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Title: Outlines of mineralogy
Author: Torbern Bergman
Translator: William Withering
Release date: October 6, 2024 [eBook #74532]
Language: English
Original publication: Birmingham: Piercy and Jones
Credits: Richard Tonsing, Charlene Taylor, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINES OF MINERALOGY ***
OUTLINES
OF
MINERALOGY,
TRANSLATED
FROM THE ORIGINAL,
OF
SIR TORBERN BERGMAN,
KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF WASA,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT UPSAL, &C.
BY WILLIAM WITHERING, M. D.
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY
AT EDINBURGH.
Itum eſt in viſcera terræ;
Quaſque recondiderat ſtygiiſque admoverat umbris
Effodiunter opes, irritamenta malorum.
OVID.
BIRMINGHAM:
PRINTED BY PIERCY AND JONES,
FOR T. CADELL, AND G. ROBINSON, LONDON,
J. BALFOUR, AND C. ELLIOTT, EDINBURGH.
M,DCC,LXXXIII.
TRANSLATOR’s
PREFACE.
The pleaſure and inſtruction I received myſelf from this excellent
little work of Profeſſor Bergman, inſpired me with a wiſh to make it
more generally known to others. A ſyſtem like this, founded upon the
constituent principles of things, may be improved, but never can be
exploded. Engliſh names are given, but the Latin ones of the original
are ſtill retained, as an acquaintance with them will enable the reader
more readily to conſult other authors. Blank ſpaces are left after most
of the ſpecies, for the convenience of inſerting any new ones that may
occur. I have added a few new ſpecies, and ſome notes; the utility of
which will be ſufficiently obvious. The table of metals, at page 71, and
the index at the end, will alſo, I hope, be conſidered as uſeful
additions.
BIRMINGHAM,
_1ſt September, 1783_.
N. B. The centenary (_centenarius_) of PROFESSOR BERGMAN is equal to 60
Swediſh grains, or nearly 63 Engliſh grains.
THE
AUTHOR’s PREFACE.
In compliance with the requeſt of my learned and amiable friend, the
celebrated Mr. Ferber, I tranſmitted to him a ſlight ſketch of
mineralogy, in which the ſubjects were arranged according to their
conſtituent or component parts. After peruſing it, he requeſted my
permiſſion to publiſh it. At firſt I thought it better to ſuppreſs a
work that was ſo imperfect, eſpecially when I conſidered the number of
analyſes that yet remained to be made. He replied, that a perfect method
was not yet to be expected in a ſubject ſo extenſive, but that having
once laid a good foundation, I might occaſionally make ſuch additions
and corrections, in new editions of the work, as future experiments
might render neceſſary. Indeed, I was fully aware, that the ſyſtem would
ſooner be rendered perfect, if ſubmitted to the inſpection of other more
diſcerning chemiſts, than if the completion of it reſted upon myſelf
only. The different remarks of others, will correct errors, which, by a
further attention, I might have amended; but if the intereſt of ſcience
be promoted, no matter by whom.
This little work contains GENERA and SPECIES, except in the appendixes,
which, as not properly belonging to my deſign, contain Genera only.
The GENERA are founded upon the prevalent component parts; the SPECIES
upon the diverſity of the composition. _Varieties_ depend upon external
appearances, and therefore are at preſent omitted.
After this manuſcript was ſent away, I diſcovered two species of
_ſtannum ſulphuratum_ (tin combined with ſulphur), one of which contains
about forty per cent. of ſulphur, the other only twenty. The firſt has
the appearance of aurum muſivum; the latter partly reſembles _antimonium
ſulphuratum_ (crude antimony), but does not contain antimony. Both are
contaminated by a ſmall quantity of copper. I got them from Nerchinſkoi
in Siberia[1].
As to the TERRA PONDEROSA (heavy earth), I have long been aware of its
great reſemblance to calx of lead, and have even lately found a method
of precipitating it by the phlogiſticated alkaly[2]; ſo that I verily
believe it to be of a metallic nature, although it has never yet been
made into a regulus, and, therefore, I ſtill place it with the earths,
until its ſituation be better aſcertained.
If providence allots me life and health, I hope, a few years hence, to
republiſh this imperfect ſketch, corrected and enlarged.
OF A
NATURAL SYSTEM
OF
MINERALOGY.
§ 1.
The MINERAL KINGDOM conſiſts of the foſſil ſubſtances found in the
earth. Theſe are either entirely deſtitute of organic structure, or,
having once poſſeſſed it, poſſeſs it no longer: ſuch are the
petrefactions.
§ 2.
It is requiſite, for the proper diſcrimination of foſſils, to eſtabliſh
certain characters, whereby they may, at all times, and in all places,
be diſtinguiſhed from one another. The ſcience that teaches theſe is
called MINERALOGY.
§ 3.
As in the vegetable kingdom different methods have been formed upon the
roots, the leaves, the flowers, the fruit, &c. ſo alſo in Mineralogy
many methods may be deviſed, and there is no doubt of the utility of
contemplating inorganic bodies in every point of view; for the more
compariſons are multiplied, the more evidently do reſemblances or
differences appear.
§ 4.
But as the chief object of the ſcience is to render foſſils ſubſervient
to the uſes of man, it is evident that that method muſt be the beſt
which diſplays their component parts: for theſe being well underſtood,
we know what to expect from them; we accommodate our deſigns to their
nature, and ſpend not our labour and money in vain attempts inconſiſtent
with their inherent qualities.
§ 5.
There is a power implanted by the creator in organized bodies, which,
upon the acquiſition of proper nutriment, unfolds and evolves the
ſtructure which before lay concealed in the fecundated egg or ſeed.
Similar veſſels, in each ſpecies, abſorb, convey, and aſſimilate the
nouriſhment in the ſame manner; ſo that the appearance and ſtructure
remain the ſame, unleſs peculiar cauſes prevent the accuſtomed courſe of
things, and produce monſters: but this very rarely happens. Hence it is
that the leading features or the external parts agree with the internal
properties, and when judiciouſly choſen, form ſufficient characteriſtic
diſtinctions.
§ 6.
But the formation of foſſils is totally different. Here no ſyſtem of
veſſels collects, diſtributes, ſecretes or changes the concurrent
particles, but they run together by chance, and are ſolely connected by
the power of attraction; they are generally, too, of different kinds,
rare and denſe, figured and ſhapeleſs, admitting of every poſſible
variety. This general view of the ſubject ſhews us how little external
characters can be depended on; but we ſhall more particularly conſider
the principal of theſe.
§ 7.
Colour varies exceedingly, as does alſo the ſize of bodies. We cannot
ſufficiently wonder at the violence done to nature by the ſtudied
ſeparation of earths from ſtones. The conſequence is, that a ſtone of a
certain ſize muſt conſtitute one genus, whilſt the ſame thing, reduced
to powder, muſt be placed under another genus, which ſhall not be found
even in the ſame claſs.
§ 8.
Hardness not unfrequently varies even in the ſame ſpecimen. Soft clay
dries in the fire, and at length acquires the hardneſs of flint.
Steatites (_ſoap-rock_) which may be ſcraped with the nail, and many
other matters harden in the ſame manner, and that ſometimes without any
notable loſs of weight; ſo that bodies paſs through every different
degree of hardneſs, without any other change of their mixture.
§ 9.
TEXTURE, and external form of the particles, may ſeem at firſt ſight to
depend more upon the conſtituent parts; but a calcareous particle,
globular or ſhapeleſs, is found, upon the moſt ſcrupulous examination,
to poſſeſs the ſame properties as a piece of ſpar; and in another place
I have clearly ſhewn, that the ſchirl-like, garnet-like, hyacinthine,
twelve-ſided, and other figures, are not unfrequently formed by nature
out of the ſame materials[3]. And if we are liable to deception where ſo
great a difference in external forms exiſts, what can we expect from
leſs conſtant external qualities?
§ 10.
Superficial characters are therefore inſufficient. They cannot even
enable us to diſtinguiſh calcareous from other earths, for the
efferveſcence with acids is a chemical mark, and happens, too, in
matters of very different natures. To paſs over other inſtances, let him
who is able diſtinguiſh the plumbum aeratum and plumbum phoſphoratum (§
182. § 183.) by external appearances only!
§ 11.
But let us not altogether deſpiſe external characters: it is of moment
to know and mark them well[4]. They frequently enable the accuſtomed eye
without troubleſome trials to acquire a degree of certainty, which wants
only a few ſelect experiments to confirm it. Sometimes alſo the uſe
depends upon external properties, evident to our ſenſes, as the
hardneſs, the colour, the pellucidity, &c. Theſe therefore may with
propriety be joined to thoſe which point out the conſtituent principles.
§ 12.
Claſſes, Genera and Species are therefore to be formed upon the internal
nature and compoſition; the varieties upon the external appearances. In
ſuch a ſyſtem both methods conveniently agree.
§ 13.
CRONSTEDT firſt attempted this method, and with great ſucceſs; but
afterwards the _liquid analyſis_, in which the illuſtrious MARGRAAF took
the lead, better opened the internal ſecrets of nature; ſo that the
excellent work of Cronſtedt now appears to contain many errors; theſe
however are not to be attributed to any fault in the author, but to the
inſufficiency of his experiments. The attempts of Mr. Pott by fuſion
have long been known; but theſe however uſeful in other reſpects, rather
tend to confound than to lay open the component parts of bodies.
§ 14.
In methodizing foſſils, _compounds ſhould rank under the moſt abundant
ingredient_. Thus let _a_ and _b_ repreſent the component parts; if the
former be the heavier, the compound muſt be placed under the genus of
that: but this rule admits of ſeveral exceptions.
§ 15.
Thus, the _properties of all ingredients are not of the same intenſity_,
if I may be allowed the expreſſion; ſome are more powerful or
efficacious, ſo as to impreſs the maſs with their own genus and
character, though forming _leſs_ than half the weight. In ſuch a caſe
the qualities are rather to be conſidered than the quantity, eſpecially
if _b_ ſo far from preponderating hardly ever amounts to half the
weight.
§ 16.
Argillaceous earth (_earth of allum_) and magneſia are never found
ſeparate, but almoſt always mixed with other things ſo that their weight
conſtitutes the ſmaller part of the maſs: therefore if the above rule (§
14.) was rigourouſly adhered to, theſe primitive earths would not be
found amongſt the Genera, which would doubtleſs be an abſurdity.
§ 17.
The _value_ of a thing muſt likewiſe be conſidered. Minerals containing
gold or ſilver muſt be ranked with thoſe noble metals although they hold
three, four, or more times the quantity of heterogeneous matter. Not to
mention other examples, pyrites are placed under the genus copper
although they contain a much greater quantity of iron. This cuſtom,
eſtabliſhed with the univerſal conſent of mineralogiſts, wants indeed a
natural foundation, but it ſeems uſeful to miners to retain it; and the
more ſo as it is certain that otherwiſe many minerals would be to be
sought for under ſtrange and improper titles.
§ 18.
Laſtly, it muſt be remarked, that _the ſolid ingredient determines the
genus_ although the menſtruum be greater in quantity. Thus in magneſia
vitriolata (_Epſom ſalt_) the earth gives the Generic name, although the
vitriolic acid be the more ponderous. The same holds good in gypſum,
allum, &c.
CLASSES
OF
FOSSILS.
§ 19.
Fossils are of four kinds, viz. _ſaline_, _earthy_, _inflammable_, and
_metallic_; hence ariſe four claſſes.
§ 20.
Salts, or ſaline ſubſtances are more or leſs ſapid, and when finely
powdered diſſolve in at leaſt 1000 times their weight of boiling water.
They melt in the fire, which for the moſt part changes or deſtroys
them[5].
§ 21.
Earths are inſipid, not ſoluble in water in the degree mentioned above
(§ 20) though perhaps water in Papin’s digeſtor will diſſolve ſome if
not all of them, eſpecially if their ſurface be greatly increaſed by a
previous ſolution in and precipitation from ſome other menſtruum. In the
chain of nature they are by inſenſible gradation joined to the ſalts, ſo
as not to be diſtinguiſhed without artificial limits. Their form is not
changed by a moderate heat, nor are they diſſipated by a violent one.
Their ſpecific gravity is to water, leſs than 5 to 1.
§ 22.
Inflammable foſſils abound with phlogiſton, do not unite with water, but
when pure diſſolve in oils; expoſed to the fire, they ſmoke, generally
inflame, are for the moſt part conſumed, and ſometimes totally vaniſh.
§ 23.
Metals when perfect do not diſſolve at all in water; only a few of them
in oils, and then only when in part deprived of their phlogiſton. They
are the heavieſt of all known ſubſtances, the lighteſt of them weighing
more than ſix times its bulk of water.
They melt in the fire with a ſhining ſurface, and in clay veſſels the
ſurface is convex.
CLASS I.
SALTS.
§ 24.
We begin with the nature and properties of ſaline bodies, for
unacquainted with theſe our knowledge of other bodies muſt be
exceedingly imperfect. _Native ſalts_ are either _acid_, _alkaline_,
_neutral_, _earthy_ or _metallic_.
§ 25.
Acids may be diſtinguiſhed by their proper taſte; they efferveſce with
mild alkalies; and change the blue juices of vegetables and tincture of
heliotropium to a red colour[6].
We are acquainted with many ſpecies of acids, but they are hardly ever
found pure in the bowels of the earth, nor can we expect to find them ſo
when we conſider how ſoon ſuch powerful menſtrua muſt meet with
ſubſtances to ſaturate them. Their great abundance and their properties
ſhew their various and indiſpenſible uſes in the œconomy of nature.
§ 26.
As mineralogy treats of thoſe bodies which are found under the ſurface
of the earth, and as acids in an uncombined ſtate are not found there,
it would ſeem proper to exclude them; but the ſame reaſon would likewiſe
exclude the primitive earths, ſome of which have never yet been found
pure. Therefore in a ſyſtem formed upon the component parts of bodies, a
ſhort deſcription of the principal of theſe is not to be diſpenſed with,
although they hardly ever preſent themſelves in a ſeparate ſtate.
§ 27.
_Vitriolic_ ACID. When moſt concentrated by artificial means its
ſpecific gravity is 2, 125. When pure, has neither colour nor ſmell.
Cold ſometimes though very rarely concretes it into a ſolid form; it may
be coagulated by nitrous air. This as well as the other acids is beſt
known from the compounds it forms with other ſubſtances.
Mr. VANDELLI[7] ſays that it is ſometimes mixed with the ſtreams from
the hills in the neighbourhood of Sienna and Viterbo, raiſed no doubt by
ſubterranean fires; but in general it is united to alkalies (§§ 44, 47,
50,) to earths (§§ 58, 59, 63, 67,) to metals (§§ 69, 70, 72, 73,) or to
phlogiſton (§§ 134, 136.)
