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Title: Safe foundry practice
Author: The Travelers Insurance Company
Release date: November 16, 2025 [eBook #77246]
Language: English
Original publication: Hartford: The Travelers Insurance Company, 1920
Credits: Charlene Taylor, Ed Foster and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE ***
SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE
Reasons for selecting THE TRAVELERS for
Workmen’s Compensation
_and_ Employers’ Liability
INSURANCE AND SERVICE
It is the Greatest Casualty Company.
It has splendid resources, conservatively managed.
It is forward-looking in its ideas.
It provides unsurpassed service in the administration of claims and
the prevention of accidents.
It is a multiple line company affording those who require several
kinds of insurance an opportunity to obtain them all in the same
company--and thus obtain the highest possible quality of service,
_Entirely Free_.
The Travelers has spent more than $6,500,000 for the prevention of
accidents by inspection
THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY
THE TRAVELERS INDEMNITY COMPANY
HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT
_Lines written by The TRAVELERS_
include LIFE, ACCIDENT and HEALTH, GROUP, WORKMEN’S
COMPENSATION, EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY, PUBLIC LIABILITY,
AUTOMOBILE, AIRCRAFT, STEAM BOILER, ENGINE,
ELEVATOR, BURGLARY and PLATE GLASS
SAFE FOUNDRY
PRACTICE
THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY
HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT
21381. 12-29-’19.
Copyright, 1920, by
THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY,
Hartford, Connecticut
PREFACE
The foundry, viewing it from all angles, presents one of the greatest
problems in the industrial world. The fact that the production of
castings depends not only on a mechanical process, but also on a
chemical process, makes it specially difficult to fasten upon any
individual the responsibility for imperfect work. And yet there is
a definite (even though unassignable) reason for the loss of every
defective casting produced,--some one member of the department failed
in properly performing his part of the work. Every man must therefore
be taught to appreciate the importance of his own particular task,
and must be impressed with the necessity of performing that task
conscientiously, and as correctly and efficiently as he can. There
should be a spirit of cooperation as earnest and sincere as that which
prevails in a beehive, where every worker performs the task of the
moment with singleness of purpose, and with no thought or motive other
than the production of the best final result, from the united labors of
all. The development of a point of view of this nature among the men
will also have a profound effect in the way of reducing accidents,--a
greater effect, in fact, than could be realized by any other single
means.
One of the problems that must receive special consideration in
connection with accident-prevention work in foundries relates to the
class of persons employed. It is not necessary to employ skilled
labor for all the operations in the foundry, and for that reason
a certain portion of the work is intrusted to unskilled help,--to
men, namely, who do not understand the necessity for safety methods.
The most practical and effective way of dealing with a situation
of this kind is to adopt the team-work idea--that is, to teach
cooperation--and to introduce a well-organized safety department
that will educate the men to the extent of developing in them sound
and correct accident-prevention ideals. Useful practical suggestions
for accomplishing this, and for making the accident-prevention work
effective, are given in a booklet entitled “_Organization in Safety
Work_”, which is published by the Engineering and Inspection Division
of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY.
Even the best-equipped, most orderly, and most effectively organized
foundry is not free from accidents, and it is too much to expect
that complete immunity will ever be possible. The experience of many
concerns that have adopted safety methods in their foundries shows,
however, that it is possible to eliminate a large proportion of the
commoner causes of accidents, without much expense and without any
serious disturbance of existing conditions. The Engineering and
Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY, in the course
of its extensive experience with foundries, has given a great deal of
study to this subject, and the recommendations and suggestions that it
has made in the course of its practical inspection work have been well
received by foundry managers, and have been particularly effective in
bringing about better and safer conditions. The present booklet, based
upon this study and experience, contains some of the suggestions that
have been found to be most serviceable and important in dealing with
the accident-prevention problem in its broader phases. Every foundry
has important special safety problems of its own, which must be dealt
with effectively if the best results are to be obtained; but to include
all features of this kind would swell this booklet to such dimensions
that its effectiveness and usefulness would be impaired. We have
therefore confined our attention to danger-points of wide and almost
universal occurrence.
There are few machines in foundries in comparison with the number in
industrial plants of many other kinds. The machines that are used,
however, must be provided with guards at all points where accidents
might occur, and the necessary special guards have been described
in more or less detail in the following pages. The construction and
arrangement of the various forms of guards for belts and pulleys are
not fully explained, but it should be understood that these are to
comply with the standards approved by the Industrial Compensation
Rating Bureau. The Engineering and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS
INSURANCE COMPANY will furnish upon request, copies of an illustrated
pamphlet entitled “_Industrial Standards_,” which clearly explains the
requirements of the Bureau.
In the main, the present booklet deals with iron foundries; but we have
also included certain special hazards that are encountered chiefly in
foundries where other metals are cast.
THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY,
Hartford, Connecticut.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introductory 1
Clothing 1
Shoes and leggings 2
Eye-protectors 3
Gloves 4
Aprons and rubber boots 5
Ladles 5
Flasks and molds 16
Crucibles 19
Cupolas 30
Traveling cranes 35
Chains and hooks 44
Wire-rope slings 45
Slings in general 46
Hoisting apparatus in general 47
Tumbling barrels 47
Sand mixers and sifters 49
Automatic molding machines 50
Chipping department 50
Grinding wheels 52
Compressed air 52
Sand-blasting 53
Illumination 56
The foundry yard 58
SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE
Introductory.
According to the best statistics available, it appears that about
eighty per cent. of the injuries received in foundries are in the
nature of burns of greater or lesser severity; the remaining twenty
per cent. being caused by defective hooks, chains, slings, flasks,
mold-boards, bottom-boards, and other equipment, and by unguarded
machinery, by falls and falling objects, and, indirectly, by inadequate
illumination, poor ventilation, and other similar general conditions.
Suitable clothing and shoes will materially reduce the severity of
foundry burns, and will entirely eliminate many of them. Approved
protection of this kind is described in the following pages, together
with safeguards for various machines, and advice is also given with
regard to precautions to be taken for the prevention of accidents in
handling the various tools and appliances that are used in foundries.
Clothing.
Suitable clothing is an important factor in protecting foundry workers
from burns. Ordinary cotton shirts and overalls afford but little
protection, because molten metal burns through them almost instantly;
and although the legs and feet are the parts of the body most often
burned in the foundry, it is advisable for the men to wear shirts (as
well as trousers) made of a thick, stout, hard-finished material,
such as khaki (twilled cotton), which will shed the molten metal to
some extent. The bottoms of the trouser-legs should never be rolled
or folded up, and there should be no other folds, nor any creases
or pockets in the clothing, in which molten metal or highly-heated
particles of any kind may lodge. Torn garments and those having holes
in them are unsafe, and should not be worn. Woolen undershirts furnish
the best protection against “shot” or molten metal, but on account of
the intense heat to which foundrymen are exposed it is hard to get the
men to wear them, particularly during the summer months.
Shoes and Leggings.
The number of burns received by foundry workers on the feet and legs
may be greatly reduced or almost entirely eliminated by the use of
proper shoes and leggings. These should be worn by every foundry worker
who has to handle molten metal, or who is exposed to it, and no one
should be permitted to work without them, where the danger of such
burns exists. Strong, substantial, well-made shoes of the “congress”
type are the most suitable for general wear in foundries, because when
they are in good condition they contain no holes through which molten
metal may enter, while in laced and buttoned shoes there are many such
openings. Moreover, congress shoes may be quickly and easily removed
when hot metal is spilled upon them. Low-cut or Oxford shoes should
never be worn by foundry workers.
Suitable leggings are almost as necessary as good, serviceable
shoes. Under some conditions safety requires that the leggings be of
asbestos or leather, but for general foundry work canvas or twilled
cotton of good quality may be used. These materials will meet with
all but the most severe requirements. The leggings, like the shoes
previously described, should be fastened in such a way that they may
be quickly and easily removed, and ordinary buckles are therefore
unsuitable. Laces and buttons are likewise unsatisfactory, and any
type of fastening that forms projections upon which molten metal may
lodge does not afford the best sort of protection. Flat spring clasps,
properly inclosed, at the top and bottom of the leggings, are the most
satisfactory type of fastening devised up to the present time. The
leggings should completely incase the legs from the knees down, and
should fit snugly, especially at the top, to prevent the entrance of
molten metal at this point.
Eye-protectors.
