaches the condenser.
Some of it is of value and is used again. Waste-saving machines are in
use in some mills, which, by means of an apron, carry off the waste to
the first machine of the carding series. The dirt in the waste falls
out as it is carried back. The carding machines require to be kept
clean or the work will be unsatisfactory.
=Drawing and Doubling.=--These machines are similar in all the wool
industries, being based on the principle of drawing by rollers. (See
Chap. II.) This is not always found as a separate process in the
preparation of woolen yarn.
=Mule Spinning.=--(See Figs. 25 and 26.) The intermittent motion of
the mule spinning frame, which adapts it to the twisting of soft,
short-staple yarns, makes it of service in the woolen industry. The
roving, which is soft and slightly twisted, with the wool fibers
running in all directions, is placed in the frame, drawn smaller and
twisted more, but has still the same characteristics as in earlier
processes. The yarn comes from the mule spinning wound on bobbins.
=Skein Dyeing or Dyeing in the Yarn.=--If the yarn is now to be dyed,
it must be wound into skeins or hanks on the swifts. (See Chap. XIII,
_Forms of Market Dyeing_.) The skeins are washed free from grease, and
then are dyed. Great care is needed to have the exact color and to have
it fast. The skeins must be kept moving to distribute the color evenly.
Careful rinsing and drying follow.
Fancy yarns are made in many ways. Colored yarns are united, threads
are looped or knotted and often again twisted with other yarns, fibers
of other textiles are combined with the wool, and yarns are twisted in
different ways and again twisted together. Woolen yarns are used for
knitted and crocheted goods, for blankets, for staple materials such
as broadcloths, flannels, golf cloths, cheviots, meltons, kerseys,
homespuns, tweeds, cassimeres, chinchillas, and fancy dress goods,
where the weave is soft and indeterminate or obliterated, and the
colors are softly blended. Cotton warps are frequently used with wool
filling, as in many blankets, flannels, and fancy dress goods. A
well-made woolen cloth is enduring. At times the strength is low from
loose weaving and weak yarn.
=Worsted Yarn=
In making worsted yarn the fibers must be combed until they are
parallel, of the same length, and flat, before the sliver can be
twisted into an even, lustrous thread. Many processes are required to
do this satisfactorily, several days being sometimes needed for the
work, hence worsted yarn is expensive. After the wool is blended it is
carried on trucks or blown through pipes to the carding room. A feeder
is sometimes used before the first breaker card. In some wools a burr
roller is attached to the first card.
=Carding.=--Worsted carders (two cylinders are generally used)
differ from those used for woolen yarn in several minor ways, such
as the doffing, as the fibers must be kept parallel, and the way of
preparing the sliver for the next process. The sliver from the worsted
card usually falls into a can. There are several methods by which
worsted yarns are made ready for spinning. When very long staple
wool is to be spun into lustrous, closely twisted yarn the combing
and gilling processes are especially important, and carding is merely
preliminary to the others. In such cases the first breaker card alone
is used (for too much carding breaks the long-staple wool), and it
is followed by preparers which straighten out the fibers for the
comb. Some wools require much carding, but at times it is not used.
In some classes of carpet yarn the worsted carders do the work of
opening and straightening the wool, and the combing and gilling are
omitted. In general, however, worsted yarn goes through the following
steps, but the emphasis on processes may vary: (1) Opening, cleaning,
and separating the wool, the feed, and the carders; (2) drawing,
straightening, and leveling on the gills by (3) extracting long fibers
from the short, curly ones, and laying the former parallel in the
comb; (4) drawing, doubling, and evening the slivers on gill boxes and
drawing machines, and (5) drawing and twisting the roving into yarn and
winding it on bobbins by the spinning frame.
=Back Washing.=--The wool becomes much soiled by oil in the carders as
well as in other machines and needs washing. The process is used either
before or after combing, or even at both times. A back washer is often
attached to a preparing gill box. If this cleansing is not done, the
cloth is apt to become shiny from the oil left in it. The principle
of washing is very simple. Two or four bowls are used for washing and
rinsing the wool. Wringers or squeeze rolls follow each bowl to press
out the water, and a drying cylinder comes at the end. It is generally
conceded that four bowls wash the wool cleaner than two, and that the
finished cloth is benefited thereby. The best soap should be used and
fresh water should flow constantly into the scouring bowls to keep the
soapy solution weak. In place of a hot cylinder to dry the wool, a fan
is sometimes used. Oil is sprayed on the wool after back washing.
=Gilling before Combing.=--A set of five or six preparers often follows
the first breaker card, or the three-card cylinders may precede a set
of preparers. The aim of these machines is to unite a number of slivers
and to draw, straighten, level, and make parallel the fibers to prepare
them for the comb. Sometimes as many as twenty-four slivers will be
united in a preparing gill box. Gilling is done both before and after
the comb, but the term gilling is not used for these machines until
after the comb. Preparing gilling and gilling are therefore practically
the same process, and the machines are similar in construction, but
finer teeth are in the latter gill boxes. Each gill box has receiving
and delivering rollers, between which is a series of bars or fallers
covered with teeth or gills. The fallers move on screws from the
receiving toward the delivering or draught rollers. As they move
forward they press the wool down on a comb and lay the fibers parallel.
When they reach the draught rollers they drop below, and are caught on
a lower screw and carried back to the receiving rollers, where they are
raised to the surface to begin again. The draught rollers move more
rapidly than the rollers which are receiving the wool, and consequently
attenuate the sliver. The speed is regulated by the size of the yarn
desired, or by the length of the wool staple. When the product of the
last preparer is to go to the comb a balling head (see Fig. 88, left
side) is attached to it, which winds the slivers in such a way that
four unwind from one ball and are united in the comb.
[Illustration: FIG. 89.--WOOL COMBING. THE NOBLE COMB.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.]
[Illustration: FIG. 90.--DETAIL OF NOBLE COMB.
From Collins’ _Woolen and Worsted Spinning_, by courtesy of the
American School of Correspondence.]
=Combing.=--(Figs. 89 and 90.) The slivers which come from the gills
are level and fairly parallel, but short, curly fibers are mixed up
with the long ones. The object of the comb is to rid the sliver of the
short, curly wool (noils), and to comb the long, straight wool into
a more parallel condition, called tops. There are several methods of
combing, such as the nip or Lister comb, adapted to English long-staple
wools; the square motion or Holden comb, adapted to medium length
wools; the French or Heilman comb, suitable for short-staple wools and
used largely in France (see _Wool Manufacture_, below), and the Noble
comb, which adapts itself to both long and short staple wools and is
used extensively in the United States. The aim of the Noble comb is to
do the work of the brush and comb, _i. e_., to make parallel the long
hairs and to catch the waste or broken hairs and throw them to one
side. In order to accomplish this a series of elaborate and delicate
adjustments are necessary. Eighteen balls of the prepared slivers are
placed in order around the comb, four slivers coming from each ball.
The end of each sliver is passed through a ring in the edge of the
circle, and thence into openings which lead to a feed box. Through this
they pass to a large, revolving, circular comb, 48 to 60 inches in
diameter, where they are caught in the teeth of the combs. The large
circle has several rows of upright, pointed teeth, which become finer
as they leave the circumference. Two small circles, 16 to 20 inches in
diameter, revolve on opposite sides of the big circle. Rows of teeth
decreasing in size are also on the small circles, and they come in
contact with the teeth of the large circular comb and lay parallel
the fibers of wool with which they come in touch. The longer wool is
inclined to remain on the big circle, but the little circles comb it
through and take away the short ends, which are called noils. The long
hairs soon project free from the big comb, and are taken from it by
vertical rollers to make the top, whereas the short ends are carried
off in another direction. A dabbing brush presses the wool on the teeth
of the combs. The slivers from the balls are carried by the feed boxes
on an inclined plane so adjusted that they are at the highest point
when they pass the dabbing brush. As the boxes descend the plane the
wool is pressed down on the teeth. The fibers which remain between
the teeth are automatically lifted out by knives and fed again to the
combs. The slivers are kept from slipping back from the feed boxes by
nips which hold them. Both small and large combs revolve together and
in the same direction, and rest on a steam chest which aids the combing
by keeping the wool warm. As a result of the combing two slivers come
from the large circle and one from each small circle, and are united
into one, a false twist being sometimes given to the sliver before
it falls into a can. The combed sliver is called a “top,” and the
processes following make it into a finished top.
The noil (see Chap. VI, _By-Products of Wool_) is removed from the
teeth of the small comb by knives and passed to rollers which convey it
from the machine. It is used in many ways, being often combined with
new wools for woolen dress goods and blankets. Some mills use their own
noils, but frequently they are sold to other manufacturers. Noils are
valuable, costing about 60 per cent as much as the clean wool value.
[Illustration: FIG. 91.--TOP.]
=Gilling after Combing.=--The aim of the two or more gill boxes which
usually follow the comb is to blend more completely different length
fibers, to increase the parallelism, to apply moisture evenly to every
fiber, and to wind the tops into a ball which will easily unwind. To
accomplish this very fine teeth are necessary in these gill boxes. As
many as twenty-eight cans from the combs are at times united in the
first finisher gill box, the result of which is a heavy sliver. Three
or more slivers are united into one in the last gill box, and by a
balling head attachment the finished top (Fig. 91) is wound. In some
classes of yarn no real twist has yet been given to the sliver. Many
mills buy their tops instead of making them. Combing and gilling are
costly operations, and mills having well-equipped plants frequently do
a commission business in tops, returning to the purchaser tops, noils,
and waste. Wool sold in this form often has an excess of moisture in
it, which increases its weight and consequently its cost to the buyer.
To offset this condition, which is sometimes fraudulent, conditioning
houses (see Chap. IX., _Marketing, Classification, and Conditioning_)
have been organized to test wool. Standards of moisture have been
agreed upon (15 per cent of moisture above bone dry), and variations
from this affect the sale of the wool. Silk conditioning houses were
long ago established in Europe and are now increasing in the United
States. They now test both wool and silk for moisture as well as honest
condition of fibers. Some mills do their own conditioning.
=Drawing and Doubling.=--The tops must now be reduced to a size
small enough to spin, and a number of slivers are united into one.
The drawing processes are repeated from six to nine times, until the
required size is reached. In some classes of yarn little twist is given
until the machine which directly precedes the spinning (the roving),
whereas in other varieties the thin yarn is repeatedly twisted. The
product from these machines is wound on bobbins. It is stated that
worsted yarn is often doubled a half million times before it is ready
for the spinning frame.
[Illustration: FIG. 92.--SPINNING THE WOOL.
Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.]
=Spinning.=--(Fig. 92.) There are two methods of spinning worsted
yarns: the Bradford or English system, which uses a long-staple wool,
thoroughly oils it before combing, and gives a smooth, lustrous yarn
fitted for worsted suitings as its final result; and the French or
dry spinning, which uses shorter wool, little oil, and spins a soft,
dull yarn. The latter system offers more difficulty in handling the
wool on account of the increased electricity arising from the lack of
oiling, and it costs more, but it yields a soft, clinging material
much in demand. The principal difference between the two methods is in
the drawing and spinning, as the former system requires much twisting,
and the latter avoids twisting. No twist is put into the yarn until
it is fully prepared for spinning. Soft yarns are spun on the worsted
mule, which is almost identical with the mule for woolen spinning, or
on a special frame, but closely twisted yarns require the throstle or
upright frame, by the use of the flyer, cap, or ring principles. (See
Chap. II, _Mule Spinning and Ring Spinning_.) The French system of
spinning is usually on the mule, but may be on the upright frame. (See
_France_, under _Wool Manufacturing_, below.) Winding according to the
use of the yarn, follows.
=Counts or Sizes of Yarns.=--The sizes of yarns are variously indicated
in different localities and countries. The United States has two
systems in general use for woolen yarns. The first originated in
Philadelphia and is called the “cut”; the second is used in other parts
of the United States, and is designated as the “run.” Both methods are
based on the number of hanks or skeins required to make a pound, but
differ in the size of the hanks. The “cut” system takes 300 yards of
one-cut yarn (the coarsest) to make a pound (one hank). As two-cut yarn
is as fine again as one-cut, it will take 600 yards of it to make a
pound, which will be in two hanks. In the “cut” system the coarse yarns
in general use are five-cut to seven-cut (lower sizes are seldom used);
medium yarns are eighteen-cut to twenty-one-cut, and fine yarns are
thirty-cut to thirty-five-cut. The market expresses these cuts as 1/30s
cut when speaking of single No. 30 yarn (thirty hanks), or 2/30s cut
when speaking of two-ply No. 30 yarn. Nos. 18 to 30 are coarse, 30 to
40 are medium, and above 40 are fine.
The “run” system has 1600 yards to the pound for one-run yarn; No. 2
run yarn is twice 1600, or 3200 yards to the pound (being twice as
fine as No. 1 run). Fine yarns are estimated in a like manner. In the
“run” system Nos. 1 to 3 would be coarse yarns; Nos. 3¹⁄₂ to 5 would be
medium, and Nos. 6 to 10 runs would be fine.
The sizes of worsted yarns are determined by the “count.” In this
system 560 yards of 1-count yarn weigh one pound, and higher “counts”
are estimated as in the “cut” and “run” methods. In worsted yarns Nos.
30 to 40 are comparatively coarse; 40s to 56s are medium yarns, and
60s to 100s are fine. Counts over 60s are not common. Low counts are
used for knitting coarse sweaters. Worsted yarns are frequently two-ply
(double), and sometimes are three- and four-ply. Carpet wools are
generally worsted yarns.
Worsted and combed wool yarns are used for weaving, knitting, and
needlework (crewel, Berlin, zephyr, and Saxony). Worsted yarns are
in serges of many varieties, diagonals, prunellas, panamas, Venetian
cloth, and voiles, and as the filling with cotton warps in alpacas,
mohairs, Sicilians, and other luster goods. Yarns from the combed wool
industry are found in underwear, fancy dress goods, soft serges, and
buntings, and are combined with cotton or with silk in such materials
as poplins, henriettas, lansdowns, and challies.
=Weaving and Sizing.=--Yarn comes from the spinning frames on bobbins,
but has still many processes to undergo before it is finally woven.
When skein dyeing is necessary the bobbins must be run off into skeins
or hanks on the swifts, and after dyeing the skeins are wound back on
bobbins. Filling yarn goes directly to the weave room to be wound for
the shuttles. Warp yarns require closer twisting than those for the
filling. Some yarn is doubled before being woven, and has to go to a
special machine which twists the two yarns in the opposite direction
from the previous twisting. Warp yarn is frequently prepared for the
loom by winding it on large dresser spools. Forty or more ends come
from each spool, and as many spools are required as will make up the
number of threads in the warp. Thousands of warp threads are required
for ordinary cloth. The spools are placed on a creel and the threads
are drawn off on a beam in the order in which they will be needed in
the loom. If the yarn is to be sized or slashed, it usually is done
at this time. The object of sizing is to strengthen the warp yarn and
keep it from roughing up in the drawing-in and weaving. Single woolen
and worsted yarns are usually sized, but two-ply yarns need it less.
Many of the mills of the United States do not size their yarns before
weaving, as the extra machinery and time consumed add to the expense.
There are many ways of sizing and many ingredients used, such as
Irish moss, dextrin, gum arabic, potato starch, cornstarch, glue, and
mucilage. The slasher is ordinarily a long trough filled with size,
through which the threads from the beam pass. Rollers press in the size
and also squeeze out the extra amount, and a heated cylinder dries the
yarn. Much of the size drops out in a fine dust during the weaving.
The yarn is warped before it is sized, and afterwards is drawn in and
reeded before it is woven. (See Chap. III, _Winding, Reeling, Warping,
and Drawing-in_.) The width of the cloth after finishing is from 50
inches to even 60 inches. Fabrics measuring from 22 to 27 inches are
not made to any extent at present. The development of the ready-to-wear
industry has caused a demand for the wider cloth, for it cuts to better
advantage. Piece dyeing follows weaving, but the exact time for it
depends on the finish the goods must have.
=Finishing.=--The beauty of woolen goods lies largely in the finish of
the cloth; and of worsted goods, in the weave. Both rely on attractive
color combinations. Many of the favorite weaves are simple, such as the
plain or tabby, the basket, stripe, and check. Twills or diagonals,
satins, corkscrews, herringbones, ribs, cords, crêpes, and double-faced
cloths are in common use. Many effects are gained by the use of yarns
twisted or knotted in novel ways, by combining other fibers with
the wool, and by finishes and dressings applied after the weaving is
over. Worsted suitings, when taken from the loom, look much as they
will in the finished state, but woolen cloths, especially those which
are to be fulled, are far from attractive, being coarse and rough,
requiring many processes to develop their beauty. Woolen and worsted
cloths may be finished in an infinite number of ways, but certain
processes (which follow) may be taken as representative. The same
processes are, in general, applied to both kinds of cloth, but when
worsteds are fulled it is only to soften the weave, while the object
in woolens is often to obliterate it entirely. Fulling can be watched
and stopped when desired, but broadcloths and other face goods are
given a heavy shrinkage. The latter materials are woven both longer and
wider than they will be in their finished state, for they frequently
shrink one-third in each direction. They are therefore woven as much
as eighty inches wide that they may be fifty-two or fifty-four inches
when finished. Broadcloth, melton, and kersey are usually woven with
a twill which throws the warp on the face, consequently carded wool
yarn is used for the warp, for when fulled it will cover the filling.
Worsted filling is sometimes used in broadcloth, but the character of
the weave throws it to the back. Cloth woven with the plain or tabby
weave and fulled is sometimes called broadcloth, but is really a fulled
flannel, and is less satisfactory than broadcloth. The present demand
for very light weight, pliable broadcloths for women’s wear has reduced
their strength while increasing their softness, for any defects of
stock or early processes combined with the close shearing leave them
weak and liable to tear. The finishing of face goods changes the rough,
coarse product of the loom into the soft, satiny appearance which
distinguishes these materials. Good stock and numerous processes make
them expensive.
=Inspection or Perching.=--Poor stock, careless scouring and blending,
inferior chemicals, and injuries in the many processes show when the
goods come to the finishing stage. The most rigid inspection by experts
is given the cloth after weaving, after mending, and after finishing.
The material is drawn over rods or over an inclined plane and defects
are noted, marked with chalk on the cloth, and remedies are suggested.
These difficulties sometimes require that the cloth be sent back to
previous machines for treatment. If the wool cannot yield good results,
surface finishes, artificial stiffenings, lusterings, and dressings are
used. Even with good stock carelessness or machines out of order may
have caused injuries which must be repaired.
=Burling and Mending.=--The usual difficulties with the cloth are knots
which have been tied during winding, beaming, and weaving on account of
broken threads. These imperfections must be removed with care or a hole
will be made or a weak place, which will later give way in wearing.
Menders often have to darn in the structure in the exact pattern.
Flecks of sisal from tie strings in the fleeces, or jute from the wool
packs, or black wool in the midst of light from careless packing on the
farm must be removed. The expense of removing these imperfections is
often very great. (See Chap. VI, _Growth and Care of Sheep_.) Specking
or removing unsightly vegetable material comes frequently in the final
finishing of the cloth. A quick dye called “speck dye” is often put
on the cloth to be piece dyed, to cover flecks difficult to remove.
This is done before piece dyeing and final finishing. Worsted suiting
requires very careful mending, as the final finish will not cover
defects, as will the fulling for face goods.
=Washing and Drying.=--The cloth is frequently soiled by the machinery,
and must be washed before it is finished. Some woolen cloths go to
the fulling mill without washing, but worsteds are usually scoured in
a special machine in which soap, Fuller’s earth, or other cleansing
materials are in solution in warm water. Careful rinsing follows the
washing, to rid the cloth of oils, glues, and chemicals, as well as of
dirt. Moisture is removed by a hydro-extractor, and the cloth dried in
a cloth dryer or by a vacuum process.
=Fulling, Milling, Felting, or Shrinking.=--This process is a very
important one, being used principally in woolens. A large number of
cloths, however, are slightly fulled to soften the appearance of the
weave, but materials which are thoroughly fulled lose their weave
lines, and after further finishing present a soft, even pile which
has given them the name of face goods. Fulling takes advantage of the
property of shrinking which is found in many wools, but especially in
those having numerous scales or serrations as in pure blood merino.
Moisture, heat, and pressure or rubbing increase this tendency, for the
rough under surfaces of the scales resist interlocking until softened.
Woolen yarn felts easily on account of the crisscross arrangement of
its fibers. Cloth woven from such yarn and fulled decreases greatly
in length and width, while increasing in bulk. A pattern woven in the
cloth will be reduced in size. Goods which are to be fulled are not
only woven longer and wider in proportion to the shrinking which will
occur, but must be woven loosely enough to be soft and pliable after
felting, yet close enough to be substantial, for close weaving often
results after felting in a boardlike cloth. Fulling strengthens good
wool, but poor, tender wool cannot be made strong in this way, though
it may have a solid appearance. Cloth which is to be fulled is sewed
together in an endless belt, folded with the selvages together and with
the face inside. The fulling mill is a sort of huge chest or closet in
which warm, oily, soapy water can act upon the cloth while it passes,
twisted and hanging in loops over vertical rollers, under heavy hammers
or in a trough. The friction also causes heat and aids in the felting.
For slight fulling, as is needed in some worsted suitings, a couple
of hours will suffice, but for broadcloths and meltons many hours are
often required. Woolen cloths are not usually washed before felting,
as they are cleaned sufficiently by this process and the washing which
follows. Cloth which lacks in weight and density is sometimes flocked
in the fulling mill.
=Flocks.=--Finely cut up wool waste can be fulled into cloth, making
it firmer. This is usually applied to the under side. Flocks made
from good stock, and applied to pure wool cloth, are not a detriment
to the finished material. It happens, however, that flocks are used
at times to cover up defects and to deceive the purchaser as to the
fineness of the cloth. After a time the flocks drop out and the real
poverty of the goods is evident. This short, fuzzy waste can be found
frequently in the linings of wool coats and skirts, consequently it has
become customary to leave the linings free, thus allowing the waste
to fall out unheeded. Mill waste, sweepings, and clippings from the
gig and shear are used. Fancy dress goods are sometimes made having
as a surface design white or colored flocks which were added to the
yarn while being spun. Flock wall papers are made with these same fine
clippings, which are blown on the surface.
=Washing, Drying, Crabbing, and Tentering.=--After fulling, the cloth
requires careful washing or rinsing to free it from soaps. It is then
dried in a hydro-extractor and perhaps later in a dryer. If vegetable
matter is still present in the cloth, it must be carbonized or specked.
_Crabbing_ is a process to “set” the weave. The fabric is placed on a
cylinder and passed over rollers, being kept tight to avoid wrinkles.
The rolls are immersed in hot water or subjected to hot steam for a
time, and then pressed. The weave is thus set and the pressure has
imparted a finish. Cloth which has an admixture of cotton, if well
crabbed, is less apt to cockle. _Tentering_ follows to straighten the
fabric. In olden times the cloth was fastened between posts in the
mill yard, where it dried for several days, but now it is stretched
carefully on a long frame, gripped on each selvage and passed over
steam coils. This process removes cockles and creases, and sets the
cloth evenly across the filling, which is most important, especially
if cropping is to follow, for irregularities of surface will be cut.
Cloths which show their weaves, if tentered carelessly, will have the
filling threads running a little on the bias, or the materials lack in
smoothness. Cloths which are to be napped are moistened with water to
make the next process effective.
=Napping, Gigging, or Raising.=--These terms are almost
interchangeable. Fulled cloth is rough and dull in appearance: the
lustrous, soft pile which adds to its beauty and strength is made by
roughing up the surface to disentangle the fibers and make them into a
thick pile or nap, and then cutting them even with the shear.
[Illustration: FIG. 93.--DOUBLE-ACTING GIG.
Courtesy of Curtis & Marble.]
Worsted suiting is merely napped enough to make the weave look clean
and bright. Brushes are often used instead of teazles. Flannels
are napped so that the weave is softened, but such felted goods as
broadcloths and meltons have the pile so raised that the weave is
completely obliterated. They have to pass many times through the gig
to accomplish this. Defects are often concealed by softly raising a
surface and finishing it to look well. The Raising Gig (Fig. 93) is a
large, open cylinder on which a series of slabs or shallow boxes, the
width of the cylinder, may be fastened. The best means of raising the
nap is the teazle (Fig. 94), which is a vegetable growth something
like a stiff thistle. Fine wire raisers are sometimes used, but have
this disadvantage, that they break the cloth when in contact with a
knot, whereas the vegetable teazles break first. The narrow troughs
or boxes are filled with the teazles laid lengthwise, so that they
present a continuous napping surface. The cloth is stretched tight in
the machine, a humidifier often sprays it as it passes slowly along,
and the napping cylinder moves rapidly in the opposite direction,
rubbing up the surface of the material with the teazles. The process is
repeated several times, at first with old, soft teazles and gradually
with stiff, new ones, until the surface is thoroughly covered with
the raised fibers. The nap becomes finer as the gigging is repeated.
There are two methods of napping, the wet and the dry. In the former,
the cloth is kept moist, and the resulting pile is more shiny than in
the dry raising. Face goods, such as broadcloths, are napped wet. The
dry raising is used for worsted suitings and fancy woven goods. Cloths
that require much finish are given a special steam lustering, such as
broadcloths, plushes, Venetians, uniform cloth, and worsteds.
[Illustration: FIG. 94.--TEAZLE.]
=Shearing, Cutting or Cropping, and Brushing.=--Cutting the nap and
brushing it clean follow gigging or napping. One machine frequently
combines all three processes of raising, cropping, and cleaning. The
aim of the shear (Fig. 95) is to trim the raised nap to the desired
height, it may be merely to even it off, or it may be to cut the nap
close. The shear has to be adjusted to the need and requires care, for
if the nap is too long the surface roughens with wear; or if too close,
the material is weakened. The cutting surface is a sharp blade arranged
spirally around a cylinder which comes in contact with a sharp bar or
knife. The two surfaces act as scissors and cut the nap as desired.
The principle is similar to the lawn mower. A stiff brush or a set of
soft teazles set in a bar follow, and rid the cloth of clippings and
dust. Steam brushes are also used for some classes of goods, such as
kerseys. After the wet napping and cropping to which dress face goods
are subjected, the hand, when laid on the cloth, can move smoothly
in the direction in which the fibers have been raised, but feels the
opposing nap when moved in the opposite direction. In goods woven
entirely of wool the nap is along the warp way. In dry raising, to
which worsted suitings and trouserings are subjected, the fiber is
lifted to an upright position and the shear cuts it off, leaving the
weave distinct. The nap therefore offers no resistance to the hand when
passed over it. Brushes are in use, but it is important to have the
right kind and to keep them clean and unworn. A rough and uneven cloth
results from poor brushing. In fine grades of cloth a plush roller is
sometimes used after the final clipping. The small fibers left from
shearing after raising are used for docks.
[Illustration: FIG. 95.--SINGLE CUTTING SHEAR.
Courtesy of Curtis & Marble.]
The differing order in which the many finishing processes are applied,
their repetition or elimination, the appearance and use of new kinds
of machines, and the large number of differing cloths, make impossible
a definite statement of procedure. Perching or inspection occurs at
intervals, and defects are found which must be corrected. Tentering,
napping, and cropping are often repeated. Some mills, knowing that
irregularities are apt to occur, have these repetitions as a part of
their regular schedule.
=General Finishes.=--Boiling, steaming, pressing, and brushing are all
used in varying degrees and times to give a final finish to cloth.
Some wools, such as mohairs and alpacas, have a natural gloss which is
increased by pressure; other wools can have a permanent luster brought
out by treatment, and a surface finish can be applied to poor stock,
giving it an attraction which is more or less enduring. Boiling or
steaming brings out luster, and is employed for some woolen goods and
for many worsteds. It is used after tentering with some classes of
goods, and after gigging and shearing, or even after pressing, with
other kinds. The following are representative methods: (1) wrapping the
cloth around a roller and boiling it for several hours; (2) wrapping
the cloth around a perforated copper cylinder through which steam is
forced, occupying several minutes; (3) placing the roll of cloth in
a steam chest. The material in each instance is treated first on one
side and then on the other. Cloth which is to be dyed in the piece is
frequently sent to the dye house after steaming. It is sewed into an
endless belt by uniting the two ends, and is passed through the dye
until the requisite color is gained.
Sponging (decating) of cloth after its completion is necessary to keep
it from spotting in the rain, as the luster is so fine that small drops
of water injure it. The larger dry goods stores will have the goods
sponged before they are sent home. In the manufacture of woolens and
worsteds in England and Germany the sponging is now done before it
leaves the factory, both for the cutting-up and the retail trade. As
yet the United States has not made a specialty of this, but some of the
largest mills are installing decating apparatus.
=Final Pressing.=--A preliminary passing of cloth through the calender
is often done before inspection occurs. Face goods are frequently thus
pressed after the shearing and brushing, and are pressed again as a
final finish. A calender is a highly polished heated roll on which the
cloth is pressed smooth and given luster. Dry steaming often follows
to make the gloss permanent, or steaming can be used to reduce an
excessive luster. As a final finish a spindle or hydraulic press has
been in use for some classes of goods, which gives a glaze to the
material, but the calender is taking its place. The method of pressure
in the spindle press is as follows: The cloth is carefully folded
with press boards between the folds, so that one layer of cloth does
not touch another. Hot plates are put above and below, and hydraulic
presses or screws bring pressure upon the cloth. It is left overnight
in the press, and then taken out and refolded in such a way that parts
not pressed before now receive an equivalent amount. Pressing adds to
the look of solidity in the cloth as well as to the luster.
Brushing of various kinds is also used in the final finishing.
=Special Finishes.=--Cheviots, which partake of both woolen and worsted
characteristics, though in general they are worsted, show the weave,
but it is softened by some fulling and raising, and is not as clear
as in the regular worsted suiting. A good worsted cheviot costs about
twice as much as when made of woolen yarn. In the latter case it feels
softer and is less liable to wear well. The original cheviots were
made from the wool of the English cheviot sheep. Venetians are made
of wool, but the weave, which is a sort of upright twill, is definite
and clear like a worsted. Thus worsted and wools partake at times of
opposite characteristics, from variations in their finish. Flannels
woven plain or with a simple twill are finished in many ways. At times
they are subjected to the processes of worsteds and clearly show the
weave. They are even woven with worsted yarn and dry finished. Still
other varieties, such as the opera flannel and ladies’ cloth, are woven
of woolen yarn and fulled, napped, sheared, and pressed to look like
broadcloths. They are sold at different prices, being made of pure wool
or in many degrees of combination with cotton. When made of all cotton
they can be chemically treated to feel like wool, and given the finish
to look like wool.
Special machines are used to give varieties of surface, the chinchilla
machine being illustrative of such mechanical finish. The chinchilla
cloth is made with a special weave, and is later fulled, gigged,
and sheared to give it a long, soft nap, which is well opened and
made erect with a wire brush. The cloth is now placed in the special
machine, which has a rotary attachment, and rubs the nap into small
rolls, bunches, or points. By adjustment of the machine these bunches
can be made to lie in stripes or other designs. When this cloth is made
of pure stock good results follow, but frequently it is manufactured
of inferior wool and cotton, and is unsatisfactory. Cotton warp
with a wool filling thrown on the surface is frequently used in its
construction.
The true worsted suiting is finished much more simply than the face
goods. After weaving, it is generally sufficient to wash, tenter, brush
or gig (to raise the nap which obscures the weave), crop the surface
to make it bright and distinct, and crab and press to give permanent
luster.
Fibers are removed from yarn or cloth by several methods besides
shearing, such as gassing or singeing, in which the yarn or cloth is
passed quickly through a gas flame, which singes it without burning.
Scouring or dyeing often follow on account of a slight discoloration.
Passing the cloth rapidly over white hot copper rollers also removes
the surface fibers. The electric current is also used for napping and
cropping as well as for other finishes.
Worsteds are usually dyed in the slub (top), in the skein (spun yarn),
or in the piece, but a method of obtaining mixed effects such as the
pepper and salt, called Vigoureux printing (see Chap. XIII, _Forms
of Market Dyeing_) is in use. The old method was to unite two yarns
which had been slub dyed, or a black and a white yarn when desiring to
make gray. The Vigoureux process saves time and expense. The sliver
of worsted yarn is printed in a regular or irregular pattern, usually
one color on white. The dye is set and the sliver then goes through
the regular processes for making it into yarn, in which the figure is
obliterated and a mixed color secured. Heather mixtures for woolens
can be obtained through mixing dyed new wools, but the use of reworked
wools in various selected colors mixed by machinery gives excellent
results, saves money and time, and is much in demand.
The use of surface finishings of innumerable kinds is very general.
They are employed to beautify, to strengthen, and to conceal defects.
Starches, gums, soaps, and chemicals are the usual dressings. The feel
of one textile can be given to another by chemical treatment. Cotton
is made to resemble wool and wool to have a silky effect. Moiré and
embossed designs can be made by special machines, by the use of gums
and starches. Crêpon effects and waterproof and fireproof finishes can
be given by chemical means. (See Chap. XII.) Goods are made absorbent
or antiseptic, are made to have a pleasing feel and soft finish, or
are given weight and substance as well as gloss and luster, by surface
treatment. Many materials which are lightly woven are subsequently
stiffened on the back to give them an appearance of body which they do
not really possess.
New discoveries in industrial chemistry are resulting in new methods
of finishing. The chlorination of wools; printing in light and dark;
the production of unshrinkable yarns; combinations in one cloth of
felted and unfelted surface, and giving silk effects in the rustle as
well as the appearance are interesting methods of gaining diversities
in material. Reliable trade journals should be consulted constantly by
those who wish to know of new finishes and whether practical results
have followed from the experiments which are being tried.
=Other Uses of Wool and Worsted Yarns.=--_Felt_ which is made of
serrated wools was not woven originally, but was carded, felted, and
pressed into cloth. At present it is frequently woven first, and fulled
and finished later. A cheap kind of horse blanket is made which looks
like felt, but is constructed in the following way: Sheets or laps of
carded wool are placed on both sides of coarse burlap. These layers
are made into one piece of cloth by means of thousands of needles,
which pull the carded wool back and forth into the burlap, the rough
jute or hemp fibers of which hold the wool in place. The finish gives
the material an attractive appearance. Large quantities of woolen
and worsted yarn are used for knit goods, for cardigan jackets,
sweaters, hosiery, caps, shawls, gloves, mittens, underwear of all
kinds, boot, shoe, and glove linings. In eiderdown flannel the wool
is knitted into cotton stockinet and is made both single and double
faced. The finishing of this material gives it a soft nap. Heavy
woolen overcoatings for men’s wear are knit. Reworked wools in large
percentages are used in these fabrics. The result is a warm, enduring,
attractive cloth finished like a melton. Cotton is used largely in
combination with wool in this industry.
=The Carpet and Rug Industries= are important in the United States.
The principal looms in use were invented here. New York, Pennsylvania,
and Massachusetts are large producers. The wools are largely imported,
much coming from China, and the yarns made from them are coarse and
shiny. Woolen yarn is used as well as worsted, but not to the same
extent; the latter gives the better wear and is more expensive. These
floor coverings were originally made entirely by hand by tying or
twisting short ends of yarn around the warp threads and holding the
loops in place by the filling. The loops were cut by hand by means of
sharp knives. The machine-made products imitate the hand made, and are
frequently constructed on specially adapted looms. The worsted yarn is
made from coarse, hair-like wools. The yarn is not only doubled and
twisted after spinning but often three two-ply strands are twisted into
one, and several of these are used in each loop. The best carpets have
a hemp or linen back and a well-dyed worsted yarn for the face. In
good pile carpets the filling is thrown through the warp three times
after each row of loops, which holds them well in place. There are
many varieties of these floor coverings on the market, the principal
one being the ingrain, which is woven like a cloth with two-ply or
three-ply yarn. Venetians and Kidderminsters are similar. The weave
is sometimes plain, but frequently there are elaborate designs which
reverse the color on the front and back. Either side of the carpet can
be used. Ingrain carpets with two webs are woven usually on Jacquard
looms and are enduring and rather expensive when made of good three-ply
yarn, but are made in all qualities and prices. They are manufactured
with worsted in both warp and filling, or with worsted warp and wool
filling, or with worsted warp and cotton, jute, or even poorer filling.
The best quality has a large and definite number of warp and filling
threads to the inch, but the poorer qualities reduce the amount and
consequently the endurance. Drugget or felt is sometimes strong and
serviceable, but often is cheap and poor. It is made plain or with a
design printed upon it.
Pile carpets are constructed with the loops uncut, as in Brussels,
or cut, as in Wilton. They have two warps. The best carpets have a
worsted surface. Wool is used in some varieties. The kind of fiber used
for the backing makes considerable difference in the expense of the
carpet, and also figures in the wear. Flax, hemp, cotton, cotton waste,
and jute are all used according to the price of the carpet. After
weaving, pile carpets are finished usually by brushing and shearing.
Brussels carpets are made in several qualities, depending on the stock
used, the number of threads in a loop, the loops in a given space, the
class of dye used in the yarn, and the material used in the backing.
The number of colors possible in a design is limited, as the yarn for
each color must be dyed separately. Brussels carpets are woven on a
special Jacquard loom, in which the worsted yarns for the surface
loops are wound on spools and placed on large frames at the back and
slanting towards the loom. Each color is on a separate frame, and there
are about two hundred and fifty spools on one frame. The warp which is
used for the backing is either wound on spools also and placed on the
lowest frame, or it is wound on a beam and set at the back of the loom
in front of the frames. The backing threads, both warp and filling, are
also dyed. A body Brussels, which is considered the best kind, takes
its worsted yarn into its very foundation, so that the colored worsted
shows on the wrong side of the carpet in the midst of the backing
threads. If it is a five-frame Brussels it will have five colors on
the frames, and when one of these colors appears on the surface of the
carpet the others can be seen at the back. There are several threads in
each loop. The filling usually is shot across twice in Brussels, for
the loops are less apt to pull out than if they were cut, in which case
a three-shot filling is better. Flax and hemp make the best backing for
both warp and filling, but cotton is sometimes used satisfactorily.
Well-made Brussels carpets are very enduring and also expensive. The
loops on the surface are made by passing the worsted yarn from the
frame over a series of wires and holding down the loops thus made by
the filling threads. The rods or wires, usually eight or ten in number,
come automatically in place, and are each withdrawn and placed at the
end of the row after the filling holds the row of loops on the surface.
Tapestry Brussels carpet is a poor imitation of the real Brussels.
Many colors are used in it. The design is made first on squared paper,
the scheme of color in each pick of the pattern is studied out, and
the succession of it sent to the printer. The skeins of yarn to be
used for the loops on the surface of the carpet are wound on a large
cylinder, attached to which are troughs of color which come in contact
automatically with the yarn, and print it according to the succession
of colors indicated in the design. (See Chap. VIII, _Cotton Printing_.)
The skeins are taken from the cylinder, showing crosswise streaks
of varied color, and are carried to the steam chest to have the dye
set. When the carpet is woven the pattern is complete, but has a less
distinct outline than the real Brussels. The Jacquard harness and the
frames full of bobbins are not needed, hence expense is spared. A
simple harness is used, and wires are required to make the loops. The
rows of loops are usually farther apart, and often but one thread is
used in each loop. The backing is generally jute or some inexpensive
fiber, and the face is a poor quality of worsted yarn. Flecks of color
are sometimes printed on the back to increase the resemblance to body
Brussels carpet. Tapestry carpet which has the loops cut is often
called velvet carpet.
The original Wilton rugs were, and are still, made by hand in England
on upright looms. They are of great beauty and worth, and are high in
price. The machine-made Wilton is a copy of these, and an excellent
article, at a much lower price. It is woven like a Brussels carpet,
but has the loop cut, for the wires over which the loops are made have
sharp edges which cut through the worsted threads as they are drawn out
from the row just made. The Wilton carpet is usually woven of better
worsted and backing yarn, a greater number of fibers are in each loop,
the loops are closer together, and the filling thread, which binds the
loops together, passes across three times after each row of loops is
made. The warp frequently requires as many as two thousand threads. The
number of colors for a design in Wilton carpet is limited as it is in
Brussels. The French Moquette carpet is similar to the Wilton, and also
named from the town of its manufacture.
Axminster carpet is a pile carpet resembling the Wilton, but numerous
colors are possible by a special arrangement for the supply of worsted
yarn. The design is made, and the colored yarn as needed for each line
of loops is wound on a separate small cylinder. These are placed in
an endless chain above the loom, and the threads from each are passed
through a series of slots or needles. Each cylinder drops in place
when needed, and makes its row of loops. It then automatically passes
up to wait until it is again needed in a repeat of the pattern. Royal
Axminster carpets are expensive. In England Axminster carpets are
sometimes called Moquette, but the latter is more like Wilton carpet.
The terms velvet and Moquette have been used rather loosely in America
for cut pile carpets. Chenille Axminster carpets have a specially
tufted cord made for them. The loom, in which the fabric is woven which
will later be cut into strips along the warp to make the cord, has a
harness with a doup heald as well as a standard one. The former can be
drawn to one side, making adjacent warp threads overlap through which
the filling passes. (See Chap. IV, _Leno or Gauze Weaving_.) The cloth
is cut into strips across the filling, which is held by the crossed
warp threads, and the severed ends rise into a fuzzy cord. This cord is
woven into the surface of the carpet. The principle is much used for
the manufacture of cotton chenille curtains. Glasgow has manufactured
chenille carpets; the United States does not import them to any extent.
Handmade rugs are imported chiefly from the East, Constantinople being
the greatest Oriental market. They are made in Persia, India, Turkey,
and other Oriental countries. The machine-made rugs of the United
States copy the patterns of the Eastern handmade ones. The wools used
are largely the same that are found in the Oriental ones. The method
of making the rugs by machine is the same as the carpets already
described. Handmade rugs or carpets come from France in the Aubusson
and from England in the Wilton and Axminster. These are usually made
to fit the room, being woven the exact size. Handmade rugs are very
expensive. At the present time rugs are more in use than carpets, for
the housekeeper prefers the bare floor with a few rugs to a carpet
completely covering it.
=Wastes and By-Products.=--(See Chap. VI, _By-Products of Wool, and
Reworked Wool_.) The large variety and value of wastes can be seen by
referring to any textile journal, and noting the kinds of products
under such headings as Rags new and old, Shoddy, Machine Waste, and the
like. An efficiently run factory takes the pounds of machine waste and
its disposal into account when estimating the cost of its product, as
well as the expense of the raw material, labor, repairs, equipment, and
overhead expenses. The final cost is reduced by selling wastes, noils,
or clippings, and the effect is felt in the market price of cloth or
of clothing. Mutton, pelts, leather, rugs, cloaks, and oils help to
make the utilization of the sheep one of the greatest industries in the
world.
=Cutting-Up Trade.=--The great increase of ready-to-wear clothing for
men, women, and children has caused a demand on the manufacturer for
classes of goods made especially for the “cutting-up trade,” as it is
called. Some mills are working solely to supply these large clothing
houses, and sections of trade journals are devoted to these interests.
(See Chap. XVI, _The Clothing Industries_.)
The machinery used in the wool industries has changed little, but new
methods of obtaining results are reported constantly in trade journals.
The automatic doffer in the spinning frame has made it possible to
continue the work of the machine without interruption, for the empty
bobbins are rejected and new ones put in the place. New machines for
napping fabrics and for spinning finer counts of yarn are reported.
Research groups in the industry are working to eliminate the various
wastes, such as lengthening the life of leather aprons and brushes,
the removal of dust in the singe room, gases in the bleaching and
carbonizing rooms, and preventing the soiling of fabrics from oil on
the machines. The ventilation of dye houses is receiving attention, and
the better conditioning of the air in the mills.
=Wool Manufacture in Leading Countries.=[13]--The leading wool
manufacturing countries of the world are the United States, the United
Kingdom, France, and Germany. Belgium, Italy, Austria, Russia, and
Japan are also engaged in this industry. Belgium furnishes England with
large quantities of woolen yarn annually and in her large scouring
plants much of the wool used by the industries of the Continent are
cleaned. Verviers is important in the wool industry.
[13] Report of the Tariff Board on Schedule K, 1912.
The United States is important in wool manufacturing,--woolens,
worsteds, felt, carpets and rugs, and knit goods all being thriving
industries. The manufacture of carded woolens as a household industry
began among the earliest settlers. In 1859 when the worsted industry
was in its infancy there were 1260 woolen mills run by power. The
popularity of worsted fabrics interfered with the development of the
woolen industry. At times there is a revival of interest in cheviots,
tweeds, homespuns, and cassimeres, but, in general, the production of
worsted goods is greater. The main woolen mills are in Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York, and Rhode Island;
and in many states, even in the far west, there are mills making woolen
cloth. As a general thing all processes of manufacture are conducted
in the woolen mills. The worsted industry has developed rapidly. Some
mills buy their yarns and weave only. Other mills buy tops, spin the
yarn and weave and finish the goods, but there are many mills which
carry on all of the processes. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and
Pennsylvania are the principal states, and Lawrence, Mass., Providence,
R. I., and Philadelphia are noted cities. Cleveland, Ohio, has a large
worsted mill. Knit goods and hosiery are rapidly increasing, a large
amount of wool wastes being utilized. Felt is increasing its capital,
and carpets and rugs are important industries. Cotton warp goods are
in demand in cassimeres and dress goods. Cotton and wool mixed goods
have declined with the exception of underwear and blankets, which are
increasing. (See Appendix for statistics on the wool industry.)
Great Britain is noted for hard twisted worsted, the yarn being spun on
the Bradford system. The center of manufacture is in a small district
in the West Riding of Yorkshire. A large business is done in tops to
sell to those making worsteds, and merchants buy raw wool and have it
made into tops on commission. The demand for a great variety of yarns
and fabrics has led to specialization in worsted spinning and also in
weaving. The weavers have found it easier to buy the sort of yarn they
need than attempt to make it all in their own mills. Bradford is the
most important city for distributing raw materials, for worsted combing
and spinning, and for the production of worsted dress goods for women.
Huddersfield is the center for men’s worsted suitings. There is less
specialization in the woolen industry, the mills preferring to mix
the wool, reworked wool, noils and other ingredients for themselves.
Heavy woolens, overcoatings, cheap cloakings, and blankets are made
near Dewsbury and Batley, where the greatest amount of reworked wool is
produced. A low grade of fabrics is made at Morley. Leeds, once noted
for broadcloths, is now doing a large business in serges and worsted
coatings. Stroud in the west of England is noted for broadcloths and
for using the finest class of wools in them. The southern part of
Scotland is noted for tweeds, Galashiels being the most important
center. Kidderminster is a carpet center and Nottingham and Derby have
large hosiery interests.
France excels in soft worsted goods made by the French Combing System
(see Combing, above) with short-staple wools. The combing of wool
is a special business as it is in England, but in France it is for
“tops” from soft mule-spun wools, where England produces hard spun
wools on the frame. The Department of the North is the most important
manufacturing center, the chief cities being Roubaix and Tourcoing for
the wool combing industry. There are important mills in many other
parts of France. Mazamet in the Department of the Tarn is the center
for wool pulling. Vienne on the Rhone is the center for cloth made
from reworked wool. Elboeuf in Normandy does a miscellaneous business
in woolens and worsteds. The Department of the Somme produces wool and
cotton velvets and the Department of the Rhone is engaged in the making
of blankets. The hand loom is still working in homes and small domestic
industries, and their artistic productions are making France supreme in
fine classes of dress goods. The Rodier fabrics are an instance of the
continued use of the hand industries.
Germany is doing much in wool manufacturing, but it is spread all over
the country. Hand weaving is still in evidence, but is declining. It
is found principally in western Saxony, north of Cologne, and North
Bavaria. Both woolen and worsted mills are numerous, but more spindles
are found in the latter. The woolen industry produces much reworked
wool and half woolen fabrics are produced in large quantities. Germany
claims to have found a method of making fabrics of wool entirely
mothproof.
Belgium, Italy, Austria, and Japan are also important in branches of
the wool industry.
WOOLEN AND WORSTED MATERIALS
Albatross
Astrachan
Basket cloth
Beaver
Bedford cord
Blankets
Bolivia
Broadcloth
Bunting
Carpets
Cashmere
Cassimere
Challie
Cheviot
Chinchilla
Corkscrew worsted
Covert
Cravenette
Crêpe cloth
Crêpon
Diagonal
Eponge
Etamine
Felt
Flannel
Frieze
Gabardine
Granite cloth
Grenadine
Henrietta
Homespun
Hopsacking
Jersey cloth
Kersey
Ladies’ cloth
Lansdowne
Marquisette
Melton
Mohair
Nun’s veiling
Panama
Polo or Golf cloth
Poplin
Prunella
Ratiné
Rep
Serge
Shepherd plaid
Suiting
Tartan
Tricotine
Tweed
Velour
Venetian
Voile
Whipcord
Zibeline
MIXTURES WITH WOOL
Alpaca
Astrachan
Bedford cord
Brilliantine
Eiderdown
Eolienne
Gloria
Henrietta
Lansdowne
Lusters
Marquisette
Merino
Mohair
Poplin
Sicilian
Tropicals
Viyella
CHAPTER VIII
THE COTTON INDUSTRY
=Some Economic and Commercial Conditions.=--The vegetable fiber cotton
is of more value to mankind than any one of the other textile fibers on
account of its cheapness, its availability, and its varied usefulness.
The materials made from it range from the finest threads, mulls, and
laces to automobile tires and heavy sailcloths. It is probable that no
other plant is so closely connected with the cost of living.
The invention of the saw gin in 1792 by Eli Whitney, and the
application of power to machinery through Watts’ steam engine, were
the factors in revolutionizing the industrial condition of the world,
and in substituting the problems of factory production for those of
the home. Whitney’s invention made the cotton of the United States
available to English spinners, and the demand for cotton cloth gave
the impetus to the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton.
The influence of cotton on the commercial, political, and social
relations of the United States is of noteworthy importance. It is the
great commercial crop of the country, although corn exceeds it in total
value. The United States is the greatest producer of cotton, and India,
China, Egypt, and Brazil are also important producers. The Sea Island
cotton is the finest and longest staple cotton in the world. This crop
has been almost destroyed by the ravages of the boll weevil, and for
commercial purposes it has disappeared, at least for the present.
The great cotton manufacturing countries of Europe, England, France,
and Germany, have depended upon this country for supplies of lint
for their mills. England has 40 per cent of her spindles on Egyptian
cotton. The United States uses about one-half of its own crop in
its mills and exports the remainder. Its crop at present is in the
neighborhood of 14 million bales of 500 pounds each, but before the war
it had risen to 16 million bales. It produces about one-half of the
world crop, and formerly grew a larger proportion of it.
For various economic reasons the conditions surrounding the growth of
cotton in the United States have presented many difficulties, and the
question as to whether it is advisable to continue growing such large
crops has been under consideration. Labor problems in planting and
harvesting the crop have been serious, wages have risen, transportation
charges have gone up. The farmer in some sections of the cotton belt
has found it difficult to make cotton pay and has turned to other
crops. The price of cotton is from one to two hundred per cent higher,
but expenses are so great that the returns are often inadequate. A very
important factor in returns from the cotton has been the spread of the
boll weevil over almost the entire cotton belt. The Sea Island crop
has declined from 90,000 running bales to 2000.[14] It was stated in
1920 by the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United States Department of
Agriculture[14] that the average annual loss from the boll weevil was
$300,000,000. (See _Enemies of the Cotton Plant_, below.)
[14] “The Cotton Situation,” Bulletin No. 877, United States
Department of Agriculture.
The United States has been careless in its cotton growing. Seeds of
good, medium, and poor cotton have been mixed at the gins, and when
planted have brought inferior results. The cotton mills in this and
foreign countries have suffered from this carelessness, for the bales
contained uneven lint, and consequently the cloth made from it was
unsatisfactory, or time and labor had to be spent to pick over the
cotton when it arrived at the mill. Improved methods are being tried
and large sections of some states are endeavoring to grow but one
variety of cotton, and thus obviate the danger of mixing seeds. Insects
carry the pollen from one field to another. Methods of baling and
handling have also been needing correction.
The cotton farmer asks a higher price for his cotton than before the
Great War. He is endeavoring to give a more even staple, he is relying
more on coöperative marketing that he may get better prices, and on
the storage of unbought bales in warehouses, that the cotton may not
be exposed to the weather. (Deterioration of the cotton in the bale
through rain and dirt to which it was exposed has been a cause of
complaint.) Representatives of foreign governments, where our cotton
is used, have come to the United States to study the causes of the
irregularities in our cotton. They are dismayed at the rising prices
and are making efforts to increase the growing of cotton in other parts
of the world, especially in their own dependencies. With the exception
of Egypt, other countries do not grow cotton equal to the American
crop. Russia, China, Japan, India, the British colonies in Africa,
Brazil, Peru, and Argentina are purchasing large supplies of American
improved seeds and are employing experts from the United States to
help them to grow better cotton. If the price is higher than it was at
one time, the cotton will be better. The standardization of the grades
of cotton that values may be more easily determined has been under
consideration for some years, and progress has been made.
=Properties.=--The properties of cotton which are especially noteworthy
are the following:--
1. The fiber has a natural twist (see Chap. XI) which aids in the
spinning of it into fine and coarse yarns. When long, fine staple
cotton is used and the thread well spun it makes a strong yarn.
2. Cotton burns easily on account of its cellulose nature and the
natural oil it contains; it is said to be even subject to spontaneous
combustion. When cotton is nitrated, it is highly inflammable and is
used for guncotton. Treatment with nitric acid gives cotton more or
less a feel of wool, but as it burns more readily than before, there
is danger if the material is brought near the fire. Many of these
materials are napped to give them still more the effect of wool, and
the danger of fire is still further increased by the greater amount of
air between the fibers. The Chardonnet method of making rayon was by
nitrating cotton. It was at first very inflammable until a method of
denitrating was used.
3. Cotton is very free from impurities, and bleaching cleanses it still
more. It can be stored for a long time without deterioration, unless
sizings and starches and certain dyes are present. If kept clean and
porous it is a hygienic material for wearing next to the body. (See
Chap. XV.)
4. The hygroscopic quality is less than that of wool and silk.
Artificial moisture is needed in its spinning to produce good results.
It absorbs water slowly, and does not give it up quickly, consequently
it remains damp a long time. To render cotton absorbent, the cotton wax
is removed. It does not dye readily unless it is made more absorbent or
a chemical is applied for which both it and the dye have an affinity.
This mordant, as it is called, holds the dye to the cotton. (See Chap.
XIII.)
5. Moist cotton is stronger than dry cotton. When cotton is heated, as
under a very hot iron, its strength is less. Alternate moisture and
heat do not hurt cotton unless the heat is too great.
6. Cotton crushes and creases easily, and needs frequent pressing. The
surface of napped goods and blankets easily flattens down and takes on
a rough, shabby look unless often brushed and shaken. The warmth of the
cloth decreases as the surface loses its fluffiness, for the air is no
longer imprisoned in it.
7. Cotton soils readily on account of the numerous fine hairs
protruding from the yarn, and the natural oil in it. When it is new and
has the sizing or finish still upon it, it will stay clean longer, for
the fibers are held down.
8. Cotton shrinks in water and in certain chemicals. This is a natural
property but is augmented in weaving. The strain on the warp threads
in the loom stretches the yarn to its full length, and the sizings
and starches hold it there. Warm water and soap in the laundry loosen
the finish and the yarn contracts. The shrinking must be taken into
consideration when cutting out and making garments. When cotton yarn
is put into a cold bath of a certain strength alkali it will shrink
and become stronger and heavier, and will take on a parchment-like
appearance. (See _Mercerization_, Chap. XII.)
9. Cotton is a better conductor of heat than wool or silk, consequently
when thin it is a satisfactory summer garment.
10. The elasticity of cotton is less than either silk or wool,
therefore the thread breaks more easily when subjected to strain.
11. The tensile strength is fair. The cotton fiber is stronger than the
wool fiber.
12. Specific gravity. This differs in various textile fibers, but it
is least in boiled-off silk. Wool is lighter than raw silk, and mohair
is the same as the latter. Linen and cotton are the heaviest. Cotton
blankets and quilts are much heavier than those made of wool of the
same consistency.
By special treatment and at a small cost cotton can be made to resemble
and even feel like linen, wool or silk, and thus have a distinct
service, but it does not have the properties of these textiles.
=Botany and Growth.=--Cotton consists of the hairs (plumose fibers)
which protect the seeds of the plant. It is called a surface fiber to
distinguish it from the bast or stem fibers, such as flax or Kentucky
hemp. The stalks of the cotton contain bast fiber not utilized at
present on account of the expense of preparation. Cotton is almost
pure cellulose. While growing, the fiber is cylindrical in form, but as
it dries it twists and when fully ripe is like a narrow twisted ribbon
(Fig. 134). This characteristic gives strength when the fibers are
made into yarn. Cotton is often short in staple, but a fiber of even
three-fourths of an inch in length can be spun into a strong yarn. (See
Fig. 96.)
The cotton plant (Fig. 97) may be an annual, biennial, or perennial.
In the United States it is planted annually and grows to a height of
two to four feet. Sea Island cotton grows higher. In South America
and India a more tree-like cotton is found. The leaf of the plant
often varies in shape on different parts of the stem. The flower has
five whitish or yellowish petals, which are almost saffron color at
the base. They last a day, becoming purplish in color, and drop off,
leaving a three- or five-celled pod or square, which increases in size
and finally bursts into sections, disclosing the cotton fiber covering
the seeds. Some varieties of seeds are covered with a soft surface down
called linters, which adheres very closely. This is removed by a second
ginning, and forms a valuable crop. Sea Island and Egyptian cotton have
shiny black seeds without the fuzz excepting at the ends. Cotton ripens
differently, and a plant may contain at one time mature cotton bursting
out, together with developing bolls, flowers, and opening buds. A
cotton field in bloom is a beautiful sight. (See Fig. 98.)
[Illustration: FIG. 96.--STAPLE OF COTTON.
Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.]
[Illustration: FIG. 97.--THE COTTON PLANT.
From Brooks’ _Cotton_, by courtesy of the American School of
Correspondence.]
[Illustration: FIG. 98.--COTTON FIELD, SHOWING PICKER AT WORK.
Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture.]
Cotton belongs to the order _Malvaceæ_, or mallow, which also gives the
hollyhock and marshmallow. The important genus of the mallow family
is the _Gossypium_, which is found varying in height from two to
thirty feet. The species are very numerous, for the plant develops new
characteristics according to its habitat, the methods of cultivation,
choice of seed, soil, climate, and position near or away from the sea.
There are many agricultural varieties which have obscured the botanical
species. Thirty-eight commercial types are recognized in Liverpool.
Authorities differ greatly in classifying the species of cotton, but
the following are fairly well established:--
_Gossypium barbadense_, takes its name from the Barbadoes, where it
grows. Sea Island and Egyptian cotton come from this species, and the
Peruvian and Brazilian are probably more or less related. Peruvian
cotton has a long, strong staple which spins to medium fine counts, 45s
to 70s. The _barbadense_ grows better in salt air and soil; the fiber
is long and silky, and the natural twists are frequent. The yield is
perhaps less than the short staple cotton, but the value is greater.
The highest counts of yarn are spun from it; 120s to 240s. The roller
gin is generally used to separate the lint from the seed. Sea Island
is the most valuable of the world’s cottons. In fineness and length of
staple it surpasses the others. The Egyptian cotton is like the Sea
Island and second in value to it. The cultivation began in Egypt in
1821, American Sea Island cotton seeds being planted. Egyptian cotton
is mostly long staple, the best known is the Sakellarides. Other
Egyptian cottons such as the Mitafifi and Abassi are roughly classed as
Upper Egyptians.
_Gossypium hirsutum_ is probably of American origin. It is grown as
an annual. The name _hirsutum_ is given on account of the appearance
of the seed, which is covered with a grayish or greenish down. Some
experts consider _hirsutum_ and _herbaceum_ to be the same species. The
lint spins to warp threads 34s to 46s, and to filling from 36s to 54s.
It is usually cleaned by the saw gin.
_Gossypium herbaceum._--This variety is probably of Indian or Asiatic
origin, and is both annual and biennial. The Brown Egyptian is from
this species, and the Surat of India, which is short in staple, is said
by some to belong to it also. The Nankeen cotton of China is a color
variation of the _herbaceum_. The seeds are covered with two kinds of
fibers: long and silky, and short and dense. The seed cotton has to be
removed very carefully, as the hairs adhere tightly to the seeds, and
the down and part of the covering of the seeds are apt to come off at
the same time.
_Gossypium arboreum_ and _neglectum_.--These species are related to the
_herbaceum_, are much alike, and have the seeds covered with down. They
are natives of India, and grow to fifteen to twenty feet in height.
They give the Bengal and Dacca cottons of India, and the China cottons.
The _Gossypium religiosum_ is thought by some to be the same as the
_Gossypium arboreum_.
The American Upland cotton is beginning to be used in many parts of
Asia.
Cotton is cultivated between 35 and 45 degrees both north and south
of the Equator, but grows best within thirty-five degrees either way.
More than half the cotton is cultivated in temperate latitudes. It
thrives in a warm, humid atmosphere, with ample rainfall, and a light,
loamy, or sandy soil which keeps damp yet holds the heat. In a moist,
even climate with warm summers, and with salt in the air and soil, it
reaches a very high quality as has been the case with the Sea Island.
The latter is grown on the islands off the coast of North Carolina,
Georgia, and Florida, and on lands near the sea. It is also produced
in the West Indies. The conditions in the southern part of the United
States are favorable, especially the gradual rise in temperature during
the entire development of the cotton. Rain in the spring when the
crop is maturing helps the development of stem and leaf. Heavy rains,
however, in the summer are likely to injure the production of the
bolls. The plant is very sensitive to frosts which sometimes come in
the growing time. Humidity in the air is helpful, but cotton can thrive
also under irrigation, as has been found in its successful raising in
California and Arizona, where it is dry and hot.
=The American Cotton Belt= extends from the Atlantic Coast through
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Mississippi, Arkansas, Western Tennessee, Northern Louisiana, Texas,
Oklahoma, and New Mexico. Cotton is also produced in the Salt River,
Gila and Colorado Valleys in Arizona and in Palo Verde, the Imperial
and San Joaquin Valleys in California. The main cotton produced in the
United States is the Upland short staple, which is said to give 92 per
cent of the crop. A longer staple Upland is produced in the valleys
of Texas, in delta lands of Mississippi, in Oklahoma, Arkansas, South
Carolina, and California. The name “Peeler” is in general use for a
long staple Upland cotton. The Upland seeds are covered with down
running in color from gray to brown. The length of the short staple is
from five-eighths to one inch. There are many varieties of it grown
in other parts of the world. In Arizona the Pima cotton is grown with
success by careful irrigation. The standard of the lint is excellent;
the staple is from 1¹⁄₂ to 1³⁄₄ inches. It is grown from Egyptian
seeds. Great care is taken that the seeds shall be unmixed with other
varieties, the soil is carefully prepared, and all weak plants are
removed during growth. Arizona is also growing the Upland cotton.
Meade cotton is being planted in place of Sea Island, as it matures
earlier and is less apt to be destroyed by the boll weevil. The staple
is 1¹¹⁄₁₆ inches in length under favorable cultivation. The seeds are
smooth and the roller gin is used.
=The Leading Cotton-Growing Countries= outside of the United States
are India, Egypt, Brazil and Peru in South America, Russia, China,
and Mexico. The West Indies also grow cotton. _Egypt_ with its warm,
bright climate, good water supply, system of irrigation, and favorable
growing time, without storms or rains, is an excellent place for cotton
growing. The length, strength, and color of the Egyptian cotton are
notable. The brownish color of much of it is caused by the red coloring
matter in the Nile, which stains while it nourishes the plant. The
best of the Egyptian cotton is next to the Sea Island in value. The
United States imports more of it than any other foreign cotton. Out
of the 292,288 bales of 500 pounds each imported in 1924 there were
164,152 bales from Egypt.[15] It is not likely that Egypt will greatly
increase her crop, for the possibilities of suitable land are small.
_India_ produces a large crop of cotton but uses much of it at home.
The fiber is short and coarse, largely from the excessive heat and the
lack of sunshine during the monsoon summer. The government, however, is
giving careful attention to its improvement. The United States imports
little, but Japan, and Germany and other parts of Europe use India
cotton. It is too coarse for general service by English spinners, but
is used in England for poorer qualities of warp and filling. _Russia_
produces cotton chiefly in the Asiatic provinces of Turkestan and
Transcaucasia. The present unsettled condition of Russia has reduced
the cotton acreage. _South America_ is growing cotton in Brazil, Peru,
and Argentine. Brazil is considered promising for cotton production.
The rough Peruvian cotton is imported into the United States for mixing
with wool in the woolen industry. Brazilian cotton is also used in the
United States. _China_ produces much cotton which is used at home. It
is of a lower grade than American cotton, but is imported for mixing
with better varieties. Mexico grows a cotton similar to the American
cotton.
[15] Cotton Production and Distribution. Bulletin 156, Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census, season 1923-24.
Since the United States has not been producing as much cotton as
formerly, and the price has been high, active efforts have been made in
many foreign countries to increase their production. Representatives
of foreign governments have been sent to America to study methods of
growing cotton. American experts are also being employed by other
countries to assist in the development of improved varieties of cotton.
Foreign competition will be felt in the United States in the lower
grades. As a large amount of the American crop is exported it is felt
that the only adequate protection for the American market is to improve
its cotton and grow it more cheaply than other countries are able to
do. The inferior qualities are grown cheaper in foreign lands.[16]
[16] The Cotton Situation. Bulletin No. 877, United States Department
of Agriculture.
=Planting and Picking.=--(Fig. 98.) In the southern part of the
United States, cotton is planted from early March to May, according
to the locality. Machine planters are in general use. The crop begins
to mature in late July, and it continues to do so until frost, in
November or even December. The moment the cotton matures and the open
boll displays its seed cotton fully ripe, the picking must begin. It
is usually conducted in three stages, in the order of the developing
bolls. These open first on the lower branches. The lower and middle
bolls contain the best cotton. The cotton which matures at the end of
the season is more likely to have spots and discolorations as it has
been more exposed to the weather. It is picked by the small grower
on his own account, but those having large plantations obtain hired
labor. The gathering is usually done by hand, men, women, and children
being at work in the fields from early morning until late at night. A
machine harvester would be an advantage if one could be invented able
to discriminate between ripe and unripe cotton, leaves and pieces of
bolls, and for which the price would not be prohibitive. Machines have
been invented which seem almost human, but as yet nothing has been
generally adopted for this purpose. The human picker takes hold of the
ripe cotton inside of the open boll, and it easily comes off clean.
An average picker can gather from 200 to 250 pounds of seed cotton in
a day; twice as much, it is said, can be picked by unusually quick
workers. The planter must have his cotton picked as soon as it is ripe,
for if left on the field it is apt to become tinged in color. Labor
now is both scarce and comparatively high in price, which are factors
in the high price of cotton. Labor is often untrained, consequently
stems, leaves, and dirt are combined with the seed cotton. If the
cotton is picked damp and ginned when in this condition, the fibers
are cut by the saws, which should only pick out the seeds. The cost
of picking the crop is a large item, especially in low-priced cotton.
A good professional picker can earn about $3.50 per day. Payment is
usually according to the amount picked.[17] Careless work is only
too common, and affects the cleanness of the cotton. The seed cotton
is taken to the nearest gin house, where it is delivered to the gin,
usually through suction pipes.
[17] A Story of Cotton. Turner. Memphis Terminal Corporation,
Memphis, Tenn.
=Enemies of the Cotton Plant.=--Several diseases cause losses to the
cotton crop, and it has many insect enemies, such as the boll weevil,
the cotton bollworm, the pink bollworm, and the cotton leafworm. The
most serious is the first, for it has caused losses of 50 per cent or
more of the crop in late years. It came from Mexico many years ago,
and has gradually spread its ravages over almost the entire southern
cotton area. Ways of meeting this menace to American cotton are
being tried. The Sea Island crop is almost destroyed, although hopes
are expressed that it may still be saved through some of the latest
methods. The damage from the weevil varies from year to year. A mild
winter or an excessive rainfall in the summer increases its activity.
Concerted action is needed. Intensified farming and diversified crops
are helping. The weevils that survive the cold of winter emerge in
the spring from their hiding places in dead grass or under old cotton
stalks and attack the young flower buds. Spraying helps to destroy them
but does not eradicate. Burning the old plants in the fall or plowing
them under tends to destroy hibernating places. The development of
early maturing varieties of cotton gives the greatest promise, and is
being pushed by the United States Department of Agriculture. These are
planted as early in the spring as possible without risk of damage by
frost. The Acala, Durango, and Lone Star are representative of some of
the newer cottons and are taking the place of the older varieties. In
1924 there were about 40,000,000 acres under cultivation in the United
States. The yield per acre is about 130 pounds of lint cotton.
=Cotton Ginning.=--After cotton is gathered the seeds must be removed.
Ginning is seldom done now on the farms as it used to be, but at public
gins which are established where there is ample cotton grown. It is
virtually the first preparatory step in cotton spinning. The condition
in which the process leaves the lint is important in the future price
of it. The grade of the lint is dependent very largely on the care
in harvesting, that is, whether it is ripe, clean, and dry, and on
the feeding and speed of the gin. The modern public gin has pneumatic
elevators and distributors, which suck up through pipes the seed cotton
brought by the grower. The lint is separated from the seeds in the gin,
and a blast of air carries it to the condenser and baling press. The
seeds fall into a trough and are carried to bins in the gin house or
are sent down a chute to the wagon of the grower who desires to use his
own seeds for planting or other purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--THE SAW GIN.
From Brooks’ _Cotton_, by courtesy of the American School of
Correspondence.]
There are two kinds of gins in general use, the Saw Gin, which was Eli
Whitney’s invention in 1793, and the Roller Gin, which is probably the
descendant of the Churka Gin of India. Eli Whitney, a northern man,
was teaching in a cotton district of the South. He saw that cleaning
cotton was a laborious task, and that a method of facilitating the work
was needed. His machine consisted of a drum with wire hooks or teeth,
which rotated against a grate, on the other side of which was the
seed cotton. The teeth caught the fiber and drew it through the bars,
leaving the seeds to drop to the ground, and a brush took the cotton
from the drum. The modern saw gin is an improvement on the Whitney
gin. Where two men before Whitney’s time could clean two pounds a day
by hand, at the present time two men can remove the cotton from the
wagon, attend six gins and clean twenty-four thousand pounds a day;
_i. e._, each saw gin cleans at least four thousand pounds a day. The
modern gin (Fig. 99) has a series of circular saws, forty or eighty
on a shaft, which project through a slotted plate. The seed cotton is
received at _A_ and carried against the picker roll _C_ and the saws
_E_. The seeds drop below and the brush _J_ carries the lint cotton to
a flue to be carried to the condenser. A single gin may be used, or a
number may be combined, called a battery. One flue may be used for all
the gins, or there may be one for each. The cotton is somewhat cleaned
and straightened as it passes through the flue. A 60-saw gin revolving
at 60 revolutions per minute will gin about 5000 pounds a day. The saw
gin is suited to short-stapled cotton, having seeds covered with down.
During the process of separating lint and seeds the fibers are much
entangled and often full of specks and dirt. When the baled cotton
reaches the mill several machines are needed to lay the fibers of the
lint in order and to rid it of dust and specks. Saw gins undoubtedly
tear and snarl the cotton, consequently many advocate the slower method
of the Roller Gin, although it adds to the expense. Gins which do less
damage yet work rapidly are needed, and some have been brought out
which claim to clean as much cotton per day as the saw gin without its
injury and waste, and to leave it in better condition for spinning.
The Roller Gin is an old method, having been used in India. It is
principally employed for cotton with smooth seeds, such as Sea Island,
American, Egyptian, and Meade. The cotton is fed to a hopper, which has
rollers at the bottom covered with rough walrus leather which seize the
fiber. A fixed “doctor” knife presses against a roller and draws the
fiber between the roller and the knife. The seeds, drawn to a point
where the knife touches the roller, are gently but swiftly pushed off
by two blades which strike the cotton alternately. The lint is carried
on by the rollers and swept off by brushes. A recent roller gin cleans
about two bales a day, or about a thousand pounds.
The seeds, which are covered with down (Fig. 100), are sent to the
oil presses, which are frequently installed in the gin houses. The
principal products of the seeds are linters, hulls, oil, and cake.
Linters are the short fibers adhering to the seeds of all cultivated
varieties of cotton excepting the Sea Island, some Egyptian, and a
few new species. These fibers are removed in a second ginning known
as delinting or cutting. This is often done at a cotton oil mill as a
first step in the preparation of the seed for crushing. The linters
are valuable for guncotton, rayon, celluloid, varnishes, photograph
films, wadding, absorbent cotton, felt, low-grade yarn rope, lamp
wicks, mixing with wool and like purposes. The cotton from the fields
yields about 66 pounds of seed to 34 of lint out of one hundred pounds.
The value of the linter crop is a large factor in the farmer’s returns.
[Illustration: FIG. 100.--COTTON ON THE SEED.
From Brooks’ _Cotton_, by courtesy of the American School of
Correspondence.]
=Baling and Handling.=--The lint cotton is delivered to a special
receptacle in the press. The covering of the bale is jute or other
coarse cloth. One bale contains the fiber from several acres. The
bales from the farms are not tightly packed and will not stand long
transportation, consequently the railroad and steamship companies have
compresses which give a special baling before shipping. The standard
American bale (uncompressed) is 54 in. long, 27 in. wide, and 48 in.
in thickness. It weighs in the neighborhood of 500 pounds, differing
from various causes. The method of reducing the bulk is by a screw,
steam, or hydraulic power according to the equipment used. A sudden
terrific pressure acts on the entire mass, thereby reducing it to a
fraction of its original height. The covering is fastened around the
contracted mass by steel bands. The elasticity of the cotton and the
air compressed in it cause the bale to spring to the turtleback shape
characteristic of the American bale when the pressure is removed. The
tare (covering, bands, etc.) amounts to 25 or 30 pounds. Foreign buyers
are allowed 6 per cent off for the tare, but additional weight is often
added wrongfully. Spinners complain that different staples of cotton
are in one bale, which causes uneven spinning, yet it takes too long to
return the bales for a better and more even cotton. Complaints are also
made of price-adjusting difficulties, and of the hard edges of the high
compress bale.
Criticisms of the American bale are incessant and are frequently
justified (Fig. 101). An excess of moisture is often found, which
increases the weight. Cotton may vary in moisture from 7 to 12 per
cent. The bales are frequently exposed to the weather without cover,
but the use of the licensed warehouse for storage is increasing. On
account of careless storage the cotton is often mildewed. When the
bales are opened they are sometimes found to contain foreign matter
to increase weight. If, however, a buyer insists on having a cover
removed to see if the cotton is of the same character and that no
foreign matter is included he may find it unnecessary, and has to bear
the expense of recovering. Foreign lands complain that the 500-pound
bales are too big and unwieldy, that our system of baling injures the
fiber, that the jute covering easily deteriorates, and that they are
in a worse condition than the bales of any other country. Defective
ginning causes the fibers to knot, which will interfere with smooth
spinning, for the knots persist and show as dense white spots in the
web as it comes from the carding machine. The weight of the bale makes
it necessary to pull it around with great hooks, the buyers tear cotton
from the bales to test it, and the surface cotton becomes badly soiled.
It is said of it that it is “the clumsiest, dirtiest, most expensive,
and most wasteful package in which cotton, or in fact any commodity of
like value, is anywhere put up.”
[Illustration: FIG. 101.--COTTON BALES. American bale in upper
left-hand corner.
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 33.]