_Phlogiſticated vitriolic_ ACID (volatile vitriolic acid) is frequently
thrown out by the craters of volcanoes; its ſmell ſuffocating and
penetrating. The union to phlogiſton and the matter of heat gives it an
aerial form, but does not prevent its union with water.
§ 28.
_Nitrous_ ACID is by ſome excluded from the foſſil kingdom, becauſe they
ſuppoſe it to be produced from the putrefaction of organic bodies. But
theſe bodies when deprived of life are again received amongſt the
foſſils, from whence their more fixed parts were originally derived.
In the moſt concentrated ſtate that art can procure it, its ſpecific
gravity is 1, 580. Colourleſs when pure; but its ſtrong attraction to
phlogiſton renders particular management neceſſary to procure it ſo[8].
With different proportions of phlogiſton it forms phlogiſticated acid
and nitrous air.
It has never as far as I know been met with diſengaged, unleſs perhaps
in water precipitated out of the atmoſphere, but is found united to
alkalies (§§ 45, 47, 51 ) or to earths (§§ 60, 64.)
§ 29.
_Muriatic_ ACID (ſpirit of ſalt) is found in great quantity at and under
the ſurface of the earth. The ſtrongeſt prepared by art hardly attains a
ſpecific gravity of 1, 150. It has a very peculiar and volatile ſmell.
Deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form, for
phlogiſton ſeems to be one of its conſtituent parts[9].
It has never been found uncombined (unleſs perhaps like the nitrous acid
in water precipitated from the atmoſphere[10])[11] but united to
alkalies (§§ 46, 49, 52), to earths (§§ 61, 65), or to metals (§§ 74,
161, 175, 191).
§ 30.
_Fluor_ ACID, is obtained by art; its ſpecific gravity never exceeds
1,500, it is very volatile. Its vapours when hot, corrode glaſs; and
meeting with moiſture generate, or at leaſt depoſit ſiliceous earth.
When deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form[12]. It
has never been found diſengaged, but united to calcareous earth forming
ſparry fluor[13] (§ 96) and if I am not miſtaken it enters into the
compoſition of ſiliceous earths.
§ 31.
_Arſenical_ ACID, dry; prepared by art; ſpecific gravity 3,391; fuſible
and fixed in the fire, until it acquires from the matter of heat ſo much
phlogiſton as is neceſſary to convert it into white arſenic. In a moiſt
air it deliqueſces.
It is not found uncombined, but united to calx of cobalt (§ 228), and
alſo to phlogiſton, forming a brittle arſenical metal (§ 220), and its
calx (§ 222).
§ 32.
_Molybdæna_ ACID. This is very probably of metallic origin, though it
does not yet appear to which metal it belongs. Seeing that arſenic, a
brittle metal, by dephlogiſtication only is changed into an acid,
different from all other acids, it is not improbable that other metals
may have an acid baſis, although their phlogiſton adhering more ſtrongly
has not yet been completely ſeparated.
How this ſubſtance may be obtained by art does not belong to this place
to deſcribe[14]; but that the acid got from Molybdæna has a metallic
nature, and as yet has not been perfectly freed from phlogiſton, is
probable from the following conſiderations. 1, Its taſte is acid and at
the ſame time metallic. 2, Microcoſmic ſalt and borax are coloured by
it, and theſe ſalts are hardly coloured by any thing but metallic
calxes. 3, Its decompoſition by means of the phlogiſticated fixed
alkaly, which always indicates the preſence of a metal. 4, Its concrete
form, and not deliqueſcing, analogous to white arſenic. 5, Its ſpecific
gravity 3,460. And very lately M. HIELM by my perſuaſion attempted the
reduction and obtained a regulus, ſeemingly different from every other
metal, but not yet ſufficiently examined.
§ 33.
An acid conjoined to the calx ponderoſa (_ponderous calx or lime_) is
nearly allied to the preceding, but dropped into lime water produces a
different compound, though in a number of other circumſtances theſe two
acids agree. I apprehend that this is likewiſe of a metallic nature.
§ 34.
_Phoſphoric_ ACID, evidently exiſts in the animal kingdom,[15] much more
plentifully in the vegetable, but in the foſſil very rare. Mr. J. G.
GAHN firſt detected it united with lead;[16] but probably it may be
found in many other foſſils. It is fuſible in the fire. Its ſpecific
gravity when deprived of water 2,687.
§ 35.
_Boracic_ ACID, (_acid of borax, or ſedative ſalt_.) Many people ſtill
think this to be an artificial production, but not long ſince Mr.
HOEFER[17] found it in a lake near Sienna in the great dutchy of
Hetruria, and it has long been known to be united to the foſſil alkaly
in native borax. It acts like an acid, though very feebly. It melts in
the fire and volatilizes with water. Its ſpecific gravity is 1,480.
§ 36.
_Amber_ ACID, is a concrete ſalt obtained from amber; it acts like a
feeble acid. It is yet doubtful whether amber be of vegetable origin;
many reckon it foſſil.
§ 37.
_Aerial_ ACID (_fixed air_) is not only combined with water but with
many other foſſil ſubſtances, as alkalies (§§ 54, 56), earths (§§ 62,
66), and with ſome metals (§§ 71, 183, 192, 217, 234, 243). It floats
uncombined in the atmoſphere. Its ſpecific gravity 0,0018[18].
§ 38.
ALKALIES are known by their peculiar lixivial taſte, by their vehement
attraction to acids, and by their changing the blue colours of
vegetables to a green. In a pure ſtate, as was before obſerved of acids,
their attraction to other ſubſtances is ſo ſtrong that they cannot long
remain uncombined; and if other acids were wanting, the aerial acid,
every where preſent in the atmoſphere, would unite with them: therefore
they are always found in a ſtate of combination, unleſs prepared by art.
§ 39.
New acids are daily detected, but no additions have been made to the
three ſpecies of alkaly long ſince known.
§ 40.
_Vegetable fixed_ ALKALY, deprived of every acid is not found on the
face of the earth; but it is ſometimes met with in combination with the
vitriolic acid (§ 44) or the muriatic (§ 46), generally with the
nitrous, (§ 45) rarely with the aerial (§ 54).
§ 41.
_Foſſil fixed_ ALKALY is only found in combination with acids, rarely
with the vitriolic (§ 47) or nitrous (§ 48), principally with the
muriatic (§ 49) or aerial (§ 55).
§ 42.
_Volatile_ ALKALY is frequently found in clays, doubtleſs in a mild
ſtate, for the help of art is required to render it cauſtic. It is alſo
found united to the vitriolic (§ 50) and the muriatic acids (§ 52.)
§ 43.
ACIDS united to _alkalies_ form NEUTRAL SALTS. Theſe diſſolved in water
are no ways diſturbed by the addition of an alkaly, and generally by
evaporation concrete into cryſtals. If by proper teſts they ſhew neither
acid nor alkaline properties they are ſaid to be _perfect_ neutrals, but
_imperfect_ when from defect in quantity or ſtrength of one ingredient
the peculiar properties of the other more or leſs prevail.
We now proceed to conſider the native ſalts of both kinds.
NEUTRAL
SALTS.
§ 44.
Alkali _vegetabile vitriolatum_ (tartar of vitriol) ſeldom occurs
ſpontaneouſly, unleſs where tracts of wood have been burnt down.
§ 45.
Alkali _vegetabile nitratum_ (common nitre) forms upon the ſurface of
the earth where vegetables, eſpecially when mixed with animal
ſubſtances, putrify. The alkaline baſis previously exiſts in the
plants[19], but the origin of the acid is not ſo well underſtood:
whether it lies concealed in the vegetable acid, and by means of the
putrefactive proceſs ſufficiently dephlogiſticating it, is evolved; or
whether the purer part of the atmoſpheric air contains nitrous acid
_fully_ ſaturated with phlogiſton, which[20] upon the alkaly being
ſeparated by the putrefaction is attracted and extricated by it, and
upon loſing its inflammable principle aſſumes its accuſtomed form.
Nature perhaps operates in both ways; the latter however ſeems clearly
confirmed by a very remarkable experiment (§ 60.)
As nitre is annually produced in large quantities, it cannot but
ſometimes be found in ſprings or wells, as has been obſerved at
Berlin[21], London[22], and elſewhere[23]. Sometimes it abounds in ſuch
quantities that fleſh boiled in theſe waters turns red.
§ 46.
ALKALI _vegetabile ſalitum_ (digeſtive ſalt) is ſometimes though rarely
met with; generated perhaps by the deſtruction of animal and vegetable
ſubſtances.
§ 47.
ALKALI _minerale vitriolatum_ (Glauber’s ſalt) is ſometimes found in
waters. Some of the lakes in Siberia and Astracan contain it, and many
ſprings in other places.
§ 48.
ALKALI _minerale nitratum_ (cubic nitre) rarely occurs but where
maritime plants putrify.
§ 49.
ALKALI _minerale ſalitum_ (common ſalt) plentiful every where as well in
the earth, where it forms ſtrata more or leſs thick (ſal gem), as alſo
diſſolved in ſprings and lakes, and in the ſea. (ſea ſalt.)
§ 50.
ALKALI _volatile vitriolatum_ (vitriolic ammoniac) is ſcarcely found any
where but in places where the phlogiſticated fumes of vitriolic acid
ariſe from burning ſulphur, and in putrid places are abſorbed by the
volatile alkaly.[24] Thus at Fahlune the acid vapour from the roaſted
minerals produces this ſalt in the neceſſary houſes. It is ſometimes
alſo formed in the craters of volcanoes.
§ 51.
ALKALI _volatile nitratum_ (nitrous ammoniac) is generally found along
with common nitre.
§ 52.
ALKALI _volatile ſalitum_ (ſal ammoniac or common ammoniac.) I have
examined ſome from Veſuvius, and ſome from the Solfaterra near Naples.
The ſalts hitherto enumerated are perfect neutrals, thoſe which follow
are imperfect (§§ 53, 56.)
§ 53.
ALKALI FOSSIL, only in part ſaturated with a peculiar acid is called
tinkal; after depuration, borax. It is dug out of the earth in the
kingdom of Thibet[25]. Borax takes nearly an equal weight of acid before
the alkaline properties entirely diſappear[26].
I believe no one has yet found the acid of borax united either to the
vegetable or volatile alkalies.
§ 54.
ALKALI VEGETABILE _aeratum_ (mild vegetable alkaly) is hardly ever found
native, unleſs in the neighbourhood of woods deſtroyed by fire.
In the year 1774, at Douai in Flanders, a ſpring was diſcovered
ſurrounded by a wall, whoſe waters, beſides other impregnations,
contained 11 grains of vegetable alkaly in a pint[27].
§ 55.
ALKALI MINERALE _aeratum_ (mild foſſil alkaly, natron, the nitre of the
ancients) is found plentifully in many places, particularly in Africa
and Aſia, either concreted into chryſtallized ſtrata, or fallen to a
powder; or effloreſcing on old brick walls, or laſtly, diſſolved in
ſprings. It frequently originates from decompoſed common ſalt. I am not
ignorant that the acid of common ſalt adheres ſtrongly to its baſis ſo
as not to be expelled by fire; but perhaps the viciſſitudes of the
atmoſphere continually acting for ages, may be more powerful. In immenſe
plains covered over with this alkaly, ſcarcely any common ſalt is found
upon the ſurface, but the deeper you dig the more it is contaminated by
it, the common ſalt being yet undecompoſed for want of acceſs of air.
§ 56.
ALKALI VOLATILE _aeratum_ (mild volatile alkaly) has been found in pump
waters in London[28], in Lauchſtadt[29], at Frankfort on the Mayne[30],
and copper immerſed therein is ſaid to have been diſſolved into a blue
liquor.
The three alkalies mentioned above as ſaturated with aerial acid, differ
greatly from cauſtic alkalies, in the mildneſs of their taſte, in their
property of chryſtallizing, and in their efferveſcing with acids which
expel the aerial acid, but they ſtill change vegetable blues to greens,
though not ſo powerfully as the cauſtic alkalies do. Therefore, although
the ſubtil aerial acid in other reſpects gives them neutral properties,
yet in this it does it but imperfectly.
§ 57.
The compounds of earths and acids which poſſeſs ſolubility mentioned at
§ 20, are decompoſed and precipitated by mild, but not by phlogiſticated
alkalies.
§ 58.
TERRA PONDEROSA _vitriolata_, (heavy ſpar, marmor metallicum, calk) is
placed with the earths (§ 89.) Terra ponderoſa _nitrata_ i. e. terra
ponderoſa united to the nitrous acid, perhaps exiſts ſomewhere, but has
never been met with; neither has the terra ponderoſa united to the
_aerial_ acid, yet been found[31]. Terra ponderoſa _ſalita_ i. e. terra
ponderoſa with the _muriatic acid_ Mr. HIELM ſays[32] is diſſolved in
the waters of the lake Vettern and its neighbourhood.
§ 59.
CALX _vitriolata_ (gypſum, ſelenite) is not only found diſſolved in
various waters, but alſo in many places forms immenſe ſtrata. It is
placed by all mineralogiſts amongſt the earths, but I think improperly.
When burnt it generates heat with water, but in a leſs degree than lime
does.
§ 60.
CALX _nitrata_ (nitre of lime; terrene nitre) is ſometimes found in
water, but very ſparingly. It is ſaid that the chalk hills in ſome parts
of France become ſpontaneouſly impregnated with nitrous acid, which may
be waſhed out, and after a certain time they will become impregnated
with it again.
§ 61.
CALX _Salita_ (fixed ammoniac) occurs very frequently in waters.
§ 62.
CALX _aerata_ (marble, limeſtone, chalk, ſpar) is very commonly found
diſſolved in waters in conſequence of an exceſs of the aerial acid. When
it greatly abounds, the water is ſaid to be hard (_cruda_). By boiling,
or by evaporation, it depoſits ſtreaks or cruſts of calcareous matter.
Calx aerata is not ſoluble in water without an exceſs of the ſubtil
acid, and therefore might properly be referred to the earths (§ 21).
§ 63.
MAGNESIA _vitriolata_ (Epſom ſalt) is not unfrequent in the waters of
England, Bohemia, and other countries. This ſalt is preſently decompoſed
by lime water, which circumſtance readily diſtinguiſhes it from the alk.
min. vitriol. or Glauber’s ſalt.
§ 64.
MAGNESIA _nitrata_ (magneſia and nitrous acid) is uſually found together
with nitre.
§ 65.
MAGNESIA _ſalita_ (magneſia and muriatic acid) is found diſſolved in
various waters, but plentifully in ſea water, to which it gives a
diſagreeable bitterneſs.
§ 66.
