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Title: The Old World and Its Ways
Describing a Tour around the World and Journeys through Europe
Author: William Jennings Bryan
Release Date: April 15, 2014 [eBook #45376]
Language: English
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[Illustration: Yours truly
W. J. Bryan (handwritten signature)]
THE OLD WORLD AND ITS WAYS
by
WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN
Describing a Tour around the World and Journeys through Europe
[Illustration: logo]
St. Louis
The Thompson Publishing Company
1907
Copyright 1907
by William Jennings Bryan
Author's Preface
This volume is published in response to numerous requests from many
sections, and my purpose is to put in permanent and convenient form
the observations made during travels in the old world.
The illustrations will throw light on the subjects treated and it is
believed will add much to the interest. The photographs from which
they were made were collected at the places visited or taken by
members of our party. Chapters one to forty-six were written from
time to time during the trip around the world.
I was accompanied on this tour by my wife and our two younger
children, William J., Jr., and Grace, aged sixteen and fourteen
years respectively. The trip was taken for educational purposes and
proved far more instructive than we anticipated.
We left our home September 21, 1905, sailed from San Francisco
September 27, and arrived in New York August 29, 1906--the day
before the date fixed for the home-coming reception in that
city--and reached Lincoln September 5, sixteen days less than a year
after our departure.
While most of our travel was in the North Temperate Zone, we were
below the Equator a few days in Java and above the Arctic Circle in
Norway.
In this narrative I fear I have sacrificed literary style to
conciseness, for I have endeavored to condense and crowd into the
space as much information as possible. The statement of facts may be
relied on, being based either upon observations gathered at first
hand from persons worthy to be trusted, or taken from authoritative
writings.
Mrs. Bryan assisted me in the collection of materials and the
preparation of the matter, and I am also indebted to the American
Ambassadors, Ministers and Consuls, as well as to the officials of
the countries which were visited, for valuable information.
I have included a series of articles written during a former visit
to Europe in 1902. As I have avoided in the World Tour Narratives
the subjects treated in these previous European articles, the two
series are appropriately published together.
All of these are published with the more pleasure because I believe
they will give the reader increased admiration for American
institutions and a larger confidence in the triumph of American
Ideals.
WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN
Lincoln, Nebraska, 1907
CONTENTS
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 5
CHAPTER I--Crossing the Pacific--Hawaii 15
CHAPTER II--Japan and Her People 25
CHAPTER III--Japanese Customs and Hospitality 37
CHAPTER IV--Japan--Her History and Progress 49
CHAPTER V--Japan--Her Industries, Arts and Commerce 61
CHAPTER VI--Japan--Her Educational System and Her Religions 69
CHAPTER VII--Japan--Her Government, Politics and Problems 80
CHAPTER VIII--Korea--"The Hermit Nation" 90
CHAPTER IX--China--As She Was 101
CHAPTER X--China--As She Was--Part Second 112
CHAPTER XI--Chinese Education, Religion and Philosophy 119
CHAPTER XII--China's Awakening 127
CHAPTER XIII--Chinese Exclusion 137
CHAPTER XIV--The Philippines--The Northern Islands 151
CHAPTER XV--The Philippines--The Moro Country 177
CHAPTER XVI--The Philippine Problem 186
CHAPTER XVII--The Philippine Problem--Continued 197
CHAPTER XVIII--Java--The Beautiful 205
CHAPTER XIX--Netherlands India 215
CHAPTER XX--In The Tropics 223
CHAPTER XXI--Burma and Buddhism 234
CHAPTER XXII--Eastern India 247
CHAPTER XXIII--Hindu India 260
CHAPTER XXIV--Mohammedan India 273
CHAPTER XXV--Western India 285
CHAPTER XXVI--British Rule in India 295
CHAPTER XXVII--Ancient Egypt 312
CHAPTER XXVIII--Modern Egypt 321
CHAPTER XXIX--Among the Lebanons 331
CHAPTER XXX--The Christian's Mecca 341
CHAPTER XXXI--Galilee 349
CHAPTER XXXII--Greece, the World's Teacher 358
CHAPTER XXXIII--The Byzantine Capital 366
CHAPTER XXXIV--In the Land of the Turk 376
CHAPTER XXXV--Hungary and Her Neighbors 385
CHAPTER XXXVI--Austria-Hungary 396
CHAPTER XXXVII--The Duma 403
CHAPTER XXXVIII--Around the Baltic 417
CHAPTER XXXIX--Democratic Norway 425
CHAPTER XL--England's New Liberal Government 435
CHAPTER XLI--Homes and Shrines of Great Britain 445
CHAPTER XLII--Glimpses of Spain 456
CHAPTER XLIII--A Word to Tourists 464
CHAPTER XLIV--American Foreign Missions 470
CHAPTER XLV--World Problems 478
CHAPTER XLVI--A Study of Governments 485
CHAPTER XLVII--The Tariff Debate in England 492
CHAPTER XLVIII--Ireland and Her Leaders 498
CHAPTER XLIX--Growth of Municipal Ownership 504
CHAPTER L--France and Her People 510
CHAPTER LI--The Republic of Switzerland 521
CHAPTER LII--Three Little Kingdoms--Denmark 525
CHAPTER LIII--Belgium 527
CHAPTER LIV--The Netherlands 529
CHAPTER LV--Germany and Socialism 533
CHAPTER LVI--Russia and Her Czar 542
CHAPTER LVII--Rome--The Catholic Capital 549
CHAPTER LVIII--Tolstoy, The Apostle of Love 559
CHAPTER LIX--Notes on Europe 567
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
William Jennings Bryan Frontispiece
Leaving San Francisco on the Manchuria 16
Surf-Riding in Hawaii 19
Our Party 21
Hawaiian Foliage 24
A Picturesque View 26
At Miyanoshita 29
A Japanese Family 31
Dwarf Maple--50 years old 36
Japanese Geisha Girls 38
Yukio Ozaki--Mayor of Tokyo 40
In Count Okuma's Conservatory 43
Marquis Ito 44
Count Okuma 45
The Guest of Gov. Chikami at Kagoshima 50
Japanese Lady in American Dress 53
A Japanese Maiden 54
Yukichi Fukuzawa, Jr. 57
Sumitka Haseba--Japanese Statesman 59
Japanese Water-Carrier 64
A Visit to Count Okuma's School near Tokyo 70
Japanese Stone Lantern 74
Korean Lion--Yes 75
Korean Lion--No 75
In Front of Nikko Temple--Japan 76
Admiral Togo 82
President of Diet--Japan 84
Baron Kentaro Kaneko 85
Mr. Okura, a Successful Japanese Business Man 87
A Shinto Gate at Nara 89
Two Korean Families 91
In Korea--Group of Natives 92
A Korean Scene 95
American Hospital at Seoul--Korea 99
Doing the Family Washing 100
A Group of Chinese--Pekin 103
The Wall at Pekin 105
A Street in Pekin 107
Chinese Emperor 108
The Father of the Chinese Emperor 109
Empress Dowager--China 110
One of the Principal Streets of Pekin 111
House Boats at Canton 114
Yuan Shi Kai--Viceroy Tientsin and Pekin 117
Altar of Heaven--Pekin 123
Illustration of Foot-Binding 125
Traveling: in North China 126
Viceroy Chang Chih Tung 129
Wu Ting Fang 130
Chinese Cart at Pekin 133
Chou Fu, Viceroy of Nanking 134
A Canton Bridge 136
Manchu and Chinese Women--China 139
The Chinese Wheelbarrow 143
Fashionable Conveyance at Hong Kong 147
Colossal Statue of Ming, Ruler of China 150
A Filipino Village 152
Filipino Houses 153
General Emilio Aguinaldo 154
Filipino Boys with Blow Guns 155
Group of Filipinos 156
In the Philippines 157
The Accomplished Wife of a Filipino Official 159
Filipino Night School--American Teachers 161
A Filipino Belle 165
Emilio Aguinaldo, Mother, Sister, Brother and Son 167
A Filipino Teacher 169
Hauling Hemp 170
Moro Huts 176
Threshing Rice 176
Moros 182
Moro School--Zamboanga 185
Henry C. Ide, Gov. Gen. Philippine Islands 187
Datu Piang and Grandson 188
Dr. G. Apacible 191
Plowing in Sulu Land 193
Sailing in Manila Bay 195
Carabao Cart and Driver 198
Harvesting Sugar Cane 199
The Rice Harvest 200
A Driveway in Botanical Garden--Buitenzorg 206
Extinct Volcano, Salak 207
A Java Road 210
Temple at Boro Boedoer 213
A Native 216
A Group of Javanese 219
In the Tropics 224
The Lake at Kandy, Ceylon 226
Singalese Chief's Daughter--Showing Jewelry 228
Singalese Carpenter 229
Tamil Girl--Ceylon 231
An Elephant at Work in Rangoon 235
The Park at Rangoon 236
Five Hundred Pagoda at Mandalay 237
Burmese Woman with Cigarette 238
Buddhist Temple 239
The Shwe Dagon Pagoda 240
Burmese Family 242
Gathering Precious Stones in Burma 245
Bronze Image of Buddha, Built 1252 246
Calcutta Burning Ghat 248
The Maharaja of Mourbharag--An Indian Prince 250
Indian Princess 251
The Great Banyan Tree--Calcutta 252
A Calcutta Street--India 253
Keshub Chunder Sen 255
The Bull Cart in India 256
Thibetans, as Seen at Darjeeling 257
View of the Himalayas, as seen from Darjeeling 258
The Camel in India 261
Cultivating Psychic Power on Spikes at Benares, India 262
Bathing Ghat on the Ganges 263
Pundit Sakharam Ganesh 264
Hindu Types 266
Hindu Fair at Allahabad--India 267
Hindu Fakir 268
Mrs. Besant's College 269
A Gala Day in India 270
Cremation of Dead Bodies--Burning Ghat 271
Hindu Group 272
Angel of the Resurrection 274
The Honorable My Justice Badruddin Tyabji 275
Ruins of the Residency--Lucknow, India 276
Pearl Mosque at Delhi 277
Gokale--Prominent Indian Reformer 278
A Pool at Lucknow--India 279
Mohammedans at Prayer 280
Klanjiban Ganguli, Supt. Instruction 281
Taj Mahal, Agra 283
Street in Jaipore--India 287
An American Maid in Parsee Costume 290
Maharaja--Jaipore 291
Mohammedan Lady, Bombay 292
Elephant Parade 293
Assembling for the Bombay Meeting 294
His Excellency the Earl of Minto 296
Viceroy's Palace at Calcutta 298
Sir James Diggs La Touche 300
Sir Andrew Frazer 302
Lord Curzon 303
Gov. Lamington--Bombay, India 307
Indian Students 309
Famous Asoka Pillar 311
Karnak Temple 313
Mummy and Wooden Statue 314
The Pyramid and the Sphinx 319
A Sphinx 320
Climbing the Pyramids 322
The Ostrich Farm near Cairo 323
Egyptian Ladies 324
An Egyptian Merchant 325
Khedive of Egypt 328
Reunion on the Desert 329
Temple at Baalbek 332
The Giant Stone at Baalbek 334
Cedars of Lebanon 336
Beyrouth--Syria 337
The Big Tail Sheep 338
Damascus Dogs 339
Mount of Olives 344
Wailing Place of the Jews 346
A Jewish Rabbi 347
A Bedouin 351
At Breakfast 352
An Arab Maiden 353
The Bedouin Shepherd and His Flock 354
Salim Moussa, with Party of Tourists 355
Mary's Well at Nazareth 356
The Parthenon 359
The Acropolis at Athens 360
Mars Hill 362
Demosthenes' Platform 363
Frieze of the Parthenon. 365
St. Sofia at Constantinople 367
The Bosphorus at Constantinople 369
Smoking the Hubble-Bubble Pipe 371
Robert's College near Constantinople 373
At the World's Breakfast Table 375
Sons of the Sultan. 378
Turkish Officials 381
The Danube and Parliament Building--Budapest 387
A Street in Budapest 388
Budapest 391
Prime Minister Wekerle--Hungary 393
Count Apponyi 394
Minister Kossuth 395
Carlsbad 399
Count Ignatieff 404
The Palace Where the Russian Duma Meets 405
Prof. Serge Murmetzeff 407
Editor Paul I. Miliukoff 408
Some Members of Russian Duma 410
Members of the Russian Duma 411
Maxim Winawer 412
Group of Russian Duma with Mr. Bryan in Center 413
Ivan Petrunkevich 415
A View of Stockholm 418
King Oscar of Sweden 420
The Viking Ship at Christiania 426
In Hjorendfiord 427
Troldfjord 428
Ole Bull 430
King Haakon and Queen Maud 433
King Edward VII 436
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman 438
House of Parliament, London 439
John Morley, M. P. 441
John Burns 443
Melrose Abbey 446
Birthplace of Robert Burns 449
Shakespeare's Birth-House Restoration 450
Hawarden Castle--Home of Gladstone 453
W. E. Gladstone 454
Windsor Castle 455
The Old Bridge at Cordova 458
The Alhambra--Spain 461
Resignation 463
Vesuvius as Seen from Naples 466
Mission School 477
Four Statesmen of England 493
Irish Patriots 499
Charles S. Parnell 502
Meeting of the Waters--Killarney 503
The Broomelaw Bridge at Glasgow 505
Napoleon Bonaparte 511
Napoleon Bonaparte Crowning Josephine. 514
Avenue Champs-Elysees--Paris 516
Tomb of Napoleon 518
King Christian and Wife 526
Palace of Justice--Belgium 527
The Hague 529
The Market Place at Amsterdam 530
A Netherlands Statesman 531
A Dutch Windmill 532
The Reichstag 533
Leipsic University 534
The Rhine 536
Kaiser Wilhelm 538
Breton Peasants 540
The Czar of Russia 543
Russian Beggar 547
Kremlin of Moscow 548
Coliseum--Rome 550
Pope Pius X 551
Naples 553
Grand Canal--Venice 555
St. Peter's at Rome 557
Madonna 558
Count Tolstoy 560
Goddess of Liberty--New York Harbor 575
[Illustration: ROUTE TRAVELED.]
CHAPTER I.
CROSSING THE PACIFIC--HAWAII.
There is rest in an ocean voyage. The receding shores shut out the
hum of the busy world; the expanse of water soothes the eye by its
very vastness; the breaking of the waves is music to the ear and
there is medicine for the nerves in the salt sea breezes that invite
to sleep. At first one is disturbed--sometimes quite so--by the
motion of the vessel, but this passes away so completely that before
many days the dipping of the ship is really enjoyable and one finds
a pleasure in ascending the hills and descending the valleys into
which the deck sometimes seems to be converted.
If one has regarded the Pacific as an unknown or an untraversed
sea, the impression will be removed by a glance at a map recently
published by the United States government--a map with which every
ocean traveler should equip himself. On this map the Pacific is
covered with blue lines indicating the shortest routes of travel
between different points with the number of miles. The first thing
that strikes one is that the curved line indicating the northern
route between San Francisco and Yokohama is only 4,536 miles long,
while the apparently straight line between the two points is 4,791
miles long--the difference being explained by the curvature of the
earth, although it is hard to believe that in following the direct
line a ship would have to climb over such a mountain range of water,
so to speak, as to make it shorter to go ten degrees north. The time
between the United States and the Japanese coast has recently been
reduced to less than eleven days, but the northern route is not so
pleasant at this season of the year, and we sailed on the Manchuria,
September 27, going some twenty degrees farther south via Honolulu.
This route covers 5,545 miles and is made in about sixteen days when
the weather is good.
The Manchuria is one of the leviathans of the Pacific and is owned
by Mr. Harriman, president of the Union Pacific and Southern
Pacific Railways. The ship's crew suggests the Orient, more than
three-fourths being Chinese, all wearing the cue and the national
garb. There is also a suggestion of the Orient in the joss house and
opium den of the Chinese in the steerage.
In crossing the one hundred and eightieth meridian we lost a day,
and as we are going all the way around, we cannot recover it as
those can who recross the Pacific. We rose on Saturday morning,
October 7, and at nine o'clock were notified that Sunday had begun
and the remainder of the day was observed as the Sabbath (October 8).
[Illustration: LEAVING SAN FRANCISCO ON THE MANCHURIA.]
According to the chart or map referred to there are three centers
of ocean traffic in the Pacific. Honolulu, the most important of
all, the Midway Islands, 1,160 miles northwest of Honolulu, and
the Samoan Islands, some twenty-two hundred miles to the south.
The Society Islands, about the same distance to the southeast of
Honolulu, and Guam, some fifteen hundred miles from the mainland of
Asia, are centers of less importance.
Our ship reached Honolulu early on the morning of the sixth day out
and we had breakfast on the island. The Hawaiian Islands (inhabited)
number eight and extend from the southeast to the northwest,
covering about six degrees of longitude and nearly four of latitude.
Of these eight islands, Hawaii, the southernmost one, is the
largest, having an area of 4,200 square miles and a population of
nearly fifty thousand. Hilo, its chief city, situated on the east
shore, is the second Hawaiian city of importance and contains some
seven thousand inhabitants. The island of Oahu, upon which Honolulu
is situated, is third in size but contains the largest population,
almost sixty thousand, of which forty thousand dwell in or near the
capital. The islands are so small and surrounded by such an area
of water as to remind one of a toy land, and yet there are great
mountains there, one piercing the clouds at a height of 14,000 feet.
Immense cane fields stretch as far as the eye can reach, and busy
people of different colors and races make a large annual addition
to our country's wealth. On one of the islands is an active volcano
which furnishes a thrilling experience to those who are hardy enough
to ascend its sides and cross the lava lake, now grown cold, which
surrounds the present crater. Each island has one or more extinct
volcanoes, one of these, called "The Punch Bowl," being within the
city limits of Honolulu. On one of the islands is a leper colony,
containing at times as many as a thousand of the afflicted. During
campaigns the spellbinders address the voters from boats anchored at
a safe distance from the shore.
As the Manchuria lay at anchor in the harbor all day the passengers
went ashore and, dividing into groups, inspected the various places
of interest. By the aid of a reception committee, composed of
democrats, republicans and brother Elks, we were able to crowd a
great deal of instruction and enjoyment into the ten hours which
we spent in Honolulu. We were greeted at the wharf with the usual
salutation, Aloha, a native word which means "a loving welcome," and
were decorated with garlands of flowers for the hat and neck. While
these garlands or leis (pronounced lays) are of all colors, orange
is the favorite hue, being the color of the feather cloak worn by
the Hawaiian kings and queens in olden times. The natives are a very
kindly and hospitable people, and we had an opportunity to meet some
excellent specimens of the race at the public reception and the
country residence of Mr. Damon, one of the leading bankers of the
island.
When the islands were discovered in 1778 by Captain Cook, the
natives lived in thatched huts and were scantily clothed, after
the manner of the tropical races. They were not savages or
cannibals, but maintained a degree of civil order and had made
considerable progress in the primitive arts. In their religious
rites they offered human sacrifices, but they welcomed the white
man and quickly embraced Christianity. American influence in the
islands reaches back some seventy-five years, beginning with New
England missionaries, many of whose descendants have made permanent
homes here. Some of these, mingling their blood with the blood of
the natives, form connecting links between the old and the new
civilization. Foreign ways and customs soon began to manifest
themselves and long before annexation the native rulers built
buildings after the style of our own architecture. The Capitol
building, erected twenty years ago for the king's palace, is an
imposing structure, and the Judiciary building is almost equal to
it. The parks and public grounds are beautiful and well kept, and
the business blocks commodious and substantial. In short, Honolulu
presents the appearance of a well built, cleanly and prosperous
American city, with its residences nestling among palm trees and
tropical plants. Good hotels are abundant. The Alexander Young hotel
is built of stone imported from the States and would do credit
to a city of half a million. The Royal Hawaiian hotel, even more
picturesque, though not so large, and the Moana hotel, at the beach,
vie with the Young in popularity.
The program for our day's stay began with a seven mile automobile
ride to the Pali, the pass over which the natives cross to the
farther side of the island. The road is of macadam and winding along
a picturesque valley rises to a height of about 1,200 feet. At this
point the eye falls upon a picture of bewitching beauty. Just below
is a precipitous cliff over which a conquering king, Kamehameha
the First, about one hundred and ten years ago, drove an opposing
army when he established himself as ruler of the islands. To the
east from the foot of the cliff, a thousand feet down, stretches a
beautiful valley with an endless variety of verdure; and beyond,
a coast line broken by a rocky promontory, around whose base the
waters reflect from their varying depths myriad hues of blue and
green. There are ocean views of greater expanse, mountain views more
sublime and agricultural landscapes more interesting to a dweller
upon prairies, but it is doubtful whether there is anywhere upon
earth a combination of mountain, valley and ocean--a commingling of
the colors of sky and sea and rock and foliage--more entrancing.
Twice on the way to Pali we passed through mountain showers and were
almost ready to turn back, but the members of the committee, knowing
of the rare treat ahead, assured us that Hawaiian showers were of
short duration and "extra dry." When we at last beheld the view, we
felt that a drenching might gladly have been endured, so great was
the reward.
The committee next took us by special train on the Oahu railroad
to one of the great sugar plantations of the island, a plantation
outside of the trust, owned and operated by a San Francisco company.
This company has built an immense refinery upon the plantation and
the manager showed us the process of sugar making from the crushing
of the cane to the refined product, sacked ready for shipment.
[Illustration: SURF-RIDING IN HAWAII.]
The stalks, after passing through the mill, are dried and carried
to the furnace, thus saving some sixty-five per cent of the cost of
fuel--an important economy when it is remembered that all the fuel
for manufacturing is brought from abroad. Until recently, several
hundred thousand dollars' worth of coal was annually brought from
Australia, but California oil is now being substituted for coal.
The refuse which remains when the sugar making process is completed
is returned to the land as fertilizer. The economies effected
in fuel and in fertilizer, together with the freight saved on
impurities carried in the raw sugar, amount to a considerable sum
and to this extent increase the profit of the business. While at
the sugar plantation we were shown an immense pumping plant used in
the irrigation of the land. The water is drawn from artesian wells
and forced to a height of almost six hundred feet, in some places,
and from the summits of the hills is carried to all parts of the
plantation. Some idea of the size of the plants can be gathered from
the fact that the pumps used on this plantation have a combined
capacity of sixty million gallons per day.
Speaking of irrigation, I am reminded that the rainfall varies
greatly in different parts of the island. At Honolulu, for instance,
it is something like thirty inches per year, while at one point
within five miles of the city the annual rainfall sometimes reaches
one hundred and forty inches. The sugar plantation visited, while
one of the largest, is only one of a number of plantations, the
total sugar product of the islands reaching about four hundred
thousand tons annually.
Next to the sugar crops comes the rice crop, many of the rice
fields lying close to the city. Pineapples, bananas, coffee and
cocoanuts are also raised. Attention is being given now to the
development of crops which can be grown by small planters, those in
authority recognizing the advantage to the country of small holdings.
The labor problem is the most serious one which the people of
Hawaii have to meet. At present the manual labor is largely done
by Japanese, Chinese and Koreans--these together considerably
outnumbering the whites and natives. Several thousand Portuguese
have been brought to the islands and have proven an excellent
addition to the population. On the day that we were there the
immigration commission authorized the securing of a few Italian
families with a view of testing their fitness for the climate.
The desire is to develop a homogeneous population suited to the
conditions and resources of the islands.
We returned from the sugar plantation in automobiles, stopping at
the country home of Mr. Damon, which was once a royal habitation.
The present owner has collected many relics showing the life, habits
and arts of the native Hawaiians.
Still nearer the town we visited two splendid schools, one for
native boys, the other for native girls, built from the funds left
by native chiefs. The boys and girls were drawn up in front of one
of the buildings and under the direction of their instructor sang
the national anthem of the natives, now preserved as the territorial
hymn. They were a finely proportioned, well dressed and intelligent
group and are said to be studious and excellently behaved. Nothing
on the islands interested us more than these native children,
illustrating as they do, not only the possibilities of their race,
but the immense progress made in a little more than a hundred years
of contact with the whites. The museum, the gift of Mr. Bishop, now
of California, who married the widow of one of the native chiefs, is
said to contain the best collection of the handiwork of the natives
of the Pacific Islands to be found anywhere.
The public reception at the Royal Hawaiian hotel gave us an
opportunity to meet not only the prominent American and native
citizens and their wives, but a large number of the artisans
and laborers of the various races, and we were pleased to note
throughout the day the harmonious feeling which exists between the
whites and the brown population.
Political convictions produce the same results here as in the United
States, sometimes dividing families. For instance, Prince Cupid, the
present territorial representative in congress, is a republican,
while his brother, Prince David, is an enthusiastic democrat.
The luncheon prepared by the committee included a number of native
dishes cooked according to the recipes which were followed for
hundreds of years before the white man set foot upon the island.
The health of the guests was drunk in cocoanut water, a nut full
of which stood at each plate. Poi, the staple food of the natives,
was present in abundance. This is made from a root or tuber known
as taro, which grows in swamps and has a leaf resembling our plant,
commonly known as elephant's ear. This tuber is ground to a pulp
resembling paste and is served in polished wooden bowls, in the
making of which the natives exhibit great skill. Next in interest
came the fish and chicken, wrapped in the leaves of a plant called
ti (pronounced like tea) and cooked underground by means of hot
stones. The flavor of food thus cooked is excellent. The crowning
glory of the feast was a roasted pig, also cooked underground--and
a toothsome dish it was. Besides these, there were bread fruit,
alligator pears and delicacies made from the meat of the cocoanut.
The salt, a native product, was salmon colored. The invited
guests were about equally divided between the American and native
population. But for the elegant surroundings of the Young hotel,
the beautifully appointed table and the modern dress, it was such a
dinner as might have been served by the natives to the whites on the
first Thanksgiving after the New England missionaries landed.
[Illustration: OUR PARTY:
W. J. BRYAN MRS. MARY BAIRD BRYAN
GRACE DEXTER BRYAN W. J. BRYAN, JR.]
After a call upon Governor Carter, a descendant of the third
generation from missionary stock, we visited the aquarium. When we
noticed on the printed program that we were scheduled for a visit to
this place, it did not impress us as possessing special interest,
but we had not been in the building long before we were all roaring
with laughter at the remarkable specimens of the finny tribe here
collected.
Language can not do this subject justice. No words can accurately
portray what one here sees. The fish are odd in shape and have all
the hues of the rainbow. The tints are laid on as if with a brush
and yet no painter could imitate these--shall we call them "pictures
in water color?" Some were long and slim; some short and thick. One
had a forehead like a wedge, another had a very blunt nose. Some
looked like thin slabs of pearl with iridescent tints; others had
quills like a porcupine. One otherwise respectable looking little
fellow had a long nose upon the end of which was a fiery glow which
made him look like an old toper; another of a deep peacock blue had
a nose for all the world like a stick of indigo which it wiggled as
it swam.
There were convict fish with stripes like those worn in
penitentiaries and of these there were all sizes; some moving about
slowly and solemnly like hardened criminals and others sporting
about as if enjoying their first taste of wrongdoing. One variety
wore what looked like an orange colored ribbon tied just above
the tail; the color was so like the popular flower of Hawaii that
we were not surprised to find that the fish was called the lei.
In one tank the fish had a habit of resting upon the rocks; they
would brace themselves with their fins and watch the passersby. At
one time two were perched side by side and recalled the familiar
picture of Raphael's Cherubs. Besides the fishes there were crabs
of several varieties, all brilliant in color; one called the hermit
crab had a covering like velvet, with as delicate a pattern as ever
came from the loom. And, then, there was the octopus with the under
side of its arms lined with valve-like mouths. It was hiding under
the rocks, and when the attendant poked it out with a stick, it
darkened the water with an inky fluid, recalling the use made of the
subsidized American newspapers by the trust when attacked.
No visitor to Honolulu should fail to see the aquarium. Every effort
to transport these fish has thus far failed. To enjoy the dudes,
clowns and criminals of fishdom one must see them in their native
waters.
The tour of the island closed with a trip to the beach and a ride
in the surf boats. The native boat is a long, narrow, deep canoe
steadied by a log fastened at both ends to the boat and floating
about ten feet from the side. These canoes will hold six or seven
persons and are propelled by brawny-armed natives. Our party clad
themselves in bathing suits and, filling three canoes, were rowed
out some distance from the shore. The natives, expert at this sport,
watch for a large wave and signal each other when they see one
approaching, and then with their big round paddles they start their
canoes toward the land. As the wave raises the stern of the canoe,
they bend to their work, the purpose being to keep the canoe on the
forward slope of the wave. It is an exciting experience to ride
thus, with the spray breaking over one while the canoe flies along
before the wave. Sometimes the boatmen are too slow and the wave
sweeps under the canoe and is gone, but as a rule they know just how
fast to work, and there is great rivalry between the surf riders
when two or more crews are racing. It is strange that a form of
sport so delightful has not been transported to the American seaside
resorts. There is surf bathing the year round at Honolulu and few
beaches can be found which can compare with Waikiki.
The Oahu railroad, which carried us out to the sugar plantation,
and which has seventy miles of track on the island, passes within
sight of the Pearl harbor, which is the only large inlet in the
islands capable of being developed into a harbor. The United
States government is already dredging this harbor and preparing
it for both naval and commercial uses. The Hawaiian Islands occupy
a strategic position as well as a position of great commercial
importance, and as they are on a direct line between the Isthmus of
Panama and the Orient, their value as a mid-ocean stopping place
will immeasurably increase. The islands being now United States
territory, the advantage of the possession of Pearl harbor is
accompanied by a responsibility for its proper improvement. No one
can visit the harbor without appreciating its importance to our
country and to the world.
When we departed from the wharf at nightfall to board the Manchuria
we were again laden with flowers, and as we left the island,
refreshed by the perfume of flowers and cheered by songs and
farewells, we bore away grateful memories of the day and of the
hospitality of the people. Like all who see this Pacific paradise,
we resolved to return sometime and spend a part of a winter amid its
beauties.
[Illustration: HAWAIIAN FOLIAGE.]
CHAPTER II.
JAPAN AND HER PEOPLE.
The eyes of the world are on Japan. No other nation has ever made
such progress in the same length of time, and at no time in her
history has Japan enjoyed greater prestige than she enjoys just
now; and, it may be added, at no time has she had to face greater
problems than those which now confront her.
We were fortunate in the time of our arrival. Baron Komura, the
returning peace commissioner, returned two days later; the naval
review celebrating the new Anglo-Japanese alliance took place in
Yokohama harbor a week afterward, and this was followed next day by
the reception of Admiral Togo at Tokyo. These were important events
and they gave a visitor an extraordinary opportunity to see the
people en masse. In this article I shall deal in a general way with
Japan and her people, leaving for future articles her history, her
government, her politics, her industries, her art, her education and
her religions.
The term Japan is a collective title applied to four large islands,
that is, Honshiu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Hokkaido and about six hundred
smaller ones. Formosa and the islands immediately adjoining it are
not generally included, although since the Chinese war they belong
to Japan.
Japan extends in the shape of a crescent, curving toward the
northeast, from fifty north latitude and one hundred and fifty-six
east longitude to twenty-one degrees north latitude and one hundred
and nineteen east longitude. The area is a little less than one
hundred and sixty thousand square miles, more than half of which
is on the island of Honshiu. The coast line is broken by numerous
bays furnishing commodious harbors, the most important of which are
at Yokohama, Osaka, Kobe, Nagasaki, Kagoshima and Hakodate. The
islands are so mountainous that only about one-twelfth the area is
capable of cultivation. Although Formosa has a mountain, Mt. Niitaka
(sometimes called Mt. Morrison) which is two thousand feet higher,
Fujiyama is the highest mountain in Japan proper. It reaches a
height of 12,365 feet.
[Illustration: A PICTURESQUE VIEW.]
Fuji (Yama is the Japanese word for mountain) is called the Sacred
Mountain and is an object of veneration among the Japanese. And
well it may be, for it is doubtful if there is on earth a more
symmetrical mountain approaching it in height. Rising in the shape
of a perfect cone, with its summit crowned with snow throughout
nearly the entire year and visible from sea level, it is one of the
most sublime of all the works of nature. Mt. Ranier, as they say at
Seattle, or Tacoma, as it is called in the city of that name, and
Popocatapetl, near Mexico's capital, are the nearest approach to
Fuji, so far as the writer's observation goes. Pictures of Fuji are
to be found on everything; they are painted on silk, embroidered on
screens, worked on velvet, carved in wood and wrought in bronze and
stone. We saw it from Lake Hakone, a beautiful sheet of water some
three thousand feet above the ocean. The foot hills which surround
the lake seem to open at one point in order to give a more extended
view of the sloping sides of this sleeping giant.
And speaking of Hakone, it is one of the beauty spots of Japan.
On an island in this lake is the summer home of the crown prince.
Hakone is reached by a six-mile ride from Miyanoshita, a picturesque
little village some sixty miles west of Yokohama. There are here
hot springs and all the delights of a mountain retreat. One of the
best modern hotels in Japan, the Fujiya, is located here, and one of
its earliest guests was General Grant when he made his famous tour
around the world. The road from the hotel to Hakone leads by foaming
mountain streams, through closely cultivated valleys and over a
range from which the coast line can be seen.
Nikko, about a hundred miles north of Tokyo, and Nara about thirty
miles from Kyoto, are also noted for their natural scenery, but as
these places are even more renowned because of the temples located
there they will be described later. The inland sea which separates
the larger islands of Japan, and is itself studded with smaller
islands, adds interest to the travel from port to port. Many of
these islands are inhabited, and the tiny fields which perch upon
their sides give evidence of an ever present thrift. Some of the
islands are barren peaks jutting a few hundred feet above the waves,
while some are so small as to look like hay stacks in a submerged
meadow.
All over Japan one is impressed with the patient industry of the
people. If the Hollanders have reclaimed the ocean's bed, the people
of Japan have encroached upon the mountains. They have broadened the
valleys and terraced the hill sides. Often the diminutive fields
are held in place by stone walls, while the different levels are
furnished with an abundance of water from the short but numerous
rivers.
The climate is very much diversified, ranging from almost tropical
heat in Formosa to arctic cold in the northern islands; thus
Japan can produce almost every kind of food. Her population in
1903 was estimated at nearly forty-seven millions, an increase of
about thirteen and a half millions since 1873. While Tokyo has a
population of about one and a half millions, Osaka a population of
nearly a million, Kyoto three hundred and fifty thousand, Yokohama
three hundred thousand, and Kobe and Nagoya about the same, and
there are several other large cities of less size, still a large
majority of the population is rural and the farming communities
have a decided preponderance in the federal congress, or diet. The
population, however, is increasing more rapidly in the cities than
in the country.
The stature of the Japanese is below that of the citizens of the
United States and northern Europe. The average height of the men
in the army is about five feet two inches, and the average weight
between a hundred and twenty and a hundred and thirty pounds. It
looks like burlesque opera to see, as one does occasionally, two or
three little Japanese soldiers guarding a group of big burly Russian
prisoners.
The opinion is quite general that the habit which the Japanese form
from infancy of sitting on the floor with their feet under them,
tends to shorten the lower limbs. In all the schools the children
are now required to sit upon benches and whether from this cause
or some other, the average height of the males, as shown by yearly
medical examination, is gradually increasing. Although undersize,
the people are sturdy and muscular and have the appearance of robust
health. In color they display all shades of brown, from a very light
to a very dark. While the oblique eye is common, it is by no means
universal.
The conveyance which is most popular is the jinrikisha, a narrow
seated, two wheeled top buggy with shafts, joined with a cross piece
at the end. These are drawn by "rikisha men" of whom there are
several hundred thousand in the empire. The 'rikisha was invented
by a Methodist missionary some thirty years ago and at once sprang
into popularity. When the passenger is much above average weight, or
when the journey is over a hilly road, a pusher is employed and in
extraordinary cases two pushers. It is astonishing what speed these
men can make. One of the governors informed me that 'rikisha men
sometimes cover seventy-five miles of level road in a day. They will
take up a slow trot and travel for several miles without a break.
We had occasion to go to a village fifteen miles from Kagoshima and
crossed a low mountain range of perhaps two thousand feet. The trip
each way occupied about four hours; each 'rikisha had two pushers
and the men had three hours rest at noon. They felt so fresh at
the end of the trip that they came an hour later to take us to a
dinner engagement. In the mountainous regions the chair and kago
take the place of the 'rikisha. The chair rests on two bamboo poles
and is carried by four men; the kago is suspended from one pole,
like a swinging hammock, and is carried by two. Of the two, the
chair is much the more comfortable for the tourist. The basha is a
small one-horse omnibus which will hold four or six small people;
it is used as a sort of stage between villages. A large part of the
hauling of merchandise is done by men, horses being rarely seen.
In fact, in some of the cities there are more oxen than horses, and
many of them wear straw sandals to protect their hoofs from the hard
pavement. The lighter burdens are carried in buckets or baskets,
suspended from the ends of a pole and balanced upon the shoulder.
[Illustration: THE JINRIKISHA AT MIYANOSHITA THE CHAIR]
In the country the demand for land is so great that most of the
roads are too narrow for any other vehicle than a hand cart. The
highways connecting the cities and principal towns, however, are of
good width, are substantially constructed and well drained, and have
massive stone bridges spanning the streams.
The clothing of the men presents an interesting variety. In official
circles the European and American dress prevails. The silk hat and
Prince Albert coat are in evidence at all day functions, and the
dress suit at evening parties. The western style of dress is also
worn by many business men, professional men and soldiers, and by
students after they reach the middle school, which corresponds to
our high school. The change is taking place more rapidly among the
young than among the adults and is more marked in the city than in
the country. In one of the primary schools in Kyoto, I noticed that
more than half of the children gave evidence of the transition in
dress. The change is also more noticeable in the seaport cities than
in the interior. At Kyoto, an inland city, the audience wore the
native dress and all were seated on mats on the floor, while the
next night at Osaka, a seaport, all sat on chairs and nearly all
wore the American dress. At the Osaka meeting some forty Japanese
young ladies from the Congregational college sang "My Country 'Tis
of Thee" in English.
The shopkeepers and clerks generally wear the native clothing, which
consists of a divided skirt and a short kimono held in place by a
sash. The laboring men wear loose knee breeches and a shirt in warm
weather; in cold weather they wear tight fitting breeches that reach
to the ankles and a loose coat. In the country the summer clothing
is even more scanty. I saw a number of men working in the field
with nothing on but a cloth about the loins, and it was early in
November, when I found a light overcoat comfortable.
A pipe in a wooden case and a tobacco pouch are often carried in the
belt or sash, for smoking is almost universal among both men and
women.
Considerable latitude is allowed in footwear. The leather shoe has
kept pace with the coat and vest, but where the native dress is
worn, the sandal is almost always used. Among the well-to-do the
foot is encased in a short sock made of white cotton cloth, which
is kept scrupulously clean. The sock has a separate division for
the great toe, the sandal being held upon the foot by a cord which
runs between the first and second toes and, dividing, fastens on
each side of the sandal. These sandals are of wood and rest upon two
blocks an inch or more high, the front one sloping toward the toe.
The sandal hangs loosely upon the foot and drags upon the pavement
with each step. The noise made by a crowd at a railroad station
rises above the roar of the train. In muddy weather a higher sandal
is used which raises the feet three or four inches from the ground,
and the wearers stalk about as if on stilts. The day laborers wear
a cheaper sandal made of woven rope or straw. The footwear above
described comes down from time immemorial, but there is coming
into use among the 'rikisha men a modern kind of footwear which
is a compromise between the new and the old. It is a dark cloth,
low-topped gaiter with a rubber sole and no heel. These have the
separate pocket for the great toe. The sandals are left at the door.
At public meetings in Japanese halls the same custom is followed,
the sandals being checked at the door as hats and wraps are in our
country. On approaching a meeting place the speaker can form some
estimate of the size of the audience by the size of the piles of
sandals on the outside. After taking cold twice, I procured a pair
of felt slippers and carried them with me, and the other members of
the family did likewise.
[Illustration: A JAPANESE FAMILY.]
The women still retain the primitive dress. About 1884 an attempt
was made by the ladies of the court to adopt the European dress
and quite a number of women in official circles purchased gowns
in London, Paris and the United States, in spite of the protests
of their sisters abroad. (Mrs. Cleveland joined in a written
remonstrance which was sent from the United States.) But the spell
was broken in a very few months and the women outside of the court
circles returned to the simpler and more becoming native garb. It is
not necessary to enter into details regarding the female toilet, as
the magazines have made the world familiar with the wide sleeved,
loose fitting kimono with its convenient pockets. The children wear
bright colors, but the adults adopt more quiet shades.
The shape of the garment never changes, but the color does. This
season grey has been the correct shade. Feminine pride shows
itself in the obi, a broad sash or belt tied in a very stiff and
incomprehensible bow at the back. The material used for the obi is
often bright in color and of rich and expensive brocades. A wooden
disc is often concealed within the bow of the obi to keep it in
shape and also to brace the back. Two neck cloths are usually worn,
folded inside the kimono to protect the bare throat. These harmonize
with the obi in color and give a dainty finish to the costume. As
the kimono is quite narrow in the skirt, the women take very short
steps. This short step, coupled with the dragging of the sandals,
makes the women's gait quite unlike the free stride of the American
woman. In the middle and higher schools the girls wear a pleated
skirt over the kimono. These are uniform for each school and wine
color is the shade now prevailing. The men and women of the same
class wear practically the same kind of shoes.
Next to the obi, the hair receives the greatest attention and it
is certainly arranged with elaborate care. The process is so
complicated that a hair dresser is employed once or twice a week and
beetle's oil is used in many instances to make the hair smooth and
glossy. At night the Japanese women place a very hard, round cushion
under the neck in order to keep the hair from becoming disarranged.
The stores now have on sale air pillows, which are more comfortable
than the wooden ones formerly used. The vexing question of millinery
is settled by dispensing with hats entirely. Among the poorer
classes the hat is seldom used by the men.
More interesting in appearance than either the men or women are the
children--and I may add that there is no evidence of race suicide
in Japan. They are to be seen everywhere, and a good natured lot
they are. The babies are carried on the back of the mother or an
older child, and it is not unusual to see the baby fast asleep while
the bearer goes about her work. Of the tens of thousands of babies
we have seen, scarcely a half dozen have been crying. The younger
children sometimes have the lower part of the head shaved, leaving
a cap of long hair on the crown of the head. Occasionally a spot is
shaved in the center of this cap. After seeing the children on the
streets, one can better appreciate the Japanese dolls, which look so
strange to American children.
Cleanliness is the passion of the Japanese. The daily bath is a
matter of routine, and among the middle classes there are probably
more who go above this average than below. It is said that in the
city of Tokyo there are over eleven hundred public baths, and it
is estimated that five hundred thousand baths are taken daily at
these places. The usual charge is one and a quarter cents (in our
money) for adults and one cent for children. One enthusiastic
admirer of Japan declares that a Japanese boy, coming unexpectedly
into the possession of a few cents, will be more apt to spend it on
a bath than on something to eat or drink. The private houses have
baths wherever the owners can afford them. The bath tub is made
like a barrel--sometimes of stone, but more often of wood--and is
sunk below the level of the floor. The favorite temperature is one
hundred and ten degrees, and in the winter time the bath tub often
takes the place of a stove. In fact, at the hot springs people
have been known to remain in the bath for days at a time. I do not
vouch for the statement, but Mr. Basil H. Chamberlain in his book
entitled "Things Japanese," says that when he was at one of these
hot springs "the caretaker of the establishment, a hale old man of
eighty, used to stay in the bath during the entire winter." Until
recently the men and women bathed promiscuously in the public
baths; occasionally, but not always, a string separated the bathers.
Now different apartments must be provided.
The Japanese are a very polite people. They have often been
likened to the French in this respect--the French done in bronze,
so to speak. They bow very low, and in exchanging salutations and
farewells sometimes bow several times. When the parties are seated
on the floor, they rise to the knees and bow the head to the floor.
Servants, when they bring food to those who are seated on the floor,
drop upon their knees and, bowing, present the tray.
In speaking of the people I desire to emphasize one conclusion that
has been drawn from my observations here, viz., that I have never
seen a more quiet, orderly or self-restrained people. I have visited
all of the larger cities and several of the smaller ones, in all
parts of the islands; have mingled in the crowds that assembled
at Tokyo and at Yokohama at the time of the reception to Togo and
during the naval review; have ridden through the streets in day time
and at night; and have walked when the entire street was a mass of
humanity. I have not seen one drunken native or witnessed a fight
or altercation of any kind. This is the more remarkable when it is
remembered that these have been gala days when the entire population
turned out to display its patriotism and to enjoy a vacation.
The Japanese house deserves a somewhat extended description. It is
built of wood, is one story in height, unpainted and has a thatched
or a tile roof. The thatched roof is cheaper, but far less durable.
Some of the temples and palaces have a roof constructed like a
thatched roof in which the bark of the arbor vitæ is used in place
of grass or straw. These roofs are often a foot thick and are quite
imposing. In cities most buildings are roofed with tile of a pattern
which has been used for hundreds of years. Shingles are sometimes
used on newer structures, but they are not nearly so large as our
shingles, and instead of being fastened with nails, are held in
place by wire. On the business streets the houses are generally two
stories, the merchant living above the store. The public buildings
are now being constructed of brick and stone and modeled after
the buildings of America and Europe. But returning to the native
architecture--the house is really little more than a frame, for the
dividing walls are sliding screens, and, except in cold weather, the
outside walls are taken out during the day. The rooms open into each
other, the hallway extending around the outside instead of going
through the center. Frail sliding partitions covered with paper
separate the rooms from the hall, glass being almost unknown. The
floor is covered with a heavy matting two inches thick, and as these
mats are of uniform size, six feet by three, the rooms are made to
fit the mats, twelve feet square being the common size. As the walls
of the room are not stationary, there is no place for the hanging
of pictures, although the sliding walls are often richly decorated.
Such pictures as the house contains are painted on silk or paper and
are rolled up when not on exhibition. At one end of the room used
for company, there is generally a raised platform upon which a pot
of flowers or other ornament is placed, and above this there are one
or two shelves, the upper one being inclosed in sliding doors. There
are no bedsteads, the beds being made upon the floor and rolled up
during the day. There are no tables or chairs. There is usually a
diminutive desk about a foot high upon which writing material is
placed. The writing is done with a brush and the writing case or box
containing the brush, ink, etc., has furnished the lacquer industry
with one of the most popular articles for ornamentation. The people
sit upon cushions upon the floor and their meals are served upon
trays.
Japanese food is so different from American food that it takes the
visitor some time to acquire a fondness for it, more time than the
tourist usually has at his disposal. With the masses rice is the
staple article of diet, and it is the most palatable native dish
that the foreigner finds here. The white rice raised in Japan is
superior in quality to some of the rice raised in China, and the
farmers are often compelled to sell good rice and buy the poorer
quality. Millet, which is even cheaper, is used as a substitute for
rice.
As might be expected in a seagirt land, fish, lobster, crab, shrimp,
etc., take the place of meat, the fish being often served raw.
As a matter of fact, it is sometimes brought to the table alive
and carved in the presence of the guests. Sweet potatoes, pickled
radishes, mushrooms, sea weed, barley and fruit give variety to the
diet. The radishes are white and enormous in size. I saw some which
were two feet long and two and a half inches in diameter. Another
variety is conical in form and six or eight inches in diameter. I
heard of a kind of turnip which grows so large that two of them make
a load for the small Japanese horses. The chicken is found quite
generally throughout the country, but is small like the fighting
breeds or the Leghorns. Ducks, also, are plentiful. Milk is seldom
used except in case of sickness, and butter is almost unknown among
the masses.
But the subject of food led me away from the house. No description
would be complete which did not mention the little gate through
which the tiny door yard is entered; the low doorway upon which the
foreigner constantly bumps his head, and the little garden at the
rear of the house with its fish pond, its miniature mountains, its
climbing vines and fragrant flowers. The dwarf trees are cultivated
here, and they are a delight to the eye; gnarled and knotted pines
two feet high and thirty or forty years old are not uncommon. Little
maple trees are seen here fifty years old and looking all of their
age, but only twelve inches in height. We saw a collection of these
dwarf trees, several hundred in number, and one could almost imagine
himself transported to the home of the brownies. Some of these
trees bear fruit ludicrously large for the size of the tree. The
houses are heated by charcoal fires in open urns or braziers, but an
American would not be satisfied with the amount of heat supplied.
These braziers are moved about the room as convenience requires and
supply heat for the inevitable tea.
[Illustration: DWARF MAPLE TREE, FIFTY YEARS OLD]
But I have reached the limit of this article and must defer until
the next description of the Japanese customs as we found them in the
homes which we were privileged to visit.
CHAPTER III.
JAPANESE CUSTOMS AND HOSPITALITY.
Every nation has its customs, its way of doing things, and a
nation's customs and ways are likely to be peculiar in proportion
as the nation is isolated. In Japan, therefore, one would expect to
see many strange things, and the expectation is more than realized.
In some things their customs are exactly the opposite of ours. In
writing they place their characters in vertical lines and move from
right to left, while our letters are arranged on horizontal lines
and read from left to right. Their books begin where ours end and
end where ours begin. The Japanese carpenters pull the saw and plane
toward them, while ours push them from them. The Japanese mounts
his steed from the right, while the American mounts from the left;
Japanese turn to the left, Americans to the right. Japanese write it
"Smith John Mr.," while we say "Mr. John Smith." At dinners in Japan
wine is served hot and soup cold, and the yard is generally at the
back of the house instead of the front.
The Japanese wear white for mourning and often bury their dead in a
sitting posture. The death is sometimes announced as occurring at
the house when it actually occurred elsewhere, and the date of the
death is fixed to suit the convenience of the family. This is partly
due to the fact that the Japanese like to have the death appear
as occurring at home. Sometimes funeral services are held over a
part of the body. An American lady whose Japanese maid died while
attending her mistress in the United States, reports an incident
worth relating. The lady cabled her husband asking instructions in
regard to the disposition of the body. He conferred with the family
of the deceased and cabled back directing the wife to bring a lock
of the hair and the false teeth of the departed. The instructions
were followed and upon the delivery of these precious relics, they
were interred with the usual ceremonies.
The handshake is uncommon even among Japanese politicians, except in
their intercourse with foreigners. When Baron Komura returned from
the peace conference in which he played so important a part, I was
anxious to witness his landing, partly out of respect to the man and
partly out of curiosity to see whether the threatened manifestations
of disapproval would be made by the populace, it having been
rumored that thousands of death lanterns were being prepared for
a hostile parade. (It is needless to say that the threats did not
materialize and that no expressions of disapproval were heard after
his arrival.) I found it impossible to learn either the hour or the
landing place, and, despairing of being present, started to visit
a furniture factory to inspect some wood carving. Consul-General
Jones of Dalney (near Port Arthur), then visiting in Yokohama, was
my escort and, as good fortune would have it, we passed near the
Detached Palace. Dr. Jones, hearing that the landing might be made
there, obtained permission for us to await the peace commissioner's
coming. We found Marquis Ito there and a half dozen other officials.
As Baron Komura did not arrive for half an hour, it gave me the best
opportunity that I could have had to become acquainted with the
Marquis, who is the most influential man in Japan at present. He is
President of the Privy Council of Elder Statesmen and is credited
with being the most potent factor in the shaping of Japan's demands
at Portsmouth.
[Illustration: JAPANESE GEISHA GIRLS.]
When Baron Komura stepped from the launch upon the soil of his
native land, he was met by Marquis Ito, and each greeted the other
with a low bow. The baron then saluted the other officials in the
same manner and, turning, bowed to a group of Japanese ladies
representing the Woman's Patriotic Association. Dr. Jones and I
stood some feet in the rear of the officials and were greeted by the
baron after he had saluted his own countrymen. He extended his hand
to us. The incident is mentioned as illustrating the difference in
the manner of greeting. For who would be more apt to clasp hands, if
that were customary, than these two distinguished statesmen whose
personalities are indissolubly linked together in the conclusion of
a world renowned treaty?
A brief account of the reception of Admiral Togo may be interesting
to those who read this article. While at Tokyo I visited the city
hall, at the invitation of the mayor and city council. While there
Mayor Ozaki informed me that he, in company with the mayors of the
other cities, would tender Admiral Togo a reception on the following
Tuesday, and invited me to be present. Of course I accepted, because
it afforded a rare opportunity to observe Japanese customs as well
as to see a large concourse of people. As I witnessed the naval
review in Yokohama the day before and the illumination at night, I
did not reach Tokyo until the morning of the reception, and this led
me into considerable embarrassment. On the train I met a Japanese
gentleman who could speak English. He was kind enough to find me
a 'rikisha man and a pusher and to instruct them to take me at
once to Uyeno Park. He then left me and the 'rikisha men followed
his instructions to the letter. They had not proceeded far when I
discovered that Admiral Togo had arrived on the same train and that
a long procession had formed to conduct him to the park. Before I
knew it, I was whisked past an escort of distinguished citizens
who, clad in Prince Alberts and silk hats, followed the carriages,
and then I found my 'rikisha drawn into an open space between two
carriages. Grabbing the 'rikisha man in front of me, I told him by
word and gesture to get out of the line of the procession. He could
not understand English, and evidently thinking that I wanted to get
nearer the front, he ran past a few carriages and then dropped into
another opening. Again I got him out of the line, employing more
emphasis than before, only to be carried still nearer the front.
After repeated changes of position, all the time employing such sign
language as I could command and attempting to convey by different
tones of voice suggestions that I could not translate into language,
I at last reached the head of the procession. And the 'rikisha men,
as if satisfied with the success of their efforts, paused to await
the starting of the line. I tried to inform them that I was not a
part of the procession; that I wanted to get on another street; that
they should take me to the park by some other route and do so at
once. They at last comprehended sufficiently to leave the carriages
and take up a rapid gait, but get off of the street they would not.
For three miles they drew me between two rows of expectant people,
whose eyes peered down the street to catch a glimpse of the great
admiral, who, as the commander of the Japanese navy, has won such
signal victories over the Russians. I saw a million people; they
represented every class, age and condition. I saw more people than
I ever saw before in a single day. Old men and old women, feeble,
but strengthened by their enthusiasm; middle aged men and women
whose sons had shared in the dangers and in the triumphs of the
navy; students from the boys' schools and students from the girls'
schools with flags and banners, little children dressed in all the
colors of the rainbow--all were there. And I could imagine that each
one of them old enough to think, was wondering why a foreigner was
intruding upon a street which the police had cleared for a triumphal
procession. If some one had angrily caught my 'rikisha men and
thrust them through the crowd to a side street I should not have
complained--I would even have felt relieved, but no one molested
them or me and I reached the park some minutes ahead of the admiral.
How glad I was to alight, and how willingly I rewarded the smiles
of the 'rikisha men with a bonus--for had they not done their duty
as they understood it? And had they not also given me, in spite of
my protests, such a view of the people of Tokyo as I could have
obtained in no other way?
[Illustration: YUKIO OZAKI--MAYOR OF TOKYO]
At the park I luckily fell in with some of the councilmen whom
I had met before and they took me in hand. I saw the procession
arrive, heard the banzais (the Japanese cheers) as they rolled along
the street, keeping pace with Togo's carriage, and I witnessed
the earnest, yet always orderly, rejoicing of the crowd that had
congregated at the end of the route. When the procession passed by
us into the park the members of the city council fell in behind
the carriages, and I with them. When we reached the stand, a seat
was tendered me on the front row from which the extraordinary
ceremonies attending the reception could be witnessed. Mayor Ozaki,
the presiding officer, escorted Admiral Togo to a raised platform,
and there the two took seats on little camp stools some ten feet
apart, facing each other, with their sides to the audience and to
those on the stand. After a moment's delay, a priest, clad in his
official robes, approached with cake and a teacup on a tray and,
kneeling, placed them before the admiral. Tea was then brought in a
long handled pot and poured into the cup. After the distinguished
guest had partaken of these refreshments, the mayor arose and read
an address of welcome. He has the reputation of being one of the
best orators in the empire, and his part was doubly interesting to
me. As he confined himself to his manuscript, I could not judge of
his delivery, but his voice was pleasing and his manner natural. The
address recited the exploits of Admiral Togo and gave expression to
the gratitude of the people. At its conclusion the hero-admiral
arose and modestly acknowledged the compliment paid to him and to
his officers. Admiral Togo is short, even for the Japanese, and has
a scanty beard. Neither in stature nor in countenance does he give
evidence of the stern courage and indomitable will which have raised
him to the pinnacle of fame.
When he sat down the mayor proposed three times three banzais, and
they were given with a will by the enormous crowd that stood in the
open place before the stand. While writing this article, I am in
receipt of information that Mayor Ozaki has secured for me one of
the little camp stools above referred to and has had made for me a
duplicate of the other. They will not only be interesting souvenirs
of an historic occasion, and prized as such, but they will be
interesting also because they contrast so sharply with the large and
richly upholstered chairs used in America on similar occasions.
From this public meeting the admiral and his officers were conducted
to a neighboring hall where an elaborate luncheon was served. With
the councilmen I went to this hall and was presented to the admiral
and his associates, one of whom had been a student at Annapolis.
By the courtesy of Hon. Lloyd Griscom, the American minister, I had
an audience with the emperor, these audiences being arranged through
the minister representing the country from which the caller comes.
Our minister, to whom I am indebted for much assistance and many
kindnesses during my stay at the capital, accompanied me to the
palace and instructed me, as they say in the fraternities, "in the
secret work of the order." Except where the caller wears a uniform,
he is expected to appear in evening dress, although the hour fixed
is in the day time. At the outer door stand men in livery, one of
whom conducts the callers through long halls, beautifully decorated
on ceilings and walls, to a spacious reception room where a halt is
made until the summons comes from the emperor's room. The emperor
stands in the middle of the receiving room with an interpreter
at his side. The caller on reaching the threshold bows; he then
advances half way to the emperor, pauses and bows again; he then
proceeds and bows a third time as he takes the extended hand of the
sovereign.
The conversation is brief and formal, consisting of answers to the
questions asked by his majesty. The emperor is fifty-three years
old, about five feet six inches in height, well built and wears a
beard, although, as is the case with most Japanese, the growth is
not heavy. On retiring the caller repeats the three bows.
[Illustration: IN COUNT OKUMA'S CONSERVATORY]
We were shown through the palace, and having seen the old palace
at Kyoto, which was the capital until the date of the restoration
(1868), I was struck with the difference. The former was severely
plain; the latter represents the best that Japanese art can produce.
[Illustration: MARQUIS ITO.]
No discussion of Japanese customs would be complete without mention
of the tea ceremonial. One meets tea on his arrival; it is his
constant companion during his stay and it is mingled with the
farewells that speed him on his departure. Whenever he enters a
house he is offered tea and cake and they are never refused. This
custom prevails in the larger stores and is scrupulously observed at
public buildings and colleges. The tea is served in dainty cups and
taken without sugar or cream. The tea drinking habit is universal
here, the kettle of hot water sitting on the coals in the brazier
most of the time. At each railroad station the boys sing out, "Cha!
Cha!" (the Japanese word for tea) and for less than two cents in our
money they will furnish the traveler with an earthen pot of hot tea,
with pot and cup thrown in.
[Illustration: COUNT OKUMA.]
The use of tea at social gatherings dates back at least six hundred
years, when a tea ceremonial was instituted by a Buddhist priest
to soften the manners of the warriors. It partook of a religious
character at first, but soon became a social form, and different
schools of tea drinkers vied with each other in suggesting rules
and methods of procedure. About three hundred years ago Hideyoshi,
one of the greatest of the military rulers of Japan, gave what is
described as the largest tea party on record; the invitations being
in the form of an imperial edict. All lovers of tea were summoned to
assemble at a given date in a pine grove near Kyoto, and they seem
to have done so. The tea party lasted ten days and the emperor drank
at every booth.
According to Chamberlain, tea drinking had reached the luxurious
stage before the middle of the fourteenth century. The lords took
part in the daily gatherings, reclining on tiger skins, the walls of
the guest chamber being richly ornamented. One of the popular games
of that day was the offering of a number of varieties of tea, the
guests being required to guess where each variety was produced, the
best guess winning a handsome prize. The tea ceremony answered at
least one useful purpose--it furnished an innocent way of killing
time, and the lords of that day seem to have had an abundance
of time on their hands. The daughters of the upper classes were
trained to perform the ceremony and displayed much skill therein.
Even to this day it is regarded as one of the accomplishments, and
young ladies perfect themselves in it, much as our daughters learn
music and singing. At Kagoshima, Governor Chikami, one of the most
scholarly men whom I have met here, had his daughter perform for my
instruction a part of the ceremony, time not permitting more. With
charming grace she prepared, poured and served this Japanese nectar,
each motion being according to the rules of the most approved sect,
for there are sects among tea drinkers.
The theatre is an ancient institution here, although until recently
the actors were considered beneath even the mercantile class. Their
social standing has been somewhat improved since the advent of
western ideas. The theatre building is very plain as compared with
ours or even with the better class of homes here. They are always
on the ground floor and have a circular, revolving stage within the
larger stage which makes it possible to change the scenes instantly.
The plays are divided into two kinds--historical ones reproducing
old Japan, and modern plays. The performance often lasts through
the entire day and evening, some of the audience bringing their tea
kettles and food. Lunches, fruit, cigarettes and tea are also on
sale in the theatre. The people sit on the floor as they do in their
homes and at public meetings. One of the side aisles is raised to
the level of the stage and the actors use it for entrance and exit.
In this connection a word should be said in regard to the Geisha
girls who have furnished such ample material for the artist and the
decorator. They are selected for their beauty and trained in what is
called a dance, although it differs so much from the American dance
as scarcely to be describable by that term. It is rather a series
of graceful poses in which gay costumes, dainty fans, flags, scarfs
and sometimes parasols, play a part. The faces of the dancers are
expressionless and there is no exposure of the limbs. The Geisha
girls are often called in to entertain guests at a private dinner,
the performance being before, not after, the meal.
Our first introduction to this national amusement was at the Maple
Club dinner given at Tokyo by a society composed of Japanese men
who had studied in the United States. The name of the society is
a Japanese phrase which means the "Friends of America." The Maple
Club is the most famous restaurant in Japan, and the Geisha girls
employed there stand at the head of their profession. During the
dancing there is music on stringed instruments, which resembles the
banjo in tone, and sometimes singing. At the Maple Club the Geisha
girls displayed American and Japanese flags. We saw the dancing
again at an elaborate dinner given by Mr. Fukuzawa, editor of the
Jiji Shimpo. Here also the flags of both nations were used.
In what words can I adequately describe the hospitality of the
Japanese? I have read, and even heard, that among the more ignorant
classes there is a decided anti-foreign feeling, and it is not
unnatural that those who refuse to reconcile themselves to Japan's
new attitude should blame the foreigner for the change, but we did
not encounter this sentiment anywhere. Never in our own country
have we been the recipients of more constant kindness or more
considerate attention. From Marquis Ito down through all the ranks
of official life we found everyone friendly to America, and to us
as representatives of America. At the dinner given by Minister
Griscom there were present, besides Marquis Ito, the leader of the
liberal party, Count Okuma, the leader of the progressive party
(the opposition party), and a number of other prominent Japanese
politicians.
At the dinner given by Consul General Miller at Yokohama, Governor
Sufu and Mayor Ichihara were present. The state and city officials
wherever we have been have done everything possible to make our
stay pleasant. The college and school authorities have opened their
institutions to us and many without official position have in
unmistakable ways shown themselves friendly. We will carry away
with us a number of handsome presents bestowed by municipalities,
colleges, societies and individuals.
We were entertained by Count Okuma soon after our arrival and
met there, among others, Mr. Kato of the state department, and
President Hatoyama of the Waseda University, and their wives. The
count's house is half European and half Japanese, and his garden is
celebrated for its beauty. At Viscount Kana's we saw a delightful
bit of home life. He is one of the few daimios, or feudal lords,
who has become conspicuous in the politics of Japan, and we soon
discovered the secret of his success. He has devoted himself to
the interests of agriculture and spent his time in an earnest and
intelligent effort to improve the condition of the rural population.
He is known as "The Farmer's Friend." His house is at the top of
a beautifully terraced hill, which was once a part of his feudal
estate. He and his wife and six children met us at the bottom of the
hill on our arrival and escorted us to the bottom on our departure.
The children assisted in serving the dinner and afterward sang for
us the American national air as well as their own national hymn.
The hospitality was so genuine and so heartily entered into by all
the family that we could hardly realize that we were in a foreign
land and entertained by hosts to whom we had to speak through an
interpreter.
In the country, fifteen miles from Kagoshima, I was a guest at the
home of Mr. Yamashita, the father of the young man, who, when a
student in America, made his home with us for more than five years.
Mr. Yamashita was of the samurai class and since the abolition of
feudalism has been engaged in farming. He had invited his relatives
and also the postmaster and the principal of the district school to
the noon meal. He could not have been more thoughtful of my comfort
or more kindly in his manner. The little country school which stood
near by turned out to bid us welcome. The children were massed at
a bridge over which large flags of the two nations floated from
bamboo poles. Each child also held a flag, the Japanese and American
flags alternating. As young Yamashita and I rode between the lines
they waved their flags and shouted "Banzai." And so it was at
other schools. Older people may be diplomatic and feign good will,
but children speak from their hearts. There is no mistaking their
meaning, and in my memory the echo of the voices of the children,
mingling with the assurances of the men and women, convinces me that
Japan entertains nothing but good will toward our nation. Steam has
narrowed the Pacific and made us neighbors; let Justice keep us
friends.
CHAPTER IV.
JAPAN--HER HISTORY AND PROGRESS.
As for the islands themselves, they are largely of volcanic origin,
and a number of smoking peaks still give evidence of the mighty
convulsions which piled up these masses of masonry. Asosan mountain,
on the island of Kyushu, has the largest crater in the world.
Japan is the home of the earthquake. The Japanese Year Book of 1905
is authority for the statement that Japan was visited by 17,750
earthquakes during the thirteen years ending 1887--an average of
more than thirteen hundred a year, or three and a half each day. It
is needless to say that a large majority of these were so trivial
as to be unnoticed, except by those in charge of the delicate
instrument which registers them.
If the average is as great at this time, there have been more than
seventy-five since we landed, but we have not been aware of them.
The severe shocks have come at periods averaging two and a half
years, and the really disastrous ones have been something like fifty
years apart. The country about Tokyo is most subject to earthquakes,
the last severe one being in 1894. According to an ancient legend,
Japan rests upon the back of a large fish and the earthquakes are
caused by the moving of the fish. There is a Seismological society
in Japan which has published a sixteen-volume work giving all
that is scientifically known of the cause and recurrence of these
disturbances.
Of the origin of the Japanese themselves nothing certain is known.
The best authorities say that they came from the continent in an
early Mongol invasion, while others believe that they came from the
islands which stretch to the south. One writer announces the theory
that they are the lost Israelites. It is quite certain that when
the first Japanese landed on the islands they found an earlier race
in possession. Some seventeen thousand of these, called Ainus, now
occupy the northern extremity of the empire--an indication that the
migration was from the southwest. The Ainus have remained distinct;
where they have intermarried with the Japanese, the half breeds have
died out in the second or third generation. They are a hairy race
and in physical characteristics quite different from the Japanese.
Their religion is a sort of nature worship, and it is their custom
to say a simple grace before eating.
[Illustration: THE GUEST OF GOV. CHIKAMI AT KAGOSHIMA]
The remoteness of the settlement of Japan is shown by the fact that
the reigning family, which claims descent from the gods, has held
undisputed sway for twenty-five hundred years, although the record
of the first thousand years is so dependent upon verbal tradition
that the official history cannot be verified. As concubinage has
been practiced from time immemorial, the heir, the oldest son, has
not always been born of the empress.
Soon after the beginning of the Christian era the influence of China
and Korea began to be felt in Japan, the written characters of the
language being quite like the Chinese. Koreans and Japanese do not
agree as to the influence which the former have had upon the latter.
A very intelligent Korean informs me that his is the mother country
and that Japan was settled from Korea, but the Japanese do not take
kindly to this theory.
The feudal system, of which I shall speak more at length in another
article, was early established in Japan, and society was divided
into well defined classes. First came the members of the royal
family and those admitted to the circle by favor; next, the Shogun
(of whom more will be heard under the subject of government) and his
relatives.
Next in rank were the daimios, or lords, of varying degrees of
importance. Each daimio had a large number of retainers, who were
called samurai, and below these were a still larger number of
peasants who tilled the soil and did the manual labor. Some of the
early pictures show the gorgeous dress of the daimios and portray
the elaborate ceremony employed on state occasions.
The samurai were the warriors and had no other occupation than
to defend their lords in the struggles between the clans. They
corresponded to the knights in Europe during the days of chivalry,
except that there were no romantic adventures over women--woman
holding until recently a very subordinate place as compared with
"her lord and master."
The samurai were given an annual allowance for their subsistence,
and felt that toil was far beneath their dignity. They wore
lacquered armor and costly helmets and carried two swords--a long
one for the enemy and a short one for themselves.
It was with this short sword that the famous hara-kiri was
committed. This ancient form of suicide by disembowelment was
considered an highly honorable death and has been practiced until
within a generation. General Saigo, one of the great men of Japan
and one of its popular heroes, was the last man of prominence to
terminate his life in this way. He was one of the leaders in the
movement to restore to the emperor the authority which the shoguns
had usurped and was for a while close to the throne. In 1874,
however, he organized an army for the invasion of Korea, and coming
into conflict with the forces of the empire, which were called
out to prevent the invasion, he was defeated. In his humiliation
he committed hara-kiri. A few years ago the title of Marquis was
conferred upon him by a posthumous decree and is now enjoyed by
his eldest son. One of his sons is the present mayor of Kyoto and
another a colonel in the Imperial Guard. A bronze monument of heroic
size, the gift of admiring friends, has recently been placed in the
principal park in Tokyo.
Only a few years ago a young Japanese committed suicide in this way
in order to emphasize his protest against the encroachments of the
Russians, but a strong sentiment is developing against hara-kiri,
and it will soon take its place among other obsolete customs.
The samurai represented the intellectual as well as the military
strength of the nation. The daimios have furnished few of the men of
prominence in modern Japan, nearly all of the leaders in government,
education, literature and the professions having come from the
samurai class. Now, however, that all social distinctions have been
removed and the schools opened to the children of all, the old lines
between the classes cannot so easily be traced.
The merchant class has always been looked down upon in Japan. In
the social scale the members of this class were not only lower
than the samurai, but lower than the tillers of the soil. It was
probably because of the contempt in which they were held that so
low a standard of integrity existed among them--at least this
is the explanation usually given. Even now Japanese, as well as
foreigners, complain that the merchants impose upon their customers,
but here also a change is taking place and a new order of things
being inaugurated. There are in every city merchants of honor and
responsibility who are redeeming trade from the stigma which it so
long bore. Still, unless the stranger knows with whom he is dealing,
it is well to have a Japanese advisor, for we found by experience
that the price named to foreigners was sometimes considerably above
the regular price.
For centuries Japan lived an isolated life and developed herself
according to her own ideas. Of her native religion, Shintoism,
of the introduction of Buddhism and of the first Christian
missionaries, I shall speak in a later article. She repelled an
attack of the Mongols which might have been disastrous to her but
for the fact that a timely storm destroyed the invading fleet, much
as the Spanish Armada was destroyed. She has from time to time
attempted the invasion of Korea, the last attempt being made about
three hundred years ago. A little later the Shogun, Iemitsu, alarmed
by the spread of the Christian religion, introduced by Catholic
missionaries from Spain and Portugal, shut the country up, and for
two and a half centuries no foreigner was admitted and no citizen of
Japan was permitted to go abroad.
[Illustration: JAPANESE LADY IN AMERICAN DRESS.]
To more surely keep his people at home the Shogun prohibited the
building of any but small sailing vessels. It is almost incredible
that so large a group of people could have enjoyed the civilization
which existed here and still concealed themselves so completely from
the outside world and remained so ignorant of the mighty movements
in Europe and America. In 1853 Commodore Perry arrived with an
American fleet and a treaty was finally entered into which opened
the country to foreign intercourse. Japan was ripe for the change.
While there was at first an anti-foreign sentiment which affected
domestic politics and at one time resulted in an attack upon a
foreign fleet, the assimilation of western civilization was rapid
and constant. Young men began to go abroad, foreign teachers were
sent for and the Japanese people began to manifest a wonderful
aptitude for the adaptation of foreign ideas to local conditions.
The army and navy were reconstructed upon the European models and a
public school system largely like our own was established.
[Illustration: A JAPANESE MAIDEN.]
In most countries reforms have come up from the masses through more
or less prolonged seasons of agitation, but in Japan the higher
classes have been the leaders and have extended increasing social
and governmental advantages to the whole people without a struggle.
In every department of thought there has been progress, and in
every line of work there have been leaders whose ambitions and
ideals have been high and noble.
To illustrate the change that has taken place, Count Okuma cites
the case of the famous military genius, the present Marshal
Yamagata. When a very young man Yamagata was a spearman in the
army organized by the daimios of Choshu to attack the foreign
ships at the Shimonoseki Straits. He was so ignorant of modern
warfare that he was confident of the ability of the Japanese to
defeat the foreigners with spears. He thought that the Europeans
and Americans would be at the mercy of the natives as soon as they
landed. His surprise may be imagined when leaden missiles mowed
down his comrades long before the spears could be brought into use.
But this young man who attempted in 1864 to measure spear against
rifle, betook himself to the study of the military methods of the
foreigners, and in the recent war with Russia he has been chief of
the general staff of the Japanese army--an army which in equipment,
in preparation, and in provision for sick and wounded, as well as in
its exploits upon the battlefield, has astonished the world. Count
Okuma said that the progress made in the army and in the navy was
paralleled by the progress made in other directions.
While there are here abundant preparations for war, there is a
prevalent desire for peace. Notwithstanding Japan has a most
efficient army and navy, and notwithstanding the natural exultation
over their success at arms, the Japanese as I have met them are
strongly inclined toward peace. Several times in introducing me the
presiding officer has referred in terms of generous appreciation to
the action of our president in bringing about the recent treaty of
peace. The wars against China and Russia have been regarded by the
people as defensive wars and it will be remembered that the civil
war of 1874 was simply a suppression by the government of an attempt
to invade Korea. General Saigo raised his army for the purpose of
conquering Korea, but the government met the insurrectionists with
an army large enough to completely overwhelm the forces of the
famous general.
The Anglo-Japanese alliance is everywhere defended as a guarantee of
peace. I met yesterday a Japanese of some local prominence who has
issued a plea for universal peace. He proposes the establishment of
an international peace society and in earnest language sets forth
the horrors of war and the material, as well as the moral, arguments
in favor of peace.
Upon no element of Japanese society has the rising sun of a higher
civilization shed its rays more benignantly than upon woman. The
position of the mother was an honored one when she became the head
of the family, but while the children cared for both parents with
a generous filial devotion, the wife and daughter were under the
almost absolute power of the husband and father. Marriages were
arranged by the parents and the young people were allowed to see
each other after the match was agreed upon. Theoretically, each
had a right to protest if dissatisfied, but practically the girl's
protest amounted to nothing.
The wife was not only the servant of the husband, but might also
be the servant of the mother-in-law--the mother-in-law joke being
here on the daughter-in-law instead of the son-in-law. The fact that
the husband was permitted to keep as many concubines as he desired
still further lowered the status of woman. The daughters were often
sold into prostitution to relieve the indebtedness of the father,
and while this custom is on the decline, there are still thousands
of Japanese girls whose virtue is made a matter of merchandise in
accordance with this ancient custom. There is recorded among the
decisions of Ooka, sometimes called the Japanese Solomon, who lived
three centuries ago, a case in which the release of a young woman
from a house of ill-fame was the central feature. The report of the
judge's decree shows a discriminating mind as well as devotion to
justice. Incidentally, the record reveals the fact that there were
Shylocks in those days who loaned on short time at high rates and
exacted the pound of flesh. In this case, the usurer compelled the
sale of the daughter in extinguishment of a debt of fifteen yen,
which by rapidly accumulating interest, had reached the, to them,
enormous sum of thirty-five yen (or $17.50). The righteous judge
confiscated the house of the extortioner and with the proceeds
redeemed the woman. By the aid of the missionaries, under the
leadership of Rev. Murphy, of Nagoya, legislation has been secured
making it unlawful for a girl to be retained in one of these houses
against her will, and many have already been rescued. As the
taking of a concubine is a matter of record it is possible for the
newspapers to acquaint themselves with the domestic relations of
prominent men, and some of the papers have assisted in creating a
public opinion against concubines. This custom is certain to give
way before the advance of western ideas.
One of the foremost leaders in the elevation of woman was Yukichi
Fukuzawa, one of the greatest, as well as one of the most
influential, of the men who have appeared in Japan. He was a
journalist, an educator, an orator and a philosopher. He refused
to accept any titles or decorations and was called "The Great
Commoner." He founded a college, the Keio-Gijuku, to which many of
the public men trace their ideals and their interest in national and
social problems. He delivered the first public speech made in Japan
for, strange as it may seem, the habit of public speaking does not
reach farther back than twenty-three years. Until constitutional
government was formed there was no place for the forum. Shortly
before his death, Mr. Fukuzawa reduced his philosophy to the form
of a code of morals which has made a profound impression upon
the thought of his country. He presented "independence and self
respect," as he defined them, as the "cardinal tenet of personal
morals and living." He insisted upon the care of the body, the
training of the mind and the cultivation of the moral nature. He was
one of the first to raise his voice against hara-kiri and in his
code of morals he says: "To complete the natural span of life is to
discharge a duty incumbent on man. Therefore, any person who, be
the cause what it may or the circumstances what they may, deprives
himself by violence of his own life, must be said to be guilty of an
act inexcusable and cowardly, as well as mean, and entirely opposed
to the principle of independence and self respect."
[Illustration: MR. YUKICHI FUKAZAWA, JR.]
Concerning woman his code of morals says: "The custom of regarding
women as the inferiors of men is a vicious relic of barbarism. Men
and women of any enlightened country must treat and love each other
on a basis of equality, so that each may develop his or her own
independence and self respect."
When this great man died in 1901 his widow was in receipt of letters
from many women expressing their appreciation of his labors in
behalf of the women of Japan. Some of these are reproduced in a
life of Mr. Fukuzawa, recently issued, and show the deep gratitude
which the women feel toward him. It is also interesting to know
that Mr. Fukuzawa believed in the dignity of labor and taught that
each person should be "an independent worker beside being his own
breadwinner." While he taught patriotism, he also taught that the
people of all nations "are brethren" and that "no discrimination
should be made in dealing with them."
The emperor sent him, just before his death, fifty thousand yen as a
recognition of his eminent services, but he immediately turned the
sum over to the Keio-Gijuku.
The Jiji Shimpo, the newspaper established by Mr. Fukuzawa, is still
conducted by one of his sons, with whom we had the pleasure of
dining. Another son is an instructor in the Keio-Gijuku.
Newspaper development has kept pace with the development in other
directions. Tokyo, the capital, has sixteen daily papers with
sufficient circulation to make them known as large papers. Besides
these, there are magazines, periodicals and papers published in
English. The Kokumin Shimbun is known as the government organ
while most of the others are regarded as independent. The Tokyo
Times is an excellent paper published in English. There is a
weekly publication called the Economist, with a circulation of
five thousand, which deals with commercial, financial and economic
questions. Yokohama has papers published in both languages and the
same is true of the other large seaport towns.
All the cities are supplied with daily papers published in Japanese.
At Kagoshima, a city of about fifty thousand, situated at the
southern extremity of Kyushu Island, I found a prosperous daily
paper called the Kagoshima Shimbun. (Shimbun means daily newspaper.)
It has a circulation of nine thousand six hundred, six thousand
being in the city.
At Osaka I noticed a building elaborately decorated. In front were
large flags on bamboo poles and smaller flags strung on cords,
while Japanese lanterns were present in profusion. As none of the
buildings around were decorated, I inquired and found that the
decorated building was the office of the Osaka Asahi News and that
the paper was celebrating the withdrawal of the governmental order
which for two weeks had suspended its publication. The issue for
that day contained a large sized picture of the Goddess of Liberty.
When rioting occurred at Tokyo just after the treaty of peace with
Russia, an order was issued authorizing the arbitrary suspension of
any newspaper containing utterances deemed incendiary. Under this
order the Asahi News received notice to suspend publication until
permission was granted to resume. The withdrawal of the notice was
duly celebrated and the paper announced that its readers, rather
than the paper, had reason to complain of the suspension. This paper
has the largest circulation of any in Japan, about two hundred
thousand, and the order suspending it has been the subject of much
editorial criticism.
[Illustration: SUMITKA HASEBA--JAPANESE STATESMAN.]
Besides the newspapers which are conducted as business propositions,
there are papers supported by associations formed for the
propagation of various reforms. For instance, a paper called Romaji
is published monthly at Tokyo--Japanese words being spelled with
Roman letters, in the place of the present Japanese characters. A
society was formed some twenty years ago for the purpose of urging
this reform and a paper advocating it was published for three years,
but finally suspended from lack of support. This fall the Romaji was
established and hopes for a better fate. While this reform would be
very acceptable to foreigners who are trying to learn the language,
the movement does not seem to have gathered much momentum.
In one of the leading papers, the Hocho Shimbun, Mr. Gensai Murai, a
novelist of distinction, published a continued story running daily
through six years. It is not yet completed, having been suspended
during the war. In this story the writer presents a large amount of
information on national, political, economic and social questions,
at the same time putting in enough fiction to sustain the interest.
Progress along some other lines will be treated under special heads.
I find that there is some tendency here to resent the statement that
Japan has borrowed largely from other nations. Some native writers
insist that New Japan is but the natural development of Old Japan.
There is a measure of truth in this, because there is no growth
except from a living germ; and yet it can not be denied that Japan
has appropriated to her own great advantage many foreign ideas, and
it is not to her discredit that she has done so. Both individuals
and nations borrow; imitation, not originality, is the rule. It will
humble the pride of anyone to attempt to separate that which he has
learned from others from that which he can claim as his own by right
of discovery.
Steam is the same to-day that it was ages ago, and yet millions
watched it escaping from the kettle with no thought of its latent
power. One man showed mankind the use to which it could be put
and all the rest profited by the idea. Shall we refuse to ride
upon the railroad or cross the waters in an ocean greyhound for
fear of employing the conception of another? Electricity is not a
new agency. The lightnings have illumined the sky from the dawn
of creation, and the people saw in them only cause for fear. A
few decades ago one man thought out a method by which it could be
imprisoned in a wire, and now widely separated lands are united by
telegraph lines, while cables traverse the ocean's bed. Shall we
refuse to read the news that the current carries or reject a message
from home because we must employ an idea which sprang from another's
brain? He is stupid who rejects truth, no matter from what source
it comes; that nation is blind which does not welcome light from
anywhere and everywhere. It is to the glory, not to the shame, of
the land of the Rising Sun that her people have been quick to obey
the injunction, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good."
CHAPTER V.
INDUSTRIES, ARTS AND COMMERCE.
The basis of Japanese industry is agricultural, although each
year shows a decreasing proportion engaged in the tilling of the
soil. Rice is the principal product, but owing to the large amount
consumed at home it is not the chief export. As this crop needs an
abundance of water, the rice fields occupy the low lands and the
mountain gorges. Sometimes the narrow valleys that pierce the ranges
are so terraced as to look like steps, and at this time of the year
when the crop is being harvested, they resemble golden stairs. The
men and women work together in the field, and in many places we saw
them standing almost knee deep in mud, cutting the grain with old
fashioned hand-sickles. The rice is tied in bundles somewhat smaller
than our wheat sheaves, and hung over poles or laid along the edge
of a terrace to cure. If the threshing is delayed the grain is
stacked, not as we stack wheat and oats in the United States, but
in little columns with the heads of the sheaves tied to a pole in
the center. Sometimes the stacks are built around a living tree. The
grain is separated from the straw by means of a long toothed comb,
and at this season innumerable groups of persons are busily engaged
at this work. The yellow heaps of rice in the hull, looking from a
distance like wheat, can be seen from the train and from the country
roads. Straw mats are used to keep the grain off the ground and, I
may add, the mat is in evidence everywhere in Japan and is used for
all sorts of purposes.
The cultivation of the tea plant is an industry of no small
magnitude, although not so universal as the cultivation of rice. The
tea fields occupy the higher levels and add an interesting variety
to the landscapes. At one point on the railroad between Yokohama and
Nagoya the hillsides are covered with tea plantations, if such tiny
farms can be called plantations. The tea plant is something like
our gooseberry and currant bushes in size, but the foliage is much
thicker. The leaves vary widely in value, from the cheaper grades,
which are exported, to the Uji which costs what is equivalent to
five or more dollars per pound.
Some cotton is grown here, but the cotton plant as we saw it is
small compared with our plant, and the tillable area is too limited
to admit of the growing of cotton on a large scale.
Tobacco is cultivated to some extent, but the sale of manufactured
tobacco is a government prerogative.
Raw silk is by far the most valuable export, thirty-five million
dollars' worth having been sent abroad last year. Three-fifths
of the entire export goes to the United States, the remainder to
Europe, with France as the largest European purchaser. As fifteen
million dollars' worth of silk fabrics went abroad also, as against
five million dollars' worth of tea and four million dollars' worth
of rice, it will be seen that the cultivation of the silk worm and
the mulberry tree is extensively carried on. The silk worms are kept
indoors and the leaves brought in to them. When put outdoors the
silk worms are devoured by birds.
Fruits grow here in great variety. We have found everywhere apples
of excellent quality, raised in the northern parts of the islands,
while the southern islands produce oranges, bananas and pineapples.
The apple tree was imported from America about thirty-five years
ago; now apples are exported to China and Siberia. The most popular
orange is the tangerine, or kid glove orange as it is sometimes
called; many of these are exported.
There is a kind of fruit called the ban-tan grown on the island
of Kyushu. It looks something like the grape fruit, but grows
considerably larger and has a thicker skin; the meat is pink in
color, sweeter and less juicy than the grape fruit. Pears grow here;
one variety looks like a russet apple in shape and color. Peach
trees are sometimes trained as we train grape vines on an arbor, so
that the orchard seems to have a flat roof of foliage.
They have here, too, persimmons as large as apples and as solid.
We found these on the table in all parts of the island and there
are several varieties. The grape is cultivated in Japan, but we did
not see grape vines in such profusion as they are seen in southern
Europe, along the lakes in western New York or in California. And,
in this connection, I may add that wine is not used here to the
extent that it is in some other countries, the national drink, sake,
being made from fermented rice. Ordinarily this beverage contains
from eleven to fourteen per cent of alcohol, but there is a stronger
kind called shochu, which contains as much as fifty per cent of
alcohol. It is evident, however, that liquor by any other name can
be as intoxicating as our whisky, and we found at Tokyo a national
temperance society with branches throughout the empire. Mr. Ando,
the president of this society, is a Japanese gentleman of great
earnestness and intelligence, who was converted to Christianity a
few years ago when he was representing his country in Honolulu.
While, as I have stated in another article, I have seen no evidences
of drunkenness, Mr. Ando informs me that his society has ample work
to do. I carry back with me a badge which the society gave me on
learning of my total abstinence habits. I have only mentioned the
leading products of the field, but I can not leave the cultivators
of the soil without a word concerning the gardens. They are so cute,
occupying as they do the little nooks and corners that can not be
utilized for the large crops. There does not seem to be a square
inch of ground wasted. The vegetables are planted in rows which
are either straight or curved, never crooked, and we have scarcely
seen a weed. Fertilizer is extensively used, being kept in stone or
cement vats protected from the weather by a straw colored shed. Near
the cities the soil is enriched by the refuse from closets which is
collected and carried away during the night. The introduction of
sewage systems has been somewhat impeded in some cities by the fact
that sewage would be an expense while closets are now a source of
profit. It must be confessed, however, that the present system tends
to make fresh vegetables unpopular with the tourist.
Most travelers land at Yokohama and depart at Kobe, or land at Kobe
and depart at Yokohama, these being the two principal ports. As
these are about 300 miles apart, one has a chance to see much of
the farming land from the railroad. The side trips from Tokyo to
Nikko, from Yokohama to Miyanoshita and from Kyoto to Nara, give
additional opportunities for seeing the farmer at work, but the ride
from Kobe west to Shimonoseki surpasses any of these in interest
and in beauty of scenery. As this route leads along the sea coast
as well as through densely populated valleys, there is greater
variety. Now one skirts the inland sea, with its numerous islands,
its transparent waters, its little harbors and its fleets of fishing
boats; now he winds his way along a stream with falls and rapids and
spanned by frail foot bridges or by stone wagon bridges. On the one
side he sees a bamboo grove and on the other a tiny graveyard or
a little hill dedicated to a Shinto shrine--stone steps ascending
along a shaded path from the sacred gate, which invariably marks
the entrance to holy ground. In passing over this railroad route
one gathers a large amount of information concerning the industries
of the sea coast, as well as those of the inland, and besides one
can visit the Shimonoseki Strait which is of historic interest to
Americans. The Sanyo railroad, which connects Kobe and Shimonoseki,
is well equipped and well managed and has built an excellent hotel,
The Sanyo, at Shimonoseki for the accommodation of its patrons.
From this point a steamer runs to Fusan, the nearest Korean port,
where direct connection is made for Seoul, the Korean capital. From
Moji, just across the strait from Shimonoseki, one can take a train
to Nagasaki, the western seaport of Japan. At Shimonoseki one is
shown the house in which Marquis Ito and Li Hung Chang drafted the
Japanese-Chinese treaty in 1894.
[Illustration: JAPANESE WATER CARRIER.]
Mining is an industry of considerable importance here. Gold, silver
and copper are found in paying quantities. More than six million
dollars' worth of copper was exported last year. One of the gold
fields on the island of Kyushu, near Kagoshima, gives promise of
considerable richness. Coal is found in such abundance that the
exports of this commodity have amounted to nearly ten million
dollars in a single year. A hard quality of smokeless coal has
recently been discovered in western Japan.
The islands also produce a number of varieties of valuable woods.
The camphor tree grows to an enormous size, a gigantic statue of the
Goddess of Mercy in one of the temples at Kamakura being carved from
a single camphor log. The value of the camphor exported from Japan
last year exceeded a million and a half dollars. Among the hard
woods suitable for carving, cherry seems to be the most popular.
Of all the trees, however, the bamboo is the most useful. Just at
this time when the returning soldiers are being welcomed, it is
present everywhere in the form of flag poles, and there is nothing
that equals it for this purpose; long, slender, light and strong,
it is just the thing for flags and banners, and when a little plume
of leaves is left at the top, it is still more beautiful. The
bamboo is used for water pipes and for fences, for furniture and
picture tubes, for dippers, baskets, fishing poles, flower vases,
candlesticks, wicker work, etc., etc.
In wood carving the Japanese have long been skilled. Specimens of
work done hundreds of years ago and testifying to their taste, no
less than to their deftness of hand, may be seen in their ancient
palaces and temples.
Stone cutting is also an ancient industry here. There is an
abundance of stone and granite, while the lanterns, Korean lions and
sacred gates have furnished subjects for many a chisel. Osaka seems
to be the center of the stone cutting industry.
The iron industry is represented by an increasing number of
establishments. In many instances workmen have been brought from
abroad and employed until Japanese artisans were sufficiently
trained to take their place. Much of the iron work is still done in
little shops and by hand, although machinery is being imported in
large quantities.
I visited a tannery at Kagoshima and found that the proprietor had
spent seven years in America learning the business, and that on his
return he had taught native help each branch of the business. He is
now turning out an excellent product.
One of the most promising industries in Japan is cotton spinning.
There are a number of factories already in operation and new ones
are building. I visited one of the plants of the Osaka Nippon Boseki
Kaisha at Osaka. This company has about seventy thousand spindles
and the mills employ nothing but native labor. Foreign artisans
were used in the beginning, but are no longer needed. A great many
women are employed and some children; for the latter a school is
maintained for two hours a day in the building. Cotton yarn is now
selling for about forty cents a pound and is becoming one of the
leading articles of export; China is the largest purchaser. Some
idea of the growth of this branch of industry can be gathered from
the fact that the exports of cotton yarn amounted to less than four
thousand dollars in 1891 and 1892; in 1896 it had grown to over two
millions, in 1898 to over ten millions, and during the last two
years it has averaged about fifteen millions.
At Osaka I also visited a brush industry and found that from bones,
imported from the slaughter houses of America, and from bristles,
purchased in Russia and in China, they made tooth, nail and hair
brushes for export to both Europe and America. Here, too, they
have dispensed with the foreign labor which they employed in the
beginning.
Earthenware is manufactured in abundance and of every variety. The
exports of porcelain and earthenware reached almost two million
dollars last year. In Kyoto we visited a pottery and found two rooms
in which the finished product was displayed; the first contained
beautiful specimens of Japanese skill, graceful in shape and dainty
in decoration; the second was filled with big pieces in loud colors
and of inferior workmanship. These last articles, we were informed,
were made especially for the American trade.
Some beautiful porcelain work is done in Kyoto, the decoration
representing a high degree of artistic skill.
One of the most famous kinds of china produced by Japan is known as
Satsuma ware, the glazing of which is of a peculiar tint and has a
crackled appearance. The secret of the manufacture of this ware was
brought from Korea by the captives taken in war some three hundred
years ago, and the industry still flourishes in Japan, although it
has perished in Korea. Kagoshima is the center for Satsuma ware,
and a colony of Koreans living near there, as well as Japanese
manufacturers, produce excellent specimens.
Lacquer work has been done in Japan from time immemorial, samples of
which, centuries old, can be seen in temples, palaces and museums.
When gold and silver are used in connection with the lacquer the
product is often very valuable.
The bronzes produced in the little shops scattered over Japan give
play to the artistic taste which one finds here. Osaka and Kyoto are
noted for their bronzes. Sometimes various metals are inlaid in the
forms of flowers, birds, animals and landscapes, producing a most
pleasing effect. Then there are damascene factories and places for
embroidery and for pictures made in cut velvet, etc., etc.
No one can pass through Japan without being impressed with the
taste, which seems to be national, and with the delicate skill which
has been handed down from generation to generation. And nothing, in
my judgment, more clearly exhibits this union of taste and skill
than the Cloisonne work. Upon a metallic base, as a vase, placque
or box, an artist draws a design; this design is then outlined with
fine wires of gold and silver, then enamels of various colors are
filled in. When the enamels are hardened and the whole polished, the
product is a thing of marvelous beauty.
I have not space to speak of the minor industries, such as paper
making, matches (in which Japan monopolizes the trade of the East),
fans, umbrellas, lanterns, napkins, etc. The Japanese lantern which
we use for ornamentation is here a practical thing, in daily, or
rather nightly, use. These lanterns hang in front of the houses and
are carried on the streets. They are also used for illumination on
festive occasions; at the time of the naval review and the reception
to Admiral Togo, Yokohama and Tokyo were illuminated by these
lanterns as I never saw an American city lighted.
When Japan was opened to the commerce of the world, there were few
business houses or trading establishments of any size. Now there
are several department stores and large wholesale houses, besides
manufacturing and trading companies of importance. One business man
in Tokyo, Mr. K. Okura, has a private collection of curios valued
at one million dollars, which he offered to sell in Europe or
America, the proceeds to be given to the government for carrying on
the war against Russia. Osaka has a successful business man who has
earned the name of the "Japanese Carnegie" by giving a fine library
building to that city.
Consul General Miller, at Yokohama, and Consul Sharp, at Kobe,
furnished me with interesting statistics regarding the commerce of
Japan. Exports have increased from about eighty millions in 1891
to about three hundred and twenty millions in 1904; during the
same period imports increased from a little more than sixty-three
millions to a little more than three hundred and seventy-one
millions. While our country sells less to Japan than Great Britain
and British India, she buys more than any other nation from
Japan. Our chief exports to Japan last year were electric motors,
locomotive engines, steam boilers and engines, iron pipes, nails,
lead, oil, paraffine wax, cotton drills, cotton duck, raw cotton,
tobacco, coal, cars, turning lathes, condensed milk, flour and
wheat. Of these items, flour, raw cotton and oil were by far the
most valuable, each amounting to more than four and a half million
dollars.
In the ocean carrying trade, Japan is making rapid strides. In ten
years her registered steamers have increased from four hundred and
sixty-one to twelve hundred and twenty-four and her sailing vessels
from one hundred and ninety-six to three thousand five hundred and
twenty-three. There are now two hundred private ship yards in Japan,
and in 1903 they built two hundred and seventy-nine vessels. The
Japan Mail Steamship Company has a paid-up capital of eleven million
dollars, runs steamers between Japan, America, Europe and Asia and
pays a ten per cent dividend on its capital. The Osaka Mercantile
Steamship Company (Osaka Shosen Kaisha) has a paid-up capital of
nearly three and a half million dollars, owns about one hundred
vessels and pays a dividend of ten per cent. These are the largest
companies, but there are many smaller ones, some paying dividends of
sixteen and twenty per cent.
I will close this article with the suggestion that the mercantile
marine seems likely to show large growth in the future, offering, as
it does, a legitimate field for national expansion.
Japan's fishing industries furnish a training for seamen and her
people seem at home upon the water. She needs more territory for
her expanding population and has about reached the limit in the
cultivation of her tillable land. Every additional ship manned by
her citizens is like a new island, rising from the waves, upon which
her increasing population can be supported. If she seeks to acquire
land in any direction, she finds her efforts contested by the
inhabitants already there; no wonder she hails with delight these
floating farms constructed by the genius of her own people--new
land, as it were, won and held without the sacrifice of war.
CHAPTER VI.
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND RELIGIONS.
Back of Japan's astonishing progress along material lines lies her
amazing educational development. Fifty years ago but few of her
people could read or write; now considerably less than ten per
cent would be classed as illiterate. It is difficult to conceive
of such a transformation taking place almost within a generation.
The prompt adoption of western methods and the rapid assimilation
of western ideas give indubitable proof of the pre-existence of a
vital national germ. A pebble dropped into soil, however rich, and
cultivated, no matter how carefully, gives back no response to the
rays of the springtime sun. Only the seed which has life within can
be awakened and developed by light and warmth and care. Japan had
within her the vital spark, and when the winter of her isolation
was passed, her latent energies burst forth into strong and sturdy
growth.
Her sons, ambitious to know the world, scattered themselves
throughout Europe and America, and having laden themselves with new
ideas, returned to apply them at home. In this way Japan constantly
gained from every quarter and her educational system is modeled
after the best that the ages have produced. She has her primary
schools for boys and girls, attendance being compulsory, and below
these in many places there are kindergarten schools. The middle
schools, in which the boys and girls are separated, take up the
course of instruction where the primary schools leave off.
Then follow the universities, of which there are seven under the
control of the government. Besides these there are in the cities
institutions known as higher commercial schools, which combine
general instruction with such special studies as are taught in our
commercial colleges. There are also a number of normal schools for
the training of teachers. In addition to the schools and colleges
established and conducted by the government, there are a number
founded by individuals and societies. The largest of these is Waseda
College, founded and still maintained by Count Okuma, the leader of
the progressive party. It is adjoining the home of the count and is
built upon land which he donated. Dr. Hatoyama, at one time speaker
of the national house of representatives, who holds a degree from
Yale College, is the official head of this institution; in all of
its departments it has some five thousand students.
[Illustration: A VISIT TO COUNT OKUMA'S SCHOOL NEAR TOKYO]
I have referred in a former article to the Keio Gijuku, the college
founded by Mr. Fukuzawa. The attendance here is not so large as
at Waseda, but the institution has had an illustrious career
and exerts a wide influence upon the country. I visited both of
these colleges and never addressed more attentive or responsive
audiences. As English is taught in all the middle schools, colleges
and universities, the students are able to follow a speech in that
language without an interpreter.
The state university at Tokyo includes six departments--law,
medicine and engineering courses being provided, as well as courses
in literature, science and agriculture. The total number of students
enrolled at this university is about thirty-five hundred. The
national university at Kyoto has three faculties--law, medicine and
science--the last named including engineering; the attendance at
this university is between six and seven hundred. In the states of
Choshu and Satsuma there are higher schools supported by funds given
by former feudal lords of those states.
The education of girls is not neglected, although as a rule the
girls do not go as far in their studies as the boys. There are a
number of normal schools and seventy-nine high schools for girls,
besides the Peeresses' school and several private institutions.
The Woman's University of Tokyo, situated near Waseda College and
under the patronage of Count Okuma, has had a phenomenal career.
Established only five years ago, it has now an enrollment of some
seven hundred, and is putting up several new buildings.
There are also a number of missionary schools and colleges. The
Presbyterians support three boarding schools for boys and eleven
for girls, besides ten day schools; the total attendance at these
schools is nearly twenty-three hundred.
The Congregationalists have a number of schools, the largest,
Doshisha College at Kyoto, being the most influential Christian
institution in Japan. I had the pleasure of visiting both this
college and Kyoto University.
The Methodists have eighteen boarding schools and nineteen day
schools with a total attendance of nearly five thousand. Their
college at Kobe is a very promising institution.
The Baptists have a theological seminary, an academy, five boarding
schools for girls and eight day schools, with a total attendance of
nearly a thousand. The Episcopal Church has also taken an important
part in educational work, while the Catholics (who were first on the
ground) have over sixty seminaries, schools and orphanages, with an
attendance of some six thousand.
The Japanese government supports more than twenty-five thousand
primary schools, attended by over five million boys and girls; it
supports more than two hundred and fifty middle schools, with an
attendance of nearly one hundred thousand. While less than two per
cent of the primary students enter the middle schools, more than ten
per cent of the middle school students enter the higher colleges.
Although these figures give some idea of the interest taken in
education, they do not furnish an adequate conception of the
enthusiasm with which a large number of these students pursue their
studies. Nearly fifty young men called upon me or wrote to me asking
to be taken to America that they might continue their studies.
Many of the leading men in Japan to-day are graduates of American
or European colleges. The physicians have shown a preference for
German schools, while to engineers and politicians our universities
have been more attractive. A part of the friendliness felt toward
foreigners can be traced to the favors shown Japanese boys who left
home in search of knowledge. Marquis Ito, one of the first of these,
owes much to an elder of the Presbyterian Church in England in whose
home he lived as a student, and the marquis has ever since been
making returns in kindness to foreigners and Christians.
Marquis Ito's case is not exceptional; all over Japan are men who
hold in grateful remembrance Americans and Europeans to whom they
are indebted for assistance. I met a man, now the publisher of an
influential paper, who twenty years ago, at the age of sixteen, went
to sea and in a shipwreck was cast upon one of the islands in the
South Pacific. He became a retainer for the king of the islands and
as such wore the scanty native dress, consisting of a loin cloth.
He went with his king to Honolulu to pay a visit to the Hawaiian
queen, and finding a Japanese settlement there, remained for two or
three years. He then went to the United States and, making a friend
of a professor in one of the universities, attended school there for
several years. He now visits the United States every year or so on
business, and one seeing him wearing a silk hat and a Prince Albert
coat would hardly guess the experiences through which he has risen
to his present position. If Japan, beginning fifty years ago with
no educational system and scarcely any educated men or women, could
accomplish what she has accomplished in half a century, what will
she accomplish in the twentieth century, with the start which she
now has and with the educational advantages which her people now
enjoy?