The bales of cotton from other countries (Fig. 101), reach their
destination in much better condition. The Egyptian bale (700 pounds)
is long, smoothly covered, and easily packed in the ships, so that the
cost of carrying is reduced and the loss from dirt and bursting bales
is much less. The India bale weighs 400 pounds, being smaller and of
greater density than the American. Efforts to improve the baling are
being made.[18] The American Round Bale Compress makes a cylindrical
bale. The cotton is received between two heavy rollers and rolled so
tight that almost all air is excluded, consequently there is less
damage from water and fire than with the old bale. The lint is covered
with cotton cloth and held by wires. It weighs between 250 and 300
pounds, consequently the bale can be moved without the hook. The cotton
is guaranteed and also the weight, therefore it does not have to be
tested. It packs well into train or ship. It is making its way slowly.
A suggestion is made that all cotton should be compressed at the gin
and weight and sample be guaranteed. The bale could then go to its
destination without breaking the cover to test the contents.
[18] A Story of Cotton. Turner. Memphis Terminal Corp., Memphis, Tenn.
=The Industry in the United States.=--The United States produces the
bulk of the cotton grown in the world. It is relied upon for the
raw material for the better class of fabrics. With some exceptions,
including some of the cotton of Egypt, the other cotton-growing
countries produce a poorer grade than the United States. The American
crop in 1911 was about 16,000,000 bales (500 pounds), but declined
for many reasons (see above). However, the crop of 1924, in the final
ginning report of the Census Bureau, was 13,618,751 bales, which was
a larger crop than had been obtained since 1914. The world crop in
1911 was estimated at 22,297,000 bales (500 pounds), but in 1924 the
estimate was 22,211,000 to 24,700,000 bales. The price of cotton per
pound before the war was in the neighborhood of 12¹⁄₂ cents, but in
1924 it ranged from 23.5 cents to 37.65, 28 cents being an average.
Many state it must go higher if the planter is to feel he can afford to
continue with the crop, but this is not a universal opinion. At present
it is not felt that there is an immediate danger of America losing
its world position, but measures to increase production and decrease
waste must be taken if production is to be stabilized. The United
States Chamber of Commerce, having made a study of the trend of cotton
production in the United States, is urging that a government commission
be appointed to make an authoritative report on active and potential
cotton production here and abroad. The United States uses a large part
of its own crop and is making an increasing demand upon it. It also
imports foreign raw cottons for classes of manufacture for which they
are particularly fitted. From 150,000 to 350,000 bales (500 pounds) of
Egyptian cotton are imported each year. It uses about 6,000,000 bales
annually. It has imported as much as 700,214 bales of 500 pounds, and
there is indication of increase rather than decrease, for cotton for
manufacture is in great demand.
Each state has its own method of selling its cotton. It may go
directly to a mill, to a local selling center, or to a warehouse.
Large plantations are financed usually by a bank, and the cotton
is shipped to a warehouse or a mill. The small local planters have
little money and frequently borrow on the growing crop, through a
merchant in a near-by town on the charge account system--that is, he
takes commodities from the store up to the value of his cotton. In
the picking season the merchant takes the cotton as it comes from
the gin, giving credit to the grower according to the market price
of lint cotton. The cotton thus obtained is sold to local buyers, to
shippers, or to exporters. The local merchant also buys directly from
the planter, paying money to him if he has not borrowed on his crop.
Poor marketing methods are only too common in the primary markets
where the farmers sell their cotton. Improvements, however, are
evident. The Southern farmer is using the cotton factor or merchant
less for financial help than he did previously. Growers’ Coöperative
Associations are handling large amounts of cotton. In 1923 there were
twelve important ones, which were organized to improve distribution
and to obtain more returns for the crop through the elimination of
intermediaries and wastes. The Federal Trade Commission is urging the
extension of coöperative marketing, as it has already proved itself to
be a distinct advantage. The middlemen are fewer, the crop is held for
advantageous sale in a warehouse and not, as often happened, dumped on
an unwilling market, thus lowering the price. A more stable market is
gained and the cotton is kept in better condition away from danger of
storms and fires.
=Cotton Marketing.=--Much cotton is sold through markets and exchanges.
The great cotton markets of the world are Liverpool and Manchester in
England, and New York and New Orleans in the United States. Bremen is
the German market, Havre is the one in France, Alexandria, for Egypt,
and Bombay, for India. Cotton exchanges are central markets where buyer
and seller can get together. The members have the right to do business
there. The New York Exchange is principally for “future contracts” for
cotton, and New Orleans has a large business of this kind, as well as
for direct selling. The rules of the exchange establish uniform usages
and promote equitable trading. “Spot” cotton is sold for immediate
delivery and is dealt with largely in the South. Cotton exchanges are
also in Galveston, Augusta, Savannah, Norfolk, Memphis, Little Rock,
Dallas, and Houston. Galveston is the largest receiving and exporting
port in the United States. Other well-known ports are New Orleans,
Houston, Savannah, Mobile, Norfolk, Charleston, Wilmington, New York,
and Pacific ports. The object of “future trading” on an exchange is
not for speculation, but to furnish an insurance or “hedge” against
loss from the fluctuations which occur in cotton. These fluctuations
cannot always be anticipated. A merchant contracts for months ahead to
supply the spinners who furnish the weavers with yarn. The merchant
cannot always know what the price of raw cotton may be at the time he
has promised to deliver it, consequently he contracts to buy an equal
amount at a lower price than he has set, which ensures him against a
heavy loss which might be met at any time. There is, however, much
speculation in the United States cotton trade, and this tends to
uncertainties in cotton prices. An exchange is only of service as it
furnishes safe protection, and complaints of manipulations and squeezes
have brought forth a report which is worthy of careful consideration
for those interested in this subject.[19]
[19] The Cotton Trade. Report of the Federal Trade Commission, 68th
Congress Senate Document 100.
The values of the various grades of cotton are quoted as so many points
off from the price of White Standard Middling Upland Cotton. A point
is ¹⁄₁₀₀ of a cent. If Middling cotton is selling on the market for 24
cents a pound and Low Middling is quoted as “off 300 points” it would
mean it was selling at 21 cents a pound.
=Classifying and Grading of Cotton.=--Uniform grade names for Upland
cotton have been in use for many years, but the qualities which are
represented by the names differ in various localities. Spinners
also have their own ideas of classification, and it is necessary to
have standard grades that all can understand. Negotiations with the
Liverpool Cotton Association culminated in an international conference
in June, 1923, which was attended by representatives of cotton
associations of foreign countries. The result has been the adoption
of official standards for grade and color of Upland cotton.[20]
Modifications will occur, but the Official Cotton Standards are now
fairly determined. The nine grades which seem fairly settled are:
Middling fair
Strict good middling
Good middling
Strict middling
Middling
Strict low middling
Low middling
Strict good ordinary
Good ordinary
[20] The Commercial Classification of American Cotton. United States
Department of Agriculture Circular 278, Arthur W. Palmer.
Price is set by standard middling; better grades are fractions above
this and poorer ones are fractions below. An important factor in
choosing cotton is color. There are many possibilities, such as white,
spotted, tinged, light stained, yellow stained, gray, and blue stained.
The various grades in the Official Standards may be slightly away
from white, and there is a permissible range of color allowed in the
standard boxes decided upon for the nine white grades. A series of
color standards below the Official Standards was also decided upon.
Foreign matter may be present in the lint. The higher grades have
little of this, but the lower often are quite full of it. The grades
of highest spinning value are usually those which have the least. The
foreign matter may be leaf, dust, and sand, shale or shives, and motes
from seeds. Machine cleaners properly used in connection with any class
of gin remove much of this foreign matter.
Official grades for American, Egyptian, and for Sea Island Cotton have
been made also. Classification as to length of staple is even more
important than its grade. Short staple cotton is, in general, regarded
as lower than 1¹⁄₈ in. in length, and long staple is 1¹⁄₈ and beyond,
but the tendency is increasing to consider cotton of one inch in length
as “long” and below that as “short” staple. Federal grades for linter
standards are being made tentatively. Seven grades are recognized.
The character of the cotton, whether strong, uniform, smooth and
silky, is also of prime importance. The bales may be defective in
many ways--the staples may be mixed, the fibers may be stained through
weather damage, the cotton may be immature, it may have been packed
wet, causing damage to the fiber, it may be a falsely packed bale
containing substances foreign to cotton or packed with good cotton on
the outside and poor cotton within. The method of testing the bale is
to cut the bagging in a crescent shape between two bands and with a
hook pull out some lint. The grading of cotton in a local market where
farmers sell is crude.
The bale is weighed for the benefit of the purchaser, less the weight
in ounces of the samples taken from it, but the sample is given to
the purchaser, who in buying numerous bales accumulates many pounds
of cotton. The producer does not benefit. The bale is often cut many
times. The cotton samples are collected and baled, making a large total
of cotton which comes from these samples, and which is known as the
“city crop.”
The buyer of cotton has many things to consider according to the use
to which the cotton will be put, such as length of staple, strength,
fineness, smoothness, uniformity, color, cleanliness, and pliability.
The color and cleanliness he judges with his eyes. For length of staple
and uniformity of growth he pulls some cotton from the bale and draws
a lot of it into staple length between the fingers of both hands and
lays a lot on his coat sleeve. For strength and resistance he holds the
length of fibers between the fingers of both hands and gives a sudden
jerk upon them. The cotton may be stringy, it may have been cut or
injured at the gin, or it may be full of little knots (neps). He may
find the cotton in one part of the bale better than in the other, and
consequently will class the entire bale at the lower level.
=Cotton Spinning.=--The raw cotton had to go through many difficulties
attending its growth, such as enemies of the crop, poor cultivation,
exposure to inclement weather and the mixture of seeds in planting. It
felt the tearing saws of the gin and the blending of lints of various
staples and developments. The tremendous pressure of baling, inadequate
covering to protect it from storms, the danger of fire and the hauling
about with great iron hooks have been experienced. It now reaches the
mill in a weaker condition, with the fibers crossing each other in all
directions and often soiled and broken. Ahead of it are great machines
which beat it with many strokes and blow it against grates to rid it of
dust and specks, and then pass it through innumerable teeth to clean
and lay it in the order in which nature grew it. Research departments
in mills and associations are seriously studying the matter, looking
toward the elimination of waste and omission of some of the machines. A
fine, clean, even yarn requires several machines for cleaning, carding,
and combing, and naturally the yarn is weakened while adding to its
beauty. There is an inclination to combine the work of several machines
in one, and even to omit machines. Double carding has almost passed
and in many mills one picker has been omitted. In the later steps of
spinning there is an inclination to lengthen the roving and spinning
frames. Many suggestions are being made for more automatic work in
spinning frame and loom, for higher speed, and greater facility of
action. Cotton machinery is the result of great inventions and seems
almost perfect, but many wastes are occurring from the ignorance of
workers. The poor quality of some of the product is due to the workers.
Cotton spinning has long been important in the United States. In the
early history the industry was especially for clothing and thread, but
at present more cloth is made for mechanical uses than for clothing and
great industries are dependent upon it. (See _Cotton Manufacturing_,
below.) The preparatory processes differ according to the fineness
of the yarn desired. Steps are repeated when great cleanliness and
uniformity are needed, and for higher counts of yarn; machines are
repeated or even new ones are introduced when special effects are
desired. The general aim in cotton spinning may be said to be: (1) to
clean by opening, beating, and fanning; (2) to lay the fibers parallel
by carding (Fig. 18), or even combing; (3) to unite and draw out the
fibers, and (4) to twist them into yarn. The constant tension on the
fiber, and the millions of teeth which pass through it, reduce its
strength. When cotton is poorly picked, ginned, or baled, it requires
repeated cleaning to prepare it for spinning, hence it may be greatly
weakened. When the preparatory processes have been carefully conducted,
the number of machines may be reduced. There is also more waste when
cotton has to pass through many mechanical processes, which adds to
the expense of the cloth. Cotton is spun best in a humid atmosphere.
The southern states have a damper climate than the northern, but the
climate in America is less satisfactory for spinning than that of
England. Humidifiers are used in good spinning mills.
=The following processes= of cotton spinning and manufacture are
representative:
_Bale Opening._ Cutting the metal bands and allowing the cotton to
expand from its great pressure.
_Bale Breaking or Cotton Pulling._ A machine which opens up and mixes
the staples of various cottons of the same length is used in some
mills. The process, however, is still done by hand also.
_Picking, Opening, Willowing, and Scutching._ (These terms are all
used for similar processes.) The feed, the breaker picker, the
intermediate picker, and the finisher picker of American mills cover
the processes of cleaning and opening previous to carding. The result
of the pickers is a wide lap wound into a roll.
_Carding_ and often double carding of fine yarn may be required. The
results of these machines are slivers.
_Combing_, used only in preparing the finest yarns. A sliver lap
machine is required, if combing follows carding. The result of
combing is a sliver.
_Drawing_,--usually three or more machines. The result is a small
sliver.
_Slubbing_, by a bobbin and fly frame. A slight twist is now required
in the product to give strength as the sliver has become attenuated.
It is wound on a bobbin to be delivered to the next machine.
_Intermediate Slubbing_, by a bobbin and fly frame. The result is a
twisted sliver wound on a bobbin for the roving frame.
_Roving_ by bobbin and fly frame. A final slubbing when the soft rove
is prepared for spinning. It is wound on a bobbin.
_Spinning._ The frame and mule are both in use, but the former is
found more frequently.
_Doubling and Twisting._ The yarns are prepared in various ways.
_Bleaching, Dyeing, Mercerizing, and Gassing_ of the yarn. These
processes are used as necessary. The yarn may be dyed in skeins or
warps.
_Winding, Spooling, and Warping_ preparatory to weaving.
_Sizing or Slashing_ to prepare the yarn to bear the strain of
weaving.
_Drawing-in_ to thread up the loom.
_Weaving._
_Finishing_ as needed, the principal methods being: pressing and
glazing, starching and calendering, napping, bleaching, beetling,
printing.
These processes are given in more detail below:
=The Bale Breaker or Cotton Puller= is much like the wool picker.
Cotton from different bales is carried on traveling lattices to the
breaker, and is loosened up by means of four pairs of coarsely spiked
rollers or beaters, each pair of which revolves more rapidly than those
before it. It is thus prepared for the feed of the openers or pickers.
=Picker, Opener, Willower, and Scutcher.=--In India cotton was
originally opened by beating with willow wands to open up the staple.
The mechanical means of doing this was called willowing. The term
“scutching,” which means beating, was used in England for a more
advanced willowing corresponding to the work of the intermediate picker
and finisher picker of the American mills. The picker room of the usual
cotton mill contains a number of pickers, the object of each being
to open out the cotton that the sand, neps, leaves, and dust may be
eliminated, and to form the lint into an increasingly even lap. The
first machine in the train is an automatic hopper feed (Fig. 102) which
connects with the breaker picker (sometimes called the cotton opener).
The machine is similar to the feed used in the wool industry. Steel
pins on an endless apron open the cotton, which are stripped off by a
doffer and carried by an apron to the breaker picker.
[Illustration: FIG. 102.--SECTIONAL VIEW OF FEED.
Courtesy of the Kitson Machine Shop.]
=Breaker Picker; Intermediate Picker; Finisher Picker.=--The object and
method of these machines are similar. The cotton fiber becomes cleaner,
softer, and more parallel. The film is finally rolled into a wide lap
to be taken to the carder. In the first or breaker picker the cotton
is beaten by spikes or knives, and driven against cleaning bars or a
grate where the dust falls out. The cleaned cotton is carried by a fan
to a cage (a cylinder filled with small holes through which the air
rushes), and the soft fiber clings to the outer surface of the cage
to be carried by guide rollers to the second machine or intermediate
picker. Four laps of cotton from the breaker picker are united. The
intermediate picker has two or three blades with rather sharp edges
which strike the cotton about two thousand or more times a minute. The
cotton is then thrown on cleaning bars and carried to a cage as in the
first picker. The sheet of cotton thus made is pressed between rollers
into a lap wound on bars. In England these two pickers are often
called a double opener. A finisher picker, similar to the scutcher of
the English mills, is often used, in which about four rolls from the
intermediate picker are united, the rolls being placed on an apron and
unfolding over one another (Fig. 103). The cotton is beaten by a two-
or three-bladed beater as in the intermediate and made into a lap for
the carder. Attached to these machines are special parts to even the
lap and measure the amount of cotton. The best classes of cotton are
sometimes clean enough to require fewer than three pickers, and there
is an inclination to omit one.
=Carding= (see Fig. 18).--This is a very important process. The aim is
to clean and lay parallel the fibers. The wide lap from the previous
machine is placed at the back of the card and fed to the great cylinder
by the licker-in. The revolving flat card is in use for cotton, and
closely resembles the wool card, but has narrow flat bars filled with
teeth fastened in an endless chain over the big cylinder in place of
the small worker and stripper cylinders of the wool card. The flats
press the cotton on the teeth of the big cylinder and take out the neps
and poor fiber, the action being like a comb pressing against a wire
brush. The teeth of the flats are set in an opposite direction to the
teeth of the cylinder. After the cotton is carded by the flats, it is
passed to the doffer, but the waste cotton is brushed off in another
direction. A cotton cylinder has often 700 or 800 teeth on one square
inch. The large cylinder may have from four to six million teeth, and
the speed is sometimes 2000 feet per minute. The strain on the fiber
can perhaps be appreciated. Much dirt is taken from the cotton in
carding, and falls into a receptacle below. The thin veil of cotton
is taken off the cylinder by the doffer, reduced to a narrow sliver
by being passed through an eye or between rollers, or by a method of
leather divisions in the apron, and then drops coiled into a can. The
waste cotton from the card is used for many purposes, and special
carders are now on the market which prepare yarn from it to be used for
inferior grades of cloth. A lap winder prepares the card waste to pass
through its own special carder.
[Illustration: FIG. 103.--SECTIONAL VIEW OF FINISHER.
Courtesy of the Kitson Machine Shop.]
[Illustration: FIG. 104.--DETAIL OF COMBING MACHINE, SHOWING NIP
HOLDING THE SLIVER AGAINST THE COMB.]
[Illustration: FIG. 105.--SLIVERS.]
=Combing= (Fig. 104).--Cotton is combed when a very fine grade of yarn
is needed. It is employed usually for long staple fibers, such as Sea
Island, Meade, Florida, long-stapled American, and Egyptian. This
yarn is used for sewing threads, fine knitted underwear, mousselines,
and dainty fabrics. Short-stapled cottons can also be combed by the
newer combing machines. The machine follows carding or double carding.
Slivers from the card are first united on the sliver lap machine and
made into a lap to be fed to the comber. The machine extracts short
ends of cotton and impurities, selects fibers of even length and lays
them parallel and overlapping, and finally forms a sliver. The method
of combing is intermittent, and is accomplished by a nip holding a
bunch of fibers, while cylinders covered with card clothing--the
needles gradually becoming finer--comb them out first from one end
and then from the other. The newly combed fiber is then lapped over
that previously combed, and the united fibers are combed again by a
suspended comb and finally attenuated into a sliver (Fig. 105). The
result is a very silky product. The short, rough ends are conducted
out of the machine. Naturally there is a great deal of waste from the
comber, consequently the process is expensive and is only used with
high-priced yarns.
=Drawing and Doubling.=--This process is usually repeated three
times. The aim is to unite several slivers, draw them together, thus
removing weak points, and make an even, smooth sliver. The principle
is by drawing rollers. The doubling in these and succeeding machines
often runs as high for average cotton manufacture as 27,000 to 500,000
doublings, and even goes considerably higher for special yarns. From
four to eight cans of slivers are united and drawn together by rollers
in each of the three machines. The slivers are greatly reduced in size
and would break unless twist were now given to them.
=Slubbing by Bobbin and Fly Frames.=--The first twist is now put into
the yarn, and it is wound on bobbins. Two attenuated slivers or soft
yarns are united into one in each machine. Slubbing is done by three
machines--slubbing, intermediate slubbing, and roving. The methods are
the same in each. The result of each machine’s work is a finer and more
twisted yarn. The final frame makes the roving which is the last step
before spinning.
=Spinning.=--The spinning of cotton is done on the upright frame by
the flyer, cap, or ring system (Figs. 28, 31), or by the mule (Figs.
25, 26). The first is a more rapid method and is in more frequent use,
but the mule makes a softer and more attractive yarn. Frames with a
new variety of spindle requiring almost no attention are appearing on
the market, whereby the output of yarn is increased and the cost of
production lowered. All modern machines have automatic attachments
which stop if a sliver or a thread breaks.
=Cotton Yarns= are spun or twisted in various ways, and are used for
warp or filling, knitting yarn, sewing thread, or for hand embroidery.
The numbers run from No. 4 coarse even as high as No. 400 for fine
yarns. After the yarn is spun on the frame or mule it is usually
doubled and twisted before it is ready for service. There are many
ways of doing this, and the yarn may be dry twisted or twisted in
water. Cotton yarns for weaving may be single or several ply, and the
direction of the twist lends variety. Knitting yarns have special
twists. They may be spun on the mule, doubled and twisted slightly,
with a resulting soft appearance and woolly feel, as used in some
classes of underwear; or they may be closely twisted in water, dyed,
gassed or singed, glazed, and hard finished for lisle-thread effects.
Fancy yarns with rough places at intervals are made for some classes
of goods. _Sewing cotton_ is frequently spun on the mule. For three
cord sewing cotton, three yarns from the spinning frame are doubled and
twisted. For six cord the yarn from the frame is doubled and twisted,
and three of these are united and twisted. The yarn is sized before
being twisted in both cases. When a good grade of cotton has been used
a strong thread is the result. Sewing cotton requires more twisting
than yarn for weaving, for greater strength is needed. The numbers in
sewing cotton run from 6 or 8 to 200 or more. Sea Island was once used,
and now Meade and fine long staple American cotton are used in the best
grades. All sewing cotton is glazed, but special varieties to be used
for the sewing machine have more dressing than those for hand sewing.
The spools containing 250 or 500 yards are wound by machine.
Yarn which has been carded, double combed, and then spun on the mule
has a lofty, soft appearance like spun silk, but the expense is much
higher than when less preparation is required. Special treatment of
cotton yarn with gums of various kinds and a later machine polishing
between rollers gives the appearance of a linen thread. The cotton
thread made in this way is strong but not pliable. Another way of
preparing cotton thread to look like linen is by spinning it with small
knots or rough places upon it. When the cloth for this yarn is woven
and the fabric is finished it closely resembles material which is woven
of flax.
=Bleaching.=--Cotton yarn becomes yellowish in color during the
preparatory processes and spinning, and usually requires bleaching. For
this purpose it is wound from the bobbins into hanks, which are slipped
one inside the other into a chain containing perhaps five hundred
pounds of yarn. Bleaching is done in various ways. (See Chap. XIII,
_Scouring and Bleaching_.)
=Mercerizing.=--Mercerized cotton is described in Chapter XII.
Schreinerized cotton, because of its high luster, resembles mercerized
material. The effect is produced by passing the cloth under engraved
calenders, with pressure.
=Dyeing.= (See Chap. XIII).--Cotton is usually dyed in the yarn. Dyeing
in the unspun state, as in wool, is occasionally used, but this is the
exception.
=Sizing or Slashing.=--The shortness of staple and the softness of the
cotton fiber make it necessary to apply sizing to the yarn that it
may stand the strain of weaving. The sizing material is a starchy or
glutinous liquid applied to the thread in varying proportions according
to need. Sizing of cotton thread has been in use since before the dawn
of history. Each modern cotton mill has special formulæ. The process,
which is generally called slashing, is done after warping and before
drawing-in. It is especially necessary for warp yarns. Special sizes
or coatings are also used in the cloth to give the look of solidity
and weight which are not always present. Clay is often applied heavily
to loosely woven cotton materials. The dressings or coatings used for
cotton yarns are too numerous to mention, and are employed in various
combinations.
=Counts or Numbering.=--In the United States cotton yarn is counted
by the number of hanks of 840 yards in the pound. No 1. yarn (the
coarsest, but it is seldom used) would have 840 yards in one hank,
which would weigh one pound. Number 20s single would have 20 hanks of
840 yards each, or 16,800 yards in all in one pound. Single 20s yarn
would be written 1/20s or 20/1; two-ply 20s would be written 2/20s
or 20/2 and 16,800 yds. would weigh two pounds,--or one pound would
contain only 8400 yds. of 20/2 ply.
Sewing cotton is twisted into three cord (three threads twisted
together) and also into six cord (three two-ply threads twisted
together), but as the latter is smoother, stronger, and better adapted
to the sewing machine, it is more in demand as serving both purposes.
Three-cord sewing cotton number 60 would be expressed 3/60s, and
six-cord would be 6/60s. A three-ply No. 8 yarn (3/8s) would be a
coarser thread than single No. 8 (1/8s), for three threads of number
8 would be twisted together. Number 60, six-cord yarn, and number 60,
three-cord yarn, are made the same size, but in the former case a finer
yarn is used in the combination.
=Winding, Spooling, Warping, and Drawing-in.=--The preparation of
cotton warp yarn for the loom is similar to that of other textile
fibers, _i. e._, winding the yarn into hanks, spooling it, warping it,
slashing or sizing, and threading the yarn through the harness. (See
Chap. IV.)
=Weaving= (Fig. 106).--A large number of standard cotton cloths, such
as muslins, sheetings, many ginghams, percales, and sheer materials
like nainsook, batiste, longcloths, cambrics, and lawns, are woven with
the plain or cotton weave, as it is sometimes called. There are very
slight differences in the body and feel of these materials until after
the finishing. Regular twills and broken twills are found in denims,
galateas, and sateens. Elaborate designs made on special looms or on
the Jacquard, and double weaves of various kinds are found in expensive
and bordered cottons, in fancy ginghams, leno weaves, and embroidered
materials, in velveteens, Turkish toweling, and piqués, and in cloths
which imitate linen, as in damasks; or silk, as in cotton brocades; and
in imitation of wool and worsted materials, such as cotton coverts,
chinchillas, beavers, diagonals, and worsted suitings. These materials
are very soft and pliable when they come from the loom. Automatic looms
are used largely in cotton mills.
=Finishing Cotton Cloth.=--Cotton materials depend greatly on finishing
for their effect; the only difference between some of the plainly woven
materials is in the method of treating the cloth after weaving, and
the resemblance of cotton to other textiles is principally a matter of
dressings and machine finishing. (See Chap. XII.) So numerous are the
dressings used and the processes which follow, that it is possible to
indicate only representative methods. By means of these methods feel
and appearance are given, such as a soft or supple finish by glycerin,
fats, oils, and waxes; or a full finish by starch and pressing; or
gloss, as needed in percalines, silesias, and percales, by mucilage,
gums, and ammonia water; or high luster by warm dressings and the hot
calender and mangle alternately; or stiffness by mucilage and gums as
required in linings, swisses, tarletans and lawns; or weighting with
clay that a solid appearance may be gained, as in cretonnes and canvas.
To give a dull finish or the appearance of other textiles, special
dressings are applied. Waterproofing, preserving, rendering sanitary,
and taking away the natural inflammability, are also obtained through
dressing. Elastic finishes are dependent to some extent on hand work.
The material is starched, dried, beaten, squeezed, and worked by hand
in all directions. Finishes are apt to pass off to some extent in the
laundry, and the loss of the finish and crisp feeling, as in organdies,
makes such materials unattractive, but starching or stiffening in the
laundry restores to others much of the original appearance.
[Illustration: FIG. 106.--A MODERN WEAVE ROOM, SHOWING AN ACRE OF LOOMS.
Courtesy of the Chicopee Manufacturing Company.]
Cotton having designs woven in, such as fancy ginghams and madras,
have frequently in the making long warp or filling floats on the back.
These threads are cut off by a special machine. When the designs are
small, as in polka dots and lozenges, there is danger of pulling out
the cut threads in washing unless care is taken. Soft, rather open-mesh
cotton materials, such as fine muslins and batistes, have to be dried
carefully so that the dressing will not settle in the mesh and make the
material too stiff.
The calendering is an important part of the finishing of these
materials. Some cloths require a soft face and a stiff back and are
treated on both sides, as in piqué. Percales and calicoes also depend
greatly on the finish. The face is shorn or singed to get rid of the
fluff, and after dressing they are treated like sateens and beetled to
soften them. Dimities are finished with light farina sizing, the cloth
being delivered to the size in large folds, and the rollers with the
preparation upon them pass back and forth over the cloth. The material
is dried, and as it is apt to shrink it is stretched on tenter frames
an inch wider than necessary to allow for further shrinkage in the
calendering.
Many of the finishes are expensive, and make the cost to the consumer
rather high. This is especially noticeable in the fine cottons which
have been carded, double-combed and finally given the most delicate
finish, as in some of the exquisite French cotton dress goods. Enormous
cotton finishing machines are used in large mills, and turn out 5000
yards a day, each finisher keeping five hundred looms busy.
Cotton is made to look like wool or worsted in various ways: first, by
the use of a rough cotton like the Peruvian; second, by the preparation
of the yarn; third, by weaving the cotton yarn into wool or worsted
patterns; fourth, by chemical treatment or parchmenting to give the
look of wool; fifth, by so treating that cotton will dye in the wool
bath; sixth, by dressing and calendering with rollers covered with
cloth to give a rough or woolly appearance, or passing the cloth
through a napper and shear. Outing flannel, flannelette, pile goods,
and blankets are napped by being passed several times over cylinders
covered with card clothing. Cotton requires more delicate manipulation
in the napping gig than wool, for it is much softer and is less
elastic. So-called woolen glove linings are frequently of cotton made
to look and feel like wool, or the cotton is combined with a little
mohair or other wool.
To make cotton cloth look like linen requires much dressing, for the
fiber of the former is soft, while flax has body. To give the effect
of the shiny, long, smooth fibers of flax, which reflect the light,
the cotton fabric has to be pressed down after dressing and then
beetled, which makes the surface glisten like linen. Cotton toweling
looks like linen on account of the yarn being spun with small knots in
it at intervals, the design for the weaving being one of the ordinary
huck or toweling weaves, and the dressing and finishing completing the
resemblance. Linen is absorbent to moisture, and cotton can be made so
by treatment, but the water does not evaporate from it the way it does
from linen. Unfortunately, after laundering the cotton towel loses
the effect of linen. By heavily loading closely woven cotton cloth and
pressing it, cotton canvas can be made to look much like linen, and at
a very much lower cost.
Silk effects are largely the preparation of the yarn in mercerizing
(see Chap. XII), in weaving of a silk pattern, in gassing, dressing,
and pressure, or Schreinerizing. Satin finish for cotton sateens is
gained by dressing with glycerin, and passing repeatedly through the
calender. Glauber’s salt gives the luster of silk, and common salt
the “scroop” or rustle. Mercerized yarn woven in a silk pattern as in
cotton pongee looks and feels like spun silk. Velveteens, corduroys,
and cotton velvets (see _Pile Fabrics_, Chap. IV) require elaborate
finishes after weaving, which differ according to the purpose and
quality of the material. They may be, as in cheap velvets, lined
and stiffened for cutting, after which they are soaked, washed, and
hydro-extracted, which removes the stiffening which aided in the
cutting. They are then brushed, shorn, brushed again, singed, brushed.
The cloth now has a brownish appearance, and is frequently bleached
before dyeing or staining. In the cheapest velvets a stain is put on
the surface instead of full dyeing. They are finally finished by waxing
the pile side, brushing the wax in to give polish, and peg finished
by stroking the cloth across the width. A final brushing prepares the
cloth for sale. In better classes of materials the pile is sometimes
raised by forcing steam through. The word “pile” is also used for
napped fabrics.
Embossing machines make patterns in relief. After the material has a
stiff finish, dots, checks, and twills can be placed upon it, but they
pass away in the laundry. To represent embroidered cottons, dots of
paste are printed on swiss; these will stand a little careful washing,
but are darkened by the pressing iron.
Absorbent cotton is made by depriving the fiber of its oil, wax,
and mineral salts. It will then take moisture rapidly. For surgical
purposes the cotton must be very pure and kept absolutely sterile. New
Orleans, Texas, and Mobile cottons are considered good for this purpose.
Cotton wastes from the mills are used for many purposes, but the
manufacturer of paper claims much of it in the United States. In
Europe not only machine wastes but cotton cloth reduced again to fiber
(reworked cotton) is used in the manufacture of cheap cloths. England,
Germany, and Belgium take much of the American cotton wastes.
=Cotton Printing and Printing Machines.=--The designs on cotton
goods are frequently printed on the cloth instead of being woven
in; calicoes or prints, percales, galateas, cretonnes, silkalines,
lawns, and figured organdies are printed. There are several methods
of printing,--by resist, _i. e._, printing before dyeing in such a
way that the dye bath does not change the color (see Chap. XIII); by
discharge, in which the fabric is dyed and so printed afterward that
the color of the design is removed, or by the direct method. In the
past, direct printing was first by stencils and then by blocks on which
the designs were cut, a separate block being used for each color which
was to appear in the design. The cloth was stretched on a framework
or table, the blocks were dipped in the dye and then pressed by hand
on the cloth. This method is still in use by hand workers. Hand block
printing is considered enduring, but is expensive, and machine methods
of several kinds have superseded it. The customary way at present is
by cylinders on which the design is cut or stamped. These revolve
against flat rollers which are in contact with the color troughs.
Any excess of color received by the cylinder is taken off with a
knife, that the impression may be clean. There are as many cylinders
as there are colors in the design, even twenty being sometimes used.
These cylinders impress the pattern on the cloth in such succession
as is needed; calicoes are usually stamped in one color only. If
the background is to be in color the material is usually dyed first
and the figure is stamped on later. Printing machines have usually a
large drum over which passes an endless cloth into contact with the
engraving cylinders, and the material to be printed is carried along
by the cloth. As the drum is warm the color is quickly dried. The
cotton material has to be prepared so that it will take the impression
readily, and the woven cloth has to be bleached, if a light or white
color is wished. Bleaching again takes place after printing when a
very clear, white surface is required. The color is fixed by steam.
Calendering under heavy pressure is given when gloss or luster is
desired. A breaking machine, which has blunt, spiral knives which
come in contact with the surface of the cloth, softens the gloss. The
material is finally pressed between pressboards in the hydraulic press.
Some color printing is done with dyes which are developed after the
printing is over. (See Chap. XIII, _Diazotized and Developed Colors_.)
Preparing the designs for machine printing is done by two processes;
in both copper rollers are used to give the impression. In one method
the die is cut of soft steel, which is hardened and pressed against
soft steel to make another die with the reverse of the pattern. These
dies are pressed against copper cylinders and reproduced regularly
along the length. The cylinders are placed as required in the printing
machine and carefully adjusted that the pattern may be perfect. When
the design has served its purpose and will not again be required
it can be scraped from the cylinder, which can thus be used again.
Printing establishments often have very large sums of money invested in
cylinders, which are kept in a storeroom ready to be used again or to
be impressed with new designs.
The second method is by the pantograph or pentograph. The design is
drawn five times the required size, inked, and pressed on metal
(zinc). It is then etched in and the design placed in a machine, which
reproduces it in one-fifth the size along a copper cylinder covered
with varnish. This takes the impression which is later engraved upon it.
=Cotton Manufacturing.=--The United States uses about one-half of her
own crop, and is now the largest consumer of raw cotton, although
Great Britain has more spindles, having about 56,000,000 to our
37,000,000.[21] The American consumption of raw cotton amounts to
about 30 lbs. per capita annually. This is not all for clothing, for
the fiber is in demand in other industries, such as in making rayon,
bagging of many kinds, artificial leather, photograph films, factory
belting, typewriter ribbon, automobile tires, and insulating for
electric wires. The United States is a large importer of both raw
and manufactured cotton. During the calendar year 1924 the imports
of cotton cloth were 177,385,654 square yards, which was less than
one-half as much as was exported (478,556,288 square yards).[21] Our
chief cotton markets are the Philippines, Latin America, the Near East,
Haiti, British East Africa, England, the Balkans, Canada, Greece,
Canary Isles, Jamaica, Palestine, China, Cuba, and Venezuela. We could
readily include other markets if we would take the trouble to get them.
In general the United States does not make the finest class of cotton
goods, but she is increasing in this class of manufacture. The country
is noted for diversification in her cotton production. New Bedford,
Massachusetts, is known for its fine weaves, and Fall River for print
cloths and medium goods.
[21] From article of Edward Pickard, Chief of the Textile Division of
the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, in _Daily News Record_,
November 18, 1924.
France is preëminent in the highest class of cotton goods. Mills are
found in Normandy with Rouen as a center; in the northeast section,
where Lille and Tourcoing are noted cities, and in the east with
Épinal as a center. The annexation of Alsace adds 25 per cent to the
number of the spindles of France. England has long been renowned
for her cottons. She consumes a vast amount of raw cotton, but her
manufactured product goes largely to other lands. The British Cotton
Research Association is working to improve manufacture. The center of
cotton spinning is in the Manchester district in Lancashire, and in
Oldham. Nottingham is making cotton nets, lace, and hosiery. Germany
does a large cotton manufacturing business. Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, and
Württemberg produce cotton goods. Chemnitz is noted for knit goods,
and Plauen, for embroideries. Japan is increasing rapidly in cotton
spinning and weaving.
The northern cotton mills in the United States have long been
established. They produce all varieties of cloth, but tend to a higher
class of goods than is made at present in the South. North Carolina,
however, in Gaston County, is developing an industry in the finer
yarns. The output of cotton manufacturing in 1923 showed that the South
was in excess of the North.[22] Thirty states have cotton mills, but
New England and the South are the principal producers. The question of
the North retaining its cotton mills has been under discussion. Some
firms have already started branches in the South. Six large northern
mills have consolidated in order to lessen expense and employ the
highest talent. The South has some advantages, for wages are lower and
legislation has been less active in controlling hours of labor and the
age of workers. It draws on a very reliable class of white labor from
mountain regions, which is considered better than the foreign labor of
the North. New England has the advantage of long established plants,
large capital, skilled labor, nearness to great selling and style
centers, and ports for transporting the goods to foreign countries, and
finally of a cooler climate. It is also nearer to dense populations.
It costs more to live in New England, for more substantial homes, more
fuel, warmer clothing, and more expensive food are required. The North
realizes that to keep its business it must most carefully organize its
mills to minimize waste and provide a product which is not made to a
large extent in the South.
[22] Commerce Report from Bureau of the Census, May 18, 1925.
COTTON MATERIALS
Awning
Batiste
Blankets
Bobinet
Brussels net
Bunting
Calico
Cambric
Canvas
Chambray
Cheesecloth
Chintz
Coutil
Crêpe
Cretonne
Crinoline
Denim
Dimity
Drilling
Duck
Galatea
Gingham
Guncotton
Indian head
Jean
Khaki
Knit goods
Kindergarten cloth
Lawn
Longcloth
Madras
Marquisette
Moreen
Mull
Muslin
Nainsook
Organdie
Osnaburg
Percale
Piqué
Plissé
Poplin
Ratiné
Ripplette
Sateen
Scrim
Seersucker
Sheeting
Swiss
Tarleton
Ticking
Tire fabrics
Toweling
Voile
COTTON MATERIALS LOOKING LIKE OTHER TEXTILES
_Wool_
Canton flannel
Challie
Chenille
Eiderdown
Eponge
Grenadine
Outing flannel
Plush
Ratiné
Shepherd’s plaid
Tapestry
Molecloth
Venetian
Trouserings
_Silk_
Canton
Near silk
Pongee
Silkaline
Soisette
Velour
Velveteen
_Linen_
Birdseye
Crash
Damask
Diaper
Flaxon
Handkerchief lawn
Huckaback
Linene
Linon
CHAPTER IX
SILK
=Economic Considerations.=--The filament which is obtained from the
cocoons of the cultivated silkworm is used to make fabrics of great
beauty, ranging from filmy chiffon and lace to the heaviest plushes
and grosgrains, and from soft, dull finishes to crisp and glossy ones.
The properties of pure, well manufactured silk justify the initial
outlay, for beauty, cleanliness, and endurance are combined. The
popularity and demand for the fabric at a low price, however, have
caused adulterations of it, and substitutions of other fibers for it,
whereby the natural qualities are altered, and we can no longer rely on
it or know, even when paying a good price, whether it will wear well
or not. The issue is not against low-priced silks which look like the
best, for this has distinct advantages, but in the fact that there is
generally little certainty that the silk will wear, even when a high
price is paid for a supposedly enduring material. The consumer has
two needs or desires, one of which is to gain temporary effects at a
small expense--which she can have by purchasing silk combined with
other fibers, or by weighted silk--for such purposes as millinery,
hair ribbons, sashes and neckties, for passing fashions to be used for
one season only, for light colored garments in which change is better
than cleansing, and for the outgrowing of clothing. There is, however,
a second need, _i. e._, for reliable, enduring silk, for which the
consumer is perfectly willing to pay if she can be assured that she is
obtaining pure silk materials which will endure a long time for such
uses as upholstery, hangings, umbrella covers, underwear, hosiery,
petticoats, and serviceable gowns.
It is distressing to the woman who knows the limitations of the
cheaper textiles and desires to buy the best, to have so little
assurance that her money is being wisely spent. Every woman should know
the present methods of treating silk and the prices that should be paid
for pure silk, that she may be on her guard. She should ascertain the
names of reliable manufacturing companies, and try in her selection
to distinguish between silks for temporary use and those for service.
The manufacturers state that they are only too glad to provide good
stock if women honestly wish it and will pay for it. The consumer
should make it economically possible for the manufacturer to do this.
Women’s lack of knowledge is a large factor in the unreliability
of the purchased materials. Fabrics are in the shops which are not
enduring, being defective in the weave as well as from treatment, for
they are made at a low price for effect alone. There are also light,
gossamer-like silks which are very strong, and heavy silks which are
made for temporary appearance as well as those made for endurance.
Stiff, shiny, lustrous silks are for sale which are strong, yet many
varieties of this class of goods are so unreliable that consumers fear
to buy. Some manufacturing firms have tried to provide the market with
an honest, guaranteed article, but have not had the encouragement they
should have had, on account of the ignorance existing and the fact that
fashion changes so rapidly that many women no longer wish the old,
enduring silks. The economical consumer, however, is awaking to her
responsibility and is beginning to study the entire subject.
The supply of silk is not increasing as rapidly as the demand from
consumers for fabrics. European raw silk is declining in amount on
account of scarcity of labor and its high cost. The Orient must now be
relied upon principally for raw silk. The United States has a climate
adapted to the culture, but has given up many beginnings on account of
failure in profits. California has a promising industry in rearing, and
has sent cocoons to Japan for reeling, but at present it is a small
beginning to be watched with interest.
The United States is now the main silk manufacturing country, with
France the second. The latter country has led in the beauty of its
designs, but the United States is becoming a close competitor. The
price of the best silk is higher than before the war, and is likely to
remain so. Spun silk, rayon (artificial silk), and mercerized cotton
are increasingly used in combination with silk to lengthen the supply.
Such fabrics are lower in price, yet offer much satisfaction when not
expected to give equivalent results. It is well to know what to expect
of silk, hence the properties should be considered.
=Properties.=--The properties of cultivated silk give it preëminence
among textiles when it is pure and well manufactured, for such silk
combines strength, lightness, cleanliness, durability, high luster,
and beauty. The characteristics of wild silk differ somewhat from the
cultivated.
_Softness._ Silk, especially after the gum is removed, has an unusual
degree of softness, which is of value in the manufacture of some of the
most exquisite materials.
_Fineness._ The diameter of the filament of the _Bombyx mori_, for the
outer fibers of China silk, is .00052 inch and for the inner .00071
inch. The silks of other countries vary slightly. The diameter of
American cotton ranges about .00077 inch.[23]
[23] Matthews: _Textile Fibers_. Wiley and Sons.
_Specific Gravity._ The weight of silk is the lowest among textile
fibers after the gum is removed, consequently light weight fabrics can
be made from it.
_Endurance._ Pure silk, if a well constructed fabric, will last for
years, even though given hard wear.
_Strength._ It is the strongest of all fibers in relation to its size
when the gum has not been removed. On account of this quality it is
used in scientific experiments of a delicate nature. Weighting (Chap.
XII) decreases this quality.
_Tenacity._ The tensile strength is about one-third that of the best
iron wire, or about 64,000 lbs. per square inch (Matthews). It loses
some of this quality when the gum is removed.
_Elongation or Stretch._ This quality is high in silk which has not
been “boiled off,” and a thread may be stretched from one-seventh to
one-fifth of its original length. J. Merritt Matthews says the silk
fiber is very elastic, “stretching 15 to 20 per cent of its dry state
before breaking. Degummed or boiled-off silk is somewhat lower in
strength and elasticity than raw silk, the removal of the silk gum
causing a decrease of 30 per cent in tensile strength and 45 per cent
in elasticity. The weighting of silk also causes a decrease in its
strength and elasticity.”[24]
[24] Matthews: _Textile Fibers_. Wiley and Sons.
_Electricity._ It is a poor conductor of electricity, but a good
generator. This quality makes it difficult to manipulate in a hot, dry
atmosphere. Humidifiers are used in mills to overcome it, and lessen
breakages.
_Heat Conductivity._ It is not a good conductor of heat, consequently
even when it is wet it feels warm in contact with the body.
_Cleanliness._ Silk sheds dust, consequently a gown of it keeps clean
for a long time. Experiment has shown that germ life does not increase
as rapidly on it as on some of the other textiles.
_Transparency._ The transparency of some of the woven material lends
attraction.
_Luster._ Of the naturally produced textiles, silk is the most
lustrous. Rayon is more so, but it is a synthetic textile. The luster
of silk can be increased by treatment, and the removal of the gum adds
to the glossiness. Mordanting and weighting in the dyeing tend to
decrease it. The gloss of silk is easily destroyed by careless washing.
Hard rubbing breaks the filament, weakens the material, and takes away
the luster.
_Scroop._ The crisp, crunching sound associated with silk is a quality
natural with some silks; it is lost at times under treatments and
restored by a bath in dilute acid and drying without washing.
_Hygroscopicity._ The power of absorbing water, dye, or other
substances in solution is very great. “In rainy weather when the air
is moist it may weigh several per cent more than in dry weather at
the same temperature.... One hundred pounds of raw silk weighed at
a relative humidity of 50 to 55 per cent at 70° F. would weigh at a
relative humidity between 85 and 90 per cent and 70° F. around 105
pounds. This might make a difference of more than $50 on the price
of a bale of raw silk. This amount of variation may be due to only
ordinary changes, but by artificial means the moisture content may
be temporarily raised to from 20 to 30 per cent of the weight of the
dry silk without giving an appearance of wetness to the silk.”[25]
The universal standard of 11 per cent is added to the absolute dry
weight to represent the usual absorption of moisture from the normal
atmosphere. The moisture in thrown silk is about the same. Raw silk
contains slightly more moisture than boiled-off silk, as the sericin
is more hygroscopic. Because silk has a great absorptive capacity it
takes dye readily, more readily, perhaps, than any other fiber, but the
technical difficulties connected with the process are greater than with
wool. Its avidity for moisture and its quick absorption of metallic
salts have caused the practice of restoring the weight lost in boiling
off by adding more or less foreign substance. (See _Weighting_, below.)
[25] United States Testing Company, Inc. New York City.
=Life History.=--The silkworm has been cultivated for many centuries
on account of the filament which it spins. Roughly speaking, there are
two general varieties of silk, the cultivated, produced by the _Bombyx
mori_, and wild silk from uncultivated moths such as the Tussah. The
name _Bombyx mori_ comes from the family to which the silkworm belongs,
the _Bombycidæ_ (spinners), and _mori_, from the _Morus multicaulis_ or
mulberry tree, on the leaves of which it feeds. The species _Sericari
mori_, or silkworms of the mulberry, belongs to the class _Lepidoptera_
or scaly-winged insects. The _Bombyx mori_ is divided into other groups
according to the method of reproduction. The annuals reproduce once
a year, and 60 per cent of the silkworms belong to this class. The
bivoltines reproduce twice a year, and the polyvoltines several times
during the year. Some parts of China have six or seven crops annually.
Silkworms are cultivated by large breeders, or by small farmers, who
with all of their families work together in the silkworm nurseries
or cocooneries. The eggs are bought from growers who devote their
time especially to reproduction, the best cocoons being kept for this
purpose. In some countries there is strict government inspection
to prevent the spread of disease. The manner of cultivation and
the fertilization and growth of the mulberry are important factors
in successful rearing. In temperate climates the silk is apt to be
strong and even. In the tropics it is soft and bright. Bengal silk is
excellent, but some of the tropical silk is lacking in strength. The
silkworm which breeds once a year in temperate climates is considered
the best.
[Illustration: FIG. 107.--DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE GROWTH OF THE
SILKWORM.
_A_, Full Size. _B_, Moth. _C_, Chrysalis or pupa. _D_, Eggs. _E_,
Diagram showing cocoon and method of spinning.
From Matthews’ _Textile Fibres_, by courtesy of John Wiley & Sons.]
The cultivated silkworm passes through four changes in its life of
a couple of months, _i. e._, egg, larva or worm, chrysalis or pupa,
and adult,--a cream-white moth which is about one inch in length
(Fig. 107). Mating follows; the female lays several hundred eggs. She
scarcely moves three inches during the three days of life, the entire
time of male and female being devoted to producing eggs, often called
seeds, which are laid on sheets of paper or pieces of muslin provided
for that purpose. A slightly gummy liquid comes from the moth and
holds the eggs fast. The procedure is about as follows: The sheets
are gathered, washed in cold water, hung for a few days in a damp
atmosphere, and then placed in cold storage for about six months, the
period of cold being advantageous for later hatching, which is done
by heat. Many worms shed their skins four times, making five ages,
differing in length of time with some silkworms, which are as follows:
(1) birth to first molt, five or six days; (2) first to second molt,
four days; (3) second to third molt, four to five days; (4) third to
fourth molt, five to seven days; (5) fourth to maturity, seven to
twelve days. The time between ages varies with different silkworms.
Trays are provided to hold the various ages of worms, and there are
open shelves on which the trays can be placed for convenience in
handling and for close observation.
Slightly different methods of cultivation are in use, but the following
are representative: The cocooneries are conducted, in general, by
experts who give scientific care to the seed and the rearing of the
worm. They are generally under separate management from the filatures
(the reeling). They are quiet, spacious, well-ventilated rooms or
buildings where an even temperature is maintained. Farmers are usually
less careful than the workers in large cocooneries; in the latter each
worm is kept absolutely clean and has plenty of room, as overcrowding
brings disease. Mild fumigation is resorted to at intervals. Heavy
odors such as garlic or tobacco are not allowed, being disturbing to
the worms. During the rearing time continuous care is needed. The
best food for the _Bombyx mori_ is the perfect leaves of the white
mulberry (_Morus alba_), which must be young, fresh and dry, but
never withered. The condition of the tree has its effect on the kind
of silk produced by the worms feeding on it. Scientific experiments
are being made to determine how to influence the color of the cocoon
and the size. The leaves of the mulberry are chopped fine during the
early ages of the worm. The tree is cultivated especially to provide
food for the silkworm. It lives seventy years if good care is taken
of it, but it must rest one year in three. Three varieties are found,
the early, medium, and late-budding mulberry. The leaves, therefore,
can be in condition for the various stages of growth of the worm. The
late-budding tree is cultivated in greater numbers, as it is ready when
the worms are larger and consume more leaves. The soil is important,
and one which is rich in certain minerals has been found to provide
leaves which keep the worm in better physical condition. A cold winter
followed by a warm spring develops the leaf well. Two prime requisites
for good silk are the state of the leaves and the choice of the eggs.
[Illustration: FIG. 108.--FEEDING SILKWORMS IN THE CANTON CHRISTIAN
COLLEGE SCHOOL OF SERICULTURE.
Courtesy of Canton Christian College.]
When the leaves of the early mulberry are almost ready, the eggs are
brought out from cold storage and kept warm until they hatch out. The
eggs, an ounce of which contains from 30,000 to 40,000 seeds, are
small, flat, dark, and round. The worm, when hatched, is the diameter
of a hair and about one-eighth of an inch long. It makes a hole in the
end of the egg from which it issues. Showing under the magnifying glass
are long hairs, many legs, and a shiny nose. At first they merely suck
the sap of the leaves provided for them, but later they gnaw the edges
with their semicircular jaws which move sideways (Fig. 108). The noise
of many full-grown worms eating is like the sound of rain. About thirty
meals a day are eaten in the first stage, for the worms are gluttons
and eat their own weight daily. It is said that the silkworm in its
life eats about fifty times its own weight. The development is very
rapid, and during the next few weeks, as has been stated, the skin
has to be changed four times. It is about twenty to thirty days from
hatching to spinning. After the first molt the worm is lighter in color
and requires more room; after the second, the spinning organs are more
marked; after the third, the leaves do not need to be chopped. After
the fourth molt the worm is full-sized, about three inches long, white
and velvety, and the spinning glands are full of transparent liquid.
Hunger lessens, restlessness grows, and the lifting of the fore part
of the body indicates the desire to climb and to spin. Brush or twigs
are provided (Fig. 109A), and the worm climbs into them and begins to
inclose itself in its silken shell by expelling, from two openings
underneath the mouth, two delicate threads which form a single one on
issuing. They come from the internal glands, and the liquid hardens as
it comes to the air. At first the silk is rough and is thrown out like
guy lines on the twigs by the motion of the body. Gradually the worm
incloses itself in the interior as it forms the cocoon. The method of
spinning is by a movement of the head as if making a figure 8, weaving
back and forth (Fig. 107E). The silk is a continuous double thread
fastened together by the gum, the length varying from three hundred to
even two thousand yards. An average cocoon contains about six hundred
yards. From three hundred to seven hundred yards are reelable. Very
perfect cocoons will reel to the end,[26] but the filament at the
end is apt to be attenuated and is used for waste silk. The worm can
be seen for a day, but gradually disappears, though it can be heard
working within. It takes twenty-four hours or more to complete the
cocoon. The silkworm wastes away as the silk is exhausted and gradually
changes into a chrysalis. From fifteen to twenty days are spent in this
state, and then the chrysalis changes into a moth which moistens the
end of the cocoon and breaks its way out.
[26] _Sericulture in South China._ Canton Christian College, China,
1923.
[Illustration: FIG. 109.--_A_ (ABOVE), SILK COCOONS ON RACKS. _B_
(BELOW), PRIMITIVE REELING.
Courtesy of Canton Christian College.]
The silk consists of two parts: fibroin (the silk fiber), and sericin
(the gum). On the outside of each cocoon is coarse, tangled silk
unsuitable for reeling. This is used as a material for making spun
silk (see _Spun Silk_), being known as floss. The greater part of
the remainder of the silk on the cocoon can be reeled, but several
filaments have to be united to gain the requisite strength for weaving.
The filament of the inner layers does not pay to reel, and it becomes
a waste material used also in spun silk. Cocoons are white, yellow,
or greenish in color. The color of the _Bombyx mori_ silk, after its
gum has been removed by boiling off, is white, no matter what the
color of the cocoons has been. The cocoons which are not intended for
reproduction are subjected to heat, that the chrysalids may be stifled,
since if the moth is allowed to issue, it cuts and spoils much of the
fiber. The best cocoons are saved for reproduction. The moth emerges,
leaving a hole in the end of the cocoon. These are called “pierced
cocoons” and are used in the spun-silk industry. To make one pound of
raw silk will take eleven to eighteen pounds of fresh cocoons.
There are silkworms other than the _Bombyx mori_ which provide useful
silk, and the industry is growing in importance. This product is
called wild silk, because the worms are hatched in the open and not
in nurseries under standard conditions. They eat other food than the
mulberry. The leading varieties are the Tussah silk of India, China,
and Japan. A large amount of these silks is used in the United States.
The cocoons are larger and the products coarser and harsher than those
of the _Bombyx mori_. The color is brownish, reddish, and yellowish.
=Various diseases and parasites= attack silkworms, the most important
being pebrine, which is caused by a germ within the body. The disease
is infectious, hereditary, and difficult to subdue. Other diseases
are caused by certain conditions and are easier to control. Large sums
of money were lost in silkworm culture until the absolute need of care
in the following matters was learned: the importance of eggs from
perfectly healthy moths, of clean leaves of the mulberry for food, of
ample room in the cocooneries with cleanliness, regularity in feeding,
and attention to temperature and ventilation. In good nurseries the
most careful records are kept of food, temperature, and humidity. In
Italy, France, China, and Japan the governments provide schools of
sericulture that the best results may attend the industry.
=Silk Reeling.=--The greater part of the silk on the cultivated
cocoons, and most of the Tussah silk cocoons are reeled, and the waste
and unreelable parts are laid aside to be spun. When the cocoons are
brought to the filatures, they are first sorted and classified by
color, _i. e._, shape, wrinkles, and condition (moldy, defective, or
perfect). The fiber varies in thickness on the cocoon, tapering down
in size toward the interior. Reeling consists in softening the silk so
that it will come off evenly from the cocoon, and winding the filament
in such a way that it can be drawn off without breaking. It is an
important and tedious process. Uneven and careless reeling is common,
especially among the primitive reelers, and gives much trouble later to
the throwsters. Hand-reeled silk is likely to be dirtier, coarser, and
more irregular than the machine reeled.
The filament should come off evenly in one long, smooth thread.
Expertness on the part of the reeler is necessary to keep the fiber the
correct size as she feeds it to the reel. Rapid reeling is the habit,
but better results follow slower motion, for irregularities are more
apt to be noticed. Hand reeling is a very simple process, but steam
filatures are in general use, in which the heat of the water can be
regulated, and the reels are run by power instead of by the feet. The
silk is reeled in the way the foreign market desires it.
The method of reeling is as follows: There is a series of specially
constructed basins filled with very hot water. The reeler sits in
front of a basin. She first removes the loose silk from the outside
of several cocoons and lays it to one side with defective ones and
other waste. These will later be used for the manufacture of spun silk
(see _Spun Silk_). The cocoons are floated on the water, which must
be free from impurities or the color and condition of the silk will
be affected. A filtration method for purifying the water is often in
use. By means of a brush which is sometimes mechanical in action but
at other times is held in the hand of the reeler, the cocoons are sunk
below the surface of the water in order to soften the gum. A moment
later the brush is raised and silk filaments from the cocoons are found
clinging to it. The threads are caught by the fingers and drawn until
they run smoothly, while broken and rough silk is put with the waste.
There is often as much waste as reeled silk. The silk from several
cocoons is united, twisted slightly in the fingers, passed through an
agate or smooth glass eye and attached to the swift or reel in order
to clean and keep the thread even. If a filament breaks another must
be attached, in order that the thread may not vary in size. In many
filatures an attendant assists the reelers. She removes the outer silk
and softens the cocoons in boiling water. She lifts them with a scoop
and puts them in the reelers’ basins. The reeler proceeds with the
brush as given above. The water does not need to be boiling hot after
the first softening of the cocoons. The reeled silk is continuous, as
new filaments are added when any one gives out. The silk is sometimes
too wet, which makes the filaments stick together on account of gum
in them. In many filatures this is corrected by steam pipes running
near the reels. For 13/15 denier silk (denier is a unit of weight,
see Glossary at back of book), which is the standard raw silk sent
from Japan to the United States, the threads from four to six cocoons
are united; for finer counts, such as 10/12 denier, fewer cocoons are
required, and for heavy sizes, such as 24/26 denier, many more are
united to make the thread.
Various methods of winding are in use. The silk threads as they come
from the eye are, by a simple device, twisted around themselves (Fig.
110). By another method of reeling there are two threads, each made
from a group of cocoons. Each thread passes through an eye, the two
threads are twisted around each other, separated, twisted together
again, and separated before passing to the swift or reel, where the
thread is wound in a transverse or lateral manner across its width
so as to make a cross reel, instead of piling up on itself. In some
reeling machines a bell rings when a hank is complete and ready to be
taken off. The product of reeling is called raw or reeled silk.
[Illustration: FIG. 110.--CROISSURES.
From Matthews’ _Textile Fibres_, by courtesy of John Wiley & Sons.]
After reeling, the silk is prepared for export. It is in skeins or
hanks from the swifts, of 50 to 100 grams each in weight. In China and
Japan about thirty of these are united and called a book. Each book is
wrapped and marked with the brand or “chop” of the filature. (The ends
of the silk are carefully fastened so that they can be easily found.)
These are baled and covered with matting. The Picul bale used in Japan
and Shanghai, China, weighs about 133¹⁄₃ pounds. Canton silk bales
(catty bales) weigh 106²⁄₃ pounds. Italian silk is packed in shipping
bales of about 200 pounds. The value of a pound of any standard silk
varies greatly, conditions of growth and market conditions having their
effect. In 1914 a pound of Japanese silk was worth about $5, but in
1920 the same silk was $18 per pound. The annual average prices for raw
silk on the New York market for 1924 were:[27]
Italian Extra Classical $6.96
Japan Kansai Best, No. 1 6.13
China Steam Filature, 3d Category 6.81
Canton Filature, Ex. Ex. A 5.96
[27] Compiled by the Statistical Bureau of the Silk Association of
America.
Reeled silk is used for the best class of woven fabrics. Japanese silk
is found in woven goods and hosiery. Italian and China silks are used
in tulle, silk muslin, fine satins, and other broad silks of fine
quality. The Canton filature silks were chosen for crêpes and velvets,
but Japanese silks are now much used, as they are cheaper. Coarse
Canton silks are found in silk mixtures. Tussah is used for mixed goods
also, and for domestic Shantungs and pongees.
=Spun Silk.=--The raw material of the spun silk industry is silk waste.
It was probably manufactured mechanically in England about 1792 from
throwing and weaving waste. Gradually methods of preparing the various
wastes and twisting the thread developed. In 1828 the first mechanical
plant was established in Basel, Switzerland, and about the same time
the industry was organized in Lyons, France. It began in the United
States in 1850. At present the United States uses about 20 per cent of
the spun silk of the world. Up to 1855 the greater part of the cocoon
and raw silk which were too tangled to be used for reeling was wasted.
A great industry was started when machinery for spun silk was invented.
The spun silk production of the world is about 25 to 30 per cent of the
raw silk production.[28] Spun silk yarns are used for sewing, braiding,
insulating of electric wires, warp or filling of velvets, plushes,
charmeuse, satins, linings, duvetyns, foulards, shirtings, crêpes, knit
fabrics, hosiery, underwear, neckties, and passementeries. There are
many qualities, ranging from wastes of the highest grade of reeled or
thrown silk to a low quality used principally in the East. The lowest
quality of Asiatic waste is not exported, but is used in the countries
producing it for wadding, for interlining winter garments, and for
other purposes. There is a large amount of waste in silk production;
it is stated that only about one-half of the total world’s supply of
silk spun by the worm comes into the market as raw silk. The principal
sources are the following: (1) From cocoons, such as the rough threads
thrown out first by the silkworm; from the teasing brush; from broken
cocoons; from parchment-like inner layers, too fine to reel; and from
defective, double, and pierced cocoons. (2) Reeling waste--poor reeling
yields a large amount. Some Chinese silk is reeled solely for use as
material for spun silk. (3) Gum waste, _i. e._, throwster’s waste,
being fine and coarse ends made in the various reeling and winding
processes, as in piecings. (4) Weaving mill waste, and (5) various wild
silk cocoons which will not reel.
[28] New England Spun Silk Corporation.
Cocoons that cannot be reeled and the various filature wastes, termed
frisons, are in separate bales and solidly packed. The waste is full
of gum which must be removed, and hair, dirt, and other refuse are
frequently found. Several methods of removing the gum are in use: (1)
The French or Schapping system, which puts the waste in vats of tepid
water for a week until fermentation sets in and rids the silk of much
of its gum. For some classes of goods such as velvets the schappe silk
is excellent. (2) The soaking of the silk in a solution of alkali or
in an acid solution, and (3) the English or boiling-off. The latter is
used largely in America, the entire process being the following:
=Degumming.=--The natural gum is removed from both cocoons and frisons
by boiling it out. The waste is placed in open mesh bags and pulled
back and forth and up and down in vats of soapy water kept just at
the boil, which softens the gum so that it passes through the meshes
of the bag. After several hours the silk is taken out and dried. It
is later soaked in another vat to rid it of more gum, and comes out
soft, fluffy, and white, having lost from 18 to over 50 per cent of its
weight, the loss varying greatly according to the kind of waste. It is
then dried in a revolving extractor, but allowed to hold 11 per cent of
its dry weight.
=Dressing= follows. The cocoons and frisons are fed separately at first
through rollers against cylinders covered with wire needles which open
up the mass, and then picking machines still further draw out the laps,
which are cut into nine inch lengths. These are laid over rods by the
machine, ready for a thorough combing in the next process, which is
called a dressing machine. The latter resembles somewhat the hackling
machine used in the flax industry. The lengths laid over the rods are
placed over large cylinders covered with card clothing and are combed
through first one way and then another. This is done several times, the
first time giving the longest fibers. The short ends which are combed
out are called noils, and are used for a poorer class of yarn, of use
in the making of cartridge cloth (to hold explosives; see below), or
to mix with wool. Cloths are laid over the combed laps as they lie on
the drums, that the soft, silky fibers may be kept in order when they
are removed. The laps, still wound around the rods and covered with
the cloths, are taken from the dresser, and are carefully removed and
separated into lengths of equal size. The next step is the examining of
the laps for any dirt or irregularities. They are laid on a glass table
with a light shining from below the glass, consequently the slightest
flaw can be distinctly seen. A sort of spreadboard, like the one found
in the flax industry, runs the lap together, and these are formed into
a sliver by another machine.
=Spinning.=--Several slivers are drawn and united into one and again
into a roving, which is wound on a bobbin preparatory to spinning. The
final spinning may be on the mule or on the frame. The yarn is wound
on a special reel for dyeing, which prevents the snarling of the fine,
soft filaments by a method of cross winding. This keeps the threads
from piling up on each other, making unwinding easy. Some spun yarn is
wound on bobbins or on quills and taken directly to the weaving room
if dyeing is not to be done in the yarn. Spun silk yarn is frequently
gassed to make it glossy by ridding it of short, fluffy ends.
Filature wastes from the East are often known under the names of places
from which they come. There are many different grades. Kibizzo is a
Japanese filature waste. Curlies come from both China and Japan, and
are listed under several grades. Some few of the Eastern wastes are
found under chop marks. The term frisons, which was originally French
filature waste, is used often in the United States for all filature
wastes. A large amount of the best silk waste is imported into this
country. It is used for filling, for dress goods, for warp velvets, and
half-silk goods. Lower grades of spun silk are used for coarse knitted
goods and for packing and insulating material. Silk wadding is made
from waste from bourette spinning.
Silk waste is used in all silk manufacturing countries. Lyons,
Paterson, Basle, and Milan use it in large quantities. Spun silk is not
so strong as reeled silk. In the United States silk waste is often
called schappe, but this is not strictly correct, for that word belongs
to a special French process.
=Producing Countries.=--The main countries where the silkworm is
cultivated at the present time are Japan, China, Italy, France, and
the Levant. Other countries, such as Spain, Hungary, the Balkans and
Switzerland produce small quantities, but the output is not important
commercially. _Japan_ is a large cultivator of silk and the amount
is on the increase. In 1924 about 85 per cent of the importations of
the United States were from this country, and a large proportion (89
per cent) of her product came to the American market. Careful and
scientific methods are used in both rearing and reeling, and efforts
are made to meet the requirements of our manufacturers. European
spinners prefer the soft white silks of China and the Levant. It is
stated in _The Sericulture Industry and Leading Reelers in Japan_,
published by the Sericulture Association of Japan in 1921, that the
number of families rearing silkworms in Japan was 1,638,121, with
the promise of increase. An enormous number of acres are planted in
mulberry trees. Both white and yellow cocoons are produced. The quality
of Japanese silk is excellent, the color is whitish after boiling
off, but not so clear a color as the Chinese silk. The silkworm is
cultivated all over Japan, but especially in some of the central
prefectures. About three million pounds go to Europe annually. Japan
consumes about 30 per cent of her own silk. Chinese cocoons are
sometimes bought, reeled in the Japanese filatures, and exported with
the Japanese raw silk.[29]
[29] _The Sericulture Industry of South China_, Canton Christian
College, China, 1923.
The Japanese government maintains colleges for the scientific study
of sericulture and for instruction in rearing, and has experiment
stations for the best methods of breeding silkworms. Every prefecture
where silkworms are grown has an inspection office for the examination
of the seeds and other questions relating to successful rearing.
The filatures are up-to-date and spotlessly clean, and the eggs are
kept in adjacent fireproof buildings. Yokohama is the center of silk
transactions. Speculation on the exchange causes constant fluctuations
in the price of silk. The Imperial Silk Conditioning House is depended
upon for giving the true weight and condition of silk for export.
Silk coming from Japan may be divided into three classes: for
organzine, for tram, and for singles. Hard natured silks are called
“Kansai,” and soft natured, “Sinshiu,” after districts producing silk,
but many other districts produce the same kind. The terms really refer
to the quality of the cocoons.
Japan sent to the United States in 1923 and 1924:[30]
_Raw Silk:_
Pounds Value
34,478,018 $266,610,401
_Fabrics in the Piece:_
Pounds Value
1,378,943 $9,100,118
_Silk Wearing Apparel:_ $505,497
[30] Twenty-fifth Mid-Year Report, Silk Association of America.
_China_ is a large producer of raw silk, but uses much in domestic
consumption, as silk fabrics are worn extensively by both men and
women. The dress of the people has been little influenced by foreign
clothing ideals, and silk is worn throughout the year. Much of the
woven silk of China is in special patterns to meet the desires of the
people, hence is not exported to any extent. China sent to the United
States in 1923-24 of raw silk, 4,680,779 pounds, and of fabrics in the
piece 151,987 pounds. Shanghai sent 19,542 bales of raw silk (Picul or
133¹⁄₃ pounds) and Canton, 26,011 bales (Catty or 106²⁄₃ pounds.)[31]
[31] Twenty-fifth Mid-Year Report, Silk Association of America.
The raw silk industry is in the vicinity of Canton and Shanghai. Raw
silks from the southern district are known commercially as “Cantons”
and from northern China as “Chinas.” Pongee silk comes from the
Shantung Province of China. The Tussah or wild silk is used largely for
hosiery, dresses, upholstery, and electric wire covering.
The methods of sericulture in China are not modern, but are improving.
The government does not regulate the industry, consequently every
section has its own ways of proceeding. These are often very primitive,
and the silkworm seeds are not alike in quality. Diseases of the
silkworm are extensive, and the pebrine is the most destructive. Many
farmers have given up silk culture on account of this disease, as it
so weakens the worms that many die, and from those that live a thin
cocoon with defective silk results. The silk of China is excellent when
well grown and reeled, but at present cannot be depended upon. South
China produces an especially beautiful silk in the Canton district,
being fine, soft, and highly lustrous. The United States imports it for
velvets and crêpes.
Sericulture conditions have been studied of late years by many of the
colleges of China, being assisted by the Silk Association of America
with money and buildings. The Canton Christian College in South China
is producing perfect seeds and selling them to the farmers. It is
making scientific studies of the diseases and other matters relating
to the success of silk culture, mulberry raising, and reeling, and is
sending out students to train the farmers. Although the seeds grown at
the College are more expensive than those from the farmers, they are
found to give so much better results that the added price is considered
worth it. South China grows six or seven generations of silkworms
annually. The control of pebrine is the fundamental thing in developing
the silk industry.
Because there is no government regulation to unify the raising and
reeling of silk in China, methods of culture and the names for
varieties of eggs differ in the silk producing sections. In Shanghai,
which draws from the whole of Central China, there are found a great
variety of raw silks which differ in quality, color, and packing. Silks
from several provinces are marketed, which makes it interesting to
the student of silk. Steam filature silk, T’satlees, Tussah silk, and
silk wastes from Central China are marketed there. A silk conditioning
house has been opened lately in Shanghai. It is a branch of the United
States Testing Company. “Chinas” are raised in a region around Tai-ho
Lake, including parts of the provinces of Kiangsu and Chekiang, known
as the T’satlee region. In Chekiang a good yellow silk is produced.
The filatures of Central China are good. The Canton Province is the
silk center for South China. Methods of production and reeling are
not as up-to-date as in Shanghai. Through the influence of the Silk
Association of America and the Canton Christian College the industry
is gradually being placed on a sound scientific basis. An increasing
business is being done with America. About four or five million farmers
producing silk are in South China.
In 1879 the first steam filature appeared. These are now reeling the
silk to the required size and cleanliness, but are slow in using some
of the best methods of crossing the filament to keep it from tangling.
Two missions have gone out from the United States to the Orient within
a few years, composed of silk manufacturers and business men, for
exchange of views and to lead to a better understanding between the
silk producers and the manufacturers.
American manufacturers wish to import Chinese silk, but have found
difficulties with the native reeling and irregularities in the size
of the silk. The Chinese are trying to improve methods and old and
primitive ones are slowly passing under the influence of colleges and
educated Chinese workers (Fig. 109 B). The silk reeled on the farms,
called T’satlees, is being rereeled to meet the need of American silk
manufacturing methods. The T’satlees are reeled by Chinese peasants
in their cottages. They are troublesome to unwind and the size of the
filament is irregular. The term comes from a region back of Shanghai.
These silks have not been used to any extent in this country in
their original state, although the silk is often very beautiful and
white. T’satlee silks sell at a lower price, yet are strong, durable,
and brilliant. It now comes to this country rereeled into skeins of
standard size, and also cross reeled, thus making them easy to wind. It
is used in the knit goods industry, for tie silks, upholstery fabrics,
and other purposes.
_Italian_ silk ranks high in quality. The Italian government and also
private agencies foster the industry. The rearing is in many parts, but
principally in the provinces of Lombardy, Venetia, and Piedmont. Levant
cocoons are often reeled in Italy. The production in 1923-24 was about
10,803,000 pounds, of which the United States took 1,576,078 pounds.
Turin is the silk center for Piedmont and Milan for Lombardy.
The _French_ raw silk industry is being affected by lack of labor
and its cost. France now principally imports her raw silk from
China, Japan, Italy, and the Levant. The silk still grown is high in
character. Silk manufacture is important in parts of France, Lyons
being a noted center. The United States imported from France in 1923
raw silk and silk woven and knit.
The silk culture in _India_ is mostly primitive. The crop is large but
the silk is not satisfactory for American manufacturers. The industry
is mainly found in Mysore, Assam, Burmah, Madras, and Bengal. In
Kashmir the government is trying to improve the industry.
The product of the _Levant and Asia Minor_ is purchased largely by
France and Italy for their filatures.
The following table gives the raw silk production for 1923-24:[32]
Total 67,288,000 pounds
Europe 11,519,000 “
Levant 1,764,000 “
Asia 53,015,000[33] “
Tussah 990,000 “
[32] Twenty-fifth Mid-Year Report of the Silk Association of America,
1924.
[33] The full production of raw silk is not known in China and
India, the amount of export alone is given. An approximate amount of
74,000,000 pounds is estimated.
=Silk in the United States.=--The United States is now the largest
producer of silk fabrics in the world. (See _Silk Manufacture_, below.)
The industry has grown with great strides within a decade. Raw silk and
silk wastes are imported in large quantities and manufactured silk of
many kinds are brought into the country, but in smaller amounts than in
former years. The United States production of silk in 1923, as given by
the United States Department of Commerce for release on March 11, 1925,
was valued at $761,322,119, not including knit goods of silk or the
cost of materials.
The United States importation of raw silk in 1923-24 was valued at
$350,028,136.[34] In addition there was:--
Waste silk valued at $8,631,440
Cocoons valued at 132,038
Piece goods valued at 14,081,185
Spun or schappe silk 4,456,834
Wearing apparel 6,745,127
Miscellaneous manufacture 6,789,157
-----------
Total $40,835,781
[34] Twenty-fifth Mid-Year Report Silk Association of America, Sept.,
1924.
In 1924 the number of establishments in the leading manufacturing
states was as follows:--[35]
New Jersey 962
Pennsylvania 894
New York 798
With Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Illinois, and Tennessee
having lower numbers.