It is extremely important to protect the eyes of foundrymen against the
intense light and heat from molten metal and from welding flames, and
also against dust and grit, flying chips, and molten metal that may
be splashed about. Eye-protectors (also called “safety glasses” and
“goggles”) of various types are now available for all the different
hazardous operations in foundries. To insure comfort, eye-protectors
should fit well, and should be light in weight and easily adjustable
for size. They should be provided with side protectors composed of
metal screens or of perforated leather, to stop flying particles and
small objects that might otherwise enter the eyes from the sides.
The lenses should not be made of ordinary window glass, but in order
to prevent serious eye strains they should be made of clear glass
without flaws, and polished on both sides. They should also be strongly
framed, so that pieces will not enter the eyes in case the lenses are
broken. The lenses of eye-protectors that are to be used by furnacemen,
welders, and others whose eyes are exposed to unusually brilliant
light-sources should be suitably colored, to temper the intensity of
the rays and to exclude those that are specially harmful to the eyes.
Experience has shown that where eye-protectors have been provided and
worn faithfully, there has been a marked decrease in the number of eye
injuries.
Gloves.
Cupola men and others working where the heat is intense must provide
protection for their hands and arms. Gloves and sleeves of calfskin,
buckskin, canvas, and asbestos are used,--the choice of material
depending upon conditions. When gloves with gauntlets are used, the
sleeves of the shirt, coat, or jumper (whichever is worn) should be
pulled down over the gauntlets. The sleeves should then be arranged
with as few folds or creases as possible, and be secured about the
wrists by means of buttons or clasps or in some other suitable manner.
(By leaving the gauntlets _outside_ of the sleeves lodging places for
molten metal are provided, and serious burns are likely to result.)
There should be no slits or openings in the lower ends of the sleeves
(at the wrists) as in ordinary shirts, because molten metal would be
likely to find entrance through them.
Hand-leathers and gloves of various kinds must be worn by men handling
scrap, pig iron, and hot castings; and rubber gloves are important to
afford protection against acids employed in pickling processes. Thick,
clumsy gloves, which interfere with the safe handling of tools and
implements, should not be used. Care should be taken to see that no
workman wears ragged gloves, or gloves with frayed fingers, which are
specially likely to be caught by moving parts of machines or on the
sharp edges of objects being handled.
Aprons and Rubber Boots.
In connection with pickling processes, rubber boots and rubber
aprons are often necessary to prevent acid burns and damage to
clothing. Aprons are of value in other departments of foundries also,
particularly when flasks and rough, hot castings and other objects
are being carried about, and when it is necessary for grinders to
support castings in position at the grinding wheels. For work of this
kind, and for foundrymen engaged in pouring metals, leather aprons
are recommended. In view of the high cost of good leather, however,
aprons of other suitable material may be used where the leather is not
absolutely required.
Ladles.
Several types of ladles are used in foundries, including reservoir,
crane, sulky or buggy, trolley, bull, and single-hand ladles. Many
burns are caused by defects in ladles, and by lack of care in handling
and transporting them. All ladles should be frequently, regularly, and
critically examined, and when defects are observed the ladles in which
they are found should be immediately set aside for repairs, or should
be discarded if the defects are of a serious nature.
Reservoir ladles and all other ladles operated by gearing should
receive special attention. The motors of motor-operated ladles should
be completely inclosed, not only to protect the workmen against
electric shocks and burns, but also to prevent accidents which might
be caused by metal being spilled upon the motors, resulting in short
circuits or other kinds of trouble. All the gears on geared ladles
should be completely inclosed, the covers or guards being constructed
in such a way that they may be readily removed for oiling, cleaning,
and inspecting the various parts. If guards are not provided the gears
will soon become clogged with dirt and with metal that has hardened or
set after having been spilled upon them while in a molten state; and
clogged gears are likely to be broken or stripped, and to cause serious
accidents.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. A CRANE LADLE.
(The gears should be completely inclosed, to prevent them from becoming
clogged with dirt and spattered metal.)]
Many ladles are equipped with direct-acting spur gears. This
arrangement permits rapid operation of the ladles, but it often imposes
severe strains upon the operators, making it difficult for them to hold
the ladles steady while pouring. This often results in spilling the
metal and causing it to be spattered about when it strikes the sand on
the tops of the flasks. A tilting arrangement composed of a train of
spur gears, or a combination of worm gearing and spur or bevel gears,
is to be preferred. The gears should be so designed and arranged that
at least two teeth of each wheel will be in mesh at all times. Unless
this point receives due attention a serious accident is likely to occur
if the teeth become badly worn, or if one of them should break, thus
permitting the ladle to tilt suddenly when pouring. The small pinions
and worms of geared ladles often deteriorate quite rapidly, and they
should therefore be inspected frequently and with special care, so that
they may be renewed before they become a source of danger. Every geared
ladle should be provided with a safety locking device to hold it in an
upright position while it is being carried.
The bail of each crane ladle should be examined frequently, and
particularly at the point where the crane hook engages it, because
that is where the wear is greatest. The lower parts of these ladles
should also be watched carefully for evidences of injury caused by
carelessness on the part of cranemen when transporting or depositing
them.
Sulky and buggy ladles are used only to a limited extent, but they
cause many accidents. In some foundries steel plates are laid to serve
as runways for buggy ladles, and plates are often placed between the
rails of narrow-gage industrial railway tracks also. Molten metal is
sure to splash when spilled on clean, smooth plates of this kind, and
it also forms into “shot” which roll under the feet and cause the men
to fall or to spill more metal. The danger from splashing might be
minimized by sprinkling sand on the floor, but the sand would hinder
the free movement of the wheels, and greater effort would be required
to move the buggies. This would tend to make spills more frequent, even
though in any individual case the sand might reduce the likelihood of
injury from splashing, after the metal had been spilled. Floors of
concrete and brick have been tried in other foundries, with the result
that the number of burns from spills has been materially reduced. An
excellent floor may also be constructed of metal plates with _checkered
surfaces_,--the elevations on these plates providing a surface that
is sufficiently smooth for the wheels, while the depressions (which
are filled with sand) tend to check the splashing. Overhead trolley
systems are used in some foundries for transporting ladles, and in this
way the spills and splashes that are due to poor floor conditions are
eliminated.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. A BUGGY OR SULKY LADLE.
(Observe the inclosure for the gears, and the shield to prevent the
molten metal from splashing on the operator when pouring and when
pushing the ladle along the track.)]
It is necessary to maintain a clear path for buggies that are being
moved about, because metal is likely to be spilled from them if even a
very small obstruction is encountered. Moreover, the buggies or trucks
should be inspected frequently, paying particular attention to the
wheels and bearings to make sure that they are in good condition so
that the buggies will run easily and smoothly. Each buggy should be
equipped with prong guards to hold it rigidly while pouring, and the
ladle should be properly counterbalanced so that it will automatically
return to an upright position when empty.
Bull ladles are much safer to handle than ordinary single-hand ladles,
and should be used whenever possible. Several styles of shank-handles
are used with bull ladles, one of them consisting of a rigid fork
handle on one side and a rigid single handle on the other side. In
another style (which is preferable) both handles are forked; and in
still another form a swivel is provided at one end, which permits
the ladle to be tilted more easily and emptied with less danger of
spilling. The bowls of bull ladles should be held securely in position
in their shanks by means of clamps made of round or flat iron. The
shanks must be amply strong for the weight to be carried, and the
joints should be carefully inspected for poor welding, flaws, and other
weaknesses. Defective ladle shanks should be removed from the pouring
floor as soon as discovered, so that there will be no possibility of
using them again, either intentionally or otherwise. Ladle shanks
should not be left exposed to the weather, because such exposure causes
them to corrode and become weakened.
[Illustration: FIG. 3. A BULL LADLE IN USE.
(The handle is provided with a swivel, and one man tilts the ladle
while the other man simply sustains a part of the weight.)]
When single-hand ladles are used the shanks should be securely attached
to the bowls, because otherwise the bowls are likely to slip out when
pouring, and to cause accidents. A sheet-metal guard or shield, 6 or 8
inches high, should be firmly secured to the top of the bowl of every
hand ladle on the side next to the shank, to protect the workman’s hand
while carrying the ladle.
[Illustration: FIG. 4. POURING FROM A HAND LADLE.
(This illustration shows the correct attitude for a man to assume when
pouring. Observe also the shield on the ladle, to protect the hand
from burns caused by spattering metal. The leggings are of a good type
but, unfortunately, are not clearly shown. On general principles we
disapprove of the unbuttoned vest, although the upper part of the body
is unlikely to be burned so long as the man is engaged solely in work
of the kind here shown.)