Japan has several religions, although Shintoism has been, since
1868, the state religion. As a matter of fact, however, Shintoism
can hardly be called a religion for it has no creed, no priesthood
and no code of morals. It is really ancestor worship and comes
down from time immemorial. It implies a belief in immortality, for
the ancestral spirits are invoked and vows are paid to them at the
numberless shrines that dot the country. These shrines are not
usually in temples, although sometimes Shintoism and Buddhism have
been mixed together and one temple employed for both shrines; as a
rule, however, the Shinto shrine is in some secluded spot on the
top of a hill or on a mountain side where a bit of natural scenery
awakens a spirit of reverence. A gate of simple but beautiful design
is placed at the point where the pathway to the shrine departs
from the main road. We had read of these Shinto gates and had seen
pictures of them, but we first saw one at Honolulu, itself the
gateway to the Orient. No description can convey to the reader the
impression which this gate makes upon the traveler; its outlines are
so graceful and yet so strong that it seems an appropriate portal to
a holy place.
The moral code of Confucius has also influenced the thought of Japan.
About fourteen hundred years ago the Buddhist religion was
introduced into Japan by Chinese priests, and it spread rapidly
throughout the islands. Its temples were imposing, its ceremonies
impressive and the garb of its priests costly and elaborate. It
did not root out Shintoism, it simply overwhelmed and absorbed it.
The Buddhist temples, though not as popular as they once were, are
still visited by millions of believers and are objects of interest
to the tourist. Most of them are old, one at Nara having been built
about the year 700. It is in such an excellent state of preservation
that one can hardly believe that it has stood the storms of twelve
centuries.
In the center of the temple is an image of Buddha, and on either
side the figure of a huge warrior. There is also in this temple a
God of War to which the Japanese were wont to pay their vows before
going to battle. The devout Buddhist, approaching the image of the
founder of his religion, bows and mutters a prayer, half audibly,
and, throwing his mite in a box or on the floor before the shrine,
departs. There is usually a bell, or sometimes only a chain, hanging
above the place where prayers are said, and the suppliant swings
a rope against the bell or shakes the chain before his prayer and
claps his hands two or three times at its close. We inquired about
the bell and received two answers: One, that it was to attract
the attention of the god, and the other that it was to awaken the
conscience of the one about to present his petition.
Near the temple at Nara stands an ugly image which never fails to
attract the attention of the visitor. It is literally covered with
paper wads which have been thrown against it by worshipers at the
temple in the belief that their prayers would be answered if the
wads adhered to the image. There is also at Nara a huge bell, almost
as old as the temple. This bell is about thirteen feet high, nine
feet in diameter and eight inches thick. It hangs in a pagoda quite
near the ground, and when struck upon the side by a swinging log
gives forth a sound of wonderful depth and richness. It was rung for
us, and as its mellow tones reverberated along the hills we were
awed by the thought that a thousand years before our Declaration of
Independence was written, eight hundred years before the Pilgrims
landed at Plymouth Rock, yes, even seven hundred years before
America was discovered, this old bell was calling people to worship.
[Illustration: JAPANESE STONE LANTERN.]
There is at Nara an immense bronze image of Buddha, even larger
than the famous one at Kamokura, though not so finely proportioned.
The smaller one is forty-nine feet in height and nearly one hundred
feet in circumference (both represent Buddha, seated tailor-fashion,
on a lotus flower) and the larger one is almost twice as large as
the smaller one. The lantern of stone or bronze seems to be as
necessary an adjunct to a Buddhist temple as the Shinto gate is to
that form of religion. At Nara there are twenty-nine hundred stone
lanterns of various sizes along the walks that lead from one temple
to another, and they are found in abundance in other cities. The
Korean lions are also identified with Buddhistic worship, these
animals wrought in bronze or carved in stone guarding all temple
doors. They are not as ferocious in appearance as the Numidian
lion, and they illustrate an idea. One has his mouth open and the
other has his mouth tightly shut, and they together represent the
affirmative and the negative, or, in other words, the eternal
conflict between the positive and the negative--one says yes, the
other no.
[Illustration: KOREAN LION--YES.]
[Illustration: KOREAN LION--NO.]
Nara has an additional attraction in the form of a beautiful park
containing some seven hundred deer, which are here regarded as
sacred animals. They are so gentle that they will come, old and
young, and eat from the hand.
[Illustration: IN FRONT OF NIKKO TEMPLE--JAPAN]
Next to Nara, in our opinion, and in the opinion of many even before
Nara, comes Nikko in beauty and interest. The spot was wisely chosen
for a temple, a foaming stream, rugged mountains and stately trees
adding to the attractiveness of the place. There is a shaded avenue
twenty-five miles long leading from the lowlands to the temple,
and it is said that when other feudal lords were bringing stone
lanterns, one poor daimio, unable to make so large a gift, offered
to plant little trees along the way; these, now three hundred years
old, furnish a grateful shade for the pilgrims who visit this Mecca,
and the poor tree planter is now known as "The Wise Daimio who went
into partnership with Nature."
The temple at Nikko is only about three centuries old and its
decorations are the richest and most costly to be found in Japan.
As the Buddhists and Shintoists worship together here, the temple
is kept in repair by the government and one can see the best in
architecture and ornamentation that the temples exhibit. So famous
are this temple and its environment that the Japanese have a phrase
which when translated means, "You cannot say beautiful (kekko) until
you have seen Nikko."
The most modern of the large temples is that at Kyoto. It was
erected about thirty years ago on the site of one which had burned.
It is not so large as the original, but is a reproduction in other
respects and is one of the thirty-three temples to which pilgrimages
are made. Some estimate can be formed of the ardor of those who
worship here when it is known that the immense timbers used in
the construction of the building were dragged through the streets
and lifted into place by cables made of human hair contributed by
Japanese women for that purpose. One of these cables, nearly three
inches in diameter and several hundred feet long, is still kept in
a room adjacent to the temple, the others having been destroyed by
fire. Japanese women pride themselves upon their hair and arrange it
with great care. What a poem of piety--what a strong sacrifice in
these myriad strands of mingled black and grey!
All of the Buddhist temples stand within a walled enclosure, entered
through a gorgeous gate which contrasts sharply with the simplicity
of the Shinto gate. The Buddhist gate has a roof resembling a temple
roof and is often ornamented with animals, birds and fantastic
figures carved in wood. As an illustration of the superstition to
be found among the ignorant, the following incident is given: An
American, Mr. Frederick W. Horne, who lives at Yokohama and who
has built up a large importing business in American machinery, has
a handsome new home modeled after a Buddhist temple. At one gable
he put a devil's head. The servants of the man living next door
threatened to leave because the devil looked over into that yard.
But they were quieted when the neighbor put two brass cannon on
his roof and pointed them at the devil's head. The story seems too
absurd to believe, but we were shown the cannons when we called at
Mr. Horne's.
But Buddhism is losing its hold upon the Japanese; its temples
are not crowded as they once were; its ceremonies do not interest
and its teachings do not satisfy the new generation. Christianity
will appeal more and more to the educated element of the Japanese
population. Already favor is taking the place of toleration, as
toleration thirty years ago supplanted persecution.
The Catholics, who have been the pioneers of the Cross in so many
lands, brought Christianity to Japan through their missionaries
about the middle of the sixteenth century. The success of the
Jesuits was so pronounced that in thirty years they estimated
their converts at one hundred and fifty thousand. In fact, the
adherents to Christianity became so numerous and so influential
that the Shogun, Hideyoshi, began to fear for his temporal power,
and, having absolute authority, he expelled the foreigners, closed
the ports and established the policy of non-intercourse with other
nations--a policy which was followed until 1853. When the country
was again opened to Christian missionaries it was found that some
ten thousand men and women were still worshiping according to the
forms of the Catholic Church, although for two and a half centuries
there had been no communication between them and the church outside.
Even after the opening of the country to foreign commerce there
was some persecution of Christians and several thousand were
imprisoned. But in 1873 the prisoners were set at liberty and the
exiles allowed to return; since that time there has been absolute
religious freedom and many men prominent in official life have
been devoted Christians. The most noted of these native Christians
was Mr. Kataoka, who was four times chosen speaker of the popular
branch of the Japanese congress, or diet. He was an elder in the
Presbyterian Church, and when it was suggested that it would advance
his political chances to resign his eldership, he replied that if
compelled to choose between them he would rather be an elder than
speaker.
The Catholic population of Japan numbered fifty-eight thousand
in 1903; at the last report the Protestant communicants numbered
nearly fifty-one thousand. There are among the natives four hundred
and forty-two ordained ministers, five hundred and fifty-nine
unordained ministers and helpers, and one hundred and eighty-six
theological students. I met a number of Japanese Christians and
was profoundly impressed by their earnestness and devotion. There
is a large Y. M. C. A. at Tokyo and a smaller one at Kyoto; at
Kagoshima I found a Women's Christian Association. While I have met
American missionaries everywhere, I have tried to gather information
from Japanese sources as well and have been gratified to find
such cordial co-operation between foreign and native Christians.
A physician in the navy introduced himself and volunteered the
information that one American woman had undertaken the establishment
of Christian clubs at the various naval stations, and within five
years had gathered together more than five hundred members. He said
that she met with opposition from the authorities at first, but now
has their hearty support. The war with Russia, while retarding the
work of the Greek Church among the Japanese, has been utilized by
other denominations to reach a large number of sailors with Bibles
and pamphlets.
Japan needs the Christian religion; a nation must have some religion
and she has outgrown Buddhism. The ideals presented by these two
systems are in many respects diametrically opposed to each other.
One looks forward, the other backward; one regards life as a
blessing to be enjoyed and an opportunity to be improved, the other
sees in it only evil from which escape should be sought; one crowns
this life with immortality, the other adds to a gloomy existence the
darker night of annihilation; one offers faith as the inspiration to
noble deeds, the other presents a plan for the perfecting of self
with no sense of responsibility to God to prompt it or promise of
reward to encourage it; one enlarges the sympathies and links each
individual with all other human beings, the other turns the thought
inward in search of perpetual calm.
Christianity dominates Europe and the western hemisphere, while
Buddhism still holds the Orient under its drowsy spell. On the
islands of Japan a struggle is now going on between these two great
religious systems, and the triumph of the Gospel of Love and of
consecrated activity in the Land of the Rising Sun will open the way
to a still larger triumph in Asia.
CHAPTER VII.
EDUCATION AND RELIGION
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the
emperor not only claims to rule by divine right but by right of
divine birth. He is described as Heaven born, and according to the
accepted history there has been no break in the family line for
twenty-five hundred years. Among no people on earth has there ever
been more universal respect shown, or implicit obedience yielded,
to the reigning family. There never has been a revolt of any
consequence against the emperor, although there have been numerous
conflicts between the shoguns. For about twelve hundred years, from
670 to 1868, the shoguns were, however, the actual rulers, and while
they never questioned the sovereignty of the emperor, they did not
allow him to retain much more than the empty title.
The shoguns were military rulers and a number of them were men
of great force and executive ability. First, the Fujiwara family
controlled the country through the shogunate for nearly four hundred
years; then for a century the Taira and Minamoto families alternated
in the exercise of power; then came the Hojo family and others of
less importance until finally the Tokugawa family became supreme
in the shogunate and continued in power for something like three
hundred years. The emperor lived at Nara until about 1600, when
the capital was moved to Kyoto, where it remained until less than
forty years ago. Tokyo, on the other hand, was the seat of the
shogun power, and there is a very noticeable difference between the
two cities. The shoguns fortified their castles and required the
feudal lords to keep headquarters in Tokyo. One cannot go through
the palace in which the emperor lived permanently without noticing
how plain it is as compared with the castle (both at Kyoto) in
which the shogun resided for a few days during his annual call
upon the emperor. While it may seem strange that the real rulers
never attempted to become emperors in name, it only shows their
intelligence, for by not insisting upon the recognition of the
royal family they were probably more successful in maintaining the
real authority than they would have been had they questioned the
divine right of the immemorial rulers.
During the early part of the last century there began to be a
reaction against the shogun, and when he agreed to the treaties
opening the country to foreign intercourse, his action was taken
advantage of by the friends of the emperor. When the feudal lords
of Choshu attacked the foreign ships at Shimonoseki Strait, the
shogun was compelled to pay an indemnity of three million dollars
and he attempted to chastise the Choshu leaders. His forces were
defeated and he died soon afterward. The emperor seized upon this
event and with the aid of the influential lords of Choshu and
Satsuma abolished the shogunate in 1868. The new shogun accepted
the situation without a struggle and those of his followers who
attempted a resistance were soon routed.
Everything in modern Japan dates from 1868, which is called the
restoration. While in the restoration the emperor was acknowledged
as the sole and absolute ruler in whom all authority was vested,
still it was really the beginning of constitutional government,
for the emperor voluntarily promised his people a constitution, a
promise which was not finally fulfilled until 1889.
The fervor of patriotism that restored to the emperor his original
authority wrought wonders in Japan. The feudal lords came forward
and voluntarily turned their vast estates over to the emperor and
relinquished the authority which they had exercised over their
tenants; then they joined with the samurai (their former retainers)
in supporting the emperor in abolishing all social distinctions.
From that day to this the country has grown more and more
democratic, the reforms working from the upper classes down.
In 1889 the constitution promised by the emperor was promulgated. It
was prepared largely by Marquis Ito who visited Germany and modeled
the document after the Prussian constitution. The legislative
power is vested in a diet consisting of two houses, one resembling
the English house of lords, and the other resembling our house of
representatives. The upper house is composed of the princes of the
royal blood, marquises (these sit by virtue of their rank), counts,
viscounts and barons, selected from among their respective classes,
men of erudition or distinguished service appointed by the emperor,
and one representative from each prefecture or state, selected by
the highest taxpayers. The members of the diet, except those who
sit by virtue of their rank, receive two thousand yen (one thousand
dollars) per year. The members of the house of representatives are
divided among the states in proportion to the number of franchise
holders; last year they numbered three hundred and twenty-three and
were voted for by seven hundred and fifty-seven thousand franchise
holders. The franchise holders numbered less than ten per cent of
the men of voting age, there being a property qualification which
excludes from suffrage more than nine-tenths of the adult males.
[Illustration: ADMIRAL TOGO.]
The emperor appoints the governors of the various states, and these
need not be selected from the states over which they preside. The
emperor has the right to convoke and prorogue the diet and to
dissolve the house of representatives; he also has the right to
issue urgency ordinances when the diet is not in session, the same
to be submitted for approval to the next session.
The constitution contains a bill of rights. Among other rights the
Japanese subjects shall enjoy freedom of religious belief "within
limits not prejudicial to peace and order and not antagonistic to
their duties as subjects," and "within the limits of law" they
shall enjoy "the liberty of speech, writing, publication, public
meeting and association." After the Tokyo riots which followed the
announcement of the treaty with Russia an urgency ordinance was
issued restraining the press and certain newspapers were suspended
under this ordinance, but it is probable that this urgency ordinance
will be vigorously discussed at the coming session of the diet.
The emperor is assisted in the discharge of his executive duties by
a prime minister and nine department ministers; besides these he has
the advice of a privy council, composed of elder statesmen, of which
Marquis Ito is now the president.
Each state has what corresponds to our legislature, and each city
has a council; both of these bodies are elective and to the city
council is entrusted the selection of the mayor.
They have a judiciary, federal and local, appointed for life, but
no jury system. Among the laws is one forbidding aliens to own
property, although this is avoided to some extent by long time
leases. There is also a law by which a debt descends with the
property to the oldest son, even though the debt may exceed the
property.
Through the courtesy of Hon. N. W. McIvor, former consul general at
Yokohama, now engaged in the practice of international law, I had an
opportunity to meet a number of governors and congressmen and found
them, as a rule, an intelligent and accomplished body of men, many
of them having finished their education abroad. Their most famous
minister of finance, Count Matsukata, bore some resemblance to J.
Pierpont Morgan.
They have politics in Japan. The promise of a constitution seems
to have been given by the emperor before there was any general
agitation for it, but as about twenty-one years elapsed between the
making of the promise and the realization of the hopes excited by
it, there was a period of discussion. As early as 1874 several of
the ministers joined in a petition asking for the promulgation of
the promised constitution. Their memorial being disregarded they
resigned their offices and became the founders of a democratic
party. They called themselves liberals and their efforts resulted
in an imperial rescript issued in 1881, fixing 1889 as the date
for the beginning of constitutional government. Marquis Ito is now
the leader of the liberal party, which had one hundred and thirty
members in the house of representatives in 1904.
[Illustration: PRESIDENT OF DIET--JAPAN.]
In 1882 Count Okuma organized the progressive party, which had
last year a membership of ninety in the house of representatives.
This is known as the party of the opposition, Marquis Ito's party
being the power behind the throne. There is not as much difference
between the platforms of these parties as between the platforms of
the two leading parties of our country, but of the two Count Okuma's
party is the more radical. The count himself is a born leader and
exerts a large influence upon the politics of his country. When
premier some years ago he lost a leg by the explosion of a bomb,
thrown with murderous intent by a political opponent, but it did not
diminish his zeal in the prosecution of reforms. The fact that there
were in the last diet one hundred and thirty who styled themselves
independents shows that there is a considerable body to which the
opposition party can appeal when the minister makes an unpopular
move.
[Illustration: BARON KENTARO KANEKO.]
Besides the party organizations there are a number of societies
formed for the study of political questions. There are economic
associations in a number of the cities, composed of the leading
business and professional men. I met the members of these societies
at Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya and was impressed with the attention that
they are giving to economic problems. They have in Tokyo another
organization called the Political Economy Association which deals
more directly with matters of government. The society formed by the
men who were educated in America, known as the Friends of America
(Baron Kaneko is one of the leading members), takes a deep interest
in all matters relating to government and political economy.
The leading political question in Japan to-day, in so far as it
affects domestic affairs, is whether the cabinet shall be selected
by the emperor, regardless of the prevailing sentiment in the house,
or be made to conform to the will of the people as expressed through
their representatives. At present the emperor's councilors are
chosen at his own discretion and the states of Satsuma and Choshu
have had a controlling influence in the selection of the emperor's
advisors. The democratic sentiment of the country is at this time
crystallizing in favor of the demand that the emperor take for his
premier the leader of the popular party, as the king of England
does. However much this reform may be delayed by circumstances, it
is bound to come if Japan is to recognize the rights of the people
to govern themselves.
In the cities, sanitation furnishes a most difficult problem. At
present there is little sewage, although there is a pressing need
for it.
In the industrial development of Japan the people must meet the
problem of child labor and also consider the shortening of the
length of the working day. Women now work twelve hours in the
factory and one cannot see them and the children at toil without
asking whether Japan can afford to impair the strength of the next
generation for any advantage which may be derived from such long
hours and such youthful labor. This subject is likely to be brought
before the next session of the diet.
In some reforms Japan has moved more rapidly than the United States.
Wherever she has waterworks in her cities, they are owned and
operated by the municipalities. She also has a telegraph system and
a telephone system operated by the national government. Telegrams
are sent at the same rate to all parts of the empire and the service
is satisfactory.
The telephone service is not so good. While it is all right as
far as it goes, the system is not extended as rapidly as the
demand requires. In Tokyo, for instance, those who want to install
telephones have to wait until someone discontinues his 'phone or is
willing to sell it, and a bonus is often demanded. If the local
telephones were owned by the city and only the interurban lines
managed by the imperial government, the service would respond more
quickly to the needs of the community.
The Japanese government also owns and operates a part of the
railroad system, and in doing so employs nothing but native help. I
traveled on both the government and private lines and could not see
that they differed materially so far as efficiency was concerned.
[Illustration: MR. OKURA, A SUCCESSFUL JAPANESE BUSINESS MAN.]
The first-class fare is about four cents per mile (in our money) the
second-class about two cents and the third-class (nearly all the
travel is third-class) about one cent. A reduction of twenty per
cent is made on return tickets, a reduction of from twenty to thirty
per cent on commutation tickets, and a reduction of from forty-five
to eighty per cent on season tickets for students. This reduction
to students might be imitated to advantage in our country. The
government road is all, or nearly all, double track and has the
latest safeguards for the protection of passengers at depots. The
Japanese are much given to meeting friends when they arrive and
escorting them to the train when they leave, and this custom has led
to the sale of platform tickets for one cent (in our money).
Japan has two educational problems: First, the increase in the
percentage of those going from the primary to the middle schools;
and, second, the cultivation of an ideal which will connect a
respect for manual labor with intellectual advancement. To-day a
large majority of her people work with their hands and at labor
which forbids the wearing of good clothes. It is probable that the
education of the masses will show itself to some extent in improved
methods and in the more extensive use of animals and machinery,
but there must remain a large amount of work which requires daily
contact with the soil. The rice crop grows in the mud and cannot
be harvested by machinery; the fields, too, are so small that they
cannot well be cultivated with the aid of animals. The farmers'
boys and girls are now going to school and gradually adopting the
European dress. Will they be content to return to the paddy fields
when they have finished their education? Some of the young men pull
'rikishas in the daytime in order to earn money to attend school at
night. Will their learning make them unwilling to do hard work? Or
will they substitute the cab for the 'rikisha?
Japan faces the educational problem that confronts the civilized
world, viz., how to put behind a trained mind an ideal which will
make the educated citizen anxious to do service rather than to be
waited upon. Tolstoy's solution of the problem is "bread labor,"
that is, physical toil sufficient to produce what one eats. This he
believes will teach respect for labor and by dignifying it unite
all parts of society in sympathetic co-operation. Has any better
solution been proposed?
With a broader educational foundation Japan will find it necessary
to extend the suffrage. At present the right to vote is determined
by a strict property qualification, but there is already an urgent
demand for the reduction of the tax qualification, and it will
not be long before a large addition will be made to the voting
population.
The most serious national problem with which Japan has to deal
is that imposed upon her by the attempt to extend the sphere of
her political influence to Formosa on the southwest and Korea
on the northwest. The people of Formosa do not welcome Japanese
sovereignty and an army of some six or seven thousand is kept on
that island to support Japanese authority.
But Korea presents a still more delicate and perplexing situation.
For more than a thousand years a feud has existed between Japan
and Korea and two attempts have been made by the former to invade
the latter, the last about three hundred years ago. At that time
a number of captives were carried back to Kagoshima where they,
as before mentioned, introduced the art of making what has since
been known as Satsuma ware. The fact that the descendants of these
captives lived in a colony by themselves for three centuries without
intermarrying with the Japanese is sufficient evidence of the
feeling entertained toward them by their captors.
To aggravate the matter Japan has been engaged in two wars, first
with China and then with Russia, over Korea, and it was also the
cause of one civil war in Japan. Having driven China from Korea ten
years ago and now having driven Russia out, she is undertaking to
exercise a protectorate over the country. When it is remembered that
Korea is separated from both Manchuria and Siberia by an imaginary
line and that the Koreans themselves regard the Japanese as
intruders, some estimate can be formed of Japan's task. In a future
article on Korea I shall speak on this subject more at length,
but the matter is referred to here because the experiment is as
dangerous to Japan as it is to Korea.
Will Japan be able to accomplish what other nations have failed to
do, viz., exercise a colonial power without abusing it and without
impoverishing herself?
[Illustration: A SHINTO GATE AT NARA.]
CHAPTER VIII.
KOREA--"THE HERMIT NATION."
Poor little Korea! One hardly knows whether to be amused or grieved,
so strangely have comedy and tragedy been blended in her history.
Mr. Griffiths in his very comprehensive book bearing that title,
calls Korea the "Hermit Nation," and the appellation was a fitting
one until within a generation. Since that time she might be
described as a bone of contention, for she has been the cause of
several bloody quarrels.
The position of Korea on the map of Asia very much resembles
Florida's position on the map of North America, and Japan's relative
position is something like that which Cuba bears to Florida.
Separated on the south from Japan by about a hundred miles of water
and joining both China and Russia on the north, it is not strange
that all three of these nations have looked upon her with covetous
eyes and begrudged each other any advantage obtained. The surface of
Korea is quite mountainous, the ranges and valleys extending for the
most part from the northeast to the southwest. Until recently the
country was inaccessible and few of the white race have penetrated
the interior. A few years ago a railroad was built from Seoul
thirty-five miles west to Chemulpo, the nearest seaport. Since then
the Japanese have built a road from Seoul north to Pen Yang, and
southeast to Fusan. The last line, which has been finished less than
a year, is two hundred and seventy-five miles long and connects the
Korean capital with the nearest seaport to Japan. This railroad
is of such great military importance to Japan that she aided the
building to the extent of guaranteeing six per cent interest on
the investment for fifteen years, with the provision that the
cost of the road should not exceed twenty-five million yen. The
Korean government gave the right of way for the road and the free
admission of material imported for its construction and equipment.
The engines and cars are of American style and make, and the road
is standard gauge. It is now so easy to pass through Korea in going
from Japan to Pekin that the tourist should not miss its strange
and interesting sights, but the trip should be made before November.
We took the train at Fusan and made the ride nearly all the way
in daylight, thus having an opportunity to see both the country
and the people. The road crosses three rivers and the water sheds
which separate them, making the construction of the road extremely
difficult. The mountains are bare, and we were informed that they
had been denuded by the natives and the wood used for fuel. The
Koreans sometimes blame the Japanese for the appearance of the
country and attributed it to the invasion three hundred years ago;
an intelligent son of Japan replied that as his country recovered
from earthquake shocks within a few years, the Koreans should have
been able to remove the traces of an invasion in less than three
centuries.
The valleys are fertile but in tillage and in evidences of industry
they do not approach the valleys of Japan. One misses the orchards,
the trees, the vines and the flowers which are ever present in "The
Land of the Rising Sun."
[Illustration: TWO KOREAN FAMILIES]
Rice is the principal crop in the south, while barley and wheat
are more cultivated in the north. Beans and peas are also raised
in large quantities and last year constituted the chief article
of export. Rice, while often the largest export, fell below beans
and peas that year and was closely followed by hides and ginseng.
There are some gold mines, the export of this ore amounting to
nearly fifty thousand dollars last year, but the country has been so
isolated that its mineral wealth has not been exhaustively explored.
The population of Korea is variously estimated at from eight to
fifteen millions. The men are larger than the Japanese and somewhat
lighter in color but not so alert. Like the Japanese they have
rather a scanty beard, but it seems to be more fashionable for the
older men to allow their chin whiskers to grow. In dress the Korean
man is unique. He wears a long white coat of thin cotton reaching to
the knees, with trousers generally of white, very full in the seat
and tied around the ankles. The vest is of red, blue or green if he
is not in mourning, but mourning seems to be a permanent occupation
in Korea. It was explained to us that white is the color used for
mourning and that the mourning period lasts three years. When one of
the royal family dies, all of the people wear mourning for the full
period, and as they have sometimes had three royal funerals within a
decade, white came into general use as a matter of economy.
[Illustration: IN KOREA--GROUP OF NATIVES.]
The hat ordinarily worn is made of horse hair and has a high crown,
and being only about a third as large as our hats, it sits upon the
top of the head without covering it. It has a narrow brim of the
same material and is tied on with strings under the chin. These
hats are generally black, although different colors may be seen upon
the street; sometimes an enormous straw hat is used for mourning.
The unmarried men wear the hair in one long braid like a Chinese
pigtail, but when one marries he combs his hair to the top of his
head and ties it in a stiff top knot which is visible through the
gauze hat. The foot is encased in a sock, padded with cotton, and a
canoe shaped shoe of grass, cloth, leather or wood.
The women, except those of the coolie class, are seldom seen on the
street in the daytime, and the men are not allowed on the street at
night, or were not until western ways began to invade the island.
Even when going out the women wear over their heads a green cape
with scarlet sleeves and draw it across the face in such a way that
little more than the eyes can be seen. The streets of Seoul and of
the towns through which we passed were full of men, many of them
walking about in a leisurely way or standing in groups smoking long
pipes. Mingled with them were coolies carrying immense packs on
their backs or leading ponies, oxen or cows laden with hay, wood or
fagots. We saw more idle men in two days in Korea than we saw in
Japan in a month. While the coolies seem to be quite industrious
and carry astonishing weights, there seems to be a deep-rooted
contempt for labor--even among the middle classes, and a contractor
told us that in the employing of the coolies it was necessary to
pay them every day because a week's compensation would have to be
spent before they would return to work. An incident will serve to
illustrate the feeling in regard to labor of any kind. In making a
purchase we wanted two things tied together with a string. We called
the guide's attention to it; he handed the things to his attendant
and the attendant handed them to the shopkeeper, who did the tying.
We were also informed that the Koreans lack the power of organized
co-operation. Each one works by himself and carries his burden on
forked sticks strapped to his back. In walking he uses what seems
like a staff, but its real purpose is that of a prop for his load
when he stops to rest.
The shopkeepers of Korea have the oriental taste for bargaining to a
marked degree and always ask a great deal more than they expect to
receive, finding, apparently, intellectual recreation in haggling
over the price. In making a few small purchases we were very
much amused at the spirited discussions which took place between
our guide and the merchants. Followed by a crowd of interested
spectators, numbering from twenty to fifty, we moved from shop to
shop. The vendor would announce a price as if his was a one-price
store. The guide would receive the announcement with absolute
contempt and the wordy war would begin. The bystanders took sides
and joined in the fray; the clerks and members of the storekeeper's
family flocked to his aid, while the crowd elbowed each other to get
nearer the scene of action. Usually the guide would start toward
another store before an agreement could be reached, sometimes less
than half of the original price was settled upon, and in the calm
which followed the storm, everyone seemed satisfied. We heard of
instances where one-eighth of the price asked was finally accepted,
but either the merchants with whom we dealt were more reasonable or
our guide yielded too soon.
The Korean houses are entirely different from those of Japan; they
are not so high nor so large but are more warmly built. They are
usually constructed of stone set in mud and have poorly thatched
roofs of straw; occasionally tile is used. Often the earth supplies
a floor except for the little sleeping rooms, which have floors of
stone covered with oiled paper. These rooms are heated by flues
under the floors which conduct the flame and smoke to a chimney
which opens on the side of the house. Leaves, fagots, coarse grass
and all sorts of trash are used for fuel and these stone floors,
heated twice a day, keep the small rooms quite comfortable.
The people sit on the floor as in Japan, except that they sit
cross-legged instead of sitting on the feet, and sleep on mats
spread on the floor at night and stowed away during the day.
While in Seoul we were, through the courtesy of Rev. S. F. Moore,
one of the missionaries, invited to the wedding of two Korean
Christians and after the ceremony had a chance to inspect the house
of the groom's father. It was quite neat and clean, but the houses
generally as seen from the narrow streets are dirty and uninviting.
One wonders where the men keep the long white coats of which they
seem so proud, until he is informed that the wives wash and iron
them at night while the lord of the household sleeps.
Speaking of the marriage, I must as a truthful chronicler record
that the young man whom we saw married (they marry young in Korea
and the marriages are arranged by the parents) had a pleasant
face and that the bride was modest and comely. He wore a dark
red, loose-fitting coat, a wide belt and a black gauze hat of
indescribable shape. The girl wore a green silk waist which, just
below the armpits, joined a very full skirt of red. Her head was
ornamented with two very large rolls of hair which, according to
custom, were borrowed for the occasion. We were informed that the
wedding clothes are often rented and that even the goose, which in
the native ceremony the wife presents to the husband as a symbol
of constancy, is obtained in the same way. As in this case the
Christian ceremony was used, the couple did not pledge themselves
according to the native practice by saying "Black is the hair that
now crowns our heads, yet when it has become as white as the fibers
of the onion root, we shall still be found faithful to each other,"
but as among the non-Christian Koreans the man is allowed to take
a concubine into his home whenever he is able to support one, the
pledge would seem to be a mere formality on his part.
[Illustration: A KOREAN SCENE.]
Seoul, the capital and largest city, is surrounded by a substantial
wall and entered by gates which until recently were shut at night
even though the city long ago outgrew the walls. These gates remind
one of the gates described in the Bible, and they are not lacking in
the beggar who finds the gate a convenient place to make his plea
to the passerby. Aside from two or three broad thoroughfares, the
streets are narrow, crooked and filthy. The open sewers on each side
are filled with refuse matter and reek with foul odors.
There is no general educational system in Korea, and the percentage
of illiteracy is naturally large. The missionary schools are
doing an excellent work and a few of the young men have been sent
to China, Japan and America. During recent years there has been
quite an awakening among the young men, and they are showing an
increased desire to learn about western civilization. So great is
this interest that a newly organized branch of the Young Men's
Christian Association at Seoul has a membership of over five
hundred, four-fifths of whom are not professing Christians but are
drawn to the institution because it gives them a chance to study
western problems and methods. Mr. Wanamaker, the merchant prince of
Philadelphia, has just offered to supply the money necessary for
a permanent Y. M. C. A. building in Seoul, and having addressed a
meeting in the present crowded quarters, I can testify that a new
hall is badly needed.
The Chinese characters are used in writing, but the Koreans have
a spoken language which is quite different. There is no extensive
literature that can be called Korean, although Dr. Allen, for
many years American minister at Seoul, has published, in a volume
entitled "Korea: Facts and Fancies," a number of delightful
folklore stories, which show an appreciation of the love story and
a very clear recognition of the personal virtues as illustrated in
daily life. Dr. Allen's book also contains an interesting chronology
of the principal events, but it is significant of the change wrought
by foreign influence that it only requires twelve pages to record
the things worth mentioning from the beginning of the Christian era
down to 1876, while eighty pages are devoted to the things that have
transpired since.
In examining the pages devoted to the last century one is struck
with the disinclination of the Korean government to accept the
offers of intercourse made by the various nations of Europe
since 1875, and with the number of missionaries who suffered
for religion's sake prior to that date. Persecution, however,
seems to have increased rather than diminished the zeal of the
various denominations, and to-day Korea is regarded as one of the
most promising of the missionary fields. While Confucianism has
influenced Korea, Buddhism never gained such a foothold in this
country as in China and Japan. There are no gorgeous temples here,
and for five hundred years (and until recently) Buddhist priests
were not allowed within the walls of Seoul. There are missionary
stations throughout the country, and at Peng Yang there is a native
congregation of fifteen hundred. At Seoul a modern hospital, built
with money given by Mr. Severance, of Cleveland, Ohio, has been
opened by Dr. Avison, where, besides care for the sick, medical
training is furnished to natives who desire to fit themselves for
this profession. I was assured by Dr. Avison and by missionaries
that young Koreans, both men and women, learn quickly and are
faithful assistants. The medical missionary, being in an excellent
position to show his Christian spirit by helpful service, is doing
much to aid in the propagation of our religion in the Orient. In
this connection I might add that Dr. Allen went to Korea as a
medical missionary and became the emperor's physician. This intimate
relation gave our country a good standing when the doctor afterward
became the American minister. These friendly relations are still
maintained through present Minister Morgan.
The government of Korea is an absolute monarchy and has a reigning
family which has held the throne for about five hundred years.
All authority emanates from the emperor and is exercised through
ministers, governors and subordinate officials, appointed by him.
If one can trust the stories afloat, the government is as corrupt
an organization as can be found on earth. Just who is responsible
is not clearly known, but that offices are sold and all sorts of
extortion practiced there can scarcely be doubt. There is no spirit
of patriotism such as is to be found in Japan, and why should there
be when the government gives so little in return for the burdens
which it imposes?
Changes in the cabinet are of frequent occurrence, there having been
something like sixty within a year.
For a long time Chinese influence was paramount in Korea and the
Chinese government had a resident minister in Seoul who was the
confidential advisor of the royal family. But Chinese influence
ended with Japan's victory in 1894; soon afterward Queen Min, the
wife of the present emperor, was put to death and, the murder being
charged to the Japanese, the emperor took refuge at the Russian
legation. Now that Japan has driven Russia out, she is virtually
in control of the country, although the nominal sovereignty of the
emperor has not been interfered with. Just what form the Japanese
protectorate will take has not yet been decided, or at least
has not yet been announced. Marquis Ito is in Seoul now as the
representative of his government conferring with the emperor and his
ministry.
In the end the protectorate will be whatever Japan desires to have
it, for neither Korea nor Russia nor China is in a position to
question her decision. Besides building railroads through Korea,
the Japanese have established banks and issued a currency for
Korea in place of the copper cash generally used. The government,
recognizing the inconvenience of a currency which had to be kept in
huge boxes and paid out at the rate of a thousand or more to the
dollar, had farmed out the right to coin nickels and these were soon
counterfeited. The counterfeit nickels have been classified as,
first, better than the originals; second, good imitations; third,
poor imitations; and fourth, those that can only be passed on a dark
night.
[Illustration: AMERICAN HOSPITAL AT SEOUL--KOREA]
Japanese soldiers are to be seen everywhere and Japanese settlements
are to be found in all the larger cities. The Koreans, as a rule,
regard the new Japanese invasion with silent distrust and are in
doubt whether the purpose of Japan is simply to protect herself from
future danger at the hands of China and Russia, or whether she is
expecting to colonize Korea with her own people. If Japan purifies
the government and makes it honest; if she establishes schools and
raises the intellectual standard of the people; if she revives the
industries now fallen into decay and introduces new ones; if, in
other words, she exercises her power for the upbuilding of Korea and
for the advancement of the Korean people, she may in time overcome
the prejudice which centuries of hostility have created. But what
nation has ever exercised power in this way? And how can Japan do it
without developing an educated class which will finally challenge
her authority? If she keeps the Koreans in ignorance and poverty,
they will be sullen subjects; if she leads them to higher levels
they will the more quickly demand their independence and be the
better prepared to secure it. Which course will she pursue?[1]
[1] Since the writing of this article Korea has been forced to
accept Japanese sovereignty in international matters, the local
government being in most matters undisturbed.
[Illustration: DOING THE FAMILY WASHING]
CHAPTER IX.
CHINA--AS SHE WAS
The contrast between the China of antiquity--hoary with age--and
the new China--just awakening into life--is so great as to suggest
the treatment of the two periods in different articles. And if the
contrast between China of yesterday and the China of to-day is
great, what shall we say of the contrast between the Flowery Kingdom
and our own country? The same stars shine overhead and the same laws
of nature operate on the earth, but in mode of living, appearance,
customs and habits of thought, the Chinese people could scarcely be
more different from ours.
First, a word as to the land which they occupy; its very vastness
impresses one, unless he has recently consulted his geography. While
the eighteen provinces which constitute China proper have something
less than two million square miles, yet the Chinese empire with its
tributary states has an area of about five million three hundred
thousand square miles, and extends over thirty degrees north and
south and seventy degrees east and west. We hardly realize when we
speak of China that her emperor holds sway over a territory nearly
twice as large as the United States; that his decrees are law to a
population estimated at from two hundred and fifty to four hundred
millions; that her climate is like that of Russia in the north,
while in the southern provinces her people live under a tropical
sun; and that she has so many mountains and such mighty deserts that
more than half of her population is crowded together upon a plain
which contains but a little more than two hundred thousand square
miles. Williams, in his work entitled "The Middle Kingdom," calls
this district "the most densely settled of any part of the world of
the same size," and estimates that upon this plain--less than three
times the size of Nebraska--one hundred and seventy-seven millions
of human beings dwell.
The harbors of China are hardly what one might expect on so extended
a line of sea coast. While the harbor at Hong Kong is an admirable
one--one of the best in the world--the one at Shanghai has no hills
to protect it, the one at Chefoo is open to the storms and the one
at Taku does not deserve to be called a harbor at all. In leaving
Shanghai we went an hour and a half by launch in order to reach a
steamer of only six thousand tons; at Chefoo a still smaller ship
was delayed a day because the lighters could not unload it in the
wind, and at Taku, the seaport of Tientsin and Pekin, we spent a day
on the bar waiting for ten feet of water.
The capital of the empire has until recently been so difficult of
access that comparatively few tourists have visited it. The large
ocean steamers stop at Shanghai and Hong Kong only, making it
necessary for one desiring to visit Pekin to take a smaller boat and
risk indefinite delays on account of wind and tide.
Since the completion of the railroad from Hankow to Pekin it is
possible to accomplish the journey from Shanghai to Pekin in less
time, and, in addition, enjoy the advantage of a trip inland. When
the projected road is completed from Hankow to Canton, the tourist
can land at Shanghai, take a river boat six hundred miles up the
Yangste Kiang to Hankow, then go by rail to Pekin, about eight
hundred miles north, then back through Hankow to Canton nearly as
far south, from which point there are daily boats to Hong Kong.
This trip, covering nearly a thousand miles of river travel and
about fifteen hundred miles of railroad travel (not including the
return trip from Pekin to Hankow) can be made in the time formerly
spent in travel along the coast and furnishes an infinitely better
opportunity for the study of the country and the people. As a matter
of precaution I ought to add that Pekin is so far north that before
the opening of the railroad it was extremely difficult to visit it
after the first of December, and even now it is desirable that the
trip should be made before the middle of November.
China is well watered; the largest river, the Yantse Kiang, which
empties into the ocean at Shanghai, is three thousand miles long,
drains more than half a million square miles. Seven hundred miles
above its mouth carries a volume of water estimated at five hundred
thousand cubic feet per second. It is one of the great rivers of the
earth and is navigable for large vessels for more than a thousand
miles.
The Yellow river, or, in Chinese, the Hwang Ho, drains a basin
almost as large and is nearly as long, but does not carry so large
a volume of water. This is the river whose overflows have been so
disastrous as to earn for it the name of "The Great Sorrow." This
river carries down so much deposit that within recent times it
has choked its original outlet and formed a new channel, entering
the ocean some three hundred miles farther north. At that time
thousands of villages were swept away and the loss of life was
estimated at several millions. The current of the Yellow river is
so shifting, the sandbars so numerous and the volume of water so
changeable that the river is practically useless for navigation.
[Illustration: A GROUP OF CHINESE--PEKIN]
Besides these, there are a number of rivers of less importance and
tributaries of these two large rivers, which only seem small by
comparison.
As if inspired by the numerous and extensive natural waterways, the
Chinese people centuries ago connected the great water systems by
an immense canal, which with the streams utilized by it, gave water
communication between Pekin and Canton. This canal, sometimes known
as the Transit river, is nearly twice as long as the Erie canal and
is not only the greatest work of its kind in Asia, but at the time
of its construction was the greatest in the world.
Before speaking of the people, a word should be said in regard
to the great wall. It extends from the ocean westward along the
northern boundary of China proper for a distance of about fifteen
hundred miles, climbing in its tortuous course hills and mountains,
one more than five thousand feet high. It is about twenty-five feet
thick at the base and fifteen at the top and varies from fifteen to
thirty feet in height. It is made of earth with a shell of stone or
large brick to hold the earth in place. The watch towers, built at
intervals along the line, add to its imposing appearance and make
it an object of historic interest, although a large part of the
wall has fallen into decay and in some places only a ridge of dirt
remains. This wall was constructed about two hundred years before
the Christian era as a protection against the hostile tribes of the
north, and for many centuries it answered its purpose, although
to-day it only suggests a tremendous waste of labor.
But the great wall, imposing as it is because of its length, is
inferior in height, thickness and construction to some of the city
walls. The wall of the city of Pekin, for instance, is about sixty
feet high and forty feet wide at its base, and is kept in excellent
repair. The wall encloses what is known as the Tartar city and
is nearly four miles square. Huge watch towers rise above each
gate, and to give still greater security, the gates open into an
enclosed square. While the walls of the city of Pekin are the most
substantial in the empire, the walls of Nanking, the former capital,
enclose nearly four times as much ground. There was a double object
in making the walls of the city so extensive. First, to provide for
future growth; and, second, to enable the people to withstand a
longer siege. How well the second purpose was served is shown by
the fact that during the Taiping rebellion the city of Nanking was
besieged for thirteen years. Just outside the walls of the city may
still be seen the earthworks thrown up by the imperial army, which
sometimes numbered thirty-five thousand.
[Illustration: THE WALL AT PEKIN]
But it must not be understood that the capital cities were the only
ones protected by walls. On the contrary, all the cities are walled;
one sees fifteen or twenty of these walled cities on the railroad
from Pekin to Hankow and a number of others on the ride down the
river to Shanghai.
The agricultural population, instead of occupying individual farms,
as in America, is gathered into little villages, each home being
enclosed in its own wall. During the summer the people swarm out
from the cities and villages and cultivate their little tracts of
land with the most primitive tools, carrying the farm products back
to their homes on wheelbarrows or in baskets balanced on poles.
In the north of China the camel is used for long distance travel,
and in the south we saw the water buffalo drawing the plow, but in
China less than anywhere else we have been, has man supplemented his
strength by the strength of domestic animals.
In the cities the streets are so narrow that travel by ordinary
vehicles is impossible. In Pekin there are a few wide streets
leading from the gates through the city, and on these a peculiar
heavy-wheeled, springless cart is used, but most of the streets are
more like alleys in which two 'rikishas can hardly pass. We did not
see a full sized horse in the capital city. Some ponies have been
brought down from Manchuria (Manchuria is regarded as the personal
property of the imperial family and there is a royal monopoly in
ponies) but the most popular saddle animal is the patient donkey. It
looks ludicrous to see a fat Chinaman perched upon the rump of one
of these tiny beasts, but there seems to be entire harmony between
the two and the donkey trudges along with little thought of change.
In Canton the streets are not wide enough for the 'rikisha, and
both the pony and the donkey are conspicuous by their absence. The
sedan chair, borne by coolies, was the only conveyance we saw in a
day's tour of the city, and it required some engineering to make any
headway with it when two parties met.
Although the business buildings are seldom more than two stories
high (the residences are usually only one story), the streets are
so narrow and so filled with signs and advertising banners that the
sun can scarcely find its way to the pavement. The stores are
narrow little stalls with the entire front open to the street. Often
there is a little shrine outside the door where incense is burned,
and innumerable gods of wood, brass and stone are to be seen.
[Illustration: A STREET IN PEKIN]
While in their style of dress and in their institutions the Chinese
are much the same throughout the empire, they differ considerably in
size and color according to the latitude, and in features according
to race history. In the north the people are lighter and larger than
in the south, while the men and women of Manchuria have coarser and
stronger faces than the Chinese. The people in the north seem to be
more vigorous and warlike and less artistic than the people of the
south.
[Illustration: CHINESE EMPEROR.]
The shaved forehead and the queue were prescribed by the Manchurian
rulers two hundred and fifty years ago as a sign of subjection,
but they are now a source of pride, and no greater humiliation can
be inflicted upon one than to cut off his queue. In the northern
provinces the men, women and children wear padded clothes, generally
of dark blue cotton. The breeches of the men are tied at the ankles
and the long, narrow coat reaches almost to the feet. In China
the women also wear trousers, but they are more like the American
article and the coat worn by the women is considerably shorter than
that worn by the men. China is a great place for furs, and the right
to wear sable is conferred as a mark of distinction upon the higher
officials.
The Manchu women and the Chinese women differ materially. The
Manchus, whose ancestors came from Manchuria, still retain the
customs peculiar to their section. The hair is stretched over
a broad, winglike frame and three hours are required for its
arrangement. Flowers, natural and artificial, and ornaments made of
feathers, beads and tinsel are profusely used in hair decoration.
The Manchu women, except the widows, employ paint and powder with
a boldness which would put to shame the most inveterate user of
cosmetics in America. In the painting here there is no suggestion of
a delicate glow of health; it is a generous application of bright
red in two streaks, running from above the eyes to the corners of
the mouth. The rest of the face is whitened with rice powder, which
does not harmonize with the yellow skin of the neck.
But if the Manchu women show more vanity in the treatment of the
face, they at least do not imitate the Chinese women in the binding
of the feet, though by wearing skirts and a shoe resting on a block,
shaped like a French heel, the size of the foot is concealed.
[Illustration: THE FATHER OF THE CHINESE EMPEROR.]
Foot-binding is probably the strangest form that human pride has
ever taken, and it is hard to believe that Chinese women from time
immemorial have endured the agonies of foot-binding and forced it
upon their daughters. It is not known certainly how the custom
originated. One tradition is that it began with a club-footed queen;
another that it was designed to distinguish the upper class women
from the coolies; and a third tradition has it that it was a scheme
devised by the men for keeping the women at home. But whatever
causes may have led to the inauguration of the custom, it has
become so firmly established that a prominent Chinaman told me that
being opposed to foot-binding, he had, when a young man, tried to
find a wife with natural feet but was not able to do so. He has in
recent years persuaded his wife to unbind her feet and has kept his
daughters from undergoing the ordeal.
[Illustration: EMPRESS DOWAGER--CHINA]
The process, as described by a physician and as shown in a
photograph and model which I secured, is as follows: At the age
of five or six the little girl's feet are tightly bandaged; the
second, third, fourth and fifth toes being gradually brought back
under the sole of the foot; the heel is then drawn forward under the
instep and the natural growth of the foot entirely arrested. The
medical missionaries report instances in which the foot has rotted
away because of lack of circulation. On one of the boats we met an
intelligent Chinese merchant who, after condemning the practice of
foot-binding and telling us that, in opposition to his wife's wishes
and in opposition to the girl herself, he had saved one daughter
from foot-binding, compared this custom to that of lacing, affirming
that the latter was much more injurious. He also ventured to suggest
that Chinese women do not expose their health and their shoulders in
decollete gowns, but perceiving that he had discovered a weak spot
in our own social armor, I hurriedly changed the subject. But I must
reserve for another article the discussion of other characteristics.
[Illustration: ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF PEKIN]
CHAPTER X.
CHINA--AS SHE WAS.
PART SECOND.
In the first article on China, reference was made to some of
the characteristics of the Chinese, but the subject was not
exhausted--in fact, it would require several articles to exhaust
this subject, and attention can only be given to those traits or
customs which are in most violent contrast with our own.
Chinese society is patriarchal in its organization, the family
being the unit and the father the head of the family. The Chinese
sages present filial piety and fraternal submission as the root
of all benevolent action. The children are subject to the parents
as long as the parents live, and the younger sons are subject to
the eldest. The four relations which are continually discussed by
the philosophers are: First, the relation between the king and his
ministers; second, between the father and his sons; third, between
the elder brother and the younger brothers; fourth, between the
individual and his fellows, but the fourth relation receives the
least consideration.
Marriages are arranged by the parents, and the children must be
content with the selection made. When the wife is taken to the home
of the husband, she becomes a member of his family and subject to
her mother-in-law, if the husband's mother is still alive. As other
sons are married their wives are brought in and they are expected to
live peaceably together--an expectation which is not always fully
realized. As law and custom permit the system of concubinage, it is
not strange that the home is often the scene of contention rather
than the center of felicity.
As the duty of sacrificing to ancestors falls upon the son, the
advent of a boy is the signal for rejoicing, while the birth of a
girl is not considered a good omen. So unpopular was the female baby
that in some provinces many of them were formerly put to death, but
child-murder is now on the decrease.
No one can visit China without becoming acquainted with a peculiarly
oriental phrase called "losing face." One of the first newspapers
that I picked up in China described the attempted suicide of a man
who complained that he had "lost his face" because a magistrate
refused to commence a prosecution on his complaint. In China there
is a constant effort to keep up appearances, and when this is no
longer possible, the unfortunate one feels that he can not look
anyone else in the face. Chinese life is saturated with this "face"
doctrine; it percolates through their disputes and oozes out through
the pores of their diplomacy. Justice is of less importance in the
deciding of a controversy than the saving of the parties from the
loss of "face." There are in each community "peace-talkers" who make
a business of so adjusting disputes that neither party will seem to
be in the wrong.
In dealing with China this national characteristic must be borne
in mind, and it is to be regretted that foreign nations have in
their negotiations sometimes imitated China instead of setting her
a better example. One constantly meets over here with the theory
that the foreigner must conform to the methods of the Orient, but
this is always advanced as an excuse for following a bad custom.
It is impossible to convince China that our ideal is a better
one than hers unless that ideal is embodied in action. When our
country admitted that the indemnity collected from Japan after
the Shimonoseki affair was excessive, and returned it, she made a
deep impression upon the Japanese. It was several times referred
to by speakers during our recent visit to Japan as an evidence of
our country's desire to do justice to other nations. It was just
as honorable for a nation to acknowledge an error as it is for an
individual to do so, and our nation has an opportunity to admit
another excessive demand and return to China a part of the indemnity
collected at the close of the Boxer trouble.
No nation has ever given more emphasis to ceremony than does China.
Confucius places propriety among the cardinal virtues, and the
doctrine has been elaborated until the whole life is fettered by
formality. Each rising generation is drilled in the performance
of certain rites required by approved etiquette, and it would be
humiliating for one to have to confess that he did not know the
proper thing to do and the proper way to do it. Even sincerity is
considered much less important, and both Confucius and Mencius set
demoralizing examples in placing the latter above the former. In the
Analects, an instance is given where one, Joo Pei, wished to see
Confucius, but the latter refused to see him "on the ground of being
sick." When the bearer of the message had left, Confucius "took his
harpsicord, and sang to it, in order that Pei might hear him." It
is related of Mencius that he was about to go to court to see the
king when he received a message from the king saying that the latter
"was wishing to call on Mencius but was detained by a cold." Mencius
replied, "Unfortunately, I am unwell and unable to go to court," but
the next day he went out and paid a visit of condolence to another
family. While he was absent from the house the king's messenger
called with a physician, whereupon the representative of Mencius
explained that he was sick the day before, but that being a little
better he had hastened to court. It was then necessary to send out
several men to intercept Mencius and get him to the king's house.
All of this subterfuge was resorted to in order to get the king to
call upon Mencius first.
[Illustration: HOUSE BOATS AT CANTON.]
The kowtow is still a part of the ceremonial greeting. If two
officials are riding and meet, they dismount and bow their heads to
the ground. In the schools the students kowtow before a Confucian
tablet twice each month. When we visited the government school at
Shanghai we noticed mats upon the floor of the otherwise empty
assembly hall, and upon inquiry learned that at seven the next
morning the students would perform the usual Confucian rites. These
consist of a series of kowtows. At a given signal the students
kneel on the mats and bow three times toward the tablet, their
heads each time touching the floor; they then rise and after a
short interval kneel again at a signal and bow three times more.
This ceremony is again repeated, making nine bows in all. Then they
kneel and bow three times to the professors; after saluting the
professors each student bows once to the student next to him and
the meeting adjourns. We thought it would be interesting to witness
this service in honor of one who has received more formal reverence
than any other mortal, and arising before it was light, we made
the journey to the college, which is distant an hour's ride from
the hotel. When we arrived we found that for some reason which we
could not ascertain, the ceremony would not be performed. Whether
the postponement was due to objection to the presence of foreigners
(visitors had been present on former occasions) or to some other
cause, was left in mystery.
Our morning ride, however, answered one purpose; as the road ran
some distance by the side of a little stream, it enabled us to see
something of houseboat life. Hundreds of little boats line the
stream, and in their diminutive mat-covered cabins were housed
thousands of natives, many of whom are born, live and die in these
unstable homes. As they were preparing the morning meal we had a
chance to confirm the stories regarding their want of cleanliness.
It was not an uncommon thing to see a woman washing rice in the
muddy water and a few feet away, another woman throwing refuse
matter into the stream, or a man performing his morning ablutions.
At Canton one has a still larger opportunity to observe houseboat
life where the Pearl river furnishes the water supply and at the
same time an open sewer for a floating population of many thousands.
The contrast between the bath-loving Japanese and the dirty,
complacent Chinese laborer is very marked and this contrast is
also noticeable in the streets. The sights and smells that greet
the senses along the narrow streets of a native city are not soon
forgotten by one who travels through China, and one's ideas of
modesty, too, are sadly wrenched.
But whatever may be said of the habits of the lower class Chinese,
they are an industrious and patient people. After watching them
work and observing the conditions under which they live, one can
scarcely begrudge them whatever comfort they can find in the dreams
of Heaven which they draw from their opium pipes. And speaking of
opium, one is restrained from speaking too harshly of the habit by
a recollection of the fact that the opium trade was forced upon the
"Heathen Chinee" by a great Christian nation.
The Chinese have their amusements, one of which is the theatre.
We attended one theatre in Pekin and found the room crowded with
men. It was a commodious hall with a gallery, but the stage was
not relatively so large as in Japan. The acting reminded us more
of the American stage than did the Japanese, but the scenery was
exceedingly scanty. The audience expressed itself in approval or
disapproval with a good deal of freedom.
We found a sport in China which we have not heard of elsewhere,
viz., quail fighting. These little birds are matched against each
other as fighting cocks are in the Spanish countries. One American
told us of a fight between cockroaches. These combats, as well as
those between the quails, give an opportunity for betting--a vice
which prevails in the Orient as well as in the Occident.
The Chinese have a bird contest which involves neither cruelty nor
bloodshed, although the element of gambling is also present in it.
I refer to the singing matches between larks. The Chinese are very
fond of birds and one cannot go upon the street without seeing
men carrying bird cages. The birds are aired much as pet dogs are
exercised in our country. The favorite singing bird is the lark,
and these are entered by their owners in contests, considerable
sums often being placed upon a bird. The award is made by the birds
themselves, one after another confessing defeat until but one
songster is left upon his perch. The winner is quite exultant, while
the others show as much humiliation as a Chinaman who has "lost his
face." The defeated birds will not sing again for months.
In another article I have referred to the superstitions so
widespread in China. There is one form of superstition which has
interfered with both religion and commerce. The natives have for
centuries been the victims of sorcerers and fortune tellers who,
professing a knowledge of terrestrial and celestial forces, style
themselves "Fungshui" doctors and make a living by selecting lucky
burial sites, foretelling the future, etc. There are certain spirits
which are supposed to preside over certain places, and any change in
the conformation of the ground is thought to anger the spirits. A
railroad cut or fill is sometimes objected to for this reason, and
a church spire is, in the opinion of the superstitious, liable to
endanger the peace and safety of a community. However, commerce is
extending in spite of the "spirits" and the Christian religion is
gradually making headway against superstition.
At Pekin I attended a morning service at the Methodist church
where some six hundred Chinese men and women listened to a sermon
in their own language delivered by an American missionary. On
Thanksgiving day we ate dinner at the Presbyterian Mission, and
during our travels through China met a number of ministers,
physicians and teachers. They all testified to the stimulus given
to the spread of religion by the fidelity shown by the Chinese
Christians during the Boxer troubles. At Nanking we visited a school
conducted by the Disciples or Christian Church, and at Shanghai, a
school supported by the Episcopalian Church of America. There is
also at Shanghai a college, the main purpose of which is to bring
the white and yellow races into closer harmony. Prof. Isaac T.
Headland of the Methodist University at Pekin has published a volume
entitled "Chinese Heroes," in which he gives a number of instances
of consecrated devotion on the part of the Chinese to the Christian
faith, and why should not China be a promising mission field?
Buddhism has here done its perfect work and can not reasonably ask
for a further trial; the philosophy of the sages has also been
shown impotent for the harmonious development of the three-fold
man. China has followed an ideal and followed it with a diligence
rarely exhibited, but that ideal has been weighed in the balance
and found wanting. It is often said in defense of Confucianism
that its founder gave to his disciples the golden rule, stated in
its negative form, but too little emphasis has been given to the
difference between the doctrine of Confucius, "Do not unto others
as you would not have others do unto you," and, the doctrine of the
Nazarene, "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye
even so to them." There is a world of difference between negative
harmlessness and positive helpfulness, and Christianity could well
afford to rest its case against Confucianism on the comparison of
these two doctrines.
[Illustration: YUAN SHI KAI--VICEROY TIENTSIN AND PEKIN]
In the Analects of Confucius the philosopher is asked, "Is there
one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's
life?" He was answered, "Is not reciprocity such a word?" Here
we have the doctrine of selfishness as plausibly presented as it
will ever be again. Life is described as a balancing of favors--a
nice calculation of good done and good received. There is no
suggestion here of a heart overflowing with love, no intimation of a
blessedness to be found in giving.
At another time someone asked Confucius, "What do you say concerning
the principle that injury should be recompensed with kindness?" He
replied, "With what then will you recompense kindness? Recompense
injury with justice and recompense kindness with kindness." In reply
to another question, he goes so far as to charge that one "who
returns good for evil, is a man that is careful of his person."
How different these precepts are from those of the Sermon on the
Mount! Christians are accused of failure to live up to the high
ideal presented by Jesus, and the accusation is just, and yet,
although the Christian nations fall far short of the measure which
they themselves recognize, although professing Christians reflect
but imperfectly the rays which fall upon them from the Sun of
Righteousness, they are leading the world in all that is ennobling
and uplifting, and China gives silent recognition to the superiority
of the western ideal in every reform which she undertakes.
CHAPTER XI.
EDUCATION, RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY.
Chinese education has been very much overestimated. The literati
have boasted of the antiquity of the government and educational
system, the invention of the compass, the printing press and of
gunpowder, and the western world has been inclined to concede their
claims, but these claims will not bear investigation. The government
is ancient, but it is also antiquated. The emperor exercises a
power as unlimited as that of the czar and is as inaccessible to
his subjects. The ruling family seized the throne two and a half
centuries ago and has retained power because the people have learned
to submit to almost anything. The laws have not only been arbitrary,
but they have been cruel; the officials have not only been appointed
without consulting the governed, but they have been shamelessly
corrupt.
When Confucius and Mencius taught, they complained of the degeneracy
of the government, and in more than twenty centuries that have
elapsed since those days, there has been no marked improvement.
Of course there have been pure and patriotic men in high places
occasionally, but the government showed neither perfection then nor
improvement afterwards--until within the last few years.
What if the compass was known to the Chinese before it was to
Europe? They made little use of it compared with the use to which
it was put by the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the Dutch and other
Europeans.
They invented gunpowder, and yet they equipped their soldiers with
bows and arrows down to the present generation.
They invented the printing press, and yet until recently they had
scarcely any newspapers and but few books. I shall speak in another
article of the improvement in this direction, but as an evidence of
the little use made of the printing press even now, I record the
fact that in a four days' ride (at present the train runs only in
the daytime) from the capital of the empire to Hankow, through a
densely populated section, we did not see a man reading a paper or
hear the voice of a newsboy.
Equally without justification is the boast of great learning among
the people. They have had no educational system and their children
have had to rely upon private schools, a few families getting
together and hiring a teacher. Even then the main purpose of their
higher education was to obtain a government position. As only a
very limited number could possibly be selected at the competitive
examinations held by the government, there was small incentive
to study and the written language, with two hundred and fourteen
radicals and twelve hundred different characters, was enough to
discourage even the ambitious. A Chinese official informed me that
not more than one man in a hundred could write a letter and that not
more than one in ten could understand a letter when read to him.
The object of the schools, such as they had, was to cultivate the
memory and to teach the pupils to write essays expounding the
doctrines of the Chinese sages. All of the schools used the same
text book, the primer in universal use having been prepared over
eight hundred years ago. Education was limited in the number who
received it and limited in the amount provided, and the course
of instruction was fossilized. None of the students were taught
anything about the outside world and but few of the people were
students. It is sufficient evidence of the absolute failure of
their educational system to compare this great empire, containing
approximately one-fourth of the population of the globe, with even
the smaller states of Europe in the production of scientists,
scholars and poets. China has had diplomats and astute statesmen,
but these have been developed in the school of experience rather
than in halls of learning. Considering the educational opportunities
furnished, it is astonishing that she has produced any great men at
all.
China has her religions and they have doubtless exerted a moulding
influence upon the people, but the influence has not been an unmixed
good. Take, for instance, ancestor worship; it contains a germ of
good, in that it teaches respect and care for parents, but the
spirit has been lost in the observance of the letter until the
welfare of the living is neglected, that senseless sacrifices may
be made to the dead. At Canton we visited a place called "The Place
of the Dead." It is connected with a Buddhist temple and is just
outside the city wall. There are some four hundred rooms in the
group of buildings and nearly every room contains a coffin. Here the
well-to-do deposit the body of an ancestor and keep incense burning
as long as they can afford to pay for it. Rent must be paid for the
rooms; the light must be kept bright; food and drink must be offered
to the departed each day and the incense must be paid for. As
someone has remarked, it costs more to care for a dead ancestor than
a live one. We saw one coffin that had cost three thousand dollars;
it had been in the building for sixteen years and had been moved
from one apartment to another, a cheaper one being chosen each time
as the resources of the family declined. In some cases the families
have become so poor that they can neither pay rent nor buy a burying
plot.
There is also at Canton an ancestral hall where for a specified sum
the name of an ancestor may be inscribed on a little wooden tablet;
incense is also burned here, too. Foreign residents relate instances
where servants have spent three years' income in burying a parent,
the money being borrowed and gradually repaid from the earnings.
Besides the first cost of burial, there must be frequent pilgrimages
to the grave. It is within the bounds of truth to say that the money
expended in elaborate funerals, in sacrifices to the dead, and in
periodical pilgrimages to tombs would have gone far toward educating
and enlightening each rising generation--and who will say that
respect for the dead can better be shown by formal ceremonies than
by a proper regard for the welfare of the descendants?
The tombs of the royal family are always objects of interest to the
tourist. The most famous of these tombs are north of Pekin and so
near to the great wall that they are usually visited at the same
time, three or four days being required for the trip. There are
other tombs of less renown still nearer to Pekin, while the tomb of
the first emperor of the Ming dynasty is just outside the walls of
Nanking. Some of these tombs are mere masses of masonry now, but
all were once richly carved. The avenues leading up to these tombs
are lined with large stone figures of men and animals. These are
arranged in pairs, one on each side of the road--two huge warriors,
two priests, two elephants standing, two elephants kneeling, two
camels standing and two kneeling, two horses standing and two
kneeling, and lions, bears and other animals in like positions.
These figures are put near the tomb that the ruler may be supplied
with the things needful for his happiness in the spirit world. And,
speaking of tombs, the worship of ancestors is destined to make
China a vast graveyard, if, as now, graves cannot be disturbed.
It will be remembered that the Chinese government cautioned the
Russians and Japanese not to trespass upon the graveyards at Mukden,
where a number of Manchu emperors are buried. The graves of the
masses are as securely regarded, although distinguished merely by a
mound. In the neighborhood of the large cities the cemeteries cover
many square miles, and as they are constantly added to and never
diminished, they occupy an ever increasing area. In the agricultural
districts the burying grounds are scattered through the fields, each
family having its own plot. Sometimes when the family has died out,
the mound is neglected and the coffin is exposed. At Shanghai and
at Nanking we saw a number of coffins in the fields which had never
been covered.
The temples of China are interesting, but are generally in a state
of decay. The Confucian temple at Pekin is visited once a year when
sacrifices are made to China's supreme sage. The court of the temple
is filled with gnarled and knotted cedars of great age, in which a
colony of crows was chanting a requiem when we were there. There are
also in the court numerous tablets of marble, each resting on the
back of a stone turtle and bearing inscriptions; there are other
tablets bearing quotations from the writings of Confucius.
At Canton our guide took us to the temple of the five hundred gods.
They represent Buddhistic saints, are life size and each has an
incense urn before him. One of the gods has a very long arm, he
being the one who puts the moon up at nights; another represents
a saint who cut open his breast and exposed an image of Buddha to
prove his fidelity to the faith.
(Our guide at Canton was Ah Cum, who had conducted travelers through
the city for more than forty years and has brought up his sons to
the same profession. I mention his name for the benefit of any
readers of these lines who may chance to visit, as every tourist
should, this most Chinese of Chinese cities.)
There is in the vicinity of Pekin a temple with several thousand
images of Buddha, but they are small and made of clay, the original
bronze images having been carried away by the foreign troops during
the Boxer troubles.
Close to the walls of the city of Pekin stands what is called
the Yellow Temple, a rare work of art. The figures representing
incidents in the life of Buddha are very skillfully carved and one
can not help feeling indignation at the vandalism of the foreign
soldiers who, during the Boxer troubles, defaced this ancient
monument. By far the most impressive and elaborate religious
structure in China is the "Altar of Heaven," not far from the
city of Pekin. It was built under the Ming dynasty five hundred
years ago and is still visited twice each year by the emperor, who
here offers sacrifices to heaven. The sacrificial altar is built
entirely of white marble. It is a triple circular terrace, the base
being a little more than two hundred feet in diameter, the middle
terrace one hundred and fifty feet and the top terrace nearly a
hundred feet, each terrace being enclosed by a beautifully carved
balustrade. It stands about eighteen feet high, and the emperor
ascending to it alone, kneels at midnight and, as the representative
of the whole people, makes his offering to heaven. A bullock
without a blemish is used as the offering on these occasions. In
architecture the altar reminds one of the Greek structures, while
some of the features of the ceremony recall the rites of the
Israelites as described in the Old Testament.
[Illustration: ALTAR OF HEAVEN--PEKIN]
Near to this altar is a pagoda, standing upon another triple, but
smaller, marble terrace; it is popularly known as the "Temple of
Heaven." Here on the first day of the Chinese year the emperor
offers his supplications to heaven for a blessing upon the year.
This is the most graceful and symmetrical pagoda in the empire, if
not in the Orient, and no one who visits the capital should fail to
see it. Both the altar and the temple are surrounded by a high wall,
and the enclosed court is shaded by veteran cedars.
While Buddhism has been regarded as the religion of China, Taoism
has also influenced the thought of the nation. It teaches the
existence of spirits but has degenerated into superstition and the
attempted conciliation of evil spirits. For instance, before each
official residence and before many private residences will be found
a wall, higher and wider than the front door, the purpose of which
is to keep out the evil spirits, which are supposed to travel only
in a straight line. When a building is to be made more than two
stories high, bunches of leaves are often tied to the top of the
poles used for scaffolding: this is done to deceive the evil spirits
and make them believe that it is a forest instead of a building,
they being supposed to be hostile to high buildings. After the
roof is on, however, the building is safe, but the ridge pole must
curve up at the ends to keep the spirits from descending. Boys are
very much at a premium in China, because the duty of guarding the
graves devolves upon the oldest son. If a man loses a boy or two, he
sometimes dresses the next boy like a girl in order to deceive the
spirits, for a girl is, or at least used to be, beneath the notice
of even evil spirits. A very intelligent Chinaman explained the
disinclination of the ordinary Chinaman to rescue a drowning man on
the ground that if the evil spirits were trying to drown the man,
they would resent and punish any attempt to save him.
But more potent than either Buddhism or Taoism has been the
influence of Confucius and his commentators. This great philosopher
was born 551 B. C., and Mencius, his greatest disciple, nearly
two hundred years later. The moral principles discussed by them
were not presented as original conceptions but rather urged as the
principles of previous emperors whose lives were regarded as ideal.
In another article, in the discussion of China's awakening, I shall
speak of the ethical teachings of Confucius, but it is worth while
to note at this time that his utterances with regard to government
fall far short of the generally accepted doctrines of to-day. While
he insisted that rulers owed certain duties to their subjects, and
were good or bad in proportion as they set an example of virtue and
governed wisely, he did not intimate that the people have either
the right to, or the capacity for, self-government. His doctrines
support the idea that classes are necessary, the "superior" people
governing and teaching, the rest doing the manual labor.
[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION OF FOOT BINDING.]
Confucius taught that those who were not in office need not concern
themselves about the administration of the government--a doctrine
which paralyzed the patriotism of the masses and invited abuses on
the part of the officials.
The system by which officials were chosen was also calculated to
breed selfishness and indifference to the public weal, as well as
to impede progress. The course of instruction, as before stated,
contemplated merely the memorizing of the Chinese classics composed
of the sayings of the sages, poetry and Chinese history.
The aspirants for honors were not required to think for themselves,
to understand the problems of their generation or to know anything
of the science of government. To compose a good essay upon what
Confucius said, upon what Mencius thought, or upon what Shun or Wan
or Woo did was sufficient. This naturally chained each generation to
the past and locked the door to advancement.
The successful candidate felt that his appointment was due to his
own merit and that he was under no obligation to anyone except the
members of his family who had furnished the money necessary to
enable him to take the various examinations. Neither the securing
of the office nor the retaining of it rested upon his ability to
devise wise policies or upon his interest in the people at large.
The emperor with unlimited power was above him, and the people with
unlimited patience were below him.
In later years the examinations have sometimes become a farce,
and rank has been offered to the highest bidder, bidding being
encouraged by an intimation that this might be the last chance. But
even when honestly conducted, the civil service system of China was
not calculated to develop the official or to secure a good, wise and
progressive government.
[Illustration: TRAVELING IN NORTH CHINA]
CHAPTER XII.
CHINA'S AWAKENING.
In what I have said of the Chinese government, system of education,
religion and superstitions, I have referred to the nation as it has
been for some twenty centuries--chained to tradition, stagnant,
asleep. Society was stratified; those in power seemed to have no
higher aspiration than to live upon the labor of the masses, and
the masses seemed to entertain no thought of emancipation. The life
of the people was occupied with ceremony, but there was no genuine
fellowship or sympathetic connection between them, outside of the
family tie, and even the family was likely to be a storm center
because of the conflicting interests collected under one roof.
Education was monopolized by a comparatively few, and there was no
breadth to such instruction as was given. Superstition took the
place of religion and the placating of the spirits of the deceased
outweighed the nurture and development of those still on earth.
But a change is taking place in China such as has revolutionized
Japan within the last half century. The sleeping giantess, whose
drowsy eyes have so long been shut to the rays of the morning sun,
is showing unmistakable signs of an awakening. There was a vitality
among her people which even two thousand years of political apathy
could not exhaust--a sturdiness which centuries of poverty and
superstition could not entirely destroy. Increasing contact with
Europe and America is having its influence, and the example of Japan
is even more potent, for the people of Japan are not only neighbors,
but are more like them in color and race characteristics. Let me
note some of the evidences of this change.
The government, so long an absolute despotism, is about to become a
constitutional monarchy. In 1898 the emperor, under the influence of
some radical reformers, prepared a program almost revolutionary in
its character. Recognizing that his aunt, the dowager empress, would
oppose him, he prepared to put her under guard while the change was
being made, but the old lady, learning of his plan, promptly took
him in hand and made him a prisoner in his own palace. Since that
time she has been the unquestioned ruler of the empire, the nominal
emperor affixing his signature to the papers which she prepares. But
so rapidly has the situation developed that she is now instituting
the very reforms for the suggestion of which she so recently
imprisoned her nephew. A commission of prominent officials is now
abroad, some in Europe, some in America, studying the constitutions
and governmental institutions of other countries. What a concession,
when we remember the self-sufficiency of China, the characterization
of surrounding nations as "rude tribes" and the use of the term
"barbarians" to designate even those with whom she made treaties!
It is reported that the dowager-empress recently called her
councilors together and asked how long it would take to establish a
constitutional government. When told that it would probably require
twelve or fifteen years, she replied that it must be done sooner
than that as she could not hope to live much longer, and wanted
it in operation before she died. Whether she appreciates the full
importance of the change may be doubted, but the fact that the great
nations, with the exception of Russia, have constitutions, has
doubtless made its impression upon her; and Russia's defeat at the
hands of the Japanese, coupled with present internal disturbances in
the czar's domain, contains its lesson.
As early as 1901, a commission was appointed to examine and
report on all proposed measures affecting the organization and
administration of the government, and in 1904 a general assembly
of the ministers of the principal boards was provided for. While
these newly created bodies have no legislative power, they indicate
the trend toward a more popular government. The constitution, when
adopted, as it ultimately will be, will inaugurate a parliamentary
system. There is, therefore, a distinct advance along governmental
lines, and this in itself means much for China and for the outside
world.
The criminal code is also being revised. The Hon. Wu Ting Fang,
former minister to the United States and now vice-president of the
board of foreign affairs, has been made a member of the board of
punishments. He and Shen Chia Pen, the vice-president of the board
of punishments, have by imperial decree been intrusted with the
revision and codifying of the laws of China. They have established
a bureau with a staff of secretaries and translators and have spent
two years in the examination of the civil and criminal codes of the
different countries in order to select laws which are applicable to
the conditions existing in China. Ex-Minister Wu has taken a deep
interest in this subject and kindly furnished me with the following
list of reforms to which the imperial sanction has been secured:
[Illustration: VICEROY CHANG CHIH TUNG]
1. Ling Chi, slow death by slicing to pieces, has been abolished.
It was the punishment formerly prescribed for one found guilty of
paricide, high treason, wilful murder of husband (the murder of
husband by wife was according to Chinese law a much graver offense
than the murder of wife by husband).
2. The heads of criminals were formerly exposed to the public after
execution. This has also been abolished.
[Illustration: WU TING FANG.]
3. The beheading of a corpse of a criminal who died before execution
is no longer permitted.
4. According to the old law, parents, relatives and friends of one
convicted of serious crimes were subject to punishment; now the
punishment is confined to the guilty party. (While the practice of
including innocent relatives in the sentence seems barbarous in
the extreme, it was, after all, not so different in principle from
the practice of the western nations which in times of war inflict
punishment indiscriminately upon innocent and guilty alike.)
5. The branding of criminals has been abandoned.
6. Corporal punishment of criminals is also abolished.
7. The torturing of accused persons during trial, except where
the accused is charged with murder, and where the evidence of
guilt is clear, has also been abolished. According to the Chinese
law a person convicted of murder cannot be put to death until he
confesses, and torture has been retained in a case of this kind as
a means of compelling confession when the guilt has been otherwise
established, but Mr. Wu expresses the hope that torture in such
cases will be abolished in the near future.
The revision commission has also succeeded in obtaining an imperial
decree ordering the construction of more modern prisons, requiring
the inspection of prisoners and compelling humane treatment.
Formerly relief from cruel treatment could only be secured by paying
the official in charge.
The commission is now working upon a code of procedure and intends
among other things the recommendation of a system of trial by jury,
the admission of lawyers to practice in the courts and the relieving
of prisoners and witnesses from the humiliating practice of kneeling
in court.
In order to secure competent judges and lawyers for the carrying
out of the new code, the commission has obtained the sanction of
the government for the establishment of a law school at Pekin (the
site has already been purchased), and the high schools and colleges
of the various provinces have been instructed to add law to the
curriculum of their studies.
Minister Wu called attention to other reforms which have been
introduced into China within the last few years, among which may
be mentioned the construction of railways, the establishment of
a government board of commerce, the formation of a police force,
municipal and provincial, the promulgation of incorporation laws and
the establishment of mints.
At first the railroads were built by concessions issued to foreign
companies, but because of the constant difficulties which grew
out of such concessions, there is a growing sentiment in favor of
government railroads. It was in the pursuance of this policy that
the government acquired the rights of the American company which
was projecting a road from Hankow to Canton. Some of the Americans
residing in China have expressed regret that this road should have
passed out of American hands, but I am satisfied that it is better
for the United States that China should own the road than that
it should be in the hands of foreigners or even in the hands of
Americans. It would be impossible to operate the road without more
or less friction, which would involve the countries in diplomatic
controversies. If China operates the road herself, we will have
equal rights with foreigners without the risks involved in private
ownership. And, speaking of roads, the city of Pekin is passing
through an era of street improvement. Some eleven miles of pavement
have been laid within three years, and concrete sidewalks are making
their appearance.
The finances of China have been in a miserable condition. Cash
is the money in common use, and these brass coins, running about
one thousand to the dollar, are too heavy for any excepting the
smallest transactions. Think of doing business with money so heavy
that you must carry a hundred pounds of money to make a ten dollar
purchase. Some complained of silver in the United States because
of its weight, but the silver certificates completely answered
this argument, for a silver certificate is as convenient as a
gold certificate and more convenient than gold coin; but in China
paper money is not used among the masses. The monetary unit is
called a tael and, if coined, would weigh about one and one-third
times the Mexican dollar, but no coins of this denomination are in
circulation. The Mexican dollar is in common use, and in some of the
provinces there are fractional silver coins. But the Mexican dollar
is so often counterfeited that it is customary to test each coin
as it passes from hand to hand. I secured one of the "three piece
dollars," as they are called. These are made by sawing a thin disc
from each side of the dollar; the silver is then removed from the
center and the cavity filled with lead and the two faces soldered
on. The work is done so skillfully that the counterfeit can only
be detected by the ring. Several of the banks issue paper notes
payable in Mexican dollars, but they are discounted in the various
cities so that a traveler's currency is always undergoing a shave.
The government has decided to establish a uniform system of currency
consisting of gold, silver and copper, the silver tael to remain the
unit.
Patent laws and trade mark laws are now being prepared; in fact,
China is being quickened in many ways by the increasing knowledge
which she is acquiring. They are even considering a change in the
alphabet and characters in order that the language may be more
easily learned.
[Illustration: CHINESE CART AT PEKIN]
I have already referred to the fact that China has until recently
been practically without newspapers. There is no better evidence
of the progress which China is making than is to be found in the
increase in the number of her newspapers. While the circulation of
these papers is small as compared with the circulation of similar
papers in the United States and Japan, still the growth is constant
and the colloquial dialect sometimes employed brings the news and
editorial pages within the comprehension of those who cannot read
books. Many of these newspapers are published in the interest
of reforms. One of the papers started at Hong Kong opposed the
examination system by which civil officials were selected, the
foot-binding custom and the habit of wearing the queue. The editor
cut off his own queue as an example and is now encouraged by the
fact that the soldiers are gradually adopting a like course. He is
able to note progress in the matter of foot-binding. An imperial
edict has been issued exhorting the people to abandon the practice,
and numerous societies are engaged in spreading literature upon this
subject.
[Illustration: CHOU FU, VICEROY OF NANKING.]
But more important still is the recent abolition of the
examinations. This is a revolution which has shaken the ancient
empire to its foundation, for the examination system not only
affected the government but moulded the educational system as
well. In the larger cities elaborate provisions were made for
these examinations, in some places from ten to fifteen thousand
stalls being constructed. These stalls are about three feet by six
deep, and high enough to permit the student to stand erect. The
only furniture was a board for a seat and another for a desk. At a
given hour the students entered these stalls and were given their
themes; they were then kept in their stalls without communication
until their tasks were finished. Now the stalls stand idle and the
officials are chosen from the graduates of the newly established
schools.
We visited the examination stalls at Pekin and found them in
ruins. They had been occupied by the Boxers in 1900, who tore out
the rafters and used them for fuel. After the roofs fell in the
unprotected walls rapidly crumbled.
The conservatives have been very much incensed by the abandonment of
the examinations, but the reformers regard it as a long step in the
right direction.
On every hand one sees signs of intellectual development. As
stated in another article, the private school was for centuries
the only source from which instruction in books could be gained.
Now a complete system of schools is being established, consisting
of primary, middle and high schools, with colleges in the larger
cities. Viceroy Yuan Shih Kai, who presides over the district in
which Pekin is situated, and whom, through the courtesy of Minister
Rockhill, I had an opportunity to meet, informed me that he had
established four thousand schools within his jurisdiction within
the past five years. The viceroy is the successor of Li Hung Chang
and is considered the most influential man in the empire. He is
about forty-six years old and impresses one as a man of great mental
ability and alertness. He seems to take a deep interest in the
reforms now being worked out, and is cordial in his treatment of
Americans.
Consul General Rodgers, of Shanghai, happened to be in Nanking
during our visit there, and we paid our respects to Viceroy Chou Fu.
This viceroy is quite old and feeble but he is grappling with the
new problems and is a patron of education. He has established one
thousand schools during the last few years, and estimated the number
of Chinese students in Japan at this time at five thousand.
At Shanghai there is a government university, the buildings of
which cost two hundred and ten thousand dollars. We learned that in
some places Buddhist temples are being converted into schools and
that girls' schools are already being provided for. This is even a
greater evidence of progress than the opening of schools for boys,
because of the inferior position which woman has occupied in the
celestial empire.
Besides the government schools there are numerous missionary schools
in which instruction is given to both boys and girls. We visited
some of these schools at Pekin, Nanking and Shanghai, and found the
instructors encouraged by the attendance and the interest taken.
A number of Americans, and a still larger number of Japanese, are
teaching in the government schools.
But enough has been said to indicate the regeneration through
which the Flowery Kingdom is passing. What will be the effect of
the change upon the world? Who is wise enough to peer into the
future and outline the record of the next century? Japan furnishes
the nearest parallel. Compare the Japan of fifty years ago with
the Japan of to-day and some conception can be formed of China
fifty years hence. As Japan's commerce increased, so is China's
commerce increasing; as Japan sent statesmen abroad to investigate
the methods of other governments, so China is now sending inquirers
abroad; as Japan turned her attention to schools and colleges, so
China is learning the advantage of universal education; as Japanese
students journeyed into distant lands in search of knowledge, so
Chinese students are in increasing numbers studying in foreign
colleges. Even in the enlargement and training of her army she is
patterning after Japan and employing Japanese drill masters.
It need not be thought strange that there is an anti-foreign
sentiment in China. Was there not an anti-foreign sentiment in
Japan forty years ago? The Shimonoseki affair was not unlike the
Boxer trouble, except that it was less fatal to life, but it
exerted a large influence in the overthrow of the shogun and in the
restoration of the emperor. Just as in Japan the old finally gave
way to the new, and progress took the place of stagnation, so in
China the old must give way to the new.
Advance is inevitable and the world need not fear the result. If
China were strong enough to give effect to the hostility which some
of her people now feel, she might be a menace to the peace of the
world, but she cannot grow in strength faster than she grows in
knowledge, and as she grows in knowledge she will learn, as other
nations have learned, that nations help rather than injure each
other by the material, intellectual and moral development of their
people.
[Illustration: A CANTON BRIDGE.]
CHAPTER XIII.
CHINESE EXCLUSION[2]
[2] Written for and published by Success Magazine, April, 1906.
If every American could visit China, the question of Chinese
immigration would soon be settled upon a permanent basis, for no one
can become acquainted with the Chinese coolie without recognizing
the impossibility of opening the doors of our country to him without
injustice to our own laboring men, demoralization to our social
ideas, injury to China's reputation among us and danger to our
diplomatic relations with that country.
I made it a point to inquire among the Chinese whom I met, in order
to ascertain the real sentiment back of the boycott. I had heard of
students being subjected to harsh regulations at ports of entry,
of travelers humiliated by confinement in uncomfortable sheds and
of merchants treated rudely, and I supposed that these things had
aroused the resentment. I found, however, that the things complained
of were more difficult to deal with and the concessions demanded
impossible to grant.
In order to understand the boycott one must know something of
Chinese history. As China has never had representative government,
the people have been compelled to bring their complaints before
officials by petition, and where the petition has been ignored,
they have been accustomed to bring such pressure to bear as was
within their power, and the boycott has often been resorted to as
a means of compelling action upon the part of officials. They,
therefore, conceived the idea of a boycott against American goods
for the double purpose of urging their own government to favorable
action and of calling the attention of the American government to
their complaint. Our officials are doing what they can to convince
the Chinese government of the injustice and folly of the boycott,
and the Chinese officials with whom I conversed seemed anxious to
co-operate with our minister and consuls. Immediate action upon
the part of our congress, whether favorable or unfavorable to the
Chinese, will remove the excuse for a boycott and our government
should not be influenced in its action by any threats affecting
trade, for the subject is too grave a one to be determined by
commercial considerations.
The Americans who are doing business in China are naturally anxious
to cultivate friendly relations with the Chinese merchants, and just
before we reached Hong Kong the American business men residing there
cabled home a statement of the minimum changes in the exclusion act
asked for by the Chinese merchants. I had the privilege of attending
a dinner at which a number of the leading Chinese merchants of Hong
Kong presented their views, and it may be worth while to give here
an abstract of their demands as drawn out by cross-examination.
They desire--First, that the word laborer shall be clearly and
distinctly defined, "according to the highest standard English
and be limited to such class or classes of persons as originally
intended to be designated by both governments."
Second, that all regulations and legislative measures affecting
Chinese immigration shall be communicated to and approved by the
Chinese government before going into force, and that when in force,
they should not be altered without consent of the Chinese government.
Third, that American consuls stationed in China shall have full
power to grant certificates of admission to persons not included in
the prohibited classes, such certificates to be conclusive except in
cases of actual fraud.
Fourth, that the American consul in China shall without delay
issue certificates of admission to such Chinese not included in
the prohibited classes as shall obtain passports from the Chinese
government.
Fifth, that the Chinese government shall be permitted to appoint one
European medical practitioner to act in conjunction with a medical
officer appointed by the United States at the port of departure and
that no one shall be rejected as diseased unless certified to be so
by both medical officers.
Sixth, that Chinese once admitted into the United States shall enjoy
the same rights and protection accorded to the subjects of the most
favored nation, and in case of ill treatment shall be entitled to
damages from the government.
Seventh, that Chinese passing through the United States en route for
another country shall enjoy the same privileges as the subjects of
the most favored nations.
Eighth, that Chinese residing in the United States shall not be
required to register unless such registration is required of the
subjects of the most favored nation.
[Illustration: MANCHU AND CHINESE WOMEN--CHINA]
Ninth, that Chinese laborers shall be admitted into the Hawaiian
and the Philippine Islands, provided that the legislatures or local
authorities of such islands are willing. (While this proviso is
satisfactory to the Hong Kong merchants, it seems to have been
objected to by the Chinese of Amoy and Canton.)
Tenth, that any Chinese detained at an American port of entry for
purposes of inquiry shall be permitted to engage legal assistance
and furnish bond for appearance; should the decision be unfavorable,
he shall have the right to appeal to the highest court of justice,
and in case of any technical or formal error in his passport or
certificate, he shall be allowed to correct the same without
undergoing deportation.
Eleventh, that any Chinese residing in the United States shall have
the right to bring his parents, wife, family and minor brothers and
sisters to reside with him.
Twelfth, that Chinese lawfully admitted to the United States but
deported because of failure to register shall be readmitted on
satisfactory proof of possessing in the United States property or
_bona fide_ debt up to the required amount.
The second demand could not be complied with, without putting the
enforcement of the exclusion act so largely in the hands of the
Chinese government as to very much cripple it.
The third demand is reasonable. Our country ought to be bound by the
act of its own consuls, except in case of fraud, and those who are
to be excluded ought to be notified before incurring the expense of
a trip across the ocean.
The fourth demand should not be complied with unless the Chinese
government assumes pecuniary responsibility for any errors in the
issuing of the passport and for the subject's compliance with the
regulations provided by our government.
The fifth demand is absurd, because it virtually transfers to a
European physician appointed by the Chinese government the power
to decide on the health of the immigrant. While, according to
the language of the demand, the Chinese appointee would act in
conjunction with an American physician, a favorable report by the
Chinese appointee would admit the immigrant in spite of an adverse
report by the physician appointed by our government. It is perfectly
proper that a physician appointed by the Chinese government should
be permitted to be present at the examination, and it is only fair
that the examination should be made at the port of departure, but
it is necessary that the examination should be in the hands of
physicians appointed, and removable, by our government.
The tenth demand is for the most part reasonable. A Chinaman
detained for purposes of inquiry should be allowed to secure counsel
and furnish bond, and if the error in his certificate is technical
or formal, he should be allowed to correct it on such terms as are
equitable, but it would hardly be wise to permit appeal to the
supreme court unless some vital principle is involved.
Demands six, seven and eight are based upon the theory that Chinese
in the United States should be treated in every respect like
subjects of other nations, and this overlooks two material facts:
First, that certain classes of Chinese are prohibited from coming
to the United States; and, second, that the Chinese who do come
to the United States come for reasons different from those which
influence immigrants from Europe. (I shall consider the second
reason later.) The fact that some Chinese are excluded while others
are admitted makes it necessary to enforce rules against the
Chinese that are necessary against immigrants from other nations.
While no humiliating conditions ought to be imposed, still our
country is justified in enforcing such rules and regulations as
will prevent fraud and evasion. This cannot be considered an act
of unfriendliness because our nation adopts the same principle
in dealing with its own people. For instance, the voters in the
cities are required to register from time to time, often at
great inconvenience, while registration is not required in rural
districts, the discrimination being regarded as necessary to prevent
election frauds in the cities. In like manner, Chinese may be
required to register, even though registration may be inconvenient,
if experience shows registration to be necessary to prevent evasion
of the immigration law.
In the case of travelers it ought to be possible to provide for such
a certification of passports as to relieve Chinese tourists, whether
passing through, or visiting in, the United States from annoyance
or vexation. It goes without saying that they should be protected
as completely as tourists coming from any other country. Every
encouragement should be given to travel between countries, for an
exchange of views and ideas between nations is as wholesome and as
necessary to progress as social intercourse between individuals.
The ninth demand, while strenuously insisted upon by the Chinese,
involves questions of the first magnitude. It is a question whether
Chinese could be admitted into Hawaii and then excluded from other
states and territories, and in the case of the Philippines, our
country should be slow to establish a policy there before the
length of our occupation is determined.
It will be noticed that the purpose of the first, eleventh and
twelfth demands is to increase the number of Chinese in the United
States. The eleventh contemplates the indefinite enlargement of
the family of each resident by the addition of first, one wife;
second (possibly), two parents, not to speak of an uncertain number
of children, brothers and sisters. While to the Chinese who are
accustomed to the patriarchal system, the admission of parents,
brothers and sisters would seem a very natural demand, it would
hardly seem reasonable to Americans unless it was limited to the
classes excepted from the exclusion act.
The real interest, however, centers in the first demand, viz., that
the definition of the term laborer shall be enlarged. I questioned
several of the Hong Kong merchants in regard to the matter, and
found that they desired especially the admission of clerks and
skilled laborers. They contended that a Chinese merchant could
not conduct a store in the United States without Chinese help and
that to exclude clerks was virtually to exclude merchants. When
questioned as to the number of clerks needed, they estimated that
there were about four thousand merchants in the United States and
that each merchant would need from six to ten clerks. When surprise
was expressed at the number, it was explained that some had to cook
and do housework. It was even argued that Chinese shoemakers and
tailors were also necessary to provide clothing and footwear for
the Chinese residing in the United States. There was a division of
opinion as to whether laundry men should be classed as merchants
and entitled to clerks. But excluding laundry men and counting
eight clerks to the store, this one change in definition would open
the door to about thirty-two thousand, almost a fifty per cent
increase, according to the estimate made by the Hong Kong merchants,
of seventy thousand Chinese now in the United States. Whether the
admission of clerks could be so regulated and restricted as to make
it possible to grant this demand in whole or in part is a question
which I am not prepared to answer without further information as to
the location of the merchants, the character of their business and
the sentiment of the local community.
The admission of skilled laborers is one upon which it is easier to
form an opinion. The Chinese are not only an industrious people, but
they are capable of becoming skilled artisans. They could supply
every factory in the United States with skilled workmen and still
have millions to spare. Nearly all the reasons which apply to the
exclusion of the coolie, apply to the skilled laborer, and they can,
therefore, be considered together.
[Illustration: THE CHINESE WHEELBARROW]
It developed during the dinner that while the demands expressly
recognized the improbability of coolies being admitted, most of the
Chinese present favored the entire repeal of the restriction law.
They resented any discrimination against their people as unfriendly
and unwarranted. One Chinaman of prominence, in another city,
went so far as to intimate that such discrimination would not be
permitted if China had a large army and navy and was able to enforce
her rights.
As the whole question turns on the admission of the Chinese laborer,
let us consider, first, the difference between the European
immigrant and the Chinese immigrant and, second, the general
objections to the admission of Chinese workmen.
The Chinaman, unlike the European, regards America as only
temporarily his home, preserves his national customs and
peculiarities and finally returns, carrying his savings with him. He
is not attracted by our institutions and brings with him no love of
American ideals. To him the United States is a field to be exploited
and nothing more. The European casts in his lot with us, mingles
with the population and in a few generations his identity is lost in
our composite race. He has neither peculiarities of thought or dress
to distinguish him from those among whom he labors, and his children
are soon an indistinguishable part of the community. Not so with the
Chinese. They are not only distinguished by their dress, language
and habits, but they remain entirely separate and apart from those
among whom they dwell. This difference is not only due to the wide
dissimilarity in history, tradition and habit, but also to the
absence of any permanent or patriotic interest in the land in which
they sojourn.
The plane of living and the rate of wages are surprisingly low in
China. When we were crossing the Yellow River I noticed a number of
coolies unloading stone and inquired their wages. They received one
hundred and fifty cash, or about seven and a half cents gold, per
day. When this compensation is compared with the wages paid in the
United States for the same kind of labor, it is easy to understand
why Chinese laborers are drawn to our country. In discussing the
immigration question with a Chinese official, I asked him what he
paid his coachman. He replied that the head coachman received what
was equivalent to $10 in gold per month, while the subordinates
received from $3.50 to $5. Out of these wages they must pay for
their own food. There is considerable difference in the efficiency
of labor, but making due allowance for that, the Chinaman could in
some occupations make twice as much in America as at home and yet
work for half what Americans receive.
Long experience has taught the Chinaman to economize until he has
reduced living to the minimum. Our guide in one city fixed $1 (50
cents gold) as the weekly cost of living for one person, but many
live upon less. In traveling from Pekin to Hankow we were compelled
to provide our own meals, and the very competent cook whom we
secured was regularly receiving $1 a week in gold.
A ride through the streets of a Chinese city furnishes ample
evidence of the economy of the people. The small measures used, the
tiny piles of edibles exposed for sale, the little bundles carried
from the market--these explain why cash, running about ten to a
cent, can be used as currency. Oranges are often sold without the
peeling, the peeling being sold separately, and peanuts seem to
be counted instead of measured. At Canton we saw one man trudging
home from market with a satisfied air, carrying two pig tails tied
together with a piece of grass. The well-to-do have many delicacies,
like birds' nest soup and shark fins, some of which we tasted at
the luncheon given by the viceroy at Nanking and at the Hong Kong
dinner; and among those who can afford it, elaborate dinners are
quite common, but among the masses the food is of the cheapest and
coarsest kind.
In the matter of fuel the same scrupulous economy is exercised.
Every dead leaf and twig is scraped from the ground and even the
weeds are condemned to fiery punishment for presuming to grow upon
such precious soil.
It would require generations to bring our people down to a plane
upon which they could compete with the Chinese, and this would
involve a large impairment in the efficiency in their work.
It is not just to the laboring men of the United States that they
should be compelled to labor upon the basis of Chinese coolie labor
or stand idle and allow their places to be filled by an alien race
with no thought of permanent identification with our country. The
American laborer not only produces the wealth of our nation in time
of peace, but he is its sure defender in time of war. Who will say
that his welfare and the welfare of his family shall be subordinated
to the interests of those who abide with us but for a time, who,
while with us, are exempt from draft or military burden, and who,
on their return, drain our country of its currency? A foreign
landlord system is almost universally recognized as a curse to a
nation, because the rent money is sent out of the country; Chinese
immigration on a large scale would give us the evil effects of
foreign landlordism in addition to its other objectionable features.
When I pointed out the fact that Chinese did not, like other
immigrants, contemplate permanent residence in the United States, a
Chinese official replied that they would become citizens if the law
permitted it, and to the objection that they would even then remain
distinct from the rest of the people, he answered by advancing
arguments in favor of amalgamation. He claimed that the descendants
(called Eurasians) of Chinese who had intermarried with Europeans
were brighter than the average children of either race. I did not
have an opportunity to test the accuracy of these conclusions, but
it is evident that amalgamation has not been carried on to any great
extent either in China or in the countries to which the Chinamen
have gone. The instances of intermarriage are so rare that they do
not affect the general problem.
The fact that the Chinese do now, and would probably if admitted
to citizenship, form an unassimilated, if not an indigestible,
element, separated from the remainder of our population by a race
line, raises another objection to their admission as laborers. They
make good servants, learning quickly and obeying conscientiously.
Americans who have employed them testify to their trustworthiness
and industry. If they were permitted to freely enter the United
States, it is likely that they would soon solve the domestic labor
problem, of which we hear so much, for as cooks, waiters and house
boys they are an unqualified success. But what would be the effect
upon our civilization of such a stratification of society? At
present we have no racial distinction between employer and employé
(except that presented by the negro problem), and one race problem
is enough. If we were to admit Chinese coolies, we would find
it more and more difficult to induce white people to enter into
competition with them and manual labor would bear an odium which
ought not to be placed upon it. We need to teach the dignity of
labor and to lessen the aversion to it; a coolie class would make
it difficult, if not impossible, to make progress in the work of
cementing our society into one harmonious whole. If American ideals
are to be realized there must be no barrier between the rich and the
poor, no obstacles in the way of advancement from manual labor to
intellectual work. China has suffered immeasurably because of the
complete separation of her educated classes from her laborers.
A sentimental argument is sometimes advanced to the effect that we
have no moral right to exclude any who seek to come among us.
Whether this argument has any force depends, first, on the purpose
of the immigrant, and second, upon our power to assimilate. If his
coming is purely commercial and he has no ambition to improve us by
his coming or to profit morally and intellectually by contact with
us, he cannot demand admission upon moral or sentimental ground. And
even if his paramount reason for coming were a desire to learn of
us, it would still be necessary to consider how far we could go in
helping him without injury to ourselves. While visiting the sick is
most meritorious, one who gave all his time to such work, leaving no
time for sleep, would soon be a physical wreck; feeding the hungry
is most commendable, but one who gave away all of his substance,
reserving nothing for his own nourishment, could not long serve his
fellows. In like manner, our own power to help the world by the
absorption of surplus population has certain natural and necessary
limitations. We have a mission to fulfill and we cannot excuse
ourselves if we cripple our energies in a mistaken effort to carry a
burden heavier than our strength can support.
[Illustration: FASHIONABLE CONVEYANCE AT HONG KONG]
Students ought to be invited to our country; we can afford to make
the welcome cordial and access to our institutions easy, for there
is no better way of influencing other countries for good than
through their young men and young women who, gathering new ideas
in America, carry them back and apply them in their own country. A
small part of the money now spent in building warships to protect
us from imaginary foes would, if spent in the education of the
children of foreigners, make us friends abroad who would constantly
lessen the probability of war. The newspapers have given currency
to the report that our government contemplates returning to China
a part of the indemnity exacted because of the Boxer attack, and
the Chinese are much gratified at the rumor. It is coupled with the
statement that the return of the money would be conditioned upon
the expenditure of the money for education. I can conceive of no
greater favor that our country can bestow upon China than to make
permanent provision for schools which will give the Chinese youth
an opportunity to acquire the most modern instruction in literature
and in physical and political science. If the sum to be returned
were divided and the larger part given for the endowment of a series
of universities in China, while the smaller part endowed a college
at Washington, under the control of the Chinese embassy, it would
do more to extend our commerce, our ideals and our prestige than a
hundred times that sum expended on a military establishment or a
navy.
There is one argument against the admission of coolies which ought
to commend itself to the Chinese as well as to the Americans, viz.,
that the standing of China among us is prejudiced by the fact
that she is judged by her lowest and most ignorant classes. There
has always been an educated class in China, and while the number
belonging to it has been limited and the scope of education narrow
as compared with the scope of education in the western world, still
there have been culture and refinement. Artists have appeared from
time to time, as well as artisans skilled in porcelain, metal
working, carving, decoration, etc. There have been merchants of
standing and integrity (in fact, integrity is the rule among
Chinese merchants.) If China could be known by these or even by the
averaging of her superior and inferior classes, she would stand
higher among the nations. But she is known now, except in diplomatic
circles, by the coolies who are carried by contractors from one
place to another until local sentiment leads to their exclusion.
And, I may add, that it has led to their exclusion from Australia
and that the question of exclusion from the Transvaal has been
discussed in the English parliament.
This argument received respectful attention when presented to some
of the prominent Chinese, for they recognize the injury which has
been done to the nation's reputation by having the Chinese people
known by their worst representatives.