[35] Release of March 11, 1925, Department of Commerce, taken from
the Census of Silk Manufacture, 1923.
New York City is the market center for silk fabrics, and most of those
dealing in silk in any way have their headquarters there. The bulk of
both reeled and manufactured products from the East comes to New York.
San Francisco, Seattle, and Vancouver, Canada, are all receiving ports.
The trains which bring the precious freight across the country from the
Pacific coast are dirt and moisture proof and are thoroughly insured,
as the value of one train may be from one to two million dollars.
The world’s production of raw silk is difficult to obtain with any
accuracy, as only export figures have been available from the Orient.
An approximate amount is given of about 67,288,000 pounds. The United
States imported in 1923-24 about 46,205,409 pounds of manufactured raw
silk, 11,234,005 pounds of waste, and 4,358,785 pounds of manufactured
fabrics.[36] The value of the silk woven or knit in this country was in
1923 estimated at $761,322,119; broad silk goods being $456,082,819;
velvets, $23,879,903; plushes, $17,217,510; upholstery and tapestries,
$10,635,974; silk threads and yarns, (organzine, tram, hard or crêpe
twist, spun silk, machine twist, sewing, embroidery, and other floss
silk, ribbons) $52,121,835; laces, embroidery, nets, veiling, etc.,
$2,892,812, and the remainder miscellaneous products.[36]
[36] Twenty-fifth Mid-Year Report Silk Association of America, Sept.,
1924.
=Marketing, Classification, and Conditioning.=--The principal raw silk
markets of the world are Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Canton, Milan,
Lyons, and New York City. Marketing is done largely through commission
merchants, who are sometimes exporters. Occasionally a big United
States manufacturer will buy direct from a filature. Yokohama has a Raw
Silk Exchange, but the transactions there are largely speculative.
The chief trouble with the raw silk transactions has been the lack of
a standard basis to judge quality. Everything has depended upon the
buyers’ or inspectors’ ability to judge the value of the silk through
sight, feel, and smell. The manufacturers in the United States want
a permanent system of grading. The present one is merely a series
of names for grades, without definite standard for any one. After
many years of study of the problems involved, by a committee of the
Silk Association of America, tentative classifications have been
recommended, based on a series of mechanical tests on the silk.
Pending the adoption of a standard, the Silk Association of America
has recommended that the present names used to denote the grades be
restricted to eight. These are as follows: Grand Double Extra, Crack
Double Extra, Double Extra, Best Extra, Extra, Best No. 1 to Extra,
Best No. 1, Best 1 and No. 1.
The best raw silk is even, clean, elastic, strong, and lustrous. On
the Yokohama Raw Silk Exchange Kansai No. 1 has been selected as the
standard grade in the same way that cotton exchanges have chosen
Middling Upland Cotton.
Raw silk is sold by weight, and as silk readily absorbs water, the
habit is increasing of selling it by conditioned (tested) weight, _i.
e._, tested with reference to the amount of water in the silk. In
commercial practice, conditioned silk is supposed to contain moisture
equal to 11 per cent of its absolutely dry weight. It will carry 30
per cent without feeling appreciably damp, and can be made to absorb
considerably more. The method of testing for moisture is as follows:
Samples are taken from a number of books in one bale of silk and
weighed carefully. They are then placed in ovens and dried perfectly.
The samples are again weighed, and the difference noted, and the dry
weight of the full bale is worked out by proportion. The conditioned
weight of the bale is based on this dry weight of the silk plus the
accepted commercial regain of moisture, 11 per cent. The elasticity
and tenacity of silk are greatly affected by the moisture in it.
Conditioning houses were first organized for silk, but are now used
also for other textiles. In Europe silk is usually conditioned; testing
houses are numerous in France and Italy. Germany, England, Switzerland,
Japan, and China have them. The United States Testing Company has
branches in New York, Paterson, New Bedford, and Philadelphia, and also
in Shanghai. In addition to the conditioned weight, tests are used for
both raw and thrown silk by chemical and microscopical analyses.[37]
The following tests are representative and are increasingly practiced
in this country. The boil-off test shows the amount of gum in the silk.
Some varieties contain more than other kinds, ranging from 10 to 25
per cent. Silk is boiled off before dyeing, its brilliancy is thus
increased but weight has been lost, which adds to the price. Sizing and
winding tests are given to determine if the size is regular throughout.
Cleanliness is important (for various imperfections in knots,
fuzziness, and particles of cocoons are found in the reeled silk), and
the elasticity and tenacity are desirable factors. Manufacturers desire
to be completely informed about these matters before buying in large
quantities.
[37] United States Testing Company, 1923, and _Raw Silk_, Duran.
The denier system for raw silk and the dram system for thrown silk are
those customarily used in the United States. The denier weighs 0.05
gram. The weight of 450 meters of reeled silk filaments is given as the
size in deniers. The higher numbers are coarser. The numbers of silk
are given in averages or ranges, the size 13/15 denier being the one
most in use in the United States. In spun silk the number of yards in
a hank is 840, and the number of hanks in a pound is the count of the
yarn, based on the finished yarn. This is like the method of counts
in cotton. The higher numbers are finer. For thrown silk in the dram
system the size is based on the thousand yard skein in drams. A skein
weighing five drams is called a five-dram silk. In raw silk the United
States principally imports 20/22, 13/15, and 14/16 sizes. Very coarse
sizes such as 30/40 are used for mixed fabrics.
=Silk Throwing.=--The term “throwing” comes from an old Saxon word
meaning twisting. It is used for the series of processes by which raw
silk is made into yarn. Silk direct from the reel is strong enough to
stand the strain of weaving, but the threads would open up if dyed, so
when it is to be skein dyed it has to be more or less twisted. Spun
silk, made from waste, is twisted by a different method which is more
like cotton spinning. The work of throwing is simple, but the reeled
silk is so delicate that complicated machines are required. Throwing is
often conducted as a separate business, and thrown silk is for sale on
the market. Silk weaving mills frequently send their reeled silk to the
throwing mills to be prepared for them, or they buy the thrown silk.
Some large silk manufacturers conduct the entire series of processes
from raw silk to finished fabric.
There are different methods of throwing, of which the following are in
constant use:
_Singles._ These are single raw silk threads which may be twisted or
not. Hard-twist singles are used for gauzes, chiffons, and crêpes, for
both warp and filling. Raw silk singles in the gum are often used for
warp in piece-dyed goods.
_Organzine_ (Fig. 111, B and C) is made from the better grades of
raw silk, for it is generally used for the warp, and that must be
strong. A single raw silk thread is twisted with a right-hand twist,
perhaps sixteen turns to the inch. Two, sometimes three or even more
of these twisted threads are again twisted together, left-hand twist,
perhaps fourteen turns to the inch. There are variations in the manner
of twisting. In taffeta weaving the organzine is twisted sixteen or
more times on the first twist. For soft satins, on the contrary, the
twisting may be less, for the sheen or luster is greater if the silk is
less twisted. In dull finishes the organzine is twisted very closely.
When two threads are finally twisted together the yarn is called
two-thread organzine; when three are united, three-thread organzine.
Many machines are required in making organzine. In yarn-dyed goods the
warp is usually organzine.
_Tram._ (Fig. 111, A and D.) For tram silk, which is generally used
for filling, two or more single, untwisted, reeled threads are united
into one and twisted very slightly. The terms two-thread, three-thread,
etc., are used to designate the number. A poorer quality of silk is
used for tram than for organzine. Hard-twist tram is used for the
filling of some crêpes.
[Illustration: FIG. 111.--ORGANZINE AND TRAM.
From Barker’s _Textiles_, by courtesy of Constable & Co., London.]
_Chiffon or Crêpe._ The yarn used for these fabrics is a tram twisted
from forty to eighty turns in an inch. For crêpe some of the yarns are
a right-hand twist, and some left-hand.
There are many special twists, of which _sewing silk_ is an
illustration. There may be as many as one hundred cocoon filaments
in one thread of sewing silk, depending upon the size. From three to
perhaps two dozen raw silk threads are united and twisted together,
after which two, four, or six of these threads are again twisted
together in the reverse twist while held at a tension.
_Embroidery silk_ is made from singles slack twisted, which after
doubling are twisted in the opposite direction.
When raw silk arrives at the throwing mills, the bales are opened and,
if necessary, the skeins are sorted as to size and color. Skeins that
are to be thrown “bright,” that is, without having been soaked, are
taken directly to the winding machine. Those which are to be soaked
are opened and put in open mesh bags in a bath of lukewarm water
containing some olive or neat’s-foot oil and some olive oil soap, the
gum being thus softened. When almost dry the skeins are frequently
rolled and rubbed to soften any gum still left in them. They are then
dried thoroughly, and allowed to regain their natural moisture of 11
per cent. In the making of organzine, winding the skeins follows to
transfer the thread to bobbins. This process requires careful work. In
the winding machine the skeins are stretched on a series of swifts or
reels which are arranged side by side, and the end of each thread is
passed through an eyelet to a bobbin, and by means of a guide wire is
wound without friction up and down the length of the bobbin. A break in
the thread automatically stops the machine. The attendant must piece
all bad places and deliver a smooth thread. The threads are passed from
one bobbin to another through a slot, or between two parallel plates
so set as to remove all irregularities on the silk. Winding prepares
the silk for doubling and twisting, which are necessary to give the
filament sufficient coherence for boiling off and dyeing.
=Doubling and Twisting.=--In some American machines throwing, doubling,
and twisting are combined, but such machines can be used only when the
silk is perfectly reeled and of good strength. Usually these processes
are separate, the amount of doubling and twisting depending upon the
future use of the silk. For organzine much twisting is required, that
it may dye well and be strong for warp. When thrown silk is to be sold,
the hanks are made into bundles for shipping. In some instances the
thrown silk is sent to the manufacturer on bobbins or on quills ready
for weaving.
=Dyeing and Attendant Processes=--_Degumming and Stripping_.--Silk
may be yarn dyed, piece dyed, or printed. The processes for the first
two are similar. If the yarn is to be dyed it goes in skeins to the
dyehouse directly after throwing. The cloth is woven in the gum and
dyed after weaving. A large number of colors are available in silk
dyeing. Reeled silk is harsh and wiry, as it contains considerable
gum or sericin, and it may also have much color in it, which must be
removed. After the thread is thrown and before bleaching or dyeing,
the gum and color are boiled out. All silk does not require the same
treatment, for the gum is more difficult to remove in some cases, and
in some classes of fabrics the gum is only partially removed. Stripping
or boiling off greatly reduces the weight of the silk, for 25 per cent
or more is often lost. The process is simple and not injurious. The
natural luster and softness of the silk are enhanced by boiling off. If
the silk is to be very lustrous, it is sometimes stretched in the gum
before the stripping or boiling off occurs, and is again stretched and
steamed after it. The boiling off, as usually practiced, consists of
boiling in a vat of soapy solution, the silk being in cotton mesh bags.
This is a process of much delicacy, as the degumming must be complete
but not overdone. For soft silk, about 20 or 30 per cent of the thrown
weight is lost in stripping, leaving it soft and lustrous; for “souple”
silk the loss is less, being from 5 to 12 per cent. The result is a
duller appearance and a firmer touch, suitable for grosgrains. “Ecru”
silk has still less gum removed, probably from 2 to 5 per cent.
After stripping, a silk may need several washings. It is dried in a
hydro-extractor.
Spun silk does not have to be boiled off, as that is done previous
to spinning it. If the silk is streaked or has not a clear color,
_bleaching_ is required and follows the boiling off. There are several
ways of doing this, one being to hang the silk in a sulphur chamber.
Sodium peroxide is used to some extent, especially for Tussah silk, and
hydrogen peroxide is liked but it is expensive. After bleaching, the
silk is thoroughly washed. (See Chap. XIII.)
=Weighting= (see Chap. XII).--Weighting follows the boil-off whether in
the yarn or piece. A certain amount of it is considered legitimate, as
so much weight is lost in the boil-off, and silk is expensive. It has
absorptive or adsorptive qualities, and is capable of taking in several
times its own weight of the substances used in weighting, such as
mineral salts. Salts of tin and salts of iron are now used, the latter
for dark silk. It has been stated by some silk manufacturers that silk
which is carefully weighted, even heavily, will give satisfactory
results for the price paid. New methods of weighting are proving this
to be true. In the majority of cases, however, with weighted silk,
sunlight, perspiration and salt water cause deterioration. Silk is
weighted in the piece as well as in the yarn. The claim is made that
soft finished drapery fabrics require weighting to give them the
requisite hanging qualities.
Wool and silk are animal fibers and take dye easily, but sometimes at
different temperatures, hence it is possible to weave the cloth of both
fibers, and by regulating the heat in the dye vat leave the one white
and the other colored. (See Chap. XIII.)
=Stretching and Lustering= (for silk thread).--Bringing out the gloss
on silk thread may precede or follow dyeing, according to the character
of the silk or the practice of the dyehouse. Both hand and machine
methods are used. The dyer throws the skein over a strong peg on the
wall, puts a smooth stick through it, and pulls the skein down hard,
twisting it about from right to left until it is soft and glossy. By
the machine method, bobbins of twisted silk are placed in water and the
silk is wound from them on a revolving copper roll. It then passes to
another roll just above, which in revolving more rapidly stretches the
silk. This stretching is usually done before dyeing. A high degree of
luster is given by exposing the skein to steam in an oven, where the
silk is stretched on highly polished rollers. The steam and friction,
however, sometimes wear on the threads. Steam lustering often both
precedes and follows dyeing, for the dyes, mordants, and weighting
decrease the luster of the thread. A special olive oil bath is given
some silks. “Scroop” as well as luster are obtained by soaking the silk
in dilute acid. The boiled-off liquor containing the sericin or gum is
frequently combined with the dye to increase the luster.
=Printing.=--The printing of the warp or of the piece is popular. Silk
printing is like cotton printing. (See Chap. VIII, _Cotton Printing_.)
If the design is to be on the warp threads, they are passed rapidly
through a loom and a few filling threads are thrown across at intervals
to hold the warp in shape for passing over the great printing cylinder.
This class of printing is sometimes called chiné. After printing, the
goods are steamed to set the colors and then heated with dry heat to
age them. A thorough washing is given before finishing. If designs are
to be shown on a solid ground, either resist or discharge printing is
used. (See Chap. XIII.)
=Winding the Yarn, Warping and Weaving.=--After dyeing or warp
printing, the skeins are wound in various ways according to the use to
which they will be put. Silks to be woven immediately are placed on
bobbins for the warping frames. _Silk warping_ differs somewhat from
that of other fibers, and requires the most delicate handling. There
are several methods in use; the aim is the same as in all warping. (See
Chap. III, _Winding_, etc.) Filling threads are wound on quills for the
shuttle.
The _weave_ in silk is of paramount importance, and ranges through all
kinds of designs from plain to the most intricate Jacquard patterns.
The silk designer requires training, years of experience, and artistic
taste. Standard silks are found in the plain weaves such as the China,
India, and Japan (habutai) silks; glacé silk, which is the name given
to silk with contrasting colors of warp and filling; pongee and
Shantung, taffeta and crêpe de chine. In twills there are the ottoman,
grosgrain, bengaline, poplin, faille Française, and many others. These
are often made with a wool or cotton filling, and the ribs are on the
filling way. In satin weaves there are the messaline, merveilleuse,
satin de chine, satin duchesse, Liberty satin, and peau de cygne. In
pile weaving there are velvets and plushes, which are made in several
ways. (See Chap. VI, _Pile Weaving_.)
=Finishing.=--Pure reeled silk, well woven, requires no dressing, but
is finished by picking, pressing, mangling, or calendering, with or
without friction. Poorer silk fabrics or union goods need much finish
to give them “handle,” strength, and body. Almost every piece of silk
requires a picking over to take away fibers, nap, loose threads, and
knots. This is sometimes done by hand, but is a slow process. The
largest percentage of fabrics are passed rapidly through a shearing
machine. There is a brush in front of each set of blades, and one for
the back of the silk also, that all foreign matter may be removed. A
suction current of air raises the little ends and the knife edges cut
them off without injuring the surface of the material. The silk gains
a smoother face through this process. Some fabrics, like taffeta, have
both the front and back exposed to the blades, but in satin the face
only is shorn. Fabrics are sometimes put through twice. Polishing
often follows to spread the threads of warp and filling evenly over
the surface, in order to soften the appearance and make the fabric
smoother. Examinations occur frequently and directions are given
for removing flaws if any have been found. In light colored silks
discolorations often occur and must be removed by special treatment.
Each mill has its own cleaning paste.
The kind of finish to be used on silk depends upon the end to be
obtained. Finishes are of two kinds--mechanical, or by means of
dressings. Some of these have already been mentioned. The main yarn
finishes are: (1) Sizings to smooth certain hairy yarns and make
them wear better; (2) soaking in dilute acid to give scroop and
gloss; (3) gassing to burn off the fluff and to make the yarn smooth;
(4) dressings and mechanical finishes to give gloss and to harden.
Organzine (if it needs sizing, which it rarely will) is sized with
gelatin.
Finishes for woven silk are also mechanical or by dressings. The first
includes calendering, mangling, or pressings of various kinds by which
the woven material is made smooth. Velvets are cleaned, the pile raised
and shorn. Chiffon velvets are wet sprayed and the pile brushed and
cleaned. Processes in silk finishing are often repeated many times
before the desired results are obtained. The goods may come directly
in contact with metal rollers or may be pressed between finishing
paper, according to whether a glistening or a soft effect is needed;
moiréing or embossing cylinders having designs etched upon them may
press into the dressed material, leaving the design on the surface;
special machines of many kinds, used to give effects such as panne and
mirror velvet; polishing machines; steaming machines for velvets and
other pile goods; gassing and shearing machines to eliminate fluff and
ends in materials made of spun silk or any silk which is inclined to
have too rough a surface; breaking machines which are used to soften up
material passing over rollers on which the tension can be increased or
decreased as needed. Flat or spiral knives, or rollers with brass knobs
or buttons break the finish; printing, used extensively for foulards,
crêpes, and ribbons, may be direct or by resist or discharge. (See
Chap. XIII.) After printing, finishes are necessary, such as degumming
the silk, calendering it, and breaking the surface to soften the handle
and look.
Dressings are of many kinds; each mill has its own secret formulæ.
The aim may be to soften, to stiffen, or to harden, to glaze, to
strengthen, to waterproof, so the material will not spot; to fireproof,
as special treatments make silk inflammable; or to cover defects. The
following dressings are in constant use, usually in combination with
each other, dextrin being perhaps the only one used by itself: Rice
water, isinglass, gelatin, dextrin, starch, glues, gums, and waxes. The
waxes are made into an emulsion with alkali, and the gums are softened
with castor oil. Resinous substances, such as amber and resin, are also
used.
Such finishes as gassing to remove fluff, gumming to give feel,
calendering to improve gloss, breaking to remove stiffness and to
give handle, are customary. Taffeta silk is finished in many ways.
Gelatin water gives it stiffness; pressure and heat bring out gloss;
waterproofing keeps it from spotting, so that it can be used for
umbrellas and raincoats. For the latter purpose a special treatment
is often given with melted rubber between two layers of silk. Oiled
silk for raincoats and hospital service is a special finish on crêpe
de chine or the habutai weave. Light silk fabrics are stretched in
a tenter frame and finished on the wrong side. Satin is often sized
as well as calendered to increase its luster. Very beautiful results
are accomplished by a system of embossing. (See Chap. X, _Machine
Embroideries_.) Silk surfacing and silk plating are methods of gaining
effects at a small expense. In the first, cotton yarns are soaked in
an acid solution and then immersed in one of silk, made by dissolving
silk waste and shoddy in acid. (The procedure for obtaining the
shoddy has been like that for wool shoddy. See Chap. VII, _Wastes and
By-Products_.) Dyeing, gassing, and polishing follow; the effect is
good but the endurance is sometimes low. Plating is used largely in
knit goods. Silk yarn or rayon is thrown on the surface and cotton
yarn is below.
_Cartridge cloth_ is made of silk noils. It looks like tweed and feels
like cotton. This material is the best to hold the powder for heavy
artillery. Bags made of it are filled with powder and placed at the
back of the projectile. The firing of them hurls the charge and the
entire bag is consumed. It is essential that no particle shall be left,
or back-firing is liable to occur, killing the one discharging the
cannon. Experiments have been made with cotton cloth, which promise
success. The price would be much reduced if cotton could be used.
_Mercerized cotton_, having a silky appearance, is frequently combined
with silk in attractive materials. Braids, shoe laces, and corset laces
are apt to be mercerized cotton yet often pass for silk. They wear
better than a heavily weighted silk and are lower in price. The Better
Business Bureaus are working to have truthful statements concerning
the use of mercerized cotton, and the consumer should assist in the
movement, but there is much ignorance, and some tendency to deceive.
Each fiber has its service, but neither can take the place of the
other. Misstatements should be discouraged.
=Silk Mixed Goods.=--Velvets, plushes, and satins are often made with
a cotton back or a cotton warp. These may be perfectly satisfactory
if the silk surface is close and strong. All-silk fabrics of this
kind would be very expensive, and at times of less service. Many wool
fabrics are made with a silk warp, an example being silk and wool
poplins. Spun silk noils are combined with wool to give feel and
brightness to it. Silk and rayon are frequently combined with cotton in
stripes and figures, and make attractive and enduring materials if they
are carefully laundered.
The manufacturing of silk knit goods is increasing rapidly. In the
Mohawk Valley in New York State the number of silk knit goods mills
has gone from a few scattered ones to fifty, in a few years. Underwear,
gloves, and hosiery are the main output. (See Chap. V, _Knit Goods._)
=Silk Manufacture.=--_Germany_ has large silk industries in Rhenish
Prussia, and makes dress silks, satins, velvets, knit goods, bindings,
braids, and linings. Barmen, Elberfeld, and Krefeld are important
centers; the latter is noted for velvets and has a water supply
which is of special value in silk dyeing. Germany is producing large
quantities of mixed and cheaper qualities of dress goods and trimmings.
The _United Kingdom_ manufactures upholstery goods, dress fabrics,
ribbons, laces, and embroideries. The production of materials made
of silk mixed with other fibers is increasing. Many towns have silk
mills and the production and utilization of rayon is large. The silk
industry is holding its own, but is not increasing. Leeds is noted for
its sewing silks and mixed goods; Spitalfields, for pure, fine silks;
Coventry for its ribbons and broad silks; Manchester produces silk as
well as cotton goods; Nottingham makes knit fabrics, silk net, and
lace; Derby uses both silk and rayon in its hosiery mills; Bradford
weaves silk warp alpacas and other mixed goods; Braintree produces
beautiful fabrics on its hand looms, coronation robes and wedding gowns
having been made there for historic occasions.
_Russia_ and _Belgium_ have silk mills. _Japan_ is noted for its silks.
The Habutai or Habutæ (meaning soft as down) is woven in the gum from
reeled silk unthrown and undyed. It comes in plain piece-dyed and in
printed silk. Crêpes, satins, Jacquard, and printed goods are also
made in Japan and exported. Special silks are made for the home trade.
_China_ produces pongees, woven in the gum from the wild Tussah, and
other silks such as the well known Canton crêpe.
As has been said, the _United States_ is the largest silk manufacturing
country in the world, and the inhabitants wear large quantities of
silk. It weaves 70 to 80 per cent of the raw silk of Europe and the
Orient (see _Silk in the United States_, above.) The United States
mills produce broad silks, crêpes, velvets, plushes, upholsteries,
ribbons, laces, passementeries, thrown and spun yarns, knit goods, and
embroidery silks. The very elaborate fancy goods made in Lyons are not
made to any extent in the United States. Paterson, New Jersey, has
been the most important center for silk manufacturing, but labor and
industrial conditions not being favorable in that state, Pennsylvania,
whose laws are less stringent, is rapidly developing the silk industry.
Scranton, Wilkesbarre, Allentown, and Lancaster, as well as other
towns, have many mills.
Spun silk manufacturing is developing in New England. Large-scale
production of staple silks is characteristic of the United States.
Small workrooms for exclusive fabrics, often made on hand looms in
Europe, are not found in the United States. About 97 per cent of the
fabrics made are consumed at home. The country imports also large
amounts of silk goods.
In general, throwing, weaving, and finishing are not done under one
management. Manufacturers are expected by the public to know the amount
of weighting in a particular silk, but weighting or adulteration may
have begun in the Orient, may have been added to in boiling off before
dyeing under one house, and in finishing after weaving, by still
another. It is too much to expect the retailer to know details of the
different treatments. Laws to compel announcement of weighting in silk
will have difficulties in obtaining complete data, but the consumer
desires to be protected from fraud, and progress is being made in
compelling honesty of statement, without additional expense for fabrics.
REPRESENTATIVE SILK FABRICS
Armure
Chiffon
Chiffon cloth
Chiné silk (warp print)
{ Canton
{ Brocaded
{ Charmeuse
{ de Chine
Crêpe { Georgette
{ Meteor
{ Flat
{ Printed
{ Romain
Barathea
Broadcloth
Brocade
Duvetyn
Faille
Foulard
Georgette
Grosgrain
Habutai
Jersey
Marquisette
Maline
Messaline
Moiré
Mousseline de soie
Mull
Net
Rep
Peau de cygne
Pongee
Plush
Peau de soie
Pussy willow
{ Canton
{ Crêpe
Satin { Duchesse
{ Skinner’s
_Rayon_ (artificial silk). Usually mixed with another textile.
Baronette satin
Dewkist
Kumsi Kumsa
Tricolett
_Mixed Goods_
Armure
Bengaline
Brocade
Cotton backed satin and velvet
Grenadine
Khaki Kool
Roshanara
Poplin
Ottoman
Tapestry
_Woven Underwear_
China silk
Crêpe de Chine
Habutai (Japanese silk)
Pongee
Pussy willow
Radium
Satin, Skinner’s
Satin, wash
{ Milanese
Knit goods { Jersey
{ Stockinet
Shantung
Surah
{ Cotton back
{ Chiffon
Velvet { Panne
{ Mirror
{ Silk back
Taffeta
Tussah
Velour
(NOTE. There has been an inclination to increase the width of silks
during the last twenty-five years. At one time they were 18 to 27
inches, and now 20 per cent are 54 inches in width. The broader silks
have been made as an accommodation to the cutting-up trade, which
finds that this width can be handled with the least waste.)
=Rayon
(Artificial Silk)=
Until 1910 very little artificial silk was used in the United States.
The manufacture had begun in Europe in the latter part of the last
century. The United States had a small mill (viscose) at work early
in the present century, but by 1924 the annual production was about
45,000,000 pounds. The popularity is still on the increase. Rayon is
the name given artificial silk by the Silk Association of America, and
the term is accepted increasingly by most manufacturers in the United
States and England. It is proving itself a valuable addition to the
textile group. The future will bring many changes in its manufacture
and utilization, as the work has only begun, but the methods of
production mentioned below seem well established. The making of rayon
is a triumph of chemistry.
The world’s rayon output is now almost that of silk. In 1924 there were
100,000,000 pounds produced and in 1923-24 about 110,000,000 pounds
of raw silk was the world crop. The demand for rayon is greater than
the supply, and expansion continues. The manufacture in fact must be
on a large scale, for much capital is required. Supplies of chemicals
are needed, the intricacies of the process are great, and mechanical
experts are required in the service of the plant. The United States is
now the largest producer and consumer of rayon. The investment in the
production in this country is given as more than $100,000,000.[38] The
providing of domestic yarns covers about 95 per cent of the country’s
needs, and the rest is imported. The European market supplies, in
general, a cheaper, coarser yarn than is made here. About 75 per cent
of the output of rayon in the United States is viscose.
[38] Report of _Survey on Artificial Silk and Other Matters_, issued
by the United States Tariff Commission, May, 1925.
Rayon is a lustrous fiber made by converting cellulose into a thread by
chemical and mechanical means. The appearance of the filament is like
silk, but more lustrous. The qualities are not those of silk, but have
their own value. Recent experiments are eliminating the unsatisfactory
features. Finer sizes of yarn are made than at first, the fabric is
able to stand water and heat better, it is less harsh in feel, keeps
and takes the dye better, and covers better in weaving. It should not
be compared with natural silk, for it is more closely allied with
mercerized cotton, and it should not be considered an imitation of
silk, but as a new product with its own properties. Its good qualities
are low cost, bright appearance, long or short staple, cleanliness,
uniformity, and ability to hold its white color.
In the past efforts have been made by chemists to find a way to
manufacture a fiber similar to the silk made by the silkworm. (See
Chap. XII, _Chemistry of Rayon._) The first to make such a silk
commercially profitable was Hilaire de Chardonnet, a French scientist.
In 1899 he was awarded the Grand Prix at the French Exposition, where
much interest was taken in his discovery. Previous to his work the
fiber made had been very inflammable, but he found a way to eliminate
this trouble. He studied the silkworm and its habits, and analyzed the
mulberry to find the necessary chemical way to change green leaves into
silk filament. The first fiber produced was from branches and leaves of
the mulberry, but later his product was made on purified cotton with
sulphuric and nitric acids. He started a mill in Besançon, France,
but opened a larger one later in Belgium at Tubize, which name is
frequently used for this variety of artificial silk. Count Chardonnet
died in Rome, March 12, 1924, having spent a fortune on his invention.
Many improvements have been made in its manufacture. The transformation
of cellulose into guncotton, and the Chardonnet process, have much
in common. At Hopewell, Virginia, there is a large Tubize Artificial
Silk Company. Workers from Tubize, Belgium, began the work. When they
returned they left trained workmen to continue the manufacture.
Three other varieties of artificial silk have established themselves
well in Europe and America--the Viscose, the Cuprammonium, and the
Celanese. All of them use cellulose as a base and pass the liquid
rayon through fine openings to form the filament, but their methods
differ from each other. Cotton linters and spruce pulp are used as
bases. The viscose method is the most popular in America. It was
begun and has been developed in England. It is less expensive and
the filament is more lustrous. Several mills have been opened in
the United States, the main office and works being at Marcus Hook,
Pennsylvania. The cuprammonium process was developed in Germany under
the name of glanzstoff or luster fiber. This is not identical with
the variety called lustron, a term used in America for the celanese
or acetate silk. Cuprammonium silk has been largely used for braids
and passementeries. The celanese (acetate) process has a factory
at Amcelle, near Cumberland, Md., called “The American Cellulose &
Chemical Company, Ltd.” The claim is made that this system gives a more
subdued luster, a warmer, softer feel, and the fiber is less easily wet
with water. (It is interesting to know that a similar treatment is used
for waterproofing textiles.) On the other hand it is stated that this
fiber loses luster in boiling water, which is less true of the viscose
or the cuprammonium.
A brief account of the viscose method is the following:
Sheets of bleached cellulose cut to exact size, made of spruce pulp
or cotton linters, are subjected to a mercerizing process. Extreme
care is needed to keep the temperature equable and free from drafts,
to keep note of time in a process, to have unvarying proportions of
chemicals, and extreme cleanliness. The care corresponds to that
required when developing the silkworm. After mercerizing, the sheets
are shredded into crumbs by knife blades. The crumbs are white as snow.
They are left for many hours to mature, and are then chemically treated
to produce a gelatinous mass which is dissolved by further chemical
treatment. Aging follows to form the spinning solution, a form of
cellulose. Tubes with ends pierced with pin holes (the holes varying
in size in different tubes) are used to make the threads, the denier
differing according to the size of the holes. The spinning solution is
forced through the holes and the threads pass into a trough containing
a specially prepared chemical bath which in a moment coagulates the
liquid threads into filaments which now look like white silk. These are
united into one thread, but each filament keeps its own individuality
and continues to do so through all further processes. The thread passes
out of the bath over a roller, and down into a rapidly rotating box,
and by centrifugal force is built into a cake. When the box is full
the cake is removed. It contains about eight or nine thousand yards of
crude rayon. The thread from the cake is wound into a skein, cross
winding being used as is done with reeled silk. Further treatment
is needed to remove the chemicals used and to bleach the yarn. The
product is now regenerated cellulose and is in condition to sell to
manufacturing concerns, where winding, throwing, doubling, and dyeing
prepare it for weaving. The spinning is much like silk and a humid
atmosphere is needed. Sizing by a special machine comes before putting
the warp on the loom.
Rayon does not take dye as easily as real silk. Much thought is being
given to producing fast colors. With the exception of celanese the
dyes for mercerized cotton are being used, _i. e._, direct cotton
colors, vat and sulphur dyes. The Chardonnet, however, will dye with
basic colors without mordanting. Viscose, also, has a little of this
characteristic. Special dyes have had to be made for celanese which
act on it but are not successful with other artificial silks. Some of
these fibers dye better in the skein than in the piece, and bleaching
offers some difficulties, but this is changing as new inventions come.
The variations in taking dye among the different varieties of rayon
make possible some very attractive effects, for by weaving the cloth
with several of them and silk and wool, many tones of color result by
dipping the cloth into one dye.
_Rayon is used_ largely for woven and knit goods, for knitting and
embroidery yarns, for braids, tapes, and shoe laces. Both warp and
filling may be made of it, or it may be used in mixtures with silk,
cotton, or wool. It is becoming very popular in stripes and figures
combined with cotton. Pile fabrics and imitation furs are made of it.
It is used for lace with excellent effects. For millinery and other
purposes a cloth can be made of the pulp poured over a flat surface
and printed with engraved rollers to make it look as if it were woven.
Tulle and maline are often thus made and give some service if the cloth
is kept dry. Artificial horsehair is made of it for weaving into
fabrics for use in interiors of closed cars and for automobile seats.
Vistra, which is made in Europe into a fuzzy yarn like worsted, is
similar to viscose. It is used in millinery.
Rayon has some limitations but these are being lessened by later
methods. It is a stiff fiber and does not drape well when a fabric
is woven entirely of it. It also lacks elasticity, but both of these
conditions are improved when it is combined with another fiber, for
pliability and softness are gained. Care is required in weaving it, but
by the choice of suitable counts and of the right twist of yarn for the
fabric selected it gives no trouble. When it is held too tight in the
weaving it sometimes lacks good wearing quality. The tensile strength
is 25 to 40 per cent of real silk, 40 to 50 per cent of Egyptian cotton
and 60 to 80 per cent of American cotton. Its strength is reduced 33
to 50 per cent when wet, consequently it must be laundered carefully.
It has not the warmth or resilience of wool, but is stronger when dry.
However, wool fibers interlock and add to the strength of the cloth,
which rayon does not do. It is less resilient than any of the fibers,
creases readily and sometimes cracks. The very fine counts do not wear
well nor stand friction.
Rayon has an affinity for moisture, but some kinds have more
hygroscopic power than others, the order being: 1, nitrocellulose; 2,
viscose; 3, cuprammonium; 4, acetate. At the present time rayon is sold
on a moisture content of 11 per cent, which is the same as true silk.
The true moisture content will require further data to establish.
_If care is taken_ a garment of rayon will outwear a silk or cotton
one. It must be very carefully handled when wet and should be laundered
quickly and with caution. It is now better able to stand both very hot
and very cold water and strong soap than it was formerly. When combined
with other fibers it must be laundered to suit them but must never be
rubbed or strained. It takes starch and does not get yellow. The high
luster is a help in identifying rayon.
_Rayon yarn is numbered_ according to the denier system used in natural
silk, the finer threads carrying the lower numbers. (See Chap. IX,
_Counts for Silk_.) In silk 13/15 denier is a customary size, but in
rayon 75 to 100 are used; however, finer threads are being made and
will soon be in general use. The price is more stable on the market
than other yarns. It costs less than natural silk. At the present time
rayon is selling at $2.80 a pound for grade A, and silk for $7 a pound
for the best grade of Japanese silk, but the latter is subject to
speculative changes. The grades of rayon are A, B, and C, and inferior
yarns. The waste and inferior yarns are used for lower classes of goods
and other purposes. The waste is cut into lengths and spun like cotton.
There was once much of it in manufacture and reeling, but at present
that is greatly reduced.
_Rayon is now produced_ in Belgium, France, Switzerland, Germany,
England, Poland, Russia, Italy, and the United States. Czechoslovakia
is beginning the manufacture. Great Britain, Germany, and Italy rank
next to the United States in quantity of output.[39]
[39] Salvage: _Viscose_. Published by The Viscose Company.
CHAPTER X
LINEN AND MINOR FIBERS
=Economics and Statistics.=--Linen has been called the textile of
luxury, as its expense in finer grades stands in the way of its common
use. The fiber, however, has qualities which adapt it to special
service. It is held that ramie, which most resembles it in appearance,
has like properties and is cheaper, but as yet the latter is not common
enough for comparison. Linen, therefore, at present is preëminent for
surgical uses and for household purposes. No other textile is so free
from lint, gives up its moisture so rapidly, is so quickly cleansed and
so pure and hygienic for constant service. Fabrics woven from other
fibers are adulterated and cheapened, yet are still acceptable with
many consumers, as the appearance is all that is really required of
them, but with linen, it is in general the properties that are sought,
and as all adulterations decrease these, pure linen is demanded.
The great war almost destroyed the linen industry. Hemp and cotton had
to be used in union with flax or in place of it. The supply of flax
and of linen fabrics was almost exhausted. Linen was in demand for
airplane wings and cordage. The mills of Belfast, Ireland, unable to
obtain sufficient yarn for their looms, turned to the use of cotton in
unions and even without linen. The war was almost over before cotton
was manufactured to take the place of linen for airplane wings. Special
machinery had to be made to obtain a flawless yarn for this purpose,
and mills desiring to help the government spent large sums of money for
this machinery.
The contending armies fought on the best fields of Belgium, injuring
them seriously for flax production. The mills of France and Belgium
(for flax preparation into yarn, for weaving and for finishing) were
destroyed by bombs or had the machinery carried away. When the war
was over the flax industries of these two countries seemed hopelessly
prostrate. Belgian flax had been depended upon by other countries
for the finest class of yarns. France was noted for damasks and fine
linen. Russia had been the chief producer of seeds and yarn, and coarse
linen was exported. The disturbed condition of that country affected
its agriculture and less flax was produced. Dependable reports of the
present state of her flax industry are lacking, but improvement is
noted.
Little difficulty is now found in obtaining any class of linen desired.
The prices of linen, while high, have not increased relatively as much
as some other textiles. Europe has established her flax culture and
her linen trade. The United States is importing more than ever before,
the increases being notably larger from Czechoslovakia, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Italy, and France. The United States imports her largest
amount of linen from Ireland. Flax for fine linens is neither grown nor
manufactured in the United States, but flax is planted extensively for
seed.
Methods of cultivating flax are largely what they were in the time
of the Pharaohs. Suggestions have been made and machines have been
invented for more rapid means of harvesting the crop and preparing for
spinning. A flax pulling and binding machine is in use in parts of
Europe and America, which hastens production. Decorticating machines
have been put on the market to take the place of retting by water, the
claim being made that cost is decreased, that bleaching is unnecessary,
and that by-products are saved. Prominent men in the industry, however,
still feel that the old methods leave the flax in better condition for
manufacture.
The naturally sturdy linen unfortunately comes to us often in a
weakened condition, on account of the careless and rapid preparatory
steps, the poor and cheap chemicals employed in retting, bleaching,
and dyeing, and the use of tow instead of the stronger line. When
linen is combined with cotton, as is frequently the case, the
valuable properties of the former are lessened, and the only gain is
in cheapness. For hygienic clothing, linen is to be commended. Its
purchase, when pure, well manufactured, and enduring, may be justified
even for the poor.
Linen is accorded a respect which we do not give to other textiles,
for its long history, its old-time reliability, its exclusive command
of many household needs, its purity and wholesomeness have given it a
high record. We usually wish it to last, and will mend and repair old
sheets and treasure old tablecloths and napkins when other textiles are
discarded. Almost every household keeps its old-linen bundle in case of
accidents.
The world flax production has increased rapidly since the war, with the
exception of Russia and Latvia. This is evident in the table given in
the Appendix, Section V.
[Illustration: FIG. 112.--THE FLAX PLANT.
From Hooper’s _Hand-loom Weaving_, by courtesy of John Hogg, London.]
=Properties.=--_Absorption._--Linen absorbs water rapidly, the amount
being 8 to 14 per cent according to some authorities. This is about
equal to cotton, which is 10 to 12 per cent. Vegetable fibers are about
equal in their absorbent qualities. Experiments have shown that linen
does not absorb perspiration as well as cotton does. Moisture seems
to spread through the woven meshes of linen differently from cotton,
but experiments do not indicate much variation between the two. Linen
which has been sized does not in general absorb water as rapidly as the
unsized linen. Smooth, damp linen adheres to the skin slightly more
than will cotton.
_Evaporation._--Water evaporates quickly from linen, which makes it
valuable for toweling, handkerchiefs, and wash cloths. The quality of
rapid evaporation gives it a cold feeling next to the skin; this effect
is lessened by weaving it with an open mesh. The natural smoothness
and flatness of the material adds to the feeling of coolness, as the
air is not imprisoned in it. It is worn as winter underwear by Russian
peasants on account of its cheapness and availability in that country,
and by many in other parts of the world who believe in its hygienic
qualities.
_Cleanliness._ The property of cleanliness makes it valuable. When
correctly laundered it easily gives up its dirt and continues to be
white and clean even after long service. Its cleanliness has made it
of value in surgical use, and experiments have shown that germs do not
increase as rapidly on linen as on wool, silk, and cotton.
_Endurance and Strength._ Linen thread is the strongest of the fine
bast fibers. The wearing qualities are excellent when the fiber is
pure. Chemical bleachings lessen the strength, although a dazzling
whiteness can be obtained in a shorter time than in grass bleaching.
The latter adds to the expense, but is justified in the longer
endurance of the material. Unbleached linen is stronger than the
bleached of the same weight. The length of the filament is a factor in
the strength of linen. The material does not deteriorate quickly when
laid away unless it is filled with sizings and dressings.
_Tenacity._ When pure, linen is very tenacious, and is, therefore,
used for the strongest twines and cordage. This quality is a factor in
strength.
_Weight._ Closely woven linen is heavy. Very much less air is held
in the meshes than in cotton, so that equal volumes of the two
textiles show linen to be 17 per cent heavier. Linen, however, is more
penetrable by air than cotton, which adds to its feeling of coolness.
_Fineness._ The flax fiber can be subdivided almost indefinitely, yet
the strength will continue. The delicate linen threads for the finest
lace are spun by hand in damp cellars, where the eye cannot see the
gossamer filament, but the fingers can feel it.
_Luster._ The luster of the finest linen is almost as high as silk.
This quality is lost in overretted flax. Tow has less luster, for the
short staple interferes with the reflection of light, but special
treatment is given to it to make it glossy.
_Affinity for Dyes._ Linen does not take or hold the dye well,
therefore it is more apt to be found in the various bleaches than in
color. Dress linens are, however, dyed in many colors, but are not
always satisfactory.
_Solidity and Toughness._ These qualities give it great value for duck,
canvas, twines, and cordage.
_Suppleness._ When undressed and unsized, it can be bent sharply and
yet not broken. Linen fabrics are less flexible than cotton of equal
thickness, and retain their shape better if free from dressing. This
quality recommends linen for shirt bosoms and table linen.
=Botany and Growth.=--Linen is made from the fiber contained in the
stalk of the flax (Fig. 112). There are perhaps one hundred varieties
of this plant known to botanists. The genus is _Linum_, and the best
known of the cultivated species is _Linum usitatissimum_. Flax probably
came from the East, but it grows easily in almost all climates and
countries. In the ancient history of Egypt reference is frequently made
to its cultivation and manufacture. It is grown in varying degrees for
fiber in various parts of Europe and in the British Isles. India and
the United States cultivate it for seed rather than for fiber. Japan
and Australia are experimenting with it.
The plant is an annual, and has an erect, slight, and willowy stem
(Figs. 112 and 117). It grows from twenty to forty inches in height,
branching frequently in the upper part when not planted too closely,
and having numerous small flowers which range from yellowish to bright
blue. The seeds are small, flat, brownish, and smooth. The soil should
be carefully selected, and the ground should be in a high state of
cultivation for producing the best fiber, as is done in Belgium. The
flax crop makes a heavy demand on the soil, which must be guarded
against exhaustion; rotation of crops is practiced for this purpose,
especially in Belgium. In the Courtrai district the interval varies
from five to ten years between successive plantings of flax in a field.
In the countries of Europe where flax is cultivated it is usually sowed
broadcast by hand, with much regularity. If fine fiber is desired, the
sowing is close so that there will be little branching of the stalk,
consequently the filament is complete without break. The seeds should
be carefully selected. The Riga seeds from Russia, or the Riga seeds
which have been grown in Belgium, and the Dutch seeds are considered to
give the best results. The preparation of the flax for fiber is largely
by hand. It is tedious, dirty, heavy work.
Flax springs up with many weeds which must be removed. In Europe the
weeding is done principally by women and children who go over the
ground on their hands and knees when the plants are from one to two
inches high. In the spring wherever flax is being grown, wavering lines
of workers, side by side, can be seen moving across the fields, weeding
as they go. Flax is in the best state for fiber when the leaves and
stem of the lower part of the plant turn yellowish and the seed pods
are becoming ripe. This may be any time between the last part of June
and the end of August. Dry, clear weather is selected for the pulling.
Men now go through the fields grasping a handful of flax at about the
middle of the stems, and pulling the sheaf up by the roots (Fig. 113).
The dirt is knocked off by hitting the root end against the boot.
The pulling is a tedious operation. A flax-pulling machine has been
invented which saves labor and time and is used with success in some
places.
The drying of the flax before removing the seed is done in various
ways. In some places each handful is laid diagonally across the former
one. These sheaves are called beets. The root ends are together and the
lengths are as nearly alike as possible. The flax is left to dry and is
later stacked. In some countries it is hung in bunches on the fences
or on racks, or it may be kiln dried. Still another way is to tie the
sheaf together at one end and spread it open into a tent-shaped stack
like the American Indian corn.
=Rippling.=--After the flax is dried, it is rippled, in which process
the stalk with its dried seeds and leaves is drawn through a large comb
which has teeth about eighteen inches long, placed a short distance
apart. The comb is usually set in the middle of a bench; two workers
facing each other sit astride the bench at either end. A handful of
flax is taken by each and alternately thrown upon and drawn through the
comb. The dried leaves and seed bolls fall off on a sheet spread under
the bench. Rippling must be carefully done or the fiber is injured.
The stalks are often kept until the following season before they are
prepared further. They are tied in bundles and piled up ready for the
next process or for storage. The term straw is now used for the flax.
It is sometimes kept a year before retting.
=The Seeds.=--Flaxseeds are commercially of great value. When the
main aim is seed culture the bolls are allowed to ripen completely,
and special care is taken of them in the harvesting process. There is
difference of opinion as to whether good fiber and good seed can be
produced at the same time. Flaxseeds are an important agricultural
product in the United States. In 1924 the United States crop was
30,500,000 bushels,[40] comparatively little of which was exported.
The trend of flaxseed production is upward. The United States crop in
1924, on account of favorable growing conditions, almost doubled that
of 1923.[41]
[40] United States Commerce Reports, Dec. 15, 1924.
[41] Foreign Crops and Markets, Dec. 17, 1924.
[Illustration: FIG. 113.--FLAX IN THE FIELD.
From Watson’s _Textiles and Clothing_, by courtesy of the American
School of Home Economics.]
The greatest producers of flaxseed, in order of importance, are the
following:--
_Flaxseed Production 1924_[42]
Argentina 52,359,000 bushels
United States 30,500,000 “
British India 18,480,000 “
Canada 9,757,000 “
Note: Reports from Russia are lacking.
[42] United States Commerce Reports, Dec. 15, 1924.
The chief flaxseed importing countries are the United States, United
Kingdom, Netherlands, France, Belgium, and Germany. In 1923, they
imported 58,212,000 bushels. The seeds are used for linseed oil, which
is important in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, linoleums,
and oilcloths; linseed cake for feeding cattle; linseed powder for
poultices; and linseed tea for an emollient.
=Retting Flax.=--The fiber is found next to the bark, and the filaments
of flax must be separated from it and the woody core. Many methods are
used to accomplish this, but a usual one is to treat the straw in such
a way that fermentation is set up through the presence of bacteria
(Chap. XII, note under _Cotton and Linen_). The following methods are
practiced in leading flax-growing countries: (1) Water Retting. The
straw is steeped in clear, soft, running water for about two weeks; the
river Lys is used for this purpose in Belgium (Fig. 114). The Belgian
flax is usually a pale, yellow-white color and of excellent quality.
(2) Pool Retting. The flax straw is placed in stagnant pools for about
the same length of time as for water retting. Ireland practices this
method. The flax is good in quality but darker in color, a sort of
silver-gray. (3) Dew Retting. The flax straw is spread over the fields
to ferment. It should be turned frequently to obtain the best results,
but this is not always done. Three or four weeks are needed to complete
the process, but the sheaves of flax are often left all winter exposed
to rain, sun, and dew. Russia uses this way of obtaining the fiber. The
color of the flax is darker, and the quality is not usually as high as
in other varieties of water retting. (4) Chemical or Steam Retting.
This is a rapid method but sometimes weakens the fiber unless care
is taken. It has not yet come into general use. (5) Decortication. A
machine removes the outer bark. As yet this method is not considered
entirely satisfactory. The balance of favor is still for water retting,
both for color and strength. Where there is no running water special
vats with steep sides are built and water conducted into them. All
impurities must be kept out of the water (Fig. 115).
[Illustration: FIG. 114.--RETTING AT COURTRAI.]
The water of the river Lys, in Belgium, is especially adapted for
retting flax, which is remarkable for color, strength, and fineness.
The region around Courtrai is given over to flax culture. Along
the winding Lys at all seasons the flax is in various stages of
preparation: growing and being weeded in the spring, covered with bloom
in the early summer, and at all times of the year in stooks or stacks,
or in crates retting in the water. Along canals and waterways passing
into or out of medieval Courtrai come or go great barges of the flax
to be retted or taken back to farms for further preparation. Scutching
mills and great spinning and weaving factories are at hand to complete
the preparation into cloth.
[Illustration: FIG. 115.--RETTING TANK.]
The method of retting in the Lys is in open crates of wood, with jute
burlap around the four sides to keep the dirt out. The bundles are
stood on end alternately to keep the size equal, and are packed so
that they cannot move. From two to three thousand pounds of straw are
often in one crate. The crates are covered with fresh straw and floated
into position in the Lys, and are then weighted down with stones and
sod until they are a certain distance below the water, perhaps six
inches. It takes about fourteen or fifteen days for the retting,
depending on the temperature of the water or air and the color of
the flax required. The work is carried on usually from mid-May to
mid-October. Coarse straw is retted more easily than fine. At intervals
the crates are raised and the flax bundles are turned and inspected to
see if fermentation is progressing satisfactorily. There are various
indications of the completion of the process, such as bubbles rising
in the water and the crate lifting itself above the surface. When the
process is complete, the crate is floated opposite a windlass and
pulled on the bank. The bundles are taken out and stood in tent shape
to dry. After a time, the bundle is turned wrong side out, that the
inside may be also presented to the air. Fine fiber is usually immersed
for about five days and taken out and dried for half a day, first on
one side and then on the other, then put back for further retting.
The fall season for retting begins about September and continues until
it is too cold. The retting begins again in March and continues until
it is finished. Sometimes the year is not sufficiently long, and the
remainder of the crop is carried into the next year. Overretting the
straw causes the fibers to be brittle and weak. After the retting, in
Belgium, the flax is spread on a grassy meadow to dry. This bleaches
the fiber and helps in the separation of the bundles of filament. It is
then stacked much like hay to be ready for the next process of breaking
and scutching.
During the time of fermentation the odor from the flax is extremely
disagreeable, and the water, unless carefully discharged, may poison
fish and even cattle. After the flax is retted and dried, the straw
should be bright and have a somewhat sweet odor. The outer bark is
broken and brittle. The fermentation separates the bark and woody pith
from the fiber, but further cleaning is needed to remove the pieces of
straw and the dirt which still cling, and to separate the bundles of
fiber, which adhere closely. Several processes follow to accomplish
this, of which the breaking and scutching are often conducted on
the farms. Scutching mills, however, which also break the straw, are
becoming frequent. The hackling and combing are done in spinning mills.
[Illustration: FIG. 116.--FLAX BREAK.]
=Breaking.=--This process is done both by hand and machine, the purpose
being to crack the inner wood all along its length. The chaff is
then cast out from the fiber by shaking or hitting the sheaf. A very
ordinary method of breaking is by a hand machine (Fig. 116). A series
of long bars or knives is placed on a stand with a beater at one end,
which can be raised and brought down again in contact with a sheaf
of the flax straw as it is thrown across the bars. This breaks the
wood into pieces and it drops out below, leaving the fiber. Breaking
machines are in use in scutching mills which have several pairs of
grooved rollers, through which the flax straw is passed. The pith is
broken by the rollers, and much dirt falls out. After breaking, the
flax is taken to the scutcher.
[Illustration: FIG. 117. FLAX IN DIFFERENT STAGES.
Photograph by C. R. Dodge.]
=Scutching.=--The flax must now be shaken or beaten to remove more of
the coarse pieces of wood or bark which are clinging to it. Already the
fiber begins to show itself more clearly, looking much like a switch of
gray hair filled with straw (Fig. 117). In early days flax was beaten
against stands to clean it, or it was hung up and beaten or “swingled,”
as it was called. Still another method was to take a bunch of the
fiber, place it in a cleft of an upright post, called a scutching post,
and with a sort of flat beater to strike and clean the fiber (see
_h_ and _d_, Fig. 118). Scutching mills are now common in all flax
countries, and the process is very simple. A shaft runs through a long
room, controlling a series of beaters of wood, which revolve rapidly.
The workmen stand each in a separate compartment and present bunches of
the flax fibers to the beaters through a hole in a board. The blades
or beaters hit the flax and knock out the “shive” and dirt. When one
end of the flax is clean the other end is presented. Short fibers
break off during the process, which are called _scutching tow_. The
latter are rescutched, spun like cotton, and used for coarse cloths.
The long fibers are called the line. Scutching roughly divides line
from tow. The process as used at present is not very satisfactory, for
it frequently injures the fiber, and thoughtful flax workers say the
less of it the better for fine thread. An improved scutcher is needed.
During the scutching the worker roughly divides the cleaned flax into
bundles of even lengths. These are tied up together and baled, two
hundredweight or two hundred and twenty-four pounds being usually in
one bale, although Russia also puts up bales weighing four to five
hundred pounds as well as those of two hundredweight. The flax is now
ready for market or for the spinning mills.
[Illustration: FIG. 118.--SCUTCHING DEVICE.
From Dodge’s _Useful Fiber Plants_.]
=Spinning of the Line.=--The baled flax arrives at the spinning mills,
many of which are near the scutching mills, as is found in Courtrai
in Belgium. The flax must now be opened, cleaned, and straightened
before it is ready for spinning. The spinning of flax differs from that
of the other fibers in such particulars as the clearing away of large
amounts of dirt, the combing out of the tow from the line, the great
length of the filaments of line, and the necessity for still further
subdividing the fibers by combing them through increasingly fine wires.
Flax preparation requires special machinery or hand methods, which are
expensive. Both wet and dry spinning are in use.
The processes as seen in British and Belgium mills are usually the
following: First, a preliminary cleaning, combing, or hackling called
roughing. The rough flax as it has come from the scutching mill is
combed through coarse combs like the ripple or a primitive hetchel
(Fig. 32). This removes broken pieces of tow and dirt. Roughing is
a hand process. The roughing room has a series of benches, each
containing usually two hackles, one coarser than the other, and also
an upright, coarse, metal pin on which ends of flax can be broken by a
quick pull. A rougher or worker presides over each bench. He spreads a
lot of flax into divisions, called fingers, winds one of these around
his hand, spreads the opposite end out into a fan shape, and throws it
over the coarsest hackle. He draws the flax through first one way and
then the other, until it begins to be smoother and finer and the dirt
is removed. He casts the tow into the box at the back of the bench.
Then he combs the line on a second comb, which is finer, in the same
way. He lays the line in even piles with the root ends together. Three
combs are sometimes used on a bench, coarse, intermediate, and fine.
There is considerable art in hackling or roughing, and a poor rougher
reduces all the flax to tow, but a good one has his line looking even
and smooth, even after the first combing. The hackles or combs used
in roughing are very similar to the old hand hetchel or hackle of
colonial days (see Figs. 32 and 119). For finer yarns hand hackling is
sometimes repeated many times in order to subdivide the flax bundles.
Seemingly there is no limit to the amount of subdivision the flax will
stand, until the filament begins to look like a mere hair. In England
and Russia the finest grades of flax are hand roughed before machine
hackling, but in other countries machine methods are being used. The
process of hand roughing is expensive, and takes a longer time than the
machine. It is claimed by many that coarser flax does not require the
hand processes.
[Illustration: FIG. 119.--HAND HACKLING.
From Watson’s _Textiles and Clothing_, by courtesy of the American
School of Home Economics.]
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--MACHINE HACKLING.
Courtesy of the York Street Flax Spinning Co., Belfast.]
=Machine Hackling.=--The result of the roughing process is a fairly
clean bunch of line, which is now subjected to a series of hackling
machines which are much alike, except that the combs increase in
fineness (Fig. 120). The object is the same as the hand hackling, to
disentangle, clean, comb, and divide line from tow. Machine hackles
are long upright machines. The ends of a bunch or tress of line are
placed in a plate in the upper part of one end of the machine and held
by a clutch; a series of pins or teeth becoming gradually finer pass
down through the flax as it moves slowly from one end of the machine
to the other. The tow is left in the combs, and at the further end an
attendant receives the line, turns it upside down that it may be combed
through in the opposite direction, fastens it in another clutch, and
it passes back by a second machine alongside the first one. The line,
meanwhile, has become smooth, fine, and glossy; the tow is removed from
the pins by a revolving brush or doffer.
=Sorting and Cutting.=--These two processes are sometimes used for
fine yarns. Flax for coarse yarns goes directly to the spreadboard,
but for fine yarn it is hackled by hand and assorted into different
qualities before it is passed to the next machine. For very fine yarn
the line after sorting is usually cut into three divisions by a blunt
instrument, the middle cut being the best. The term “cut line” is used.
The fiber is now ready for the spreadboard.
=Spreadboard.=--As the fiber is long, the bunches or strips are
delivered to the spreadboard on an endless apron, each strip
overlapping the former one by six or eight inches. It passes into the
machine to be combed through by fine wires and made into a continuous
ribbon or sliver.
=Drawing and Roving.=--The drawing is repeated, four times being
customary. The slivers are doubled, it is said, as many as ten thousand
times. The frames are much like those used for wool and cotton. Several
machines are required, varying according to the fineness of the thread
desired.
=Spinning.=--The upright spinning frames (see Chap. II) for wet, dry,
and semi-dry spinning are used for flax, and are like those for cotton
or worsted, except for the trough of hot water through which the linen
yarn at times passes before it is twisted. Wet spinning of flax and
tow makes a fine thread which does not look as silky as that which
is dry spun. It is twisted tighter, however, and the flax is more
subdivided, which has its advantages for special classes of thread.
Dry spun yarns have greater firmness than the wet spun, but the highest
numbers are made with wet spinning. Warp yarns are usually made with
the wet finish, as it adds to their strength. The use of too hot water
is injurious to the flax, and the result is a frowsy, cheap looking
yarn. Even in dry spinning, water is often dropped on the thread, or
humidifiers are used to keep the air moist. It is necessary after wet
spinning to have the yarn quickly dried, or mold will appear. Linen
sewing threads are wet spun and then specially twisted and dressed much
like cotton sewing threads.
=Tow Spinning.=--Tow, or short, broken ends of the line from hackling
and other preparatory processes, is a valuable by-product. There is
also waste which comes from spinning and weaving. Special treatment,
differing from the line, is given these wastes. They are prepared more
like cotton. Beating, shaking, carding, combing, doubling, and drawing
reduce this broken, tangled mass to a roving which is spun in the same
way as the line. There are several grades of it, for wastes from its
preparation are saved with the noils from the comb, and again made into
yarn. Tow has many of the good qualities of the best flax, but it is
weaker and rougher. It is used for crash, cheap toweling, and rough
cloths with which the housekeeper is familiar. Medium priced towels
often have tow yarn in the filling.
=Winding, Warping, Sizing, and Drawing-in.=--The processes for linen
preparatory to weaving are much like those for other textiles. Sizing
is used on the warp yarns to give strength, and yarns are frequently
bleached wholly or partly before weaving. The dressing or sizing of
linen yarns is important. Flour and farina paste are much used, and are
applied to the yarn in the slasher (see Chap. VIII, _Sizing_).
=Weaving.=--Linen weaving requires a moist atmosphere. The plain or
tabby weave is used for sheetings, hollands, crash, cambrics, lawns,
ducks, and other common fabrics. Twills are used in drillings, and
huck and diaper patterns in toweling. The Jacquard wide loom is
generally used for damasks. The latter differ from brocades in that
both sides are alike and the cloth can be used on either side. The
background is generally a plain or a broken twill (satin). There are
single and double damasks. The pattern shows more distinctly on the
wrong side of the double, as there are more threads, which makes
possible greater shading effects in the design, throwing it into
relief. The threads of double damask are usually double in the filling
(see below, _The Purchase of Linen_). As the pattern is made by the way
the warp and woof threads cross each other, an elaborate damask design
requiring floats of six or nine threads is not as strong as a more
closely woven pattern. In the usual double damask weave each filling
yarn crosses seven warp ends and binds the eighth. A single damask is a
closer weave, for it floats over four warp threads and binds the fifth.
It is less attractive in appearance than the double damask, but wears
about equally well, for the threads are well bound together.
=Method of Counting.=--The method of counting linen yarns in England
and America is by the number of leas or cuts in a pound, each lea
representing three hundred yards, (Chap. VIII, _Counts or Sizes of
Yarns_). No. 1 lea yarn would therefore have three hundred yards in a
pound; No. 2 lea would have six hundred yards. The method of numbering
in France and Austria is different. The counts for jute, hemp, and
ramie are also figured by the lea. Fine linen yarns for costly handmade
laces run as high as 400s or even 600s. They are spun by hand.
Belgian hand spinners often work in damp cellars. Such yarns are very
expensive, being quoted at as much as $120 per pound. The hand can
spin finer counts than the machine, three hundred being as high as the
latter can spin, and that is unusual.
=Finishing.=--The finishing of linen materials is important to their
appearance, but the processes are not unusual. Linen comes full
bleached, half bleached, and unbleached. One-fifth of the weight is
lost in the full bleach and the strength of the cloth is lessened.
Full bleached cloth is the most expensive but the least enduring. The
bleaching of the yarn of the fabric is perhaps the most important.
Dressings of various kinds are used, but the highest class of linens
receives little, as the mangling, calendering, or pressing bring out
the gloss. Beetling is often used to assist in giving luster both to
dressed and undressed linens. A usual series of finishes in an Irish
mill is, first, bleaching by chemicals; second, rub boards to wash the
chemicals from the bleached linen; third, crofting or grass bleaching;
fourth, bluing, starching, washing, and mangling; fifth, damping;
sixth, beetling; seventh, calendering and pressing, which processes are
often repeated a couple of times, and the material is finally finished
by heavy pressure in the hydraulic press. Inspection, folding, marking,
and packing complete the preparation for market.
=Bleaching= (see Chap. XIII).--The finest Irish table linen is usually
woven of half-bleached yarn. It is then crofted from six weeks to two
months. The following table gives the relative loss of weight in full
bleaching the various fibers:
Flax--loss in cleaning and bleaching, 20 per cent.
Cotton--loss in cleaning and bleaching, 5 per cent.
Wool--loss in scouring, 20 per cent to 60 per cent.
Silk--loss in boiling off, perhaps 30 per cent, which can be made up
in loading or weighting.
Experience proves that linen bleached by chemicals is not as strong as
that bleached on the grass.
=Dressings.=--Dressings for woven linen may be used to give strength
and assist in bringing out the design, or to cover defects, as in
poor qualities of linen or unions with cotton (see Chap. XII). Special
finishes are used in table linen and damasks, for crash, for glossy
linens, and for dark-colored goods. For black and dark sewing threads a
very glossy dressing is applied to strengthen the yarn, which, without
it, would wear rough.
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--BEETLING.
Courtesy of the York Street Flax Spinning Co., Belfast.]
=Beetling= (Fig. 121).--This process is frequently used to give gloss
to the surface, and a supple, leathery feel to linens. It may be
applied to dressed or undressed linen materials. Striking the woven
cloth with wooden mallets after it was washed and dried was the
original process. Hand-woven damasks are still finished at times by
hand beetling. The power beetle is a large and heavy machine. The linen
is dampened, wound on a roll, and placed in the machine; the roll is
turned slowly and the cloth is hit by heavy hammers or stamps, which
descend directly upon it, or stamps with square butts are set spirally
on a cylinder and impress the entire surface of the cloth, leaving
small faces close together which reflect the light. The beetling
machine is somewhat similar to the stamping machines used in ore
concentration mills. Some yarns are beetled, such as filling yarns for
heavy sailcloths.
=Linen Manufacturing.=--The total value of the world’s production of
linen fabrics, in 1923, was $11,390,000. The principal linen fabrics
produced are table damasks, handkerchief linens, dress goods, cambrics,
fine and coarse laces, shirtings, drillings, crash, duck, canvas,
sheeting, toweling, ticking, sailcloth, airplane fabric, embroidery and
sewing threads, string, twine, and cordage.
_Russia_ has been the largest grower of flax in the world and has
made linen fabrics also. Much of her linen has been hand woven in the
cottages of peasants, as they depend on it for their clothing and
underwear. Coarse materials are the main production of power machinery
as well as hand.
Fine table linens are woven in France, Austria, Belgium, Germany,
Czechoslovakia, England, Ireland, and Scotland. _French_ damask is
noted for its exquisite designs and effective appearance; the thread
is round and fine. Special attention is given to the pattern and the
beauty of finish. The most expensive as well as plainer fabrics are
made in that country. Linen dress goods of many kinds come from there.
_Austria_ is noted also for the beauty of her designs in table linen.
_Belgian_ yarn is noted for its fineness and strength. The best fiber
in the world is grown in the Courtrai district. Many other countries
buy it after it has been scutched, to spin into fine yarns, or they
purchase the yarn to weave into cloth. Ireland depends on the yarn for
her noted linens. Belgium has also a large manufacturing business.
Materials of great beauty are woven in the Courtrai region. Toweling,
table linen, twilled linens, diapers, and drillings are made. It is
said that more dressing is used on Belgian linen than on Irish. In some
respects Belgian linens are said to be like the German ones.
_Czechoslovakia_ is doing an increasing business in linen fabrics.
The breaking up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire gave 80 per cent of
the linen mills to Czechoslovakia, and efforts have been made by
that country to obtain the foreign market. The product runs from the
coarsest crash to the finest damasks.
_Germany_ makes the highest grades of table linen, but exports more
of the medium and lower grades. Saxony and Westphalia are noted for
their linens. Those who have made a study of damasks in Dresden well
know the exquisite fineness of many of them. Printed and dyed linens,
made for lunch cloths and napkins, are often very attractive, but are
not as enduring as the white cloths. Germany also produces excellent
unbleached cloths, which are bought by economical housekeepers and
bleached at home. The foreign market is desired, and rather showy,
inexpensive linen which reproduces the patterns of other nations and
has much dressing is exported. These are less satisfactory for service
than the stronger old-fashioned linens of that country.
_Irish_ linen has had and still holds a high reputation; the industry
is mentioned in the history of the country as early as the thirteenth
century. The linen is noted for its snowy whiteness, its reliable
quality, its endurance. The climate is a factor in this, as sunshine
and rain alternating give a moist climate good for the growth and
manufacture of flax. The great center in Ireland for fine linens and
damasks is Belfast and the northern part of the country. The trade goes
calmly on with its own methods and does not make much effort toward
doing new things to attract business. The old patterns are still in
use and are greatly appreciated. The better table linen of Ireland is
frequently hand woven and grass bleached. There are many cottages in
or near Belfast where the higher priced damasks are woven. The medium
priced cloths are made by power looms and usually in the factory.
The weaving of damask began in Ireland as early as 1634 by a colony
from Scotland. Later refugees from France settled in that country and
continued the damask weaving they had brought from France. Driving
through the country outside of Belfast, the bleaching grounds can be
seen covered with linen as in the old days. The fabric is good and
honest, but not always showy. Besides the toweling and table linen,
there is quite a business in fine cambrics, lawns, and batistes.
Ireland relies on Belgium for much of its fine fiber and yarns, as she
does not grow sufficient flax for her industry.
_Scotch_ linen has a high reputation, especially when it comes from a
few well known houses. It is often sun and grass bleached. The color
is silver white. Some consider it lighter in weight than the Irish. It
is imported particularly in the medium grades. The heaviest classes
of sailcloths, canvas, tarpaulin, sacking, and carpeting are also
manufactured in Scotland, Dundee being a center. Dunfermline and Perth
weave damasks. Much of the Scotch linen is of moderate price. The
designs are generally more showy than the Irish.
_England_ purchases her flax or yarn in Ireland, Belgium, or Scotland,
and does some good work in dress and table linen and also in ticking,
low class sheetings, and brown hollands. Leeds and Barnsley are noted
manufacturing centers.
_The United States._--Flax grows well in the United States, and there
are four million acres under cultivation, but mostly for seed. To
produce fiber and seed from the same plant is difficult, if fine
fiber is desired (see _Botany and Growth_, above). The flax-spinning
mills of the country use about 10,000 tons of flax yearly, which, in
general, has been imported. The linen mills are making twines and
threads principally, but there is a movement to enlarge the fiber
output for making woven goods. Michigan, Minnesota, and North Dakota
are growing flax for fiber as well as for seeds. The straw in general
makes a rough, tow-like yarn suitable for coarse crash or flax rugs,
but not for fine linens. The states of Washington and Oregon have been
experimenting with growing flax for fiber with much success. The chief
of the Textile Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce
comments favorably on the possible production of linen from flax grown
in the Northwest. The United States Department of Agriculture, through
the Office of Fiber Investigations, has been encouraging the production
of flax by developing improved strains which are resistant to disease
and yield more and better fiber. About 6000 acres of flax for fiber
were grown in the United States in 1920. The price obtained for it,
however, was not sufficient to encourage the farmers to increase
their acreage. The cultivation of flax for the finest thread presents
many difficulties for this country, as the returns in money do not
attract the farmer, who has other crops which are less trouble and are
more easily sold. Labor is much cheaper in Europe, and the women and
children are willing to work in the fields weeding the crop. There is
a great deal of waste in the crop at any time, and the returns per
acre are small. The machinery required for preparing and spinning fine
linen thread is very expensive and of a special kind. It is said that a
flax-spinning mill costs four times as much as one for cotton. Tow can
be spun on cotton machinery, and the medium grades of cloth made from
tow have a large market. It takes a larger number of workers in fine
linen manufacture than in cotton, the relation being from four to six
times as many.
The value of the seed industry is great, and although it is possible
to cultivate flax for both seed and fiber, the best results in both
industries are not obtained. We are not, therefore, likely to enter
fine linen manufacturing with much energy at present, as such linens
are really a luxury and the sale comparatively small, whereas the
market for cotton cloth is large.
There are large thread and cordage mills in the country and a few mills
for crash and toweling, but the finer linens and damasks are not made
here.
_Canada_ is growing flax for fiber on the irrigated land in Western
Canada, which has been superior to Russian flax. Ontario produces a
fiber said to be equal to the Belgian. British Columbia has land and
climate suited to the purpose. Canadian firms have begun weaving,
bleaching, and finishing operations, and have started mills in the
United States on capital from the latter country. A large automobile
industry has planted large areas in flax and is importing machinery
from Belfast to produce fabrics to use in the industry. There will be
need, however, for further development of the machine processes in the
cultivation and preparation of flax for spinning before the country is
likely to go deeply into flax growing and manufacturing. A pulling and
binding machine is now in use that is said to take the place of eighty
laborers. The machine-pulled flax is delivered to the mills in bundles
where the seed is threshed out and the straw is sent to the retting
tanks. The retting processes are being studied by experts with the
object of obtaining quicker methods.
_The Importation of Linens_ by the United States is increasing.[43]
Purchases are made from many countries, but principally from those
listed in the table in Appendix, Section VI.
[43] United States Department of Commerce.
=The Purchase of Linen.=--Linen should be made of the line, should feel
heavy, should be unmixed with other fibers and have little dressing
if one wishes it to have the properties for which it is famous. Linen
damask is unchallenged for table service. It comes double or single.
The former is more beautiful (see _Weaving_, above). The pattern
in damask is in the warp lines, that is, the threads of design run
lengthwise. When the cloth is held up, the vertical lines reflect the
light and the cross lines look dark, hence the right and wrong sides
can be determined by the way the pattern stands out in the light. The
majority of damasks are chemically bleached, but the old time grass
bleach left the cloth more enduring. On account of the scarcity of flax
and the high price of linens, cotton cloths have been used extensively.
A mercerized cotton damask is very attractive when first finished. If
kept spotlessly clean and stiff it is still pleasing, but it never can
serve as well for a well-appointed table, as a good damask, for it
crushes, soon loses its dazzling whiteness, and takes on a dull grayish
look from the little protruding ends of cotton fiber which at first
were held down by dressing.
In order to judge table linen the following points should be
remembered: Good linen in the hand is soft and yielding, yet elastic
and tough like leather, and is not stiff and crackly (for tests see
Chap. XII, _Cotton-Linen_). Hand-woven grass-bleached damask wears
better than damask made by power looms and chemically bleached, but the
former are not easily found at present. In general, the grass-bleached
linen comes to the United States about the first of January, having
been bleached in the summer, and the housekeeper can find it on the
counters at that time. Colored linens are not satisfactory, since flax
does not hold the dye well, and as a strong mordant has to be used
to hold the color, the yarn is apt to be weakened. If one has some
knowledge of the best linens, it is well to buy them at a time in the
year when the stock is low and the price reduced, before the new stock
comes in. Linen should always be bought at a reliable house, and of a
salesman who knows the quality. Some retail linen houses have their
own patterns, which are used only when weaving for them. Table linen
comes by the yard and in the bordered cloth. The cloth having a border
around it is more attractive, but for the same weight linen it is
generally cheaper to buy the material by the yard. Over-fine thread in
damasks is not always a wise investment, but a strong, rounded thread
is enduring. The best linen is sized very little, if at all. The
sizing in the yarn or in the cloth is apt to make a break in the yarn
when the cloth is folded, which will later become a hole. Highly sized
or dressed linen should, therefore, be distrusted. A round thread of
even weight in both warp and filling gives strength. It is true some
hand-woven linens have the thread somewhat flattened by beetling, but
it has been round and strong in the first place, and not being dressed
is probably not injured by the beetling. The number of threads per inch
in damask should be noted by the weaver’s glass, both warp and woof or
filling way. The correct amount for the warp in a good damask is for
medium quality, 180 threads; for fine quality, 220 threads; and for the
filling, of double damask, 280 threads; of single damask, 180 threads.
The weight of the linen is a factor in its value. When the number of
threads per inch is satisfactory and there is no dressing, the cloth
will wear well; when the cloth is coarsely woven and the weight is made
of dressing, it will not wear, for after laundering the material will
be coarse and flimsy. The minimum of weight is 4¹⁄₂ oz. per square yard.
High-grade linens are made from the line and the poorer grades from
the tow. Good linen has a smooth surface; if when rubbed between the
fingers it becomes fuzzy, it probably has much tow in it, or is a
cotton mixture.
An all-over pattern in damask is generally more satisfactory than
one with closely woven bands, alternating with a more loosely woven
background, for in laundering the latter shrinks more than the bands
and gives a cockled appearance. Long loose floats in the pattern do not
wear well.