MAGNESIA _aerata_ (common magneſia) with an exceſs of aerial acid it
becomes ſoluble in cold water, otherwiſe it is ſcarce ſoluble at all,
and therefore ſhould be claſſed with the earths. (§ 21.)
§ 67.
ARGILLA _vitriolata_ (alum) is ſometimes ſpontaneouſly generated by the
decompoſition of pyrites lodged in clay, or in argillaceous ſchiſtus.
It is found in a ſpring at Steckenitz in Bohemia[33], in Eaſt Bothnia
and elſewhere. What is commonly called _plumoſe_ alum is not a ſaline
ſubſtance.
ARGILLA (clay) united to the _nitrous_, _muriatic_[34], or aerial acids
has not to my knowledge hitherto been found in any waters.
METALLIC
SALTS.
§ 68.
The native ſalts belonging to this diviſion, may be diſtinguiſhed by the
phlogiſticated alkaly which precipitates them all. The few which have
ſaline properties (§ 20.) we ſhall mention here, referring the reſt to
the mineralized metals.
§ 69.
CUPRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of copper, blue vitriol) is found in the
mines of Herregrund, Fahlune, and others which contain copper pyrites.
§ 70.
FERRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of iron, green vitriol) is formed from the
decompoſition of the more common pyrites.
§ 71.
FERRUM _aeratum_ (iron with aerial acid) diſſolved by an exceſs of acid
in the lighter chalybeate waters.
FERRUM _nitratum_, and _ſalitum_ (iron with nitrous and muriatic acids)
have never yet been found native.
§ 72.
NICCOLUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of Nickel) ſometimes exiſts from the
decompoſition of ſulphureous ores of Nickel.
§ 73.
ZINCUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of zinc, white vitriol) is ſometimes,
though rarely, produced By the decompoſition of pſeudogalena, or black
Jack, becauſe this ſubſtance does not very readily decompoſe
ſpontaneouſly.
§ 74.
[35]MANGANESIUM _ſalitum_ (manganeſe united to muriatic acid) exiſts in
ſome waters Mr. HIELM ſays.
Whether manganeſe be ever united to waters like iron, by means of an
exceſs of aerial acid, we know not.
TRIPLE
SALTS.
§ 75.
The compound ſalts hitherto enumerated are ſuch as are compoſed of two
ingredients only; but ſometimes three or more are ſo united as not to be
ſeparated by chryſtallization. The vitriols that we are acquainted with
are hardly ever pure, and two or three of them ſometimes are joined
together.
Sometimes likewiſe it happens that neutral ſalts join earthy ſalts, and
earthy ſalts metallic ones. I generally diſtinguiſh compound ſalts
according to the number of their principles, whether the ſame acid be
joined to ſeveral baſes, or the ſame baſis to different acids; or
laſtly, whether ſeveral menſtrua and ſeveral baſes are joined together.
Hence ariſe ſalts triple, quadruple, &c. which the diligence of after
times muſt illuſtrate. I ſubjoin the moſt remarkable examples of triple
and quadruple native ſalts which have occurred to me.
§ 76.
ALKALI MINERALE SALITUM (common ſalt) contaminated by _magneſia ſalita_.
The common ſalt when pure does not deliqueſce, but this degree of purity
is ſeldom found, and in the native foſſil production (_ſal gem_) never.
§ 77.
MAGNESIA _vitriolata_ (Epſom ſalt) contaminated by _ferrum
vitriolatum_[36] (vitriol of iron.)
§ 78.
ARGILLA _vitriolata_ (alum) _native_, contaminated by _vitriol of iron_.
In the aluminous ſchiſtus it ſometimes effloreſces in a feathery form.
Is this the plumoſe alum of the antients?
§ 78*.
ARGILLA _vitriolata_ (alum) native; contaminated by ſulphur and
vitriolic acid.
At the places about Wedneſbury and Bilſton, in Staffordſhire, where the
coal pits are on fire, this ſubſtance ſublimes to the ſurface, and may
be collected in conſiderable quantity during dry or froſty weather. I
cannot be certain that this is a true chemical union, but the eye cannot
diſtinguiſh the parts. Perhaps the ſulphur volatilizes the alum and ſo
becomes intimately mixed with it. The exceſs of vitriolic acid keeps it
in a deliqueſcent ſtate.
I believe a ſimilar compound ſubſtance ſublimes at the Solfaterra near
Naples. W.
§ 79.
ARGILLIA _vitriolata_ (alum) native, contaminated by _vitriol of
cobalt_. In the mines of Herregrund and Idra this may be ſeen, ſhooting
out into long ſlender filaments. Perhaps this is the _trichites_ of the
Greeks. Diſſolved in water it immediately betrays the preſence of
vitriolic acid, upon the addition of terra ponderoſa ſalita (muriatic
acid ſaturated with heavy earth.) By the addition of phlogiſticated
alkali a precipitate of cobalt is thrown down, which makes a blue glaſs
with borax or microcoſmic ſalt.
§ 80.
CUPRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of copper) contaminated by _iron_.
§ 81.
FERRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of iron) contaminated by _nickel_.
§ 82.
CUPRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of copper) and vitriol of iron
contaminated by _zinc_. Such is found at Fahlune.
CLASS II.
EARTHS.
§ 83.
Before we can underſtand the nature of earths, we muſt know their
component parts. Thoſe earths which cannot be further decompoſed we call
_primitive_, and thoſe which conſiſt of two or more of theſe intimately
united, _derivative_. By this union we do not mean a mere mechanical
diffuſion, at leaſt not ſuch as can be diſtinguiſhed by the eye, as is
the caſe in ſtones, (_ſaxa_.)
§ 84.
It is evident that the primitive earths will conſtitute ſo many natural
Genera, and different mixtures of theſe the Species.
They who would make ſeveral Genera out of one primitive earth, muſt
ſeparate the glaſſy, red, white, horny ſilver ores, and other different
compoſitions into as many Genera, or elſe act inconſiſtently with their
own principles.
§ 85.
At preſent we only know five primitive earths. They who reckon fewer,
reſt their opinions upon fanciful metamorphoſes unſupported by faithful
experiments[37]. As experiments teach us that there are five primitive
earths, it is evident that the Species ariſing from the mixture of theſe
cannot exceed twenty-four, viz. 10 double (conſiſting of two earths) 6
triple, 3 quadruple, and the 5 primitive.
Although theſe different mixtures are poſſible, and probably do exiſt,
they have not yet been all found. The natural compoſitions of acids with
the earths, forming ſubſtances not ſoluble in 1000 times their weight of
boiling water, and which may be called ſaline earths, muſt be added to
the ſpecies, as they are certainly chemical combinations.
§ 86.
The primitive earths hitherto detected are,
TERRA PONDEROSA, or heavy earth.
CALX, calcareous earth.
MAGNESIA, magneſia.
ARGILLA, argillaceous earth.
TERRA SILICEA, ſiliceous earth.
And we muſt believe theſe to be primitive, until it ſhall appear by
proper experiments that they may be ſeparated into others ſtill more
ſimple, or changed into one another by art.
Theſe are firſt to be conſidered in their greateſt ſimplicity and
purity, although nature never preſents us with ſuch, nor can they even
by art be rendered abſolutely free from all heterogeneous mixture. Water
and aerial acid readily unite with the four firſt, and when expelled by
fire, a little of the matter of heat is added, and remains until driven
out by a more powerful attraction. But in this ſtate they poſſeſs a
degree of purity not to be attained by any other known method. Therefore
it is neceſſary to examine them when ſufficiently burnt in order to
diſtinguiſh better what properties depend upon adhering heterogeneous
matters.
HEAVY EARTH,
OR
TERRA PONDEROSA.
§ 87.
To obtain this as pure as poſſible, the ſpathum ponderoſum § 89 (heavy
ſpar) muſt be reduced to a fine powder, and with equal parts of fixed
alkaly and charcoal duſt roaſted for an hour in a covered crucible.
Powder the maſs, and add nitrous or muriatic acid diluted until all
efferveſcence ceaſes, and the liquor be ſenſibly acid. To this liquor
add mild fixed alkaly, and the heavy earth will be precipitated in a
mild ſtate. If the acids or the alkaline ſalt contain any vitriolic
acid, the heavy ſpar will immediately be regenerated. What remains
undiſſolved by the acid is heavy ſpar, not decompoſed. The proceſs may
be repeated upon this, but the product will then contain ſome martial
earth and ſome clay from the crucible, therefore the firſt part will be
the moſt pure.
§ 88.
TERRA PONDEROSA _aerata_, (heavy earth) has a ſpecific gravity of 3,
773[38]. 100 parts of it contain about 28 of water, 7 of aerial acid,
and 65 of pure earth. It efferveſces with acids: with the vitriolic acid
forms heavy ſpar, not ſoluble in water; with the nitrous and muriatic
acids, it yields chryſtals, not very readily ſoluble; but with the
vegetable acid the chryſtals deliqueſce.
When free from all contamination of acid or alkaly it ſcarcely melts in
the fire, but loſes ³⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its weight. When united with the matter of
heat, (i. e. rendered cauſtic) it diſſolves in 900 times its weight of
water; and when this ſolution is expoſed to the atmoſphere, a cream or
cruſt ſeparates at the top, which efferveſces with acids. After burning,
it unites to acids without efferveſcence; but heat is produced, and the
union is more tardy than when it is in a mild ſtate[39].
When cauſtic, it expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac, and forms
a hepar with ſulphur, the watery ſolution of which is but imperfectly
decompoſed by the nitrous or muriatic acids, upon account of the
remarkable attraction betwixt this earth and the acid of the ſulphur,
which it even takes from the vegetable alkaly[40].
When we compare theſe properties with thoſe which belong to common
calcareous earth, mentioned at (§§ 92, 93), we ſhall readily ſee wherein
they agree, and wherein they differ.
§ 89.
TERRA PONDEROSA _vitriolata_ (heavy ſpar) is full four times as heavy as
an equal bulk of water. It diſſolves entirely, though ſparingly, in
concentrated boiling vitriolic acid, but the addition of a ſingle drop
of water occaſions a precipitation. The ſame thing happens to gypſum;
but that requires much leſs acid to diſſolve it, and the precipitation
is made more ſlowly. If the heavy ſpar contained any ſulphur, it muſt
certainly have appeared when the whole was diſſolved, but I never could
find any thing like it.
CRONSTEDT, Min. § 18. 2.
_Marmor metallicum druſicu_ § 19 C. Ponderous Spar.
§ 90.
TERRA PONDEROSA _vitriolata_, impregnated with bitumen, and mixed with
gypſum, alum, and ſiliceous earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 24. _Lapis hepaticus._ Liver Stone.
A nucleus of this kind, taken out of a piece of alum ore from Andrarum
in the province of Skone, yielded, in 100 parts, by analyſis, 33 of
ſiliceous earth, 29 of cauſtic heavy earth, earth of alum about 5, and
quick-lime from 3 to 7, beſides the water and vitriolic acid. By
calculation it appears, that theſe baſes, together with vitriolic acid
enough to ſaturate them, ought to weigh 71, which, with the addition of
33, exceeds the amount of the original 100. This increaſe points out the
difference of a maſs newly chryſtallized, and of one carefully dried.
§ 91.
When we conſider that the terra ponderoſa was altogether unknown before
the year 1774, and that many mineralogiſts are even now unacquainted
with it, we cannot wonder that we know ſo few ſpecies of it. I have
ſcarce a doubt but the _terra ponderoſa aerata_ may be found mixed with
other earths in many ſpecimens, when they come to be examined by
chemical means more accurately than they could be heretofore. (See notes
to §§ 58 and 88.)
CALCAREOUS EARTH,
OR
CALX.
§ 92.
As calcareous earth united to the aerial acid is found native, it
requires but little trouble to have it pure. Let ſelected pieces of
chalk, reduced to fine powder, be repeatedly boiled in pure water: this
diſſolves any calx or magneſia ſalita which it may contain. This done,
it holds no heterogeneous matter but what mechanically adheres to it,
the quantity of which is generally extremely ſmall. If we deſire to be
free from this likewiſe, diſſolve the waſhed chalk in diſtilled vinegar,
precipitate with volatile alkaly, and after waſhing the precipitate
well, dry it.
§ 93.
The ſpecific gravity of calcareous earth thus purified, is 2,720. 100
parts of it contain about 34 of aerial acid, 11 of water, and 55 of pure
earth.
Acids unite with it efferveſcing, and a centenary (centenarius) excites
about 22 degrees of heat. The vitriolic acid forms gypſum, difficult to
diſſolve, (§ 59). The nitrous and muriatic acids form deliqueſcent ſalts
(§§ 60, 61), and the acetous acid permanent chryſtals.
Pure calcareous earth does not melt in the fire, but loſes ⁴⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its
weight. It diſſolves in 700 times its weight of water, generating
heat[41]. Acids diſſolve it, producing from a centenary 252 degrees of
heat, but without any efferveſcence. This laſt circumſtance may be beſt
obſerved by immerging the burnt earth in water, to diſſipate a part of
the heat, which would otherwiſe make the acid boil. The water likewiſe
expels the atmoſpheric air from the pores of the lime. In this
ſituation, if nitrous or muriatic acid be poured upon it, and if it was
previouſly well burnt, no efferveſcence will take place. The ſolution
proceeds ſlowly[42], but the ſaturation becomes as perfect as if the
calcareous earth had been in a mild ſtate. This burnt earth, or lime,
expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac in a cauſtic ſtate, and it
diſſolves ſulphur; but this compound is ſeparated upon the addition of
any acid, even the aerial.
§ 94.
Amongſt the native Species of this genus, we muſt firſt mention the CALX
_aerata_ (marble, limeſtone, chalk) which conſtitute immenſe ſtrata. Its
chief properties are enumerated above (§ 92). It is very rarely found
entirely free from iron, which exiſts even in the pureſt Icelandic ſpar,
and indeed in almoſt every foſſil production; upon which account only
the more remarkable impregnations with iron will be noticed in the
following pages.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 5–12.
§ 95.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), with more or leſs _petroleum_.
It efferveſces with acids, and diſſolves; with the vitriolic acid
frequently turning brown. Is fœtid when heated or rubbed. The oil is not
in ſufficient quantity to be collected, by diſtillation, in drops; it
only fouls the inſide of the veſſels, unleſs a very great quantity be
operated upon. In an open fire the colour preſently vaniſhes, from the
petroleum drying up. It generally contains a portion of martial clay.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 22, 23. _Lapis ſuillus._ Fœtid ſtone.
§ 96.