There is a fourth argument, the force of which was admitted at the
Hong Kong dinner by the merchants who had resided in the United
States, viz., that the admission of coolies (and it would apply
to skilled mechanics also) would involve the nations in constant
diplomatic controversy over race conflicts. If it is human for
Chinese to desire to improve their condition by immigration to the
United States, it is also human for American laborers to resent
enforced idleness when presented as an alternative to a lower scale
of living. With any large increase in the number of Chinese laborers
in the United States, it would be necessary to incur the expense of
an increased army and police force to preserve order, and even then
it would be difficult to prevent occasional violence, and violence
in the United States would lead to retaliation upon Americans
residing in China. These race riots in our country and in China
would not only strain the relations between the nations but would
nullify our attempt to create a favorable impression upon Chinese
students and embarrass the work of our missionaries in China.
[Illustration: COLOSSAL STATUE OF MING, RULER OF CHINA]
It is better to be frank and candid with the Chinese government.
There are twenty times as many Chinese in America as there are
Americans in China, and we give to China as much in trade advantage
as we receive from her, not to speak of the money which Americans
voluntarily contribute to extend education and religion in the
Celestial empire. China has no reason to complain, for we have been
generous in dealing with her. We can still be not only just, but
generous, but it would be neither kindness to her nor fairness to
our own people to invite an immigration of such a character as to
menace our own producers of wealth, endanger our social system and
disturb the cordial friendship and good will between America and
China.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE PHILIPPINES--NORTHERN ISLANDS AND THEIR PEOPLE.
While a deep interest in the political problems tempts me to deal
at once with the policy to be pursued by our government with
respect to the Filipinos, I am constrained to proceed logically
and discuss first the islands and their people. And in speaking
of the Filipinos, a distinction should be made between those who
inhabit the northern islands and are members of one branch of the
Christian Church and those who inhabit the island of Mindanao and
the Sulu Archipelago--people who are followers of Mohammed. While
a considerable number of Christian Filipinos are to be found in
Mindanao and some in Sulu, the Sultans and Datus have dominated the
country. Even Spanish authority never extended over the southern
islands and the garrisons maintained at the seaports were constantly
in fear of massacre.
Leaving the southern islands for the next article, I shall confine
myself at present to Luzon, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Samar and the
smaller islands which make up the Visayan group. These islands
contain the bulk of the territory, a large majority of the people,
most of the material wealth and practically all of the civilization
of the Philippines. Luzon, the largest of the entire group, reaches
north almost to the nineteenth parallel and is about six degrees
long. Like the islands of Japan, it is mountainous and well watered.
The other islands of the group are considerably smaller and extend
as far south as the ninth parallel. They, too, are mountainous,
but the valleys are fertile and support a large population. The
principal industry is agriculture, and the soil produces a variety
of cereals, fruits and vegetables. Rice, as in other oriental
countries, is the chief article of food, though hemp is by far the
largest export. The hemp plant looks so much like the banana that
the traveler can scarcely distinguish between them. Sugar cane is
also grown in many parts of the islands and would be cultivated
still more largely but for the low price of raw sugar. Sugar,
however, cannot be raised here with the same profit that it can in
Hawaii and Cuba, owing to the fact that it must be replanted more
frequently. Tobacco of an excellent quality is produced on several
of the islands and in sufficient quantities to supply the home
demand (and nearly all Filipinos use tobacco) and leave a surplus
for export.
The cocoanut is a staple product here of great value, and its
cultivation can be indefinitely extended. Of all the crops it
probably yields the largest income on the investment, but as the
trees do not begin to bear until they are about eight years old,
they are only cultivated in small groves or by those who can afford
to wait for returns. Copra, the dried meat of the cocoanut, is
now exported to the value of two and a half million dollars, but
systematic effort ought to very largely increase this export.
[Illustration: A FILIPINO VILLAGE.]
The methods of cultivation and the implements used are not as modern
as one would expect. The carabao, or water buffalo, is the one
all-purpose farm animal. Carabaos are something like the American
ox, but are more heavily built; they are uniform in color--a dark
drab--and have heavy, flat horns which grow back instead of forward.
The agricultural situation in the islands is at present most
distressing. The fields were devastated by war, and before labor
could restore what the soldiers had destroyed, rinderpest attacked
the carabaos and in some places carried away as many as 90 per cent
of the animals. We visited a sugar plantation which had lost more
than half of its carabaos during the two weeks preceding. Everywhere
one sees fields overgrown with grass which cannot be cultivated for
lack of plow animals. One can understand something of the rinderpest
calamity when it is remembered that these patient beasts do all the
plowing and all of the hauling in the Philippine Islands. We often
see them ridden, sometimes bearing two persons. In addition to the
ravages of disease and the ruin wrought by arms, the Filipino farmer
has suffered from the closing of his market. When United States
authority was substituted for Spanish rule, the Filipinos lost the
advantage which they had previously had in the Spanish market, and
then they were shut out of the United States by a tariff wall.
And to make matters worse, they now bear the brunt of the Chinese
boycott aimed at American goods. Every speaker who has attempted to
voice the sentiments of the people during our stay in the islands
has laid special emphasis upon the injustice done to the islands by
our tariff laws. This subject was also brought to the attention of
Secretary Taft and his party, and all of the American officials here
urge the importance of relief in this direction.
[Illustration: FILIPINO HOUSES]
The well-to-do Filipinos live in houses modeled after those built
by the Spaniards, but the great majority of the people live in what
are called nipa huts--light structures made with bamboo frames and
with sides and roofs of nipa palm leaves. The houses are several
feet above the ground and are reached by a ladder or steps. As the
temperature at midday does not change much the year round, the
main objects in building are to secure protection from rain and an
abundance of air, and the nipa hut meets these requirements. The
Filipino house is not only light and airy, but it is inexpensive; we
saw a school house at Santa Barbara built for five hundred pupils at
an expense of five hundred pesos, or $250 in gold. At some of the
military camps, which we visited, the Filipino style of building has
been adopted.
[Illustration: GENERAL EMILIO AGUINALDO.]
The Filipino dress is quite like that worn in Europe and America;
among the educated men it is identical. The men of the middle class
wear a shirt of a gauzy material outside the trousers. The women
wear a dress skirt with a long narrow train and a low-necked,
wide-sleeved waist made of jusi (pronounced hoose), or pina (penya)
cloth. A kerchief of the same material folded about the neck
completes the toilet. All the thin fabrics worn by the women are
manufactured on hand looms kept in the homes.
Iloilo is the center of the jusi cloth manufacture, of which we
saw many beautiful samples during our tour of the islands. The
pina cloth is made from the fibre of a leaf resembling that of the
pineapple. In the province of Balacan a fine quality of silk is made
on hand-looms--the weaving of fabrics being an accomplishment in
which the women take pride. There is a coarser cloth made of hemp
which is used for ordinary wear, and this is also produced in the
home and sold on market days.
[Illustration: FILIPINO BOYS WITH BLOW-GUNS.]
Such conflicting reports have reached the United States regarding
the Filipino people that I was anxious to study them for myself, and
I feel that I am prepared to form an intelligent opinion upon the
subject. I have seen representatives of all occupations in all parts
of the islands, in the cities and in the country. I have conversed
with students and professional men, visited the markets where the
rank and file meet and exchange their products, watched the farmers
at work in the fields and the laborers in the city, and I have made
inquiries of both Americans and natives. The Filipinos are a branch
of the Malay race, but there is such a strong resemblance between
some of the individual Filipinos and the Japanese as to suggest
the possibility of a mixing of bloods, if not a common origin. At
Hong Kong I visited a Filipino of prominence, and the young lady
who admitted me so resembled the Japanese that I was surprised to
learn that she was the daughter of my host. A few hours later I
noticed a young man attending to some business in a shipping office
and supposed him to be a Japanese, but found that he also was a
full blooded Filipino. The Filipinos are a little darker than the
Japanese and may average a little taller, but I have constantly been
reminded of the Land of the Rising Sun during my stay here.
[Illustration: GROUP OF FILIPINOS.]
It is frequently said in disparagement of the Filipinos that they
will not work, but this is answered conclusively by a patent and
ever present fact, viz., that they produce their own food, make
their own clothes, build their own homes and in other ways supply
their needs. They have not the physical strength of the average
American, nor have they the experience in machine labor or in the
organization of work, but they will do more physical labor than a
white man can perform in this climate and they have shown themselves
capable of doing the finer kinds of work when instructed. They are
also capable of successful co-operative effort when under efficient
guidance. One of the commission informed me that the street car
system lately inaugurated in Manila was put in at a labor cost of
40 per cent below the estimate, the work being done by Filipino
laborers under an American contractor. This is certainly an
excellent showing. The operating force is composed of Filipinos and
the cars are run very successfully.
[Illustration: IN THE PHILIPPINES]
The superintendent of the railroad from Manila to Dagupan, an
Englishman, speaks very highly of the Filipinos employed on the
road. He says that he uses natives entirely for the train service
and that he has not had an accident on the road during the thirteen
years of its operation.
A large company of men were unloading stone and gravel from barges
near our hotel, and they were as industrious and as cheerful a lot
of workmen as one could wish to see. They carried the material in
baskets and accomplished more, so far as I could judge, than the
coolies whom I saw at similar work in China. The Filipino demands
better treatment than that accorded to the coolie, but when employed
by those who understand him and show him proper consideration, he is
both competent and faithful.
In the government printing office nearly nine-tenths of the employés
are natives (and the proportion is increasing), and Mr. Leach, the
public printer, informed me that they readily learned the work
and were able to run the typesetting machines and presses, do the
bookbinding and stereotyping and other skilled work connected with
the office. The newspaper offices of the city also employ native
labor, and I need not remind my readers that the members of the
various typographical unions of the United States are among the
most intelligent of our skilled laborers. We visited the largest
tobacco factory in Manila, the Germinal, and found between twelve
and fifteen hundred men and women making cigars and cigarettes by
hand and by machine. There are several smaller factories, and all
are operated by native labor.
One of the leading furniture manufacturers of Manila is authority
for the statement that in wood carving the Filipino soon becomes
the equal of the Japanese artisan. The Philippine Islands are so
near the Equator that the heat of the sun in the middle of the day
and during the almost twelve months of summer must be taken into
consideration. When due allowance is made for climatic conditions
and for the fact that the inhabitant of the tropics lacks the spur
of necessity which ever urges on the dweller in higher latitudes,
one is inclined to excuse any seeming lack of industry. Sure it is
that those who come here from America and Europe do not as a rule
do enough manual labor to enable a comparison between them and the
natives.
Besides those who work in the fields, on the streets and in the
factories, there is an army of fishermen and boatmen. Fish forms
a considerable part of the food supply of the island, and these
are brought from the ocean, from the rivers and from the lakes
by a hardy and active people. Much of the commerce is carried by
water, and the boats are manned by natives. Except where the Chinese
have monopolized the mercantile business, the stores are kept by
Filipinos, men and women sharing the labor as they do in France.
And speaking of the women, it must be remembered that woman
occupies a much higher place in the Philippines than in any other
part of the Orient. The Filipinos contend that even before Spanish
influence made itself felt in the islands, woman was accorded an
equal place with man and divided with him both the honors and the
responsibilities of the home. However this may be, it cannot be
doubted that at present the rights of woman and her position in the
family and in society are respected fully as much as in continental
Europe. Her influence is felt in industrial and political life as
well as in the church. At one reception a lady law student delivered
an excellent address.
[Illustration: THE ACCOMPLISHED WIFE OF A FILIPINO OFFICIAL.]
Under Spanish rule education was confined to a few. In fact, one of
the indictments brought against the Friars by the natives was that
educational facilities were denied to the masses. This, too, brought
the Jesuits, the friends of education, into conflict with the
Friars. But comparatively few of the people enjoyed the advantages
of higher education, and these were a controlling influence in
their respective communities. As in Mexico and in Cuba, the cultured
men and women of the Philippines are thoroughly refined and polished
in manner.
The American government has had no difficulty in finding men
competent to fill the offices which have been assigned to the
natives, three of the seven members of the commission and three of
the seven supreme court judges being Filipinos. The governors and
mayors are nearly all Filipinos, as are most of the judges of the
lower courts. As there is no satisfactory service by private boats,
the commission furnished us a coastguard steamer for a tour of the
islands, the passengers paying the cost of subsistence, and we were
thus enabled to visit the principal cities. At all of these places
we found a group of intellectual and public spirited men. At Iloilo,
Bacolod, Cebu and Santa Barbara there were addresses of welcome and
public receptions, and the views of the residents were presented in
clear and well chosen language. At Malolos, the first capital of the
Aguinaldo government, which we visited as the guest of a committee
of prominent Filipinos, similar speeches were delivered, which met
with the approval of the assembled crowd. At Manila a public dinner
was given by a number of representative Filipinos, headed by Mayor
Roxas, at which speeches were made by Filipinos distinguished in
official and professional life. The addresses delivered on these
several occasions would compare favorably with speeches delivered
under similar circumstances in the United States. While some of the
persons who took part in these meetings showed traces of Spanish
blood, others were unmistakably Filipino; but the racial differences
could not be distinguished by the manner in which they performed
their parts.
While at Manila I met General Aguinaldo, first at the reception
tendered us by the Elks, and later at his own home in Cavite. Since
his capture he has been living in retirement and has conducted
himself in such a manner as to win the approbation of the American
officials. He is small of stature, modest in deportment and
manifests a deep interest in the welfare of his people. He has
twice appealed to the government to establish an agricultural bank
for the relief of the farmers, calling attention to the scarcity
of money and to the high rate of interest (sometimes 40 or 50 per
cent) charged the farmers on short loans. The agricultural bank was
referred to by several speakers during our stay in the islands, and
it is certain that, from an industrial standpoint, the government
could do nothing which would be more beneficial or acceptable to the
people.
Dr. Apacible, the head of the Hong Kong junta during the
insurrection, now a practicing physician in Manila, was selected
by the Filipino reception committee to accompany us on our trip,
and being personally acquainted with the leaders of thought, he was
able to bring us into contact with those who reflected the opinion
of the people, while Captain Moss, of General Corbin's personal
staff, and Collector Shuster, representing the insular government,
kept us in touch with the Americans in military and civil life. We
found everywhere commendation of the educational system established
by the Americans. It is the one department of work instituted by
our government which seems to have avoided serious criticism. I
presented this universal commendation as evidence of the good
intentions of our people, pointing out to the Filipinos that people
are apt to assert their rights in proportion as they increase in
intelligence, and that our people would not be foolish enough to
encourage education if they really intended to do injustice to the
Filipinos.
[Illustration: FILIPINO NIGHT SCHOOL--AMERICAN TEACHERS]
The large increase in the number of students and the interest taken
in the establishment of schools must be taken into consideration
by anyone who attempts to forecast the future of the islands. In
many communities there are more people speaking English to-day
than could ever speak Spanish, and the multitude of dialects will
soon be dissolved into a common language. One superintendent of
schools told me that in his district the attendance was more than
50 per cent above the school population, owing to the fact that
grown men, and women with children, insisted upon studying. Another
superintendent reported that she could not find teachers for all
the villages which offered to erect school houses. An incident was
related by still another teacher which illustrates the ambition of
the Filipino youth. A Filipino boy, who was working in the home
of an English woman notified his mistress that he wanted to go to
school. Being anxious to keep him, she offered to raise his wages
from twenty pesos per month to forty, but he rejected the offer,
saying that he loved wisdom more than he loved money.
Besides the public schools, primary, secondary, industrial and
normal, there are a number of religious schools. The Jesuits had
their schools and colleges under Spanish occupation, one of the
boys' schools which we visited at Cebu being older than Harvard
University. The Catholic sisters also have numerous girls' schools
throughout the islands. At Manila the Jesuits have an observatory
and weather bureau which, for equipment and scientific accuracy,
probably has no superior anywhere.
The Protestant churches are also establishing schools, some of them
industrial. Who will measure the effect upon coming generations of
these multiplying agencies for the training of the boys and girls of
the Philippines?
The northern islands are inhabited by a Christian population.
Whatever may be said of the governmental methods of Spain or of
the political corruption of her colonial representatives, she
established the Christian faith in the islands. Prior to American
occupation the higher officials of the church and many of the
priests were Spanish, but since 1900 American and Filipino bishops
and priests are being substituted. Under the lead of Archbishop
Harty the work of the church is being vigorously pushed and a
large number of baptisms are reported. Several of the Protestant
churches are gaining a foothold, there being upwards of ten thousand
Filipinos enrolled in the evangelical churches. The Presbyterian
church of the Tondo district, Manila, has something like four
hundred natives, Señor Buencamino, secretary of state under
Aguinaldo, and afterwards a member of the civil service commission,
being president of the Tondo congregation.
No discussion of the religious situation in the Philippines would
be complete without a reference to the independent Catholic church
of which Señor Gregoria Agilpay is the head. Obispo Maximo Aglipay
is a native Filipino, 46 years old, with an intelligent face and
fine presence. In three and a half years he has established a
church with some three hundred priests and about seven hundred
congregations. He claims a membership of about four million, but
the clergy of the regular Catholic church do not concede nearly
so large a following. In fact, they deny that he has made any
considerable impression upon the Catholic population, and as there
is no accurate church census, it is impossible to say in what
proportion the Catholic membership is divided between these two
church organizations.
As to the honesty of the average Filipino, different opinions are
to be heard from Americans, but we are told that less care is taken
to lock the doors than in America, which would indicate less fear
of burglary. The Philippine court records would embarrass us if
we became too harsh in our reflections upon the integrity of the
Filipino, for during the years 1902-3-4-5 thirty office-holding
Americans were found guilty of shortages and defalcations, the total
amount embezzled exceeding seventy thousand dollars, gold. Bilibid
prison at Manila is the penitentiary for the northern islands
and most (I think all) who receive more than a jail sentence are
confined here. There are now about forty-six hundred prisoners
in Bilibid, nearly eleven hundred serving terms for brigandage,
insurrection, rebellion and sedition--the remainder for other
crimes. If the convicts average a year's sentence each, the number
of natives sent to the penitentiary during four years would have
to be about twenty-five thousand, to give the native population a
criminal class equal to the proportion which the thirty convicted
Americans bear to the entire American population in the islands,
and it must be remembered that the defalcations have been among
Americans selected because of their supposed character and capacity.
There have been many defalcations among the fiscal officers
appointed among the natives, but not knowing the total number of the
Filipinos occupying fiduciary positions and the number of Americans
occupying similar positions, I can not make a comparison. Our chief
consolation is to be found in the fact that Americans guilty of
dishonesty have been promptly punished by the American officials,
but this does not entirely remove the stain which their conduct has
brought upon our nation's good name.
I can not conclude this article without expressing my appreciation
of the courtesy shown me by Acting Governor Ide, Secretary Furguson,
the members of the Philippine commission and the other officials,
civil and military. They were all willing to furnish information,
records and statistics regarding the things done under American
authority. While mistakes have been made, some of them expensive;
while there have been outrages by the constabulary (which is merely
a native army officered by Americans and serving under another
name) and while there have been instances of seeming partiality to
Americans where a conflict has occurred between them and natives, I
believe that the serious evils to be complained of are not personal,
but are inherent in a colonial system and can not be eradicated so
long as such a system is maintained.
The greatest need that I noted in the islands is an increase in
what we call the middle class, but this need is noticeable in the
other Spanish colonies which I have visited and will be corrected as
education increases among the masses. With more education among the
farmers there will be improved methods of agriculture, and with more
education among the artisans will come diversification of industry.
This middle class will be a balance wheel, as it were, to regulate
the machinery of society, and it will furnish a public opinion which
will control official representatives.
_The following extracts concerning Mr. Bryan's visit are taken from
Filipino papers:_
December 27, El Renacimiento, said editorially:
"Bryan. This is a name among names. Others may boast of it but in
their cases it does not mean so much. The daily press to-day fills
column after column regarding him and his name is in the mouths of
everyone. The events of yesterday claim special notice, consisting,
as they do, of more than mere generalities.
"Why do these simple people salute us? Do they treat the Americans
here this way? These are questions which were asked of his
companions during the trip through Paranaque, Las Pinas and Bacoor
yesterday.
"'The salutations are for you,' replied a prominent Filipino,
'because they know that it is you who is approaching. These people
do not know you, but they have learned that you are here and your
name is revered by them.'
"In fact few names of Americans can be mentioned among Filipinos
which will excite more feeling. Bryan did not need to come here in
order to be popular.
"The principal impression produced by his presence, even upon
his adversaries in politics, is his consummate amiability and
discretion. Bryan has made no statements or passed any judgment
regarding the Philippine administration. He has not given any excuse
for his being characterized as an agitator or a scoffer at the
enterprise which the United States, as a nation, has undertaken in
these islands.
"But does this signify that Bryan will abstain from collecting data
for future use? We believe not. One can easily hope for a highly
optimistic opinion from him, but a party man takes his ideas and
prejudices with him wherever he goes and he sees things through the
light of his convictions."
One Manila paper prints the following:
The Elks gave a rousing reception last night to William Jennings
Bryan at the club house on the Luneta, and all of Manila turned
out to do homage to their distinguished guest. The club rooms were
artistically arranged with flags and potted plants and the spacious
halls were the scene of many groups of well-known faces.
Punch and lemonade were served during the evening and the music was
furnished by the constabulary band.
The guests were received by Colonel Dorrington and Mrs. Dorrington,
Governor Ide and Mr. and Mrs. Bryan, and were ushered by Messrs.
Reiser, Patstone, Steward and Fisher.
[Illustration: A FILIPINO BELLE.]
There was considerable stir when Emilio Aguinaldo entered the hall
and was ushered up to the receiving party. He was introduced to Mr.
Bryan by Governor Ide. Aguinaldo said in Spanish, "I am glad to meet
you; I have been very anxious to see you. I have heard a great deal
of you." This was interpreted to Mr. Bryan who said, "We have heard
your name in our country also." Then Mr. Bryan said, taking hold of
Aguinaldo's arm and turning to Mrs. Bryan, "This is Aguinaldo."
At a meeting of prominent native citizens held in the office of the
president of the municipal board and presided over by that official,
the following program for entertaining Mr. Bryan was decided upon:
A public banquet at one of the hotels of Manila.
An evening entertainment at the Liceo de Manila, at 4 o'clock p. m.,
on January 6, with the following program:
1. Parade of the students.
2. Address of welcome to the Honorable William Jennings Bryan.
3. Band.
4. Speech by Mr. Bryan.
5. Theatrical performance by the students of the college.
The Manila Times of January 1 gave an account of the popular banquet
given to Mr. Bryan in the Luzon restaurant. From this report the
following extracts are taken:
At the popular banquet held in honor of William Jennings Bryan last
Friday night in the Luzon restaurant, the distinguished guest showed
the same caution as at Malolos in dealing with the questions of
policy affecting these islands, never at any time doing more than
skirting issues which if not dead are generally quiescent.
About 150 guests sat down at the tables, though when the speaking
began there were probably close on 300 persons present, most of
the new arrivals being young Filipinos of the class which made
itself prominent in the "Independence Day" held recently before the
visiting congressmen in Marble hall.
The program, which was somewhat artistically designed, had on its
first page the Stars and Stripes; inside, the picture of Mr. Bryan
and the menus and names of the committee of organization, and on
the last page the Katipunan emblem of the rising sun and the three
stars. During the evening the Rizal orchestra discoursed music at
intervals.
Generally, the speaking was too long; Judge Yusay, who occupied a
place on the program, consuming an hour in a speech which finally
tired its hearers. Mr. Bryan, the last orator, did not close his
remarks till half-past one.
In his own speech he took occasion to say that he did not feel at
liberty to speak freely as he would in the United States. Two or
three times when his remarks were leading to a climax whose logical
sequel appeared to be some reference to independence, his audience
waited almost breathlessly, but he carefully evaded the seemingly
logical denouement and ended in some relevant but not thrilling
expression, one could sense rather than hear the sigh, in some
cases of relief, in others of disappointment, which followed.
[Illustration: EMILIO AGUINALDO, MOTHER, SISTER, BROTHER AND SON]
His address dwelt chiefly on two thoughts, the first being that
there is a tie which binds all mankind together, that tie being
knit up with the human heart, and the second being what constitutes
civilization and how it may be attained.
The following report is taken from the Manila Times of December 28:
"Independence the Soonest Possible."
"Malolos Obliged."
"Mr. Bryan, the Hope of Our Nationality."
"W. J. Bryan, Defendant of Our Liberty."
Such were the legends mounted upon the arches under which William
Jennings Bryan passed from the railroad station to Malolos on the
occasion of his provincial excursion yesterday. The trip was made
by the famous democrat, in company with his wife and children, as
guests of Mr. Higgins. The private car of Mr. Higgins and an extra
coach took the party first to Gapan, where it arrived about 9:30
a. m., after having stopped at several of the stations en route,
where Bryan made short addresses to the delegations, which were in
attendance at the stations with bands of music and banners flying to
greet him.
At Malolos, the seat of the former revolutionary government and the
center of operations of the prime movers in the "independencia"
campaign, luncheon was had at the home of Mrs. Tanchanco, an opulent
Filipino matron. After the luncheon was over Teodoro Sandico rose
to introduce Sr. De Luce, who addressed the following words to the
assembled guests:
"I salute the real champion of a democratic people, the true
defender of the rights of the people; he who at Kansas City included
in his platform the independence of the Philippine Islands. I am
sorry that his presence in Malolos, once the capital of a Filipino
republic, is so short. So deep-rooted is the desire for independence
in the Filipino people that the news of the arrival of this champion
has brought to Malolos many from all about, only to greet their
savior. Such spontaneous manifestations by all grades of people
will, I believe, convince you that we desire our independence at
once. It will show you that we have a right to nationality, that
we have everything that is necessary to support a government of
our own. If the government will give us this independence it will
show it is the champion of liberty as it did in its treatment of
Cuba. Such a step here will eliminate the need of a great American
army twice its natural size, and it would avoid the corruption
of the principles inherited from the ancestors of Americans. If
America will not give us full independence, grant us a democratic
government! Separate the executive and legislative branches! Give us
real independence of the judiciary! We drink a health to those who
have not forgotten the true principles of Americans."
After the toast to the great orator had been drank, Bryan rose to
his feet and addressed some two or three hundred natives, aside from
those who were gathered at luncheon. The following is his address:
"Allow me to thank you for the welcome you have extended to my
family and to me. I appreciate also the kindly manner in which
you have referred to the way in which I have tried to express my
friendship for the Filipino people. I do not propose to discuss here
political questions. I have not felt that in these islands I should
enter on any disputed questions.
"Some things I can say with propriety. While you appreciate the
manner in which I have attempted to show my friendship for the
Filipinos, do not make the mistake of believing that those who
differ from me are not interested in this people. In my country
there are two great political parties, republican and democratic.
They enter into contests which are strenuous, but in fundamental
principles both are the same. Thomas Jefferson founded the
democratic party. Abraham Lincoln was the first great republican.
Lincoln has left records to show the admiration that he felt for the
principles and utterances of Thomas Jefferson.
[Illustration: A FILIPINO TEACHER.]
"In two contests I was defeated by the republicans, but I believe
as much in the patriotism of those who voted against me as I do in
the patriotism of those who fought for me. Those who agreed with
me announced a policy for the Philippines. Those who opposed me did
not. But do not make the mistake of believing that those others
are enemies to the islands. I believe the majority of all American
people without regard to politics or party are sincere well wishers
of the Filipinos. Yes, all.
"However you may differ about policies, all your people speak well
of what our country stands for in regard to education. Let me remind
you that these little children who are attending school speak more
eloquently in your behalf than I am able to do. The more educated
people you have among you the easier will be the task for those who
speak for you in the United States. The more respect your people
show for the law the easier will be the task for those who speak for
you. The higher the ideals shown in your language and your lives the
easier the task of those who speak for you. I want you to have as
much confidence in the republicans in power as I have, though I have
been twice defeated by them. And when I say this I am not trying
to pay them for anything. I do not owe them anything. When I say
trust them, I say it because I believe the American people want to
do right and, given the time, will find out what is right on every
question.
[Illustration: HAULING HEMP]
"Differences of opinion must be expected. In fact, that people
differ in opinion is to their credit rather than to their discredit.
Those who agree in everything do not as a rule think on anything.
Differences of opinion must not only be expected but must be
respected. Do not expect our people to administer authority here
without mistakes. They make mistakes at home, and if we democrats
get into power, good as we are, we will make mistakes. The Spanish
made mistakes here, and so would the Filipinos. I suggest that if
you want to help us who are interested in you, you can do it by
supporting with all the enthusiasm you have, the efforts made by
America here. Let us hope that whoever is in authority here and
there, they will have the wisdom to so promote the welfare of all,
as to unite both peoples in an eternal affection."
Conception Felix, the president of the Women's Association of
the Philippines, followed Mr. Bryan and spoke of the duty of the
islands in securing for them the best advantages for their welfare,
and concluded with the statement that the women of the Philippine
Islands demanded their independence.
After leaving Malolos the trip to Pasig was made and the return to
Manila was so timed as to allow the party to arrive at Santa Mesa
in good season. A special car of the street railway company met it
there.
At the reception given at Bacolod, on the island of Negros, January
5, Señor Joaquin Jortich spoke as follows:
"Hon. William Jennings Bryan and distinguished party--Gentlemen:
"The people of Bacolod and the province in general, through me, have
to-day the honor of greeting their distinguished visitors, giving to
them all a most cordial and sincere welcome, and very especially to
the illustrious leader of the democratic party who has deigned to
grant us the high distinction of his visit.
"Mr. Bryan has doubtless noticed since he set foot on Filipino soil
that the people of the islands received him as if he were an old and
beloved friend.
"There is nothing strange in this; one of the most striking
qualities of the Filipino is gratitude, even though his enemies and
detractors assert the contrary. The Filipino people know that Mr.
Bryan has been and is a sincere champion of the Filipino ideals and
interests in America, and this little suffices to make all here,
without distinction, receive him to-day with open arms and with
hearts swelling with joy.
"His visit to-day to this province gives us the satisfaction of
knowing him personally, as well as the opportunity of expressing
our true sentiments toward the North American people, to whom we
hope to make our humble voice heard through the channel of our
illustrious visitor.
"The Filipino people can not fail to thank Providence which has
appointed to them the good fortune of being under the protection of
the noble and powerful Stars and Stripes.
"No one familiar with the history of the constitution of North
America can fail to admire the spirit of wisdom and morality which
permeates its most liberal institutions.
"It is true that the Philippines bill is not in every way based upon
the principles which that constitution breathes, and it is also true
that in the government administration there exist certain prejudices
which find no place in so wise a constitution; but those defects
are errors which we hope will be rectified in time and through the
education of the people.
"To deny that the Filipino people aspire to independence in the
future would be to deny the light of the sun in broad day. But
in spite of this aspiration, we understand that peoples, like
men, in order to be independent must necessarily pass in strictly
chronological order, through different stages, which they can not
traverse by leaps and bounds. Nor do we fail to realize that the
liberty, great or small, which may be granted to a people, must be
in direct relation to the state of their culture.
"Our ambition is just and within the bounds of reason and logic.
We wish independence through evolution, because we understand that
a people, differing from another in race and in its ethnographical
and ethnological conditions, can never be governed with justice
and equity except by itself; and this, because the pride of
superiority will always dominate the governing race to the detriment
of the governed, and the latter will never be happy. Some of the
congressmen and senators who were here a short time ago have said
in Washington that the Filipino people are growing away from the
American people. That statement is by no means as clear as it should
be.
"The Filipino people, by virtue of being a tropical race, are very
sensitive, and with the same impetuosity with which they love and
admire a benefactor, they hate and despise a tyrant.
"The American people have brought us in the Philippines many things
of great value; they have bestowed upon us many benefits and have
granted us many liberties which formerly we did not enjoy; but it is
also true that among the good things they have brought some evils;
among the benefits there have sprung up like brambles certain unjust
abuses, and among the many liberties conceded us petty tyrants have
arisen to restrict them. Therefore, the Filipino people have grown
away from the bad Americans, but in no way from the American people
to whom we owe but gratitude and love.
"We love those who love us and despise those who despise us. However
defective our past civilization may have been, it has left in our
hearts the feeling of dignity which befits a people of culture.
"Unfortunately, in the Philippines, not all those who are here as
Americans possess the noble sentiments of the American people, whom
we admire and love, for we would be contemptible did we, through the
fault of some bad representatives, come to hate an entire nation
which has been and is lending us its aid.
"Our illustrious visitor has proof positive of my assertion. The
Filipino people, without knowing him personally, receive him with
open arms and as to an old and beloved friend open to him their
hearts, telling him their troubles.
"This is the Filipino people, these are their real feelings towards
the people of North America.
"We trust that these prejudices may disappear in time, as these two
races, destined to live together, continue on the road of mutual
sympathy and a better understanding.
"With regard to our present situation, from an administrative
standpoint, although we are relatively better off than formerly,
nevertheless there are in the present government many defects which
merit censure.
"Against such defects we shall continue to struggle until the
Philippines possess a legislative body which shall know better than
that of to-day the needs and conditions of this people.
"At present we have no legislative body but the civil commission,
composed of three Filipino members, without portfolios, and four
American members with them. The latter members, the majority of whom
do not know the country in its inside phases, clearly can never
dictate laws which are adapted to the circumstances and conditions
of the people.
"The Philippine archipelago is very diverse in its ethnographical
and ethnological conditions, and, therefore, it is very difficult
to frame a law which is adapted to its general necessities, unless
one has an accurate and profound knowledge of the situation and
conditions of each and every one of the thirty-some provinces which
form the archipelago.
"Another of the greatest defects which we observe in the present
government is the inequality and lack of justice in the appointments
of government positions, as between Filipinos and Americans, with
the exception of the judiciary which is the department most evenly
distributed.
"In the civil commission and in the provincial boards the voice of
the Filipino is not in the majority, neither, therefore, is the
voice of the people. It is true that the municipalities appear to
operate with the fullest liberty, but this liberty is restricted,
because the provincial board exercise direct control over all their
acts, so that municipal autonomy is, as a matter of fact, nominal.
"The most noble and acceptable institution which American government
has established here is that of public instruction. Even the
officials in that department are also the best liked and those upon
the most friendly terms with the Filipino people, although defects
are not entirely absent as is the case with every human creation.
Against this department we can say nothing up to the present. God
grant that it may continue so for many years, without being affected
by the discord and prejudice which the enemies of the country seek
to sow.
"With respect to the economic phase, we could be no worse off than
we are now, and this can be easily explained. Since the year 1896,
in which the revolution against Spain commenced, the Philippines
have gone from bad to worse in all their economic conditions,
particularly in the matter of agriculture which is the sole source
of their wealth. Of 56,000,000 acres of land which we have fit for
cultivation, only 6,000,000 acres are cultivated and 50,000,000 are
not cultivated. War, drouth, cholera and rinderpest among our work
animals, have prostrated us to such an extent that all which the
farmer might say of the situation pales before the reality. To these
inferior troubles must be added others on the outside, the lack
of market for our sugar; Japan, protecting herself from Formosa,
raises her custom tariff upon sugar; China, with the boycott, closes
her market to us because of our relations with America, and rich
America, which should protect us, also closes her doors to us with a
Dingley tariff.
"To sum up, the Philippines have no money, they have no production,
they have no market. Could there be a harder situation?
"The plantations paralyzed and the laborers without work--thus
rises the germ of ladronism. The scarcity of money is such that in
order to find a dollar to-day one needs a searchlight, and to make
matters worse the articles of prime necessity rise in price, making
existence almost impossible for the poor workman.
"In the time of the Spanish government there were in circulation
some two hundred million of Mexican pesos, to-day we have hardly
thirty million, according to the last report of the secretary of
finance, a sum which, when divided among eight million inhabitants,
gives 3.75 pesos per capita.
"If to this we add the stoppage of all business through the
paralysis of commerce and the industries, it will be seen that with
3.75 pesos for each inhabitant, pauperism, hunger and misery are
necessary consequences.
"Here we have the actual state of the Philippines, whose competition
the powerful sugar trust in America still fears. America needs three
million tons of sugar for her home consumption; her production
amounts to only one million tons, so that she must import two
million tons from abroad. The Philippines produce only three million
piculs of sugar, or about 187,500 tons. Is it possible to dream of
competition?
"Our money crisis can only be met by the establishment of
agricultural mortgage banks, and if we wish to escape disaster
in that enterprise it is necessary that its administration be
completely separated from the government, with the exception of
the usual powers of inspection, this because it is well known that
prosperity in these affairs is based upon mercantile interest,
which does not exist in government officials, whose interests are
political rather than mercantile. As proof of this statement let
us look at what happened with the $3,000,000 which the national
government donated to the insular government to improve the grievous
situation of the country. With all our soul we are grateful for
so generous a gift, but we greatly regret that the government has
not known how to administer it better. The $3,000,000 have been
exhausted, but the situation of the country has not improved in the
slightest degree. That was, indeed, a disaster.
"To-day questions involving many millions are being discussed and
it would be very lamentable if the protection and good wishes of
the national government should come to naught through a mistaken
or defective administration. Our agricultural crisis is due rather
to the terrible mortality of the work animals, which is to-day
extending to all classes of cattle. This is a misfortune from which
we have been suffering since the year 1901. Five years of massacre,
no stock in the world will stand it.
"To remedy this state of affairs we need machinery which will take
the place of the work animals, and we believe that the free entry
of every class of machinery for a definite time would be one of the
most efficacious means of fomenting and encouraging the many lines
of industry which we have to exploit, and, therefore, of raising
the country from the state of prostration in which it is found.
[Illustration: MORO HUTS.]
[Illustration: THRESHING RICE.]
"With what has been said, our distinguished guest will be able to
form an idea of the situation of this country under its triple
aspect, political, administrative and economic and echo across the
seas our by no means enviable condition. I have spoken."
CHAPTER XV.
THE PHILIPPINES--THE MORO COUNTRY.
The term Moro is used to describe the Mohammedan Filipino and
includes a number of tribes occupying the large island of Mindanao,
the smaller islands adjacent to it and those of the Sulu archipelago.
The northeast corner of Mindanao is separated from the island
of Leyte by the Surigao Strait, and that part of Mindanao has
considerable sprinkling of Christian Filipinos, but both that
island and the Sulus can be considered Moro country. The Americans
recognize the difference between the two groups of islands and
administer government according to different plans. Civil government
has been established in the northern islands, and except where
ladronism prevails, law and order reign. There are in some places,
as in northern Luzon, wild tribes in the mountains, but these are
so few in number and so different from the civilized Filipinos that
they do not enter into the solution of the Philippine problem.
In Mindanao, however, and the other Moro provinces warlike tribes
have been in control. They have furnished a large number of pirates
and have frequently invaded the northern island, carrying back
Filipino slaves. They never acknowledged the authority of Spain and
succeeded in keeping most of the island in the southern group free
from Spanish control. Our country probably exercises authority over
more Moro territory than Spain ever did, and yet our authority is
limited and we employ the military form of government rather than
the civil.
In our tour of the islands we crossed over the narrow part of
Mindanao, went up the Cotabato valley and called upon the Sultan of
Sulu at his home near Maibun on the island of Sulu.
We landed at Camp Overton, a military post on Iligan bay on the
north coast of Mindanao, and immediately began the ascent to Camp
Kiethley, eighteen miles in the interior. A military road has been
constructed between these two camps, following for the greater
part of the way the Spanish trail. Owing to the heavy rainfall and
the luxuriant growth of vegetation it is difficult to keep a road
in repair, and not far from the coast we passed a large number
of prisoners who were engaged in straightening and improving it.
About three miles from the coast we made a short detour in order
to see the famous Argus Falls, and they are well worth seeing. The
Argus river, which at this point is a larger stream, falls two
hundred and twenty feet and rushes by a tortuous route through the
narrow walls of a gorge. The falls are not only picturesque, but
they suggest the possibility of future use. It has been calculated
that one hundred thousand horse power is here going to waste. The
military authorities have been trying to secure an appropriation for
an electric railroad from Camp Overton to Camp Kiethley with the
intention of obtaining power from the falls, but this would utilize
only a small fraction of the energy which the Argus possesses. Two
miles farther up the road we turned aside to see the rapids of the
same river and here made our first acquaintance with the Moros. We
found a dozen of them under a rude shed of palm leaves preparing
the evening meal. The most conspicuous dish, at least the dish
that attracted our attention, was a skillet full of grasshoppers
being done to a neat brown over a slow fire. While we were watching
them, two half bare children returned from the chase with a large
supply of fresh grasshoppers strung upon grass. The Moros have a
most repulsive habit of dyeing the teeth black, the enamel being
first scraped off. Add to this the red tinge left on the lips by
chewing of the betel nut and the mouth is anything but beautiful.
The clothing of the Moros is scanty and of a cheap quality. The men,
when at work, often wear nothing but a breech cloth. When dressed up
they wear very tight fitting trousers of gay color; a tight fitting
waist and a turban completes their company dress. A garment much
worn by men and women is the sarong, which is a piece of cloth sewed
together like a roller towel and folded about the body. The men,
no matter what else they wear or fail to wear, have a scarf wound
around the waist in which they carry a knife, of which there are
several varieties, the bolo, the sarong and the kris being the most
popular. The Moros above mentioned consented to having a snapshot
taken, and their spokesman informed us in broken English that he
had visited the St. Louis Exposition. Captain McCoy, one of General
Wood's staff, who accompanied us as far as Zamboanga, explained to
us that a number of Moros were sent to St. Louis as an experiment
and that they had returned very much impressed with what they saw in
the United States.
As we proceeded on the road to Kiethley we passed the spot where a
sergeant was cut to pieces by the Moros three weeks before. While
all the Moros carry knives and are expert in their use, they set a
high estimate upon a gun, and the hapless traveler who carries one
of these envied weapons is apt to be waylaid, if alone, and lose his
life as a penalty for his rashness. With this incident fresh in his
memory, Col. Steever, of Camp Overton, furnished us with a mounted
guard. During the first part of the ride we passed through a forest
in which there were many large trees, some of them with fantastic
trunks, others festooned with vines and all surrounded by a thick
undergrowth which furnish an admirable cover for reptiles, beasts
or hostile natives. A boa-constrictor, thirty-six feet long, was
recently killed not far from the road on which we traveled.
I have referred to the killing of the sergeant and mentioned the
reason sometimes given. It is to be regretted that we occasionally
lose men for reasons that reflect upon us. Governor Devore, whose
jurisdiction extends over a part of Mindanao, officially reports the
killing of one soldier in a quarrel which grew out of an attempt by
the soldier to secure native wine without paying for it.
The latter part of the ride was through a series of small hills
covered with cogon grass. The soil looks like it might be very
fertile, and we passed one little ranch where an American had set
out some hemp plants, but there was little evidence of cultivation
along the line.
Camp Kiethley is about twenty-three hundred feet above the sea on
a hill which bears the same name, and commands a beautiful view
of the surrounding country. The ocean can be seen to the north,
and to the south a magnificent mountain lake stretches away for
twenty miles. A regiment under the command of Col. Williams is
stationed here, and this is considered one of the most healthful
situations in the Philippine Islands. The American officers insist
that Mindanao has a better climate than Luzon, and some of them are
enthusiastic about the possibility of drawing American settlers to
the island. General Wood has given much attention to the products
and climatic conditions, and has encouraged the coming of Americans
to Mindanao. Some two hundred of these have settled about Davao bay
in the southeastern part of the island and are cultivating hemp.
I found, however, that most of the members of the military circle
were counting the months intervening before the time of their return
to the States. The ride across Lake Lanao took us in sight of some
hostile country whose inhabitants still refuse to acknowledge
allegiance to the United States. Some of the cottas, or forts, from
which Moros have been driven within a few months were pointed out
to us. Governor Devore is building a model town on the shore of the
lake and hopes to convince the natives of the friendly intentions of
our country.
Camp Vickars is only a few miles south of the lake and near the
summit of the divide. The elevation here is twenty-nine hundred feet
and the site for the camp is well chosen. It is about twenty-two
miles from this point down to Malabang, the seaport on Llana bay,
and Captain Foster, who is in command at Camp Vickars, furnished
us with a mounted escort. The ride down to the sea was even more
enjoyable than the trip to Camp Kiethley, the road leading through
forests more dense and foliage more varied. The journey was
enlivened by the sight of a number of monkeys sporting in the trees
and by the discordant notes of the horn-bill. There is a waterfall
on the south side of the range also, nearly half way down the
summit, which, while it does not compare with the Argus Falls, could
be used for the development of several thousand horse power.
The camp at Malabang, now under command of Col. Varnum, has a
splendid water supply derived from several large springs, but
the harbor is so poor that the government is preparing to remove
the camp to Parang, about twenty miles south, where there is an
excellent harbor.
At Malabang we took our boat again, it having gone around the island
while we crossed over, and proceeded to Cotabata near the mouth
of the Rio Grande river. Acting Governor Boyd met us here with a
river steamer and took us to his headquarters about thirty-five
miles further up the river. We had a double purpose in making this
trip, first to see one of the most fertile valleys on the island;
and, second, to pay our respects to Datu Piang, a friendly Moro
of considerable influence among the natives. The Rio Grande is a
crooked stream, wending its way through the high grass, the monotony
being broken now and then by cocoanut groves, rice fields, mango
trees, banana plants and hemp. While there is no such systematic
cultivation here as in the northern islands, there is enough to show
the possibilities of the soil.
The moon was shining brightly when we approached Governor Boyd's
camp, and we were greeted by a salute of lantakas (small brass
cannon) so numerous that we lost all count. Datu Piang had inquired
of the governor how many guns should be fired and was told that as
I held no official position, he could use his own discretion as to
the number. In order that he might not err on the side of too few,
he fired between fifty and a hundred. We had scarcely disembarked
before he came in state to make an official call, seated on the roof
of his vinta, or ceremonial barge, manned by forty oarsmen. He was
accompanied by his leading datus, his Mohammedan Arab advisor and
his East Indian interpreter. He brought with him also his two sons
and two of the sons of the late Datu Ali, who met a violent death
last fall at the hands of the American troops.
I regret that we were not able to secure a photograph of him as he
approached, for it was a sight of royalty such as we had not before
witnessed. No language can convey the impression that he made upon
us as he approached the shore, smoking a cigar and flanked on either
side by a brown skinned urchin bearing an open umbrella of red silk
trimmed with wide yellow fringe. He stayed long enough to compliment
the American officials and to commend Judge Powell, who happened to
be with us, for treating the rich and the poor alike. Piang's sons
and the younger son of Datu Ali have been studying English under
the instruction of Governor Boyd's wife, and they showed creditable
progress in arithmetic as well as in the use of the language. Piang
said that he wanted the boys to finish their education in the United
States.
Datu Piang is not of royal blood; in fact, he is part Chinese, but
he showed himself so able a financier that he became indispensable
to Ali, the reigning Datu, and gave his daughter, Minka, to him in
marriage. When the Americans entered the valley, Piang counseled
surrender, but Ali went on the war path and he and his father-in-law
became such bitter enemies that the latter refused to receive his
daughter into his house after Ali's death, until urged to do so by
the American officers.
We returned with Piang in his barge and spent a half an hour at his
house. In that dimly lighted upper room there gathered a dusky,
half-bare crowd of men and women and children, in the center of
which sat Minka, the child-widow, just recovering from the wounds
which she received at the time of her husband's death. I never felt
more deeply, than when I looked upon them, the responsibility of our
nation, or more anxious that our country shall so act as to bring
to these people the largest possible amount of good. One would be
hard hearted, indeed, who could see in them and in their habitation
nothing but the possibility of exploitation.
When we left, Piang gave a lantaka to each of the men in our party,
and to some of us spears and knives in addition, while the ladies
were remembered with vessels of brass, of native manufacture,
and sarongs. If our visit had been a hostile one, the cannons
and weapons carried away would have made it memorable, for many
expeditions have returned with less of the spoils of war.
Our next stop was at Zamboanga, the most important port on the
island and the headquarters of Governor Wood. The harbor at the city
is not very well protected, but there is a little bay about eight
miles away which affords both deep water and shelter. We found more
Americans at Zamboanga than at any point outside of Manila, nearly
all of them being in the service of the government. We visited two
Moro schools here and listened to an address of welcome in English
delivered by one of the students. Dr. Saleeby, an Armenian, is the
superintendent of schools in Zamboanga and has furnished a great
deal of information in regard to the tradition, history and customs
of the Moros. He has also prepared primers in Arabic for the Moros
of Mindanao and the Sulu Islands.
[Illustration: MOROS.]
Our tour of the islands ended at Jolo, or rather at Maibun, on the
other side of the island. Jolo is the chief seaport of the Sulus,
and the Spanish alternated with the natives in occupying the space
within the walled city. A guard is still kept at the gate and the
Moros are not allowed to remain within the walls at night. They
enter freely during the day, but are required to leave their weapons
outside the gate. There are only five Americans in Jolo, besides
the government officials; two of these keep restaurants, two have
saloons and the fifth has recently opened a photograph gallery.
Just outside of the city walls there is a Chinese village (as there
is also at Zamboanga), the mercantile business being largely in the
hands of the Chinese in both of these towns. There are a number of
Christian Filipinos at both Zamboanga and Jolo.
The sultan of Sulu used to live in Jolo when the Spanish were not
there, but during their occupancy of the town, and since, he has
lived at Maibun on the opposite shore some ten miles distant. Major
Stafford, who is in command of the post there, in the absence of
Colonel Scott, invited the sultan to come to Jolo on the day of
our arrival, and he appeared promptly on time. So much has been
written of him in the United States that the readers of these
articles may be interested in a description from life. He came on
a pony, accompanied by a servant, who held over him a large red
umbrella, and followed by a retinue of datus, head men and small
boys. A native band beat drums and tom-toms as the procession moved
along. The sultan himself was dressed in modern clothes, but all the
rest wore the native dress. His single-breasted, long-tailed blue
broadcloth coat was buttoned to the throat with gold buttons and
his trousers were of the same material. He wore tan shoes and a fez
of black and red, and carried a gold-headed ivory cane given him by
the Philippine commission upon his last visit to Manila. He is small
of stature, but compact in build, and carries himself with dignity
and reserve. His teeth are black and he shares with his countrymen
a fondness for the betel nut and tobacco. His prime minister, Haji
Butu, who accompanied him, speaks more English than the sultan,
though the latter is able to use a few words. After a short call
we all repaired to a hall near by where a spear dance had been
arranged, and we saw the natives, men and women, go through native
dances which, in some respects, resemble those of the American
Indian.
The next morning we crossed the island under the protection of a
troop of cavalry and returned the sultan's call. (A few miles from
the trail stands a mountain[3] where about eighty Moros still refuse
allegiance to our government.) He lives in a nipa house but has a
frame building covered with galvanized iron (still unfinished) in
which he receives his guests. He sent for one of his wives (of whom
he has four); he has three or four concubines, he does not know
which, but these are not included in the list of wives. The prime
minister has four wives and two concubines, and one of the head men,
at whose house we stopped on the way, had several wives. The sultan
said that the wives were usually kept in separate houses, but that
his lived together in one house.
[3] Since our visit the Americans have attacked this hill and taken
it with great slaughter.
The sultana, whom we saw, was dressed in silk, with trousers of
red and white striped satin and wore high heeled shoes. She has a
strong face, one of the most intelligent that we saw in Sulu. Both
the sultan and his wife wore diamond and pearl rings. At our request
the sultan brought forth his diamonds and pearls and exhibited his
uniforms, heavy with gold braid and buttons. He is now drawing a
salary of about five thousand dollars a year from the American
government for exerting his influence in our behalf, and as a matter
of economy it might be cheaper to put the datus on the pay roll than
to suppress them by force of arms. His salary, however, is probably
due as much to his being the head of the church as to his fighting
qualities.
We sailed from Maibun to the Bornean coast in order to take a
steamer for Singapore, and as we are studying colonialism, it was
probably fortunate that we did, for we found a few foreigners
developing North Borneo with Chinese coolies, the natives being lost
sight of entirely.
At Sandakan there are thirty-eight English, two Germans and two
thousand Chinese, but we searched in vain for a native. In and about
Kudat, another Bornean port, there are twenty-two Europeans and
ten thousand Chinese, and here we found only a few of the original
inhabitants. At Labuan there are about twenty-five foreigners, and
the local business is in the hands of the Chinese and East Indians.
I refer to the plan of development adopted in those parts of Borneo
at which our steamer stopped because they throw light upon the
colonial question with which we have to deal. Having described
briefly, but as fully as space permits, the conditions as I found
them in the Philippines, I shall devote the next article to a
discussion of the policy which should be pursued by the United
States in regard to them.
[Illustration: MORO SCHOOL--ZAMBOANGA]
CHAPTER XVI.
THE PHILIPPINE PROBLEM.
Having in previous articles discussed the conditions as I found them
in the Philippines, let us consider what the United States should do
in regard to the Filipinos and their islands.
First, as to the northern group of islands--the islands north of
Mindanao. Have the Filipinos a right to self government? Do they
desire self government and independence? Have they the capacity for
self government?
The first question must be answered in the affirmative if our theory
of government is correct. That governments derive their just powers
from the consent of the governed, is either true or false; if true,
we cannot deny its application to the Filipinos; if false, we must
find some other foundation for our own government.
To the second question I am able to answer, yes. My visit to the
Philippines has settled this question in my own mind. I have heard
people in America affirm that the intelligent Filipinos preferred
American sovereignty to self government, but this is unqualifiedly
false. Captain J. A. Moss, a member of General Corbin's personal
staff, recently made a trip through the provinces of Pampanga, Nueva
Ecija and Pangasinan and published a journal of his trip in one of
the Manila papers upon his return. He concluded his observations as
follows: "The discharged soldiers who are married to native women
and who are 'growing up with the country' and are, therefore, in a
most excellent position to feel the native pulse, all told me the
great majority of the natives have no use for us. Ex-interpreters
and other Filipinos with whom I was on intimate, cordial relations
while serving in the provinces, told me the same thing. I have,
therefore, from the foregoing, come to the conclusion that the
Filipinos may be divided into three classes: (a) The 'precious few,'
comprising those who are really friendly towards the Americans and
think our government beneficial to the islands. (b) Those who are in
some way beneficiaries of the government and entertain for us what
may be termed 'expedient friendship.' (c) The great majority, who
have absolutely no use for us and to please whom we cannot get out
of the islands any too soon."
[Illustration: HENRY C. IDE, GOV. GEN. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.]
The conclusion drawn by Captain Moss is warranted by the facts, and
the feeling for independence is stronger in Manila, if possible,
than in the provinces. I talked with Filipinos, official and
unofficial, and while they differed in the degree of friendliness
which they felt toward the United States, all expected ultimate
independence. The college students of Manila in the various law
schools, medical colleges, and engineering schools, numbering in
all about a thousand, prepared and presented to me a memorial of
more than fifty printed pages. This was prepared by sub-committees
and afterwards discussed, adopted and signed by the students. It
presented an elaborate review of the economic, industrial and
political situation, viewed from the standpoint of these young men.
It criticised certain acts of the American government thought
to be unjust and set forth arguments in favor of self government
and independence--arguments so fundamental and so consistent with
American ideals that no American statesman would have publicly
disputed them ten years ago.
The Filipinos point out that the Americans lack that sympathy for,
and interest in, the Filipinos necessary to just legislation,
and this argument is no reflection upon the good intentions of
Americans. In fact, good intention is generally admitted, but
Americans at home recognize, as do Filipinos here, that good
intentions are not all that is required. We have in the United
States men of equal general intelligence but differing so in
sympathy that no amount of good intent can keep one from doing what
the other regards as unjust. Take for instance, the representative
capitalist and the average laboring man; neither would feel that the
other, however well meaning, was competent to speak for him.
[Illustration: DATU PIANG AND GRANDSON.]
The Filipinos also deny that the Americans are sufficiently
acquainted with Philippine affairs to legislate wisely. We also
recognize the force of this argument at home, and we leave the
people of each state to act upon their own affairs. The people of a
city would resent interference in their local affairs by the people
of the county although identical in race and language. And they
would resent just as much the attempt of any group of men, however
wise, to direct their government during a temporary residence.
How, then, can congress expect to legislate wisely for people who
are not only separated from America by the widest of the oceans,
but differ from the people of the United States in color, race,
history and traditions? How can a body of men, however benevolent
and intelligent, hope by a few months' residence to so identify
themselves with the Filipinos as to make rules and regulations
suited to their needs?
The Filipinos also present an argument against the expensiveness of
American rule, and this argument is not only unanswerable, but it is
directed against an evil which is without remedy. If Americans are
to hold office in the Philippines, they must be well paid. They must
not only receive as much as they would receive in the United States
for the same work, but they must receive more in order to compensate
them for serving so far from home. This is not only theoretically
true, but the theory is exemplified in the pay roll. The governor
general receives $20,000 a year, two-fifths of the salary of the
president of the United States, and yet, what a contrast between
the duties and responsibilities of the two positions! And what a
difference, too, in the wealth of the two countries and in the
ability of the taxpayers of the two countries to pay the salaries!
The three American members of the commission (excluding the
governor general) receive $15,000 per year, almost twice the salary
of cabinet officers and three times the salary of senators and
members of congress. It is true that these salaries do not appear
as salaries paid for work on the commission, but as each American
member of the commission receives $10,000 as head of a department
and $5,000 as a member of the commission, his total income is
$15,000 while the Filipino members of the commission receive but
$5,000.
The members of the Philippine supreme court receive $10,000 each
(the Filipino members of the court receiving the same as the
Americans), a sum much larger than that usually paid to judges in
the United States in courts of similar importance. This high range
of salaries runs through the entire list of civil officials, and
there is no chance of lowering it. Except in the case of judges, the
Filipino officials, as a rule, receive considerably less than the
Americans performing similar work, and this is a constant source of
complaint. To Americans it is a sufficient answer to say that high
salaries are necessary to secure able and efficient officials from
the United States, but the Filipino is quick to respond, "why, then,
do you insist upon sending us Americans to do what our people could
do and would do for less compensation?"
Not only must the salaries of Americans be high, but Americans
must be surrounded with comforts to which the average Filipino is
not accustomed. No one can remain in the Philippines long without
hearing of the Benguet road and the enormous amount expended in its
construction. There is a mountain resort in Benguet Province, in
north central Luzon, which the commission thought might be developed
into a summer capital or a place to which the families of the
officials, if not the officials themselves, might retreat during
the heated term. The railroad running from Manila to Dagupan would
carry the health-seeker to within thirty or forty miles of Benguet,
and an engineer estimated that a wagon road could be constructed the
rest of the way for $75,000. It seemed worth while to the commission
to appropriate that much for a purpose which promised so much for
the health and comfort of those engaged in the benevolent work
of establishing a stable government. The commission could hardly
be blamed for relying upon the opinion of the engineer, and the
engineer doubtless meant well. But the first appropriation scarcely
made an impression, and the second engineer estimated that the cost
would be a little greater. Having invested $75,000, the commission
did not like to abandon the plan and so further appropriations were
made until more than two millions and a half dollars, gold, have
been drained from the Insular treasury, and the Benguet road is not
yet completed. If it is ever completed, it will require a constant
outlay of a large sum annually to keep it in repair.
Having met the members of the commission and other Americans
residing in the Philippines, I am glad to testify that they are,
as a rule, men of character, ability and standing. The personnel
of Philippine official life is not likely to be improved, and so
long as we occupy the islands under a colonial policy, the Benguet
experiment is liable to be repeated in various forms, and yet the
Filipinos point to the Benguet folly to show that the Americans are
both ignorant of local conditions and partial toward the foreign
population.
The third question, are the Filipinos competent to govern
themselves? is the one upon which the decision must finally
turn. Americans will not long deny the fundamental principles
upon which our own government rests, nor will they upon mature
reflection assert that foreigners can sympathize as fully with the
Filipino as representatives chosen by the Filipinos themselves.
The expensiveness of a foreign government and its proneness to
misunderstand local needs will be admitted by those who give the
subject any thought, but well-meaning persons may still delude
themselves with the belief that Spanish rule has incapacitated the
present generation for wisely exercising the franchise, or that
special conditions may unfit the Filipinos for the establishment and
maintenance of as good a government as can be imposed upon them from
without.
[Illustration: DR. G. APACIBLE.]
Before visiting the Philippines, I advocated independence on the
broad ground that all people are capable of self-government--not
that all people, if left to themselves, would maintain governments
equally good, or that all people are capable of participating upon
equal terms in the maintenance of the same government, but that all
people are endowed by their Creator with capacity to establish and
maintain a government suited to their own needs and sufficient for
their own requirements. To deny this proposition would, as Henry
Clay suggested more than half a century ago, be to impeach the
wisdom and benevolence of the Creator. I advocated independence
for another reason, viz., because a refusal to admit the Filipinos
capable of self-government would tend to impair the strength of the
doctrine of self-government when applied to our own people. Since
becoming acquainted with the Filipinos I can argue from observation
as well as from theory, and I insist that the Filipinos are capable
of maintaining a stable government without supervision from without.
I do not mean to say that they could maintain their independence,
if attacked by some great land-grabbing power (it would be easier
to protect them from aggression if they were independent, for then
they would be interested with us against the attacking party),
but that so far as their own internal affairs are concerned, they
do not need to be subject to any alien government. There is a wide
difference, it is true, between the general intelligence of the
educated Filipino and the intelligence of the laborer on the street
and in the field, but this is not a barrier to self-government.
Intelligence controls in every government, except where it is
suppressed by military force. Where all the people vote, the
intelligent man has more influence than the unintelligent one, and
where there is an obvious inequality, a suffrage qualification
usually excludes the more ignorant.
Take the case of the Japanese for instance, no one is disposed to
question their ability to govern themselves, and yet the suffrage
qualifications are such that less than one-tenth of the adult males
are permitted to vote. Nine-tenths of the Japanese have no part in
the law making, either directly or through representatives, and
still Japan is the marvel of the present generation. In Mexico the
gap between the educated classes and the peons is fully as great, if
not greater, than the gap between the extremes of Filipino society,
and yet Mexico is maintaining a stable government, and no party in
the United States advocates our making a colony of Mexico on the
theory that she cannot govern herself.
Those who question the capacity of the Filipinos for self-government
overlook the stimulating influence of self-government upon the
people; they forget that responsibility is an educating influence
and that patriotism raises up persons fitted for the work that
needs to be done. Those who speak contemptuously of the capacity
of the Filipinos, ignore the fact that they were fighting for
self-government before the majority of our people knew where the
Philippine islands were. Two years before our war with Spain,
Rizal was put to death because of his advocacy of larger liberty
for his people, and after witnessing the celebration of the ninth
anniversary of his death, I cannot doubt that his martyrdom would
be potent to stir the hearts of coming generations whenever any
government, foreign or domestic, disregarded the rights of the
people.
A year before our war with Spain the Filipino people were in
insurrection against that country, and they demanded among other
things "parliamentary representation, freedom of the press,
toleration of all religious sects, laws common with hers, and
administrative and economic autonomy."
Here was a recognition of the doctrine of self-government and a
recognition of the freedom of the press as the bulwark of liberty.
There was also a demand for freedom of conscience and the right
to administer their own affairs for their own interests. In the
proclamation from which I have quoted there was no demand for
independence, but it must be remembered that we did not demand
independence from England until after we found it was impossible to
secure justice under a colonial system.
Whether by the demand for "laws common with hers" the Filipinos
meant that they wanted the protection of laws made by the Spanish
for themselves, I do not know. If that is the meaning of their
demand, they must be credited with understanding the importance of a
principle to which some of our own public men seem to be blind. The
evil of a colonial policy, the gross injustice of it, arises largely
from the fact that the colony is governed by laws made for it, but
not binding upon the country which makes the laws. The Mexican who
does not participate in the making of the laws of his country has
at least the protection of living under laws which bind the maker
as well as himself. So with the colored man of the south who does
not vote, the laws which he must obey must be obeyed by those who
do vote, and the taxes which he pays must be paid also by those who
enjoy the franchise.
[Illustration: PLOWING IN SULU LAND.]
But under a colonial system the subject must obey a law made for him
by one who is not himself subject to the law. The distinction is so
plain that it ought to be apparent to anyone upon a moment's thought.
If it is objected that but a small proportion of the Filipinos
are educated, it may be answered that the number of the educated
is increasing every day. The fact that the Filipinos support the
schools so enthusiastically, even when those schools are established
by outsiders and when the teaching is in a language strange to them,
speaks eloquently in their behalf. Nor is this a new-born zeal. The
Aguinaldo government provided for public schools and, cock fighting
being prohibited, cock pits were actually turned into school houses
in some sections over which the authority of his government extended.
It is objected by some that the intelligent Filipinos would, under
independence, use the instrumentalities of government to tyrannize
over the masses. This is not a new argument; it is always employed
where an excuse for outside interference is desired, but there is no
reason to believe that the Filipinos would be less interested in the
people of their own race and blood than are aliens whose salaries
are so large that it is impossible for them to claim that they serve
from purely altruistic motives.
That those in power in Washington contemplate independence must
be admitted, unless those who speak for the administration intend
gross deception. In his speech on the evening of Rizal Day, December
last, General Smith, one of the Philippine commission and head of
the educational department,[4] said: "Popular self-government for
the Philippines is the purpose of both people. If either seeks to
achieve it independent of the other, the experiment is doomed to
failure. If both work for it harmoniously there is no reason why it
should not be accomplished. If it is accomplished, the history of
the Philippines will hold no brighter page than that which recites
the struggle of a simple people to fit themselves for independent
government. If it is accomplished, the fairest page in American
history will be that which records the creation of a new nation
and the unselfish development of an alien race." If this is not a
promise of ultimate independence, what possible meaning can the
language have? If the administration does not intend that the
Filipinos shall some day be independent, its representatives should
not hold out this hope.
[4] General Smith has since been made the president of the
Philippine commission.
But there is even higher authority for the hope of independence.
When the so-called "Taft Party" visited the Philippines last summer,
Secretary Taft made a speech in which he assumed to speak for the
president. Referring to the president's opinion, he said: "He
believes, as I believe and as do most Americans who have had great
familiarity with the facts, that it is absolutely impossible to
hope that the lessons which it is the duty of the United States to
teach the whole Filipino people, can be learned by them, as a body,
in less than a generation; and that the probability is that it will
take a longer period in which to render them capable of establishing
and maintaining a stable independent government."
This, it is true, states when independence cannot be hoped for,
rather than when it can be hoped for, and yet, no honest man would
use the language Secretary Taft employed without having in his mind
the idea that independence would be granted at some future date. But
his concluding words even more clearly present the hope of ultimate
independence, for he says: "All that can be asserted is that the
policy which has several times been authoritatively stated, that
this Filipino government shall be carried on solely for the benefit
of the Filipino people and that self-government shall be extended to
the Filipino people, as speedily as they show themselves fitted to
assume and exercise it, must be pursued consistently by the people
of the United States or else they shall forfeit their honor."
[Illustration: SAILING IN MANILA BAY.]
Here Secretary Taft pledges the American government as far as he
has power to pledge it--and he pledges the president also--to
extend self-government to the Filipinos as rapidly as they show
themselves fitted for it. The great trouble about these utterances
and similar ones is that they are not binding upon the government,
and the Filipinos are constantly disturbed by doubts and fears.
Both at Manila and in the United States ridicule is often cast
upon the aspirations of the Filipino people, and plans are made
which are inconsistent with ultimate independence. The attempt
on the part of the commission to issue perpetual franchises is
naturally, and I think rightfully, opposed by all Filipinos. If
our occupation is to be temporary, why should our legislation
be permanent? Why bind the ward in perpetuity so that he cannot
control his own affairs when he reaches years of maturity? What
is needed is an immediate declaration of the nation's purpose to
recognize the independence of the Filipinos when a stable government
is established. It is not necessary that a definite time shall be
stated, nor is it so important just when the Filipinos are to have
their independence, as it is that the nation's purpose shall be
made known in an authoritative way and that the subsequent acts
of our government shall be in harmony with that declaration. I
believe that a stable government can be established within a short
time and that independence could be granted with advantage to our
government and with safety to the Filipinos within five years at the
farthest. But whether independence is to be granted in five or ten
or fifteen years or after a longer period, there should be no longer
delay about announcing a policy. I have tried to impress upon the
Filipinos the necessity of leaving this question to the people of
the United States and the importance of proving in every possible
way the virtues, the character and the progress of the people; I
have pointed out the folly of insurrection and the damage done to
their cause by resorting to force of arms, but I am equally anxious
to impress upon my own countrymen the importance of dealing frankly
and fairly with the Filipinos.
We have more at stake in this matter than have the Filipinos. They
still have their national greatness to achieve; our position is
already established. We have the greatest republic known to history;
we are the foremost champion of the doctrine of self-government
and one of the leading exponents of Christianity. We can afford,
aye our honor requires us, to be candid with the Filipinos and to
take them into our confidence. We dare not make them victims of
commercial greed or use their islands for purely selfish purposes.
It is high time to announce a purpose that shall be righteous and
to carry out that purpose by means that shall be honorable. In my
next article I shall endeavor to elaborate a plan which will, in my
judgment, bring independence to the Filipinos, relieve us of the
expense of colonialism, secure us every legitimate advantage which
could be expected from a permanent occupation of the islands and, in
addition, enable our nation to set the world an example in dealing
with tropical races.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE PHILIPPINE PROBLEM--Continued.
In speaking of the Philippine independence I have presented some
of the reasons given by Filipinos for desiring it, but there are
arguments which ought to appeal especially to Americans. If it were
our duty to maintain a colonial policy, no argument could be made
against it, because duties are imperative and never conflict. If,
on the other hand the Filipinos desire independence and are capable
of self-government, we cannot justify the retention of the islands
unless we are prepared to put our own interests above theirs, and
even then we must be satisfied that our interests will be advanced
by a colonial policy.
In the beginning of the controversy there were many who believed
that the Philippine Islands would become a source of profit to the
United States. It was confidently predicted that a multitude of
Americans would flock to the islands and find rich reward in the
development of their resources. These hopes have not been realized.
Except in Mindanao, of which I shall speak later, there is no
evidence of any present or future colonization by Americans. There
are a few Americans engaged in business in Manila and at other army
posts, but these are insignificant in number and the business done
by them is nothing as compared with the cost of colonialism to the
United States. We are maintaining about twelve thousand American
soldiers in the island and five thousand native scouts, officered
by Americans and paid for by the United States. Besides this outlay
for the army, our Philippine policy has been made the excuse for a
large increase in our naval expenditures. While it is difficult to
determine accurately the annual cost of our Philippine policy to
the people of the United States, it is safe to say that it exceeds
the value of all the merchandise that we export to the Philippine
Islands and all the money made by Americans in the islands,
including salaries paid to Americans from taxes collected in the
Philippines--and the expenses are borne by all the people while
the benefits are received by a mere handful. No one, therefore, can
justify the holding of the Philippines on the ground that they are a
pecuniary advantage.
If it is argued that we need the Philippine Islands as a base for
the extension of our trade in the Orient, I answer that it is not
necessary to deny the Filipinos independence in order to hold a
sufficient number of harbors and coaling stations to answer all
the requirements of trade. The Filipinos are not only anxious to
have the advantage of our protection, but they recognize that to
protect them we must have harbors and a naval base. In return for
the services we have rendered them we have a right to ask, and they
would gladly grant, such reservations as we need. These reservations
could be properly fortified and would furnish coaling stations
both for our navy and for our merchant marine. It goes without
saying that in case we had war with an oriental nation, it would be
infinitely better to have the Filipinos supporting us, in their own
interest as well as out of gratitude, than to have them awaiting an
opportunity for insurrection.
[Illustration: CARABAO CART AND DRIVER.]
I have already referred to the danger which may come to the
principle of self-government in the United States from the
systematic denial of self-government to the Filipinos. As our
officials can only explain their continued presence in the
Philippines by alleging incapacity in the Filipinos, they find
themselves unconsciously surrendering the governmental theories
which were until recently universally accepted in our country. We
cannot overlook the influence that these changed opinions may
have upon the politics of our own country if a colonial policy is
indefinitely continued.
Neither can we ignore the fact that our prestige as a teacher
of the principles of republican government must be impaired if
we hold colonies under the law of force and defend ourselves by
using the arguments employed by kings and emperors as an excuse
for denying self-government to their own people. We cannot preach
that governments derive their just powers from the consent of
the governed and at the same time adopt a different principle in
practice.
[Illustration: HARVESTING SUGAR CANE.]
It is worth while also to remember that foreign service is more or
less demoralizing to our troops. Our soldiers are good, average
men, but all men are more or less influenced by environment, and
our soldiers cannot be expected to maintain as high a standard of
morality when far away from home and the influences of home, as when
their good purposes are strengthened by the presence of mothers,
sisters and friends. The hospital records show the extent to which
our soldiers yield to the temptations which surround the post, and
the saloons that follow our army speak forcibly of the dangers which
attend foreign service. Can we afford to subject the morals of our
young men to such severe tests unless there is some national gain
commensurate with the loss?
If our nation would at once declare its intention to treat the
Filipinos living north of Mindanao as it treated the Cubans, and
then proceed, first, to establish a stable government, patterned
after our own; second, to convert that government into a native
government by the substitution of Filipino for American officials
as rapidly as possible; third, to grant independence to the
Filipinos, reserving such harbors and naval stations as may be
thought necessary; and, fourth, to announce its purpose to protect
the Filipinos from outside interferences while they work out their
destiny--if our nation would do this, it would save a large annual
expense, protect its trade interests, gratify the just ambition of
the Filipinos for national existence and repeat the moral victory
won in Cuba.
[Illustration: THE RICE HARVEST.]
In return for protection from without, the Filipinos would agree, as
the Cubans did, that in their dealings with other nations they would
not embarrass us.
The reservations retained could be converted into centers for the
extension of American influence and American ideals, and our nation
would increase its importance as a real world power. Unless our
religion and our philosophy are entirely wrong, moral forces are
more permanent and, in the end, more potent than physical force, and
our nation has an opportunity to prove that a nation's greatness,
like the greatness of an individual, is measured by service. It also
has an opportunity to prove that the Oriental can be led by advice
and improved by example and does not need to be coerced by military
power.
Our reservations ought to contain model schools, with a central
college, experimental farms and institutions in which the people
could be trained in the arts and industries most suited to the
natural resources of the country. Our nation is unfitted by history
and by tradition to exploit the tropical countries according to
the methods employed by the monarchies of Europe. To hold people
in subjection requires a large military expenditure; if we were to
attempt to make our own people bear such a burden, they would soon
protest; if we were to make the Filipinos bear it, it would crush
them. The Filipinos would resist such a policy, if employed by
us, more bitterly than if it were employed by a European country,
because they have learned from us the lessons of liberty. Subject
peoples are not willing laborers, and our country would not endorse
a system of compulsory labor. Education, too, is inconsistent with a
permanent colonial system and cannot be carried far without danger
to the ruling power.
We must choose, therefore, between two policies, and the sooner the
choice is made, the better. As we cannot adopt the European policy
without a radical departure from our ideals, and ultimately from
our form of government at home, we are virtually forced to adopt
a plan distinctly American--a plan in which advice, example and
helpfulness shall be employed as means of reaching the native heart.
Some of the European nations have been content to seize land and
develop it with European capital and Chinese labor; our plan must
be to develop the natives themselves by showing them better methods
and by opening before them a wider horizon. At our reservations
there would be religious freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of the
press, self-government and public instruction for all, and every
uplifting influence would have free play. If we believe that right
makes might and that truth has within itself a propagating power, we
cannot doubt the spread of American civilization from these American
centers.
While the Philippine Islands are under American authority, the
government ought to be administered for the benefit of the
Filipinos, in accordance with Secretary Taft's promise. If they
are to be subject to our tariff laws when they buy of other
nations, they ought to have free trade with us, but the Philippine
Islands are so far from us that it would be more just to allow the
Philippine tariff to be made by the Philippine assembly soon to be
established. The Filipinos belong to the Orient and their dealings
must be largely with the countries of the Orient; unless they are in
a position to have their tariff laws conform to their geographical
position, there must necessarily be friction and injustice.
So important are geographical considerations that Americans who
see fit to take up their residence upon such reservation as we
retain for harbors, coaling stations and a naval base ought to be
freed from the fetters of our tariff laws and shipping laws. I
even venture to suggest the creation of an Oriental territory, to
be composed of such stations and reservations as we may now have
or hereafter acquire in the Orient. This territory should have a
delegate in congress like other territories, but should be freed
by constitutional amendment from our tariff laws and permitted to
legislate for itself upon the subject. It could thus establish free
ports, if it chose, and give to its people the trade advantages
enjoyed by those who live in Hong Kong, Singapore and other open
ports.
In what I have said about independence and self-government in the
Philippines, I have been speaking of Luzon and the other islands
north of Mindanao. As I have already pointed out, the conditions
existing in Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago are so different from
those existing in the northern islands that the two groups should
be dealt with separately. It would not be fair to deny independence
to the Christian Filipinos living in the north merely because the
Moros have never shown any desire to adopt a republican form of
government. (They live under a sort of feudal system, with sultan
and datu as the ruling lords.)
But while the work of establishing a stable government among the
Moros is a more difficult one and will proceed more slowly, the same
principles should govern it. The Moros have furnished a great many
pirates for the southern seas, and the influence of the adventurer
and free-booter is still felt in Moroland. Then, too, they have an
unpleasant way of killing Christians, on the theory that by doing
so they not only insure an entrance into heaven, but earn the right
to four wives in their celestial home. Occasionally a Moro takes an
oath to die killing Christians (he is called a juramentado), and
after a season of fasting and prayer, and generally with shaven
eyebrows, he goes forth to slay until he himself is slain. Besides
those who deliberately take human life by retail or by wholesale,
there are religious fanatics who act under frenzy. All in all, the
Moro country is far below the northern islands in civilization
whether the civilization is measured by a material, an intellectual,
a political or a moral standard. But even among the Moros I believe
it is possible to introduce American ideas. Already some progress
is being made in the establishment of schools, and Governor Findley
has succeeded in interesting the natives in exchanges where trade is
carried on according to American methods. While polygamy is still
permitted, slavery is being exterminated and the natives are being
shown the advantage of free labor. I believe that even among them
our work can be advanced by assuring them of ultimate independence,
to be granted as soon as a government is established capable of
maintaining order and enforcing law. By educating young Moros and
then using them in official position, we can convince the Moros of
the sincerity of our friendship, and these officials will exert an
increasing influence for good. In the meantime, we should establish
experimental stations and by the use of native labor train the
people to make the best use of the resources of their country. I
believe General Wood is already planning for an experimental farm
near Zamboanga.
While the Moros are a fierce people and accustomed to bloodshed,
they have enough good qualities to show the possibility of
improvement. They are a temperate people, abstaining entirely from
intoxicating liquors, and while they practice polygamy and add
concubinage to plurality of wives, they carefully guard the chastity
of their women. They have their system of laws, with courts for the
investigation of criminal charges and for the imposition of fines.
The existing code in the Sulu archipelago, while lamentably below
our penal code, shows a desire for the establishment of justice
between man and man. Dr. Saleeby has published a translation of the
existing code, together with the code (not yet adopted) prepared by
the present prime minister of the sultan, and a comparison of the
two shows distinctly that American influence is already being felt.
While I do not believe that any large number of Americans can be
induced to settle permanently in Mindanao (and Mindanao seems to
be the most inviting place), there will be ample time to test this
question while a government is being established among the Moros.
It is more likely that the waste lands will be settled upon by
immigrants from the northern islands and that in time the Christian
Filipinos will be sufficiently numerous to control the islands, and
they can then be annexed to the northern group.
The leaven of American ideas is already spreading. At Zamboanga we
met Datu Mandi, who has adopted the American dress and opened one
of his buildings for a Moro school for girls. He is manifesting an
increasing interest in the American work. Datu Mandi's brother
was one of the Moros taken to the World's Fair and he, too, has
abandoned the native dress. I have already referred to the desire
expressed by Datu Piang to have his sons attend school in America.
This is a good sign, and money spent in educating them would reduce
military expenditures in that part of the island. The sultan of
Sulu also wants to visit America, and a trip would do him more good
than a year's salary. As soon as we convince these people that our
purpose is an unselfish one, they will become willing pupils, and in
the course of time they will find the home more congenial than the
harem and the ways of peace more pleasant than the war path.
While our plans should be unselfish, they would probably prove
profitable in the end, for friends are better customers than
enemies, and our trade is apt to develop in proportion as we teach
the natives to live as we do. When Solomon came to the throne,
instead of choosing riches or long life, he asked for wisdom that
he might govern his people aright, and he received not only wisdom,
but the riches and the length of days which he had regarded as less
important. May we not expect a similar reward if we choose the
better part and put the welfare of the natives above our own gain?
After all, the test question is, have we "faith in the wisdom of
doing right?" Are we willing to trust the conscience and moral sense
of those whom we desire to aid?
Individuals have put Christianity to the test and have convinced
themselves that benevolence, unarmed, is mightier than selfishness
equipped with sword and mail, but nations have as yet seldom
ventured to embody the spirit of the Nazarene in their foreign
policy. Is it not an opportune time for our nation to make the
trial? Our president has recently been hailed as a peacemaker
because he took the initiative in terminating a great war, but
this involved no sacrifice upon our part. May we not win a greater
victory by proving our disinterested concern for the welfare of a
people separated from us not only by vast waters but by race, by
language and by color?
Carlyle in concluding his history of the French revolution declared
that thought is stronger than artillery parks and that back of every
great thought is love. This is a lofty platform, but not too lofty
for the United States of America.
CHAPTER XVIII.
JAVA--THE BEAUTIFUL.
We had not thought of visiting Java, but we heard so much of it from
returning tourists as we journeyed through Japan, China and the
Philippines, that we turned aside from Singapore and devoted two
weeks to a trip through the island. Steamers run to both Batavia
(which is the capital and the metropolis of the western end of
the island) and Soerabaja, the chief city of eastern Java, and a
railroad about four hundred miles long connects these two cities. A
tour of the islands can thus be made in from ten to fifteen days,
according to connections, but unless one is pressed for time, he can
profitably employ a month or more in this little island, attractive
by nature and made still more beautiful by the hand of man. There
are excellent hotels at the principal stopping places, and the rates
are more moderate than we have found elsewhere in the Orient.
The lover of mountain scenery finds much in Java to satisfy the eye.
The railroad from Batavia to Soerabaja twice crosses the range, and
as the trains run only in the day time, one can, without leaving the
cars, see every variety of tropical growth, from swamp to mountain
top, from cocoanut groves and rice fields on the low land to the tea
gardens and coffee plantations of the higher altitudes, not to speak
of mountain streams, gorges and forests.
Java is the home of the volcano and contains more of these fiery
reservoirs than any other area on the earth's surface. While only
about six hundred miles in length and from sixty to a hundred and
twenty miles in width, it has, according to Wallace, thirty-eight
volcanoes, some of them still smoking and all of them interesting
relics of a period when the whole island was deluged with molten
lava. Some assert that almost all of Java has been built up by the
eruptions of volcanoes. Two extinct volcanoes, Salak and Gedah, can
be seen from Buitenzorg, and from the top of Boro Boedoer temple
nine volcanoes can be counted when the air is clear--at least
Groneman so declares in his description of this temple, although not
so many were visible the day we visited there.
[Illustration: A DRIVEWAY IN BOTANICAL GARDEN--BUITENZORG]
It is only twenty-three years ago that Krakatau, which stands upon
an island of the same name in the Strait of Sunda, just off the east
end of Java, startled the world with an eruption seldom equaled in
history. It began smoking in May, 1883, and continued active until
the 26th of August following, when explosions took place which
were heard at Batavia, eighty miles distant, and the next day the
explosions were still more gigantic, being audible two thousand
miles away. The loss of life caused by the mud and ashes and by the
waves set in motion by the eruption was officially estimated at
over thirty-six thousand. Various scientific societies, especially
of Holland, England and France, made exhaustive reports on the
Krakatau eruption. The Royal Society of Great Britain estimated that
the volume of smoke arose to a height of seventeen miles and that
several cubic miles of mud, lava and stones poured forth from the
crater to the ruin of a large area. At one place the water rose more
than seventy-five feet and threw a steamship over the harbor-head
into a Chinese market; but under the influence of a tropical sun and
abundant moisture the slopes of the volcano soon grew green again,
and now the natives speed their skiffs through the adjacent waters
and the inhabitants of this volcanic belt live and move with little
thought of the mighty forces which have so often demonstrated their
powers in the archipelago.
[Illustration: EXTINCT VOLCANO, SALAK]
If one is interested in the study of trees, plants and flowers he
can employ himself indefinitely in the famous botanical garden in
Buitenzorg. While Batavia is the normal capital of Netherlands
India, the governor general lives at Buitenzorg--a city built on a
mountain slope forty miles from Batavia, where an altitude of some
seven hundred feet gives an average temperature of eight degrees
below that of the sea level. The botanical garden surrounds the
palace and for nearly a century the authorities have been collecting
specimens of the flora of the tropics.
The present superintendent of the garden, Herr Wigman, is an
enthusiast in his line, and we are indebted to him for a most
enjoyable tour through the garden. The main entrance leads through
an avenue of gigantic kanari trees, set some forty feet apart and
forming a verdant roof that entirely excludes the sun. The officials
believe that they have made this the most attractive driveway in
the world, and so far as my observation goes, they are justified
in their claim. Climbing vines of every variety have been trained
upon these trees until their enormous trunks stand like so many
columns draped in living green. One climbing vine, with a trunk
which one would mistake for a tree if it stood alone, has festooned
a row of trees three hundred feet long and is still reaching
out for new conquests. Herr Wigman shows this monster vine with
pardonable pride, but he has found on his visits to Europe that he
could not give a truthful description of it without endangering
his reputation for veracity. We saw, here, also, rattan vines of
seemingly endless length, hanging from lofty limbs or coiling on
the ground like a colony of serpents. A specialty has been made of
orchids, as is evidenced by a collection of between two and three
thousand varieties. Some of these are remarkable for their curious
and variegated leaves, others for the beauty and delicacy of the
flowers. We were shown three kinds of pitcher plants; one kind
is fashioned like a rat trap, the tiny spines pointing downward
so that the insect can enter but can not escape until the flower
withers; another drowns his victims in a syrup-like water; while a
third poisons the unlucky prisoners lured into the recesses of the
blossoms. Several plants growing on tree trunks have porous bulbs
which seem to be designed for ant houses; at any rate the ants are
always found in them. By an admirable reciprocity the ants pay
their house rent by protecting the plants from other insects. Some
of the European nations have defended their occupation of Oriental
countries on the same theory, viz., that they give protection in
exchange for a domicile, but there is no evidence that the ant lives
on the plant, while colonialism is always a burden to the natives.
In the botanical garden, as elsewhere in the island, are to be found
all varieties of the palm--the royal palm, than which there is no
more ornamental tree, the cocoanut palm, with its myriad uses, the
sugar palm, the sago palm, the oil palm, the betel-nut palm, which
furnishes the Malay a substitute for chewing tobacco, the nipa palm,
so helpful in building, the fan palm, etc., etc.
Nature has been prodigal in her gifts to the people of the tropics,
and besides giving plant life in confusing abundance, her generosity
is shown in a number of trees, each of which can be put to many
uses. Reference was made to the bamboo in one of the articles on
Japan, but the Javanese have not only the bamboo, but the palm as
well, and from this one tree they could build their houses (though
the bamboo is usually used for frames and floors because it is
lighter, the trunk of the palm might be employed) and secure food,
drink and light, and in addition, a fermented liquor and a narcotic.
The lakes and pools of the Buitenzorg garden teem with lotus and
water lilies of many colors. One variety, brought from New Guinea,
has blue flowers of various shades and is as yet unknown in Europe
and America. One water lily has enormous flat, circular leaves with
the edges turned up like a pie pan. Some of these leaves are four
feet in diameter, and an imaginative writer has pictured them as
frying pans on which the natives bake hot cakes.
The papyrus, from which the ancient Egyptians made their paper,
grows here, though it is no longer found in Egypt. Here, too, are
flowering trees and shrubs of many kinds, one whose pods are so
exactly like tallow candles that it is called the candle tree.
But it would occupy more space than I have at my disposal to give
an adequate description of the beauties of the garden, with its
mighty banyan trees, its waving palms, its graceful bamboos, its
odorous sandalwood and tangled vines, its rose garden, its depth of
shade and wealth of bloom, its upas tree (not deadly, however, as
tradition has it, but quite innocent of any criminal intent), its
winding ways and really moss-grown paths and its secluded little
cemetery where rest those members of the families of the governors
who died on the island. No wonder Buitenzorg is the Mecca of the
botanist and the one spot never neglected by even the casual tourist
in the island.
Java reminds one of Japan in the appearance of its rice fields, its
cultivated hills and its terraced mountain sides. Though the island
is diminutive in area, containing a little less than forty thousand
square miles, half of which is tillable, the land is so wisely used
that it supports a population of 28,000,000. With so many mountains
and with a rainfall amounting to ten feet per annum in some places;
the island has, as might be expected, an abundance of springs and
running streams, and these make possible a very perfect system of
irrigation which has converted Java into a vast garden. Sugar is
the chief export, followed by tea, coffee and copra, although rice
is the product to which most attention is given. It is the chief
article of food, and so much is required to support the dense
population that its importance as a crop is not indicated by its
place in the table of exports.
[Illustration: A JAVA ROAD.]
As a traveler is more impressed by the unusual things than by the
things with which he is familiar, one who visits Java immediately
notices the numerous fruits peculiar to the island. They have here
all of the fruits usually found in tropical countries and several
that are not found elsewhere. The pineapple grows in perfection and
can be bought in the market for about a cent apiece. The Java orange
is not equal in taste or variety to those of California or Florida,
but the banana, of which there are more than a hundred varieties,
makes up for the deficiency. Mrs. Scidmore, in her book on Java, is
authority for the statement that four thousand pounds of bananas
will grow on the space required to produce ninety-nine pounds of
potatoes or thirty-three pounds of wheat; if her calculation is
correct and the ratio of productiveness anything like the same in
the case of other fruit, one can understand why the problem of
living is so simplified in warm countries. A fruit closely allied
to our grape-fruit is found here, a variety of which grows in China
and Japan. The papaya, which we first tasted in Honolulu, the mango,
whose season had passed in the Philippines, the sour manila and
the durian are all to be bought in the market here. The last named
fruit has succeeded in arraying into ardent friends and unsparing
critics the tourists who have ventured to eat it. Some declare that
it is delicious, while others can not bear the taste, and all agree
that the odor is exceedingly repulsive. It is rough-skinned, very
large, sometimes weighing ten or fifteen pounds, and resembles in
appearance both the bread fruit and the nangka.
Among the fruits which we have tasted for the first time the
mangosteen and the rambutan are rivals in popularity. The first is
a delicately flavored, orange-shaped morsel of pure white, encased
in a thick hull of deep red. It melts in the mouth, and leaves a
memory of mingled flavors. Its fame has spread abroad, and there was
for years a standing offer of thirty pounds to anyone who would put
Queen Victoria in possession of a ripe mangosteen, but it decays so
quickly that not even ice will preserve it during a long sea voyage.
The rambutan has not received as much praise as the mangosteen, but
I am not sure but that it is superior for continuous use. The word
rambutan means hairy, and the name was given to this fruit because
it has a covering something like a chestnut burr, except that the
so-called hairs are soft instead of spine-like. There is a variety
of rambutan which has a smoother covering without the hair-like
projections, and this is very appropriately called the kapoelassen
(which means bald) rambutan. The usual color of the covering is a
bright crimson, but there are several different shades, and the
trees present a very attractive appearance when laden with ripe
fruit. The pulp of the rambutan resembles a pigeon's egg in size
and shape and contains a single seed. The flavor is half tart, half
sweet, and recalls all the good things one has ever tasted.
Another Javanese fruit is the doekoe, which on the outside looks
like an apricot, but is divided into sections like an orange and has
a taste peculiarly its own. The jamboa, or Java apple, is conical in
shape and has a white wax appearance. But enough has been said to
indicate the variety of fruits exposed for sale on the street and
peddled at railway stations. The natives usually carry an assortment
of fruit as they go to or return from market, and the floor of the
third-class railroad coaches are always littered with rinds and
peelings. Verily, one can revel in fruit to his heart's content in
Java.
One of the most interesting days that we spent in Java was devoted
to a trip to Boro Boedoer, the great Hindu temple near Djokjakarta.
Leaving the through train at this station with the jaw-breaking
name, we went by tram line about twenty miles and then drove six
miles farther. Near the temple the road crosses a ferry, the
substantial bridge which once spanned the river there having been
swept away, and when we reached this point we found the stream
so swollen by recent rains that the natives were not willing to
risk their boats in the angry flood. We returned to the tramway
station and spent the night in the hospitable home of the Dutch
stationmaster, the only white man in the town. Returning to the
river early next morning we found that the waters had sufficiently
subsided to enable us to cross, and we reached Boro Boedoer while
yet the sun was low. And what a monument is Boro Boedoer to the zeal
of the Buddhist priests, the skill of the Hindu architect and the
patient industry of the Javanese! As a temple it is not surpassed,
in labor expended upon its construction it is comparable with the
pyramids, and in artistic skill displayed in design and execution,
it is even superior to them.
According to archæologists, it was built about twelve hundred years
ago when the Javanese were worshipers of Buddha, but the invasion
of the Mohammedans of the fifteenth century was so complete that
that stupendous pile was first neglected, then deserted and at
last forgotten. It was so overgrown with trees and shrubbery that
the Dutch traders were in the country for two centuries before its
presence was discovered. When it was found and unearthed during
the occupancy of the English under Sir Stamford Raffles in 1814,
the people living in the vicinity were as much surprised as the
foreigners, for all tradition of its existence had been lost. This
seems hardly possible when it is remembered that the temple stands
upon the summit of a mound, is five hundred feet square at the
base and towers to the height of a hundred feet. The structure is
pyramidal in form and rises in eight terraces, the first five being
square and the last three circular. Each terrace has a wall at the
outer edge, which with the wall of the next succeeding terrace
forms a roofless gallery, either side of which is ornamented with
bas reliefs descriptive of the life of Buddha. These carvings,
if placed side by side, would, it is estimated, extend for three
miles, and the story which they tell has been interpreted by eminent
archæologists who have visited the place. These pictures in stone
not only portray the rise and development of the great Indian
teacher, but they preserve a record of the dress and customs of the
people, the arms and implements used, and the fauna and flora of
that time.
[Illustration: TEMPLE AT BORO BOEDOER]
At the center of each side there is a covered stairway leading
to the summit, and there is evidence that the galleries were
once separated from each other by doors. In the niches along the
gallery walls there are four hundred and thirty-two stone images
of Buddha, life size and seated on the ever present lotus. On the
three circular terraces there are seventy-two openwork, bell-shaped
structures, called dagabas, each containing a stone image of Buddha.
Surmounting the temple is a great dagaba fifty feet in diameter and
in it was found an unfinished statue of Buddha similar to those
found on the various galleries.
As the stone employed in the construction of the temple was of a
hard variety the bas reliefs are well preserved. No mortar was used
for cementing the stones and no columns or pillars were employed.
Besides Boro Boedoer there are hundreds of other temples scattered
over the island. Within two miles of the elevation upon which
the great temple stands there are two religious edifices--one a
shrine of exquisite proportions, restored in 1904, and another a
temple of considerable size now being restored. At Brambanan, about
twenty miles east of Djokjakarta, there is a large group of temples
scarcely less interesting than Boro Boedoer. One of the reports
received by Sir Stamford Raffles describes this territory as the
headquarters of Hinduism in Java and the temples as "stupendous and
finished specimens of human labor and of the science and taste of
ages long since forgot."
I must reserve for another article my observations upon the people
and upon Dutch rule of the island and will conclude this paper with
the suggestion that Java should be included in a tour of the world,
whether undertaken for instruction or pleasure, for few sections
of the earth have been so blessed by the Creator's bounty, so
beautified by the skill of the husbandman, or are so rich in ruins.
CHAPTER XIX.
NETHERLANDS INDIA.
As the Dutch have administered in what they call Netherlands India,
a colonial system quite different in its methods from the systems
adopted by other nations, I have thought it worth while to make some
inquiries concerning it.
The Malay archipelago, which might almost be described as a
continent cut up into islands, has furnished a farm on which several
nations have experimented in colonialism, but the Dutch, both in
length of occupancy and in the number of people subjected to their
rule, are easily first. The archipelago is more than four thousand
miles long from east to west, and if the Philippine Islands are
included, thirteen hundred miles wide. Some of the islands are
larger than European states; Borneo and New Guinea each have an
area greater than the British Isles. On the map the islands of
the archipelago look like stepping stones connecting Asia with
Australia, but some writers, arguing from the fauna and flora as
well as from the depths of the surrounding waters, contend that the
western islands are an extension of Asia and the eastern ones an
extension of Australia. Alfred Russell Wallace, for instance, points
out that the animals, birds and natural products of the two sections
differ so much as to suggest that one group is much older than the
other.
This archipelago is the home of one of the branches into which the
human family is divided, viz., the Malay or brown race. These people
are distinct in appearance, and in many of their characteristics,
from the yellow and black races as well as from the white race.
There are in some of the islands remnants of aboriginal tribes, but
the Malays from time immemorial have furnished the prevailing type.
They have shown themselves capable of continuous and systematic
labor where they have been subjected to coercion, or where a
sufficient inducement has been presented as a stimulus; but the
depressing influence of a continuous summer, added to the bounty of
the tropics, has naturally made them less industrious than those
who live in the temperate zone. The clothing required by the Malay
is insignificant in amount and value. The little children are bare
and seem to enjoy a shower as much as ducks do. In Sourabaya, the
second city in Java, we saw a group of them naked, sliding on their
stomachs on a marble floor of an open porch during a heavy rain.
This seemed a fairly satisfactory substitute for the ice ponds of
the north.
The adults, both men and women, wear a sarong (except when the men
content themselves with a breech cloth). The sarong, a simple strip
of cloth, is draped about the figure with all the fullness in front
and fastened in some mysterious way without the aid of buttons,
hooks or pins. This garment, if garment it may be called, gives
opportunity for the exercise of taste, and the range in price is
sufficient to permit of some extravagance in dress. The best native
sarongs are more expensive than silk, the cloth being overlaid with
wax, upon which the pattern is traced, and the dyes applied by hand.
The masses use a cheap cotton print manufactured in Europe. One of
the striking peculiarities of Javanese life is the adoption of the
sarong by the European women for morning wear. Ladies who appear
at dinner in full evening dress may be seen on the balconies and
streets in the morning hours clad in loose hanging sarongs and thin
dressing sacques, their bare feet encased in sandals. On the Dutch
boat upon which we left Batavia we saw posted notices designating
the hours during which the sarong could be worn, and giving
permission to men to wear a pajama-like outfit during the same hours.
[Illustration: A NATIVE.]
The Malay women wear no hats, but the men usually wear a turban, the
tying of which is a great perplexity to the foreigner.
The natives of the Malay Islands appear to be a mild mannered and
peaceful people, although fighting tribes have been encountered in
the mountain regions, the suppression of which has cost the Dutch
many lives and a large outlay of florins. In Sumatra there are
sections that have never been subdued.
The Chinaman is to be found throughout the archipelago; in fact, he
far outstrips all other foreign elements. The population of Java is
given as 28,747,000 in the government statistics, and of this total
277,000 are Chinese. The number of Europeans is given as 62,477,
and the number of Arabs at 18,000, while a little more than three
thousand come from other Asiatic countries. I was informed that the
62,000 described as Europeans included the half castes who number
more than 40,000, the number of real Europeans being about 20,000.
In the other islands controlled by Holland, the population is given
at a little more than five and a half millions, and the number of
Chinese at 260,000, while the European population is estimated
at 13,000, the Arabs at 9,000, and other Asiatics at 13,000. It
will be seen from these figures that the Chinese form the chief
foreign ingredient in Netherlands India, as they do in Borneo and
the Straits Settlements. In Java, where we had a chance to observe
them, we found that the Chinese monopolized the mercantile business
except where they were compelled to share it with Arabs and Indians.
We also heard of them as money lenders, the rate of interest being
generally usurious. It may be said to their credit, however, that
as Shylocks the Arabs can surpass them. The superiority of the Arab
in this respect has given rise to the saying among the natives
that the Chinaman leaves a native with nothing but a sarong while
an Arab strips him bare. Many Chinamen have grown rich and have
permanently identified themselves with the country, and of these
some have discarded the queue entirely while others have retained it
in a diminutive form, a little wisp of hair lengthened out with silk
thread and growing from a spot not much larger than a dollar.
Apropos of the Chinese agitation against our exclusion act, it
is interesting to know that the Chinese born in Java presented a
petition to the governor general a few years ago asking for the
restriction of the further immigration of Chinese coolies. The
petition was not granted, but the leader of the movement so aroused
the wrath of the coolies that they called upon him in a body and
pelted his house with mud.
In all of the Malay states the opium vice is turned to account
by the rulers. In some places the sale of opium is a government
monopoly, while in others it is farmed out to the highest bidder.
In North Borneo there is a district called Sarawak owned and ruled
by an Englishman who is known as Rajah Brooke. When we were passing
through Singapore, I noticed in a morning paper an advertisement
wherein the Sarawak government asked for bids for a three years'
lease of the "opium farm," "gambling farm," and "arrack farm"
(arrack is the native name for an intoxicating liquor). In all of
the archipelago the vices of the people seem to be as remunerative
to the government as their virtues, and I was reminded of the
Chinese official at Pekin who jokingly informed me that he had a
selfish reason for opposing the boycott of American goods, because
it would deprive him of American cigarettes, of which he was very
fond.
The Dutch traders followed the Portuguese into the East Indies,
and in time supplanted them. Holland then chartered the East India
Trading Company and Amsterdam became the spice center from which
all Europe drew its supplies. The Dutch Trading Company was manned
by a thrifty crew, and it was not long before they conceived of
monopolizing the world's spice market, and they accomplished this
by destroying groves and prohibiting competition by treaty with the
natives. They are also charged with destroying spice by the ton in
Amsterdam in order to maintain the price. One apologist for this
almost universally condemned practice of the Dutch, says:
"When the Dutch established their influence in these seas and
relieved the native princes from their Portuguese oppressors, they
saw that the easiest way to repay themselves would be to get this
spice trade into their own hands. For this purpose they adopted
the wise principle of concentrating the culture of these valuable
products in those spots of which they could have complete control.
To do this effectually, it was necessary to abolish the culture and
trade in all other places, which they succeeded in doing by treaty
with the native rulers. These agreed to have all the spice trees in
their possessions destroyed. They gave up large, though fluctuating,
revenues, but they gained in return a fixed subsidy, freedom from
the constant attacks and harsh oppression of the Portuguese, and
a continuance of their regal power and exclusive authority over
their own subjects, which has maintained in all the islands except
Ternate to this day. It is no doubt supposed by most Englishmen, who
have been accustomed to look upon this act of the Dutch with vague
horror, as something utterly unprincipled and barbarous, that the
native population suffered grievously by this destruction of such
valuable property. But it is certain that this is not the case."
He then proceeds to charge that the native sultans had a "rigid
monopoly" of the spice trade before the Dutch arrived, and that the
latter by prohibiting the cultivation of spices left the natives
more time for the production of food and other salable things, and
concludes: "I believe, therefore, that this abolition of the spice
trade in the Moluccas was actually beneficial to the inhabitants,
and that it was an act both wise in itself and morally and
politically justifiable."