Neither very hot irons nor boiling water are good for linen. It should
be damp when ironed and be pressed dry by repeated going back and forth
over it to bring out the luster. Starch is not needed in the best
linen, for the rigidity is inherent in the fiber. Damask stiff with
dressing is apt to crack in the folds when put through the wringer.
Damask should be hung across the line and be well stretched and not be
held by pins. It can be taken down when half dry, folded, and ironed
when damp.
Prices are high at present, but a wise housekeeper should know the
range of them for medium and high-grade linen. The linen buyer at a
reliable department store is usually a good one to consult concerning
the value of the stock. The United States buys largely of Irish linens
and the housekeeper should know the names of the leading Irish firms.
In towns where there is a Better Business Bureau the advertisements in
the daily papers can usually be depended upon.
At one time certain patterns were characteristic of different
countries, as the snowdrop or shamrock of Ireland and the check of
Germany. At the present time these patterns are used interchangeably,
and cannot be depended upon as representing any special country.
Excellent linens come from many parts of Europe. Those accustomed to
any one kind and who rely on good firms are apt to feel that that
particular linen is the best. Certain brands of table linen can always
be relied upon, and a housekeeper should know these.
To finish table linen a very narrow hem should be turned and then
turned back again, and a fine overhand stitch used to hold it down.
This is called a napery stitch and it lasts better than the regular
hemming stitch. Machine stitching is not used on fine damask.
Hemstitched sheets are more apt to tear in the laundry than sheets with
a hem made by sewing machine or hand, and machine-scalloped edges soon
become ragged. In sheeting that is not high priced, yarn made of tow is
sometimes used, which will not wear satisfactorily nor even look well,
as the tow is short in staple and soon has a rough look. Unions of
cotton and linen give good service for sheeting. All-linen sheets are
little used at present, for the price is too high. Cotton sheetings are
woven to give perfect satisfaction, and are not so heavy nor so cool
against the skin. Many use linen for pillow cases. Homespun sheets and
pillow cases are liked.
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--RAMIE PLANT.
From Dodge’s _Useful Fiber Plants_.]
=Additional Fibers Used in Textile Manufacture=
There are many fibers of secondary importance to wool, cotton, silk,
linen, and rayon, which are used for woven material (see Chap. XI,
_Minor Fibers_). The United States grows or imports them to some extent
for coarse baggings, floor coverings, binding twine, for combining with
other fibers to cheapen cloth, and, occasionally, for underwear, dress
goods, millinery braids, and upholstery. Some of these secondary fibers
are bast, _i. e._, taken from the stem of the plant in a similar way
to flax; while a large number are structural, in that the filament is
in the leaves or fruit and not in the stalk. Ramie (Rhea), and China
grass which are much the same, jute, true or common hemp, Ambari and
Sunn hemp are well-known bast fibers. Piña, Sisal hemp or Henequen,
Manila hemp or abaca, Bowstring hemp, New Zealand flax, and Maguey
are structural fibers, and among a number of other varieties reach
our market under the commercial name “hemp,” as the structure and
characteristics are similar to the common hemp.
Cheap labor in the countries from which many of these fibers come has
made it possible to prepare them by hand and sell them at a lower price
than would be possible in the United States with its higher cost of
labor; therefore we are not producing them to any large extent. The
bast fibers in general are harvested, dew or water retted, and broken,
scutched, hackled, and spun much like flax. The structural fibers are
treated and prepared similarly to Manila hemp.
=Ramie=, often called China grass (Fig. 122), is a bast fiber with many
valuable properties, of low price, and of future promise as a useful
and attractive textile. It grows easily in the United States, but the
difficulties of decortication and consequent expense have kept it from
the development it deserves. Both ramie and China grass belong to the
family of stingless nettles (_Urticaceæ_); the ramie, or Rhea, being of
the species _Bœhmeria tenacissima_, and China grass, of the _Bœhmeria
nivea_. They flourish in India, China, Japan, and in warm parts of
Europe and of North and South America.
The plant grows very high and the woody stalks are cut as they mature.
The bark, when green, is hand-stripped and scraped without retting.
When it is dry it is dew or water retted like common hemp or flax.
This process is repeated a couple of times if necessary. The fiber is
usually hung in the sun after it has been relieved of the woody matter
and at first looks much like coarse hemp. Degumming, combing, drawing,
and spinning follow. It is more difficult to clean than flax. The
degumming, a chemical process, is repeated, as a portion of the gum
only is taken out by the first bath, and the remaining gummy matter is
much harder to remove. Unless all of it is taken away, however, the
material feels like haircloth as it touches the skin. After the final
degumming the fiber is soft, white, silky, and glistening, and even
more beautiful than flax. In the combing and drawing processes the long
silky fiber, or line, is separated from the noils, or short fiber. Both
are spun, the latter being used for coarser materials and for wadding.
Ramie is manufactured in France, England, and the United States. It is
frequently combined with silk and is made into materials to compete
with linen, which it strongly resembles. Like linen, it is difficult
to dye. It is brilliant, strong, and durable, not easily affected by
moisture, though some of its luster is lost by a wet finish. It has
more tenacity than other fibers, and its elasticity, though not great,
equals cotton and is greater than flax. It is not very flexible, but
endures wear and tear. For underwear it has much promise, for it is
cheap, yet has the qualities of flax. There seems to be no limit to
the possibilities of this fiber, for it has a range from the finest
lace to the heaviest canvas, waddings, and cordage. It is found in the
market of the United States in dress goods, upholstery, underwear,
tablecloths, toweling, and lace.
=Piña=, or pineapple fiber, belongs to the family _Bromeliaceæ_, the
species being _Ananas sativa_. It is native in tropical Asia, Africa,
Southern Europe, and America, but in many countries the plant is grown
for the fruit rather than for the fiber. The large fleshy leaves of
the plant contain the fiber, which is usually extracted by hand. Piña
is considered to be the most delicate and exquisite of vegetable
filaments. The woven cloth is found in great perfection in the
Philippine Islands and is often combined with silk in designs of great
beauty. The weaving is usually done with the untwisted fibers. The
appearance is white, soft, and lustrous and the material is flexible,
durable, and unaffected by water. It is used much for coarse grass
cloth as well as for fine transparent materials. The latter are for
sale to some extent in the United States.
=Jute=, or Jew’s Mallow, is used in cheaper classes of textile
manufacturing. It belongs to the family _Tiliaceæ_. The species are
very numerous, but the best known are _Corchorus capsularis_ and
_Corchorus olitorius_. It is a bast fiber and is retted and separated
by hand methods. It grows in the hottest parts of India; being
cultivated especially in Bengal. China also is giving some attention to
its growth. The plant grows very high, the fibers reaching thirteen to
fourteen feet in length. It is a very cheap and unsatisfactory fiber,
as it rapidly deteriorates when subjected to light, air, and moisture.
It is perhaps the poorest of the textile fibers. The best grades are
light brown or silver-gray and fairly lustrous. It dyes easily but soon
changes color. It is useful where cheapness is better than durability
and is used for bagging, for covering cotton bales, wool packs, and
for cheap binding twines and cordage. Tapestry materials of jute and
cotton are attractive in appearance but are not enduring. The fibers
are combined with wool in cheap dress goods. Carpets, rugs, upholstery,
and burlaps are also made of jute. It is spun in fine and coarse
counts. The United States does not grow much of it, as hand methods are
too expensive, but much fiber is imported and manufactured here into
twines, cordage, and cheap materials.
=Bast Hemps.=--True or common hemp is a bast fiber of the species
_Cannabis sativa_ (family _Urticaceæ_). It is frequently named from
places where it is grown--such as Kentucky hemp, Italian hemp, Russian
hemp, and others. It grows at times to nine feet in height, and is
harvested and treated much like flax. Dew retting was once used
extensively in the United States, but decortication is taking its
place. The color of the fiber, like flax, is pearl gray or yellowish.
It bleaches well, is very strong, is more hygroscopic than either flax
or cotton, and is not easily rotted in water. The coarser fibers of
hemp are used for sailcloth, canvas, carpets, rugs, cordage, and ropes,
and the finer for fish nets and cordage. It is not used for fabrics
to any extent, but is sometimes combined with flax in woven cloth.
Hemp is one of the principal export crops of Russia; it is produced in
Poland; France cultivates a fine variety of it; Italian hemp is of the
highest grade; Japan used it very early; India is growing it, but for
its narcotic effect rather than for its fibers; and the United States
at one time cultivated it largely, but the decline in the shipbuilding
industry resulted in small crops. The production is increasing.
Wisconsin has many hemp mills making wrapping cord. When the stalk
is fresh much of the outer bark and gum can be stripped off by hand.
The yarn is sometimes twisted only slightly, and has a very glossy
appearance.
The Ambari hemp of India is of the same family as the cotton
plant--_Malvaceæ_; the species being _Hibiscus cannabinus_. It is a
bast fiber and is used for very coarse textiles and for cordage.
The Sunn, Brown, or Madras hemp is another bast fiber of India. It
belongs to the family _Leguminosæ_; the species is _Crotalaria juncea_.
This fiber is also used for ropes and heavy textiles.
=Hemps.=--Manila hemp, or abaca, is a structural fiber. It is a
plantain and belongs to the family _Musaceæ_ and the species _Musa
textilis_. It is cultivated largely in the Philippine Islands and has
its best development on rich flat lands. Manila hemp is a more brittle
fiber than the true hemp. The coarser varieties are used for binding
twines, cordage, and heavy cloth; the finer for dress materials, veils,
and shirtings. The cultivation is simple and the fiber is obtained by
native methods. The leaves are cut before the flowering of the plant;
they are slit down and the layers of fiber are removed, dried, and
then scraped free of pulpy matter, leaving only the fiber. The latter
is shaken, washed, dried, and spun. Fiber for weaving sheer materials
is beaten to separate the filaments into finer threads. France
manufactures Manila hemp into fine muslins.
=Sisal hemp= (henequen) is an agave and is cultivated in the West
Indies and in parts of Mexico and Central America. It is a structural
fiber from the leaf, like the Manila hemp. The fibers are not so strong
as those of the latter. They are used for hammocks and sacking and are
a source for much of the supply of binder twine.
=Cocoanut, coir, or coco fiber= comes from the fruit of the coco palm
(_Cocos nucifera_) and is also a structural filament taken from the
inside of the husk of the cocoanut. It consists of bundles of stiff
fiber which separate into finer threads after treatment. The palm
grows extensively in India, the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Japan. The
husk of the fruit is removed and the nuts are soaked in holes dug for
them or in tanks. The best coir in the market is soaked in heated
water in specially prepared tanks, for machinery is now being tried
successfully. The fiber in general is beaten, cleaned by hand, and
spun into a loose rove. The color is cinnamon brown; the fiber looks
like horsehair and is very strong, light, and elastic. It is used for
many purposes such as stuffing upholstery, coarse mattings, sails, and
cordage.
=Arghan.=--The Arghan Company, Limited, of London, is promoting a new
fiber as a competitor of flax. It belongs to the _Bromelia_ family and
is a sort of wild pineapple. It is claimed that it will spin to fine
counts. It has been used by the Indians of Central and South America
for fine fabrics, fish nets, and like uses, where strength, pliability,
and weather resistance are needed. It is cleaned by hand. The leaves
are about six to nine feet long and the fiber runs the length of the
leaf.
=Asbestos= is a useful mineral fiber. It is fire and acid proof and
a poor conductor of heat. It is a fibrous rock and can be spun into
yarn and woven into cloth. Asbestos curtains are made for places of
entertainment to keep fire from spreading. It is used for household
purposes in pads and iron holders. In chemical laboratories it is used
for aprons and it is wrapped about hot pipes.
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--KAPOK POD, OPENED TO SHOW FIBERS AND SEEDS.]
=Kapok.=--(Fig. 123). The kapok tree is grown throughout the Philippine
Islands, the natives having used it for centuries for filling
mattresses and cushions. It is only since 1905 that the floss was
exported. The cultivation is very simple and inexpensive. It is now
grown regularly for home use and export. In 1923 there were 8000 pounds
exported. It is grown in, and exported from, Java also.
The tree requires a warm climate and can stand prolonged dry weather.
The floss is in the pods, which resemble those of the milkweed. In the
Philippines the flowers appear in February and the pods in June. The
latter are picked before they are quite ripe, as the floss is spoiled
by the rains when the pods open. It is better not to store them too
long. The cleaning of the floss is largely by hand methods. There is
some very crude machinery in use. The floss is light and elastic and
it is very buoyant. It does not mat with use. It can be treated to be
spinnable but this is not done to a large extent. It is used in the
United States for mattresses and for filling cushions of all kinds. It
is excellent for buoyant cushions.
The seed of the kapok yields an oil which is used in soap manufacture,
as an adulterant to other oils, and for cattle feed. The tree yields a
gum which is used medicinally. The wood is used for tanning leather and
for other purposes.
=Hair.=--Varieties of hair are used in textile manufacture. Rabbit
hair and camel’s hair are found in combination with other fibers in
dress goods, and coatings. The hair of the Angora goat is in plushes,
braids, and dress goods. The Cashmere and Alpaca hair make high-priced
fabrics. Cow hair is used in cheap floor coverings and horsehair for
stiffenings for suits, for interlinings, and for upholstery (see Chap.
VI, _Hairlike Wools_).
On account of the scarcity of the older fibers during the great war,
other fibers were tried with varying success. Paper was combined with
cotton in cloth and for twine, and is still used for the latter. Flax
and hemp waste, hitherto considered about useless, were combined with
cotton and made for various household purposes, toweling, underwear,
and industrial requirements. Cotton machinery was used for the
preparation. The cost of production is lower than cotton. A factory has
been opened at Stetten on the Baltic in Germany, and the company is
planning to open one in Argentina.
REPRESENTATIVE LINEN MATERIALS
Butchers’ linen
Cambric
Crash
Diaper
Dress linen
Duck
Holland for shades
Linen lawn
Napkins
Pillow cases
Sailcloth
Sheeting
Sheets, hemstitched
Table linen
Toweling, huckaback
Toweling, crash
Toweling, glass
Towels, huckaback
Velour
=Lace and Embroidery=
Lace and Embroidery are too large subjects to deal with adequately in a
few pages. The object of this short description is to indicate briefly
the origin of some of the leading machine laces and to interest the
student to consider the subject further in some of the books which deal
with real laces and embroideries, and to visit museums where historic
textiles are on exhibition.
The making of lace dates back to primitive times, from the tying of
fringes for decoration and of nets for fishing. As early as 1000 B. C.
ornamental nets and drawnwork with beads to decorate them were in use.
Excavations at Thebes have brought them to light. Early mummy wrappings
were decorated with cut and drawnwork, and “veils of net woven with
gold” were mentioned by the earliest writers of antiquity. Ancient
Egyptian textiles combining embroidery and lace motifs can be seen in
the museums by those who desire to study the earliest beginnings of
these arts.
=Real Laces.=--The thirteenth century saw the beginning of fine linen
handmade laces. At first lace was closely allied with embroidery.
Italy was the birthplace of these arts. The finest class of linen yarn
was required. The great centuries of lace were from the fifteenth to
the eighteenth. The centers were Italy, Flanders, Spain, France, and
England. Designs were copied from Italy and from the other countries
as the art developed. Lace and embroidery were in demand for church
vestments, for household linens, and for costumes for both men and
women. A great variety of designs were made and different methods of
construction were developed. The following list indicates some main
divisions, and under each there were numerous examples:
(1) _Drawnwork_ combines primitive lace and embroidery. A linen fabric
has threads drawn, the remaining ones are made into a pattern, and
needlework stitches are inserted to fill the open spaces. It was
sometimes called Hamburg Point.
(2) _Darned work_ on linen threads. Hand run or chain stitch (tambour)
designs were made on the background. Araneum is a coarse form of
darned work. The modern name for this form is antique or spider work.
It is sometimes called Cluny Guipure. Filet is a darned lace of great
fineness and beauty, or coarse and effective.
(3) _Cut work_ was one of the earliest forms of lace. It was used
largely in the fifteenth century. It developed from drawnwork, for
the cut threads were held down by stitches to make them strong.
Other stitches were placed in the openings. Reticella, which was
a development of cut work, was the beginning of needlepoint lace.
Carrick-Macross lace on muslin is a cut-work lace (Fig. 124). Simple
“brides” (connecting stitches) and picots (small decorations on the
brides) were followed by elaborate designs and finally the entire linen
foundation was omitted and needlepoint lace (Punto in Aria) appeared
(Fig. 125). This was the true beginning of lace as we now know it.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--CARRICK-MACROSS LACE.
Left: Real. Right: Imitation.]
(4) _Pillow, Bobbin, or Bone Lace._ This lace is made on a pillow by
the use of a number of bobbins of fine linen thread. A parchment design
is placed on the pillow and the pattern is laid out with pins. The
threads from the bobbins are interwoven, twisted, or plaited around
the pins. In some instances separate motifs are made on the pillow
and united by various brides and stitches. Tapes were usually made on
pillows and later used in a design, as in Brussels and Honiton lace
(Fig. 126). Pillow and needlepoint laces are often combined in one lace
(Fig. 127, C). Representative pillow laces are Valenciennes, Lille,
Brussels, Buckinghamshire, Mechlin, Binches, Bruges, Duchesse, Maltese,
and Cluny. The bobbins were of bone, ivory, or wood. Some of them were
made attractive by decoration and had the name of the worker carved or
inlaid on them. They are heirlooms in a family. The colored beads which
were hung by wires on the bobbins to weight them were called “gingles.”
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--PUNTO IN ARIA.
Design shows Carnations, Jasmine, and Daisies.
From Ricci’s _Old Italian Lace_, by courtesy of William Heinemann, Ltd.
London, Eng.]
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--VERY OLD HONITON LACE. ROSE, SHAMROCK, AND
THISTLE PATTERN.]
(5) _Needlepoint lace_ is made entirely by the needle. It was called
Punto in Aria, or a stitch in the air (Fig. 125), to indicate the
elimination of the linen background found in the Reticella. There
are many varieties of needlepoint. Tape was made by needlepoint as
well as by pillow, and used as a foundation for fine tape laces. The
term Point Lace should be used only for needlepoint, but it is often
confused with pillow lace. Point Venise or Venetian Point (Fig. 127,
B) is a representative needlepoint lace. Some of this is made flat,
as with Coraline, and some is padded or raised, as in Rose Point or
Gros Point (Fig. 127, C). Some of the English and Flemish laces are
needlepoint, and also some of the net and appliqué ones (Fig. 127,
D). When the buttonhole stitch is used to produce the net the work is
called needlepoint, but not when darning or overcasting are used in the
construction. The Argentan and Alençon laces are needlepoint. Appliqué
lace has needlepoint motifs and a net background made by machine.
Machine-made net was introduced in the beginning of the nineteenth
century. Before that time the net and pattern were made at the same
time. The appliqué laces were in high favor in the court of Louis
XV. There were many varieties of net background (réseau) according
to the kind of lace. Tape was, at first, a filmy real lace, but the
machine-made tapes are heavier and are much used in curtains.
(6) _Knotted lace and tatting_ were early forms of handmade lace. An
elaborate knotted lace was used early in Italy. Tatting was light and
fine and a shuttle was used in its construction. It is made the same
way now. Macramé lace is a coarse knotted lace made by the fingers.
(7) _Crochet lace_ is made with a hooked needle. Irish crochet may be
fine and flat (Baby Irish) (Fig. 127, A), or coarse and raised. It is
a national industry. The peasants of Syria and other countries do a
similar work. The Syrian lace is much used on handkerchiefs.
[Illustration:
FIG. 127.--_A_ (Top), BABY IRISH CROCHET LACE.
_B_ (Next), POINT DE VENISE.
_C_ (Next), POINT DUCHESSE, COMBINING TAPE LACE (DUCHESSE)
WITH NEEDLEPOINT (POINT LACE).
_D_ (Bottom), APPLIQUÉ, WITH PILLOW LACE MOTIFS ON MACHINE
NET.]
=Imitation or Machine Laces.=--Inventions to simplify the making of
real laces began to appear in the sixteenth century. Machine net was
made as early as 1560 on the stocking frame invented by Lee (see _Knit
Goods_). By 1760 machine lace was made in quantities in England. Many
inventors were at work to perfect machines for the purpose. About
1740 Robert Frost made a knitted, figured lace by machine. In 1768 a
Nottingham lace worker produced a sort of lace on a stocking frame.
The warp machine of an Englishman named Crane appeared in 1775. This
machine is almost endless in its possibilities,--knit goods, tatting,
veilings, braid, laces, scarfs, and yard goods. All the early machine
nets were an adaptation of the stocking frame, and the mesh unraveled,
which was a disadvantage. About 1808 Heathcote invented his machine
which made a fast net, and large numbers of people were soon employed
making designs on this net. Queen Victoria’s wedding dress was a
Honiton lace (Fig. 126) with handmade designs appliquéd on machine
net. In 1833 cotton thread began to take the place of linen. The first
factory which operated bobbinet machines was built by Heathcote in 1810
and produced nets of many widths. In 1813 the first Levers bobbinet
machine was brought out.
Nottingham, England, has been noted for its machine laces. The curtains
made there were called by the name of the city, but are now made in
quantities in the United States and elsewhere. Caudry, France, as well
as Nottingham is noted for varieties of nets. The finer laces are made
on the Levers machine. The latest improvement on this machine is called
“Go Through,” for the bobbins carry the warp threads through twice with
one revolution of the crank shaft. This machine produces imitations of
the linen handmade laces which are difficult to distinguish from the
real. Chantilly, Valenciennes, and other laces are made on this machine.
Imitation laces are now made in many countries. Calais and Lyons in
France, and Plauen, Barmen, and parts of Bavaria in Germany are noted
for their torchon, cluny, and other laces, and the United States has
been rapidly pushing to the front in this industry. Linen threads are
often used in these imitations instead of cotton, which makes the
resemblance to the handmade lace even closer, and the wear is equally
good. Some silk laces are being made and wool laces are made when the
fashion demands. Many kinds of laces are made, and often two varieties
are combined in one lace, but the most popular may be said to be the
following, which are copies of the real laces:
_Torchon lace_ is made all over Europe on pillows by peasants. It is a
strong lace, frequently with a rather coarse thread. It is made in many
designs and widths. The machine makes an excellent imitation of the
real lace.
_Cluny lace._ There is little relation between the ancient cluny
guipure and the modern machine lace. The latter is distinguished by the
paddles, wheels, or stars in the design. Narrow cluny lace is used on
underclothing. It resembles torchon lace.
_Valenciennes_ or “Val,” is a copy of a very well-known real lace.
The machine imitation is difficult to distinguish when linen thread
is used, but the cotton thread thickens in washing and the lace
loses its natural delicacy. It is a very popular lace. It is made
in France, England, and the United States. The French lace has a
diamond-shaped mesh and a very fine thread. England and the United
States use sometimes a double thread with a hexagonal mesh, and the
lace is called “German Val,” but none of this lace is made in that
country. Another variety of Val lace has a square mesh. English Val is
made in Nottingham, and the French, in Calais. Zion City, Illinois,
makes most of the Val produced in the United States. Before this work
began in Zion City about $6,000,000 of Valenciennes lace was imported
annually. The entire staff of a large factory in Nottingham, England,
was transported to this country and installed with the most modern
machinery at Zion City.
[Illustration: FIG. 128. MACHINE LACES.
_A_ (Top), Point de Rose.
_B_ (Middle), Point de Venise.
_C_ (Bottom), French Renaissance.]
_Irish Crochet._ This lace is difficult to imitate, for the machine
cannot give perfectly the crochet stitch, but uses an over and over
stitch. The difference can be detected by the eye. There are some very
simple crochet laces which are very attractive and look like the real.
_Filet lace._ Filet net resembles gauze, but the threads are locked at
the corners to resemble the tie of the real filet. The Levers machine
is sometimes used to make the imitation and the burnt-out process.
Often the Schiffli machine is successful. (See _Burnt-out Lace_, below.)
_Venetian point_ is frequently imitated (Fig. 128, B). The Schiffli
machine is used and later the background is burned out.
_Shadow lace._ A very thin lace made on the Levers machine. The design
is shadowy, and there is no limit to the possibilities of designs.
It is sometimes coarse and at other times very fine, and is not very
enduring.
_Renaissance lace_ (Fig. 128, C) is a modern machine tape lace. A
coarse variety is used for curtains. The tape is formed into patterns
and handwork stitches catch the parts together. Several kinds of tape
laces are often combined in one curtain, such as cord, appliqué sprays,
and tape bowknots. Very fine tapes are made and used for costumes. The
name Battenberg lace is applied to one in which a tape of this name is
used.
=Cotton lace manufacture= in the United States is growing rapidly.
There was an increase in 1923 of 37.8 per cent over 1921. The value of
the products in 1923 was $35,791,878. Nottingham lace nets and curtains
and Levers laces had perhaps the greatest increase. In 1923 there were
39 establishments making lace, and about 8000 people are engaged in
the industry. Pennsylvania had twelve workrooms; Rhode Island, eight;
New York had seven; five were in Connecticut and four in New Jersey.
Illinois, Massachusetts, and Ohio had each one establishment.
Learning to judge between real and imitation laces takes some
experience, but the following suggestions may be helpful:
Machine work is more regular than the hand.
Machine work exactly repeats a pattern, but the hand work has small
mistakes.
Needlepoint imitations lack the characteristic loop or buttonhole
stitches.
By inserting a pin into needlepoint imitations the threads of the
pattern are readily moved, but in the real, the loop holds them.
The imitation has a flatter, deader look.
Cotton threads are used in most imitations and they soon become rough
in use and the laundry.
The relation of the ground to the pattern differs.
In imitating bobbin laces such as cluny or torchon, two sizes of
threads are used. The magnifying glass will show if this is the case.
The threads in the imitation are crinkly and loose, but they are taut
and straight in the real.
=Machine Embroideries.=--Imitation embroideries, as well as laces, are
made in old centers of real embroidery and lace. The St. Gall district
of Switzerland, Plauen, Germany, and Carlsbad in Czechoslovakia had
almost a monopoly at one time, but the work has spread all over Europe
and into the United States. Hand directed machinery was invented as
early as 1850 to facilitate parts of the work and enable the workers
to make more money. Machinery run by power, but much like the hand
machines, followed. In the workrooms all three can be seen in various
stages. Yarns of silk, rayon, linen, and cotton are used in the
manufacture. Much of the work requires the burnt-out method of finish,
which is done on a background that is later destroyed by a chemical
bath. Guipure laces, embroideries, and passementeries are made on a
background of chemically prepared material. Both hand and shuttle
machines can be used for the embroidery. The hand machine is about
five yards wide. The cloth on which the embroidery is to be done is
stretched the length of the machine, and a carriage on either side of
the stretched material carries a double row of from two hundred to
four hundred double-pointed needles, each having an eye in the middle.
The needles have each one and one-half yards of thread on them. They
are pushed through by one carriage and taken up by the other, a stitch
being taken with each operation. The machine stops when nine inches
of thread are left in the needles. Freshly threaded needles are put
in automatically. A pantograph is at the left side of the machine, on
which the design is many times enlarged. The operator with his left
hand traces the pattern, which is reproduced in the correct size on
the stretched material. In the hand machine the feet are used to keep
the machine in action. The hand embroidery machine works on nine yard
lengths.
The shuttle (Shiffli) machine is power operated, carries a greater
length of fabric, and the output is many times larger. Some of the
embroidered net top laces are so perfectly done that they can hardly
be distinguished from the real. The machine has shuttles in place of
needles. An automatic shuttle machine has cards like the Jacquard loom
to control the pattern. If the cloth is to be an embroidered strip,
it is taken off after the work is completed and finished by hand. If
it is to be made into passementerie or lace, the same pattern has
been repeated many times across the length of the strip. After the
embroidery is finished, it is given to workers who cut out the designs,
leaving a small rough edge around them. The background is of vegetable
fiber if the embroidery is to be an animal fiber such as silk, _i.
e._, a thin cotton fabric is stretched in the embroidery machine to
receive the silk stitches. After the handworkers have cut out the
designs, they carefully sew and embroider the many designs together to
make the design perfect, and the latter is sunk into a chemical bath
which destroys the background, leaving the embroidery or lace standing
out clear, for the fraying edges have been eaten away. It is finally
finished for sale by handworkers and pressers. Drilled embroidery,
guipure, and work on tulle are done on these machines.
=Embossing.= New inventions or the use in new ways of machines already
on the market are constant. Through a new utilization of the burnt-out
work system called “soda-print,” an exquisite fabric has appeared
lately. “It is executed by printing a thickened solution of chloride
of alumina on boiled off pieces containing silk (or wool) and rayon.
After dyeing, the goods are kept in a heated chamber (temperature and
time depending upon fabric and strength of solution). The rayon is
destroyed. After the carbonizing of the rayon, the pieces are washed
and dried.”[44]
[44] Courtesy of Lyons Piece Dye Works.
The _Bonnaz_ machine (Cornely) is an embroidery machine originally from
Europe. It is on the order of a sewing machine, but the needle can be
moved freely, consequently a skilled hand can use it as if it were a
pencil, but more rapidly. Chain or cord stitches can be made to outline
the designs. It is used in elaborate appliqué work on silk by having
layers of lace or other material below the silk. The design is made by
the machine, and the fabric not needed is cut away, thus varied colors
and fabrics appear on the face. By adding a little handwork exquisite
designs are achieved. Marvelously beautiful effects are obtained also
by combining Jacquard velvet weaving, printing, burnt-out work, Bonnaz
or other embroidery machine design and lace appliqué. Lyons, France,
has been foremost in utilizing these machine inventions in fancy silks,
and Belgium has communities occupied with machine embroideries. The
Singer machine also offers possibilities in silk embroidery.
_Hamburg edging_ is made on a Swiss machine; the original Hamburg
Point was a drawnwork executed on muslin and embroidered. A _crochet
embroidery_ is made with a crochet needle on various materials. The
fabric is stretched on a frame, and the pattern is crocheted through it
from the wrong side. Veiling and dress nets are made. The work is very
fine. _Hoop embroidery_ on bobbinet and other materials is made by a
simple machine attached to the hoop which drives the needle through the
fabric. _Ribbon and Braid_ work follows a stamped design. The braid or
ribbon is basted to the pattern and stitches finish the design.
The _hand embroidered garments from the Philippine Islands_ are made
under the direction of thirty or more firms. The embroidery is done
largely in outlying districts. There are factories in Manila where the
finest silk garments are embroidered. Contractors engage to provide
embroidered garments at a fixed price. Cloth with the designs stamped
on them are furnished and are distributed to women who give their
entire time to this work, or to those who can give only part time. The
women are often at work in the fields, and do this embroidery in rest
hours. The Filipino women do good work, but need close inspection, as
standards are lacking. Inspectors are sent out to supervise the work in
progress. The designing has been in the hands of American designers,
and is appropriate and attractive.
CHAPTER XI
MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF TEXTILE FIBERS
The microscope is a most valuable aid in the study of textile fibers.
Each fiber has its peculiar structure and characteristic markings,
which are revealed by the microscope alone, and which furnish the best
and often the only certain means of identification. Chemical tests
fail, for instance, in distinguishing between wool and hair fibers,
or between different grades and qualities of wool, cotton, or linen.
Familiarity with the microscope, therefore, and with the appearance
of the more important textile fibers, should be the basis of their
analytical study.
A compound microscope of 250 to 500 magnification is desirable. The
following directions for its use are given to aid beginners:
=Parts of the Microscope.=--The essential parts of the compound
microscope are those belonging to the microscope stand, and the optical
parts. The microscope stand includes:
1. The base.
2. An upright or pillar.
3. A stage for holding the mount.
4. A mirror, having a straight and a concave side. The concave side
is used in daylight. The mirror is manipulated till a shaft of light
is sent through the hole in the stage and so through the center of
objective, tube, and ocular.
5. The arm, which supports the tube.
6. The tube, which in turn holds the draw tube. In focusing an
object, the tube is moved up and down by the rack and pinion, or
coarse adjustment. A finer adjustment is secured by a slight turning
of the small wheel at the top of the pillar.
The optical parts include:
1. The eyepiece or ocular, which fits into the draw tube, and may be
taken out and used as a single microscope.
2. The objective. There are usually two objectives, which swing
around on the nosepiece. A click tells when one is swung in position.
The low power objective is generally short and stout; the high power
long and slender.
=To Use Low Power=
1. Swing the low power objective into the optical axis, about one
inch from stage.
2. Place mount on stage, so that a fiber lies over the center of the
hole.
3. Looking at the objective from the side, turn the screw on the tube
until the distance between objective and cover glass is about ¹⁄₈
inch.
4. Look through the tube, and manipulate the mirror to get a clear
white light.
5. Lift objective until object focuses.
=To Use High Power=
1. Using low power, see that the part of the field to be observed is
in the optical axis.
2. Raise objective one inch from stage, and swing high power
objective into place.
3. Looking from the side, lower the high power objective until about
¹⁄₁₀₀ inch separates it from the slide. Do not let it touch the slide.
4. Lift objective until object focuses.
5. After using the high power objective, always turn the nosepiece
before removing the slide from the stage.
=Preparation of the Mount or Slide=
1. With a pipette, put a drop of water on the middle of the
microscope slide.
2. Lay not more than two or three individual fibers in the water.
3. Lay a clean cover glass on the fibers and water, bringing it down
gradually from one side in order to exclude air bubbles.
4. See that the mount is clean and dry above and beneath. The space
between cover glass and slide should be filled with water, with no
floating, however.
5. Additional clarity in a mount is obtained by washing the fibers in
alcohol and mounting in fifteen per cent alcohol.
Permanent mounts can be made with Canada balsam. Clean the cover glass
and slide with alcohol, place the dry material on the slide, and add a
drop of Canada balsam, just sufficient to fill the space between slide
and cover glass. Carefully press down the cover.
Cross sectioning may be done by embedding in paraffin[45] or in
glycerin gum,[46] and cutting with a microtome or razor.
[45] Chamberlain’s _Methods of Plant Histology_.
[46] Glycerin gum: 10 gms. arabic, 10 cc. water, and 40-50 drops of
glycerin. (Hanausek and Winton, _Microscopy of Technical Products_.)
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--_A_, WOOL FIBERS. _B_, HAIR FIBER.]
=Wool and Hair Fibers= (Fig. 129).--Wool and hair fibers are alike
in origin and growth, and often in appearance, so that no sharp
distinctions can be made between them. For purposes of classification,
the fleece of sheep is called wool but it varies from the long,
hairlike covering of the Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold varieties to
the soft, crimpy merino. The so-called hair fibers come principally
from the alpaca, cashmere, Angora, and Thibet varieties of goats and
from the camel (see Chap. VI). However, both forms are usually produced
on the same animal. The long hairs of the cashmere goat cover a soft,
woolly coat, and mixed with the fleeces of most sheep are long, stiff
fibers called beard hairs.
=Physiology and Structure.=--The root of the wool or hair fiber is in
the follicle situated in the dermis. Both wool and hair show a common
structure:
1. _The epidermal covering_, consisting of flattened, overlapping cells
like the scales of a fish. These give the appearance of serrations
or saw teeth to the fiber edges. Occasionally in fine wools, single
scales encircle the fiber like a series of funnels; more often two or
more make up the circumference. Coarse wools may show a covering of
irregular, depressed scales like heavy plates. The scales of true hair
fibers (Fig. 129, B) are often difficult to see under the microscope,
as they are fastened firmly throughout their length to the cortical
region, and are only slightly serrated at the fiber edge, while wool
fibers, which have the scales set more loosely, show marked serrations.
Mohair, alpaca, vicuña, llama and other hair fibers show a similarity
under magnification. Camel hair usually has a combination of soft,
crimpy wool fibers and stiff beard hairs.
Under the influence of warm water, and particularly warm alkaline or
soap solutions, the epidermal scales become plastic and in a condition
to cause their free edges to felt or interlock with contiguous fibers.
Changes in temperature, particularly from hot to cold solutions,
increase this interlocking by contraction, but the chief factor in
felting the softened fiber is no doubt rubbing or friction. This is
depended upon in fulling or milling woolens--a process directly opposed
to the proper method of laundering them. The finer wools, rather than
coarse wool or hair fibers, are chosen for fulled or felted fabrics,
because the outer margins of their scales are relatively free from
the fiber body and more susceptible to interlocking. Hair fibers are
preferable for materials where spring, wiriness, and non-felting
quality are desired.
The luster of wool or hair is dependent upon its cylindrical form and
the set and arrangement of the scales. When these are smoothly and
closely attached, as in hair fibers, a lustrous effect is given, but
large scales, set in different planes, may give high luster to some
coarse wools because of the many surfaces for light reflection. The
duller wools have their reflecting surfaces broken by numerous fine
scales with free edges.
The epidermal scales, horny and impervious to moisture, help to protect
the fleece from storms and injuries, but they likewise retard the
absorption of dyes by wool, and tend to dull the intensity of color of
the dyed fiber.
2. _The cortical region_, made up of narrow, elongated cells, giving
strength and elasticity to the fiber. By focusing deeply, small
striations can be seen, which are the lumens of the tiny cells. The
waviness of wool is supposed to be due to differences in size and
development of the cortical cells.
3. _The medulla or central canal_, composed of cells, generally rounded
in form. The medullary canal may be broad and plainly visible; it
may appear as a continuous or broken line, or it may not be seen at
all in some fine, transparent wools. Granular fragments and often
pigment matter may appear in the contents. Hair fibers commonly show
the medulla, wool fibers often do not. By its capillary action, the
medullary canal has much to do with the absorptive capacity of wool,
and is an important factor in the dyeing of the fiber. If by chance
the medullary canal becomes closed, as may happen when lime is used to
remove the pelts from dead sheep, or because of natural reasons, such
fibers do not take dyestuffs well. They sometimes appear as uncolored
fibers in a dyed fabric, and are called _kemps_.
Two important secretions adhere to the wool or hair fiber. The
sebaceous glands pour their contents into the hair follicle, the sebum
being known as wool grease. The chief constituents of this substance
are cholesterol, a waxlike alcohol, and its compounds with two or
more fatty acids. Wool grease is insoluble in water, therefore a
coating of it makes the fleece waterproof, besides keeping it soft,
pliant, and resistant to matting and felting. The second secretion is
from the sweat glands and consists largely of water-soluble compounds
of potassium with oleic, stearic, and other organic acids forming
soaps, and of potassium chloride, sulphate, etc. As generally accepted
commercially, all the extraneous matter on the wool fiber is known as
yolk or suint, although according to its French meaning the latter
term is limited to the sweat secretion. The removal of the yolk is
important, first, to enable the wool to take dyestuffs, and second,
because the lanolin extracted from the wool grease, and the potash
salts from the sweat, are of great commercial value (see Chap. VI).
[Illustration:
FIG. 130.--_A_ (Left), FIBERS OF NEW WOOL FROM BURRING MACHINE.
_B_ (Right), FIBERS OF REWORKED WOOL (MUNGO).]
=Reworked Wool= (Fig. 130, B).--This is wool recovered from woven or
knitted material or machine wastes, and used again as textile material.
The term _shoddy_ is loosely given to all grades of such material,
but should be applied to the best grades or true shoddy, which is
obtained from _softs_, that is, from blankets, sweaters, hosiery or
other unfelted goods. Reworked wool of this type is superior to many
grades of new wool in strength, staple, and freedom from imperfections.
_Mungo_, or reworked wool obtained from fulled or felted goods, is of
a lower grade than true shoddy. In the picking apart of the felted
material the fibers may be broken into short lengths of ¹⁄₄ to ³⁄₄ of
an inch, and bruised or otherwise damaged. Very little of this type
of reworked wool is used in this country. _Extract_ wool is recovered
from wool-cotton mixtures, by the carbonizing process (see Chap. XIII,
_Carbonizing_). Reworked wool of this class is used for other than
woven textiles as a rule, _e. g._, for roofing paper and felts.
=The microscopic appearance of shoddy= is a much-debated question.
True shoddy cannot be identified under the microscope by the physical
imperfections supposed to be the marks of shoddy. These are: injuries
to the scales or fiber body, such as damaged or missing scales,
split sides and frayed ends. These markings are seldom found in good
reworked wool, but are frequent characteristics of new wool from the
burring machine (Fig. 130, A). Such imperfections confuse the analyst
who thinks he can determine the presence of shoddy by the microscope.
Perhaps the most conclusive but not final evidence of shoddy is the
appearance under the microscope of fibers of different dyes in a
plain-dyed material from which some of the color has been stripped.
=Silk.=--Silk differs from all other natural fibers in that it
apparently shows no cellular structure (Fig. 131, B), although there is
some evidence to show that it is made up of minute fibrillæ cemented
together. The fluids secreted by the two spinnerets of the silkworm
unite on issuing to form a double continuous thread of the raw silk.
Under the microscope these two threads of protein material, called
fibroin, are seen to be held together by an external gum or silk glue,
the sericin, which appears in raw silk as irregular masses on the
surface of the fiber (Fig. 131, A). After being freed from sericin
by boiling off, the individual filaments look smooth, cylindrical,
structureless, lustrous, and transparent. Occasional constrictions
may appear. Cross sections from the middle layers of the cocoon are
rounded; those from the outer and inmost layers may be flattened or
triangular.
[Illustration: FIG. 131.--_A_, RAW SILK WITH GUM. _B_, DEGUMMED SILK.]
[Illustration: FIG. 132.--WILD SILK.]
=Wild Silk.=--Under the microscope the wild silk filament (Fig. 132)
is broader than the cultivated silk, with irregularities in width, and
numerous longitudinal striations. It is flattened or wedge-shaped in
cross section. The diagonal lines often seen on the surface of Tussah
or other wild silks have been attributed to pressure.
=Rayon= (Fig. 133).--This shows cylindrical rods having the appearance
of glass. Viscose silks are sometimes irregular, with minute air
bubbles and longitudinal lines; nitro silks are smooth but not always
regular in form; cuprammonium silks are rounded, smooth, and very
lustrous; acetate or celanese silk has a filament which is uniform in
diameter, with few markings.
[Illustration: FIG. 133.--RAYON.]
[Illustration: FIG. 134.--_A_, COTTON. _B_, MERCERIZED COTTON.]
=Cotton.=--Cotton is a unicellular seed hair, which grows as a
modification of the coat of the cotton seed. Its length varies from
less than an inch to nearly two inches, and it has a range of diameter
roughly from .001 to .0056 inch. Being a part of the epidermis of the
seed, the seed hair is covered with a thin, structureless cuticle.
The walls of the fiber are strong and thick, and an interior canal
or lumen is present through which sap or nutriment reaches the cell
during the period of growth. When the cotton is ripe the flow of sap
ceases and a vacuum forms which causes the cell to collapse. Subsequent
drying contracts and twists the fiber. The typical appearance of a
ripe cotton fiber under the microscope is that of a smooth, flat band
with thickened edges--the cell walls--which make up about one-third of
the diameter of the fiber (Fig. 134). The lumen is generally visible,
its breadth being usually greater than that of the walls. The most
characteristic mark is the twisting which occurs at intervals. There
may be as many as 200 twists to the inch. The stronger and more
uniform the twist, the greater the elasticity of the fiber, and the
better it is adapted to spinning. Dead or unripe cotton fibers show
little or no twist, and a less strongly developed cell wall. The fiber
tapers gradually to the point, which is rounded or blunt, with thick
walls. The lower end of the fiber, which has been torn from the seed
coat, is open. While the twist is a distinguishing mark of cotton,
the presence of a cuticle can also be made to differentiate it from
bast fibers, unless it has been removed by treatment, as is the case
in mercerized cotton, and often in well-bleached yarn or weave. When
cotton is placed in cuprammonia the cuticle is not affected, but the
walls of the fiber become greatly swollen and break out in places
through the cuticle, which is left hanging in constricting rings or
shreds on the fiber. The lumen becomes like a coiled thread as the
fiber shortens and swells.
Cross sections of ripe cotton fibers show elliptical, reniform or
crescent shapes, with a central line representing the lumen (Fig.
135). The fibers of unripe cotton have not fully collapsed, therefore
their cross section shows a more rounded appearance and a more regular
outline than the ripe cotton.
[Illustration: FIG. 135.--CROSS SECTIONS OF COTTON FIBERS.]
=Mercerized Cotton.=--In the mercerizing process (Chap. XII) the
strong alkali used removes the cuticle of the cotton fiber and swells
the cell walls, while the tension employed takes out the natural
twist more or less completely. Under the microscope the modified
fiber is seen to be straight, smooth, lustrous, and cylindrical (Fig.
134, B). Characteristic markings are occasional slight twistings,
if the mercerization has not been perfect, and especially a lumen
which appears and disappears in irregular widths, noticeable if the
fiber is examined along its entire length. As the cuticle has been
removed, there is an even swelling of the fiber in cuprammonia with no
constrictions. The lumen now plainly appears, and granular fragments
may be seen in it. In cross section the mercerized fiber is rounded.
=Flax.=--Flax fibers, the source of linen, are the bast fibers which
lie under the outer layer of bark in the flax stalk. The fiber is
made up of cells ranging from a fraction of an inch to two inches
in length, and having an average diameter of .001 of an inch. Under
the microscope, flax fibers show certain variations according to
their quality or source, but the long fibers for linen yarn have the
following characteristics in common: The shape is cylindrical, tapering
to a sharp point. The cell wall is so thick that the lumen appears as
a narrow, often threadlike, line. A distinguishing feature is fine
cross lines at intervals, giving the appearance of joints or nodes,
strikingly like those on the sugar cane or bamboo. Sometimes these
intersect like the letter X (Fig. 136).
[Illustration: FIG. 136.--FLAX FIBERS.]
In cuprammonia the walls dissolve with irregular swellings, but with no
appearance of constricting cuticular rings, as with cotton. The lumen
resembles a coiled thread.
Cross sections of flax are characteristic. They are polygonal, made up
of groups of five- or six-sided cells, with a small lumen (Fig. 137).
Fibers from the base of the stem and the root of the plant are
flattened, broad, and stratified, with wide lumens. In cross section
the lumen shows its considerable size. These fibers are one source of
tow yarn.
[Illustration: FIG. 137.--CROSS SECTIONS OF FLAX FIBERS.]
=Additional Fibers.=--(See Chap. X.) _Ramie_ is a bast fiber, from the
nettle _Bœhmeria tenacissima_. A very similar fiber, and one generally
called ramie, comes from the _Bœhmeria nivea_, or China grass. The
fiber is large in diameter, has a silky luster, is strong, smooth,
stiff, and inelastic. The bast cells are unusually large, being much
longer than linen fibers and on an average three times as wide. Like
linen, the cell walls are well thickened. The lumen varies, but is
generally plainly visible, contains granules and sometimes equals
one-third or one-half the diameter of the fiber. Characteristic
appearances are a folding over of the cell wall at times, heavy
transverse markings or nodes, and frequent striations along the fiber.
The ends of the fiber are thick walled and rounded (Fig. 138).
[Illustration: FIG. 138.--RAMIE.]
=Jute= is the bast fiber from different species of the _Corchorus_,
grown principally in India. The fiber is fine, long, lustrous, and
soft, but deficient in strength. This is due in part to irregularities
in the thickness of the cell walls, which show in the microscopic
examination, as frequently the inner and outer cell walls do not lie
in parallel lines. The fibers have a smooth appearance, without the
transverse markings of linen and ramie. The canal is large and angular
in cross section, and the fiber ends are tapering.
=Hemp= is derived from many plants. For references to hemp see Chap. X
and Matthews’ _Textile Fibers_. In general, hemp resembles flax, with
the differences that the cross markings are more like scorings than
nodes, and the cell walls are much less regular. A characteristic is
small branchings or spicules from the sides of the fiber. The fiber
ends are blunt. Hemp is stronger than jute and is not weakened by salt
water, therefore it is suitable for ship cordage.
=Pineapple fiber= is obtained from the leaves of the pineapple
plant. The elements of its fiber are extremely fine and lustrous;
the lumen is threadlike. Woven with silk, the product is called
Jusi cloth; alone, it forms the Piña cloth of the Philippines. The
fibers of the wild pineapple of Colombia, South America, are known as
_pita_ fiber. =Arghan= is the name given it by a British syndicate
which has developed a similar fiber in the Federated Malay States.
Microscopically this fiber is a straight, lustrous filament, not so
round as silk, with a narrow lumen. It is stronger than hemp or cotton
of equal size, takes dye readily, and is not affected by salt water.
=Coir.=--The husk of the cocoanut furnishes a cinnamon brown fiber
known as coir. It is about ten inches long, but the fiber elements may
be less than one millimeter in length. Under the microscope, the fiber
shows irregularities in the cell wall, and a correspondingly irregular
lumen, so that the latter may seem to have serrated edges. Pore
openings are frequent.
=Kapok= (see Chap. X, Fig. 123), a variety of _Bombax_ cotton, comes
from a cotton tree found in tropical countries. Dutch merchants trading
with Java introduced the kapok and gave it its name. The pod contains
the fibers in masses surrounding the seeds, but not fastened to them.
The fiber is weak, thin-walled, short, silky, and lightest of all
fibers in specific gravity. This property, and resistance to water
absorption due to the natural oil in the fiber, make it useful for life
preservers. It is also found in silk floss mattresses and mattresses
for the navy. A mattress made of kapok is said to regain its resiliency
on exposure to light and air.
=Substitute Fibers.=--The world war brought into common use, especially
in Germany, a number of substitute fibers. Yarns were made from paper
pulp, which was drawn out, twisted and spun, and paper clothing was
made with these yarns mixed with wool. Shoe toppings, blankets and
carpetings were also made from it. “Cellulon” is the name of a wood
pulp fiber. Spun glass is produced in Germany of such a fineness and
tenacity that it is suited to many textile purposes. Germany and other
countries have also turned to new plant sources for textile fibers.
Nettles, a species of bulrush, and an African grass known as “alfa” are
being utilized.
=Microscopic Analysis of Fabrics.=--The purpose of the microscopic
examination of a material is usually fourfold: to determine the method
of construction, the nature of the fibers used, the relative amounts,
if of different kinds, and their quality. A measured square of the
fabric is cut out large enough to contain all of the different threads
which may appear in the weave. It is then separated into warp and
filling threads, which are carefully placed in different piles. The
threads in each pile are individually examined. If different fibers
have been used, the microscope will show whether they appear separately
in warp and filling, or are combined either by twisting together or by
making one a core around which the other is veneered. Other methods of
combination may also be found. If possible, the different varieties
of fibers are separated and weighed, which will give a quantitative
estimate of the makeup of the fabric. When the various points in
question have been settled and the weave has been analyzed, the
microscopic examination is complete. There may yet remain questions
which can be settled only by chemical tests, such as more accurate
quantitative analysis, and an estimation of sizings or weightings.
CHAPTER XII
CHEMICAL STUDY OF TEXTILE FIBERS
=Aims.=--Courses in textile chemistry differ in content according to
the type of school and the kind of training in view; the age of the
student, and the place in the curriculum. A _technical course_ in the
chemistry of textiles requires a preparation which includes organic
chemistry and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Such a course
has the trade aim of the textile school or the research aim of the
university.
Another type of textile chemistry, which can be called an
_informational course_, is adapted to the needs of students who are
preparing to teach textiles and clothing, or workers in non-technical
textile occupations. Some knowledge of general chemistry is necessary
as a prerequisite. This course gives a background of information from
which can be taken the material suitable to their later requirement. It
may be placed as a separate course in the curriculum, or as a part of
household chemistry.
A third type of chemical study of fibers consists of _simple tests_ and
explanations of chemical processes, which can be given as a part of
general science work or accompanying the sewing courses in the grades
and high school. No previous chemical training is necessary. This
type of course is extremely worth while for the reason that it brings
directly to the consumer the practical information which will help her
in judging, purchasing, and caring for textiles.
It is the second type, or informational course, which is emphasized in
this chapter.
=Scope.=--An informational course in the chemical study of textiles
should include for its subject matter:
The _chemical nature of the textile fibers_, with such properties of
proteins and carbohydrates as apply to the case.
The _effect of acids and alkalies_ on the principal fibers, with
trade and household applications.
The _identification of fibers_ and separation of fiber combinations
in weaves.
A study of _special chemical processes_, particularly mercerizing and
the making of rayon.
=Chemical Nature of Textile Fibers=
Classified according to origin, the leading textile fibers are found in
the following groups:
_Animal Fibers_: Wool, hair, silk.
_Vegetable Fibers_: Cotton, flax, hemp, jute, ramie, kapok, etc.
_Artificial Fibers_: Rayon, chiefly of vegetable origin. Spun glass,
asbestos, and metallic threads, of mineral origin.
Two important types of chemical compounds are represented in these
groups. Protein is the chief constituent of the animal fibers, and the
vegetable fibers belong to the cellulose type of carbohydrates.
Proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen,
with the addition of sulphur in typical examples. Wool has a high
sulphur content, but silk has none, therefore we have a subdivision of
animal fibers into:
_Sulphur-bearing fibers_: Wool and hair.
_Containing no sulphur_: Cultivated and wild silks.
Celluloses contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, and they may be:
_Pure cellulose_, _e. g._, absorbent cotton (free from impurities
such as fatty substances), some rayon, and bleached flax (free from
woody and other impurities), or,
_Lignocellulose_, containing lignin, a substance essential to woody
tissue. Jute, hemp, and other minor bast fibers are lignocelluloses.
=Reactions of Wool.=--The chief protein constituent of wool and
hair is keratin. It belongs to the class of proteins which includes
epidermal tissue, horn, and gelatin as a derived or hydrolytic form.
As a keratinic fiber, wool is insoluble in cold water, but swells
and becomes plastic to a certain extent in hot water. The plasticity
of wool when so treated is utilized in the processes of crabbing and
milling. (See Chap. VII, _Finishing_.) On prolonged boiling, some wool
gelatin goes into solution. Consequently the long continued action
of boiling water is hydrolytic and leads to slow decomposition, with
evolution of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide. The presence of dissolved
protein products may be confirmed by the biuret test.[47] Organic
solvents such as alcohol, ether, gasoline, chloroform, and carbon
tetrachloride have no effect on scoured wool, but dissolve fatty
substances in the raw wool, or wool “in the grease.”
[47] _Biuret Test._ To a 10 per cent solution of caustic soda add
dilute copper sulphate cautiously until a faint blue color but no
precipitate remains in the liquid after shaking. Add the protein
solution. A violet color indicates protein.
Dry heat produces changes in both protein and cellulose, but as far
as yellowing or scorching and loss of tensile strength are concerned,
wool apparently withstands dry heat better than silk or cotton. Those
fibers which contain the larger amount of natural moisture probably
scorch less easily, but a stiffening effect can be noticed when a hot
iron is passed over wool or silk, which is analogous to the cooking of
protein material. From tests made by the Department of Research of the
Laundryowners’ National Association, quoted from page 108 of _Standard
Practice for the Power Laundry Washroom_, the following comparisons are
taken:
Total Loss of Strength (by Mullen Tester)
_Wool_ _Silk_ _Cotton_
46¹⁄₂ hrs. on flat-work ironer 20% 27.7% 26%
18 hrs. of dry heat at 165° C 14% 33.9% 28%
=Action of Acids and Alkalies on Wool.=--Being a protein, wool is both
acid and basic. As an instance of its dual nature, its basic groups
combine with acid dyes, and its acid groups with basic dyes and various
metallic salts and oxides. But alkalies are more destructive to wool
than acids, so it is probable that the basic quality predominates and
is able to neutralize acids.
Caustic alkalies are especially destructive to wool. The rate of
deterioration depends more upon heat than upon strength of solution.
A wool weave may withstand a cold 10 per cent solution of caustic
soda for a half hour or more, depending upon the thickness of the
material, but it begins to disintegrate in a few seconds in the same
solution at boiling temperature. The action of caustic soda on wool
under controlled conditions of strength and temperature is peculiar. In
Harper’s _Textile Chemistry_ the following illustration is given:
“Yarn with a breaking strain of 610 grains was immersed in cold
caustic soda solution for 10 min. (A longer immersion causes
deterioration.) The yarn was washed well in water containing a little
acetic acid to remove the alkali, and then air-dried and tested. The
following results were obtained:
Strength of Solution Breaking Strain
Tw.° grains
5.8 570
15.0 430
25.0 180
32.4 95
52.6 335
76.6 770
82.4 875
Above this, weakening again occurs.”
The effect on wool of other than caustic alkalies with which it may
come in contact in soaps and similar cleansers, _e. g._, washing soda,
borax, ammonia, sodium silicate, and trisodium phosphate, depends
upon the concentration of the hydroxyl ion to which these give rise
on dissociation in water, and particularly upon the temperature.
Uncombined washing soda, trisodium phosphate, and sodium silicate
are destructive to animal fibers, and when combined in soaps are not
the best choice for washing wool and silk. Borax is a mild alkali,
and ammonia, being volatile, is not harmful to wool in the ordinary
household dilution. Both may be used on occasions for softening water
and otherwise aiding in cleansing soiled blankets, for example; but,
for the careful washing of baby flannels and other woolen garments
of the household, nothing but the mildest of pure soaps should be
used habitually. Carbonated alkalies are used when needed in the wool
scouring process, to remove grease and other impurities from dirty
wool, but are cautiously employed at moderate temperatures, not over
110° F. (see Chap. VII, _Scouring_).
Matthews [_Textile Fibers_ (1924), p. 140] describes the use of
the biuret reaction in determining the degree of deterioration or
hydrolysis of wool when treated with various reagents. With regard to
alkalies he says: “It was found that neutral soap had practically no
dissolving effect on the wool fiber, whereas caustic alkali and alkali
carbonates dissolve the fiber in amounts roughly proportional to their
concentration.”
=Felting of Wool.=--Alkalies greatly increase the felting tendency of
soft wools. They have a swelling, softening effect on the fiber which
brings it to a plastic condition. This softening and swelling in the
presence of warm alkalies is a characteristic of colloids such as wool.
If loosely attached epidermal scales are present, as in felting wools,
their free edges in the swollen state interlock with those on fibers
with which they come in close contact, and the plastic mass “sets” or
coalesces into a permanent felt or mat. Friction has a great influence
in producing this fusion of fibers, consequently all unnecessary
handling and rubbing should be avoided in washing woolens.
=Action of Acids on Wool.=--Wool stands up under treatment with
acids better than with alkalies, yet their effect when not actually
destructive is usually to increase felting action and make the fibers
more harsh and boardlike. Acids are used in certain wool manufacturing
and dyeing processes, but with care as to suitable strength and
temperature.
_Sulphuric acid_, when cold and dilute, has no appreciable destructive
action on wool fibers, and is employed in the carbonizing process (see
Chap. XIII). Some of the acid is taken up by the fiber, but owing to
the basic nature of wool it has no tendering effect. But prolonged
boiling with the acid in the strength of solution used for carbonizing,
(_e. g._, 3 per cent to 5 per cent strength), will cause hydrolysis and
destruction of the fiber. Sulphuric acid of 25 to 30 per cent strength
will slowly dissolve wool. In dyeing wool with acid colors, dilute
sulphuric acid is used to liberate the color acid from the dye and to
increase the affinity of the wool for the color (see Chap. XIII).
_Hydrochloric acid_ is similar to sulphuric in its action.
_Nitric acid_ colors wool yellow. Except for this color change, wool
can be treated for a short time in very dilute nitric acid without
being seriously affected, and dyes are sometimes so stripped from the
fiber before re-dyeing. Ordinary concentrations of the acid are slowly
destructive to the fiber. Absorption tests have shown that nitric acid
is most readily absorbed by wool, and acetic acid least.
_Organic acids_, for example acetic, have little or no deteriorating
effect on wool. Acetic acid, like sulphuric, is absorbed to a degree by
wool, and increases its affinity for dyestuffs. It is used in dyeing
wool with basic dyes.
_Tannic acid_ is different from other acids in that it is not taken up
to any extent by wool, unless fixed in the fiber by the aid of metallic
salts such as tartar emetic or stannous chloride (see _Mordants_, Chap.
XIII).
_Nitrous acid_ is used to diazotize wool in the application of
developed dyes (Chap. XIII).
_Chlorine._--Wool is destroyed by strong chlorine bleaches, but in weak
solutions of hypochlorites, with suitable control of conditions, it
becomes chlorinated (see _Chlorinated Wool_, below).
_Neutral salts_ have no chemical action on wool, but certain acid or
basic salts, when dissociated in solution, combine with the wool and
act as assistants or as mordants in dyeing. An example is potassium
dichromate.
=Reactions of Silk.=--After the water-soluble silk gum or sericin is
removed, the chief protein constituent of the silk filament is fibroin.
Fibroin is insoluble in water, and can withstand the action of boiling
water better than the keratin of wool. Sericin or silk gum is dissolved
and removed by hot water. Dry heat, as shown above, is more destructive
to silk than to wool, probably because the filament does not have the
horny epidermal protection that wool has.
Silk, like wool, is both acid and basic, but since it succumbs more
slowly than wool to alkalies, and is more quickly destroyed by mineral
acids, it appears to have less of the basic property which is so marked
in wool, and more of the acid.
=Alkalies.=--Strong alkalies have the ultimate destructive effect on
silk that they have on wool, the only difference being that the action
is slower. Weakly alkaline solutions at moderate temperatures have
little effect except to cause a diminution of luster.
=Acids.=--Silk absorbs acids to a greater extent than wool, and is less
able to neutralize them in the fiber, therefore they have a destructive
effect. In strong _hydrochloric_ acid boiled-off silk dissolves almost
instantly. Heavily weighted silk, raw silk, and wild silk dissolve
more slowly, owing to their lower absorptive capacity. _Sulphuric_
acid reacts similarly to hydrochloric, but more slowly and if the
temperature is low, silk may be recovered from concentrated sulphuric
after brief immersion, without decomposition but with a shrinkage of
one-third to one-half its length. The action of nitric acid is similar
to its effect on wool, as to color change and destruction, the latter
being more rapid, however.
Dilute _organic acids_ such as acetic or tartaric are harmless to silk
at low temperatures, and may be used to remove stains, give scroop, or
aid in dyeing. Even oxalic acid, which is a stronger reagent, may be
used for stain removal, if neutralized and thoroughly washed out.
_Tannic acid_ is rapidly absorbed by silk, especially in hot solution,
and is used in some dyeing processes.
_Hydrofluoric acid_ is peculiar in its action. It attacks mineral but
not organic matter if used in weak solution at moderate temperatures,
so it may be employed to remove mineral weighting from silk without
appreciable injury to the latter.
_Chromic acid_ has a marked effect on boiled-off cultivated silk, which
it destroys in a few seconds at boiling temperature. Wild silk resists
the action of the acid long enough to make this a recognition test for
the two kinds of silks in fabrics.
=Salts.=--Chlorides, or free chlorine, have a most destructive action
on silk. Common salt in body perspiration or on the hands of workers
on silk, when allowed to stay in the fiber, may cause spotting and
weakening of the fabric, especially if tin salts have been used in
weighting the material. When salt is used in the dyebath for silk, as
recommended with some household dyes, it must be thoroughly rinsed from
the dyed material. Silk is very absorptive of all salts in solution,
and due to this capacity, certain salts, such as tin, may be used in
the dyeing process to give weight to the silk (see Chap. IX, and below).
Basic and acid zinc chloride, ammoniacal nickel oxide, and cuprammonium
solution dissolve silk.
=Reactions of Vegetable Fibers.=--Cellulose, or celluloses, the
principal constituents of vegetable fibers, are among the most stable
of chemical substances, when pure. The molecule of cellulose is so
complex that its structure is usually represented by the expression
_n_(C₆H₁₀O₅), which indicates the general proportions of its three
elements and covers a number of related compounds. Actually the value
of _n_ in the molecule may be a thousand or greater. Cellulose can
best be described, then, by its properties, and these are also the
properties of purified cotton, flax, and ramie. Pure cellulose is
long-lived. It is inert and not subject to decay if kept dry and not
exposed to sunlight. Direct sunlight causes gradual deterioration.
Linen fabrics thousands of years old are found in excavated Egyptian
tombs. The cellulose molecule contains feeble acid and basic ions, the
acid slightly predominating.
Cold water has no deteriorating effect on cellulose; in fact, cotton
threads are stronger wet than dry. No appreciable effect is produced on
cotton by water at 212° F., but when pressure raises the temperature
to 320°-340° F. a tendering begins, due probably to the formation
of hydrated or hydrolytic products. This has been investigated and
proved in laundry research, where “it is evident that the temperature
of an ironing machine operated at 90 lbs. steam pressure (saturated
steam at a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch is at a temperature of
320° F.) is about that at which cotton cloth begins to deteriorate,
although this deterioration is not at once evident as a scorch.”[48]
Dry heat is destructive to cellulose, as has been shown above. When the
temperature of the oven was 330° F., the exposure for eighteen hours
caused a loss of more than one quarter of the strength of the cotton
fiber, and only a little less effect with the flat-work ironer at about
the same temperature for 46¹⁄₂ hours. The difference was probably
accounted for by the cooling effect of evaporation in the ironing
process. This effect of heat as employed in ironing suggests a study in
the deterioration of household cottons and linens under the ironing
temperatures commonly employed in the household.
[48] _Standard Practice for the Power Laundry Washroom._
Laundryowners National Association.
=Action of Alkalies.=--Cellulose is resistant to alkalies, but is not
entirely unaffected by them. Cold dilute solutions have practically no
effect, but with increase in temperature the hydrolytic action of the
OH ion produces a gradual weakening of the cotton, and especially of
the linen, fiber, which is more marked if air is present (see Heuser,
_Textbook of Cellulose Chemistry_, for action of caustic alkalies on
cotton). If an oxidized cotton or oxycellulose forms, as it may if air
is in contact with the fiber while in the hot alkali, the material
is still further tendered. An oxycellulose also forms if cotton is
overbleached with too strong bleaching solution. Under pressure, at
temperatures above 100° C., cotton is rapidly hydrolyzed by strong
alkalies.
Carbonated and other alkalies of the milder type have more or less
action on cotton according to strength of solution and temperature,
the effect being proportional to the amount of dissociation into OH
ions, _i. e._, to the concentration of OH ions in the solution. At mild
temperatures, carbonated and caustic alkalies may strengthen cotton for
a time, due to mercerizing and shrinking effects.
Cold strong alkalies produce a peculiar change in the cotton fiber
known as mercerization. The process of mercerizing is described later.
=Action of Acids.=--As a rule, mineral acids attack cellulose.
_Concentrated sulphuric_ breaks it down completely in a few minutes,
and even very dilute sulphuric is destructive if dried and concentrated
in the fiber, as shown by its use in the carbonizing process (see Chap.
XIII). The products of this disintegration may be dextrins and glucose.
Commercial glucose is produced by the hydrolysis of starch with
sulphuric acid, starch being a substance allied to cellulose. If we
get a drop of sulphuric acid on our clothing of vegetable material--or
silk, for that matter--great speed in neutralizing is the only thing
that can save the fabric. However, when cellulose in the form of
unsized paper such as filter paper, which is a pure form, is immersed
in sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.5 to 1.6 for a moment or
two, then washed and dried, it will be found to have taken a toughened
hydrated form which is called vegetable parchment, and sulphuric acid
of about this strength is sometimes applied to cotton to give it a
wool-like appearance, or in other cases the clear, transparent look of
linen. The deterioration or destruction of the fiber is prevented as
much as possible by low temperature, proper control of the process,
and usually by using a “buffer” substance such as pyridine or ammonium
salts.
The action of _hydrochloric_ and of _nitric acid_ is different.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid has slow destructive action, and it
can be used to separate silk from cotton in a weave by destroying the
former. The cotton is not greatly affected in the brief time taken to
destroy the silk. But hydrochloric acid gas in the presence of moisture
is used to destroy cotton in the carbonizing process (see Chap.
XIII). Nitric acid, however, combines with cellulose to form nitrated
cellulose. When nitrated to the hexanitrate degree, cellulose loses its
inert nature and is highly explosive guncotton. A lower nitrate, _e.
g._, the tetranitrate, when dissolved in alcohol and ether, becomes the
remedial collodion or new-skin. Cotton linters nitrated, dissolved, and
further treated, make the nitrocellulose form of rayon (see Chap. IX,
and below).
Volatile _organic acids_, such as acetic, have no appreciable effect
on cotton or linen, but under certain conditions acetic anhydride
will dissolve cellulose with the formation of cellulose acetate. This
product has a number of important uses: for celanese or lustron silk
(see below); for photographic films; “dope” for aëroplane wings,
insulating material, etc. Oxalic acid, which is non-volatile and
sharply crystalline, will disrupt the fiber if allowed to dry in it
(see Chap. XIV). This is especially noticeable if a hot iron is put on
a spot which has been treated with oxalic without subsequent washing
out or neutralization. Holes have often appeared in cotton or linen
fabrics for this reason, sometimes because oxalic acid may have been
used in the commercial laundry in connection with the bluing water. But
oxalic acid is a safe and efficient stain remover for household use if
carefully washed out or neutralized with soap, borax, or ammonia.
Cotton has an affinity for _tannic acid_ and will absorb or adsorb
a considerable amount. An analogous effect is noticed when a starch
solution is treated with tannic acid. The starch adsorbs the acid and
forms a precipitate with it. Cotton so treated can be dyed with basic
dyes, as the cellulose holds to the acid and the acid holds to the
dyestuff, thus acting as a mordant (see _Mordants_, Chap. XIII).
_Chromic Acid_ has only a slow action on cellulose. It can be used as a
separation reagent for silk-vegetable fiber mixtures.
=Action of Salts.=--One of the most interesting of these reactions
is the solubility of alkali-treated cellulose in carbon disulphide,
to form “viscose.” This material is best known commercially in its
finished product of viscose silk (see _Chemistry of Rayon_, below), but
it has other important uses. Concentrated solutions of zinc chloride
and of ammoniacal copper oxide (Schweitzer’s reagent) are also used to
dissolve or “surface” cellulose material for commercial uses, such as
cuprammonium silk (see _Rayon_, below). Salts such as magnesium and
aluminum chloride are absorbed by cotton and are often used in cotton
finishing. Zinc chloride is used to prevent or retard the growth of
mildew. As these are acid-liberating salts, their presence in the fiber
is likely to cause tendering, especially at elevated temperatures.
Sodium stannate is also absorbed to a considerable extent and is an
ingredient in the permanent fireproofing of cotton (see below). Certain
basic salts also act as mordants by being absorbed by the cellulose on
one hand and holding to the dye with the other.
=Chlorine Bleaches= have little effect on cellulose unless too strong,
or not sufficiently removed by washing. In this case an oxycellulose
may form. The presence of one kind of oxycellulose can be shown by
immersing the material in a 1 per cent solution of methylene blue. The
oxycellulose takes up the dye, ordinary cellulose does not. Another
form of oxycellulose has been recognized with different properties. It
reduces Fehling’s solution.
=Lignocelluloses= are not so enduring as pure cellulose. The woody
substance they contain deteriorates with age and is much more
susceptible to chemical action. Jute and hemp are examples of
lignocelluloses. Of the two, jute is more easily decomposed, and
becomes brittle with use, especially in contact with salt in the air or
water.
=Experiments=
The following experiments illustrate the chemical nature and reactions
of the principal fibers:
=Elemental Composition.=--The elements present in the animal and
vegetable fibers may be recognized by a simple method of destructive
distillation:
1. Burn a sample of wool material in a dry test tube. The products
evolved include gaseous compounds of carbon and hydrogen, water,
ammonia, and hydrogen sulphide. Notice the odor like burning hair or
feathers, and the condensation of hydrogen and oxygen as water on the
sides of the tube. Test by odor and red litmus paper for ammonia.
Hold in the mouth of the tube a roll of filter paper moistened in
lead acetate. In the presence of a volatile sulphide the paper is
colored silvery black. The residue contains carbon. Make a summary
showing how the elements C, H, O, N, and S combine to form these
products.
2. Repeat with silk. No sulphur is found, unless a trace may be
present from sulphates used in the weighting. Other reactions are the
same as with wool.
3. Repeat with cotton. Notice odor like burning wood or paper.
Cotton and wood yield similar products when destructively distilled,
including hydrocarbon gases, acetone, wood alcohol, and acetic acid.
Acetic acid is volatile. Prove its presence by holding a piece of
moistened blue litmus paper in the fumes. Try to find ammonia and
sulphur as before.
4. Burn samples of wool, silk, cotton, and rayon yarns. Could this be
a home test to recognize animal and vegetable fibers by their odor
and residue on burning? Does rayon burn in a distinctive manner? Burn
several samples of silk dress goods. Is there a difference in manner
of burning and residues? Account for it.
5. Dissolve a sample of silk in 5 per cent caustic soda solution by
boiling. Repeat with wool. To each solution add a little lead acetate
solution. The dissolved wool gives a black color with lead acetate,
due to sulphur present; the silk solution shows no change.
=Action of Acids.=--Immerse samples of wool, silk, cotton, linen,
and rayon in the following solutions, under the same conditions. In
each case note time taken to produce changes, if any, and comparative
effects. Tabulate results.
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid (cold).
2. Five per cent sulphuric (cold). Squeeze out and without washing
dry in air bath at 100° C. Note condition of fibers, and compare with
carbonizing process (below).
3. Concentrated hydrochloric acid (cold).
4. Fifty per cent nitric acid (cold).
5. Concentrated chromic acid (warm to 80° C.).
6. Dilute acetic acid (cold and boiling). Squeeze out and without
washing dry in oven, and examine for strength.
7. Five per cent oxalic acid (cold and boiling). Treat as with acetic.
=Action of Alkalies.=--In the same manner, try the action of the
following:
1. Ten per cent solution of caustic soda (cold).
2. One per cent and 5 per cent solutions of caustic soda. Raise
temperature gradually. Note critical temperature for disintegration
of wool and silk, and comparative time required.
3. Five per cent solution of household lye (boiling).
4. Five per cent solution of washing soda (cold and boiling).
5. Five per cent solution of ammonium hydroxide (cold).
6. Five per cent solution of borax (cold and boiling).
7. Weak solution of Javelle water (cold and warmed).
(a) After tabulating the results of these experiments, make a list of
fiber combinations which can be separated by the acids or alkalies
used.
(b) Apply the facts obtained to stain removal processes; to trade
processes, such as fulling or milling, carbonizing, mercerizing.
_Suggested Exercises._ 1. To study the comparative composition and
reactions of soaps, make 3 per cent solutions of a pure, mild flake
or bar soap, and of soaps containing borax, washing soda, rosin soap,
a bleach, trisodium phosphate, and sodium silicate. (See Chap. XIV.,
under Study of Soaps, for tests to recognize these ingredients.)
Enter identical samples of wool and of cotton (linen also if
desired), in the same bulk of each solution, raise to boiling, and
under equal conditions boil for about twenty minutes or a half hour.
This gives a quick estimation of the comparative effect of a pure
soap and soaps with various “builders” on wool and cotton.
2. Compare different strengths of Javelle water on dressing-free
cotton, as to formation of oxycellulose. Test with methylene blue
as directed above. Test for the presence of oxycellulose in cotton
boiled in solutions of caustic soda or washing soda in the presence
of air. Compare strengths of original and treated samples on the
Scott or Mullen strength tester.
3. Study comparative strengths of wool, silk, and cotton materials
subjected to long boiling in pressure cooker, various oven heats, or
ironing with an iron of tested temperature.
4. Measure the tensile strength of rayon samples when (1) dry; (2)
wet in cold water; (3) wet in boiling water; (4) re-dried from each;
(5) washed with variations in choice of soap and method of washing.
5. Compare equal percentage strength solutions of washing soda,
borax, and trisodium phosphate in a series of washing tests on wool,
as to strength, color, and shrinkage.
6. What happens to the wool fiber, in strength and microscopic
appearance, when treated with 20 per cent, 35 per cent, and 50 per
cent solutions of caustic soda at 15° C. for 1 min.; 10 min.; 30 min.?