CALX _fluorata_ (calcareous earth and _fluor acid_), when pure, is
wholly ſoluble in nitrous and muriatic acids. Expoſed to heat, below
ignition, it emits a phosphoreſcent light. Fluor acid, dropped into lime
water, precipitates a powder which has all the properties of the calx
fluorata. It is ſometimes, but not always, contaminated by a ſmall
proportion of ſiliceous earth and muriatic acid.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 97–101. _Sparry fluor._ Blue John.
§ 97.
CALX (calcareous earth) ſaturated with a _peculiar acid_, perhaps of a
metallic nature (§ 33). In acids, particularly in the muriatic, it
aſſumes a remarkable yellow colour, but is not very ſoluble.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 210. Lapis ponderoſus. Tungſten.
§ 98.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by a ſmall
proportion of _magneſia ſalita_.
Magneſia.
§ 99.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_) contaminated by _clay_.
Argillaceous.
§ 100.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by _ſiliceous
earth_.
Siliceous.
§ 101.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by _clay_ and
_ſiliceous earth_. (See § 115.)
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 25. 28. Calcareous Marle.
§ 102.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by _iron_ and
_manganeſe_. Martial.
CRONSTEDT Min. §30. See alſo §203. _Hæmatites._
103.
There can be no doubt that the four firſt (§§ 94–97.), if not the laſt
(§ 102), are genuine and diſtinct ſpecies; there is ſome difficulty as
to the reſt, dependent, perhaps, only upon mechanical mixtures. If the
heterogeneous matters can be diſcerned by the eye, we cannot heſitate to
refer the ſubſtance to the ſaxa (ſtones); but in theſe the eye cannot
diſcern them. Moreover, we know that the earths have a mutual attraction
to each other, and form combinations more intimate than mechanical ones.
Earth of alum, precipitated by a cauſtic alkali, and thrown into lime
water, preſently loſes its pellucid and ſpongy texture, turns white, and
condenſes, abſorbing the lime from the water, and forming an union not
to be ſeparated but by chemical means.
From theſe conſiderations, I dare not venture to exclude doubtful
ſpecies.
We ſay a thing is _contaminated_ by another, when the mixture is of the
mechanical kind; but when things are joined by the ſtronger power of
attraction, we ſay they are _united_.
MAGNESIA.
§ 104.
Magnesia, called in the diſpenſatories, and by apothecaries _magneſia
alba_, is a precipitation from its union with vitriolic acid, called
Epſom ſalt. If this earthy precipitate be wanted in the greatest degree
of purity, the Epſom ſalt must be taken chryſtallized, and well
depurated, diſſolved in distilled water, and precipitated by volatile
alkaly. Let the liquor be boiled for a few minutes, in order that what
is kept in ſolution by the aerial acid may ſubside.
§ 105.
Magneſia, thus obtained, has a ſpecific gravity of 2,155. 100 parts of
it contain about 25 of aerial acid, 30 of water, and 45 of earth[43]. It
diſſolves in acids, with a violent efferveſcence, but without heat. It
again forms Epſom ſalt, with the vitriolic acid; with the nitrous acid
it chryſtallizes, but the chryſtals are deliqueſcent; with the muriatic
and vegetable acids it does not chryſtallize, and after drying, greedily
attracts moiſture from the atmoſphere.
It does not melt in a moderate heat, but loſes ⁵⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its weight, and
then has no attraction for water; diſſolves ſlowly, even in acids, and
that without efferveſcence, but with ſome degree of heat. After
calcination, it expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac, and unites
to ſulphur, though very feebly.
MAGNESIA _aerata_ (common magneſia) is never found native and
unconnected, unleſs in waters, when it is diſſolved by an exceſs of
aerial acid. (§ 66.)
§ 106.
MAGNESIA _aerata_ (common magneſia) united with _ſiliceous_ matter. This
efferveſces with acids, and not unfrequently ſtrikes fire with ſteel.
§ 107.
MAGNESIA intimately united with _ſiliceous_ matter. The ſoluble part is
ſlowly taken up by acids, without efferveſcence.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§79–83. and perhaps § 102–105 alſo; but I have not yet
ſubmitted the aſbeſti to the liquid analyſis.
_Soaprock._ _Serpentine._
§ 108.
MAGNESIA united to _argillaceous_, _ſiliceous_, and _pyritical_ matters.
M. MONNET diſcovered this, and the next ſpecies.
§ 109.
MAGNESIA united to _argillaceous_, _ſiliceous_, and _pyritical_ matters,
and likewiſe contaminated by petroleum.
This ſpecies reſembles aluminous ſchiſtus, but upon examination is
found to contain more magneſia than clay.
§ 110.
All the ſpecies, except the firſt, are more or leſs contaminated by
iron, but they do not owe all their colour to this ſubſtance. The green
colours altogether vaniſh during ignition, and leave only a white opake
maſs.
ARGILLACEOUS EARTH,
OR
ARGILLA.
§ 111.
By earth of alum (argilla) I do not mean common clay, which is never
free from ſiliceous matter, but a pure clay, unmixed, at leaſt, with any
other earth. It may be readily obtained by diſſolving Roman or roach
alum in diſtilled water, filtering, and precipitating by mild volatile
alkaly.
§ 112.
The ſpecific gravity of this pure clay, or earth of alum, is 1,305. It
diſſolves in acids, with a little efferveſcence. With the vitriolic acid
it forms alum; with the nitrous, muriatic and vegetable acids,
deliqueſcent ſalts.
When dry, it abſorbs water greedily, becomes ſoft, and, with a due
quantity of water, gains ſuch a tenacity, that it may be moulded at
pleaſure. This maſs contracts greatly in the fire, from whence ariſe
numerous cracks; and with a due degree of heat, it becomes hard enough
to ſtrike fire with ſteel. By this burning it loſes its glutinous
tenacity, and the water is excluded by the approach of the particles;
nor does it again aſſume its former properties, but by ſolution and
precipitation.
It may be diſſolved in the dry way, by means of fixed alkaline ſalt, as
well as in the liquid way, by acids. The vitriolic acid is better than
the others for this purpoſe, becauſe more eaſily concentrated.
Earth of alum neither diſſolves ſulphur, nor decompoſes ſal ammoniac.
§ 113.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) united to _ſiliceous_ matter only.
CRONSTEDT Min. §78. _Argilla porcellana._ Porcelain clay.
Pipe clay.
I never examined any clay which did not contain a large quantity of
ſiliceous earth; generally more than half its weight[44].
§ 114.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) united to _ſiliceous_ and _irony_ matter.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 87 and 90. Bole. Dye-earth.
Clay.
§ 115.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) united to _ſiliceous_ and _calcareous_
matter.
CRONSTEDT Min. §25. _Marga argillacea._ Marle.
§ 116.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) united to _ſiliceous_ earth and _magneſia_.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 84, 4. B. Terra lemnia.
Its component parts reſemble thoſe of talc, but differ in their
proportions, and are alſo leſs intimately united.
§ 116*.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) united to _ſiliceous_, _calcareous_, and
_magneſia_ earths.
_Lithomarga._([45]) CRONSTEDT Min. § 84. A.
Stone marrow.
§ 117.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) contaminated by _vegetable alkaly_ and
_ſulphur_, or at leaſt by the acid of ſulphur.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 124. 2. b. Minera aluminis romani.
Alum ore.
It certainly contains vitriolic acid[46], and perhaps, alſo, a ſmall
portion of ſulphur. The vegetable alkaly ſufficiently ſhews its volcanic
origin.
§ 118.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) contaminated by _ſiliceous_ matter,
_pyrites_, and _petroleum_.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 124. 2. c. _Schiſtus aluminaris_[47].
Alum ſlate.
§ 119.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) intimately united with _leſs than half its
weight of ſiliceous_ earth, and a ſmall quantity of _mild calcareous_
earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 43–48. Gemma.
The Gems ſuffer no change under the blowpipe, with foſſil fixed alkaly,
but are diſſolved by microcoſmic ſalt and borax.
To this head belong _Rubinus_, the ruby;
_Saphirus_, ſapphire;
_Topazius_, topaz;
_Smaragdus_, emerald.
The _tourmaline_ holds a kind of middle place betwixt the gems and the
ſcherle. The colour, in all of them, is owing to iron.
§ 120.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) intimately united to _half its weight of
ſiliceous earth_ (or more), and a little _mild calcareous_ earth.
Scherle.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 68–71. _Granatus et Baſaltes_, which I call
_Scherle_.
The remote varieties of theſe are eaſily diſtinguiſhed, the near ones
difficultly.
§ 121.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) looſely united to half its weight, or more,
of _ſiliceous_ earth, and a little _calcareous_ earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 108–112. _Zeolithus._ Zeolite.
There is a great affinity betwixt this and Scherle; but in the zeolite,
the component parts cohere ſo looſely, that acids attach and ſeparate
them without their being previouſly treated with alkalies; but this is
not the caſe with the ſcherles.
Zeolite, contaminated by magneſia, I have not yet examined.
§ 122.
ARGILLA (argillaceous earth) intimately united to a large proportion of
_ſiliceous_ earth, and a ſmall proportion of _magneſia_.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 93–96. _Mica. Talcum._ [48]Glimmer. Talc.
SILICEOUS EARTH,
OR
TERRA SILICEA.
§ 123.
This, like the other primitive earths, is ſeldom found pure. In order to
have it ſo, reduce clear quartz chryſtals into powder; melt it with four
times the weight of fixed alkaly; diſſolve the whole in water;
precipitate by a large quantity of ſtrong acid; carefully waſh and dry
the precipitate.
The acid muſt be uſed in a ſuperfluous quantity, that any other earths
contained may be diſſolved.
§ 124.
The ſpecific gravity of this earth, is 1,975. The particles, when firſt
precipitated, occupy, in water, at leaſt twelve times the ſpace that
they do when dried; ſo that, when ſufficiently fine, they may remain
ſuſpended therein; nay, when vehemently heated in a cloſe veſſel, they
may be diſſolved. No acid, except that of fluor ſpar (§ 30) has any
action upon this earth. Fixed alkalies unite with it in the liquid way,
but in the dry way they ſeize it with great vehemence, and convert twice
their weight of it into a permanent transparent glaſs. Such is its
affinity to alkalies, that it imparts to clay, which is always loaded
with it, the power of ſeparating ſome of the acid from nitre and common
ſalt. When pure, it is refractory in the fire.
Although ſiliceous earth is not altogether ſimple, yet, in mineralogy,
it muſt be conſidered as primitive, until deciſive experiments ſhew us
from which of the preceding earths it is derived[49].
§ 125.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth) united to very ſmall quantities of
_calcareous_ and _argillaceous_ earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 51. _Quartzum._ Quartz.
§ 126.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth) united to _argillaceous_ earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 58. _Calcedonius_. Chalcedony.
And perhaps the _Opal_. The _Hydrophanus_ is only a variety of theſe.
Whether the _carnelian_, and other _ſiliceæ_, of finer or coarſer
texture, belong to this or the preceding ſpecies I cannot yet determine
with certainty.
§ 127.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth), united to an _argillaceous_ and highly
_martial_ earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 64, 65. _Jaſpis._ Jaſper.
§ 128.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth), loaded with _martial_ earth.
Martial.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 53.
This ſpecies is often called jaſper, but improperly, becauſe it contains
no argillaceous earth.
§ 129.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth), united to _argillaceous_ and a ſmall
quantity of _calcareous_ earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 63. Petroſilex. Chert.
§ 130.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth) united to _argillaceous_ earth and a
little _magneſia_.
CRONSTEDT Min. §66. _Feldſpathum._ Feld ſpat.
§ 131.
TERRA SILICEA (ſiliceous earth), united to _magneſia_, mild _calcareous_
earth, _fluor ſpar_ and alſo to the _calxes_ of _copper_ and _iron_.
Chryſopraſius. I have not examined this, but inſert it upon the
experiments of Mr. Achard.
To determine accurately the ſpecies of earths is the moſt difficult part
of mineralogy, for innumerable analyſes yet remain to be made. But that
which now ſeems intricate and obſcure will become plain and eaſy when
experiments have been ſufficiently multiplied.
CLASS III.
INFLAMMABLES,
OR
BITUMINA.
§ 132.
To this head we refer all foſſils containing phlogiſton in ſuch great
abundance, that under proper management they are inflammable. The Genera
are obviouſly very few, and accurately ſpeaking there is only one Genus.
But ſince phlogiſton is so very ſubtle as not by itſelf to become the
object of our ſenſes, it will perhaps be adviſeable to conſider its more
ſimple combinations as Genera: this has long been done ſo far as
reſpects the metals, by univerſal conſent.
SULPHUR.
§ 133.
This name may be given to any acid coagulated by phlogiſton into a ſolid
form. If all metals conſist of certain radical acids ſaturated with
phlogiſton, as is highly probable, and with reſpect to arſenic is
indubitably proved; then metals ought to find a place here. But until
this theory be eſtabliſhed by numerous experiments, we ſhall only rank
under this head the compounds which have not a metallic nature.
§ 134.
PHLOGISTON ſaturated with _vitriolic acid_.
CRONSTEDT, Min. § 151. _Common Brimſtone._ Sulphur.
§ 135.
PHLOGISTON ſaturated with _aerial acid_.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 154. A. _plumbago_. Black-lead.
The true compoſition of this has been detected by Mr. SCHEELE.
§ 136.
PHLOGISTON united to the _acid_ of _vitriol_ and of _molybdæna_; or what
amounts to the ſame, ſulphur joined to the acid of molybdæna.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 154. b. c. _Molybdæna._ Molybdæna.
The acid of molybdæna has never yet been obtained quite free from
phlogiſton (§ 32). If this acid be of a metallic origin, molybdæna is a
mineralized metallic ſubſtance, and ſhould be placed with the other
minerals.
PETROLEUM.
§ 137.
Phlogiston occurs alſo in the foſſil kingdom, combined in an oily form;
but many ſuppose this derived from the vegetable kingdom.
§ 138.
PETROLEUM pure and ſelected.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 147–150. Naptha. Rock oil.
§ 139.
PETROLEUM joined to _argillaceous_ earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 157–160. _Lithantrax._ Pit Coal.
§ 140.
PETROLEUM united to _acid_ of _amber_.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 133–146. _Succinum._ Amber.
Many contend that amber has a vegetable origin; but as the point is not
very well determined; and as it is found amongſt foſſils, I ſtill retain
it here.
§ 141.
AMBERGRISE, according to the aſſertion of Mr. AUBLETT, is nothing more
than the juice of a tree inſpiſſated by evaporation into a concrete
form. This tree grows in Guyana, and is called Cuma, but has not been
inveſtigated by any botaniſt. Pieces of this tree are ſaid to be
carried down into the rivers by heavy rains, and the ſpecimens
examined by Mr. ROUELLE had the odour and principal qualities of
amber[50]. RUMPHIUS, long ſince, mentioned a tree called Nanarium,
whoſe juice reſembled amber[51].