]
When several workmen are carrying ladles from the cupola to the
molds it is better for them to pass on the side on which the bowls
are carried. This not only tends to avoid confusion and disorder,
but it is also safer, because there is less danger of burns when two
bowls are struck together by passing workmen, than there is when two
shank-handles collide.
“Horse play” and purposeless activities of other kinds should not be
permitted among the men who are waiting their turns at the cupola,
because the work is hard and dangerous, and the men must take it
seriously at all times and give their undivided attention to it, if
burns are to be avoided. The ladles should never be completely filled,
because if they are, the hot metal will surely spill while being
carried. “Cutting in” from the _back_ of a continuous stream of molten
metal at the cupola spout causes unnecessary spattering; always cut in
from the front.
New employees in foundries, and particularly the unskilled help, should
be carefully instructed with regard to the proper method of carrying
the ladles and the correct position to assume when pouring into the
molds, and they should be watched and supervised for a considerable
time after being assigned to such work, in order to make sure that
they understand how to do it properly. The men should stand at a safe
distance from the molds, so that their feet will not be burned if the
metal spills or runs out between the cope and the drag or nowel.
Ladles of all kinds, except hand ladles, are likely to cause accidents
by tilting unexpectedly, unless the bowls are properly balanced on
their shanks or trunnions, or are arranged to be locked in an upright
position. It is specially important to see that the bowls are not
top-heavy, even when full of metal. On the other hand, if the bowls
are weighted too heavily at the bottom it is difficult to tilt them,
and an unnecessary strain is imposed upon the operator and also upon
the gearing and other mechanism; furthermore, it is not easy to pour
a smooth, continuous stream from a ladle which requires considerable
exertion to hold it in the pouring position. In particular, all ladles
that are provided with bails for hoisting and transporting by cranes
should be so constructed that, when full of metal, the center of
gravity will be well below the bail, unless they are arranged with
geared devices for tilting. In addition, they should be provided with
clips or clamps to prevent unexpected or accidental overturning.
[Illustration: FIG. 5. A TROLLEY LADLE IN POSITION AT THE CUPOLA.]
When buying new ladles it is important to see that the lips are of the
correct shape to insure a smooth, narrow, undivided stream at pouring,
and to prevent the molten metal from backing up and running over the
sides at other points. Both safety and efficiency are promoted by the
use of ladles with proper lips.
“Leave-overs” (excess metal left in ladles after the molds have been
poured) are sometimes poured on the foundry floor. In this way puddles
of molten metal are left, which soon become covered over with a thin
coating of sand or dust so that they are not readily observed. The
consequence is that men are often severely burned by stepping into or
upon these puddles while the metal is still hot. Pouring leave-overs
on the floor should be prohibited, and suitable receptacles should be
provided at convenient points to receive the excess metal.
Many serious accidents have been caused by pouring molten metal
into damp ladles, the result usually being an explosion, and the
scattering of the metal in all directions. In every foundry, therefore,
special care should be taken in drying the ladles. In some plants the
core ovens or crucible furnaces may be utilized for the purpose, while
in other cases it may be necessary to provide special ovens or heaters.
Ladles should not be dried in the molding rooms by means of wood fires,
unless adequate exhaust ventilation is provided.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. A CONVENIENT LABOR-SAVING POURING DEVICE.
(By installing a monorail system a device of this kind can be used for
main-aisle and side-floor work. It can be operated by one man, with
safety. The ladle can be hoisted and lowered, thus making it possible
to pour molds at various heights. The metal shield protects the eyes
of the operator against heat and glare, and also prevents burns from
spattering metal.)]
All ladles that are not in use should be stored in a dry place, and
preferably on elevated racks, or on supports of some other kind that
will permit the air to circulate freely about the ladles.
Foundry ladles must be relined from time to time (bull and hand ladles
are relined each day), and it is advisable to have all of this work
done by men selected for reliability and experience, who are interested
in making the ladles safe and willing to give them the necessary time
and attention.
All of the ladles that are in use should be examined carefully every
day, preferably by an experienced and conscientious man who has been
specially selected for this work. The bowls should be inspected for
cracks and thin, weak spots, and the shanks should be examined to
discover defective welds and erosion. Inspectors should also look out
for loose rivets and bolts, and should see that all necessary guards
are in good condition and properly secured in place, and that all
ladles are properly balanced.
Flasks and Molds.
Wooden, steel, and iron flasks are used in foundries, but those of
iron and steel are so much superior that preference should be given to
them under all possible circumstances. Iron flasks may be cast in the
foundry, and the subsequent maintenance and depreciation charges are
quite small as compared with what must be expended upon wooden flasks.
Moreover, after a wooden flask has been used for some time the faces
of the cope and the nowel become burned or broken off, with the result
that instead of fitting closely together they may be separated by a
space of an inch or more. Although this space is filled with sand, the
hot metal is likely to break through and run down the sides of the
flask. “Run-outs”, as leakages of this kind are called, often cause
severe burns on the feet and legs of the workmen. If iron or steel
flasks are used, and the cope and nowel faces are planed to insure
a close fit, there will be little likelihood of the occurrence of
run-outs.
Iron and steel flasks, as well as wooden ones, require frequent and
careful inspection to see that none of the lugs, handles, or other
parts are broken. If a flask is found with a broken or cracked lug or
handle it should be immediately removed from the shop for repairs;
otherwise, it might be used again by some person unaware of its
dangerous condition, and a serious accident might result when it was
picked up by the crane.
Congestion on the molding floor is noticeable in many foundries,
particularly in those where the work is greatly diversified; and
numerous burns are the direct result of such a condition. Sufficient
space should be left between flasks so that the molders and their
helpers will not be crowded while pouring, and so that they will be
able to get out of danger quickly and easily in case of a “run-out”.
There should always be a clear space of at least 18 inches between the
rows of flasks when pouring “side floor” by hand, and for crane work
in general; and passages 24 inches or wider are much to be preferred.
Portable horses may sometimes be used to advantage for supporting bull
ladles when pouring work of certain kinds.
Flasks, when in storage, should be piled in an orderly and systematic
manner, and the maximum height for stacking them should be such that
the workmen can handle them easily and conveniently while standing with
both feet on the floor. Unevenly piled flasks sometimes fall over and
cause serious injuries; and even though they are piled well enough to
be stable if undisturbed, they may fall in consequence of jarring due
to the motion of neighboring cranes, and sometimes they are pulled over
by chains dangling from the cranes.
Workmen often collide one with another, and are severely burned or
otherwise injured, in consequence of their view being obstructed by
foundry equipment. Obstructions likely to cause accidents of this kind
should be moved to the sides of the room. It is highly essential, also,
to keep all the aisles clear of flasks, tools, implements, and other
obstructions, particularly in plants where the illumination is not of
the best, and where, on account of insufficient ventilation, large
quantities of smoke obscure the vision.
Orderliness and adequate light and ventilation not only increase
efficiency, but also materially reduce the number of accidents; and
any reasonable expense that is involved in securing good conditions in
these respects will pay for itself by lessening the time that is lost
in consequence of the temporary demoralization to which the working
force is subject whenever an accident occurs.
Crucibles.
Crucibles are extensively employed in founding, especially in
connection with non-ferrous metals; and the importance of exercising
special care in handling them, not only to avoid accidents but also to
insure greater length of service from the crucibles themselves, has
been greatly underestimated in the past. In our larger plants, however,
foundrymen are now giving considerable attention to the systematic
instruction of their furnacemen, melters, and helpers, with a view to
keeping the number of accidents as low as possible, and obtaining as
great a number of heats as practicable from each crucible.
The clay crucibles of former days have been extensively supplanted by
better ones made largely of graphite, which is capable of resisting
exceedingly high temperatures. In fact, crucibles composed wholly of
clay have practically gone out of use for the melting of steel and
brass, because they can often be employed for only one or two heats,
and they are far more likely to break or crack unexpectedly, thereby
causing workmen to be seriously burned. Moreover, the temperatures that
occur in metal-working plants at the present time are higher than those
that prevailed when the all-clay crucible was the standard type. The
crucible that is now in general use consists mainly of the substance
that is variously known as graphite, plumbago, or black lead, and which
is a practically incombustible form of carbon. This is combined with a
small amount of a special variety of clay as a binding material, and
perhaps a little fire sand to give the mixture an open grain, so that
it can better withstand sudden changes of temperature. Some makers use,
in addition, a certain quantity of material obtained by grinding up
old, worn-out crucibles; but this practice cannot be recommended.