[Illustration: A GROUP OF JAVANESE]
It will be noticed that in a very brief space he employs the
arguments mainly relied upon to support monopoly wherever it has
appeared, and also for colonialism in its worst forms. In the first
place, the Dutch had to "repay themselves" for having "relieved the
native princes from their Portuguese oppressors"--that is, they had
to collect pay for their philanthropy; second, as the sultans were
doing the same thing, the Dutch might as well do it--that is, the
very familiar argument, "If we don't do it, somebody else will;" and
third, it was a good thing for the natives--it is never difficult
to prove this to the man who profits by the system. But nothing
is said as to the effect of the monopoly upon consumers of spices
throughout the world. It does not seem to occur to the writer above
quoted (Wallace) that they are to be considered. The view point from
which he looks at the whole matter can be judged from his admonition
to the British that they must not be too much "afraid of the cry of
despotism and slavery" if they are to improve their "rude subjects"
and raise them up toward their own level.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Dutch East India
Company became involved and turned its possessions over to the crown
of Holland, since which time Netherlands India has been a crown
colony. There was a brief interim of British rule (1811 to 1816),
but at the close of the Napoleonic wars the Dutch regained their
possessions by treaty, and the English congratulated themselves that
they had been relieved of a burden.
The Dutch have governed Java through the natives, a resident
acting as "elder brother" to the Javanese ruler. While the native
government has not been disturbed, and while the native ruler is
protected from rival claimants, he is really a prisoner in his own
castle, and can not leave the premises without permission. However,
as these native rulers receive good salaries and are allowed to
exact homage from their subjects, they seem quite content with their
lot, and the people, naturally docile, yield obedience to the chiefs
of their own race.
The culture system, aside from the indirect method of ruling, is
the distinguishing feature of Dutch colonialism as it existed until
recent years. The East India Company followed the practice of the
native princes and collected a land tax or rent of one-fifth the
crop, and required in addition the labor of all able-bodied males
for one day in five. During the five years of British rule, forced
labor was abolished and a land tax substituted for the one-fifth
rent, while a separate property system was encouraged. As soon as
the Dutch resumed control, they went back to their old régime except
that they demanded one day's labor in seven instead of one day in
five. By regulating the crops to be planted, by collecting the fifth
of the produce of the land and by compelling the peasants to plant
one-fifth of the village land in crops to be sold to the government
at a fixed price far below the market price, the government of
Holland derived large revenues from its India possessions. It has
been estimated that in fifty years a sum exceeding three hundred
million dollars was exacted from the natives in forced labor and in
the sale of produce below the market price. As might be expected,
the greed which manifested itself in the conduct of the government
aroused increasing criticism, and the authorities were at last
compelled to change their methods.
Those who travel through Java are unanimous in their praise of the
beautiful roads and the substantial bridges that span the streams:
they admire the commodious plantation homes, the splendid tea and
coffee farms and the well built and well kept cities, and they
are inclined to excuse the means employed by the foreigners in
the development of the islands. It must be remembered, however,
that the rice fields, which are most attractive, existed before
the Europeans set foot upon the soil and that the spices, instead
of being introduced by the Dutch, were the products which first
attracted their attention. The Dutch have charged a high price
for the services rendered, and have given little attention to the
intellectual and moral improvement of the people. Being surprised
that the Javanese had a well developed system of agriculture and
irrigation before the Europeans arrived, I asked an intelligent
Hollander: "What, then, have the Dutch taught the Javanese?" and he
replied laughingly, "We have taught them to pay us their money."
The fact that the culture system has, after full discussion, been
abandoned is a sufficient condemnation of it, and the fact that
reforms are being introduced is a confession that they were needed.
I had the pleasure of meeting the present governor, General Van
Heutsz, and found him interested in enlarging the educational
system, and in lightening the burdens upon the people. He has
already reduced the labor requirement one half, so that the natives
now give one day in fourteen to the government instead of one day
in seven.
The governor of Netherlands India receives the same salary as our
president, and the resident receives a salary which, including
allowances, amounts to nearly ten thousand dollars. The expenses
of the colonial government are paid by the natives and by the
foreigners residing there, but the government of Holland no longer
draws an income from the islands. Her advantages are at present
indirect ones and consist, first of profits earned by her citizens
in trade with the islands; second, of rents collected by her
citizens from plantations; and third, of salaries drawn by her
citizens for civil or military service in the islands.
Formerly land was sold to foreigners, but for a great many years it
has been the policy of the government to sell no land whatever to
either Europeans or Asiatics, but to lease it for seventy-five years
or less. I was surprised to find that the natives own considerably
more than twice as much as foreigners hold under lease or deed, and
that land, the product of which must be sold to the government at a
fixed price, has been reduced to 300,000 acres.
One of the beneficent reforms about to be inaugurated is the
establishment of government pawnshops, which will loan money to
the people at a low rate of interest, and thus rescue them from
the extortion which has been practiced upon them. The government
has already established savings banks in which the deposits are
constantly increasing.
There is a growing demand in Java for a greater recognition of the
people in government, and this demand is being yielded to in the
cities. The colonial authorities have encouraged the soldiers to
marry native women, these marriages terminating when the soldiers
return to Europe. As a result, there is a half caste element which
has been given better educational advantages than are accorded to
the natives. This element considers itself as native, although
counted in the census as European, and is already organizing with a
view of securing more civil liberty.
Whatever may be said of Dutch colonialism in the past, a new era is
dawning, and the present rulers recognize that their administration
must be measured by the improvement in the people rather than by the
profits drained from the land by Europeans.
CHAPTER XX.
IN THE TROPICS.
In a tour around the world one travels by steamer about six thousand
miles through the tropics. Entering the torrid zone soon after
leaving Hong Kong, almost touching the equator at Singapore, and
not entering the temperate zone again until he is nearly half way
through the Red Sea, he has ample time to study the temperature; and
our opportunities were still farther enlarged by the trip to Java,
which carried us nearly eight degrees below the equator. While on
the water the heat is not so noticeable, being relieved by the ocean
breezes, on land one suffers during the middle of the day. It is
not that the heat in the shade is greater than the summer heat in
the United States, but one can not always be in the shade, and the
rays of the sun are piercing to a degree which is inconceivable to
one without experience in these latitudes. At the seaports, too, the
heat is intensified by the weight and moisture of the air, and the
temperature is practically the same the year round--at least one who
visits this part of the world in the winter time can not imagine it
worse.
While, the native population work barebacked, barelegged,
barefooted, and sometimes bareheaded, Americans and Europeans resort
to every possible device to protect them from the climate.
The white helmet, with a lining of cork, is the most common headwear
for both men and women, and it does not require a very long stay
here to convince one that it is superior to the straw hat. White
clothes which reflect the rays of the sun are also largely worn by
both sexes. For evening dress, men sometimes wear a close-fitting
white jacket, reaching to the waist, and before breakfast they
lounge about in pajamas of variegated colors.
Eating extends through the entire day. Tea or coffee can be had
from five to eight; breakfast is ready at eight or nine and ends at
twelve; lunch or tiffin as it is called here, occupies the hours
from one to three; then tea follows at four, and dinner is served
from eight to ten-thirty. These are the hours for Europeans and
Americans, and for those natives who have adopted foreign ways, but
most of the natives look as if they had missed some of these meals.
[Illustration: IN THE TROPICS.]
We are among the dark-skinned races here. Chinamen are a darker
yellow than those seen farther north, the Malays are a dark brown
and Tamils are quite black, while the Singalese and Indians are
between a black and brown. Mark Twain pays a high compliment to
these dark-skinned people at the expense of the white races,
contending that their complexion is always good, while the white
face has freckles, pimples and moles to mar it.
There are two great seaports near the equator which every traveler
visits, viz.: Singapore and Colombo, and most of the boats also stop
at Penang, a thriving city on the Malay peninsula, some four hundred
miles north of Singapore. Singapore is on a small island of the same
name not far from the mainland, and its harbor is full of sea-going
vessels of all nations. The ships from Europe to China and Japan
call here, as do also the boats between Europe and Java and between
India and Australia. Here, too, are to be found representatives of
many nationalities, twenty-nine distinct languages being spoken
in this one city. The Portuguese were the pioneers, and there are
still some descendants of the early traders living on the island.
Next in point of time came the Dutch, and their nation is still more
numerously represented among the business firms. England, however,
though a later arrival, has largely supplanted both in the control
of the commerce of the port, though the Germans seem to be numerous.
Singapore and Penang are the great export ports for tin,
three-fourths of the world's output for that product being mined
near by. The United States takes ten and a half million dollars of
tin from the Straits Settlements and six millions of other products
and sells only $1,161,000 worth in return.
I might add in this connection that the trade possibilities of
the tropics have been very much overestimated by enthusiastic
expansionists. The natives raise their own food at a much lower cost
than we could possibly sell it to them, even if our food were suited
to their wants. They do not need our building material, and as for
clothing, one American is worth more as a customer than a hundred
of these natives. While a few wear rich robes, the mass content
themselves with a very scanty costume of very cheap cotton--a
costume which someone has described as "a handkerchief around the
loins and a table cloth around the head." No shoe manufacturer need
send a salesman to these parts, for even the coachman and footmen in
livery are barefooted. I once supposed that we might work up a trade
in breech clouts and fishing rods, but I find the latter grow here
in profusion, and the former are not valuable enough to furnish a
basis for much trade.
There is one branch of commerce that might be developed if this
were not the home of the gem and if the natives were not skillful
goldsmiths. Jewelry is the passion here. Women fairly load
themselves down with ornaments when they can afford it. They wear
rings on the fingers and toes, bracelets and anklets, ear ornaments
galore and, strangest of all, jewels in the nose. We noticed one
woman yesterday with three enormous pendants hanging from each ear,
one from the top, one from the side and one from the lobe, and our
coachman at Kandy was resplendent with six in either ear, but his
jewelry was more modest in size. The nose ornaments look like shirt
studs and are screwed into one or both nostrils; sometimes a ring
hangs from the point of the nose. The necklaces vary greatly in
style, workmanship and value. The island of Ceylon is rich in gems
and furnishes a variety of stones for the jeweler's art. From the
fact that nearly all of the precious stones mentioned in the Bible
are to be found here it is thought that Ceylon must have been known
to the Israelites and that her ships carried wealth to Solomon.
[Illustration: THE LAKE AT KANDY, CEYLON.]
After seeing the extravagant use of jewelry here, one is almost
tempted to forgive even the most vulgar display of precious stones
made in the Occident; and then, too, the rubies, sapphires, the
diamonds, the emeralds, the amethysts, the alexanderites, the
cat's eyes, the opals, etc., exhibited in the stores here are so
beautiful that one must be proof against vanity to resist their
charms.
Ice might have formed an important item of trade, for nowhere does
the white man appreciate this luxury more, had not the ice machine
made importation unnecessary. The larger boats now manufacture
their own ice from condensed sea water, and there are plants at
all the important ports. We went from Borneo to Singapore on a
ship which was not equipped with an ice machine, and we complained
when the supply gave out. An English passenger took advantage of
our distress to compare national characteristics, and humorously
remarked that when the Americans moved into a new territory, they at
once established an ice plant, while the English gave their first
attention to the laying out of cricket grounds.
One does not travel far in the Orient until he becomes a crank on
the subject of water. He receives so many warnings that he soon
suspects that disease lurks in every glassful. If he tries the
bottled waters, they pall on the taste, and if he relies on boiled
water he is tormented with fear that it has not really been boiled
or that some other water has been accidentally substituted. "The Old
Oaken Bucket" is recalled as a vision of delight, and "the well at
home" is remembered with an admiration never felt before (faucet may
be substituted for well by those who live in a city).
Colombo is situated on the island of Ceylon just below the
southernmost point of the mainland of India. Here, too, is a
commodious harbor visited by all merchant fleets. It vies with
Singapore as an equatorial port. The "spicy breezes" of Ceylon are
immortalized in song and story--it is the land
"Where every prospect pleases
And only man is vile."
[Illustration: SINGALESE CHIEF'S DAUGHTER--SHOWING JEWELRY.]
At Kandy, about seventy-five miles from the coast, there is an
excellent botanical garden rivaling the garden at Buitenzorg, even
as Kandy itself rivals Buitenzorg as a summer resort. (There are
extensive gardens at Singapore and Penang, but they are inferior to
those in Ceylon and Java.) These gardens are about equally distant
from the equator; the former north, the latter south, but the garden
at Kandy has twice the altitude of the other. We were interested
in comparing the plants and examining the new specimens. While
Buitenzorg is superior in her collection of orchids the ferns at
Kandy surpass anything we have seen. Here the yellow bamboo is added
to the varieties seen elsewhere; here, too, we saw the screw palm,
whose leaves form a spiral line like the thread of a screw. Another
curious variety is the sealing wax palm, the higher joints of which
look exactly like red sealing wax. The travelers' palm, which we
also saw in Java, is to be found here, its name being derived from
the fact that each leaf stem catches and holds sufficient water to
slake a traveler's thirst. The talipot palm attracts the attention
of all visitors, not only because its leaves formed the parchment
for the early books of Buddhism, but because it flowers but once,
and then, as if exhausted by its half century's effort, dies. The
sensitive plant grows wild here and seems almost human in its
perception, as it shrinks from the slightest touch and folds its
leaves as if withered.
[Illustration: SINGALESE CARPENTER.]
I have already spoken of the fruits of the tropics, especially those
of Java, but I think I ought to qualify my words. Since reveling in
mangosteens, rambutans, etc., I have eaten an apple and am convinced
that no tropical fruit can compare with it; and when to the apple
are added the peach, the pear, the plum and the cherry, and to
these fruits of the trees are added the grape, the strawberry,
the raspberry and the blackberry, not to speak of the pineapples,
oranges and bananas of our southern states, who will say that the
temperate zone is not as highly favored as the warmer lands?
We not only have an abundance of both the necessaries and the
luxuries, but we escape some of the torments of the tropics.
Animals, reptiles and insects run riot here. The tiger is
"man-eating," the serpents are large and poisonous and the insects
are omnipresent. We sometimes complain at home of the mosquito,
which seems to be a universal pest, and found everywhere, "from
Greenland's icy mountains to India's coral strands," but here its
activity is perennial and its appetite reaches its maximum. In all
the hotels the beds are protected by mosquito bars, for without them
sleep would be impossible. The ant is even more annoying than the
mosquito, for while the former does most of its prowling at night,
the latter "improves each shining hour." If the natives play the
sluggard, it is because they refuse to profit by the example of
industry which the ant ever presents to them. It is not uncommon
for the legs of dining tables and cupboards to be set in bowls of
water as a protection from these insects, and where this precaution
is not taken the diner divides his time between eating and fighting
ants. The white ant has a literary turn of mind and pays especial
attention to books. We have heard of several libraries being ravaged
by this insect, the leaves being so perforated that the books
looked like honeycombs. In his search for knowledge the ant has the
companionship of the cockroach, which grows here to the length of
two or three inches, can fly, and stains what it can not devour.
The house lizard is always in evidence. One evening we counted
twenty-four of these interesting little reptiles in sight at one
time on our porch. At night lizards in the trees call hoarsely to
each other, and when it rains the air is vocal with the croaking of
frogs and the singing of insects.
In the Botanical Garden at Kandy we saw hundreds of flying foxes,
which look like buzzards. Some of these flying foxes measure four
feet from tip to tip.
I find that there is a disease in these latitudes called tropical
frenzy--an uncontrollable anger which sometimes manifests itself
when European officials deal with native subjects. This has been
seriously discussed in medical meetings, and it has been argued
that acts of violence on the part of officials should be excused
on this ground. The subject has been scientifically considered at
a meeting of German physicians. This disease seems to be confined
to Europeans, the natives being immune from it--at least, it is not
considered a good defense when urged by a native as an excuse for
doing violence to a European.
My experience with the money changers of the Orient has made the
money changers of America seem virtuous by comparison. This is
the worst place for shaving, for discounts, for premiums, for
commissions and for exchange that I have visited. In traveling, one
has frequently to change money from the currency of one nation to
that of another, and as there seems to be no fixed rate, he never
knows what he is going to realize. (By the way, one who thinks that
a gold dollar is good the world around can learn something from the
discounts.) At Colombo I had some Singapore bills converted into
rupees. The cashier at the hotel said that the rate was one-twenty,
and gave me twelve rupees for ten dollars. A few minutes afterwards
I had occasion to buy some tickets of a tourist agent and he allowed
me fifteen rupees for ten dollars; the next time I made change I
received sixteen rupees and seventy cents for ten. This is a sample
of the experience one has here. At Singapore I drew some money on my
letter of credit which calls for pounds; as I was going into English
territory, I thought it would be convenient to carry some five pound
notes, but the bank insisted on converting the pounds into Singapore
dollars at eight-forty-five, and then offered to sell me five pound
notes at the rate of eight-seventy. When I related the incident to
an Englishman, he recalled an instance where a man presented a two
hundred pound note and asked for smaller bills; the bank charged him
a commission for converting the larger bills into rupees and then
another commission for converting the rupees into five pound notes.
[Illustration: TAMIL GIRL--CEYLON.]
I found in China that the notes issued by a bank in one city would
be discounted when presented at a branch of the same bank in another
city. Throughout the Malay states the Chinese are conspicuous as
money lenders, but at Singapore they come into competition with the
Indians, who are their superior in this line of business. At Colombo
we saw no Chinese at all.
We have found the American missionary everywhere, but his work among
the Malays is less promising than anywhere else. Missionary work has
been quite successful among the Chinese in the Malay archipelago
and among the Tamils at Singapore, but nearly all the Malays are
Mohammedans, and while they believe in one God and recognize Christ
as a great prophet, they believe the author of their religion to
have been a superior teacher.
In traveling, one has an opportunity to study human nature in all
its phases, and in an extended trip meets representatives of all the
nations. The North German Lloyd has a line running from Yokohama to
Bremen. (This line, I may add, makes it possible for one to go from
San Francisco to New York within two months, with but two changes
of boat, and still stop long enough at the principal ports to learn
something of the cities and the people.) We went from Singapore to
Colombo on one of the boats of this line. Besides a few Americans,
Germans and Hollanders, and a still larger number of English, there
were several Japanese en route for Europe, and Russian officers and
soldiers returning from Japan. We made some agreeable acquaintances
among the company, as it is possible to do on every voyage, but
just before leaving the boat at Colombo we came into contact with
a tourist who belonged to the genus hog. Our boat arrived between
eight and nine in the evening, and the porters informed us that the
hotels were full, but that we could obtain rooms in the morning, as
a number would leave on our ship. I stated the case to the captain,
and he assured me that we were welcome to remain on board until
morning. Just as my wife and daughter were retiring, a man came on
board, followed by a lot of baggage, and directed his porter to
put it in our room. I explained to him that not being able to find
accommodations on shore, we had obtained permission to occupy the
room until morning, but he brusquely replied that he had engaged
the room two months before and must have it. I called his attention
to the fact that the boat was late in reaching port and would not
leave until nearly noon the next day, and suggested as politely as
I could that the captain was the proper person to decide whether
he was entitled to claim the room under the circumstances. Without
consulting the captain he went to the steward and demanded that the
ladies be moved to another room, although another room was placed at
his disposal for the night. It required some plain, straightforward
and emphatic language to bring him to the point where he was willing
to occupy a different room temporarily, and I am afraid that he
still regards Americans as very rude and uncouth creatures. He
is, however, the first man whom I have met so far who would claim
as a right that to which he was not entitled, and then demand the
enforcement of the assumed right without regard to the convenience
of others.
On the last mentioned trip we witnessed a burial at sea, the first
that has occurred during our voyage. One of the passengers died
after we left Singapore, and we learned of it while the funeral
services were in progress. The corpse was enclosed in a black
(weighted) coffin in which several holes were bored. The ship
slackened its speed, and as the band played a funeral dirge, the
body was slowly lowered. Upon reaching the water it floated back for
a short distance and then disappeared. It was a sad sight to see the
remains of a human being consigned to a watery tomb with nothing to
mark its resting place; and yet he does not sleep alone, for in this
mighty ocean sepulcher myriads lie buried and the waves moan above
them a requiem as sweet as that sung by the trees to those who rest
upon the land.
CHAPTER XXI.
BURMA AND BUDDHISM.
Burma is another country which was added to our list after leaving
home, but as its people are quite distinct from the inhabitants of
India and as it is one of the strongholds of Buddhism, we turned
aside to visit it en route from Ceylon to Calcutta. On the map it
occupies a part of the east side of the first of the three great
peninsulas that stretch down from Asia to the Indian ocean and is
separated from India proper by the Bay of Bengal. Its principal
stream is the Irawaddy, famed in story for the magnificent scenery
along its course and for the fertile valley through which it passes
on its way to the sea.
Rangoon, the seaport of Burma, is situated some twenty miles inland
upon a river of the same name, and has a harbor quite different
from those at Singapore and Colombo. At those places the passengers
on the incoming and outgoing steamers amuse themselves by tossing
silver coins into the transparent waters and watching the divers
catch them before they can reach the bottom, but at Rangoon the
water is so muddy that a diver would have difficulty in finding an
electric light. The depth of the water, too, is insufficient except
when the tide is high. But the city of Rangoon is substantially
built and has a number of fine business blocks and excellent public
buildings. A municipal hospital now in course of construction
surpasses anything which we have seen in the East. The park system
at Rangoon is very attractive, and one sees the well-to-do element
of the city fully represented there in the early evening. The roads
about Rangoon are good, but not equal to those of Ceylon and Java.
I have already spoken of the Java roads, and those of Ceylon are
not behind them. No one can see these well graded, well drained and
beautifully shaded highways without having his interest in good
roads quickened.
At Rangoon we saw the elephants at work in a lumber yard, but they
do not attract anything like the attention from the natives that
"Jumbo" and the "Baby Elephant" did in the United States during my
boyhood days. It is not necessary here for the head of the family
to take his wife and all the children to the circus in order that
the younger members of the family may catch a glimpse of one of
these ungainly beasts. In Burma the elephant is simply an everyday
beast of burden and earns his food as faithfully as the horse or
the ox. We saw three at work in the lumber yard which we visited,
the oldest of which is more than threescore and ten years, and has
labored industriously for more than fifty years. A native rides
upon his back and directs him by word, sometimes emphasized by an
iron pointed stick, and the huge fellow lifts, pushes and twists
the logs about with almost human intelligence. The elephant has an
eye for neatness, and one would hardly believe from hearsay with
what regularity and carefulness he works, moving from one end of
the log to the other until it is in exactly the right place. In
lifting he uses his tusks, kneeling when his work requires it.
In carrying large blocks of wood he uses both tusks and trunk.
Sometimes the elephant pushes a heavy log along the ground with
one of his forefeet, walking on the other three, but generally
the logs are drawn by a chain attached to a broad breast strap.
An eighteen-year-old elephant, working in the same yard, was thus
drawing heavy timbers and went about his work uncomplainingly so
long as he was permitted to draw one at a time, but when two of
these timbers were fastened together, he raised his voice in a
pathetic lament which grew more touching when he received a pointed
suggestion from his driver. These trumpetings were really terrifying
to a stranger, but did not seem to alarm the Burmese. The ears of
the old elephant showed signs of age; in fact, they were thin and
frayed with flapping and looked like drooping begonia leaves.
[Illustration: AN ELEPHANT AT WORK IN RANGOON.]
The elephants which we saw weighed about two tons each, and consumed
about 800 pounds of feed per day. When I was informed that an
elephant ate regularly one-fifth of his own weight per day, I
could understand better than ever before what it means to "have
an elephant on one's hands." The fact that they can be profitably
used in business shows their capacity for work. The old song that
credits the elephant with eating all night as well as all day is
founded on fact, for the animal requires but two hours' sleep out of
twenty-four, and when not otherwise employed, he puts in his time
eating.
[Illustration: THE PARK AT RANGOON.]
The elephant, notwithstanding his huge bulk and massive strength,
is a very timid animal, and can be put to flight by a dog or even
a rat. A short time ago a drove of Rangoon elephants was stampeded
by an automobile, and it is well known the shipping of an elephant
is a difficult task. The elephant has a small hole resembling a
knife cut, on the side of the head, and at times a watery fluid
is discharged therefrom. For some reason, apparently unknown, the
animal is subject to frenzy during the period of this discharge and
must be kept in confinement.
Mandalay, the second city of Burma, is 386 miles north of Rangoon,
by rail, and is situated on the Irawaddy river. Kipling, in his
poem, declares that "the flying fishes play," "on the road to
Mandalay," but he has been guilty of using poetic license. The
captain of one of the steamers warned us in advance that no flying
fish would be seen on the river, and one Englishman went so far
as to say that the poet had never been in Mandalay. We planned to
take a ride up the river, but our purpose was thwarted by a sandbar
which detained our boat from noon until the next morning, so that
our view of the river while very thorough at that point, was not
very extensive. Most tourists go to Mandalay by train and return as
far as Prome by boat, but the scenery is finer in the defiles above
Mandalay.
[Illustration: FIVE HUNDRED PAGODA AT MANDALAY.]
In going by land from Rangoon to Mandalay one sees nothing but
rice, but this is piled along the road in seemingly inexhaustible
quantities. One is reminded of the wheat and corn states of our
own country as he sees the piles of sacks and loose grain awaiting
shipment. While there are other industries in Burma, the rice
fields and the piles of teak wood are most in evidence. In northern
Burma there are some rich ruby mines and the jewelry stores are as
fascinating as those of Ceylon.
The gongs of Mandalay are famous throughout the world for richness
of tone, and carving in ivory, teak and sandalwood gives employment
to many artisans. Elephants and images of Buddha in wood, brass and
alabaster are exposed for sale in all the shops, and the silks are
delicate in texture and beautiful in color and design.
The Burmese have a large mixture of Chinese blood, as is shown by
their features and traits of character, but they are darker in
color. They are a cheerful and docile people, and their women have
never been the victims of seclusion that burdens the life of the
women of India. Both men and women wear gay colors, which lends
picturesqueness to the scenes of the street. In China and Japan
we were amused at the small pipes used by the men. In Burma one
is amazed at the enormous cigarettes--six inches long and an inch
thick--which the women smoke.
[Illustration: BURMESE WOMAN WITH CIGARETTE.]
In Burma, as in other Oriental countries, the streams are the
wash-tubs of the nation, and a flat stone takes the place of a
washboard. It was wash day on the Irawaddy when we started out on
our boat ride, and the bank of the river looked like a flower bed,
so bright and varied were the colors of the turbans and dresses of
the long row of washers swinging the clothes high above their heads
and beating them upon the stones.
[Illustration: BUDDHIST TEMPLE.]
Burma is the home of the pagoda; one is never out of sight of them,
but they differ in shape from those seen in China and Japan. The
Burmese pagoda is usually circular, though sometimes octagonal. The
largest of these is known as the Shwe Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon. It is
a solidly built pyramidal cone, with gradually diminishing outline
and is surmounted by a ti or "umbrella" spire of concentric iron
rings from which hang little bells which tinkle when moved by the
breeze. This pagoda has a circumference of 1,355 feet at the base,
rises to a height of 370 feet, and stands upon a terraced mound
which is itself 160 feet above the level of the country around.
The upper part of the pagoda is gilded, and its base is surrounded
by many elaborate shrines containing images of Buddha. Here the
faithful offer their devotions during the day and evening, and the
vendors of candles, incense and flowers do a thriving business.
Here, also assemble the lame, the halt and the blind, to gather
their penny tribute from the passersby.
[Illustration: THE SHWE DAGON PAGODA.]
Mandalay is still more liberally supplied with pagodas. At the
largest, the Aracan, one sees repeated the scenes of the Shwe Dagon,
only the beggars seem more numerous. At this pagoda there is a
filthy pool in which live a number of sacred turtles, and they must
have charmed lives to live at all in so foul a place. They rise to
the surface when food is thrown into the water, but they are so
slow in their movements that the kites which hover about the place
generally snatch up the morsels before the turtles reach them.
Far more beautiful than the Aracan Pagoda is the group known as
the Four Hundred and Fifty. This remarkable group, which actually
numbers 729, stands at the foot of Mandalay Hill and was built by
an uncle of King Thebaw. In the center of the group is the usual
pagoda, and around it in parallel, rectangular rows are small
square pagodas, each terminating in a graceful tower and containing
a slab inscribed on both sides. These slabs together contain all
the writings of Buddha, and the smaller pagodas viewed from the
center one, present an imposing spectacle. These pagodas are well
kept, and all the buildings are snowy white. I emphasize the fact
that these are in good repair, because so many of the Buddhist
pagodas and monasteries are in a state of decay. Whether this is
due to decrease in the zeal of the followers of Buddha or to the
fact that the Burmese king, Thebaw, has for more than twenty years
been a political prisoner on the west coast of India, I do not
know. A writer for one of the Rangoon newspapers naively describes
the annexation of Burma by the English as "necessary" and this
"necessity" has deprived the Buddhist buildings of the governmental
patronage which they formerly enjoyed.
About six miles above Mandalay, near the Irawaddy, stands the
foundation of a pagoda which its builder intended should be the
largest in the world. It was begun by King Bodopaya in 1790, after
an unsuccessful campaign against Siam. In his disappointment his
mind turned to religion, and he hoped to "acquire merit," as the
Buddhists say, by the erection of this temple. The structure begins
with four galleries; the first is five hundred feet square; and each
succeeding one is a little higher by fifty feet less in diameter.
Then the base of the pagoda proper, about two hundred and fifty
feet square, rises to a height of one hundred and sixty feet. The
entire building, as planned, would have reached to a height of five
hundred feet, but the labor expended had become so great that the
people complained and he was compelled to abandon the enterprise.
He was warned by the experience of a former king whose extravagance
gave rise to the proverb, "The pagoda is finished and the country is
ruined." King Bodopaya is not the only "captain of industry" who has
attempted to "acquire merit" by constructing monumental buildings
with the labor of others, but he was not so successful as some of
our trust magnates have been.
To match this great pagoda a bell was cast weighing ninety tons,
said to be the largest sound bell in the world. The great bell of
Moscow is larger, but is cracked. The Mingoon bell, as this one near
Mandalay is called, is eighteen feet in diameter at the base, nine
feet at the top and thirty-one feet in height to the top of the
shackle. It was formerly supported on immense teak wood beams, but
the foundation of one of these gave away and for years one side of
the bell rested on the ground. Lord Curzon, while viceroy of India,
caused the bell to be suspended from iron beams and put a roof over
it.
[Illustration: BURMESE FAMILY.]
The Buddhist priests seem to have made Mandalay their Mecca, for of
the fifty-seven thousand in Burma, more than seven thousand reside
there. The Buddhist priesthood is the greatest mendicant order in
the world, the members of it being pledged to live by begging.
Having occasion to ride out early one morning we saw a hundred or
more bareheaded, barefooted, their only garb a yellow robe, carrying
their rice bowls from door to door. They can not ask for food by
word of mouth; they simply hold out the bowl and if food is denied,
they move silently to another house. They are permitted to own no
property except a robe, a bowl, a leather mat, a razor, a needle,
a fan and a filter-cup. They must live under a tree unless someone
furnishes them a house and must live on roots and herbs unless
better food is given them. They have no parishes or congregations,
but are expected to spend their lives in meditation, free from all
worldly cares, except when engaged in expounding Buddhistic writing
or in teaching the young. They live, as a rule, in monasteries,
built for them by pious Buddhists, and from what we saw of these
buildings no one would accuse them of being surrounded by luxury.
These monasteries rest upon posts some distance above the ground,
and each room has an outside door about large enough for one to
enter upon his hands and knees.
I visited one of these monasteries at Rangoon in company with a
native Christian whose father was half Chinese. To my surprise the
first priest whom I met was an Englishman who turned Buddhist five
years ago and donned the yellow robe. While I waited for the native
priest to whom I had a letter, this Englishman gave me something
of his history and a brief defense of his new faith. He came from
London six years ago as a ship carpenter and a year after adopted
Buddhism, which, he explained to me, does not require one to believe
anything. While his parents were members of the Church of England,
he had never connected himself with any church, and, being an
agnostic, the doctrines of Buddha appealed to him. He described his
adopted religion as one of works rather than faith, and declared
that the slums of Christendom had no counterpart in Burma. The
visitor, however, sees everywhere poverty and squalor which can only
be paralleled in the most destitute portions of our great cities,
and nowhere the comfort and refinement which are general in the
United States.
Buddhism is reformed Hinduism and in its teachings presents a
higher system of ethics than the religion from which it sprung.
Gautama, called the Buddha or the Enlightened, was born between
five and six hundred years before Christ, and was of the Brahmin
caste. Not satisfied with the teachings of the Hindu philosopher
concerning life, he went into seclusion at the age of twenty-nine
and devoted himself to meditation. Six years later he announced
his doctrine, destined to impress so profoundly the thought of
the Orient. Accepting the Hindu theory that the soul passes from
person to person, and even from the human being to the animal and
back, he offered Nirvana as a final release from this tiresome and
endless change. Nirvana, a state of unconsciousness which follows
the absorption of the individual soul in the soul of the universe.
This was the end to be sought, and no wonder it came as a relief to
those whose philosophy taught the perpetual transition of the soul
through man and beast and bird and reptile. The means of reaching
Nirvana was through the renunciation of self. Life he conceived
to be prolonged misery, infinitely drawn out, and love of self he
declared to be the root of all evil. So long as one loves life, he
argued, he can not escape from the bondage of existence. In the
entire elimination of self by the relinquishment of a desire for a
separate existence here or hereafter--in this alone could he find a
path to Nirvana.
The next forty-five years of his life he spent in expounding and
elaborating his doctrines, in formulating rules and in perfecting
the details of his system. Many of his precepts are admirable. For
instance, he divides progress toward the blissful state into three
stages. In the first, he puts those who abstain from evil from fear
of punishment; these he commends, though he considers the motive
comparatively low. In the second stage are those who, passing from
negative harmlessness to helpfulness, do good from hope of reward;
these he praises as acting from a higher motive than the first. In
the third state the seeker after Nirvana does good, not for hope of
reward, but for the sake of love alone. The last gift love has to
give, is to give up love of life itself and pass from further change
to changeless changelessness.
At one time Buddhism spread over India and promised the conquest of
all Asia. Two hundred years after the Buddhist's death a great king,
Asoka, sent out eighty-four thousand missionaries and the doctrines
of Gautama were accepted as far east as China and Japan, and as far
south as Java. But the wave receded; India returned to Hinduism,
China to Confucianism and Japan to Shintoism, and Mohammedanism now
outnumbers Buddhism on the Ganges. The Buddhists still hold Burma,
Thibet and Ceylon, but even in these countries there is evidence
of decline. Kandy, the capital city of Ceylon, has the distinction
of guarding a "sacred tooth," thought by the ignorant to be one of
the eyeteeth of Buddha. It is kept in a gold and jeweled casket
enclosed in six larger ones and is an object of worship, but the
more intelligent Buddhists know that it is a fraud.
At Rangoon I found a Baptist school, conducted by Americans, with
nearly nine hundred pupils, and learned of the gratifying success
which has attended missionary work in Burma.
[Illustration: GATHERING PRECIOUS STONES IN BURMA]
And yet, there is a Buddhist propaganda in Europe and America! In
a review called Buddhism, published at Rangoon by the International
Buddhist Society, I read that Kaiser Wilhelm is "alarmed" at the
progress that this religion is making in Germany, and I also read
that our country offers a promising field for Buddhist missionaries.
[Illustration: BRONZE IMAGE OF BUDDHA, BUILT 1252]
As a religion of agnosticism, requiring belief in neither God nor
immortality, nor in the morality taught by Christ, it may appeal to
some who, like the Englishman whom I found in the monastery, have
already rejected Christianity, but it is not likely to appeal to
those who have had religious experience. Those who emphasize good
works, and fail to recognize the need of an inspiring faith behind
the works, may take refuge in the teachings of Buddha from the more
exacting requirements of the Nazarene, but no one is likely to be
led astray who compares the altruism, the philanthropy and the
benevolences of Christianity with the fruits of Buddhism. To live,
even in poverty, upon the labors of others with a view to gaining
thus an earlier entrance into blissful unconsciousness is not so
unselfish after all, as to spend one's self in the service of his
fellows and to convert life into an exhaustless fountain.
CHAPTER XXII.
EASTERN INDIA.
We have at least reached India--and what extremes are here! Southern
India penetrates the Indian Ocean and is so near the Equator that
the inhabitants swelter under the heat of a perpetual summer, while
the rocky sentinels that guard the northern frontier are clad in
the ice of an eternal winter. As might be expected in a land which
has every altitude from sea level to nearly thirty thousand feet,
one finds all varieties of vegetation, from the delicate fern of
the tropics to the sturdy edelweiss that blossoms in the snow--from
the grain and orchards of Agra, Oudh and the Punjab to the cotton,
rice and fruits of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. The extremes are as
noticeable among the people as in nature's realm. In learning there
is a great gulf between the Hindu pundit and the ignorant ryot;
there is a wide sea between the wealth of the native prince and the
poverty of the masses; and there is a boundless ocean between the
government and the people.
Eastern India is entered through Calcutta, a city of more than a
million inhabitants which has been built up under British occupancy.
It is the capital of the province of Bengal and the winter capital
of British India. I say winter capital because the higher English
officials have their headquarters at Simla, eight thousand feet up
in the Himalayas, during eight months of the year. Calcutta is on
the Hooghly river, one of the numerous mouths of the Ganges; and the
Ganges, it may be added, is a little disappointing to one who has
read about it from youth. Instead of being a large river, flowing
down from the Himalayas directly to the sea, it is neither of great
length nor of great width. It runs for hundreds of miles along the
foot of the range and joins the Brahmaputra, which comes from an
opposite direction and apparently is much longer. The mouths of the
joint stream form a delta like that of the Nile, which at the coast
is something like two hundred miles wide.
Lacking the antiquity of the cities of the interior, Calcutta does
not possess many things of interest to the tourist, no elaborate
tombs, no massive mosques and few temples of importance, although
all shades of religion are represented here. There is a very pretty
Jain temple in the suburbs, and in the city there is a Hindu temple
where goats are offered as a sacrifice, but the center of Hinduism
is at Benares, while Agra, Delhi and Lucknow furnish the finest
specimens of the taste of the Mohammedan rulers. There are at
Calcutta some fine public buildings and less pretentious private
blocks, some beautiful parks and a very extensive museum.
[Illustration: CALCUTTA BURNING GHAT.]
In this museum one can learn more of the various races of India, of
their dress, implements and weapons, more of the animal and insect
life, more of India's mineral wealth, more of her woods, stones and
marbles, more of her agricultural products and manufactures than he
can in weeks of travel. He sees here mounted specimens of bug and
butterfly, bird, fish and beast. It is the very Mecca of the student
and we saw a number of groups thus engaged. Among the insects there
are several which illustrate the mimicry of nature to a marvelous
degree. Some are like dried grass, some like moss and some like
leaves. The most remarkable of these is the leaf insect which can
scarcely be detected from a leaf even after it has been pointed out.
There is a mountain grouse which turns white in the winter, and in
some countries a hare which undergoes the same change. In Ceylon
there are crabs with legs like pieces of coral and a color closely
resembling the sand upon which they crawl, but the leaf insect
surpasses them all. Not only is its color identical with the leaf,
but its body and wings are veined and ribbed like a leaf; even rust
spots could be found on some of them. We could hardly have believed
our own eyes had we not seen some of these insects alive and some of
the young just hatched.
The botanical garden, while not equal in variety or beauty to the
gardens at Buitenzorg and Kandy, has one object of growing interest,
viz., a gigantic banyan tree. This tree is nearly a century and
a half old and shades a spot of ground almost a thousand feet in
circumference. Great arms run out from the parent trunk and these
are supported by four hundred and sixty-four ærial roots or minor
trunks, some of which are several feet in diameter. Seen from a
distance the tree presents a very symmetrical appearance, and, as it
is still growing, it is likely to become, if it is not already, the
largest tree in the world.
The zoological garden contains some excellent specimens. We were
especially interested in the Bengal tigers, in a red-nosed African
mandrill (which looks like a cross between a hog and an ape), and in
the monkeys. Three of the latter belong to the shouting variety--at
least, they do shout. When the attendant gives the cue, they set
up such a chorus of ear-splitting yells as one seldom hears. The
echoing and re-echoing makes a din before which the noise of a
football game seems tame. While not a football enthusiast, I venture
the suggestion that an American team would do well to secure the
assistance of these rooters, for they could work up the necessary
enthusiasm on short notice and with a great saving to the throats of
the students.
On the streets of Calcutta one sees Indian life in all its forms.
The coolies wear the lightest possible clothing and carry enormous
burdens on their heads. I saw eight of them hurrying down the street
at a fast walk bearing a grand piano on their heads. In another
place one man carried a large Saratoga trunk on his head down the
hotel stairs. He had to have assistance in lifting and lowering it,
but when it was once balanced on his head he marched off with it
with apparent ease. The coolie women also carry burdens upon their
heads, water jars being their specialty. Two and even three of
these, one on top of another, are sometimes carried in this way. The
brass water pot is, by the way, never out of sight in India; it is
to be seen everywhere, and the scouring of these pots seems to give
employment for leisure moments.
[Illustration: THE MAHARAJA OF MOURBHARAG--AN INDIAN PRINCE]
While much carrying is done on the head and on the pole, carts of
all kinds are numerous. The water buffalo is to be found in India,
but he divides the honors with the Indian bullock as a beast of
burden. The Indian bullock is a mild-eyed beast, usually white or
light in color, and has a hump on the shoulders which seems to
be made expressly for the yoke. There is a small variety of the
bullock, which is used for drawing passenger carts, and some of
these are so fast that they are entered in trotting races.
[Illustration: INDIAN PRINCESS.]
The merchants of India are a shrewd and persistent class. They press
their wares upon one at the hotels and in their shops, and the
purchaser never knows whether he is buying at a bargain or paying
two or three prices. It is not at all uncommon for the dealer to
begin negotiations with the assertion that he has but one price
and that his conscience will not allow him to ask more than a fair
price, and conclude by selling at a twenty-five or fifty per cent
discount. It may be that natives are treated differently, but the
foreigner is likely to be charged "what the traffic will bear."
You can not judge of the value of a merchant's stock by the size or
appearance of his store. He may have a little booth open in front,
with no show windows, but when he begins to bring out his trunks and
bundles, he may exhibit jewelry worth a hundred thousand dollars,
or rich embroideries worth their weight in gold. The merchant sits
cross-legged on the floor and spreads out the wares which his
attendants bring, beguiling you the while with stories of Lord So
and So's purchase, or Lady What's Her Name's order, or of a check
for thousands handed him by an American millionaire.
[Illustration: THE GREAT BANYAN TREE--CALCUTTA.]
The native buildings are, as a rule, neither beautiful nor cleanly.
The little shops that open on the street exhibit food and vegetables
arranged in heaps, the vendor apparently indifferent to dust and
flies. The houses are generally of adobe, plastered with mud and
without floors. In the warmer sections of the country they are built
of matting and bamboo. The rich Indians live in substantial homes
with high ceilings, tile floors and spacious verandas, but these are
very few compared with the mass of the poor.
The Indian women of the higher classes are in seclusion all the
time. They seldom leave their homes and when they do venture out
they travel in covered chairs or closed carriages. This custom was
brought into India by the Mohammedan conquerors, but it has been
generally adopted by Hindu society. There is a growing sentiment
among the educated Hindus against this practice, so burdensome
to woman, but custom yields slowly to new ideas. At Calcutta we
met several Indian ladies of high social rank who, in their home
life, have felt the influence of western ideas and who have to
some extent lessened the rigors of the zenana (seclusion). Two of
these ladies,--one a princess--were daughters of the famous Keshub
Chunder Sen, the great Hindu reformer, whose writing made a profound
impression on the religious thought of the world. In the group was
also a daughter-in-law of Mr. Sen's, a brilliant woman who was left
the widow of a native prince at the age of thirteen and who recently
shocked the orthodox Hindus by a second marriage. I mention these
ladies because they represent the highest type of Indian womanhood,
and it would be difficult to find in any country, in a group of the
same size, more beauty, culture and refinement.
[Illustration: A CALCUTTA STREET--INDIA]
The principal article of feminine dress is the sarai, a long strip
of cotton or silk, part of which is wrapped about the body to form
a skirt, while the rest is draped over the head and shoulders in
graceful folds. This garment lends itself to ornamentation and is
usually embroidered along the edges, sometimes with silver and gold.
We have not found in our travels a more becoming and attractive
costume.
The dress of the men is so varied that description is impossible.
One form of dress resembles the Roman toga. Many wear trousers
made by mysterious windings and foldings of a long strip of cloth,
others wear loose pantaloons. The coats are as multiform, a long,
close-fitting one being the most popular. But the hat is the article
to which most care is given. While the fez is popular, it is not so
conspicuous as the turban. The latter is to be seen in all colors,
shapes and styles. Some of the educated Indians have adopted the
European dress, but the change in costume has not been rapid.
Calcutta is one of the educational centers of India, and one
finds in the city many of the leaders of thought, educational and
political. The University of Calcutta grants degrees and affiliates
to itself the colleges whose students are preparing for the
university examinations. Besides the university there are medical,
law and technical schools which draw young men from the entire
country. The position taken by Lord Curzon in the matter of higher
education aroused so much opposition among the native population
that an association was formed two years ago for the purpose of
raising money to defray the expenses of students desiring to study
abroad. Last year fourteen students were selected and sent to
different countries. This year forty-four are going, and I had the
pleasure of meeting these at a public reception given them at the
town hall.
This meeting interested me very much. It was opened with a prayer by
Editor Sen, of the Indian Mirror, a liberal Hindu, and it was such a
prayer as might have been offered in any American church. It was so
brief that I quote it in full:
"We thank Thee, O God, that by Thy blessing those young men whom
we sent abroad for study last year are doing their work well and
have by Thy grace been kept in the right path. We are now met to
bid farewell to a much larger number of our youths, who are shortly
leaving these shores for study in distant foreign lands. We ask Thy
abundant blessing on them, and we humbly beseech Thee to protect
them in their travels by sea and land and to bring them all safely
to their respective destinations. May they be diligent in their
studies, obedient to their teachers, grateful to those by whose help
they are being sent abroad, and blameless in their conduct. May the
love and fear of God rule their hearts, and may they return to us
and to those nearest and dearest to them in due course crowned with
full success and filled with an earnest desire to labor for the good
of their country and their poorer brethren. We commend them to Thy
gracious keeping as we now bid them a hearty farewell, and beseech
Thee to help us all to live and work for the glory of Thy name and
the good of our fellow men now and always."
[Illustration: KESHUB CHUNDER SEN.]
Most of the students were going to Japan--one of the many
indications of that country's increasing influence in the
Orient--some were going to England and a few to America. Those bound
for America called upon me later at the hotel, and I found them an
earnest and ambitious group. They had, as all the Indians whom we
met seemed to have, a high opinion of our country and spoke with
enthusiasm of the benefits which they hoped to derive from their
stay in the United States. These, and other students with whom I
came in contact, impressed me as exceedingly patriotic and anxious
to turn their information and their ability to the advantage of
their country.
In Calcutta there are a number of Indians, who have won prominence
in various spheres of activity. Editor Sen, to whom I have already
referred, is one of the most influential of the native editors and
writers; Editor Banerjee, of the Bengalee, is both a writer and an
orator, and the editor of the Patrika has made his paper an exponent
of advanced political thought. The Tagore family has furnished
several men prominent in religious, literary and official life;
education has found a patron in the Roy family, and Dr. Bose has won
more than a national reputation in science.
[Illustration: THE BULL CART IN INDIA]
Those who visit Calcutta can not afford to miss the side trip to
Darjeeling, a summer resort perched upon the foothills of the
Himalayas. The journey is rather fatiguing--three hours to the
Ganges, then an all night ride to the foot of the range and then
an eight hour climb on a two-foot gauge up the mountain side, but
it amply repays the effort. We count this experience among the
richest that we have enjoyed. The city of Darjeeling is about seven
thousand feet above the sea, and the sides of the Himalayas are so
steep at this point that it is only fifty miles down the zig-zag
little railroad to the plain where the elevation is but two or three
hundred feet. I do not know where one can find more of the grand
and picturesque in the same distance than on this narrow gauge
that threads its way up the rocky sides of this most stupendous of
mountain ranges.
[Illustration: THIBETANS, AS SEEN AT DARJEELING.]
[Illustration: VIEW OF THE HIMALAYAS, AS SEEN FROM DARJEELING.]
Darjeeling is so near Thibet, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan that one
finds here a motley variety of types and sees something of the
native life of the forbidden land that stretches along the northern
border of India. The mountain tribes are sturdier in build, coarser
in feature and lighter in color than the people of the lowlands, and
we saw some types that strongly resembled the American Indian.
But to return to the mountains themselves; the view from Darjeeling
is unsurpassed. The Kinchinjunga Peaks rise to a height of 28,156
feet above the sea, or nearly twice as high as Pike's Peak, and
though forty-five miles distant, are clear and distinct. The
summits, seen above the clouds, seem to have no terrestrial base,
but hang as if suspended in mid air. The best view is obtained from
Tiger Hill, six miles from Darjeeling and two thousand feet higher.
We made this trip one morning, rising at three o'clock, and reaching
the observation point a little before sunrise. I wish I were able to
convey to the reader the impression made upon us.
While all about us was yet in darkness, the snowy robe which clothes
the upper twelve thousand feet of the range, caught a tint of pearl
from the first rays of the sun, and, as we watched, the orb of day,
rising like a ruby globe from a lake of dark blue mist, gilded peak
after peak until at last we saw Mt. Everest, earth's loftiest point,
one hundred and twenty miles away and nearly a thousand feet higher
than Kinchinjunga. We saw the shadows fleeing from the light like
hunted culprits and hiding in the deep ravines, and we marked the
triumph of the dawn as it swept down the valleys.
How puny seem the works of man when brought into comparison with
majestic nature! His groves, what pigmies when measured against
the virgin forest! His noblest temples, how insignificant when
contrasted with the masonry of the hills! What canvas can imitate
the dawn and sunset! What inlaid work can match the mosaics of the
mountains!
Is it blind chance that gives these glimpses of the sublime? And was
it blind chance that clustered vast reservoirs about inaccessible
summits and stored water to refresh the thirsty plains through
hidden veins and surface streams?
No wonder man from the beginning of history has turned to the
heights for inspiration, for here is the spirit awed by the
infinite and here one sees both the mystery of creation and the
manifestations of the Father's loving kindness. Here man finds
a witness, unimpeachable though silent, to the omnipotence, the
omniscience and the goodness of God.
CHAPTER XXIII.
HINDU INDIA.
Before beginning the trip through the interior, a paragraph must
be given to Indian travel. There are no Pullman sleepers in this
country, and the tourist must carry his bedding with him. Night
trains have compartments containing broad seats which can be used
as couches and hanging shelves upon which one may lie. The traveler
carries his own blanket, pillow, sheet, towels, soap, etc., and
occasionally has to rely on these at hotels as well as on the
trains. The cars are entered from the side, and one must take his
chance of waking at the right station, for there is no official to
give him warning. In India it is customary for foreigners to take
an Indian servant with them who acts as an interpreter and looks
after the baggage--and looking after the baggage is no easy task in
this part of the British empire. After we had made one short trip
without assistance we were glad to yield to the custom, and Goolab,
a Calcutta Mussulman, proved himself an invaluable aid in dealing
with the baggage coolies, whose language we could not understand
and whose charges vary from the legal rate as the minimum to three
or four times that if the tourist shows himself a novice at the
business.
The hotels of India are declared by the guide books to be bad, and
one does not feel like disputing these authorities after having made
the trip. I do not mean to say that there is no difference between
them, for in several places we found comfortable rooms and in some
places palatable food. Everywhere we were so interested in what we
saw that we could endure almost any kind of accommodations, but at
one place the fare was so unsatisfactory that we were reduced to
eggs and toast. Goolab, overhearing some mutterings of discontent,
took it upon himself to report in the hope of securing some
improvement, and the clerk asked me for particulars. I told him that
I had not intended to make any complaint, but that as he was good
enough to inquire, I would say that we did not like the cooking;
that the crackers were sometimes mouse-eaten and that we found worms
in the cabbage. He thought that the mice were inexcusable, but, as
if the question disposed of the matter, asked: "The worm was dead,
wasn't it?" I was compelled to admit that it was.
Leaving Calcutta, we sought the ancient city of Benares, which bears
the distinction of being the center of Hinduism. In fact, it has
been the religious capital of India for two thousand years or more.
At Sarnath, just outside Benares, stands the first Buddhist pagoda,
said to have been erected nearly five hundred years before the
beginning of the Christian era to commemorate a spot in the deer
park where Buddha taught his disciples. Recent excavations near
there have brought to light one of the Asoka pillars which, though
unfortunately broken, still bears testimony to the skill of the
sculptor as well as to the zeal of the great Buddhist king. But
these ruins are all that is left of Buddhism in this vicinity,
where Buddha lived and taught and where his doctrines were once
triumphant, or Hinduism has virtually rooted out Buddhism, adopting,
it is said, the device of making him one of the incarnations of
their own god.
[Illustration: THE CAMEL IN INDIA.]
At Benares one sees idolatry in its grossest and most repulsive
forms, and it is therefore as interesting to-day to the student of
the world's great religions as to the devoted Hindu who travels
hundreds of miles over dusty roads to bathe in the Ganges, whose
waters he considers sacred. Benares is built upon the north bank of
the Ganges, and it is estimated that each year it is visited by a
million pilgrims. When more than three hundred miles from the city,
we saw the caravan of one of the Maharaja (Maharaja is the title
borne by native princes) on its way to the river. There were five
elephants, a dozen camels and twenty or thirty bull carts, besides
numerous pack animals and horses. The trip could not be made in much
less than two months, and all this for the sake of a bath in the
waters of the sacred river.
[Illustration: CULTIVATING PSYCHIC POWER ON SPIKES AT BENARES, INDIA.]
The bank of the Ganges is lined for a long distance with bathing
ghats (as the steps leading to the river are called), and at one
point there is a burning ghat, where the bodies of the dead are
cremated. Cremation is universal among the Hindus, sandalwood
being used where the relatives can afford it. Taking a boat, as is
customary, we rowed up and down the river in the early morning,
and such a sight! Down the steps as far as the eye could reach
came the bathers, men, women and children, and up the steps went a
constant stream of those who had finished their ablutions. Most of
them carried upon their heads water pots of shining brass, and some
carried bundles of wearing apparel. The bathing is done leisurely as
if according to ritual, with frequent dippings; water is poured out
to the sun and prayers are said. The lame, the halt and the blind
are there, some picking their way with painful step, others assisted
by friends. Here, a leper sought healing in the stream; near him a
man with a emaciated form mixed his medicine with the holy water,
and not far off a fakir with matted hair prayed beneath his big
umbrella. On one of the piers a young man was cultivating psychic
power by standing on one leg while he told his beads with his face
toward the sun.
Dressing and undressing is a simple matter with the mass of the
people. Men and women emerging from the water throw a clean robe
around themselves, and then unloosing the wet garment, wring it out
and are ready to depart. Those who bring water pots fill them from
the stream, out of which they have recently come, and carry them
away as if some divinity protected the water from pollution. As the
river contains countless dead and receives the filth of the city
as well as the flowers cast into it by worshipers, it requires a
strong faith to believe it free from lurking disease and seeds of
pestilence.
[Illustration: BATHING GHAT ON THE GANGES.]
When we reached the burning ghat, we found one body on the funeral
pyre and another soaking in the water as a preparation for burning.
So highly is the Ganges revered that aged people are brought
there that they may die, if possible, in the water. While we were
watching, a third body was prepared for the burning, and it was
so limp that death could not have occurred long before. While the
flames were consuming those three corpses, we saw coming down the
steps a man carrying the body of a child, apparently about two years
old, wrapped in a piece of thin cotton cloth. (The children of the
poor are buried in the stream because of the cost of wood.) The man
bore his lifeless burden to a little barge and made the corpse fast
to a heavy stone slab. The boatman then pushed out from the shore,
and when the middle of the stream was reached the man in charge of
the body dropped it overboard, and the burial was over.
[Illustration: PUNDIT SAKHARAM GANESH.]
No one has seen India until he has seen the Ganges; no one has seen
the Ganges until he has seen it at Benares; and no one who has seen
the Ganges at Benares will ever forget it.
In the suburbs of the city stands the Durga Temple, better known
as the Monkey Temple, because it is the home of a large family of
monkeys, which are regarded as sacred. Photographs of the temple
present rather an attractive appearance, but the original is
anything but beautiful, and the monkeys and general filth of the
place deprive it of all appearance of a place of worship.
The Golden Temple, however, is the one most visited by tourists,
and it would be difficult to picture a less inviting place. The
buildings are old and greasy, and the narrow streets are filled
with images and thronged with beggars. One finds his interest in
missionary work quickened if he wanders through these streets and
sees the offering of incense to the elephant god and the monkey god,
and to images innumerable. The air is heavy with perfume and the
odor of decaying flowers, and one jostles against the sacred bulls
as he threads his way through the crowd. We have not seen in any
other land such evidences of superstition, such effort to ward off
evil spirits and to conciliate idols. The educated Hindus, and there
are many learned men among the Hindus, regard these idols as only
visible representations of an invisible God, but the masses seem to
look no farther than the ugly images before which they bow.
It was a relief to find near this dark pool of idolatry an
institution of learning, recently founded, which promises to be a
purifying spring. I refer to the Central Hindu College, of which
Mrs. Annie Besant, the well known theosophist, is the head. Although
the school is but seven years old, it already includes a valuable
group of buildings and has some five hundred students. Among the
professors are several Englishmen who serve without compensation,
finding sufficient reward in the consciousness of service.
Next to Benares Allahabad is the most important Hindu center. The
city is on the Ganges, at its junction with the Jumna, one of its
longest branches. There is an old tradition that another river,
flowing underground, empties into the Ganges at this point, and the
place is referred to as the junction of the three rivers. The great
Mogul Akbar built a splendid fort where the Ganges and the Jumna
meet, and probably on this account Allahabad is the capital of the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Within the walls of the fort
there is another of the Asoka pillars, a very well preserved one,
forty-nine feet high and bearing numerous inscriptions, among which
are the famous edicts of Asoka, issued in 240 B. C., against the
taking of life. Within the fort in a subterranean room is another
object of interest, the Akhshai Bar or undecaying banyan tree. As
this tree is described by a Chinese pilgrim of the seventh century,
it is either of remarkable antiquity or has been renewed from time
to time.
The religious importance of Allahabad is largely due to a fair which
is held there every year and which on every twelfth year becomes a
national event. It is called the Mela, and last January brought to
the city a crowd estimated at from one and a half to three millions.
This every-twelfth-year fair brings together not only the devout
Hindus, who come as a matter of religious duty, and innumerable
traders, who at such times find a market for their wares, but it
draws large numbers of fakirs (pronounced fah-keers, with the accent
upon the last syllable) or holy men. They wear full beards and long
hair and no clothing except the breech cloth. They put ashes and
even manure upon their heads, and their hair and whiskers are matted
and discolored. These men are supposed to have raised themselves
to a high spiritual state by asceticism and self-punishment. They
undergo all sorts of hardships, such as hanging over a fire, holding
up the arm until it withers, and sitting upon a bed of spikes. We
saw many fakirs at Benares and Allahabad and some elsewhere (for
they are scattered over the whole country), and at the latter place
one accommodated us by taking his seat upon the spikes.
[Illustration: HINDU TYPES.]
At the recent Mela five hundred of these fakirs marched in a
procession naked, even the breech cloth having been abandoned for
the occasion, and so great was the reverence for them that their
followers struggled to obtain the sand made sacred by their tread, a
number of people meeting their death in the crowd. These fakirs are
supposed to have reached a state of sinlessness, but one of them
seized a child along the line of march and dashed out its brains in
the presence of its mother, claiming to be advised that the gods
desired a human sacrifice. He was arrested by the British officials
and is now awaiting trial on the charge of murder. The papers
recently reported another instance in which a fakir was the cause of
a murder. He was consulted by a woman who had lost several children
and was anxious to protect her prospective child from a like fate.
The fakir told her that she could insure her child's life if she
would herself bathe in human blood, and she and her husband enticed
a seven-year-old boy into their home and killed him to secure the
blood necessary for the bath. The fakirs are not only a danger to
the community in some cases and a source of demoralization at all
times, but they are a heavy drain upon the producing wealth of the
country. Adding nothing to the material, intellectual or moral
development of the country, they live upon the fears and credulity
of the people.
[Illustration: HINDU FAIR AT ALLAHABAD--INDIA]
The Hindu religion claims something more than two hundred millions
of human beings within its membership; it teaches the transmigration
of the soul or reincarnation as it is generally called. The Hindu
mind takes kindly to the metaphysical, and the Hindu priests have
evolved an intricate system of philosophy in support of their
religious beliefs. Reincarnation is set forth as a theory necessary
to bring God's plans into accord with man's conception of justice.
If a man is born blind or born into unfavorable surroundings, it
is explained on the theory that he is being punished for sins
committed during a former existence; if he is born into a favorable
environment he is being rewarded for virtue previously developed.
[Illustration: HINDU FAKIR.]
It is not quite certain whether the Hindus have many gods or many
forms of one god, for the ancient Vedas speak of each of several
gods as if they were supreme. The most popular god is a sort of
trinity, Bramah, the creator; Vischnu, the preserver, and Siva, the
destroyer, being united in one. Sometimes the trinity is spoken
of as representing creation, destruction and renovation, in which
Krishna appears as the principal god. Out of this system have sprung
a multitude of gods until the masses bow down "to sticks and stones."
[Illustration: MRS. BESANT'S COLLEGE.]
The most pernicious product of the Hindu religion is the caste
system. Infant marriage is terrible, but that will succumb to
education; the seclusion of the women is benumbing, but it will give
way before the spread of European and American influence, and with
it will go the practical servitude of widows, as the practice of
suttee (the burning of widows) has practically gone. But the caste
system, resting upon vanity, pride and egotism, is more difficult
to eradicate. Nowhere in the world is caste so inexorable in its
demands or so degrading in its influence. The line between the human
being and the beast of the field is scarcely more distinctly drawn
than the line between the various castes. The Brahmins belong to
the priestly class, and are supposed to have sprung from the mouth
of Brahm, the great creator; the Kshatrias, or warrior class, are
supposed to have sprung from the shoulders of Brahm; the Vaisyas,
or merchant class, are supposed to have sprung from the thighs of
Brahm; while the Sudras, or laborers, are supposed to have sprung
from the feet of Brahm. There are numerous sub-divisions of these
castes, and besides these there are outcasts; although there does
not seem to be any room below the Sudras for any other class. The
caste system not only affects social intercourse and political
progress, but it complicates living. A high caste Hindu can not
accept food or drink from a low caste, and must purify his water
bottle if a low caste touches it.
About seventy years ago a reform in Hinduism was begun under the
name of Brahmo Somaj. It was built upon monotheism, or the worship
of one god, for which it claimed to find authority in the Hindu
sacred books. It drew to itself a number of strong men, among them
Mr. Tagore and Mr. Sen, the latter making a trip to England to
present the principles of the new faith before prominent religious
bodies there.
[Illustration: A GALA DAY IN INDIA.]
The Arya Somaj, another reform sect, sprung up later. Both of these
have exerted considerable influence upon the thought of India, far
beyond their numerical strength. So far, however, Christianity has
made greater inroads upon Hinduism than any of the reformations that
have been attempted from within.
[Illustration: CREMATION OF DEAD BODIES--BURNING GHAT]
At Allahabad we found two Christian colleges, the Allahabad
Christian College for men and the Wanamaker School for girls. Dr.
A. H. Ewing is at the head of the former and Miss Foreman, the
daughter of an early missionary, at the head of the latter. Both of
these schools have been built with American money, Mr. Wanamaker
having been the most liberal patron. They are excellently located,
are doing a splendid work and are affiliated with the Presbyterian
Church. Fifty dollars will pay for the food, room, clothes and
tuition of one boy, while thirty dollars will provide for one
girl, and interested Americans have already established several
scholarships, but money is badly needed to enlarge the facilities of
both these schools.
[Illustration: HINDU GROUP]
We spent the Sabbath at Allahabad and visited both of these schools,
and our appreciation of their work was enhanced by our observation
at Benares. It seemed like an oasis in the desert. Surely those who
have helped to create this green spot--may it ever widen--will find
intense satisfaction in the good that these schools are doing and
will do.
CHAPTER XXIV.
MOHAMMEDAN INDIA.
Strictly speaking, the term, Mohammedan India, could only be
applied to those frontier districts in which the Mohammedans have
a preponderating influence, but the Mohammedan emperors left such
conspicuous monuments of their reign in Lucknow, Delhi and Agra that
it does not violate the proprieties to thus describe this section.
The Mohammedans themselves have laid virtual claim to this territory
by the establishment of their chief college at Aligahr, nearly
equidistant from Agra and Delhi, and their claim is still further
strengthened by the fact that while they have not a majority, they
have a very large percentage of the population of both of the last
named cities.
In approaching this section of India from the east, the tourist
passes through Cawnpore, made memorable by the massacre of the
British residents during the mutiny of 1857. The recollection of the
mutiny is still fresh in the minds of the British officials, and
numerous monuments have been reared to the bravery of the besieged
garrisons.
At Calcutta one is shown a black piece of pavement which covers a
part of the Black Hole of Calcutta (the rest of the hole is now
covered by a building) where in 1756 one hundred and forty-six
human beings were forced to spend the night and from which only
twenty-three escaped alive. The hole was twenty-two by fourteen
feet and only sixteen or eighteen feet in height, and the awful
sufferings of those who perished there are commemorated by an
obelisk which stands near by.
But the cruelty practiced at the time of the mutiny far more
stirred the English heart, and as the uprising was more extensive,
several cities contain memorials. Of these the most beautiful is
at Cawnpore, and is called "The Angel of the Resurrection." It is
made of white marble and represents an angel with hands crossed and
each holding a palm. It stands upon an elevated mound in a beautiful
park, and is enclosed by a stone screen. It was the gift of Lord and
Lady Canning and bears the following inscription: "Sacred to the
perpetual memory of a great company of Christian people, chiefly
women and children, who near this spot were cruelly murdered by the
followers of the rebel Nana Dhundu Pant, of Bithur, and cast, the
dying with the dead, into the well below, on the 15th day of July,
1857."
There is also at Cawnpore, in another park, a stately memorial
church, the inner walls of which are lined with tablets containing
the names of British soldiers who lost their lives during the mutiny.
Lucknow is not far from Cawnpore, and here, too, the mutiny has left
its scars and monuments. The Lucknow residency, now an ivy mantled
ruin, was the scene of the great siege that lasted from the first of
July, 1857, to the seventeenth of November. At the beginning there
were within the walls nine hundred British troops and officers,
one hundred and fifty volunteers, seven hundred native troops, six
hundred women and children and seven hundred non-combatant natives;
total, about three thousand. When relief came but one thousand
remained. The night before the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell with
reinforcements, one of the besieged, a Scotch girl, dreamed of the
coming of relief, and her dream gave rise to the song so familiar a
generation ago, "The Campbells Are Coming."[5]
[5] I have heard that the song was of earlier origin.
[Illustration: ANGEL OF THE RESURRECTION.]
There are in Lucknow a number of tombs, mosques and buildings
that gave us our first glimpse of the architecture of the Mogul
emperors--great domes, gigantic gateways and graceful minarets,
stately columns and vaulted galleries. The most interesting of the
buildings, Imambarah, built by Asaf-ud-daulah, contains a great
hall more than a hundred and fifty feet long and about fifty feet
in breadth and height. On one side of the court is a private mosque
and on the other a group of apartments built around a well as a
protection against the summer's heat. From the top of the Imambarah
one obtains an excellent view of Lucknow and its surroundings.
At Aligarh I found a great educational institution which must be
taken into consideration in estimating the future of Mohammedanism
in India. It was founded in 1877, largely through the influence and
liberality of Sir Syed Ahmed, who until his death in 1898 devoted
himself entirely to its development. He was a large-minded man
and full of zeal for the enlightenment of his co-religionists. He
recognized the low intellectual standard of the Mohammedan Indians,
and the controlling purpose of his life was to assist in their
improvement. At first, his educational enterprise met with a cold
reception at the hands of the leaders of his church. Emissaries
were even sent from Mecca to assassinate him, but, nothing daunted,
he pursued his plans until the church authorities recognized the
importance of the school.
As the Mohammedans are numerically weaker than the Hindus and unable
to cope with them in intellectual contests, Sir Syed opposed the
national congress proposition which the Hindus have long urged and
the Aligarh school became conspicuous for its pro-British leanings
on this question. This may account in part for the interest taken in
it by the colonial government. (The Central Hindu College at Benares
refuses government aid and is, therefore, more independent.) But
since the death of Sir Syed the congress idea is growing among the
students of Aligarh.
[Illustration: THE HON. MY JUSTICE BADRUDDIN TYABJI--AN INDIAN
JUDGE--BOMBAY.]
Aligarh College now has an enrollment of seven hundred and four,
more than a hundred of whom are law students. It has an English
Cambridge graduate for president and several English professors.
I might add that England, like America, has sent many teachers to
India, and that they are engaged in work, the importance of which
can not be overestimated. I had the pleasure of meeting those
connected with St. John's College at Agra as well as those at
Aligarh.
[Illustration: RUINS OF THE RESIDENCY--LUCKNOW, INDIA]
[Illustration: PEARL MOSQUE AT DELHI]
Delhi is one of India's most ancient cities. When the Aryans came
down from the northwest and conquered the aboriginal tribes, they
founded a city which they called Indrapat, just south of the present
site of Delhi. How old it is no one knows, for the names of its
founders have been forgotten, its records, if it had any, have been
destroyed, and its streets are winding footpaths which one follows
with difficulty. Every wave of invasion that has swept down from the
north or west has passed over Indrapat, and its stones would tell a
thrilling story if they could but speak. The city has been rebuilt
again and again, the last time about three hundred years ago, but it
has little to exhibit now but its antiquity. There is a massive city
wall with huge gates, there are tumble-down buildings occupied by
a few people and some goats, and there is a stone library building
erected hundreds of years before Carnegie was born, but the glory of
Indrapat has departed. Not far from Indrapat is the splendid tomb of
Humayun and another of the Asoka pillars.
Eleven miles south of the present Delhi is what is called old
Delhi (Delhi seems to have had a movable site) immortalized by the
famous Kutab Minar, or tower, erected near the close of the twelfth
century by one of the earliest Mohammedan conquerors after the
capture of Delhi. The tower--a tower of victory--is two hundred
and thirty-eight feet in height, forty-seven feet in diameter at
the base and nine at the top. It has been described as one of the
architectural wonders of the world, and it certainly gives one a
profound respect for the mind that planned it. There are so many
mausoleums and mosques scattered over the plains around Delhi that
space forbids particular description.
[Illustration: GOKALE--PROMINENT INDIAN REFORMER.]
Within a century after the death of Mohammed the Moslems made an
attack upon India, but it was five hundred years later before they
became masters of the great peninsula. Then for five hundred more
it was the scene of conflict between rival Moslems until Timur
(Tamerlan, the Tartar) plundered it and drenched it with blood.
In all these wars Delhi was the strategic point, the natural
capital of the north. After Timur, came his descendant of the sixth
generation, Babar, who consolidated the Indian empire by bravery,
tact and wisdom. He is the first of the great Mogul rulers, but he
was so occupied with the extension of his sovereignty that he was
compelled to leave the development of the empire to his descendants.
His grandson, Akbar, built three great forts, one at Allahabad, to
which reference has been made in another article, another at Agra,
which he made his capital, and the third at Atok, still farther
north. He also built Fatepur Sikri about twenty miles from Agra.
This was to be his home, and here on a sandstone ridge overlooking
the plain he reared a group of buildings which even now, though
deserted for two centuries, attracts tourists from all over the
world. While the material employed is red sandstone, the buildings
are models of beauty as well as strength, and the minute and
elaborate carvings are masterpieces in their line.
[Illustration: A POOL AT LUCKNOW--INDIA]
[Illustration: MOHAMMEDANS AT PRAYER.]
The fort built by Akbar at Agra, while not proof against modern
missiles, was impregnable in its day and still bears testimony to
the constructive genius of the second of the Moguls.
Six miles from Agra at Sikandra stands the magnificent tomb which
Akbar built and where he rests. It is constructed of red sandstone
and is part Buddhist and part Saracenic in design. The base is three
hundred and twenty feet square and its four retreating galleries
terminate in a roofless court of white marble in which stands a
marble casket surrounded by screens of marble most exquisitely
carved. Special interest is felt in the tomb because one of its
ornaments was the famous Kohinoor diamond, the largest in the
world. It had come down to Akbar from his grandfather, who in turn
secured it from the Rajputs. The diamond was carried away by Persian
conquerors, and later was returned to India only to be transferred
to Queen Victoria.
But if Akbar surpassed his grandfather as a builder, he was in turn
surpassed by his grandson, Shah Jehan. This emperor, the last of the
three great Moguls, who began his career by murdering two brothers
and two cousins whose rivalry he feared, and who closed his career
a prisoner of his rebellious son, has linked his name with some of
the most beautiful structures ever conceived by the mind of man. At
Agra within the walls of his grandfather's fort, he built the Pearl
Mosque which has been described as "the purest, loveliest house
of prayer in existence." It is constructed of milk white marble
and combines strength, simplicity and grace. He also built the Gem
Mosque at Delhi.
[Illustration: KLANJIBAN GANGULI, SUPT. INSTRUCTION.]
The fort at Delhi was built by Shah Jehan, and if its resemblance
to the fort at Agra deprives him of credit for originality, that
argument can not be raised against the palace within, for this is
unrivaled among palaces. The marble baths, the jeweled bed chambers,
the pillared halls, the graceful porticoes--all these abound in rich
profusion. But it was upon the great hall of Private Audience that
he lavished taste and wealth. The floor is of polished marble,
the pillars and the arched ceiling of polished marble inlaid with
precious stones, so set as to form figures and flowers. Each square
inch of it speaks of patient toil and skill, and the whole blends
harmoniously. For this magnificent audience room he designed a
throne fit for the chamber in which it stood. "It was called the
peacock throne because it was guarded by two peacocks with expanded
tails ornamented with jewels that reproduced the natural colors of
the bird. The throne itself was made of gold, inlaid with diamonds,
rubies and emeralds. Over it was a canopy of gold festooned with
pearls supported by twelve pillars, all emblazoned with gems. On
either side stood the Oriental emblem of royalty, an umbrella, each
handle eight feet high and of solid gold, studded with diamonds,
the covers being of crimson velvet crusted and fringed with
magnificent pearls." Thus it was described. It was too tempting a
prize for greedy conquerors to leave undisturbed, and was carried
off some centuries ago by a Persian, Nadir Shah. Shah Jehan, after
contemplating this audience chamber and throne, had inscribed
upon the wall in Persian characters a verse which has been freely
translated to read:
"If on earth be an Eden of bliss,
It is this, it is this, it is this."
And yet, in view of his sad fate there seems as much irony in the
lines as there was in the delicately poised scales of justice which
he had inlaid on one of the walls of his palace after he had put his
relatives out of the way.
But of all the works of art that can be traced to his genius,
nothing compares with the tomb, the Taj Mahal, which he reared in
honor of the best-loved of his wives, Numtaj Mahal, "the chosen of
the palace." This building, unique among buildings and alone in its
class, has been described so often that I know not how to speak
of it without employing language already hackneyed. When I was a
student at college I heard a lecturer describe this wonderful tomb,
and it was one of the objective points in our visit to India. Since
I first heard of it I had read so much of it and had received such
glowing accounts from those who had seen it, that I feared lest
the expectations aroused might be disappointed. We reached Agra
toward midnight, and, as the moon was waning, drove at once to the
Taj that we might see it under the most favorable conditions, for
in the opinion of many it is most beautiful by moonlight. There is
something fascinating in the view which it thus presents, and we
feasted our eyes upon it. Shrouded in the mellow light, the veins of
the marble and the stains of more than two and a half centuries
are invisible, and it stands forth like an apparition. We visited
it again in the daytime, and yet again, and found that the sunlight
increased rather than diminished its grandeur. I am bringing an
alabaster miniature home with me, but I am conscious that the
Taj must be seen full size and silhouetted against the sky to be
appreciated.
[Illustration: TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.]
Imagine a garden with flowers and lawn, walks and marble water
basins and fountains; in this garden build a platform of white
marble eighteen feet high and three hundred feet square, with an
ornamented minaret one hundred and thirty-seven feet high at each
corner; in the center of this platform rear a building one hundred
and eighty feet square and a hundred feet high, with its corners
beveled off and, like the sides, recessed into bays; surmount it
with a large central dome and four smaller ones; cover it inside and
out with inlaid work of many colored marbles and carvings of amazing
delicacy; beneath the central dome place two marble cenotaphs,
inlaid with precious stones, the tombs of Shah Jehan and his wife,
and enclose them in exquisitely carved marble screens--imagine all
this, if you can, and then your conception of this world-famed
structure will fall far below the Taj Mahal itself. It is, indeed,
"a dream in marble." And yet, when one looks upon it and then
surveys the poverty and ignorance of the women who live within its
shadow, he is tempted to ask whether the builder of the Taj might
not have honored his wife more had the six million dollars invested
in this tomb been expended on the elevation of womanhood. The
contrast between this artistic pile and the miserable tenements of
the people about it robs the structure of half its charms.
CHAPTER XXV.
WESTERN INDIA.
There is so much of interest in India that I find it difficult to
condense all that I desire to say into the space which it seems
proper to devote to this country. In speaking of the various cities,
I have been compelled to omit reference to the numerous industries
for which India is famed. Long before the European set foot upon
the soil the artisans had won renown in weaving, in carving and in
brass. It was, in fact, the very wealth of Indus that attracted the
attention of the western world and turned the prows of merchant
vessels toward the Orient. While India can complain that some of
her arts have been lost since she has been under the tutelage of
foreigners, enough remains to make every tourist a collector, to a
greater or less extent, of attractive souvenirs.
Benares is the center of the plain brass manufacture, and her
bazaars are full of vases, trays, candlesticks, bowls, etc. Lucknow
is noted for her silversmiths, but her products do not command so
high a price as those of southern India. Delhi leads in ivory and
wood carving, and one can find here the best specimens of this kind
of work. Several of the addresses presented to the Prince of Wales
upon his recent visit were encased in ivory caskets richly carved
and studded with gems. Painting on ivory is also carried to a high
state of perfection here, and sandalwood boxes can be found in all
the stores.
At Agra one finds rugs woven in Turkish and Persian, as well as in
original, designs. Agra is also renowned for its inlaid work, many
of the designs of the Taj being copied. The Tag itself is reproduced
in miniatures at prices ranging from one dollar up into the hundreds.
In all the cities of upper India, Kashmir shawls may be secured,
Kashmir itself being far north of the line of travel. These shawls
are of goat's hair, and some of them are so delicate that though two
yards square, they can be drawn through a finger ring.
At Jaipore the chief industries which attract the attention of
foreigners are enameling on gold and brass, the latter being the
best known. Few who visit the bazaars can resist the temptation to
carry away some samples of this ware, so graceful are the vessels
and so skillful is the workmanship.
Jaipore, the first of the western cities, and the only one of the
native states that we visited, is deserving of some notice, partly
because it gives evidence of considerable advancement and partly
because the government is administered entirely by native officials.
The Maharaja is one of the most distinguished of native princes
and a descendant of the famous Rajput line of kings. He lives in
oriental style, has a number of wives, and elephants, camels and
horses galore. He is an orthodox Hindu of the strictest type and
drinks no water but the water of the Ganges. When he went to England
to attend the coronation, he chartered a ship, took his retinue
with him and carried Ganges water enough to last until his return.
He is very loyal to the British government and in return he is
permitted to exercise over his subjects a power as absolute as the
czar ever claimed. There is an English resident at his capital,
but his council is composed of Indians, his judges are Indians,
his collectors are Indians, his school teachers are Indians, and
he has an Indian army. I had the pleasure of meeting one of the
council and the head of the school system of the state, and found
them men of fine appearance and high culture. The illiteracy in
his state compares favorably with that in the states under British
administration, and the graduates from the Maharaja's college
compete successfully in the examinations with the graduates from
other colleges. They have at Jaipore an art school in which all
kinds of manual training are taught, and the sale-room of this
school gives accurate information as to the capacity of the natives
for industrial development. We found here the only native pottery of
merit that we noticed in the country.
The city of Jaipore was laid out in 1728 and is one of the most
attractive cities in India. The main streets are a hundred and ten
feet wide, the buildings are Oriental in style, most of them two
stories in height--some three--and all are painted the same shade of
pink, with white trimmings and green shutters. The entire city is
supplied with water and the streets are lighted by gas. All in all,
Jaipore makes a favorable impression upon the visitor.
Some six miles away is the ancient city of Amber, the capital of
the state until Jaipore was established. It is reached by a ride
on elephant back, the only ride of this kind that we have yet had.
There is a beautiful palace at Amber which gives some idea of the
luxury in which the Indian rulers lived. We returned from this trip
late in the evening when the peacocks were going to roost, and
nearly every tree contained one or more of these gaudy-plumaged
fowls. These were apparently wild, and their numbers and beauty
recalled the fact that the peacock is India's royal bird; and it
is not an inappropriate symbol of the pomp and magnificence of the
Oriental kings. I might digress here to say that the respect for
life taught in the Hindu scriptures has filled India to excess with
useless birds and animals. The crows and kites are a nuisance. It is
no uncommon thing to see a vendor of cakes and sweetmeats bearing
his basket on his head and waving a stick above it to scare off the
birds. Sometimes an attendant follows the vendor and protects him
from the birds, but in spite of all precautions they get their toll.
The crows often come to the doors and windows of the hotels and
inquire whether you have any food to spare, and sparrows and other
small birds occasionally glean crumbs from the table. At Jaipore we
saw myriads of pigeons being fed in the streets, and monkeys--they
are everywhere. The jungles of the tropical countries are not more
thronged with them than the road sides of some parts of India. About
half way between Jaipore and Bombay they were especially numerous,
and as we rode along on the train we saw them singly, in groups and
in mass meetings. Here, too, we saw herds of antelope, scarcely
frightened by the train. Attention has frequently been called to the
fact that the Hindu's aversion to meat has a bearing upon the famine
question, millions of cattle dying of starvation which, if killed
earlier, might have saved thousands of human beings from starving.
[Illustration: STREET IN JAIPORE--INDIA]
A night's ride from Jaipore brought us to Abu Road, from which
by pony carts, called tongas, we ascended to Mt. Abu, sixteen
miles away. The journey is made over a well kept mountain road
which climbs to a height of about five thousand feet. While this
mountain resort draws many Europeans because of its altitude, two
famous Jain temples are the lodestone that attracts tourists.
These temples were built by merchant princes in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, and the fact that one of them cost more than
five millions of dollars, shows that trade had reached a commanding
position in those days. One of the temples was built by two brothers
and the guide tells of a tradition that these brothers, tiring of
their money, decided to bury it, but on digging in the earth they
found more, and considering it a gift from the gods, built this
temple. The buildings are not large, and seen from the outside are
disappointing, but once within one marvels at the richness of the
carving. The pillars and vaulted ceilings are of the purest white
marble, brought from no one knows where, and every inch of the
surface is covered with figures of gods, human beings, animals,
fowls and flowers. The artists utilized the things with which
the people were most familiar. Here a frieze of elephant heads,
the trunks joined, there a frieze of geese, another of tigers or
monkeys. In one dome maidens danced; in another warriors fought; in
a third flowers bloomed. The variety is endless and the workmanship
perfect. While the panels and friezes and ceilings differ so
much from each other, the arrangement is such that they do not
seem incongruous, but form a harmonious whole. The Mohammedan
conquerors mutilated some of the figures because of their hatred of
idolatry, and when, under Lord Curzon's administration, the work of
restoration was begun, it was impossible to find marble like the
original.
Around these temples are numerous shrines, each containing a seated
figure very much resembling Buddha. The Jains are a sect of the
Hindus, and their temples are renowned for their beauty. This temple
is visited by a large number of pilgrims every year, some of whom
were chanting their prayers while we were there.
Another night's ride and we were in Bombay, and what a luxury to
find a hotel constructed upon the American plan. The Taj Mahal is
the finest hotel in the Orient and would be a credit to any city in
our country. It was built by Mr. Tata, a rich Parsee, who planned it
more from public than from private considerations.
We found the plague increasing in virulence, three hundred having
died in the city the day before we arrived. Bombay has suffered
terribly from this scourge, twenty-four per cent having perished
from it in the last few days. Two years ago the American consul,
Hon. William T. Fee, lost his daughter and came near losing his wife
by this dread disease, and two of the European consuls have recently
had to leave their homes because of deaths among their native
servants. With so many dying in a single city (and ten thousand a
week in the entire country), India would seem an unsafe place to
visit, and yet one would not know except for the newspapers that an
epidemic was raging, so little does it affect business or social
life. There is now in use a system of inoculation which promises
to materially lessen the mortality from this disease. A serum is
prepared in which the venom of serpents is the chief ingredient,
and this hypodermically administered has been found almost a
sure preventive. While the physicians are employing this remedy,
the rat-catchers are also busy, and about a thousand rodents are
captured per day, it having been demonstrated that the rat not only
spreads the disease, but carries a flea that imparts it by its bite.
Bombay is the Manchester of India, and the smokestacks of its many
cotton factories give to the city a very business like appearance.
These mills are largely owned by Indians and operated by Indian
capital.
On an island near Bombay is one of the most frequented of the
rock-hewn temples, called the Elephanta Caves. This temple is
chiseled out of the solid rock, great pillars being left to
support the roof. It is about one hundred and thirty feet square
by seventeen in height and contains a number of figures of heroic
size. These figures are carved from the walls and represent various
gods and demons. The Portuguese Christians, several centuries ago,
showed their contempt for these gods of stone by firing their cannon
into the temple. While some of the pillars were battered down and
some of the carvings mutilated, enough now remains to show the
impressiveness of this ancient place of worship.
[Illustration: AN AMERICAN MAID IN PARSEE COSTUME.]
No one can visit Bombay without becoming interested in a religious
sect, the members of which are known as Parsees. They are few in
number, probably not exceeding a hundred thousand in the world, more
than half of whom live in or near Bombay. Theirs is the religion of
Zoroaster, and they contest with the Hebrews the honor of being the
first believers in one God. Their sacred books, the Zend-Avesta, are
very ancient, and the origin of their religion is placed anywhere
from seven hundred B. C. to three thousand B. C. They not only
believe in one God, but they believe in immortality and claim to
have impressed their ideas upon the Israelites when the latter
were in bondage in Babylon. The Parsees see in the world, as well
as in the human being, a continuing conflict between right and
wrong, and they regulate their conduct by a high ethical system.
When the Moslems swept over Persia and made it one of the stars in
Islam's crown, a band of Parsees preferred migration to conversion,
and, like our pilgrim fathers, sought a home in a new country. In
Bombay they have preserved their identity for some nine centuries
and have made themselves a potent influence in every department of
the city's activity. They have their marriage ceremony, their fire
temples and their funeral rites. They have sometimes been called
fire worshipers and sun worshipers, but they simply regard fire as
the purest thing known and therefore accept it as a symbol of the
invisible god. Fire is kept burning in their temples, and when a
new temple is to be dedicated, fire is collected from the homes of
persons engaged in the principal industries and occupations, and
this mingled fire is used to kindle another fire and this new fire
another until the ninth fire is lighted, and this becomes the altar
fire. Each fire is kindled without coming in contact with the former
one.
[Illustration: MAHARAJA--JAIPORE.]
[Illustration: MOHAMMEDAN LADY, BOMBAY.]
The Parsees have a peculiar form of burial, which has come down
from prehistoric times. On Malabar Hill in the suburbs of Bombay,
overlooking the sea, in the midst of a beautiful garden, are their
Towers of Silence. These are large circular buildings twenty-five or
thirty feet high and without a roof. Within the wall is a circular
platform sloping downward to a well in the center. When a Parsee
dies he is prepared for burial and borne to this garden. After the
last rites have been performed and the relatives and friends have
taken their farewell, the body is carried within the tower by men
appointed for the purpose and placed naked upon this platform.
As soon as the corpse bearers depart, the waiting vultures (of
which several hundred make their home in the garden) swoop down
upon it and do not rise until the bones are bare. The skeletons,
sun-bleached, are washed by the rains into the pit in the center,
where rich and poor, conspicuous and obscure, mingle their dust
together. Every sanitary precaution is taken and a fixed rate of
five rupees is charged to all alike, the money being advanced from
a burial fund where the family can not afford to bear the expense.
The Parsees of Bombay, though they wear a dress peculiar to
themselves, are of all the Indians most like the Europeans and
Americans. We were in one Parsee home, and the furniture, the
pictures and the library were such as would be found in the average
home in our country. Statistics show that the percentage of
education among the Parsees is very much higher than among any other
class of inhabitants, and the women share the educational advantages
with the men.
[Illustration: ELEPHANT PARADE.]
The well-to-do Parsees have been conspicuous in philanthropy,
endowing colleges, hospitals and other charities. While they are
counted among the staunchest friends of British rule, they are also
among the most intelligent critics of the government's faults. Sir
Pherosha M. Mehta, the leading Parsee orator, is prominent in the
national congress movement. At a reception given at the hotel, and
on other occasions, we had an opportunity to meet a number of the
Parsees, men and women, priests and laymen, and found them abreast
with the times and alive to the problems with which the world is
wrestling to-day.
I cannot close this article without mentioning the increasing
presence of American influence in Bombay. An American minister, Dr.
Mell, is pastor of the principal Methodist church, and the American
Congregationalists have a largely attended school for boys and girls
in the city. Many of the students were taken from famine-stricken
homes and are being educated with American money. There is also here
a school for the blind under American management, where the students
are not only taught to read and write, but trained in the industries
for which they are fitted.
I do not apologize for mentioning from time to time the institutions
which altruistic Americans have scattered over the Orient. If we
can not boast that the sun never sets on American territory, we can
find satisfaction in the fact that the sun never sets on American
philanthropy; if the boom of our cannon does not follow the Orb
of Day in his daily round, the grateful thanks of those who have
been the beneficiaries of American generosity form a chorus that
encircles the globe.
[Illustration: ASSEMBLING FOR THE BOMBAY MEETING. (SEE PAGE 474)]
CHAPTER XXVI.
BRITISH RULE IN INDIA.
"What is truth?" asked Pilate, and when he had asked the question
he went out without waiting for an answer. The question has been
asked many times and answered in many different ways. I was reminded
of a similar question when I read over the door of a court house
in Aligarh, India, the motto: "Justice is the Strength of the
British Empire." No empire, no government, no society can have any
other source of permanent strength. Lord Salisbury is quoted by
Indian leaders as saying: "Injustice will bring down the mightiest
to ruin," and we all believe it. Wendell Phillips expressed it
as strongly and even more beautifully when he said (I quote from
memory): "You may build your capitals until they reach the skies,
but if they rest upon injustice, the pulse of a woman will beat them
down."
But what is justice? How varied are the answers given! The subject,
in the name of justice, presents his appeal to his king, and the
sovereign, if he be a despot, may send him to exile or the prison or
the block and do it in the name of justice. What is justice? This
question has been ringing in my ears during our journey through
India.
When I was a law student, I read the speech of Sheridan at the trial
of Warren Hastings, and that masterpiece of invective was recalled
sixteen years later, when a colonial policy began to be suggested
in the United States after the taking of Manila. I tried to inform
myself in regard to British rule in India; the more I read about it,
the more unjust it seemed. So many Americans have, however, during
the last few years spoken admiringly of England's colonial system
that I have looked forward to the visit to India with increasing
interest, because of the opportunity it would give me to study at
close range a question of vital importance to our own country. I
have met some of the leading English officials as well as a number
in subordinate positions; have talked with educated Indians--Hindus,
Mohammedans and Parsees; have seen the people, rich and poor, in the
cities and in the country, and have examined statistics and read
speeches, reports, petitions and other literature that does not
find its way to the United States; and British rule in India is far
worse, far more burdensome to the people, and far more unjust--if I
understand the meaning of the word--than I had supposed.
[Illustration: HIS EXCELLENCY THE EARL OF MINTO.]
When I say this I do not mean to bring an indictment against the
English people or to assert that they are guilty of intentional
wrongdoing. Neither do I mean to question the motives of those who
are in authority. It has been my good fortune to become personally
acquainted with Lord Minto, the present viceroy; with Lieutenant
Governor Frazer, the chief executive of the province of Bengal;
with Lieutenant Governor La Touche, chief executive of the United
Provinces of Agra and Oudh, and with Governor Lamington, chief
executive of the Bombay presidency, three of the largest Indian
states. These men, I am sure, represent the highest type of
their countrymen. Lord Minto is fresh from Canada, where he was
governor general; Governor Lamington was the head of the Australian
government before coming to India, and both Governors Frazer and La
Touche have long official experience to their credit. That they will
be just, as they understand justice, and do right as they see the
right, I am satisfied. But what is justice?
The trouble is that England acquired India for England's advantage,
not for India's, and that she holds India for England's benefit, not
for India's. She administers India with an eye single to England's
interests, not India's, and she passes upon every question as a
judge would were he permitted to decide his own case. The officials
in India owe their appointment directly or indirectly to the
home government, and the home government holds authority at the
sufferance of the people of England, not of the people of India.
The official who goes out from England to serve a certain time and
then return, whose interests are in England rather than in India and
whose sympathies are naturally with the British rather than with
the natives, can not be expected to view questions from the same
standpoint as the Indians. Neither can these officials be expected
to know the needs of the people as well as those who share their
daily life and aspirations.
It is not necessary to review the earlier rule under the East India
Company; that is sufficiently condemned by public record. That
company was chartered for commercial purposes, and its rule had
no other than a pecuniary aim. It secured control of state after
state by helping one native prince against another where it did
not actually instigate war between princes. The English government
finally took the colony over, confessedly because of the outrageous
conduct of the company's officials. No one now defends the rule
of the East India Company, although Warren Hastings was finally
acquitted by the House of Lords in spite of his crimes, out of
consideration for his public service in extending English authority.
Is English rule in India just, as we find it to-day? Fortunately,
England permits free speech in England, although she has sometimes
restricted it in her colonies, and there has not been a public
question under consideration in England for a century which has
not brought out independent opinion. It is the glory of England
that she was an early champion of freedom of speech, and it is
the glory of Englishmen that they criticise their own government
when they think it wrong. During the American revolution, Burke
thundered his defense of the rights of the colonists, and Walpole
warned his countrymen that they could not destroy American liberty
without asserting principles which, if carried out, would destroy
English liberty as well. During the recent war in South Africa the
British had no more severe critics than were to be found among
her own people and in her own parliament. And so, to-day, British
rule in India is as forcibly arraigned by Englishmen as by the
Indians themselves. While Mr. Naoroji, an Indian, goes to England
and secures from a meeting of a radical club the adoption of a
resolution reciting that as "Britain has appropriated thousands
of millions of India's wealth for building up and maintaining
her British Indian empire and for drawing directly vast wealth
to herself;" that as "she is continuing to drain about thirty
million pounds sterling of India's wealth every year unceasingly
in a variety of ways" and that as "she has thereby reduced the
bulk of the Indian population to extreme poverty, destitution and
degradation, it is therefore her bounden duty, in common justice and
humanity, to pay from her own exchequer the costs of all famines and
diseases caused by such impoverishment." And further, "that it is
most humiliating and discreditable to the British name that other
countries should be appealed to or should have to come to Britain's
help for relief of Britain's own subjects, and after and by her
un-British rule of about one hundred and fifty years."
[Illustration: VICEROY'S PALACE AT CALCUTTA.]
While, I repeat, Mr. Naoroji was securing the unanimous adoption
of the above resolution in England, Sir Henry Cotton, now a member
of parliament, but for thirty-five years a member of the Indian
civil service, was preparing his book, New India, in which he
courageously points out the injustice from which India now suffers.
Neither he nor Mr. Naoroji suggests Indian independence. Both
believe that English sovereignty should continue, but Mr. Cotton
shows the wrongs now inflicted upon India and the necessity for
reform. Not only does he charge that the promises of the queen have
been ignored and Indians excluded from service for which they were
fitted, but he charges that the antagonism between the officials and
the people is growing and that there is among civilian magistrates
"an undoubted tendency to inflict severe sentences when natives of
India are concerned, and to impose light and sometimes inadequate
punishment upon offenders of their own race," and that in trials
"in which Englishmen are tried by English juries" the result is
sometimes "a failure of justice not falling short of judicial
scandal." If justice can not be found in the court, where shall she
be sought?
After the Indian mutiny, the Queen, in a proclamation, promised
that natives should be freely and impartially admitted to offices,
"the duties of which they might be qualified by their education,
ability and integrity to discharge." Lord Lytton, a viceroy of
India, in a confidential document which afterward found its way into
print, speaking of the pledges of the sovereign and the parliament
of England, said: "We all know that these claims and expectations
never can be fulfilled. We have had to choose between prohibiting
them (the natives of India) and cheating them, and we have chosen
the least straightforward course." And again: "Since I am writing
confidentially, I do not hesitate to say that both the governments
of England and of India appear to me, up to the present moment,
unable to answer satisfactorily the charge of having taken every
means in their power of breaking to the heart the words of promise
they had uttered to the ear."
The government of India is as arbitrary and despotic as the
government of Russia ever was, and in two respects it is worse.
First, it is administered by an alien people, whereas the officials
of Russia are Russians. Second, it drains a large part of the taxes
out of the country, whereas the Russian government spends at home
the money which it collects from the people. A third disadvantage
might be named since the czar has recently created a legislative
body, whereas England continues to deny to the Indians any form of
representative or constitutional government. Under British rule
there is no official corruption and the government is probably as
impartial as an alien government can be expected to be, but British
rule has the defects which are inherent in a colonial policy.
The people of India are taxed, but they have no voice in the amount
to be collected or in the use to be made of the revenue. They pay
into the government nearly two hundred and twenty-five millions
of dollars a year, and of this nearly one hundred millions is
expended upon an army in which Indians can not be officers. It is
not necessary to keep such an army merely to hold the people in
subjection, if the Indians are really satisfied with English rule;
and if the army is intended to keep Russia from taking India, as
is sometimes claimed, why should not the British government bear a
part of the burden? Would it not be wiser to so attach the Indian
people to the British government that they would themselves resist
annexation to Russia?
[Illustration: SIR JAMES DIGGS LA TOUCHE.]
The home charges, as they are called, absorb practically one-third
of the entire revenues. About one hundred million dollars go out of
India to England every year, and over fifteen millions are paid to
European officials in the civil employ. What nation could stand such
a drain without impoverishment?
Taxation is nearly twice as heavy in India as in England, in
proportion to the income of the people. Compared with the people
of other countries, the Indian's income is, on an average,
one-twentieth of the average English income, one-seventh of the
average Spaniard's income, one-sixth of the average Italian's
income, one-fifth of the (European) Russian's income, and one-half
of the income of the Turk. Sir Henry Cotton shows that the average
per capita deposit in banks in England is one hundred dollars
while the average per capita deposit in India is fifty cents; but
how can the Indian be expected to have a large bank account when
the average yearly income is only ten dollars? I have, in another
article, referred to the jewelry worn by Indian women. The bracelets
and anklets are silver except among the poorest, and this was
formerly a form of hoarding, but the suspension of the coinage of
silver deprived the people of the privilege of converting this
hoarded silver into rupees. It will be remembered that the late
Senator Wolcott, a member of the monetary commission appointed by
President McKinley in 1897, on his return to Europe declared that
the suspension of the coinage of silver in India had reduced the
value of the savings of the people to the amount of five hundred
millions of dollars. The suspension was carried out for the benefit
of European interests, regardless of the welfare of the masses.
So great have been the drain, the injustice to the people and the
tax upon the resources of the country, that famines have increased
in frequency and severity. Mr. Gokhale, one of the ablest of India's
public men, presided over the meeting of the last Indian national
congress (held in December) and declared in his opening speech that
the death rate had steadily risen from twenty-four to the thousand
in 1882-4 to thirty in 1892-4 and to thirty-four at the present
time. I have more than once within the last month heard the plague
referred to as a providential remedy for over-population! Think of
it, British rule justified because "it keeps the people from killing
each other" and the plague excused because it removes those whom the
government has saved from slaughter!
The railroads with all their advantages have been charged with
adding to the weight of famine by carrying away the surplus grain in
good years, leaving no residue for the years of drouth. While grain
can now be carried back more easily in times of scarcity, the people
are too poor to buy it with two freights added. The storage of grain
by the government at central points until the new crop is safe
would bring some relief, but it has not been attempted.
If it is argued that the railroads have raised the price of grain in
the interior by furnishing a cheaper outlet to the sea, it must be
remembered that the benefit has accrued not to the people, nearly
all of whom are tenants, but to the landlords, the government being
the largest holder.
Not only are the people being impoverished, but the land is being
worn out. Manure, which ought to be used to renew the fields, is
consumed as fuel, and no sight is more common in India than that
of women and children gathering manure from the roads with their
hands. This, when mixed with straw and sun-dried, is used in place
of wood, and from the amount of it carried in baskets, it must
be one of the chief articles of merchandise. There are now large
tracts of useless land that might be brought under cultivation if
the irrigation system were extended. Proof of this is to be found
in the fact that the government of India has already approved of
extensions which, when made, will protect seven million acres and
irrigate three million acres. The estimated cost of these extensions
is about forty-five million dollars, and the plans are to be
carried out "as funds can be provided." Ten per cent of the army
expenditure, applied to irrigation, would complete the system within
five years, but instead of military expenses being reduced, the army
appropriation was increased more than ten million dollars between
1904 and 1905.
[Illustration: SIR ANDREW FRAZER.]
Of the total amount raised from taxation each year, about forty per
cent is raised from land, and the rate is so heavy that the people
can not save enough when the crops are good to feed themselves
when the crops are bad. More than ten per cent of the total tax is
collected on salt, which now pays about five-eighths of a cent per
pound. This is not only a heavy rate when compared with the original
cost of the salt; but it is especially burdensome to the poor. The
salt tax has been as high as one cent a pound, and when at that rate
materially reduced the amount of salt consumed by the people.
[Illustration: LORD CURZON.]
The poverty of the people of India is distressing in the extreme;
millions live on the verge of starvation all the time, and one would
think that their very appearance would plead successfully in their
behalf.
The economic wrong done to the people of India explains the
political wrong done to them. For more than twenty years an
Indian national congress has been pleading for a modified form
of representative government--not for a severing of the tie that
binds India to Great Britain, but for an increasing voice in their
local affairs. But this request can not be granted. Why? Because
a local government, composed of natives selected by the people,
would protest against so large an army, reduce the taxes and put
Indians at lower salaries into places now held by Europeans. It is
the fear of what an Indian local government would do that prevents
the experiment, although two other reasons, both insufficient, are
given. One of these is that the Indian people are not intelligent
enough and that they must be protected from themselves by denying
them a voice in their own affairs. The other is that the Indians
are so divided into tribes and religious sects that they can not
act harmoniously together. The first argument will not impress any
unprejudiced traveler who has come into contact with the educated
classes. There are enough well informed, college trained native
Indians, not to speak of those, who, like our own ancestors a few
centuries ago, have practical sense and good judgment without book
learning, to guide public opinion. While the percentage of literacy
is deplorably small, the total number of educated men is really
considerable, and there are at this time seventeen thousand students
above the secondary schools and studying for the B. A. degree.