DIAMOND.
§ 142.
At firſt ſight I may ſeem to have acted erroneouſly, by ſeparating this
from the other gems, and inſerting it here; but after due conſideration,
I know not where to place it better. It has never yet been decompoſed by
the liquid analyſis[52]; and when expoſed to the fire in an open veſſel,
it is wholly conſumed, burning with a lambent flame. This deflagration,
though ſlow, ſhews decidedly its affinity to the inflammables: beſides,
in the focus of a burning glaſs, it leaves traces of ſoot[53]. When
further experiments teach us better, I ſhall willingly correct my error.
CLASS IV.
METALS.
§ 143.
I have before mentioned the great affinity betwixt metallic and
inflammable ſubſtances (§ 133). Zinc and arſenic stand, as it were, upon
the borders betwixt them; for these, in proper circumſtances, burn with
a very evident flame. All the metallic ſubſtances contain phlogiſton,
and when, to a certain degree, deprived of it, fall into a powder like
an earth; but their attractions for phlogiſton are different. Moſt of
them, when melted in a common way, and expoſed to the air, have an
earthy cruſt formed upon the ſurface, which cannot again be reduced to
metal without the addition of ſome inflammable matter. The _baſe_
metals, eleven in number, have this property: but the _noble_ metals,
platina, gold and ſilver, are ſo firmly connected to the phlogiſton,
that they never calcine under fuſion, however long continued; and after
being changed into a calx in the liquid way, when melted in the fire,
they re-aſſume their metallic form, without any other phlogiſton than
what is contained in the matter of heat.
Quickſilver holds a kind of middle place; for, like the baſe metals, it
may be calcined, though not readily; and like the noble ones, it may be
reduced by heat alone.
I have placed each diviſion of the metals in the order of their specific
gravities.
Thoſe metals, which are found in a perfect metallic ſtate, are called
_native_; thoſe united to acids, or to ſulphur, are ſaid to be
_mineralized_; and thoſe which are only deprived of their phlogiſton,
_calciform_[54].
TABLE OF METALS.
│ │
│ │ Attraction
METALS. │ │ Specific Melting Saturating to
│ │ Gravity. Heat[55]. Phlogiſton. ſaturating
│ │ Phlogiſton.
Gold │ │ 19,640 1301 394 1 or 2
Platina │ │ 21,000 756 1 or 2
Silver │ │ 10,552 1000 100 3
Quickſilver│ │ 14,110 −39 or −634 74 4
Lead │ │ 11,352 595 43 10
Copper │ │ 8,876 1450 312 8
Iron │ │ 7,800 1601 342 11
Tin │ │ 7,264 415 114 9
Biſmuth │ │ 9,670 494 57 7
───────────┼───────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────────
Nickel │ common │ 7,000 1301 156 11
„ │ pure │ 9,000 1601 „ „
───────────┼───────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────────
Arſenic │ │ 8,308 109 5
───────────┼───────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────────
Cobalt │ common │ 7,700 1450
„ │ pure │ „ 1601
───────────┼───────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────────
Zinc │ │ 6,862 699 182 11
Antimony │ │ 6,860 809 120 6
Manganeſe │ │ 6,850 very great 227 11
AURUM,
OR
GOLD.
§ 144.
The ſpecific gravity of this metal, when pure, is 19,640. Aqua regia
diſſolves it; but except the dephlogiſticated muriatic acid, and in
certain circumſtances the nitrous, no ſimple acid acts upon it, unleſs
it has been previouſly calcined[56]. The quantity of phlogiſton
neceſſarily taken away in the ſolution of 100 parts of gold, I eſtimate
at about 394; whilſt the ſame quantity of ſilver, loſes by ſolution in
the nitrous acid, 100[57]. Gold retains the phlogiſton neceſſary to its
metallic form, more obſtinately than any other metal, except, perhaps,
platina. It melts and calcines in the focus of a burning glaſs at 1301
degrees of heat.
§ 145.
AURUM _nativum_ (gold native) united to _ſilver_.
Native.
I do not know that gold has ever yet been found perfectly pure.
§ 146.
AURUM _nativum_ (gold native) united to _copper_.
Native.
§ 147.
AURUM _nativum_ (gold native) united to _ſilver_ and _copper_.
Native.
§ 148.
AURUM _nativum_ (gold native) united to _ſilver_, _copper_, and _iron_.
Native.
§ 149.
AURUM (gold), mineralized by _ſulphur_, by means of iron.
Pyritical.
CRONSTEDT Min; § 166. a. _Pyrites aureus._
But ſome doubt may be made about the mineralization of gold[58].
§ 150.
AURUM (gold) mineralized by _ſulphur_, together with _ſilver_, _lead_,
and _iron_.
Minera aurifera Nagyayenſis.
I have not yet fully examined this[59].
PLATINUM,
OR
PLATINA.
§ 151.
Its ſpecific gravity is 18,000[60], when very pure. It diſſolves in aqua
regia, and the loſs of phlogiſton during the ſolution, according to the
experiments hitherto made may be expreſſed by 756. Beſides the muriatic
acid, which when dephlogiſticated diſſolves every metal, no acid acts
upon platina without it has undergone a previous calcination. It ſeems
to retain its phlogiſton more obſtinately than any other metal. To melt
it requires a heat greater than that at which iron melts.
§ 152.
PLATINA _native_ united to _iron_. Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 179.
I believe it has never been found quite free from iron, but this can be
ſeparated by art[61].
ARGENTUM,
OR
SILVER.
§ 153.
Its ſpecific gravity is 10,552. The nitrous acid readily diſſolves it,
the vitriolic muſt be boiling hot; the muriatic attracts its calx very
ſtrongly, but cannot remove its phlogiſton and therefore cannot diſſolve
it in its metallic ſtate. The quantity of this phlogiſton which cauſes
the difference betwixt its metallic and its calciform ſtate I before
expreſſed as 100 in 100 parts of ſilver. But the force with which it
retains this portion of its phlogiſton is leſs than that of gold; that
is, it occupies the third place in a ſeries of all the metals. It melts
at 1000 degrees of heat.
§ 154.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native) united to _gold_. Native.
§ 155.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native), united to _copper_. Native.
§ 156.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native), united both to _gold_ and _copper_.
Native.
§ 157.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native), united to _iron_. Native.
§ 158.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native), united to _arſenic_. Native.
The arſenic hardly exceeds ⁶⁄₁₀₀.
§ 159.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native), united to _antimony_. Native.
When melted, it ſmokes but has no ſmell of arſenic.
§ 160.
ARGENTUM _nativum_ (ſilver native), united to _arſenic_ and _iron_.
Native.
The three metallic ingredients are nearly in equal proportions.
All the ſpecies hitherto mentioned have metallic properties and
appearances. The contaminating matters are ſometimes extremely ſmall,
but not to be neglected when they exceed ¹⁄₃₀₀ part of the maſs.
§ 161.
ARGENTUM (ſilver) mineralized by the _vitriolic_ and _muriatic_ acids.
Hornlike.
CRONSTEDT Min. §177. _Minera argenti cornea._ Horn-ſilver.
Mr. WOULFE[62], detected the preſence of the vitriolic acid. The ſilver
ſeldom exceeds ⁷⁰⁄₁₀₀. I know not whether it is ever altogether free
from vitriolic acid.
§ 162.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by the _vitriolic_ and _muriatic_ acids,
and _ſulphur_.
I doubt whether this be a diſtinct ſpecies, ſince the ſulphur and the
ſalts ſcarcely admit of any other than a mechanical union.
§ 163.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by ſulphur. Glaſſy.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 169. _Minera argenti vitrea._
It ſometimes contains ⁷³⁄₁₀₀ of ſilver, or more.
§ 164.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _iron_. Marcaſitical.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 176, 10. _Pyrites argenteus._
§ 165.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _lead_. Potters.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 176, 8. _Galena._
The ſilver is only a few half ounces in a hundred weight.
§ 166.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _arſenic_. Red.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 170. _Minera argenti rubra._
It contains about ⁷⁰⁄₁₀₀ of ſilver. Iron is frequently preſent, as in
moſt other ſpecies but not always.
§ 167.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, and _iron_.
Glittering.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 172.
I have examined ſome ſpecimens from Saxony which ſometimes contain no
ſilver. May we not therefore ſuppoſe that the ſilver is native and not
mineralized?
§ 168.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, _iron_ and
_cobalt_.
The ſilver is ſometimes more than ⁵⁰⁄₁₀₀.
§ 169.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, _copper_ and
_iron_. White ore.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 171. _Minera argenti alba._
The proportion of ſilver varies much, ſometimes it is ¹⁰⁄₁₀₀ or more.
§ 170.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, _copper_,
_iron_, and _antimony_. Grey ore.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 173. 6. Minera argenti griſea. In the province of
Dal[63].
It contains ²⁴⁄₁₀₀ of copper, ſeldom ⁵⁄₁₀₀ ſilver.
§ 171.
ARGENTUM (ſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, _antimony_ and
_iron_. Plumoſe.
CRONSTEDT Min. §173. 5. _Federertz of the_ Germans[64].
It ſeldom contains more than a few half ounces of ſilver in the hundred
weight.
It is abſurd to found ſpecies upon the differences of the matrix: theſe
ought to be conſidered elſewhere.
HYDRARGYRUM,
OR
QUICKSILVER.
§ 172.
Its ſpecific gravity is 14,110. It has been erroneouſly ranked among the
brittle metals, for at 654 degrees below 0 it freezes[65], and then
ſpreads under the hammer like lead. But as ſuch an extreme degree of
cold rarely happens unleſs artificially produced, we ceaſe to wonder why
it is always liquid or rather melted.
Nitrous acid diſſolves it readily, vitriolic acid requires to be
aſſiſted by a boiling heat; muriatic acid does not act upon it all,
unleſs previouſly deprived of as much phlogiſton as in 100 parts may be
called 74. The attractive power wherewith it retains this portion of
phlogiſton occupies the fourth place in the ſeries; that is, it holds it
leſs ſtrongly than the noble but more ſtrongly than the baſe metals.
§ 173.
HYDRARGYRUM _nativum_ (quickſilver native). Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 217.
Whether it be entirely free from every metallic contamination I have not
yet tried.
§ 174.
HYDRARGYRUM (quickſilver), united to _ſilver_. Amalgamated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 217.
§ 175.
HYDRARGYRUM (quickſilver), mineralized by _muriatic_ and _vitriolic_
acids. Hornlike.
Mineralogy owes the diſcovery of this to Mr. WOULFE. Phil. Tranſ.
§ 176.
HYDRARGYRUM (quickſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_. Cinnabarine.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 218. _Cinnabaris._
§ 177.
HYDRARGYRUM (quickſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _iron_. Martial.
I am doubtful whether this be a diſtinct ſpecies. The iron perhaps is
only mechanically diffuſed.
§ 178.
HYDRARGYRUM (quickſilver), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _copper_.
Cuprous.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 219.
PLUMBUM,
OR
LEAD.
§ 179.
Its ſpecific gravity is 11,352, greater than that of any other of the
baſe metals. The nitrous acid perfectly diſſolves it; the muriatic more
difficultly; the vitriolic hardly at all, for the vitriol of lead being
inſoluble in water incruſts the metal, and prevents its ſolution. After
calcination the weakeſt vegetable acids diſſolves it, and acquire a
ſweet taſte. The phlogiſton neceſſary to be taken away in order that it
may diſſolve may be called 43, which is leſs than that of any other
metal. Hence we underſtand why the calx of lead may be reduced with a
very minute quantity of inflammable matter. With reſpect to the force
wherewith it retains this phlogiſton it occupies the tenth place. It
melts at 595 degrees of heat.
§ 180.
PLUMBUM _nativum_ (lead), though many mineralogiſts doubt whether it has
ever yet been found. Native.
§ 181.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by _vitriolic acid_. Vitriol of.
Originating from the decompoſition of Galena. It is rarely met with. It
was firſt obſerved by Mr. MONNET. It does not efferveſce with acids. It
may be reduced by the blowpipe upon charcoal.
§ 181*.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by _vitriolic acid_ and _iron_.
Exiſting in immenſe quantity in the iſland of Angleſea. It does not
reduce with the blowpipe upon charcoal, but melts to a black glaſs[66].
W.
§ 182.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by the _acid_ of _phoſphorus_. Phoſphorated.
This was diſcovered by Mr. GAHN. It does not efferveſce with acids. It
melts upon charcoal with the blowpipe, but is not perfectly reduced.
§ 183.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by the _aerial_ acid. Aerated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 185.
It efferveſces with acids, and is readily reduced upon charcoal[67].
§ 184.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by _ſulphur_. Sulphurated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 187.
§ 185.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _ſilver_. Galena.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 188.
§ 186.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized _ſulphur_, with _ſilver_ and _iron_.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 189.
§ 187.
PLUMBUM (lead), mineralized by _ſulphur_, with _ſilver_ and _antimony_.
Radiated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 190.
CUPRUM,
OR
COPPER.
§ 188.
Its ſpecific gravity is 8,876. Nitrous acid diſſolve it readily,
muriatic acid ſlowly, and the vitriolic requires intenſe boiling. The
phlogiſton, ſeparated in the ſolution of 100 parts, may be expreſſed by
312. The weakeſt vegetable acids act upon it, eſpecially after
calcination, and ſo do alkalies, the volatile alkaly eſpecially. With
reſpect to the power with which it retains the phlogiſton, copper holds
the eighth place. It melts with 1450 degrees of heat.
§ 189.
CUPRUM _nativum_ (copper native). Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 193.
It’s rarely found without ſome alloy of gold, ſilver or iron; but I have
not yet fully examined it.
§ 190.
CUPRUM _calciforme_ (copper), ſimply deprived of its phlogiſton.
Calciform.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 195.
§ 191.
CUPRUM (copper), mineralized by _muriatic acid_ and _argillaceous
earth_. Micaceous.
Mr. WERNER, in his tranſlation of Cronſtedt’s Mineralogy, part 1, page
217, has deſcribed it accurately, and kindly ſent me a ſpecimen of it,
which I analyſed[68].
§ 192.
CUPRUM (copper), mineralized by the _aerial acid_. Aerated.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 194, 196. b. 3.
Mr. FONTANA firſt pointed out its true compoſition. It contains about ⅔
of copper, ⅓ or ¼ of aerial acid, and a little water[69].
§ 193.
CUPRUM (copper), mineralized by _ſulphur_. Vitreous.
CRONSTEDT, Min. § 197. _Minera cupri vitrea_; a common, but improper
name.
It generally contains ſome alloy of iron.
§ 194.
CUPRUM (copper), mineralized by _ſulphur_, and a ſmall proportion of
_iron_.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 198, b. Minera cupri lazurea.