The graphite crucible is doubtless the most efficient yet devised, when
cost and all other elements are considered, but it is nevertheless
somewhat fragile, in view of the fact that it is expected to withstand
a heat sufficient to melt the refractory metals, and to support, at
the same time, very considerable pressures due to the weight of its
heavy fluid contents. It is exceedingly important, therefore, to
see that all employees fully understand how to handle crucibles in
order to reduce the danger of breakage to a minimum; and a great deal
can be accomplished in this direction, because graphite crucibles,
when properly made and carefully used, can be kept in a fairly safe
condition.
The number of accidents from breakage is greater in small plants than
in large ones, in proportion to the number of crucibles in use. This
is due partly to the greater care that the crucibles receive in the
large plants, and partly to the fact that large foundries buy supplies
of crucibles considerably in excess of their immediate requirements,
storing the surplus ones and allowing them to age or “season”. It
is an old saying that crucibles improve as they grow older, and as
experience shows that this belief has some actual basis in fact, the
date of manufacture should be stamped upon every crucible, to assist
the annealing men in selecting the oldest and best seasoned of them,
when additional ones are required for use.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. A CRUCIBLE WHICH BROKE AFTER BEING RUN ONLY TWO
HEATS.]
Good crucibles are expensive, and every foundryman therefore desires to
obtain the maximum service from them. The foundryman who attempts to
increase the useful life of his crucibles by careful handling, and by
the adoption of approved methods of every other kind, is at the same
time promoting safety by preventing accidents from premature breakage.
Foundrymen, melters, pourers, and helpers, usually expect a crucible
to run a certain definite number of heats, and they are likely to be
somewhat careless when a new crucible is put in service. For this
reason it is wise to assign a number to each crucible, for recording
the number of heats taken. The record may conveniently be kept upon
a black-board, opposite the appropriate crucible number and in plain
view. Everybody then knows just how many heats each crucible has
run, and this knowledge often arouses a spirit of competition, which
tends to make the men more careful in handling the crucibles, and to
increase the service that can safely be had from them. (The dating and
numbering here recommended are now being done, quite generally.)
When crucibles are first received, it is important that they be
critically examined for cracks and flaws, not only by the eye but also
by tapping them with a light hammer; and all imperfect ones should be
rejected. If there is evidence that any of the crucibles in a given
shipment have become wet while in transit to the foundry, they should
be stored for at least four or five weeks, before being used, in a
place where they will dry out thoroughly--even though they may be
apparently dry at the time they are received.
When a new supply of crucibles has been carefully inspected and
found to be free from defects, the entire lot should be stored for a
considerable time in a warm, dry place, and provision should be made to
protect them as thoroughly as possible from contact with moisture or
with moist air. The roof of a continuously-operating core oven is an
excellent place for the storage chamber.
The proper annealing of crucibles is of far more importance than is
generally realized. It is said that crucibles, when they come from the
manufacturer’s kilns, contain less than one-quarter of one per cent.
of moisture; but after they have cooled off they absorb moisture again
from the air. To anneal a crucible properly, it should first be slowly
heated to a temperature somewhat above 250° Fahr., and it should be
maintained (or “soaked”) at this temperature for a sufficient time to
entirely remove the moisture. It may then be put into service, if it
has been thoroughly annealed by the makers. If there is any doubt on
this point, however, the crucible should next be heated for some hours
to a dull red heat, after which it should be allowed to cool again,
very slowly, to about 250°. In any case the crucible should still be at
a temperature of 250° or over, when it goes into the furnace, or the
drying-out process will not be wholly successful.
Large crucibles, with thick shells, require a higher temperature
than small-sized ones in the preliminary heat-treatment, and a
correspondingly longer “soaking” period, in order to reduce the
absorbed moisture to the allowable limit. In drying out a No. 200
crucible, for example, ten hours or more should be allowed for bringing
it up to a temperature of 250° Fahr., and fully ten hours more should
be allowed for “soaking”,--that is, for reducing the percentage of
moisture which may have been absorbed. If a crucible that has a
considerable amount of moisture in its walls is quickly subjected to a
high temperature, the moisture will be changed into steam, and this,
because it is confined within the walls of the crucible, may expand so
as to cause a rupture or crack. The same result may also follow from
the natural contraction of the drying crucible, if the moisture is
driven out rapidly or unevenly. The small “pinholes” and “skelping”
that may often be seen on crucibles are caused in this way. These
pinholes and fissures form one of the chief sources of trouble against
which users of crucibles have to guard; for although a crucible having
defects of this nature may endure for a considerable number of heats,
it is nevertheless likely to fail at a critical time (for example,
during pouring or while being pulled from the furnace), spilling the
molten metal and causing severe hand and foot burns.
After receiving heat-treatment for the removal of moisture, crucibles
are often placed on a layer of damp sand, or on the comparatively cold
furnace floor, and left there for an indefinite length of time before
charging. This should not be permitted, because when the temperature
of the crucible falls to a point materially below 250°, it will again
absorb moisture.
[Illustration: FIG. 8. THE CRACK IN THIS CRUCIBLE DEVELOPED AFTER FIVE
HEATS.]
Fine cracks (called “alligator cracks”) often cover the entire surface
of a crucible. These may be caused in a number of ways. Sometimes
they are due to heating the crucible with fuel containing too high
a percentage of sulphur; or, in oil furnaces, they may be caused by
using too little oil or too much steam. It is specially important for
the operators to thoroughly understand their work when using an oil
furnace, because an excess of air or steam, or an insufficient supply
of oil, may give rise to an oxidizing action, whereby a portion of the
carbon (or graphite) is burned out of the crucible wall, leaving the
binding clay in a somewhat porous condition; and this action, when it
occurs, greatly facilitates the formation of cracks.
When crucibles are stored on the top of a furnace, the melters or
furnacemen should make sure that the covers over the furnace openings
fit properly. If the furnaceman is careless in this respect the moist
gases that are given off when fresh fuel is placed on the fire will
escape through the openings to some extent, and they are likely to come
in contact with the crucibles, causing alligator cracks to form.
Cracks and fissures are also likely to form if the metal to be melted
is not carefully placed in the crucibles. The men usually work rapidly
when introducing the ingots, so that the furnaces will not be left open
any longer than necessary; and the ingots are often thrown in with a
force sufficient to indent the bottoms of the crucibles, or otherwise
damage them. An indentation in a crucible, whether caused in this way
or in any other way, is quite likely to develop, shortly, into a crack
or fracture. The ingots should be introduced carefully and loosely,
sufficient time being taken to insure that this is properly done. When
a crucible is first filled it is desirable to place as many ingots
in it, for the first melting, as practicable; but it is exceedingly
important to see that they are not wedged or jammed, because when they
are heated they will expand more than the crucible itself, and the
walls of the crucible are likely to be cracked in consequence.
When a new crucible is put in service for melting, it should be heated
quite slowly for a few runs, and this is _specially important the first
time it is used_. After one or two runs it will become vitrified, and
the danger from too sudden a heating is then materially reduced. It is
a good plan to keep on hand a few extra crucibles that have been used
before, to avoid loss of time in case an extra crucible is needed on
short notice.
[Illustration: FIG. 9. A CARRYING POT, WITH SHANK.]
A great deal of harm is done by carelessness in handling the tongs and
shanks, and the life of a crucible may be seriously shortened in this
way. When a tilting furnace is used, as many as fifty heats can often
be obtained from a crucible; but if the heating is in furnaces from
which the crucibles must be removed by means of tongs, they can be used
for only about fifteen heats, on an average.
A crucible is soft and plastic at a white heat, and may easily be
squeezed out of shape by the pressure exerted upon it when the handles
of the tongs are forced together. The walls of the crucible gradually
become weakened by treatment of this kind, and eventually, if the
crucible is not discarded, a complete rupture will probably occur, with
its attendant toll of injuries and burns.
[Illustration: FIG. 10. TONGS PROPERLY APPLIED TO A CRUCIBLE, FOR
REMOVING IT FROM A STATIONARY FURNACE.]