There is not a district of any considerable size that has not some
intelligent men in it, and these could be relied upon to direct the
government until a larger number are qualified to assist. It is true
that native princes have often seemed indifferent to the welfare of
their subjects--Princes who have lived in great luxury while the
people have been neglected, but to-day some of the native states
vie with those controlled by European officials in education and
material advancement. And is not the very fact that the people are
left under the government of native princes in the native states
conclusive proof that in all the states the government could be
administered without the aid of so large a number of Europeans?
The second argument is equally unsound. To say that the Indians
would necessarily fight among themselves is to ignore the progress
of the world. There was a time when Europe was the scene of bloody
religious wars, and our own country is indebted to the persecution
of the pilgrims in England for some of its best pioneers. There
has been a growth in religious tolerance during the last century,
and this is as noticeable in India as elsewhere. Already the
intellectual leaders of all the sects and elements of the Indian
population are mingling in congresses, conferences and public
meetings. Already a national spirit is growing which, like the
national spirit in England and America, disregards religious lines
and emphasizes more and more the broad social needs which are common
to all; and with the increase of general education there will be
still more of unity and national sentiment. Those who make this
argument also forget that as long as England maintains sovereignty
it will be impossible for religious differences to lead to war and
that differences in council and in congress would strengthen rather
than weaken her position.
But why is there a lack of intelligence among the Indians? Have
they not had the blessings of British rule for several generations?
Why have they not been fitted for self-government? Gladstone, whose
greatness of head and heart shed a lustre upon all Europe, said: "It
is liberty alone which fits men for liberty. This proposition, like
every other in politics, has its bounds; but it is far safer than
the counter doctrine, 'wait till they are fit.'"
How long will it take to fit the Indians for self-government when
they are denied the benefits of experience? They are excluded from
the higher civil service (ostensibly open to them) by a cunningly
devised system of examinations which makes it almost impossible for
them to enter. Not only are the people thus robbed of opportunities
which rightfully belong to them, but the country is deprived of
the accumulated wisdom that would come with service, for the alien
officials return to Europe at the end of their service, carrying
back their wisdom and earnings, not to speak of the pensions which
they then begin to draw.
The illiteracy of the Indian people is a disgrace to the proud
nation which has for a century and a half controlled their destiny.
The editor of the Indian World, a Calcutta magazine, says in last
February's number:
"If India has not yet been fit for free institutions, it is
certainly not her fault. If, after one and a half centuries of
British rule, India remains where she was in the Middle Ages, what
a sad commentary must it be upon the civilizing influences of that
rule! When the English came to India, this country was the leader
of Asiatic civilization and the undisputed center of light in the
Asiatic world; Japan was then nowhere. Now, in fifty years, Japan
has revolutionized her history with the aid of modern arts of
progress and India, with an hundred and fifty years of English rule,
is still condemned to tutelage."
Who will answer the argument presented by this Indian editor?
And he might have made it stronger. Japan, the arbiter of her own
destiny and the guardian of her own people, has in half a century
bounded from illiteracy to a position where ninety per cent of her
people can read and write and is now thought worthy to enter into
an Anglo-Japanese alliance, while India, condemned to political
servitude, and sacrificed for the commercial advantage of another
nation, still sits in darkness, less than one per cent of her women
able to read and write and less than ten per cent of her total
population sufficiently advanced to communicate with each other by
letter or to gather knowledge from the printed page. In the speech
above referred to, Mr. Gokhale estimates that four villages out of
every five are without a school house, and this, too, in a country
where the people stagger under an enormous burden of taxation. The
published statement for 1904-5 shows that the general government
appropriated but six and a half million dollars for education while
more than ninety millions were appropriated for "army service," and
the revised estimate for the next year shows an increase of a little
more than half a million for education while the army received an
increase of more than twelve millions.
The government has, it is true, built a number of colleges (with
money raised by taxation), but it is gradually extending the system
of primary and secondary schools (also with taxes), though the
progress is exceedingly slow and the number of schools grossly
inadequate. Benevolent Englishmen have also aided the cause of
education by establishing private schools and colleges under church
and other control, but the amount returned to India in this way
is insignificant when compared with the amount annually drawn by
England from India.
It is not scarcity of money that delays the spread of education
in India, but the deliberate misappropriation of taxes collected,
and the system which permits this disregard of the welfare of the
subjects and the subordination of their industries to the supposed
advancement of another nation's trade is as indefensible upon
political and economic grounds as upon moral grounds. If more
attention were given to the intellectual progress of the people
and more regard shown for their wishes, it would not require so
many soldiers to compel loyalty to England, neither would it
require a large army to preserve peace and order. If agriculture
were protected and encouraged and native industries built up and
diversified, England's commerce with India would be greater, for
prosperous people would buy more than can be sold to India to-day,
when so many of her sons and daughters are like walking shadows.
Lord Curzon, the most brilliant of India's viceroys of recent years,
inaugurated a policy of reaction. He not only divided Bengal with a
view of lessening the political influence of the great province,
but he adopted an educational system which the Indians believe was
intended to discourage higher education among the native population.
The result, however, was exactly the opposite of that which was
intended. It aroused the Indians and made them conscious of the
possession of powers which they had not before employed. As the cold
autumn wind scatters winged seeds far and wide, so Lord Curzon's
administration spread the seeds of a national sentiment, and there
is more life in India to-day, and therefore more hope, than there
has ever been before. So high has feeling run against the government
that there has been an attempted boycott of English made goods, and
there is now a well organized movement to encourage the use of goods
made in India.
[Illustration: GOV. LAMINGTON--BOMBAY, INDIA]
Let no one cite India as an argument in defense of colonialism. On
the Ganges and the Indus the Briton, in spite of his many noble
qualities and his large contributions to the world's advancement,
has demonstrated, as many have before, man's inability to exercise,
with wisdom and justice, irresponsible power over helpless people.
He has conferred some benefits upon India, but he has extorted a
tremendous price for them. While he has boasted of bringing peace
to the living, he has led millions to the peace of the grave; while
he has dwelt upon order established between warring tribes, he has
impoverished the country by legalized pillage. Pillage is a strong
word, but no refinement of language can purge the present system of
its iniquity. How long will it be before the quickened conscience
of England's Christian people will heed the petition that swells
up from fettered India and apply to Britain's greatest colony the
doctrines of human brotherhood that have given to the Anglo-Saxon
race the prestige it now enjoys?
NOTE--The article on British Rule in India has been severely
criticized by the government papers in India and as heartily
praised by prominent representatives of the native population.
Delegations of Indians called upon me in London, Paris and New
York to express their thanks.
In view of this criticism, I give below a few facts in support
of the views expressed in the article.
In Whitaker's Almanac for 1906 (published in London), the
appropriation for education is given at 1,298,000 pounds in 1902-3,
1,368,000 pounds in 1903-4, and 1,474,000 pounds in 1904-5. The
appropriation for army services is given at 17,346,000 pounds for
1902-3, 17,892,000 pounds for 1903-4, and 20,463,000 pounds for
1904-5. (The figures for 1904-5 are described as "revised estimates"
in both cases.) Multiplying the pounds by five, it will be seen that
the appropriation for education is about seven million dollars
and the appropriation for army services (for the last year) about
one hundred and two millions. What defense can be made for the
expenditure of more than thirteen times as much for the army as for
education?
Within a few days after the publication of my article, Hon. John
Morley, Secretary for India, delivered a speech in Parliament upon
the Indian budget. The following quotations show that he has made
the same criticism on three important matters. First, on the salt
tax. He says:
"But for my part I cannot regard, and I will not regard with
satisfaction, or even with patience, the continuance at a high scale
of a tax on a prime necessity of life. (Cheers.)"
And again:
"It is not that the Indian is more heavily burdened in the matter
of the salt duty than the Italian. But, however that may be, I am
glad to think that the very able and expert financial member of the
Viceroy's council hopes to make further reduction in the duty, even
though he cannot go so far as I should like to go, and sweep the
thing away altogether. (Cheers.)"
[Illustration: INDIAN STUDENTS.]
On the expenditure for the army, he says:
"So far, I have given a rose-colored--I hope a true
colored--picture. In military expenditure, however, we have the
shadow. Comparing broadly 1906-7 with the figures of ten years
ago, there is an increase in the strength of the army of four
thousand one hundred and forty seven men. In 1896-7 the number
was two hundred and twenty-seven thousand men and in 1906-7, two
hundred and thirty-one thousand five hundred men. But the remarkable
circumstance comes out that in British cavalry and infantry there is
no increase. The only important addition to the fighting strength
of the army are an increase in our artillery and an increase in the
number of British officers to the tune of one thousand. That is a
large and costly addition, but I will not argue it now. The net army
expenditure in India, British and native, in 1896-7, was fifteen
million pounds; the estimate for 1906-7 is eighteen million seven
hundred thousand pounds--an increase of three million seven hundred
thousand pounds. (This is an estimate of the net expenditure, the
Whitaker estimate is gross.) This has to be divided into two equal
items of one million eight hundred and fifty thousand pounds for
ordinary and special military expenditure. I invite the House to
attend to one element in the increase in the ordinary expenditure.
The House will remember that the late government found it necessary
to grant additional pay to the non-commissioned officers and men
in the British army in India. Those were circumstances for which
neither the Government nor the governed in India had a shadow
of responsibility. They were not responsible for those social
circumstances which made it necessary to add to the pay of the
British soldier, but the increase of pay in the British contingent
of the Indian military force was saddled on India to the tune of
nearly a million sterling."
On higher civil service he confesses the injustice done the Indians.
He says:
"In regard to the question of the employment of Indians in
the higher offices, I think a move--a definite and deliberate
move--ought to be made with the view of giving competent and able
natives the same access to the higher posts in the administration
that are given to our own countrymen. (Cheers.) There is a famous
sentence in the Queen's proclamation of 1858 which says:--'It is
our further will that, so far as may be, our subjects, of whatever
race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our
service-offices, the duties of which they may be qualified by their
educational talents and ability duly to discharge.' I think those
words, 'so far as may be,' have been somewhat misinterpreted in the
past. I do not believe that the ministers who advised Queen Victoria
in framing one of the most memorable documents in all our history
meant those words to be construed in a narrow, literal, restricted
or pettifogging sense. (Cheers.) I do not believe that parliament
ever intended this promise of the Queen's should be construed in
any but a liberal and generous sense. The Governor-General of India
to-day is, I am glad to say, a man of a firm texture of mind. I
do not believe the Governor-General has any intention of riding
off on a narrow interpretation of a promise which was as wise and
politic as it was just. (Hear, hear.) I do not know if there is any
case in history of an autocratic, personal or absolute government
co-existing with free speech and free right of meeting. For as long
a time as my poor imagination can pierce through, for so long a
time our government in India must partake, and in no small degree,
of the personal and absolute element. But that is no reason why we
should not try this great experiment of showing that you can have a
strong and effective administration along with free speech and free
institutions, and being all the better and all the more effective
because of free speech and free institutions. (Cheers.) That policy
is a noble one to think of, but the task is arduous; and because it
is noble and because it is arduous, I recommend the policy, of which
I have only given a broad outline, to the adoption of the House."
(Cheers.)
[Illustration: FAMOUS ASOKA PILLAR.]
CHAPTER XXVII.
ANCIENT EGYPT.
We have been moving among the oldest monuments reared by man, and
they make the rest of the world seem young. In Japan a Buddhist
temple, built twelve hundred years ago, impressed us with the
youthfulness of American institutions; in China we were shown
temples that had stood for twenty centuries and were told of customs
and laws even older; in India we found a pagoda some twenty-five
hundred years old, and visited the site of a city whose foundations
were probably laid more than three thousand years ago; but here we
see the mummied forms of human beings who lived two thousand years
before Christ was born, inspect the handiwork of men who laid down
the chisel before Abraham appeared upon the earth, look upon colors
that have withstood the changes and defied the elements of forty
centuries, and handle wheat that grew upon the banks of the Nile
long before Joseph built granaries for Pharaoh. The guides count
centuries as trippingly on the tongue as a treasury expert or an
insurance magnate handles millions. They discuss dynasties that rose
and fell when Europe was shrouded in darkness, before the light
of history dawned upon the Ganges and the Yangtse; they decipher
hieroglyphics that kept their secrets for ages and lead one among
ruins that astonish by their immensity as well as by the artistic
skill which they reveal.
Back in the misty past--in the prehistoric period--there were two
Egyptian kingdoms, one occupying upper, and the other lower Egypt.
This was prior to 2,500 B. C., and from the stirring scenes engraved
upon stone, one can imagine the conflicts which took place along the
fertile valley of the Nile before Menes, the earliest known ruler,
united the two kingdoms, assumed the title, Lord of Both Lands,
fashioned a double crown for himself, and adopted the lily, or
lotus, and the papyrus as symbols of his consolidated empire. We are
probably indebted to certain natural peculiarities of Egypt for the
preservation of the unique evidences of ancient civilization found
here. First, there is but a small area of tillable land stretched
along the most wonderful of rivers and guarded on either side by
a barren waste that offers greater protection than a wall. Second,
the climate of Egypt is dry, and there are no drenching rains to
deface and no violent changes of temperature to disintegrate. Third,
the temples and tombs are so massively built as to discourage the
vandal; and fourth, the sands of the desert have drifted in and
concealed for a hundred generations many of the most valuable of
these relics of a bygone age.
There is such a wealth of archæological treasures here that one
scarcely knows where to begin or how to condense the most important
things into the space allotted to a newspaper article. I shall not
attempt to describe things chronologically, because some of the
temples have been added to by different kings and dynasties, until
they represent the art and life of many hundred years. The temple
at Karnak, for instance, bears the impress of Egypt's rulers from
Thutmosis to the Rameses, and from the Rameses to the Ptolemies,
a period of some twelve hundred years, and the building of the
numerous pyramids covered even a longer time.
[Illustration: KARNAK TEMPLE.]
As the tourist usually begins a trip through Egypt with a visit to
Cairo, he is likely to find the great Egyptian museum, the Museum of
Gizeh, a fitting introduction to his subsequent investigations. Here
one finds samples of all the antiquities of the country, excepting
the pyramids and the temples, and there are mummies, sarcophagi,
statues, carvings and hieroglyphics from these. A considerable
space is devoted to mummies, some from the tombs of kings, but
many of more humble rank. The early Egyptians believed that man
was composed of several different entities. First, there was the
body, and second, the double--a sort of invisible form reproducing
the features of the body. Next came the soul, represented as a
human-headed bird and then a spark of the divine fire called Khu,
which has been translated as "the Luminous." It was to prevent the
departure of these attending forms that embalming was resorted to.
By suspending the decomposition of the body, they thought that they
could preserve the connection between it and the Double, the Soul
and the Luminous, and by prayers and offerings these could be saved
from the second death. This is the explanation of the mummy given
by archæologists. The Double, it was supposed, never left the place
where the mummy rested, and the Soul, while it went away to commune
with the gods, returned from time to time, and for this reason rooms
were made for the reception of the Soul and for the habitation of
the Double. One can hardly believe as he looks upon the shriveled
forms that they were interred so long ago. I will enclose with this
article a photograph of the mummy of Egypt's great builder, and
known as "the Pharaoh of the Oppression," who died more than three
thousand years ago. The hand no longer sways the scepter; the eyes
look no more upon the gigantic statues which he scattered along
the Nile, and the voice does not now demand the making of "bricks
without straw," but the mortal remains of this famous ruler vividly
recall the days of Israel's bondage.
[Illustration: MUMMY. WOODEN STATUE.]
With the mummies are many mummy cases, some covered with
hieroglyphics, some ornamented with pictures in colors, and most of
them covered with a lid upon which are a face mask and an outline
of the form of the occupant. The process by which these bodies
have been preserved is still a mystery, but the fact that they
have outlived dynasties and survived the countless changes of so
many centuries gives to them a lasting interest. The collection of
statues and images of gods, human beings, beasts and birds runs up
into the thousands. Some of these are heroic in size, others are not
more than an inch in height; some are strong, some beautiful and
some grotesque. Granite, both red and black, alabaster, stone, iron,
bronze and clay--all have been brought into requisition for this
work. Some of the bronze has, upon analysis, been found to contain
practically the same combination of metals as the bronze now used.
There are even statues in wood, and one of these--a photograph of
which I secured--attracted my attention because the head and face
bear a resemblance to the late Senator Hanna. It is called "Sheikh
el Beled" or Village Chief; that it should have resisted decay for
more than forty centuries is little less than marvelous.
While the excavators have been searching for historical records,
they have occasionally found treasures of great pecuniary value.
A considerable quantity of gold and silver in the form of jewelry
has been unearthed, and the museum contains specimens of exquisite
workmanship which not only display the skill of the artificers but
portray the habits and customs of the early Egyptians.
The museum also contains enough of cloth, found with the mummies,
and of pictures of looms, to show that weaving was an industry with
which the people of those days were familiar.
But we must leave the museum and proceed to those masterpieces
which are too large for any roof, save that formed by the vaulted
skies. I am, however, constrained to offer one criticism of the
museum in passing. It is under the control of a French society, and
the only catalogue obtainable is printed in French. While most of
the exhibits bear a brief description in both French and English,
some are labeled in French only and a few not at all. As there are
no guides to show a visitor through the numerous rooms and point
out the principal objects of interest, those who are unable to
read French are at a great disadvantage. Considering the number of
English and American tourists it seems strange that more attention
should not be paid to their accommodation.
But to the temples. We reached Egypt after the regular tourist
season was over and could not visit all the ruins. We selected the
most famous, those of the two ancient cities, Thebes and Memphis,
and they alone would repay a visit to Egypt. The present city of
Luxor, four hundred and twenty miles from Cairo, covers a small part
of the vast area once occupied by "Hundred-gated Thebes." In the
very heart of the city a mammoth temple has been found where kings
worshiped through many reigns. It was built during the eighteenth
dynasty (B. C. 1500) on the site of a still older sanctuary and
dedicated to Ammon, his wife, Mut, and their son, Khons, the
Moon-god. Some of the columns are twelve feet in diameter, more
than forty feet in height, and support great blocks of red granite
twenty feet long and four feet in width and thickness. Some of the
columns represent clustered papyrus and have capitals shaped like
the lotus bud. In the temple are a number of statues of Rameses II,
some sitting, some standing. One of these statues is forty-five
feet in height, and another of less dimensions was unearthed only
about a year ago. When excavations were begun houses were serenely
resting on the top of the temple, and it is believed that further
excavations will disclose an avenue leading to other temples two
miles away.
In front of the Luxor temple is an obelisk of pink granite, a part
of which is still under ground. Obelisks were always erected in
pairs, and the companion of this one was removed some years ago to
Paris. These great monoliths come down to us from the period when
the Egyptians worshiped the sun, and they were intended to represent
his rays. The oldest Egyptian obelisk is at Heliopolis, not far
from Cairo, and is sixty-six feet in height. It is supposed to have
been erected 2000 to 2200 B. C., but it is in an excellent state of
preservation and bids fair to bear testimony for ages yet to the
reverence felt by the ancients for the sun. At one time Heliopolis
was a thriving city and is referred to in the Bible as "On," but
to-day the obelisk stands alone in the midst of cultivated fields,
all the buildings having disappeared.
While the obelisk at Heliopolis outranks all others in age, the
one at Karnak, in the suburbs of Luxor, has the distinction of
being the tallest one yet remaining. It is eight and a half feet
in diameter at the base and ninety-seven and a half feet in height
(eight and a half feet less than the obelisk at Rome). The obelisks
were cut in a single shaft, most of them from granite quarries near
Assuan. These quarries are more than five hundred miles south of
Cairo, and it is supposed that the obelisks were transported on the
Nile to the places where they have since been found, but how they
were handled or placed in position no one knows.
The temple of Ammon, at Karnak, is generally regarded as the most
interesting of temple-ruins in Egypt. It is the work of many kings,
one adding a sanctuary, another a pylon, another a court, etc.--each
placing his cartouche, or seal, upon his work. This temple, which
was officially styled the Throne of the World, covers an immense
area. One pylon, or gateway, is more than three hundred feet wide,
nearly a hundred and fifty feet high, and has walls sixteen feet
thick. One court covers almost a thousand square yards, and one
aisle leads between pillars sixty-nine feet in height, about twelve
feet in diameter and supporting capitals of eleven feet. The stones
used in this temple are of enormous size, and they were probably
raised to their positions on scaffolding of earth--this being also
the method employed where attempts have recently been made to
restore fallen columns.
The hieroglyphics upon the walls, the columns, the obelisks and the
statues, after remaining a puzzle for ages, have been deciphered
and woven into a consecutive history. This was made possible by the
discovery, in 1799, of what is known as the "Rosetta stone" (now in
the British Museum) at the mouth of the Rosetta arm of the Nile by a
French engineer named Bouchard. This stone bears a decree inscribed
in three languages--ancient Egyptian, modern Egyptian and Greek, and
furnishes the key to unlock the secrets of ancient history.
The pictures represent sacrificial ceremonies, domestic and
industrial scenes, battles, triumphal processions--all phases of
life, in fact. One wall contains, in hieroglyphics, the treaty of
peace which Rameses II concluded with the Hittites, while another
wall represents Rameses III holding a group of prisoners by the
hair and raising a club as if to strike. Close by, the god Ammon is
delivering to him chained representatives of different vanquished
nations, the faces being so true to life that the Israelities
brought from Palestine can be easily distinguished from the
Ethiopians and Nubians of the south. One of the heads seen often in
the drawings resembles "the yellow kid," and the donkeys are exactly
like those seen to-day.
Luxor and Karnak are on the east bank of the Nile, but Thebes
required both sides of the river for her great population, and
the west bank is also rich in evidences of ancient civilization.
The Rameseum is here and would attract more attention if it were
not overshadowed by larger temples; here also are the "Colossi of
Memmon," one of them known to literature as the singing statue. This
is described by Strabo and Juvenal and bears many inscriptions in
Latin and Greek made by those who visited it under the Roman rule.
Hadrian looked upon it 150 A. D., and a poetess of his day declares
that the statue greeted the emperor. It is supposed that the sound
which for many years issued from the head of the statue just after
sunrise was caused by the change in temperature, the granite having
been cracked; at any rate, the sound ceased when the statue was
repaired. It now sits silent, and with its companion gazes upon the
barley field that reaches out in every direction from their feet.
But more interesting than the Rameseum or the Colossi are the tombs
of the kings, some forty-two of which have already been discovered.
At this point the west side of the valley of the Nile is walled
in by a range of limestone hills, one of which bears a striking
resemblance to a pyramid. (Could it have suggested the idea of a
pyramid for a tomb?) Leaving the valley of the Nile about two miles
north of this pyramidal hill, there is a small dry valley which
wends its way back through the hills and terminates at the foot of
steep walls just west of the hill mentioned. Here are the tombs,
hewn in the solid rock, the most elaborate of which is the tomb of
Sethos, or Seti, the father of Rameses II. This tomb burrows into
the hill to the depth of three hundred and thirty feet, a flight of
steps leading down through different levels and different chambers
to the final vault. The walls are covered with figures in colors
representing the king in the act of making offerings to the various
gods. There are also drawings illustrating scenes in this world
and life as it is supposed to be in the next world. Some of these
pictures portray a hell where the wicked are punished with fire, and
there are also drawings which have been interpreted to represent the
resurrection and judgment.
Not far away is the tomb of "the Pharaoh of the Exodus" which
contains a granite image of the king, and close by this tomb is
another in which the mummied form of a Pharaoh still reposes. Grave
robbing, however, was so popular an amusement in those days that
the bodies of nearly all the kings had been removed for safety to a
secret vault, which was so carefully concealed that they were not
found until the nineteenth century.
At Memphis, which is only about eighteen miles from Cairo, there are
tombs of less importance, colossal statues of Rameses II and the
sarcophagi of the sacred bulls. In one of the tombs or Mastabas, as
tombs of this style are called, are some of the drawings that have
been most widely reproduced. In one place a boy is fattening geese
by the stuffing process; in another, cranes are being fed; here,
rams are treading in the seed, and the cattle, horned and hornless,
are being driven through a river. Agriculture, ship-building,
carpentering and other industries are minutely pictured. While the
human figures are stiff and angular, the birds and beasts are so
exactly like what we see to-day that one could easily believe them
to have been drawn by a modern artist.
[Illustration: THE PYRAMID AND THE SPHINX.]
The sarcophagi of the sacred bulls, twenty-four in number, are
hollowed out from single pieces of granite and are covered with
immense slabs of the same kind of stone. Each is large enough to
contain a good sized animal, and some of them are covered with
hieroglyphics giving the pedigrees of the blue-blooded occupants.
These caskets of the royal line rest in subterranean vaults hewn out
of rock and connected by spacious halls.
Still nearer to Cairo, only six miles away, in fact, are the great
pyramids of Gizeh--Cheops and Khephren. These have been described
so often that any elaborate comment upon them might weary the
reader. We climbed to the summit of the largest, and by doing so not
only gained an idea of the immensity of this three million cubic
feet of stone, but obtained an excellent view of the green valley on
the one side and the yellow plain of shifting sand upon the other,
for these pyramids stand upon the dividing line between Egypt's far
famed fertile lands and one of the most barren of earth's deserts.
We also followed the narrow passage which leads to the center of
the pyramid and peered into the empty granite sarcophagus which,
for more than four thousand years, kept the body of the builder
concealed from the sight of man, and when we came out, half crawling
and half climbing, each assisted by two Arabs, our muscles as well
as our memories testified that we had seen all of this stupendous
pile.
At the foot of these two pyramids stands the silent Sphinx, and near
it a granite temple almost as old. The Sphinx itself is a little
disappointing because photographs often show it in the foreground
and the pyramids behind it, and it thus appears relatively larger
than it really is. It represents the body of an animal with a human
head and is cut from a huge stone that juts out into the valley. It
was a grand conception of the brain of one long ago forgotten and is
the oldest product of the chisel of man. It has outlived unnumbered
generations and seems to mock at time. Its position by the pyramids
is a fitting one, and looking upon it and them one is awed by the
sense of their antiquity and recognizes the appropriateness of the
lines of the lecturer, Stoddard:
Eternal Sphinx;
The pyramids are thine;
Their giant summits guard thee night and day;
On thee they look when stars in splendor shine,
Or while around their crests the sunbeams play;
Thine own coevals, who with thee remain
Colossal genii of the boundless plain.
Eternal Sphinx!
[Illustration: A SPHYNX]
CHAPTER XXVIII.
MODERN EGYPT.
The first article on Egypt might have been begun with an account of
our stay in quarantine, but as this precaution against the spread of
Asiatic disease is of modern origin, I thought it best to speak of
it in this article. The P. and O. steamer, Persia, which brought us
from Bombay to Egypt, was suspected of having four cases of plague
on board. One man having died and been buried at sea just before we
reached Suez, and three more being ill, the international health
board insisted on taking charge of the ten passengers bound for
Egypt. We were taken on board a barge and towed a couple of miles
up the Suez canal to the quarantine station, which we reached about
midnight. Besides the four in our family, there were three Americans
from Ohio, two English merchants from Egypt and an English lady
engaged in missionary work in Palestine. We were comfortably housed
in one-story brick buildings and were informed that we would have
to remain there five days, unless further investigation removed the
suspicion of the plague. While the members of the company proved to
be very congenial, we were all anxious to have the stay shortened
as much as possible on account of its interference with our plans.
At the end of two days we were notified that a bubonic germ had
been discovered and that we must stay the full time. The quarantine
station is situated on the bank of the canal and is surrounded on
three sides by as barren a desert as can be found. The buildings
are enclosed by a double fence, and the only exit is to the wharf
through a lane. We were permitted to go to the wharf, and, under the
escort of a guard, were allowed to gather shells on the bank of the
canal. Thus occupied, when not reading or writing, the days passed
much more pleasantly than we had expected, and we were almost sorry
when the time came for us to separate. One day our quarters were
visited by a sirocco, and from the dust and sand that filled the air
until the sun was darkened, we were able to gain some idea of desert
life.
The canal itself is a little disappointing. It is simply a
huge ditch, and with an expanse of sand on either bank, seems
narrower than it is. The sides are not walled as a rule, and the
depth--thirty feet--does not reveal itself. Several dredges are
constantly at work removing the sand which drifts in with the wind
or is washed in by the tide. The canal is said to follow the route
laid out more than three thousand years ago by Rameses II. About
thirty-five hundred ships pass through the canal each year, an
average of nearly ten a day. Somewhat more than that passed during
our stay, some of the ships being loaded with Russian soldiers from
Japan and others crowded with pilgrims returning from Mecca.
[Illustration: CLIMBING THE PYRAMIDS.]
On the afternoon of the fifth day the head physician came out and
released us and at the same time conveyed to us the cheering, but
somewhat belated, information that the three men taken from the
ship did not have the plague; we had, however, been so courteously
treated that we did not complain of the board bills or quarantine
fees, even though the detention proved to be unnecessary. The
spread of the plague through Europe would be such a calamity that
we realize it is better to err on the side of over-caution. At any
rate, we have added to our experience and are carrying the yellow
flag (the quarantine signal) home as a trophy.
[Illustration: THE OSTRICH FARM NEAR CAIRO.]
A few hours' ride brought us to Cairo, the metropolis and capital
of Egypt. It is not an ancient city, as they count time in Egypt,
having been founded about a thousand years ago, but it has in the
business portion the appearance of a European city and contains
a population of more than half a million. Of its inhabitants
thirty-five thousand are European, the Greeks leading with about ten
thousand, and the Italians, French, English, Austrians and Germans
following in the order named. The British would outnumber the French
if the garrison were included, but the city reminds one much more
of France than of England. Many of the buildings recall the streets
of Paris, and the sidewalks adjacent to restaurants and saloons are
filled with tables and chairs, as in continental Europe.
Cairo is a city of mosques and minarets, as one quickly discovers
when he takes a bird's eye view of the city from the citadel which
stands upon an eminence in the suburbs. While the main streets are
suggestive of Europe, the native quarters and bazaars are distinctly
Oriental, many of the streets being too narrow for a carriage. The
shops are for the most part little open booths, and each line of
business has its particular section. On one street silver and gold
smiths monopolize the space; another street is gay with red shoes;
in another the red fez, the universal hat, is conspicuous; and still
another is given over to vegetables. Some of the larger stores
handle Persian rugs, silks, brass ware, inlaid work and patchwork,
reproducing the drawings found on tombs and temples. The bazaars
also abound in interesting reminders of the land of the mummy, the
pyramid and the sphinx.
[Illustration: EGYPTIAN LADIES.]
We had not been in Cairo long before we visited the banks of the
Nile, that wonderful river without whose fructifying waters there
would have been no Egypt. It is one of the most remarkable--in
some respects the most remarkable--of all the rivers of the earth.
No wonder the ancient Egyptians included a Nile god among their
deities, for next to the sun, to which they raised their obelisks,
nothing was so necessary to their existence as this almost magic
stream. The Nile renders fertile two narrow strips, one on either
bank, four thousand miles long, and but a few miles wide. For
thirteen hundred miles it floats through a desert and receives
but a single tributary in that distance, and yet, after supplying
irrigation for the crops of some ten millions of people, it pours
into the ocean a scarcely diminished stream. The annual rise of the
river not only supplies water but it renews the land by deposits of
alluvial soil. Someone has described the Nile valley as appearing,
if seen from above, like a strip of green carpet on a floor of
gold, so yellow are the sands that hem it in. No one who has not
visited an arid country and noted the influence of water upon the
thirsty soil can imagine how distinctly the line is drawn between
the verdant field and the barren desert that adjoins it. Where
the waters of the Nile can be brought upon the land, a farm will
rent for $30 per acre, while a few feet away the land can not be
given away. Lord Cromer, in a recent report, gives the income and
expenditure of a number of the fellaheen, or farmers. The statements
show that a hundred dollars' worth of cotton is sometimes produced
from a single acre, or about thirty dollars' worth of corn. The
average income, taking all crops together, often runs as high as $50
per acre.
[Illustration: AN EGYPTIAN MERCHANT.]
An increasing quantity of land is being brought under the canals,
but irrigation from wells is still the main reliance of a large
proportion of the people. Water can be found at the level of
the water in the river, and the landscape is dotted over with
old-fashioned well sweeps and with water wheels, where blindfolded
camels or oxen tread their patient round. The land produces so
abundantly and there is such a variety of garden and farm products
that one recalls that passage in the Bible in which the children
of Israel are described as longing for "the flesh pots of Egypt."
Coming from India to Egypt we could not but notice the difference
in the appearance of the people. In the former country they looked
so emaciated and hungry; in the latter they are strong and robust
and seemingly well fed. In the markets, too, the food is heaped up
in big baskets, while in India it is exposed for sale in tiny piles
that speak only too plainly of the poverty of the people.
For ages upon ages the fellaheen have drawn from the inexhaustible
storehouse of the Nile. Cheops, Khephren and their successors built
pyramids, and the fellah fed the builders; Thutmosis and Sethos and
their descendants constructed tombs and temples, and the fellah
supported the laborers; the Rameses added gigantic statues to the
stupendous works of their ancestors and the fellah still furnished
food; the Persians overran the country and still the hand of the
fellah supplied the necessaries of life; then came Alexander the
Great and the Ptolemies, Cæsar, Antony and Cleopatra, and the fellah
plowed on; after the Roman came the Arab, and after the Arab the
Turk, followed by Napoleon and later by the Briton, but through all
this change of dynasties the fellah kept "the noiseless tenor of
his way," and as a middle man, handed over the bounties of the Nile
valley to the rulers and their armies--and he is doing so to-day.
Of the eleven hundred thousand land owners, nearly nine hundred and
fifty thousand hold less than five acres each, and almost half of
the total acreage is owned by twelve thousand three hundred persons.
More than one-tenth of the tillable land is owned by sixteen hundred
Europeans.
Very few horses are seen in the country, the beasts of burden being
the ox (there are a few water buffaloes also), the donkey and the
camel. The ox resembles the American rather than the Indian ox, in
that it has no hump on its shoulders and the drawings on some of the
walls represent cattle with horns as large as those formerly worn by
the Texas steer. The donkey--poor, patient creature--has not changed
materially in the last four thousand years. The pictures drawn of
him by the ancient Egyptians show him just as he is now. Then, as
now, a large part of his nourishment went to the development of his
vocal organs and left the rest of his body woefully small for the
large burdens which he was called upon to carry. If his disposition
was as gloomy in the days of the Pharaohs as it is at present, he
probably annoyed them when he lifted up his voice and wept, as he
now annoys the tourist.
The camel, however, if the test is special fitness for the country,
is the king of beasts. He pulls the plow, turns the water wheel,
draws the wagon, carries burdens, and for long distance travel
outstrips the horse. Equipped with emergency water tanks, he can
go for several days without drinking, and for this reason is of
inestimable value on desert journeys. He kneels to receive his load,
though sometimes with pathetic groans, and is as docile as the
horse. He has sometimes been styled "the ship of the desert" and
seems to have been fashioned for this peculiar region. His large,
padded feet do not add to his beauty, but they enable him to cross
sandy plains into which a horse's hoof would sink.
The Bible says that the plague of flies brought upon Egypt, when
Moses was endeavoring to secure the release of the Israelites, was
removed when Pharaoh promised to let the people go, but one is
inclined to think that they afterwards returned when Pharaoh again
hardened his heart, for nowhere have we found flies like those of
Egypt. They bite with unusual vigor and are very persistent in
their attentions. At first we thought it strange that people should
carry horse-hair brushes as a protection against the flies, but we
were soon driven to follow their example. These flies seem to be
especially attracted to the eyes of children. As these flies, like
those in other countries, carry disease, it is not strange that sore
eyes should be especially prevalent here. Blindness seems to be more
common than elsewhere, and a very considerable percentage of the
people have lost one eye. So widespread is this affliction that Sir
Ernest Cassel has established a fund of forty thousand pounds, the
interest on which is to be devoted to the treatment of diseases of
the eye. Already the fruits of this beneficence are being enjoyed
by the poor. The Mohammedan women in Egypt wear veils--a custom
which is but slowly giving way to western ideas. If the eyes of the
children were protected with half as much care as the faces of the
women, what benefits would result!
The government of Egypt defies definition. Nominally the Khedive
is the supreme authority, aided by a native legislative council
and assembly (their business is to advise, however, rather than
to legislate), but back of the Khedive is Lord Cromer, the agent
and consul-general of England, whose power is undefined and almost
unlimited. England's authority in Egypt rests upon the articles of
capitulation signed after the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882.
In these articles it was announced that England's occupancy would
be of brief duration, but in 1904 she secured from France, Germany,
Austria-Hungary and Italy consent to postpone the fixing of a date
for her withdrawal, she at the same time announcing that it was not
her intention to interfere with the political situation in Egypt.
England's reasons for remaining in Egypt are very clearly stated
by Lord Milner in his book entitled "England in Egypt." He says:
"On the one hand, our commercial interests in Egypt are so great
and growing that her prosperity, which would be immediately wrecked
by misgovernment, is a matter of concern to us. Secondly, and
chiefly, the geographical position of Egypt compels attention to her
political condition. We have nothing to gain by owning the country
ourselves, but we should have a great deal to fear from its falling
into the possession of another power."
England's interests in Egypt are numerous. She takes most of the
exports of Egypt and sells more than any other country to Egypt. In
the last report of Lord Cromer it is shown that Great Britain has
the benefit of considerably more than half of the contracts (above
five thousand dollars) entered into by the Egyptian railways for
supplies. Then, England's citizens own land in Egypt, and they are
also interested in the Egyptian debt, which, by the way, amounts to
about five hundred million dollars or, approximately, one hundred
dollars per acre of the tillable land.
[Illustration: KHEDIVE OF EGYPT.]
The irrigation schemes now developing will require the expenditure
of large sums on contract and these will give opportunities for
English capital.
The second reason given by Lord Milner is emphasized by him, and is
probably the paramount one, viz., that she can not afford to have
the valley of the Nile held by a rival power. Her interests in the
Soudan and in India lead her to guard the Suez canal with jealous
care. Lord Milner suggests as a reason why England should remain
in Egypt that her withdrawal might be followed by such an abuse of
government as to lead to bankruptcy and French intervention. The old
argument "if we don't do it somebody else will" is presented as the
strongest support of British interference.
[Illustration: REUNION ON THE DESERT.]
English influence, however, has been less harmful in Egypt than
in India, and this is probably due, in the main, to two causes:
First, her influence is exerted through a native government whose
authority she acknowledges; and second, because the interests, which
other nations have in Egypt, make them oppose any encroachments
on the part of England, while in India she has a free hand. As an
illustration I might cite the fact that she compels the Indian to
support the Indian army, while she pays the ordinary expenses of
the three thousand British soldiers in Egypt and only asks Egypt
to pay for the extraordinary expenses. It is no reflection upon
England to say that she is better for being watched. We believe that
in regard to our own public men, and it is simply a recognition
of the frailty of human nature. Lord Cromer has been in Egypt for
twenty-six years, and his reports indicate a desire to advance the
welfare of the people of Egypt. He has doubtless been helpful to
the Khedive. He has insisted upon honesty in the public service and
has been a friend of education. While the national debt contains a
large amount of usurious interest and is, therefore, much heavier
than it ought to be, it has been funded at a lower rate of interest
and is being gradually paid off. The debts that are being incurred
for the extension of irrigation will be more than redeemed by the
sale of the land reclaimed, and the country will then have the
benefit, not only of the reclaimed land but of the increased value
of lands indirectly benefited. Although the salt tax (contrary to
Lord Cromer's advice) is still over two hundred per cent, the per
capita rate of taxation has been reduced; agricultural and postal
banks have been established, and the government railway, telegraph
and telephone systems have been extended. In his 1903 report, Lord
Cromer presents an argument in favor of government roads as against
roads owned privately.
The great danger that Egypt has to fear is the disinheritance of the
fellaheen and the alien ownership of the land. Unless great care
is taken Egypt will drift into the condition of Ireland and India,
and be drained of her resources by foreign landlords. It is very
difficult for a foreign representative to arbitrate impartially
between his own people at home and the natives among whom he
temporarily resides, and Lord Cromer will deserve great credit if
he is able to protect the Egyptians from exploitation. However
well meaning the English advisers are now, or hereafter may be,
Egypt's safety must lie in the development of her own people. The
legislative council understands this and insists upon the extension
of the school system. It is wise in so doing, for every educated
man or woman adds to the moral force that restrains and directs the
government. An increase in the number of the educated not only tends
to the preservation of law and order, but furnishes a larger number
fit to be officials and thus lessens the excuse for the employment
of foreigners. There has been, among reformers, some discussion of
a constitution, but as that would curtail the powers of the Khedive
as well as define the authority of England, it would probably be
opposed at present by the Moslem leaders.
I can not conclude without reference to the pioneer work done in
the field of education by the United Presbyterians. They have
several churches and a number of very successful schools and must be
credited with having contributed largely to the progress which Egypt
has made and is making.
CHAPTER XXIX.
AMONG THE LEBANONS.
Before writing of the Holy Land, I shall devote an article to
the week which we spent among the Lebanons. While the trip from
Beyrout to Baalbek and Damascus is included in the advertisement of
Palestine tours, the places visited are not so intimately connected
with Bible history as those of Judea and Galilee.
Beyrout, the seaport for this section of Syria, has the best harbor
to be found on the east coast of the Mediterranean, and the city
is naturally a place of considerable size and importance. The
population is estimated at about one hundred and fifty thousand, and
the residence portion covers the foothills of the Lebanon range.
The principal industry is the production of raw silk, the mulberry
groves extending as far as the eye can reach.
The road from Beyrout to Baalbek climbs over the Lebanon range,
reaching in one place an altitude of about six thousand feet. The
view is one of rare beauty--the winding shore of the Mediterranean,
the terraced mountain sides and the snow clad peaks combining to
form an impressive picture. The far-famed cedars of Lebanon, some
of them sixteen feet in diameter, still crown the higher summits,
but few of them are visible from the train. A well built carriage
road follows the same general course as the railroad, but the latter
now monopolizes the traffic. The main line of the railroad runs to
Damascus, but in the Beka, as the valley of the Leontes is called at
this point, a branch has been built to Baalbek, where a wonderful
temple once stood.
The city of Baalbek was founded so long ago that history does not
record its beginning. Arab tradition peoples this district with
the earliest of the Bible characters. The tower of Babel has been
located at Baalbek by one tradition, while another has Cain building
a fortress there as a refuge. It is certain that the city ranks
among the oldest known to history, the location being probably
determined by the presence of a very large spring whose waters
would supply a great population. The name of the city (but a few
thousand inhabitants are to be found there now) indicates that it
was the center of Baal, or sun, worship. It is believed by those who
have made research that an ancient temple, built by the Egyptians
or Phoenicians, occupied the ground now covered by the ruins of a
later temple built by the Romans. It is this latter temple which
has drawn tourists from all over the world. It was begun during the
first century of the Christian era, and the work upon it continued
for more than two hundred years. It was dedicated to Jupiter and the
Sun, the worship of these two deities being combined. The Romans
even adopted the Greek name, Heliopolis, for the city, but the
Arabic designation, Baalbek, has survived.
[Illustration: TEMPLE AT BAALBEK]
This great temple was laid out upon an immense scale. First a
hill was built, filled with subterranean chambers, and upon the
massive walls which separated these chambers the superstructure was
reared. The temple was approached by a staircase one hundred and
fifty feet wide and entered through a hexagonal court two hundred
feet in diameter. Next came the great court, nearly four hundred
feet square, with an altar in the center. Both of these courts
were open, but had broad colonnades around the sides supported by
granite pillars brought from the upper Nile. These colonnades were
ornamented with carvings and contained two rows of niches, three
hundred and thirty altogether, formerly occupied by images. Our
guide, Mr. Alouf, whose pamphlet on Baalbek gives the results of
his fifteen years' study of the ruins, insists that the great court
was really a pantheon and contained all of the gods at that time
worshiped by the conquerors and by the native population.
The temple of Jupiter must have been a most impressive building. It
stood twenty-six feet above the courts and therefore about fifty
feet above the natural level of the ground around. It measured three
hundred and ten feet in length and one hundred and sixty in breadth.
Its outer wall supported fifty-four columns of Corinthian style,
each column being seventy feet in height, seven feet in diameter and
composed of three pieces. Six of these columns are still standing,
having survived three earthquakes and one mountain torrent. The
six columns with the capitals and cornice give some idea of the
magnificence of the temple before its decay. The stone used is taken
from a limestone quarry near the city, and the carving is excellent.
Enormous masses of stone lie scattered over the ground--parts of
pillars, pieces of cornice, and sections of the pediment. How
these huge blocks were ever lifted into place is still a matter of
conjecture. No mortar was used, and yet in some places the joints
are so nicely fitted and the stone so accurately cut that a knife
blade can not be inserted after a lapse of nearly twenty centuries.
Stupendous as is the plan of this wonderful temple and elaborate
as is its ornamentation, the most remarkable feature is the size
of the stones employed. The guide first shows a number of blocks
about thirty-three feet long, fourteen feet high and ten feet thick.
After one's wonder has had sufficient time to express itself, three
blocks are pointed out which measure sixty-four feet in length,
fourteen feet in height and twelve feet in thickness. The estimated
weight of one of these stones is nearly one thousand tons, and it is
calculated that it would require ten thousand horse power to lift
it. At the quarry about three-quarters of a mile away a companion
block, seventy-two feet long and about fifteen feet in height and
thickness is to be seen, chiseled from the stone about it, but not
entirely separated from the stratum beneath it. This was probably
intended for the sustaining wall around the temple. Whether it
remained at the quarry because the work was interrupted, or because
the builders despaired of being able to move it, is a secret which
the living are not able to reveal. After the decline of paganism
the Christians built a church in the great court, using the stones
and pillars for the walls. Then came the Mohammedans and turned the
courts and temple into a fortress, making use of the walls of the
church.
[Illustration: THE GIANT STONE AT BAALBEK.]
A little way distant from the great temple is a smaller temple
dedicated to Bacchus, which would of itself be sufficient to
distinguish a city, but for its more famous rival. This temple is
about two hundred and twenty-five feet long by one hundred and
ten feet wide, and a row of fifty columns, of which fourteen are
fluted, surround it. These columns are sixty feet in height and
about six feet in diameter. While smaller in its dimensions this
temple is even more elaborately carved than the larger one. Some
of the clusters of grapes are less than two inches in length but
exquisitely wrought. This temple is in a much better state of
preservation than the great temple and is therefore in some respects
even more interesting.
Emperor William of Germany visited Baalbek in 1898 and was so
impressed by the ruins that he obtained permission from the
sultan to clear away the debris, and the traveling world is under
obligations to him for having made it possible to inspect the
foundations and the ground plan. In this connection it may be added
that Emperor William seems to take a deep interest in this part of
Asia. He visited Jerusalem to lay the corner stone of the German
church; he sent to Damascus a beautiful bronze wreath to adorn the
tomb of the great Mohammedan general, Saladin, and he has encouraged
the establishment of German colonies in Palestine. There are German
settlements of considerable size at Jerusalem, Joppa, and Haifa. At
four places we found German hotels, and it is needless to say that
they are kept with the excellence characteristic of the race.
The friendship which the emperor has shown for the sultan seems to
be reciprocated, for roads were built, harbors improved and many
other things done in honor of his visit. We have heard all sorts of
rumors as to the kaiser's intentions, but the only thing that seems
certain is that German influence in this part of Asia is increasing.
While Baalbek contains the largest and most famous ruins, it is not
the only place that attracts the archæologist. There are hundreds
of sites of ancient cities which abundantly repay the excavator.
Specimens of Greek and Roman art have been found on both sides of
the Jordan as well as along the Mediterranean coast. The tombs also
have yielded up their treasures and the museums of the world have
been supplied with tear bottles, perfumery jars, vases, bowls,
scarabs, ancient coins, etc.
The Phoenicians are credited with having invented the making of
glass in the days when Tyre and Sidon were their chief cities. It is
said that the art owes its discovery to the use of saltpeter in the
place of stones by some sailors who landed at the mouth of the river
Belos, near Akka. Finding no stones upon which to put their kettles,
they used blocks of saltpeter and were surprised to find that the
fire had fused the sand and saltpeter into a transparent substance.
The industry was inaugurated at Tyre and Sidon, and for some time
the Phoenicians supplied the world with glass. The bottles and vases
found from time to time in the tombs of Syria and Egypt are more
beautiful than when they left the hand of the manufacturer; the
outer surface has decayed, and beneath are revealed all the colors
of the rainbow. It was the custom to fill the tear bottles with
tears of the mourners and to bury them with the dead.
The scarab, which is found so often in the ancient tombs in Syria
and in Egypt, is the old fashioned tumble-bug or dung beetle
with which every boy, or at least every country or village boy,
is familiar. I little thought, when I used to see the tumble-bug
rolling his little globe of manure along the dusty road, that he was
considered a sacred insect several thousand years ago or that he was
ever used as a symbol of the Creator; and yet his likeness adorns
temples and tombs while his image, cut in stone and bearing the
seal of rulers, has been found by the thousands. Often the heart of
a dead person was removed and a scarab inserted in its place. The
scarab, rolling its ball, typified to the ancient an unseen power
guiding the sun while the bursting of the young bug from its egg in
the ball symbolized the resurrection--to what classical uses this
commonplace little insect was put!
[Illustration: CEDARS OF LEBANON]
Among those who have been instrumental in bringing the hidden
treasures of Syria to the attention of the world, Mr. Azeez Khayat,
a native of Tyre, but now an American citizen, deserves special
mention. Many American museums are indebted to him for their
collections.
Speaking of Tyre and Sidon reminds me that in the study of Syria
and Palestine, I ran across an early instance of monopoly. Josephus
accuses John of Gischala of monopolizing the oil business on the
Mediterranean coast. It was early in the Christian era that the
aforesaid John, according to Josephus, convinced the Jews who dwelt
in Syria that they were obliged to use oil made by others, and the
historian adds: "So he (John) bought four amphoræ with such Syrian
money as was of the value of four Attic drachmæ and sold every half
amphor at the same price; and as Galilee was very fruitful in oil
and was peculiarly so at this time, by sending away great quantities
and having the sole privilege so to do, he gathered an immense sum
of money together."
This is interesting and instructive. It shows, first, that monopoly
is an ancient evil and, second, that the monopolist in his
inclination to take advantage of the consumer by raising the price
was much the same then as now--but I have been afraid, ever since I
read of John of Gischala, that some American named John might try to
imitate him and establish a monopoly in our country--possibly in oil.
But on to Damascus--and we reached it all too soon, for the ride
across the Anti-Lebanon range is also picturesque. The route down
the east side of the mountain follows the valley of the Abana, a
splendid stream, worthy of the compliment paid it by Naaman. It
leaps from the mountain side a full grown river and plunges down
into the plain only to be lost in the sands, but not until it has
brought verdure to many square miles that would otherwise be barren.
It is easy to understand why Damascus is among the oldest, if not
actually the oldest, of all the cities still standing. It occupies
the one green spot in all that section and is the outpost of the
Mediterranean coast. The Arabian desert stretches to the east and
southeast for hundreds of miles, and the caravans from Persia and
Arabia pass through Damascus on their way to Egypt even now, as they
did when Babylon and Ninevah were young; it is also on the road
between the great East and Tyre and Sidon.
[Illustration: BEYROUTH--SYRIA]
Damascus is an Oriental city and is still innocent of the ways of
the western world. Its bazaars give one a glimpse of life as it was
before Europe and America were known to history. The government
is erecting public buildings according to modern plans; but the
covered streets, lined with little booths, the homes of the people,
the dress, the customs and the habits are the same that they were
when Saul of Tarsus wandered down the street "called Straight" in
search of the one who was to restore his sight. (This street though
straight as compared with the other streets, is hardly deserving of
the name which it still bears.)
As in Cairo, the different trades have different sections. The
dealers in sugar occupy one quarter; the silversmiths, the candy
manufacturers, the blacksmiths, the carpenters--each class has its
cluster of shops. The Arabian horse being the pride of the Bedouin,
we were not surprised to find much attention paid to the manufacture
of saddles, saddle bags, bridles and trappings, only they were for
the most part made of wool and cotton rather than of leather. Bright
colors, tassels, fringes, shells and ostrich feathers are employed
in the ornamentation of the horse, the donkey and the camel.
[Illustration: THE BIG TAIL SHEEP.]
The candies of Damascus are good and very cheap, and nuts of all
kinds are to be found in abundance, an excellent variety of walnut
being grown within the city limits. Naturally this city is a market
for Persian rugs and large stocks are kept on hand. While the people
make everything which enters into the daily life of the country,
they are especially skilled in brass, damascene ware and the
inlaying of wood with mother-of-pearl.
Damascus is not especially noted for places of historical interest.
The tourist is shown the house of Ananias and the window through
which Paul was let down from the wall, but it is doubtful whether
the identity of these places has been really established. A house,
known as the house of Naaman the Leper, is now very appropriately
used for a leper's home. There is no uncertainty about the river
Abana, and another river near Damascus known as Pharpar. An ancient
wall surrounds the city, and one of the largest mosques in the world
occupies ground first dedicated to a heathen temple and afterward to
the church of St. John the Baptist, erected by Arcadius, the son of
Theodosius.
[Illustration: DAMASCUS DOGS.]
The big-tailed sheep described by Herodotus is to be found on the
streets of Damascus. It is a peculiar breed, and the tail, which is
considered a great delicacy, is often so heavy as to seem a burden
to the sheep. It is broad, covered with wool, and sometimes ends in
a curl. We also saw here the long-eared goats, as curious looking in
their way as the sheep.
And what shall we say of the Damascus dog? He is to be found
everywhere and has no owner. We counted eighteen in one group and
two hundred and thirty-eight in one forenoon's ride. They live on
charity and fight whenever an opportunity offers. It seems to be
against the law of the sultan to kill dogs, as one learns to his
regret after he has heard them barking at all hours of the night. It
is superfluous to add that the flea is as common as the dog, and as
indifferent also to the peace of the stranger.
A new railroad which is now building from Damascus to the south will
soon make it possible to go to Galilee in a few hours, but now it is
more convenient to return to Beyrout and go to Haifa by boat. This
we did, and having a couple of days at Beyrout we learned something
of the religious work done there.
In the division of territory the Presbyterians of America were, in
1870, assigned the country around Beyrout. The district is divided
into the Beyrout, Lebanon, Sidon and Tripoli stations, and at all of
these stations schools, as well as churches, are being established.
So successful has the work been that the native communities now
contribute half a dollar for every dollar sent from America. There
is also an American press at Beyrout which publishes the Bible
in Arabic, some eighty thousand copies being issued last year in
addition to religious tracts of various kinds. One of the leaders
in the missionary movement, Rev. H. H. Jessup, has completed his
fiftieth year of service among the Syrians.
The Syrian Protestant college is also located in Beyrout; it
occupies a beautiful site overlooking the sea and is in sight of
the highest peak of the Lebanons. While Christian in management,
this college is not denominational but is under the control of an
American board representing a number of churches. Between six and
seven hundred young men are in attendance, and its graduates are
scattered throughout the world. Within its halls are to be found
Protestants, Catholics (both Greek and Roman), Armenians, Jews and
Mohammedans, and its influences in these parts can scarcely be
overestimated.
The present president of the college, Dr. Howard S. Bliss, is the
worthy son of the college's first president, Dr. Daniel Bliss, whose
religious and educational work in this territory covers more than
half a century. The elder Bliss, now past eighty-three, and his wife
are enjoying an enviable experience. Their active labors over, with
minds still alert and with hearts still young, they are spending the
evening of their lives near the scenes of their labors and among the
children and grandchildren who have blessed their home. Their rest
has been earned, and the peace of their latter years is a merited
reward. Surely they illustrate the blessedness of lives consecrated
to a high purpose and rich in noble service.
CHAPTER XXX.
THE CHRISTIAN'S MECCA.
We were agreeably surprised in Jerusalem and Judea, but disappointed
to learn how few Protestant Christians visited this city which may
without impropriety be styled the Christian's Mecca. Possibly the
wretched harbor at Joppa--if harbor it can be called--may frighten
some away, for when the weather is bad passengers are often carried
by, and yet it does seem that there should be more than four
thousand a year from the rich and numerous churches of Europe and
America. More than ninety thousand pilgrims visit the Mohammedan
Mecca each year, although the Mohammedans are poor and the journey
is difficult. Port Said is only a hundred and thirty-five miles from
Joppa and Alexandria less than three hundred miles, and more than
ninety-nine thousand persons disembarked at these ports last year.
Making a liberal allowance for Egyptians returning from Europe, for
immigrants from Europe to Egypt, and for invalids visiting Cairo in
search of health, it is still true that many times as many go to
the Nile as travel to Jerusalem, and of the less than four thousand
tourists who visit the Holy City less than one thousand continue
their journey to Nazareth and the Sea of Galilee. The number which I
mention does not include the Greek Catholics or the Roman Catholics,
but is an outside estimate of the number of Protestant Christians.
The railroads which are building and the carriage roads in process
of construction will make travel easier and may increase the number
in the future, but it is difficult to explain or to understand why
so many have come near to, and yet passed by, without seeing the
places made familiar to the Christian world by the books of the Old
and the New Testament.
We landed at Joppa when the weather was fair, but were detained
a half day that they might "de-ratify the ship," as the Turkish
authorities describe rat-killing upon the ship--a custom inaugurated
after the rat had been convicted of carrying bubonic plague. Joppa
is on the edge of the Plain of Sharon and, as an abundance of
water can be secured at a reasonable depth, the city is a garden.
Orange trees thrive there and the fruit is excellent. Two places of
interest are shown, the home of Tabitha and the house of Simon the
tanner, the latter immortalized by the vision which taught Peter the
universality of Christ's mission.
The railroad to Jerusalem crosses the valley of Sharon which, at
this season of the year, is exceedingly attractive. The crops are
growing, the fellaheen are at work in the fields and everywhere
the wild flowers bloom. The rose of Sharon had many rivals, if the
plain looked in olden times as it does now. The principal station
on the plain is Ramleh, through which conquering armies marched
for ages. From time immemorial Palestine has been a prize of war.
When it was not itself the object of conquest, its occupation was
necessary to the acquiring or holding of other territory. The
Persians, the Egyptians, the Parthians, the Scythians, the Greeks,
the Romans and the Turks have all overrun this country--not to
speak of the numerous wars of the Israelites and the expeditions
of the Crusaders. From Alexander the Great and Cæsar to Napoleon,
no world-conquering general overlooked Palestine--and yet, out of
Palestine came the Prince of Peace.
South of Sharon lies the plain of Philistia, a narrow strip of land
between the hills of Judea and the sea, a small region, and yet it
supported a people who warred for centuries with the Children of
Israel. It was at Gaza, one of the chief cities on this plain, that
Samson pulled down the pillars of the building and died with those
who made sport of him.
Leaving the low country, the railroad begins the ascent of the
Judean hills through the Wady es Suar, and as one is carried up the
tortuous course of the narrow valley he begins to understand why
Jerusalem was considered a citadel. The hills rise to a height of
about twenty-five hundred feet and are so inaccessible that a small
number dwelling on top could easily defend themselves against a
much larger force. The narrow limits of Judea impress one, hemmed
in as it is on the west by Philistia, on the south by the desert
and on the east by the deep chasm of the Dead Sea. Its history was
developed in a territory scarcely larger than a Nebraska county.
As we approached the summit the vineyards appeared and the olive
groves became more numerous. Jerusalem is beautifully located. No
wonder its rebuilding and re-peopling is the dream of the devout
Jews, many of whom come from distant corners of the earth to spend
their last days within its precincts. The present walls of the city
are only a few hundred years old, but the Tower of David is believed
to be a part of the wall erected by the great Hebrew king.
Once within the city, one is surrounded on every hand by places
that stir the tenderest of memories. Even the uncertainty as to the
identification of many of the sites made sacred by the life, the
sufferings and the death of Christ--even the rivalry between the
various sects cannot prevent a feeling of reverence. Here He whose
name is borne by increasing millions was condemned without cause,
crowned with thorns and at last crucified, sealing with His blood
the testimony of His life.
Early in the fourth century Helena, the mother of Constantine,
set out to identify the spots most intimately associated with the
Savior's life. She selected the place where, as she believed,
Christ was crucified and buried, and her son erected the Church
of the Holy Sepulchre to mark the locality. For fifteen centuries
her designation was accepted as the correct one, and the Roman
Catholics, the Greek Catholics and the Armenians, who divide the
space in the church between them, have kept joint, though not always
harmonious, watch over the various altars and chapels. A few years
ago the correctness of the location of Calvary was disputed and a
hill over the Grotto of Jeremiah was fixed upon by the dissenters as
the place of the crucifixion, and a tomb near by as the sepulchre.
Since that time the traveler has been shown both places and
furnished with the arguments in support of the claims of each. It is
contended that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, though within the
present walls, stands upon land which was outside of the original
walls, while the new location is outside of the walls as they are
at present. Possibly future excavations may settle the question by
determining the exact location of the wall in the time of Christ;
but what matter? The two places are not far apart, and the whole
vicinity has been hallowed by His presence.
Pilate's judgment hall, the Via Dolorosa and Ecce Homo arch are
marked by the erection of a Catholic convent and school for girls
where one finds a cleanliness in striking contrast to the streets
outside. The pools of Gihon, of Siloam, of Bethesda and Hezekiah are
all given a local habitation; the place where Judas hanged himself
is pointed out, as well as the cave in which Jeremiah wrote his
lamentations; the chamber where the Last Supper was observed is also
fixed upon, and the tombs of Rachel, Absalom and of David. I do not
know how much credence should be given to the testimony adduced in
behalf of these different sites, but we are sure of the identity
of a few places. Mount Zion, upon which David built his palace, is
known; Mount Akra can be located and about Mount Moriah there can be
no mistake. The great bare rock that crowns the last named eminence
is a landmark that has not been and cannot be easily removed. It
is now covered by a mosque but was once the sacrificial stone of
the Hebrews. Solomon's temple was built on Mount Moriah, and some
of its foundation stones and subterranean chambers can still be
seen. In a street that leads by these foundation walls is the Jews'
wailing place where for many centuries devout Hebrews, gathered from
every country, have met on each Friday afternoon to bemoan the fate
of Jerusalem and to petition for the restoration of the kingdom.
One sees no more pathetic sight in a trip around the world than
this assemblage of men and women, some gray-haired, some in middle
life and many mere children, chanting their laments and caressing
the stones which the hand of Solomon laid when he was building the
temple which marked the summit of Jewish political power.
[Illustration: MOUNT OF OLIVES.]
Bethlehem is also identified and whether or not the Church of the
Nativity, erected by the mother of Constantine, covers the spot
where Christ was born, one can look upon the hills around about the
city and recall that it was here that the message, "Peace on earth,
good will to men," came to the shepherds who kept their flocks by
night.
In the Garden of Gethsemane, by the Brook Kedron, one can tread the
soil pressed by the Master's feet in the hours of his loneliness
and agony. The Garden is now walled in and carefully kept, and its
old, gnarled and knotted olive trees shade the pansies which grow
there in profusion. Bethpage still stands and also Bethany, where
Mary and Martha and Lazarus lived, and, most conspicuous of all, the
Mount of Olives, the place of the Ascension. From its summit the
best view of Jerusalem is obtained; from that point also the eye can
sweep the hills of both Judea and Samaria and to the east look upon
the waters of the Dead Sea, thirty-eight hundred feet below.
Nowhere else can one walk amid scenes so familiar to the civilized
world as are those of Judea. Surrounded by paganism and idolatry, a
little band began here the establishment of a monotheistic religion
and notwithstanding backslidings, shortcomings and wanderings
from the faith, the spiritual side of life was never entirely
forgotten; great prophets thundered their warnings from these
hills; great singers poured forth their hymns of penitence, praise
and thanksgiving; here a wonderful literature was developed and a
history written which was stranger than fiction; and here, in the
fulness of time, came One who was commissioned to substitute the law
of Love for the law that required "an eye for an eye and a tooth for
a tooth."
In the city of Jerusalem there are now some sixty thousand souls,
and a composite population it is. While about two-thirds of the
people are Jews and the remainder divided almost equally between the
Mohammedans and Christians, one can count representatives of a score
or more of nations in an hour's walk. The streets of Jerusalem are
narrow and crooked, and one is going up hill or down hill all the
time. The houses, the stores, the walls, the gates and the customs
of the people seem more Oriental than European. There are no street
cars, no modern bookstores and no newspapers, excepting one printed
in Hebrew.
The carriage road from Jerusalem to Jericho winds around the Mount
of Olives and down the eastern side of the Judean hills, past
the Apostles' fountain and through the wilderness of Judea. This
wilderness is not the waste that we expected to find, but merely a
broken and mountainous country, too stony to be cultivated and fit
only for grazing. At this season of the year the grass is green and
the ground bright with flowers.
A little more than half way down the slope is a rest station called,
in honor of the parable, the Good Samaritan Inn. But for the mounted
guards who now patrol this road the traveler would even to-day be in
danger of falling among thieves.
A little farther on, the road leads near the edge of a wild, deep
and rugged canyon at the bottom of which plunges the Brook Cherith.
A Greek monastery has been built at the place where Elijah found
refuge during the drought.
Jericho is a small village and a half mile from the site of the
ancient city of that name. It depends for its support upon the
tourists who visit the Jordan valley rather than upon the cultivated
area.
The Dead Sea, forty miles long and eight miles in width, covers the
deepest portion of this most remarkable of the depressions in the
earth's surface. The rent extends from the base of Mount Hermon to
the eastern arm of the Red Sea, known as the Gulf of Akabah. For
more than one hundred miles this rent or ravine is below the level
of the sea, the surface of the Dead Sea being thirteen hundred feet
lower than the Mediterranean. As the Dead Sea is in some places
thirteen hundred feet deep, the greatest depth of the chasm is,
therefore, more than twenty-six hundred feet. The water of the Sea
is bitter and contains twenty-six per cent of salt, or about five
times as much as the ocean. As we took a bath in the Dead Sea, we
can testify that one cannot sink in its waters.
[Illustration: WAILING PLACE OF THE JEWS.]
The Jordan is neither as large nor as clear as one would expect from
its prominence in Bible history. The banks are slippery, the waters
are muddy and the current is swift. It has much the appearance of
a creek swollen with rain. We tried its waters also, but did not
venture far from the shore. Between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead
Sea the Jordan falls about six hundred feet, or ten feet to the
mile. At present but little use is made of this fertile valley,
but, in the opinion of some who have investigated the matter, it
could, with proper irrigation and under a just government, be made
as fruitful as the valley of the Nile. As might be expected, the
heat in this deep basin is intense in the summer, but the hills
are near enough on each side to provide homes for those who would
cultivate the fields.
[Illustration: A JEWISH RABBI.]
Looking across the Jordan one sees the Mountains of Moab. While
the country "beyond the Jordan" plays an unimportant part in Bible
history as compared with Judea, Samaria and Galilee, still it has
its Nebo, where the great Jewish lawgiver sleeps in an unmarked
grave; it has its Macherus, where John the Baptist was beheaded, and
its Gilead. Elijah, the Tishbite, came from beyond the Jordan, and
beyond the Jordan Elisha received his teacher's mantle; Ruth came
from the Land of Moab, and Job endured his trials in the Land of Uz.
Space does not permit a reference to all the places of interest
or an elaborate consideration of any of them. It is impossible to
describe in a few words what it requires several days to see. One
thought often comes to the mind as the different scenes are visited,
viz., that a visit to the Holy Land makes it easier to understand
many Bible passages and gives added significance to others. We have
seen the barren fig tree and the fruitful vine; we have seen the
lame and the blind, and have met the leper at the gate; we have seen
the tiny lamp, such as the wise and foolish virgins carried--lamps
that need often to be refilled; and we have seen the "whited
sepulchres," "full of dead men's bones." We have been impressed with
the life-giving power of a fountain in a barren land and can more
fully realize the force of the promise that the man who delighteth
"in the law of the Lord" "shall be like a tree planted by the rivers
of water."
But no part of the Old Testament has been brought more vividly to
our minds than the twenty-third Psalm. Life is much the same here
to-day as it was two, three, four thousand years ago, and we have
seen innumerable flocks and have watched the sheep following the
shepherd with confidence as he, staff in hand, led them into new
pastures or from hillside to stream. No animal is more helpless than
the sheep and no guardian more tender than the shepherd. The sheep
know their master's voice, and we have several times seen a shepherd
carrying a lamb in his arms. The hills about Jerusalem, the springs,
the shepherds and their flocks, will rise before us whenever we read
again:
"The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie
down in green pastures; He leadeth me beside the still waters."
CHAPTER XXXI.
GALILEE.
The boat schedules--and they can not be ignored on the Palestine
coast--compelled us to reserve Galilee for the conclusion of our
tour, and it was an inappropriate ending, for while Jerusalem was
the scene of the crucifixion and ascension, the greater part of
Christ's life was spent in Galilee, and it was there that "most of
His mighty works were done." Nor is its history confined to the New
Testament, for it has its Carmel associated with the life of Elijah,
and Mount Tabor where Deborah's victory was won. Haifa, the seaport
of Galilee, is built along the front of Carmel on the edge of a
bay which the mountain helps to form, for Carmel, instead of being
a peak, is really a long ridge but a few hundred feet in height,
jutting out into the sea at this point and extending several miles
to the southeast. A Roman Catholic monastery is erected over a cave
overlooking the Mediterranean, where Elijah is said to have lived.
To the north of Carmel lies the plain of Esdraelon through which
the Kishon river flows. The road to Nazareth follows the south side
of this valley to a point some seven miles from the shore where the
hills of Galilee approach so near to Carmel as to leave but a narrow
pass for the river. Here the road crosses over to the north side
of the valley, and for the remainder of the distance winds upward
over the hills, giving a commanding view of Esdraelon. The upper
part of the plain is as beautiful a country as can be imagined--well
watered, fertile and thoroughly cultivated. The land is not held
in severalty, as in America, but by communities. The cultivators
live in villages, built at intervals around the edge of the valley,
and the land is apportioned each year by the village chief, no one
receiving the same tract two years in succession. As we looked down
upon the valley we could distinguish the different allotments as
they lay in long strips of equal width. Wheat is the chief product
of the valley, although there are a few olive orchards, and the
mulberry tree is being planted. Oxen are the animals usually
employed in cultivation, but we occasionally saw a horse and an ox
yoked together or a camel and an ox, and once a camel and a donkey.
Jezreel is on this plain, at the foot of Mount Gilboa, where the
middle plain connects with the plain leading down to the Jordan
between Gilboa and Little Hermon. This is historic ground, for it
was here at a great spring which flows out from under Gilboa that
Gideon selected his gallant band.
The village of Nazareth, nestling among the hills of Galilee, must
always be a place of supreme interest to the Christian. Its location
was probably determined by the presence here of an unfailing
spring, now known as Mary's fountain. Dr. George Adam Smith, in his
"Historical Geography of the Holy Land," points out the relation
between the springs and the routes of travel and emphasizes the
prominence of Nazareth in the Bible times. Christ's boyhood and
young manhood were spent near a great highway, for the old Roman
road from Damascus to Egypt ran through the town. Caravans passed
to and fro laden with the riches of the Euphrates and the Nile;
princes passed that way on their royal journeys, and in time of war
it was on the route of armies. From a high hill just outside the
town Christ could look to the west and see the surf line on the
shore of the Mediterranean, to the east He could survey the walls of
the chasm in which lay the sea of Galilee, while to the northeast
rose Hermon, the pride of the mountains. Several of His parables
fit quite naturally into the scenes upon which He looked, and those
parables were the more effective because they were taken from the
everyday life of the people. The stony ground, the rocky roadways
and the narrow strips of fertile soil were woven into the Parable
of the Sower, and some acquaintance of His youth, following the
merchantmen into Egypt or Mesopotamia, may have been the original of
the Prodigal Son.
Rev. Selah Merrill, our consul at Jerusalem, has refuted the
statement so frequently made that the Nazarenes were held in
contempt. He shows that there is no just foundation for the
aspersions cast on this section of Galilee. Mr. Merrill's book,
"Galilee in the Time of Christ," is, I may add, a very useful
preparation for a trip through this part of Palestine.
Chapels have been erected to mark the home of Joseph and Mary, the
carpenter shop and the rock where Christ met His disciples after the
resurrection, but one never feels certain about the identification
of places selected so long after the death of Christ and having no
permanent physical marks.
A few miles to the east of Nazareth is a village called Cana which
claims to be the "Cana of Galilee" where the first miracle was
performed, and a church has been erected over a well from which, it
is argued, the water was taken that was turned into wine, but two
other villages with similar names contest the honor with this Cana.
[Illustration: A BEDOUIN.]
The Sea of Galilee has a double claim to distinction. To its natural
beauty, which is unsurpassed, is added the glory of having furnished
the fishermen who were to become "fishers of men." Nearly seven
hundred feet below the level of the ocean and walled by high hills,
it has a character all its own, and its shores were the familiar
haunts of Him who by precept and example taught the nobleness of
service. The sea is some twelve miles in length by six or eight in
breadth. The Jordan pours into it the waters of Hermon and Lake
Merom and carries away its overflow to the Dead Sea. The Plain of
Gennesaret includes nearly all the level land adjacent to it, save
the Jordan valleys above and below, and is so prominent a feature
of the landscape that its name is sometimes applied to the sea.
The village of Magdala, home of one of the Marys, is situated on
the edge of this plain, but is now only a collection of mud huts,
each one bearing a booth of boughs upon its flat roof. The house
top is an important part of the house in the Orient and furnishes
a sleeping place for the occupants during the warm summer nights.
The village of Magdala, with the land belonging to it, has recently
been sold to a syndicate which proposes to very much improve its
cultivation.
[Illustration: AT BREAKFAST.]
A little farther south on the west side of the sea, is the city of
Tiberias, the only city still remaining of the ten or more that,
two thousand years ago, stretched along the shores. The city's name
gives evidence of its Roman origin, and it was once so important
a place that its name was a rival for Galilee in the designation
of the sea. Tiberias was one of the sacred cities of the Jews and
to-day the descendants of the Hebrew race constitute three-fourths
of its population. A Jewish society, of which Baron Rothschild is
the patron, has several schools here, and a number of the residents
devote themselves entirely to the study of the law. Near Tiberias
are the hot springs spoken of by Josephus, and their healing waters
still have a great reputation. The bath houses are not kept as they
would be in Europe or America, but the mineral properties of the
water make it very invigorating.
A Jewish synagogue has been erected near the hot springs and the
annual feast in honor of Rabbi Meyer was celebrated there during our
stay in Tiberias. As it was the only feast of the kind we had ever
attended, we found it exceedingly interesting. The devout Jews were
gathered in large numbers, some coming several days' journey; many
of the men wore a long curl in front of each ear, a custom which we
first noticed in Jerusalem. The feast is an occasion of rejoicing
and there are dancing, music and merriment. A part of the ceremony
is the burning of garments contributed by those in attendance, and
the right to light the fire is made a matter of auction. We went
into the room where the bidding was in progress and were informed
that more than ten dollars had already been offered for the honor.
The feast has many of the characteristics of a fair, the vendors
of candles, cakes, drinks and merchandise plying their trade and
different delegations marching with banners.
[Illustration: AN ARAB MAIDEN.]
There is at Tiberias a splendidly equipped hospital established
by the United Free Church of Scotland, and conducted by a skilful
surgeon, Dr. Torrance, and a corps of assistants; more than one
hundred and fifty persons were treated the day we visited the
hospital. Surely this institution is a fitting memorial, and what
more appropriate place for a hospital than these shores where the
lame were made whole, the deaf were healed and the blind received
their sight!
The site of Chorazin, the city which Christ denounced for unbelief
in connection with Capernaum and Bethsaida, is still a matter of
dispute, but Capernaum, where Christ dwelt during the greater part
of His ministry, has probably been identified. It is situated on
the northeast corner of Gennesaret, close by the shore of the sea.
There is no town there now and no house save a Catholic monastery,
but recent excavations have unearthed the foundations of a building
believed to have been the Jewish synagogue in which Christ spoke. On
one of the stones of this synagogue is a representation of David's
seal and a pot of manna; if this is in reality the synagogue in
which Christ referred to the bread of life, it may be true, as
someone has suggested, that He found His text, "Your fathers did eat
manna in the wilderness," in this carving upon the stone.
There has been a great deal of discussion over the site of
Bethsaida, and some have argued that there were two towns of the
same name, one at the north end of the lake east of the mouth of
the Jordan, and the other on the west side not far from Capernaum.
But both towns have so completely disappeared that they can not be
located with any certainty.
[Illustration: THE BEDOUIN SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK.]
Safed, another of the sacred cities of the Jews, lies some distance
west of the sea of Galilee but within sight of it, perched on a high
hill. It is so conspicuous a landmark and so often seen by the Great
Teacher that it may have suggested to His mind the illustration, "A
city that is set on a hill can not be hid."
The sea of Galilee, beautiful as it is with its clear water and
its picturesque environment, is treacherous. Its surface is swept
by sudden gusts of wind and tempests often lash it until its waves
beat high upon the shore. A resident of Tiberias told us that he had
seen it when it might be mistaken for an ocean, so violently was it
agitated, and he bore testimony also to the unexpected squalls that
visit it. We spent two days on the sea, and in crossing it found the
wind so variable that probably half a dozen times the sail became
useless and it was necessary to resort to the oars. There was no
great tempest while we were there, and the waves did not "beat into
the ship" but the wind was at times contrary. The uncertainty of the
weather has been attributed to the numerous ravines or canyons which
run down from the mountains round about the sea, and as these are
the same now that they were two thousand years ago, travel upon the
lake is attended with the same risk that it was then.
[Illustration: SALIM MOUSSA, WITH PARTY OF TOURISTS.]
In the time of Christ the sea of Galilee was the scene of busy
life. The population of the country described as Galilee has been
estimated to have been at that time about two and a half millions.
The sea was covered with boats, built for fishing, for traffic, for
war or for pleasure. Josephus collected two hundred and thirty ships
for one of his expeditions upon the sea, and in a sea fight that
took place there the number killed on one side alone was given at
from four to six thousand.
The sea was full of fish, and the Gospels furnish abundant proof of
the importance of fishing as an industry, a fact also established
by outside evidence. Dr. Merrill, in the book above referred to,
says that fish taken were not only sufficient to satisfy the local
demands but were packed and shipped to Jerusalem and even to cities
along the Mediterranean. The supply of fish has not yet been
exhausted. Salim Moussa, of Jaffa, the very efficient Arab dragoman
furnished us by Cook, supplied us with a net when we visited the
sites of Capernaum and Bethsaida and our son caught enough fish
for our lunch. It was a delightful outing that we had that day,
gathering water-worn pebbles from the beach, picking up shells, of
which there are many varieties, and feasting on fish fresh from the
sea and on a lamb bought from a Bedouin who was tending his flock
near by.
[Illustration: MARY'S WELL AT NAZARETH.]
The visit to the Horns of Hattin was reserved for the return trip,
the road from Nazareth to Tiberias passing near the hill which bears
this name. It was in 1157 the scene of a celebrated battle in which
Saladin won a victory over the Crusaders. This hill, by a tradition
which has come down from the time of the Crusaders, is styled the
Mount of Beatitudes. There is nothing to determine just where the
Sermon on the Mount was delivered, but because the Horns of Hattin
have been associated with that wonderful discourse, I was anxious
to visit the place. There is no road leading to this eminence and
the bridle paths can scarcely be followed. The ground is covered by
boulders and broken stones, half concealed by grass and thistles
and flowers. The guide stepped over a large snake before we had
gone far, and as it was of a very poisonous variety, he felt that
he had had a narrow escape. From a distance the top of the hill is
saddle-shaped, and the two horns have given it its name, but on the
top there is a large circular basin, probably two hundred yards in
diameter, and the rim of this basin was once walled and a citadel
built there.
The view from this mount is one of the most beautiful I have ever
seen. To the north, Hermon rises in grandeur, his summit covered
with snow; the intervening space is filled with hills except in the
immediate foreground where the sea of Galilee sparkles in the sun.
At the foot of the mount stretches a verdant valley, and from the
valley a defile runs down to the sea. This opening gives a view
of the shore where Capernaum and Bethsaida are supposed to have
stood, and one of the roads from the sea to Nazareth follows the
stream which flows through this defile. On the opposite side of the
Mount, Tabor can be seen, and beyond, the hills of Samaria. There is
inspiration in this commingling of hill and vale and sea and sky.[6]
[6] Since my visit to the Horns of Hattin, I am cherishing the hope
that some Christian organization may some day make it easier to
visit this inspiring spot, by building a road to, and a rest house
upon, the summit.
Whether, as a matter of fact, Christ, "seeing the multitude,"
ascended to this place I know not, but it furnishes an environment
fit for the sublime code of morality presented in the Sermon on
the Mount. No other philosophy has ever touched so high a point
or presented so noble a conception of human life. In it purity of
heart is made the test, mercy is enjoined, humility emphasized,
forgiveness commanded and love made the law of action. In that
Sermon He pointed out the beginnings of evil, rebuked those who
allow themselves to be engrossed by the care of the body and gave
to the world a brief, simple and incomparable prayer which the
Christian world repeats in unison.
If in other places He relieved those whose sufferings came through
the infirmities of the flesh, He here offered a balm for the healing
of the nations.
CHAPTER XXXII.
GREECE--THE WORLD'S TEACHER.
Nothing so impresses the visitor to Greece--not the waters of the
Ægean sea, with their myriad hues; not the Acropolis, eloquent with
ruins; not even the lovely site of Athens itself--as the part which
little Greece has played in the instruction of the world. With an
area of less than twenty-five thousand square miles, not half of
which is productive, and with a population of less than two and
a half millions, this diminutive nation has a history without a
parallel.
There is scarcely a department of thought in which Greece has not
been the pioneer, and in many things she has set an example which
subsequent generations have but imperfectly followed. If in Egypt
one is awed by the evidences of antiquity; if in Palestine he is
made reverent by the spiritual association connected with Judea,
Galilee and Samaria; in Greece he bows with profound respect to the
mighty influence exerted by this single people upon civilization.
The signs along the streets recall the alphabet with which the
student of the classics struggles when he takes up the dead
languages--and yet, the Greek language can hardly be called dead,
for while it is the spoken tongue of but a comparatively small
number, it has found a glorious resurrection in nearly all the
languages of Europe. In fact, it has so many merits that we are
constantly complimenting it by returning to it for the nomenclature
of philosophy, science and art.
Of those who still speak the language of Herodotus, Homer, Socrates
and Demosthenes, a majority live outside of Greece, for the Greek
colonies planted around the eastern end of the Mediterranean form a
considerable, as well as an influential, portion of the population.
Greek colonization, by the way, was of an enduring kind. Those
who went out into distant fields did not go as individual bees
(official or commercial) to gather honey and return with it to
the parent hive; they went out rather in swarms to found cities,
develop countries and establish new centers for the spread of Greek
influence. They identified themselves with the land to which they
went; they became an integral part of the population, and, by
virtue of their inherent superiority, they gradually substituted the
language, the ideas, and the customs of their native land for those
which they found. So securely did they build that neither the Roman
nor the Turk was able to obliterate their work. The people bowed
before the storm, but continued Greek, and to-day in Alexandria,
Asia Minor and Constantinople, Hellenic influence is still felt.
[Illustration: THE PARTHENON.]
The ancient Greeks sought to perfect the human form, and it is not
to be wondered at that the marble models of strength, grace and
beauty have been unearthed where the Olympian games inspired a
rivalry in physical development. The games were established nearly
eight hundred years before the beginning of the Christian era, and
during the nation's independent existence they were held in such
high esteem that the laurel wreath of victory was the greatest
reward within the reach of the youth of the country. Each city
had its stadium, some of them of immense size. The one at Athens
seated fifty thousand spectators, and the enthusiasm aroused by
the contests was scarcely less than that which at Rome greeted the
gladiators. By the generosity of a rich Greek the stadium at Athens
has recently been restored at a cost of more than a million dollars.
The race course is six hundred and seventy feet long and a little
more than a hundred feet in width, and the seats are of Pentelic
marble. Notwithstanding its great capacity it can not contain the
crowds that assemble to witness the athletic games, renewed there
in 1896 by the International Athletic Association. Our country has
the distinction of having led in the contest of 1896 and again in
the contest held at Athens last April. Our representatives won
eleven prizes each time, and I found that these victories had very
favorably impressed the people of Athens.
The stadium is not the only splendid monument to the public spirit
of the modern Greeks. The academy of science and the library are
magnificent buildings, each costing more than the restoration of
the stadium. They illustrate the best in Grecian architecture,
reproducing the Corinthian, the Doric, and the Ionic. They are of
Pentelic marble and would be worthy of a place in any city of the
world. The library contains several hundred thousand volumes and has
all the modern equipment. Athens has a population of but little more
than a hundred thousand, and it is doubtful whether there is another
city of its size that can boast of as large an expenditure of
private capital in public buildings. The mountain which has supplied
Athens with marble for twenty-five hundred years is only a few miles
from the city and its quarries are still unexhausted.
[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS.]
Modern Athens is very attractive; its streets are paved and clean;
its business houses are large and well built; its government
buildings are substantial, and its private residences give evidence
of taste. We were there in the season of flowers and we saw them
blooming in profusion everywhere. Numerous statues adorn the streets
and parks, the most noted being the statue of Byron, erected in
memory of his unselfish devotion to Greek independence.
The soldiers and policemen have adopted the costume of the ancient
Greeks, but otherwise the people dress like the people of northern
Europe.
As one approaches Athens for the first time, his eye is sure to
search for the "temple-crowned" Acropolis--the hill which art and
religion combined to make immortal. It rises from the plain much as
Chapultepec rises from the plain of Mexico. It is about five hundred
feet high and, at the top, two hundred yards in length. It must have
been surpassingly beautiful when the Parthenon was completed--that
great treasury which has not only supplied the art galleries of the
world with marvels of beauty in stone, but has given law to the
architects from that day to this. Pericles, who deserves the credit
for the construction of the Parthenon, can be pardoned for exulting
in his work.
To-day, the Acropolis is a picture of desolation, but the few
columns that remain bear witness to its departed glory. Lord
Elgin carried away at one time two hundred and fifty feet of the
sculptured frieze, and scarcely any of its columns, capitals,
cornice and pediment would have remained but for the size and
weight of the masses of marble. The pillage that for nearly twenty
centuries has been robbing Greece of her priceless works of art can
be understood when it is stated that one Roman conqueror celebrated
his victory by exhibiting in his triumphant procession two hundred
and fifty wagon loads of Greek pictures and statues, and that these
wagons were followed by three thousand men each bearing some trophy
taken from the cities of Greece.
And yet in spite of the grand larceny which has been perpetrated
against this unfortunate land the museum at Athens contains enough
of the beautiful in marble and bronze to make any nation conspicuous
in the realm of art. Within two years some notable additions have
been made to the collection; a life-sized bronze statue has been
unearthed and a marble figure, half buried in the sands of the sea,
has been rescued. The latter is perfect in the portions protected by
the sand but was disintegrating where it came into contact with the
waves.
The readers of these articles are too well informed in regard to the
discoveries of Dr. Schliemann to make it necessary to refer to his
work in detail. One room of the museum contains the gold ornaments
which he gathered from five tombs, and they are sufficient to show
the extended use made of this metal in the arts. They consist of
ear rings, finger rings, bracelets, necklaces, head ornaments,
vases, cups, coins, etc. A pair of cups which attract special
attention bear in relief the figures of bulls--the animals being
equal in form to the best breeds of to-day. On one cup they are
being led to the sacrifice and on the other they are bound at the
altar.
Besides these statues of renown and the casts of those which have
been removed, there are many specimens of ancient pottery by which
one can trace the rise in artistic taste and skill. Some of the
earliest statues in stone and clay bear a striking resemblance to
those of Egypt.
Second only in interest to the Acropolis is Mars Hill, a rocky
summit two-thirds of the height of the Acropolis. Here the ancient
court of the Areopagus, composed of the most eminent of the
Athenians, held its sessions. Here under the dome of the sky the
most important cases were tried and life and death hung upon the
decree of the court. Here, also, Paul's great speech to the "men of
Athens" was delivered, his text being found in the altar erected to
"the unknown god."
[Illustration: MARS HILL.]
Only a little distance from Mars Hill is the stone platform
from which the orators of Greece addressed the people. A level,
shelf-like space was formed near the top of the hill where a few
thousand could congregate, and here the citizens listened while
the greatest of all public speakers poured forth his eloquence.
It was worth a trip to Athens to view the spot where Demosthenes
delivered the oration on the Crown and the Philippics, which have
been the pattern set before the student for twenty-two hundred
years. In the marshalling of facts, in the grouping of arguments,
in the use of invective and in the arranging of climaxes he is
still the teacher. Someone has drawn a distinction between Cicero
and Demosthenes, saying that when the former spoke the people said:
"How well Cicero speaks," while, when Demosthenes spoke, they said:
"Let us go against Phillip!" Demosthenes' style was more convincing
than ornate; his purpose was to arouse, not merely to please, and
from the accounts that have come down to us his delivery was suited
to his language. He, in fact, gave to action the highest place
among the requisites of effective speech. We recalled the saying
of Demosthenes when we listened to the excited tones and watched
the gesticulations of the boatmen who thronged about our ship in
the harbor of Piræus. The physician who came aboard to examine the
passengers gave us even a better illustration of "action," although
his gestures were more forcible than graceful, possibly because
he addressed himself to the captain of the ship instead of to the
multitude.
[Illustration: DEMOSTHENES' PLATFORM.]
On the shore of the Ægean sea, between Athens and the harbor, at a
place where Demosthenes may have tested his voice against the tumult
of the waves, I gathered some pebbles. I can not prove that they are
the identical ones used by him to overcome the impediment in his
speech, but they are at least a reminder of the toilsome struggle
through which he passed before his name was known to fame.
It was a disappointment to find so little to mark the site of
the academy where Socrates and Plato met their disciples. These
philosophers have made such an impression upon the thought of the
world that I had hoped to find some spot clearly identified as the
place where they taught. An old house now stands on a treeless
tract over which they are said to have walked in their daily
discussions, but it is a modern one. A gate admits to the grounds,
although no wall incloses them. It is much easier to picture
Demosthenes speaking from the rostrum which still remains, than to
imagine Socrates propounding here his questions and elaborating the
method of reasoning to which his name has been given.
There is an old cemetery within the limits of the present city where
recent excavation has brought to light numerous tombs ornamented
with sculpture. Some of the groups of statuary and urns have been
left where they were found, while others have been given a place in
the museum. These are additional proof of the number of those who
handled the chisel in the days of Phidias.
No spot is identified with Herodotus, the Father of History, or with
Thucydides who, with Herodotus, has been the instructor of later
chroniclers. Except the remains of the theatres, there is nothing
to recall the tragedies of Euripides, Æschylus and Sophocles or the
comedies of the Aristophanes; and no place is pointed out as the
site of the studio of Parrhasius or Zeuxis, though the lessons which
they taught the world have not been forgotten. While the guide does
not pretend to know the house in which Homer lived or where he wrote
his deathless songs, the traveler who passes through the Hellespont
can see the plains of ill-fated Troy, and during his stay in Greece
his memory runs over the heroes of the Iliad and the Odyssey.
There are no physical evidences of the life work of Lycurgus and
Solon, yet the laws which they promulgated are the heritage of
mankind. Salamis remains, and if the naval battle which Themistocles
won had had no other effect than to furnish Pericles with a theme
for his great funeral orations, it would still have been worthy
of remembrance. The battlefield of Marathon which gave Miltiades
a place among the world's generals is also unchanged. It is about
twenty-five miles from Athens, and the story, told in marble, of
the Greek who carried the news of the victory to Athens and died
from exhaustion amid the shouts of his countrymen, has led to the
incorporation of a twenty-five mile race in the athletic games when
they are held at Athens. In 1896 the race was won by a Greek (much
to the satisfaction of the audience), who made the run from Marathon
to the city in two hours and forty-five minutes.
The pass at Thermopylæ is also to be seen, and the heroism of the
three hundred Spartans who, under the leadership of Leonidas,
offered up their lives there for their country, continues to be an
inspiration. They failed to stay the onward march of Xerxes, but
who can measure the value of their example?
Corinth, as of old, still guards the entrance to the Peloponnesus;
but notwithstanding the canal, which, at this point, connects the
Ægean Sea with the Gulf of Corinth, the city has only a small
population.
Corinth brings to memory the part Greece played in the spread of
Christianity. It was not enough that this country led the world in
statecraft and oratory, in poetry and history, in philosophy and
literature, in art and in athletics, she was also one of the first
mission fields of the apostles. It was to the Corinthians that Paul
wrote the Epistles in which love is given the first place among the
virtues, and it was Greece that gave her name to one of the great
branches of the Christian Church.
A democrat may be pardoned for cherishing a high regard for the land
that coined the word, democracy. The derivation of the word--from
_demos_, the people, and _kratein_, to rule--makes it an appropriate
one to describe a government based upon popular will. And as
governments more and more recognize the citizen as the sovereign,
and the people as the source of all political power, the world's
debt to Greece will be more and more fully appreciated. She not
only gave to language a word accurately expressing the idea of
self-government, but she proved by experience the wisdom of trusting
the people with the management of all public affairs.
[Illustration: FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON]
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE BYZANTINE CAPITAL.
It is impossible to convey to the reader any adequate idea of the
beauties of the Bosphorus at the point where Constantine located the
capital of the Byzantine empire. The best way to approach it is by
the sea, and as the traveler usually enters from the west, he sails
through the Dardanelles, known in ancient times as the Hellespont,
passes through the sea of Marmora and enters the Bosphorus between
Constantinople, on the one side, and Skutari on the other. The
Bosphorus itself is between fifteen and twenty miles long and very
deep. It is the connecting link between the Black Sea and the Sea of
Marmora and the hills that jut into it on either side are nearly all
covered with towns and villas. The water is as clear as the water of
a lake, and fish may be seen at a great distance below the surface.
A ride through the Bosphorus reminds one of a trip up the Hudson,
although the former has the advantage in the depth of the stream, in
the transparency of the water, in the height of the banks and in the
irregularity of the course. In fact, the channel contains so many
curves that one seems to be passing through a succession of lakes.[7]
[7] The traveler is sure to notice some little birds which resemble
swallows flying up and down the stream. They do not light but
skim along the water all day long. Their restless and seemingly
aimless flight has caused them to be called "the lost souls of the
Bosphorus."
A little more than half way between the Sea of Marmora and the Black
Sea, on the north bank, is Therapia, the summer capital, to which
the officials repair when the warm weather begins, and upon the
same bank, about half way between Constantinople and Therapia, is
Roberts College, an institution for boys, established and maintained
by American philanthropy. It occupies a promontory which overlooks
the Bosphorus at its narrowest point, the point at which Mohammed
II crossed over from Asia, when in 1453 he succeeded in capturing
Constantinople.
The Golden Horn is the name given to an arm of the Bosphorus which,
leaving that strait a few miles from the Sea of Marmora, stretches
northward five or six miles to receive a stream called the Sweet
Waters of Europe. It may have been that the Golden Horn at one time
rivaled the Bosphorus in beauty, but it does so no longer. Full of
ships and boats of every description, from war vessels to canoes,
and polluted by the sewage of two cities, it disappoints as much as
the Bosphorus delights.
The city of Constantinople is divided by the Golden Horn, Stamboul,
the Turkish city lying on the west, and Galata and Pera, the foreign
quarters, lying on the east. Skutari stretches along the Asiatic
side of the Bosphorus, and the navies and merchant vessels of all
the world could ride in safety in the waters adjacent to these three
cities.
[Illustration: ST. SOFIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE.]
In the seventh century, B. C., a small colony of Greeks under the
lead of Byzas settled at Cape Bosphorus, now the site of Stamboul,
and in the rise and fall of the dynasties of the east, it has
played an important part. Being on the boundary line between Asia
and Europe and guarding the water communication between the Black
Sea and the Mediterranean, it possesses strategic advantages which
statesmen and warriors have been quick to recognize. The Persians
always wanted it and several times captured it. The Greeks were
continually taking it and losing it; Phillip of Macedon laid siege
to it and in so doing furnished Demosthenes with a theme for some of
his greatest speeches. There is a tradition that Phillip would have
succeeded, in spite of the aid given by the Athenians, but for the
barking of dogs, which apprised the inhabitants of a night assault.
As the dogs were set to barking, not by the enemy, but by the moon
which rose just in time to save the city, the Byzantines adopted
the crescent as their emblem and it has continued to be the emblem
of Turkey, having been retained by the Turks after their victory.
Alexander the Great became master of the Bosphorus, and later
Byzantium fell into the hands of the Romans. After a checkered
career of two centuries it was taken by Constantine, who decided
to make it the capital of the Roman world, and his own name has
been given to it, although he intended to call it New Rome. No one
can doubt the political wisdom of the first Christian emperor in
putting the seat of government at this place. If Europe, Asia and
Africa are ever brought together under one government or under one
confederation, Constantinople will be the natural and necessary
capital. The shores of Africa, southern Europe and Asia Minor are
washed by the Mediterranean and by its gulfs and bays; the Black Sea
is the outlet of southern Russia and part of Asia Minor, and the new
railroad which is being built to connect Europe with the Euphrates
and India, crosses the Bosphorus here. When this road is finished,
it will be possible to go from London to India in about six days,
and one of the Turkish governors expressed the hope that it would be
completed within six or seven years.
Constantine built a magnificent cathedral, one of the greatest ever
constructed, it being his purpose to surpass any house of worship
that man had reared. It is in the form of a Greek cross and was
originally rich in mosaics, some of which still remain. The dome
is one of the largest in the world. This cathedral, called St.
Sophia, fell into the hands of the Mohammedans when Constantinople
was taken and is now used as a mosque. When hope of successful
resistance was gone, the Christians of Constantinople crowded into
the cathedral--some have estimated the number as high as a hundred
thousand, but that seems hardly possible--praying that the church
might at least be spared, but the leader of the Turks rode into the
building on his charger, and, striking one of the pillars with his
sword, exclaimed; "There is no God but Allah and Mohammed is his
prophet!" Then followed a slaughter so cruel and bloody that the
Christians never recall the day without indulging the hope that the
building may some day return to the possession of those who cherish
the faith of its founder.
Constantinople is full of mosques, their minarets rising above all
other buildings, but none of them possess for either Christian or
Moslem the importance that attaches to St. Sophia.
The modern mosques lack the stateliness of Constantine's building,
and are not so rich in their ornamentation as some of the mosques
of India. There is one, however, near the upper end of the Golden
Horn which is regarded by the Turks as especially sacred because it
is the burial place of the first Mohammedan (a standard bearer of
Mahomet) who attempted the capture of Constantinople. Each sultan
visits that mosque as he enters upon his reign, and Christians
are not permitted to use the street leading to the mosque. The
sultan visits St. Sophia once a year, but he is in such fear of
assassination that he usually has a street cleared for his passage
and then quietly goes by water to elude the crowd.
[Illustration: THE BOSPHORUS AT CONSTANTINOPLE]
The first settlement at Constantinople, or at Byzantine, as it
was originally called in honor of its founder, was made at what
is now known as Seraglio Point, an elevation which extends into
the Bosphorus between the Sea of Marmora and the Golden Horn. It
commands the best view of any place in the city. The historian,
Bancroft, visited this spot and was so impressed by the magnificence
of the panorama spread out before him that he stood gazing at it
for an hour. This was the site selected for the royal palace, and
the kings, emperors and sultans lived here until recent years,
but it is so exposed to the attack of any hostile fleet that the
sultan's palace has, as a matter of precaution, been removed to the
hills back of Galata, and Seraglio Point is now a sort of curiosity
shop. It is visited with difficulty, permission having to be
obtained from the sultan himself, upon application of the diplomatic
representative of the nation to which the visitor belongs. By the
courtesy of our legation we obtained a permit and found it full of
interest. One of the buildings contains a very old library, another
is a reproduction of a Persian summer house which, a former sultan
having admired, his chief eunuch had removed to Constantinople
without his master's knowledge.
The most important building on the Point, however, is the treasury
where the crown jewels, ornamented arms, royal gifts and the robes
of former sultans are kept. It would require more space than that
allotted to a dozen articles to describe even the more important
pieces of this collection. One room contains two thrones brought
from Persia, one of which must have rivaled the famous Peacock
Throne of Delhi. It is of unusual size and literally covered with
rubies, emeralds and pearls, arranged in graceful patterns. The
seat is of crimson velvet embroidered with gold and pearls. The
other throne, while smaller, is even more richly ornamented; it is
incrusted with larger jewels and has a canopy, from the center of
which is suspended an emerald of enormous size.
Along the walls of one room were exhibited the costumes of the
various sultans from Mohammed II to the present. Nowhere else have
we seen such evidences of Oriental splendor in dress. The robes of
state are flowered and figured and heavy with gold; the turbans are
huge--sometimes fifteen inches in height and breadth--and adorned
with aigrettes of great value. One of these ornaments contains
three stones, a ruby and two emeralds as large as pigeons' eggs and
without a flaw. With each robe is the sword or dagger carried by
the sultan and each has a jeweled handle. While the robes differ in
color and design--as star differeth from star in glory--and while
the aigrettes and sword handles vary in pattern, all are on the same
scale and show lavish expenditure. They are in striking contrast
with the last of the series, which is simply a red military uniform
covered with gold braid.
[Illustration: SMOKING THE HUBBLE-BUBBLE PIPE.]
The treasury contains numerous portraits of sultans and family
trees, presenting the heads of the present royal line. It seems that
nearly all of the Mohammedan rulers wore a full beard, and some of
them had strong faces.
Besides the swords of the sultans, there are in the treasury
innumerable other swords with jeweled handles, and with scabbards
inlaid with gold, silver and gems. There are guns also of every
description, many of them engraved and ornamented with gold and
silver. One fortification gun bears upon the barrel quotations from
the Koran written in gold.
Then there are jewel boxes, vessels of gold and vessels of
silver, rare china, some of it set with jewels, not to speak of
enameled ware and embroideries. Many of these pieces were gifts
sent or brought by other rulers, for in the Orient the gift is as
indispensable in dealing with the sovereign as "baksheesh" is in
dealing with the subordinate Turkish official.
When we had finished the inspection of Seraglio Point, we were
conducted to one of the reception rooms and refreshed with a jam
made of rose leaves, and this was followed by Turkish coffee.
Turkish coffee by the way, is very different from the coffee of the
Occident. The berry is ground or pounded until it is as fine as
flour; it is then put into water and raised to the boiling point and
cooled three times. It is usually served hot, and is very black and
so thick that at least half of the small cup is sediment.