By a _ſmall proportion_ of iron, I mean leſs than the weight of the
copper; by a large proportion, more. This contains from 40 to 50 per
cent. of copper.
§ 195.
CUPRUM (copper), mineralized by _ſulphur_, and a large proportion of
_iron_. Pyritical.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 198. _Pyrites Cupri._
The quantity of copper varies greatly, but ſeldom exceeds ⁴⁰⁄₁₀₀.
§ 196.
CUPRUM (copper), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _iron_ and _arſenic_. Grey.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 198. a. _Pyrites cupri griſeus._
This frequently contains an alloy of ſilver. The copper rarely exceeds
⁶⁰⁄₁₀₀.
FERRUM,
OR
IRON.
§ 197.
Its ſpecific gravity is 7,800. All the acids readily diſſolve it; but
the vitriolic muſt be diluted, otherwiſe it may be boiled almoſt to
dryneſs, without effecting it. The phlogiſton, diſlodged from centenary
of ductile iron, may, as experiments now ſtand, be called 342; and this
is ſo feebly retained, that this metal, with a few others, holds the
eleventh, or loweſt place in the ſeries.
It requires an intenſe degree of heat to fuſe it, viz. 1601, if the
uſual compariſon betwixt the mercurial thermometer, and the metallic one
of MORTIMER, be true. Iron is red hot at 1050 degrees of heat.
§ 198.
FERRUM _nativum_ (iron) _native_. Native.
It can hardly be doubted, but that the great maſs of iron, brought by
PALLAS, from Siberia, into Europe, is the product of nature. Its
compoſition reſembles that of forged iron; for 100 parts of it yield, by
means of the muriatic acid, 49 cubic inches of inflammable air; and from
many experiments upon ductile iron, that is found to yield from 48 to
51[70].
§ 199.
FERRUM _nativum_ (iron) _native_, united to arſenic. Arſenical.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 243. B. _Miſspickel._
§ 200.
FERRUM (iron), with the power of attracting other iron. Loadſtone.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 211. b. _Magnes._
The cauſe of this property is yet unknown.
§ 201.
FERRUM (iron), with phlogiſton enough to render it magnetic. Magnetic.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 212, 213.
But the quantity of phlogiſton is far ſhort of that which is neceſſary
to render it ductile, for a centenary hardly contains more than three
cubic inches of inflammable air.
§ 202.
FERRUM _calciforme_ (iron calciform), ſimply deprived of phlogiſton.
Ochrous.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 202–206. _Bloodſtone._
§ 203.
FERRUM (iron), mineralized by _aerial acid_, _calcareous earth_, and
_manganeſe_. White.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 20. _Minera ferri alba._
§ 204.
FERRUM (iron), mineralized by _ſulphur_. Pyritical.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 152. _Pyrites._
§ 205.
FERRUM (iron) intimately united to a new brittle metal[71], or to a
peculiar modification of iron, rendering it brittle when cold.
Cold-ſhort.
In cold-ſhort iron, a brittle metal exiſts, readily uniting to ductile
iron, by the aſſiſtance of heat, but rendering it brittle when cold.
This ſubſtance, diſſolved in acids, forms Pruſſian blue with
phlogiſticated alkaly, but it is not magnetic: it affords a white calx,
richer in phlogiſton than the yellow calx of good iron.
I hope, by more experiments, ſoon to become better acquainted with it.
§ 206.
FERRUM _calciforme_ (iron calciform), _phlogiſticated_ in a peculiar
manner. Blue.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 208. _Cæruleum Berolinenſe nativum._
Clay and mould are sometimes coloured ſuperficially by a dilute blue,
and ſometimes the former, when newly dug up, is found to acquire this
colour upon expoſure to the air. It is evident that the baſis of this
colour is an irony matter, full of phlogiſton; for, by ignition upon a
charcoal fire, it flames, turns red, and becomes magnetic. With a gentle
heat it becomes green, but when melted gives black ſcoriæ.
Alkalies, as well as acids, diſſolve it, and the colour vaniſhes, but
appears again, if precipitated from the former by acids, and from the
latter by alkalies; but it has then a greenish caſt, and ſoon becomes
white. This white ſediment, immerſed in an infuſion of galls, or of tea,
recovers its former colour.
From what has been ſaid, it appears that this colour, although analogous
to the artificial Pruſſian blue, differs from it in its intensity, in
the mode of its production, and in various properties. It keeps its
colour in water, but turns black with oil.
STANNUM,
OR
TIN.
§ 207.
Its ſpecific gravity is 7,264. Vitriolic, muriatic, acetous acids, and
aqua regia, diſſolve it, but the nitrous, eſpecially when ſtrong,
attacks it ſo violently, that it ſoon reduces it to the ſtate of an
inſoluble calx.
The quantity of phlogiſton it loſes by ſolution, may be called 114; and
this it retains with a force that gives it the ninth place in the
ſeries. It melts eaſier than any metal, except quickſilver, viz. at 415
degrees.
§ 208.
STANNUM _nativum_ (tin). Native.
This I have not ſeen. Some doubts are entertained of its true nature,
and, perhaps, not without reaſon.
§ 208*.
STANNUM _ſulphuratum_ (tin), mineralized by _ſulphur_. Sulphurated.
[See the Preface.]
§ 209.
STANNUM _calciforme_ (tin) calciform, contaminated by _iron_. Calciform.
VISMUTUM,
OR
BISMUTH.
§ 210.
The heaviest of all the brittle metals that follow it, its ſpecific
gravity being 9,670. Nitrous acid, and aqua regia diſſolve it perfectly.
The vitriolic acid muſt be boiled nearly to dryneſs before it acts upon
it, and the muriatic acid only attacks its calx. The quantity of
phlogiſton which reſists the action of menſtrua, is expreſſed by 57; and
its power of retaining it ranks it in the ſeventh place. It melts at the
heat of 494 degrees.
§ 211.
VISMUTUM _nativum_ (biſmuth). Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 222.
§ 212.
VISMUTUM _calciforme_ (biſmuth). Calciform.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 223.
I am not able to ſay whether this is merely deprived of its phlogiſton,
or whether it is not alſo mineralized by aerial acid.
§ 213.
VISMUTUM (biſmuth) mineralized by _ſulphur_. Sulphurated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 224.
§ 214.
VISMUTUM (biſmuth) mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _iron_. Pyritical.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 225.
NICCOLUM,
OR
NICKEL.
§ 215.
The regulus, when depurated, has a ſpecific gravity of 9,000, or more;
but the common regulus, obtained by the firſt reduction, little exceeds
7,000. Aqua regia, and nitrous acid, diſſolve it perfectly; muriatic
acid, ſlowly; vitriolic acid, not without boiling almoſt to dryneſs and
the acetous acid does not act upon it, unleſs in a calciform ſtate. The
quantity of phlogiſton ſeparated by ſolution, may be called 156; and
this it retains with a force about equal to that with which iron retains
its phlogiſton (§ 197).
The heat neceſſary to melt it, is about equal to that which gold
requires; but when depurated, it is almoſt as difficult to melt as iron.
The properties of it are more fully examined elſewhere[72].
§ 216.
NICCOLUM _nativum_ (nickel) native, united to _iron_ and _arſenic_.
Native.
It ſometimes, perhaps, contains cobalt. As it contains neither ſulphur
nor mineralizing acid, and is perfectly in its metallic form, it muſt be
called _native_, although joined to other metals.
§ 217.
NICCOLUM _aeratum_ (nickel) mineralized by _aerial acid_. Aerated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 255.
§ 218.
NICCOLUM (nickel) mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, _cobalt_, and
_iron_. Mineralized.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 256. Cuprum Nicolai. Kupfer nickel.
ARSENICUM,
OR
ARSENIC.
§ 219.
The ſpecific gravity of the radical acid, is 3,391; of white arſenic,
3,706; of its glaſſy ſtate, 5,000; and its regulus, 8,308. Aqua regia,
and muriatic acid, diſſolve it perfectly; the vitriolic acid requires
boiling; the acetous acts only upon its calx: the nitrous acid not only
takes away as much phlogiſton as may be expreſſed by 109, deprived of
which the regulus is reduced to the ſtate of a calx, but in a large
quantity, aſſiſted by a proper degree of heat, it at length so far
dephlogiſticates this calx, as to leave the acid of arſenic alone. Theſe
phænomena are well worthy of obſervation, as they ſeem to lay open the
nature of metals in general. From analogy, it is probable that every
metal contains a radical acid of a peculiar nature, which, with a
certain quantity of phlogiſton, is coagulated into a metallic calx; but
with a larger quantity, ſufficient to ſaturate it, forms a compleat
metal. The radical acid retains the coagulating phlogiſton much more
ſtrongly than that which is neceſſary to the ſaturation. But different
metallic acids retain both with different degrees of attraction. Hence
the noble metals cannot be calcined in the dry way; it is only by acid
menſtrua that they can be brought into that form; but all the others
loſe their ſaturating phlogiſton in the fire, though with more or leſs
difficulty. I have diſtinctly obſerved eleven different degrees of
reſiſtance: thus, gold may be precipitated by all the other metals,
except perhaps platina, which I think may thus be explained. The calx of
gold having the greateſt attraction for phlogiſton, takes it from all
other metals, and thus loſing its ſolubility falls down in a metallic
ſtate. Therefore gold in the ſeries of metals, occupies at leaſt the
ſecond place. Platina is precipitated by all, but leſs evidently than
gold. To this therefore, I think we muſt give the firſt place, and so on
of the others as I have remarked in the character of each metal. As
nickel, cobalt, iron, manganeſe and zinc, do not precipitate one
another, they are put together in the laſt and eleventh place[73].
In order to obtain the radical acids we muſt ſeparate them from the
coagulating phlogiſton. If the induſtry of chemiſts ever effects this, I
am confident that metallurgy will be wonderfully elucidated. This
therefore is a taſk to which our labours muſt be directed. I know that
analogy muſt be cautiously trusted, but it at leaſt leads us to new
experiments. Hitherto this operation has only ſucceeded with arſenic;
and it is worth notice, that this metal which holds the fifth place with
reſpect to its quantity of phlogiſton, ſhould be inferior to all others
with regard to the attraction by which the coagulating quantity is
retained.
Arſenic melts, but the moment it ſuffers heat enough to melt it, it
volatilizes, unleſs it be firſt calcined. The regulus thrown upon a
plate of iron properly heated, preſently takes fire and calcines,
diffuſing a ſmell like garlic[74].
§ 220.
ARSENICUM _nativum_ (arſenic), native, united to iron. Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 239.
I have never found it free from martial impregnation.
§ 221.
ARSENICUM _nativum_ (arſenic), native, united to ſilver.
§ 222.
ARSENICUM _calciforme_ (arſenic), deprived of phlogiſton. Calciform.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 240.
§ 223.
ARSENICUM (arſenic), mineralized by _ſulphur_. Yellow.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 241. _Auripigmentum._ _Riſigallum._
§ 224.
ARSENICUM (arſenic), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _iron_. Pyritical.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 243. A. _Pyrites arſenicalis._
COBALTUM,
OR
COBALT.
§ 225.
Its ſpecific gravity is 7,700. Nitrous acid and aqua regia readily
diſſolve it. The vitriolic acid requires to be boiled nearly to dryneſs.
The muriatic and acetous acids do not act upon it unleſs previouſly
calcined. 270 expreſſes the quantity of ſaturating phlogiſton, which it
retains with the ſame force that iron does. Common regulus melts in the
ſame heat that copper does, but when well purified it is hardly eaſier
to melt than iron.
§ 226.
COBALTUM _nativum_ (cobalt), native and united to _arſenic_. Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 249.
§ 227.
COBALTUM _calciforme_ (cobalt). Calciform.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 247.
It is found variouſly mixed, principally with arſenic, iron and copper,
but whether mechanically or by a more intimate union I know not.
§ 228.
COBALTUM (cobalt), mineralized by acid of _arſenic_. Red.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 248.
The ſmall ſpecimens that I have been able to examine point out ſuch a
compoſition[75].
§ 229.
COBALTUM (cobalt), contaminated by _iron_ and _vitriolic acid_.
Vitriolic.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 250.
§ 230.
COBALTUM (cobalt), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_ and _iron_.
Glanz-cobalt.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 251.
§ 231.
COBALTUM (cobalt), mineralized by _ſulphur_, _arſenic_, _iron_ and
_nickel_. Kupfernickel.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 252.
ZINCUM
OR
ZINC.
§ 232.
Its ſpecific gravity is 6,862. All the acids diſſolve it readily and
with efferveſcence, which denotes its very lax union with the
inflammable principle, as was remarked before (§ 219). 182 expreſſes the
quantity of phlogiſton it loſes in ſolution. It melts in a heat of 699
degrees; and if the heat be a little increaſed it takes fire; and
diſſipates in white flowers[76].
§ 233.
ZINCUM _calciforme_ (zinc), calciform ſimply deprived of its phlogiſton.
Calciform.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 228. A. _Lapis calaminaris._
It is almost always mixed with clay or calciform iron.
§ 234.
ZINCUM (zinc), mineralized by _aerial acid_. Aerated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 228. A. 1.
§ 235.
ZINCUM (zinc) with _aerial acid_ and mixed with _ſiliceous_ matter.
Siliceous.
D. A. BORN ſent me chryſtals of this ſpecies, which expoſed to the fire
gave out aerial acid, but they were not wholly ſoluble in acids.
§ 236.
ZINCUM (zinc), mineralized by _ſulphur_ and _iron_. Black jack.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 229. 230. _Pſeudogalena._
ANTIMONIUM
OR
ANTIMONY.
§ 237.
Its ſpecific gravity is 6,860. Aqua regia diſſolves it well; vitriolic
acid requires boiling; muriatic and acetous acids act hardly at all upon
it, unleſs previouſly calcined. The nitrous acid corrodes it ſo as to
prevent the ſolution. The phlogiſton it loſes in ſolution is expreſſed
by 120, and with reſpect to the force wherewith it retains this, it
ſtands in the ſixth place. It melts at a heat of 809 degrees.
§ 238.
ANTIMONIUM _nativum_ (antimony). Native.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 238.
§ 239.
ANTIMONIUM (antimony), mineralized by ſulphur. Sulphurated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 234.
§ 240.
ANTIMONIUM (antimony) mineralized by ſulphur and arſenic. Red.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 235.
MANGANESIUM,
OR
MANGANESE.
§ 241.
Its ſpecific gravity is 6,850. This new metal is ſoluble in all the
acids, and is ſo readily deprived of its ſaturating phlogiſton that with
iron and ſome others it ſtands the loweſt in the ſeries. 227 expreſſes
the quantity of phlogiſton it loſes in ſolution. It is very difficult to
melt, more ſo than iron.