7. Soak samples of silk for several minutes in a 10 per cent solution
of sodium chloride, and in one or more of the perspiration formulas
(Chap. XIV). Without washing, lay aside for some days and observe any
change.
=Separation and Identification Tests=
=Color Differentiation Tests.=--Color tests are especially useful on
white or light colored mixtures of animal and vegetable fibers, in
cases where the object may be to identify the fibers without destroying
the weave, or to detect the presence of a very few threads of wool or
silk mixed with cotton.
_Picric Acid._ Picric acid in solution is a dye for animal fibers.
Silk, wool, and cotton in underwear, for example, may be recognized
individually without injury to the fabric, by spotting with the
solution in an inconspicuous place. Silk and wool are colored yellow,
the former taking the dye with a deeper, more lustrous effect than
wool. Cotton loses the color of the dye on washing.
_Millon’s Reagent_[49] produces a red color on animal fibers;
vegetable fibers are uncolored. The material is moistened with the
reagent and slightly warmed.
[49] Millon’s Reagent. 100 grams mercury dissolved in 72 cc. nitric
acid, (specific gravity 1.4) in the cold. When action ceases add
twice the volume of cold water.
_Nitric Acid_ of about 50 per cent strength gives a yellow color
(xanthoproteic reaction) to animal fibers, not to vegetable. The
color deepens to orange on touching with ammonia. Concentrated nitric
acid colors jute reddish brown.
_Dyestuffs._ A mixture of animal and vegetable fibers may be dyed in
a dye for wool and silk, _e. g._, acid magenta, and the color effect
compared with a similar sample dyed in a cotton dye, _e. g._, congo
red.
_Iodine and Sulphuric Acid._[50] Cotton and linen are colored blue;
hemp becomes greenblue; jute yellow; nitrocellulose and viscose silk
blue; acetate silk, yellow. The colors should be observed under a
microscope. The fibers are first treated with solution I, the excess
of reagent is removed with filter paper, and after one or two minutes
solution II is applied.
[50] Iodine and Sulphuric acid (Hoehnel’s Reagent). Solution I. One
gram of potassium iodide dissolved in 100 cc. of water, and iodine
added in slight excess. Solution II. Twenty cc. of glycerol mixed
with 10 cc. of water. Add 30 cc. conc. sulphuric acid.
=Separation of Wool-Cotton Mixtures.=--Animal fibers are destroyed by
boiling in a solution of caustic alkali; vegetable fibers are not.
_Caustic Potash or Soda Method._ Weigh the air-dry sample, boil
for fifteen minutes in a 5 per cent solution of caustic potash
preferably, keeping the solution at constant strength by replacing
the water lost by evaporation, or by using a reflux condenser. (A
long piece of glass tubing rising vertically through the cork of the
flask will answer.) Remove the cotton residue, (Figs. 139, 140,) wash
thoroughly, restore to air-dry condition, and weigh. It is estimated
that cotton loses from 3 to 5 per cent of its weight through the
action of the alkali. Taking 3 per cent as the loss of cotton, the
percentage composition would be found according to the following
example:
Weight of air-dry sample 2.500 gms.
Weight of cotton residue 1.700 gms.
1.700 gms. equals 97% of total cotton, therefore 1.700
divided by .97 equals total cotton or 1.750 gms.
Per cent of cotton 70%
Per cent of wool, by difference 30%
The above is a rough method. To be more accurate, the analysis must
first take into account the weight of the finishing materials in the
fabric. A method of removing these, recommended by Matthews, is as
follows:
Weigh the air-dry sample, boil in a 1 per cent solution of
hydrochloric acid, then in a very dilute solution of sodium carbonate
(about one-half per cent), and lastly in water. Air dry and weigh.
The loss is finishing material and coloring matter. Dry in an air
bath at 100° C. to constant weight to remove the natural moisture of
the fabric. Record weight of moisture-free material, and treat with
the solution of caustic potash as above. Make the correction for loss
of cotton. Finally, since the amount of wool and cotton in a mixed
weave is not based on dry weights, estimate the natural amount of
moisture in cotton cloth approximately at 8 per cent. and in wool at
16 per cent. (The United States Government allows 11 per cent regain
of moisture for silk.)
_For example_:
Gms. Per
cent
Weight of air-dry sample 5.00
Finishing materials (loss) .05 1.0
----
Dressing-free sample 4.95
Moisture (loss) .75 15.0
----
Moisture-free sample 4.20
Cotton residue (after treatment with alkali) 2.00
Wool (by difference) 2.20
Correction of cotton due to loss in alkali equals 3 per
cent, or 2 gms. = 97 per cent of cotton in original
sample. 2 gms. ÷ .97 2.06+ 41.2
Correction of wool. 2.20 gms. = 103 per cent. 2.14- 42.8
-----
100.0
Finally, the relative amounts of cotton and wool in the
original sample, based on normal moisture conditions,
are found as follows:
2.06 gms. of moisture-free cotton = 92 per cent of
normal cotton 2.24 normal
cotton
2.14 gms. moisture-free wool = 84 per cent of normal
wool 2.54 normal
wool
----
Total normal wool and cotton in sample 4.78
Per cent cotton 46.8
Per cent wool 53.2
[Illustration: FIGS. 139, 140.--MIXED WOOL AND COTTON FABRICS TREATED
WITH CAUSTIC POTASH. THE ORIGINAL MATERIAL AND THE COTTON RESIDUE ARE
SHOWN.]
_Ammoniacal Copper Oxide_ (Schweitzer’s Reagent).[51] Immerse a sample
of wool-cotton mixture in Schweitzer’s reagent for about twenty
minutes. The cotton is dissolved; the wool remains.
[51] Schweitzer’s Reagent. Dissolve 5 gms. copper sulphate in 100 cc.
boiling water, add caustic soda solution to complete precipitation.
Wash precipitate thoroughly and then dissolve in the least possible
quantity of concentrated ammonium hydroxide.
=Separation of Wool-Silk Mixtures.= 1. Immerse in 40 per cent HCl.
Silk is destroyed in two minutes. If the test is made quantitative,
finishing materials and moisture are removed by the method given
above, and a correction of 0.5 per cent is made for loss of wool.
2. To a 5 per cent solution of caustic soda add sufficient lead
acetate to form a heavy white precipitate. Mix well. Heat a white or
light-colored sample in the mixture until a brown or black color is
developed on the wool fiber. Silk is uncolored. Remove and wash. This
test also applies to wool-cotton mixtures.
3. Ammoniacal nickel oxide[52] and basic zinc chloride dissolve silk
with little loss of either cotton or wool. The silk in ordinary
fabrics will dissolve in the former in two minutes, in a cold
solution. If basic zinc chloride is used, warm the sample for five
minutes.
[52] _Ammoniacal nickel oxide._ Dissolve 5 gms. of nickel sulphate in
100 cc. water; add NaOH to precipitate nickel as hydroxide. Filter,
wash, dissolve precipitate in 25 cc. concentrated ammonium hydroxide,
and add an equal volume of water.
_Basic Zinc chloride._ Heat together 1000 parts of zinc chloride, 850
parts of water, and 40 parts of zinc oxide until complete solution is
effected.
4. A strong solution of _barium sulphide_ will dissolve wool and
leave silk or cotton unchanged. The action is quicker in a warm
solution.
5. _Copper glycerol_ solution[53] dissolves silk but does not affect
wool. Warm the sample in the solution for a few moments.
[53] _Copper glycerol solution._ Dissolve 16 gms. of copper sulphate
in 150 cc. of water, with the addition of 10 gms. of glycerol; then
gradually add a solution of caustic soda until the precipitate of
copper hydroxide which is at first formed just redissolves.
=Separation of Silk-Cotton Mixtures.=--Hydrochloric acid, ammoniacal
nickel oxide, basic zinc chloride, copper glycerol solution, chromic
acid, and caustic soda solution will destroy silk but not cotton. The
quantitative estimation is usually made by the caustic soda method.
=Silk and Wild (Tussah) Silk.=--The microscope furnishes the most
reliable test. The reagents which will destroy cultivated silk will
also destroy wild silk, but the slower rate of absorption of the latter
makes a basis for differentiation tests. For instance:
Cultivated silk is destroyed in about ten minutes in hot 5 per cent
solution of caustic soda, but wild silk requires a longer time,
perhaps thirty minutes.
Cold 40 per cent hydrochloric acid dissolves cultivated silk rapidly
and wild silk slowly, some samples requiring an hour for complete
solution.
Warm copper glycerol solution dissolves cultivated silk more rapidly
than wild silk.
Boiling chromic acid dissolves cultivated silk more rapidly than wild.
=Rayon with Other Fibers.=--Rayon can usually be recognized by its high
luster and its manner of burning, but its separation from other fibers
may be accomplished as follows:--
=Rayon-True Silk.=--The best separation is effected by the copper
glycerol solution, which destroys true silk but does not affect
rayon. This test may be made quantitative.
Boiling solutions of caustic soda destroy true silk but not rayon,
although the latter is softened and weakened, and the method is not a
quantitative one.
The color tests given above to differentiate between animal and
vegetable fibers apply to mixtures of rayon with wool or silk, and
reveal the method of mixing the rayon in the weave.
=Rayon-Wool.=--Cold 40 per cent HCl will slowly dissolve rayon, but
does not disintegrate wool. Cold chromic acid dissolves rayon more
rapidly.
A strong solution of barium sulphide will destroy wool with no effect
on rayon.
=Rayon-Cotton.=--Chromic acid destroys rayon more rapidly than cotton.
Mixtures of true silk, rayon, and cotton are found. The true silk
can be dissolved out with copper glycerol solution and the rayon
subsequently with chromic acid, leaving the cotton.
To distinguish between different kinds of rayon, _e. g._,
nitrocellulose, viscose, cuprammonium, and celanese (lustron) silks,
apply:
1. _Burning Test._ Nitrocellulose, viscose, and cuprammonium silks
smell like burning paper and leave a gray ash; acetate silk (celanese
or lustron) has a pungent smell, and leaves a blackish ash.
2. _Iodine and Sulphuric Acid._ Warm and apply. Acetate silk turns
yellow; viscose dark blue; nitrocellulose violet; cuprammonium light
blue.
3. Acetate silk dissolves in strong acetic acid; the others are not
affected.
4. Immerse fibers in concentrated sulphuric acid. In the case of the
nitrocelluloses no coloration appears for nearly an hour, then a
pale yellow color shows. Cuprate silks show a yellow color at once,
which deepens on standing, and viscose silks turn reddish brown
immediately. Dyed silks must have their color removed before this
test is made.
5. (From Griffin’s _Technical Analysis_.) Heat 0.2 gm. rayon in a
test tube with 2 cc. of Fehling’s solution on a water bath for 10
minutes, then fill with water. Nitrocellulose silks show a green
color, cuprammonium and viscose a clear blue.
Cover equal weights of cuprammonium and viscose silks in a test tube
with zinc-chloride-iodide solution,[54] and after a few seconds pour
off the excess. Then fill the test tube with water, pour off and
repeat washing process until the water is light yellow or colorless.
Cuprammonium silks are only weakly colored brown; viscose silks are
colored bluish green for some time.
[54] _Zinc-chloride-iodide solution._ Dissolve 2 gm. potassium iodide
and 0.1 gm. iodine in 5 cc. water. Add to this a solution of 20 gms.
zinc chloride in 10 cc. water. Settle and use clear solution.
Cellulose acetate silk is soluble in a mixture of 5 parts chloroform
and 2 parts denatured alcohol; also soluble in acetone.
=Cotton-Linen.=--The microscope is the most reliable means of
identifying flax fibers. Color and chemical tests are not satisfactory
in distinguishing cotton from fine bleached linen, which by the
processes of retting[55] and bleaching has become chemically identical
with cotton. Coarser linen and cotton mixtures, such as towelings,
respond fairly well to the tests given below, because of more marked
differences in the rate of absorption by the flax of the reagent used.
How to distinguish between cotton and linen in the household, without
the microscope as a possibility, is one of the most frequent and
important problems the purchaser of household supplies has to solve.
The well known spotting test with water, oil, or ink is not to be
depended upon, owing to certain dressings which may be given to cotton
to increase its absorptive power. The surest tests are these: Unravel
the yarn, slowly pull it apart, and look at the parted ends. Flax
fibers look straight, pointed, lustrous, and translucent; cotton fibers
curl in different directions and look white and opaque. The length of
staple should be an indication. Good cotton fibers average not over an
inch, but good flax fibers may be considerably longer. Another home
test which works as well as any color test, on a sample of toweling,
for instance, is to fringe in both directions so that warp and filling
threads are exposed for half an inch. Stain with ink, wash slightly,
to remove excess, and place in a solution of oxalic acid. The stain
fades more rapidly from the cotton than from the linen. This test can
be used only on union goods, where the two fibers are close enough for
comparison. The following tests are for laboratory use:
[55] The object of retting is to separate the bast fibers themselves,
and to free them from the other parts of the flax stalk--the bark,
woody tissue, and pith or marrow. A substance known as pectin binds
the bast fibers to each other and to the surrounding stalk, but in
the process of fermentation, while the flax is immersed in water,
this is more or less completely removed. This is effected principally
by micro-organisms which in the absence of air will attack moist
pectin and break it down into simpler compounds. These are, as a
rule, soluble and wash away, leaving the bast fibers free. Some
pectic acid may be formed, which being insoluble in water remains
on the fiber. Full bleaching still further purifies the flax fiber,
however, making it nearly pure cellulose. This slow and expensive
method of retting flax under water by the action of anaerobic
bacteria has led to experimentation with other methods of removing
the pectose without injury to the flax fiber. One of these employs
aerobic bacteria to work on the pectin bodies. The flax is placed in
vats, warm water and the bacterial cultures are added, and a current
of air is sent through the water until retting is complete, in 36 to
40 hours. (See Chap. X.)
[Illustration: FIG. 141.--MIXED LINEN AND COTTON TOWELING TREATED WITH
SULPHURIC ACID. THE LINEN REMAINS IN THE FRINGE.]
_Sulphuric Acid._ Immerse the sample in concentrated sulphuric acid
for one and one-half to two minutes, according to the texture of
the material. Remove, wash thoroughly with water, followed by weak
ammonia. Cotton fibers are weakened more than linen, and can be
washed out, leaving the linen (Fig. 141).
_Fifty Per Cent Caustic Potash._ Warm a fringed sample of union
material in this reagent. Remove and dry between filter paper. Linen
becomes brownish-yellow; cotton white or straw color.
_Fuchsin._ Immerse a fringed sample in a 1 per cent solution of
fuchsin in alcohol. Wash, lay in ammonia; then in strong caustic soda
solution. Cotton is slightly colored; linen becomes rose-red.
_Cyanin._ Warm a fringed sample over a water bath in a 1 per cent
alcoholic solution of cyanin. Wash in water to which only a drop or
two of sulphuric acid has been added. Linen fiber is colored blue;
cotton is paler in color. The color may be intensified by treatment
with ammonia water.
_Rosolic Acid._ Warm the fringed material over a water bath in an
alcoholic solution of rosolic acid, wash and dip for a second in
strong caustic soda. Wash. Linen remains rose-red, cotton loses it
color.
_Copper Sulphate and Potassium Ferrocyanide._ (Herzog.) Fringe a
sample, lay for ten minutes in a 10 per cent solution of copper
sulphate, wash to remove surplus of the copper salt, and place in a
10 per cent solution of potassium ferrocyanide. Flax fibers become
copper red; cotton fibers are uncolored.
_Methylene Blue._ (Behrens.) Fringe the sample, color with a warm
solution of methylene blue, wash thoroughly. The flax fiber holds a
clear blue color while cotton fibers wash out green-blue to nearly
colorless. This test fails if oxycellulose has formed in bleaching
the material, as this substance has an affinity for methylene blue.
If considerable starch is present in towelings, damasks, or other
materials to be tested for linen and cotton, as shown by the iodine
test, it should be removed before the above reagents are used,
otherwise the results may not be so definite. Methods for starch
removal are given below under the section on Dressing and Finishing
Cotton and Linen.
_Suggested Exercises._ 1. Make a collection of typical fiber
combinations used for clothing or house furnishings, and apply a test
for the recognition of each type of fiber used.
2. Make an economic study of wool-cotton mixtures for dress
materials, baby flannels, shirtings, etc., as to cost, composition,
tensile strength, and general wearing quality.
3. Study the composition of new or novelty fabrics which have
misleading or non-descriptive names.
4. Make a study of rayon alone or in combination. Note kind of rayon;
tensile strength wet and dry; composition of mixtures.
5. Make an economic study of wool or silk dress material available
at certain price levels, such as the $6 level, the $3, the $1.50.
Consider actual cost per square yard, composition, tensile strength,
presence of dressing or weighting, quality of weave and general
comparative values.
=Special Chemical Processes=
1. Dressing or Weighting.
2. Mercerizing.
3. Chlorinated and Unshrinkable Woolens.
4. Fireproofing.
5. Waterproofing.
6. Manufacture of Rayon.
=Dressing or Finishing Cotton and Linen.=--The question of dressing
or finishing is an important one from the consumer’s standpoint,
especially in the purchasing of table linen. Materials of very inferior
fiber or weave may be so loaded with starchy or other dressing as to
appear of fine quality and firm texture. Simply boiling out a sample
of toweling or table damask will often reveal an apparently different
fabric from the purchased one.
A certain amount of dressing or sizing is legitimate and necessary, in
order to make the filaments in a spinning yarn more homogeneous, and
better able to stand the strain and friction of weaving, especially in
the case of warp threads.
Only the finishing methods which employ chemical substances will be
considered here. Mechanical processes have been mentioned in the
chapters on cotton and linen. Chemical sizings or finishes have the
chief purposes of: (1) giving stiffness or size to the material; (2)
giving weight and body; (3) giving softness; (4) giving antiseptic
properties; (5) bluing.
Substances that give stiffness or size to the weave are principally
starches, such as potato, wheat, corn, rice, tapioca, cassava, and
sago. Dextrins and other gums, Irish or Iceland moss, glue, and
sometimes blood or egg albumin and casein are also used. Starching
improves the appearance and strength of most cottons and the cheaper
grades of linens, but should not be used in excess, especially in table
linens and towelings. According to Herzfeld, if such linens have any
dressing, it should consist of not more than 2 to 5 per cent starch.
Weight and body are obtained by using heavy substances such as china
clay, talc, blanc fixe, alum, chrome alum, magnesium chloride and
sulphate, barium and calcium chloride. These may load the material
to such an extent that a poor, sleazy weave is filled in and made to
appear firm and thick. An over-load of earthy material can be detected
by the dust which flies out when the cloth is torn, as with some
cretonnes, unless this is held in by fatty substances. Many of these
weighting or sizing materials, _e. g._, chrome alum, albumins and
Iceland moss, are used as aids in fixing dyestuffs on the fiber, sizes
and dyes being frequently applied in one “padding” operation.
Substances used for giving softness are tallow, stearin, soap, waxes,
paraffin, oils, glycerol, etc. These soften the size and hold it to the
fiber. Glycerol aids in giving cotton the clear look of linen.
Antiseptic substances are used to prevent or retard the growth of
mildew in starched goods. They may be zinc chloride, formaldehyde,
carbolic, salicylic, and boric acids. Both zinc and magnesium chlorides
are liable to release hydrochloric acid under the influence of moist
heat, and so may cause a tendering of the material.
Bluings include Prussian blue, ultramarine, and aniline dyes.
The complexity of sizing recipes can be judged by a recipe for white
shirting material which calls for definite proportions of potato and
wheat starches, China clay and barium sulphate, tallow, soap, cocoanut
oil, stearin, soda crystals, and ultramarine blue.
=Experiments in Removing Sizing.=--It is often important in purchasing
household linens and cottons, especially in considerable quantity, to
get at the real quality of the weave. This can be done by removing as
much as possible of the soluble sizings, and starches which can be made
soluble, from samples of the material. Starch is insoluble in cold
water, and only soluble to the form of starch paste in boiling, in
which form it sticks to the material and is difficult to remove without
many boilings in frequent changes of water. To save time, an organic
acid such as oxalic may be used in the water, which will change the
starch to glucose in a short time of boiling. The laboratory method is
as follows:
_Five Per Cent Oxalic Acid._ Using a reflux condenser, boil the
sample about fifteen minutes in a 5 per cent solution of oxalic acid.
Remove, wash thoroughly, boil again for a few minutes in clear water,
and test with iodine. If starch is still present in considerable
amount, as it may be in heavily dressed material, continue the
boiling in a change of water. An approximation of the amount of
soluble sizing in a fabric can be reached by making this test
quantitative. This method requires only about a tenth the time of the
method of boiling out the sizing in plain water.
Boiling in a pressure cooker under about fifteen pounds pressure for
the necessary time is recommended to remove starch with as little
injury as possible to the fiber, when the dressing-free material is
to be used for tests, etc. This hastens the process by converting the
starch to its soluble form.
Griffin, in _Technical Analysis_, recommends the following use of a
starch-digesting enzyme: “Boil in water 10 minutes. Rinse. Digest at
60° C. for 2 hours in a solution of 15 cc. commercial diastofor in
500 cc. water. Wash and dry. If quantitative, dry the material to
constant weight in an airbath at 100° C. before and after treatment.”
Dannerth (_Methods of Textile Chemistry_) recommends the following
method of determining the amount of organic finishing material in a
cotton fabric:
1. The percentage of filling materials. A weighed sample of the
fabric is boiled consecutively in distilled water, 1 per cent caustic
soda solution, and 1 per cent hydrochloric acid; each operation
should be continued for about one hour. If the sample be finally
washed and dried to constant weight at 105° C., the result will give
the amount of absolutely dry fiber present. Add 8 per cent to obtain
the “normal” air-dry weight.
2. The percentage of moisture in the air-dry fabric is determined by
drying to constant weight at 105° C.
3. The percentage of fats and waxes is determined by extraction with
ether in the Soxhlet apparatus.
4. The percentage of starch, etc., is determined by difference as
shown in the illustration below:
Total filling materials. 22 per cent
Moisture. 12 per cent } 17 per cent
Fats, etc. 5 per cent }
Starch, etc. 5 per cent
The qualitative test for mineral matter in the fabric is the ash
which remains after ignition of the fabric in a crucible. The filling
material may be soluble in water, _e. g._, the chlorides of zinc,
calcium, magnesium, and sodium. The insoluble portion may consist of
China clay, barites, gypsum, chalk, talc, lime, or aluminum soaps.
These latter compounds will, of course, be decomposed on heating.
_Suggested Exercises._ 1. Try the following starch hydrolytic agents
as to effectiveness in starch removal and their tendering effect on
the fabric: Diastofor as directed above; one per cent solutions of
formic and of tartaric acids; 1 per cent and 5 per cent solutions of
oxalic acid; five per cent solutions of acetic acid, cream of tartar,
sodium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium and potassium bisulphates.
2. Make an economic study of kitchen or other towelings as to cost,
composition, quality of weave after dressings are removed.
3. Analyze a linen-finished or “linenized” fabric for the qualitative
determination of the finishing materials used.
=Sizing and Weighting of Silk.=--There are several reasons for the
practice of adding finishing and weighting materials to silk. In the
process of degumming the removal of the sericin or silk gum causes a
loss of weight. This averages about 20 per cent, and on this basis one
hundred pounds of raw silk will yield about eighty pounds of boiled-off
silk. The throwster and especially the dyer plan to make up this loss
by allowing the silk to take up weight from the baths used. Silk
readily absorbs the tannic acid and iron, tin, or other salts used in
the baths. When properly carried out, this absorption up to a certain
amount cannot be considered an adulteration, for it is a necessary
accompaniment of some mordanting and dyeing operations, and it adds to
the quality and attractive appearance of the silk. A 16-ounce[56] silk,
or one which has had about 12 oz. brought up to 16 oz., is sometimes
called “pure dye” silk and some silk manufacturers make 14-oz. silk
their standard for “pure dye,” but the term is usually considered to
mean that no weighting whatever has been added.
[56] A weighting of over 25 per cent, or approximately a 16-oz. silk,
is often a strain on the fiber, yet organzine may be weighted to the
extent of 18 oz. for colors and 30 ozs. for blacks, and the tram
up to 24 or 26 ozs. for colors and 40 or even 60 ozs. for blacks.
Weighting is calculated as ounces per pound of raw silk. A 24-oz.
tram, for example, means that about 12 (or 12.4) oz. have been
brought up to 24 oz., the equivalent of 16 oz. of raw silk, which is
a weighting of 93 per cent. See Matthews, _Textile Fibers_.
In the weighting of silk, stannic chloride is used, except for blacks.
It can be applied to white silk without changing its color, or to any
shade of dye. The objection to its use in the past has been that the
silk often rotted away after a while, because of the formation of free
hydrochloric acid in the fiber. It may be mentioned that recently the
process has been scientifically controlled so that it is claimed that
silk can be weighted with tin salts without disturbing the quality of
the original yarn. “Processed silk” is silk weighted in the gum by a
method which is said to be harmless to the fiber, but at this date the
process is not yet a commercial success.
The public has been too ready to lay the blame on weighting, if any
weakness develops in the wear of silk, and it is true that eventually
weighting affects the life of silk. The silk construction expert says,
however, that construction has an equal influence upon strength of
weave and fabric endurance, and experience shows that the length of
life of the same silk is quite different with different wearers. Some
people should never wear silk because the exhalations from their
bodies are sufficiently acid to destroy silk garments in a short time,
even when not in contact with the skin. Silks that can be afforded by
the person of moderate means would often be less satisfactory both
as to appearance and ordinary expectation of wear were it not for
the finishes and weightings given them. Some silks are back-filled
with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth, dextrin or other gums in the final
finishing processes.
The materials used in tin weighting are essentially those given
above, with differences in the method of application. Silk has great
adsorptive capacity for strong cold solutions of stannic chloride.
After soaking in such a solution, it is washed and hydroextracted,
during which the tin salt tends to dissociate to become stannic
hydroxide, and hydrochloric acid is formed to some extent. The stannic
hydroxide and chloride unite with the silk filament and with the
sodium phosphate which is then applied. The process is repeated from
the beginning until sufficient weighting is secured, and the final
treatment usually consists in immersing the silk for some time in a
warm solution of sodium silicate. If the process is not carefully
carried out with regard to washing out excess stannic chloride, or
such free hydrochloric acid as forms, the fiber is damaged and the
silk becomes very tender. Many instances have occurred of tin-weighted
silks which have gone to pieces after one wearing, or simply on hanging
in the closet, but better methods and more care in the process are
making such cases less frequent. Sodium chloride also, if left in the
fiber, will develop stains and tender spots. Sodium acetate used in
the final washing of tin-weighted silk aids in preserving the fiber,
by replacing with acetic any hydrochloric acid which may be present.
Black silks may be “pure dye,” with iron tannate as the mordant, or
they may be “dynamited,” that is, especially heavily loaded. Logwood
is still preferred to coal-tar colors for black silks. A method for
dyeing organzine with logwood is as follows: After boiling off, the
silk is steeped in a bath of iron nitrate, and passes into a soap and
iron bath, which adds a given weight of iron soap. The skein is then
placed in a bath of potassium ferrocyanide, which with the iron present
produces Prussian blue, and this is followed by a bath of cutch or
catechu. Tannin absorbed from the catechu increases the weight 35 to
40 per cent, and here stannous chloride may be added to bring it up to
any desired weight. The silk is now mordanted in an iron bath, and the
dyeing finished in a logwood solution.
The following method of estimating weighting of tin-weighted silk is
given by Alton A. Cook of the United States Testing Company, New York
City:
A. 1. Dry sample for 2 hours at 105° C. and weigh. (“Bone-dry” weight
should be between 1 and 2 gms.)
2. Boil in 250 cc. distilled water for at least 30 minutes to remove
water-soluble finishing materials.
3. Dry at 105° C. to constant weight. Loss equals water-soluble
finishing materials. (Commercial samples usually contain 2 to 10 per
cent finishing materials.)
B. 1. Warm 100 cc. 2 per cent hydrofluoric acid to 60° C. Immerse
sample and work it in the bath for twenty minutes, not allowing
temperature to exceed 70° C.
2. Rinse in water, immerse in bath of 2 per cent sodium carbonate at
60° C. to 65° C., work as before for twenty minutes.
3. Thoroughly rinse and dry to constant weight at 105° C. Loss
represents amount of mineral weighting.
C. Determine the amount of residual mineral matter in the silk after
the preceding treatments by the usual ash method of burning off all
organic matter. (This step should always be carried out to check the
completeness of the stripping operation.)
Repeat the stripping if the ash is over 1 or 1¹⁄₂ per cent, and add
total loss. (A pure, boiled-off silk should have an ash of not more
than 0.1 per cent.)
The quantitative estimation of weighting in silks not tin-weighted,
especially some blacks, is a difficult matter. The most accurate method
seems to be the determination by the Kjeldahl process of the actual
silk present in a given sample. As nitrogenous substances--gelatin or
glue, ammonium phosphate, and Prussian blue--may be in the weighting,
these must first be removed. Matthews gives the following method for
this:
“Boil a weighed quantity of silk (about 2 gms.) in a 2 per cent
solution of sodium carbonate for thirty minutes. Wash, heat to 60° C.
for thirty minutes in water containing 1 per cent of hydrochloric acid,
and afterwards wash well in hot water. Repeat the treatment with alkali
and acid until the sample no longer has a blue color.”
The Kjeldahl process consists in converting the nitrogenous matter of
the silk, by the aid of sulphuric acid, into ammonium sulphate. Ammonia
is liberated from this on addition of caustic soda, is distilled
into a known amount of sulphuric acid, and the amount of nitrogen
calculated. Matthews gives the nitrogen content of silk with 11 per
cent hygroscopicity as 17.6 per cent, therefore the amount of true silk
in the sample is determined by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen
found by 5.68.
The operation is conducted as follows: Place the silk, treated as
above, for removal of nitrogenous weighting, in a Kjeldahl flask, add
20 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid, 10 to 12 gms. of potassium
sulphate, and 0.5 gm. of copper sulphate. Heat gently at first, then
increase the heat, and boil till colorless. Cool, add about 250 cc.
of distilled water, and after the solid matter has dissolved, 4 or
5 drops of rosolic acid. Put 100 cc. of tenth-normal sulphuric acid
and 4 or 5 drops of Congo red in an Erlenmeyer receiving flask. Place
small pieces of zinc and paraffin in the Kjeldahl flask to prevent
bumping, add 80 cc. or more of strong caustic soda, and connect at
once. At first distill over a low flame, later with increased heat,
until about half the contents of the flask has been distilled over.
If the color in the receiving flask becomes red, showing excess
of ammonia, add a measured amount of the tenth-normal sulphuric
acid. Titrate the excess of acid in the receiving flask against
tenth-normal caustic soda. (A more detailed description of this
process with discussion of precautions and modifications may be found
in Sherman’s _Methods of Organic Analysis_, Revised edition, Chap.
XIV.)
Given the weight of the silk sample as 1.5 gms., the calculation may be
as follows:
100 cc. N/10 H₂SO₄ used.
7.9 cc. N/10 NaOH used to neutralize excess H₂SO₄.
100 cc. H₂SO₄ - 7.9 cc. = 92.1 cc. used to take up ammonia.
1 cc. N/10 H₂SO₄ = 0.0014 gm. nitrogen.
92.1 × 0.0014 gm. N = 0.12894 gm. N in sample.
5.68 × 0.12894 gm. N. = 0.73 gm. actual silk.
0.73 + 1.5 = 48.7 per cent of actual silk in the sample.
Weighting is calculated in terms of percentage of the amount of pure
silk present. Therefore a weighting of 0.77 gm. on 0.73 gm. silk (1.5
gms. - 0.73 gm. = 0.77 gm.) would be (0.77 × 100) divided by 0.73 = 105
per cent. This amount of weighting means that 16 oz. of raw silk have
been brought up to 24 to 26 oz. in the dyeing and finishing operations.
[Illustration: FIG. 142.--WEIGHTING OF SILK. THE BOTTLE CONTAINS THE
MINERAL WEIGHTING LEFT AFTER BURNING A PIECE OF SILK LIKE THE SAMPLE
SHOWN.]
=Rough Estimation of Weighting.=--Mineral matter may be estimated
approximately by burning a sample in a crucible until the organic
matter is entirely consumed. The ash residue roughly represents the
mineral weighting (Fig. 142), and if the fibers have been coated to
excess, the form of the fabric will persist after the animal matter has
been burned. This is a guide to the wearing value of a silk, and is
the only method of investigation possible in the home. The sample may
simply be held by forceps in the flame until nothing but mineral matter
remains.
_Suggested Exercises._ 1. The presence of tin weighting may be proved
as follows: Boil a sample of the silk in dilute HCl, reduce acidity
with NH₄Cl, warm solution slightly and pass H₂S gas through. A
yellow precipitate indicates stannic tin. Confirm by adding ammonium
sulphate to the original solution. A heavy white precipitate of
metastannic acid appears.
2. Test for glue in light-colored samples: Dissolve 3 gms. of
ammonium molybdate in 250 cc. of water, and add 25 cc. nitric acid
of specific gravity 1.2. Boil the sample in water, concentrate the
solution on the water bath, and treat with the above reagent, which
will cause a heavy white precipitate if glue is present. Other
substances such as gum arabic give a turbidity but no characteristic
precipitate.
3. Test for gum arabic by hydrolyzing the concentrated water solution
of finishing materials with hydrochloric acid, using a water bath.
Gum arabic, largely a pentosan, yields pentose, and on further
heating furfural forms, which is volatile and will produce a red
color on a strip of paper moistened with aniline acetate and held in
the vapors.
4. Other water soluble substances, such as sugars, dextrins, and
mineral salts, may be found in the usual ways: Starch and dextrin
with iodine; sugar by inversion and Fehling’s test; glycerol by
acrolein test; and mineral matter by qualitative methods.
5. Ash the sample. Perform usual qualitative tests, including test
for silica.
6. Test for fats and waxes by Soxhlet extraction.
7. Make an economic study of different kinds of dress silks at
a given range of price, as to construction, weighting, tensile
strength, comparative values for certain purposes.
=Mercerization.=--In the process of mercerization, cotton is made to
undergo certain changes by treatment with strong caustic alkalies.
John Mercer, an English cotton printer, was the first to show that
cellulose, treated under given conditions with alkalies, contracted,
gained in strength because of shrinkage, and in affinity for dyes.
His investigations are described under the English patents of 1850.
Owing to several reasons, chiefly the high price of caustic soda, the
discovery had little commercial value for thirty years. Since 1880
the process has grown to be vastly important, especially since the
patent taken out by Lowe in 1889, which covers a method of employing
tension for preventing shrinkage and producing a lustrous material.
There have been several modifications and improvements of the method,
credit for some of which is due to Thomas and Prevost of Germany, but
the essential process consists in immersing the cotton yarn or piece
under tension in strong cold caustic soda or potash solutions, and
subsequently washing it.
To obtain a high degree of luster, the best quality of cotton is
required, and tension is necessary. The fiber is generally combed and
gassed to remove protruding ends, and render it more silky. After
singeing, the goods are scoured thoroughly. The yarn or piece (usually
the piece) may be bleached before or after mercerizing, depending
upon the purpose for which it is intended. The material, suitably
prepared, is carried under tension on rollers through the mercerizing
solution. This may be caustic soda of a gravity of 55° to 65° Tw., at
a temperature not exceeding 20° C. After a minute or two in the alkali
solution the material, still under tension, is washed in fresh and
acidified waters. The steps of the process in outline are: Mercerizing
the prepared goods; washing; neutralization; washing; drying.
Mercerizing without tension is sometimes done on goods such as duck,
which are to be shrunk for waterproofing; or on cotton velvets and
other napped goods and Turkish towels, to close up the weave, or for
strength. Unstretched mercerized goods gain in weight, strength, and
in greater affinity for dyes than stretched goods; the latter gain in
luster particularly, but also in increased affinity for dyes.
Crinkled effects are often produced by mercerizing cotton goods in
stripes or other patterns by a printing process; the unmercerized
portions crinkle because of the shrinkage of the adjoining mercerized
parts. Discharge and resist effects can be produced by printing the
caustic soda paste on dyed or prepared piece goods.
The chemical change produced by mercerization consists in the
probable formation of an alkali cellulose, which breaks up during
the washing process, and the cellulose unites with water to form a
cellulose hydrate. In addition to the chemical change, the cotton fiber
undergoes structural modifications. The cell walls are thickened,
the fiber becomes cylindrical or nearly so, and with mercerization
under tension the natural twist tends to disappear, giving place to
a smooth, rod-like appearance. Owing to the fact that the outer and
inner structure of the fibers is not equally influenced by the alkali,
some twisting is commonly found in mercerized fibers, by which they
can be recognized under the microscope. The acquired luster is due
partly to the better surface for light reflection given by the smooth,
rounded fiber, partly to the removal of the cuticle, and partly to
the translucent effect produced by strong alkalies on cellulose.
Mercerization decreases the elasticity of the cotton fiber, therefore
mercerized cottons are apt to crease and wrinkle even more than
unmercerized.
Cotton may be made to appear to be mercerized by giving it the
Schreiner finish (see Chap. VIII, _Finishing_).
=Tests for Mercerization.=--The microscope is useful in determining not
only the presence but the degree of mercerization. The slight twist
which is occasionally found is a characteristic which helps to identify
the fiber. The best chemical test is the Hubner method of treatment
with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide.[57] The material is
moistened with water, placed in the solution for a few seconds, then
washed thoroughly and laid in water. Mercerized cotton remains blue
or black; ordinary cotton fades to brown or yellowish. The absolute
prerequisite for this test is that the material shall have been boiled
free from starchy dressing before testing, otherwise all fibers will
give the blue reaction.
[57] Iodine in potassium iodide: Dissolve 20 gms. of iodine in 100
cc. of a saturated solution of potassium iodide.
=Chlorinated and Unshrinkable Wool.=--When wool is treated under
certain conditions with acidified bleaching powder solution, or
chlorinated, the fiber loses some or all of its felting property, due
to a fusing of the epidermal scales with the cortical region. A typical
treatment to produce this effect, taken from an article in the _Textile
World_ of Oct. 27, 1923, is as follows:
“The goods are steeped in a solution of hydrochloric acid of a
strength of 1.5° to 2° Tw., then squeezed and passed into a cold
solution of bleaching powder of about the same density. After working
in this for about twenty minutes they are washed and passed into a
bath of sulphurous acid or sodium bisulphite to remove any unused or
combined chlorine. They are then washed with water, then in a dilute
solution of sodium carbonate to neutralize the acid, and finally with
water until free from alkali.”
The process is a difficult one to control. If not carried far enough,
the material is not sufficiently unshrinkable to give satisfaction in
advertised unshrinkable woolen underwear. On the other hand, too long
action of the bleaching solution may over-chlorinate to the point where
the epidermal scales are entirely removed instead of being fused to
the cortex, and the strength of the goods suffers. The processed goods
are used not only for underwear, but chlorinated and unchlorinated
yarns may be woven together and afterward milled. The unchlorinated
yarns shrink and give a crêpe effect to the fiber. Chlorinated wool
has an increased affinity for certain dyestuffs. Two-tone effects can
be produced by dyeing a fabric of mixed chlorinated and unchlorinated
yarns. By introducing cotton, silk, or tannin-resisted dyed yarns, four
or five color effects are possible.
=Fireproofing.=--The Non-Flam Process, an English process patented in
the United States in 1907, is a method of permanently fireproofing
cotton, resulting from the investigations of Sir William Henry Perkin.
It can be applied to any cotton fabric, but is especially valuable in
the case of flannelette, which because of its nap and treatment in
finishing is exceedingly inflammable. The process, as described by the
originator, is as follows: “The material is run through a solution of
sodium stannate of approximately 1.22 sp. gr., in such a manner that
it becomes thoroughly impregnated. It is then squeezed to remove the
excess of the solution, and passes over heated copper drums in order to
thoroughly dry it, after which it is run through a solution of ammonium
sulphate of about 1.75 sp. gr., and again squeezed and dried. Apart
from the precipitated stannic oxide, the material now contains sodium
sulphate, and this is removed by passage through water. The material is
then dried and subjected to the ordinary processes of finishing.”
It is of practical value to have a method of fireproofing which can be
applied at home at need. Lace curtains and other draperies, properties
for amateur theatricals, and Christmas trees are often the cause of
fires. Children get hold of matches, and boys in Indian suits jump over
bonfires. If a fireproofing solution can be applied easily and cheaply
in such cases, without harm to the goods, it is often worth while, even
though the process may have to be repeated after each washing.
Some ammonium salts have good fireproofing properties. On heating,
ammonia is released, which forms a layer of non-combustible gas about
the cloth, and at the same time a layer of vitreous material is
covering the goods.
Experiments in the textile laboratory of Teachers College, Columbia
University, have shown that the following formula is one of the best
that can be devised for fireproofing at home, as it has the advantages
of being easily obtained, is cheap (the cost is about 50 cts. per
gallon of solution), effective, and leaves the cloth soft and unchanged
in appearance:
Four ounces sal ammoniac.
Four ounces ammonium sulphate.
Six ounces dibasic ammonium phosphate.
Dissolve in one gallon of water. After the clothing is washed and
rinsed, wring out, and immerse in enough of this solution to saturate
the cloth. Allow to soak for five minutes or so, then wring out and
dry without rinsing.
The solution may be sprayed on theatrical properties and other articles
which cannot be immersed.
Other formulas for fireproofing are:
1. One pound dibasic ammonium phosphate dissolved in one gallon of
water. Cost, about 95 cts. per gal. Effective but expensive.
2. 8 oz. ammonium sulphate
2 oz. borax
3 oz. boric acid
2 oz. ammonium carbonate
¹⁄₂ oz. dextrin (may be omitted)
1 gal water.
Not so effective as the first solution, but costs about 20 cts. per
gallon.
3. 8 oz. ammonium sulphate
2 oz. borax
2 oz. boric acid
1 gal. water.
Costs about 18 cts. per gal. The cloth is left somewhat stiff.
4. The British Fire Prevention Formula:
2 lbs. ammonium sulphate
4 lbs. ammonium chloride
3 gals. water.
Costs about 57 cts. per gallon. Cloth so treated is flash-proof, but
burns after an exposure of several seconds to the flame.
5. Thouret’s Solution:
4 oz. ammonium phosphate
2 oz. ammonium chloride
1 oz. calcium chloride
1 gal. water.
=Waterproofing.=--Closely woven canvas sheds water unless in contact
with some object below it, but to become impervious to water treatment
is necessary. Types of waterproofing substances used are: (1) insoluble
metallic soaps such as aluminum soap, or other insoluble metallic
compounds; (2) paraffins or waxes; (3) asphaltum or tar; (4) drying
oil preparations, _e. g._, linseed. Substances inhibiting mildew may be
combined with waterproofing material for better preservation.
Clothing material to be waterproofed is mechanically impregnated with
rubber, waxes, etc., or treated chemically to deposit the waterproofing
substance on or in the fiber. The Tate Electrolytic Process fills the
pores of the fibers with insoluble aluminum hydroxide. It claims that a
permanent combination is made between the chemical and the fiber by the
electrolytic treatment given it. Methods of electroplating rubber on
fabrics are being perfected.
A formula which could be applied to home waterproofing of a tent calls
for about 8 lbs. crude paraffin wax and 1 to 2 lbs. beeswax dissolved
in a mixture of 3 gals. of gasoline and 2 gals. of kerosene. Apply with
a paint brush and keep away from an open flame while mixing and using.
=Chemistry of Rayon= (see Appendix, Section X).--The making of
artificial silk or rayon and its great commercial success stand as
one of the most prominent recent achievements of the textile chemist.
Nearly two hundred years ago the French scientist Reaumur suggested
the possibility of making silk by artificial means, and about fifty
years ago the Swiss Andemars received a patent for the production of an
artificial fiber, but Comte Hilaire de Chardonnet, in France, was the
first to patent a commercially successful method of making artificial
silk, or what is now generally called rayon. This was in 1885, and the
Chardonnet factory at Besançon was manufacturing one hundred pounds a
day by 1891.
Chardonnet made his artificial silk by nitrating cellulose, dissolving
it, and regenerating it as a filament. Many improvements have been made
in the original process, notably by Lehner.
Whatever the method used to make rayon, the essential plan is the same:
cellulose in the form of wood or cheap fiber material is dissolved,
then restored to a solid in the shape of fine lustrous filaments. The
development and use of rayon as a textile fiber are considered in Chap.
IX; its chemical production is given here.
At the present time there are four leading types of artificial silk
according to method of manufacture: (1) _Nitro or Chardonnet_, also
called _Tubize_; (2) _Cuprammonium_, called _Cuprate, Glanzstoff or
Pauly_; (3) _Viscose_, and (4) _Cellulose acetate_, called _Acetate_,
_Celanese_, and _Lustron_.
1. _Nitro Silks._ For this type of rayon raw cotton in the form of
linters is taken, changed to nitrocellulose by treating with nitric
acid in the presence of sulphuric, the resulting nitrated form
dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether to a viscous solution, and
in this stage filtered and pressed through spinning jets or orifices
of perhaps ¹⁄₅₀₀ of an inch in diameter. The filaments solidify on
emerging, after the manner of new-skin, due to the evaporation of
the alcohol-ether solvent. In order to reduce inflammability, they
are denitrified by ammonium or some other hydrosulphide, and further
treated to improve color, strength, luster, and finish.
2. _Cuprammonium Silks_ were developed from methods of Despaisses
and Pauly. They are made by dissolving cotton, generally linters,
previously purified, in ammoniacal copper oxide or Schweitzer’s
reagent, and forcing the solution through jets into a coagulating bath
of glucose and caustic soda solution. The effect of the glucose is
to reduce the copper to a precipitate of cuprous oxide which can be
separated from the filaments of rayon. As the thread comes from this
spinning bath it is treated with acid to neutralize the caustic soda,
washed free from acid, dried and finished. Modifications of the process
are used in different factories. Cuprammonium silk has a smooth rounded
surface and a high luster.
3. _Viscose Silk_ was developed in England through the researches of
Messrs. Cross and Bevan, the authorities in the chemistry of cellulose,
who discovered its foundation substance, cellulose xanthate. It is the
leading form of rayon at present in both Great Britain and the United
States. In this country both cotton linters and spruce wood are the raw
material for viscose. The cellulose is freed from its encrusting woody
impurities by the sulphite method, that is, digested with a mixture of
free sulphurous acid and bisulphite of lime until the woody portions
are destroyed. Bleaching follows. At the rayon mills the bleached
sulphite pulp is mercerized with strong caustic soda, the resulting
alkali cellulose is matured, shredded or “crumbed,” and dissolved in
carbon disulphide, which converts it into an orange-yellow soluble
derivative of cellulose called alkali-cellulose xanthate. This product
is dissolved in dilute caustic soda solution or in water, and ripened.
During the ripening process the cellulose xanthate hydrolyzes toward a
cellulose or cellulose hydrate product, and at an intermediate stage
the viscous fluid, _viscose_, is ready for spinning. The viscose is
filtered and pumped through fine jets or holes into a coagulating bath
of sulphuric acid, ammonium sulphate, and glucose. The spun filaments
are washed, dried, reeled, and bleached.
_Acetate silk_ is the most recent type to be manufactured. As it is a
cellulose acetate, it is quite different in its nature and properties
from other forms of artificial silk, which are practically regenerated
cellulose. For this reason it is not always classed as rayon. Cotton or
wood pulp dissolved in acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric
acid forms cellulose acetate. This is precipitated by water, washed,
dried, and dissolved in acetone. After filtering it is spun, and the
filaments coagulated by exposure to warm air, which evaporates the
solvent. Cellulose acetate is much stronger wet than any other type of
rayon. It has been estimated that under similar conditions it has three
times the strength of viscose when both are wet, but improvements in
the latter are making it stronger in this respect. Acetate silk does
not have the glassy luster of other artificial silks, it is soft to the
touch, and can be spun in fine filaments. Celanese and Lustron are
trade names.
Rayon has certain advantages over natural silk. It is not weakened by
perspiration, it does not turn yellow with age or exposure to light,
and it is not weighted with the tin salts which may weaken natural
silk. Its production is more standardized than the uncertain business
of silkworm rearing, and it is comparatively inexpensive. It is durable
if properly laundered and cared for. In underwear as it takes up
moisture readily in most cases it tends to keep the body dry.
* * * * *
As a summary of the study of textile fibers and materials, students
often find it valuable for teaching material to mount tested samples of
fabrics on filing cards, with more or less complete information such as
is suggested in the following outline:
Name of material...............Class.................Uses.............
Price and width................Variations in price and width..........
Price per square yard..........Weight per square yard.................
Thread count: Picks............Ends...................................
Yarn: Kind............Size or number..............Twist...............
Weave.......................
Tensile strength: Warp............Filling.............................
Microscopic examination: Warp..............Filling....................
Percentage composition: Warp...............Filling....................
Dressing or weighting: Kind................Amount.....................
Fastness of dye.............
General estimation of quality.................
CHAPTER XIII
DYES AND DYEING
=Antiquity of the Art of Dyeing.=--The use of color among primitive
people began in prehistoric time. Appreciation of color marked the
awaking of the æsthetic sense in man, and crude attempts at adornment
with pigments evolved into dyeing as one of the earliest arts. Greek
mythology indicates its relative chronology when it makes the dyer Idon
father of Ariadne, goddess of spinning.
When Spanish explorers came to the New World they found the more
civilized tribes of Indians in Central and South America using dyes
which for beauty and permanency were not excelled in Europe. Red and
purple came from the cochineal, blue from indigo, and yellow from
ocher. Alum and niter mordants produced other colors. Central American
and Nicaraguan tribes mixed indigo and lemon juice to make black, and
obtained a purple by pressing the valve of a shellfish. Plants and
lichens gave other colors. The Hopi Indians of the Southwest probably
had a larger number of dyes in use than any other tribe.
In the Old World, the art of dyeing was established several thousand
years before Christ, as shown by the dyed cloths found in ancient
Egyptian tombs, and by the classics of the Chinese. The early history
of the Hebrews has many references to the use of dyes. The scarlet
of the Tabernacle curtains is supposed to have been obtained from an
insect similar to the cochineal.
The two most famous dyes of the ancient world were indigo and Tyrian
purple. The old Indian dyers used many colors, but the one best known
down to the present time is indigo. The name means Indian stuff.
Its counterparts were the woad of Britain, and a similar plant in
subtropical America.
To dye with indigo, which is an insoluble coloring substance in its
natural state, the stem and leaves of the indigo plant were fermented
in water in order to convert the active coloring principle of the
indigo into a soluble form. A second vat followed, where an oxidation
process changed this soluble substance to insoluble raw indigo, freed
by these processes from various impurities. In this form it went to the
indigo fermentation vat to be reduced again to soluble indigo-white.
Various organic substances were used to induce fermentation; the
process was unpleasant, lengthy, and required constant attention to
bring the reduction to the desired stage without loss of coloring
matter. When the right stage of reduction was reached, the cloth was
dipped in the greenish-yellow fluid in the vat and hung in the air. In
a few minutes oxidation brought out the indigo blue color.
Nowadays we use synthetic indigo, reduce it to a soluble form with
sodium hydrosulphite, dip the cloth in the vat, then oxidize it in the
air, and accomplish the whole process in rapid time. Indigo and related
dyes are still called vat dyes because of the reduction vat employed.
The dye Tyrian purple has poetic and historical interest. Produced by
extracting a few drops of whitish fluid from shellfish of the genus
_Murex_, found on the shores of the Mediterranean near the ancient
city of Tyre, it became so famous for its beauty and later for its
high cost, that the expression “born to the purple” still indicates
the perquisites of royalty or the very rich. As the shellfish became
scarcer, the use of the dye was limited by royal edict to the family
and court of the emperor. Pliny records the value put upon it, and
the Bible makes frequent references to it, as where it speaks of the
white wool of Damascus brought to Tyre to be dyed purple. The method
of producing the color showed the kinship of the dye to indigo. The
cloth, usually wool, was dipped in the whitish fluid and exposed to
the air, when oxidation produced the purple hue. A few years ago Dr.
Friedlander, of Berlin, found the _Murex_ still flourishing on the
Mediterranean coast, and on extracting and analyzing the dye proved it
to be a di-brom-indigo (a combination of indigo and bromine).
=Modern Dyes.=--The year 1856 divides the ancient world from the modern
in the matter of dyes. In that year a young English chemist, William
Henry Perkin, while trying to prepare synthetic quinine from a coal tar
distillate, accidentally made a mauve dye. Since this first coal tar
dye thousands have come from the same source, which have superseded
vegetable dyes because they are better standardized, more easily
obtained and applied, more varied in color, and often more fast.
=Present Status of Dyes in the United States.=--Before the World
War, Germany held the monopoly in dye production. When the war broke
out, America faced an entire break in her supply, as there were
comparatively few dye factories and dye chemists in this country.
Crudes, intermediates, and dyes had to be manufactured under urgent
pressure. Not only were the makers obliged to satisfy the demands of
the textile trades, but also the government need for intermediates
to make munitions, for the making of dyes and munitions is closely
connected. It is a remarkable fact that American manufacturers of dyes
so met the emergency that no textile dyehouse in this country had to
close for want of American dyes.
Now after about ten years the American dye industry is becoming firmly
established. Figures show that about 95 per cent of the dyes used
in this country at present are made in the United States, and our
exportations exceed our importations. Quality has improved in all
classes of dyes, so that there is no longer an excuse, if there ever
was, for blaming a poor dye on its American origin. Vat dyes, the most
difficult for American dyers to prepare in quantity to meet the sudden
demand, are now produced in amount adequate to make the United States
independent of other countries for these valuable fast colors. For the
welfare of the whole country, the American dye industry should not be
allowed to suffer or decline through lack of the support of American
citizens. It is significant that in 1923, when the United States
government sued the Chemical Foundation, Inc., for the return of German
Chemical and Dye Patents sold to the Foundation by the Alien Property
Custodian--a suit which was decided in justification of the Chemical
Foundation--the testimony of textile men indicated that their needs
were amply met by the American dye industry.
=Processes Preparatory to Dyeing.=--_Carbonizing._--If wool contains
leaves, burrs, or other vegetable impurities it is subjected to a
carbonizing process to remove the vegetable matter, which would
otherwise cause noticeable defects in dyeing. The process consists in
reducing the vegetable matter to carbon by ridding it of its other two
elements, hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of water. Sulphuric acid is
the chief chemical used in carbonizing. When in contact with vegetable
fibers it dehydrates them and leaves a residue, chiefly carbon, which
is easily removable. A weak solution of sulphuric acid is used, usually
not above 5 per cent. After immersion in the acid the wool is squeezed
out and dried at 170° to 190° F., whereupon the carbonized impurities
dust out.
Gaseous hydrochloric acid is also used for carbonizing. In this
form it has a reaction similar to sulphuric acid as a dehydrating
agent, and a less harmful action on wool than in the liquid state.
Aluminum chloride is occasionally employed, the reason being that it
dissociates in solution to yield hydrochloric acid in an active form
for dehydrating. The solution of aluminum chloride is about 6 per cent
and the temperature of the drying oven 300° F. Brushing removes the
disintegrated material.
_Scouring and Bleaching._ These processes remove natural coloring
matter, gums, waxes, oily substances, and the like, which would
interfere with dyeing. The _cotton fiber_ contains about 5 per cent of
such impurities as pectic acid, brown coloring matter, fatty acids, and
waxes. As a result, the spun yarn has a dull, grayish appearance, which
does not matter if it is to be dyed a dark color. In this case scouring
is generally sufficient, a treatment which consists of removing waxy
or fatty substances by boiling in solutions of either soap, sodium
carbonate, or caustic soda, or mixtures of the three. For light colors,
scouring is followed by bleaching. When the yarn is to remain white,
soap solution and bluing baths complete the process. If bleaching is
to be done in the woven fabric, the process is more complicated, for
additional matters, such as sizing added to the warp threads in the
weaving, have to be considered, and the method varies according to the
subsequent treatment of the cloth. At least three processes are in
general use--the market or white bleach; the Turkey red bleach; and the
printer’s bleach. Electrical (carbon arc) bleaching is also done. A
typical method of cotton bleaching may be outlined as follows:
1. Singeing.
2. Steeping to loosen the sizing. A diastatic enzyme may be used at
this point to liquefy the starch in removing the size.
3. Washing, to remove size.
4. Lime boil. Boiling in limewater for 8 to 12 hours to convert fatty
matter and waxes in the fiber into insoluble lime soaps.
5. Washing to free from excess lime.
6. Souring. The material is passed through dilute acid, generally
hydrochloric, which breaks up the insoluble lime soaps and other
salts of lime, forming soluble calcium compounds and setting fatty
acids free. Mineral impurities such as iron stains are also dissolved
out.
7. Boiling with soda ash and soap for 8 or 10 hours, which changes
the free fatty acids to soluble soaps.
8. Washing. All impurities are now removed, other than natural
coloring matter.
9. Bleaching proper, or chemicking. The material is treated with
cold, dilute calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime) for 3 to 4 hours.
10. White sour. This is the final souring with acid. After washing,
the material passes into dilute hydrochloric, sulphuric, or acetic
acid. This sets chlorine free from the bleaching solution, which in
the presence of water liberates oxygen, and this removes the coloring
matter. All free lime is now removed, and excess chlorinated lime is
decomposed.
11. Washing. This must be thorough, to remove all traces of lime or
acid.
These treatments are modified as necessary. Pure white bleaching
requires repetition of certain processes. Great care is necessary in
bleaching. Careless handling may produce iron rust or mildew stains,
but the greatest damage to the fiber comes from too long exposure to
bleach or acid, or especially insufficient washing. Traces of acid or
“chemic” (chlorinated lime) left in the fiber will “rot” (weaken) it so
that a cotton or linen material shows holes on its initial washing and
ironing. Glucose (cerelose) has been recommended as a buffer material
to protect the fabric from the over-action of the bleach and acid.[58]
[58] _Color Trade Journal and Chemist_, May, 1925.
=Linen Bleaching.=--Linen contains more coloring matter and natural
impurities than cotton, which make its bleaching a longer and more
complicated process. The method is similar to that for cotton, except
that the chemicking and souring may be repeated several times,
according to the perfection of bleach required, and grass bleaching
is often combined with the chemical treatment. There are four grades
of linen bleaching--quarter, half, three-quarter, and full. Other
terms are sometimes used. Full-bleached flax is not as strong as other
grades, due to the severity of the process. In linen yarns the loss of
strength is estimated at 20 per cent for full bleach, and 15 per cent
for half bleach.
=Wool and Silk Bleaching.=--Before bleaching and dyeing, wool must be
scoured to remove the oil and grease left on the fiber after spinning.
The usual method of wool scouring employs a solution of soap to which
is added soda ash or ammonium hydroxide as necessary, according to the
condition of the wool. Potash soaps are often used, as they give a soft
feel to wool. The temperature for scouring is usually about 115° F.
Neither wool nor silk can be bleached by the method used for cotton,
since the chlorine would yellow the animal fiber, and the alkali
destroy it. The agent often used is sulphurous acid or sulphur dioxide
gas. The wool or silk may be given the gas bleach by subjecting the
yarn or piece to the fumes of burning sulphur in a moist atmosphere,
or they may be passed through sulphurous acid. Sodium bisulphite is
sometimes used, which in solution gives sulphurous acid. Hydrogen
peroxide is the most perfect bleach for wool and silk. It is
made slightly alkaline with ammonium hydroxide, and applied at a
temperature of about 100° F. The wool or silk is allowed to soak in
the peroxide for 10 to 12 hours. After bleaching, washing in soapy
water and rinsing follow. Other bleaches used are sodium peroxide and
perborate, potassium permanganate, and occasionally percarbonates and
persulphates. In dilute solution and at moderate temperature sodium
perborate is a mild bleach for any fiber.
=Bleaching Tussah Silk.=--The color in Tussah or wild silk is in the
filament itself, under the gum. The gum and other impurities are hard
to remove entirely, consequently Tussah is difficult to bleach. The
fiber is less absorbent than mulberry silk, which has an effect on the
time necessary for exposure to the bleach, so that contact long enough
for a full bleach may injure the filament. The process consists of a
thorough boil-off and usually a sodium peroxide or perborate bleach.
=Nature of the Dyeing Process.=--Dyeing follows bleaching. It is the
process by which coloring matter is more or less permanently fixed
upon or within a textile substance by means of immersion in the color
solution. Textile printing is a process of applying color to certain
portions only of the fabric, by means of a printing machine. The two
processes are sometimes combined in one material. The color solution,
to be a dye, must possess not only color, but the power of fixing
itself in the fiber, with or without assistance, to form an insoluble
compound. Color is inherent in certain chromophor or color-bearing
groups, such as the azo, nitro, and quinoid groups. A substance may
contain one of these groups and have color, but to be a dye and have
the quality of permanency it needs an auxochrome group, usually acid
or basic, to aid it in combining with groups of the opposite nature in
such fibers as wool and silk.
This chemical combination of dye and fiber is one theory of the nature
of the dyeing process, which is less definite in its application to
vegetable fibers. Other theories are (2) the mechanical or physical
retention of the dye in the fiber by absorption and adsorption; (3)
the diffusion and coagulation of a colloidal dye on and in the fibers,
all of which are colloids, the result being a fixed or rigid molecular
arrangement; and (4) the “electrical theory,” or the fixing of an
ionizable dye on the fiber by the contact of opposite charges, which is
a restatement of the chemical theory.[59] Since animal and vegetable
fibers differ chemically, and dyes represent many types of chemical
compounds, crystalloids as well as colloids, it may be concluded that
no one theory of dyeing is best for all cases, but that dyeing is
essentially a chemical phenomenon.
[59] Herrman: “The Science of Dyeing,” _Dyestuffs_, Jan., 1923.
=Classification of Dyestuffs.=--A brief classification of dyestuffs
is difficult from the standpoint of either their chemical nature or
the method of application. For general information the student is
referred to the yearly Reports of the United States Tariff Commission,
in the section devoted to Dyestuffs. The Report of 1921 gives the
following classification of dyes then produced in the United States,
according to method of application: (1) Acid; (2) Basic; (3) Direct;
(4) Lake and Spirit Soluble; (5) Mordant and Chrome; (6) Sulphur; (7)
Vat--subdivided into Indigo and other Vats; (8) Unclassified.
From various trade sources a compilation of the dyestuffs in common use
has been taken, with their application, as given below:
1. _Acid Colors._ The acid colors differ in chemical nature but are
alike in that all are applied in an acid bath. Most of them contain
the azo group. The color of these dyes is taken up most strongly in an
acid solution, less in a neutral, and least in an alkaline bath. In
fact, acid dyes fade if washed with strong soaps or washing powders.
These dyes are directly applied to wool and silk, feathers, leather,
and other substances of a protein nature. They do not color vegetable
fibers to any extent, but selected ones may be used in dyeing book
bindings and staining wood and straw, where the color does not need
to be fast to washing. Since acid dyes are usually sodium salts of
sulphonic acids, the addition of an acid--sulphuric or acetic--to the
dye bath breaks up the salt, liberates the color acid, and this dyes
the wool or silk more readily than the salt itself. Glauber’s salt is
generally added to the acid bath with these dyes. Its main function is
to hold back the dye from too rapid absorption by the fiber, so that
a more even, level shade is produced. Such substances as glauber’s
salt and common salt, which aid in the dyeing operation, are called
assistants.
Most acid dyes are satisfactory as to fastness to light, and to
washing, unless warm water and an alkaline soap are used.
Acid dyes are sometimes used on cotton with an alumina-soap mordant in
the presence of gelatin. This treatment of cotton with gelatin is one
method of making “animalized” cotton.
2. _Basic Colors._ These include a range of chemical compounds which
are alike in containing a basic group. Many of them are aniline
derivatives. They are direct dyes for wool and silk, but not for
vegetable fibers with the exception of nitrocellulose silks. Generally
speaking these dyes are brilliant, but not as fast as acid dyes. The
dyestuff is applied in a neutral or slightly acidified bath, acetic
acid being used. The use of the acid is principally to prevent hard
water from affecting the solubility of the dye. Basic colors are less
important than acid for dyeing wool and silk. They are used to some
extent on cottons, with a mordant, to give certain brilliant greens,
reds, purples, and blues.
3. _Direct Cotton Colors._ These are applied principally to cotton, but
many also dye wool and silk, and such may be called all-fabric dyes.
Many dyes of this class are cheap and give fugitive colors on cottons.
They are easily applied with common salt as the assistant, to render
the dye more insoluble in the fiber. Most of the household package dyes
are direct cotton colors.
4. _Mordant Colors_, for example alizarines and logwood. These
dyestuffs, some of which are vegetable in origin, dye no fibers
directly, but require metallic mordants.[60] Many are applied to wool
with a chrome mordant. Chrome colors are fast dyes. The principal
mordant dye for silk is logwood, which is dyed with a tannin iron
nitrate mordant. It is considered the best black for silk.
[60] A mordant is a substance which combines with the fiber on the
one hand and the dyestuff on the other, to form an insoluble compound
called a “color lake.” The derivation of the word, from a Latin verb
meaning “to bite,” indicates its action in “biting” the dye to the
fiber. A mordant is frequently used not only to produce fast colors
but different hues; the color of a dye such as madder or alizarin,
for example, can be changed according to the mordant used. Salts of
metals such as iron, chromium, aluminum, tin and copper form one type
of mordant; another type is represented by tannic add, oleic acid,
etc.
5. _Vat Colors._ As a class, these dyes possess the highest degree of
fastness, but this property varies in particular cases. Some are less
fast to light than to washing, and in some the opposite is true. It
cannot always be expected that dyes, in any class, will show equal
fastness to all influences.
Three types of vat dyes are in common use: the anthraquinone; the
indigoid, similar to indigo; and the hydron colors. Vat colors are
especially used for cottons and linens, as the alkaline dye bath
employed is dangerous to wool and silk, but by selection of dye and
modification of process they are applicable to all fibers.
The vat colors are so named because of the reduction vat used in their
application. In this vat the reducing agent is sodium hydrosulphite,
or a combination with formaldehyde, which has strong reducing power.
When the original insoluble dye is reduced by this means it goes into
the soluble leuco (colorless) form, which can be taken up by the fiber.
On subsequent exposure to the air, in a few minutes the leuco solution
is oxidized in the fiber back to the original dye, with its color and
insolubility. The fastness of the dye is due to its great insolubility
in the oxidized form. These chemical changes of reduction and oxidation
can take place because of the presence of two carbonyl groups in the
dye. As mentioned before, natural indigo belongs to this class of dyes.
Synthetic indigo has practically replaced it for the last twenty-five
years.
Vat dyes are used for cottons where superior fastness to light and
washing are desired. The process of dyeing is complicated and requires
skilled dyers, therefore it is relatively expensive and only high-grade
cottons are dyed with vat colors, as a rule. Good shirtings, ginghams,
tapestries, and good quality embroidery cottons are examples. The same
is true of dyes built up in the fiber by other chemical means, as in
the classes which follow.
6. _Insoluble Azo Colors._ The general class of azo dyes is of great
importance. It comprises a large range of colors and includes dye
stuffs of different properties, such as acid, mordant, and direct
cotton dyes. The particular virtue of the insoluble azo type of dye is
that it is built up in the fiber to produce colors of great fastness
and brilliancy. No heat is necessary; the dyeing is done in cold
solution. The method consists of immersing the material in an alkaline
solution of beta-naphthol, drying, and passing through a diazo compound
such as diazotized paranitraniline. Other compounds such as Naphthol AS
are taking the place of the beta-naphthol. In either case an insoluble
azo dye is developed in the fiber from colorless compounds. In printing
cotton with these dyes the thickened Naphthol AS is first applied,
together with the diazo compound in a stable form. A bath of acetic
acid then develops the color.
7. _Diazotized and Developed Colors._ This method of dyeing is often
spoken of as the “ingrain” process (see Chap. V., _Hosiery_). Again the
dye is built up in the fiber, but the initial compound in this case is
a cotton dyestuff containing an amino group. This is diazotized with
nitrous acid and developed with beta-naphthol or other developer, when
the dye color appears. This process may be used on silks, but it is
much employed for dyeing fast blacks and navy blues in cotton hosiery.
_Coupled Dyes_ are another example of built-in dyes, by a process
reversing that described above. In this case a different type of dye is
chosen, not capable of being diazotized itself, but which will “couple”
or “tie up” (_i. e._, combine chemically) with a diazo compound such as
paranitraniline, which acts as the developer. Brown, myrtle green, and
black colors on cottons are frequently coupled dyes.
8. _Phthalic Anhydride Dyes._ These compounds are interesting as one
of the remarkable successes of American chemists since the war. Before
1914 Germany was the only country producing phthalic anhydride. Now,
following a discovery of two American chemists, we are making a purer
product than the former German one, at a lower price, and exporting
even to Germany. These dyes are in shades of pink and rose. Eosin
belongs to this class. They are used to some extent for cotton, for
silk, and in a few instances for wool. They are brilliant, but not
particularly fast. The great value of phthalic anhydride itself is its
use in the manufacture of anthraquinone for the vat dyes. An arresting
fact concerning it is quoted from the _Color Trade Journal and Textile
Chemist_, May, 1925.
“The manufacturers of vat dyes now have at their disposal cheap
and pure products with which to build up the complex molecules
characteristic of these coloring matters, which give the brightest
shades and the most permanent colors yet made. Every one knows
that the permanency of the color is an important item in every
household. Who has forgotten the rapidly fading colors of 1916 and
1917? Who does not know the waste that these poor colors entailed
in replacement costs for clothes and draperies? Who is not now
familiar with the Sun-fast, No-fade clothes and materials? These
are possible because of vat dyes, and the American vat dyes are
with us because of the development of cheap aluminum chloride and
phthalic anhydride. And the latter is cheap because of the work of
two chemists in the Color Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry of
the Department of Agriculture. Thus, if one were inclined, it would
be possible to figure out the saving to himself, to each family, to
the nation as a whole, brought about as the result of the work of
the Color Laboratory, which was organized to help establish American
independence in dyes. Not only has it done that, but as shown above,
it has caused a material saving and increased economy to each and
every person who uses any cotton cloths, and who does not?”
9. _Sulphur Colors._ These dyes are not used for animal fibers
on account of the strongly alkaline dye bath employed. They are
manufactured by the fusion of sulphur and sodium sulphide with various
organic substances, _e. g._, aromatic amines. They are soluble in a
sodium sulphide bath, and this is their general method of application.
The sulphur dyes are especially fast to washing, fairly fast to
light, but not to chlorine bleaching. The colors are soft rather than
brilliant, in yellows, browns (_e. g._ sulphur khaki), blues, greens
and black, but no clear red has been produced thus far. Sulphur dyes
are often used for rayon when exceptional fastness is desired.
10. _Aniline Black._ This is a complex dye in a class by itself, being
produced by oxidizing aniline in the fiber to a black substance called
nigraniline. To bring about the reaction an oxidizing agent such as
potassium chlorate is used, in the presence of a catalyst, usually
certain metallic salts. Unless oxidation is complete, the black cloth
or stocking becomes greenish after using. Aniline black is used for
cotton hosiery and cotton printing; seldom for wool or silk.
Of the ten classes of dyestuffs given above, all may be applied to
cotton, but the acid and mordant (chrome) colors are least used.
The easiest cotton dyes in point of application, and therefore the
cheapest, are the direct cotton colors, and these are extensively
used. Cotton fugitives are dyed with the cheaper colors of this class.
Wool is dyed with acid, basic, phthalic anhydride, chrome, vat, and
sometimes direct cotton colors, but the acid dyes are most important.
Silk dyes are similar to wool, and include also diazotized and
developed colors. Direct cotton colors are used in some silk-cotton
hosiery. Rayon takes dyes readily. Nitrocellulose (tubize) silks have
a direct affinity for basic dyes, but special dyes have been made for
celanese, while viscose and cuprammonium silks have less affinity, but
dye readily with direct cotton colors.
=Temperature and Other Considerations.=--Temperatures for dyeing vary
according to both dyestuff and fiber. As a rule, all fibers should
enter the dye bath at a low temperature and be raised gradually to the
maximum. _Wool_ combines best with dyestuffs at or near the boiling
point, but should not have hard boiling, especially in the case of
fine felting wools. _Silk_ takes up dye rapidly, therefore the dye
bath should not be hot on entering the silk, and for even dyeing a
temperature of 140° to 160° or 180° F. is found best. Boiled-off liquor
from the degumming process is added to the dye bath to prevent loss
of weight, aid in even absorption, and give added luster and softness
to the silk. It may be replaced by a mild soap solution, preferably
olive oil soap. _Cotton and linen_ may be boiled. Some dyes for these
fibers give best results under the boil, but as a rule the cotton dyes
used in the household require the boiling temperature for some time, to
ensure fastness. As most varieties of _rayon_ are weaker when wet, and
especially so in a hot solution, they must be dyed in as cold a bath
as possible, and handled with care. Rayon dyes with sufficient ease so
that high temperatures are not necessary.
=Scope of Experiments in Dyeing.=--It is of importance to every one
to have a general knowledge of commercial dyes and their application,
in order to appreciate processes which are too apt to be taken for
granted by the consumer, and to be intelligent in the treatment of
dyed material. But in a text which has as an ultimate aim the guidance
of the consumer it seems impractical to study in detail the chemistry
of dyes and commercial methods of dyeing. The former can be a part of
a course in organic chemistry, which is desirable as a prerequisite
to textile chemistry, and both are necessary in the textile school
which prepares trained textile workers. Dye formulas and methods are
complicated and of little experimental value to the average student
of home economics. Mostly direct dyes in household package form are
available for home dyeing, and it is more to the point that she shall
learn skill in the use of these. Most teachers of textiles and clothing
prefer to give their laboratory time to experiments which teach the
comparative properties and applications of the various household dyes.
Experiments in the use of non-household dyes may be found in a dyer’s
textbook such as Matthews’ _Application of Dyestuffs_, and one or two
from this book, illustrating each important class of dyes, are quoted
below.
=Preparation of Dye Solutions.=--In order to understand the percentage
amounts called for in the experiments which follow, the student must
know that dyestuffs and assistants are measured in percentage relation
to the weight of material to be dyed. For convenience, skeins to be
dyed are generally in 5 gram weights for wool, 10 grams for cotton and
2 grams for silk. Five grams of wool require sixty times that amount of
dye solution, or about 300 cc.; ten grams of cotton also require 300
cc., and two grams of silk need 125 cc. of solution. A recipe for acid
dye which might call for 5 grams of wool yarn, 300 cc. of dyebath, 10
per cent of glauber’s salt, 5 per cent sulphuric acid, and 3 per cent
Benzyl Violet, worked out on the basis of the weight of the yarn would
use the following amounts:
10 per cent of 5 gms.--0.5 gm. glauber’s salt.
3 per cent of 5 gms.--0.15 gm. dyestuff.
5 per cent of 5 gms.--0.25 gm. sulphuric acid.
In order to obviate individual weighing of these small amounts,
solutions may be prepared of such a strength that 10 cc. of each will
contain the proper amount of the ingredient for a skein of wool. For
example, 0.5 gm. of glauber’s salt are required; 10 cc. of solution
must contain 0.5 gm., therefore dissolve 50 gms. of glauber’s salt
in about 500 cc. of water and make up to 1000 cc. Of dyestuff, 0.15
gm. are required; therefore one liter is made up in a similar way to
contain 15 gms. Of sulphuric acid, 0.25 gm. in 10 cc. would equal 25
gms. in 1000 cc., but as the specific gravity of concentrated sulphuric
acid is 1.84, the number of cubic centimeters measured out would be 25
divided by 1.84, or 13 cc.