The streets of Constantinople are narrow, crooked and dirty. There
is no park system, and the cemeteries scattered through the city,
being shaded with cypress trees, furnish about the only picnic
grounds for the people. It is not an unusual sight to see a gay
party spreading its lunch amid the tombs. A Mohammedan graveyard
is full of headstones as well as trees, and on top of the stone is
often carved a fez or a turban. While most of this stony head wear
is unadorned, one sees occasionally a painted fez, red being the
popular color.
There is one park, called the Sweet Waters of Europe, and extending
along the stream which bears that name, where the Turkish women
congregate--especially on Friday afternoon. As might be expected,
the men have formed the habit of driving in the park on these days
in order to catch a glimpse of the women, for Turkish women live in
such seclusion that they are seldom seen. They wear veils, but as we
visited the park, we can testify that the veils are not always heavy
enough to conceal the features. When the eye is especially lustrous
or the face more comely than usual, the veil is occasionally lifted.
The ride to and from the park also gives one an opportunity to see
a great many fine teams perfectly matched, for the Turk has caught
the Arab's fondness for the horse.
The bazaars of Constantinople repay a visit, though quite like the
bazaars of Cairo and Damascus. The booths are more substantially
built and more commodious, and the labyrinth of streets and alleys
which form the old bazaar are all under roof. As these passages
wander about aimlessly, one can easily become lost in them. While
one cannot rely upon the first price given, the vendors have a
reputation for honesty, and a lady told us of having had her
attention called to a mistake of five dollars in change and of
having the money returned to her when she next visited the bazaar.
[Illustration: ROBERTS COLLEGE, NEAR CONSTANTINOPLE.]
I mentioned the Oriental dog in speaking of Damascus; he forces
himself upon public attention in Constantinople also. The dogs of
this city act as scavengers and are relied upon to keep the streets
neat--a vain reliance, for while they devour everything that they
can digest, they are not sufficient for the task imposed upon them.
These dogs are wolfish in appearance and generally yellow in color.
Lacking the fidelity which the dog is accustomed to show to his
master, these animals roam about the street and haunt the places
where food is most likely to be found. The people of Constantinople
assert that the dogs maintain a police force of their own, and,
dividing the city into districts, enforce their own regulations. If
a strange dog comes into the district, he is at once driven out by
the canine sentinel on that beat.
The Golden Horn is spanned by two pontoon bridges (if the word
spanned can be used in connection with such a bridge) and the
one connecting the business portions of Stamboul and Galata is a
veritable mint, the income from the tolls amounting at times to two
thousand dollars per day. It is owned by the government, and bridge
companies have offered to replace it with a good bridge for the
income of two or three years, but it is so profitable that it is
allowed to remain in its present dilapidated condition.
One can stand on this bridge and see all phases of life and all
types of human beings. All nationalities meet in Constantinople and
all colors are represented here. Two streams pass each other on this
bridge from dawn to dark, and there is no better place to study the
tragedies and the comedies of life as they are depicted in the faces
of the people.
The haste that is to be seen on the bridge is in sharp contrast
with the air of leisure which pervades the coffee houses and the
side streets where fezzed or turbaned Turks meet to smoke their
hubble-bubble pipes (the smoke being drawn through water) and
discuss such topics as are not forbidden by the extremely watchful
government under which they live.
Before leaving Constantinople we crossed over to the Asiatic side to
visit the American school for girls, which has enjoyed a prosperous
existence for more than twenty years. It is another evidence of the
far-reaching sympathy of the Christian people of the United States
and adds to the feeling of pride with which an American citizen
contemplates the spreading influence of his country.
When we recrossed the Bosphorus we bade farewell to Asia, within
whose borders we had spent about seven months. They have been
wonderfully instructive months, and we have enjoyed the experiences
through which we have passed, but we can not say that we have
fallen in love with Asiatic food. We have been afraid of the raw
vegetables; we have distrusted the water, unless it was boiled, and
we have sometimes been skeptical about the meat. The butter has not
always looked inviting, and our fondness for cream has not been
increased by the sight of the goats driven from door to door and
milked in the presence of the purchaser. The bread was not a rival
for the Vienna brand, and the cooking has not been up to western
standards. But the hen--long life to her! She has been our constant
friend. When all else failed we could fall back upon the boiled egg
with a sense of security and a feeling of satisfaction. If I am not
henceforth a poultry fancier in the technical sense of the term,
I shall return with an increased respect for the common, everyday
barnyard fowl. There are many differences between the east and the
west--difference in race characteristics, differences in costume,
differences in ideals of life, of government and religion, but we
all meet at the breakfast table--the egg, like "a touch of nature,
makes the whole world kin."
[Illustration: AT THE WORLD'S BREAKFAST TABLE.]
CHAPTER XXXIV.
IN THE LAND OF THE TURK.
I was unable to crowd into the last article all of our experiences
in the land of the Turk, so I devoted it to Constantinople, leaving
to this paper the discussion of the sultan, his religion and his
government. Abdul Hamud Kahn II., is the present sultan of Turkey.
He is sixty-three years old and has occupied the throne for nearly
thirty years. His family has been supreme in Constantinople for
twenty-four generations--ever since the taking of the city by the
Mohammedans. He is not only an absolute monarch throughout the
domain of Turkey, but he is the spiritual head of the Moslem Church.
His power is really due more to his religious position than to
his sovereignty. He is credited with doing more for the spread of
education than his predecessors, but he can hardly be called an
enthusiastic patron of learning. He endeavors to maintain cordial
relations with European powers and is on especially good terms
with Emperor William. When he wants to show himself friendly to a
nation he appoints some representative of that nation to a place in
the army, navy or other department of the public service at a high
salary, and he gives decorations to such foreigners as he desires to
honor.
Every Friday about midday he goes to the mosque near the palace to
pray and the occasion is one of great interest to those who are
fortunate enough to obtain admission to the grounds, as his journey
from the palace to the church is a brilliant pageant. Tickets of
admission must be secured through the diplomatic representatives,
and we are under obligations to the American legation for an
opportunity to be present.
As early as eleven o'clock, bands, companies of infantry, troops
of cavalry and bodies of police could be seen marching toward the
mosque. From the right, over a hill, came the cavalry mounted on
white horses and carrying pennants of scarlet upon their spears;
from another direction marched the custodians of the sacred banner,
a flag of black silk with texts from the Koran embroidered upon it
in silver, then others and still others came. Before time for the
sultan to appear several thousand soldiers had assembled and been
assigned to their respective stations by officers in attractive
uniforms. Drawn up several lines deep, they guarded every entrance
to the sacred precincts.
It was a gorgeous spectacle, for the Turk is a fine looking soldier.
This may account for the tenderness with which the sultan is handled
by the "powers." And there is sufficient variety in the uniforms
to lend picturesqueness to the scene. The invited guests occupied
a large front room and an adjoining garden, from which they had a
clear view of the broad street, freshly sprinkled with sand, and of
the mosque about a block away. When all things were in readiness the
castle gates swung open and the ladies of the court, closely veiled
and accompanied by the children, proceeded to the mosque in closed
carriages drawn by beautiful Arabian horses. As usual in Oriental
countries, the members of the household were attended by black
eunuchs.
At the appointed hour a black robed figure appeared upon the minaret
and an echo-like call to prayer floated down the street. This was
the signal for which the spectators had waited and all eyes turned
at once to the palace gate through which, in double line, marched
the high officials, preceded by a band and followed by the sultan's
bodyguard and the sultan himself in a carriage with his minister of
war. The officers saluted, the soldiers cheered, the visitors raised
their hats, and the sultan bowed and smiled.
Hamud II. is mild in appearance and his black beard is but slightly
streaked with grey. He does not look strong and his figure seems
diminutive when contrasted with that of his minister of war. His
imperial majesty, as he is styled, remained in the mosque for nearly
half an hour. When he at last came out he entered a phaeton with his
eldest son and, taking the lines himself, drove back to the palace
behind one of the handsomest teams in Europe. The horses are a very
dark, almost black, dappled chestnut sorrel, with silver mane and
tail. They are perfectly matched, weigh thirteen or fourteen hundred
pounds and the shining coats give evidence of constant care.
We obtained permission to visit the sultan's stables and saw a few,
not all, of his more than a thousand horses. The finest, of course,
are the Arabian stallions, of which he has quite a number, the best
of the breed. In one room we saw a hundred or more saddles and
bridles, many of them richly ornamented. In the collection are two
Texas saddles presented by Minister Terrell when he represented our
government in Constantinople.
Before passing from the Selamlik, as the procession is called, it
may not be out of place to remind the reader that the ceremonies
were interrupted less than a year ago by the explosion of a bomb
close to the line of march. Near the mosque is a large gate which
the procession passes. Outside of this gate a guard is stationed,
but carriages are allowed to line up back of the guard. On that
occasion a new carriage made its appearance and secured a place as
near the gate as was permitted. This carriage, having been expressly
built for the purpose, had a large bomb concealed under the driver's
seat. The man in charge of the enterprise represented to the driver
that he wanted to take a photograph of the procession just as the
sultan passed, and instructed him to press the button at the proper
time. He did so and a number of those near the sultan were killed,
but the sultan himself escaped without injury. Greater precaution is
taken now than before, but the head of the church still makes his
weekly pilgrimage to the mosque, thus maintaining unbroken a record
covering nearly three decades.
[Illustration: SONS OF THE SULTAN.]
I hope I shall be pardoned for giving so much space to so military
and spectacular a performance, but it is a scene that can be
witnessed nowhere else and is the last reminder of the pomp and show
that formerly characterized all the empires of the east. It may
seem a little incongruous that so many swords and muskets should be
brought into requisition at a religious function, but it must be
remembered that Mohammedanism recognizes the sword as a legitimate
agency in the spread of its creed.
I have been tempted to refer to the tenets of Mohammedanism before,
for we began to meet the followers of the prophet as soon as we
entered Asia, but it seemed more appropriate to consider the subject
in connection with the high personage who combines the authority of
a temporal ruler with the dignity of Caliph.
The Koran is the book of the law and the Moslem is not permitted to
doubt its plenary inspiration. After Mahomet announced that he had
been selected as a messenger of the Lord and commissioned to preach
he began giving out what he declared to be revelations. They read
as commands to him to "speak" and to "say." His central idea was
the unity of God and his special mission the overthrow of idolatry.
He emphasized the resurrection of the body and the Koran is full of
promises to the faithful and as full of threats against the infidel.
In the Koran God is quoted as promising: "For those who are devout
are prepared with their Lord gardens through which rivers flow;
therein shall they continue forever; and they shall enjoy wives free
from impurity and the favor of God." For the infidel, which includes
all who do not accept the prophet, the following punishment is
threatened: "Verily, those who disbelieve our signs, we will surely
cast to be broiled in hell fire; so often as their skin shall be
well burned, we will give them other skins in exchange, that they
may taste the sharper punishment; for God is mighty and wise."
Through the Koran he not only credited God with the creation and
with a care for all the wants of man, but he also declared that
God deceived and misled some while He guided others aright. In
one revelation he makes God say: "They who accuse our signs of
falsehood, are deaf and dumb, walking in darkness; God will lead
into error whom He pleaseth, and whom He pleaseth He will put in the
right way."
He accepted the Old Testament and counted Christ among the prophets.
In one of the revelations, he declares that he is commanded to say:
"We believe in God and that which hath been sent down unto us, and
that which hath been sent down unto Abraham, and Ishmael and Isaac,
and Jacob, and the tribes, and that which was delivered unto Moses,
and Jesus, and that which was delivered unto the prophets from their
Lord; we make no distinction between any of them and to God we are
resigned." In the beginning of his ministry, his revelations were
friendly to the Jews, whom he at first attempted to conciliate,
but when they rejected him, he gave out other revelations which
treated the Jews with great severity. He started out to rely upon
reason and an appeal to conscience, and by persuasion he formed
the nucleus of his church, but as he grew stronger his revelations
became more warlike in tone and at last he committed the Almighty to
relentless warfare against the infidel. Here is the language which
he imputes to God: "O Prophet, wage war against the unbelievers and
the hypocrites, and be severe unto them, for their dwelling shall be
hell; an unhappy journey shall it be thither!" At another time, he
told his followers that they would be asked whether it was proper
to war in the sacred month and he instructed them to answer: "The
temptation to idolatry is more grievous than to kill in the sacred
months."
On many questions the advice which he gave through the Koran was
all that could be desired. He urged justice in dealings between
man and man and strict administration of trusts, care for the
orphan and widow and charity toward the poor. He condemned the use
of intoxicating liquor and gambling, saying: "They will ask thee
concerning wine and lots; answer, in both there is great sin, and
also some things of use unto men; but their sinfulness is greater
than their use." As to alms-giving the measure was to be, "what ye
have to spare."
While plurality of wives was allowed--and Mahomet exercised the
privilege to the limit, furnishing a new revelation when necessary
to justify a new marriage--the virtue of the women is scrupulously
guarded by the Moslem code. The women are not allowed to mingle
with men, and this is one of the weaknesses of Mohammedanism. In
Mohammedan society the influence of women counts for little and
as a result the followers of Islam are sluggards in intellectual
pursuits. In the Philippines the Mohammedans form the lowest stratum
of the population; in Java they are just awakening to the necessity
for education; in India they are behind the Hindu and still farther
behind the Parsee; in Egypt they bring up the rear as they do also
in Syria and Palestine. Only where they have come into contact with
Christian civilization have they been stimulated to the discussion
of schools and questions of government.
It must be admitted, however, that some of the customs of Europe and
America have tended to prejudice the followers of Mahomet against
western civilization. One who was in attendance at a banquet given
during the recent Morocco conference told me of the astonishment of
some of the Mohammedan representatives at what they saw. When the
ladies appeared in evening dress they, remembering the veiled ladies
of their own land, asked: "Do your women always dress this way?"
When wine was brought on, they asked: "Do all of your people drink
wine?" And when, after dinner, dancing began, they asked: "Do the
women dance with their own husbands only?" The answers to some of
these inquiries seemed to astonish them.
[Illustration: TURKISH OFFICIALS]
While Mohammedanism, as established by its founder, still holds the
allegiance of many scores of millions, influencing them for good in
many respects and for evil in some; while these orthodox followers
of the prophet kneel at stated hours each day and pray toward Mecca,
all of them, who have not done so, hoping to make the pilgrimage
commanded of them--while these are keeping the letter of the Koran
there is a reform at work which may yet leaven the whole lump.
Abbas Effendi, now a political prisoner at Akka, in Palestine,
is the head of the reform movement. He was born in Persia and is
carrying on the work to which his father and grandfather devoted
their lives. He discards force as a means of propagating truth, and
while he does not command monogamy, has set the example by having
but one wife. While Abbas Effendi's father preached moral suasion
his followers were charged with revolutionary designs and the family
was exiled. After remaining a time at Constantinople under the
surveillance of the sultan, the reform leaders were removed to Akka,
a seaport not far from Haifa. Here, surrounded by few followers,
the son holds such communication as he can with the rest of the
church in Persia, his doctrines having as yet taken but little root
among the Turks and Arabs. It is believed in Akka that he receives
financial aid from a number of wealthy Americans who have become
interested in his work.
We called upon Abbas Effendi as we were leaving Palestine and found
him an earnest old man with a careworn but kindly face. His hair
and beard are grey and he speaks with animation when his favorite
topic is under discussion. His doctrines are something like those of
Tolstoy, but he does not carry the doctrine of non-resistance so far
as does the Russian philosopher. How much he may be able to do in
the way of eliminating the objectionable features of Mohammedanism
no one can say, but it is a hopeful sign that there is among the
followers of Mahomet an organized effort to raise the plane of
discussion from brute force to an appeal to intelligence.
The government of the sultan is the worst on earth. It is more
despotic than the Russian government ever was and adds corruption
to despotism. The czar has convoked a duma, the dowager empress of
China has sent her commissioners abroad with a view to establishing
a constitution, and even the khedive of Egypt has a council, but the
sultan still rules by his arbitrary will, taking life or granting
favor according to his pleasure. He lives in constant fear of
assassination and yet he does not seem to have learned that his
own happiness, as well as justice to the people, demands that the
government shall rest upon the will of the governed.
While in the sultan's realm, we learned something of the cruelty
practiced by his officials--let us hope without his knowledge--for
while he is responsible for the conduct of his appointees he may not
know all the evil done in his name. Not long ago a young student was
arrested and imprisoned because a paper was found in his house which
contained Gladstone's statement that the sultan was an assassin.
It was only a scrap of paper and had been given him because the
other side contained an advertisement for a hair restorer and he,
in taking the paper to his house, did not know of the offensive
quotation. Another young man was kept in prison until he died
because a book was found in his possession containing a picture of
the sultan under which some one, unknown to him, had written the
word dog. A third man was arrested because in ordering an engine
he sent a telegram containing the words: "Seventy revolutions." In
his original order he neglected to state the number of revolutions
and sent the telegram in answer to an inquiry. A fourth man was
imprisoned because he received a telegram inquiring about a
burglary, the authorities mistaking the word "burglary" for the word
"Bulgaria," where the authorities were expecting an uprising. These
instances--and we heard of many more--are given simply to show that
the citizen of Turkey is in constant danger of imprisonment, however
innocent he may be of any intention to violate the law.
But it is in the realm of the censor that the most amusing cases
have occurred. The officials are destroying a great many books just
now in Turkey and are very careful about the introduction of new
ones. Recently the wife of a justice of the peace, frightened by the
confiscation of books in the houses of her neighbors, thought to
avoid all possible danger by burning her husband's library, but her
hope was vain for her husband was arrested as a dangerous character
on the ground that he must have had a library. As he was holding
a judicial position the fact that he no longer had books was a
sufficient ground for suspicion.
Religious publications are subjected to very strict censorship.
Sunday school lessons have been cut out because they quoted from
the Old Testament in regard to the killing of kings and the word
"Christian" is often added before sinners in order to make the
text exclude Mohammedans. A Sunday school lesson about Joash, the
Boy King, was objected to because the authorities did not think it
proper to suggest that a boy could be king. The above are actual
cases, but they have given rise to jokes that go a little farther.
For instance, they say that dynamos are not allowed in Turkey
because the name sounds like dynamite and that chemistries have been
excluded because the formula for water, "H{2}O," is suspected of
meaning, "Hamud II is a cypher."
I have had a little experience with a censor myself. At Beyrout, one
of the Turkish ports, a copy of the Koran and a copy of the Life of
Abbas Effendi were taken from me by the censor. I had no objection
to his holding them during my stay in the country, but when he
informed me that they would have to be sent to Constantinople I
demurred, and with the aid of our representative, Consul General
Bergholz, not only secured the books, but secured a promise that the
right of American citizens to carry books would not in the future be
interfered with at that port.
In conclusion, I desire to add that we ought to have an ambassador
instead of a minister at Constantinople. According to the custom
prevailing in the sultan's realm, a minister is not on equal footing
with ambassadors, and as other nations have ambassadors there
American interests suffer. We have eighteen cases now awaiting
adjustment. According to our law our appointment of an ambassador
to any country depends upon that country's willingness to send an
ambassador to us. This is a false basis. Our action should not
depend upon what other nations do, but upon our diplomatic needs,
and we need an ambassador at Constantinople whether Turkey needs
one at Washington or not. I understand that the question is already
being considered in congress, and from observation I am satisfied
that the time has come for the raising of our legation to the
dignity of an embassy, that American interests and the rights of
American citizens may have proper protection in Turkey, for nowhere
is there greater need for the introduction of American ideas.[8]
[8] Since the writing of this article an embassy has been
established at Constantinople.
CHAPTER XXXV.
HUNGARY AND HER NEIGHBORS.
Southeastern Europe is out of the line of travel and little known
to us, if I can measure the knowledge of others by my own. In
order to learn something of this section we came northwest from
Constantinople through Bulgaria, Servia and Hungary. We passed
through European Turkey in the night, and morning found us in
Bulgaria, where nothing but an occasional minaret remained to remind
us of the Orient. Strange that so great a difference exists between
two populations separated for centuries by nothing but an imaginary
line. No more the Turk with his wealth of leisure, his baggy
trousers and his gay headgear, but the sturdy peasant working in the
field with his unveiled wife or trudging along the road carrying
his produce to market; no more begging for baksheesh by lame and
halt and blind, but a busy, industrious throng, each laboring
apparently with a purpose and a hope. All day long we rode past
well cultivated fields and tidy villages. The Bulgarians, judged by
appearance, might be thought a mixture of German and Italian, but
they are really Slavic in their origin. I had the good fortune to
meet a former minister, a very intelligent man with a good command
of English, and learned from him that there is a strong democratic
sentiment in that country and that the people are making constant
progress in the matter of education and political intelligence.
He said that during his ministry he had introduced into Bulgaria the
American homestead law and that it had resulted in an increase in
the number of peasant proprietors. It was gratifying to know that
American example had been helpful to people so remote from us. He
also spoke of the establishment in his country of state insurance
against hail, that being one of the greatest perils the farmer has
to meet. He said that the system had worked well. The railroads and
telegraph lines are also owned by the state in Bulgaria and are
operated very successfully.
The capital, Sofia, is a prosperous looking city, viewed from the
railroad, and has an elevation of some fifteen hundred feet.
We crossed the Balkan mountains and the second morning reached
Belgrade, the capital of Servia. The city has a fine location on a
bluff at the junction of the Save with the Danube. A day's visit
here gave an opportunity to see something of the population, as it
was Sunday and the streets and parks were filled with well-dressed,
well-behaved and intelligent looking people. The Servians, who
are also Slavic in origin, are members of the Greek Church, and
at the principal church of this denomination there was that day a
large congregation and an impressive service. King Peter, it will
be remembered, is the present ruler, having been called to the
throne three years ago when his predecessor was assassinated. The
brutalities attending the murder of King Alexander and his wife were
widely discussed at the time, the bodies of the king and queen being
thrown from the window of the palace into the park. While the new
sovereign was recognized by most of the powers of Europe, England
refused to send a representative to his court because the king
retained some high officials who participated in the assassination.
As Servia has a parliament which controls the ministry, and as this
parliament was hostile to the former king, King Peter was powerless
to comply with the conditions imposed by England--at least this
was the explanation given to me. I heard next day at Budapest,
however, that some satisfactory settlement had been reached and
that England would soon be represented at Belgrade. King Peter is
not of humble ancestry, as I had supposed, but is a grandson of a
former king who was conspicuous in the war for independence. Peter
himself was in exile in Switzerland at the time of his elevation to
the throne, and having during his residence there imbibed something
of the spirit of constitutional liberty, is much more popular than
was his predecessor. There is quite a close connection between
Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria and European Turkey, and it will not be
surprising if the last remnant of Turkish territory in Europe is,
before many years, released from the sultan's rule and a federation
of Balkan states created. A majority of the sultan's European
subjects belong to different branches of the Christian Church, and
but for their quarrels among themselves they would long before
this have been able to imitate Servia and Bulgaria in emancipating
themselves.
The ride up the Danube valley from Belgrade to Budapest and from
Budapest to the Austrian boundary gives one a view of one of the
richest sections of Hungary. While the Danube hardly justifies
the poetic praise that has described its waters as blue, it is a
majestic stream, and its broad valley supports a large agricultural
population.
[Illustration: THE DANUBE AND PARLIAMENT BUILDING--BUDAPEST]
No American can visit Hungary without having his sympathies
enlisted in behalf of its people, for theirs is a fascinating
history. Their country is one of the most favored in Europe so far
as nature's blessings go. The Carpathian mountains which form a
wall around it on the north and east, shut out the cold winds and
by turning back the warmer winds from the south, give to Hungary a
more temperate climate than other European countries in the same
latitude, and in few countries has agriculture been more fostered by
the state.
[Illustration: A STREET IN BUDAPEST.]
The present minister of agriculture, Dr. Ignatius Daramyi, has
been at the head of this department for ten years, and being an
enthusiast on the subject, he has introduced many new features
and brought his department into close contact with the people.
During his administration the annual appropriations for agriculture
have increased from about eight million dollars to about thirteen
millions, and the income from his department has risen from six
million dollars to nine millions, leaving the net cost to the state
at present some four million dollars per year.
Hungary believes in furnishing technical training to those who
intend to farm; she had twenty-two industrial schools, with
about six hundred pupils, and these schools are so distributed
as to make them convenient for the small farmers. She has four
secondary schools of agriculture, with a total attendance of over
five hundred, and to complete her system she has an agricultural
academy with a student body of one hundred and fifty. In order to
accommodate adults who have not had the advantage of these schools,
she has short winter terms and traveling instructors. By systematic
effort the agricultural department is not only increasing the
efficiency of the Hungarian as a tiller of the soil, but it is
increasing his general intelligence and raising the standard of
citizenship.
The experiment station is also a prominent feature of the work of
the department of agriculture. All new agricultural implements
are tested and reports are furnished upon their merits; there are
several seed-testing stations where farmers can secure at cost
price, not only selected seeds, but seed shown by experiment to be
suited to the climate and soil of their locality. Then there are
a number of model farms located at convenient points, which are
intended to be object lessons to the neighborhoods in which they
are situated. At these model farms and at other centers breeding
establishments are conducted where horses, cattle, hogs and sheep
of the best breeds are kept and loaned to the farmers about. These
breeding farms have resulted in a marked improvement in the quality
and value of the stock.
Nor does the agricultural department confine its attention to
stock raising and ordinary farming; it is equally interested in
horticulture, vine dressing, forestry, and even bee culture.
Government nurseries furnish the hardiest varieties of young trees
and vines and train those who desire to give special attention to
these branches of industry. Instruction in the pruning of trees
and the training of vines has an artistic as well as a utilitarian
side, and taste is developed in the ornamentation of the arbors and
gardens. Here, as elsewhere in Europe, much attention is given to
forestry, and under the direction of the department of agriculture
the work of preserving the old forests and of planting new groves is
being intelligently and systematically done.
In addition to the work above outlined, the agricultural department
has taken in hand the matter of furnishing general information
to the farmers and farm laborers. It encourages the formation of
workingmen's clubs, co-operative societies and parochial relief
funds. It has established more than one thousand free libraries and
publishes a weekly paper with a circulation of about sixty thousand.
More than half of the copies are published in the Hungarian
language, the rest being divided between five other languages,
the Slavic coming next to the Hungarian and the German following,
although less than ten per cent are printed in the latter language.
To strengthen the ties between employers and employés, harvest
feasts have been inaugurated and the attendance at these feasts is
yearly increasing.
I have gone into detail somewhat in describing the scope of the
work undertaken by the agricultural department of Hungary because
I think that we might, with advantage, adopt some of its features.
Our national appropriation for agricultural purposes bears a small
proportion, not only to the amount of taxes paid by the farmer, but
to the appropriations made for other departments.
Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is one of the most attractive
cities in Europe. In 1896 I received a cablegram of congratulation
from a farmers' congress which was at that time in session in that
city. I remembered this because it was the only cablegram received
from any body of Europeans during the campaign.
Originally there were two cities, Buda on the south bank and
Pesth on the north bank, but they were united under one municipal
government some years ago, the names of the old towns being
preserved in the new. The foothills of the Alps extend to the very
bank of the Danube and furnish magnificent sites for villas, forts,
public buildings and the royal palace, while on the opposite bank
there is a broad plain, which affords ample room for the rapidly
extending limits of the commercial and manufacturing sections of
the city. Several bridges connect Buda and Pesth so that the river,
while a great thoroughfare, no longer divides the business and the
official sections. The streets of Budapest are wide, well paved,
clean and lined with buildings quite uniform in height, one of the
avenues rivaling the Champs-Elysees in Paris and Unter den Linden
in Berlin; the parks are large and near the city; the business
blocks are imposing and the public buildings models in design and
construction. The parliament building, only recently completed, is
one of the handsomest in the world.
The Hungarian people are distinct in language and history from all
their neighbors. In fact, the Hungarians differ in many respects
from all the other people of Europe, the inhabitants of Finland
being their nearest kinspeople. Their early history is unknown,
but they came from western Asia where the Mongolians, the Turks
and the Finn-Ugrians struggled for mastery about the beginning of
the Christian era. They were first known as Huns and claim Attila
as one of their race. They have more often, however, used the
word Magyars to describe their people, that name being a popular
one at present. Their occupation of the present territory dates
from about the ninth century, since which time they have figured
prominently in the history of Europe. About the beginning of the
eleventh century Hungary, under the leadership of King Stephen
(later known as St. Stephen) became a Christian nation, and since
that time she has been conspicuous in all the religious wars of
Europe. In the fifteenth century she furnished the leader of the
Christian army in the person of John Hunyadi, one of the greatest
military geniuses of that period. His prominence in war brought his
son Matthias to the throne of Hungary, a king who, when warned of a
plot against his life, exclaimed: "Let no king, ruling justly and
lawfully, fear the poison and assassin's dagger of his subjects."
[Illustration: BUDAPEST]
As early as the thirteenth century, Hungary began to inaugurate
political reforms, and in 1222 her nobility ended a struggle of a
hundred years by securing a concession which is regarded by her
people as equal in importance to England's Magna Charta of 1215. It
was in the form of a royal letter, issued by Andrew II. and called
the Golden Bull, owing to the fact that the seal attached to it by a
silk string rests in a box of gold. This document contained certain
promises to the nobles and admitted the binding force of certain
restrictions upon the king. The Golden Bull was the beginning of
constitutional government in Hungary, and while it has not always
been strictly observed by her rulers, it has served as a basis for
subsequent negotiations. For several centuries they elected their
kings.
During the nearly seven hundred years which have elapsed since 1222
Hungary has had a checkered career. Rival aspirants for the throne
have fought over the succession and been aided in their ambition
by neighboring nations; kings and nobles have fought over their
respective authority; the nobility and the peasants have fought over
their rights; different branches of the Christian Church have been
at war with each other, for Hungary has been the eastern outpost
of Protestantism as well as a champion of Christianity; and more
recently Hungary has been fighting for her political independence.
Hers has been a long drawn-out struggle in which her people, time
and again, have almost been exterminated, but she emerges from it
all a strong, vigorous and militant nation. She is now a part of the
Austro-Hungarian empire, and her people form the largest homogeneous
group in the empire: When we consider the numerous wars between
Austria and Hungary, the difference in race, history and language,
and the dissimilarity in political training, it is not strange that
there should be lack of harmony between the empire as a whole and
its largest single member.
When Hungary turned to Austria for help against the Turks and came
under the Hapsburg line, she insisted upon a recognition of her
national rights and secured a promise that her people should have
control of their own affairs. While this alliance did not save her
from the Mohammedans, it united her destiny to that of Austria, but
she has never surrendered her independence. The crown of Hungary
has always been distinct from that of Austria, and the emperor of
Austro-Hungary must visit Budapest and receive with the crown of St.
Stephen the title of king of Hungary. Joseph II., son of the beloved
Maria Theresa, was the first king to refuse to receive the crown and
swear fidelity to the Hungarian constitution, and the Hungarians
would never call him their "crowned king" until, on his deathbed, he
retracted his arbitrary measures and permitted the restoration of
the constitution.
[Illustration: PRIME MINISTER WEKERLE--HUNGARY.]
In her struggle for liberty Hungary has developed many patriots,
among whom Louis Kossuth is the best known. He and Francis Deak
were the leaders of the revolution of 1848 which resulted in the
constitution of that year. The constitution of 1867 was not quite so
liberal, and these two constitutions form the basis of the present
political division in Hungary; all Hungarians are jealous of the
rights of their nation but the majority of the members of parliament
insist upon the recognition of the constitution of 1848.
The elder Kossuth lived in exile after the revolution of 1867 and
was during his exile enthusiastically received in the United States
by congress and by the people in general. Kossuth's son is now a
member of the coalition ministry, and at a banquet to which I had
the good fortune to be invited, spoke feelingly of the treatment
which his father received in the United States and of the high
regard felt by Hungarians for America and Americans. Count Apponyi,
the foremost orator of Hungary, also paid his respects to the United
States and likened our country to the forwarding station in wireless
telegraphy, saying that the political current was so strong in our
country that its messages were carried to all the world.
[Illustration: COUNT APPONYI]
I happened to be in Budapest at the opening of parliament and heard
the speech of the new premier, Dr. Wekerle. The independence party
has a large majority in the parliament, having shown increasing
strength at each successive election. The emperor, Francis Joseph,
is resisting one of the demands made by the Hungarians, viz., that
the army shall use the Hungarian language instead of the German
language. Some years ago the fight was made and won for the use of
the Hungarian language in schools, in the courts and in parliament,
and the Hungarians feel that their nationality is endangered by the
fact that their army is taught only the German words of command. The
emperor takes the position that the use of the Hungarian language
would destroy the unity of the imperial army. To prevent a rupture
he proposed the formation of a coalition cabinet, to hold until
the suffrage could be extended and the question again submitted
to the people. There is no doubt that the people are practically
unanimous in favor of their own language and that an extension
of the suffrage will not change the complexion of parliament. The
relations between the emperor and Hungary have become very much
strained, and the aversion to the German language is so pronounced
that Hungarians who can speak the German language will often refuse
to answer a question addressed to them in German. For Francis Joseph
himself the Hungarians have a strong affection, and they would be
glad to contribute to the happiness of his closing days, but they
feel that the interests of their nation are vitally concerned and
they are anxious to have the point at issue settled before a new
sovereign ascends the throne. If the emperor were left to himself,
he would probably conclude that a Hungarian fighting force, attached
to the empire and grateful for consideration shown their country,
would form a more effective part of a joint army, even though the
Hungarians spoke their own language, than troops compelled to learn
a language hateful to them. History furnishes many examples of
successful armies made of corps, divisions and regiments speaking
different languages, but less numerous are the instances of nations
successfully held together by force when one part of the empire was
made subservient to the interests of another part. Hungary is being
alienated by insistence upon requirements which do not in reality
strengthen the empire, while she might be drawn closer to the throne
by a more liberal policy. The end is not yet.
[Illustration: MINISTER KOSSUTH.]
CHAPTER XXXVI.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Reference has already been made to the attitude of Hungary, in the
article on Hungary and Her Neighbors, toward Austria, and what is
true of Hungary is to a less extent true of Bohemia and the Polish
section of the empire. In fact, Austria-Hungary is held together by
a rope of sand, and there is no telling when that rope may break. It
required the aid of Russia to hold Hungary within the empire a half
century ago, and now that Russia is no longer in position to bolster
up the Hapsburg house, the outlook is not bright for the family of
Francis Joseph, unless the friendship of Emperor William takes the
form of armed assistance. I mention this because the anti-Austrian
feeling in Hungary, the anti-Hungarian feeling in Austria, the
aversion to the German language in Bohemia, and the demands of
the Polish subjects, not to speak of disaffection elsewhere, all
point to trouble ahead for the ruler of Austria-Hungary. I visited
Bohemia with a view to gathering information on the situation
and was surprised to find the hostility between the German and
Bohemian elements. A half century ago the German language was spoken
everywhere in Bohemia, but to-day the Germans and Bohemians have
separate schools and, except where business interest compels it
neither learns the language of the other. So strong is the feeling
that a Bohemian, desiring to master the German language, would,
if financially able, study it outside of Bohemia in preference to
attending a German school in his own country.
It is a great misfortune to the people of Hungary and Bohemia, as
well as to the imperial government, that this hostility to the
German language has become so bitter, for the German is one of the
great languages of the earth, being the spoken tongue of more than
fifty millions and containing in printed form most of the literary
treasures of the world. The German libraries are rich in treatises
on science and art, history and philosophy, government and religion,
and these should be within reach of the people of Hungary and
Bohemia. Whatever may be the merits of the Magyar and the Czech
languages, they are spoken by so few, comparatively, that they can
not possibly furnish so large a store of learning as the German
language contains.
The Austrian government, however, has itself to blame for the
estrangement; for, instead of attempting to win the affections of
the alien people made subject to it, it attempted to coerce them,
with the usual result. Resentment toward the rulers soon turned into
resentment toward the language, and it became patriotic to abhor a
tongue which it would have been advantageous to cultivate. Human
nature is the same everywhere, but kings seem to be as ignorant of
it as they are of the lessons of history.
The Austria-Hungary empire can not exist long under its present
regime; if it is to continue, the bond of union must be a
substantial one and no bond of union is substantial that does not
knit itself about the hearts of both parties to the union. There are
certain advantages to be derived from the association of several
small states together, but these advantages can not be weighed
against fundamental rights or against a strong national sentiment.
Cold, calculating statesmen sometimes underestimate the influence
of sentiment, but they usually discover their error, sometimes
too late, if they attempt to trample upon it. Austria-Hungary
as a federation of states, each absolutely independent in its
internal affairs, would be strong, but Austria-Hungary, composed
of dissatisfied groups, all yielding unwillingly to an arrogant
Austrian influence, is pitiably weak.
The tie which holds Canada, Australia and New Zealand to England
is infinitely stronger than that which binds Hungary and Bohemia
to the Austria-Hungarian throne. And why? Not because they use the
same language, for the American colonies wrote the Declaration of
Independence in the same tongue that George III. employed. Canada,
Australia and New Zealand are loyal to England because England
allows them to do as they please. If a British parliament acted
toward these colonies as the imperial government acts toward Hungary
and Bohemia, even a common language and a common history could not
prevent a separation. "There is a scattering that increaseth," says
Solomon, "and a withholding of more than is meet, but it tendeth
to penury." The proverb can be applied to governments, and Francis
Joseph might consider it with profit.
It must be remembered that Bohemia is no insignificant part of
the empire. It has an area of twenty thousand square miles and a
population of more than six millions, and is rich in minerals and in
manufactures. It is noted for glass works, Bohemian glass having a
world-wide reputation. It has important textile industries also, and
its agriculture has been carried to a high state of perfection. It
has played a conspicuous part in the history of central Europe, is
rich in heroes and possesses a strong national spirit.
Prague, its capital city, has long been an educational center and
is still the seat of its intellectual as well as its political
life. There is a very complete industrial school at the capital,
which contributes in no small degree to the country's prominence in
manufacturing. Just now Bohemia is the Mecca for violinists, America
contributing her quota of students.
John Huss's church is still one of Prague's landmarks, although the
Catholic Church has regained its supremacy. The Hradschin and the
public buildings surrounding the Hradschiner Platz are of historic
interest, as is also the old Jewish burying ground.
Our American consul at Prague, Mr. Ledoux, has inaugurated a very
praiseworthy index system for the collection and preservation of
information of value to importers and exporters. He has converted
one room of the consular office into a reading room where American
trade papers are kept for the business public and where a list of
American exporters with a description of their wares may be examined
by those desiring to purchase. It is an application of the public
library system to trade and struck me as likely to be of value in
increasing our sales.
Carlsbad is only a few hours ride from Prague, and I took advantage
of that fact to visit it. It is built along the narrow and winding
valley of the Tepl and is nearly twelve hundred feet above the
sea. It has been a health resort for some six or seven centuries
and is now visited yearly by more than fifty thousand invalids.
The water is hot, and the numerous springs seem to come from a
common reservoir. The principal spring, called the Sprudel, has
a temperature of one hundred and sixty-four degrees and contains
sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda and common salt. The solid
substances deposited by the water soon form into a very hard rock
which takes a polish like marble. These deposits gather so rapidly
that all pipes leading from the springs, and the springs themselves,
must be frequently cleaned or they would soon be choked up.
Liver complaint is the disease which brings most visitors to
Carlsbad, and I was surprised to find that, instead of being a
fashionable resort, a majority of the patrons are of the middle
classes. It is a city of boarding houses and small hotels with a
few larger establishments. By eleven o'clock P. M., the streets are
deserted and the town asleep, probably because the early morning
is the time for drinking the water. I rose at five and with our
vice consul at Prague, Mr. Weissburger, as my guide, hurried to
the springs; the invalids were even then beginning to come forth,
each with his mug, and soon there was a swarm of them. The city has
erected large pavilions at several of the springs, and at two of
these bands play between six and eight. By 6:30 the streets were
crowded and the pavilions jammed. The numerous attendants were kept
busy filling the mugs (which are put into long handled holders) from
the gushing fountains. At the time of the Lisbon earthquake the
largest spring is said to have ceased its flow for three days.
[Illustration: CARLSBAD]
Riding through Bohemia at this time of the year, one sees a great
deal of fine farming land, the only unpleasant feature being the
number of women at work in the fields and along the roads. The more
one sees of the world, the more he can appreciate the remark of
the witty Frenchman, Max O'Rell, who, in his lecture on "Her Royal
Highness, Woman," declares that if he were going to be born one of
that sex, he would pray to be born in America. Woman's position in
our country is not only vastly superior to her position in Asia,
but very much better than the position of the average woman in
continental Europe.
Vienna is not only the capital of the Austria-Hungarian empire, but
is one of the greatest cities of Europe. It is worth visiting for
its architecture alone, its public buildings combining massiveness
and grace. It is also rich in monuments and statuary and well
supplied with drives, parks and places of amusement. The boulevards
are lined with restaurants, each with a large yard filled with
tables and chairs, the refreshments being served in the open air
during the summer months. These places are thronged in the evening
and on Sunday afternoon, families often bringing their lunch baskets
and buying their coffee or beer at the restaurant.
The coffee houses, as they are found in Vienna, deserve mention.
These are scattered all over the city and are very popular.
Newspapers are usually kept on file and the customers read the
events of the day while they sip their coffee or beer.
Vienna is a musical center, and its theaters are not surpassed
anywhere. We attended a production of Faust there, a French opera
built upon Goethe's great drama, and found the theater constructed
with a special view to the accommodation of a large orchestra. Nor
is it strange that music should be so distinguishing a feature of
Viennese life when it is remembered that it was the home of Strauss,
of Haydn, of Mozart, of Shubert and of Beethoven, not to speak of a
number of lesser lights.
Vienna is also famous for its educational institutions. Its
university has an honorable record of more than five centuries, and
its medical college is attended by students from every land.
Vienna is also an example in the matter of municipal ownership,
it having gone beyond all the other cities on the continent in the
taking over of what are known as the natural monopolies. It finds
it not only possible to own and operate its water works, lighting
plants and tramways, but it finds it profitable to do so; the
profits which, under private ownership, go to the stockholders,
accruing in Vienna to the whole people. So successful is municipal
ownership in practice that opposition to the principle has been
silenced. Those who, in the United States, are struggling in spite
of the influence of organized wealth, exerted through subsidized
newspapers, corrupted councils and sometimes even through a biased
judiciary, to restore the streets of our cities to the public, can
find encouragement in Vienna's experience. The conflict can have but
one end, namely, triumph for municipal ownership. "Sorrow may endure
for a night, but joy cometh in the morning."
Austria-Hungary has a well developed system of forestry; I noticed
this on a former visit and made inquiries about it this time.
There is a law compelling the planting of a tree whenever one is
cut down, and not content with maintaining the present number,
the denuded hills are being replanted. It seems difficult to turn
public attention to any subject until some abuse has made action
imperative, but the sooner our country awakes to the danger involved
in the destruction of our timber, the less we shall be compelled to
suffer for the enormous waste committed in our forests.
I have been intending for some time to speak of the matter of
permanent buildings for our embassies, and Vienna is a case in
point. Our ambassador at Vienna, Mr. Francis, has had difficulty in
finding a suitable place for the embassy. I discussed the subject
during my former visit abroad, and my observations on this trip have
still further strengthened the opinion that our country owes it to
itself, as well as its representatives, to purchase or erect at each
of the foreign capitals a permanent embassy building. At present
each new ambassador or minister must begin his official career
with a house-hunting expedition, and the local landlords, knowing
this, are quick to take advantage of the situation. At one place
an American ambassador was recently asked to pay double what his
predecessor had paid, and as he was not willing to do this, he is
still living at a hotel. There are not many suitable buildings from
which to select, and our representative is at the mercy of those who
control the limited supply. Diplomatic requirements are such that
the embassy must be centrally located and sufficiently commodious
to enable the ambassador or minister to return the courtesies which
he receives. Small apartments are numerous, and there are a few
palaces which can be rented, but the former are not large enough
and the latter much larger than necessary. Our government ought to
own a building conveniently located and suitable for the offices and
home of the ambassador. It must either do this or choose between two
systems, both of which are bad, viz., compel the representative to
spend more than his salary for house rent, or continually increase
the salary of diplomatic representatives to keep pace with the
growing rent in the capitals of the world. To throw the burden
upon the government's representative is undemocratic; to risk
constantly increasing rent is false economy. It is not in harmony
with our theory of government to have an important branch of the
public service open to rich men only, and that is the case under the
present system. No poor man can afford to accept an appointment as
an American minister or ambassador to any of the principal countries
of Europe, and as the years go by, the expense of a diplomatic
residence will become greater as the value of urban property
increases. While the telegraph and the cable have considerably
decreased the responsibility of the foreign representative, by
bringing him into closer contact with the home government, still
much depends upon the ability, the sagacity and the discretion of
those whom we send abroad. Our government ought to be in a position
to select from the whole citizen body those most competent for
the work to be entrusted to them, and it goes without saying that
efficiency in the public service is not measured by the amount of
money which an official has either inherited or accumulated.
There is another argument in favor of the building of permanent
embassy buildings which ought to have weight with our people. If
diplomatic representatives are chosen only from those who are able
to spend more than their official incomes, it naturally follows
that some will be richer than others and that the establishments
maintained will differ in expensiveness. In fact, experience has
shown that a new representative is sometimes embarrassed by the
lavish expenditures of a preceding one. The standing of our nation
abroad demands that our ambassadors and ministers shall live in a
style in keeping with our ideas, and extravagance is as offensive
as parsimony. By owning its own embassy buildings our government
can regulate the standard of living and entertainment of those who
represent it at foreign courts. There is no doubt that our nation
must ultimately come to this plan, and the sooner it adopts it, the
better.[9]
[9] Since the writing of the above congress has appropriated a sum
for the purchase of embassy buildings, and a beginning has been made
by the purchase of a building in Constantinople.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
THE DUMA.
There is at least one man in Russia who has reason to feel that
his political judgment has been vindicated and his predictions
verified by the assembling of the duma. It is Count Ignatieff,
who, at the age of twenty-eight, framed the Pekin treaty and who,
as minister of the interior (the highest cabinet position at that
time), in 1881 formulated a plan for a national assembly. His scheme
was to have three thousand representatives elected by the people,
these representatives, gathered from all parts of the empire, to
meet at Moscow and confer with the emperor in person in regard to
legislative measures. In order to avoid the objections raised to so
large an assembly, he proposed to divide the body into groups of
one hundred each, these groups to meet separately. He secured the
approval of the emperor, but the other members of the cabinet were
so strenuous in their opposition that the emperor decided not to
attempt the reform and Count Ignatieff resigned from the ministry.
He warned his associates that a failure to recognize the demands
of the people for representation in the government would simply
delay the change and that it was better to yield before the demands
became more radical, but the members of the bureaucracy, deaf to the
appeals of the people and blind to their own interests, resisted,
and as a result a duma is now in session at St. Petersburg, the
bureaucracy finds itself an object of contempt and loathing, and the
present emperor, like his predecessor, has to bear the sins of his
advisers.
I called upon Count Ignatieff and found him still vigorous in spite
of his grey hairs and advancing years. I was interested in him
not only because he is friendly toward our country and speaks our
language fluently, but more especially because he was a pioneer in
a great movement and foresaw what many of the nobility even now
fail to recognize, viz., that there is no place where arbitrary
power can justify its existence. The tide of progress has swept past
the Count, and he is now classed among the conservatives, but he
deserves to be remembered because he had the courage to speak out
when it required bravery to propose the taking of a step in the
direction of popular government.
[Illustration: COUNT IGNATIEFF.]
The duma is the result of the labors of hundreds, yes, thousands
of Russian reformers, a few conspicuous, but the most of them
unknown to fame, who for more than seventy-five years have been
insisting upon constitutional government. It is one of the most
remarkable bodies of men ever convened in a national capital, and I
have been abundantly repaid for coming here. The duma must be seen
to be appreciated; even more, to understand it one must not only
see the members, but must know something of the struggle through
which they have passed. I am satisfied that the czar himself is
more liberal than his advisers and that, left to himself, he would
long ago have made concessions which would have brought the throne
and the subjects nearer together, but he has yielded so slowly
and given so grudgingly that the people have become very much
estranged. To illustrate this I need only cite the facts, first
as to the election. St. Petersburg and Moscow are the political
centers where the officials and the nobility have the strongest
representation, and yet in the elections the constitutional
democrats won an overwhelming victory in both these cities. In St.
Petersburg the ticket which represented the emperor received only
two thousand votes out of a total vote of sixty thousand, and in
his home precinct, where three hundred voters were sent to the
polls in court carriages, his ticket received only eighty votes!
Could anything more clearly prove the frail hold of the government
upon the people? And it must be remembered that they do not have
universal suffrage in the cities, but a property qualification which
excludes the poorest of the people, the very ones who have most
reason to desire popular government.
The second proof of the feeling against the government is to be
found in the unanimity with which the duma opposes the position
taken by the government's minister. While the members of the duma
are divided among themselves on many questions, they act as one man
in their opposition to the government's policy, insofar as that
policy has been outlined. In fact, the tension has been so great
that I was afraid the body might be dissolved by imperial order
before we could reach St. Petersburg.
[Illustration: THE PALACE WHERE THE RUSSIAN DUMA MEETS.]
The sessions of the duma are held in a palace built by Catherine
the Great for one of her favorites, General Potemkin. It is a
commodious building and has been remodeled to meet present needs.
The largest room, extending the entire width of the building, was
once the ballroom and some notable entertainments have been given
in it--entertainments calling for a lavish expenditure and attended
only by the nobility; now the room serves as a lobby, and peasant
representatives, wearing the usual blouse and top boots, stride
through it as they go to and from the sessions. In another part of
the building there are ample dining rooms where the members of the
duma and the press may secure meals at very moderate rates. The
assembly hall is large enough to accommodate the four hundred and
fifty members, but is badly lighted. The windows are all back of the
speaker's platform, so that the members sit with their faces towards
the light. It would be much better if the light came from above, but
it is really surprising that the accommodations are as satisfactory
as they are, considering the short time the workmen had to make the
necessary changes.
Back of the president is a life-sized painting of the czar in
uniform; on the left is a box occupied by the ministers when
present, and beyond the ministers is a still larger enclosure
occupied by the representatives of the foreign press. To the right
of the president are seats for members of the council of empire who
may be in attendance, and beyond them the enclosure occupied by
representatives of the Russian press. Just in front and a little
below the president's desk is the rostrum from which the members of
the duma address the assembly, and just below this rostrum is the
reporters' table where the stenographers take down the proceedings.
Besides the rooms already mentioned there are committee rooms,
cloak rooms, rooms for the home press and for the foreign press,
etc., etc. In a word, the duma building looks very much like an
American legislative hall or a European parliament building--a
likeness still further emphasized by the presence of men and women
clerks, doorkeepers, pages and spectators. One thing only was out
of harmony with a legislative body, and that was a company of
soldiers stationed in a wing of the building as if in anticipation
of possible trouble. We were present at two sessions of the duma and
found them intensely interesting. The morning session is at present
given up to speeches on the land question, more than a third of
the members having expressed a desire to be heard on this subject.
The speeches are usually short and often read from manuscript.
Hand-clapping is allowed, and there was always applause at the close
of the speeches. Occasionally the president announced that some
speaker on the list surrendered his time and this statement also
brought forth applause, the discussion of the subject having by this
time become tiresome.
By the courtesy of our ambassador, Mr. Meyer, we were admitted to
the diplomatic gallery, from which we could survey the entire body.
There is probably no assembly like it on either hemisphere. It is
made up of all classes and represents every shade of opinion. There
are members of the nobility who have cast in their lot with the
people, lawyers who have temporarily left their practice to devote
themselves to the larger interests of the public, professors fresh
from the universities, business men from the cities, laboring men
from the factories, and there are, most numerous still, peasants
from the farms. Some of the members are near the end of life and
command attention by their years as well as by their words, and
there is a sprinkling of young men who have become the spokesmen of
their communities, but the majority are middle-aged men who have
years of experience behind them, and are yet strong for the battle.
In garb there is also great variety, the black frock coat, the
business suit, the belted blouse, and the clerical robe are all to
be seen. The smooth face seems to be at a discount in Russia; one
would suppose, so plentiful are whiskers, that the barbers were on a
strike. There are many heavy heads of hair, too, sometimes the locks
falling to the shoulders, sometimes cut square about the ears.
[Illustration: PROFESSOR SERGE MURMETZEFF.]
The lobby is a better place than the gallery to study features;
sitting on one of the visitors' seats in this commodious hall we
watched the members passing to and fro and were introduced to a
number of them by the American newspaper men who are reporting the
proceedings for the press of our country. There are also a number
of Americans here studying the Russian situation as a preparation
for university work at home, a son of the late Dr. Harper of Chicago
being one of these. I shall send with this article a number of
photographs of the more prominent members, but I regret that I
cannot bring before my readers some of the faces that we observed
in the lobby, faces which seemed to present an epitome of Russian
history--strong, firm, unyielding faces which plainly tell of the
stern resolve that lies behind the peasant movement. They may
protest, like Mark Antony, that they have neither "wit nor words
nor worth, action, nor utterance nor the power of speech to stir
men's blood," but they can "put a tongue in every wound" of their
countrymen that will almost "move the stones to rise and mutiny."
[Illustration: EDITOR PAUL I. MILIUKOFF.]
This is the first duma, and it has not proceeded far enough to
fully develop the permanent leaders, but, if I may use the simile,
as the basket of pebbles is shaken by debate, the large ones are
gradually rising to the top. The president of the duma is Prof.
Serge Murmetseff, of Moscow, whose learning and judicial temperament
combined to make him the choice of the several parties, no one of
which can claim a majority. The constitutional democrats have the
largest membership and are the best organized. They also have the
advantage of occupying the middle ground between the radicals and
the conservatives. Having about one hundred and fifty members on
their rolls and some thirty more acting with them, they can count
upon enough votes from the more conservative elements to defeat the
extreme radicals, and they can rely upon enough radical votes to
carry out their program. The floor leader of this party is Vladimir
D. Nabokoff, of St. Petersburg, a member of a prominent family and
himself until recently an instructor in the national law school.
He is about thirty-eight years of age, intelligent and alert, and
has the confidence of his party. The orator of the constitutional
democrats is Theodore I. Rodicheff, a scholarly looking man of
fifty. He is polished in manner and persuasive in speech. One of
the most influential of the constitutional democrats is Mr. Maxim
Winawer, a Jewish lawyer of the capital. He is sometimes described
as the "brains" of the party and is credited with drafting the
duma's reply to the address from the throne. He is one of the ablest
civil lawyers in the empire and his election from St. Petersburg,
where there are but three thousand Jewish voters, out of a total
vote of sixty thousand, and his elevation to the vice-presidency of
the national organization of his party, would seem to answer the
charge that there is widespread hostility to the Jews among the
people.
Nabokoff, Rodicheff and Winawer are members of the duma and are,
therefore, prominently before the public at this time, but in
popularity they have a rival in the person of Paul I. Miliukoff,
editor of the "Retch." (The government would probably put a "W"
before the "R" and give the word its English meaning, but in Russian
the word Retch means speech.) Mr. Miliukoff, it will be remembered,
was one of the candidates of his party in St. Petersburg, but the
government compelled the substitution of another name because he
was awaiting trial for an alleged violation of the press laws. He
was acquitted soon afterward and is one of the moving spirits in
the present parliamentary struggle. He speaks excellent English and
has lectured in the United States. No one need despair of reform in
Russia while such a man as Miliukoff devotes his great ability to
journalism.
Next to the constitutional democrats, the members of the "group of
toil" form the largest party. There are about a hundred of these,
and Alexis G. Aladin is their leader. He is even younger than
Nabokoff, but has already shown himself to be a man of force and
originality.
Count Heyden is the leader of the conservative element, if there
is a conservative element in the duma. Perhaps it would be more
accurate to describe him as the spokesman for the least radical
group, for all the members of the duma are reformers, differing only
as to the extent of the changes and the speed with which they shall
be made. He was once considered radical, but he has not moved as
rapidly as public sentiment. Count Heyden bears quite a resemblance
to Uncle Sam as he is pictured in the newspapers. I have spoken
somewhat at length of the leaders in order to show that while the
grievances of the peasants and laborers are at the bottom of the
movement, all classes are enlisted in the effort to establish
constitutional government.
The afternoon sessions are generally lively, for it is at this
time that the ministers make their reports, offer their measures
and answer the questions propounded by the members. The session
which we attended was no exception to the rule. The house was full,
the galleries crowded and the newspapers fully represented. There
were more than forty Russian writers in their corner and not less
than fifty of the foreign press in theirs. When the representative
of the war department, replying to a question concerning some
recent military executions, declared that the minister of war was
powerless to overrule the generals, there were shouts of "Murderer!"
"Assassin!" "Dog!" and other equally uncomplimentary epithets.
[Illustration: SOME MEMBERS OF RUSSIAN DUMA.]
One of the demands made by the duma is for the abolition of the
death penalty. This might seem a very radical measure to us, but
the conditions are quite different in Russia. Here there is no
assurance of an impartial trial, and torture is resorted to to
force an admission of guilt. Only recently three persons were found
to be innocent after they had been tortured and put to death. The
members of the duma feel that the only security to the people is
in the entire abolition of the death penalty, for while those who
are falsely accused still live, there is a chance to rescue them.
In this respect exile, hateful as it is, has its advantages; I met
a member of the duma who was returned from exile by the government
upon the demand of the duma. In the torturing of prisoners for the
purpose of extorting a confession Russia is even behind China, bad
as China is, for in the latter nation it has been abolished, except
where one is charged with murder, and is only permitted then after
the guilt of the accused has been established by other evidence.
[Illustration: MEMBERS OF THE RUSSIAN DUMA.]
There are a number of important measures which are very little
discussed in the duma because they are certain to receive the
approval of the government; one of these provides for universal
education. The program of the duma also includes legislation
guaranteeing freedom of speech, freedom of the press, protection
for the Jews and local self-government for the Polish portion of
Russia. As the women have taken an active part in the agitation for
constitutional reform, all of the parties are committed to woman's
suffrage.
Just now the land question is paramount. About one-third of the
entire acreage of land in the empire is in the hands of the czar,
the government and the nobility, and the peasants demand that it
shall be turned over to them. At this time they are willing to have
compensation made to the owners, but the more they think about it
and the more vehement their demand becomes, the less they are likely
to consider compensation. There is no doubt that there are enough
cases of injustice and contemptuous indifference to their needs
to arouse resentment among the peasants, if we take human nature
as we find it. They tell of instances where whole villages have
been compelled to pay toll, generation after generation, for the
privilege of crossing some nobleman's land to reach the land farmed
in common by the people of the village. Powerless to condemn land
for roads, as it can be done in other countries, they have grown
more embittered year by year until some of them feel that patience
has ceased to be a virtue. It is now intimated that the government
will offer a partial distribution of land as a compromise.
[Illustration: MAXIM WINAWER.]
The opponents of expropriation seek shelter behind the excuse that
the peasants attack the principle of private ownership. While it
is true that there are socialists in the duma who prefer communal
holdings to private ownership, the object of the peasants is not to
dispossess small holders, but simply to give the peasants access
to the large estates. The situation resembles, in some respects,
the situation in Ireland, except that in Russia the land is to
be turned over to the communities. I made some inquiry regarding
the question of joint ownership and learned from one of the best
informed men in Russia that there is a growing sentiment in favor
of individual ownership. Ownership in common does not give to each
individual that stimulus to improve his land, which is the important
element in individual ownership. In riding through a country one can
distinguish with considerable accuracy between the farms cultivated
by their owners and those cultivated by tenants, because the
tenants, as a rule, are unwilling to make permanent improvements.
One Russian economist estimates the income from the owned lands
of Russia at thirty per cent above the income of the same area of
communal lands. He attributes it to the ability of the land owners
to supply themselves with proper tools and to furnish or borrow
at low rates the money needed for cultivation, but it is possible
that this difference may be in part due to the fact that ownership
makes the incentive to labor greater, and offers a richer reward to
superior effort.[10]
[10] The Czar has just issued a decree which according to the press
dispatches, permits the communal holdings to be converted into
individual holdings.
[Illustration: GROUP OF RUSSIAN DUMA WITH MR. BRYAN IN CENTER]
There is an upper house, or council of empire as it is called, which
shares the legislative power with the duma, but it does not receive
much attention because its composition is such that it cannot
reflect public sentiment, and cannot oppose the will of the people
except at the risk of its existence. Half of the members of this
council are appointed by the emperor and the other half elected by
different interests. The nobility elect some, the universities some
and the zemstows some.
The duma does not recognize the council of empire as a co-ordinate
branch of the government and will not be slow to express itself in
favor of a radical change in the method of selecting the members of
this upper house, or even its abolition, if it stands in the way of
measures which have a large majority in the duma.
What will be the outcome in Russia? A Russian would hardly venture
a prediction, and for an outsider, prophecy is even more hazardous.
The situation could scarcely be more complicated. Generations of
misrule have brought an accumulation of questions, all pressing
for solution. The duma wants a great many things done and wants
them done at once, while the government, if it remains under the
influences of the bureaucracy, will give as little as possible. So
far, the government has been unfortunate in that it has delayed
making concessions until still greater concessions were demanded.
The program of the present ministry has been so completely
repudiated that the emperor may find it easier to appoint a new
ministry than to humiliate the present one by compelling it to
propose what it has heretofore refused. If a new ministry is formed
and the duma is consulted about its personnel, Ivan Petrunkevich
will probably be the premier. He is a member of the duma and the
head of the parliamentary organization of the constitutional
democrats. He has already proposed a constitution to Nicholas II.
If the duma is disregarded and a ministry formed from the emperor's
present advisers, it will at least be more liberal than the one now
in office.
[Illustration: IVAN PETRUNKEVICH.]
The duma is a permanent institution; it could not be abolished by
imperial decree without endangering the crown itself, and it cannot
be dissolved or prorogued with safety.[11] The government must,
therefore, treat with the duma and agree with such compromises as
may be necessary to maintain peace between the executive and the
people. The officials, too, are learning from the duma something
about the science of government. When there was no one to speak
for the people, the czar could claim to voice their sentiments. He
can claim this no longer. When the people were denied a hearing,
the officials could deny that the people desired reforms, but the
officials cannot put their unsupported opinions against a unanimous
duma. The elections have shown how insignificant a support the
government has among its subjects, and these figures contain a
warning, which even the bureaucracy cannot entirely disregard. Does
the government rely upon the army? The soldiers are drawn from the
people and serve for three years, a half million raw recruits being
enlisted each year. Is it possible that they can be different
in sentiment from their fathers and brothers? In three years the
Russian army will be made up of men in hearty accord with those who
speak through the duma. Without an army to rely upon, what answer
can the bureaucracy make to the legislature?
[11] Soon after this letter was written the duma was dissolved, with
a promise of another election, and as this book goes to press a
second campaign is in progress.
The czar has already suffered much at the hands of his advisers;
he is no longer the idol he was, and reverence for the Church has
abated somewhat, as reverence for him, its temporal head, has
decreased. What can he do? There is but one course open to him.
He asked the people what they wanted and they have told him. As
he cannot doubt that they have told him the truth, he must either
accept their answer or confess that he does not intend to consider
their wishes. If he would appoint a new ministry, propose a measure
guaranteeing freedom of speech and freedom of the press, recommend
an agricultural bank to protect the peasants from the small money
lenders, recall the exiles, release political prisoners and invite
the leaders of the duma to confer with the ministry in regard to the
land question, he would be restored to the affection of his subjects
and have no reason to fear bomb-throwers or hostile criticism. He
would find a hundred and thirty millions of loyal subjects a much
stronger bodyguard than a few hired soldiers. His position is a
difficult one because his environment is unfriendly to the masses,
but having burned the bridges behind him, he must go forward.
Russia is not decaying. She has extent of territory, abundant
natural resources and an immense population. To be sure, a majority
of her people were serfs until a generation ago, but there is
no race distinction between the nobility and the peasant, and
with education the extremes of society are being drawn closer
together. That Russia has a great future is not open to doubt.
What experiences she may pass through before she emerges a free,
self-governing and prosperous nation no one is wise enough to
foresee, but the people who have sacrificed as much for liberty
as have the Russian patriots have in them the material of which
mighty nations are made. The duma is ready to do its part; will the
government rise to the occasion? Time alone can tell.
NOTE--Since this article was written the Duma has been
dissolved, and a second Duma is now in session.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
AROUND THE BALTIC.
The discussion of the duma occupied so much space that I was
compelled to omit from that article all mention of Russia in
general, and to St. Petersburg in particular; I shall therefore
begin this article with a brief reference to the Moscovite empire.
Two and a half years ago, when I saw Russia for the first time, I
entered by the way of Warsaw and went to St. Petersburg from Moscow.
While considerable territory was covered, the winter's snows made
the whole country look barren and uninviting. This time our course
lay through the Baltic provinces, and as farming was at its height,
the country presented a much fairer picture. The cities and villages
through which we passed were busy with life and each had its church,
for the Russians are a church-going people.
St. Petersburg is a fascinating city. The Church of St. Isaacs,
with its great granite monoliths on the outside, its pillars within
covered with malachite and lapsus lazuli, and its immense bronze
doors, is among the world's most imposing places of worship; the
equestrian statue of Peter the Great is famous, and the art gallery
is of rare merit. Russia's bronzes are most excellent, and her
stores exhibit a large assortment of furs.
In St. Petersburg I found myself, as on my former visit, admiring
the horses, they being, upon the whole, the best that I have seen
since leaving America. Possibly the fact that so many stallions are
driven singly and in pairs may account, in part, for the handsome
and stylish animals seen upon the streets, but certain it is that
the Russian horse is a splendid representative of his breed. There
is a large park, called the Point, near the city, and in the evening
this park and the approaches to it are thronged with carriages and
droskies. As the sun does not set there at this season of the year
until between nine and ten and is followed by a long twilight, the
drives are gay with life until midnight. We did not reach our hotel
until eleven o'clock, although we were among the first to leave the
park.
Speaking of horses, reminds me that the Russian coachman has an
individuality all his own. His headgear is peculiar, being a squatty
beaver with a spool-shaped crown, but one soon forgets the hat in
contemplation of the form. The skirt of the coachman's coat is very
full and pleated, and the more stylish the equipage, the broader
is the driver. Beginning at the shoulders, his padding gradually
increases until about the hips he is as broad as the box upon
which he sits. This padding is carried to such an extreme that the
coachman sometimes has to be lifted upon the box, and it is needless
to say that he is practically helpless, as well as useless, in case
of an accident. It may be that this style of dress is designed for
a wind break for those who are seated behind the wearer--this was
one of the explanations given--or it may be that it, like some other
fashions in wearing apparel, has no foundation in reason.
[Illustration: A VIEW OF STOCKHOLM.]
I found to my disappointment that Tolstoy is not contributing
materially to the political revolution that is taking place in
Russia. Being revered throughout the land not only because of his
philosophy, but also because of his fearless arraignment of the
despotism that has afflicted Russia, he might be a powerful factor
in giving direction to the popular movement, but believing that
individual regeneration furnishes the only complete emancipation
from all forms of evil, he takes but little interest in what he
regards as the smaller and less important remedies proposed by the
duma. It remains to be seen whether it is wiser to secure that which
is now within reach, and then press forward for other advantages, or
to reject piecemeal reforms in the hope of ultimately gaining larger
ones. Probably the pioneer in thought and the practical reformer
will never be able to fully agree upon this point.
The boat ride from St. Petersburg to Stockholm is one of unsurpassed
beauty. It requires about thirty hours to make the trip, and of
that time but two hours are spent in the open sea, the remainder of
the route being between islands that fill the Baltic and the Gulf
of Finland as the stars stud the sky. Just out of St. Petersburg
is Russia's most important naval station, where we saw a number of
warships and were informed that the crew of one of them had recently
refused to comply with a sailing order, answering that it was
waiting to see what the duma would do.
Until about a hundred years ago Finland was a part of the Baltic
Empire, of which Sweden was the head, and of the three million
inhabitants of Finland, something like twenty per cent are of
Swedish descent. As might be expected, the Swedish element was not
only the official element, enjoying to a large extent the titles
of nobility, but it is still the wealthier and more influential
portion. The Finns proper are not Laplanders, as their northern
position would suggest, neither are they in race closely akin to the
Slavic or Scandinavian population. As mentioned in the article on
Hungary, they came from western Asia and are quite distinct in race
characteristics from their present neighbors. They acquired from
their Swedish conquerors a fondness for the public school, and the
percentage of illiteracy is much less in Finland than in other parts
of Russia, under whose dominion they unwillingly came in 1808.
Our boat stopped at Helsingfors for a few hours, and we had an
opportunity to visit the principal points of interest in the capital
of Finland. It is a substantial and prosperous looking city with
large school houses, attractive public buildings and commodious
churches. We passed several small parks where children were playing
and where numerous comfortable seats beckoned the weary to rest
beneath the shade. I confess to a partiality for the small city
park; it is much better to have these breathing spaces so scattered
about through densely populated sections that the children, as well
as the adults, can find in them a daily refuge than to have the
entire park fund lavished upon suburban parks, which can only be
visited occasionally. It is a pity that space is not more often
reserved for these parks in the laying out of towns, for the ground
not only becomes more valuable in proportion as these small parks
are the more needed, but the opening of them in the heart of a city
brings a large unearned increment to those who own land adjacent to
them.
We could not help noticing the contrast between the market of
Helsingfors and those which we visited in Asia. At the former neatly
dressed peasants, men and women, exposed for sale from the end of
their carts a bountiful supply of vegetables, meats, butter, eggs
and cheese. The eggs were stamped with the name of the owner and the
date of laying, the butter was packed in wooden buckets of various
sizes, and the cheese was of many varieties. Some of the carts were
filled with stacks of black bread baked in large flat cakes. The
radishes presented a temptation that I was not able to withstand;
the fondness for them, restrained during the months of travel
through the Orient, overcame me, and at the risk of being thought
extravagant, I purchased five dozen at a gross outlay of about five
cents and lived high until they were all gone.
[Illustration: KING OSCAR OF SWEDEN.]
The Finns are rejoicing over the autonomy recently secured, and they
have signalized their partial independence by creating a single
parliamentary body whose representatives are elected by the entire
population, male and female, above the age of twenty-four. No one
can understand the persistency with which the Finns have struggled
for constitutional government without recalling that, as a part
of Sweden, their country long enjoyed the right to representation
in the nation's councils. The people have always resented Russian
methods, and only a few years ago the governor general sent from St.
Petersburg was assassinated by a young Finn who, having thus given
expression to his nation's hatred of despotism, immediately took his
own life. The death of the governor was followed by the suspension
of such few privileges as the people had been enjoying, but when
last year the whole of Russia seemed about to rise in rebellion, the
czar announced his willingness to grant all that was asked, and now
one can travel through Finland without being harassed by soldiers or
bothered about passports.
If Constantinople can claim to be the natural capital of the eastern
hemisphere, Stockholm can with equal justice claim to be its natural
summer resort. It is situated at a point where a chain of lakes
pours its flood into the Baltic, so that the citizens of Sweden's
capital have their choice between the fresh water and the salt. As
the lakes and the sea are filled with innumerable islands, each
family can have one for itself. Summer homes are probably more
numerous near Stockholm, in proportion to the population, than
anywhere else, because during the winter months the people live in
flats. One is immediately struck with the compactness of the city
and with the absence of single dwellings surrounded by yards. Owing
to the severe cold and the long, dark days of winter, the people
huddle together in great blocks and thus economize fuel, and they
are at the same time close to their work. As soon as spring opens
there is a general movement toward the islands, and as we approached
Stockholm from the Baltic and left it through the lakes, we saw a
great many summer cottages and watched the boats carrying their
cargoes of passengers to and fro.
Sweden's lakes are so numerous and so large that about eight per
cent of her entire area is given up to these internal waterways,
and they probably account for the fact that her people had a large
domestic commerce before the era of railroads. These lakes are so
situated that by connecting them by canals water transit has been
secured between Stockholm on the east coast and Gothenburg on the
west. The boat trip through these lakes and canals is one of the
most pleasant to be found in Europe.
The Swedes who have come to the United States are such excellent
farmers that I was surprised to find but twelve per cent of the area
of Sweden devoted to agriculture and fifty-one per cent described as
woodland. Only fifty-five per cent of the population is now engaged
in farming, the proportion having fallen from seventy-two per cent
since 1870, while the proportion engaged in other industries has
risen from fifteen to twenty-seven per cent.
Lumbering, fishing and shipping each gives employment to a large
number of men, and iron mining, long a leading industry, is still
important, although, owing to the development of mines elsewhere,
Sweden now furnishes but one per cent of the entire output of ore
as against ten per cent in the eighteenth century. The fact that
she had such an abundant supply of the raw material early gave
her a conspicuous place in iron manufactures, and the familiarity
with this metal may be due to the fact that Sweden was quick to
take advantage of the railroad, the telegraph and the telephone.
In electrical appliances she now claims a second place among
the nations. A large use has also been made of the water power
with which the country abounds, notably at Norrkoping, where an
industrial exposition is now in progress.
We spent a day at this exposition for the purpose of gathering
information in regard to industrial Sweden. While the agricultural
display was not ready, the exhibit of the products of the factory
was exceedingly interesting. The articles shown included metal
work of all kinds and varieties, from heavy machinery to parlor
ornaments. In one section canned fruit was displayed, in another
great rolls of linoleum and oilcloth, and in still another textile
fabrics. The cloth was especially worthy of notice, being of
superior quality and of every color. There was also a complete
assortment of dairy implements and farm tools. So skillful is
the Swedish artisan that the International Harvester Company has
recently established a branch factory at Norrkoping, and with the
aid of American foremen is preparing to manufacture reapers and
mowers there, not only for Sweden but for northern Europe.
In addition to the machine-made exhibits, there were specimens of
the handwork of peasants and students. These included many varieties
of needlework, wood carving, and decoration on leather and bark.
Peasant girls in native costume presided over these displays
and gave the visitor a glimpse of the picturesque garb now fast
disappearing before the prosaic dress of the cities. At Skansen, in
the suburbs of Stockholm, and at a few of the enterprising stores,
this quaint costume may still be seen, but it is not generally worn
now even in the country.
There is a gallery at Norrkoping exposition where one may see
a collection of Swedish and Danish art, the pictures not only
portraying the familiar features and flaxen hair of the north, but
recalling the long nights and the winter scenes of that latitude.
Sweden was a pioneer in the matter of universal education and has
at Upsala a state university founded in 1477--fifteen years before
Columbus sailed for America. She has also had a college of medicine
for more than a hundred years, and her sons have taken high rank in
all the departments of science. Her grammar schools run back to the
time of Gustavus Adolphus, and her common school system is almost as
old. She has given to the world among other things the Sloyd system
of teaching, which combines manual training with mental instruction.
Sweden has shown by her prominence in literature, science, art and
music that the higher altitudes do not chill the imagination or
repress genius, and yet, the country is even more noted for the high
average of intelligence among the people than for the extraordinary
accomplishments of a few.
The Swedish language contains so many words that resemble the
English that the Swedish newspaper looks much more familiar than
the Greek or the Russian, but it is not always safe to rely upon
the similarity in spelling. For instance, "rum" means room, and
when it appears in a window or on a door, it is only an innocent
announcement that travelers can find accommodation within. The word
"bad" means bath, and "bad rum," therefore, is a familiar sign in
hotels.
Sweden has her political problems like all the other nations, and
just now her people are absorbed in the question of extending
the suffrage. The upper house is an aristocratic body composed
of representatives of the wealthier classes. In electing members
to this body a rich man's vote counts for more than a poor man's
vote, it being possible for the richest person to have about ten
times as many votes as the poorest. As might be expected, the
upper house is conservative and stands in the way of some of the
reforms proposed by the more popular branch. The last ministry
was a liberal one, but resigned when the upper house defeated the
measure for the extension of the suffrage. The new ministry has at
its head Mr. Lindmann, a business man who represents the commercial
and conservative elements, and his party is willing to accept an
extension of the franchise, provided it is coupled with minority
representation, the aim being to increase the conservative strength
in the lower house in order to protect the upper house from attack.
The conservatives fear--and not without reason--that an overwhelming
liberal majority in the popular branch would soon endanger the
aristocratic character, if not the very existence of the upper
house. The situation is interesting in that it indicates the growth
of radicalism in the country. The conservatives recognize this and
are prepared to make concessions; they hope to retard the progress
of the movement but realize that they cannot defeat it entirely.
Industrial questions are receiving consideration in Sweden; laws
concerning child labor have been enacted, accident insurance has
been provided, and an old age pension is being discussed. Attention
is also being given to the housing problem in the cities, to farm
allotments and to the establishment of labor bureaus and boards
of arbitration. The Gothenburg license system is in operation in
Sweden, under which the sale of liquor, where the sale is not
entirely prohibited, is in the hands of semi-official corporations.
Whether this system is responsible for it or not may be open to
question, but statistics show that there has been a large decrease
in the sale of beverages containing a high percentage of alcohol.
By the courtesy of the American minister, Colonel Graves, I had an
opportunity to pay my respects to King Oscar II. I was glad to do
so for two reasons: First, because so many of his former subjects
have become American citizens; and, second, because of the honorable
part which he played in the recent crisis which resulted in the
separation of Sweden and Norway. He is of powerful frame, and
though seventy-seven years old, would pass for a much younger man.
He has a kindly face and rides about the city without a guard. A
more ambitious monarch would have met Norway's demand with armed
resistance, but he, recognizing that the holding of Norway against
the will of the people would involve his country in perpetual
strife, advocated a peaceful separation, provided the people of
Norway asked for it in unmistakable terms.
For thirty years he had been the sovereign of both, and in his old
age he could not bear to see the two countries engaged in a bloody
conflict. He is just now criticised by some who did not become
sanguinary until all prospect of war was past, but he has the
consolation of knowing that his critics are not only alive but have
no dead relatives to mourn. Had he plunged his country into war, his
critics could remind him of vacant chairs at the fireside.
King Oscar has, in a most practical way, proved himself to be a
promoter of peace and as such deserves the prize provided by that
great Swedish chemist, Alfred Nobel. By giving conspicuous approval
to his course, the trustees of the Nobel fund may be able to
encourage other sovereigns to imitate him.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
DEMOCRATIC NORWAY--HER SUN, HER SCENERY AND HER CORONATION.
Norway was so full of attractions at the time of our visit that I am
at a loss to know in what order to treat of them. As those things
which are permanent will interest a larger number than the transient
ceremonies attending the crowning of a new king, I shall give the
preference to the most distinguishing feature of Norway, that which
has been interwoven with her name, viz., the midnight sun. Owing
to its accessibility and to the fact that its climate is moderated
by the influence of the Gulf stream, the coast of upper Norway
furnishes the best opportunity which Europeans have to mount the
Arctic merry-go-round and view the sun through the whole nightless
day. It is a weird experience, this passing from day to day without
intervening darkness, and one returns from it somewhat exhausted,
for the light tempts him to encroach upon the hours of sleep.
The North Cape, the northernmost point of the continent of Europe,
is usually the destination of the tourist, but it is not necessary
to go so far to see all that there is worth seeing. There are
several towns above the Arctic circle where for several weeks
the sun never sinks to the horizon. At Bodo, which is but little
more than a day's ride by boat from Trondhjem, the sun is visible
at midnight from May 30 to July 11. At Hammerfest, which is the
terminus of some of the steamboat lines and which claims to be the
northernmost town in the world, the sun does not set between May 13
and July 28, while at Tromso, not quite so far north as Hammerfest,
the inhabitants have but ten days less of the midnight sun.
We stopped at Svolvaer, one of the chief fishing stations of the
Lofoden Islands, nearly two hundred miles north of the Arctic
circle. We arrived about seven in the evening, and would have seen
the sun the previous night but for a bank of clouds behind which
it passed at about 11:30. Svolvaer nestles at the foot of some
snow-crowned peaks which shut out the northern horizon, and it is
necessary to go out into the open sea or to climb a mountain to
get an uninterrupted view. With our usual good luck we found an
English-speaking Norwegian who had studied in the United States,
and with him to direct us, we spent a memorable night among the
islands.
The channel to the north, known as Raftsund, is one of the most
picturesque along the entire coast, and the Troldfjord which leads
from it through a rockbound gorge to the outlet of a famous mountain
lake, is not surpassed in rugged grandeur. Troldfjord deserves to
be described by a poet, for prose can not do it justice. If any of
my readers have ever passed through the Royal Gorge in southern
Colorado, they may understand me when I say that Troldfjord is
a Royal Gorge with its walls widened to a quarter of a mile and
lengthened to a mile, and the space between them filled with a
transparent sea, whose surface perfectly mirrors every rock and
shrub. At the upper end of the fjord is a majestic cascade, the
dashing, splashing, foaming outlet of the lake two hundred feet
above. Our launch ceased its throbbing and sat swanlike on the
fathomless water, while we feasted our eyes upon a picture so
beautiful that darkness hesitates to draw a curtain over its charms.
[Illustration: THE VIKING SHIP AT CHRISTIANIA.]
The mountain, Digermulkollen, selected as an observation point, is
on the Raftsund and not far from the Troldfjord. I can not give
its height, but when I guessed at it before the ascent, I put it
at five or six hundred feet; after ascending it I am satisfied
that it is a thousand. We timed our trip so as to reach the top at
midnight, slaking our thirst from the snowbanks along the trail,
and it was the fault of the clouds that we did not see the orb of
day--at this season and in this latitude he is orb of the night
as well--as he reached the lowest point; but they were kind to us
a little later, for through a rift in them we saw the face of old
Sol just long enough to be sure that he, like ourselves, was up for
all night. Even though the clouds concealed the sun at the witching
hour of midnight, the light was the light of day, and I had no
difficulty in reading a paper (which truth, as well as loyalty to
my own publication, compels me to say was The Commoner). The fact
that we almost missed seeing the sun at all leads me to remark that
many make the entire trip without catching a glimpse of it. We were
informed that an excursion steamer had gone to the North Cape and
back in mist and rain just a few days before. It had not occurred
to us in planning our visit to Norway that cloudy weather had to be
taken into consideration, but we found that clear nights are the
exception rather than the rule, especially during the latter part of
the season.
[Illustration: IN HJORENDFIORD.]
Svolvaer is a quiet place in summer, but during January, February
and March its little harbor is full of fishing smacks, for thirty
thousand men fish in the waters of the Lofoden Islands. Cod is the
principal fish taken and codliver oil is one of the chief products
of the islands. Immense quantities of dried fish are shipped to
southern Europe, while the fresh and salted fish find a market in
the British Isles and Germany.
If one desires to see merely fjords, glaciers, lakes and mountain
streams, the southern part of Norway offers a sufficient variety of
each. Bergen, the principal city on the west coast, the second city
in the country and a former member of the Hanseatic League, is the
seaport of this northern Switzerland. With the Sogne Fjord on the
north, Hardanger Fjord on the south and west and a chain of lakes
almost connecting the two, one can see every variety of scenery
in a three days' trip around Bergen. As we had but two days to
spend there, we had to miss the northern fjord, but Hardanger, the
twenty-one mile ride across the mountains and the railroad from Voss
back to Bergen, furnished such a wealth of scenery that another day
could hardly have added much to our enjoyment.
[Illustration: TROLDFJORD.]
Taking a boat at Bergen, we devoted eleven hours to winding about
through Hardanger Fjord, and every moment presented some new
attraction. These fjords seem to have been formed by a convulsion
that opened great cracks in the mountains which line the coast of
Norway. In some places the shores are precipitous cliffs, reaching
from the water upwards for hundreds of feet, but for most of the
way the banks slope back and are covered with stunted pines and
undergrowth. Scattered all along the way are innumerable cascades
and waterfalls, varying in width from a few inches to many feet. At
one place we counted eleven of these in sight at one time, and we
were never out of hearing of their music. Some of them are harnessed
to little sawmills. At one point the boat halted within a few
hundred yards of a great glacier, which is crawling down a mountain
gorge, and from whose mouth, as from a fountain, gushes a ceaseless
stream. For ages this mass of ice has been slowly moving down from
the mountains, and every day tons upon tons melt and disappear, but
its losses at its base are made good at its top, and it lives on
like the human race, ever dying and yet ever young.
Disembarking at Eide we took a four-hours carriage ride, following
a mountain stream to its source, crossing the range at an elevation
of a thousand feet and descending along another stream to the lake
upon which the village of Voss is situated. From this point a
scenic railroad, which passes through fifty-two tunnels in seventy
miles, took us back to Bergen. As might be gathered from what has
already been said, Norway does not impress the tourist as a farmer's
paradise, although agriculture is first among her industries. The
farms, as seen from the routes of travel, seem very diminutive and
are usually triangular in form and look like wedges inserted in the
cracks of the mountains. Occasionally a valley is broad enough to
invite the cultivation of a level piece of land and the invitation
was long ago accepted. Potatoes grow well in Norway and are of
excellent flavor. On the coast boats they furnished the staple,
and sometimes almost the only, vegetable, although the bill of
fare often included seven different kinds of fish, nearly as many
varieties of cold meat, half as many brands of cheese, besides
white, brown and black bread. Rye, barley and wheat are grown in
the southern districts and grass everywhere. Owing to the frequent
showers and the long days of summer, grass grows very rapidly, but
as it is difficult to cure it, the people have adopted a plan which
looks peculiar to foreigners. They build frames that look like
sections of a fence and the green hay is hung upon the boards or
wire as the case may be. The lower rows are protected from the rain
by the upper one, and the air has access to all of it.
About three hours' drive from Bergen there is a little wooded island
on which the great Norwegian violinist, Ole Bull, built a summer
home where he was wont to retire at the conclusion of his tours and
where at last he died. He was not only a great admirer of American
institutions and of the American people in general, but he married
an American, and his daughter returns to Norway every year to
celebrate May 17, Norway's independence day, at her father's home
and with her father's countrymen. The daughter is one of the many
connecting links between the two countries, and by her invitation,
extended through our consul, Mr. Cunningham, we had the privilege
of visiting this historic spot. We were glad to do so, because Ole
Bull was not only one of the great musicians of the last century,
but he was one of the greatest democrats that Norway has produced--a
democrat not in a partisan sense, but in that broader sense in which
it describes one who believes in the people, trusts them and labors
for their welfare.
[Illustration: OLE BULL.]
There are many public men in Norway worthy of mention, but space
forbids an enumeration of them. There is, however, a relic of great
historic interest to which I must devote a line. It is the Viking
Ship, a thousand years old, now on exhibition at Christiania. It was
dug up twenty-five years ago and is fairly well preserved. It gives
one an idea of the ships used by those early seamen of the north
whose daring exploits make fiction seem tame.
It so happened that we arrived in Norway just in time to attend the
coronation of King Haakon VII., and we had our first opportunity to
see royalty on parade. The new king is a son of the king of Denmark,
and his wife, Queen Maud, is daughter of the king of England. When,
last year, Norway withdrew from her union with Sweden, the crown
was offered to a son of King Oscar, but the offer was refused, and
it is probably not too much to say that the Norwegians expected
it to be refused, but they wanted to show that separation was not
due to antagonism to the reigning house. It was then tendered to
the son of King Frederick and accepted. I shall speak later of
the circumstances which explain this selection; it is sufficient
at present to say that the new king is a sober, earnest, sensible
looking young man of about thirty-five and seems to have made a very
favorable impression upon the Norwegian people. By the courtesy of
Minister Graves, who represents our country at Stockholm, and who,
our minister to Norway not having received his appointment in time,
was our nation's special ambassador to attend the coronation, we
received invitations to the coronation ceremonies and were presented
at court. While the newspaper reports of the coronation may rob what
I am about to say of some of its freshness as news, I shall venture
to describe what we saw, begging the reader's indulgence if I betray
a lack of familiarity with the technical phrases employed on such
occasions.
The coronation took place at Trondhjem, the former capital, a city
situated on one of the numerous fjords that indent the western
coast. The building selected for the occasion was the Gothic
cathedral, the largest in Scandinavia, which was commenced in
the eleventh, and completed in the fourteenth century. It is a
historic building and belonged to the Bishopric of which Ireland
was a part before America was discovered by Columbus. The cathedral
has suffered from several fires, and a part of it was in ruins
for three centuries. It is now sufficiently restored to furnish
a larger audience room than is to be found in most cities of the
size. Under the dome a circular space was left for the royal party
while the visitors were seated, the foreign representatives nearest
the center, on raised seats in the nave and transepts. A broad
aisle was left, extending from the entrance through the center to
the chapel at the other end. Just before time for the king to
arrive, a company of white-robed Lutheran priests marched from the
chapel to the door, and a stalwart body of men they were. They
marched back at the head of the procession, the king following,
his crimson, ermine-lined robe trailing many feet behind--or it
would have trailed but for the fact that it was carried by four
attendants. The king was accompanied by several officers and
followed by the standard bearer holding aloft the royal banner. Then
came the queen wearing a robe similar to the king's, but it only
required three attendants to keep its folds from the floor. She was
attended by three maids of honor. The king and queen were escorted
to thrones on opposite sides of the aisle, and the representatives
of royal families occupied seats next to them. The Prince of
Wales sat nearest the queen, next to him Prince Henry of Germany,
and the American ambassador next. Near the king sat Denmark's
representative, then Russia's, and next to him the representative
from France. There was gold braid galore; some of the foreign
representatives had enough on their clothes to put the Sultan of
Sulu to shame. I never before saw so much gold, and I have been
wondering since whether there may not be a new yellow peril of which
our financiers have little dreamed. Our representatives used less of
this ornamentation (they all wore military uniforms) than those of
any other country, and the question arises, what is going to become
of the honest dollar if, with the spread of the ideas of a republic,
the amount of gold braid is decreased and a vast quantity of gold is
poured through the mints into the volume of the world's currency? It
might so enlarge the volume of money as to make the money changers
clamor for the demonetization of gold, and, then the silverites
would be called gold bugs for insisting upon the free and unlimited
coinage of gold.
After some excellent music, instrumental and vocal, a member of
the clergy ascended a pulpit not far from the king and queen and
delivered an earnest address. He was a typical Norwegian, powerful
of frame and strong of face--such as we might imagine one of the
Viking chiefs to have been. Then there was more music, and it may
interest the readers to know that all the music was prepared for
the occasion, the words of the cantata being by the pastor of the
church, and the hymns being written in the language of the peasants.
Finally the king arose, proceeded down the aisle to the chapel and
kneeling, received from the bishop the insignia of office, the crown
being placed upon his head, a gold chain about his neck, a sceptre
in one hand and a golden globe in the other. As soon as he returned
to the throne, the queen advanced to the chapel and was likewise
invested, and then the premier, Mr. Michelson, proposed a salute to
the king and queen. The people responded with earnestness and the
exercises were concluded.
I do not expect to witness another coronation, and it will be some
satisfaction to remember that the first and only one attended was
that of a king whom the people of their own accord selected; for
if there is anything more democratic than a republican form of
government, it is the fundamental principle that the people have a
right to have whatever form of government they desire. Jefferson
emphasized this doctrine when the people of France called Napoleon
to the throne, and it has Bible sanction as well, for when the
children of Israel still demanded a king, even after Samuel
explained what a king would do, he was told to let them have their
way.
[Illustration: KING HAAKON AND QUEEN MAUD.]
The next day we put on our best clothes and joined the line that
passed before the king and queen. It was not a very satisfying
experience, but it is worth something to know how such things are
done, and I may add, the more an American sees of it, the more he
appreciates the simplicity of public life in his own country.
Norway, in spite of the choosing of a king, is the most democratic
country in northern Europe. She has no nobility, confers no titles
and had to go outside of her own realm to find one of royal birth.
She had her kings and princes in the early days, but one Norwegian
statesman explained to us that when they lost their privileges they
emigrated to America and went to farming. The choice of a Dane was
not strange, if a king was to be chosen from without, for Norway
was united with Denmark for more than three centuries, and there
has always been a friendly feeling between the two countries. It
was expedient, too, under the circumstances, to offer the crown to
the son of the Danish king, for this brought Norway's throne into
kinship with the thrones of England and Russia, as well as with that
of Denmark. In fact, the circumstances and the situation had a good
deal to do with the four-to-one vote in favor of a monarchy. When it
is remembered that Norway's paramount aim was to secure independence
and that this might have been jeopardized by an attempt to establish
a republic at the same time, it is really surprising that one-fifth
of the people had the courage to vote to plant a republic amid
surrounding monarchies. There are many in Norway who prefer a
president to a king and who object to having two and a half millions
of people taxed nearly two hundred thousand dollars a year to pay
the salary of a kingly figurehead, but the monarchists reply that
the king's position is purely ornamental and enables the government
to maintain cordial relations with other European countries while
the people govern themselves through the storthing. They point out
that the king has much less power than our president. While this is
true, they forget that a president elected by the people and holding
office but four years can be trusted with more executive authority
than an hereditary monarch. The storthing has absolute power, and as
its members are elected by universal suffrage every three years, and
as there is but the one parliamentary body, public sentiment finds
prompt expression in the government. It can be truthfully said,
therefore, that with the exception of the executive branch of the
government, Norway is thoroughly democratic and that the influence
of the king is reduced to a minimum.
Norway has a promising future. Her people are hardy and intelligent.
Education has been compulsory for fifty years, and it is the
country's boast that it spends more per capita on schools than
any other country in Europe. Because of Norway's immense shipping
interests, she demanded a separate consular service, and this
was one of the causes of friction between her government and the
government of Sweden. Norway has a great future, and much is to
be expected of her people. Her sons and daughters, those who have
emigrated to America, as well as those who have remained at home,
prove to the world that it is possible for a people to acquire the
refinements of civilization without losing their original strength
and vigor.
CHAPTER XL.
ENGLAND'S NEW LIBERAL GOVERNMENT.
Great Britain has recently experienced one of the greatest political
revolutions she has ever known. The conservative party, with Mr.
Balfour, one of the ablest of modern scholars, at its head, and with
Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, a powerful orator and a forceful political
leader, as its most conspicuous champion, had won a sweeping victory
after the Boer war, and this victory, following a long lease of
power, led the Conservatives to believe themselves invincible. They
assumed, as parties made confident by success often do, that they
are indispensable to the nation and paid but little attention to the
warnings and threats of the Liberals. One mistake after another,
however, alienated the voters and the special elections two years
ago began to show a falling off in the Conservative strength, and
when the general election was held last fall the Liberals rolled up
a majority of something like two hundred in the House of Commons. A
new ministry was formed from among the ablest men of the party--a
ministry of radical and progressive men seldom equaled in moral
purpose and intellectual strength. My main object in visiting London
at this time was to become acquainted with the personnel of the new
government and learn of their program.
Before speaking of the ministers, just a word in regard to the
king, who is the head of the government whether it be liberal or
conservative. The government of Great Britain is always in harmony
with the House of Commons, and as the ministers speak for the king,
he does not emphasize the virtue of consistency, for he may be
put in the attitude of advocating a thing to-day and opposing it
to-morrow. He is not expected to have opinions upon public questions
or, if he has them, they are always presented with the understanding
that if the ministers will not adopt his views he will adopt theirs.
It is much easier to be a king now than it used to be and the
burdens of a monarchy have been very much lightened in the nations
which, like England, recognize the omnipotence of parliament.
I was very glad to avail myself of the opportunity offered by a
private audience to meet his majesty, King Edward, and to be assured
of his personal interest in the promotion of peace. The king has a
very genial face and makes the visitor feel at ease at once. He has
a knowledge of world politics and, by his tact and good nature, has
done much to promote cordial relations between his own and other
countries. It may not be out of place to correct an impression that
has gone abroad with regard to the style of dress required of those
who are admitted to the presence of the king. Because knee breeches
are worn at court functions many have understood, and I among them,
that they were required on all occasions; but this is not the case.
Most of the calls made upon him informally are made before lunch and
the ordinary black coat is worn. The requirements are not as strict
as they are in Russia, Japan and Sweden, where I was advised to wear
an evening suit for a morning call.
[Illustration: KING EDWARD VII.]
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, a sturdy Scotchman, is the new prime
minister, and those who know him intimately feel that his selection
is a vindication of the doctrine that patience and courage, when
joined with merit, are invincible. He is now well advanced in years
and during his entire public career has stood unflinchingly for
democratic ideas. He has not been discouraged by the fact that he
has often been in the minority; on the contrary, he has felt as
confident in his position when he has had to maintain it amid taunts
and jeers as when his speeches brought forth applause. He is not as
great an orator as Gladstone, but he has a very persuasive manner
and his fine sense of humor gives brilliancy to his speeches.
In outlining the policy of the Liberal party last December, he
credited the victory at the polls to several causes--the tariff
question, the Chinese question, the educational problem and
municipal questions. He pledged his party to certain reforms and
boldly advocated a reduction of military and naval expenses. He
pointed out that there could be no retrenchment in taxation if the
appropriations for armaments and for armies continued to increase.
He has been called a "little Englander," but that did not deter him
from uttering a protest against rivalry in the building of warships.
In view of his utterances in favor of arbitration and against
militarism it was most appropriate that he should deliver the
address of welcome at the recent session of the Interparliamentary
Union, better known as the peace congress. His speech on that
occasion was an epoch-making deliverance. In no uncertain tones
he threw the influence of his ministry on the side of peace and
opened the door for the adoption of a far-reaching proposition in
favor of the submission of all questions to investigation before
hostilities are commenced. He used the North Sea incident as an
illustration and urged the extension of the powers of the board of
inquiry. His now famous exclamation, "The Duma is dead--long live
the Duma," illustrates both his moral courage and his devotion
to representative government. The sentence was a part of his
peace congress speech and was uttered in the presence of the duma
representatives who left Russia before the proroguing of that
body. It electrified the audience and has been widely commented on
throughout Europe.
Few premiers have had so large a majority back of them or possessed
so fully the confidence of their supporters, and the program
prepared by the ministry is a most comprehensive one. It is too much
to expect that the Liberal majority can be maintained on all the
questions which will be under discussion, but it is evident that
the new government will have a number of important reforms to its
credit when it finishes its work.
The president of the House of Lords, the lord chancellor, is one of
the most popular of the Liberal leaders. His name is Robert Reed
and he is also a Scotchman. He is a rare combination and one of the
most lovable of men. There is a striking resemblance between him
and the Edinburgh statue of Walter Scott and in his heart there is
the democracy of Burns. With high ideals, an eloquent tongue and a
disposition which attracts men to him, he is especially fitted for
public life, and it is to be regretted that upon retirement from
his present position he becomes a judge, for the bench does not
afford an equal opportunity with the forum for the molding of public
opinion.
[Illustration: SIR HENRY CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN.]
The foreign secretary, Sir Edward Grey, is a man who would attract
attention anywhere by the strength of his face. He reminded me of
the late William Evarts, of New York. He played an important part in
the campaign which led up to the Liberal victory and his selection
was regarded as a fitting one. His position, however, is not so
difficult to fill, because Great Britain's relations with the other
powers are quite amicable.
We extended our stay in London in order to hear the minister of
war, Mr. Haldane, make his argument in favor of a reduction in the
size and cost of the army. By the courtesy of our ambassador, Hon.
Whitelaw Reid, I had an excellent seat in the gallery of the House
of Commons. The reader may be interested in a brief sketch of this
most ancient of parliaments and most powerful of all the factors
which enter into the political life of the British Isles. The hall
will seat sixty per cent of the members--an astonishing fact to an
American who is accustomed to see each of his senators, congressmen
and state legislators occupying the seat assigned to him for the
session. The members who are present sit on cushioned benches,
resembling church pews, and these benches rise one above another on
each side of the hall. The Liberals sit on the right of the speaker
and the front bench is reserved for the ministry. The Conservatives
occupy the benches at the speaker's left, the front bench being
reserved for the leaders of the opposition. On the left, but farther
from the speaker, are the Irish members and the Labor members. There
is a narrow gallery on each side, which is occupied by members when
there is a large attendance, and there is a small gallery in the
rear for visitors. The ladies' gallery is just over the speaker's
desk and is so carefully screened that the occupants of the gallery
can not be recognized from the floor. While no one, least of all the
ladies, seems to defend this screen, it still remains. Most of the
members wear their hats in the hall, but as they have no desks they
can not write when a colleague is speaking, although I was told of
one member who occasionally occupied his time knitting.
[Illustration: HOUSE OF PARLIAMENT--LONDON.]
As parliament virtually selects the ministers and as these ministers
are responsible to parliament rather than to the king, they must
attend the sessions at stated times and answer questions. Any member
of parliament is at liberty to submit a question in writing and the
minister is obliged to give answer, provided, of course, the answer
would not make an improper disclosure.
The leaders, facing each other from the opposing benches, present a
very interesting picture and after listening to the discussions back
and forth, one can understand why free speech has had so large an
influence in the development of the political institutions of Great
Britain. Here every idea is threshed out and every measure moulded
into permanent form.
But to return to the minister of war. Mr. Haldane might be taken
for Tom L. Johnson, Cleveland's redoubtable mayor, so much is he
like him in face and figure. He is plausible in speech and so good
natured that no one can be angry with him, however much he may
dissent from his conclusions. For two hours he held the attention of
the house and gallery--an unusual feat in London where the speeches
are not so long as in America. He was frequently encouraged by cries
of "Hear! Hear!" the usual applause in the House of Commons. It was
noticeable that the heartiest responses were drawn forth by his
expressions in favor of peace and arbitration. The reorganization
scheme which he presented provides for a reduction of several
thousand men and a considerable decrease in the total cost, but
to make the scheme more acceptable the remaining regiments are so
disposed as to give the country a larger fighting force than it
now has. It was interesting to watch the opposition benches, whose
able leaders vigorously attack everything that the new government
proposes. Ex-War Minister Foster followed Mr. Haldane and picked
flaws in his plans, but he did not receive the attention accorded
the war minister.
The army question is arousing considerable interest, and the
government bill is likely to have more opposition in the House
of Lords than in the Commons. In fact, Lord Roberts has already
attacked the bill in advance, in a speech which affords conclusive
proof of the tendency of man to magnify his own calling. Nothing
better illustrates the conservatism of the House of Lords than
the fact that the Liberal party can claim but one-tenth of the
membership of that body while it has two hundred majority in the
popular branch of parliament. It must not be supposed, however, that
all the bills passed by the House of Commons will be defeated in
the House of Lords, for while a large majority of that house may
really oppose a measure, they recognize that the very existence of
their body would be jeopardized if it opposed the people on any
important question. Nominally the House of Lords has an equal voice
with the House of Commons, in the enactment of laws, but as a matter
of fact it does not dare to exercise the power which it has.
The navy department has reduced the appropriation for large vessels,
and it is certain that at the next Hague conference Great Britain
will be found supporting a proposition for the limitation of
armaments. Mr. Edmund Robertson, the financial secretary to the
admiralty, presented the government's scheme for reduction and made
a favorable impression upon the House of Commons.
[Illustration: JOHN MORLEY, M. P.]