§ 242.
MANGANESIUM _calciforme_ (manganeſe) ſimply deprived of phlogiſton.
Calciform.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 114.
§ 243.
MANGANESIUM (manganeſe) mineralized by _aerial acid_.
Aerated.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 115. 1. a.
APPENDIX
THE FIRST.
§ 244.
In the preceding pages only the more ſimple combinations occur, whoſe
principles are either chemically united or at leaſt ſo ſubtly interwoven
that the texture appears perfectly homogeneous. But if two or more of
theſe ſpecies, forming little diſtinct maſſes are cemented together,
theſe mechanical mixtures, diſcernible by the eye ought to conſtitute a
new ſeries, to be diſtinguiſhed by their component parts as the others
were by their firſt principles or chemical elements. Such compoſitions
may well be excluded from the preſent work, but upon account of their
extenſive phyſical, œconomical and metallurgical uſes, I propoſe to give
a ſlight ſketch of them here, enumerating the more remarkable Genera.
§ 245.
In a general view it appears that not only ſeveral ſpecies cemented
together may be referred to this place, but likewiſe thoſe which are
mechanically diffuſed in a powdery or an earthy form.
§246.
From the laws of combination it is evident, that according to the
arrangement of foſſils into four claſſes, there can be only TEN Genera
compoſed of two, FOUR of three, and ONE of four conſtituent parts. And
although ſo many have not yet been detected, yet it is better to mention
them here as the induſtry of a future age will probably diſcover more.
The ſpecies are formed from the differences of the more ſimple ſpecies
and their component parts.
Salts _with_ Salts.
§ 247.
This compoſition can hardly ever conſtitute a genus, if it muſt be made
in a dry and concrete form; for excepting gypſum, the other native ſalts
readily diſſolve in water, and by evaporation are ſo mixed together as
not readily to be diſcerned by the eye. Yet the foſſil alkaly mixed with
common ſalt will perhaps find a place here. The contents of mineral
waters may likewiſe be referred here, ſince every material difference in
them depends upon the particles diſſolved.
Salts _with_ Earths.
§ 248.
This mixture is hardly to be found but where bits of gypſum are
concreted to matters of an earthy nature.
Salts _with_ Inflammables.
§ 249.
May perhaps be found in volcanoes.
Salts _with_ Metals.
§ 250.
If gypſum forms the matrix of any metal, it muſt be placed here.
Earths _with_ Earths.
§ 251.
To this head belong moſt of the _ſaxa_ (ſtones), enumerated by Mr.
Cronſtedt, which form the immenſe bulk of mountains, and deſerve our
particular attention, in order that, being better acquainted with the
nature and ſtructure of the ſhell of the earth, we may be able to point
out the coverings of minerals, and convert them all to our uſe.
Earths _with_ Inflammables.
§ 252.
Lumps of mountain pitch are frequently connected with ſtones, and
ſulphureous matters are found diffuſed through earthy materials.
Earths _with_ Metals.
§ 253.
This genus contains the peculiar _matrices_ of _metals_, a judicious
conſideration of which would be particularly uſeful to miners.
Inflammables _with_ Inflammables.
§ 254.
Perhaps, in ſome places, ſulphureous matters are found mixed with
mountain pitch.
Inflammables _with_ Metals.
§ 255.
If plumbago (black-lead) or common ſulphur, ſhall ever be found mixed
with metallic ſubſtances, ſuch ſpecies muſt ſtand under this genus.
Metals _with_ Metals.
§ 256.
We know that ſome metals, in the boſom of the earth, are almoſt always
mixed, whilſt others are rarely, or never, found together. A more
accurate knowledge of theſe things, would illuſtrate phyſical geography,
as well as metallurgy.
We now proceed to the more compound genera.
Salts _with_ Earths _and_ Inflammables.
§ 257.
This genus can hardly ever occur but in countries formerly expoſed to
ſubterranean fires.[77]
Salts _with_ Earths _and_ Metals.
§ 258.
To be expected amongſt volcanic productions.
Salts _with_ Inflammables _and_ Metals.
§259.
To be ſought for in the productions of volcanoes.
Earths _with_ Inflammables _and_ Metals.
§ 260.
Obvious amongſt the productions of volcanoes, otherwiſe extremely rare.
Salts _with_ Earths, Inflammables, _and_ Metals.
§ 261.
Hardly to be expected but in volcanic mountains.
APPENDIX
THE SECOND.
§ 262.
Foſſils externally reſembling animals or vegetables, originate from
foreign matters, which by ſome peculiar proceſs are changed in the boſom
of the earth, or are ſo impregnated by mineral particles gradually
occupying the place of thoſe which have putrified, that they no longer
reſemble organic ſubſtances, except in figure.—Theſe are commonly called
PETREFACTIONS.
§ 263.
The harder ſhells of animals expoſed to the weather, are not always
exempt from deſtruction; for their gelatinous matter being gradually
deſtroyed by putrefaction, they become brittle, and in a manner
calcined. In leſs expoſed ſituations, ſome of them preſerve the nature
of their materials, but acquire a ſpar-like texture.
§ 264.
We muſt carefully diſtinguiſh betwixt the foreign bodies themſelves,
changed or petrified, and their impreſſions upon the ſurrounding
matrices. Sometimes the body is entirely deſtroyed, forming a cavity in
the ſurrounding matter, and this cavity afterwards is filled with other
materials. Nuclei, or kernels, are likewiſe found, formed within the
cavities of the harder ſhells, and bearing the form of their internal
ſurface.
§ 265.
I am far from thinking the knowledge of petrefactions is barren and
uſeleſs. We may, and ought, to conſider them as medals depoſited by the
hand of nature, in memory of the more remarkable changes on the ſurface
of the earth, and from which the time and order of the work may, in ſome
meaſure, be judged of, whilſt other monuments are ſilent. Theſe, being
properly interpreted, ſhew us their native ſituations in the former
ſtate of the ſurface of the earth, and teach us the unbounded empire of
the ſea, and the conſequent changes. By them we learn to diſtinguiſh the
ancient and modern foundations of the mineral kingdom; for thoſe which
are not formed of petrefactions, and never contain them, are doubtleſs
of greater antiquity than animals or vegetables; and, laſtly, by their
figure they ſhew us the inhabitants of our globe, eſpecially thoſe of
the greateſt depths of the ocean.
§ 266.
Mr. CRONSTEDT has admirably arranged the petrefactions; we think it
right, therefore, to retain his method. The Genera are built upon the
Genera of foſſils, and arranged like the four claſſes thereof; the
ſpecies upon their ſpecies, and the varieties upon the organic
ſubſtances that have been changed. The following are the Genera hitherto
diſcovered.
_Saline Calcareous Earth_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 267.
Gypſeous petrefactions are very rare.
_Saline Iron_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 268.
Human bodies have ſometimes been found indurated and penetrated by
vitriol of iron; so likewiſe have plants, their roots eſpecially. In the
open air they moulder away.
_Mild Calcareous Earth_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 269.
This conſtitutes the ſubſtance of moſt petrefactions.
_Clay_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 270.
It is remarkable, that petrefactions found in clay are compreſſed,
although, in ſubjacent calcareous ſtrata, they preſerve their natural
figure. Similar compreſſed petrefactions are alſo found in the marly
ſchiſtus.
_Siliceous Earth_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 271.
Siliceous petrefactions are ſometimes met with, but, in general, this
material forms only nuclei (§ 264). Trunks of trees are ſometimes found
changed into agate. The celebrated FERBER has ſeen petrefactions in
chert and jaſper, and the illuſtrious BORN mentions corallines (porpitæ)
in ſinople or martial jaſper.
_Earth organic._
§ 272.
Animals and vegetables are reſolved by putrefaction into an earth, which
may be regarded as forming a peculiar genus, until every appearance of
organization being obliterated, at length it comes to be conſidered as
common earth.
_Petroleum_ impregnating _organic Bodies_.
§ 273.
Wood, penetrated by indurated petroleum, forms a remarkable variety of
coal.
_Silver_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 274.
Native ſilver is ſometimes inherent in petrefactions, but never, to my
knowledge, conſtitutes the ſubſtance of them, unleſs mineralized with
copper and ſulphur.
_Quickſilver_ in an _organic Form_.
§ 275.
When mineralized by ſulphur, it ſometimes, though very rarely,
conſtitutes petrefactions.
_Copper_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 276.
Bones and teeth are ſometimes found replete with the blue calx of
copper. Bits of copper pyrites often ſtick in petrefactions, but ſeldom
conſtitute their whole ſubſtance. I have some such from Norway, in a
matrix of magnetical iron ore.
_Iron_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 277.
Calciform iron ſometimes is found in the ſhape of roots and branches of
trees. When mineralized by ſulphur, it frequently exiſts in
petrefactions, but ſeldom conſtitutes the whole maſs.
_Zinc_ with an _organic Form_.
§ 278.
I have ſeen pſeudo-galena (black jack), in the form of coral.
§ 279.
Some modern writers, as well as Mr. CRONSTEDT, place the productions of
_volcanoes_ in an appendix by themſelves; but, I think, to no good
purpoſe. Things formed by the hand of nature, whether by a liquid or a
dry proceſs, muſt not be diſjoined; for ſhe frequently avails herſelf of
both methods in one and the ſame inſtance. And, indeed, the origin of
many things is ſo very doubtful, every veſtige thereof being
obliterated, that even an Œdipus could not with certainty determine how
they were produced. And, on the other hand, many aſſert, that almoſt the
whole of the mineral kingdom is the product of fire. To avoid error,
therefore, it is better to claſs foſſil ſubſtances according to their
conſtituent parts, which proper experiments will lay open to us; for we
can seldom know their origin or formation.
Homogeneous ſubſtances joined together, but not primitive, will find a
place among the ſtones, or elſewhere, in the firſt appendix.
FINIS.
INDEX.
N. B. _The Numbers refer to the Sections._
Acids, how known § 25
Aerial acid 37
Alkali minerale aeratum 55
—— —— nitratum 48
—— —— ſalitum 49, 76
—— —— vitriolatum 47
—— vegetabile aeratum 54
—— —— nitratum 45
—— —— ſalitum 46
—— —— vitriolatum 44
—— volatile aeratum 56
—— —— nitratum 51
—— —— ſalitum 52
—— —— vitriolatum 50
Alkalies, how known 38
Alkaly fixed foſſil 41
—— —— vegetable 40
—— mild foſſil 55
—— —— vegetable 54
—— volatile 42
—— —— mild 56
Alum 67, 78, 79
—— ore 117
—— ſlate 118
Amber 140
—— acid of 36
Ambergriſe 141
Ammoniac, fixed 62
Antimonium (see antimony)
Antimony, properties of 237
—— ſpecies of 238–240
Argentum (ſee ſilver)
Argilla, what 111
—— properties of 112
—— ſpecies of 113, 122
—— porcellana 113
Argilla vitriolata 67, 78, 79
Argillaceous earth, what 111
—— properties of 112
—— ſpecies of 113, 122
Arsenic, properties of 219
—— ſpecies of 220–224
Auripigmentum, 223
Aurum (ſee gold)
Baſaltes 120
Biſmuth, properties of 210
—— ſpecies of 211–214
Bitumina (see inflammables)
Black jack 236
Black-lead 135
Bloodſtone 202
Blue John 96, n. 30
Blue vitriol 69
Bole 114
Boracic acid 35
Borax 53
Brimſtone 134
Cœruleum Berolinenſe nativum 206
Calcareous earth pure 92
—— its properties 93
—— ſpecies of 94–102
Calcedonius 126
Calk 58
Calx 92, 93
—— aerata 63, 94, 95
—— fluorata 96
—— nitrata 60
—— ponderoſa 33
—— ſalita 61
—— vitriolata 59
Carnelian 126
Chalcedony 126
Chalk 63, 94, 95
Chert 129
Choak-damp n. 37
Chryſopraſius 131
Cinnaber 176
Clay 114
Coal 139
—— yields vol. alkaly n. 50
Cobalt properties of 225
—— ſpecies of 226–231
Cobaltum (ſee cobalt)
Common ammoniac 52
—— ſalt 49, 76
Copper, its properties 188
—— ſpecies of 189–196
Corniſh fluor, n. 30
Cubic nitre 48
Cuprum (ſee copper)
—— nicolai 218
—— vitriolatum 69, 80, 82
Derbyſhire fluor, n. 30
Diamond 142
Digeſtive ſalt 46
Dyer’s earth 114
Earths properties of 21
—— have an attraction for each other 103
—— primitive and derivative 83–86
—— ſaline 85
Earthy compounds 251–253, 260
Emerald 119
Epſom ſalt 63, 77, 104, 105
Federertz 171
Fœtid ſtone 95
Feldſpath 130
Feldſpathum 130
Ferrum (ſee iron)
—— aeratum 71
—— nitratum 71
—— ſalitum 71
—— vitriolatum 70, 81, 82
Fixed air 37
—— ammoniac 62
Fluor acid 30
Fluor ſpar 96
—— Corniſh, n. 30
—— Derbyſhire, n. 30
Galena 165, 185
Garnet 120
Gemma 119
Gems 119
Glanz-cobalt 230
Glauber’s ſalt 47
Glimmer 122
Gold, properties of 144
—— ſpecies of 145–150
Granatus 120
Gypſum 59
Hæmatites 102
Heavy earth (ſee the preface)
—— —— how obtained pure 87
—— —— properties of 88
—— —— ſpar 58, 89, 90
Heliotropium, n. 25
Horn-ſilver 161
Hydrargyrum (ſee quickſilver)
Hydrophanus 126
Jaſper 127
Jaſpis 127
Inflammables, definition of, 22, 132
—— ſpecies of 133–136
Inflammable compounds 254, 255
Iron, properties of, 197
—— ſpecies of, 198–206
Kupfernickel 218, 231
Lapis calaminaris 233
—— hepaticus 90
—— ponderoſus 97
—— ſuillus 95
Lead, its properties 179
—— ſpecies of, 180–187
—— vitriol of, 181
Limeſtone 63, 94, 95
Lithantrax 139
Lithomarga 116, and n.
Litmus, n. 25
Liver ſtone 90
Loadſtone 200
Magnes 200
Magneſia, how got pure, 104
—— properties of, 105
—— ſpecies of 105–109
—— aerata 66
—— common 66
—— nitrata 64
—— ſalita 65
—— vitriolata, 63, 77
Manganeſe, properties of, 241
—— ſpecies of, 242, 243
Manganeſium (ſee manganeſe)
—— ſalitum 74
Marle 115
—— calcareous 101.