Three styles of tongs are in general use in foundries--one-pronged,
two-pronged, and spade tongs. The different styles are designed for
various special purposes and operations, but they are sometimes
improperly used interchangeably. It is essential to see that the tongs
that are used are of the proper shape, and that they fit perfectly
from the widest part of the crucible (usually called the “bilge” or
“belly”), down to within a few inches of the bottom. They should not
extend to the _extreme_ bottom, however, because this would make it
hard to place the crucible in the shank. On the other hand, if they do
not extend down far enough the crucible will be badly squeezed. The
proper use of the tongs consists in taking hold of the crucible below
the bilge and lifting it in such a way that the least possible pressure
is exerted against the crucible walls.
One-pronged tongs should be used only for lifting the smaller-sized
crucibles,--say up to size No. 40. For larger sizes two-pronged tongs
should be used. It is not uncommon to see large crucibles, ranging
from No. 200 to No. 300, lifted by one-pronged tongs. This practice
should be condemned, because when one-pronged tongs are used for
lifting a crucible, pressure is exerted against only a single point of
contact,--namely, at the bottom,--and the crucible, when hot and soft,
is likely to be cut or ruptured, if it is large and heavy, because the
pressure at the point of support is severe. Serious burns, from the
spilling of the molten metal, often result when the lower prong of a
two-pronged pair of tongs is cut off, on account of a lack of space
between the crucible and the furnace wall; because the crucible is then
lifted from above the bilge, and tilted. Melters should be cautioned
against the practice of driving down the ring of the tongs with a
skimmer or other implement, because this is almost sure to cause cracks
and fissures in the crucibles.
Molten metal is often spilled from crucibles in consequence of using
tongs that have become bent or otherwise misshapen. It is important to
see that the tongs fit the crucibles properly, and that they are also
in good condition in every other way. For restoring bent tongs to
their proper shape, it is advisable to procure a set of cast-iron forms
similar in size and general shape to the crucibles that are used in the
plant, but slightly larger from the bilge upward. To restore the tongs
to their original form it is only necessary to put them in the furnace,
raise them to a red heat, clamp them to the proper iron form, and bring
them back into shape by means of a heavy hammer. Tongs may be fitted
easily and cheaply in this way, and a great saving of time results. If
cast-iron forms are not provided, the blacksmith cannot be expected to
restore the tongs to their correct shape with accuracy; but if iron
crucible-forms of the proper sizes and shapes are used, and the tongs
are fitted to them as here recommended, the likelihood of squeezing and
distorting the crucibles will be reduced to a minimum.
Two pairs of tongs, at least, should be provided for each size of
crucible, so that if one pair becomes badly bent or worn, the other
pair may be placed in service without loss of time.
Furnacemen should make sure that no clinkers or pieces of unburned coal
or coke are stuck to the walls of the crucibles when about to grasp
them with the tongs, because if the tongs are applied over a clinker
the clinker will probably be forced into the crucible and a rupture
may then occur at any moment. It is also important to see that the
bottom of the crucible (on the outer surface) is free from clinkers or
other adherent substances, so that when the crucible is in the furnace
its weight will be evenly distributed, and not concentrated at a few
projecting spots or regions. It is best to support the crucible by
means of a foundation or pedestal, of graphite, fire-brick, or other
infusible substance, though the fire-bed may be made to give a fairly
satisfactory support if it is carefully prepared and smoothed.
When a heat has been poured it is important to see that no metal is
left in the bottom of the crucible, because when a residual mass (or
“button”) of such metal cools, it contracts at a different rate from
the crucible, and serious strains and cracks are likely to result.
Ramming the fuel bed is bad practice, in general, because it is likely
to damage the crucibles seriously. If ramming appears to be necessary
at special times, the utmost care should be exercised in doing it.
(We are indebted to the General Electric Company for the photographs
that are used in this section.)
Cupolas.
Tapping-out is the most hazardous part of cupola work. This is
specially true if the melter is inexperienced or careless, for it is
almost entirely within his power to prevent excessive spattering of
the hot metal if he properly controls the flow from the cupola. If
dangerous spattering of the molten metal, with its attendant burns,
is to be eliminated, it is important that the melter be taught the
correct and only safe method of stopping up the tap hole. Under no
circumstances should the stopping bot be thrust directly into the
stream of flowing metal in order to “bot-up” the hole. Instead of this,
it should be brought immediately _over_ the stream, and, when near the
hole, should be carried down obliquely so that it will make a sharp
angle with the stream, and thus effectively and instantly close up the
hole without any undue spattering. In drawing molten metal from the
cupola into buggy or trolley ladles, it is necessary to stop the flow
of metal when a ladle has been filled and while another is being moved
into position. This is done by the melter, who inserts the stopping
bot into the hole and holds it there temporarily. After doing this
several times the fire clay on the end of the stopping bot becomes
burned off, and consequently the hole may not be closed properly. One
or more extra stopping bots, already prepared with fire clay, should
be conveniently at hand, which may be substituted for the burned-off
one when necessary. The melter and all other workmen engaged about the
cupola should wear well-designed goggles having side shields, because
statistics show that a high percentage of eye injuries occur about the
cupola.
Accidents occur about cupolas not only when drawing off the metal, but
also during charging time, and when repair work is being done. As a
general thing workmen engaged in charging a cupola must bring the coke
and the iron (both scrap and pig) from the storage bins or yard, up to
the charging platform. These workmen should be instructed to pile the
iron evenly on the barrows, and to exercise great care in taking the
scrap from the pile, in case the latter is in such a condition that
it is likely to collapse or slide. Many workmen have been severely
injured, while filling their barrows, by the sudden collapse of piles
of scrap iron.
In many foundries elevators are used for conveying the charges to the
charging floors. In every such case it is essential that a gong or
other signal be sounded before the elevator is taken from the charging
floor by a workman below; and the elevator should not be moved, after
the signal has been given, until sufficient time has elapsed for any
person who may be in danger to respond and to move into a place of
safety. Many serious accidents have been caused by elevators suddenly
descending while the workmen were loading or unloading them. To further
guard against such accidents there should be a door or gate at each
entrance to the hoistway, provided with an interlocking device so
arranged that the elevator cannot be started until the door or gate has
been closed. The unused sides of the car platform should be completely
inclosed to a height of 6-1/2 feet (or to the top of the crosshead),
and a substantial iron grating should be placed on the top of the car,
to stop falling tools and other objects.[1]
[1] Further information with regard to the care and operation of
elevators in general is given in a booklet published by the Engineering
and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY. Copies
of this booklet may be procured by applying to the Home Office at
Hartford, Connecticut.
The charging opening in a cupola should be fitted with a door or
gate, which should always be closed except when charging is going on,
and workmen engaged in charging should be specially careful to avoid
tripping or losing their balance when in the vicinity of the opening,
and especially when throwing heavy pieces of scrap or pig metal into
the cupola.
When the interior of a cupola is being relined it is recommended that a
watchman be stationed near the opening, or that a conspicuous warning
sign be posted beside it, stating that men are working inside. We
have known of cases where metal thrown into the cupola has struck and
seriously injured workmen who were engaged in making repairs to the
shell or lining. An effective guard against accidents of this kind
consists in a circular screen of a diameter slightly smaller than the
inside of the cupola, and made of heavy wire netting or of stout
expanded metal, substantially framed. The screen should be divided in
the center, and the two sections hinged together. In using this device
it is suspended above the point where the men are at work, from a piece
of scantling laid diametrically across the cupola so that it rests upon
the walls where they are offset for the single brick lining, or upon
the ledge formed by the charging doors,--the screen being supported
by chains at several points around its circumference, and having its
hinges on the under sides. When arranged in this way it tends to remain
open and flat, although it can easily be folded by raising it at the
middle. A screen of this kind will intercept falling pieces of slag and
brick, and other objects, and will thus protect the workmen below.
When furnaces are to be entirely relined, only trustworthy and
experienced men should be allowed to perform the work. Moreover, the
fire-bricks that are used should be of the best quality obtainable, in
order to insure long life of the cupola. Between the bricks and the
shell a space of about 3/4 of an inch should be left, which should
be filled with dry sand to act as a cushion, so that severe stresses
will not be thrown on the shell when the bricks expand. The rivets and
the shells of all cupolas should be inspected periodically, to see if
any of the rivets have sheared off or worked loose, or if the shell
has become weakened in any way. After making repairs of any kind,
care should be taken to see that the cupola is thoroughly dried out,
and that all tools, and all materials used for scaffolding or other
purposes, are removed.