The minister of education, Mr. Birrell, has been the busiest of the
ministers so far. He has had charge of the educational bill which
has been under discussion for several months and which, after being
perfected in the committee of the whole, has been passed to a third
reading by a majority of a hundred and ninety-two. As the bill
deals with religion as well as education and concerns the children
of the country, it arouses deep interest. In England the public
school system has grown up as an addition to the church schools, or
rather the public schools have supplemented the work formerly done
by the private schools. As these schools increased in numbers and
importance the church schools began to ask for a division of the
school funds and this, as it usually does, brought into politics
the question of religious instruction in the schools. As long as
the private schools were supported by private contribution or
endowment their religious instruction was entirely in their own
hands, but when these schools began to draw their support from the
public treasury the taxpayers objected to paying for instruction in
the creed of any other church than their own. Four years ago the
Conservatives enacted a law which gave to the Established Church of
England considerable advantage over the nonconformist churches in
the management of the public schools, and this led to a campaign
against the law by the nonconformists. Their opposition to the
conservative government contributed not a little to the Liberal
victory and the bill now under consideration in parliament puts them
upon an equal footing with the members of the Established Church in
respect to schools and removes the tests which formerly operated
against nonconformist teachers.[12]
[12] The House of Lords has, since the writing: of the above, so
amended the educational bill that the prime minister has withdrawn
the bill as a protest against the House of Lords. It raises an issue
as to the co-ordinate power of the House of Lords, and may result in
curtailing the power of that body.
Mr. John Morley, the secretary for India, is too well known in
America to require an introduction. He stands in the front rank of
English men of letters and his appointment has given new hope to
the people of India. In presenting the Indian budget a few days ago
he promised a reduction of taxation--especially the detestable salt
tax, and said that a commission was inquiring how far the doctrine
of self government could be applied to the people of India. The
fact, however, that but a few hours were devoted to Indian affairs,
while days and weeks are given to home problems, shows how far the
interests of citizens are placed above the rights of remote subjects.
Mr. James Bryce, the secretary for Ireland, is also well known in
the United States, his American Commonwealth being a standard work
among us. He brings to his duties wide experience and a splendid
mind and, what is more important, an excellent heart. His sympathies
are broad and he has enough Irish blood in his veins to insure an
equitable view of Irish problems.
The prime minister made an excellent selection when he named Mr.
John Burns as president of the local government board. In this
position Mr. Burns has to deal with the subjects to the study
of which he has devoted his life, namely, labor and municipal
affairs. Having worked his way up from the ranks he is able to give
invaluable assistance in all matters pertaining to wage-earners,
factory inspection and municipalization. He is a tower of strength
to the Liberal ministry.
Mr. Winston Churchill, son of the late Lord Randolph Churchill,
as the representative of the colonial department in the House of
Commons, has to deal with the Chinese question in South Africa, one
of the leading questions of the recent campaign. The new government
has undertaken to abolish a system of contract labor which has been
described as little short of slavery. The mine owners insist that
Chinese labor is necessary for the successful working of the mines
and that the conditions imposed upon the Chinese are not severe,
but the laboring men of Great Britain are quite unanimous in their
condemnation of the system and the Liberal government is supporting
their views. Mr. Churchill is a brilliant young man and has, as his
friends believe, a bright future. The fact that his mother is of
American birth gives him a more than usual interest in our country
and makes us watch his career with a friendly eye. His connection
with the important work of framing a constitution for the Transvaal
is likely to largely increase his political prominence.
[Illustration: JOHN BURNS.]
I have left for the last the chancellor of the exchequer, although
in order of importance his office stands near the head of the
ministry. Mr. Henry Asquith, the present occupant of this position,
is one of the strongest members of the Liberal party and probably
its foremost debater. He was put forward to reply to Mr. Chamberlain
in the tariff controversy and acquitted himself well. He is opposed
to the protective tariff, whether levied for the aid of particular
industries or as a part of the scheme of retaliation and his ideas
are, for the present at least, in the ascendancy. If the Right
Honorable Joseph Chamberlain, with the prestige given him by the
Boer war and with his extraordinary ability as a public speaker,
can not overthrow England's free trade policy there is little
chance that any other English statesman will be able to attack it
successfully in the near future.
Mr. Asquith's department has the administration of the income tax
and inheritance tax. The latter has yielded more within the last
year than ever before, three large estates having turned into the
treasury (or will do so) some twenty millions of dollars. The
income tax is not only a permanent part of the fiscal system, but
a commission is considering whether a graded income tax should not
be substituted for the present uniform one. The tax is now uniform,
except that small incomes are exempt.
Besides the measures above referred to, the new government is
preparing a home rule measure for Ireland and proposes to so change
the election laws as to reduce the land holders to one vote each--at
present each land holder can vote in every district in which he has
land. The government is also supporting a measure which protects
the English tenant farmers in their improvements and in their right
to vote according to their own views, irrespective of the wishes of
the landlord. The Liberal victory was a victory for progressive,
democratic ideas and the new government is earnestly at work putting
these ideas into the form of law.
CHAPTER XLI.
HOMES AND SHRINES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
He who sees only the cities and villages of Great Britain misses one
of the most interesting features of English life. Land tenure is
so different here from tenure in the United States that the reader
will pardon a sketch of the old-fashioned manor. In England, the
right of primogeniture still remains and the family home descends to
the oldest son. It not only descends to him, but it continues its
descent through him to his son and his son's son, and is not subject
to alienation. It was our good fortune to be invited to several of
these homes, some of them rich in family heirlooms and of historic
interest.
Our ambassador, Mr. Reid, is occupying one of the most famous
estates in England; it is known as Wrest Park and is about forty
miles from London. During the London season, many spend the "week's
end" at their country home, and after a fortnight's experience in
London we could appreciate the necessity for it, for the dinner hour
is eight or eight fifteen, while receptions and balls begin at any
hour from ten to twelve. The House of Commons does not convene until
three o'clock in the afternoon, and generally sits until midnight.
Little wonder that there is an exodus on Saturday morning.
We spent our first week's end at Wrest Park and were shown through
its spacious grounds. The house itself is only about seventy years
old, but the land has been in the hands of the family for several
centuries. The estate consists of about seven thousand acres,
most of it in cultivation, but enough is left adjoining the house
for woods, parks, lawns and gardens, and these have been laid out
and ornamented by landscape gardeners. There are walks lined with
statuary, green stretches of velvet turf, miles of well kept hedges
of holly and box and cedar, stately oaks, summer houses, tea houses,
green houses and everything in the way of ornament that taste could
dictate and money supply. The gardens are especially attractive.
They were shut in by high walls, and against these walls fruit
trees, vines and flowers are trained with artistic effect. In the
hot houses peaches are ripening before their season, and huge
bunches of grapes are growing purple. Cucumbers, tomatoes and many
other vegetables, as well as fruits which we grow out of doors, are
in England raised and ripened under glass. The strawberries are of
enormous size, and the gooseberries are as large as pigeon eggs.
Within the house are spacious rooms hung with pictures of the
nobility that have occupied the estate, and of members of the royal
family who have visited there. The library contains several thousand
books accumulated through many generations.
Not far from the house stands the manor church supported by tithes,
the owner of the estate usually selecting the minister. In many
places the "living," as it is called, has ceased to be of great
value.
[Illustration: MELROSE ABBEY.]
The inheritance tax is quite a heavy burden upon the owners of these
estates, and many of the landholders are so impoverished that they
are obliged to rent their estates in order to raise the money to
meet the tax.
Mr. Moreton Frewen, who contributed many articles to the silver
literature in 1896, and whose wife is of American birth, took us
down to his place, Brede, which is within sight of the battlefield
of Hastings. It is a fine old house with a splendid view, and the
oak doors and woodwork, although five or six hundred years old,
are as good as new. On the way to Brede we stopped for luncheon
at Knole, another famous country place owned by the West family.
The present occupant, Lord Sackville West, was once Ambassador to
America. It is a historic place, and has seven courts, fifty-two
stairways and three hundred and sixty-five windows. The earliest
record shows that the Earl of Albemarle gave the estate to his
daughter when she was married to the Earl of Pembroke. Afterward, it
came into the possession of Lord Saye and Sele, and he conveyed it
to the Archbishop of Canterbury, who at his death bequeathed it to
the See of Canterbury. Cranmer occupied the place in the sixteenth
century, and conveyed it to Henry the Eighth. (Cranmer will be
remembered as one of the three bishops who were burned at the
stake.) It was once in the possession of Queen Mary and afterward of
Queen Elizabeth, who conveyed it to Dudley, her favorite Earl. The
house is a veritable museum and art gallery, and contains hundred
of pictures, many of them of kings and others prominent in English
history. One of the rooms was fitted up by James First for himself
when he paid a visit to Knole, and the room is kept as it was. The
bed is said to have cost forty thousand dollars, and the curtains
and bed cover are embroidered with gold and silver. The mattresses
are of white satin, and the walls are hung with Flemish tapestry
representing scenes from the history of Nebuchadnezzar.
The great hall used as a dining room is seventy-five feet long and
half as wide. At one end is a raised floor where the table of the
Lord of the Manor stood; below him sat the retainers and lower
members of the household. A list of one hundred and twenty-six
names is preserved, that being the number of those who regularly
took their meals in the hall in 1624. In this hall there is a large
collection of silver and pewter vessels handed down from generation
to generation. The grounds and gardens, I need hardly add, are in
keeping with the interior of the castle. We saw here one of the
prettiest specimens of the skill of the horticulturist's art that
has come under our observation. Grape vines are grown in large
pots and trained upon a hoop-like trellis. When we were there the
clusters of ripened grapes added to the beauty of the vines.
We spent one night at Broughton Castle as the guests of Lord and
Lady Lennox. The host and hostess have often visited the United
States, and are quite liberal in their political views. They are
also identified with the community, encouraging artistic industry
such as wood carving and the like, by which the young people may add
to their income as well as develop their taste. In this connection
it should be explained that the owner of an estate occupies a
responsible position. While he draws rent from his tenants, he is
expected to be their patron and protector, as well as their general
advisor. He provides the Christmas festivities, gives presents to
the children and looks after the sick.
The moral standards which he sets up have a large influence upon the
religious and social life of the community, and the conscientious
land owner is able to do a great deal of good.
Broughton Castle is near Banbury--the Banbury Cross, immortalized
in child rhymes by the woman "who rode a white horse"--and was
frequented by Cromwell and his chiefs. In fact, in one of the
rooms, as tradition goes, the death warrant of Charles the First
was signed. The house is of stone and the roof is covered with
stone tiles--and a good roof it still is, though six hundred years
old. In some of the rooms fine oak paneling had been painted over,
and in other rooms handsome stone walls had been disfigured with
plaster, but the present occupant is restoring these. As in many of
the larger and older country places, Broughton has a little chapel
of its own where the family assembled for divine service. The castle
is surrounded by a shaded lawn, ornamented by hedge, evergreens,
flower beds and rose-covered arbors, and around all these runs the
moat, fed from neighboring streams. The memory of feudal times is
preserved by the towers, drawbridge and massive gates. English
history is illuminated by these ancient country seats, and much in
English home life is explained that would otherwise be difficult to
understand.
Warwick Castle is near Lemington and but a few miles from Broughton.
It is probably the most visited of all the castles of England and is
still in the family of the Earl of Warwick, the king maker. It is
built upon the banks of the Avon and has a deep, dark dungeon and
lofty towers and all the accessories of an ancient fortress. The
great hall is filled with armor and heirlooms. The house contains a
valuable collection of paintings by old masters and the furniture
of the sleeping rooms is as remarkable for its design as for its
antiquity. A few weeks ago a pageant, illustrating the history of
the castle, was given on the banks of the stream and attended by
some twenty thousand visitors.
So much for the great estates of England. They are still maintained
and the system is still defended by manly English statesmen as the
one best calculated to preserve the family and the present social
structure. There does not seem to be as much opposition here as an
American would suppose to this system, under which priority of birth
carries with it so great an advantage over those born afterward.
The younger children, reared to expect little except in case of the
death of those older, seem to accept the situation as a matter of
course, and tenants, descended from generations of tenants, seem to
acquiesce without protest in a tenure which deprives them of the
prospect of ownership. While one can appreciate the beauty of the
manors and admit that they could not be maintained under any other
system than that which gives them entire to one member of the family
and prevents alienation, still an American finds his admiration for
American institutions increasing while he travels, for to him the
advantages that flow from individual ownership, and the division of
estates at death, seem infinitely greater than any that are to be
derived from the English system. A hundred farmers, stimulated by
hope and secure in their holdings, contribute more than one country
gentleman and ninety-nine tenants possibly can to the strength and
vigor of a state.
[Illustration: BIRTHPLACE OF ROBERT BURNS.]
After all, the large estates are insignificant in number when
compared with the homes of the middle classes in the various cities
and villages, but these are so much like the homes in America, both
in appearance and in management, that it is not necessary to dwell
upon them. The owners of these homes are potent in parliamentary
elections, as are also the laboring men. The House of Lords
represents the landed proprietors, more than one-third of all the
farm lands in England being owned by members of that body.
We took occasion to visit some of the shrines of Great Britain. Of
course, no one place is so rich in historic memories as Westminster
Abbey, it being the burial place of most of the illustrious of
England. One of the most frequented places outside of London is
Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace and burial place of Shakespeare.
The house in which he was born is still standing and is well
preserved, considering the years that have passed over it. From its
size and arrangement it is evident that Shakespeare's father was a
man of some means. The house is now public property and serves as a
museum where numerous Shakespearian relics are exhibited. One oil
painting of him, made when he was still a young man, would indicate
that even then he enjoyed some distinction among his fellows,
although succeeding generations have appreciated him vastly more
than his own.
[Illustration: SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTH-HOUSE RESTORATION.]
The grammar school which Shakespeare attended is still to be
seen, and at the church they have the baptismal font used at his
christening and the parish register in which his baptism and burial
are entered. His grave is in the floor of the church and there is
nothing to mark the stone slab that covers it but the familiar lines:
"Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare,
To digg the dust enclosed heare.
Bleste be ye man yt spares thes stones,
And curst be he yt moves my bones."
At Edinburgh we saw the home of John Knox and were impressed anew
with the tremendous influence which he exerted upon the religious
life of Scotland. Seldom has it fallen to the lot of one man to so
stamp his thought upon so many people. In Edinburgh also stands the
little chapel, less known to tourists, in which the Covenanters
met and in which the struggle began between them and the Church of
England. It is hard to believe that so short a time ago there was a
bloody war between two branches of the Protestant Church, in which
thousands suffered martyrdom for their religious convictions.
We visited Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond, to which Scot has given a
permanent place in literature, and after seeing them will not enter
into a dispute with any Highlander, however extravagant his praise
of these beautiful lakes. And if I may digress for a moment, we
also visited the lakes of Killarney of which Moore sang. They also
are beautiful enough to move a poet's heart and inspire a poet's
pen, although to be truthful I must assert that Lake Tahoe, which
shines like a jewel in the crown of the Sierras, on the boundary
line between California and Nevada, need not fear comparison with
any of the lakes of Scotland or Ireland. In one thing, however,
we cannot compare with England, Scotland and Ireland, namely, the
ivy-mantled ruin. It is picturesque and pleasing to the eye and yet
who would exchange a plain cottage, occupied by a happy family, for
the crumbling vine-clad walls of a tenantless castle?
From Glasgow we went by automobile to Ayr, the birthplace of Burns.
Thirty-three miles out and thirty-three miles back, and it rained
nearly the entire way! We were sustained amid the discomforts of the
trip by our interest in Scotland's rustic bard, whose simple lays
have endeared him to the universal heart, but our sympathies went
out to two kind friends, Mr. McKillup, a member of parliament, and
Mr. Henry Wright, a Glasgow barrister, who accompanied us. It was an
humble cottage in which Burns first saw the light and in which he
lived when he made the acquaintance of those rollicking companions,
Tam O'Shanter and Souter Johnny. Near by is the famous bridge over
the "Bonny Doon" of whose "banks and braes" he sang, and not far
away are the old bridge and the new one which his fancy clothed with
life and brought together in animated dialogue. After visiting the
places and looking upon the scenes enshrined in literature by his
verse one reads with even greater zest the homespun ballads of this
impulsive apostle of democracy. I was glad to learn that increasing
thousands wend their way to his birthplace each year and that among
the visitors Americans are very numerous.
We reserved for the conclusion of our tour of the British Isles
Hawarden Castle, the home of Gladstone. With our usual luck we
reached Hawarden just as Mr. Henry Gladstone arrived from his home,
eight miles away, and were taken through the house and grounds by
him. The estate of several thousand acres, which came into the
family from Mrs. Gladstone's ancestors, has just passed, according
to the law of primogeniture, into the hands of a grandson of
Mr. Gladstone. The new owner is a sober, studious young man who
has already achieved distinction in college debates and who is
preparing himself for a public career. While we enjoyed a drive
through the woods and through the park, where the elder Gladstone
was wont to cut down trees for exercise, our interest naturally
centered in the big, roomy house, castle-like in its structure,
and in the commodious library where England's Christian statesman
labored for more than threescore years, for it must be remembered
that his public life extended over two generations. The walls are
concealed by books, and shelves jut out into the room at right
angles. Gladstone was a prodigious worker and, amidst the cares of
official life, found time to devote to the classics, to the sciences
and to religious discussion. Among the busts in the room is one of
Disraeli, his most conspicuous political antagonist. The prominence
thus given to his distinguished opponent may possibly be explained,
as Hercules explained the courtesy shown by him to the goddess whose
enmity compelled him to perform the labors which made him immortal.
Opening off from the library is a fireproof vault in which Mr.
Gladstone kept his papers and valuable documents, and he was so
methodical that Mr. John Morley, his biographer, found the materials
for his work in excellent order. Not far from the house is a large
building, erected as a memorial to Gladstone, which contains his
religious library of several thousand volumes. The family has built
a dormitory adjoining the library to accommodate the students who
come from all countries to study theological questions.
[Illustration: HAWARDEN CASTLE--HOME OF GLADSTONE]
[Illustration: W. E. GLADSTONE.]
We also visited the chapel near by where the statesman attended
church and often read the service. His son-in-law, the present
rector, showed us the memorial, since unveiled, which will draw
multitudes to this historic edifice. It is a marble group by the
sculptor Richmond and represents the great Commoner and his wife
sleeping side by side, an angel guarding them with outstretched
wings. It is fitting that they should thus rest at the end of life,
for they had together borne life's burdens and together shared the
many triumphs that crowned their efforts. While he was master of
the ship of state, she was mistress of an ideal home; while he was
seeking to ameliorate the condition of the whole people, she was
conducting a private orphanage within a stone's throw of the castle,
an institution still maintained in her memory. So happy was the long
married life of this well-mated pair that at the approach of death
he requested the family not to permit his interment in Westminster
Abbey, except on condition that his wife be given a place beside
him, and this unusual honor was paid them.
Although nations boast of material wealth and manufacturing plants,
their most valuable assets are their men and women of merit, and
their greatest factories are their institutions of learning,
which convert priceless raw material into a finished product of
inestimable worth. Gladstone, vigorous in body, strong in mind and
elevated in moral purpose, was an ornament to the age in which he
lived and will be an inspiration to succeeding generations.
[Illustration: WINDSOR CASTLE]
CHAPTER XLII.
GLIMPSES OF SPAIN.
The peninsula which Spain and Portugal divide between them is the
part of western Europe least visited by Americans, although it
stretches out like a friendly hand toward the western hemisphere
and has furnished not only the discoverer of North America, but the
colonizers of Central and South America. When, early last June, we
attempted to secure homeward passage, we found the ships sailing
from Hamburg, Bremen and Antwerp already filled and had to look to
a Mediterranean boat for accommodation. I mention this experience
in the hope that it may help some other traveler who finds
himself in the same dilemma, for we not only secured satisfactory
accommodations on one of the North German Lloyd steamers, the
Princess Irene, but had in addition an opportunity to see the most
backward country in western Europe, the stronghold of the Moors
during the middle ages and one of the great fortresses of the globe.
A fast train makes the distance from Paris to Madrid in a little
over a day, the only drawback being that it passes through the
Pyrenees in the night. As we had remained in Paris longer than we
expected, we were deprived of a view of the mountain scenery and of
the summer resorts of northern Spain. Morning found us in the very
heart of Castile and the landscape resembles some parts of Mexico.
The country is in the midst of the dry season and, the grain having
been gathered, the fields look quite barren save for the vineyards.
These are numerous all over Spain and recall the fact that Spain,
like other colonizers, tried to make her colonies supplement her
own products rather than compete with them. She forbade grape
growing in Cuba, and in Mexico not only prohibited the culture of
the vine, but the production of silk also. Speaking of grapes, it
is only fair to say that, in this fruit, Spain cannot be surpassed.
Nowhere have we found grapes so abundant, so cheap or so delicious.
At a Vienna hotel last June they were asking three dollars for a
cluster--probably raised in a hot house--that in August could be
bought in Spain for ten or fifteen cents. The large white grapes
exported to the United States and sold as a luxury during the winter
months are here within the reach of all.
All along the railroad one sees primitive agricultural methods. The
old-fashioned threshing floor is in common use, but instead of the
flail they employ a machine resembling a light disc harrow, which is
hitched to a pair of mules and drawn rapidly round and round. When
the wheat is separated from the straw, men go over the threshing
floor and winnow out the wheat, the wind blowing away the chaff.
We were informed that they had had a prosperous year in the grain
districts, but the stubble did not indicate as heavy a crop as we
raise in the United States.
Madrid surprised us. It contains more than half a million of
inhabitants, is about two thousand feet above the sea and is really
a very attractive city. It is not an ancient city, being less than
a thousand years old, but it has substantial blocks, a beautiful
boulevard and a picture gallery one and a half centuries old. In
the different galleries at Madrid are some of the best canvases of
Velasquez and Murillo.
As in all other Spanish countries one finds here reminders of the
national sport, the bull fight. Each city has its amphitheater or
circular bull pit, and it is often the most conspicuous building
in the place; the fans--and in Spain the fan is omnipresent and
often of great value--are ornamented with scenes from the bull
fight and the bill boards blaze with announcements of the next
Sunday's combat. The bull fight is probably a lineal descendant of
the gladiatorial contests of Rome, a surviving relic of brutality,
which must disappear when Spain follows her northern neighbors in
the adoption of universal education. At present her percentage of
illiteracy is disgracefully large.
While Spain has a constitutional government and goes through the
form of electing a legislative body, her elections do not seem to be
characterized by the freedom and fairness that attend elections in
northern Europe. There is, however, in this country, as in others,
a growing spirit of reform which is already demanding more schools
and less religious interference in the government. Much is expected
of the present king, both because of the independence which he has
manifested and because the new queen comes from England, where
parliamentary government has for centuries been an established fact.
Before leaving Madrid a word should be said in regard to the Toledo
ware--iron and steel inlaid with gold. It resembles somewhat the
Damascene work of Japan and the old inlaid work of Damascus and
Constantinople. The far famed Toledo blade was not less dangerous in
war because it was ornamented with delicate tracery of gold.
A night's ride brought us to Cordova, once the Moorish capital of
Spain. It had been a city of some note under the Romans before the
Christian era, and the Moors undertook to make it a western Mecca
for the Mohammedans. There are still to be seen two gates and a
wall, which were built by the Romans, and a bridge which rests
upon the foundations laid by the great builders. The bridge with
its massive arches and ponderous piers is interesting for other
than historic reasons, as it gives evidence of the fact that the
Moors were quick to appreciate and to follow the example of their
predecessors. In the stream near the bridge are three grist mills
dating from the middle ages, one of which still supplies flour to
the neighborhood.
[Illustration: THE OLD BRIDGE AT CORDOVA.]
The old mosque, however, is the overshadowing object of interest
in Cordova, and in itself well repays a visit to this city of
narrow, winding streets and oriental appearance. The ground plan
of the mosque covers about two hundred and forty thousand square
feet--nearly as much as St. Peter's at Rome, but one-third of
the space is occupied by a court where the worshipers assemble
and purify themselves before entering upon their devotions. The
mosque was some four centuries in building, one ruler after another
extending its limits in order to accommodate the increasing number
of converts. In appearance the structure is low and flat and
gives little idea of its immensity. It is surrounded by a strong
wall heavily buttressed and is entered by huge gates. One of
these gates bears striking testimony to a remarkable agreement
entered into by the Christians and Mohammedans whereby the two
antagonistic religions divided the church between them. These gates
are covered with plates of bronze on which Catholic and Arabic
symbols alternate. The joint occupation did not last very long, but
Abderrahman, when he desired to secure more room for the followers
of the Prophet, was considerate enough to purchase the other half
from the Christians.
The interior of the mosque is a succession of arches supported by
nearly a thousand pillars and these pillars, the traveler is told,
were brought from Carthage, France and Italy. Workmen were secured
in Constantinople by one of the caliphs and it is possible to find
almost every variety of architecture in the columns themselves or in
their capitals and bases.
When Cordova was recaptured by the Christians in the thirteenth
century a part of this building was converted into a cathedral and
to-day it presents a curious combination of chapel, altar, shrine
and mosque. The most attractive decorations in the mosque are the
mosaics, and the superb wood carving in the principal choir are of
rare merit. One series of these pictures in wood illustrates Old
Testament history, while another portrays the principal events in
the life of Christ.
The road from Cordova--Cordova, once the center of art, Arabic
learning and religion, but now a prosaic town of less than sixty
thousand--to Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors north of the
Mediterranean, leads through a succession of olive groves. Nowhere,
not even in Palestine or about the mount that bears the olive's
name, have we seen such an abundance of these trees. From the
importance of this industry one would suppose that southern Europe
could supply olive oil enough without importing cotton seed from the
United States, and yet we have been assured by shippers that a great
deal of the olive oil which we buy from Europe is really cotton seed
oil, which has twice crossed the Atlantic.
The city of Granada is situated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada,
upon whose summit some snow still lingered when two-thirds of the
month of August had passed. The city stretches back towards the
mountains and derives its food supply from a splendid valley which
extends toward the west to the Atlantic. At one time Granada had a
population of two hundred and fifty thousand, but to-day less than
a third of that number can be counted in the city. In the height
of its glory Granada's kings held court in oriental fashion and
surrounded themselves with a luxury which the colder countries
of the north did not attempt to imitate. When the Indians roamed
over the prairies and hunted through the forests of the western
hemisphere, the Arab ruler had his palace on the height of Alhambra
and, turning his face toward Mecca, prayed for the extermination
of the infidel; his warriors went out from this fortress to ravage
the surrounding country and, returning laden with spoil, held high
carnival on the banks of the Darro. The fairest of the women of his
race were gathered into the harem and flowers and fountains gave
perfume and freshness to his habitation.
Washington Irving has contributed so much to literature on the
Alhambra and its legends that it is not necessary to undertake a
description of this fascinating palace of the Moorish kings. It
crowns a hill much as the Parthenon crowns the Acropolis, or as the
summer residence of Mexico's president crowns Chapultepec. Irving
found the palace neglected and occupied by wandering families whose
members felt no interest in its preservation. He helped to arouse
an interest in the place which has led the government not only
to protect it from further vandalism, but to restore many of its
parts. Its rooms, halls, audience chambers, courts and baths are all
finished in most elaborate style. As in other Mohammedan buildings,
the ornamentation is in geometrical figures and flowers, as the
followers of this religion carry their aversion to idolatry so far
that they do not use human figures or even animals in decoration.
The material employed in the Alhambra is stucco and it is surprising
what delicacy and grace characterize the work. One finds here a
reminder of the screens which play so important a part in the tombs
built by the Mohammedan conquerors in India, except that in India
marble is used.
To the American the room known as the Hall of the Ambassadors is
especially interesting because in this room, if the word of the
guide can be relied upon, Ferdinand and Isabella received Columbus
just before he embarked upon his voyage of discovery.
A part of the Alhambra was torn down by order of Charles the
Fifth, who, early in the sixteenth century, conceived the idea of
building himself a palace of modern design. The structure was never
finished, however, and stands to-day a ruin, more substantial but
less beautiful than the palace which it was intended to outshine.
The Moors built a great cistern within the outer walls of Alhambra
and brought water from the mountains to supply it. It is so far
below the surface that the water is always cool and the water is so
perfectly filtered that even now it is greatly sought for drinking.
This far-sighted provision not only for present wants, but for
possible siege, seems to have been characteristic of the Moors,
for the city of Constantinople was likewise protected by immense
underground reservoirs.
[Illustration: THE ALHAMBRA--SPAIN]
Granada has a considerable gypsy population. From the Alhambra one
can see their dwellings on an opposite hillside. The rooms are hewn
out of the stone, with only the door visible. All in all, Granada
offers as much of variety as one can find anywhere in Europe and
more glimpses of the oriental life of the past than can be seen
anywhere else west of the Bosphorus.
The rock of Gibraltar has no advertising matter on it. In this
respect only does it differ from the photographs with which every
reader is familiar. It is, however, larger than the pictures
indicate. It is an immense limestone formation rising abruptly from
the water to a height of fourteen hundred feet. It is about three
miles long and at the widest point three-quarters of a mile across.
It is evident that it was once an island, for the low, flat strip
of ground which connects it with the main land seems to have been
formed by the washing in of the sand. The triangular face of the
rock, which is usually photographed, looks toward the land instead
of toward the sea, the water front being much less imposing. A town
of twenty-six thousand inhabitants has grown up around the base of
the rock, fully twenty per cent of the population being made up
of the English garrison. It is strictly a military town and the
government does not encourage the settlement of civilians there. The
rock is full of concealed cannon and is supposed to be impregnable.
It seems to be perforated with galleries and one sees the nose of a
cannon poked out at every commanding point. When the wind is from
the east a cloud hovers over the rock, sometimes concealing its
summit. While the harbor at Gibraltar is not an especially good
one, it is one of the most frequented in the world, and the dry
docks will accommodate the largest ships. Just beyond the rock of
Gibraltar there is a strip of neutral ground, one side sentineled by
the British, the other by the Spanish. Several thousand Spaniards
enter the city every morning, for all the manual labor is done by
them, and return to their homes at night. Just across the bay or
harbor is the Spanish city of Algeciras and, from both Algeciras and
Gibraltar, boats cross the strait to Tangiers, the Morocco capital.
We had planned to make this trip, but were deterred partly because
a revolution in Tangiers made it uncertain that we would be able to
land, and partly because unfavorable weather threatened to delay our
return.
I found at Gibraltar an instance of hereditary officeholding which
is not often paralleled among our people. The position of American
consul has been in one family for eighty-four years consecutively.
The present occupant, Mr. Sprague, is the third of his line to
represent our government, his father, who held the office for over
fifty years, in turn succeeding his father. The present consul,
Sprague, is intensely American, notwithstanding the long residence
of his family outside the country.
As the traveler leaves Gibraltar for the west he bids farewell to
Africa and to Europe at the same time--Gibraltar and a somewhat
similar rock on the opposite side of the channel, the two, anciently
known as the Pillars of Hercules, stand out in bold relief against
the sky. These rocks are not the last land, however, although the
most striking features. There is a point a few miles farther west
known as Tarifa which, according to tradition, was once occupied by
bold robbers who exacted tribute from all who passed by. It is even
said that our word tariff traces its origin to this Tarifa; if it be
true that the two words are related it is fitting that Tarifa should
be the last thing seen by the traveler on his departure, for the
tariff is the first thing which he encounters upon his arrival in
America.
[Illustration: RESIGNATION.]
CHAPTER XLIII.
A WORD TO TOURISTS.
The articles of this series, taken in connection with the articles
written during a former visit to Europe, cover all of the countries
which I have visited, and nothing is left but to offer some
generalizations covering the more important questions discussed in
the course of these articles. First, as to routes of travel. We have
found the trip around the globe far more instructive than we had
expected, and it was entered upon for educational reasons. There is
so much to see and learn that one can occupy an indefinite time in
travel. We set apart a year for the trip and reached home sixteen
days within the limit. Those who have followed these letters will
admit, I think, that we have covered a great deal of ground and
seen a great deal of the world. If we were repeating the trip, I
hardly know of any country that we could afford to leave out, and I
am satisfied that it is better to start from the Pacific coast than
from the Atlantic. One could make the trip in half the time that we
spent and see a great deal, but he can see more if he has a year or
two to spare for the journey.
If one desires to make the trip in six months, he should set apart
about two months for ocean travel. He could then devote two weeks to
Japan, ten days to China, a week to Manila, three weeks to India,
a week to Egypt, two weeks to the Holy Land, a week to Greece and
Constantinople, and the rest of the time to Europe. To go through
Korea would require ten days or two weeks more, but the Hermit
Kingdom is different from any other country, and its queer people
are worth seeing. Very few of the tourists have visited Pekin, and
yet, it is in some respects the most interesting of the Chinese
cities. The Manchu element of the Chinese population--the ruling
element--can only be seen at Pekin or in the northern districts. The
Great Wall is near Pekin, and the wall around the city of Pekin is
even more imposing than the great wall itself. The Altar of Heaven,
the most beautiful and elaborate sacrificial altar on earth, is
in the suburbs of the Chinese capital and in itself well repays a
visit.
Until recently Pekin could only be entered from the sea via
Tientsin. The railroad, however, from Pekin to Hankow was about
completed when we were there, and this greatly facilitates travel
through the interior. If one goes on through Korea, it is best to go
on to Pekin by water and then go on the railroad to Hankow and down
the Yangtse river to Shanghai.
Every American who visits the Orient should spend some days in the
Philippine Islands. He owes it to his country to do so. If he will
visit the schools, he will be convinced that there is increasing
intelligence in the islands, and he will not doubt that the people
want independence. An inspection of the factories will prove that
the Filipinos are industrious as well as intelligent.
It takes about two weeks to go from Singapore to Java and return,
but we remember that visit as one of the most delightful parts of
the trip. The ruined temple at Boro Boedoer, the delicious fruits,
the terraced hills, the far reaching rice fields and the shady
drives linger in one's memory.
To visit Ceylon, Burma and India requires a good deal of travel upon
the Bay of Bengal. We went to Ceylon, then back to Burma, then on to
Calcutta. Some go to Burma and then to India and return to Ceylon
from Bombay, but all three of these countries are interesting, and
one can hardly afford to pass by any of them. Burma is the home of
Buddhism, and one can learn more of the worship of Buddha here than
anywhere else. The yellow-robed priest with his begging-bowl is
everywhere present.
I have already discussed India and Egypt somewhat in detail, and no
traveler need be urged to visit these countries. Palestine, however,
is skipped by so many travelers that I may be pardoned a word of
advice. Of all the countries which we visited none interested us
more than the Holy Land, and no member of a Christian church can
afford to visit southern Europe or pass through the Suez canal
without seeing that portion of Asia which is immortalized by Bible
history. The ruins at Baalbek, in some respects the most remarkable
in the world, attract many to Beyrout, Damascus and the Lebanons,
but the Sea of Galilee, Jerusalem and the Jordan have lessons for
the tourist of far greater importance than can be derived from the
ruins of heathen temples.
If the reader lacks either time, inclination or means for a trip
around the world, he will find one of the shorter trips to Europe
only second in interest and value. The Mediterranean trip is a very
popular one. This, according to its length, permits a visit to
Gibraltar, Alexandria, Cairo, Palestine, Constantinople, Greece and
Italy. From Gibraltar it is a short trip to Granada, Cordova and
Madrid, and our own experience leads me to commend this trip to the
traveler. At Cairo and Constantinople the Orient comes nearest to
Europe and America, and the difference between the Orient and the
western world is so striking that no one visiting southern Europe
should miss the Nile and Bosphorus. One can spend weeks, and even
months, about the shores of the Mediterranean; Africa, Asia Minor
and Europe all touch upon this great inland sea. Without leaving its
shores one can study the most opposite types which the human race
has produced and at the same time study the history of the oldest
periods known to man. Egypt should be visited before the end of
March, while April is the best month for a trip to Palestine.
[Illustration: VESUVIUS AS SEEN FROM NAPLES.]
In Italy alone one could occupy a winter. Rome, the center of the
Catholic world and the home of the Cæsars, is a most fascinating
city. There are no mosaics like those of St. Peters and few
galleries equal those of the Vatican, while masterpieces of
sculptors and painters are to be found on every hand. The old Roman
forum is the Mecca of the student, and the Coliseum is still a
wonder, defying as it has the storms of nearly two thousand years.
At Naples one sees Vesuvius and lava beds formed but a few months
ago. At one place the stream of lava poured through an archway and
hardened as it cooled. When we were there the lava was like stone
and could with difficulty be broken. At Florence one sees the best
specimens of modern sculpture, and at Milan he visits one of the
most famous of the European cathedrals.
Venice is in a class by itself. No other city rivals it in
uniqueness. Its streets are canals, and gondolas are the vehicles in
which potentate, priest and plebeian ride. It draws visitors from
all over the world and sends them away, after a short visit, glad
that they came and equally glad to escape from the dampness of the
place.
If one desires a summer trip, he can find few journeys more
delightful than those through Switzerland and along the Rhine.
Lakes, rivers and mountains--these are to be found in abundance,
with cities enough to supply the population and hotels to
accommodate the the tourists. If one would combine pleasure with
instruction, he can profitably employ considerable time in visiting
the German universities at Heidelberg and Leipsic and the art
galleries at Dresden and Munich. The cathedral at Cologne, it may be
added, is by many preferred to the cathedral at Milan.
The northern portions of Europe are even more inviting to the
summer tourist than Switzerland or the Rhine. The lakes of Ireland
and Scotland and the seacoast resorts of England and Holland give
rest and recuperation to multitudes every year. If I were going to
suggest a summer trip, it would be as follows:
Leave New York early in June, land at Liverpool, cross over to
Newcastle and take a steamer for Bergen, Norway. A week can be spent
delightfully in the fjords and on the lakes in the neighborhood
of Bergen. Such a combination of deep water and rugged mountain
sides, rushing streams and crystal lakes is hard to find. Then let
the tourist proceed to Trondhjem, the ancient capital, where King
Haakon was recently crowned. From Trondhjem, the traveler can reach
the Arctic circle in a little more than a day. While a day's stay
is sufficient in the land of the midnight sun if the sky is clear,
it is better to allow one's self two or three days' leeway as it
is often cloudy in this latitude and at this time of the year. The
midnight sun must be seen to be appreciated. No description can
do it justice. To pass from day to day with no intervening night,
to watch the sun linger for a while in the north near the horizon
and then begin a new day's work without a moment's sleep gives one
a sensation not soon forgotten. A railroad across Norway brings
Christiania within a day's ride of Trondhjem, and from Christiania
to Stockholm is another day.
Stockholm is sure to charm the visitor. It is a beautiful town
beautifully situated; it stands where the waters of the lakes and
the ocean meet. Several days can be spent in Stockholm to advantage,
and then one is prepared for the boat ride to St. Petersburg, one of
the rarest experiences that one can find in travel. The boat wends
its way through islands almost the entire distance.
A week's stay in St. Petersburg will give an opportunity for an
inspection of the capital of the greatest of the nations measured
by territory, and one of the greatest measured by population. Here
one has a chance to learn something of the Greek Church with its
splendid cathedrals, rivaling the cathedrals of the Roman Catholic
Church. Moscow is even more distinctly Russian than St. Petersburg,
and the art gallery there surpasses the one at St. Petersburg in its
collection of the works of Russian artists. Tolstoy's summer home is
not far from Moscow, and many take advantage of the trip to see the
greatest of living philosophers.
The ride from St. Petersburg to Moscow and from Moscow to Warsaw
gives a very good view of the interior of Russia, and one can stop
off at most any place and learn something of the village life of the
Russian peasant. Several days can be occupied in Berlin, and other
points of interest can easily be reached from Germany's capital.
Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is only half a day's ride
distant. Hanover, Hamburg, Brussels, Amsterdam and The Hague are
all within easy reach. In Germany one has an opportunity to learn
a great deal about forestry, agriculture and landscape gardening.
The parks, groves, shady drives and boulevards furnish the American
traveler with many suggestions while the battlefield of Waterloo and
the lowlands of Holland will ever be interesting to the student of
history.
The tour can be completed by a visit to Paris and London. The social
season in the latter ends early in August with the adjournment of
parliament. In three months' time one can make this northern trip
and return with a fund of information about the countries and their
peoples which could never be collected from books. It is not an
expensive trip even for first class travel, and the accommodations
furnished by the steamers and railroads for second class passengers
are such that one can reduce his expenses considerably without
discomfort.
But let me add, in conclusion, that one does not have to leave
America to find places of interest and that no one can justify a
trip abroad until he has become acquainted with his own country.
Europe has no summer resorts that surpass the cities on the
St. Lawrence, on our northern lakes and in the mountains of
the west. In America one can have every variety from salt-sea
bathing to mountain climbing, with fishing thrown in. In natural
scenery there is nothing in Europe which surpasses the Niagara,
Yellowstone Park, and the Yosemite Valley of California. There are
no agricultural views which surpass those in the valleys on the
Ohio, the Mississippi and the Missouri, and for a restful winter
trip Hawaii, Mexico and Cuba offer attractions that are unexcelled.
While the Western Hemisphere is not so old in its civilization,
the only advantage that the Orient and Europe can furnish is in
the variety of races, customs and religions. In natural scenery
America satisfies all expectations. Nothing but the Himalayas
offers more sublime heights, and the earth has no other chasm equal
to the Grand Canyon of Arizona. After one has seen the wonders of
America and the possibilities of its soil, its institutions and its
people, he can go abroad with the assurance that he will return,
more widely informed, it is true, but more intensely American than
before. There is no country like ours, whether it be measured by
the bountiful gifts of the Creator or by the works of man. In
all that goes to make a nation great materially, commercially,
intellectually, politically and morally, our country has no peer.
The American, returning to his own shores, feels like thanking Scott
for expressing so felicitously the traveler's sentiments:
"Breathes there a man with soul so dead
Who never to himself hath said,
This is my own, my native land;
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burn'd
As home his footsteps he hath turn'd
From wandering on a foreign strand?
If such there breathe, go, mark him well,
For him no minstrel raptures swell;
High though his titles, proud his name,
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim,--
Despite those titles, power and pelf,
The wretch, concentred all in self,
Living, shall forfeit fair renown,
And, doubly dying, shall go down
To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
Unwept, unhonor'd and unsung."
CHAPTER XLIV.
AMERICAN FOREIGN MISSIONS.
In former letters I have mentioned the missionary work being done
by Americans in the Orient, and I deem the subject important
enough for an article, in view of the conflicting reports which
have been brought back by tourists. We had an opportunity to
investigate the work done by American missionaries in Hawaii,
Japan, Korea, China, Singapore, India, Egypt, Palestine and Turkey.
We met representatives of nearly all the churches in the various
departments of missionary work, and as a result of our observations
our interest in foreign missions has been quickened. In Hawaii the
missionaries laid the foundation for the present civilization in the
islands and exerted a most beneficial influence upon the natives.
In Japan the missionary work has spread rapidly and is carried
on under four heads. The religious teacher presents the gospel
and establishes churches; the school teacher arouses an interest
in education and establishes schools; the medical missionary, by
unselfishly rendering obvious service, opens the way for both the
preacher and the school teacher, while the Young Men's Christian
Association and its accompanying organization, the Young Women's
Christian Association, weld the church membership into a religious
but unsectarian working body. The rapid growth in public instruction
has somewhat dwarfed the relative importance of the mission schools
in Japan, and the spread of the science of medicine has made the
work of the medical missionary less conspicuous there, but the
religious teacher in Japan has a field which is not surpassed
anywhere. The Japanese people are rapidly drifting away from
Buddhism, which until recently was the national faith. Shintoism,
which has become the state religion, is not a religion at all,
but a reverence for ancestors. Japan must have a religion, for no
nation is likely to avoid decay unless its morals are reinforced by
religion. If I had the authority to decide the question, I would
send some of the leading men of each denomination to Japan to
present Christianity to the educated Japanese. English is taught in
the schools of Japan, and one can speak to the Japanese without the
aid of an interpreter. This proposition I tested several times.
While it would be an advantage to have preachers who could speak
the Japanese language, still, it is more important that we should
send our ablest divines there--men who can meet the most intelligent
of the Japanese upon an equal footing and defend before them the
Christian philosophy of life.
Japan is the gateway of the Orient, and is to-day exerting an
influence upon China greater than the combined influence of all the
European nations. Western civilization is likely to enter China
through Japan. In fact, I believe that the Christian religion,
presented to the Chinese by the Japanese, would spread more rapidly
than if presented in any other way, for China has come to regard
Japan as a leader of thought. More than five thousand Chinese
students are now at schools in Japan, and Japanese teachers are
being more and more employed in China. Some of the most earnest
Christians whom we met are natives of Japan. At Tokyo, at Kioto,
and at Kagoshima I was especially impressed with the sincerity and
enthusiasm of the Japanese Christians. I could not but recall the
lines "Blest be the tie that binds our hearts in Christian love" as
I saw how much stronger this heart tie is than the ties of blood or
race or language.
In Seoul, Korea, we found a very successful medical mission and a
flourishing Young Men's Christian Association. We also learned of
several Christian congregations.
In China mission work has made great progress, although it has
had to bear the brunt of the fight now being made against foreign
influence. During the Boxer trouble there were examples of heroism
among the Chinese Christians which recalled the early days of
martyrdom. There were those who suffered death because of their
devotion to the Christian faith, and thousands more who did not
hesitate to take the part of the white Christians against members
of their own race. It takes time to educate a race or to make an
impression upon a great population like the population of China,
but the next quarter of a century is likely to see the Christian
religion spread more rapidly among the inhabitants of the Flowery
Kingdom than it has during the last century.
That our missionaries often make mistakes need not be denied.
They are human, and to err is the lot of all. A missionary among
strangers must exercise more sagacity and discretion than one
who works among people of his own race. The wonder is not that
missionaries make mistakes, but that they do not make more than
are now charged to them. It is even possible that a missionary
occasionally proves untrue to his calling--is it strange that this
should happen to a missionary almost alone and with but little
sympathetic support, when it sometimes happens to ministers who are
surrounded by friends and hedged in so that a fall would seem almost
impossible?
One part of the missionary's work has received scant notice,
namely--the planting of western ideas in the Orient. The daily life
of a missionary is not only a constant sermon, but to a certain
extent, an exposition of western ways. His manner of dress and his
manner of living are noted, and even if he did not say a word, he
would make an impression upon those about him. It would be worth
while to send Christians to the Orient merely to show the fullness
and richness of a Christian life, for, after all, the example of an
upright person, living a life of service according to the Christian
ideal, is more eloquent than any sermon--it is the unanswerable
argument in favor of our religion.
It is sometimes suggested by those unfriendly to missionary work
that missionaries live in too great comfort. This criticism will
not have weight with those who have attempted to live in the Orient
upon the salary of a missionary, but even if the missionaries lived
more luxuriantly than they do, that would still exert a beneficial
influence. As the Chinaman becomes educated he learns of the manners
and customs of the people of other nations, and the home of the
missionary gives an opportunity for comparisons. In China there is
polygamy, while the missionary has but one wife. In the Chinese home
the birth of a son is the occasion for rejoicing; the birth of a
daughter an occasion for less rejoicing, if not actual mourning. In
the missionary's home the girl child is as welcome as the boy. The
missionary's wife is not only a standing rebuke to the practice of
foot-binding, but is a stimulus to the movement now setting in for
the education of women.
The Catholic missionaries reach a class which might not be reached
by Protestant missionaries and Protestant missionaries appeal to
some who could not be reached by the Catholic missionaries. Each
church does its own work in its own way, and the result is better
than if either church attempted to follow the example of the other.
The celibacy of the priest and his voluntary sacrifice of home and
its joys that he may more fully devote himself to religion--these
appeal to some, especially to those who have been impressed with
the asceticism of the religious teachers of the Orient. There are
others, however, who are more impressed with a form of Christianity
which does not deny to its ministers the advantages of the family.
In other words, the different branches of the Christian Church, each
pursuing its own way, meet the widely different needs of the heathen
better than any one church could do it.
Missionary work in the Malay states has been very slow because the
Malays are nearly all Mohammedans, and it has been found difficult
to make headway against this religion. The Mohammedan believes in
one God, accepts most of the Old Testament, and regards Christ as
a great prophet, but claims that Mahomet was a later prophet and a
greater one.
Burma, the home of Buddhism, is one of the best missionary fields,
and great success has attended the Baptist mission, which has its
headquarters at Rangoon.
For many years American missionaries have been establishing schools
and churches in India. While this field has also been developed by
the English missionaries, I was informed that a majority of the
Sunday school children are now attending American Sunday schools.
It is one of the indisputable proofs of our country's supremacy in
altruistic work that though drawing nothing whatever from India in
the way of revenue, it sends into India every year for religious and
educational purposes almost as much as England does, notwithstanding
the fact that England draws something like a hundred millions a year
from India.
We found the various departments of Christian work growing
vigorously in India. Medical missionaries are winning the confidence
and the affections of the unfortunate; teachers are bringing
increasing thousands to a higher level of intellectual development;
and the ministers are explaining to the people why it is that the
Christian is sympathetic and benevolent. Simply stated, the medical
missionary compels attention, the school teacher takes the one whose
attention has been aroused and furnishes an education which enables
the pupil to see things in their proper relation, while the minister
points out the philosophy of the efforts of the other two and
presents the conception of life, which leads both medical missionary
and teacher to separate themselves from home and friends and devote
themselves to people who are connected with them only by the primal
ties which bind each human being to every other.
I shall long remember two meetings which I addressed in India. One
was held under the auspices of the Y. M. C. A. at Allahabad, one of
the centers of the Hindu religion. At the conclusion of my address
an Indian arose and addressed me as follows. "Mr. Bryan, you can
not judge of the influence of Christianity upon our country by the
number of church members. The spirit of Christ and the Christian
ideal have made an impression far wider than the church membership
would indicate. Tell your people that the Indians are grateful to
them for the missionaries and teachers whom they have sent among us,
and tell them how few these are in number compared with our needs.
Send us more, and assure your people that we appreciate the benefits
received from America."
This unsolicited testimonial to the good work of our missionaries
and teachers is entirely deserved. The influence of Christianity
upon the Orient is vastly greater than one would think, if the
church membership were the test. The stimulus which is given to
Eastern thought is enormous, and already the Hindus, Parsees and
Mohammedans are imitating the methods of the Christian world and
establishing schools independent of the government. The education of
the boys is proceeding more rapidly than the education of the girls,
but the latter is not entirely neglected. One Mohammedan woman, of
Bombay, of unusual mental strength and character, outlined a plan
which she had formed for establishing a school for the women of her
religious faith.
The Bombay meeting was in some respects the most remarkable meeting
that I ever addressed. Rev. Mr. Mell, an American, is pastor of
the Methodist Church in Bombay. While in Calcutta I received a
letter from him asking me to deliver in Bombay, in his church, the
lecture entitled "The Prince of Peace," which I delivered at Tokyo
and at Manila. As the time approached for the meeting, he concluded
that his church would not be large enough for the audience and
arranged to secure the Town Hall, which accommodates about three
thousand people. He was somewhat fearful that this hall would be
larger than necessary, but it was the only audience room that he
could secure. When the time came for the meeting, the hall was not
only filled to overflowing, but the crowd outside was such that it
was difficult for us to effect an entrance. On the platform were
prominent Hindus, Mohammedans and Parsees, and three-fourths of the
audience, at least, was made up of non-Christian Indians. Yet these
people listened for more than an hour to a defense of the Christian
religion--listened as attentively as any audience ever listened to
a political speech, and when I went from the hall, the younger men
were massed along the way and cheered as our people cheer during the
campaign. The next day I received a letter from one of the young men
thanking me for shaking hands with him as I passed out.
In the letters on India I have referred to the Presbyterian college
at Allahabad. At Bombay we found a Congregational school for boys
and girls and a school for the blind. It touches one's heart to see
these sightless little Indians cared for by American philanthropy
and, under the teaching of sympathetic friends, made more capable of
self-support and raised to a higher intellectual level than millions
who can see. Many of the children taken into these schools are
orphans whose parents died during the famines. What a history might
be written if the events of their lives were put on record, and how
much evidence would be furnished to those who endeavor to trace the
providence of God in the lives of individuals as well as in the
course of nations.
I have in another article referred to the work of the United
Presbyterians in the valley of the Nile. It would be difficult
to overestimate the influence which these pioneer Americans have
exerted over the descendants of the Pharaohs. The government is
giving more and more attention to educational matters in Egypt,
but the first work was done by the missionaries, and no one can
appreciate what this work means who has not had an opportunity to
compare the boys and the girls in the schools with the children
who are growing up in ignorance outside. In Jerusalem the Catholic
school for girls most interested us, and I need not add that the
Catholic missionaries have in many countries been the first to risk
their lives in the spread of the the gospel and in the establishment
of schools, orphan asylums and hospitals.
In Syria and in Turkey the Americans are very active. For half a
century they have made Beyrout headquarters for Syria, and their
churches and schools are scattered all over this portion of Asia. At
Constantinople also we met a large company of the representatives of
the various American churches, and their schools have been built on
both sides of the Bosphorus.
Why spend money on foreign missions? If the Oriental is happy in his
idolatry or in his worship of God through other religious forms,
why disturb him? These questions may be answered in various ways,
but one answer will suffice for the purpose of this article. The
Christian ideal of life is the highest ideal. There is no more
beautiful conception of life than that it is an overflowing spring.
There is no true measure of greatness except the Christian measure,
namely--service. If this ideal is good enough for America, it is
good enough for all the world. If truth must, according to eternal
laws, triumph, then this ideal must triumph over all lower ones,
and how can it triumph over lower ideals unless it is brought into
contact with them? If we see a man engaged in some useful work, but
laboring with antiquated tools, it is a kindness to him to offer
him an implement that will increase his effectiveness. If we see a
man following a low ideal and making but little of life, is it not
a kindness to offer him a higher one which will not only enlarge
his usefulness but his happiness as well? If the Christian ideal is
worthy to be followed in America, it is worthy to be presented in
every land, and experience has shown that it is an ideal capable of
being made universal, for it has commended itself to people of every
clime and of every tongue.
But it is said that we must not neglect home missions in our zeal to
carry the gospel and its attendant blessings to foreign shores. This
is a familiar objection, but as a rule it is urged by those who do
the least for home missions. I think I am far within the truth when
I say that the most liberal contributors to foreign missions are
also the most liberal contributors to home missions and that those
who are so afraid that work at home will be sacrificed for work
abroad are the very ones who themselves make few sacrifices for the
work at home. The same spirit which leads one to be generous in the
support of those benevolences which are immediately about him leads
him to take an interest in the needy wherever they are found. The
same spirit which makes one anxious to have the Sermon on the Mount
known in his neighborhood leads him to desire that the knowledge of
this sermon and the philosophy which it contains shall be brought to
the people of all the world.
There is another answer to those who say that we must confine
our efforts to the home field until we have supplied every moral
need. If an individual refuses to assist in the improvement of
others until he has himself reached perfection, who will be able
to aid others? In the effort to help others one often finds more
improvement than could come from a concentration of his efforts on
himself. So the country which refuses to extend a helping hand to
other lands until all its people have passed beyond the need of
improvement will do nothing for the world. As the contributions to
benevolences would be small, indeed, if only those contributed who
could do so without sacrifice, so the contributions to the world's
advancement would be but slight if only those helped others who were
not themselves in need of help.
"Let him who would be the chiefest among you be the servant of all;"
if this is the measure of national greatness, then our nation is
the greatest of all, for its contributions to the world surpass the
contributions made by any other nation. These contributions are made
in three ways: First, it contributes through the men and women who
have come from other lands to study here, and who carry American
ideas back to their homes; second, through the men and women who
have gone to other lands as preachers and teachers; and, third,
through books and printed reports.
I venture the suggestion that it would be worth while to establish
schools in the United States where representatives of other nations
could be brought and made acquainted with Christianity and with the
institutions which have grown up in Christian society. These could
then go among their own people and preach with greater effectiveness
than foreigners possibly can.
Next to this comes the education of the natives in schools
established in their own land and this, of course, is far less
expensive. From $40 to $50 a year will pay for the board, clothing
and tuition of a student in the lower classes of an Oriental
Christian college. If the hundreds of thousands of Christians who
could, without sacrifice, educate one student a year could be
induced to contribute money for this purpose, what an impetus would
be given to the cause of Christianity throughout the Orient! And
who, when he remembers what has been accomplished by one trained
mind directed by a high and holy purpose, will attempt to estimate
the beneficent influence of money thus spent? Who will set limits
to the good that may be done by those Orientals who are preparing
themselves for larger work under the instruction of American
missionaries and teachers?
Making due allowance for the frailty of human nature and for the
mistakes which all are liable to make, it may be said without fear
of successful contradiction that the missionaries, physicians and
teachers who consecrate themselves to the advancement of Asia's
millions along Christian lines are as high minded, as heroic, as
self-sacrificing, and, considering the great destiny of the race, as
useful as any equal number of men and women to be found in any other
part of the world.
[Illustration: A MISSION SCHOOL]
CHAPTER XLV.
WORLD PROBLEMS.
Each locality has its questions of interest; each state has subjects
which arouse discussion; each nation has its issues of paramount
importance, and the world has its problems. There are transient
questions which come and go and questions which, like Tennyson's
brook, "go on forever." Each generation, in each country, meets
the issues presented by conditions, but all the nations of the
earth are constantly grappling with problems universal in their
scope and everlasting in duration. In his famous oration at
Gettysburg, Abraham Lincoln spoke of an "unfinished work" which
those buried there had promoted and to which the living should
dedicate themselves. Every generation finds an unfinished work
when it enters upon life's stage and leaves the work unfinished
when it departs. The work of civilization is ever an unfinished
one for the reason that new problems present themselves as soon
as present ones have been solved. In our trip around the world we
have had an opportunity to note some of the problems which most
concern all peoples at all times. The first concerns the legitimate
sphere of government--what should the government, acting for all
the people, do, and what should be left to the individual? This
problem is under consideration in every civilized nation, and no two
nations have reached the same solution. At the two extremes stand
the individualist and the socialist--the former jealously guarding
the individual and opposing any encroachments upon his sphere of
action, the latter emphasizing the work of the state and seeking
to convert the work of production and the work of distribution
into state functions. Between these extremes stand the mass of the
people, governed more by the exigencies of each individual case
than by the theories put forward by individualist and socialist. In
some directions the governments of Europe and Asia have extended
the sphere of the state beyond anything known in the United States;
in some respects our government has enlarged the sphere of the
state beyond anything attempted in the old world, but everywhere
the tendency is to extend rather than to diminish the sphere of the
state's activities.
In the United States the public school is probably the best
illustration of extensive co-operation on the part of the public.
We regard the education of the people as a matter of public
importance--so vital a matter, in fact, that we no longer depend
upon the private school. The private school has its place, and its
establishment is encouraged by localities and regarded with favor
by the government, but the people, acting as a whole, insist that
the school door shall be open to every child born into the country.
In the last quarter of a century much advance has been made in
the establishment by the public of technical schools, such as law
schools, medical colleges, dentistry schools, industrial schools and
agricultural colleges. Probably the greatest comparative advance
has been made in the matter of agricultural colleges and experiment
stations. In Europe the public school system is spreading, more
rapidly in northern than in southern Europe, but not less surely in
southern Europe. In Asia the people are just beginning to recognize
education as a public function--a part of the state's work. In Japan
public instruction has for some years been modeled after the systems
employed in the United States and Europe. In Asia the public school
is more of a modern origin, but some idea of the rapidity with which
the public school is spreading in China may be known from the fact
that four thousand public schools have been established within five
years in the district of one of the viceroys.
Municipal ownership presents another phase of this subject; a
century ago comparatively few cities in this country or Europe
owned their own waterworks; now it is the exception that any city
of any size relies upon a private corporation for its water supply.
City lighting is having the same history, although municipalization
began later with lighting plants than with waterworks. Now comes the
question of street car lines, and, as the same principles apply, the
same inevitable trend toward municipal ownership is noticeable. The
experience of all the cities has been practically the same; first,
liberal franchises to induce the establishment of water, light or
street car plants; second, efforts at regulation and restriction,
made futile by the corrupt influence of the franchise companies;
third, municipal ownership as a protection to the people and as
a means of purifying politics. In the extent to which municipal
ownership has been carried Great Britain leads the world, although
in other countries some cities like Vienna have rivaled the cities
of Great Britain.
In nearly all of the countries of Europe and Asia the telegraph
lines are now owned by the government, and in most of the cities the
telephone system is also owned by the public. It is hardly necessary
to say that in all countries of any standing the mail service
is now in the hands of the government. There is very noticeable
growth in the government ownership of railroads. Many years ago the
government ownership of railroads was tested in various European
nations and the tendency toward the extension of government mileage
and the diminution of the mileage of privately owned roads has been
constant. In some countries there is still competition between the
government lines and the lines owned by private corporations, but
experience leaves no doubt that the lines owned by the government
will ultimately supplant the roads in private hands. Switzerland
has within four years purchased the main railroad system within her
territory; Japan has within a year extended the government railroads
by purchasing some of the roads formerly in private hands, and
the Indian government is planning to absorb more of the privately
owned lines. In France a number of the railroads hold fifty-year
charters, which have now more than half expired, and which provide
for the surrender of the lines to the government at the end of
that period--the government in the meantime guaranteeing a fixed
interest and an annual contribution to the sinking fund. It is
not fair to compare the government railroads of Europe with the
private railroads of America. The conditions are quite different.
The comparison should be made between the government and private in
the same country. Experience has shown that in the United States
municipal plants furnish better and cheaper service than private
plants.
While local considerations and local conditions have much to do
in the determination of each case, there is one general principle
which is becoming more and more clearly outlined as the question
of government ownership is discussed, namely, that when a monopoly
becomes necessary it must be a government monopoly and not a
monopoly in private hands. In other words, the principle now most
familiarly applied is, "competition where competition is possible;
government monopoly where competition is impossible." I have
not space for the discussion of details; many different methods
have been employed in different countries for the acquiring of
private plants by the city or state, and different methods have
been employed in different countries for the elimination of the
political element from public service. Those who have faith in the
intelligence and capacity of the people have confidence that they
will be able to reduce to a minimum any dangers attendant upon a
course which they believe to be necessary to their own welfare. The
fact that after more than a quarter of a century of experience no
retrograde movement is to be observed furnishes some proof that the
dangers anticipated have not been shown to be insurmountable.
Another world problem is to be found in the effort to fix woman's
place in the social economy. No one can travel around the world
without noting the wide difference that exists between the treatment
of woman in different countries. In the Orient she has, until
comparatively recent years, occupied a very inferior position. In
no respect has the influence of the west upon the east been more
marked than in the elevation of woman. Even in Japan, where for
half a century the ideas of America and Europe have found vigorous
growth, woman's position is not yet equal to man's. The education
of boys received attention before the education of the girls, but
the girls' schools are now multiplying in number and in attendance.
Traveling in the country one still sees the blackened teeth, it
formerly having been regarded as the proper thing for a woman to
make her teeth black after marriage, but among the young generation
the custom is unknown. In China woman has not only lagged behind
man in education, but she has been subjected to a torture known as
foot-binding which is to be found nowhere else. Societies are now
being formed to discourage the practice, but it is sad to learn
how slowly this reform has grown. In both Japan and China plural
marriage, or what has been equivalent to plural marriage, has been
common. The man has been allowed to take unto himself as many wives
as he could support without asking the consent of former wives--a
practice which seems strange to those who have been brought up to
regard the marriage vows as mutually binding and to consider man
and woman as standing upon an equal plane when entering upon the
relation of husband and wife.
In India child marriage is one of the worst customs that has
afflicted these unhappy people. Girls have been given in marriage
when only nine or ten years old, and a widow of twelve or thirteen
is not unusual. Remarriage of widows is not permitted under Hindu
custom, suttee, or the burning of the widow, formerly being regarded
as the proper thing. In both India and Arabia the women are still
veiled and excluded from the society of men. It is difficult
to estimate the loss that has come to society from the failure
to recognize the mutual stimulus which man and woman find in
co-operation in the work of civilization.
Even in Europe woman's position is not as good as it is in the
United States, although in the Christian countries her rights are
more respected and her good influence more appreciated. Max O'Rell,
the witty French lecturer, used to say that if he was going to be
born a woman he would pray to be born in the United States. It was
a happy expression, for surely there is no other country in which
so high an estimate is placed upon woman or where she more fully
shares in both the joys and responsibilities of life. For the
superiority of her position she has Christianity and education to
thank; Christianity has ever recognized woman's equality with man
and education has fitted her to be a real helpmate in life.
A third question which one meets everywhere is the labor question.
In Europe it is a question between labor and capital and the laborer
is organizing for the advancement of his welfare. The guild and
the labor organization have long sought to enlarge the laborer's
share of the joint profit of labor and capital and to improve
the conditions which form his environment. The efforts of these
societies have mainly been directed, first, toward the improvement
of sanitary conditions; second, toward the shortening of hours;
and, third, toward an increase in wages. It looks like a reflection
on mankind in general to say that laboring men should have to ask
legislation to protect their lives while at work. It would seem
that employers would of their own accord regard the safety and
the health of employes as of paramount importance, and yet it has
been necessary even in the United States to compel the building of
air-shafts in mines and to force the use of safety appliances on
railroads and street car lines, and in the operation of machinery.
Still more strange is it that it should be necessary to fix a
minimum age at which children can be employed. The very sight of
little boys and girls working in factories at the expense of their
physical growth and their mental development is so revolting that
one can hardly understand how such legislation can be necessary, and
yet throughout Europe and the United States laboring men through
their organizations have been compelled to fight for the protection
of the children of the poor. In Asia the inauguration of factories
has not yet been followed by the protection of the children.
Reforms advance in groups. It is seldom that one real reform is
achieved alone, so the limitation of hours of labor has, as a rule,
accompanied legislation for the protection of children and for the
improvement of sanitary conditions in mines and workshops. Those
who now enjoy an eight-hour day can remember the nine-hour day
and the ten-hour day, but can hardly recall the days of twelve or
fourteen hours. In the factories that are starting up in the Orient
long hours are the rule, and with long hours there is the attendant
degradation of the toiler. The demand for the eight-hour day is an
international one and the laboring man is gradually winning his
fight, partly by an appeal to conscience and partly by proof that
the highest efficiency is inconsistent with long hours.
In the raising of wages two factors have been at work--the labor
organization and the higher efficiency that has come with more
universal education. The educated workman can earn more than the
ignorant one and he soon demands a compensation commensurate with
his services.
The labor saving machine, too, has played no unimportant part in
increasing the workman's compensation. It has raised the quality
of the work done and has brought into use a higher grade of skill
than was formerly employed. While the labor saving machine is by
some regarded as antagonistic to the welfare of the laborer, no
farsighted observer can fail to note that it has increased rather
than diminished the number employed at the work into which it has
been introduced, while it has developed a higher skill which, in
turn, has secured a higher compensation. The handling of a railroad
locomotive requires more skill than the handling of a freight team,
and the engineer commands higher wages than the teamster. The
railroad by vastly increasing commerce has multiplied the number of
persons engaged in the handling of passengers and freight, and it
has at the same time improved the character of the work done and
raised the intellectual standard of those employed. The same result
has followed in other kinds of work. It might be stated thus: labor
saving machinery, as it is called--although it might more properly
be called labor-multiplying machinery--has created a demand for a
higher grade of labor; universal education has supplied this demand,
and the labor organization has secured for these higher grade
laborers larger compensation and more favorable conditions.
One thought has grown upon me as we have traveled, namely, the
dignity of labor. In no other country is so high an estimate placed
upon the wage-earner as in this country. In the Orient there was,
until the advent of western ideas, an impassable gulf between the
prince and his people, and there is even now in a large part of Asia
a gulf so wide that one who toils with his hands cannot look across
it. The royal families have lived by the sword and they have forced
from those beneath them a tribute sufficient to support themselves
and their armed retainers. The masses have been the prey of the
governing classes, no matter what tribe or family held the throne.
In Europe the extremes of society have been brought nearer together,
although there is still a gap between the aristocracy and the
masses. This gap, however, is constantly decreasing, education and
popular government being the most influential factors in bringing
about this result. With education now more and more within the reach
of all, the poor boy is forcing his way to the front in business,
and with his fortune thus acquired he is leveling rank. In the
political world, too, the champion of the weak and the oppressed is
making his influence felt and his political power is opening before
him doors which until recently were closed. In France deputies,
senators and even presidents have come up from the people, and in
England a labor leader, John Burns, has fought his way into the
cabinet. Who will say that the European laboring man is not making
progress when labor's foremost representative in Great Britain
becomes the guest of the king?
Yes, America leads the world in recognition of the true worth of
the man who toils, and yet even in America there is room for still
further advancement. Our national life is full of instances of men
who have risen from office boy to merchant prince, from plowman
to governor, congressman and senator; we have had a rail-splitter
made president--and no president ever bore himself better or served
amid more trying times--while another president could recall the
days when he followed the towpath on a canal. And yet, with these
illustrious examples of poverty overcome and great careers built
upon a foundation of manual labor, there is still much to be done
before the producer of wealth will receive the consideration which
he deserves. The dignity of labor will not be appreciated as it
ought to be until our young men are taught that it is more honorable
to contribute by labor to the sum of the world's wealth than to
spend in idleness the money that others have made.
Tolstoy contends that people cannot be kept in sympathy with each
other unless all perform some physical labor throughout their
lives; he says that contempt for those who do the drudgery of life
is natural if we put that drudgery upon others and reserve for
ourselves only intellectual pursuits. Whether this be true or not,
it is true that we cannot view labor in its proper relation to life
unless we measure life by a standard different from that which is
now ordinarily applied. So long as we measure life by its income
rather than by its outgo, we shall seek those occupations which
yield the largest pecuniary reward; when we measure life by what we
put into the world rather than what we take out of it, we shall seek
those occupations which offer the largest field of usefulness.
Enough has been said to indicate that the world's work is broad
enough to enlist all who are willing to work and that the variety is
sufficient to allow each to follow his taste and select his field,
provided only that he is actuated by a purpose to render to society
a service which will be more than an equivalent for all that society
has done for him.
CHAPTER XLVI.
A STUDY OF GOVERNMENTS.
One who travels in foreign lands is likely to learn but little
of the governments of the lands through which he passes, unless
he makes a special effort to inform himself, for the lines of
travel are laid through the communities where law and order are
maintained and where the government is so stable that the casual
observer has no occasion to investigate its inner workings. The
mountains tower above him, and he sees them; the chasms yawn before
him and he beholds them; and the various forms of agriculture
leave a panoramic effect upon his memory. He frequently meets the
merchant in his store, sees the laborer at his work quite often,
and occasionally beholds a grandee in his carriage; but not being
able to speak the language of the country he learns little about
the forms of government and less about the political aspirations of
the people; and yet the science of government is one of the most
important sciences, and the "royal art," as it has been called,
stands first among the arts. Tolstoy has declared that the science
which teaches us how to live is the most important of sciences,
and surely the science of government comes next. While it is true
that an individual can by misbehavior forfeit the blessings of
good government, or by good behavior minimize the evils of bad
government--while it is true that no government, however good, can
save a man from himself if he is determined to throw himself away,
and that no government, however bad, can entirely deprive him of the
rewards of virtue, yet governments may do much to encourage or to
hinder the development of the people.
Governments may retard or advance the material growth of a country.
For instance, our government is in part, at least, responsible
for the unparalleled development of the United States, because
it has given the largest encouragement to the individual. The
Japanese government has in like manner stimulated education by the
establishment of a public school system and has developed a large
number of public men by the organization of a parliamentary system.
Turkey, on the other hand, has blighted some of the fairest portions
of the earth by suppressing political independence, by ignoring
education, and by leaving the industrious citizen at the mercy
of the marauder. There has been little political life in Turkey
because few of the people have had the education necessary to take
a broad survey of the country and its needs, while great stretches
of fertile country lie uncultivated because the government is so
indifferent to the rights of the people that the tiller of the soil
has no assurance that he will be allowed to harvest the crop which
he plants. Those who have investigated the subject contend that the
valley of the Jordan would be a fruitful region if protection were
given to those who would cultivate it, but because the Bedouin has
been allowed to come down from the hillside and reap where he has
not sown, the land is neglected.
In a trip around the globe one sees in actual working every form
of government known to man. In Russia, an unlimited monarchy until
recently laid its oppressive hand upon more than a hundred millions
of human beings. They held their lives, their liberty and their
property at the will of the ruler. Any citizen in the czar's vast
domains could be taken from his home and exiled for life without his
or his family knowing the cause of his punishment. The royal family
and the officeholders held the people in contempt and denied even
the natural rights of men. The people were taught to be thankful
for any favors, however small, that the "Little Father" saw fit
to bestow, and they were likewise taught that it was dangerous to
complain even when the most fundamental right was ignored. Now there
is a duma, and the duma as an institution still lives. No one can
predict through what trials and tribulations the country may yet
pass, but constitutional government will yet be hers. As in the
winter time we cannot foresee or foretell what days will be pleasant
and what days stormy, but do know that in a few months we shall have
summer, so without being able to determine through what tumults or
riots or revolutions Russia must pass, we know that in a few years
she will have a stable government in which her people will have a
voice.
In Japan the government is somewhat mixed in its form. She has a
parliament, but the executive branch of the government is not yet
in the hands of the people. The tendency in Japan, as everywhere,
is toward further limitation of the power of the sovereign and
further enlargement of the power of the people. The vital political
question there now is whether the emperor shall select his advisers
from among his personal friends or from the members of the party
which dominates the parliament. There is, of course, no doubt
of the ultimate triumph of the parliamentary party. Denmark
witnessed a similar struggle which lasted for nearly a generation
and terminated, as such struggles always do, in the triumph of the
parliament.
In China they have a mixture of monarchy and aristocracy. The
monarch is unlimited in his power, but he is so hedged about by the
aristocracy that he really has very little independence. Like some
of the native princes who rule under Dutch regents, the Chinese
ruler is the servant rather than the master of his officials. Living
in the forbidden city and meeting personally but few of his people,
he is quite dependent upon the mandarins. The aristocracy of China
is not an aristocracy of birth or of wealth, but a civil service
aristocracy. While positions are often bought--sometimes even sold
at auction when the emperor needs money--yet, as a rule, the civil
servants of China are selected by examination. These systems, while
so antiquated that they have been recently very materially modified,
were intended to be fair as between applicants. The course of study
was not comprehensive, and the tests applied gave but little idea of
one's fitness for office. These men, once in power, were the rulers
in all local affairs, and the higher officials were influential in
all matters of state, and yet, in spite of this system--or because
of it, whichever the reader will have it--China slumbered while the
nations around awakened. The fact that the appointees to the civil
service had to go through certain routine examinations prescribed
by those who had already passed through the same routine, kept the
service in a rut, and as it was not necessary that the appointees
should be interested in anyone but themselves, they showed no
concern about the people from whom they drew their salaries. It
was a system calculated to develop the selfishness which seemed
an inherent part of Chinese life and philosophy. Now that the
school examinations have been substituted for the civil service
examinations an improvement may be expected in the service, but even
the modified system will not keep the servant in touch with those
whom he serves.
In Europe the constitutional monarchy has undergone a constant
development until in many countries the king is but a figurehead. In
England the sovereign would not think of vetoing a bill passed by
the legislative body, and the House of Lords seldom vetoes a bill
passed by the House of Commons. The prime minister is a much more
potent factor in government than the king himself. In Norway the
government is brought even nearer to the people by the substitution
of one legislative body for two, that body being elected by the
people under universal suffrage. The king of Norway is even less
likely to attempt to obstruct the will of parliament than the king
of England. Norway has reduced monarchy to a minimum and placed the
government in the hands of the voters to do with it as they please.
In Switzerland the republican form of government has stood the
test of experiment. In the absence of pomp, ceremony and official
extravagance the government of Switzerland is not surpassed,
if equaled, by the government of any similar population in the
world. Three languages are spoken within her borders and used in
parliamentary proceedings. Part of her people are Protestant,
part Catholic and part Jew, and yet, with the initiative and the
referendum in both the federal government and the cantons, the
government rests so securely upon popular will that the people live
together in entire harmony and could resist a much larger population
attacking from without.
The colonial system also comes under one's observation in a trip
around the world. The Netherlands have large colonial possessions
in the Malay archipelago, but they have been compelled to abandon
the culture system--a form of slavery--and there are signs of a
political development which will some day make it necessary for
Holland to consult the wishes of the people more than she has in the
past.
I have already spoken of both India and Egypt in other articles, and
I only refer to the subject here in order to draw a contrast between
colonialism as applied to Canada and colonialism as it is seen in
India. In Canada the people have as complete self-government as they
have in England, the governor-general being as little likely to use
the veto power as the king himself. In India, on the other hand,
the natives are not consulted in regard to the general government.
Taxes are levied and collected, armies are raised, fed and directed
without regard to the wishes of the native population. They have
experienced all of the evils that can come from a colonial system
administered by a trading company, and they have had a chance to
learn that a colonial system, even when administered in such a way
as to command the admiration of those who believe in colonialism,
still falls far short of self-government. I have already said that
we have treated the Filipinos better than England has treated the
people of India, but that we have done so at an enormous expense to
our country. It would be better for the Filipinos and better for us
to recognize their right to self-government and independence.
After one has had a chance to see monarchies, limited and unlimited,
aristocracies based upon birth and aristocracies based upon a merit
system; and after one has had a chance to compare these systems
with the republican form of government, he is ready to declare that
from every standpoint that government is best which rests upon
the consent of the governed. Some have insisted that a monarchy
is stronger because all of the power of the government can be
concentrated quickly and made effective at once, but this advantage
is small when compared with the advantages to be derived from a
government which the people support with enthusiasm. The historian,
Bancroft, rightly declares that a republic ought to be the strongest
of all governments because, "discarding the implements of terror, it
dares to build its citadel in the hearts of men."
A republic which is, not merely in theory but in fact, "a government
of the people, by the people and for the people," is the most
enduring of governments. It is strong because it is loved and loved
because it is good.
Aristocracies are defended by their advocates on the ground that
a few are wiser than the many, but this is not true, whether it
is an aristocracy of birth or of learning, for as the whole is
greater than any of its parts, so a democracy must be wiser than
an aristocracy because it can draw upon the wisdom of all. The old
saying, that "everybody knows more than anybody," is founded upon
reason and experience, but there is another reason why a democracy
is better than an aristocracy, namely, that the interests of the
whole people are safer in the hands of the people themselves than in
the hands of any element which assumes to speak for the people. The
faults of free government have been found to be, not in the people
themselves, but in those who, selected to represent them, betray
their trust. If the representatives of the people whom the people
themselves select are sometimes unfaithful to their trust, what must
be expected of those who assume to act without being selected by the
people?
In aristocracies resting upon birth the very fact that the rulers
regard themselves as superior to the masses makes it difficult
for them to view questions from the standpoint of the people at
large. Whatever the form of the government, there will always be,
as Jefferson declared, two parties, one tending toward democracy
and the other tending toward aristocracy. Those who have faith in
the people are constantly trying to make the government more and
more responsive to the will of the people; those who distrust the
people are constantly endeavoring to increase the distance between
the citizen and his representative. In a republic there are some who
emphasize the virtues of the people and others who emphasize the
virtues of the representative. Some insist that the people should
think for themselves and elect representatives to give expression to
the public will; others insist that the representatives should be
so superior to the masses as to be able to do the thinking for the
people.
In the early history of this country Thomas Jefferson and Alexander
Hamilton represented these two ideas. Jefferson not only believed
that the people should think for themselves and should elect their
representatives, but he believed in short terms and frequent
elections in order that the citizens might more effectively control
their public servants. Hamilton, on the other hand, believed in
a strong centralized government in which the officials should be
removed as far as possible from the voter. His plan of government,
carefully prepared and presented at the time of the formation of
the constitution, provided for a president and senators elected
for life or during good behavior, and for governors of the several
states appointed by the general government for life or during good
behavior. No one would propose such a plan at this time, so great
has been the advance toward democracy. This growth is indicated by
the fact that the national house of representatives has four times
declared in favor of the election of the United States senators by
direct vote of the people and by the further fact that more than
two-thirds of the states of the union have by legislative action
declared in favor of this change. The unpopularity of the latter
part of Hamilton's plan, namely, the appointment of governors by the
general government, is shown by the fact that territorial government
under which the governors are appointed by the president, not for
life, but for a few years, is deemed unsatisfactory. The people of a
territory are always wanting statehood, and the main reason is that
they desire to elect their own officials.
The democratic idea is growing--the term is not used in a partisan
sense, but in that broader sense in which it describes government
by the people. There is not a civilized nation in which the idea of
popular government is not growing, and in all the semi-civilized
nations there are reformers who are urging an extension of the
influence of the people in government. So universal is this
growth of democratic ideas that there can be no doubt of their
final triumph. Monarchies, at first unlimited, are now limited,
and limited monarchies are recognizing more and more the right
of the people to a voice in their own government. Monarchies and
aristocracies tend toward democracy, and republics tend to become
more and more democratic in their forms and methods.
When the seed, planted in the earth, sends forth the tender leaf
and then the stalk; when the grain appears upon the stalk and
supplies the bread necessary for the support of our bodies, we know
that there is back of the seed a force irresistible and constantly
working. As irresistible and as ceaseless in its activity is the
force behind political and moral truth. The advocates of the
American theory of government can, therefore, labor with the
confident assurance that the principles planted upon American soil a
century and a quarter ago are destined to grow here and everywhere
until arbitrary power will nowhere be known, and, until the voice
of the people shall be recognized, if not as the voice of God, at
least, as Bancroft defines it, as the best expression of the divine
will to be found upon the earth.
In republics, as in other forms of government, there will at times
be disturbances, but these come from a failure to recognize and
respect the current of public opinion. If we stand by the side of a
stream and watch it glide past us, we can in safety listen to the
song of the waters, but if we attempt to dam the stream we find the
water rising above the dam. If we make the dam higher still, the
water rises still more, and at last the force in the obstructed
water is so great that no dam made by human hands can longer stay
it. Sometimes, when the dam is washed away, damage is done to those
who live in the valley below, but the fault is not in the stream,
but in those who attempt to obstruct it. So in human society there
is a current of public opinion which flows ever onward. If left
to have its way it does not harm anyone, but if obstructed, this
current may become a menace. At last the obstruction must yield
to the force of the current. In monarchies and aristocracies the
dam is sometimes built so high that it is removed by force, but in
republics the ballot can be relied upon to keep the channel of the
stream open, or if obstruction is attempted, to remove it while yet
it can be removed with safety. The advantage of a republic is that
the people, through their representatives, are able to give public
opinion free play, and the more democratic a republic is, the more
nearly does it conform to the wishes of the people.
No one can study the governments of the old world without a feeling
of gratitude that in the new world the science of government has
been carried to its highest point, and we of the United States can
rejoice that our nation leads the world in recognizing the right of
the people to devise and to direct the government under which they
are to work out their destiny.
CHAPTER XLVII.
THE TARIFF DEBATE IN ENGLAND.[13]
[13] The following European letters were written for the Hearst
newspapers, and are reproduced by their permission.
An American feels at home in England just now, for he constantly
reads in the newspapers and hears on the streets the tariff
arguments so familiar in the United States. I can almost imagine
myself in the midst of a presidential campaign, with import duties
as the only issue. I have been especially fortunate in arriving here
at the very height of the discussion and I have been privileged
to hear the best speakers on both sides. Hon. Joseph Chamberlain,
late secretary for the colonies, left the cabinet some three months
ago in order to present to the country the tariff policy which
he believed to be necessary. Not desiring to make the government
responsible for the proposition put forth by him, he turned his
official duties over to another and has been conducting one of the
most remarkable campaigns that England has seen in recent years.
He enters the fight with a number of things to his credit. He is
a great orator, he is pleasing in manner, experienced in debate,
skillful in the arraignment of his adversaries, and possesses the
faculty of so holding the attention of his hearers as to make them
eager to catch the next sentence. He is not an impassioned speaker,
he has no grand climaxes that overwhelm an audience, but he does
have what his friends call a "restrained eloquence" that leaves the
impression that he never quite reaches the limit of his powers. He
is a man who would rank high in any land and as an antagonist he
would not fear to meet the best on any platform.
He is about five feet nine or ten inches in height and weighs about
175 pounds. He wears no beard and is impressive in appearance. The
cartoonists take liberties with him as with other public men, and I
may say in passing that there are some newspaper cartoonists over
here who do excellent work.
Mr. Chamberlain is urging a departure from the free trade policy
which England has followed for fifty years, and he defends his
position on three grounds:
First--That it is needed for the protection of English manufacturers
and English laborers.
Second--That it is necessary for the defense and strengthening of
the empire.
Third--That a tariff can be used when necessary as a retaliatory
weapon to make a breach in the tariff walls that other nations have
erected.
[Illustration: JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN. HENRY ASQUITH.
DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE. LORD ROSEBERY.]
In presenting the first proposition he employs the usual
protectionist arguments. He appeals to particular industries and
promises better wages to labor and more constant employment. He
complains that foreign products are being "dumped" in England. The
foreigner is accused of selling his surplus wares here without
profit or below cost while he sells for enough at home to enable him
to carry on his business.
I heard Mr. Chamberlain's speech at Cardiff, the chief city of
Wales. It was an audience largely made up of wage-earners, and his
appeals were adroit and elicited an enthusiastic response. He dwelt
at length on the tin industry; figured the growth of the industry
from 1882 to 1892 and showed that during the next decade the tin
industry had suffered by the establishment of tin plate mills in the
United States.
He assumed that if the English government had been authorized
to make reciprocal treaties it might have persuaded the United
States to forego the protection of tin plate in exchange for trade
advantages in some other direction. He estimated the loss that had
come to Welsh workmen because of the lessened demand for their tin
plate, and he contended that it was necessary to give preferential
treatment to the colonies in order to increase or even to hold their
attachment to the empire.
In discussing retaliation, he seemed to assume what the
protectionists of the United States have often declared, namely,
that the foreigner pays the tax; and his argument was that England
ought to tax the goods coming in from other countries if other
countries taxed goods imported from England. He has coined phrases
that are going the rounds of the press, the most popular of which
is embodied in the question, "If another nation strikes you with
a tariff tax, are you going to take it lying down?" This phrase
aroused a spirit of pugnacity at Cardiff and was enthusiastically
applauded.
In presenting the claims of the empire, Mr. Chamberlain occupies
much the same position as the American protectionist who contends
that a tariff wall makes our own country independent of other
nations. In presenting this argument the late colonial secretary has
the advantage of the great popularity which he won during the South
African war, the spirit of empire being just now quite strong in
England.
So much for the leader of the tariff reform movement, for, strange
as it may seem, the English crusade for the adoption of a tariff is
being conducted through the Tariff Reform League, which, with Mr.
Chamberlain's endorsement, is asking for a campaign fund of $500,000.
On the other side are, first, the conservatism that supports the
settled policy of half a century; second, the political and economic
arguments which weigh against a protective tariff, and, third, the
ability and personal influence of the men who are arrayed against
Mr. Chamberlain. I have attended a number of meetings of the
opposition. The first was at St. Neots, Huntingtonshire, where I
heard Mr. H. H. Asquith, one of the Liberal leaders in parliament.
He is of about the same height as Mr. Chamberlain, but heavier, his
face and shoulders being considerably broader. Mr. Asquith differs
very materially from Mr. Chamberlain in his style of oratory, but
is a master in his line. His is more the argument of the lawyer. He
is more logical and a closer reasoner. He is regarded as one of the
ablest public men in England, and after listening to him for an hour
I could easily believe his reputation to be well earned.
While he discussed with thoroughness all phases of the fiscal
question, I was most impressed with his reply to what may be called
the imperial part of Mr. Chamberlain's argument. He insisted that
preferential duties would weaken instead of strengthen the bonds
that unite England to her colonies, because partiality could not
be shown to one industry without discrimination against the other
industries, and he warned the advocates of protection not to divide
the people of the colonies and the people of the home country into
warring factions, and suggested that when these factions were
arrayed against each other in a contest for legislative advantage,
the harmony of the nation would be disturbed and ill-will between
the various sections, elements and industries engendered.
At a house dinner of the National Liberal club in London I heard
another member of parliament, Mr. R. S. Robson, a Liberal, who
took retaliation for his subject. Mr. Robson presented a clear,
comprehensive and concise analysis of the policy of retaliation;
the strongest points made by him being, first, that retaliation
meant commercial war, and, second, that it contemplated a permanent
policy of protection. He pointed out that no country had ever aimed
a retaliatory tariff at England; that tariffs in other countries
were laid for domestic purposes and not out of antagonism to another
country. He contended that other countries, instead of modifying
their tariffs because of attempted retaliation on the part of
England, would be more likely excited to an unfriendliness which
they had not before shown, and that if England were the aggressor
in such a tariff war she must necessarily be a large loser. He said
that it was impossible to conceive of concessions being secured by a
threat to raise a tariff wall in England. It would be necessary, he
contended, if a retaliatory policy was undertaken to first impose a
high tariff all around and then offer to reduce it in special cases.
This would be a radical departure from the policy of free trade and
would bring with it all the evils that had led to the abandonment of
a protective policy under the leadership of Cobden.
Besides the Liberal opposition, Mr. Chamberlain has to meet the
antagonism of a number of influential leaders who would indorse Mr.
Balfour if he only proposed retaliation in a particular case where
an open and grievous blow had been struck at England, but who are
not willing to join Mr. Chamberlain in advocating a return to a
protective policy.
I attended a great meeting held under the auspices of the Free
Food League and heard speeches delivered by the Duke of Devonshire
and Lord Goshen. I was told that the duke was the only English
statesman who ever took a nap during the progress of his own
speech. Thus forewarned, I was prepared for a season of rest,
but the duke surprised his friends (and they are many) on this
occasion and his speech has been the talk of the country. It was a
powerful arraignment of the proposed tax on food, and, taking into
consideration the high standing and great prestige of the duke, will
exert a widespread influence on the decision of the controversy. The
duke is a tall, strongly built man, with a long head and full sandy
beard sprinkled with gray. He speaks with deliberation and emphasis,
but lacks the graces of the other orators whom I had an opportunity
to hear. If, however, ease and grace were wanting, the tremendous
effectiveness of the pile driver and the battering ram make up for
them.
He denounced the proposition to put a tax upon the people's food as
a blow to the welfare and greatness of the nation. He scouted the
idea that the tax would not ultimately extend to all food or that it
would not raise the price of food and showed that the increase in
the cost of food and clothing would take from the laboring man any
advantage which Mr. Chamberlain promised to bring by his protective
policy.
At the Free Food meeting the duke was followed by Lord Goshen, a
conspicuous leader of the unionist party. Though now about seventy
years old, he possesses great vitality and entered into the
discussion with an earnestness that bespeaks the extraordinary power
of the man. In appearance he reminded me of Gladstone and of Paul
Kruger. I should say that his face had some of the characteristics
of both--rugged in its outlines and giving an impression of courage
and strength combined with great intellect. He replied to Mr.
Chamberlain's challenge, "Will you take it lying down?" with the
question, "Will you hide behind a wall?" He denied that it was
necessary for the Briton to build a barricade and conceal himself
behind it.
In reply to the argument that the Englishman needed protection from
the foreigner, he gave statistics to show that Germany, one of the
protected countries to which Mr. Chamberlain constantly refers,
had an increasing number of the unemployed. His reference to the
increased consumption of horse meat in Germany and the decrease in
the consumption of other kinds of meat met with a response that
seems likely to make "No horse meat" a slogan in the campaign.
The last meeting which I attended was that at which Lord Rosebery
made his reply to Mr. Chamberlain. Lord Rosebery meets Mr.
Chamberlain on an equal footing. He is about the same height, but
a trifle stouter. He is an orator of great distinction, graceful,
polished, of wide learning and great experience, and he possesses
a wit that enables him to keep his audience in constant good
humor. He has been prime minister and enjoys great popularity. His
reception at the Surrey theatre, South London, was as cordial as
Mr. Chamberlain's reception at Cardiff. With all the arts of the
orator he repelled the attacks of Mr. Chamberlain and arraigned the
policy of the conservatives. He denied that there was any excuse, to
use his words, for the "lamentations of the modern Jeremiah." His
lordship declared that the country had made great progress under
the policy of free commerce with the world and that England had the
world for her granary and depicted the possible consequences if she
attempted to wage war against those who furnished her bread and meat.
He declared that the colonies could not supply the food that the
people of England needed, but called Mr. Chamberlain's attention
to the fact that Canada was "dumping" more iron into England than
any of the protected countries complained of. He arraigned the
conservative government's large and increasing expenditures and
suggested that the government might better lessen the taxes upon the
people than impose new taxes upon their food and clothing.
He closed with an appeal for more technical instruction; for a
better understanding of the needs of their customers, and for a more
earnest effort for the physical, intellectual and moral advancement
of the people.
I will not attempt to predict the outcome of this fiscal
controversy. I have missed my guess on a similar controversy in the
United States and I shall not venture a prophecy in a foreign land.
Mr. Chamberlain's opponents believe that a return to protection
would be taken as renunciation of England's ambition to be "mistress
of the seas," and that it would presage commercial isolation. It
is a battle of giants over a great question and all the world is
interested in the result.
NOTE--Since the writing of the above the Liberal party has
won an overwhelming victory and Chamberlain's policy has been
overthrown.
CHAPTER XLVIII.
IRELAND AND HER LEADERS.
November 29th was spent in Dublin, the 30th at Belfast and en route
to that city from Dublin. Dublin is a very substantial looking
city and much more ancient in appearance than Belfast, the latter
reminding one more of an enterprising American city. We did not have
a chance to visit any of the industries of Dublin, and only a linen
factory and a shipyard in Belfast, but as the linen factory, the
York Street Linen Mills, was one of the largest in Ireland, and the
shipyard, Harland & Wolff's, the largest in the world, they gave
some idea of the industrial possibilities of the island.
The lord mayor of Belfast, Sir Daniel Dixon, gave us a history
of the municipal undertakings and extended to us every possible
courtesy. To one accustomed to the farms of the Mississippi and
the Missouri valleys, the little farms of Ireland seem contracted
indeed, but what they lack in size they make up in thoroughness of
cultivation. Not a foot seemed to be wasted. At Birmingham I saw
some Kerry cows, which I can best describe as pony cattle, that
they told me were being bred in Ireland in preference to the larger
breeds; they are certainly more in keeping with the size of the
farms. The farm houses are not large, but from the railroad train
they looked neat and well kept.
My visit to Ireland was too brief to enable me to look into the
condition of the tenants in the various parts of the island, but by
the courtesy of the lord mayor of Dublin, Mr. Timothy Harrington,
and Mr. John Dillon, both members of parliament, I met a number of
the prominent representatives of Ireland in national politics. A
luncheon at the Mansion House was attended by some 75 of the Irish
leaders, including Archbishop Walsh, John Redmond, John Dillon,
Michael Davitt, William Field, Patrick O'Brien, several members of
the city council, ex-Mayor Valentine Dillon, High Sheriff Thomas
Powers, and Drs. McArdle and Cox, and other persons distinguished in
various walks of life.
The dinner at Mr. Dillon's gave me a chance to meet Mr. Bailey of
the new land commission, and Mr. Finucane, lately connected with
the Indian department, and to become better acquainted with the more
prominent of the Irish leaders whose names have become familiar to
American readers, and whom I met at luncheon.
[Illustration:
T. P. O'CONNOR MR. MICHAEL DAVITT
MR. JOHN DILLON MR. JOHN E. REDMOND]
Archbishop Walsh is one of the best known and most beloved of the
Irish clergy, and he endeared himself to the friends of bimetallism
throughout the world by the pamphlet which he wrote some years ago,
setting forth the effect of the gold standard upon the Irish tenant
farmer. It was a genuine pleasure to make his personal acquaintance.
It may be added, in passing, that the tenants of Ireland will be
more than ever interested in the stable dollar when they have
secured title to their lands and assumed the payments which extend
over more than sixty years. Any increase in the value of the dollar
would increase the burden of these payments by lessening the price
which they would obtain for the products of the soil.
Mr. John Redmond is the leader of the Irish party in parliament,
and, having visited the United States, is personally known to many
of our people. He has the appearance of a well-to-do lawyer, is
quick to catch a point, ready of speech and immensely popular with
his people. He has the reputation of being one of the most forcible
of the Irish orators, and I regret that I had no opportunity of
hearing him speak.
Mr. Dillon is a tall man, probably six feet one, with a scholarly
face and wears a beard. His long experience in parliament, his
thorough knowledge of the issues of the last quarter of a century,
and his fidelity to the interests of the people of his land have
given him a deservedly high place among the great Irishmen of the
present generation.
Mr. Michael Davitt has also had a conspicuous career, but is not now
in parliament, having resigned as a protest against the Boer war. He
is the oldest of the group and shows in his countenance the fighting
qualities that have made his name known throughout the world. He is
not a diplomat--he has not learned the language of the court. He is
not a compromiser, but a combatant, and his blows have been telling
ones.
The lord mayor of Dublin, Mr. Timothy Harrington, has been honored
with a third election as lord mayor, a position first held by
Daniel O'Connell, but he is always at Westminster whenever there
is an important vote in parliament. He is a typical Irishman,
good-natured, full of humor, well informed and a natural politician.
At a dinner given a few days later at the National Liberal club in
London by Mr. T. P. O'Connor, I met several other Irish members,
among them Mr. William Redmond, brother of the leader of the Irish
party, and himself a man of great ability and long parliamentary
experience, and James Devlin, one of the most brilliant of the
orators of the younger generation. The oldest person at the
O'Connor dinner was Mr. O'Brien, the last Irishman who enjoyed the
distinction of being sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered. The
host, Mr. O'Connor, while he represents a Liverpool constituency
and is not, therefore, technically speaking, a member of the Irish
party, is one of the most prominent and influential of the Irishmen
in the house of commons. He has lectured in the United States as
well as in Europe, and is now editor of two weekly papers of large
circulation. He showed his friendliness toward America and his
appreciation of our country's resources by taking unto himself an
American wife--a beautiful Texan.
At Glasgow I met another member of parliament, Mr. William McKillup,
who, though a citizen of Glasgow, represents an Irish district and
takes an active interest in everything that affects the Emerald isle.
Mr. Harrington and Mr. Redmond took me to the Dublin cemetery and we
visited the graves of O'Connell and Parnell. The tomb of Ireland's
great agitator is under a massive pile of granite, made to represent
an old Irish tower. No monument has yet been erected to Parnell.
The memory of the two dead statesmen and the presence of the
living leaders recalled the struggle to which so many of Ireland's
sons have devoted their lives, and it was a matter of extreme
gratification to find that substantial progress is being made.
It is true that home rule has not yet been secured, but the contest
for home rule has focused attention upon the industrial and
political condition of Erin, and a number of remedial measures have
been adopted. First, the tenant was given title to his improvements
and then the amount of the rent was judicially determined. More
recently the authorities have been building cottages for the rural
laborers. Over 15,000 of these cottages have been already erected
and arrangements are being made for some 19,000 more. These are
much more comfortable than the former dwellings, and much safer
from a sanitary point of view. The recent land purchase act, which
went into effect on November 1, seems likely to exert a very great
influence upon the condition of the people. According to its terms
the government is to buy the land of the landlord and sell it to the
tenants. As the government can borrow money at a lower rate than
the ordinary borrower, it is able to give the tenant much better
terms than he gets from his present landlord, and at the same time
purchase the land of the landlord at a price that is equitable.
The landlords are showing a disposition to comply with the spirit
of the law, although some of them are attempting to get a larger
price for their land than it was worth prior to the passage of
the law. The purpose of the law is to remove from politics the
landlord question, which has been a delicate one to deal with. Most
of the larger estates were given to the ancestors of the present
holders and many of the owners live in England and collect their
rents through a local agent. The new law makes the government the
landlord; and the tenant, by paying a certain annual sum for 63
years, becomes the owner of the fee. He has the privilege of paying
all or any part, at any time, and can dispose of his interest. The
settlement which is now being effected not only removes the friction
which has existed between the tenant and the landlord, but puts the
tenant in a position where he can appeal to the government with
reasonable certainty of redress in case unforeseen circumstances
make his lot harder than at present anticipated. The assurance that
he will become the owner of the fee will give to the Irish farmer an
ambition that has heretofore been wanting, for he will be able to
save without fear of an increase in the rent. Not only is the land
question in process of settlement, but there have been at the same
time other improvements which make for the permanent progress of
the people. There is a constant increase in educational facilities,
and a large number of co-operative banks have been established.
Agricultural societies have been formed for the improvement of crops
and stock, and the trend is distinctly upward. The Irish leaders
have not obtained all that they labored for--there is much to be
secured before their work is complete, but when the history of
Ireland is written, the leaders now living will be able to regard
with justifiable pride the results of their devotion and sacrifice
and their names will be added to the long list of Irish patriots and
statesmen.
[Illustration: CHARLES S. PARNELL]
In Dublin I paid my respects to Lord Dudley, lieutenant governor of
Ireland, whose residence, the Viceregal Lodge, is in Phoenix Park,
and found him so genial and affable a host that I am led to hope
that in his administration of the executive branch of the government
he will make the same attempt at just treatment that parliament has
made in the enactment of the recent land measure.
There is a general desire among the leaders of thought in Ireland
to check the emigration from that country. They feel that Ireland
under fair conditions can support a much larger population than she
now has. Ireland, they say, has been drained of many of its most
enterprising and vigorous sons and daughters. It is hardly probable
that the steps already taken will entirely check the movement toward
the United States, but there is no doubt that the inhabitants of
Ireland and their friends across the water contemplate the future
with brighter hopes and anticipations than they have for a century.
[Illustration: MEETING OF THE WATERS--KILLARNEY]
CHAPTER XLIX.
GROWTH OF MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP.
Carved in the mantel of the library which adjoins the reception room
of the lord provost of Glasgow is the motto, "Truth will prevail,"
and the triumph of truth is illustrated in the development of
municipal ownership in the British Isles.
Probably no city in the world has extended the sphere of municipal
activity further than the metropolis of Scotland--Glasgow. By the
courtesy of the present lord provost, Sir James Ure Primrose, I
learned something of the manner in which the city of Glasgow is
administering the work that in most of our American cities has been
left to private corporations. It goes without saying that Glasgow
owns and operates its water system, for that is usually the first
public work upon which a city enters. In this case, however, the
water instead of being furnished to the citizens at so much per
thousand gallons or at fixed hydrant rates, is paid for by a tax
upon the value of the property. The city's water supply is brought
from Lake Katrine, forty miles away, and a second pipe line has
recently been laid to the lake.
Glasgow also owns the gas plant and furnishes gas to consumers at
about 50 cents per thousand cubic feet. More recently the city has
entered upon the work of supplying electricity, both to the city and
to private houses. The tramways, too, are owned and operated by the
municipality. The service is excellent and the fare depends upon
the distance traveled, 2d (4 cents) being the rate for a long ride
and 1d (2 cents) for shorter distances. At certain hours in the day
there are work trams that carry the laboring man from one end of
the city to the other for 1/2d or 1 cent. The lord provost informed
me that it was the settled policy of the city to use all the income
from public service corporations in improving the service and
lessening the charge. In some places the surplus, as will be shown
hereafter, is turned into the city fund and to that extent lessens
the taxes (or rates as city taxes are called in Great Britain). The
municipal authorities in Glasgow have, from the beginning, opposed
this form of indirect taxation and insisted that the service should
be rendered to the public at absolute cost, leaving the people to
support the city government by direct taxation.
Not only does Glasgow furnish water, gas, electricity and street
car service to its people at cost, but it has undertaken other work
still further in advance of American cities. It has built a number
of model tenement houses for the poor and rents them at something
less than the rate private individuals charge for similar quarters.