Marble 63, 94, 95
Marmor metallicum 58, 89
Metals, definition of, 23
—— properties of, 143
—— table of, 143, page 71
Metallic compounds, 256
—— ſalts, how known, 68
Mica 122
Minera argenti alba, 169
—— —— cornea 161
—— —— griſea 170
—— —— rubra 166
—— —— vitrea 163, 193
—— cupri vitrea 193
—— —— lazurea 194
—— ferri alba 203
Miſspickel 199
Molybdæna 136
—— acid of, 32
Muriatic acid 29
Naptha 138
Natron 55
Neutral ſalts, what 43
—— —— perfect 43
—— —— imperfect 43
Nevilholt water, n. 29, n. 67
Niccolum (ſee nickel)
—— vitriolatum 72
Nickel, properties of 215
—— ſpecies of 216–218
Nitre, common 45
Nitre of lime 60
—— of the ancients 55
Nitrous acid 28
—— ammoniac 51
Opal 126
Petrefactions, what, 262–265
—— genera of 266–270
—— calcareous 269
—— cinnabarine 275
—— cupreous 276
—— gypſeous 267
—— inflammable 273
—— irony 277
—— ſiliceous 271
—— ſilvery 274
—— vitriolic 268
—— pſeudo-galena 278
Petroleum 137
—— ſpecies of, 138–141
Petroſilex 129
Phoſphoric acid 34
Pipe clay 113
Pit coal 139
Platina, properties of, 151
—— how made malleable, n. 151
—— ſpecies of, 152
Platinum (ſee platina)
Plumbago 135
Plumbum (ſee lead)
Porcelain clay 113, and n.
Pruſſian blue, native 206
Pſeudogalena 236
Pyrites 204
—— argenteus 164
—— arſenicalis 224
—— aureus 149
—— cupri 195, 196
Quartz 125
Quartzum 125
Quickſilver, properties of 172
—— ſpecies of 173–178
Riſigallum 223
Rock Oil 138
Rubinus 119
Ruby 119
Sal ammoniac 52
—— gem 76
Saline compounds 247–250, 257–261
Salt common 49
Salts definition of 20
—— metallic how diſtinguiſhed 68
Salts native 24
—— triple, quadruple, &c. 75
Sapphire 119
Saphirus 119
Saxa 251
Scherle 120
Schiſtus aluminaris 118
Sedative ſalt 35
Selenite 59
Serpentine 107
Sideritis 205
Siliceous earth 123
—— properties of, 124
—— ſpecies of, 125–131
Silver, properties of, 153
—— ſpecies of 154–171
Smaragdus 119
Soaprock 107
Spar 63
—— ponderous 89
Sparry fluor, 30, 96
Stannum (ſee tin)
—— ſulphuratum, (ſee preface)
Stones 251
Stone marrow 116
Succinum 140
Sulphur 133, 134
Talc 122
Tartar of vitriol, 44
Terra Lemnia 116
—— ponderoſa, (ſee preface)
—— —— 87
—— properties of, 87
—— aerata 58
—— native, n. 88
—— nitrata 58
—— ſalita 58
—— vitriolata 58, 89, 90
Terra Silicea 123
—— properties of, 124
—— ſpecies of, 125–131
Terrene nitre 60
Tin, properties of, 207
—— ſpecies of 208, 209
Tinkal 53
Topaz 119
Tourmaline 119
Trichites 79
Tungſten 97
Viſmutum (ſee Biſmuth)
Vitriol blue 69
—— green 70
—— white 73
—— of copper 69, 80, 82
—— —— iron 70, 81, 82
—— —— nickel 72
—— —— zinc 73
Vitriolic acid 27
—— —— phlogiſticated 27
—— ammoniac 50
Volatile alkaly, mild 56
Volcanic productions 279
Zeolite 121
Zinc, properties of, 232
—— ſpecies of, 233–236
Zincum vitriolatum 73.
ERRATA.
Page 9, n. for Dr. WERNER, read Profeſſor WERNER.
15, line 23, for VANDELL, read VANDELLI.
21, line 10, for red, read green.
41, line 9, for acidor, read acid or.
71, line 5, for 27,500, read 21,000.
75, note —— 27,500, read 21,000.
95, line 1, for 100 parts, read centenary.
97, line 7, for berolineuſe read, Berolinenſe.
-----
Footnote 1:
In this tranſlation they are introduced in their proper places. W.
Footnote 2:
There is no difficulty in doing this: either the foſſil, or the
vegetable fixed alkaly phlogiſticated, precipitate the terra
ponderoſa, inſtantly and entirely, out of the nitrous, muriatic, or
vegetable acids. W.
Footnote 3:
Opuſc. chemica, vol. II. page 2–10.
Footnote 4:
Conſult particularly Profeſſor WERNER’S treatiſe on the _external
characters of foſſils_ printed in German in the year 1774.
Footnote 5:
The latter part of this definition does not apply perfectly well to
ſome of the ſimple ſalts. I ſhall therefore offer another, given by
Dr. Cullen, viz. “_Saline bodies_ are ſapid, miſcible with water, and
not inflammable.” I am ſenſible too that this definition is not
perfectly unexceptionable, ſince it has been found that vol. alkaly in
an aerial ſtate is in a certain degree inflammable. W.
Footnote 6:
As the tincture of heliotropium is the niceſt known teſt of the
preſence of an acid, it may not be amiſs to mention that it may be had
from dyers under the name of litmus. It is very cheap, and generally
requires to be greatly diluted with diſtilled water before it can be
uſed. W.
Footnote 7:
De thermis pativinis.
Footnote 8:
The moſt highly coloured and fuming nitrous acid may readily be
rendered colourleſs by boiling it haſtily in an open veſſel. Part of
the acid flies off, carrying the ſuperabundant phlogiſton along with
it, in the form of nitrous air. W.
Footnote 9:
N. Acta Upſ. vol. II. p. 202.
Footnote 10:
M. Margraaf.
Footnote 11:
I have ſome reaſon to believe that the Nevil Holt water does contain
ſome of this acid in an uncombined ſtate. W.
Footnote 12:
Opuſcul: vol. II. p. 40.
Footnote 13:
Called Derbyſhire fluor; Corniſh fluor, blue John. W.
Footnote 14:
D. SCHEELE Act. Stockh. 1778.
Footnote 15:
It has been lately obtained in great abundance from bones. W.
Footnote 16:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II. p. 424.
Footnote 17:
De Sale ſedativo naturali, 1778.
Footnote 18:
It is found in a ſeparate ſtate in large quantities in ſome of our
mines and wells, and is called the _choak_ damp. In the famous Grotto
del Cano too it exiſts tolerably pure. W.
Footnote 19:
D. D. MARGRAAF, WEIGLEB.
Footnote 20:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II. p. 368.
Footnote 21:
MARGRAAF Opuſc.
Footnote 22:
CAVENDISH Phil. Trans. 1767.
Footnote 23:
Dr. Home, in his eſſay on bleaching, ſays it is found in coal mines in
this iſland, and a friend aſſures me that he has obtained it from the
water iſſuing out of coal pits. W.
Footnote 24:
As volatile alkaly may be obtained in large quantities from pit coal,
and produced by proceſſes not dependant upon putrefaction, there is
reaſon to believe that the vitriolic ammoniac may be formed in ſeveral
ways not noticed by the author. W.
Footnote 25:
Acta Stockh. 1772.
Footnote 26:
From ſome experiments lately made I found that both tinkal and
purified borax, required twice their weight of ſedative ſalt, to
neutralize them perfectly ſo that they would no longer change
vegetable blues to a green. W.
Footnote 27:
Baumé mem. des ſc. etr. tom. iv.
Footnote 28:
Phil. Tranſ. 1767.
Footnote 29:
HENCHEL Betheſda port.
Footnote 30:
BOMARE Dictionaire.
Footnote 31:
I have lately diſcovered a ſpecimen of TERRA PONDEROSA _aerata_ got
out of a mine in this kingdom. It is very pure, and in a large maſs.
As this ſubſtance is a new acquiſition to mineralogy, and may be
turned to uſeful purpoſes in Chemiſtry, I intend ſhortly to preſent a
more particular account of it to the Royal Society. W.
Footnote 32:
Conf. Præl. SCHEFFERI, § 188, not. 2.
Footnote 33:
Margraaf Kl. Schrift. tom. II. p. 191.
Footnote 34:
I found it in conſiderable quantity in the Nevil Holt water, when I
analyzed it ſix years ago; and it is probable that the Ballycaſtle
water in Ireland, likewiſe contains it. W.
Footnote 35:
In the original the word is MAGNESIUM, but it is here changed, by the
advice of Dr. Swediar and the concurrence of profeſſor Bergman to
MANGANESIUM, in order to prevent confuſion from its ſimilarity to
Magneſia. W.
Footnote 36:
Mr. MONNET de aquis mineralibus.
Footnote 37:
Opusc. chem. vol. I. p. 394–399.
Footnote 38:
The author ſpeaks here of ſuch as he obtained by precipitation from
acids, but the _native_ TERRA PONDEROSA _aerata_ (ſee note at page 28)
has a ſpecific gravity of nearly 4, 338. W.
Footnote 39:
Opuſc. vol. i. p. 21, 398.
Footnote 40:
N. Acta Upſ. Vol. II. page 198.
Footnote 41:
Opuſc. chem. vol. I, page 23.
Footnote 42:
Opuſc. chem. vol. I, page 398.
Footnote 43:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II. p. 29, 373.
Footnote 44:
Profeſſor _Bergman_ does not here ſeem to be ſufficiently aware of the
difference between our Devonſhire pipe clay, and that which is uſed in
the manufacture of porcelain. The former, in an open fire, burns to a
blueiſh grey, or pidgeon colour; the latter remains white. The former
ſeems to be the ſame as the Cologne and Maeſtricht pipe clay, of
Cronſtedt, §78; the latter is a decayed Feldſpath, and conſequently,
according to our author, (§ 130) contains magneſia. Our porcelain
clay, likewiſe, has quartz, chryſtals, and mica mixed with it, parts
of the granite which it originally compoſed. Before it is uſed the
quartz is ſeparated, but the mica remains. I am indebted to my friend
Mr. Watt for theſe obſervations. W.
Footnote 45:
I have taken the liberty to add this ſpecies upon our author’s own
authority. See BERGMAN Diff. de Lithomarga, page 13.
Footnote 46:
N. Acta Upſal. vol. III, page 121.
Footnote 47:
Opuſc. vol. I, page 291, 292.
Footnote 48:
It is probable, that in another edition, the author may ſee reaſon to
ſeparate the _mica_ from the _talc_; as ſome experiments I have made,
though yet too imperfect for publication, ſeem to indicate the
neceſſity of ſuch a meaſure. W.
Footnote 49:
Opuſc. vol. ii. p. 49.
Footnote 50:
Hiſt. des Plantes de la Gujane. 1774.
Footnote 51:
Dr. SWEDIAR lately preſented a paper to the Royal Society, from which
it appears highly probable that Ambergriſe is nothing but the
indurated fæces of the Sperma Ceti whale, who feeds upon the cuttle
fiſh. He has found the beaks of that fiſh intermixed with the
ambergriſe, in the form of black ſpots. W.
Footnote 52:
Opuſc. Vol. II, page 112.
Footnote 53:
_Lavoiſier_, Mem. de l’Acad. de Paris.
Footnote 54:
Opusc. vol. II. page 275.
Footnote 55:
The degrees of heat here expreſſed, are according to Farenheit’s
ſcale.
By _ſaturating phlogiſton_, Profeſſor Bergman means to expreſs the
proportionate quantities taken away from each metallic ſubſtance, when
diſſolved by means of acids, and of courſe reduced to a calciform
ſtate. The laſt column only expreſſes their attractions to this part
of their phlogiſton, not to that which ſtill remains united to them in
a calciform ſtate. W.
Footnote 56:
Opuſc. Vol. II. page 374–376.
Footnote 57:
Diſſertatio de quantitate Phlogiſti in diverſis metallis.
Footnote 58:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II, page 411.
Footnote 59:
Opuſc. chem. Vol. II, page 413.
Footnote 60:
From ſome late experiments made upon platina by the Count de SIKENGEN,
and publiſhed in German by profeſſor Succow, it appears that the
ſpecific gravity of pure platina is 21,000. When perfectly pure and in
its metallic ſtate it was not calcined by deflagration with nitre, it
did not admit of being hardened or ſoftened by tempering, like ſteel
or other metals; it was drawn into a wire ¹⁄₁₉₄₀ of a line in
diameter; this wire admitted of being flattened, and had more ſtrength
than a wire of gold or ſilver of the ſame ſize. This platina is not
fuſible by the ſtrongeſt fire, but melts in the focus of a burning
glaſs; its colour white, ſhining like fine ſilver.
From conſidering the very intereſting experiments of the Count de
Sikengen, I apprehend the following method to obtain pure and
malleable platina will be found a good one.
Diſſolve the grains of native platina that are leaſt magnetic, in aqua
regia. Precipitate the iron by means of phlogiſticated fixed alkaly.
Then precipitate whatever elſe will fall, by cauſtic vegetable alkaly.
Saturate the liquor with cauſtic foſſil alkaly, and ſet it by to
chryſtallize. The yellow chryſtals thus obtained are to be hammered
together at a welding heat, and the metallic parts will unite. W.
Footnote 61:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II, page 181.
Footnote 62:
Phil. Tranſ.
Footnote 63:
This reference is not to be found in the Engliſh edition of Cronſtedt.
I imagine it ſhould be § 174. 6. where it is called the Dal Falertz.
W.
Footnote 64:
In this reference too I ſuſpect a miſtake. It ought I believe to be
173, 6. W.
Footnote 65:
Some late experiments made at Hudſon’s Bay ſeem to prove that
Quickſilver congeals and becomes malleable at 39 degrees below 0. See
Lond. Med. Journal, page 205, for the year 1783. W.
Footnote 66:
When I introduce a new _ſpecies_ I repeat the preceding number, with
the addition of an aſteriſk, rather than break in upon the order of
the author’s numbers. I intend ſhortly to publiſh an exact analyſis of
this ſubſtance. W.
Footnote 67:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II, page 426.
Footnote 68:
Opuſc. vol. II. page 431.
Footnote 69:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II. p. 429.
Footnote 70:
Diſſ. de Analyſi. ferri.
Footnote 71:
Called Sideritis, from its reſemblance to iron. W.
Footnote 72:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II. p. 231.
Footnote 73:
Diſſ. de quantitate phlogiſti in metallis.
Footnote 74:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II, p. 272.
Footnote 75:
Opuſc. chem. vol. II, p. 446.
Footnote 76:
Opuſc. Vol. II, page 309.
Footnote 77:
Some of the ſulphur and alum, ſublimed by the ſubterranean fires near
Bilſton, contain ſiliceous earth. W.
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