Explosions occur in cupolas from time to time, and if the shell of a
cupola is weak, a serious catastrophe is likely to result. Carbon
monoxide, when combined with air in certain proportions, forms a highly
inflammable and explosive mixture, and the explosions are mainly due
to this gas, which collects in the wind box and blast pipe during
interruptions in operation. In an incredibly short time enough carbon
monoxide gas may collect in this way to cause a violent explosion
when the blast is turned on again. If the iron comes too fast a
temporary shut-down may be unavoidable; but interruptions from other
causes,--such, for example, as the slipping of the blower belt,--should
be prevented, so far as possible, by frequent inspections of the
equipment and by making all necessary adjustments and repairs when the
cupola is not in operation.
A gate or damper should be placed in the blast pipe, close to the
cupola, to prevent the explosive gas from entering the pipe. This gate
should be closed _immediately_, whenever the blast is shut off, and it
should be opened cautiously and slowly when starting up again. At the
time that the blower is shut down one of the tuyeres should be opened
also, to maintain a slight draft of air.
Explosion doors provide another means for preventing damage from gas
explosions. Some authorities recommend that these doors be placed in
front of the tuyeres, so that when the blast is turned off the doors
may be opened to admit the outside air. When this arrangement is
adopted the doors should not be closed until the blast has entered the
wind box, so that any gas remaining therein may escape through the
doors.
With a positive-pressure blower, which is probably the best type for
cupola work, a safety-valve should be provided for the protection
of the blast pipe or blower. This will prevent the bursting of the
blast pipe in case the blast gate is closed suddenly, or if the cupola
becomes clogged with slag in such a manner as to obstruct the passage
of the air to a dangerous extent. The weights on the safety-valve
should be sufficient to prevent blowing-off unless the obstruction
is quite serious, because a constant blast-volume is required in
modern cupola operation, and if the volume is decreased an undesirable
lowering of the temperature occurs.
Charging and lighting-up should be done carefully and by experienced
workmen, and the charges should be laid as nearly level as possible.
When the charging has been completed, and after lighting-up, sufficient
time should be allowed for the cupola to become thoroughly warmed up
before starting the blower.
Traveling Cranes.
Cranes of various types are used in the foundry, but most of the heavy
work is done by electrically-operated traveling cranes. The suggestions
that follow therefore relate mainly to that type, although many of them
are applicable to all cranes, and to hoisting devices of other kinds.
A substantial stairway or ladder should be installed at one end of the
crane runway, to provide access to the crane cab or cage; and when two
cranes are operated on the same runway, stairways or ladders should
be installed at both ends of the runway. Cranemen should always use
this means of entering and leaving the cages. Every crane cab should
be inclosed to a height of at least 42 inches on all sides, except
where entrance is actually effected. The inclosure should preferably
be of sheet metal or expanded metal, or of heavy, woven-wire mesh. If
railings are used there should be an intermediate rail midway between
the top rail and the floor of the cab, and a six-inch toe-board should
also be installed. A stairway or a ladder should always be provided for
passing from the cab to the top of the crane bridge. This should be
substantially built, and properly protected so that the crane operator
or repairman will be in no danger of falling when he uses it.
A foot-walk should be constructed along the bridge of the crane, or
on both sides where the width of the bridge demands. This will give
easy and safe access to the trolley in any position, and to any part
of the bridge. The construction should be substantial, and the width
must be sufficient to provide ample room for passage. Double railguards
42 inches high should be erected along each foot-walk, and six-inch
toe-boards should also be provided.
Whenever possible, a substantial walk should be installed beside the
crane runway, and this should be protected by strong railings and
toe-boards along its entire length. All traveling cranes should be
equipped with spring bumpers or oil bumpers, and suitable stops should
be installed at each end of each rail of the runway.
All gears on the trolley and other parts of the crane should be
completely incased, and no one should be allowed on top of the crane
while it is in motion. A stout sheet-metal pan, or a substantial floor,
should be provided under the trolley, to catch any parts that may work
loose, and to prevent them from falling upon employees below. This
pan or floor should be solid except for the cable openings. Guards,
fenders, or brushes should be attached in front of the bridge and
trolley wheels, to remove any obstructions that may be upon the tracks,
and to prevent injury to persons who may be working in such positions
that their hands or feet might be crushed by the wheels.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of The Alliance Machine Company._
FIG. 11. SAFEGUARDS ON A LARGE LADLE CRANE.
(This crane is larger than is used in the average foundry but it has
some safety features that should be universally adopted. At A is the
landing platform leading to the foot-walk on the crane bridge; B is a
stairway which extends from the safety platform, C, just outside the
operator’s cage, to the landing platform. The railing and toe-board on
the crane bridge and on the trolley are also essential for safety.)]
All electrical wiring should be installed in conduits; and it is
particularly important that hoist-limit stops be provided, in all
cases, both for the main and for the auxiliary hoists. In the best
crane practice the hoist-limit stops employ dynamic braking to check
overtravel and to assist in lowering loads. To prevent the crane from
being operated by unauthorized persons, or while repairs are being
made, there should be a safety switch in the main line, mounted above
the cab where it can be conveniently reached from the foot-walk. This
switch should be fitted with a lock so that it can be secured in the
open position, and the key should be only in the possession of the
crane operator or the head repairman.
Woodwork should not be used about a crane, because it is likely to
become oil-soaked, and it is then exceedingly combustible. If it should
take fire and the craneman, in order to make his escape, should run the
crane to a stairway, the time required for this purpose might increase
his danger quite materially, and the motion of the crane would also
tend to increase the fire. If, on the other hand, he tries to leave the
crane in any other way than by the regular stairway, he will be exposed
to hazards of other kinds, and these will be accentuated by his haste.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._
FIG. 12. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE.
(This illustration shows a part of a crane on the erecting floor of
the manufacturer. There are no exposed revolving parts throughout the
entire length of the crane bridge. Some of the safety features are as
follows: A--inclosed gearing; B--inclosed drive-shaft coupling; C--pipe
inclosure for drive shaft; D--device for sanding rails when crane is
used out-of-doors. See also Fig. 13.)]
Keep all tools, oil-cans, and waste in a closed metal box securely
fastened to the crane or to the runway at some convenient point.
Careful, watchful, intelligent, and trustworthy crane operators,
floormen, and repairmen, can do a great deal toward preventing
accidents, and only such men should be employed about cranes. The
following suggestions relate to the work of these men, and if
faithfully followed will be the means of promoting safety in a marked
degree.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._
FIG. 13. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE.
(This is a nearer view of some of the safeguards shown in Fig. 12. A
is the track sander which is operated by a rope or cable attached to
the lever and extended to the craneman’s cage; B shows more clearly the
drive-shaft coupling. The shaft inclosure also appears more plainly.)]
During the ordinary operation of an electric crane the craneman should
never leave his cage without making sure that all the controllers are
in the off position, and that the main switch is open. Before he leaves
the crane the safety switch should also be locked open. If the electric
current should be shut off at any time, the same precautions should be
observed; and before closing the main switch, when about to resume work
after an interruption due to any cause whatsoever, the craneman should
again make certain that all the controllers are in the off position.
When about to lift a load, the motor should be run at low speed
until the slack in the chain or cable has been taken up, after which
the controller handle may be advanced slowly from point to point to
increase the speed. Before a motor is reversed it should be brought
to a full stop, except when an accident can be averted only by
disregarding this advice.
When handling a heavy load the craneman should hoist it a few inches
above the floor, and then, before proceeding further, he should assure
himself that it is properly balanced and that the slings are secure,
and should also test the brakes to make sure that they will hold the
load safely. If there is any doubt whatsoever about the safety of
the operation, the load should be lowered and the slings or brakes
adjusted, or other necessary measures taken to avoid danger. It is also
desirable, at the beginning of each shift, to test the foot brakes and
limit switches thoroughly.
It is extremely important, at all times, and particularly when handling
molten metal, to “spot” the trolley directly above the load to be
hoisted. Failure to do this will cause the load to swing sidewise
as soon as it is clear of the floor, and usually the metal will be
spilled, or men or objects near by may be struck by the load.
Loads should be raised high enough to give proper clearance above
men and objects on the floor, but they should not be carried for
any considerable distance at an unnecessary elevation. So far as
possible, the craneman should avoid transporting loads directly over
workmen. Special care should be exercised to keep loads under control
when lowering them, and the speed should always be restricted to a
reasonable and safe limit.
Some definite person must be held responsible for the selection of the
chains and slings that are used for hoisting, and for making suitable
hitches about the loads. If the foundry is large enough to employ
a special floorman, these matters may well be left to him, because
he is necessarily familiar with the constantly-changing conditions,
and he should therefore be able to select the proper sling quickly
and intelligently. Moreover, experience will have taught him the
best method for attaching the sling, or for hooking on to the load.