These buildings have had for their primary object the improvement
of the sanitary condition of the city. Slums in which disease was
rife have been bought, cleansed and built up, with the result that
the death rate has been reduced in those localities. These tenement
houses are rented by the week or month and the charge for those that
I visited was about $36 per year, this covering taxes and water.
The rooms are commodious and well lighted and each suite contains a
cooking range fitted into the chimney place.
[Illustration: THE BROOMELAW BRIDGE AT GLASGOW]
The city has also established a number of lodging houses for single
men and here lodgings can be obtained ranging from 3-1/2d (7 cents)
to 4-1/2d (9 cents) per night. The lodger has the privilege, and
most of them take advantage of it, of cooking his meals in a large
kitchen connected with the building, and also has the use of the
dining room and reading room. One lodging house is set apart for
widowers with children and is, I am informed, the only one of its
kind in the world. About one hundred families, including in all 300
persons, have rooms here. Attendants are on duty to look after the
children during the day while the fathers are at work, and meals are
furnished to such as desire at a minimum rate.
The reading public is already familiar with the public baths which
have for a number of years been in operation in Glasgow, and to
these baths have been added public washhouses where women can bring
the family linen and at the rate of 2d per hour make use of the tubs
and drying room. I visited one of these wash-rooms and found that
the number of people taking advantage of it during the first year
was, in round numbers, 33,000, in the second year 34,000, in the
third year 35,000, and in the fourth year 37,000.
London is also making progress in the work of municipalizing its
public service. The city proper covers a very small territory; in
fact, but a mile square, the greater part of the city being under
the control of what is called the London county council. The London
city council has recently obtained from parliament the right to deal
with the water problem and a commission has been created for this
purpose and is now at work appraising the value of the different
water companies which are to be taken over by the said council.
The enormous price demanded by these companies gives overwhelming
proof of London's folly in having so long delayed the undertaking
of this public work. As there are no surface street cars in the
city of London, the city council has not had the tramway question
to deal with. The London county council has moved much more rapidly
than the city council, and I am indebted to Mr. John Burns, M. P.,
also councilman for the district of Battersea, for much valuable
information on this subject, he and Mr. A. J. Shepheard, with whom I
crossed the ocean, being kind enough to introduce me to the members
of the county council and to place before me the statistics in
possession of the officials. The county council, besides taking over
the water service, is also furnishing to some extent electricity.
Just now the county council is putting down tramways and preparing
to follow in the footsteps of Glasgow in the matter of furnishing
transit for its citizens. Like Glasgow, the county council is also
furnishing lodging houses for the poorer classes and by so doing
is improving the sanitary conditions of the city. In some portions
the council is erecting tenement houses; here, as in Glasgow, the
council selected the worst portions of the city and substituting
modern and well-equipped houses for the unsightly and unhealthy
tenement houses that formerly occupied the ground. Mr. Burns took
me through one of these sections where about four thousand people
are being provided with homes with every modern improvement and at
very low rental. Finding that the death rate among the children
of the poor was alarmingly great, the county council established a
sterilized milk station and the death rate among the children has
been very materially decreased.
Nottingham, England, was visited on the invitation of Mr. A. W.
Black, until recently mayor. I became acquainted with him on the
passage across the Atlantic, and found that he had interested
himself in the work of extending the municipal control of public
utilities. From him and the town clerk, Sir Samuel Johnson, I
learned that the city had been furnishing water to its citizens for
about thirty years and gas for a still longer time. The price of gas
has been reduced from time to time until it is now about 50 cents
per thousand for private citizens, and even at this low rate the gas
plant pays into the city treasury a net profit of about $120,000 a
year. It is only about five years since the city entered upon the
work of furnishing electricity, but the profit from that source is
now nearly $45,000 annually. The city has recently taken over the
tramways, and notwithstanding that it has raised the wages of the
employes, shortened their hours of labor, improved the service,
extended the lines and reduced the fares, it has now derived about
$90,000 profit from the earnings of the tramways. This has been
the rule wherever private services have been undertaken by the
municipalities. Nottingham has a population of about 250,000.
I have taken these cities as an illustration, they being the ones
concerning which I have investigated most carefully.
Birmingham furnishes water and light to its people, and has just
decided to take charge of the tramway service. It already owns the
tracks, but has been allowing private corporations to run the cars.
The people have decided to operate the lines in the future.
In Belfast I found that the city had decided to take charge of the
tramway tracks, the only disputed question being whether the city
would pledge itself to the permanent operation of the lines, or
reserve the right to permit private corporations to use the tracks.
Nothing has impressed me more in my visit to the British Isles
than the interest which the leading citizens of the various
municipalities are taking in problems of government and sociology.
It must be remembered that here the members of the city councils
receive no pay. The work they do is entirely gratuitous, and I have
found that the councils are composed of representatives of all
classes of society.
Many of the successful business men, professional men and educators
are to be found devoting a portion of their time, sometimes a very
considerable portion, to the work of the city. They attend meetings,
serve on committees and carry on investigations, and find their
recompense not in a salary, but in the honor which attaches to the
position and in the consciousness that they are giving something of
value to their fellows.
The fact that English cities are doing the work that in American
cities is largely let out to private corporations, may explain the
relative absence of corruption as compared with some of our American
cities, but there is no doubt that among the people generally,
service in the city government is more highly regarded than it is in
most of the large cities of the United States.
I observed with interest the enthusiasm manifested by the officials
in the work being done by the respective cities. At Birmingham, Mr.
Roland H. Barkley, a member of the city council, by request of the
lord mayor called upon me, and not only showed great familiarity
with the work of the city government, but manifested an intense
desire to secure for his city the methods that had been shown by
experience to be the best.
Mr. Black, recently mayor of Nottingham, is a very successful lace
manufacturer, and yet he seemed as much concerned about the affairs
of the city as about the details of his own business. Lord Mayor
Harrington of Dublin, Lord Mayor Dixon of Belfast and Lord Provost
Primrose of Glasgow were all alive to the importance of their work,
and seemed to make the discharge of their duties their chief concern.
In this connection, I desire to record my appreciation of the public
service of one of the most interesting and agreeable men whom I
have met in the Old World, Mr. John Burns. He began his industrial
life at the age of ten as a maker of candles. He was afterward
apprenticed as a machinist, and after acquiring proficiency in his
trade followed that line of employment until his associates made him
their representative in the city government. He was soon afterwards
sent to parliament, and has for some fifteen years represented his
district in both bodies. He is only 45, but his hair and beard are
so streaked with gray that one would think him ten years older. He
is a little below medium height, strongly built and very active
and energetic. A diligent student, quick-witted and effective in
speech, it is not surprising that he stands today among the world's
foremost representatives of the wage-earners. He is opposed to both
drinking and gambling. He receives no salary, either as a member of
the county council or as a member of parliament, but is supported
by his association, which pays him what is equivalent to a thousand
dollars a year. With this very meager income he devotes his life to
public work, and I have not met a more conscientious or unselfish
public servant, and yet what Mr. Burns is doing on a large scale
many others are doing in a lesser degree.
I wish that all the citizens of my country could come into contact
with the public men whom I have met, and catch something of the
earnestness with which they are applying themselves to the solution
of the municipal problems that press upon the present generation.
It would certainly increase the velocity of American reforms, and
arouse that latent patriotism which only needs arousing to cope
successfully with all difficulties.
While it may seem that the leaders of municipal government in Europe
are somewhat altruistic in their labors, there is a broader sense in
which they are quite selfish, but it is that laudable selfishness
which manifests itself in one's desire to lift himself up, not by
dragging down others or doing injustice to others but by lifting up
the level upon which all stand. Those who add to the comfort and
happiness of their community are making their own lives and property
more secure. Those who are endeavoring to infuse hope and ambition
into the hearts of the hopeless and their children are working more
wisely than those who are so short-sighted as to believe that the
accumulation of money is the only object of life.
Let us hope that the time is near at hand when the successful
business men in the United States, instead of continuing their
accumulations to the very end of life, will be satisfied with
a competency and, when this is secured, give to the country
the benefit of their experience, their intelligence and their
conscience, as many of the business men of England, Scotland and
Ireland are now doing.
CHAPTER L.
FRANCE AND HER PEOPLE.
My call upon President Loubet was the most interesting incident
of my visit to France. It was arranged by General Horace Porter,
American ambassador to France, who conducted us to the Elysee
palace, which is the White House of the French republic.
President Loubet is probably the most democratic executive that
France has ever had. He reminded me of our former president,
Benjamin Harrison, and of another of our distinguished citizens,
Andrew Carnegie--not exactly like either, but resembling both--the
former in appearance, the latter in manner as well as appearance.
President Loubet is below the medium height, even of Frenchmen.
His shoulders are broad and his frame indicative of great physical
strength. His hair is snow white, as are also his beard and
mustache. He wears his beard cut square at the chin.
His eyes are dark blue, suggesting that his hair and beard were
blonde before the years bleached them. His voice is soft, and he
speaks with great vivacity, emphasizing his words by expressive
gestures.
He received us in his working room, a beautiful semi-oval apartment,
whose large windows open into the beautiful gardens attached to the
Elysee palace. The oval end of the room bore great priceless Gobelin
tapestry, depicting abundance. On a pedestal under the tapestry was
a marble bust of the Minerva-like head of the Goddess of Liberty of
the French republic.
The president's desk is a long, flat table, eminently business
looking, covered with papers and lighted by two desk lamps and green
shades. A huge electrolier dependent from the frescoed ceiling
filled the room with light.
The president wore a frock coat, the tri-colored button of the
Legion of Honor adorning the lapel.
President Loubet is a very cordial man, and takes pride in the fact
that, like most of our American presidents, he has worked his way up
from the ranks of the common people. His father was a farmer near
the village of Montelimar.
Young Loubet studied law, and then public affairs. He has held
nearly every office in the gift of the people. He began as mayor of
Montelimar, where his aged mother still lives in the old farmhouse.
He was elected a deputy in 1876, and in 1886 was elected to the
senate. He was minister of public works in 1887, and minister of the
interior in 1892. In 1895 he was elected president of the senate,
and in 1899 he was elected president of the republic.
[Illustration: NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.]
He talked freely on various questions that came up for
consideration, and showed himself to be thoroughly informed upon the
economic as well as the political questions with which France has
to deal. His personal popularity and strong good sense have been of
inestimable value to his country in the trying times caused by the
Dreyfus case.
President Loubet has been prominently connected with the bimetallic
movement, and shows himself familiar with the principles upon which
bimetallists rely in their defense of that system of finance.
The president, like all the Frenchmen whom I met, feels very
friendly toward the United States, and it goes without saying that
France under his administration is not likely to do anything at
which our country can take just offense.
It was gratifying to me to hear him express so much good will, for
it was evidence of the attachment which the French people feel
toward those republican principles of government which they have
established by so much struggle and sacrifice.
Municipal ownership has not made as much progress in France as in
England, although most of the cities now own their water works,
and some of them their lighting plants. The railroads are nearly
all owned by private corporations, but they operate under charters
running about 100 years, half of which time has now elapsed.
According to the charters, the government guaranteed a certain rate
of interest on the investment, besides a certain contribution to the
sinking fund, and at the end of the charter the roads become the
property of the state.
Although it is nearly fifty years before the charters expire, the
course to be adopted by the government is already being discussed,
some insisting that the government should take over the roads and
operate them--others favoring an arrangement that will continue
private operation, although the government will be the owner of the
property. The same difference of opinion to be found in our country
is to be found here, and some of the high officials are strongly
opposed to the government entering upon the operation of the roads.
President Loubet spoke with evident gratification of the general
diffusion of wealth in France. He said that they had few men of
large fortunes, but a great many men of moderate means, and he felt
that the republic was to be congratulated upon the fact that the
resources of the country are so largely in the hands of the people.
He explained that the government loans were taken by the people
in small amounts and subscribed many times over. Very few of the
bonds representing the French debt are held outside of France. The
debt furnishes a sort of savings bank for the citizens, and their
eagerness to invest in "rentes" (the government bonds) is proof of
their patriotism as well as of their thrift.
I heard so much of the French peasant, that I devoted one day to
a visit into the country. Going out some fifty miles from Paris I
found a village of about eighty families. Selecting a representative
peasant, I questioned him about the present condition and prospects
of the French farmer. I found that about three-fourths of the
peasants of that village owned their homes, but that only about
one-fourth owned the farms they tilled.
I should explain that the French peasants do not as a rule live upon
the farms, as is the custom in the United States. With us, whether a
farmer owns forty acres or a quarter section, he usually lives upon
the land, and the houses are therefore scattered at intervals over
the country.
The French peasants, on the contrary, are inclined to gather in
villages, most of them owning their houses and gardens, but going
out into the country to cultivate their fields. Sometimes a peasant
will have a vineyard in one direction from his home, a pasture in
another, and a wheat field or beet field in yet another direction.
These fields are sometimes owned, but more often are rented. The
landlord aims to get about 4 per cent annually on his investment.
The tenant, however, pays the taxes, which sometimes amount to 1 or
2 per cent more.
The peasants complain that the horses which they need to cultivate
their crops are made more expensive by the increased consumption of
horse flesh as food, the demand having raised the price of horses.
The same cause has operated, so I was informed, to reduce the price
of cattle. The widespread use of automobiles has lessened the price
of straw in Paris, and this has been felt by the wheat growers.
I found the peasant with whom I talked to be an ardent
protectionist. He spoke as if the farmers were driven to it as a
last resort. As I was leaving he assured me that he was glad to
speak to a "republican" and said he would not have talked to me at
all if I had not been one.
This was an evidence of his loyalty to the existing régime in France
and also gave additional proof of the fact that the republican party
in the United States has an advantage in appealing to newly-arrived
immigrants merely by reason of its name.
Foreigners are much better acquainted with the word "republic" than
with the word "democracy," and I find that republican speakers have
taken advantage of this fact and represented the republican party as
the only exponent of the doctrines of a republic.
The New York _Independent_ about a year ago printed the
autobiography of a foreign born citizen, who presented the same idea
and told of a republican speech in which this argument was made by
the orator.
[Illustration: NAPOLEON BONAPARTE CROWNING JOSEPHINE]
The birth rate in France scarcely exceeds the death rate, and to my
surprise I found that the increase in the country was even less than
in Paris, in proportion to the population. One Frenchman, apparently
well informed, told me that there were small villages in which it
was difficult to find a child.
In the village which I visited I was told that the families average
two or three children. To show, however, that the small family was
not the universal rule, attention was called to one family there in
which there were eleven children.
The French peasant is a very industrious man, and cultivates his
land with great care, and as soon as he saves a little money he
tries to add to the area of his farm. The wife is usually an
efficient helper, whether in the city or in the country. In the city
she is often copartner with her husband in the store, and assists
him to save.
Whether the tendency of the peasants to gather in villages, rather
than to live each on his own farm, is due to their sociability or is
a relic of the feudal system, I cannot say--both reasons were given.
The French peasant has reason to feel the burden of militarism, but
the recollection of the last war with Germany is so fresh in his
mind that he is not likely to make any vigorous protest as long
as he believes a large army necessary for the protection of the
republic.
The sentiment of the French people on this subject is shown by the
fact that the figure representing Alsace-Lorraine in the group of
statues in the beautiful Place de la Concorde is always covered with
mourning wreaths.
I visited the Bank of France, where I was received by the governor,
M. Georges Pallain. The bank's capital stock is about $40,000,000,
and it pays a dividend of about 12 per cent, equal to about 4 per
cent on the present market value of the stock. The deposits are
much smaller in proportion to the capital than are the deposits of
our large American banks. This is true of the Bank of England, and
likewise of the banks of Mexico.
This smaller proportion between the deposits and the capital stock
arrested my attention, because in the United States the proportion
is sometimes so great as to leave little margin for shrinkage in the
event of industrial disturbance. If a bank has loans amounting to
ten times its capital stock, a shrinkage of one-tenth in the value
of its assets would wipe out the capital.
The Bank of France, the Bank of England, and the leading banks of
Mexico seem to be conducted on a more conservative basis. The Bank
of England and the Bank of France differ largely in their note
issues. The former has the right to issue uncovered notes to the
extent of the bank's loan to the English government. Upon this loan
the bank receives no interest, the note issue being considered an
equivalent, as no reserve is required to be kept against these
notes. The bank can also issue notes in addition to these, but I
found to my surprise that this note issue is not profitable to
the bank, since these notes are virtually gold certificates, the
bank being required to keep on hand an equal amount of gold as a
redemption fund.
[Illustration: AVENUE CHAMPS-ELYSEES--PARIS]
The Bank of France has outstanding nearly $900,000,000 in notes,
which is the paper money of the country. The bank has the option of
redeeming these notes either in gold or silver, and it exercises
that option by refusing to pay gold when gold becomes scarce, or
when it seems undesirable to furnish gold for export.
It has recently refused gold, and those desiring to export that
metal have had to purchase it at a slight premium.
The "gold contract," which has become so common in the United
States, and which was used to terrorize the public in 1896, seems
to be unknown in France; or at least I could find no one who knew
anything about such contracts. They are regarded as contrary to
public policy.
The president of the Bank of France is appointed by the government,
so that the bank stands in a different attitude toward the
government from the national banks of our country.
I had the pleasure of meeting a number of prominent Frenchmen during
my visit to Paris, among them Senator Combes, the prime minister,
who is just now a most conspicuous figure in the contest between the
government and the various religious orders; Senator Clemenceau, one
of the ablest editors in Paris, and a brilliant conversationalist;
Baron d'Estonelles de Constant, a man of high ideals and leader of
the peace movement in France; the Rev. Albert Kohler, author of "The
Religion of Effort," and the Rev. Charles Wagner, whose book, "The
Simple Life," has had such a large circulation in the United States.
The Rev. Mr. Wagner is just such a looking man as you would expect
to write such a book--strong, rugged and earnest. He impresses
one as a man with a mission, and although young in years, he has
already made an impress upon the thought of the world. His book is a
protest against the materialism which is making man the slave of his
possessions.
The influence which Mr. Wagner has already exerted shows the power
of a great thought, even when it must cross the boundaries of
nations and pass through translation into many different tongues.
I shall remember my communion with this apostle of simplicity as
one remembers a visit to a refreshing spring.
[Illustration: TOMB OF NAPOLEON.]
Dr. Max Nordau, the famous author of "Degeneracy," although a
German, lives in Paris. I enjoyed my call upon him very much.
One quickly recognizes the alertness of his mind, his brilliant
powers of generalization and his aptness in epigram. I also had
the pleasure of meeting Senator Fougeirol, a noted advocate of
bimetallism.
The visitor to Paris is immediately impressed by the magnificence
of the city's boulevards, parks and public squares. There is an
elegant spaciousness about the boulevards and squares that surpasses
anything I have seen elsewhere.
Parisians assert that the Avenue des Champs Elysees is the finest in
the world, and so far as my observation goes I am not prepared to
dispute the claim. The beauty of Paris deserves all the adjectives
that have been lavished upon it.
One might dwell at length upon the almost endless array of brilliant
shop windows where jewelry, bric-a-brac, hats, gowns and mantles
are displayed (and I am not surprised that Paris is the Mecca for
women), but I desire to refer briefly to the more permanent beauty
of Paris--the beauty of its architecture, sculpture and paintings.
Paris' public buildings, ancient and modern, combine solidity with
beauty. The statues, columns and arches that adorn the parks and
boulevards bespeak the skill of the artists and the appreciation of
the public which pays for their maintenance.
Paris' many picture galleries, chief of which are the Louvre and
the Luxembourg, contain, as all the world knows, extraordinary
collections of treasures of art. The encouragement given by the
government to every form of art has made Paris the abode of students
from the four corners of the earth.
The huge palaces at Versailles and Fontainebleau are interesting
relics of the monarchical period, and they are instructive, also,
in that they draw a contrast between the days of the empire and
the present time. The extremes of society have been drawn closely
together by the growth of democracy, and the officials chosen by
the people and governing by authority of the people are much nearer
to the people who pay the taxes and support the government than the
kings who lived in gorgeous palaces and claimed to rule by right
divine.
I have left to the last those reminders of earlier France which
are connected with the reigns of Napoleon. You cannot visit Paris
without being made familiar with the face of the "Little Corsican,"
for it stares at you from the shop windows and looks down at you
from the walls of palaces and galleries.
You see the figure of "the man of destiny" in marble and bronze,
sometimes on a level with the eye, sometimes piercing the sky, as
it does in the Place Vendome, where it is perched on top of a lofty
column, whose pedestal and sides are covered with panels in relief
made from cannon captured by Napoleon in battle.
The gigantic Arch of Triumph on the Champs Elysees, commenced by
Napoleon, in commemoration of his successes, testifies to the
splendor of his conceptions.
But overshadowing all other Napoleonic monuments is his tomb on
the banks of the Seine, adjoining the Invalides. Its gilded dome
attracts attention from afar, and on nearer approach one is charmed
with the strength of its walls and the symmetry of its proportions.
At the door the guard cautions the thoughtless to enter with
uncovered head, but the admonition is seldom necessary, for an air
of solemnity pervades the place.
In the center of the rotunda, beneath the frescoed vault of the
great dome, is a circular crypt. Leaning over the heavy marble
balustrade I gazed on the massive sarcophagus below which contains
all that was mortal of that marvelous combination of intellect and
will.
The sarcophagus is made of dark red porphyry, a fitly chosen stone
that might have been colored by the mingling of the intoxicating
wine of ambition with the blood spilled to satisfy it.
Looking down upon the sarcophagus and the stands of tattered battle
flags that surround it, I reviewed the tragic career of this grand
master of the art of slaughter, and weighed, as best I could,
the claims made for him by his friends. And then I found myself
wondering what the harvest might have been had Napoleon's genius led
him along peaceful paths, had the soil of Europe been stirred by the
plowshare rather than by his trenchant blade, and the reaping done
by implements less destructive than his shot and shell.
Just beyond and above the entombed emperor stands a cross upon
which hangs a life-size figure of the Christ, flooded by a mellow
lemon-colored light, which pours through the stained glass windows
of the chapel.
I know not whether it was by accident or design that this god of war
thus sleeps, as it were, at the very feet of the Prince of Peace.
Whether so intended or not, it will, to those who accept the
teachings of the Sermon on the Mount, symbolize love's final victory
over force and the triumph of that philosophy which finds happiness
in helpful service and glory in doing good.
CHAPTER LI.
THE REPUBLIC OF SWITZERLAND.
No wonder Switzerland is free. The beauty of the country inspires
a love of native land and the mountains form a natural fortress
behind which the Swiss people could withstand armies many times
the size of their own. Nowhere can one find as great a variety of
landscape in a day's ride by train as in Switzerland. The road from
Berne via Chiasso, on the Italian border, to Italy, passes along the
shores of lakes whose transparent waters reflect the precipitous
rocks that overhang them; by mountain streams that dash and foam
madly as if anxious to escape from the solitude of the hills into
the companionship of the larger waters of lake and sea, across the
gorges, around the foothills and through the nine-mile tunnel of
St. Gothard, which pierces the mountain a mile beneath the summit,
and then down into the valleys that widen out from the base of the
Alps. The day's enthralling ride reminds one of a cinematographic
film, so quickly do the views change and so different is each from
the other. Along the lower levels are tiny farms and vineyards, a
little higher up are terraced pastures and quaint farm houses, with
gabled roofs--often residence and barn are under the same roof! The
mountain sides are scarred with chutes down which the peasants drag
timber on the snow. One passes through a great variety of climate in
descending from the City of Mexico to Vera Cruz, but there one does
not see such a succession of picturesque views as greets the eye in
the ride across the Alps.
One would suppose that the people of Switzerland could find ample
employment in supplying the wants of those who temporarily visit
their land, but to the industry of hotelkeeping are added two that
have made Switzerland famous throughout the world--watchmaking
and wood carving. While watches are manufactured as well and as
cheaply in the United States as in Switzerland, this industry is
one that makes its presence known in every city of this mountain
republic. The genius of the Swiss for wood carving manifests itself
in innumerable ways. The cuckoo clock and the bear--the symbol of
Switzerland, as the eagle is of the United States--are seen in shop
windows everywhere; the bear in innumerable postures, the clock in
innumerable sizes. At Berne I found some wooden nut-crackers formed
to resemble a head, the lower jaw working as a lever and crushing
the nut against the upper jaw. I observed one nut-cracker made to
resemble President Roosevelt, and another former Colonial Secretary
Chamberlain of England. I presume that the manufacturer intended to
suggest that these two statesmen have more nuts to crack just now
than any other men of political prominence!
More interesting, however, than its scenery or its industries is
the government of Switzerland. It is the most democratic government
on the face of the earth, if the word democratic is taken to mean
the rule of the people, for in Switzerland the people rule more
completely than anywhere else. In some of the small cantons the
people meet at stated times and act upon political matters in public
meeting, recalling the old town hall meeting of New England. In all
the cantons and in the federal government they have the initiative
and referendum. The latter has been in use since 1874; the former
has been adopted more recently.
From the courteous assistant secretary of state I learned that
during the last twenty-nine years 235 federal laws have been
submitted to the people by means of the referendum, of which 210
were adopted and twenty-five rejected. The total voting population
of Switzerland is about 768,000, and it requires a petition signed
by 30,000--less than 5 per cent of the voting population--to secure
a referendum vote on any bill. Fifty thousand voters can petition
for the enactment of any desired law, and when such a petition is
filed the federal legislature can either pass the law or refuse to
pass it. If it refuses, however, its action must be passed upon by a
referendum vote. Since the existence of this provision six petitions
have been presented, and in every case the legislature refused to
pass the law demanded by the petitioners. In five cases the people
at the referendum vote sustained the legislature; in one case the
action of the legislature was overruled by the voters. In this
instance the people had petitioned for the passage of a law that
would prevent the slaughter of animals for food until after they had
been rendered insensible.
I found that the Swiss people are so pleased with the popular
control over government, given them by the initiative and
referendum, that there is no possibility that any party will
attempt to attack it, although there are some that would prefer
the representative system freed from the restraint which the
initiative and referendum give. Their arguments are, first, that the
legislators knowing that the people can initiate legislation feel
less responsibility; and, second, that as the legislators' actions
can be reviewed by the people, the legislators are more timid about
introducing needed reforms. The friends of the initiative and
referendum meet these arguments by declaring that the legislators
are really not relieved from responsibility, but on the other hand
are incited to action by the fact that the people can act in the
event that their interests are neglected by the legislature and that
the timidity suggested is only likely to prevent legislation when
the legislators themselves doubt the merit of the proposed action.
By courtesy of the American minister, Mr. Hill, I had the honor of
meeting Dr. Adolphe Deucher, "president of the Swiss confederation,"
as he is styled. He is of German blood, as his name would indicate,
and he is a fine representative of the scholarly, big-hearted
Teuton. He is a tall, slender man, of about 60, with a ruddy face,
white mustache and scanty white hair. He speaks with frankness and
conviction and is as simple in his manners as the humblest of his
people. He has been president once before, and has represented his
canton in the federal legislature. He lives very unostentatiously,
as becomes an official whose salary is only $2,750 a year. He
receives $250 a year more than his colleagues in the federal
council. Switzerland has no executive mansion and the president
lives in a modest hotel.
Three languages are spoken in Switzerland--French, German, Italian.
French prevails in the region about Geneva, German in and north of
Berne and Italian at the southeast near the Italian border. German
is, perhaps, dominant, if any one tongue can be said to dominate,
with French and Italian following in the order named. The debates
in the federal legislature are conducted in the three tongues, and
are reported therein officially. No attempt is made to interfere
with the teaching of the language that each of the three communities
desires, the cantons being independent in matters of local
legislation, just as are the states in our country. There seems
to be no jealousy or enmity between the different sections except
to the extent of a healthful rivalry between them. The feeling of
independence, however, is so strong that no federal government could
exist without a clear recognition of the rights of the component
states or cantons.
As a nation, Switzerland, with her five million people, does not
attract the attention that neighboring nations do, and in a contest
at arms, except upon her own soil, she could not hope to achieve
much, but in that high form where conscience dictates and where
reason rules she is a conspicuous member of the sisterhood of
nations. If we believe the world to be making progress toward nobler
national ideals, we may expect Switzerland to occupy a position of
increasing importance, for the love of liberty that characterizes
her people, the democratic character of her institutions and the
industry of her citizens all combine to give her assurance of
increasing prestige.
I cannot refrain here from giving expression to a thought that has
grown upon me since my arrival in Europe. I found our ambassador
to England, Mr. Choate, preparing to leave his residence in Carlton
House Terrace, London, because of the prospective return of its
owner, Lord Curzon, from India. I learned that our ambassadors to
France have often found difficulty in finding suitable houses in
Paris, while I found that our minister to Switzerland, Mr. Hill,
is living in Geneva because he has not been able thus far to find
a residence in Berne, the capital. I was also informed that our
ambassador to Italy, Mr. Meyer, was compelled to live in a hotel
in Rome for a year after his appointment, because he was unable to
find a suitable house for the embassy. The trials of our diplomatic
representatives in Europe, together with the high rents they are
compelled to pay for their residences, have convinced me that we as
a people are at fault in not providing permanent and appropriate
domiciles for our ambassadors and ministers at foreign capitals.
In the great cities of Europe it is not only impossible to rent
at a moderate price a house suitable for our embassy, but it is
often difficult to secure a convenient location at any price. It
is scarcely democratic to place upon an official an expense so
great as to preclude the appointment of a man of moderate means;
nor does it comport with the dignity of our nation to make the
choice of an ambassadorial or ministerial residence dependent upon
chance and circumstance. I have been pleased to observe that our
representatives in Europe are conspicuous in the diplomatic circle
at court functions because of their modest attire, but it is not
necessary that our ambassadors' and ministers' homes should be on
wheels in order to be democratic. I believe that our government
ought to inaugurate a new policy in this matter and build up in
the chief capitals of foreign nations on land convenient to the
foreign office buildings suitable in every way for the residences
and offices of our diplomatic representatives. Such buildings
constructed according to a characteristic American style of
architecture and furnished like an American home would not only give
to our representative a fixed habitation, but would exhibit to the
people of the country in which he is accredited the American manner
of living. The records of the embassy could be kept more safely in
permanent quarters.
As real estate in all the capitals of Europe is rapidly rising in
value, land purchased now would become a profitable investment and
the rent estimated on the purchase price would be a great deal less
than will have to be paid twenty or fifty years from now for a
suitable site and buildings conveniently located. It is not wise to
confine our diplomatic representation to the circle of the wealthy,
and it is much better to furnish our ambassadors and ministers with
residences than to increase their salaries.
CHAPTER LII.
THREE LITTLE KINGDOMS.
I shall treat in this article of my visit to three little kingdoms
in the north of Europe--Denmark, Belgium and The Netherlands.
I passed through the edge of Sweden on my way from Berlin to
Copenhagen and was at Malmo a short time; but, as it was Christmas
day and early in the morning, few stores were open, and I did not
have an opportunity to see many people. I had intended to visit
Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, but a day's delay in Russia
deprived me of that pleasure.
Copenhagen is not only the capital of Denmark, but its commercial
metropolis as well. The city has the air of a seaport. The canal
leading from the harbor up to the center of the town was crowded
with boats which had taken up their winter quarters, and the
multitude of masts told of the numbers of those who live upon the
ocean.
Denmark is a densely populated country composed of the Jutland
peninsula and a number of islands. The land is for the most part
level and not much above the sea. The farmers of Denmark have
distinguished themselves in several departments of agriculture,
especially in butter-making--Danish butter commanding the highest
price in London and other large markets.
Copenhagen has some very substantial buildings and an art gallery in
which the works of Thorwaldsen, the sculptor, occupy the chief place.
The people of Denmark, while living under an hereditary monarch,
have a written constitution, and parliament is the controlling
influence in the government. Until recently, the sovereign insisted
upon selecting his cabinet ministers to suit himself; but, about
three years ago, he yielded to the demand of parliament that the
dominant party in that body be permitted to furnish the king's
advisers. The change has proven so satisfactory that perfect harmony
now exists between the royal family and the legislative body.
King Christian is advanced in years and is so beloved by his people
that he goes among them without attendants or guards.
The heir to the throne of Denmark, Prince Frederick, upon whom, by
the courtesy of the American minister, Mr. Swensen, I was able to
call on Christmas afternoon, is very democratic in his manner, and
very cordial in his friendship for America.
If marrying daughters to crowned heads is a test, the late Queen of
Denmark was a very successful mother. One of her daughters is mother
of the present emperor of Russia, another is wife of the present
king of England, and a third is married to one of the smaller kings
of Germany. A son, it may be added, is king of Greece.
I had the pleasure of meeting the prime minister and also Professor
Matzen, the president of the state university and Denmark's member
of The Hague tribunal. He was one of the leading opponents of the
transfer of the Danish islands to the United States.
I learned while in Denmark that one of the chief reasons for
the opposition to the sale of the Danish islands to the United
States was the fact that the United States did not guarantee full
citizenship to the inhabitants of those islands. The nation's
conduct elsewhere prevented this. Our refusal to give the Porto
Ricans and the Filipinos the protection of the constitution is
largely to blame for the loss of the Danish islands to our country.
[Illustration: KING CHRISTIAN AND WIFE.]
The Danish officials whom I met were deeply interested in the United
States, and naturally so, for, like Sweden and Norway, Denmark has
sent many sons and daughters to the United States; and these, as
have the Swedes and Norwegians, have deported themselves so well
as to establish close ties between the mother countries and their
adopted land.
CHAPTER LIII.
BELGIUM.
Belgium is a busy hive. Its people are crowded together and are
very industrious. The farmers and truck gardeners have reduced
agriculture to a fine art and the lace workers are famous for their
skill.
Nowhere did I see man's faithful friend, the dog, utilized as in
Belgium. He helps to haul the carts along the streets, and his
services are so highly prized that large dogs are untaxed, while the
small house dog, being an idler, has to contribute his annual quota
to the expenses of the government.
[Illustration: PALACE OF JUSTICE--BELGIUM]
The elegance of some of the public buildings and the beauty of the
streets of Brussels surprise one, if he has allowed himself to
judge Belgium by her dimensions on the map. Historical interest,
however, is centered, not in Brussels, but in the battlefield of
Waterloo, some miles away. In the summer time, thousands of tourists
(among whom, according to the guides, are but few Frenchmen) turn
their steps toward this field which witnessed the overthrow of the
greatest military genius of his generation, if not of all time.
The scene of carnage is now marked by an enormous artificial mound
130 feet in height and surmounted by an immense stone lion--the
Lion of Waterloo. The animal looks toward the point from which
Napoleon made his last charge and seems to be watching lest the
attack may be renewed. Wellington, upon visiting the battlefield
after the erection of this mound, is said to have complained
that they had ruined the battlefield to secure dirt for this
stupendous pile, and it is true that the surface of the earth in
that vicinity has been very much altered. In leveling the knolls
they have destroyed one of the most interesting landmarks of the
battlefield--the sunken road in which so many of the French soldiers
lost their lives. As the guide tells it, Napoleon asked a Belgian
peasant if there was any ravine to be crossed between him and the
enemy's lines, and the peasant replied in the negative; but when the
French rushed over this knoll, they came suddenly and unexpectedly
upon a narrow road in a cut about twenty feet deep, and, falling in,
filled up the cut until succeeding ranks crossed over on their dead
bodies.
The field, as a whole, might be described as a rolling prairie,
although the visitor is told of groves no longer standing. At the
Hugomond farm, the walls of the house bear evidence of the conflict
that raged nearly a century ago, and one is shown the ruins of an
old well in which, it is said, the bodies of 300 English soldiers
were buried. This portion of the battlefield reminds one somewhat
of that portion of the battlefield of Gettysburg which was made
famous by Pickett's charge, although there are but few monuments at
Waterloo to mark the places occupied by the various brigades and
divisions.
At a restaurant near the mound one is shown the chair in which,
according to tradition, Wellington sat when he was laying his plans
for the last day's battle, and you can, for a franc each, secure
bullets warranted to have been found upon the field. It is rumored,
however, that some of the bullets now found are of modern make and
that thrifty peasants sow them as they do grain, and gather them for
the benefit of tourists.
I found Europe agitated by a remark recently made by the emperor
of Germany which gave the Prussian troops credit for saving the
English and winning the day, but the French are as quick to dispute
this claim as the English. The comedians have taken the matter up
in the British Isles, and, at one London theatre, an actor dressed
as an Englishman, is made to meet a German and, after an exchange
of compliments, the English brings down the house by saying: "I beg
pardon! It may be a little late, but let me thank you for saving us
at Waterloo."
It is hardly worth while for the allies to quarrel over the division
of credit. There was glory enough for all--and it required the
co-operation of all to overcome the genius and the strategy of
Bonaparte.
CHAPTER LIV.
THE NETHERLANDS.
Between Waterloo, one of the world's most renowned battlefields,
and The Hague, which is to be the home of the Temple of Peace--what
a contrast; and yet Belgium and The Netherlands lie side by side!
Perhaps the contrast is chronological rather than geographical or
racial, for the Dutch have had their share of fighting on their
own soil, as they had their part in the victory of 1815. It seems
especially appropriate that The Hague should be chosen as the
permanent meeting place of the peace tribunal, for it is not only
centrally located for European countries, and, being small, is not
itself tempted to appeal to arms, but it has long been the home of
religious liberty, and its people were pioneers in the defense of
the doctrine that rulers exist for the people, not the people for
the rulers.
[Illustration: THE HAGUE]
The capital of The Netherlands--The Hague--(the name is taken
from the forest that adjoins) is a beautiful little city and will
furnish an appropriate setting for the building which Mr. Carnegie's
generosity is to provide. Plans are already being prepared for
this structure, and one of the officials showed me a picture
representing Peace, which may be reproduced upon the ceiling or
walls.
In the gallery at Moscow I saw a painting by the great Russian
artist, Vereshchagin. It is a pyramid of whitened skulls standing
out against a dark background, and is dedicated to "The Warriors
of the World." It tells the whole story of war in so solemn,
impressive, and terrible a way that Von Moltke is said to have
issued an order prohibiting German officers from looking at it when
it was exhibited at Berlin.
The emperor of Russia, who has the distinction and the honor of
having called together the conference which resulted in The Hague
tribunal, might with great propriety contribute to the Temple of
Peace this masterpiece of one of his countrymen, portraying so
vividly the evils which arbitration is intended to remedy.
[Illustration: THE MARKET PLACE AT AMSTERDAM.]
One of the members of the arbitration court told me that it was both
interesting and instructive to note how the nations appearing before
that court emphasized, not so much their pecuniary claims, as the
honor of their respective nations and the justice of their acts.
No one can foresee or foretell how great an influence The Hague
tribunal will have upon the world's affairs, but it would seem
difficult to exaggerate it. It is cultivating a public opinion
which will in time coerce the nations into substituting arbitration
for violence in the settlement of international disputes; and it
ought to be a matter of gratification to every American that our
country is taking so active a part in the forwarding of the movement.
But The Hague is not the only place of interest in The Netherlands.
The land replevined from the sea by the sturdy Dutch and protected
by dykes, the spot immortalized by the temporary sojourn of the
Pilgrims, the familiar blue china, the huge wind mills with
their deliberate movements, the wooden shoes, and the numerous
waterways--all these attract the attention of the tourist.
And the commercial metropolis of Holland,--Amsterdam--what a quaint
old city it is! Its more than three hundred canals roaming their way
through the city, and its hundreds of bridges, have given to it the
name of "The Northern Venice," and it well deserves the appellation.
The houses are built on piles, and as many of them are settling,
they lean in every direction, some out toward the street, some back,
and some toward the side. The houses are so dependent upon each
other for support, it is a common saying in that city that if you
want to injure your neighbor, you have only to pull down your own
house.
[Illustration: A NETHERLANDS STATESMAN.]
Amsterdam is the center of the diamond cutting industry of the
world, more than ten thousand hands being employed in that work. As
is well known, the Dutch are a rich people, and their commerce, like
their mortgages, can be found everywhere.
They have a constitutional monarchy, but they have universal
education and parliamentary government, and are jealous of their
political rights.
Denmark, Belgium and The Netherlands--three little kingdoms! Small
in area, but brimful of people, and these people have their part in
the solving of problems with which Europe is now grappling.
[Illustration: A DUTCH WINDMILL.]
CHAPTER LV.
GERMANY AND SOCIALISM.
[Illustration: THE REICHSTAG]
At Berlin I found, as I had at London and Paris, a considerable
number of Americans and, as in the other cities, they have organized
a society, the object of which is to bring the American residents
together for friendly intercourse. At London the group is known as
the American Society; at Paris and Berlin the society is known as
the American Chamber of Commerce. Through the receptions given by
these societies I was able to meet not only the leading American
residents, but many foreigners who came as invited guests. Our
American residents are evidently conducting themselves well, because
I found that they are well liked by the people among whom they are
temporarily sojourning. I am indebted to Ambassador Tower and to
the American Chamber of Commerce for courtesies extended me at
Berlin.
My visit to Germany occurred at Christmas time and while it was
for that reason impossible to see the kaiser (much to my regret),
I learned something of the German method of observing the great
Christian holiday. The German is essentially a domestic man and
at Christmas time especially gives himself up to the society of
the family, relatives and friends. Christmas coming on Friday,
the festivities covered three days, Friday, Saturday and Sunday.
The toys--in which Germany abounds--were of endless variety, and
the Christmas trees, bending beneath their load, were centers of
interest to the young folks. There were dolls and dogs, horses
and woolly sheep, cows that give milk, and soldiers--an abundance
of soldiers. I saw one cavalry man with a saber in his hand. When
he was wound up, the horse would rush forward and the rider would
strike with his saber, as if he were keeping watch on the Rhine
and in the very act of resisting an attack from the enemy. A
little strange that the birthday of the Prince of Peace should be
celebrated by the presentation of toys illustrating mimic warfare!
But, as in America we are increasing our army and enlarging our
navy, we are not in a very good position to take the military mote
out of the eye of our friends in the fatherland.
[Illustration: LEIPSIC UNIVERSITY.]
Berlin is a splendid city with beautiful streets, parks and public
buildings. It is more modern in appearance than either London
or Paris, and there is a solidity and substantialness about the
population that explain the character of the emigration from
Germany to America. No one can look upon a gathering of average
Germans without recognizing that he is in the presence of a strong,
intelligent and masterful people. Bismarck has left his impress
upon Germany as Napoleon did upon France. An heroic statue of the
man of "blood and iron" stands between the reichstag and the column
of Victory, which was erected at the close of the Franco-Prussian
war. The reichstag is a massive but graceful structure, built some
twenty years ago. In one of the corridors I noticed a silk flag
which was presented in the seventies by the German women of America.
The reichstag proper is a popular body, much like the English
parliament, and, as in England, the members do not necessarily
reside in the districts they represent. The upper house or
bundesrath, is somewhat like our senate in one respect, namely, that
it represents the various states that comprise the German empire,
but it differs from our senate, first, in that the subdivisions are
represented somewhat in proportion to population, and, second, in
that the members of the bundesrath are really ambassadors of the
several state governments whose credentials can be withdrawn at any
time. As all legislation must be concurred in by the bundesrath, as
well as by the reichstag, it will be seen that the German government
is not nearly so responsive to the will of the people as the
governments of England, Denmark and the Netherlands.
In the reichstag they have resorted to a device for saving time in
roll call. Each member is supplied with a quantity of tickets, some
pink and some white. Each ticket bears on both sides the name of the
member. On the white tickets the word "Ja" (yes) appears under the
name, on the pink ones "Nein" (no). These ballots are gathered up in
vases containing two receptacles, one white and the other pink. The
vases are carried through the hall and the votes deposited according
to color. As they are deposited in the different receptacles and are
distinguished by color, the ballot is quickly taken and counted--in
about one-fourth the time, I think, formerly required for roll call.
This is a method which our congress might find it convenient to
adopt.
It was my good fortune, while in Berlin, to meet Dr. Otto Arendt,
the leading bimetallist of Germany. He became a student of the money
question while in college, being converted to the double standard
by the writings of Cernucshi, the great French economist. Dr.
Arendt is a member of the reichstag, from one of the agricultural
constituencies. He has represented his government in international
conferences and has urged his government to join in an agreement
to restore bimetallism, but, like other advocates of the double
standard, has found the English financiers an immovable obstruction
in the way.
[Illustration: THE RHINE]
I have for two reasons reserved for this article some comments
on the growth of socialism in Europe. First, because Germany was
to be the last of the larger countries visited, and, second,
because socialism seems to be growing more rapidly in Germany than
anywhere else. I find that nearly all the European nations have
carried collective ownership farther than we have in the United
States. In a former article, reference has already been made to
the growth of municipal ownership in England and Scotland, and I
may add that where the private ownership of public utilities is
still permitted the regulation of the corporations holding these
franchises is generally more strict than in the United States.
Let two illustrations suffice: Where parliament charters gas and
water companies in cities, it has for some years been the practice
to limit the dividends that can be earned--any surplus earnings
over and above the dividends allowed must be used in reducing the
price paid by the consumer. I fear that our money magnates would be
at a loss to find words to express their indignation if any such
restriction were suggested in America, and yet is it not a just and
reasonable restriction?
In the case of railroads, I noticed that there are in England but
few grade (or, as they call them, "level") crossings. I am informed
that railroad accidents and injuries are not so frequent in England
as in the United States.
In Switzerland the government has recently acquired the principal
railroad systems. In Holland, Belgium and Denmark also the railroads
are largely government roads. In Russia the government owns and
operates the roads and I found there a new form of collectivism,
namely, the employment of a community physician, who treats the
people without charge. These physicians are employed by societies
called Zemstro, which have control of the roads and the care of the
sick.
In Germany, however, socialism as an economic theory is being urged
by a strong and growing party. In the last general election the
socialists polled a little more than three million votes out of a
total of about nine and a half millions. Measured by the popular
vote it is now the strongest party in Germany. The fact that with
thirty-one per cent of the vote it only has eighty-one members of
the reichstag out of a total of 397 is due, in part, to the fact
that the socialist vote is massed in the cities and, in part, to the
fact that the population has increased more rapidly in the cities,
and, as there has been no recent redistricting, the socialist city
districts are larger than the districts returning members of other
parties.
George von Vollmar, a member of the reichstag, in a recent issue of
the National Review thus states the general purpose of the social
democratic party in Germany:
"It is well known that social democracy in all countries, as its
name indicates, aims in the first place at social and economic
reform. It starts from the point of view that economic development,
the substitution of machinery for hand implements, and the
supplanting of small factories by gigantic industrial combinations,
deprive the worker in an ever increasing degree of the essential
means of production, thereby converting him into a possessionless
proletarian, and that the means of production are becoming the
exclusive possession of a comparatively small number of capitalists,
who constantly monopolize all the advantages which the gigantic
increase in the productive capacity of human effort has brought
about. Thus, according to the social democrats, capital is master
of all the springs of life, and lays a yoke on the working classes
in particular, and the whole population in general, which ever
becomes more and more unbearable. The masses, as their insight into
the general trend of affairs develops, become daily more and more
conscious of the contrast between the exploiter and the exploited,
and in all countries with an industrial development society is
divided into two hostile camps, which wage war on each other with
ever increasing bitterness.
[Illustration: KAISER WILHELM.]
"To this class-war is due the origin and continuous development
of social democracy, the chief task of which is to unite these
factions in an harmonious whole which they will direct to its true
goal. Industrial combination on a large scale can be converted from
a source of misery and oppression into a source of the greatest
prosperity and of harmonious perfection, when the means of
production cease to be the exclusive appanage of capital and are
transferred to the hands of society at large. The social revolution
here indicated implies the liberation not only of the proletariat,
but of mankind as a whole, which suffers from the decomposing
influence of existing class antagonism whereby all social progress
is crippled."
One of the most influential of the German socialists, in answer to a
series of questions submitted by me, said in substance:
First, the general aim of socialists in Germany is the same as
the aim of other socialists throughout the world--namely, the
establishment of a collective commonwealth based on democratic
equality.
Second, the socialists of Germany have organized a liberal party
of unrivaled strength; they have educated the working classes to a
very high standard of political intelligence and to a strong sense
of their independence and of their social mission, as the living and
progressive force in every social respect; they have promoted the
organization of trade unions; and have by their incessant agitation
compelled the other parties and the government to take up social and
labor legislation.
Third, German socialists at present are contending for a legal
eight-hour day and for the creation of a labor department in the
government, with labor officers and labor chambers throughout the
country. In addition to these special reforms, socialists are urging
various constitutional and democratic reforms in the states and
municipalities--in the latter housing reforms, direct employment of
labor, etc.
Fourth, there may be some difference of opinion among socialists
in regard to the competitive system, but, being scientific
evolutionists, they all agree that competition was at one time a
great step in advance and acted for generations as a social lever
of industrial progress, but they believe that it has many evil
consequences and that it is now being outgrown by capitalistic
concerns, whose power to oppress has become a real danger to the
community. They contend that there is not much competition left with
these monopolies and that as, on the other hand, education and the
sense of civic responsibility are visibly growing, and will grow
more rapidly when socialism gets hold of the public mind, socialists
think that the time is approaching when all monopolies must and can
safely be taken over by the state or municipality as the case may
be. This would not destroy all competition at once--in industries
not centralized some competition might continue to exist. In this
respect, also, all socialists are evolutionists, however they may
differ as to ways and means and political methods.
Fifth, as to the line between what are called natural monopolies
and ordinary industries, the question is partly answered by the
preceding paragraph. There is a general consensus of opinion that
natural monopolies should, in any case, be owned by the community.
[Illustration: BRETON PEASANTS.]
I find that even in Germany there are degrees among socialists--some
like Babel and Singer emphasizing the ultimate ends of socialism,
while others led by Bernstein are what might be called progressionists
or opportunists--that is, they are willing to take the best they
can get to-day and from that vantage ground press on to something
better. It is certain that the socialists of Germany are securing
reforms, but so far they are reforms which have either already been
secured in other countries or are advocated elsewhere by other
parties as well as by the socialist party.
The whole question of socialism hangs upon the question: Is
competition an evil or a good? If it is an evil, then monopolies are
right and we have only to decide whether the monopolies should be
owned by the state or by private individuals. If, on the other hand,
competition is good, then it should be restored where it can be
restored. In the case of natural monopolies, where it is impossible
for competition to exist, the government would administer the
monopolies, not on the ground that competition is undesirable, but
on the ground that in such cases it is impossible.
Those who believe that the right is sure of ultimate triumph will
watch the struggle in Germany and profit by the lessons taught. I
am inclined to believe that political considerations are so mingled
with economic theories that it is difficult as yet to know just what
proportion of the three million socialist voters believe in "the
government ownership and operation of all the means of production
and distribution." The old age pension act was given as a sop to
the socialists, but it strengthened rather than weakened their
contentions and their party. It remains to be seen whether the new
concessions which they seem likely to secure will still further
augment their strength. The Germans are a studious and a thoughtful
people and just now they are absorbed in the consideration of the
aims and methods of the socialist movement (mingled with a greater
or less amount of governmental reform), and the world awaits their
verdict with deep interest.
CHAPTER LVI.
RUSSIA AND HER CZAR.
The map of Russia makes the other nations of Europe look
insignificant by comparison. Moscow is called "The Heart of Russia,"
and yet the trans-Siberian railway from Moscow to Vladivostok is
about 6,000 miles long, nearly one-fourth the circumference of
the globe. From St. Petersburg to Sebastopol is more than 2,000
miles, and yet Russia's territory extends much further north
than St. Petersburg and much further south than Sebastopol. In
a book recently issued by authority of the Russian government,
some comparisons are made that give an idea of the immensity of
Russia's domain. For instance, Siberia is about one and one-half
times as large as Europe, 25 times as large as Germany, and covers
one-thirteenth of the continental surface of the globe. Besides
having great timber belts and vast prairies, Siberia has a hill and
lake region ten times as large as Switzerland, and it is claimed
that some of the lakes are as beautiful as those of "The Mountain
Republic." Lately the government has been encouraging immigration
into the country opened up by the trans-Siberian railway and the
success of the movement is shown by the fact that the number of
passengers carried on the western section of the road increased
from 160,000 in 1896 to 379,000 in 1898, and on the middle section
from 177,000 in 1897 to 476,000 in 1898, with a similar increase
in freight traffic. The government gives a certain area of land to
each settler and, when necessary, advances sufficient money to build
homes and barns for the storage of crops and for the purchase of
agricultural implements. The territorial greatness of Russia is the
first thing that impresses the tourist, and the second is that it
is as yet so sparsely settled that it can without fear of crowding
accommodate a vast increase in population.
Russia embraces all varieties of climate and resources.
My journey was confined to the northwest portion. I entered the
country below Warsaw, went east to Moscow, then north to St.
Petersburg and thence southwest to Berlin. This, with the exception
of my visit to Tula, gave me my only opportunity to see the
people of Russia. They impressed me as being a hardy race and the
necessities of climate are such as to compel industry and activity.
I never saw elsewhere such universal preparation for cold weather.
As yet Russia is almost entirely agricultural, but manufacturing
enterprises are continually increasing. The peasants live in
villages and for the most part hold their lands in common--that is,
the lands belong to the commune or village as a whole and not to
the individual. When Alexander freed the serfs the land was sold
to them jointly on long-time payments. These payments have in only
a few instances been completed, wherefore not many of the peasants
own land individually. There is just now much discussion in Russia
about the method of holding land. Some contend that communal
holding tends to discourage thrift and enterprise, and there is some
agitation in favor of individual ownership.
[Illustration: THE CZAR OF RUSSIA]
Moscow, the largest city of Russia, has a trifle larger population
than St. Petersburg, the capital, which has more than a million.
Moscow, which is the commercial center of the empire, gives the
casual visitor a much better idea of the characteristic life and
architecture of Russia than does St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg,
however, is laid out upon a broader, more generous plan, has wider
streets, more impressive public buildings and private residences,
and there is more evidence of wealth in the capital than in the
commercial center. Both cities possess admirable museums and art
galleries. The chief gallery of Moscow devotes nearly all its wall
space to pictures by Russian artists, and they are sufficient in
number to prove Russia's claim to an honorable place in the world of
art.
The Hermitage at St. Petersburg, which is an annex of the emperor's
palace, contains an extraordinary number of masterpieces of modern
and ancient art. The museum of the academy of sciences possesses a
remarkable collection of fine specimens, of prehistoric animals,
among them mammoths, the largest and best preserved of which was
found only a few years ago at the foot of a Siberian glacier.
The visitor to Russia comes away with conflicting emotions. He is
impressed by the wonderful possibilities of the country, but is
oppressed by the limitations and restrictions which the government
places upon individual action and activity. As soon as the traveler
reaches the border of Russia his passport is demanded. It is again
demanded the moment he arrives at his hotel, and it is demanded and
inspected at every place he stops. When he is about to leave the
country he must send his passport to the police office and have it
indorsed with official permission to depart. Not only is a passport
demanded at every place from the foreigner, but native Russians,
high and low, must also bear passports and be prepared to submit
them for inspection upon demand. Not even officers of the army are
exempt from this rigid rule.
The censorship over the press and over private mail is very strict.
I brought away with me a copy of Stead's Review of Reviews which
had been posted to a subscriber in Russia and which had passed
through the hands of the censor. Its pages bore abundant evidence
of the care with which he scrutinized foreign publications, for
objectionable cartoons, articles and even paragraphs had been made
illegible by an obliterating stamp.
The government of Russia, as the world knows, is an autocracy. All
power is vested in the emperor, and all authority emanates from him.
Being an autocracy, Russia has, of course, no legislative body,
such as is now a part of the government of nearly every civilized
country on the globe. It has not trial by jury and it knows not the
writ of habeas corpus. The custom of exiling or banishing, without
trial, persons objectionable to the government is still practiced.
A large number of Finns, many of them persons of prominence, have
been deported from Finland since the decree of 1899, which limited
the self government which the Finns had enjoyed since Russia annexed
their country.
While in St. Petersburg I was, by the courtesy of the American
ambassador, Mr. McCormick, given an opportunity of meeting and
chatting with the czar of all the Russias, Emperor Nicholas II. I
found him at his winter residence, the palace of Tsarskoe Selo,
which is about an hour's ride from St. Petersburg.
Of all the emperor's palaces, Tsarskoe Selo is his favorite. It
stands in a magnificent park which, at this time of year, is covered
with snow. The emperor is a young man, having been born in 1868.
He is not more than five feet seven or eight inches in height,
and apparently weighs about 160 pounds. His figure is slender and
erect, his face boyish and his eyes a light blue. His hair, which is
blonde, is cut rather short and combed upward over the forehead. The
czar wears a mustache and short beard. The general expression of his
face is gentle, rather than severe, and he speaks English perfectly.
He informed me that about 65 per cent of the adult men of Russia
can read and write and that the number is increasing at the rate of
about 3 per cent a year. This increase, the czar said, was shown by
the recruits to the army, and as these come from all provinces of
the empire and all classes of society, he believes it to be a fair
test of the people as a whole. The czar declares himself deeply
interested in the spread of education among the people and seemed
to realize that opportunities for education should be extended to
men and women equally. I referred to a decree issued by him about
a year ago promising a measure of self-government to the local
communities. The czar said: "Yes, that was issued last February, and
the plan is now being worked out." He manifested great gratification
at the outcome of the proposals submitted by him, which resulted
in the establishment of The Hague court of arbitration, and it is
a movement of which he may justly feel proud, for while it is not
probable that The Hague tribunal will at once end all wars, it is
certain to contribute largely to the growth of a sentiment that
will substitute the reign of reason for the rule of brute force. The
czar spoke warmly of the friendly relations that have existed for
years between Russia and the United States. He said that the people
of his country had rejoiced in the growth and greatness of the
United States. Then, speaking with considerable feeling, the czar
said: "The attitude of Russia in the Kischineff affair has been very
much misrepresented by some of the newspapers and I wish you would
tell your people so when you return to the United States."
The Russian officials deny that the government was in any way
responsible for the massacre and I was informed that the government
had caused the prosecution and secured the imprisonment of many of
those implicated. The emperor showed in his conversation that he
respected public opinion in the United States and was anxious that
his administration should not rest under condemnation. It seems to
be the general opinion of those with whom I had a chance to speak
in Russia that the emperor himself is much more progressive and
liberal than his official environment. If he were free to act upon
his own judgment, it is believed that he would go further and faster
than the officeholding class surrounding him in broadening the
foundations of government, and from his words and manner during my
conversation with him I am inclined to share this opinion.
What Russia most needs today are free speech and a free press--free
speech that those who have the welfare of the country at heart may
give expression to their views and contribute their wisdom to that
public opinion which, in all free countries, controls to a greater
or less extent those who hold office. To deny freedom of speech is
to question the ability of truth to combat error; it is to doubt
the power of right to vindicate itself. A free press would not only
enable those in office to see their actions as others see them,
but would exercise a wholesome restraint. Publicity will often
deter an official from wrong-doing when other restraints would be
insufficient, and those who are anxious to do well ought to welcome
anything that would throw light upon their path. With free speech
and a free press it would not be long before the participation
of the Russian people in government would be enlarged, and, with
that enlarged share in the control of their own affairs, would
come not only contentment, but the education which responsibility
and self-government bring. It is impossible to prepare people for
self-government by depriving them of the exercise of political
rights. As children learn to walk by being allowed to fall and rise
and fall and rise again, so people profit by experience and learn
from the consequences of their mistakes.
[Illustration: RUSSIAN BEGGAR.]
That the Russian people are devoted to their church is evident
everywhere. Every village and town has its churches, and the cities
have cathedrals, chapels and shrines seemingly innumerable. St.
Isaac's cathedral in St. Petersburg is an immense basilica and is
ornamented in nave and transept with precious and semi-precious
stones. The superb portico is supported by a maze of granite
monoliths seven feet in diameter. There is now in process of
construction at Moscow a still more elaborate cathedral. Russia is
not a good missionary field for two reasons: First, because the
people seem wedded to their church, and, second, because no one is
permitted to sever his connection with the church.
The child of an orthodox Russian becomes a member of the church
of his parents and if he desires to enter another church he must
leave the country. If one of the orthodox church marries a member
of another church the children must of necessity be reared in the
Russian faith. It will be seen, therefore, that the church is very
closely connected with the government itself, and quite as arbitrary.
[Illustration: KREMLIN OF MOSCOW]
De Tocqueville some fifty years ago predicted a large place for
Russia among the nations of Europe and my visit to the great empire
of the northeast convinced me that Russia, with universal education,
freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion and
constitutional self-government, would exert an influence upon the
destinies of the old world to which it would be difficult to set a
limit.
CHAPTER LVII.
ROME--THE CATHOLIC CAPITAL.
The dominant feature of Rome is the religious feature, and it
is fitting that it should be so, for here the soil was stained
with the blood of those who first hearkened to the voice of the
Nazarene--here a cruel Nero lighted his garden with human torches,
little thinking that the religion of those whom he burned would in
time illumine the earth.
The fact that the city is the capital of the Catholic world is
apparent everywhere. All interest is centered in the Vatican and
St. Peter's. The civil government of Italy extends to the nation's
borders, but the papal authority of Rome reaches to the remotest
corners of the earth. I was anxious to see the man upon whom such
vast responsibility rests, and whose words so profoundly influence
millions of the human race. Lord Denbigh, of England, had given
me a letter of introduction to Cardinal Merry del Val, the papal
secretary of state, and armed with this I visited the Vatican.
Cardinal del Val is an exceedingly interesting man. He was born of
Spanish parents, but one of his grandparents was English, and he
is connected by ties of blood with several families of the English
nobility. He was educated in England, and speaks that language
fluently and without an accent, as he does French, German, Italian
and Spanish. His linguistic accomplishments are almost as great as
those of the famous Cardinal Mezzofanti. Cardinal del Val is an
unusually young man to occupy such an important post--he is not yet
forty. He impresses one as a man of rare ability and he possesses
extraordinary versatility and a diplomatic training that will make
him eminently useful to His Holiness. The papal secretary of state
is a tall, slender, distinguished-looking man. His intellectual face
is thin and oval; his eyes are large, dark and brilliant, showing
his Spanish birth. He received us in his private apartments in the
Vatican. They are among the most interesting of the 1,200 rooms
in that great building and were once occupied by that famous pope
who was a Borgia. The ceilings and walls down to the floor are
painted magnificently, the decoration having been done by the hand
of a master artist of Borgia's reign. For centuries the suite now
occupied by Cardinal del Val had been part of the Vatican library.
The beautiful walls were once hidden by a coat of rude whitewash,
but the paintings were discovered not long ago and restored once
more to view.
Before visiting the Vatican I called upon Monsignor Kennedy, the
rector of the American college. Monsignor Kennedy is a learned and
an exceedingly agreeable American and under his efficient management
the number of students in the college has been doubled within a few
years. He enabled me to meet Pope Pius' Maestro di Camera. By the
good offices of Cardinal del Val and the Maestro di Camera, it was
arranged that I should have a private audience with the Holy Father
the following day, Monsignor Kennedy acting as interpreter.
[Illustration: COLISEUM, ROME.]
Pope Pius received us in his private room adjoining the public
audience chamber, where distinguished Catholics from all over the
world were collected and ready to be presented and receive the papal
blessing. The private audience room is a rather small apartment,
simply, but beautifully furnished and decorated. A throne bearing
the papal crown occupied one side of the room. His Holiness greeted
us very courteously and cordially. He wore a long white cassock,
with a girdle at the waist; the fisherman's ring was on his finger
and he wore a small, closely fitting skull-cap of white. I had an
opportunity to study his face. It is a round, strong face, full of
kindliness and benevolence, but there are not lacking indications
that its possessor has a purpose and will of his own. The face is
ruddy and the nose rather long--it is straight and not arched. His
eyes are large, blue and friendly. The scant hair visible below the
skull-cap is white. In stature the Holy Father is about five feet
nine or ten inches and his figure is sturdy, but not too heavy. His
step is light and gives an impression of strength and good health.
[Illustration: POPE PIUS X.]
His Holiness has already gained a reputation as a democratic pontiff
and enjoys a large and growing popularity with the people. He is an
orator and often on Sunday goes into one of the many court yards of
the Vatican and preaches to the crowds that gather quite informally.
His gestures are said to be graceful and his voice melodious. His
manner is earnest and his thoughts are expressed in clear and
emphatic language. There is a feeling in Rome that Pius X. is going
to be known in history as a reformer--not as a reformer of doctrine,
but as one who will popularize the church's doctrine with a view to
increasing the heartiness and zeal of the masses in the application
of religious truth to everyday life.
I assured his Holiness that I appreciated the opportunity that
was his to give impetus to the moral forces of the world, and he
replied: "I hope my efforts in that direction will be such as
to merit commendation." Answering my statement that I called to
present the good will of many Catholic friends as well as to pay my
respects, His Holiness asked me to carry his benediction back to
them.
If I may venture an opinion upon such brief observation, it is that
heart characteristics will dominate the present pontiff's course. He
is not so renowned a scholar and diplomat as was his predecessor,
nor is he so skilled in statecraft, but he is a virile, energetic,
practical religious teacher, charitable, abounding in good works
and full of brotherly love. I am confident that he will play an
important part in the world-wide conflict between man and mammon.
The world has made and is making great progress in education and
in industry. The percentage of illiteracy is everywhere steadily
decreasing. The standards of art and taste are rising and the
forces of nature are being harnessed to do the work of man. Steam,
madly escaping from its prison walls, turns myriad wheels and drags
our commerce over land and sea, while electricity, more fleet of
foot than Mercury, has become the message-bearer of millions.
Even the waves of the air are now obedient to the command of man
and intelligence is flashed across the ocean without the aid
of wires. With this dominion over nature man has been able to
advance his physical well-being, as well as to enlarge his mental
horizon, but has the moral development of the people kept pace
with material prosperity? The growing antagonism between capital
and labor, the lack of sympathy often manifest between those of
the same race and even of the same religion, when enjoying incomes
quite unequal--these things would seem to indicate that the heart
has lagged behind the head and the purse. The restoration of the
equilibrium and the infusing of a feeling of brotherhood that
will establish justice and good will must be the aim of those who
are sincerely interested in the progress of the race. This is
pre-eminently the work of our religious teachers, although it is a
work in which the laity as well as the clergy must take part.
[Illustration: NAPLES]
After meeting Pius X., late the beloved patriarch of Venice, I feel
assured that he is peculiarly fitted to lead his portion of the
Christian church in this great endeavor.
The Vatican, which serves as the home and executive offices of the
supreme pontiff of the Catholic church, is an enormous building, or
rather collection of buildings, for it bears evidence of additions
and annexes. One might be easily lost in its maze of corridors.
The ceilings of the chief apartments are high and, like the walls
of the spacious rooms and halls, are covered with frescoes of
priceless value. The Vatican adjoins St. Peter's cathedral--or
basilica as it is called--a description of whose beauties would
fill a volume. The basilica is so harmoniously proportioned that
one does not appreciate its vastness from a distance, but once
within its walls it is easy to credit the statement that fifty
thousand persons can be crowded into it. In a crypt just beneath
the great dome is the tomb of St. Peter, about which myriad lamps
are kept constantly burning. Near the tomb is a crucifix suspended
under a canopy supported by four spiral columns that are replicas
of a column elsewhere in the cathedral that is said to have been
part of Solomon's temple. Not far from the crucifix is the famous
bronze statue of St. Peter, made from a pagan statue of Jupiter. It
is mounted upon a pedestal about five feet high and the large toe
of the right foot, which projects over the pedestal has been worn
smooth by the lips of devout visitors to the basilica.
To me the most remarkable of the splendors of the cathedral were
the mosaic pictures, of which there are many of heroic size. These
mosaics depict Bible scenes and characters and are done with such
marvelous skill that a little way off one can hardly doubt that they
are the product of the brush of some great master. The colors, tints
and shades are so perfect that it is difficult to believe that the
pictures are formed by the piecing together of tiny bits of colored
marbles and other stones. The Vatican maintains a staff of artists
in mosaic, some of whose work may be purchased by the public. I was
shown the masterpiece of Michael Angelo in the cathedral of St.
Peter in Vinculo--a statue of Moses, seated. In the right knee there
is a slight crack visible and it is tradition that, when the great
sculptor had finished his work, he struck the knee with his mallet
in a burst of enthusiasm and exclaimed, "Now, speak." St. Paul's
cathedral, which stands outside the ancient wall of the city, is of
modern construction and is therefore less interesting to the visitor
than the great basilica of St. Peter's.
Next to the Vatican and the cathedrals in interest are the ruins
of ancient Rome. In England and France I had seen buildings many
centuries old; in Rome one walks at the foot of walls that for
nearly two thousand years have defied the ravages of time. The best
preserved and most stupendous of the relics of "The Eternal City"
is the Colosseum. It is built upon a scale that gives some idea
of the largeness of Roman conceptions and of the prodigality with
which the emperors expended the money and labor of the people. The
arena in which the gladiators fought with their fellows and with
wild beasts--the arena in which many of the Christian martyrs met
their death--is slightly oval in form, the longest diameter being
about 250 feet. The arena was so arranged that it could be flooded
with water and used for aquatic tournaments. The spectators looked
down upon the contests from galleries that rose in four tiers to a
height of 150 feet. At one end of the arena was the tribune occupied
by the emperor and his suite; at the other end the vestal virgins
occupied another tribune and it was their privilege to confer either
life or death upon the vanquished gladiators by turning the thumb
up or down--turned up it meant life, turned down, death. The Roman
populace gained access to the galleries by 160 doors and stairways.
The seating capacity of the Colosseum is estimated to have been
fifty thousand.
[Illustration: GRAND CANAL--VENICE]
The Forum is even richer than the Colosseum in historic interest
and recent excavations have brought to light what are supposed
to be the tomb of Cæsar and the tomb of Romulus. The tribune is
pointed out from which the Roman orators addressed the multitude.
Here Cicero hurled his invectives at Cataline and Mark Antony is
by Shakespeare made to plead here for fallen Cæsar. The triumphal
arch of Constantine stands at one end of the Forum and is in an
excellent state of preservation. Among the carvings lately exhumed
are some (especially attractive to an agriculturist) showing the
forms of the bull, the sheep and the hog. They are so like the best
breeds of these animals to-day that one can scarcely believe they
were chiseled from stone nearly twenty centuries ago. In Rome,
as in Paris, there is a Pantheon in the familiar style of Greek
architecture. In the Roman Pantheon is the tomb of Raphael. Cardinal
Bembo, in recognition of Raphael's genius, caused to be placed upon
his tomb a Latin epitaph which Hope has translated:
"Living, great nature feared he might outvie
Her works, and dying fears herself to die."
To those who are familiar with Roman history the river Tiber is
an object of interest, but here, as is often the case, one feels
disappointed in finding that the thing pictured was larger than
the reality. The Tiber, yellow as the Missouri, flows through the
very heart of Rome and is kept within its channel by a high stone
embankment. In and near Rome are many ancient palaces, some of
them falling into decay, and some well preserved. One of the most
modern of the palaces of the Italian nobles was built by American
money, the wife being a member of a wealthy New York family. Part
of this palace is now occupied by the American ambassador, Mr.
Myer, to whom I am indebted for courtesies extended in Rome. Art
galleries and museums are numerous in Rome and in the other cities
of Italy, and contain many of the works of the great Italian artists
like Raphael, Angelo, Titian and others. The palace of King Victor
Emmanuel and the public buildings of Rome are imposing, but do not
compare in size or magnificence with the ancient palaces of England
and France. The journey from Rome to Venice carried us through a
very fertile part of Italy. The land is carefully cultivated; the
thrifty farmers in some places have set out mulberry trees for the
cultivation of the silk worm and have trained grape vines upon the
trees.
[Illustration: ST. PETER'S AT ROME]
We passed through the edge of Venice and saw the gondoliers on
the Grand Canal waiting to carry passengers into the city. A very
intelligent Italian newspaper correspondent whom I met in Rome
informed me that the northern provinces of Italy were much further
advanced in education than the southern provinces, but that the
people of the south were mentally very alert and with the addition
of instruction would soon reach the intellectual level of the north.
[Illustration: MADONNA.]
My stay in Italy was all too brief and I left with much reluctance
this nursery of early civilization--this seat of government of the
world's greatest religious organization.
CHAPTER LVIII.
TOLSTOY, THE APOSTLE OF LOVE.
Count Leo Tolstoy, the intellectual giant of Russia, the moral Titan
of Europe and the world's most conspicuous exponent of the doctrine
of love, is living a life of quiet retirement upon his estate near
the village of Yasnaya, Poliana, about one hundred and thirty miles
south of Moscow.
I made a visit to the home of this pleasant philosopher during my
stay in Russia, driving from Tula in the early morning and arriving
just after daylight. Consul General Smith of Moscow arranged with
Count Tolstoy for the visit. I had intended remaining only a few
hours, but his welcome was so cordial that my stay was prolonged
until near midnight. Count Tolstoy is now about seventy-six years
old, and while he shows the advance of years he is still full of
mental vigor and retains much of his physical strength. As an
illustration of the latter I might refer to the horseback ride and
walk which we took together in the afternoon. The ride covered
about four miles and the walk about two. When we reached the house
the count said that he would take a little rest and insisted that
I should do likewise. A few minutes later, when I expressed to the
count's physician, Dr. Burkenheim, the fear that he might have
overtaxed his strength, the doctor smilingly assured me that the
count usually took more exercise, but had purposely lessened his
allowance that day, fearing that he might fatigue me.
Count Tolstoy is an impressive figure. His years have only slightly
bowed his broad shoulders and his step is still alert. In height he
is about five feet eight, his head is large and his abundant hair is
not yet wholly white. His large blue eyes are set wide apart and are
shaded by heavy eyebrows. The forehead is unusually wide and high.
He wears a long, full beard that gives him a patriarchal appearance.
The mouth is large and the lips full. The nose is rather long and
the nostrils wide. The hands are muscular, and the grasp bespeaks
warmth of heart. The count dresses like the peasants of his country,
wearing a grayish-blue blouse belted in at the waist, with skirts
reaching nearly to the boot-tops. His trousers, also of the peasant
style, are inclined to be baggy and are stuffed into his boots. I
was informed that the count never wears any other dress, even when
other members of the family are entertaining guests in evening
clothes.
[Illustration: COUNT TOLSTOY.]
The room which I occupied was the one used by the count as a study
in his younger days, and I was shown a ring in the ceiling from
which at the age of forty-eight he planned to hang himself--a plan
from which he was turned by the resolve to change the manner and
purpose of his life. As is well known, Count Tolstoy is a member of
the Russian nobility and for nearly fifty years led the life of a
nobleman. He early achieved fame as a novelist, his "War and Peace,"
which was written when he was but a young man, being considered one
of the literary masterpieces of the century. He sounded all the
"depths and shoals of honor" in the literary and social world; he
realized all that one could wish or expect in these lines, but found
that success did not satisfy the cravings of the inner man. While
he was meditating upon what he had come to regard as a wasted life,
a change came over him, and with a faith that has never faltered
he turned about and entered upon a career that has been unique
in history. He donned the simple garb of a peasant, and, living
frugally, has devoted himself to philosophy and unremunerative
work--that is, unremunerative from a financial standpoint, although
he declares that it has brought him more genuine enjoyment than he
ever knew before. All of his books written since this change in
his life have been given to the public without copyright, except
in one instance, when the proceeds of "Resurrection" were pledged
to the aid of the Russian Quakers, called Doukhobors, whom the
count assisted to emigrate from their persecution in Russia to
western Canada, where they now reside. As an evidence of the count's
complete renunciation of all money considerations, it is stated that
he has declined an offer of $500,000 for the copyright of the books
written by him before his life current was altered.
My object in visiting him was not so much to learn his views--for
his opinions have had wide expression and can be found in his
numerous essays--but it was rather to see the man and ascertain if
I could, from personal contact, learn the secret of the tremendous
influence that he is exerting upon the thought of the world. I am
satisfied that, notwithstanding his great intellect, his colossal
strength lies in his heart more than in his mind. It is true that
few have equaled him in power of analysis and in clearness of
statement, while none have surpassed him in beauty and aptness of
illustration. But no one can commune with him without feeling that
the man is like an overflowing spring--asking nothing, but giving
always. He preaches self-abnegation and has demonstrated to his own
satisfaction that there is more genuine joy in living for others
than in living upon others--more happiness in serving than in being
served.
The purpose of life, as defined by him, has recently been quoted by
Mr. Ernest Crosby in "The Open Court." It reads as follows:
"Life then is the activity of the animal individuality working in
submission to the law of reason. Reason shows man that happiness
cannot be obtained by a self-life and leaves only one outlet open
for him and that is love. Love is the only legitimate manifestation
of life. It is an activity and has for its object the good of
others. When it makes its appearance the meaningless strife of the
animal life ceases." Love is the dominant note in Count Tolstoy's
philosophy. It is not only the only weapon of defense which he
recognizes, but it is the only means by which he would influence
others. It is both his shield and his sword. He is a deeply
religious man, notwithstanding the fact that he was a few years ago
excommunicated by the Russian church. In one of his essays he has
defined religion as follows:
"True religion is a relation, accordant with reason and knowledge,
which man establishes with the infinite life surrounding him, and it
is such as binds his life to that infinity, and guides his conduct."
He not only takes his stand boldly upon the side of spiritual,
as distinguished from material, philosophy, but he administers a
rebuke to those who assume that religious sentiment is an indication
of intellectual weakness or belongs to the lower stages of man's
development. In his essay on "Religion and Morality," to which he
referred me for his opinion on this subject, he says:
"Moreover, every man who has ever, even in childhood, experienced
religious feelings, knows by personal experience that it was evoked
in him, not by external, terrifying, material phenomena, but by an
inner consciousness, which had nothing to do with the fear of the
unknown forces of nature--a consciousness of his own insignificance,
loneliness and guilt. And, therefore, both by external observation
and by personal experience, man may know that religion is not the
worship of gods, evoked by superstitious fear of the invisible
forces of nature, proper to men only at a certain period of their
development; but is something quite independent either of fear or
of their degree of education--a something that cannot be destroyed
by any development of culture. For man's consciousness of his
finiteness amid an infinite universe, and of his sinfulness (i. e.,
of his not having done all he might and should have done) has always
existed and will exist as long as man remains man."
If religion is an expression of "man's consciousness of his
finiteness amid an infinite universe, and of his sinfulness," it
cannot be outgrown until one believes himself to have reached
perfection and to possess all knowledge, and observation teaches us
that those who hold this opinion of themselves are not the farthest
advanced, but simply lack that comprehension of their own ignorance
and frailty which is the very beginning of progress.
Count Tolstoy is an advocate of the doctrine of non-resistance. He
not only believes that evil can be overcome by good, but he denies
that it can be overcome in any other way. I asked him several
questions on the subject, and the following dialogue presents his
views:
Q. Do you draw any line between the use of force to avenge an injury
already received, and the use of force to protect yourself from
injury about to be inflicted?
A. No. Instead of using violence to protect myself, I ought rather
to express my sorrow that I had done anything that would make anyone
desire to injure me.
Q. Do you draw a line between the use of force to protect a right
and the use of force to create a right?
A. No. That is the excuse generally given for the use of violence.
Men insist that they are simply defending a right, when, in fact,
they are trying to secure something that they desire and to which
they are not entitled. The use of violence is not necessary to
secure one's rights; there are more effective means.
Q. Do you draw any distinction between the use of force to protect
yourself and the use of force to protect someone under your care--a
child, for instance?
A. No. As we do not attain entirely to our ideals, we might find it
difficult in such a case not to resort to the use of force, but it
would not be justifiable, and, besides, rules cannot be made for
such exceptional cases. Millions of people have been the victims of
force and have suffered because it has been thought right to employ
it; but I am now old and I have never known in all my life a single
instance in which a child was attacked in such a way that it would
have been necessary for me to use force for its protection. I prefer
to consider actual rather than imaginary cases.
I found later that this last question had been answered in a letter
on non-resistance addressed to Mr. Ernest Crosby, in 1896 (included
in a little volume of Tolstoy's Essays and Letters recently
published by Grant Richards, Leicester Square, London, and reprinted
by Funk & Wagnalls of New York). In this letter he says:
"None of us has ever yet met the imaginary robber with the imaginary
child, but all the horrors which fill the annals of history and of
our own times came and come from this one thing--that people will
believe that they can foresee the results of hypothetical future
actions."
When I visited him he was just finishing an introduction to a
biographical sketch of William Lloyd Garrison, his attention having
been called to Garrison by the latter's advocacy of the doctrine of
non-resistance.
Tolstoy, in one of his strongest essays that he has written--an
essay entitled "Industry and Idleness"--elaborates and defends the
doctrine advanced by a Russian named Bondaref, to the effect that
each individual should labor with his hands, at least to the extent
of producing his own food. I referred to this and asked him for a
brief statement of his reasons. He said that it was necessary for
one to engage in manual labor in order to keep himself in sympathy
with those who toil, and he described the process by which people
first relieve themselves of the necessity of physical exertion
and then come to look with a sort of contempt upon those who find
it necessary to work with their hands. He believes that a lack of
sympathy lies at the root of most of the injustice which men suffer
at the hands of their fellows. He holds that it is not sufficient
that one can remember a time when he earned his bread in the sweat
of his brow, but that he must continue to know what physical fatigue
means and what drudgery is, in order that he may rightly estimate
his brother and deal with him as a brother. In addition to this he
says that, when one begins to live upon the labor of others, he is
never quite sure that he is earning his living. Let me quote his
language: "If you use more than you produce you cannot be quite
content, if you are a conscientious man. Who can know how much I
work? It is impossible. A man must work as much as he can with his
hands, taking the most difficult and disagreeable tasks, that is,
if he wishes to have a quiet conscience. Mental work is much easier
than physical work, despite what is said to the contrary. No work
is too humble, too disagreeable, to do. No man ought to dodge work.
If I dodge work I feel guilty. There are some people who think they
are so precious that other people must do the dirty, disagreeable
work for them. Every man is so vain as to think his own work the
most important. That is why I try to work with my hands by the side
of workingmen. If I write a book, I cannot be quite sure whether
it will be useful or not. If I produce something that will support
life, I know that I have done something useful."
Tolstoy presents an ideal, and while he recognizes that the best
of efforts is but an approach to the ideal, he does not consent
to the lowering of the ideal itself or the defense of anything
that aims at less than the entire realization of the ideal. He is
opposed to what he calls palliatives, and insists that we need the
reformation of the individual more than the reformation of law or
government. He holds that the first thing to do is to substitute the
Christian spirit for the selfish spirit. He likens those who are
trying to make piecemeal progress to persons who are trying to push
cars along a track by putting their shoulders against the cars. He
says that they could better employ their energy by putting steam
in the engine, which would then pull the cars. And the religious
spirit he defines as "such a belief in God and such a feeling of
responsibility to God as will manifest itself both in the worship of
the Creator and in the fellowship with the created."
During the course of conversation he touched on some of the problems
with which the various nations have to deal. Of course he is opposed
to war under all circumstances, and regards the professional soldier
as laboring under a delusion. He says that soldiers, instead of
following their consciences, accept the doctrine that a soldier must
do what he is commanded to do, placing upon his superior officer
the responsibility for the command. He denies that any individual
can thus shift the responsibility for his conduct. In speaking of
soldiers, he expressed an opinion that indicates his hostility to
the whole military system. He said that soldiers insisted upon being
tried by military men and military courts, and added: "That is
amusing. I remember that when that plea was made in a case recently,
I retorted that if that was so, why was not a murderer justified
in demanding a trial at the hands of murderers, or a burglar in
demanding trial by a jury of burglars. That would be on all fours
with the other proposition."
He is not a believer in protection, and regards a tariff levied
upon all of the people for the benefit of some of the people as an
abuse of government and immoral in principle. I found that he was an
admirer of Henry George and a believer in his theory in regard to
the single tax.
He is opposed to trusts. He says that the trust is a new kind of
despotism and that it is a menace to modern society. He regards
the power that it gives men to oppress their fellows as even more
dangerous than its power to reap great profits.
He referred to some of our very rich men and declared that the
possession of great wealth was objectionable, both because of its
influence over its possessor and because of the power it gave him
over his fellows. I asked him what use a man could make of a great
fortune, and he replied: "Let him give it away to the first person
he meets. That would be better than keeping it." And then he told
how a lady of fortune once asked his advice as to what she could do
with her money (she derived her income from a large manufacturing
establishment), and he replied that if she wanted to do good with
her money she might help her work-people to return to the country,
and assist them in buying and stocking their farms. "If I do that,"
she exclaimed in dismay, "I would not have any people to work for
me, and my income would disappear."
As all are more or less creatures of environment, Tolstoy's views
upon religion have probably been colored somewhat by his experience
with the Greek church. He has, in some instances, used arguments
against the Greek church which are broad enough to apply to all
church organizations. He has not always discriminated between the
proper use of an organization and the abuse of power which a large
organization possesses. While animated by a sincere desire to
hasten the reign of universal brotherhood, and to help the world
to a realization of the central thought of Christ's teachings, he
has not, I think, fully appreciated the great aid which a church
organization can lend when properly directed. In the work in which
Tolstoy is engaged, he will find his strongest allies among church
members to whom the commandment "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as
thyself" is not merely sound philosophy, but a divine decree. These
will work in the church and through the church, while he stands
without raising his voice to the same God and calling men to the
same kind of life.
His experience with the arbitrary methods of his own government has
led him to say things that have been construed as a condemnation
of all government. He has seen so much violence and injustice done
in the name of government that it is not strange that the evils of
government should impress him more than its possibilities for good.
And yet those who believe that a just government is a blessing can
work with him in the effort to secure such remedial measures as he
asks for in his letter "To the Czar and His Assistants."
Tolstoy's career shows how despotic is the sway of the heart
and how, after all, it rules the world, for while his literary
achievements have been admired, the influence which they have
exerted is as nothing compared with the influence exerted by his
philosophy. People enjoy reading his character sketches, his
dialogues and his descriptions of Russian life, but these do not
take hold upon men like his simple presentation of the doctrine of
love, exemplified in his life as clearly as it is expressed by his
pen. Many of his utterances are denied publication in Russia, and
when printed abroad cannot be carried across the border, and yet
he has made such a powerful impression upon the world that he is
himself safe from molestation. He can say with impunity against his
government and against the Greek church what it would be perilous
for others to say, and this very security is proof positive that in
Russia thought inspired by love is, as Carlyle has declared it to be
everywhere, stronger than artillery parks.
CHAPTER LIX.
NOTES ON EUROPE.
In the articles written on the different European nations visited
I confined myself to certain subjects, but there are a number of
things worthy of comment which were not germane to the matters
discussed. I shall present some of these under the above head.
An American who travels in England in the winter time is sure to
notice the coldness of the cars. The English people do not seem to
notice this, for if they did the matter would certainly be remedied;
but the stranger who has to wrap up in blankets and keep his feet
upon a tank of hot water makes comparisons between the comfort
of the American railway cars and those of England, much to the
disadvantage of the latter. On the continent the temperature of the
cars is higher and travel more pleasant.
Sheep graze in the very suburbs of London. This was a surprise to
me. I saw more sheep in the little traveling that I did in England
than I have seen in the United States east of the Mississippi River
in years of travel. But after one has enjoyed for a few days the
English mutton chop, the best in the world, he understands why
English sheep are privileged to graze upon high priced lands.
The House of Lords is much more elegantly furnished than Parliament,
but it excites curiosity rather than interest. It, too, is small
compared with the number of Lords; but as the Lords seldom attend,
the accommodations are ample. Only three members are required to
constitute a quorum, and it is easy therefore to get together
enough to acquiesce in measures that pass Parliament. So far as any
real influence is concerned, the House of Lords might as well be
abolished; and as only three are necessary to constitute a quorum,
it would only be necessary to reduce the necessary number by three
and make none a quorum to entirely remove this legislative body from
consideration.
The Courts of England are a matter of interest to American lawyers,
and a matter of curiosity to other Americans. As our Supreme Judges
wear gowns, the gown is not so unfamiliar to us; but the wig, which
is still worn by the English judges, barristers and solicitors,
is not seen in this country. The wig is made of white curly hair
and does not reach much below the ears. "When the wearer has black
hair, or red hair, or in fact hair of any color except, white, the
contrast between the wig and the natural hair sometimes excites
a smile from those who are not impressed with the necessity for
this relic of ancient times. In one of the court rooms which I
visited, a son of Charles Dickens was arguing a case, and while I
did not recognize any of the brilliancy and humor that have led me
to place Dickens at the head of the novelists whom I have read, the
son is said to be a reasonably successful lawyer. In one of the
Admiralty Courts a very bushy headed wharfman was testifying to a
salvage contract which he had made and he was quite emphatic in his
assertions that the terms were "'alf and 'alf."
In one of the court rooms Lord Alverstone was presiding, and I had
the pleasure of meeting him afterwards at dinner in Lincoln Inn
Court. He is one of the finest looking men whom I met in England. He
rendered a decision in favor of the United States in the matter of
the recent arbitration with Canada.
Ambassador Joseph Choate placed me under obligations to him, as did
also Secretary of the Legation Henry White, by their many courtesies
extended.
At Mr. Choate's table I had the pleasure of meeting Right Hon. A.
J. Balfour, the present Premier. He strikes one as a scholarly man
rather than as a parliamentary fighter. He has had a remarkable
official career. As he was and is still a bimetallist, I found him a
congenial man to have at my right. Mr. Richie, who left the Cabinet
because of a disagreement with Mr. Balfour on the fiscal question,
sat at my left, and as he was an ardent opponent of protection, I
had no trouble conversing with him. I learned afterwards that Mr.
Balfour and Mr. Richie had not met since the Cabinet rupture. Among
those present at the table was Hon. Leonard Courtney, for many years
a member of Parliament. He was a member of the Royal Commission
that presented the now world renowned report on falling prices. He
also took an active part in opposing the war against the Boers.
In appearance he reminds one of Senator Allen G. Thurman, having
something of the same strength and ruggedness of feature. I am
indebted to him for an opportunity to visit Lincoln Inn Court, where
I met a number of other eminent judges besides Lord Alverstone.
Mr. Moreton Frewen was also a guest of Ambassador Choate on that
occasion. He has frequently visited the United States and has
written much on the subject of silver. When he came to the United
States soon after the election in 1896, and was told that there
had been some repeating in some of the cities, he inquired, "Is
it not twice as honest to vote twice for honest money as to vote
once?" I found, however, that he was working with the Chamberlain
protectionists, who, by the way, call themselves "tariff reformers."
He had found a Bible passage which he was using on the stump. It
was taken from Genesis. Pharaoh said to someone who inquired of him,
"Go unto Joseph; what he saith to you, do." It seems, however, from
the more recent elections, that the people have refused to identify
the modern Joseph with the ancient one.
At Mr. Choate's table the subject of story telling was discussed,
and some comment made about the proverbial slowness of the
Englishman in catching the point of American stories. I determined
to test this with a story and told of the experience of the minister
who was arguing against the possibility of perfection in this life.
He asked his congregation: "Is there anyone here who is perfect?" No
one arose. "Is there anyone in the congregation who has ever seen a
perfect person?" No one arose. Continuing his inquiry, he asked, "Is
there anyone here who has ever heard of a perfect person?" A very
meek little woman arose in the rear of the room. He repeated his
question to be sure that she understood, and as she again declared
that she had heard of such a person, he asked her to give the name
of the perfect person of whom she had heard. She replied, "My
husband's first wife." All the Englishmen at the table saw the point
of the story at once, and one of them remarked that he thought the
story would be appreciated wherever domestic life is known.
It was my good fortune to meet in London Mr. Sidney Webb and his
talented wife, both of whom have written extensively on municipal
ownership and industrial co-operation.
One of the most interesting figures in European journalism is Sir
Alfred Harmsworth, proprietor of the London Daily Mail. He has
achieved a remarkable success and is still a young man. His country
home, some thirty miles out from London, is an old English castle
which he recently secured for a long term of years. The house was
built more than three hundred years ago by one of the kings for a
favorite courtier. The estate is large enough to include farm and
pasture lands and a well stocked hunting preserve. Lady Harmsworth
is one of the most beautiful women in the kingdom and entertains
lavishly.
The average foreigner does not have any higher opinion than the
American does of those "international marriages" by means of
which some of the decaying estates of titled foreigners are being
restored, but there are many marriages between our people and
Europeans which rest upon affection and congeniality. The union
of Rt. Hon. Joseph Chamberlain and the daughter of Ex-Secretary
Endicott, who was at the head of the Navy Department during Mr.
Cleveland's first administration, is a notable illustration. Mrs.
Chamberlain is a charming and accomplished woman and justly popular
with the Britons as well as with the Americans who visit England.
The American tourist is sure to find some of his countrymen
stranded in London. I met several of them. Most of them represented
themselves as related to prominent political friends, and these
I could assist without inquiring too closely into the alleged
relationship, but one case of a different kind failed to appeal to
me. A lady who attached a high sounding title to her name sent her
secretary to solicit aid. He represented her as an American who had
against her parents' wishes married a titled Englishman; her husband
had deserted her and her physician had told her that her health
required that she spend the winter in Southern France. Her American
relatives were rich, I was assured, but she was too proud to let
them know of her misfortune. It was a sad story even when told by a
secretary (how she could afford one I do not know), but I did not
feel justified in encouraging a pride that led her to make her wants
known to strangers rather than to her own kin.
In my article on the growth of municipal ownership (it will be found
on another page), I referred to the work of John Burns, the noted
labor leader of London. I may add here that his seven or eight years
old son is the handsomest child that I saw in England. I was on the
stage at Lord Rosebery's meeting and my attention was attracted to
a child of unusual beauty sitting just in front of me. I asked the
gentleman at my side whether he was a fair sample of the English
boy; he replied that he was an excellent representative. Soon
afterward the mother introduced herself to me as the wife of John
Burns. I thought it an interesting coincidence that I should admire
the child unconscious of his relationship to the man who had the day
before impressed me so favorably.
And, speaking of Mr. Burns, I reproduce below an item which appeared
in one of the London papers the day after I returned Mr. Burns'
call. He sent it to me with the remark that it probably differed
from the personal items to which I was accustomed. It reads:--
"Mr. Burns' Mysterious Visitor.
"Just before ten o'clock this (Friday) morning a hansom cab
(plentifully bespattered with gilt coronets) stopped outside the
residence of Mr. Burns, Lavender Hill. A person alighted and
was received with every appearance of cordiality by Mr. Burns,
who escorted him into the house. We believe the visitor was
Lord Rosebery; he certainly bore a striking resemblance to that
childlike peer. Possibly, however, it was only the King of Italy.
In diplomatic circles it has been known for a long time that his
Italian Majesty intended to visit the Municipal Mecca for much
the same reasons that induced Peter the Great of Russia to come
to England. It was known, also, that he would come in some sort
of disguise. That Mr. Burns' visitor this morning was a person of
importance is evidenced by the fact that a constable in uniform
and two or three other men (probably secret service officers) were
in waiting when the cab drew up. They stood round the visitor and
the constable saluted respectfully. A uniformed policeman had been
in the neighborhood of Mr. Burns' house and the 'Crown' all the
morning."[14]
[14] NOTE--It was an ordinary cab and no policemen or secret service
men were in sight.--Editor.
Westminster Abbey is one of the places which the visitor cannot
well neglect. It was originally the burial place of royalty, and as
the guide shows you the tablets and statues which perpetuate the
memory of warrior kings and tells you how this king killed that one,
and that king killed another, you recall the story of the American
minister who concluded a very short discourse at the funeral of a
man of questionable character by saying, "Some believe that he was
a tolerable good man, while others believe that he was a very bad
man, but whether he was good or bad we have this consolation, that
he is dead." It is a relief to pass from the bloody annals of the
earlier days and from the bloody deeds of ancient royalty to that
part of the building which is honored by memorials of the great men
in modern English life. To the American the most noted of those
recently buried in Westminster Abbey was Gladstone. His life spanned
the present and the past generation, and his character and talents
are regarded as a part of the heritage of English speaking people.
A description of the Art Gallery, the public buildings, the Tower,
and of the many interesting and historic places would occupy more
space than I can spare at this time.
I shall pass from England with one observation. Upon the streets of
London, and in fact throughout the British Isles, the rule is to
"turn to the left." The American notices this at once, and until he
becomes accustomed to it he is in danger of collision. If England
and the United States ever come together in an unfriendly way, it
will probably be accounted for by the difference in our rules. We
will be turning to the right while she will be turning to the left.
Queenstown, Ireland, the first town to greet the tourist when he
reaches Northern Europe and the last to bid him farewell when he
departs, is a quaint and interesting old place. It is near the City
of Cork, and the names upon the signs--the Murphys, the McDonalds,
the O'Briens, etc., are so familiar that one might suppose it to
be an American colony. Here the returning traveler has a chance
to spend any change which he has left, for black thorn canes and
shillalahs, "Robert Emmett" and "Harp of Erin" handkerchiefs and
lace collars are offered in abundance. The price of these wares
has been known to fall considerably as the moment of departure
approaches. At Queenstown one can hear the Irish brogue in all its
richness and if he takes a little jaunt about the town he can enjoy
the humor for which the Irish are famed.
Scotland has a hardy population, due probably to the climate. Even
near the southern boundary, the weather was quite wintry before
Thanksgiving Day of last year. Scotch plaids are in evidence at the
stores and the visitor has an opportunity to buy traveling blankets
bearing the figures and the colors of the various Scottish clans.
As I visited Scotland to study municipal ownership I reserved for a
future trip a visit to the places of natural and historic interest.
Strange that a narrow channel should make such a difference as there
is between the Englishman and the Frenchman. Some one has said,
"not only is England an island, but each Englishman is an island."
This puts the case a little too strongly, but one notices that the
French are much more gregarious than the English and more inclined
to sociability. Their attention to strangers while not more sincere
is more marked.
Paris seems to be the favorite place for residence for Americans who
desire to live in Europe. The climate is milder, the attractions are
more numerous and the cooking, it is said, is the best in the world.
The automobile seems to have captured Paris, possibly because of its
many wide streets and boulevards.
While the tipping system may not be worse in France than in other
countries, it is certainly nowhere more fully developed. It is said
that in some of the fashionable restaurants of Paris the tips are so
valuable that the waiters, instead of receiving wages, pay a bonus
for a chance to serve. But all over Europe service of every kind is
rewarded with tips, and a failure to comply with the custom makes
the delinquent a persona non grata. At the hotels all the attendants
seem to get notice of the intended departure of a guest and they
line up to receive a remembrance--porter, chambermaid, valet,
bell-boy, elevator man, and some whose faces are entirely new to the
guest. The cab-drivers collect the fare fixed by city ordinance and
expect a tip besides. Ten per cent is the amount usually given and
anything less fails to elicit thanks. An Irish jaunting car driver
at Queenstown took out his tip in making change. While the traveler
is often tempted to rebel against the tip system as it is found in
Europe, he finally concludes that he can not reform a continent in
one brief visit and submits with as good grace as possible.
Guides can be found at all the leading hotels and they are well
worth what they charge. They are acquainted with all places of
interest, and can act as interpreters if one wants to make inquiries
or do shopping.
The rivers of Europe which have been immortalized in poetry and
song--the rivers whose names we learn when as children we study
geography--are a little disappointing. The Thames at London, the
Seine at Paris, the Tiber at Rome, the Danube at Vienna, the Spree
at Berlin, the Po in northern Italy, and the Rhine are not as
large as fancy has pictured; but the lakes of Switzerland surpass
description.
I regretted that I could not visit the Bay of Naples for I never
think of it without recalling the lines:
I care not if
My little skiff
Floats swift or slow
From cliff to cliff.
With dreamful eyes
My spirit lies
Under the walls
Of Paradise.
Surely it must be a delightfully restful place if it justifies the
description given by the poet.
I was disappointed that I did not have time to see more of Germany.
Berlin was the only city in which I stopped, and the fact that
the holiday festivities were at their height made it difficult to
prosecute any investigation. In another article I have discussed
the German socialistic propaganda, and I shall here content myself
with calling attention to their railroad system. The total railroad
mileage at the end of the year 1900, as reported by the American
consul, was 28,601. Of this mileage private companies owned 2,573,
and the federal government 798, the remainder was owned by the
various German states, some of the states owning but a few miles of
line. The ownership of the railroads by the various states does not
in the least interfere with the operation of the lines. The plan in
operation in Germany suggests the possibility of state ownership in
this country as distinguished from federal ownership.
In Austria I saw for the first time the systematic cultivation of
forests. In some places the various plantings were near enough
together to show trees of all sizes. At one side the trees were but
a few feet in height while those at the other side of the forest
were being converted into fuel.
Vienna, the capital of Austria, is not the "Old Vienna" which
was reproduced at the Chicago World's Fair and at the Buffalo
Exposition, but is a substantial, new, and up-to-date city. The
stores exhibit an endless variety of leather goods, and I found
there, as also in Belgium, many novelties in iron, steel and brass.
Russia deserves more attention than I could give it in the articles
on Tolstoy and the czar. It is a land of wonderful resources and
possibilities, and is making great progress considering the fact
that a large proportion of the population has so recently emerged
from serfdom. The peasants live in villages as in France and their
life is primitive compared with life in the larger cities. There
has been rapid growth in manufacturing, commerce and art. Besides
furnishing one of the greatest of novelists, Tolstoy, who is also
the greatest of living philosophers, Russia has given to the world
many others who are prominent in literature and in art. There is an
art gallery at Moscow devoted almost entirely to the work of Russian
artists. Here one finds a most interesting collection, a large
number of the pictures being devoted to home scenes and historic
events. In this gallery the nude in art is noticeable by its
absence. In the art gallery at St. Petersburg most of the paintings
are by foreign artists. There is in this gallery a wonderful
collection of cameos, jewelry and precious stones.
I found in Russia a very friendly feeling toward the United States.
Prince Hilkoff, who is at the head of the Siberian railroad, speaks
English fluently, as do nearly all the other prominent officials. He
informed me that he visited the United States about 1858 and crossed
the plains by wagon. He inquired about the Platte river and its
branches and remembered the names of the forts along the route.
I have spoken in another article of the deep hold which the Greek
Church has upon the people of Russia. A story which I heard in St.
Petersburg illustrates this. An American residing there asked her
cook to go to market after some pigeons, or doves as they are more
often called. The latter was horrified at the thought and refused,
saying, "The Holy Ghost descended upon our Saviour in the form of a
dove and it might be in one of these." Another American was rebuked
by her servant, who when told to throw something out of the window
replied, "This is Easter and Christ is risen. He might be passing by
at this moment."
In Russia we find the extremes. The government is the most arbitrary
known among civilized nations and yet in Russia are to be found some
of the most advanced and devoted advocates of civil liberty. Nowhere
is the doctrine of force more fully illustrated and yet from Russia
come the strongest arguments in favor of non-resistance. The poison
and the antidote seem to be found near together in the world of
thought as well as in the physical world.
[Illustration: GODDESS OF LIBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR--A WELCOME
SIGHT TO THE RETURNING TRAVELER.]
* * * * *
Transcriber's note:
Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.
Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained
as printed including unpaired quotation marks.
The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
paragraphs, thus the page number of the illustration might not match
the page number in the List of Illustrations.
Page 163: "which Señor Gregoria Agilpay is the head. Obispo Maximo
Aglipay" ... this stands as printed in the book.
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