_Acid Colors. General Method of Dyeing on Wool._ Prepare a dye bath
containing 300 cc. of water, 20 per cent of glauber’s salt, 4 per
cent of sulphuric acid, and 1 per cent of Acid Magenta. Have the
temperature of the bath at about 140° F. and place in it a well
scoured and wet-out test skein of woolen yarn; by means of the
stirring rods give the skein a few turns in the liquor so as to
saturate the fiber thoroughly with the solution. Then allow the skein
to hang from a stirring rod into the dye bath, and heat the latter
gradually to the boiling point, turning the skein from time to time
so that it may dye up evenly. Do not maintain the liquor in a state
of active ebullition, as this will rapidly cause the fibers of the
wool to felt together; keep the bath just at a simmer. Continue the
dyeing at this temperature for one-half hour, turning the skein from
time to time. Then remove the skein, squeeze out the dye liquor,
rinse well in fresh water until no more color is removed from the
fiber, then squeeze out and dry. This experiment represents the
general method of dyeing nearly all acid dyes on wool.
_Basic Colors. General Method of Applying to Wool._ Basic colors
are usually dyed on wool in neutral or slightly acid baths. Dye a
skein of woolen yarn in a bath containing 300 cc. of water, 2 per
cent of acetic acid, 10 per cent of glauber’s salt, and 1 per cent
of Methylene Blue; enter at 100° F., gradually raise to 180° F.,
and dye at that temperature for one-half hour. Dye another skein of
woolen yarn in a similar bath containing 10 per cent of glauber’s
salt and 1 per cent of Methylene Blue in the same manner, and note
that the dyestuff is absorbed more rapidly. The function of the acid
is to retard the dyeing, and so assist in the even distribution and
thorough penetration of the color. If the bath in the first case does
not exhaust completely, lift the skein and add 4 per cent of borax
and continue dyeing for fifteen minutes. The borax is a mild alkali,
and is added for the purpose of neutralizing the acid in the bath and
so permitting the complete exhaustion of the dyestuff. Acetic acid
is better to use in dyeing basic colors than sulphuric acid, as the
former is volatile, and as the temperature of the dye bath rises the
acidity becomes lessened and consequently the exhaustion is better.
_Direct Cotton Colors. General Method of Applying to Cotton._ These
dyes are usually applied to cotton in a neutral bath containing
either common salt or glauber’s salt; hence the name “salt” or
“direct cotton” colors for this class of dyes. Dye a skein of cotton
yarn in a bath containing 300 cc. of water, 20 per cent of common
salt, and 1 per cent of Congo Red; enter at 140° F., gradually raise
to the boil and dye at that temperature for one-half hour; then wash
well and dry. The bath does not exhaust very well, but by adding more
salt towards the end of the dyeing a better degree of exhaustion may
be obtained.
_Mordant Colors. General Method of Dyeing on Wool._ The most
generally used mordant for wool is chrome or sodium bichromate. It
is applied to the fiber in the following manner: Prepare a bath
containing 3 per cent of chrome and 4 per cent of tartar; enter a
test skein of woolen yarn at 140° F., gradually raise to the boil,
and continue at that temperature for one-half hour; wash well, and
then dye in a fresh bath containing 2 per cent Alizarin Blue NG and
4 per cent of calcium acetate; enter at 100° F., gradually raise to
the boil, and dye at that temperature for one-half hour; then add 2
per cent of acetic acid and boil for fifteen minutes longer; wash
well and dry. Sodium (or potassium) bichromate is a salt of chromic
acid (CrO₃), while the mordant which is eventually produced on the
fiber is chromium oxide (Cr₂O₃); hence in the process of mordanting
the chrome must undergo reduction. This is brought about partly by
the wool itself, but chiefly by the aid of the tartar. The latter is
potassium acid tartrate, or potassium bitartrate, and is a reducing
agent. When mordanting it will be noticed that the wool is first
yellow in color; this is probably due to the formation of chromium
chromate in the fiber. If this compound is exposed to the action of
strong light it will suffer a rapid reduction to chromium oxide,
which is green in color; hence it is best not to expose the mordanted
wool unevenly to light for any length of time before dyeing.
_Mordant Colors on Cotton and Silk._ Dye a skein of cotton yarn in
Alizarin Red; it will be found that the fiber has no attraction for
the dyestuff. Mordant a second skein of cotton yarn by working in
a cold solution containing 200 cc. of water and 5 grams of ferric
chloride for ten minutes; squeeze and pass through a cold solution
containing 200 cc. of water and 2 grams of soda ash. This furnishes
a deposit of iron oxide on the fiber and gives the latter a buff
color. Now dye this mordanted skein with Alizarin Red, boiling for
one-half hour, and it will be found that the dyestuff is absorbed
and the cotton becomes dyed. Dye a skein of silk with the solution
of Alizarin Red; it will be noticed that silk is similar to wool and
cotton, and is not dyed by the Alizarin dye. Mordant a second skein
of silk with chrome in the same manner as was used with wool, and
then dye with the Alizarin Red. It will be found that silk, like the
wool, will combine with the dyestuff.
Alizarin is the active coloring principle in the vegetable substance
madder, which was an important dye before synthetic alizarin replaced
it. An experiment showing the action of a madder extract or alizarin
with metallic mordants is interesting. Iron and copper salts, barium,
calcium and stannous chloride, lead acetate and alum act as mordants
with madder and give a variety of colors.
_Vat Colors. Preparation of Indigo Solution._ Mix 75 grams of
Indigo paste (20 per cent) with 40 cc. of hot water, and 90 cc.
of caustic soda solution (42° Tw.) and 50 grams of hydrosulphite
powder (Blankit T) dissolved in 200 cc. of water. (See Matthews,
page 445, for directions for making solution of sodium hydrosulphite
if the powdered form is not available.) Stir gently and keep the
temperature at about 110° F. In a short time the liquid should be of
a clear amber-yellow color with a film of blue on top. The liquid now
contains indigo-white and serves as a stock indigo solution for the
preparation of the dye vat. The hydrosulphite powder (Blankit T) is
an anhydrous compound of sodium hydrosulphite and is a fairly stable
substance compared with most hydrosulphite derivatives. It is a
strong reducing agent and converts the indigo-blue into indigo-white.
_Dyeing Indigo with Hydrosulphite Vat._ Prepare the dye vat as
follows: to one liter of water (120° F.) add 2 grams of hydrosulphite
powder (or 10 cc. of prepared hydrosulphite liquor); 0.5 cc. of
ammonia water, and 4 cc. of glue solution (1 : 10); allow to stand
for fifteen minutes, then run in 100 cc. of the stock indigo solution
by means of a long-tubed funnel. Stir gently and allow to stand for
thirty minutes. When the liquor is clear and of an amber-yellow color
it is ready to use. Take a test skein of cotton yarn which has been
boiled out and squeezed (but not dried) and pass it through this
indigo vat without heating. Take care to manipulate the dyeing so
as to disturb the liquor as little as possible, as much exposure to
the air will cause undue oxidation and considerable indigo will be
precipitated in the vat. When the skein has become evenly saturated
with the liquor, squeeze it out well, and then expose the skein to
the air for five to ten minutes. When the skein first comes from the
vat it should be of a yellowish green color; on exposure to the air
it soon turns blue. The dyed skein is then washed well in water and
afterwards in a warm soap solution in order to remove all alkali and
unfixed dyestuff.
_Developed Colors. General Method of Applying._ Dye a test skein of
cotton yarn in a bath containing 6 per cent of Primuline, 20 per cent
of salt, and 1 per cent of soda ash; enter at 140° F., gradually
raise to the boil and dye at that temperature for one-half hour. It
will be noticed that this is simply the general method for applying
substantive dyes, and that the color obtained is yellow. Rinse the
skein in fresh water and pass into a cold bath containing 5 per cent
of sodium nitrite and 6 per cent of sulphuric acid; work for about
ten minutes. It will be noted that the yellow color of the dye is
altered to a brownish yellow by this treatment, and if the odor of
the bath is observed the presence of nitrous acid will be noted.
Rinse the skein with cold water, and immediately pass into a third
bath containing 2 per cent of beta-naphthol solution; work cold for
fifteen minutes, then wash well and dry. When placed in the third
bath it will be noticed that the skein turns a bright red color,
which is due to the new dyestuff which has thus been formed within
the fiber.
_Phthalic Anhydride Colors_, represented by eosin, can be applied
directly to cotton with the addition of common salt to the bath. The
color may be intensified by thoroughly steeping the bleached cotton
skein in a bath of one part of Turkey Red Oil and two parts of water,
drying, and dyeing in the eosin bath with the addition of a little
acetic acid.
_Sulphur Colors. General Method of Applying._ Prepare a bath
containing 5 per cent of Sulphur Brown, 5 per cent of sodium
sulphide, 5 per cent of soda ash, and 25 per cent of common salt. Dye
a skein of cotton yarn in this bath, entering at 140° F., gradually
raise to the boil, and dye at that temperature for one-half hour;
wash and dry. It will be noticed that the dye bath does not exhaust
very well, so dye a second skein of cotton yarn in the same bath
without adding any further dyestuff or chemicals, only diluting the
bath to its original volume with water. Also dye a third skein in the
same manner. Compare the colors on the three skeins, the gradation of
which will show the comparative exhaustion of the bath.
_Dyeing Khaki with Sulphur Dyes._ Dye a skein of cotton yarn in a
bath containing 5 per cent of Sulphur Khaki, 5 per cent of sodium
sulphide, 2 per cent of soda ash, and 50 per cent of common salt.
Enter at 160° F., gradually raise to the boil, and dye at that
temperature for three-quarters of an hour. Squeeze and rinse and wash
off in a weak soap bath at 160° F., and dry. Test this color for
fastness to light and washing.
_Aniline Black. One-Bath Process._ Prepare a bath as follows: 300 cc.
water, 10 grams aniline hydrochloride, 3 grams potassium bichromate.
The aniline salt is dissolved in the water, after which the potassium
bichromate is dissolved in a little water and also added. The cotton
is worked in this solution cold for one hour, then the temperature
is gradually raised to 150° F.... After dyeing, the cotton should be
well washed in water, and then in a boiling soap solution containing
5 to 10 grams of soap per liter, to which a little soda ash may also
be added. Due to the strong acidity of the bath, unless the process
is conducted very carefully, the cotton will be liable to become
tendered.
_Dyeing Silk a Pure Black with Logwood._ By “pure” black is meant one
which does not contain any weighting materials. Mordant a test skein
of silk yarn in a bath containing 150 cc. of water and 20 per cent of
cutch; enter at 120° F., and gradually bring to the boil, then allow
to cool in the bath for one-half hour; next rinse the skein slightly
and pass into a bath of nitrate of iron at 10° Tw., work at 120° F.
for fifteen minutes, then pass through a dilute bath of soda ash and
wash well. Next dye in a bath containing 150 cc. of water and 25 per
cent of Logwood extract (solid) and 5 per cent of soda ash; enter at
140° F., gradually bring to the boil, and dye at that temperature for
one-half hour, then wash well and dry.
=Forms of Market Dyeing.=--Materials and yarns for the market may be
dyed in the following ways:
1. _Dyeing in the Wool._ What is called raw stock dyeing corresponds to
the “dyeing in the wool” of early days. The wool is dyed after washing
and scouring, and before drying. It is recommended for its permanence,
and is used principally for dark goods which must stand much wear and
friction, and still hold their color. Equal parts of black and white
wool, mixed in the yarn, make the Oxford mixture. Cotton is sometimes
dyed in the loose state, and also waste silk. (See Chap. VII, Special
Finishes.)
2. _Dyeing in the Slub._ Wool is dyed after being carded and combed,
but not twisted; cotton is twisted. The dye sinks in, and later
spinning conceals any irregularities. Vigoureux yarns are yarns that
have been printed on the slub or top by a special machine with regular
or irregular designs of color, generally black and white, covering
spaces of one-quarter inch to several inches. The colors are set
by steam. When the printed slub is later drawn and twisted, a more
perfectly mixed effect is obtained than if colored wools had been
blended.
3. _Skein Dyeing._ Yarns of all kinds are frequently dyed in the skein;
silk is usually so dyed. The penetration of the dye by this method is
good. Skein-dyed yarns are used for ginghams, and in wool for plaid and
novelty effects.
4. _Piece Dyeing._ The fabric is dyed after weaving, which produces a
single uniform color. This is the cheapest and easiest way to apply
dyes. Two-color effects and other variations of piece dyeing can be
obtained by methods given below.
5. _Cross Dyeing._ This is piece dyeing of mixed cotton and wool.
Cotton will not take wool dyes as a usual thing, consequently when
dipped in a wool bath it is merely tinged with a fugitive color easily
washed out. Plain colored materials, such as mohairs and alpacas, are
woven with a cotton warp. The cotton yarn is dyed first in the color
desired, and then woven with the worsted filling. The cloth is cross
dyed by placing it in a wool bath, in which the cotton is unchanged.
Most of the sulphur colors and some developed dyes on cotton resist
cross dyeing. Cloths are woven with white or colored hair lines in
the warp. When cross dyed in a wool bath, the wool is colored and
the cotton hair lines remain as they were. The reduction in price in
thus inserting cotton for wool is an item. Cheap shepherd plaids and
other dress goods are woven with cotton for the white effects and with
wool for the colored. The acetate variety of artificial silk mixed
with cotton may be cross dyed by dyeing the former with certain azole
(developed) dyes which leave the cotton white, then dyeing the cotton
in direct cotton colors which leave this type of rayon unchanged.
In dyeing union goods to shade, the cotton warp may be dyed first and
the fabric cross dyed as above, a direct dye may be used which can
be made to color both wool and cotton the same, or the cotton may be
“animalized” to take a wool dye. When the material is a silk-wool
mixture the problem of dyeing each a different color may arise. This
is not easy to do, as most dyes affect silk and wool in the same way,
but it can be done by temperature control. A few dyestuffs, _e. g._,
acid magenta, dye wool at the boiling temperature with little effect on
silk; on the other hand, silk may be dyed in a cool bath with several
basic or direct cotton colors with no effect on wool. The first half
of the operation is dyeing the wool at the boil in the chosen dye,
followed by clearing up the silk if it is stained; and second, dyeing
the silk in a cold bath.
6. _Resist Dyeing._ Resist dyeing and cross dyeing are virtually the
same. In resist dyeing some of the yarn is treated to remain unchanged
in the bath which colors the untreated part. Wool treated with tannin
fixed with tartar emetic or stannous chloride will resist certain
dyes. Cotton yarn also, treated with tannate of tin, may be woven with
untreated cotton yarn, and when the fabric is piece dyed in direct
cotton colors a two-color pattern results. Resist dyeing is used in
batik work, which originated in Java. In this work all of the material
which is not to take the dye in the first dip is brushed over with wax.
The wax may then be removed and again be applied to parts which are to
resist a second dye, and so on.
7. _Discharge Dyeing._ In discharge dyeing the material is piece
dyed and the color afterwards removed in patterns by the action of
chemicals applied by printing rollers. Polka dots are a common pattern
in discharge dyeing. The discharge may be in white or different colors.
The objection to this process in the past has been the possibility of
weakening the fabric in spots by the strong stripping agent used or by
careless after-treatment, but modern methods are more scientific than
former practices.
8. _Printing._ Printed cottons and silks have sprung into great favor
in late years. Their popularity is merited, for printing is no longer
a synonym in many cases for fugitive colors. On the contrary, printed
and dyed colors now have an equal chance of being fast. Wonderful
color combinations and patterns can be made which would be impossible
without great expense by any method other than printing, so that now
the art of the printer can be said to be ahead of the dyer’s. It is
in this branch of color work that the use of vat colors reduced with
hydrosulphites has revolutionized older processes. The vat colors are
made up in paste form with hydrosulphite (usually sodium-formaldehyde
sulphoxylate, NaHSO₂.HCHO, or Na₂S₂O₄,2HCHO,4H₂O sodium hydrosulphite
formaldehyde) and printed on the cloth. On steaming, the sulphoxylate
becomes liberated and at once reduces the dyestuff to its soluble form,
which is taken up by the fiber. Oxidation follows and brings out the
colors of the dyes used. Other methods of printing cotton are still
used, such as the application of mordants on direct and aniline black.
Silk printing is done by various methods and with different dyestuffs.
Direct or acid dyes are applied in paste form, sometimes with a number
of rollers working in succession to print a varicolored pattern, and
subsequent steaming fixes the colors. Hydrosulphite is often used to
discharge piece-dyed silk.
=Dyeing with Household Dyes=
The vogue of the household dye is shown by the many varieties on the
market. With such a choice, it is becoming a problem to select the best
type for the special need. The student should be given opportunity to
study the representative household dyes systematically, and tabulate as
to (1) name and cost; (2) class:--whether for wool and silk, for cotton
and other vegetable fibers, or all-fabric dyes; (3) form--whether
powder, cake or paste; (4) type--those which dye fast colors and those
which merely tint; (5) method of applying--temperature of bath, time,
assistants used; (6) comparative dyeing effects on wool, silk, cotton,
and rayon; (7) fastness to light, washing, and perspiration.
=Reasons for Home Dyeing.=--When properly done, dyeing at home is worth
while for two reasons--the utilitarian, and the æsthetic. Faded and
shabby garments may have a new lease of life given them by brightening
their color or changing it; stockings may be dyed to harmonize with
a costume and accessories to give it an added touch; decorative
effects in house furnishings may be achieved with little expense. Some
suggestions for the use of household dyes are:
Brightening faded garments or changing the color of a blouse or dress
to create a new garment in effect.
Dyeing handkerchiefs, ribbons, scarfs and other accessories to give
finish to a costume.
Dyeing white curtain material to carry out a color scheme for room
decoration.
Renovating faded hangings, draperies, pillow covers, etc.
Making artistic table runners, curtains, pillow covers, scarfs, with
tied and dyed effects.
Dyeing rags and yarns for braided and hooked rugs.
Redyeing a cretonne of the wrong color in better harmony with the
room.
Using good magazine illustrations for inspiration in color harmonies
to be worked out in dyeing white cotton for children’s dresses.
=Equipment for Home Dyeing.=--Most important is a kettle large enough
to take in the material without crowding. Agate kettles are easily
cleaned afterward. Some household dyes do not stain the utensil, so
with them the wash boiler may be used. Two strong glass rods for
turning the material can be secured by buying inexpensive glass towel
bars. Other equipment includes a stove, of course; convenient apparatus
for drying; spoons and cups for measuring and dissolving the dye;
scales for weighing the material, and by choice a thermometer.
=Choice of Dye. Purpose.=--There are two types of household dyes--those
which dye fast colors and those which merely tint for a transitory
effect. The latter type is easily applied, but should not be chosen for
a permanent result, which is only achieved by higher temperature and
the expenditure of time. The exception to high temperature for fast
colors is in the case of rayon, which is dyed quickly in a cool bath.
The choice of dye is also governed by the nature of the material. There
are dyes designed for wool and silk; others for vegetable fibers,
and still others which dye all fibers, but are essentially cotton
dyes. An all-wool or silk material is most successfully dyed in the
dyestuff suited to its nature, but often the stitching is cotton, so
an all-fabric dye becomes necessary. The reason is that wool and silk
may be made to take a cotton or all-fabric dye, but cotton will not
ordinarily take a wool dye.
The newer tablet and paste forms of household dyes are convenient
because they do not allow particles of dye powder to fly around and
stain, and they are easily soluble.
=Suggestions for Dyeing. Procedure.=--Some general rules of dyeing are
well to keep in mind:
Have adequate equipment, especially a kettle of ample size.
Choose the right dye, and the right color. The right dye, as to the
nature of the material (wool or cotton), and as to tinting or dyeing
a fast color. The right color, with regard to the original color of
the material to be dyed. If the original color is deep, either strip
it (see directions below) or decide to dye a deeper color. Any color
can be redyed black. It is well to choose a dye in the same color
order as that in the material, for instance a faded blue to a darker
blue. However, with a knowledge of the principles of color, a dyer
may be successful in changing a color by topping with a different
one, either to brighten or to gray the original.
Read the directions on the package, and follow them.
Dyeing can not be depended upon to cover up dirt or grease spots.
Better cleanse first.
Hems, folds, and other thick places should be ripped open.
Have the dye thoroughly dissolved before putting in the material, and
use sufficient water to cover the article completely.
Thoroughly wet the garment before putting it in the bath.
Keep it immersed but stir and turn constantly, using the dyesticks.
Beware of starting with too deep a color; more color can be added.
It is easier to add than to strip color. By holding the dyed garment
against the light while wet, its color on drying can be judged.
After dyeing is complete according to directions, rinse in cool water
until the color does not show in the water.
Do not hang up at once after squeezing or wringing; either shake
until nearly dry, or roll in muslin so that no two thicknesses of the
dyed material are in contact. Press on the wrong side for most goods,
while damp.
=Stripping Color.=--Direct colors on vegetable fibers and silk may
be stripped with boiling water and fairly strong soap. Acid colors
on wools or silks are also stripped with hot soap solution, aided by
ammonia or a little washing soda. The safest bleach for delicate wools
and silks is hydrogen peroxide. Dilute the usual form (with strength
marked on the bottle) to two or three volume strength, add a little
ammonia, enter the article, warm to a little more than tepid heat and
allow to stand two hours. Sulphur colors, and in fact most colors on
vegetable fibers can be bleached with Javelle water, but vat dyes are
usually beyond the power of the housewife to strip.
=Physics of Color.=--Work in dyeing is valuable in developing
initiative and originality in students, but it is stronger if the
student possesses a background of knowledge of color--its physical
nature and the rules of color harmonies.
Color is a phenomenon which manifests itself in the presence of light;
in darkness it does not exist. To explain color, we think of white
light as composite, made up of light waves of different lengths, which
vary from about ³⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀ of an inch, the limit of visible red, to
¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀ of an inch, the limit of visible violet. When white light is
passed through a prism there is a dispersion or separation of these
light waves, and in some strange way their vibrations, impinging on
the organs of sight, produce in the brain the effects we call color
recognition. Those with the longest wave length give the red color, and
those with the shortest are violet, at the other end of the rainbow
sequence. These colors of the spectrum--red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, and violet--are called pure or unmixed colors, and contain
neither white nor black. Black is the absorption of all color, with
no reflection; white is the opposite, or total reflection and no
absorption. Grays are degrees between black and white, or degrees of
total absorption.
An object possesses color according to its property of absorbing
certain light waves and reflecting others. For instance, it is red if
all waves are absorbed and eliminated except the red ray, which is
reflected to the eye. It is seldom, however, that we can say an object
possesses pure color. With the red ray may be tones of violet and of
orange; yellow may include orange on the one hand and green on the
other, and blue may show tones of green and of violet.
When two colored solutions are mixed together, the resulting color
is caused by the light wave which each transmits or reflects in
common. Yellow and blue mixed produce green. If, as said before,
yellow includes orange and green, and blue includes violet and green,
then green is the only wave common to both which can become visible.
Therefore by combining the three primary mixing colors, red and blue
and yellow, in pairs, we get the other three spectrum colors of orange,
green, and violet.
Color has three qualities: _Hue_, _value_, and _chroma_ or _intensity_.
The _hue_ is what we ordinarily call the color, for example, red,
orange, yellow, etc. The color scale of each hue shows different
_values_, depending upon the amount of white or black that is mixed
with the hue. Bright pure red, for example, is called the medium value;
lighter values of red contain more or less white, and darker values
more or less black. These values, sometimes called the tints and shades
of a color, when arranged in sequence on each side of the medium value,
make a color scale. The strength or intensity of any color is its
_chroma_.
In studying the possibilities of the household dyes, it is a great
help to have before the eyes an arrangement of the ten important color
scales of red, yellow-red, yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green,
blue, violet-blue, violet, and red-violet. If these scales are arranged
as sectors or radii of a circle,[61] the hues exactly opposite each
other on the color circle are in the strongest contrast and are called
_complementary_ colors. For example, the complementary of the yellow
scale is the scale of violet-blue, and the colors in the one scale are
thrown into sharp relief or emphasis by the colors in the other. The
addition of a complementary color to its opposite tends to soften or
gray the latter, and when any two complementary colors are mixed in the
right proportions a neutral gray is obtained.
[61] These color circles have been devised by the Clothing
Information Bureau of Boston, and are sold under the name of “The
Colorscope” by Wm. Filene’s Sons Co., Boston, Mass.
The color circle is useful to the student in the analysis of hues in
fabrics or elsewhere; in offering suggestions for color harmonies;
in studying dominant, neighboring or analogous, and complementary
harmonies; and in applying these principles to the choice of colors for
the individual.
=Classroom Exercises.=--The following are a few suggestions for the
study of household dyes:
1. Study the comparative effect of the household dyes on wool, silk,
cotton, and rayon in one bath. Which are wool dyes? Which for cotton?
Can cotton and rayon be dyed by a dye for wool and silk? Is there any
difference between cotton and rayon in this respect? Will wool and
silk take cotton dyes? If so, how can even dyeing of a silk-cotton
stocking, for example, be accomplished? If a silk blouse is stitched
with cotton, what type of dye should be chosen?
2. Try the effect of dyeing wool in a wool dye, with and without
acid. Repeat with a cotton dye, with and without salt.
3. Work out color blends, using a color wheel as a guide.
4. Can a color be dyed into its opposite or complementary color? If
in doubt, try.
5. Dye pieces of soft muslin or cheesecloth to match color harmonies
in a picture.
6. Decide how a certain color could be changed to another color, and
work it out.
7. Bring in garments, hosiery, feathers, etc., to dye as class
problems.
8. Try out decorative effects in tied and dyed work.
=Tied and Dyed Work.=--Novelty dyeing is always fascinating and can be
made useful. Tied dyeing is an easy and satisfactory form. The pattern
in tied and dyed work is made by tying string tightly around certain
parts of the material to make a design, the cords being tight enough to
prevent the dye from penetrating when the cloth is immersed. Beads and
marbles may be tied in to make regular patterns, or drawing threads run
through to gather even folds for tying. Border patterns can be made for
runners or curtains, or circle designs, etc., for cushion covers. After
the pattern is tied in, the material is dyed, without long boiling
however, as this would bring about penetration under the string. If a
second color is desired, the strings are wound around such parts as are
not to take the second color, and so on. A foundation color may be put
in before any tying is done.
CHAPTER XIV
LAUNDRY NOTES
The intelligent treatment of textile fibers in the laundry depends
ultimately upon a knowledge of the chemical nature and structure of
the fibers, and the effect upon them of water and friction, acids
and alkalies, heat and cold. The general principle that protein
fibers deteriorate in alkaline solutions and vegetable fibers in acid
necessitates a knowledge of the particular acids and alkalies of the
kitchen and laundry, how they affect each kind of material, and the
reasons underlying the choice of cleansing and bleaching agents, and
bluings.
=Felting of Wool.=--From the laundry standpoint the most striking
characteristic of wool fibers is their power of felting. The problem
in the laundry is to cleanse wool with as little felting as possible.
Certain influences increase the felting action, _e. g._, expansion due
to heat, followed by sudden contraction from cold; the softening and
expanding effect of alkalies, and friction. The soft, elastic quality
of a wool blanket or sweater can be entirely lost by washing it with
strong soap or washing powder, rubbing or wringing it, changing from
hot to cold water, or hanging the warm, wet fabric outdoors on a cold
day.
The peculiar protein nature of the wool fiber makes it very susceptible
to hot water, which rapidly deteriorates it. Too hot an iron will cause
felting and stiffening, whereas if the heat is regulated so that steam
continues to rise from the damp pressing cloth, the fibers become
plastic and will take and retain the shape desired, without losing
their elasticity.
=Acids and Alkalies of the Household.=--The action of acids and
alkalies on the textiles fibers has been treated in detail in Chapter
XII. The acids of the household, outside of those found in fruits,
are hydrochloric (muriatic), oxalic, and the acetic in vinegar, all
of which may be used for removing stains and for cleaning purposes.
Hydrochloric and oxalic acids have a tendering effect on cotton and
linen if allowed to dry on the fiber, and should be followed by
immediate washing and neutralization with ammonia or other alkali.
Silk is more susceptible to the action of acids than wool. Since acids
and alkalies neutralize each other, color changes in clothing by acid
spots can often be restored by touching the spots with weak ammonia. An
insidious because unlooked-for attack on silk and fine cotton underwear
is made by the acids in certain deodorants and perspirants. Some of
these are quite acid, and in one or two cases liberate hydrochloric
acid.
The common alkalies in household use are ammonia, borax, carbonated
alkalies such as washing soda, caustic alkalies, found in solutions
of soaps or free in some soaps and washing powders, and trisodium
phosphate and sodium silicate in certain soaps and cleansers of similar
type. The carbonated alkalies have a yellowing effect on silk and wool;
good soap has no deleterious action at moderate temperatures. Soaps
should not be rubbed on wool because of the felting effect, and in
fact for any cleansing operation a soap solution is better than direct
rubbing.
It is especially necessary to make a good suds before entering the
clothes in the wash water, if the water is hard. Such water contains
salts of calcium or magnesium which unite with some of the soap to form
an insoluble curd or calcium soap. As long as there is any calcium
or magnesium left in solution in the water the soap will form these
curds, so an additional amount of soap must be used to make suds. If
the clothes are put in the water first and the soap rubbed on, the curd
formation between calcium salts and soap takes place _in the fiber
and fiber spaces_, where it sticks and is hard to remove. Clothes so
treated soon lose their clear, clean look. If iron is present in
the water it will precipitate through the action of the soap as iron
hydroxide--in the fiber also if soap is rubbed in as before. Iron
hydroxide makes iron rust as it dries or is heated in the garment.
The use of washing soda to soften hard water is a soap saver, and a
cost saver. The tendency, however, is toward the excessive use of the
soda, more than is necessary to combine with the calcium or magnesium
salts and remove them. The amount of washing soda needed to soften
a given water is hard to measure, and the whole question of water
softening is one of the most difficult problems of the household. If
the water is only moderately hard, and the quantity of washing soda can
be gauged which will allow for the immediate sudsing of the soap which
follows it, that is a desirable and sufficient amount. But washing soda
in considerable amount in water will in itself cause a precipitation or
curdling of soap.
=Soaps.=--In these days of many soaps for many uses, it is hard to
choose the best soap for the particular use. To know the effect of
alkalies on the fibers, and that heat accelerates the chemical action
of alkalies, will aid in the choice and use of soap. A soap which
can be used as a shampoo and is mild in its action on the hands is
the safest for wool and silk. Such kinds are found in many flake
soaps designed for fine fabrics, and some of the well known mild bar
soaps. No aid in cleansing even a much soiled sweater or blanket is
necessary other than a thick suds of a mild soap. Chipped soaps are a
convenient form designed for quick solution, especially in the washing
machine. They are usually better for the general laundry than for fine
lingerie, wool, silk, or rayon. Builders such as sodium silicate,
borax, and washing soda may be incorporated in these, which, while
having a detergent and water-softening effect, considerably increase
the alkalinity of the soap solution. Bar soaps for the laundry may
be yellow or white. Yellow soaps contain rosin soap, that is, a
combination of rosin with caustic soda. Rosin soap lathers well, aids
in making a tallow soap soluble in hard or sold water, and being
cheap, lowers the cost of the combined product. Since yellow soaps are
the cheapest form of soaps, they may be inferior in quality even for
the price asked, but a well made bar soap is suited to many kinds of
household cleansing operations, and is preferable to a white laundry
soap if the latter is overloaded with sodium silicate. All white
soaps of the laundry type contain more or less sodium silicate or
water glass. This cheapens the product so that the cost of the bar is
comparable with yellow soaps. Its value is that it retards or prevents
rancidity and has detergent and water-softening qualities. It is
alkaline in its nature, so soaps containing much water glass should not
be used habitually for wool and silk.
Owing to their form, soaps of the powdered or granular type may contain
not only soap but many other detergents, such as washing soda, neutral
soda (a mixture of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate), trisodium
phosphate, borax, bleaches such as peroxides or perborates, or bluings.
These mixed products should be used with caution, if at all, on wool
and silk, but the cottons and linens of the general wash are not harmed
by mildly alkaline solutions if the temperature is not high. The
constant use of high temperature, as in boiling clothes, will gradually
tender even strong cottons and linens, especially if oxycellulose forms
in the presence of air.
Cotton launders less easily than linen, and requires more thorough
treatment. It has been estimated that cotton will collect three times
as much dirt as linen will, and bacteria have been found on the surface
in the ratio of 182 with cotton to 100 with linen, when both have been
treated alike. Linen needs careful handling, as the fibers are stiff
and inelastic, especially when starched, and soon break in the folds of
table damask, for example, under heavy ironing.
=Bluings.=--Certain aniline blues, or rather dyes, give clear,
attractive blue shades. Some of these blues do not require acids to
develop them, but in common practice varieties are used which are
brought out on the material by the aid of acetic or oxalic acids. While
acetic acid is volatile and not harmful, oxalic is far more likely to
be injurious to the fabric, as it is not volatile, and is concentrated
on the fiber in the ironing process. It is used for its whitening
effect, without regard to its destructive action, and in a short time
the clothes go to pieces. Another class of liquid blues is made on an
iron base, _e. g._, Prussian blue. In the presence of alkalies the iron
is changed to ferric hydroxide, which becomes ferric oxide or iron rust
in the dry material, especially under the heat of the iron. If this
kind is used, therefore, the bluing water must be entirely free from
soap, otherwise rust spots appear on ironing. To determine whether a
liquid blue is of this variety, add caustic soda solution or other
alkali, and shake for a few minutes, heating gently meanwhile. If iron
is present, the blue color will fade to the reddish yellow color of
iron rust. The blue can be restored by the addition of acid, hence the
iron-rust spot can be removed by treating with an acid. The ultramarine
blues come in solid forms, and are insoluble in water. They are very
satisfactory, provided they are not allowed to settle on the clothing
and make blue spots. The choice of a bluing is a matter of individual
taste, any standard kind being good provided it is used intelligently.
_Suggested Exercises for the Study of Soaps._ 1. Collect the types
of soaps sold in the locality. Dissolve equal amounts of each in
hot 95 per cent alcohol, and add a few drops of phenolphthalein to
each flask. If a pink color appears it is due to free alkali in the
soap. All soaps give an alkaline reaction in water solution, due
to dissociation with the setting free of the hydroxyl ion, but in
alcohol the alkali which shows, if any, is free in the soap, not
combined with the fat to form the soap. A similar test is to add
phenolphthalein to the soaps in the dry shaved or chipped form, and
compare the depth of color produced.
2. Detection of carbonate. Add acetic acid or vinegar to the finely
divided soap and note effervescence due to carbonates. Confirm by
passing the gas into limewater.
3. Detection of borax. To a few cc. of the soap solution add alcohol,
and an equal amount of 40 per cent HCl. Shake well, filter if a
precipitate forms, and add to the filtrate a few drops of a 1 per
cent alcoholic solution of turmeric. A pink color indicates borax.
Griffin’s test for borax. Add 10 cc. dilute HCl to 1 gm. of the soap.
Heat to boiling. Cool and filter to remove the layer of fatty acids.
Immerse a strip of turmeric paper in the filtrate and dry. If borax
is present the paper turns pink to deep red, but changes to blue or
green with ammonium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.
4. Detection of rosin. Put some shavings of the soap in a _dry_
porcelain dish and add about 5 cc. of acetic anhydride. Carefully
add a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. A red violet color
appears if rosin is present.
5. Detection of a peroxide or perborate bleach. Solutions of
sodium peroxide and boric acid are combined to make perborax
(Na₂B₄O₈,10H₂O). When half of its sodium is replaced by a mineral
acid, sodium perborate (NaBO₃,4H₂O) separates. This compound
evolves oxygen at 100°C. It is found in a few of the bleaching
soaps on the market, and gives a response to the following test:
Shake a hydrochloric acid solution of the substance to be tested
with a little ether (free from alcohol). Add two drops of potassium
dichromate. Shake. The upper ethereal layer will be colored deep blue
if an oxygen bleach is present, owing to the formation of chromium
peroxide.
6. Detection of trisodium phosphate. Acidify the soap solution with
nitric acid, filter, add a few drops of the filtrate to a solution
of ammonium molybdate and warm in a water bath. A yellow color and
precipitate is a test for phosphate.
For the detection of sodium silicate, and for the quantitative
analysis of soaps, consult Griffin’s _Technical Analysis_ and
_Standard Practice for the Power Laundry Washroom_.
=Fastness of Dyes.=--Dye fastness is only a relative term. No dye can
be expected to be equally fast to all influences. Dyes are tested as to
their degree of fastness to the various influences of light, washing,
perspiration, rubbing, hot pressing, decatizing, stoving, etc., and
are usually chosen according to the exposure and use required of them.
A dye may be fugitive to washing, for example, because it has been
wrongly chosen or poorly applied, or quite often because it is
improperly handled in the home or commercial laundry. The cheaper
cotton goods cannot be dyed with the particularly fast colors which are
expensive in themselves and in their application, therefore it should
be understood that they must be washed with all possible care and skill
to prevent fading.
According to recent theories of the cause of fading in sunlight, those
dyes which are fast to sunlight have a stable molecular structure which
is not influenced by the vibrations of light rays, while those which
fade do so because certain light rays set up intramolecular vibrations
of the dyestuff particles which may loosen valencies and break down
the molecule. Some light rays and intensities have more effect than
others.[62]
[62] _Dyestuffs_, April, 1925.
_Fastness to Washing._ _Setting Colors._ If a dye is fugitive to
washing, either in itself or because it has been poorly applied, no
amount of color-setting devices will make it fast. The best that can
be done is to wash the garment in a way that will hold back as much of
the dye as possible from running. For example, make a suds of a mild
soap in warm water, cool till nearly cold, wash the garment quickly in
this by sousing and squeezing, but avoid hard rubbing. Rinse quickly
in two or three cool waters, and do not hang to dry, as the color will
continue to run and streak. Fold in muslin so that no two thicknesses
of the garment come in contact, and roll to dry. Press with a moderate
iron before fully dry. If the color is fast to washing it still may not
be fast to sunlight, and no dyed material should be hung in the sun to
dry.
Salt is the common household stand-by in an attempt to set colors.
Out of the eight or ten classes of dyestuffs used in dyeing cottons,
one class is called the salt colors, because common salt is used
in the bath for level dyeing, and to give the dye somewhat greater
insolubility in the fiber. The use of common salt, therefore, in
washing cottons dyed with these colors, will not make a weak dye fast,
but may retard its solubility in water. The difficulty in its use is
that it cannot be put in the washing water where it is most needed, as
it precipitates the soap and destroys the suds, but soaking in a warm,
strong, salt bath previous to washing, and washing in cool water, and
giving the garment a final rinse in salt water may do some good. One
cold rinse is given between the soaking bath and the soap bath.
Vinegar, acetic acid, alum, lead acetate, etc., have been tried often
as color-setting substances, with varying but generally poor success.
They cannot be used with soap, so their effectiveness, like salt, is
partly lost.
Dyes on silk, such as a certain shade of dark blue, and some wool dyes,
are often quite fugitive to washing and do better with dry cleaning. If
the article does not merit the cost of this, a wet brushing process is
safer than ordinary washing. Acetic acid, which is often used to aid in
even dyeing of silk or wool, can be chosen as the best aid to holding
back the color. Prepare the wet brushing bath by adding about a half
cup of vinegar (white vinegar for light colors) to each gallon of cold
water used. Dip the article in the acidulated water, spread out on a
table, and brush over with a soft brush or sponge. Dip again in the
acid bath, follow by a cold rinse, squeeze out, and roll carefully in
muslin until dry enough to press. Salt baths may be used in the same
way for the wet brushing of cotton.
Soap bark can be recommended for washing soiled garments, silk, wool,
rayon or cotton, which are dyed with fugitives. Its advantage over a
mild soap is that salt or vinegar can be used with it in the washing
bath. Prepare the soap bark by putting a pound of soap bark chips in a
gallon of water, bring to a boil, simmer for a half hour and strain.
Use cool in any strength desired. The soap bark solution may also be
used effectively for wet brushing.
_Testing Material for Fastness to Washing._ It is often worth while
to test samples of cotton or linen dress goods which must be washed
frequently, before spending time or money in making them into garments.
Use plain water and look for “bleeding,” and also plait a strip of the
dyed material with white muslin and wash in the usual way. Look for any
stain on the undyed piece, and compare the color of the washed goods
with the original sample.
_Testing for Fastness to Light._ Draperies and upholstery materials
especially should be tested for light fastness before purchasing, if
much expense is involved. Expose a sample to direct sunlight, and after
a time compare with an unexposed piece. It is agreed that a dye which
fades noticeably in a week or two is fugitive; if at three weeks it
shows only slight fading it is moderately fast; four weeks without
fading, fast. The time necessary for this test is an objection, and
many manufacturing concerns for dyes, inks, paper, etc., and testing
laboratories, employ an electrical method such as the carbon arc which
produces the effect of intense sunlight and tests the color in a few
hours.
_Fastness to Perspiration._ This is a consideration in the case of
dyed material to be used for lingerie, slips, and coat linings. Body
perspiration contains organic acids and sodium chloride, among other
substances. Some formulas to represent it and the method of testing
materials are:
Heermann’s. Steep samples for five minute periods in a solution of 50
gms. acetic acid and 100 gms. sodium chloride per liter. Dry after
each immersion and examine.
50 cc. of 50 per cent acetic acid and 25 cc. butyric acid per liter.
Five minute immersion as above.
5 tablespoons salt, 10 tablespoons vinegar, 1 pint water. Immerse 15
minutes, dry, repeat, and dry again. Or immerse, roll up wet, and
leave in a warm place for twelve or fifteen hours.
Other formulas with similar methods are:
Lactic acid of 1.02 sp. gr. at 100° F.
One teaspoonful 50 per cent acetic acid in one quart water at 100° F.
10 gms. lactic acid, 10 gms. glacial acetic, 10 gms. common salt, 10
gms. ammonium chloride, in one liter water. Warm to 100° F.
_Suggested Exercises._ 1. Try the effect of temperature in washing
fugitives, by employing 1 per cent solutions of a standard mild soap
at (a) boil; (b) 160° F.; (c) 120° F.; (d) 85° F. Also use equal
volumes of the soap solution and a 1 per cent salt solution at 85° F.
2. Using a definite low temperature throughout, and the same per
cent strength of solution, compare the effect of different soaps on
fugitive cottons.
=Stain Removers.=--Stain removers come under three types of compounds
according to their action: (1) _Absorbents_, such as starch, fuller’s
earth, chalk, magnesia, and salt; (2) _Solvents_, including gasoline
and other hydrocarbons, ether, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride
and turpentine for grease and paint; and acid solvents for mineral
stains such as rust; (3) _Bleaches_, both oxidizing and reducing in
nature, to which class belong Javelle water, oxalic acid, hydrochloric
acid, potassium permanganate, sulphur, hydrogen peroxide, borax and
perborates, as well as lemon juice and salt, and of course sunlight.
A few representatives of each type should be kept on hand in the home
laundry. The person using the active chemical stain removers should be
familiar with their nature, their effect on the different fibers, and
the safe method of their application.
_Absorbents._ Those given above are harmless to all fabrics, except
that salt should not be left to dry on silk. Their value is theoretical
rather than practical, but their particular use is to absorb or adsorb
fresh stains of grease, blood, ink, iodine, etc., from unwashable
materials. Moist starch paste, for example, can be used to remove blood
and iodine, and fuller’s earth for grease.
_Solvents._ The principal caution in the use of solvents is in regard
to fire. Gasoline or cleaning naphtha and ether are highly inflammable;
on the other hand chloroform and carbon tetrachloride will extinguish
flame. While the latter two are safe and excellent grease solvents,
their density makes it more necessary to guard against the formation of
a ring, in removing a grease spot, than with the more volatile naphtha
type. If a preparation is bought, the label should be read for its
caution against fire. Many of these market preparations are mixtures
containing ethylene chloride, fuller’s earth, and other ingredients.
_Bleaches._ Calcium or sodium hypochlorite may be taken to illustrate
the chlorine type of bleach. Calcium hypochlorite, commonly called
bleaching powder or chloride of lime, is soluble in twenty times its
weight of water. When treated with an acid, it gives up chlorine, which
unites with water to form hydrochloric acid and free oxygen. The latter
oxidizes organic coloring matter and bleaches it. The reactions, using
acid, are as follows:
Ca(OCl)₂ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + 2HClO
2HCl + 2HClO → 2H₂O + 2Cl₂
Cl₂ + H₂O → 2HCl + O
Either hydrochloric or oxalic acid is effective in alternation with
or in the presence of calcium hypochlorite. The reactions with sodium
hypochlorite are similar. The action may take place without the
addition of acid, the carbon dioxide of the air forming carbonic acid,
as follows:
Ca(OCl)₂ + H₂O + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + 2HClO
HClO → HCl + O
Silk and wool would be destroyed by the alkaline nature of calcium or
sodium hypochlorite, and yellowed by the free chlorine. These bleaches
are therefore used only for vegetable fibers.
Experiment. Soak the material to be bleached in a weak solution of
bleaching powder, with and without the addition of hydrochloric acid.
After bleaching is accomplished, wash and treat with dilute acetic
acid, in order to decompose remnants of bleaching powder and calcium
carbonate in the goods. Finally wash free from acid.
_Hydrogen Peroxide._ This is used in the bleaching of wool and silk,
and may be used for cotton. Oxygen is given up (H₂O₂ → H₂O + O), which
unites with the organic coloring matter of the pigment and destroys it.
Hydrogen peroxide gives up its oxygen most freely in an alkaline bath.
Ammonia or borax, or a soap solution, may be used. Stains may often
be removed without harm to delicate colors by dipping first in a warm
solution of a mild soap, then spotting with hydrogen peroxide.
_Hydrochloric Acid._ This precipitates the color from direct cotton
colors (substantive dyes), and from basic dyes. In the first case a
free color acid is formed, and the lost color can be restored by using
an alkali. In the latter case an acid salt of the basic dye is formed.
Hydrochloric acid can be used as a bleach and color remover in many
operations, but always with care to neutralize quickly and thoroughly
after the stain or dye has disappeared. It cannot be used on silk. In
the household its particular use is in the removal of iron rust stains,
and with bleaching powder or Javelle water to remove obstinate cases
of mildew. It is a powerful reducing agent, so it is more effective
than an oxidizing bleach to take out stains from dyes which have been
produced by oxidation, as vat dyes. In extreme cases these stains can
only be removed by such a powerful reducing combination as hydrochloric
acid and stannous chloride in alternation, but as the chemical
action of the combination is serious if continued long, immediate
neutralization with an alkali is necessary.
_Potassium Permanganate._ This is a powerful oxidizing agent, therefore
it is a valuable bleach and stain remover. It can be used on all
fibers, but as it is more effective in acid solution or in alternation
with an acid, it should be used carefully and thoroughly neutralized at
the end. In acid solution the following reaction takes place:
2KMnO₄ + 3H₂SO₄ → K₂SO₄ + 2 MnSO₄ + 3H₂O + 5O.
In neutral solution, manganese dioxide is precipitated on the material,
making a brown stain. This may be removed by treatment with acid or
sulphites:
2KMnO₄ + H₂O → 2KOH + 2MnO₂ + 3O.
MnO₂ + H₂SO₃ → MnSO₄ + H₂O.
Experiment. Use a cold 1 per cent solution of potassium permanganate,
applying it to the dye or stain with a stirring rod. The permanganate
may be acidified with 2 per cent oxalic acid, or it may be applied in
neutral solution, and the resultant brown color removed by rubbing
in sodium bisulphite, sulphurous acid, or pulverized oxalic acid
crystals. Wash thoroughly at the end of the process. This treatment
is efficacious in removing almost all kinds of stains from white
material.
_Javelle Water._ This is similar to bleaching powder, sodium
hypochlorite being the bleaching agent. To prepare, dissolve one-half
of a pound of bleaching powder in two quarts of cold water, and add
this to a solution of one pound of washing soda in one quart of hot
water. The reaction is:
Ca(OCl)₂ + Na₂CO₃ → 2NaOCl + CaCO₃.
The sodium hypochlorite breaks up as in the case of the hypochlorite
of calcium, yielding hydrochloric acid and oxygen. Javelle water
is a bleach for cotton or linen, and is used in weak solution. The
advantage of Javelle water as a bleach over calcium hypochlorite is
that the precipitate of calcium carbonate forms in the preparation of
the Javelle solution, and can be filtered off before using, instead of
being deposited on the fiber as in the other case.
_Sulphur Fumes._ Sulphur fumes are used for bleaching animal fibers,
as wool or silk would be turned yellow by the chlorine bleaches. The
clean wet article may be hung in a confined space over fumes of burning
sulphur, such as the sulphur candle furnishes. This method is more
safely applied without than within the house because of the poisonous
nature of the fumes. The sulphur dioxide of the fumes reacts with the
coloring matters, withdrawing oxygen from them and so reducing them to
colorless substances.
_Oxalic Acid._ Oxalic acid is a reducing agent. It breaks up as
follows: (COOH)₂ → H₂O, CO₂, CO. The carbon monoxide takes up oxygen
from the organic coloring matter to form carbon dioxide, and in so
doing decolorizes. Oxalic acid may be used on vegetable fibers if it
is not allowed to dry on the material. In fact, oxalic acid is one
of the best and safest stain removers of the household if properly
used. It will often remove ink from dyed fabrics of all sorts, without
affecting the dye, but its effect should be tried in an inconspicuous
place before using it on dyed material. Oxalic acid and an alkali such
as ammonia or soap solution, _e. g._, a bleaching soap, used in turn
are more effective in alternation than either alone, for ink spots.
The action of the alkali is to decolorize the colloidal Prussian blue
dye which many inks contain, and the function of the acid is to make
soluble and remove their iron base.
=Removal of Stains.=--Specific stains and their removal are treated
fully in Balderston’s _Laundering_ and _Housewifery_, and in the
Farmers’ Bulletin 861 of the Department of Agriculture, entitled
_Removal of Stains from Clothing and Other Textiles_. Nothing need be
added to this information except the general caution always to try the
mildest reagent first, and always neutralize and wash thoroughly. Hot
or cold water will often remove a stain without need of a chemical;
white vinegar and ammonia, lemon juice and salt, hydrogen peroxide and
a mild soap, are all safe and effective combinations for many stains.
_Suggested Exercises._ 1. Make a list of a few useful household stain
removers, and state under each the kinds of fibers it can be used
upon and the stains it will remove.
2. Try the efficacy of Javelle and oxalic acid, potassium
permanganate and oxalic, and household ammonia and oxalic solutions
in alternation, or _Zonite_ (an antiseptic preparation and a bleach)
with or without acid, on obstinate stains such as old mildew.
3. Work with ink stains on colored silks and cottons, using sour
milk, lemon juice, oxalic or acetic acid, or hydrogen peroxide, in
alternation with a mild soap, a bleaching soap, ammonia or borax
solutions, to decide upon a safe and effective method without injury
to dye or fiber. Try alcohol also.
4. Try the efficacy of a bleaching soap vs. Javelle water on various
stains, such as argyrol, peach stains, ink stains, etc., and take
into account the effect comparatively on the tensile strength of the
material, the comparative cost, and ease in application.
CHAPTER XV
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING
=The Hygienic Importance of Clothing.=--The importance of clothing in
maintaining a good physical condition does not receive the universal
consideration it deserves. A conscious hygiene for the whole body has
been emphasized in the past few years, and it is a most necessary
part of this movement that people in general should recognize that
our modern garb, unhygienic in many details, is a large factor in the
problem of keeping well, and that rational clothing will not only aid
in warding off many diseases, such as tuberculosis, but will be greatly
effective in bringing about the desired state of perfect health.
Clothing which does not conform with the laws of hygiene is constantly
undermining the health of the individual by draining the body of energy
which could go to building up a resistance to disease in general,
especially to throat and pulmonary troubles.
Individual resistance to cold depends on age, robustness, and habit,
and clothing should be modified to agree with the conditions these
impose. An even warmth in order to maintain the body at its normal
temperature is secured by different types of clothing, according to
the individual and his environment, but there are certain hygienic
principles of general application which can guide all individuals in
their choice of clothing.
A good general maxim is to wear no more clothing than is necessary for
warmth. Letting the sunlight reach the body in summer and accustoming
it to climatic changes and the rigors of winter are sound sense,
but must be applied sensibly. Extremes should be avoided. According
to present theory, sunlight actually forms one of the fat-soluble
vitamins in the skin, whence it goes to serve the body as a whole,
but the fact that it has this effect does not mean that it is well to
blister the body by too long exposure to the sun on a sandy beach;
nor does it follow that because a Scotch Highlander, accustomed to
cold houses and hard living, thrives bare-kneed in kilts, that a frail
child, similarly unclothed, should be made to face wintry blasts
after being habituated to a steam-heated house. Those who choose
clothing for themselves or others should study the needs of the body,
the way clothing may meet these needs, and especially the habits and
requirements of the individual.
=The Body in Its Ideal Condition= is maintained at a constant
temperature, is dry, clean, well ventilated, and so unrestricted that
all its parts can function properly. To meet these needs is the special
province of clothing, and that worn next the body must be chosen with
reference to its heat conductivity, its relative rates of absorbing and
transferring moisture, its air capacity with relation to ventilation,
its cleanly qualities, and its weight and fit. The properties of
different fibers, the kind of textile weave, the choice of garments
hygienic as to fit and fashion, and many other considerations enter
into this important study of clothing in its relation to body welfare.
=Clothing in Its Relation to Body Heat.=--The principal object of
clothing is to aid in the maintenance of a constant body temperature.
No matter what the climatic conditions may be, or what sudden changes
in the environment may occur, the healthy body must keep a temperature
of about 98.6 degrees. Very slight variations are normal, but a
difference of a few degrees in either direction may be fatal to
life. In itself, the human organism has two ways of maintaining heat
equilibrium--by chemical and by physical regulation. An instance of
the first method is seen when in adjustment to a falling temperature
or to sudden cold, heat is increased by increased oxidation, just
as a furnace heat is maintained by the addition of fuel. This is
called “chemical regulation” because it involves an increased amount
of oxidation or burning of food material in the body. Variations in
the quantity of blood sent to the skin, affecting the loss of heat by
conduction, convection, and radiation, and the varying production of
perspiration, affecting the loss of heat by evaporation, are factors in
the physical regulation of temperature. The term “physical regulation”
implies that the body temperature is maintained without necessarily
changing the rate of oxidation. The unclothed races of men meet the
heat demands of the body by increasing their food supply, when chemical
regulation is necessary. Primarily, clothing is intended to do away
with the necessity for “chemical regulation,” and so conserve energy
and incidentally save fuel. Thus it must not _conduct_ heat too rapidly
for the maintenance of an even temperature; it must prevent undue loss
of heat by _convection_, that is, the rising of currents of warm air,
or “stream lines” of heat, and their replacement by cold currents;
and it must not be so insufficient as to suffer the body to lose heat
rapidly by general _radiation_.
The vasomotor system can be exercised and strengthened in its work
of maintaining an equilibrium in body temperature, by cold baths or
cold sprays after warm baths; by accustoming the skin to a moderately
low temperature in the house both day and night, and eliminating the
excessively warm clothing which is apt to cause sluggishness in the
circulation. If the system is consistently toned in this way to stand
sudden changes in temperature, fewer colds will follow exposure. The
modern athletic young woman who keeps her body and skin in tone by
exercise and daily cold baths, is perhaps able to wear with impunity
the mode of dress which shows such vagaries as thin silk stockings and
thin-soled pumps, short skirts and low necks, in winter winds and
snows, but this same athletic young woman is more apt to be seen with
woolen hose below her short skirt, and stout shoes in winter, with
other sensible dress in correspondence. There are far too many young
girls of the “flapper” type who are imperiling their obviously frail
constitutions by the futile “protection” of inadequate clothing in cold
weather, but that these cases are not truly representative is evident
if the average mode of dress is studied. That the hygienic trend of
woman’s dress has been upward more than is the case with men’s attire,
is the opinion of Dr. Walter B. James. In an article on “The Relation
of Dress to Health, with Special Reference to the Army Uniforms,” in
the _Medical Record_ of April 13, 1918, Dr. James says: “In spite of
the claimed absurdity of women’s dress, colds and catarrhs are for
the most part maladies of the other sex, and pneumonia and bronchitis
are certainly no less common, and indeed are probably more common,
in men than in women.... The fashion of the abbreviated skirt has
been attended with no increase of throat maladies.... All insurance
companies regard the expectation of life, after the age of fifty, as
better in women than in men, which would not encourage the view that
women’s dress was less hygienic than men’s.” Dr. Augusta Rucker is
quoted as saying: “The woman of the immediate future will be an active,
useful person garbed about halfway between the over-woolened and
bestarched man and the wisp-of-chiffon-and-diamond-shoulder-strapped
lady of the ballroom.”
An attempt to harden the body by exposure is now more difficult than
it was in primitive life. Houses, cars, and public buildings are, as
a rule, overheated in winter, and the alternation with the cold and
dampness out of doors creates a trying condition requiring careful
adjustment to it in the matter of clothing. The “hardening process”
may be persevered in to the point that what is gained in immunity to
cold is lost in body development or resistance to disease. Energy
is required to keep up the warmth by chemical regulation of a body
insufficiently or unevenly clothed, with too much exposure in certain
areas. Why should a frail child or young girl call too much upon
the body for energy for this purpose which could be used for growth
and development? Why waste energy? This applies also to the boy who
“toughens” himself by going without an overcoat in winter. Standing
in the cold air without extra wraps, with thin stockings or slippers,
or in evening dress after a dance, is such a waste of energy, and a
positive menace to health. As a rule, children require relatively warm
clothing, because of their proportionally greater surface area and
their need of reserve energy for growth.
Rubner shows by experiment the increased amount of carbon dioxide given
off when the body is required to accelerate its rate of oxidation in
order to maintain heat equilibrium when clothing is insufficient. His
figures are quoted by Lusk, in _The Science of Nutrition_, and by Dr.
Jesse Feiring Williams, in _Personal Hygiene Applied_, as follows:
INFLUENCE OF CLOTHES ON METABOLISM IN MAN AT A TEMPERATURE OF 11° C. TO
12° C. (ABOUT 52° TO 53° F.)
---------------------------+---------+---------+----------------
| _CO₂ | _H₂O |
| in grams| in grams|
|per hour_|per hour_|_Remarks_
---------------------------+---------+---------+----------------
Summer clothes | 28 4 | 58 |Cold, occasional
| | |shivering
| | |
Summer clothes and winter | 26 9 | 50 |Chilly part of
overcoat | | |the time
| | |
Summer clothes and fur coat| 23 6 | 63 |Comfortably warm
---------------------------+---------+---------+----------------
Dr. Williams comments: “This is the sort of scientific evidence from
which the hygienist determines his rules. It will be observed that
the individual with ‘summer clothes’ had to burn more food material,
as indicated by the greater CO₂ output, than the individual who wore
‘summer clothes and winter overcoat’ or the one dressed with ‘summer
clothes and fur coat.’ This means, of course, that children and women,
who are chiefly concerned in this matter, are losing valuable body heat
by lack of proper protection of the body. It thus becomes a matter of
prime importance in health that the body heat be conserved, that the
losses of heat be prevented. This is of particular importance on cold,
windy days because of the greater loss at such times.”
Cold floors which chill the feet are a cause of discomfort and lowered
energy to those who suffer from this inconvenience and whose business
requires them to sit much of the time. Woolen stockings will add much
to the comfort and indirectly to the efficiency of such persons, or
even a pile of newspapers under the feet will be a great protection.
In cold weather especially, the requirements for the cloak and the
garments underneath are different. The main requirement for the outdoor
covering is warmth. Most people dwelling in well-heated houses find
it best to wear light-weight garments indoors, and depend upon the
outer wraps for the extra warmth needed out of doors. Some weight
is required, yet two light-weight garments will be warmer than one
heavier. A close weave on a windy day is better than an open weave,
because it prevents a too free passage of air to the body. Garments
worn next the skin, when chosen on hygienic principles, are open in
texture, light in weight, keep the skin dry, and provide ventilation,
yet bring the loss of body heat by conduction and convection to a
minimum.
The amount of heat conducted by a garment depends very little upon the
nature of the fiber in it, but a great deal upon the amount of air held
in its meshes. Still air (air not in motion) is a poor conductor of
heat; furs are warm simply because they imprison so much air. No fiber
possesses warmth as an innate property, but wool feels warmer than
other fibers because it holds more air, as its wiry quality keeps it
from crushing. Napped cotton has had its air spaces increased, so it
is warm as long as it is “woolly,” but wear and washing mat it down,
and the air which acted as a non-conductor of heat is lost from its
meshes. The heat-insulating properties of blankets have been measured
by the Bureau of Standards at Washington, and conclusions were reached
that the non-conduction value depended upon the number and size of air
meshes rather than the nature of the fiber.
By virtue of its property of non-conduction, wool would be the ideal
material for underwear, if other considerations did not affect the
conclusion. Some of these will be discussed later; one drawback to
its use is the fact that the wool fibers easily felt from careless
washing and other causes, and the air spaces become obliterated. A
felted, boardlike wool garment has lost much of its warm feeling.
However, a loose weave of wool, carefully laundered, or wool mixed
with one-quarter or one-half cotton or silk is the best cold-weather
undergarment for aged people, invalids, little children, those with
whom there is little perspiration and little blood brought to the skin
by muscular activity, and those whose occupation keeps them outdoors
in all weathers. The clothing recommended by the Director of Boys’
Recreation Clubs of the Horace Mann School includes: “Loosely woven,
light woolen underclothing is preferable to cotton for hiking, and in
cold weather hikers often wear two sets of underwear.”
Comfortable winter clothing for the older child depends much upon the
individual. There is a difference in children, some generate heat
rapidly, perspire readily, their clothing becomes wet and they catch
cold easily in consequence, unless they are lightly clothed and kept
out of drafts. Other children whose circulation is poor or oxidation
slower, become blue with cold and need underclothing of part wool, at
least, to wrists and ankles, warm stockings and high shoes, so that
they may not waste energy in trying to keep warm. But the average child
who lives in heated rooms should be evenly clothed in not much more
than the summer weight of under and outer clothing, for indoors, and
depend on warm outer clothing when he goes outdoors.
As has been indicated, the secret of non-conduction of heat lies in the
loose weave or open mesh. Cotton and linen woven in this way acquire
a feeling of warmth, and possess advantages over wool in points of
cleanliness, ventilation, and evaporation of moisture. For many people
they make the most satisfactory year-round undergarments. Too open a
mesh, however, will defeat its purpose by allowing a free movement of
air, and heat loss by convection. Silk combines well with either cotton
or linen, and adds its value as a non-conductor of heat.
Warm weather underclothing differs from that of winter in little except
texture and weight. The body’s needs are the same, and the difference
should be mainly in the outer dress, with perhaps a wider mesh in the
light-weight cotton or linen undergarment. Cotton and linen feel cool
in smooth, close weaves, since they do not hold a layer of warm air
next the body and because of the relative ease with which they take
up water and allow it to evaporate. Linen especially gives an added
feeling of coolness by the rapid evaporation of moisture from it. A
linen garment of close texture may cool the body too quickly in a draft
of air; on the other hand an open mesh of linen is comfortable in cool
weather and cool in warm.
The color of a garment has considerable to do with the heat the body
receives from it. Black is the warmest color because it absorbs all
the rays of light (see _Color_, in Chap. XIII). White is the coolest,
since it has no absorption but total reflection of light. If a man can
wear loosely fitting white or light gray suits in warm weather he is
more comfortably clothed than, for instance, in dark blue, which makes
an ideal winter color. Next to black in degree of light absorption and
warmth come dark blue, dark green, then dark red and yellow.
=Clothing in Relation to Absorption.=--The sweat glands of the average
adult give off a considerable daily secretion of water, varying in
amount with the individual, his occupation, etc. As most of this
must be taken up by the clothing, in addition to gaseous and solid
constituents of the sweat and oil from the sebaceous glands, the manner
in which different fibers absorb and discharge all this material
becomes most important. To keep the body in good condition the glands
must not become clogged; perspiration must be removed about as fast
as it is formed; it must not stay in the garment to give a feeling of
dampness and chill to the cooled skin, and the air pores of the garment
must not become so clogged as to prevent ventilation.
The weave of an undergarment is an important factor in choosing it with
reference to its absorptive and ventilative power. In a report of a
test to determine the relative power of absorption and evaporation in
knitted and woven underwear, made for the Associated Knit Underwear
Manufacturers of America, W. L. Siewers, president of the Maline Mills,
says in part:
“The knit fabric was made of combed yarn, 14-cut, the piece being
8³⁄₄ by 10 inches. The woven fabric was cut from a standard $1.00
suit, the size of the piece being 9¹⁄₂ by 13 inches. Each piece
weighed 76 grains dry.
“Each piece was soaked in water and hung up, being weighed again
after the water stopped dropping from the pieces; the weight at that
time showing the amount of water absorbed by each piece. The pieces
were then weighed at intervals in accordance with the following table:
Knit fabric
(Soaked at 8.36 a.m.) _Grains_ _Moisture_
Dry weight 76
Dripping stopped at 9.15 a.m. 263 243%
Weight at 10.20 a.m. 78 2.6%
10.50 a.m. 77¹⁄₂ 2.0%
12.30 p.m. 77 1.3%
2.00 p.m. 76 0.0%
Woven fabric
(Soaked at 8.42 a.m.)
Dry weight 76
Dripping stopped at 9.09 a.m. 158 108%
Weight at 9.45 a.m. 82 6.6%
10.50 a.m. 78 2.6%
12.30 a.m. 77¹⁄₂ 2.00%
2.00 p.m. 77 1.3%
“Thus it will be seen that a knitted fabric weighing 76 grains dry
absorbed 187 grains of water, while the woven fabric of the same
dry weight absorbed only 82 grains. Within 65 minutes 185 grains
had evaporated from the knit fabric, and in 285 minutes all of the
moisture had evaporated and the fabric was back to its original dry
weight. After 291 minutes the woven fabric was still moist, retaining
1.3 per cent water. During the period from the time dripping ceased
until two o’clock when the knitted fabric was found to be thoroughly
dry, the knit fabric showed an evaporation of seven-tenths of a grain
per minute, whereas the woven fabric showed only three-tenths of a
grain per minute.”
Of all the textile fibers, wool is the most hygroscopic Under ordinary
conditions it carries moisture up to 12 or 15 per cent of its weight,
and in moist surroundings may take up 30 to 50 per cent. Being a
natural skin covering, it is well adapted for the absorption of sweat
and oily secretions, but its power of holding these is a disadvantage
in a garment. It not only absorbs moisture slowly, but dries slowly.
The result is that it becomes very damp, and while this does not
prevent it from feeling warm in still air, in a draft of cold air the
heat conduction is rapid and the body receives a chill.
Silk is nearly as hygroscopic as wool, but it loses moisture much more
rapidly. In open mesh, it has many ideal qualities for underwear, since
it is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, and is cleanly.
Cotton and linen are about equally hygroscopic, each taking up perhaps
7 to 12 per cent of moisture, but linen absorbs it more rapidly because
of its greater porosity and capillary action, and yields it the
most readily of any textile fiber. Again the open mesh is needed to
counteract the dangerous element of too rapid evaporation.
=Clothing and Cleanliness.=--A question closely connected with
absorption is the ease and thoroughness with which undergarments of the
different fibers can be freed from the products of the skin and kept in
a sanitary condition. If it is the nature of the textile to hold the
dirt and harbor germs, or if the garment is infrequently or carelessly
washed, impurities are kept in contact with the body, and infection
and disease are invited, especially if there may be abrasions in the
skin. Quite as much difference exists between the fibers in respect of
natural cleanliness as between their absorptive capacities.
Of the textiles ordinarily used for undergarments, linen is the
cleanest because of its smooth surface and lack of natural oil or
grease. Cotton yarn has more or less oily matter and many protruding
ends of the short fibers in the twist, both of which affect the weave.
Experiments have shown that about three times as much dirt clings to
cotton as to linen, and nearly twice the number of bacteria will be
collected by the skin when wearing cotton, in a comparison of similar
weaves of the two. However, cotton launders easily, and can stand a
high temperature in sterilization; so with frequent changes it is a
sanitary material.
An interesting problem in the hygienic treatment of clothing is the
proper washing of the type of lingerie so much worn at present. Silk
underwear and stockings are quite as often rinsed out in the hand basin
and dried in the bathroom or bedroom at night, as sent to the laundry.
No benefit of sun, outdoor air, or hot iron is had, of course, so the
washing should be thorough to overcome these handicaps and retard
the growth of bacterial colonies. Washing in soapy water followed by
several rinsings, drying in the sunlight, and ironing with a hot iron
spells good sanitation in laundering, but silk should not be dried in
the sun and ironed with a hot iron, even were it convenient for many
women to follow such a method. Silk is naturally a clean textile as to
its smooth surface, but it absorbs oily and sweaty secretions readily.
Two soapy waters and thorough rinsing in several changes of water
until the final one is clear, seem the minimum treatment for sanitary
cleansing of soiled underwear which must be dried away from fresh air
and light.
Sun drying of clothing is an important factor in the destruction of
bacteria. As a result of an investigation made a few years ago in
California, to determine suitable methods of laundering bathing suits
and towels in public bath houses, in connection with a legislative act
controlling the sanitation of such places, part of the recommendations
made included sun drying for six hours or hot air drying for one hour
at a temperature of 250° to 300° F.
Woolen underwear, because of its comparatively rough surface, is
likely to become heavily charged with bacteria, which multiply on the
soiled garment more rapidly than upon an equally soiled garment of
cotton or linen. It is, moreover, difficult to cleanse. The natural
capacity of the fibers for storing up oily and sweaty secretions makes
thorough washing imperative, and the difficulty lies in preventing the
felting of such impurities into the garment. Loose textures can be
satisfactorily cleansed by skillful laundering in solutions of a mild
soap in tepid water, and thorough rinsing, but neither strong soaps nor
hot water can be used, on account of the felting action.
Outer garments are by no means free from criticism from the standpoint
of cleanliness, and the cheaper transitory materials have in this
respect a certain advantage over those bought for long wear. The effect
of dry cleansing on clothing of better quality as eliminating dangers
must be considered. Wool outer garments hold large quantities of dust,
and need to be brushed frequently, not only for appearance, but for
health. Linings which are made as a part of a dress become very soiled,
yet because they are not detachable, are frequently not cleansed for
weeks or months. Detachable linings or slips are marked improvements
characterizing the present mode of dressing.
The hygiene of the sweatshop and the laundry, and other questions
of public health in connection with clothing, are subjects too
large to be discussed here. A few rules of sanitation for the home
laundry, however, may be emphasized. Soiled clothing should be
kept in absolutely clean hampers. The usual wicker one, which is
seldom cleaned, often contains myriads of bacteria; a vulcanized or
white metal holder is better than a basket. A washable bag of heavy
material kept absolutely clean can be used inside wicker hampers and
eliminate much of the danger. Separate laundry bags should be used for
handkerchiefs or especially soiled articles used in colds or disease,
and the entire bag soaked in salt and water before washing the articles
in it. Extremely soiled clothing should not be washed with cleaner
articles. Steam laundries are usually better than home laundries for
absolute sterilization, because of machine processes and factory
inspection. Cotton is the only textile that can well stand boiling.
Most bacteria in clothing will be killed, however, by keeping the
temperature of the water in which the garments are being washed at 150°
F. or above for some time, and drying in the sun, if possible. Strong
alkalies act as sterilizers, but must be used with discretion. Any good
soap, however, is germicidal, if used to accomplish perfect cleanliness.
=An Unrestricted Body.=--A body impeded in any of its movements or
functions can never be highly efficient or perfectly well. Tight
clothing, whether shoes, corsets, or belts, or clothing so heavy that
its weight is a burden, is worn at a sacrifice not only of comfort
but of health. Poorly fitting, tight corsets lay the foundation for
poor health in later life. Corsets are not really necessary to a woman
who has strong muscles, and the present mode of dress, which does not
require corsets, is most sensible. If they are worn, they should fit
well, be adjusted carefully each time they are put on, and should
be loose at and above the waist, that plenty of room to breathe may
be allowed. Rubber reducing corsets violate the laws of hygiene. By
constriction they may induce internal disorders, and by causing excess
perspiration weaken the abdominal muscles. Garters suspended from the
corset may be overtight, especially when attached in front, and will
bring a pressure downward which may lead to serious displacement. When
fashion decrees heavy skirts they should not drag from the waist, but
be suspended from the shoulders. In the past collars have been worn
too high and tight; the open neck and the loose, shoulder-suspended
gown are excellent features of present styles which it is hoped will
be allowed by fashion to be permanent. Bands about the waist should be
loose enough not to cause marking of the body. They should be worn over
a waist of some kind and not come directly against the flesh.
_Shoes_ should be as straight on the inside line as possible, should
fit the heel and instep snugly, and leave the toes free. (Fig. 143).
The heel should be broad and low, and the sole thick enough to be
substantial. Pointed toes have a tendency to weaken the arch of the
foot. Many who complain of rheumatism in the feet have broken down or
weakened arches, and are really suffering from the shoes they have
worn. Orthopedic shoes can be obtained to relieve the pain or even cure
the condition if it is not too serious. The orthopedic shoe which fits
one person’s foot may have too low an instep or heel for another. Each
individual should look for the shoe which gives comfort to her foot and
should continue in its use. There are many correctly shaped varieties
of shoes to be found. If a shoe of sensible shape is worn during the
day the foot is not likely to be harmed by a dressy and less hygienic
shoe for an evening occasion.
[Illustration: FIG. 143.--_A._ COMFORTABLE SHOE OF CORRECT SHAPE. _B._
FOOT DISTORTED IN SHOE. _C._ FLAT-FOOT. _D._ NORMAL FOOT.
Courtesy of “Hygiene for the Worker.”]
=Dangers in Textiles.=--Real dangers may lurk in textile materials
and clothing. A large amount of readymade clothing is still made in
unsanitary homes and tenement rooms, and it is known that disease is
carried in this way to the homes of the consumers. Poor or fugitive
dyes in textiles or in hosiery may cause trouble. Bright-colored,
striped cotton-flannel shirts have been known to injure those who
are working in overheated workrooms or before hot furnaces, and dyed
stockings may poison the skin, especially when it has been broken or
scratched. The towel for the general use of the public may be as
dangerous as the common drinking cup, but the spread of knowledge of
these matters is eliminating both evils. As Slosson says, “we blot our
faces now instead of drying them,” since the paper towel has become so
universally used.
When all is said, personal environment and idiosyncrasy must influence
an individual’s choice of textile and manner of dress. The value of a
study of the hygiene of clothing lies in the ability it gives to make
an intelligent adjustment of clothing to one’s needs, and further, to
become convinced of the importance of dressing in a way consistent
with freedom of movement, physical development, and fitness for the
occupation. Not all the efforts of the clothing reformers should be
directed at women, offenders though they may be at times. As a whole,
the clothing of men shows good points, especially in the matter of
shoes, but men’s attire is quite deficient in its adjustment to heat
regulation and ventilation, nor can much be said for some of its
details such as stiff, unventilated hats and tight, high collars,
whereas the trend in woman’s dress is toward light weight clothing,
no corsets, short skirts, and (even if slowly) toward sensible shoes
with good soles. It may be unusual to defend women’s hats, but from
a hygienic standpoint they are generally better than the derby and
top hat. An interesting experiment in temperatures has been made[63]
whereby a thermometer kept in a top hat showed an inside temperature of
90° F. when the outer air stood at 77°, and 108° when the temperature
rose at noon to 90°. In the evening there was a temperature outside
of 68° and inside of 88°. A motor cap showed 98° inside against 78°
outside.
[63] Cavanagh: _The Care of the Body_.
Scientific investigations of many kinds are needed that more knowledge
may be gained of the relation of clothing to health. We need further
data on the increase of germ life on various textiles when they
are clean or soiled or when disease is present, and the effect of
laundering and other methods for the elimination of bacteria; a
study of fugitive dyes, dressings, and treatments, and the effect on
the skin; the influence on the body of each fiber and the union of
different fibers; thermal properties of textiles with reference to
the fiber, the weave, and the color, and the relation of weight and
pressure in clothing to bodily condition.