If no special floorman is employed, this part of the work should be
supervised by a specially assigned foreman, or by a skilled hooker-on.
When applying the hook to the load, and when holding the hook in place
while the slack is being taken up, the hooker-on should be careful
to avoid having his hands caught and crushed between the sling and
the load. Hooks with safety handles may be had, and these add greatly
to the safety of the men when hooking up. If safety handles are not
provided, pieces of wood notched at the end may be used with advantage
for holding the hooks in place,--the notch being pressed against the
hook to prevent it from moving before the tension comes on it.
When the hooks or slings are in place and the slack has been taken up,
the workmen should immediately move back several feet from the load.
When a load is being deposited, all persons should keep at a safe
distance while the slings are being withdrawn from under it, because
the slings may snap out suddenly, or may catch on the load and tip it
over. When slackening-off the hoisting cables the hooker-on should
avoid pulling down on the _inrunning_ side of the block, because his
fingers may be caught between the sheave and the cable and be cut
off or badly crushed. It is far safer to grasp the outrunning side,
and pull up and away from the sheave. Greater safety in this work is
insured by inclosing the block to which the hook is secured. Blocks
guarded in this manner are available and should be generally adopted.
The crane operator should never allow chains, slings, cables, or hooks
to drag along the floor, and he should never start the crane carriage
or trolley until all such appendages are entirely clear. Even in the
short distance that the crane might travel before they leave the floor,
the slings or hooks might become caught on some obstruction and cause
an accident.
No one should be permitted to ride on a load or on the crane hook; and
if the craneman observes a violation of this rule he should stop the
crane and refuse to move it until the person who is riding is in a safe
place on the floor.
In a busy foundry the craneman must be specially alert, and his
attention must be given, unremittingly, to following the various
operations on the floor, taking the signals from the floorman, and
controlling the movements of the crane.
Before an inexperienced man is permitted to take charge of a crane, he
should be thoroughly trained in the work by a careful, well-qualified
craneman, who should see that he becomes familiar with the operating
mechanism, and skilled in the manipulation of the various levers and
controls.
A signal gong, operated by hand or foot, or electrically, should be
part of the equipment of every crane, and should be rung when the
crane is started, and as frequently thereafter as may be necessary.
Occasionally the gong is actuated by the mechanism that moves the
crane, so that the warning signal is sounded automatically and
continuously so long as the crane is moving. The objection to this
method is that the sound of the gong is likely to become so familiar
that its value as a warning of danger will be lost and the men will
give little heed to it. Furthermore, the gong should always be treated
as an _extra safeguard_, and no other safety precaution should be
omitted or allowed to fall into disuse merely because the gong is used,
nor should vigilance and caution be relaxed in any respect whatever.
Some person should be specially designated to transmit to the craneman
the signals for moving the loads, and the craneman should disregard
signals given by other men. The signalman should stand in plain view
of the craneman and should take care to give all his signals clearly.
A definite and unmistakable code of signals, consisting of motions
of the hands and arms, should be arranged. Signals given orally are
unsatisfactory and unsafe, not only because it is often difficult to
distinguish them with certainty unless the foundry is quiet, but also
because the sound of loud voices will always distract the attention of
other men from their work. When a load is being transported some person
designated for this purpose should always walk in front of it to warn
workmen who are in danger of being struck, and he should also see that
the load is carried high enough to clear all obstacles in its path,
because the craneman, on account of his location, sometimes finds it
hard to judge the height of the load correctly.
A crane that is to be repaired should be moved to one end of the runway
or to some other point where it will cause the least interference
with the movements of other cranes. The controllers and the main and
emergency switches should be placed in the off position before starting
any repair work on cranes, and the safety switches should be locked, or
the fuses removed, to prevent any movement of the crane, and to avoid
accidental short circuits that might result in injury to the repairmen.
Suitable warning signs should be placed on cranes that are undergoing
repairs, and buffers or rail stops should be clamped to the crane rails
a few yards in front of the disabled crane when others are operated
on the same runway. If practicable, a suitable floor area directly
underneath the disabled crane should be roped off or inclosed in some
other way, to prevent accidents that might be caused by tools or other
objects falling from the crane. Similar precautions should be taken
when men are at work on the runways, and red flags or other warning
devices should be placed at both ends of the section undergoing repairs.
Chains and Hooks.
Chains and hooks should be carefully inspected at regular intervals,
and they should also be annealed from time to time by competent
workmen who thoroughly understand the art of annealing, and who know
how to secure the results that are desired. Particular care should
be taken with hooks in this respect, because a hook, when properly
annealed, should gradually yield or straighten if subjected to a
serious overload, and thus give warning of danger; whereas if it is
not properly annealed, and therefore hard, it is likely to snap off
suddenly, without warning. Chains and hooks should be inspected with
care immediately after annealing, because they are then cleaner than
at other times, and hence any existing defects or flaws in them may
be detected with greater certainty. All chains and hooks should be
numbered, and a careful record should be kept of the inspections and
annealings. Hoisting chains are particularly liable to failure through
fatigue or over-strain, on account of the severe treatment to which
they are frequently subjected; and they should therefore be examined
minutely, and link by link, to detect insecure welds and slight cracks
or other defects. Chain slings should never be crossed or twisted when
placed around loads, and every chain that is to be used as a sling
should be made of the highest quality of wrought iron. All chains
should be oiled frequently, to prevent rusting.
Forged hooks, or laminated hooks made of steel plates securely riveted
together, should be used in preference to those made of cast steel.
Hooks are sometimes subjected to severe abuse by workmen who try to
force them into position by striking them with heavy iron bars or
other implements. This is a dangerous practice, and should be strictly
prohibited.
Wire-Rope Slings.
Well-made wire-rope slings give better service than chain slings,
because they are stronger, weight for weight, and also because
deterioration is usually indicated by broken strands that are readily
discoverable by an experienced and qualified inspector. Wire-rope
slings are pliable, and may be adapted to almost every use. They should
be kept in good condition, and to prevent rusting and unnecessary wear
from friction they should be treated with oil or with a good cable
lubricant prepared specially for the purpose. Wire-rope for slings used
in handling molten metal or hot castings should have a soft iron-wire
core, because a hemp core is quite likely to be destroyed by the heat.
Slings in General.
A sling should never be allowed to rest directly against the sharp
corners of a heavy flask, casting, or other similar object, but should
be protected by wooden corner-pieces, or by pads of burlap or other
soft material.
Every sling, whether composed of a chain or a rope, should be long
enough not only to surround the load it has to support, but also to
leave a considerable space between the sling and the upper surface of
the load. The oblique parts of the sling, which lie above the load and
join it to the hook (or to the point where the suspension first becomes
vertical) should never be so flat as to make an angle of less than 45
degrees with the ground. This precaution is highly important, but it
is often overlooked or neglected, because the men do not realize that
the stress on the ends of a sling is greater, the flatter (or more
nearly horizontal) they lie. When the ends are inclined at an angle of
45 degrees, the stress upon each of them is about 41 per cent. greater
than it would be if the ends were vertical; and if the sling is so
short that it barely goes around the load and has but little slack, the
stress upon it may be very great indeed.
We strongly advise that all slings, when not in actual use, be kept
under lock and key and placed in charge of some responsible person who
knows their condition and is competent to select safe and appropriate
slings for every occasion. They may be stored in the tool room or
supply room, for example, and be in charge of a qualified foreman.
Hoisting Apparatus in General.
Hoisting apparatus of every kind should be inspected frequently and
thoroughly, and all parts that are defective in any way should be
promptly repaired or replaced. The man charged with the operation
of the apparatus should not attempt to make repairs or adjustments,
however, unless the foundry is a small one, where this constitutes a
part of his recognized duty. Under all other circumstances he should
immediately report to the foreman or repairman, in order that the job
may receive attention in the proper way. If the defect is serious
enough to constitute a possible source of danger, the apparatus should
not be operated until the necessary repairs or adjustments have been
made.
Tumbling Barrels.
Tumbling barrels (or “rattlers”) for cleaning rough castings are of two
general types, respectively known as wet and dry. There are numerous
mechanical hazards in connection with both types, and with dry tumbling
barrels considerable danger to health may be caused by the dust created
by them unless suitable preventive measures are adopted.