CHAPTER XVI
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF TEXTILE PURCHASE
“Economy is idealism in its most practical form.”--Coolidge
=Some Statistics of the Textile and Clothing Industries.=--Among
the greatest industries in the United States, as in other civilized
countries, is the series of occupations which supply textiles for
clothing and household purposes. It may be said without exaggeration
that the kinds of material made, their later use and to some extent the
conditions within the industries are mainly influenced by women, who
are the chief purchasers and consumers.
The value of the combined products of the selected clothing industries
in 1923 was $3,925,193,176.[64] In New York City alone the value of the
clothing output in 1920 was $1,528,365,400.[64] The value in the United
States Census of 1910 was $1,684,636,499, showing a great increase in
clothing production in 1923. The items covered are the following:
[64] Report of Merchants’ Association.
_1910_ _1923_
Clothing, men’s and women’s $953,610,000 $2,585,398,566
Corsets[65] 33,257,000 76,047,959
Hats and caps, (other than felt, straw,
and wool) 13,689,000 42,811,444
Hats (fur, felt) 47,865,000 75,253,064
Knit goods 200,143,000 848,176,734
Millinery and lace goods 85,894,000 297,505,409
[65] Fashion’s decree has lessened the use of corsets, consequently
the report of 1925 will be lower. Girdles and stiffened waists of
various kinds are largely taking the place of the corset.
It is worth noting that every item has increased in greater proportion
than the purchasing power of money. Ready-to-wear clothing, knit
goods, millinery and lace goods have made large increases.
The manufacturers of women’s apparel in 1923 produced clothing valued
at nearly one and one half billion dollars:[66]
[66] Bureau of the Census.
Suits, Cloaks and Skirts $504,994,206
Dresses, Shirt Waists and Blouses 608,125,272
--------------
Total $1,113,119,478
The textile industries have grown also. The exact number of mills
cannot now be obtained, for large textile establishments often have
many mills under their control. The number of establishments in six
groups in 1923 were:
_Kind_ _Number_
Silk 1,598
Cotton 1,642
Knitting 2,323
Jute and Linen 37
Woolen and Worsted 851
Dyeing, Bleaching, and Finishing 713
Value of Imports and Gowns from Paris, 1924, $8,833,264[67]
[67] Daily News Record.
_Textiles and Their Products_[68]
_1923_
Number of Establishments 26,062
Number of Wage Earners (average) 1,704,498
Cost of Materials $5,395,762,000
Value of Products 9,460,904,000
Value added by Manufacture 4,065,143,000
[68] Bureau of the Census.
=Viewpoints.=--As women are said to buy or influence about 96% of the
drygoods of the country, their ignorance of values and indifference
as to conditions have a serious effect on the textile and clothing
industries. The majority of those engaged in manufacturing or in
selling consider that women are not interested in the economic side
of their clothing problem, either for the home or the industries, but
care only for style and appearance. This characterization has never
been entirely true, but now has less basis than it had a quarter of a
century ago. The development of textile and clothing courses in Home
Economics departments in universities, colleges, normal schools, high
and grade schools, and the educational work of the General Federation
of Women’s Clubs (in furthering its ideals of “The American Home”) have
trained a large class of intelligent consumers. It may be said roughly,
that one-third of the women of the country realize that the standard
set by women consumers does have its influence on the industrial world
as well as on the home, and they are consequently endeavoring to become
better consumers by taking training. The women in another group of
one-third have not been trained and have thought little about their
responsibility, but are openminded and want to learn. The remainder
will continue to be interested solely in their own personal appearance
and apparently do not care about the effect their actions are having.
The encouraging fact is apparent, however, that an increasing number of
women are asking how to become more intelligent consumers.
The spending of an undue amount on dress and the frequent changing of
fashions were evident before 1914, but were checked by the economic
needs of the time. After the war was over, an era of extravagance
began and will be stopped only by educating the consumer to see the
industrial situation and the effect on the home of the tendency to
thoughtless spending. Many helpful measures began during this time
which should be continued, such as the following: (1) Less abrupt
changes of fashion (before 1914 styles were often fundamentally altered
in six months, making older clothing look out of date, but afterward
with slight alterations a gown could be worn several years and keep
in the fashion). (2) Good materials are demanded, for women wear their
clothing longer, and realize that enduring goods may be higher in price
but pay in the end by their service. (3) Fewer articles of clothing are
worn at one time, consequently the weight is less as well as the cost,
and the hygienic condition is improved. (4) Expensive silk linings are
less used in gowns, for slips have largely taken the place and can be
worn with several garments. (5) Clothing is looser, the neck is open,
and tight corsets and belts have passed (see Chap. XV). (6) Shoes
with low heels and rounded toes that are long enough for the feet are
gradually taking the place of the high French heel and pointed toe. (7)
The wardrobe does not require so many varieties of outer clothing for
all occasions, thus less money is required than would have been the
case if old methods had continued. A woman can look as well dressed as
she ever did, with a smaller outfit, and health has become an essential
consideration of the dress of numerous women.
It has sometimes been erroneously argued that the large sums spent
for clothing by many have been an advantage to the poor in that
money has been placed in circulation and therefore the workers are
benefited. This argument is especially unsound as affecting the
production of women’s wear, for the workers are often overworked at
extra hours without pay to supply the demand. There are many reasons
why extravagance in clothing is not advantageous, such as (1) the
money which is spent in such dress is badly invested and is failing to
obtain, either for the individual or for the community,[69] the good
returns of well-invested money; (2) it is having a deteriorating effect
on the spenders by increasing their selfishness; (3) it is setting a
pace which is followed by those of less means in the use of flimsy,
showy fabrics which not only do not endure, but often have a degrading
moral effect on the wearers; (4) irritation is caused in those who
desire but cannot afford such gratification; and (5) it increases a
general tendency on the part of the young wage earner to sacrifice
housing and food in order to spend too much of her wages on display in
dress.
[69] From the standpoint of the community there is an irreparable
waste when human energy which should be directed to the production of
the necessities of life is diverted to the elaboration of superfluous
things.
=Factors in Cloth Endurance.=--Every consumer should know the
conditions which are necessary to make an enduring fabric. The cost of
it, alone, cannot indicate whether it will wear well, but if the price
runs below a certain amount she should question the cause. It is well,
therefore, for her to know the usual price for reliable fabrics. As a
general rule new style goods are more expensive than the same quality
in older fashions, on account of the risk in dealing with them until
the merchant knows they will be successful. Many expensive clothes are
not really enduring, for they are made for appearance, and strength
has to be sacrificed. For instance: the best long staple cotton may
be combed thoroughly, twisted into a silky yarn, and woven into a
beautiful fabric; the price per yard will be high but the endurance
small in comparison with a lower priced cloth with uncombed yarn and
close weave. The highest priced reeled silk may be woven into a satin
faced fabric which is only suitable for softly draped garments; if no
strain is placed upon it it will wear for dressy occasions, but so
easily will the threads shift that a slight draw on them will cause
opening of the weave and fraying. The cloth has been made for graceful
folds and its high price must not make the consumer think that it can
stand all varieties of service. It can be seen, therefore, that _high
price and the use of the best raw material will not ensure wear_.
Few consumers understand the difference between the many classes of
wools used in making cloth. Many think that new or virgin wool in a
fabric will ensure endurance, whereas if a reworked wool or shoddy is
present the cloth will be weak. The truth is that a well made woolen
cloth composed largely or even entirely of reworked wool will give
infinitely better service than a cloth made entirely of many of the
sorts of new or virgin wool. The former is often combined with the
virgin wool to strengthen it (see Chaps. VI and VII, _By-Products and
Reworked Wool_). It is true that the use of the best raw material in
a cloth made for endurance will give the most satisfactory wear, but
it is not solely on account of the raw content, for the processes
of making it into cloth were the main factors in its strength. The
consumer must consider how a cloth has been made if she would judge
wisely the probable wear.
_The way the yarn is spun_ is a factor in endurance. Smooth, closely
twisted yarns are the strongest. The tightly twisted yarns used in
silk crêpe look dull, but will wear better in the fabric than would a
loosely thrown warp and filling. Fancy yarns are often made with knots,
nubs, or other irregularities. The fabric looks strong, but catches
and wears off. A finely combed, long-staple, cotton yarn, closely
twisted, is usually expensive on account of the processes required to
produce it, but the strain of manufacture is great and weakens the
fiber. A closely twisted yarn in a cloth will wear shiny, as in serge,
for the surface wears off and reflects the light. Well twisted yarns
are used in fabrics where the weave is a factor in the appearance of
the finished cloth. In a softly twisted yarn the weave does not show
as distinctly, for the yarn spreads over the surface as in blankets.
In napped goods the weave is entirely obliterated, polo and broadcloth
being illustrations. To know the character of yarn the cloth should
be raveled both ways and the yarn untwisted. The character of the
raw stock and the amount of twist that has been given can then be
noted. The strength of the yarn and whether it will rough up should be
considered, and whether it is a two-ply, or single yarn. Naturally the
endurance is greater in the two-ply, but the demand for cheap fabrics
is met frequently by using single yarn in both warp and filling. Such
fabrics cannot be depended upon for satisfactory laundering or wear.
_The way a cloth is constructed_ will often determine the endurance.
A very loose weave will catch and pull, leaving a defective surface.
Some cloths are made in this way to give light weight and attractive
appearance. If the yarn is well twisted the strength may be
satisfactory, but not as much as if the cloth were woven closely also.
When the warp and filling threads easily shift the endurance under
strain is small. Cheap cloth is often woven loosely and finished with
heavy sizing, which fills the spaces between the threads. The sizing
passes by degrees and leaves a weak cloth. Such material easily pulls
out of shape, but closely woven cloth stretches less. Close plain and
twill weaves are the most lasting, and are more quickly made than
pattern weaves, consequently cost less. A variation of the plain is
the basket weave, which has two or more threads inserted both ways. It
is less strong than the plain weave, for the threads are not bound so
firmly. Another variation of the plain weave is to have a heavy yarn or
cord one way and a fine one the other, as in a poplin. When such cloth
is very carefully made it is strong, but often the finer yarn is worn
by rubbing against the heavier one and breaks through. Some shirtings
with stripes of heavier cord are very attractive, but soon wear at the
neck or cuff, and the laundry increases the injury. Dimities are made
with the heavier cord one or both ways, and are difficult to launder
well, for the hot iron is too much for the fine weave, yet heat is
needed to dry out the cord. Combinations of cotton and wool yarn are
used in fabrics, but if they are not most carefully finished (crabbed,
see Chap. VII), the surface is apt to become cockled in damp weather,
as cotton reacts differently from wool. The former also soils more
easily and loses its color sooner.
_Knit goods_ (see Chap. V) may be well constructed of good yarn, but
must be watched for a break in the structure, which may mean rapid
stretching into a hole, or the threads may run some distance and be
difficult to repair and look well. The material may stretch unduly in
some places, such as the knees. Milanese knitting is done on the warp
frame and does not ravel. It is used for underwear, gloves, stockings,
and fabrics. Knit cloth of wool is frequently napped to give it a soft
surface, and is not easily distinguished from napped woven goods.
Flat knit goods are less attractive than ribbed knit, but the latter
costs more. It is, however, more satisfactory and enduring. Knit goods
are cheaper than the same quality in woven goods. Fancy patterns are
often made in sweaters, but whenever long floats of threads are on the
surface they are apt to catch. Combinations of cotton and wool yarns
are much used in knit fabrics, with the same possible disadvantages as
in woven fabrics.
_Finish is Very Important in the Wear of Fabrics._ The class of dyes
used may be a reason for weakness. Heavy mordanting is necessary to
hold some colors to cotton and linen, yet it tends often to weaken the
yarn. Poor dyes or the adulteration of good ones may cause fading.
Goods with a cotton warp and woolen or worsted filling will sometimes,
after a little wear, become dull and soiled in appearance. Fabrics
finished with dressings to hide poor yarn construction are apt to lose
their solid appearance in the laundry and show the coarse weave. Too
close shearing in pile goods makes a weak cloth, easily slit. Chiffon
broadcloth is an illustration of consumer demand and consequent weak
construction. Two materials may be made of the same fiber and woven in
the same way, yet look and wear quite differently on account of the
finish. Much of the apparent firmness of a cloth may be in the sizing
which has been used. Dyeing in raw stock is more permanent than when
done in the yarn, and the latter is more apt to hold its color than
piece dye. Colored designs printed on the surface of a cloth are
very attractive, but will often become dull in outline. Wool and silk
hold color better than cotton, linen, and rayon. Bleaching may weaken
fabrics if carelessly done, for the chemicals used are strong. The
term “ingrain” indicates the manner of dyeing (see Chap. XIII); it is
used much in hosiery. It is well to remember that few fabrics are dyed
fast to all influences; a cloth may stand the sun but not the laundry.
Some can endure the laundry but not continual exposure to the weather.
Sizings and dressings often come out in the laundry, but at times can
be partially renewed by the use of starch or gum arabic and careful
pressing.
_Care_ is a very necessary factor in cloth endurance. Gowns, underwear,
stockings, and shoes worn day after day without alternating regularly
with another article of the same kind quickly deteriorate. After a
gown has been worn it should have the street dust shaken or brushed
from it and should be placed on a hanger. Cotton garments should be
smoothed out by the hand before putting away, to remove the wrinkles.
For a very sheer cotton, folding carefully and laying in a box or on
a shelf is often better than hanging up. Pressing is excellent for
preserving the freshness of clothing. For coats or street suits the
tailor usually is more successful than the home ironer. Spots should
be taken off when they occur, if possible, for often they can then
be removed by cold water, but if they dry in, the cleaner, even,
may be unsuccessful. Stockings, knit garments, and scarfs should be
repaired before wearing again, no matter how small the break. Clothing
should not be put into an unventilated closet or box when damp from
perspiration or other cause, but should be placed outside on a hanger
until perfectly dry before putting away. If clothing is repaired when
the hole is small it will prolong the wear, and the mend does not show.
Material often needs reinforcing under the arm or other places which
are apt to wear quickly. A piece of the fabric itself is best for the
purpose. It is well to ask for the pieces, if the gown has been made
at a dressmaker’s. Darning stockings, blacking and repairing shoes,
keeping on buttons, hooks and eyes, and wearing aprons when at work are
all necessary if clothing is to be kept in a wearable condition, and if
one desires to practice economy. French chalk, cleaning fluids, clean
cloths, white blotters, a good clothesbrush, a soft hatbrush, cleaning
creams and brushes for shoes, an electric iron and an ironing board
should be at hand and ready for use at any moment. Poor laundering is
hard on clothing, but the best is a means of lengthening its life.
It is well to consult such books as _Laundering_ by Balderston,
and _Clothing; Choice, Care, Cost_, by Woolman, both published by
Lippincott, for information on laundering and care. Clothing made of
wool, carelessly left hanging in a closet all summer, may be ruined
by moths. Garments put away carefully will not only be saved from the
ravages of moths but renew their freshness from the care given them.
Even a small closet carefully arranged with a pole on which to hang
clothing can serve to keep them in good condition. A wool suit will
wear for years if care is given, but neglect may make it useless in a
year. The wearer herself is frequently a factor in the deterioration of
her own garments. This will result not only from buying poor fabrics
and from careless and ignorant habits, but because she wears her
clothing too tight, too close to the skin (some textiles cannot stand
the direct heat or exudations of the body), or lets them get too soiled
before sending them to the laundry or the cleaner. The reactions of the
body surface differ, some persons having a more acid perspiration than
others, which has its effect if care is not taken. A test between two
women showed the difference in the influence they were having on their
clothing. They bought silk petticoats identical in the raw material and
manufacture, and made at the same place. In one instance the petticoat
was worn out in two weeks of constant wear, and in the other it lasted
four years. (See Chap. XII, _Weighting of Silk_.)
=Selection of Textiles and Clothing.=--The increase of wealth in the
United States, releasing many from hard work and developing leisure,
especially among women, has made possible a freer use of money than
ever before. The tendency has increased among both men and women to
spend an undue amount upon dress. The less well-to-do classes have
wished to appear to equal advantage, consequently a large amount of
effective, rather than reliable, materials have been produced. The
market has been affected by the demand for large supplies of fabrics
for garments, the price of manufacture has risen, and the cost of
making into garments is higher also. The ability to use money wisely
has not increased as rapidly as wealth.
Before the Industrial Revolution women were the home producers of
all cloth. They not only decided what should be made and how to make
it, but judged the worth of it afterward. They later used the woven
material to make the needed clothing and household articles for their
homes. In 150 years from that time women have become principally
consumers, with little ability to judge of the value of the materials
they buy. It is true that many of them still remain producers in
textile mills, though in the capacity of hands rather than of heads.
We also find some women producers of a higher type as forewomen in
the great clothing industries where textiles are manufactured into
garments, as dressmakers and as makers of clothing in the homes, but
at the same time they also are apt to be consumers without sufficient
knowledge of the use of money. A large class of influential women,
however, are consumers only. As a class, women neither choose materials
wisely nor indicate satisfactorily what shall be produced from the
manufactured goods--hence are not efficient as planners or users of
wealth for textiles. Their demand is, however, having its effect on the
quality of the output, for the goods and clothing produced are made to
satisfy them.
The purchasing habits of large numbers of consumers have reacted upon
retailers, wholesalers, cutters, and manufacturers, leaving upon them
an impression that women, in general, have little interest in the
intrinsic values of materials. During the last quarter of a century,
however, groups of people have become intelligent in textile selection
(see above, _Viewpoints_). Salespeople are being trained to sell to
better advantage. Textiles are being studied as an important part of
the knowledge needed. The consumer, more than ever before, needs to be
fortified by knowing the values of materials, what she can afford to
spend, and what she needs.
Our clothing is often an evidence of poor selection. Closets display
the lack of intelligence in what has been bought--unbecoming garments,
failing in line and color to suit the wearer, too frail for general
occasions, not the sort of gown adapted to service; or clothing which
costs too much to keep up. These hang unused, whereas the ordinary
dress of the owner lacks dignity, for she has spent too much money on
useless or rarely required garments.
The consumer has been spoiled by the vast supply of goods in the stores
and is not satisfied unless she has many patterns in cloth to choose
from, or numerous gowns to try on. She does not realize that many of
these models are only chosen at intervals by anyone and remain over,
having to be sold at reduced prices at the end of the season; this
loss of money causing prices generally to be higher. The Secretary of
Commerce has seen clearly the relation of this purchasing habit of the
consumer to wastes in industry which he is trying to prevent. Unless
the consumer is willing to forego the enormous assortment of samples in
various commodities, the best efforts to lower prices must fail.
A study of purchasing habits in textile selection was made in the
middle west by a committee of the American Home Economics Association.
The group selected were substantial people living on moderate incomes
in small towns or rural communities, and who appreciated value in their
fabrics. The result in the naming of fabrics found desirable showed
that these women had taken advantage of the instruction given by Home
Demonstrators of the United States Extension Service of the Department
of Agriculture. The materials chosen by them for service clothing
indicated that in wool the majority desired serge, tricotine or jersey;
in silk, satin, taffeta or jersey; and in cotton, nainsook, sateen,
muslin, and cambric. Other materials were named, but these were the
favorites.
Good selection requires more than an inclination toward fabrics of
value, for many factors enter into wise choice for which training is
required. Manufacturers of women’s fabrics, on account of the rapid
changes of fashion, are more apt to make them for appearance than for
endurance. Better cloth costs more, for the price of labor and other
factors are high. Some women, desiring durable garments, are purchasing
fabrics made for men, which are enduring according to the amount paid
for them, and are having the cloth made up by custom tailors. The style
of the tailored business suit changes little and minor adjustments keep
it up to date for many years. The cost of keeping such a suit in order
is small; cleaning and pressing at intervals and a new lining if there
is a coat, can be done at the place where the garment was made.
The United States is advancing in design in both textiles and
clothing, which should be recognized and encouraged. American dyes are
successful, and fabrics colored by them are color-fast and attractive.
When domestic production is as satisfactory as foreign, the consumer
should acknowledge it and ask for homemade products. An impression
that foreign goods are better and cheaper than American has had an
unfortunate influence on our production. Fine and fancy cottons are
made in the United States, but the consumer has demanded foreign
goods, consequently many thousands of looms were silent of late in one
state alone, while large amounts of similar fabrics were imported. We
are obliged to pay more for our goods, for the standard of living is
higher here, our workmen receive better wages, and the hours of labor
are shorter. The most elaborate class of goods, made abroad on hand
looms, often in small workrooms, we do not make to any extent, but we
do produce on power looms exquisite fabrics in the various fibers and
in unions of fibers, and the consumer should recognize this. Foreign
labels have at times been put upon our goods to sell them, which fact
should put the consumer to shame.
Garments can be produced ready-to-wear, or made at custom houses,
or they can be made at home. The consumer must decide which is the
most satisfactory method. Some women prefer a number of inexpensive,
ready-to-wear gowns to a few high-priced ones. Up-to-date transitory
garments are bought and discarded as soon as the newness has worn
off. The cost of good custom work is saved, and the time which would
be taken in fitting or in making at home can be used in other ways.
The United States leads the world in ready-to-wear clothing, and
those made for women are receiving expert attention to make them more
satisfactory. The loose one-piece gown lends itself to adjustment to
almost all figures. Good cloths and simple designs can be procured.
It is difficult as yet for the trained consumer to find out, when
shopping for ready-to-wear gowns, where the cloth was manufactured and
who were the cutters, yet she desires to have this information for
her own satisfaction. A few of the best mills have their own cutters,
which enables the purchaser to feel that the garment will give a good
return for the money. In general, however, the cutters withhold the
information. It is said that 85 per cent of the textiles made in
the United States are sold in manufactured form. A large number of
textile mills are working solely for the cutting trade. Many of the
ready-to-wear houses are national advertisers and keep their product up
to the standard announced. Such information is a help to the purchaser.
More than one-half of the men and a large number of women are depending
on ready-to-wear clothing almost exclusively. There are many reliable
retailers of ready-to-wear clothing, and many consumers feel that it is
an advantage to see how a garment will look on them before they buy it,
hence they buy ready-made clothing.
Custom work of high quality has great advantages. It is expensive and
much fitting is required. The form of the garment and the line being
made for the customer, are more apt to be artistic and becoming to
the figure; the best cloth can be chosen, and by the selection of a
conservative design the gown can be longer kept in service than the
ready-to-wear. Many like this method of obtaining at least their better
clothing, and prefer to have fewer garments in their wardrobe and have
those noticeable for dignity and beauty, adapted to their personality.
By ordering carefully in styles that are not extreme they have in a
few years a desirable wardrobe at no greater expense than if they had
bought many ready-to-wear gowns.
Home dressmaking is still largely used, either for all of the clothing
or for a part of it. The aid of a visiting dressmaker is depended upon
at regular seasons with many families. This way is the cheapest, but
is apt to fail of the best results. In making garments at home time
is taken which could often be used to greater profit, and where many
articles are made the smooth routine of the home atmosphere is likely
to be disturbed. Important things are left undone, or a person quite
unadaptable to the family is injected into the group. In a household
where the mother and older daughters really know how and have time,
money can be saved and good effects obtained. Underwear, children’s
clothing and summer dresses are frequently made at home (see _Making
Clothing at Home_, below).
=Shopping.=--Each woman must decide for herself or for her family
whether enduring or temporary fabrics are ultimately the cheapest for
her. There is no objection to materials which appear to be better than
they are if they are purchased for transient use, but misstatement
should not be made about them, and they should be sold at an honest
price for cheap goods. Inexpensive materials certainly have their
economic place, for the easy soiling of light colors, the tendency
to fade, which cannot be prevented in some fabrics, passing whims of
fashion, and the outgrowing of clothing make it desirable to have
materials which are not too high in price.
There are occasions, therefore, when it pays to buy the best materials,
and other times when cheap, presentable materials may be more
economical. If a child will soon outgrow garments and there is no one
to whom they can descend the cheaper goods may be more desirable. When
a consumer decides on pure, well-made, enduring fabrics, she must pay
the price and expect the materials to wear if care is taken of them. If
she concludes to buy cheap, ready-made garments, she must not complain
if they soon look shabby. It is true that ready-made clothing, such as
one-piece lingerie gowns, lace waists, and underwear, are sometimes
cheaper than if made at home, but the materials are not apt to be so
good as those one would buy, and consequently they do not usually
wear as well. Cheap materials cannot be expected to endure whether
they are in ready-made or in homemade clothing. When a gown is made
at an expensive dressmaker’s, the cost is more in the making than in
the materials. The difference in cost between enduring and temporary
material is usually relatively small in the total price paid for a
gown, and economy in this case is in purchasing the best goods of the
kind. Even the most careless purchaser usually wishes such articles
to endure as petticoats, linings, umbrella covers, toweling, table
linen, handkerchiefs, sewing silk, sheets, pillow cases, rugs, and
other household articles. A frequent cause of unnecessary expense is
on account of the lack of knowledge in many consumers of the amount
of material required for a garment and the reliance placed on the
sales person for the information. Unless there is a special reason for
purchasing an extra amount of goods it is usually an economic loss to
have more than is needed.
Price is an indication of worth on many occasions, especially at the
best stores. It cannot always be relied upon, however, for chemical
tests have frequently shown that even the very highly priced dress
goods, upholstery goods, blankets, and table linen are not as pure or
enduring as the price would indicate.
The consumer who desires to be economical should not make a practice
of wandering about the shops to get ideas, for in that way her desires
increase and are apt to become confused in her mind with her needs.
When garments are really required in a family, the mother should
consider the various sides of the question before she does any shopping
at all: first, the amount of money she has to spend for them; second,
the purpose for which they are needed; third, how long they are
expected to wear; fourth, where to buy them, and the best material
for the purpose, or ready-made; and fifth, the least amount of cloth
which will make them and keep them in good condition. The materials
or garments which will be most satisfactory for her need may be, on
the one hand, something which will endure for years, or, on the other,
a passing fancy only, but she should decide the best course for her
to pursue before she is ready to shop. Samples should be obtained of
materials whenever there is a question of endurance, and tested at home
before purchasing, that mistakes may not be made. Bargain sales, as
usually conducted, are a doubtful advantage for the ordinary shopper;
for poor materials, good materials with defects in the making, silk
which is sold because it is doubtful if it will long endure on the
shelves, and a few good values are often combined on the counters, and
confuse the purchaser. It is really the expert only who is able to
judge whether it really pays to buy any of the materials offered in the
ordinary bargain sale. There are honest bargain sales which are of the
greatest service to the economic consumer who knows what she wants and
recognizes good material, but the thoughtless shopper is apt to buy
more than she needs. Goods are often offered at these sales in lengths,
and in general there is either more material or less than the shopper
needs, consequently she pays for more than she should or has not
enough, and thus any profit from the bargain is apt to be lost. Buying
the past season’s clothing between seasons when the prices are lowered
is wise if the purchaser knows exactly what she wants, the amount to
spend, and can herself make such changes as will bring the garments up
to date.
Shopping is an investment, and should be done with thought, not in
the haphazard way in general use. The new styles are usually more
expensive, for the element of risk taken by the merchant makes
necessary a higher price. He will later put what is left on the bargain
counter, having made his profit from it, or if it has not sold well,
to get something out of it. Good sales come at regular intervals in
most reliable department stores. July and August are special clearing
out times when the best of fabrics or garments can be picked up.
Warm weather articles are reduced in the fall and warm clothing in
the spring and summer. January is a time for white goods sales and
underwear. Linens are sold at this time also. A careful shopper can
do some economical buying by observing these times. As women are the
buyers for the family it is their business to become capable ones. It
is a help to the shopper to know the prices of staple goods in order
to compare them with advertised sales. The most reliable materials are
often reduced for various reasons, to close out a small stock or make
room for new goods. These are sold at out-of-season sales. In many
large retail stores such sales occur at regular times, as noted below.
The shopper should know the names of trustworthy brands of goods, of
dependable manufacturers, cutters, and retailers. “Seconds” or goods
that have some defect in them are sold at a lower price. If the shopper
makes a point of knowing whether the defect can be easily repaired she
can save money by purchasing them. The shopper should set up standards
of her own. Perhaps she needs a service gown. It may be of wool and she
does not want it to sag or wrinkle. It must keep its color and be woven
so that it will not become rough, and it must not spot. If the gown is
to be of cotton it must not be too heavy for easy laundering, must not
fade in the laundry or through wear, it must have little sizing and
must not shrink unduly in laundering. For making such garments extreme
simplicity and neatness are essential. The skirt must be wide enough
to step up and walk easily. The neck must be loose and the sleeve
close with no floating ends, and yet be easily pushed up the arm when
necessary. The stockings should be substantial, and the shoes large
enough for the feet to stand well in them; the toe rounded, the heel
low and flat (see Chap. XV).
The mothers who make money go the furthest usually set aside a certain
sum for clothing each year and carefully plan all of their purchases
that the amount they are allowed to spend may certainly buy the
necessities for each member of the family (see the chapter on _Clothing
Budgets_ which follows). If there is any money left, it can be used for
the little odds and ends which “run away with money.” Careless buyers
often take the bulk of the money for attractive notions when it should
have gone for shoes, stockings, underclothing, and everyday dresses.
Careful buyers never purchase washable outer and underclothing without
considering the laundry, for time is taken in ironing frills and
insertions, and in mending torn lace and lacy muslins, and the expense
is high for having lace-trimmed garments laundered. Clothing otherwise
good is made useless and unattractive by torn trimming, while simple
clothing continues to look well after much wear.
=Making Clothing at Home= in simple style by members of the family has
many advantages, if the time of the worker is not of greater value in
some other direction. Ready-made clothing is not always constructed of
the most substantial material; therefore, homemade garments of good
cloth are usually better after repeated laundering and continued wear
than those which are ready-made. If the latter are purchased, the
selection should be made of as simple designs and as good material as
possible, in neutral color and with substantial trimming. Elaborate
trimming adds greatly to the constant as well as initial expense of
dress. Knowing how to renovate materials and trim hats is also a help
in saving money. The economic household thinks it wiser to buy plain
than figured materials and standard rather than ultrafashionable
fabrics. It is considered better for each individual to keep to one
scheme of color that old waists, skirts, and coats may be kept in use
and look well with new garments until they are worn out. Evening and
party gowns for young girls can readily be made of mercerized or other
cotton materials and wear much better than cheap silks, but must be
carefully laundered and frequently pressed. Rompers and overalls for
the little children are easily made at home and thus save money as well
as prevent the spoiling of other clothing. Cotton crêpe has been used
much lately by economical business women for shirt waists, nightgowns,
petticoats, and underclothing. The garments can be laundered easily in
the room and do not require ironing. When these garments are made from
a good pattern and trimmed with narrow linen lace, an attractive result
follows. They should go at intervals to a steam laundry, or they become
yellow.
_Economic Methods of Planning Clothing_ are being used by many. Each
home buyer should develop her own. One gown can often be made to serve
for several occasions by thought in its purchase and construction.
Several blouses can go with one skirt and totally change its
appearance. The ensemble suits may be very practical, for the coat,
hat, and scarf can serve with other garments. One tone of color, or
related tones, should be used for all outer garments, so that coats
and gowns will go together. Each consumer can choose her own scheme
according to what is most becoming to her personality. If there is a
longing for extreme colors and styles, the sport clothing, which is
not expensive, can satisfy that desire. Scarfs and sweaters can add
the touch of brilliant color while leaving the gown and coat in the
chosen tone. Hats also should be bought with the general color scheme
in mind. By care in the choice of a summer hat, it may serve for the
entire year, by the addition of a velvet or duvetyn crown. Thus a very
desirable but costly hat may become an economy. Shopping should not
be done hastily, but only after due thought of the need, and the most
desirable garments to buy with the money. After clothing is bought
there should be no need to think further about it; all necessary
thought should precede the purchase.
Opinions differ as to _where styles come from_. Some are from Paris,
other ideas are the result of a meeting of manufacturers or cutters who
decide on what will be well to push the next season. The theater has
its influence, and repeated requests from customers for some special
design will send the store buyer to the wholesaler to obtain it. Even
the progressive young girl of the day has her influence, and has been
a factor in bringing into vogue many common-sense ideas, such as the
sensible shoe, looser clothing, and boyish dress. The public seems
to have little influence in the matter, but, in reality, the choice
is always contingent upon what is felt the public will buy. As the
trained consumer is increasing in number and has her own opinion as
to her wants she is becoming a more important factor in what shall
be provided. An instance of this is the increase on the market of
common-sense shoes for women; the shoemaker resisted this demand for
some time, but had to succumb.
=Some Simple Tests= can be made by the purchaser which help her
judgment. For a thorough investigation of the content and condition
of fabrics, however, laboratory tests are required, for one fiber can
be chemically treated to resemble another, and the yarn content be
obscure, or a finish can be put on cloth which in appearance as well
as feel can puzzle even an expert. For such scientific study see Chap.
XII. The general consumer can be greatly helped if she will make a
point of understanding a few simple things such as the following: She
should know the look and feel of staple cloths in all four textiles,
and the customary price for them when at their best. When she is
choosing cloth she should feel it with her bare hand and see how it
drapes and folds, especially if the price is much below the usual, and
she should know the many factors which must be satisfactory if the
cloth is to be enduring (see _Factors in Cloth Endurance_, above). If
she wishes the best wearing materials she will avoid a silk that feels
stiff and creases readily, a shiny, starched table cover of damask,
cotton shirtings with heavy cords alternating with sheer weave, or
loosely woven cloth of wool with knots on the yarn. She will gradually
learn some surface evidences of weak fabrics which will help her to
avoid them. She will expect full bleached linen to be more expensive
than unbleached, but will know that the strength of the former is lower.
Silk, in order to cheapen it, is often combined with mercerized cotton
and rayon. The appearance is attractive but the purchaser should
understand that the properties cannot be those of pure silk. Mercerized
cotton is duller in appearance than silk and rayon is brighter.
Raveling out the yarn will sometimes reveal the fiber content, for
if reeled silk has been used the fiber will be long, whereas the
mercerized yarn is made of short fibers. Burning the raveled yarn will
show the difference between animal and vegetable fibers (see Chap.
XII). Rayon when wet becomes weaker, and if snapped in the hand will
go to pieces, but silk is not affected by moisture, and if snapped
gives forth a sound. The price is lessened by the use of rayon, but
the fiber will be found to be stiffer, and less elastic than silk. The
combination has advantages, for an attractive material at a lower price
has been gained, but care must be taken of it (see _Rayon_, Chaps. IX
and XII). A fine weave can be studied through the weaver’s glass, which
can be bought for a low price at any optician’s. The consumer can see
if the size of the yarn and the number of threads in both warp and
filling are approximately the same. A cloth may seem to her attractive,
but she should know what to expect of it after she has made it into a
gown. A heavy cord in the filling and a loose warp often makes a weak
cloth. Satin has floats of silk on the surface which give it its bright
light, but when these are long and made of spun silk they will wear
rough. Stiffenings and starches can often be detected by the naked eye,
or the nail can raise them, or rubbing the cloth together will cause
the dry dressing to fly out. A moderate amount of dressing on the yarn
is needed to weave cotton and linen, and it is used in other textiles
also, to strengthen the warp for the loom. It is when dressing is used
to hide the poorness of the weave that it is objectionable, if the
shopper desires a strong cloth. Threads easily moved in a fabric can be
detected by the nail or by a needle. The kind of cloth thus made may be
amply enduring when used for social events, but it is not serviceable.
Vat dyes have made possible fast colors in cotton goods, but it must be
remembered that dyes are not usually made fast to all influences. (See
_Finish is Very Important_, above.) Animal fibers hold color better
than vegetable. Rayon, which is a chemical product, does not hold color
as well as silk does, but many people expect it to do so. Piece dyeing
has been greatly improved in color fastness, but is less satisfactory
than yarn or raw stock dyeing. Exaggerating the merits of textiles is
usual among salespersons and the shopper must be aware of the usual
properties of fabrics and not be deceived. The term “absolutely fast”
is generally an exaggeration, but it is frequently heard. In buying
colored wash goods for children or for house dresses it is well to test
the fastness by laundry or weathering before buying. The latter can
be done by placing a card over one-half of a sample and leaving it in
the air and sunlight for a week or so, and noting any loss of color.
Bleeding can be tested by washing a sample in hot water with a piece of
white cloth in the same vessel to see if the color runs. Crocking may
be noted by rubbing the fabric with a white cloth to see if the color
comes off (see Chap. XIV).
=Significance of Dress.=--Dress has a far-reaching influence which is
not always appreciated. Well dressed people are generally regarded as
successful. This may be a recognition of the success of the individual
or of the head of the family. The women of a family are selected
as a means of showing wealth, and a well-dressed family reflects
distinction upon the one who is responsible for its support. This has
been undoubtedly one reason for excessive dress in women. The extent to
which they have been physically handicapped in their clothes has been
another means of showing that sufficient wealth is possessed by the
head of the family to free the woman from work; and that therefore her
activity may be interfered with by tight clothing, trailing gowns, lacy
trimmings without endurance, shoes in which it is impossible to walk
easily, and other evidences of her uselessness.
Both overdressing and poor dressing are at a disadvantage in the
business world. A position is as often gained by the correct dress
of the applicant as by her personal appeal. If she is vulgarly or
overdressed she is apt to offend the possible employer, who wishes his
office to have dignity, and who knows that the personality of such a
one will be objectionable. If she has a careless, slovenly appearance
he refuses to consider her application, feeling she is inadequate.
The influence of dress on an employer is recognized generally, for it
is no unusual procedure for a man who has only shabby garments and
needs a position to borrow from a friend a neat business suit that
fits him when making his application. Looking success is an important
part of achieving success. The self-confidence that comes from being
well dressed helps one to urge his ability. Ill fitting or shabby
clothing makes a man feel at a disadvantage. There is a freedom of
spirit attending the wearing of attractive, well-fitting garments which
influences both the wearer and the beholder.
Dress has both a subjective and objective influence, for even our
behavior is affected by the clothing we wear. Dress may indicate
culture and release ability. The uniform of a soldier or a policeman is
a help to morale, and important in the respect which it calls forth.
The putting on of a sport suit for a holiday has its direct effect in
making us ready for enjoyment. Dignified garments prepare us to live
up to them in our actions. Immodest dress is undoubtedly a factor in
the deterioration of the individual. Women’s dress of this era gives
evidence of the greater freedom accorded them, and is an evidence of
modern thought. In many ways too much license is taken, but on the
other hand women’s dress has never been so hygienic and sensible.
Character is shown often by the condition and style of our garments.
One who is content to wear showy outside clothing and inadequate, torn
garments beneath has some defect in her of which this condition is
merely an evidence. Good nature is easily increased through wearing
clean, comfortable, pleasing clothes. The effect on children of being
dressed in ragged, inadequate clothing is not only irritating, but
also acts on the disposition as well as the health. On the other hand,
extravagant or showy dress on a child is apt to produce priggishness
and selfishness. It is not possible to state the relation in exact
terms, but we believe that adequate, attractive, neat but not selfishly
expensive clothing is a factor in virtue, and being well dressed gives
a feeling of satisfaction and self-confidence which often enables the
wearer to conquer a difficult situation. It is, therefore, of prime
importance that we give attention to our dress, but always with regard
to the amount of our income which we have a right to spend, that we may
be entirely free from extravagance. Nor should our example be such as
to cause either extravagance or envy in our less fortunate neighbors.
=The Consumer’s Influence.=--Buying wisely is not a simple matter,
as many consumers seem to think, but requires some training and much
experience. Both men and women have been in the habit of considering
that they have a right to buy their clothing according to their own
will, being unaware or not caring for the effect their purchases may
have on the industries as well as on the home. The present generation
has been extravagant, and the younger people, not having been taught
any better, have even exceeded their parents. The United States is
noted the world over for its lack of thrift.
The Joint Commission of Agricultural Inquiry was appointed by the
House of Representatives in the 67th Congress (1921) to study the
causes for the widespread depression in farming communities. It urges
in its report the coöperation of the consumer in reducing the cost
of distribution by obtaining more knowledge of the commodities they
need, “instead of depending upon the retailer to display a great
variety of goods with superlative convenience and spacious display
rooms with extravagant furnishings, fixtures, and facilities. Such
environment is created out of consumer demands, and must be paid for
out of the purchase price of the merchandise the consumers buy.” The
report further urges that the subject shall be taken up in schools
and colleges that a better understanding of problems of distribution
may follow. Thus is recognized the responsibility of the consumer
for some of the causes for the high price of merchandise, and their
part in reducing them. The times have been difficult and every agency
should unite in endeavoring to understand conditions and to eliminate
uneconomic practices. Many associations, research bureaus, and
government departments are at work on these problems, and excellent
suggestions have been made, but little can be accomplished unless the
consumer coöperates.
The _retail store_ is the center of women’s textile and clothing
purchases. Through it her influence reaches to cutters, wholesalers,
and manufacturers who are endeavoring to obtain her trade. She
frequently objects to the cost of commodities, little realizing her
share in the making of prices. Some one tells her that the prices of
wholesale goods are almost doubled by the retailer, and she feels
abused, not knowing of the many hands through which the merchandise has
gone since it left the wholesaler and reached the store. She does not
think how the overhead expenses have mounted through the conveniences
and luxuries offered the consumer. English retailers, coming to the
United States, are filled with wonder when they see the enormous
expenses of the department stores in order to attract and satisfy the
customers. Large amounts of merchandise from which to choose are a
matter of course, yet much of it remains at the end of the season to be
sold at lower prices; free delivery is a boon but it costs heavily. (A
prominent retail store in one of the big cities endeavored to cut down
the expense of delivery, arranging that those who wanted goods sent
home could pay the price of transportation, and thus, in time, prices
of merchandise could be reduced, for this item in the overhead would
not have to be included. The plan was a fine one, but such a protest
was made that it amounted to a boycott and free delivery had to be
reinstated to hold the customers, even though its cost had to be added
to the price of goods.) In some cities a number of department stores
are coöperating in delivery in order to lower expenses.
The approval system has great advantages, for busy mothers or business
people, who cannot get to the stores, can have clothing sent home to
try on and select. It would be unfortunate to lose this privilege,
but the abuse of it should be stopped. In spite of much protest from
the stores a large amount of goods are taken out and returned in bad
condition. Merchandise will be kept and used for months, clothing is
worn for special occasions and returned unsold. So many seasonal goods,
such as blouses, will be taken out in one day that if more than enough
of them were not bought the shelves would be depleted. The additional
blouses have to be sold at a lower price when the time of greatest
sale is over. Returned goods often have to be cleaned and pressed to
make them fit for sale, so careless are some of the consumers in the
treatment of the goods they are trying on at home. The loss through
this privilege has to be adjusted by adding it to the price of future
articles. At the present time in the city of Boston over $7,500,000
worth of merchandise are returned annually to the stores for refund,
credit or exchange. This costs over $200,000, which is paid by the
consumer.[70] Other cities of the country are having a like experience.
[70] _Report of Retail Trade Board of the Boston Chamber of Commerce._
The customer is often thoughtless in her relation to the salesgirl.
She is irritable and unjust when there is delay in getting some one to
wait on her. She takes an undue amount of time to look over goods and
will try on gowns and hats with no serious idea of buying. If she does
return later to buy something which took her fancy she seldom takes
the trouble to find the girl who previously waited on her, yet the
salary of the girl depends on the amount of sales she can make. If much
time is taken by the salesgirl with no result her selling ability is
questioned. The slightest failure in devoted attention and amiability
if reported may lose the girl her position. Yet she may be supporting
her family and may have passed a discouraging day with thoughtless
customers trying her patience to the utmost.
The charge account has great advantages, but the habit of buying for
cash will save many unwise purchases. It costs the merchants heavily
to carry accounts, consequently it, too, adds to the price of goods.
Those who have them have more consideration from the store, for they
are known, they receive notices, and when they have complaints to make
are given more attention. The number who pay at long intervals makes
the charge account heavy on the merchant, for he often has to borrow
to carry him over a time when his customers have failed to pay their
debts. For the consumer the charge account is apt to make her buy more
than she would without it, unless she has been thrifty enough to make
a plan of purchases before shopping, which holds her back from the
purchase of unnecessary things. Some of the stores have given up the
charge account as they could not afford the delays in paying bills and
the use of the account to take out expensive articles on approval.
The customer has been accustomed to a large and attentive sales force
at all hours, yet only parts of days are they fully occupied, hence
the expense of salaries swells the costs of the stores. The luxurious
furnishings, the comforts in rest rooms, telephone and elevator
service as well as the privileges already mentioned are accepted
unthinkingly, yet cost heavily. Building construction, rents, wages,
and transportation are high, and merchandise is brought from the ends
of the earth. It is no wonder that the department store has a heavy
overhead, which must be distributed in the cost of the goods. The
consumer should consider whether the luxuries and accommodations are so
necessary to her that she prefers to pay more for her merchandise and
thus have the stores as they are.
The price of ready-to-wear clothing, while high, has only kept pace
with the advance in the price of the many charges entering into it.
In 1913 the average wholesale price of a suit of men’s ready-to-wear
clothing was $11.41, but by 1924 the average wholesale price was
$26.54, or 122.39 per cent above 1913.[71] Such advances in wholesale
prices are characteristic of merchandise of various kinds at the
present time, but the consumer does not realize it. She accuses the
retailer of profiteering; she also includes the clothier in the same
charge. So serious became the charge a few years ago that a committee
of the House of Representatives was appointed to investigate the
matter. The result was a complete exoneration. The President of the
United States urges the consumer to trust the retailer, for the
complaint against him is unjust.
[71] _Daily News Record_, Oct. 15, 1924.
There are many ways in which the manufacturer suffers from the changes
of fashion. The prevalent short skirt helps the stocking trade, but a
quick change from a long to a short skirt will decrease the demand per
capita for cloth. The widespread interest in having the hair bobbed
has ruined the hairpin industry. President Coolidge has stated the
following before the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers: “An
expert in one of the government departments dealing with textiles,
tells me that twenty years ago it took nearly 10 yards of gingham to
make a woman a dress, whereas she now manages with 3¹⁄₂ yards. From the
same authority I learn that in 1914 approximately 66 yards of these
fabrics were required per capita in this country, while five years
later in 1919, only 54 yards were demanded.”
=Large Numbers of Women are Employed= in the textile and clothing
industries. Their work, wages, and lives should be of interest to all
consumers. Bad conditions in factories and workrooms have pressed
heavily upon them, and the undermined physical condition which often
attends wage-earning experiences, has been a menace to the future of
the race. Little children are still at work in homes, to some extent,
for long hours and upon tedious tasks, and are being stunted in their
moral, mental, and physical development. Years of this work make for
dull brains and poor physique.
Every young person has a right to an education, to good health, and to
a chance to get ahead in life. The nation will be successful only as
the ability and spirit of childhood are fostered. The _suppression and
control of child labor_ is a national problem, for the fact is before
us that one child in every twelve, and in some states one child in
every four, is gainfully employed.[72] Over 1,000,000 children between
the ages of ten and sixteen are working for wages, and nearly 400,000
of them are between ten and fourteen years of age. Large numbers are in
the textile and clothing industries, and their work is ultimately due
to consumers’ demands.
[72] _Journal of the National Education Association_, December,
1924, and pamphlet distributed by the Massachusetts Committee on the
Ratification of the Child Labor Amendment, 6 Beacon St., Boston, Mass.
At present the majority of states have laws prohibiting child labor
at night, forbidding children under fourteen to work at certain
occupations while school is in session, keeping women and children out
of dangerous pursuits, regulating sanitary conditions and demanding
inspection of factories and workrooms. In some states those under
sixteen are limited to an eight-hour day, overtime work without pay has
disappeared and a minimum wage has been settled for many occupations.
In order to fit children to make a living wage vocational education
is provided for them by states’ action aided by the Federal Education
Act. Instruction is of many kinds, in all-day and in part-time schools
in which the worker is making a wage but has hours of instruction.
Guidance and placement plans are also being forwarded in these schools,
that each child may be directed into the work best fitted to his or
her ability with prospect of advance and good pay.
Legislation to improve conditions among women workers began about a
century ago and progress has been made, but uniform laws are needed in
the different states. Sweatshop labor in workrooms has almost passed,
but there are still many homes where wage earning is being done by
mothers and children. These places are not recognized as workrooms,
consequently are not inspected for sanitary and other conditions
required by law. The work is done largely for the ready-to-wear trade
and for department stores. Some productive occupations are still
carried on in the homes under good conditions by craft workers,
by those who are too handicapped by orthopedic or other physical
deformities to go regularly to trade, or by women who have cares at
home requiring constant supervision, such as looking after little
children or old people. There is an increasing tendency, however, to
have regularly inspected workrooms for these workers, if possible.
Many factory owners and heads of department stores are also earnestly
forwarding betterment plans among their employees, and employees’
associations are being organized for the discussion and regulation of
conditions affecting the working girls.
The _home seamstress and dressmaker_ have not as yet had sufficient
attention given to their labor conditions and the amount of work
demanded of them in a given time. The need of such home workers still
continues, but the uncertainties and lack of adequate remuneration
do not encourage any serious preparation for such positions or their
holding by a skilled and businesslike class of workers.
The work of the custom dressmaker is influenced also by the
unintelligent attitude of her clientele and her own deficiencies in
business training. The price of a garment should be based on the
actual cost of materials, the hours of work and consequent wages of
the expert and unskilled workers who have constructed it, the time
taken by the designer, draper, and fitter, overhead expenses of the
shop, and the percentage of profit. Overhours which are required in
changing a gown or hastening the completion (when the demand comes from
the consumer) should be paid for as an addition to the bill. Hours set
for fitting should be kept by the customer or she should notify the
dressmaker of the purposed change. The garment should be delivered at
the time specified. All laws concerning workers and sanitary condition
of workrooms should be kept as carefully as in the factory. The pay
for garments should be prompt. Many custom dressmakers desire to be
absolutely businesslike, but have been prevented by the irritation
felt at such changes by many of their clients. Those who have been
able to organize their workrooms with efficient business methods are
finding the benefit for themselves and their employees. Women can now
help greatly by considering and urging forward a better system. The
Consumers’ League has been a large factor in the improvements, and
it and the Women’s Trade Union League are fighting bravely for still
better conditions.
_The Consumers’ League_ is a national organization with branches in
many of the states. It began its work by an effort to improve the
conditions of employment in department stores. It soon undertook to
better the life of labor in other directions, such as to adjust wages
in all fields in which women are employed, to arouse public opinion
in the advisability of legislation, to obtain it, and to ask the
enforcement of laws already on the statute books. By its earnest work
and slogan “Do Your Christmas Shopping Early” it put an end to the
late hours and rush in the stores at the holiday time which completely
exhausted the sales force. It has already accomplished a notable work
but realizes that much is still to be done. One state has issued the
following list of abuses of which the customer should know, and aid in
abolishing:
Children are still exploited in factories.
Factories are still unsanitary and unsafe.
Wages are still unstandardized.
Unemployment is unregulated.
Politics are a feature in the administration of labor laws.
Industrial processes cause occupational disease among workers.
Public opinion lacks the organization, the knowledge, and the
leadership to exert its influence in the settlement of industrial
problems.
The ideals of the _Women’s Trade Union League_ are brotherhood, justice
and peace. Skilled and unskilled workers together are endeavoring to
improve the life of all women workers, to give them a living wage, to
be relieved of the competition of child labor, to be protected from
industrial diseases and accidents, to have decent housing and hygienic
working lives, to have a voice in the conditions under which they work,
and to remove the causes and occasions of industrial war. Large numbers
of women are employed in textile mills and clothing workrooms. Much
improvement has come from furthering union principles. The strike is
now a less important method of control than it once was. It was seen to
be expensive and new ideals have taken its place. Saving and investment
are felt to give power, and labor banks have been organized to help the
members of unions to save systematically. Education is being furthered
and in it the problems of the employer have place. The training of
working women is being carried even into the college. Bryn Mawr has
opened its doors for a summer school for working women.
The _Joint Board of Sanitary Control_ was established in 1910 in New
York City as a part of the garment industries. It has jurisdiction
over the cloak, suit, skirt, dress and waist trades. It represents
employers, workers, and the public. There are 85,000 workers in these
trades, many being women. The Board has shown great efficiency in
gaining safety and fire protection, in changing the character of
former “sweatshop” workrooms to those with modern equipment, including
washrooms, dressing rooms, rest and emergency rooms. Dense ignorance of
sanitary and health matters was once common, and the education of the
worker as well as the employer has been necessary in order to improve
conditions and have the worker practice health rules, among which were
correct posture and right seating. The Board has indorsed a movement
for the placing of a label with the word “Prosanis” on it when the
dress or coat has been manufactured under sanitary conditions. The
Board’s inspectors keep constantly in touch with workrooms and workers.
Literature is distributed, talks are given, and articles placed in the
daily press. The Health Center is supported by the women themselves,
but is housed in the same building as the Joint Board of Sanitary
Control. The conception of health preservation has been expanded within
the industry.
It must be remembered, however, that when ideals are achieved through
faulty mortals much that is crude and even mistaken will occur which
obscures for many both the cause of action and the beneficial results.
The work has been slow, but through it all is growing up a better
sympathy between employers and employed, better hours of labor, better
moral and hygienic conditions of women’s work and the prevalence of
conciliation committees and adjustment boards.
=Waste in the Home= is too prevalent to excite remark, not only in
money spent unwisely and in lack of thoughtful purchase and use of
clothing, but in the general conduct of each day. Much unnecessary time
is taken to do things when more important duties are pressing, such
as putting fine needle work on clothing when the machine would do as
well, in fine hand embroidery on underwear, in making over clothing,
marcelling the hair, powdering and painting the face, and outlining
the eyebrows. Talking over the telephone or chatting with neighbors
during work hours use up precious time in many homes. Not that some of
these things should not be done, but that they should not be allowed
to take the time of the more needed household tasks, causing the day
to be frittered away. There are only a certain number of hours to work
and a number of things to do, and unexpected things will come up that
must be given attention. It is impossible to do all things in the most
perfect way; the question for each homemaker to answer is, what can
be omitted that something more important may be done? Failing to mend
clothing regularly often means that good stockings and clothing are
sent too soon to the scrap heap. Not removing spots from clothing as
soon as they occur may result in a good gown being ruined or requiring
money spent to put it in condition. In many families things are thrown
away that might be utilized. Whether it can still be utilized without
wasting time in putting it in order should be considered. Boxes,
strings, wrapping paper, and pieces of textiles or clothing still in
service are thrown away in many homes. Walking about the shops and
buying odds and ends that attract for the minute; depending on the
salesperson to tell how much cloth is needed for any purpose, thereby
often buying more than is necessary; purchasing short ends of materials
in bargains because they are cheap, with no definite service in view;
having too many gowns and thus accumulating a stock of partly worn
clothing, and waiting until underwear, stockings, and shoes are almost
too far gone for service before replenishing, are all instances of
customary thoughtless wastes. Human energy is taken to do useless
things instead of training and economizing it for higher uses. Few
women make a daily plan covering the most important things to do each
day; it is only thus that they will accomplish the needed tasks and
save time for the “best use of leisure.”
Many are unnecessarily fussy about order and cleanliness, and work
themselves to death to attain it. They ruin the home atmosphere by
objections to even simple forms of disorder. This is a serious form of
waste, for it touches the happiness of the family life.
Wastes of money as well as time are common even with those living
on a moderate income, for people are employed to do small repairs,
launderings or cleanings which could well be done at home by various
members of the family.
Changing social practices are having their influence on the output of
clothing workrooms. The automobile has altered methods of relaxation,
so that summer resorts, where families once spent months and needed
(or thought they did) large wardrobes of attractive garments, are not
patronized as they once were, for the road house where the family
spends the night, or, in dry parts of the country, the camping
out-of-doors have taken the place. A different variety of clothing is
therefore in demand. The radio is keeping families at home at night,
and the moving picture houses entertain large numbers who do not have
to wear evening dresses to attend. Fewer elaborate reception or party
dresses are needed in many homes, which helps ordinary citizens to
meet the needs of their wardrobes with a clothing budget which is not
excessive. Girls are increasingly interested in athletic exercises,
consequently sport clothing with the knicker suit and hiking boot have
become an accepted manner of dress. Varieties of sport clothing are
being offered in increasing quantities to old and young of both sexes.
=The Clothing Industries= have increased rapidly in the United States
within a decade. (See above, _Statistics_.) The leading cities for
the manufacture are New York, Rochester, Baltimore, Cleveland,
Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, St. Louis, and Los Angeles, and work
is going on in many parts of the country. Conditions under which the
work is done have greatly improved (see above under _Board of Sanitary
Control_ and other subjects). A large up-to-date ready-made clothing
factory, under an employer interested in the best conditions for his
employees, offers a very satisfactory employment for women who have
the kind of health to allow them to work at electric power machines or
to sit sewing all day.
The system of organization and division of labor in these large
clothing factories is similar, whether expensive or inexpensive
clothing is made. The inspection of the factories helps to keep the
workrooms in safe and sanitary condition, while home workshops are
often run under conditions which are not only a menace to the workers,
but also to those who wear the clothing.
To those who have never made garments or thought much about the
subject, the youth of the girls working in these great factories and
the amount of work on one garment are a surprise. In large workrooms
the division of labor is carefully arranged, being more or less the
following: the original garment and the paper pattern for it are made
by the designer and her helpers. It then goes to the calculator, who
figures on the amount of material required and indicates on a slip
the way the material is to be used. For illustration, let us suppose
a fancy waist is to be made: the calculator will note if the material
must be tucked, shirred or folded in any way and enters this on the
slip. He then sends the waist, the pattern, and the slip to the
estimator, who considers the price of the materials, the probable
labor cost, the overhead or factory charges, _i. e._, rent, light,
heat, office, and the cost of the designer and staff, and enters these
on a slip. He then sends the two slips and the waist and pattern to
the office. The design is now judged as to style, cost, and probable
sale. It is tried on a living model and considered for line and fit.
The manufacturer’s profit is added to the estimates of production,
which gives the wholesale price of the waist, and the waist is ready
to be seen by the buyers who have come from the retailers. Orders in
dozens will probably come for the model, and as the waists are needed
in several sizes, the pattern must be adjusted before the work of
construction begins. The paper pattern made by the designer goes,
therefore, to the pattern room, where the various sizes are graded from
it and patterns cut for different bust measures. These are sent to
the cutter who cuts the material into the several parts of the waist
by a knife or by an electric cutter. In the latter case several dozen
of layers can be cut at one time in some materials. The cut material
is sent to the sorter, who brings together the various parts of each
waist. If tucking is to be done, the sorter sends the material to the
tucker and on its return puts the tucked parts with the other sections.
The assembled parts are sent to the trimming room, where the exact
amount of lace, embroidery, passementerie or other decoration is added.
All parts of the waist are now assembled and go to the forewoman of the
workroom. She distributes to the hem-stitchers, the Corneli machine
workers, or the trimmers the parts requiring their skill, and the waist
is later put together by the machine operators. It is finally sent
to the finishers for buttons, loops, hooks and eyes, and any small
adjustments. Inspectors judge the work after each step. If a full gown
is to be made, the skirt and waist go to the draper, who joins them and
sees that the skirt hangs well. Pressing follows, and the gown is ready
for packing and shipping. In most of the large houses skilled workers
alone are employed.
Ready-to-wear clothing is usually sold directly to the retailer
without the middleman. New York City has been the ready-to-wear
clothing center of the country (see _Statistics_, above), but labor
difficulties and high rents have driven many workrooms into outlying
districts. There are some large establishments in which the work can be
seen in progress, but much of it is given out to small workrooms. The
contractor is important in the clothing industries. The manufacturer,
so called, has his offices; he buys the cloth and linings, has the
cloth examined and sponged, and the garments cut. He lets the work
out to the contractor, who returns the finished garments. The capital
required is not large in comparison with the business done. The
business is highly competitive. The workers are largely unionized.
=The American Home Economics Association=, through its textile section,
is endeavoring to understand conditions in industry and to formulate
improvements which will lead to better satisfaction in the goods
produced and also help to more intelligent reaction of the consumer
on the manufacturer, jobber, cutter, and retailer. Through this same
section a questionnaire has been sent to all the states by the clothing
specialists of the Extension Committee. The aims, methods, and content
of Extension Projects in Clothing have been requested. Thirty-nine
states have replied giving valuable data. Some of the liberal arts
colleges for women have become interested in readjusting their
economic, scientific and sociological courses for closer connection
with home problems, that a more economic home may result. The Purnell
Act, which provides money for research in Home Economics fields in
Land Grant colleges, will make possible the obtaining of important
data on questions of textiles and clothing. _The General Federation of
Women’s Clubs_, in its new division “The American Home,” is making a
special study of the home. The home is, in truth, a many-sided vocation
requiring varied knowledge, constantly increasing training, and
experience to organize it and run it successfully.
It can be seen from the above statements that the ranks of the
ignorant consumer are being broken by the many efforts to improve the
conduct of the home. Nor are the women alone in research relating
to purchase, for the Government and other agencies are at work. The
_United States Department of Commerce_, through its division of
Simplified Practice, is pointing out wastes and urging methods of
lowering costs. The question of simplification is of prime importance
at the present time, for costs of distribution are high on account
of larger rates of transportation, higher wages of labor, increased
rents, taxes, and other items. The aim of the Department of Commerce
is to coöperate with business, in maintaining standards of living
and prosperity. Production, distribution, and consumption are being
considered in order to eliminate wastes and to lower costs. Hundreds of
commodities have been under consideration. The unnecessary duplication
of models, styles, sizes, and varieties that have grown up in
textiles, ready-to-wear clothing, and other merchandise needs control.
Simplification is an economic movement to eliminate waste. Much has
been accomplished in reducing the number of unnecessary sizes in some
industries, in lowering costs, improving products, and lessening
wastes. Illustrations of two industries helped by the study of
simplification are beds and blankets. Types and sizes of beds, springs,
and mattresses were studied, resulting in the elimination of all odd
sizes of wooden and metal beds, and retaining one standard length and
four sizes in width, with springs and mattresses in conformity. The bed
blankets were in seventy-eight sizes of cotton, wool, and cotton and
wool mixed; the reduction was made to twelve sizes, making for greater
convenience and saving than was possible before.
=Legislation, Federal and State.=--Each year there are before the
country legislative measures relating to consumer interests. It may
be tariff questions, labeling of textiles, price maintenance, honest
advertising, child labor, the minimum wage or other matters directly
affecting the economics of the home or the life of the woman worker.
The homemaker of the past left these matters chiefly to men. Now that
she has a vote it is obligatory upon her to understand both sides of
the questions at issue and direct her representatives and senators in
wise action.
CHAPTER XVII
CLOTHING BUDGETS
The consideration of the growth, manufacture, and economic utilization
of textiles would be incomplete without a survey of costs and plans for
the wardrobe. The subject has its difficulties at the present time, as
prices are fluctuating but likely to remain high. The full subject of
the division of income into the annual budget has been dealt with by
many budget specialists, and will not be treated here excepting as a
foundation for wardrobe estimates. For fuller discussion of the budget
see Andrews’ _Economics of the Household_.
=Accounts= are records of actual expenses, balanced monthly or yearly
with the income. The keeping of accounts under specific headings shows
what is likely to be spent or what should be curtailed in the following
year. It is an ally of the budget, and it is wise to keep the same
headings in both.
The budget habit is an economic necessity if one would plan the use of
income wisely.
=The Service of a Budget:=
It eliminates wasteful spending and encourages the wise use of money.
It is a plan for using the income.
It is the balancing of needs with income.
It is a recipe for making a successful household.
It is a factor in contentment, for repentance is less apt to follow
purchase.
It helps one to think before spending.
It helps one to get along with less money, for it makes the dollar go
further.
It helps in apportioning a just amount to each member of the family.
=The Idea of a Budget= is awe-inspiring to many housekeepers, yet
neither is the making nor the living on one arduous. It is helpful
to those who know how. Most new plans seem difficult at first, but
this comes largely from apprehension that one is not equal to them.
Each budget is an individual matter, for no two people meet the same
conditions. Family needs are studied in relation to each other. The
different parts of the country make various demands on the budget,
the cold parts require greater outlay for shelter and clothing than
the warm parts. The city has clothing requirements not needed in the
farming sections. The professional woman has a different clothing
problem from the business woman, and the housekeeper from the college
girl. In some families the father must be considered first on the
moderate income, for his business or profession has special demands.
Frequently, however, the father spends less on clothing than his wife,
for he desires her to look prosperous and thus indicate his success.
The budget establishes a standard of living which is not greater than
the income can stand.
Prices are high, and former plans for clothing expenses are now of
little service. The rise in prices has been met by some women whose
incomes have not increased, by complete readjustments in planning their
clothing budget; fewer outer garments, perhaps two carefully selected
articles a year; the omission of numerous extras in fancy slippers,
trimmings, and collars. These women apparently dress as well, and are
spending no more.
The entire family should work together for the budget. If a daughter
wishes silk stockings and has her own allowance, she can buy them, but
will soon discover that silk is not satisfactory for hard service and
that cotton or rayon will do better and cost less, and thus release
money for other articles she needs. She will never appreciate such
things if she depends entirely on other people in the matter.
=Determining the Main Annual Expenses and the Income Needed to Supply
Them.=--Anyone about to make a general budget for the first time must
know the income she is likely to have for the year in question. She
can place the amount on a sheet of paper to compare later with the
estimated expenses. The main divisions of her budget should now be
considered. It is well, at first, to have but a few headings. The three
main items are shelter, food, and clothing; the first two with some
attendant expenses will almost always take more than one-half of the
income, and clothing for a family will very likely take from one-fifth
to one-fourth of it. The remainder can later be considered for personal
items and for higher life and progress. Some beginners find it helpful
to keep accounts for a few months in order to know how much money is
being spent on various items.
Records of costs of clothing are difficult to obtain, as few families
keep careful accounts. A study made by the United States Department of
Agriculture of 402 families in New York State would seem to indicate
that there is practically no difference in price of clothing for
boys and girls under eight years of age. From eight to seventeen the
cost per annum for each increases rapidly, and after that the girls’
expenses are slightly higher than the boys’. The average cost for both
males and females over sixteen was $107. The average expenditure for a
family was $277, or 13.8% of the entire budget.
=The Clothing Division of the Budget.=--There are differences of
opinion as to the percentage of income which should be spent on
clothing. When the income is small, living and clothing take the most
of it. The usual allowance for one person is from one eighth (12¹⁄₂%)
to one fifth (20%) of the income, and for a family from one-fifth (20%)
to one-fourth (25%). If too much is taken for clothing, other divisions
of the budget suffer. If the members of the family are intelligent in
selection, can sew, wash out and press clothing and remove spots, the
amount of the clothing division can be lowered to use elsewhere or
better garments can be bought. The thought and planning attending the
making of a budget are of especial benefit in the clothing section, for
wastes are common. (See Chap. XVI, _Factors in Endurance_, _Selection
of Textiles and Clothing_, and _Wastes in the Home_.)
The clothing demands upon each individual depend so largely upon the
social customs of the environment that specific advice on exactly what
to buy is impossible. The homemaker in a city, who does her own work,
and the farmer’s wife have some needs in common, such as the house
dress that will be strong, attractive, and easy to keep clean and tidy.
But in other ways the requirements upon them are totally different. The
professional woman and the secretary need well-made suits for daily
service, but if one lives north and the other south the kind of suit
will be very different. Each one making a clothing budget must consider
her own needs from various standpoints. The kind of taste displayed and
the standards shown are important, and must be reviewed. Two families
may spend the same amount, and one may look dignified and well dressed,
and the other vulgar and unsuitable. Attractive dress is more than
spending money on it. (See Chap. XVI, _Significance of Dress_.)
It takes much thought and experience to be the shopper of the family
and to dress all adequately on a small budget. When one is ready to
consider the clothing needs for the coming season it will be a help
if foresight has been shown in making an inventory of all clothing
on hand, in use, or packed away. A clothing turnover is as important
in the home as a stock turnover in the mercantile world. What can be
put to use and how much it will cost must be considered. It is well
to begin first on the minimum of clothing for each member. Planning
a three years’ schedule is wise, for the heavy expenses are divided
in different years and do not hamper any one year. Better dressing
is possible this way. If a new coat is bought one year the next two
years may be free for other garments. Furs or an evening cloak can
be obtained by planning ahead and having a place for them without
overrunning the budget.
The clothing budget may be divided into several sections with a
definite amount set aside. The percentages of the clothing money depend
largely on the individual or family requirements. The following list is
merely suggestive of the possible content of each section. It may serve
to help someone in adjusting her clothing needs.
_Outer clothing_ (coats, storm wraps, cloaks, ensemble suits, coat
and gown--skirts, one-piece dresses, furs, sweaters, sport clothing,
gymnasium, and bathing suits). This division usually takes more than
one-half of the clothing money. The remainder, perhaps three eighths,
can be used in the other sections as required. If laundry is included
in this section allowance must be made for it. The amount varies
greatly, as some wash their own clothing, while the expensive laundry
is depended upon by other people. Some wear wash clothing principally.
The laundry item is by many placed elsewhere in the budget.
_Under clothing_ (night garments, knit, muslin, or silk underwear,
negligees, bath wrapper, knickers, corsets, brassieres, girdle, costume
slips).
_Headwear and gloves_ (hats for various purposes; kid, wool, and fabric
gloves).
_Footwear and stockings_ (shoes high and low, slippers for dress and
for room, rubbers, goloshes, sandals, spats, sport boots; stockings for
daily use, for dress and for sport).
_Accessories and miscellaneous_ (scarfs, collars, cuffs, umbrellas,
pocket book, bags, handkerchiefs, hairpins, hair nets, shoe cream,
hangers, shoe-trees, electric iron, and like articles.)
The percentages of the clothing money for the last four sections differ
considerably with the taste of the individual. Fine underclothing is
attractive to many, shoes and stockings interest other women, and
several hats each season seem necessary to some. A clothing budget is
not a list of everything that one uses, but a thought-out plan for
those articles which must be bought in any one year. Each year finds
many things left over from the year before.
In the following clothing budget of a college girl the entire wardrobe
cost $307.75, but by distributing her expenses in two different years
the cost annually was less than two hundred dollars. Her expenditure
was less in the second year. This girl lived where summers were long
and dry, hats were little used, and gloves seldom required. The amounts
are given in round numbers.
Outer clothing $110
Underwear 45
Headwear and gloves 20
Shoes and stockings 35
Accessories 10
----
$220
There are some schools and colleges where a uniform or simple dressing
is prescribed, for it is considered to tend toward democracy. The
college sets a pace for clothing which the students feel they must
follow. Where it is not elaborate the parents are saved much expense.
A survey of what women spend on their clothing was made by the firm
of R. H. Macy, New York, in coöperation with the National Association
of Savings Banks. It was found that among self-supporting women the
clothing item rose more rapidly with the increase in income.[73] As
an illustration the following is given: “The business woman with an
average income of $520 spends $100 on her clothes, and the business
woman earning $1200 spends $288, while the self-supporting woman
with an income of $6000 usually spends $1300 for clothes.” Tentative
clothing budgets were made as a result of the study, which follow:
When the clothing budget is $100 annually
_Business woman_ _Home woman_
Outer garments $49.75 $53.71
Under garments 21.30 18.16
Hats 5.58 5.58
Shoes 13.93 13.93
Accessories 4.85 4.16
Miscellaneous 4.59 4.46
When the clothing budget is $1000 annually
Outer garments $597.23 $570.10
Under garments 161.93 161.93
Hats 75.17 75.17
Shoes 69.97 69.97
Accessories 42.67 42.67
Miscellaneous 53.03 79.16
[73] _Literary Digest_, Aug. 25, 1923.
In the low budget the business woman spends less than the home woman
but in the $1000 budget she spends more. In the low budget the business
woman spends more on underwear. In general, however, they spend about
the same amount.
A comparison between the budgets of freshman high school girls appeared
in _Everygirl’s Magazine of the Campfire Girls_. It says, “wise
planning, careful choosing, conservation, simplicity--these are the
points for you to keep in mind if you would appear well dressed on a
small outlay.”
For the Freshman High School Girl
Budget I
Winter or spring coat (alternate years) $25.00
Wool dress (¹⁄₂)[74] $6.00
Silk dress (¹⁄₂) 6.00
Three white middies (¹⁄₂) 3.00
White skirt 3.00
Wool skirt 4.00
Slip-on sweater 4.00
Coat sweater (¹⁄₂) 2.50
Two white blouses 4.00
Winter hat (¹⁄₂) 2.50
Summer hat (¹⁄₂) 2.00
Outing hat (¹⁄₂) 1.75
Four suits of knit underwear 4.00
Three chemises 3.00
Three prs. wool-mixed stockings (¹⁄₂) 1.50
One pair silk stockings 2.00
Three prs. mercerized lisle stockings 2.25
Three nightgowns 4.00
Two gingham dresses (¹⁄₂) 2.50
White dress (¹⁄₂) 2.50
One pr. dress shoes (¹⁄₂) 2.50
One pr. school shoes (¹⁄₂) 5.00
One pr. gym. shoes 2.00
Khaki outing dress (¹⁄₂) 2.00
Bloomers 2.00
Rubbers 1.00
Fabric gloves 1.00
-------
Total $101.00
For the Girl Who Can Sew
Budget II
Wool dress (¹⁄₂) $3.00
White skirt 2.00
Chemises 1.50
Gingham dresses (¹⁄₂) 1.50
White dress (¹⁄₂) 1.50
Nightgowns 2.25
Khaki dress (¹⁄₂) 1.00
Silk dress (¹⁄₂) 4.00
Plus items other than these as they are listed in Budget I 71.00
------
Total $87.75
[74] The fractions indicate the cost in any one year.
The ability of the girl to sew saved in outer garments, but such
articles as shoes, stockings, and gloves, being factory made, are the
same cost in both budgets.
The following clothing estimates were made by a teacher for her
wardrobe. The clothing on hand, the way she divided her expenses in
three years, and the way she saved for her furs in a fourth year are
indicated. She spent about $200 annually, and in three years her
clothing cost her $551. Dividing expenses so that each year the call
on the income is the same is the ideal way to plan. If the clothing
at the same time is beautiful as well as practical a triumph has been
achieved, for the amount devoted to clothing is not high. A person can
be economical and yet not wise in clothing choice. It is what we do
with the clothing money that counts.
------------------+---------------------------------------------------
CLOTHING ON HAND | CLOTHING TO BUY
OR NEEDED | _First | _Second | _Third
| year_ | year_ | year_
------------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------
| | |
Outer clothing | | |
Coat (winter) | |Coat, winter |Suit or
| | $80.00| spring
| | | coat $35.00
Coat (light) |Spring coat | |
| $35.00| |
Furs | | |
Sweater | | |
Hats (4) |Hats (2) 25.00|Hat (1) 18.00|Hats (2) 25.00
| | |
Gloves | | |
Cloth |Cloth gloves |Cloth gloves |
| 2.50| 2.00|
Kid (short) |Kid gloves 3.00|Kid gloves 3.00|Kid gloves 3.00
Silk (long) | |Silk gloves 2.00|
| | |
Gowns | | |
Wool dresses (2)|Coat and skirt |Wool dress 25.00|
| 35.00| |
Silk dresses (2)|Dress 25.00|Dress 35.00|Silk or
| | | wool (2) 45.00
Evening (1) | | |Cotton (1) 10.00
Sport skirt (1) | |Skirt 10.00|
Blouse (1) |Blouse 10.00|Blouse 10.00|
Sweater (1) | | |
Ratine (1) | | |
Gingham (3) | | |
| | |
Underclothing | | |
Knitted (8) |Bloomers 2.00|Bloomers (2) |Bloomers (1) 2.00
| | 4.00|
Bloomers (3) |Camisole 1.00|Garter |Camisole 1.50
| | waists 1.50|
Camisoles (6) |Underskirt, |Knitted (6) 6.00|Knitted (2) 2.00
| silk 5.00| |
Waists for | |Nightgowns |
garters (4) | | (2) 4.00|
Underskirt, |Garter | |Underskirt,
silk (1) | waists 2.00| | silk 5.00
Underskirt, | | |
cotton (2) | | |
Nightgowns (3) |Nightgown 2.00| |Nightgowns 2.00
| | |
Negligees | | |
Crêpe kimono (1)|Kimono, | |
| silk 6.00| |
Bathrobe (1) | | |
| | |
Footwear | | |
Pumps (1) |Pumps 8.00| |
Oxfords (2) |Street shoe 9.00|Street shoe |Oxfords (2) 14.00
| | 10.00|
Slippers (1) |Slippers, | |
| bedroom 2.00| |
Goloshes (1) | | |
| | |
Stockings | | |
Silk (3) |Silk, 3 prs 6.00|Silk 2.00|Silk, 2 prs 4.00
Wool (2) |Wool, 2 prs 6.00|Wool 6.00|Wool, 2 prs 6.00
Cotton (2) | |Cotton 3.00|
| | |
Bathing suits | -------| -------| -------
Wool(1) | $185.00| $201.50| $155.50
Cotton (1) | | |
Total for three years $551.00.
A balance was saved toward furs, as $200.00 per year was the yearly
amount of the clothing budget, and the amount in the first and third
year did not equal that (Kindness of G. H.)
=The Layette.=--A mother does not always have time to make all of the
clothing for the coming baby. She can, however, buy the necessary
articles well made, by machine, of good materials and not at high cost,
or she can purchase handmade the highest class outfit. If she has
time and knows how to sew she will not find the work difficult, for
patterns can be obtained at a low figure. It is not necessary to have
many garments, for they are soon outgrown; the number of slips depends
upon whether they can be washed daily at home or will have to go to
a laundry, and on how much money can be spent on them. Elaborately
trimmed, very long dresses are no longer used, and the layette of the
present is of the utmost simplicity. The wearing of too many clothes
will make the baby uncomfortable. The slips and petticoats are not
longer from the shoulder than 27 inches. The baby should not be kept
overwarm, especially if it is living in a warm climate or in a house
well heated or is a summer baby. Wool has advantages, for an infant
must be kept evenly warm and wool is soft to the skin and feels warm
even when wet, which is not the case with the other textiles. It has
the disadvantage, however, of being ruined by careless washing, and as
the clothing has to be so frequently washed the shirts and bands are
apt to shrink unless the wool has some other fiber mixed with it. The
baby is susceptible to cold, and the abdomen especially must be kept
warm, hence the first abdominal binders and the bands and shirts must
have much wool in them and must be kept soft and pliable that air may
pass through. The skin must be kept dry and comfortable. When it is
very cold a long sleeved and high necked knitted shirt opened down the
front is necessary, but when the weather is warm a low necked shirt
is better. It is well to have some wool in this garment even in warm
weather, to prevent sudden chilling of the body from the use of other
textiles, when the clothing is damp. For the slips a good quality of
nainsook, longcloth, or batiste is excellent. A collar on the slips
is not as good as a loose band with a fine edge of lace. A few fine
tucks, beading, a little feather stitching on the seams, or a little
embroidery of the finest kind on the waist is all that is necessary.
The layette, if of good material and well taken care of, can be used
again, for it is outgrown before it is worn out. A handmade layette can
be bought ready to wear at $25 and $50, and machine made at less. It
is possible to obtain the requisite clothing at $10, but the materials
will necessarily be less fine. To make the entire wardrobe at home is
the cheapest, and will mean a saving of one-third of the ready-to-wear
price and at the same time finer and daintier clothing can be obtained.
The following are suggestions for a layette:
---------------+--------------------------------+------------+-------
| | _Probable | _Num-
_Articles_ |_Materials_ | Cost_ | ber_
---------------+--------------------------------+------------+-------
Binders |All wool or union flannel, bias | .30 or .40|3 or 4
|and unhemmed |each |
Bands |Knit, with straps over shoulders| .50 to 1.00|3 or 4
Shirts |Union silk and wool or all silk,| .70 to 1.50|3 or 4
|open down the front | |
Gertrudes (wool|Union flannel, cotton and wool |1.20 to 3.50|3 or 4
petticoats) |or silk and wool | |
Petticoats |Cotton (not always needed) | .75 to 1.00|3 or 4
Nightdresses |Union flannel |1.00 to 1.75|3 or 4
|Knit goods | .50 to 1.00|2 or 3
Wrappers |All wool crêpe |2.50 to 4.00|4 to 6
Slips |Nainsook, batiste, or longcloth | .60 to 1.00|4 to 6
Dresses |Ditto | .75 to 3.25|1
Cloaks |Polo cloth for winter, cashmere |3.00 to 3.50|1
|lined with silk for summer |each |
Bonnet or hood |Wool, silk or nainsook |1.00 to 2.00|1 or 2
Jackets or |Wool |1.00 to 2.50|2 or
sweaters | | |more
Shoes or socks |Soft leather or wool, amply long| .50 to .75 |2
|and wide | |
Stockings |Wool, long | .50 |2 or 3
| | |prs.
|Cotton and wool | .50 |2 pairs
Diapers |Cotton birdseye |2.70 for ten|2 or 3
| |yds. |doz.
|Cheesecloth |1.00 for ten|2 or 3
| |yds. |doz.
---------------+--------------------------------+------------+-------
_Extras_
An old blanket An old silence cloth such as is used on the
Some old soft towels dining table makes an excellent pad for the baby
A pad for the lap to lie upon. An old wool blanket cut the size of
Wrapping blankets the crib and covered with silk muslin is a warm
Flannelette sheets comforter.
Knitted shawl
NOTE. Some mothers feel that a child requires a greater number of
these garments than is given if there is likelihood of more being
needed to keep it dry. A rubber diaper is not considered wholesome to
use, but is a convenience when traveling.
For the first bands or binders one yard of soft wool or silk and wool
flannel can be torn into bands five or six inches wide and eighteen
inches long. These must not be hemmed. They are worn for a few weeks
only. Many use the material bias or make pinked edges so that the
band gives over the abdomen. These are worn to protect the bowels
and to support the abdominal walls and prevent rupture. They are in
use until the second band, which is knit and has straps over the
shoulders, is substituted. The second bands keep the abdomen from
getting chilled. They are worn summer and winter for eighteen months
to two years. The shirts are open all the way down that they may be
put on easily. They are made of silk and wool, or cotton and wool, as
are the bands, that they can be washed without shrinking. All wool is
too warm and shrinkage is likely to occur and make the fabric thick,
so that the body is not ventilated as it should be and is not free in
its movements. A tab or tape for holding up the diaper should be on
the shirts. In winter the shirt should be high necked and with long
sleeves. Shoes are unnecessary until the baby begins to creep. Outing
flannel is cheaper than unions of cotton and wool, and is much used
for petticoats, wrapping blankets, nightdresses, and wrappers. Napped
cotton easily takes fire, however, and is dangerous; it also feels
cold when wet and the skin is quickly chilled. Naturally there is a
difference in the supplies required for a summer or a winter baby. With
the latter, in a cold climate, it is necessary to use much wool in
unions to keep the child warm, or the danger of chill is great.
The diapers are cut 18, 20, or 24 inches square. The cheesecloth ones
are good for the little baby and can be used inside of the other
diapers when he is older. They should be hemmed by hand. Blankets
should be of wool, yet are frequently of cotton polo cloth. Eiderdown
flannel, wool polo cloth, and knitted and crocheted blankets of
wool are light in weight and warm. Dresses of kimono pattern are
satisfactory, for they are less apt to tear at the armhole. The wool
petticoats or Gertrudes have a band of cotton around the waist for warm
weather and straps over the shoulder. They fasten on the shoulder, or
are easily put on when open all the way down the front. Viyella flannel
is soft and warm for these. The sleeping bag or wrapper with a hood for
very cold weather allows the child ample room to move and kick without
getting cold. Socks can be pinned to the diaper rather than using a
strap around the leg. Shoes and stockings should be amply large for the
feet. In warm weather the bare feet need not be covered excepting with
the length of the dress or slip, but in winter stockings are necessary.
=A clothing survey= has been made in rural neighborhoods by the
Extension Committee of the Textile Section of the American Home
Economics Association. The members of the committee were clothing
specialists from Land Grant colleges, the headquarters of the United
States Extension Service. A questionnaire was sent out to obtain the
results of the teaching of the specialists upon the women who live far
from the large cities. Sixteen states were included in the survey,
and the return of the questionnaires was from 4138 homes, the greater
number on farms, but some in villages. The average number in the family
was 4.02. The following are answers to some of the questions:
Do you usually make clothing for yourself and adult members of the
family?
------------------+----+-----------------+----+-----------------+----
Yes| No | Yes| No | Yes| No
------------------+----+-----------------+----+-----------------+----
Undergarments 3467| 200|Summer | |Silk dresses 1936|1294
| |dresses 3475| 92| |
Aprons 3207| 829|Blouses 1763| 201|Wool dresses 1749|1266
House dresses 3724| 133|Skirts 1055| 243|Suits 403| 619
| | | |Coats 458| 591
------------------+----+-----------------+----+-----------------+----
Do you usually make for the children?
------------------+----+-----------------+----+----------------------
Yes| No | Yes| No |
------------------+----+-----------------+----+----------------------
Undergarments 2561| 423|Cotton suits | |
Cotton | | (boys) 1347|1207|
dresses 2688| 443|Wool dresses 1273|1519|
Coats 1906| 487|Wool suits | |
| | (girls) 635|1704|
| | (boys) 649|1754|
------------------+----+-----------------+----+----------------------
Do you usually make for husband and adult boys?
------------------+----+-----------------+----+----------------------
Yes| No | Yes| No |
------------------+----+-----------------+----+----------------------
Shirts 1521| 920|Coats 57|1703|
Underwear 260|1598|Trousers 95|1695|
Pyjamas 1069|1578| | |
------------------+----+-----------------+----+----------------------
Do you make over garments?
------------------+----+---------------------------------------------
Yes| No |
------------------+----+---------------------------------------------
For children 2153| 988|
For self 2144|1299|
For husband 125|1839|
------------------+----+---------------------------------------------
Do you make hats?
------------------+----+---------------------------------------------
Yes| No |
------------------+----+---------------------------------------------
For self 1400|1573|
For children 730|1540|
------------------+----+----------------------------------------+----
Yes| No
----------------------------------------------------------------+----
Do you sew because you enjoy it? 2225| 222
Find it an economy? 3413| 479
Find clothes please better? 2131| 650
----------------------------------------------------------------+----
The survey shows that the greater number of farm women make the simpler
clothing and underclothing for the family, including the fathers and
sons. Many are making and trimming hats for themselves and daughters.
Some make the silk and the wool dresses, but many do not, for they have
not the time. From their expression of need it seems as if they feel
the lack in themselves of ability to select cloth or clothing and to
alter and use commercial patterns.
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Artificial Silk, Manufacture of. Textile World. Dec. 22, 1923.
Artificial Silk, Survey of and Related Articles. Issued by the
Tariff Commission. May 11, 1925.
Artificial Silk. Jour. Indus. and Eng. Chem., Oct., 1925.
RAYON: Salvage. Published by American Viscose Company.
Rayon number of Textile World, Sept., 1925.
BALDERSTON: Home Laundering. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1099
(June, 1920), U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
BALDT: Selection and Care of Clothing. Farmers’ Bulletin No.
1089 (Feb., 1920), U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
DENNY: Fabric Fallacies. Pictorial Review, Aug., 1922.
Fabrics--How to Buy Them. Extension Circular No. 402 (1922),
Univ. of Nebraska.
Facts About Linen. Circular of the Agricultural Extension Service,
Vol. VII, No. 6 (1921-22), Ohio State Univ.
Ibid. Circular No. 18.
FREDERICK: You and Your Laundry. Hurley Machine Co.
From the Sheep to the Needle. S. B. &. B. W. Fleisher, Inc., Phila.
HERZOG: The Determination of Cotton and Linen. Tech. Bull.
No. 7, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.
Kapok Culture and Industry. Circulars Nos. 21 and 26, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture.
LANG AND WHITTELSEY: Removal of Stains from Clothing and
Other Textiles. Farmers’ Bull. No. 861, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture.
LEE: Helps for Home Dyers. The Country Gentleman. May 3, 1913.
MAYER: Tinting and Dyeing Secrets. Good Housekeeping. Aug., 1922.
MATTHEWS: Wonderful New Fabrics and Dyes. Good Housekeeping.
Oct., 1912.
MCGOWAN: Soaps in Variety, and How Soaps Clean. Good
Housekeeping. June and August, 1925.
Materials for the Household. Circular No. 70 (1917), U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture.
Old and New Methods of Spinning. American Wool and Cotton
Reporter, July 14, 1921.
PHILLIPS: Modern Home Dyeing. Pamphlet of North American
Dye Corporation, Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
ROSE: Growth of the Dye-Stuff Industry: Journal of Chemical
Education, September, 1926.
Silk, Its Origin, Culture, and Manufacture. The Corticelli Silk
Mills, Florence, Mass.
Silk from the Worm to the Wearer. Belding Bros. & Co., 902
Broadway, New York City.
Skinner’s Silks and Satins--Their Romantic Story. William
Skinner & Sons. New York City.
Studies on Knit Underwear. Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers
of America.
The Silkworm. Official Bulletin of the Silk Association of America.
The Manufacture, Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing of Textiles.
Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass.
WARBURG: Cotton and Cotton Manufacture. Also, Wool and Wool
Manufacture. First National Bank of Boston.
WARD: The Farm Woman’s Problem. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Circular No. 148 (1920).
Warp Knitting and Glove Manufacture. Merrill and other Writers.
GLOSSARY
ABSORBENT COTTON. Natural cotton which has had its waxy and fatty
matter removed in order to enable it to take up water readily.
ANIMALIZED COTTON. Cotton made to have the nature of animal fibers
toward wool or silk dyes, by being coated with protein material such
as albumin, gelatin, or dissolved wool.
AWL. A primitive tool made of bone which served as a needle.
BAST FIBERS. The long fibers lying under the bark in the stem of
various plants such as flax, jute, and hemp.
BATIK. A method of resist dyeing originating in Java, in which wax is
used to cover the part of the fabric which is not to take the dye.
BATTENING. The driving up in close order of the filling threads in
weaving.
BEAM. A cylinder which holds the warp of cloth in the loom.
BEETLING. A special finish of linen and cotton cloth in which the
threads are beaten flat.
BLEACHING. Whitening materials by removing the natural coloring
matter of the fiber.
BLEEDING. A running of color when washing dyed material.
BLENDING. Mixing fibers of different kinds or colors to make a
desired effect in the yarn.
BLOCK PRINTING. Method of dyeing by stamping color on a cloth with
carved blocks.
BOILED-OFF SILK. Silk which has had the sericin or gum removed.
BOLL. The pod of the cotton plant which contains the fibers.
BREAKING. The crushing and first separation of the woody portion from
the flax or hemp fibers after the retting process.
BROAD SILKS. Silk cloth as distinguished from silk ribbons.
BURLING. One of the processes of finishing cloth. It removes knots,
burrs, and similar imperfections from the surface.
BURNT-OUT WORK. A method of producing decorative surface effects in
fabrics by means of a chemical which destroys part of the fabric in
pattern arrangement.
CALENDERING. A finish for cotton cloth particularly, which gives
smoothness, luster, and special effects by pressure under rollers.
CAM. A projection on a wheel which causes reciprocal action.
CARBONIZING. Removing vegetable matter from wool by acids.
CARD CLOTHING. The fine teeth or wires which are on the carding
cylinders.
CARDING. A cleaning and combing of wool or cotton fibers preparatory
to spinning.
CHLORINATED WOOL. Wool treated with bleaching powder and other
solutions to give luster, destroy its felting property, and increase
its affinity for certain dyes.
CLIPPING. Process of finishing some fabrics such as broadcloths,
which cuts the surface fibers to even length.
CLIPS. The cuttings from the manufacture of new garments.
COCKLING. An irregular shrinking on the surface of a fabric.
COMBING. A process for laying fibers in perfect order which sometimes
follows carding.
CONDITIONING. All moisture held in the fiber is removed by this
process, and the legal amount restored.
COTTED WOOL OR COTTS. Matted wool which is hard to open up.--Inferior
wool.
COUNT. The number given to yarn to indicate its fineness.
COUNT OF CLOTH. The number of warp and filling threads in a square
inch of fabric.
COURSES. The horizontal ridges in knit goods, made by the tops of
each successive row of stitches.
CRABBING. A method of setting the weave to keep its form.
CRAVENETTING. A term applied to a method of waterproofing fabrics.
CROCKING. Rubbing off of loose dye from a dyed material, such as a
coat collar or lining.
CROFTING. Spreading linen on grass to bleach.
CROPPING. Shearing the surface of cloth.
CROSSING. The arrangement in reeling or winding which prevents
tangling or matting from the piling of threads upon each other.
CROSS DYEING. Dyeing in a bath which colors only one kind of fibers
in a mixed material.
DECATING. SPONGING. A method of preventing cloth from spotting by
water.
DECORTICATING. Stripping off the bark or outer coat, applied chiefly
to ramie and hemp.
DENIER. A measure of weight used in silk counting. The standard in
the United States for a denier is a skein of silk 450 meters long,
weighed by a unit of 0.05 gm. (called denier); 13 to 16 is written
13/16, and means that the skein varies from 13 to 16 deniers.
DENTS. The division between the wires on the reed through which the
warp threads go.
DIRECT DYES. Dyes which can be applied to the fiber without the aid
of a mordant.
DISCHARGE PRINTING. A process which takes the color out of a dyed
fabric, leaving a design where the chemical acted.
DOCTOR KNIFE. The instrument which removes superfluous color from the
roller used in printing dyes on a fabric.
DOFFER OR STRIPPER. A device for taking the sliver from the card.
DOUBLING. The process of forming a sliver from two or more smaller
slivers to produce a roving.
DOWN HAIR. The soft hair found under the coarser hair on certain
animals such as the camel.
DRAFT. The design which indicates to the one setting up the loom how
to proceed.
DRAWING IN. The threading of the warp threads through the harness of
the loom.
DRESSED FLAX. Cleaned flax ready for spinning.
DRESSING. Substances used in the finishing of cloth to give
stiffness, etc.
DUPLEX PRINTING. The printing of a pattern on both face and back of a
fabric.
DYEING. Immersion in a color bath to dye material.
DYNAMITING. Overweighting of silk with mineral salts.
ENDS. The warp threads. See Warp.
EXTRACT WOOL. See Reworked Wool.
FELT. A variety of cloth which has its fibers closely matted or
fulled.
FELTING. The thickening of wool by the drawing up and interlocking of
its fibers to produce shrinking.
FIBROIN. The filament of silk after the gum is removed.
FILATURES. Machines for silk reeling which take the place of hand
reels.
FILLING. The cross threads in weaving. See Weft.
FILLING. Substances such as clay or starch, used in finishing
processes to give body and weight to certain grades of cloth.
FLAX BRAKE. The device used to break the flax straw in order to
separate the woody portion from the fiber, after retting and drying.
FLOATS. Long threads of either warp or filling yarn brought to the
surface in weaving, to make the pattern.
FLOCKS. Soft, fluffy fibers thrown off by different processes in
woolen and worsted manufacture, such as raising and cropping.
FLOSS SILK. A term used for spun silk.
FRAME. An upright machine for twisting or spinning.
FULLING OR MILLING. Felting or shrinking of woolens to produce close,
firm material, such as broadcloth.
FULL FASHIONED. Term applied to knitted garments such as hosiery
which are shaped by the machine in a flat web and afterward sewed to
form a permanently shaped article.
GARNETTING. Converting thread waste into loose fiber.
GASSING. Burning off fuzzy protruding ends from cloth to produce a
smooth surface.
GAUZE. A form of weaving by means of a special heald. Also a light
fabric made by the gauze weave.
GIGGING. A machine method of preparing the fulled cloth for shearing.
See Napping.
GINNING. Separating seed hairs of cotton from the seed.
HACKLE. See Hetchel.
HACKLING. A combing process which separates woody particles and tow
from the line or long flax fibers.
HARNESS. A collection of healds or heddles which controls the warp
threads.
HEALDS OR HEDDLES. Cords or sticks having openings or eyes in their
centers, through which the warp threads pass in the loom.
HETCHEL, HATCHEL, HACKLE, OR HECKLE. A device with long teeth set in
a board, for cleansing the flax fibers from tow.
HYDRO-EXTRACTOR. A centrifugal apparatus for drying yarns, cloth, etc.
IN THE GRAY. A mill expression for woven cloth before it has been
bleached or dyed. In the grege is used for silk.
INGRAIN. A term applied to (a) ingrain dyed material, i. e., dyed
in the fiber before manufacture or developed in the fiber by
diazotizing; (b) to ingrain carpet, which is made of wool dyed before
manufacture.
KEMPS. Fibers of dead wool in a fleece, or coarse, inferior hairs,
which do not dye well.
KIBIZZO. A Japanese term for a variety of silk waste.
LAP. A wide sheet of fibers in the form of a web which precedes the
drawing into slivers.
LAPPET. An attachment to the regular loom which affects the shedding.
It is used extensively for decorative cotton goods.
LATHS. Sticks which hold the healds or heddles suspended in the hand
loom.
LATHE OR SLEY. The stick used for battening in weaving.
LEASE. The crossing made in the warp threads in preparing them for
the loom.
LEASE EYE. The eye in the center of the heald, through which the warp
yarn is drawn.
LENO is a weave in which certain warp threads cross each other,
forming a design. Gauze and marquisette are varieties of leno weave.
LINE. Long flax fibers.
LINT. Cotton fibers after removal from seed.
LINTERS. The short seed hairs left attached to the cotton seed after
the first ginning.
LOADING. See Dynamiting.
MAIL EYE. See Lease Eye.
MANGLING. Pressing a fabric under rollers which may or may not be
heated.
MERCERIZING. A process applied particularly to cotton, consisting of
a treatment with strong alkali to give the fiber special properties,
especially luster.
MILLING. See Felting and Fulling.
MILL WASTE. A term applied to by-products of mill operations.
MORDANT. A substance used in dyeing which combines with fiber and dye
to produce a fixed color.
MUNGO. See Reworked Wool.
NAPPING. See Gigging.
NEPS. Small knots in cotton due to poor ginning or to immature or
diseased bolls.
NOILS. Short fibers left in the combing for worsted yarn.
ORGANZINE. Silk thread used for warp. For the sake of strength it is
of good quality and has a special twist.
PANTOGRAPH OR PENTOGRAPH. An instrument with two tracing points,
one of which moves over a design, the other duplicates the design,
usually on copper rollers used in pattern printing. The same
principle is used in one variety of embroidery machine.
PELT. The skin of the sheep with the wool on it.
PERCHING. One of the inspection processes before cloth is finished.
PICKER. A machine which opens up and cleans cotton lint. See Shoddy
Picker.
PICKING. Putting in the filling threads in weaving.
PICKS. The woof, weft, or filling threads.
PLY. One of the two, three, or more component strands of a twisted
yarn or thread, as two-ply yarn, three-ply, etc.
PULLED WOOL. Wool removed by chemicals from the pelts of dead sheep.
PURE DYE. A term applied to dyed silk to indicate that it has not
been weighted in excess of the regain of weight lost in the boil-off.
RADDLE. A device through which the warp threads pass in order to wind
smoothly on the warp beam.
RAW MATERIAL. Textile fibers in their original condition.
RAYON. A manufactured fiber of regenerated cellulose, formerly called
artificial silk. Varieties are nitrocellulose or Chardonnet, viscose,
cuprammonium or glanzstoff, and acetate, sometimes called lustron and
celanese.
RECLAIMED WOOL. See Reworked Wool.
REED. An attachment of the lathe consisting of fine cords or wires
between which the warp threads are carried.
REELED SILK. Silk filaments unwound from the cocoon but not yet
twisted. Reeling is the act of unwinding them from the cocoon.
RESIST PRINTING. A process of dyeing which depends upon covering
certain portions of the fabric with a paste resistant to the action
of the dye.
RETTING. Rotting the flax stalks to effect the removal of the pectin
and resinous substances which hold the bast fibers to the woody
portion.
REWORKED OR RECOVERED WOOL. Wool obtained from manufactured materials
or machine wastes, which is reduced to fiber again and respun and
woven. Three grades are recognized: (1) Shoddy or softs. (2) Mungo or
hard wool. (3) Extract wool.
RIBBON. See Sliver.
RIPPLING. Removing the seeds and leaves from the stems of the flax
plant.
ROCK. The German term for the stick which holds the opened-up fibers
that are ready for spinning.
ROUGHING. A coarse combing or hackling of flax, following scutching.
ROVING. The last stage of drawing out a lap or combination of
filaments in preparation for spinning.
SCHREINERIZED COTTON. Cotton given the appearance of mercerized
cotton by special machine treatment.
SCROOP. The rustle or crunch of silk.
SCUTCHING. Knocking off the woody particles adhering to the flax
fibers after the breaking process.
SEED COTTON. Cotton seed with fibers attached.
SELVEDGE OR SELVAGE. The turning back of the filling threads at the
edges of the cloth, which confines the warp threads.
SERICIN. Silk glue which coats the outer portion of the fibroin in
raw silk.
SERRATIONS. The scales making the outer covering of the wool fiber.
SHAFT, SHEAF OR LEAF. A number of healds together on one lath.
SHEDDING. Opening the warp threads for the passage of the shuttle.
SHIVES. The woody fragments separated from flax by breaking.
SHODDY. See Reworked Wool.
SINGLES. Silk yarn which has no twist.
SIZED. Stiffened or starched.
SKIRTS. Clippings or trimmings from the fleece of sheep; principally
dirty ends from the legs. The skirting removes the poorer portions.
SLASHING. Sizing or dressing cotton or other yarns to prevent their
rubbing rough in weaving.
SLIVER. A soft, untwisted rope produced by drawing out a lap or sheet
of fibers in preparation for spinning.
SLUBBING. A process for doubling and slightly twisting a sliver.
SORTS. The division of a pelt into grades of wool.
SOUPLE SILK. Silk with about one-sixth of the gum removed.
SPINDLE. A stick tapering at each end, with a notch to hold the yarn
for spinning.
SPINNERETS. The two holes in the head of the silkworm from which
issue the silk filaments.
SPUN OR WASTE SILK. Inferior silk from various sources such as
pierced cocoons and wastes from manufacturing processes. The
filaments are carded and spun.
STANDARD SAMPLES. Collections of government samples which show the
decision of experts as to the values of wools. Imported wools are
compared with these samples.
STAPLE. Length of fiber in a group or lock of wool, cotton, etc.
Also, goods which are commercially established, and the principal
productions of a country.
STOCK DYEING. Dyeing in the fiber or stock.
STRIPPING. Removing the sericin or gum of silk by boiling off.
SWIFT. A large cylinder which is covered with card clothing. In hand
weaving, a device for holding yarn for winding.
SWIVEL. A device like a shuttle attached to a loom for embroidery
effects.
SWORD. A stick thrust into a shed to widen the opening for the
filling threads in hand weaving.
TAG LOCKS. The lower edges of the fleece which become dirty and
stained.
TAPA CLOTH. Made in the Southern Seas by beating the bark of a tree
into a fabric.
TEASEL OR TEAZLE. A dried flower head covered with stiff hooks or
bracts, used to raise a nap on cloth.
TEMPLE OR TENTERHOOK. A device for holding the cloth in hand weaving
so that it is stretched to an even width.
TENTERING. Stretching the cloth to width in a tenter frame.
THROWN SILK. Silk carried through the processes which follow reeling.
The result is a thread suitable for weaving. It is a method of
spinning.
TIE DYEING. A method of dyeing by which certain parts of the material
are prevented from taking the dye because of tight windings of
string. When the string is removed the pattern appears.
TOPPING. Dipping a dyed material in a bath of another color.
TOPS. The long wool fibers prepared for worsted yarn by the combing
process.
TOW. Short flax fibers separated from the line in the hackling
process.
TRAM. Silk yarn used for filling. It is not so closely twisted as the
organzine or warp yarn.
TRAVELER. A crooked piece of wire used in ring spinning to help wind
the yarn.
TREADLES. Devices operated by the feet to control the shed in weaving.
VIGOUREUX. In vigoureux dyeing the color is printed on the slub or
top in regular or irregular designs, which give a blended effect when
the top is made into yarn.
VIRGIN WOOL. A term used for new wool.
WARP OR ENDS. The threads running lengthwise of a weave.
WASTE. Ends broken off from processes of manufacture. It may be from
spinning processes, such as ring waste, or from yarn waste. Much of
the waste is put through the Garnett machine. Frisons is a French
term for a class of waste silk.
WATTLING. A method of twisting soft fibers around rigid ones to form
baskets, etc. A form of weaving.
WEAVER’S GLASS. A small magnifying glass used to determine the weave
and thread count of a fabric. Called also pick glass, cloth glass,
etc.
WEFT, WOOF, PICKS, OR FILLING. The threads running across the warp in
a weave.
WEIGHTING. Additions of mineral or other substances to silk in the
dyeing operation especially, which give it extra body and weight.
WHARVE. A small grooved pulley fastened on the end of the spindle; a
development of the whorl.
WHORL. The weight at the bottom of the hand spindle.
WILD SILK. Silk produced by worms not raised in cocooneries. Tussah
is a variety.
WOOF. See Weft, above.
WOOLENS. Made from fibers which have not been combed and laid
parallel.
WORKERS AND STRIPPERS. Small cylinders which press the wool on the
teeth of the wool card and remove it again.
WORSTEDS. Made from combed and parallel-fibered wool yarns.
YOLK OR SUINT. Secretions of the skin of sheep which coat the wool,
keep it waterproof, and prevent matting.
APPENDIX
=Statistics=[75]
[75] The statistics have come from the _Annual Wool Review_ of
1924, National Association of Wool Manufacturers; The United States
Department of Commerce; Census Bureau; and the Fairchild Publishing
Company.
SECTION I. WOOL-GROWING COUNTRIES AND THEIR PRODUCTION
_Total Wool in the World_ 2,720,070,400 pounds
Total North America 297,442,000 (including 15,112,000
pounds British Provinces)
Total South America 456,053,000 pounds
Total Central America 3,513,000 “
Total Europe 657,114,000 “
Total Asia 289,215,300 “
Total Africa 278,166,000 “
Total Oceania 769,630,000 “ (of which Australia
had 560,581,200
pounds)
_The Number of Sheep in the World:_
Estimated in 1923 from
latest available data 572,456,200
_The Number of Sheep in the United States_ (Continental):
Estimated in 1924 38,300,000
Estimated in 1919 48,866,000
Estimated in 1914 51,430,000 (from averages, the war
interrupted statistics)
_Wool Production in the United States:_
Estimated in 1914-15 290,192,000 pounds, including pulled
wool
Estimated in 1919-20 314,239,000 pounds,
Estimated in 1922-23 261,095,000 “
Estimated in 1923-24 282,380,000 (pulled wool 43,800,000
pounds is included)
_Mohair Production in the United States:_
Estimated in 1924 10,043,000 pounds.
Note. The increase in the 1924 clip over the previous year is
gratifying, the scoured equivalent of the sheared wool was
128,117,000 pounds.
SECTION II. UNITED STATES IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF WOOLS, AND VALUES
_Total Imports of Wool:_
Estimated in 1914-15 308,083,000 pounds
“ “ 1919-20 427,578,038 “
“ “ 1921-22 215,087,236 “
“ “ 1923-24 239,122,359 “
_Qualities of Wool in the United States_ (_estimated_):
_Fine _Three-
and _Half eighths
Medium_ Blood_ Blood_
Entire Country 52% 17% 31%
Territory 66% 22% 12%
Domestic 23% 8% 69%
_Imports of Raw Wool into the United States, 1924:_
Clothing wool 12,819,736 pounds
Combing wool (including mohair) 103,002,879 “
Carpet wool 118,375,163 “
_Exports of Woolen Rags from the United States, Fiscal Year ending June
30, 1924:_
_Quantity_ _Total Value_ _Value per Pound_
19,931,090 pounds $1,210,823 6.6 cents
_Exports of Wool Wearing Apparel from the United States in_
1924 $2,776,295
_Prices of Domestic and Foreign Wools in December, 1924:_
Ohio Fine Ohio ¹⁄₄ Territory Territory
Delaine Blood Fine and Combing
Unwashed Grease Fine Medium Scoured
Scoured
50-72 cents 42-70 cents 130-170 cents 115-155 cents
Australian Australian South African Montevideo
Choice, Sydney Sydney and Combing 64s 50s
and Geelong Geelong Scoured Grease
70s Scoured Combing 64s In bond
Scoured
158-195 cents 155-190 cents 147-190 cents 44-61 cents
Buenos Aires
40-44s
Grease
In bond
31-50 cents
_Shrinkage of Wool 1924 (average):_ 59%
_Weight of Fleece (average):_ 7.40 pounds
_Imports of Rags, Noils and Waste, Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1924_
------------------------+----------+------------
| | _Value
_Quantities_ | _Value_ | per Pound_
------------------------+----------+------------
| |(_averages_)
Rags 10,741,683 pounds|$2,662,066| 29 cents
Noils 5,860,233 “ | 3,030,219| 51 “
Wastes 4,354,640 “ | 1,947,006| 44 “
_Imports of Principal Wool Manufacturers, 1922_ $52,141,893
_Fine Wool States, 1922:_
Arizona 80%
Utah 75%
W. Vir. 75%
Penn. 60%
Ohio 60%
Oregon 50%
Colorado 50%
N. Mexico 50%
_Importations of Woolens and Worsteds into the United States from Great
Britain, 1924:_
_Square
Yards_
Woolens 10,294,300
Worsteds 6,897,200
_Manufacture of Woolens and Worsteds in the United States, 1923:_
Number of establishments 851, Pennsylvania having 197, Massachusetts
186, Rhode Island 91, Maine 60, Connecticut 50, New Hampshire 41, New
York 37, and New Jersey 33; other states in the east, middle west and
far west have mills also.
_Wage Earners_ _Value of Products_
Woolen Goods 72,408 $364,287,817
Worsted Goods 122,144 698,270,621
Entire value of products $1,062,558,438, being an increase of 40.6%
as compared with 1921.
_Value of Textile Industries in United States_ (_Census 1919_):
$5,006,639,405
_Value of Five Primary Textile Industries:_
Cotton $2,195,565,881
Wool 1,234,657,092
Knit Goods 713,139,689
Silk 688,469,523
Twine, Jute and Linen Goods 174,807,220
_Leading Wool Markets of the World:_
England London and Liverpool
Australia Sydney and Melbourne
South America Buenos Aires
United States Boston, New York, Philadelphia
SECTION III. COMPARISON OF PRE-WAR AND POST-WAR WOOL PRICES
------------------------+-------------+-------+----------+-----------
| 1914 | 1918 | 1921 | 1924
------------------------+-------------+-------+----------+-----------
| (lb.) | (lb.) | (lb.) | (lb.)
Ohio Fine Delaine, | | | |
Unwashed |24-25 cts. |75 cts.|35-36 cts.|61-63 cts.
Ohio ¹⁄₄ Blood |26-26¹⁄₂ cts.|77 cts.|25-26 cts.|56-58 cts.
Territory Staple Fine | | | |
and Fine Medium Scoured |58-60 cts. | $1.85 |80-85 cts.|$1.45-$1.50
Territory Clothing Wool | | | |
Scoured |54-55 cts. | |60-65 cts.|$1.35-$1.40
------------------------+-------------+-------+----------+-----------
SECTION IV. COMPARATIVE GRADES OF WOOL[76]
[76] _Wool_, Hart, page 88.
---------------+-------------+------+----------+----------+---------
| |_U. S.| | |_Counts
_U. S. | _U. S. |Pulled| | | Spun
Domestic_ | Territory_ | Wool_|_Canadian_|_Foreign_ |in U. S._
---------------+-------------+------+----------+----------+---------
Full blood (XX)|Fine | AA | |66s to 74s| 60s
³⁄₄ blood (X) |Fine medium | AA | |60s “ 66s| 50s
¹⁄₂ blood |Medium blood | A |Fine |54s “ 60s| 40s
³⁄₈ blood |³⁄₈ blood | B |Fine med. |48s “ 54s| 36s
¹⁄₄ blood |¹⁄₄ blood | B |Medium |44s “ 48s| 32s
Low ¹⁄₄ blood |Low ¹⁄₄ blood| C |Low med. |40s “ 44s| 20s
Common |Common | C |Coarse |36s “ 40s| 16s
Braid |Braid | C |Luster |32s “ 36s| 16s
---------------+-------------+------+----------+----------+---------
SECTION V. FLAX FIBER PRODUCTION
--------------+-------------+-------------------
|_Before 1914_|_Estimate in 1924_
--------------+-------------+-------------------
_Country_ | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_
--------------+-------------+-------------------
Russia | 694,756,000 | 265,000,000
Poland | 47,336,000 | 127,000,000
Belgium | 51,887,000 | 96,000,000
Lithuania | 49,703,000 | 82,700,000
Latvia | 62,318,000 | 57,090,000
Czechoslovakia| 9,143,000 | 30,550,000
--------------+-------------+-------------------
The acreage of the different countries is taken from _The Commerce
Report_, Dec. 15, 1924. Russia has the largest acreage, followed by
Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Esthonia.
_Acreage in the main flax raising countries of Europe:_
All Europe 3,208,089 acres
Northern Ireland 42,800 “
France 39,400 “
Italy 49,400 “
Roumania 50,600 “
Czechoslovakia 52,689 “
Belgium 54,000 “
Esthonia 80,000 “
Latvia 149,000 “
Lithuania 152,000 “
Poland 262,000 “
_Acreage in America:_
North America 4,650,314 acres
United States 3,375,000 “
Canada 1,275,314 “
SECTION VI. UNITED STATES IMPORTS OF LINEN FABRICS IN 1924
---------------------------+----------+-----------
| _Pounds_| _Value_
---------------------------+----------+-----------
Ireland |17,154,258|$20,333,953
Belgium | 5,455,780| 4,499,558
England | 2,855,423| 3,344,791
Scotland | 2,462,074| 2,028,038
Czechoslovakia | 1,585,452| 2,048,885
Germany | 956,399| 1,214,052
France | 385,316| 512,283
Netherlands | 91,419| 77,948
Italy | 77,395| 80,046
Russia in Europe | 53,768| 15,374
Norway | 20,932| 10,411
Japan | 12,746| 12,142
Switzerland | 8,575| 16,043
Poland and Danzig | 7,430| 3,320
Denmark | 5,239| 7,251
China | 3,991| 6,688
Sweden | 3,503| 5,795
Austria | 2,875| 5,158
Canada | 2,708| 2,784
Hungary | 2,295| 2,548
Spain | 2,167| 4,965
Hongkong | 1,441| 1,196
Malta, Goza, Cyprus Islands| 454| 728
Azores and Madeira | 451| 625
Cuba | 222| 240
Esthonia | 100| 223
All others | 115| 359
+----------+-----------
Total |31,152,528|$34,235,404
---------------------------+----------+-----------
=Reference Tables=
SECTION VII. THE METRIC SYSTEM, WITH EQUIVALENTS
The entire metric system of weights and measures is based upon a
fundamental unit called a meter, which is the ten-millionth part of
the distance from the equator to the pole, and is the principal unit
of linear measure.
The ARE, or unit of square measure, is a square whose side is 10
meters.
The STERE, or unit of cubic measure, is a cube whose edge is a meter.
The LITER, or unit of all measures of capacity, is a cube whose edge
is the tenth of a meter.
The GRAM or unit of weight, is the weight of a cube of pure water at
its greatest density, the edge of which is the hundredth part of a
meter.
The following tables and equivalents have been selected as useful in
textile chemistry work:
_Length:_
1 millimeter (mm.) = about ¹⁄₂₅ in.
1 centimeter (cm.) = 10 mm. = about 0.4 in.
1 decimeter (dcm.) = 10 cm. = about 4 in.
1 meter (m.) = 10 dcm. = 100 cm. = 1000 mm. = 39.37 in.
_Weight:_
1 milligram (mg.) = smallest weight in the metric system.
1 gram (g. or gm.) = 1000 mg. = about ¹⁄₂₈ oz. avoir.
1 kilogram (kg.) = 1000 gm. = 2.2+ lbs.
_Volume:_
1 cubic centimeter (cc.) = volume of a cube 1 cm. on an edge = about
20 drops of water.
1 milliliter (ml.) (interchangeable with cubic centimeter) = volume
occupied by 1 gm. of water weighed in a vacuum at 4° C. (maximum
density).
1 liter (1.) = 1000 ml. = 1000 cc. = volume occupied by 1 kg. of
water in a vacuum at 4° C.
_Equivalents:_
1 gram = 15.432 grains.
28.35 gms. = 1 oz. (avoir.).
453.6 gms. = 1 lb. (avoir.).
28.3966 cc. = 1 oz. (fluid).
30 cc. = 1.01 oz. (fluid).
1 liter = 1.0567 qts. (liquid) or 0.908 qt. (dry).
0.94636 liter = 1 qt. (liquid).
1 centimeter = 0.3937 in.
1 meter = 39.37 in.
0.9144 meter = 1 yd.
_Table of Capacity Equivalents:_
-------------------------+----------+--------+---------+----------
| | _Fluid | |
| _Liters_ | ounces_| _Quarts_| _Gallons_
-------------------------+----------+--------+---------+----------
Milliliter, or cubic | | | |
centimeter | .001| .0338| .00106|
Centiliter | .01 | .338 | .01057| .00264
Deciliter | .1 | 3.38 | .10567| .02642
Liter, or cubic decimeter| 1 | 33.8 | 1.0567 | .26417
Decaliter | 10 |338 | 10.567 | 2.6417
Hectoliter | 100 | |105.67 | 26.417
Kiloliter | 1,000 | | | 264.17
Myrialiter |10,000 | | |2641.7
-------------------------+----------+--------+---------+----------
_Table of Weight Equivalents:_
-------------------+-------------+------------+-------+----------
| | |_Ounces| _Pounds
| | | avoir-| avoir-
| _Grams_ | _Grains_ |dupois_| dupois_
-------------------+-------------+------------+-------+----------
Milligram | .001| .01543| |
Centigram | .01 | .15432| |
Decigram | .1 | 1.54324| .0035|
Gram | 1 | 15.43236| .0353| .0022
Decagram | 10 | 154.32356| .3527| .0220
Hectogram | 100 | 1,543.23564| 3.5274| .22046
Kilogram | 1,000 |15,432.35639|35.274 | 2.20462
Myriagram | 10,000 | | | 22.0462
Quintal | 100,000 | | | 220.462
Millier, or tonneau|1,000,000 | | |2204.62
-------------------+-------------+------------+-------+----------
SECTION VIII. INTERCHANGE AND COMPARISON OF FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE
F = ⁹⁄₅C + 32
C = ⁵⁄₉(F - 32).
=======+=======
_Fahr._|_Cent._
-------+-------
0 | -17.78
32 | 0.00
40 | 4.44
41 | 5.00
50 | 10.00
59 | 15.00
65 | 18.33
68 | 20.00
72 | 22.22
77 | 25.00
80 | 26.67
95 | 35.00
98 | 36.67
100 | 37.78
104 | 40.00
113 | 45.00
122 | 50.00
140 | 60.00
145 | 62.78
158 | 70.00
167 | 75.00
178 | 80.00
212 | 100.00
-------+-------
SECTION IX. COMPARISON BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DENSITIES.
BEAUMÉ AND TWADDLE.
---+----+-------
Tw.| B. |Sp. Gr.
---+----+-------
0| 0 | 1.000
1| 0.7| 1.006
2| 1.4| 1.010
3| 2.1| 1.015
4| 2.7| 1.020
5| 3.4| 1.025
6| 4.1| 1.030
7| 4.7| 1.035
8| 5.4| 1.040
9| 6.0| 1.045
10| 6.7| 1.050
11| 7.4| 1.055
12| 8.0| 1.060
13| 8.7| 1.065
14| 9.4| 1.070
15|10.0| 1.075
16|10.6| 1.080
17|11.2| 1.085
18|11.9| 1.090
19|12.4| 1.095
20|13.0| 1.100
21|13.6| 1.105
22|14.2| 1.110
23|14.9| 1.115
24|15.4| 1.120
25|16.0| 1.125
26|16.5| 1.130
27|17.1| 1.135
28|17.7| 1.140
29|18.3| 1.145
30|18.8| 1.150
31|19.3| 1.155
32|19.8| 1.160
33|20.3| 1.165
34|20.9| 1.170
35|21.4| 1.175
36|22.0| 1.180
37|22.5| 1.185
38|23.0| 1.190
39|23.5| 1.195
40|24.0| 1.200
41|24.5| 1.205
42|25.0| 1.210
43|25.5| 1.215
44|26.0| 1.220
45|26.4| 1.225
46|26.9| 1.230
47|27.4| 1.235
48|27.9| 1.240
49|28.4| 1.245
50|28.8| 1.250
51|29.3| 1.255
52|29.7| 1.260
53|30.2| 1.265
54|30.6| 1.270
55|31.1| 1.275
56|31.5| 1.280
57|32.0| 1.285
58|32.4| 1.290
59|32.8| 1.295
60|33.3| 1.300
61|33.7| 1.305
62|34.2| 1.310
63|34.6| 1.315
64|35.0| 1.320
65|35.4| 1.325
66|35.8| 1.330
67|36.2| 1.335
68|36.6| 1.340
69|37.0| 1.345
70|37.4| 1.350
71|37.8| 1.355
72|38.2| 1.360
73|38.6| 1.365
74|39.0| 1.370
75|39.4| 1.375
76|39.8| 1.380
77|40.1| 1.385
78|40.5| 1.390
79|40.8| 1.395
80|41.2| 1.400
81|41.6| 1.405
82|42.0| 1.410
83|42.3| 1.415
84|42.7| 1.420
85|43.1| 1.425
86|43.4| 1.430
87|43.8| 1.435
88|44.1| 1.440
89|44.4| 1.445
90|44.8| 1.450
91|45.1| 1.455
92|45.4| 1.460
93|45.8| 1.465
94|46.1| 1.470
95|46.4| 1.475
96|46.7| 1.480
97|47.1| 1.485
98|47.4| 1.490
99|47.8| 1.495
100|48.1| 1.500
101|48.4| 1.505
102|48.7| 1.510
103|49.0| 1.515
104|49.4| 1.520
105|49.7| 1.525
106|50.0| 1.530
107|50.3| 1.535
108|50.6| 1.540
109|50.9| 1.545
110|51.2| 1.550
111|51.5| 1.555
112|51.8| 1.560
113|52.1| 1.565
114|52.4| 1.570
115|52.7| 1.575
116|53.0| 1.580
117|53.3| 1.585
118|53.6| 1.590
119|53.9| 1.595
120|54.1| 1.600
121|54.4| 1.605
122|54.7| 1.610
123|55.0| 1.615
124|55.2| 1.620
125|55.5| 1.625
126|55.8| 1.630
127|56.0| 1.635
128|56.3| 1.640
129|56.6| 1.645
130|56.9| 1.650
131|57.1| 1.655
132|57.4| 1.660
133|57.7| 1.665
134|57.9| 1.670
135|58.2| 1.675
136|58.4| 1.680
137|58.7| 1.685
138|58.9| 1.690
139|59.2| 1.695
140|59.5| 1.700
141|59.7| 1.705
142|60.0| 1.710
143|60.2| 1.715
144|60.4| 1.720
145|60.6| 1.725
146|60.9| 1.730
147|61.1| 1.735
148|61.4| 1.740
149|61.6| 1.745
150|61.8| 1.750
151|62.1| 1.755
152|62.3| 1.760
153|62.5| 1.765
154|62.8| 1.770
155|63.0| 1.775
156|63.2| 1.780
157|63.5| 1.785
158|63.7| 1.790
159|64.0| 1.795
160|64.2| 1.800
161|64.4| 1.805
162|64.6| 1.810
163|64.8| 1.815
164|65.0| 1.820
165|65.2| 1.825
166|65.5| 1.830
167|65.7| 1.835
168|65.9| 1.840
169|66.1| 1.845
170|66.3| 1.850
171|66.5| 1.855
172|66.7| 1.860
173|67.0| 1.865
---+----+-------
SECTION X. TABLES SHOWING THE PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIAL AND THE FOUR
DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARTIFICIAL SILK OR RAYON MANUFACTURE.[77]
[77] Luft. _Rayon--Man-Made Silk._ _Chemistry in Industry_, Vol. II.
TABLE I. PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIAL
_Cotton Seed_
Cleaning
|
Crushing and pressing
|
Raw linters
|
Digesting with caustic soda
|
Washing
|
Bleaching
(Lime-chlorine)
|
Washing
|
Drying
|
Bleached linters
_Spruce Wood_
Barking, cleaning, and chipping
|
Sulphite
(Sulphur-lime, calcium bisulphite)
|
Cooking in digesters
|
Washing and screening
|
Bleaching
(Lime-chlorine)
|
Washing
|
Paper machines
|
Drying
|
Cellulose
(Cut in sheets)
TABLE II. KINDS OF ARTIFICIAL SILK
_Nitrocellulose_
(Chardonnet silk)
|
Purified cotton
|
Sulfuric and nitric acids
|
Nitrocellulose
Dissolved in alcohol and ether
|
Filaments coagulated
Nitrocellulose filaments
|
Recovery of solvents
|
Removal of nitro groups
|
Unbleached thread Bleaching
|
Commercial thread
_Acetate Silk_
Cotton or wood pulp purified
|
Acetic anhydride, acetic acid, and
sulphuric acid
|
Dissolved in acetone
|
Spinning solution
|
Acetate cellulose filaments
|
Commercial thread
_Cuprammonium Silk_
(Also called Glanzstoff or Pauly)
|
Purified cotton or wood pulp dissolved
in ammoniacal copper
solution
|
Spinning solution
|
Coagulated by caustic soda or
sulphuric acid
|
Filaments of cellulose
|
Bleaching
|
Commercial thread
_Viscose Silk_
Bleached spruce pulp or cotton
linters
|
Caustic soda
|
Soda cellulose
Carbon bisulphide
|
Soda-cellulose-xanthate
water
|
Viscose solution
Spinning solution
|
Crude viscose filaments
|
Removal of sulphur Bleaching
|
Commercial thread
INDEX
Abaca, 341
Acid dyes, 424, 431
Acids, action of, on cotton and linen, 382
on silk, 379
on wool, 375-378
household, 447
tests for action of, 386
Additional fibers, 337-344
microscopy of, 370-372
Agricultural Inquiry, Commission of, 503
Alkalies, action of, on cotton and linen, 382-384
on silk, 379
on wool, 375-377
household, 447
tests for action of, 386
Alpaca goat, 130, 141
American Home Economics Association, 517, 533
Analysis, differentiation tests in, 387-397
microscopic 372
of cotton-linen fabrics, 394-396
of cultivated and wild silk fabrics, 392
of rayon mixtures, 392-394
of silk-cotton fabrics, 392
of silk-wool fabrics, 391
of wool-cotton fabrics, 388-391
Andemars, 412
Angora goat, 123, 129, 141
Aniline black, 429, 435
Animal fibers, chemical study of, 385-393, 400-406
classification of, 374
reactions of, 375-380
Anthrax, 164
Arghan, 342, 371
Arkwright, Richard, 28, 42, 44-46, 76, 210
Arras weaving, 73
Artificial silk. _See_ Rayon
Asbestos, 342
Bales, cotton, 228-231
silk, 273
Barton, Luther, 108
Basic dyes, 424, 432
Basket or Panama weave, 95
Basketry, primitive, 5
Bast fibers, 337, 340, 369, 370
Batik work, 438
Batten, 62, 64
Battening, 22
Beaming, 64-67
Beetling, 328
Bleaching, loss of weight in, 327
of cotton, 246, 420
of linen, 327, 421
of wool and silk, 422
with hydrogen peroxide, 457
with hypochlorites, 456, 458
with oxalic acid, 459
with potassium permanganate, 457
with sulphur, 459
Bluings, 450
Board of Sanitary Control, 511
Bobbin, 60
Bobbin frame, 54, 65
Body, ideal condition of, 462
Body heat, regulation of, 462-469
Bonnaz machine, 357
Breaking flax, 318
Brunel, Marc, 108
Budgets, clothing, 519-534
apportionments for, 521-525
considerations in making, 522-524
for college girl, 524
for high school girl, 525
for layette, 527, 530, 531
for teacher, 527-529
idea of, 520
service of, 519
Burling, 189
By-products, of wool, 148, 154, 204
Calendering, 250, 254
Camel’s hair, 130, 362
Cap spinning, 49
Carbonizing, 151, 419
Card, revolving flat, 29-31
Carding,
hand, 13
machine, 28-31
of cotton, 241
of woolen yarn, 173-175
of worsted yarn, 176
principles of, 28, 29
Carpets and rugs, 104, 146, 199-204
Cartwright, 76
Cashmere goat, 130, 158
Celanese, 301, 414
Cellulose,
for rayon, 300-302, 412-414, 563
nature and reactions of, 380-385
Chardonnet, Hilaire de, 301, 412
Chardonnet silk, 301, 413
Chemical processes,
special, 397-415
chlorinating woolens, 409
dressing or weighting, 397-406
fireproofing, 409-411
manufacturing of rayon, 412-415, 563, 564
mercerizing, 246, 367-369, 406-408
waterproofing, 411
Chilcat blanket, 23
China grass, 337, 370
Chlorinated wool, 309, 409
“Chrome” mordant for wool, 432
Clothing,
budgets for, 519-534
dangers in, 475
economics of planning, 478-503
factors in endurance of, 482-488
for infants, 527, 530-533
homemade, 497, 509
hygiene of, 461-477
ready-to-wear, 507
selection of, 488-492
shopping for, 493-497
simple tests for, 499-501
survey of purchasing of, 533
value of output, in United States, 478
Clothing industries,
employment of women and children in, 507-509
increase in, 514
responsibility of the consumer for, 479-482, 488-493, 503-512
system in, 515-517
Cocoanut, coco, or coir fiber, 342, 371
Colonial industries, 52
Color,
physics of, 442-444
qualities of, 443
stripping of, 442
Colors, fugitive, 452
Comb, Noble, 179-181
Combing,
cotton, 243
French, 145
worsted yarn, 178-182
Conditioning
of silk, 284
of wool, 139
Consumer’s judgment,
in relation to economics of purchase, 482-497, 499-501
of cotton, 212-214
of hosiery, 114-118
of linens, 308-310, 333-337
of rayon, 304
of silk, 258-262
of underwear, 119
of wool, 137-140
Consumers’ League, 510
Consumers, women as, 479-518
Cotton, 210-257
action of acids on, 382-384
action of alkalies on, 382
action of heat on, 381
American, 215-221
baling of, 228-231
bleaching of, 246, 420
botany and growth of, 214-220
breaker, 245
carding of, 241
classifying and grading, 234
combing of, 243
counts of, 247
countries producing, 221-223
cultivation of, 215, 223
dressing or finishing of, 248-253, 397-400
dyeing of, 246, 432-435
dyes for, 425, 429
economics of, 210-212
feed, 240
ginning of, 225-228
insect enemies of, 224
laundering of, 449
manufacture of, 255-257
marketing of, 233
materials, list of, 257
mercerizing of, 246, 406-408
microscopy of, 367-369
picker or opener, 239
plant, 217
printing of, 253-255
properties of, 212-214
spinning of, 236-239
staple of, 216, 235
statistics of, 231-233
tests for, in mixtures, 388-396
warping, 247
yarns, 245
Cotton gin, Churka, 225
roller, 227
saw, or Whitney’s, 226
Cotton-linen mixtures, analysis of, 394-396
Counts, for cotton, 247
for linen, 326
for rayon, 305
for silk, 285, and _see_ denier, 544
for wool, 185
Crabbing, 191
Creel, 65
Crêpe, 105
Croissures, 272
Crompton, 44, 76, 210
Cross dyeing, 437
Cultivated and wild silk, test for, 392
Cuprammonium silk, 301, 413
Cutting-up trade, 204
Dacca muslin, 18
Damask, 74, 100, 329-331, 333, 336
Decating, 195
Degumming silk, 275
Denier, 271, 285, 544
Descroix, 108
Design and draft, 92-106
diagrams of weaves in, 93-104
list of fundamental weaves in, 93
Developed dyes, 427, 434
Direct cotton colors, 432
Discharge dyeing, 438
Distaff, 16
Dobby, 76, 189
Doffer or stripper, 28
Double cloths, 99, 100, 104
Drawing and doubling, 175, 183
Drawing rollers, 39, 44
Dress, significance of, 12, 501-503
Dressing or sizing, 397-400
Drop box, 39, 61, 75
Dyeing, 416-445
antiquity of, 416-418
equipment for, 440
exercise in, 431-436, 444
forms of market, 436
nature of process, 422
of cotton or linen, 246, 429
of rayon, 303, 429
of silk, 289, 429
of wool, 139, 198, 429, 431
processes preparatory to, 419
solutions for, 430
suggestions for, 441
temperatures for, 429
tied and dyed work, 445
with acid colors, 431
with aniline black, 435
with basic colors, 432
with developed colors, 434
with household dyes, 439-442
with logwood, 436
with mordant dyes, 432
with phthalic anhydride colors, 432
with sulphur colors, 435
with vat colors, 434
Dyes, choice of, in home dyeing, 440
classes of, 423-430
fastness of, 451-455, 486
modern, 418
of ancient times, 416-418
status of, in United States, 418
Economics of textile purchase, 478-518
consumer’s influence on, 479-482, 503-507
in relation to employment of workers, 507-511
in relation to legislation, 518
in relation to wastes, 512-514
statistics pertaining to, 478
Embroidery, hand, 358
machine, 355-358
Epidermal scales, of wool, 137, 138, 362
Estimation of finishing materials in fabrics, 399-406
Extract wool, 153, 365
Fastness of dyes, 451-455, 486
Felt, 146
Felting of wool, 138, 362, 376, 446
Fibroin, 269, 365, 379
Figure weaves, 101
Filatures, 270, 280
Filling, picks, weft, or woof, 92
Finishing, importance of, 485
of cotton, 248-253, 397-400
of linen, 327-329, 397-400
of silk, 292-295, 400-406
of woolens and worsteds, 187-199
special, 196-198
Finishing materials in fabrics, estimation of, 399-406
Fireproofing of fabrics, 409-411
Flax, 306-337
botany and growth of, 310-312
breaking of, 318
countries producing, 329-333
economics and statistics of, 306-308, 557, 558
manufacture of, 318-326
microscopy of, 369
plant, 311
retting of, 314, 394
seeds of, 312
Flax break, 318
Flax hetchel, 53
Flax wheel, 34-38
Flocks, 149, 191
Flyer, 48
Fly shuttle, 39, 74
French combing, 181, 207
Frisons, 274
Fulling or milling, 190
Gassing, 197
General Federation of Women’s Club’s, 517
Gharka wheel, 31
Gig, 192
Gin, _see_ Cotton gin.
Gloves, 120
Goat, alpaca, 130
angora, 129
cashmere, 130
Great wheel, 31-34
Hackling, of flax, 53, 321-324
Hair fibers, 129, 344
microscopy of, 362
Hand loom, 58-72
parts of, 59-61
threading of, 64-72
working of, 61-64
Hand weaving, 57-73
Hargreaves, James, 28, 39, 40, 42, 45, 76, 210
Harness, 59, 61, 80, 82, 83, 85
Head motion, 89, 90
Heald or heddle, 24-26, 59-61
doup, 92
Hemp, 340-342, 370
Honiton lace, 348, 351
Hosiery, 114-118
care of, 118
characteristics of good, 117
grades of, 114-117
Hygiene of clothing, 461-477
Implements, primitive, 10
Indigo, 417, 434
Industrial development, eras in, 49-55
Industrial Revolution, 53-55, 210
Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 83
Jacquard loom, 74, 83-88
Jenny, spinning, 39-43
Jersey wheel, 31-34
Jute, 340, 370
Kapa or Tapa cloth, 5
Kapok, 343, 371
Kay, John, 74
Robert, 75
Kemps, 137
Kjeldahl method of estimating weighting in silk, 404
Knit goods, 107-122, 485
standardization of, 120-122
statistics of, 107, 119, 120
Knitting, defined, 109
early inventions in, 108
machines for, 111-113
yarns used in, 113
Label, of Board of Sanitary Control, 512
Lace and embroidery, 345-349
Laces, imitation or machine, 349-355
real, 345-349
Lamb, Rev. I. S., 109
Lappet, 91
Latch needle, 109-111
Lath, 60
Lathe, batten, or sley, 23, 61
Lease, 26, 65, 69
Lee, William, 108
Lees or Leigh, John, 28, 46
Legislation, textile, 518
Lehner, 412
Ligno-cellulose, 374, 385
Line, 320
Linen, 306-337
bleaching of, 327
cleanliness of, 309, 449
counts of, 326
countries manufacturing, 329-333
dressing or finishing of, 327, 397-400
economics and statistics of, 306-308, 557, 558
fabrics, list of, 345
laundering of, 309, 335, 449
microscopy of, 369
preparation of fiber, 312-324
properties of, 308-310
purchase of, 333-337
tests for, 394-396
Lint, 225
Linters, 227, 302
Llama, 130
Logwood dyeing, 436
Loom, Cartwright’s, 76
draw, 74
hand, 58-73
Jacquard, 74, 83-88
Moro, 23
Navajo, 22
power, 78-83
primitive examples of, 11, 22-26
tapestry, 72
threading of, 64-68, 79
Zuñi, 11
Lustron, 415
Machine carding, 28-31
Materials, cotton, 257
linen, 345
silk, 298
woolen and worsted, 208
Mercer, John, 406
Mercerization, 406-408
of cotton, 246, 368, 406-408
test for, 408
Mercerized cotton, microscopy of, 368
Merino sheep, 123
Microscope, parts and use of, 359-361
Microscopic analysis, 372
Microscopic study of textile fibers, 359-372
Minor fibers, 337-344, 370-372
Mordant dyes, 425, 433
Moros, loom of, 23
Muckle wheel, 31-34
Mule spinning, 39-43, 45, 47, 175
Mungo, 152, 365
Navajos, as textile workers, 11, 13, 18, 22, 25-27
Niddy noddy, 34
Nitrocellulose silks, 304, 413, 564
Nitrogen content of silk, 404
Noble comb, 179-181
Noils, 149, 181
Organzine, 286, 287
Oxycellulose, 382, 387
Pantograph, 254
Paul, Lewis, 28, 43, 46
Perching, 188
Perspiration formulas, 454
Phthalic anhydride dyes, 427, 435
Picking, 22, 39
Piece dyeing, 437
Pile fabrics, 103, 146
Pineapple or Piña fiber, 339, 371
Plain weave, draft for, 93
shafts for, 94
Plush weave, 104
Point or squared paper, 93
Power loom, 77-83
parts of, 80-82
threading of, 79
Power weaving, transition to, 74
Primitive era, basketry of, 5
conditions in, 3-13
crafts of, 12, 13
dress of, 12
implements of, 10, 24
pottery of, 5, 21
sewing in, 9
weaving in, 7
Printing, 253-255, 438
Properties, of cotton, 212-214
of linen, 308-310
of rayon, 299-304
of silk, 260-262
of wool, 137-140
Pulled wool, 146-148
Punto in Aria, 348
Purnell Act, 517
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of fibres, 387-408
Quill or plug winder, 34
Raddle, 67
Rag markets, 153
Ramie, 337-339, 370
Rayon, 299-305, 412-415, 563, 564
advantages of, 304, 415
chemistry of, 412-415
dyes for, 303, 429
leading kinds of, recognized, 393
production of, 299-302, 305
properties of, 299-304
statistics of, 299
tables of steps in manufacture of, 563, 564
yarn, count of, 305
Reaumur, 412
Reed or raddle, 23, 59, 61, 67
Reel, clock, 34
Resist dyeing, 438
Retting of flax, 314-318, 394
Reworked or regenerated wool, 147, 149-154, 364
Ring spinning, 48
Rippling of flax, 312
Roberts, 78
Rock, 16
Roller gin, 225, 227
Ropemaking, 18
Roughing of flax, 321
Rove, 48
Sanitary Control, Board of, 511
Sateen weave, 97
Satin weave, 93, 97, 100
Saw gin, 210, 225-227
Saxony wheel, 34-38
Scarne, 65
Schreinerized cotton, 252, 548
Scouring, 420
Scutching of flax, 318
Selvage or selvedge, 20
Sericin, 269, 365
Setting colors, 452
Sewing cotton, 247
Sewing silk, 287
Shed, 22, 23, 59-61
Sheep, breeds of, 126-128
growth and care of, 131-135
shearing of, 132-134
varieties of wool on, 135
Shoddy, _see_ Reworked wool.
Shoes, 474, 496
Shopping, habits of, 504-507
judgment in, 493-497
Shuttle, 23, 60, 63, 74
Silk, 258-299
acids and alkalies on, 379
artificial, _see_ Rayon.
cocoons, 264, 268
classification of, 284
composition of, 374
conditioning of, 284
countries manufacturing, 296, 297
countries producing, 276-282
degumming of, 275
denier system for, 285
doubling and twisting, 288
dram system for, 285
dressing of, 275
dyeing of, 289, 424, 429, 431, 433, 436
economics of, 258-260
fabrics, list of, 298
fibroin, 269, 365
finishing of, 292-295
in United States, 282
markets, 283
microscopy of, 365
mixtures, differentiation tests for, 392
origin and production of, 262-269
primitive reeling of, 268
printing of, 291
properties of, 260-262
reactions of, 379
reeling of, 270-272
sericin, 269, 365
spinning of, 276-282
spun, 269, 273
statistics of, 282
throwing of, 286-288
weaves, 292
weighting of, 290, 400-406
wild, 366
Silkworm, diseases of, 269
life history of, 262-269
Simplified Practice, United States Division of, 517
Singles, 286
Sley or lathe, 23
Sliver, 28, 178, 181, 244
Soap bark, use of, 453
Soaps, 448-451
choice of, 448
tests for composition of, 450
“Souple” silk, 289
Spindle, 15-18
Spinning, cap, 48
hand, 14-20
modern, 46-49
mule, 47
of cotton, 236-239, 245
of flax, 320, 324
of silk, 276
of woolens and worsteds, 175, 183-185
principles of, 18
ring, 48, 50
Spinning jenny, 40, 42, 43
Spinning machines, development of, 38-44
Spinning wheels, 31-45
Spring-beard needle, 108, 110
Spun silk, 269, 273
Stains, removal of, 455-459
Starch, removal of, 396, 399
Statistics, of cotton, 211, 222, 255
of flax, 557, 558
of knit goods, 107, 119, 120
of silk, 273, 278, 282, 283
of textile industries, 478
of wool, 553-556
Stitched, backed, double-faced, double, or multiple cloths, 105
Stockings, 114-118
Structural design, 92
principles of, 93
Styles, origin of, 498
Substitute fibers, 372
Suint, 138, 167, 364
Sulphur dyes, 428, 435
Surface design, 92
Swivel, 91
Sword, 23
Tabby weave, 93
Tables of reference, 558-564
Tapa cloth, 5
Teazle, 193
Temple or tenterhook, 61, 62
Tentering, 191
Testing of materials at home, 483-486, 499-501
Textile fabrics, summarizing tests for, 415
Textile fibers, chemistry of, 373-415
classification of, 374
elemental composition of, 385, 386
recognition tests for, 387-396
Textiles, economics of, 478-518
Throstle frame, 48
Tied and dyed work, 445
Tin weighting of silk, 403
Tops, 182
Tow, 320-323, 325
Townsend, Matthew, 109
Trade Union League, Women’s, 511
Tram, 287
Treadle, 60, 62
Tsatlees, 281
Tubize silk, 301, 413
Turkish toweling, 103
Tussah silk, 269, 270, 279, 366
Twill weave, 93-97
Tyrian purple, 417
Underwear, 118-119
Unshrinkable wool, 309, 409
Vat dyes, 425, 434
Vaucanson, 74
Vegetable fibers, classification of, 374
reactions of, 380-385
Velvet, 105
Vicuña, 130
Vigoureux dyeing, 198, 436
“Virgin” wool, 150
Viscose, 302, 413
Warp beam, 59
Warp or ends, 20, 92
Warping bars, 65
Warping drum, 66
Warping, process of, 64-72
Waste, in home, 512-514
Wastes and substitutes, 146-154, 274, 276, 294
Water frame, Arkwright’s, 39, 44
Waterproofing of fabrics, 411
Wattling, 6
Weave, basket or Panama, 95
Bedford cord, 96
damask, 101
diaper, 100
double cloth, 99, 100
figured, 101
gauze, 91
leno, 91
pile or Terry, 103
plain or tabby, 93
plush, 104
poplin or rep, 94
sateen, 97, 100
satin, 93, 97
twill, 93-97
Weave room, ancient, 57
Weaving, defined, 20
early methods of, 20-27
hand, 58-73
power, 74-92
primitive, 7, 8
principles underlying, 21, 58
Web beam, 59
Weighting of silk, 290, 400-406
Whitney, Eli, 45, 46, 210, 225
Whorl, 28
Wild silk, 279, 366
Winding, warping, drawing in, 64
Women’s Trade Union League, 511
Woof, weft, pick, or filling, 20
Wool, acids and alkalies on, 375-377
blending, 169
by-products of, 124, 146-154, 204
changes in character of, 126
chemical nature of, 374, 375
chlorinated, 409
classifying and grading, 136
color tests for, 388
conditioning of, 139
conditions affecting, 131-133
countries producing, 154-158
dyeing of, 169, 431-433
dyes for, 424, 429
epidermal scales of, 137, 138, 362
extract, 153, 365
feed, 166
felting of, 138, 362, 376, 446
flocks, 191
grease in, 138, 167, 364
growing, decrease in, 125
hygroscopicity of, 137
ignition test for, 385
industry, scope of, 123
marketing of, 158
merino, 142
microscopy of, 361-365
mixtures, differentiation tests for, 388-392
mungo, 152, 365
properties of, 137-140
reactions of, 375
reworked, 147, 149-154, 364
scouring of, 167-169
sorting, 164-166
staple, 124
statistics of, 553-556
unshrinkable, 309, 409
varieties of, 144-146
wastes and substitutes, 146-154
wheel, 32
yolk, 167, 364
Woolen and worsted, countries manufacturing, 205-208
counts of, 185
defined, 144
finishing of, 187-199
manufacture, 161-209
materials, list of, 208
processes common to, 162-171
processes distinct for, 163, 171-185
raw materials, 123-160
spinning, 162
statistics of, 554, 555
weaving, 186
yarns, counts of, 185
uses of, 199
Wyatt, John, 46
Yarns, cotton, 245-247
knitting, 113
linen, 326
rayon, 305
silk, 285-288
wool, 185, 199
Yolk, 138, 167, 364
Zuñi healds or heddles, 24, 59
loom, 11
weaving, 11
Transcriber’s Notes
Unless mentioned below, inconsistent spelling, capitalisation,
hyphenation, typography, factual errors, etc. have been retained;
errors in the (alphabetical) order of sorted lists were not
corrected. Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text
and on their settings, not all elements may display as intended.
Differences between the Table of Contents and headings or references
in the text were not standardised (for example, Chapter VII contains
some section titles not listed in the Table of Contents, the Table of
Contents for Chapter X lists some section titles not found as such
in the text). Several subjects are discussed in different chapters
and sections, and internal references do not always lead to the
most relevant section.
Page 110, (See Chap. VI, Napping, etc.): there is no section Napping,
etc. in Chapter VI; possibly the reference was intended to be to the
section Napping, Gigging, or Raising in Chapter VII.
Page 139, (See Chap. VIII, Conditioning.): there is no section on
Conditioning in Chapter VIII; possibly the reference should be to the
section on Conditioning in Chapter IX.
Page 162, (see Chaps. VI and XIII, Reworked Wool): there is no
section on Reworked Wool in Chapter XIII; possibly the reference
should be to the section on Reworked Wool in Chapter XI.
Page 330, The foreign market is desired,...: there appears to be
something wrong with this sentence as printed.
Page 354, See Burnt-out Lace, below: there is no such section; the
hyperlink leads to the section Machine Embroideries, where the
process is explained.
Page 449, ...soluble in hard or sold water...: possibly an error for
cold water.
Page 528, table: header CLOTHING TO BUY is considered to be referring
to the first, second and third year; inconsistencies, contradictions
and calculation errors in the table have not been addressed.
Page 547, entry Picker: there is no entry Shoddy Picker in the
Glossary; the hyperlink leads to the text where Shoddy Picker is
described.
Changes:
Illustrations, tables and footnotes have been moved outside text
paragraphs.
In some cases the ditto sign („ or “) or another indication of a
repeated phrase has been replaced with the dittoed or repeated item.
Minor obvious typographical and lay-out errors were corrected
silently; parts of some tables have been re-arranged for the sake of
consistency and legibility.
Page xii: pina changed to piña as elsewhere.
Page 79: (See Chap. II, Winding, Warping, etc.) changed to (See Chap.
III, Winding, Warping, etc.)
Page 82: ...a bewildering, throbbing mass of machinery (See Fig. 104)
changed to ...a bewildering, throbbing mass of machinery (See Fig.
106).
Page 114: Section heading Knit Goods inserted cf. Table of Contents.
Page 131: (See Chap. IX., Additional Fibers.) changed to (See Chap.
X., Additional Fibers.)
Page 156: The Alpaca, Vicuna, and Llama are closely related...
changed to The Alpaca, Vicuña, and Llama are closely related....
Page 162: (see Chap. V, Varieties of Fabrics) changed to (see Chap.
VI, Varieties of Fabrics).
Page 163: ...ready for spinning after the last cad... changed to
...ready for spinning after the last card...; 4. Sprinning. changed
to 4. Spinning.
Page 252: ...in gassing, dressing, and pressure, or Shreinerizing...
changed to ...in gassing, dressing, and pressure, or
Schreinerizing....
Page 298, Woven underwear: the unnecessary indentations of the items
Crêpe de Chine through Stockinet have been removed.
Page 329: The principle linen fabrics produced... changed to The
principal linen fabrics produced....
Page 340: It belongs to the family Tilaceæ... changed to It belongs
to the family Tiliaceæ....
Page 365: (see Chap. XII, Carbonizing) changed to (see Chap. XIII,
Carbonizing).
Page 378: ...employed in the carbonizing process (see Chap. VII)
changed to ...employed in the carbonizing process (see Chap. XIII).
Page 386: _Jute_ is the bast fiber... changed to =Jute= is the bast
fiber.... as other fibers.
Page 449: ...has det gent and water-softening qualities. changed to
...has detergent and water-softening qualities.
Page 457: ...a powerful oxidixing agent,... changed to ...a powerful
oxidizing agent,....
Page 531, table: vertical border inserted between column Probable
Cost and column Numbers for the sake of clarity; some minor alignment
irregularities corrected.
Page 535 ff. some indentations and use of italics and small capitals
adjusted as in similar entries.
Page 555, table Importations of Woolens and Worsteds...: column
heading Square Yards moved from first to second column.
Page 561: 10.00 °C changed to 20.00 °C for 68 °F.
Page 561: Specific Gravity data changed: 1.115 to 1.110 (Tw. 22),
1.157 to 1.150 (Tw. 30), 1.168 to 1.160 (Tw. 32), 1.150 to 1.190 (Tw.
38), 1.195 to 1.195 (Tw. 39), 1.260 to 1.270 (Tw. 54) and 1.345 to
1.355 (Tw. 71).
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