There are two methods that are commonly employed for removing the
dust from dry tumbling barrels. One of these consists in attaching
an exhaust system directly to the machine, and the other consists
in inclosing the barrel in a dust-proof compartment from which the
dust may be exhausted. The first method, as a rule, is practicable
only in connection with tumbling barrels that are of special design,
and are provided with the necessary attachments for connecting with
exhaust fans. In nearly all other cases dust-proof inclosures must be
built, and it is practicable to secure satisfactory results in this
way when the system is properly arranged. The compartments should be
made as tight as possible, and should be constructed of sheet metal or
well-seasoned lumber. The doors may be arranged to fold, or to slide
upward or sidewise; or they may be hinged to open in any way that
is most convenient. In some cases rolling steel shutters are used.
Doors that rise vertically should be suitably counterweighted so that
they will not drop upon the workmen, and the counterweights should be
inclosed. In addition to the counterweights we recommend the use of
catches or fastenings for holding up the doors.
When tumbling barrels (either wet or dry) are not located in
compartments, substantial double railings, at least 42 inches high,
should be placed about them, with a clearance of not less than 15
inches nor more than 20 inches. (When railings are placed more than
20 inches away, workmen are likely to crawl inside of them to do any
necessary work, and they are then in greater danger than they would
be in if no railings were present; whereas if railings are omitted
altogether, the workmen are likely to be struck or to have their
clothing caught by small objects that may work through perforated or
loosely-fitting covers, or by the projecting cover-fastenings.) The
railings should be provided with gates so arranged that opening the
gates will automatically throw the driving belts or clutches into the
off position, and will prevent the machines from being started until
the gates are closed. Driving belts should be guarded to a height
of at least 6 feet above the floor, and all exposed gears should be
completely inclosed. Chain hoists should be provided for lifting heavy
covers, and suitable brakes or locking devices should be installed to
prevent any movement of the machines while they are being loaded or
unloaded. Securing the barrels in position by means of bars or props is
a mere makeshift method, and is manifestly unsafe.
Sand Mixers and Sifters.
Sand mixers are of two general types, one of which simply mixes the
materials, while the other not only mixes but also grinds them. The
mixer consists of a horizontal semi-cylindrical vessel in which
the sand is placed and the mixing is done by revolving blades. The
top of the cylinder should be covered by a substantial grating
composed of 3/8-inch round stock suitably reinforced to insure
rigidity, and provided with free-swinging discharging doors. All
gears should be inclosed by substantial guards, and the driving belt
should be protected to a height of at least 6 feet above the floor.
A well-designed belt-shifter should be provided, and should be so
arranged that it may be locked to prevent creeping of the belt.
The combination mixer and grinder is similar to the revolving dry-pan
used in the manufacture of bricks, and it may be driven either from
underneath or from overhead. In either case the driving gears and all
other exposed gears should be suitably inclosed, and the driving belt
should be protected and be fitted with a belt-shifter, as described
above in connection with the sand mixer. The revolving pan should be
completely surrounded by a substantial guard of heavy, reinforced wire
netting extending to a height well above the hubs of the grinding
wheels. An opening should be left in one side of the guard, and at this
point a sheet-metal feeding hopper should be securely riveted on. A
drag or other suitable mechanical device should be provided to force
the sand out through the discharging door, and the use of hand shovels
for removing the sand from the pan while it is in motion should be
prohibited.
Pipe or angle-iron railings 42 inches high should be installed at the
sides of rotating sand sifters, at a distance of at least 15 inches,
and not more than 20 inches, from them. Belt-shifters should be
provided, and the belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6
feet above the floor.
When sand mixers and sifters are driven by electric motors every
precaution should be taken to prevent electric shocks and burns. See
that all live wires and other parts are thoroughly insulated, and guard
all dangerous rotating parts. Inclosed switches should be used, and
they should be located in convenient and easily accessible positions;
fuses of the inclosed type should also be used.
Automatic Molding Machines.
The gears on both sides of these machines should be entirely inclosed
by substantial guards of sheet metal, expanded metal, or close-mesh
woven wire. The connecting rods should be similarly guarded, the
inclosures in the latter case to extend as high as possible without
interfering with the adjustment. Whether the machines are driven by
belts or by electric motors, such precautions should be taken with
regard to belt-shifters, belt-guards, and electrical safeguards as have
been recommended above in connection with sand mixers.
Chipping Department.
Many serious eye injuries occur in the chipping department, and
practically all of these may be prevented by requiring the general
use of suitably-designed eye-protectors or goggles. Eye-protectors
for cupola men and others engaged in handling molten metal have been
described in a previous paragraph, and those to be used by chippers
should be similar. Cheap, flimsy eye-protectors should not be used.
It is economy to buy substantial goggles at a higher price, not only
because they afford better protection, but also because they are more
durable.
[Illustration: FIG. 14. MOLDING MACHINE OPERATED BY COMPRESSED AIR.]
In addition to the eye-protectors, shields of canvas or other suitable
material, mounted on substantial frames, should be provided, wherever
needed, to protect near-by workmen from flying chips.
Chippers should not be permitted to work with battered or otherwise
defective tools. Broken hammers and sledges should be discarded, and
cold-chisels and other implements should be dressed when they become
burred or mushroomed.
Grinding Wheels.
Emery wheels and wheels of other abrasive materials are used in
grinding castings, and these sometimes burst and cause serious
injuries to the operators. All grinding wheels should be fitted with
safety collars or flanges, and, where practicable, should be inclosed
by substantial metal hoods connected to exhaust fans for removing
the dust. Stationary grinding machines should be mounted on solid
foundations to prevent vibration, and their bearings should be ample in
size and be kept well lubricated and properly adjusted. It is important
that grinders wear goggles, to protect their eyes from flying dust and
sparks.
Further details with regard to the design, care, and operation of
grinding wheels will be found in a booklet, entitled “_Grinding
Wheels_”, published by the Engineering and Inspection Division of THE
TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY.
Compressed Air.
Compressed air is commonly used in foundries for operating air
hoists, blow guns, spraying devices, pneumatic hammers and chisels,
sand-blasts, molding machines, and sand-blast tumbling barrels. Serious
accidents are often the result of the improper use of compressed air,
and workmen should never be allowed to play pranks with it, but should
use it only for the purposes for which it is provided. In particular,
a sand-blast should never be turned upon a person, because it might
easily destroy his eyesight or cause other serious injuries.
The introduction of compressed air into the human body causes great
distention of the intestines, accompanied by agonizing pain; and the
victim usually dies after a short period of intense suffering. Every
man about the foundry should therefore make it his special business
to see that no attempt is made to use the air lines for perpetrating
so-called “practical jokes”.
[Illustration: FIG. 15. A SPECIAL CHAMBER FOR SAND-BLASTING.
(Strong air suction, through the exhaust hoods shown in the upper
part of the picture, will remove a large quantity of the dust that is
created, but it would be better if the ducts were placed in the floor,
with gratings over them, or in the side walls. The helmet which the
operator is wearing is of a type commonly used in work of this kind.
As explained in the text, no entirely satisfactory helmet has yet been
devised.)]
Sand-blasting.
Sand-blasting may be done in the open air if eye-protectors and
respirators are worn and other suitable precautions are taken, but
it is far better to provide a dust-proof chamber for this work. The
operator of the sand-blast should then wear an appropriate helmet,
to effectively protect his lungs and eyes from the dust. The form of
apparatus used should be adapted to the work to be done, and to the
conditions that must be met. Considered from the point of view of
the dust hazard alone, the ideal arrangement appears to consist in a
helmet well ventilated by means of a hose supplying an adequate flow of
dust-free air. The hose may be run from the compressed-air tank to the
upper part of the helmet, and it should be provided with a regulating
valve located where it may be easily controlled by the man who is to be
supplied. The air current should be so adjusted that it will not only
afford sufficient oxygen to serve for respiration, but also prevent
dust from rising into the helmet through openings in the lower part of
it. In practice, however, it is frequently found that the plan
here outlined is highly objectionable to the men, and in fact they
often refuse to wear apparatus of this type, claiming that the cool
air passing down the neck soon causes them to catch cold. Baffles and
various other distributing devices to regulate the flow of the air
within the helmet have been tried, but no ideal and wholly satisfactory
solution of the difficulty has yet been worked out, so far as we are
aware. In the opinion of certain foundry experts, an ordinary helmet
with a respirator attached, or used in conjunction with a separate
respirator, constitutes the best device for the protection of the
sand-blaster, when all phases of the problem are considered.
Each compartment used for sand-blasting should be provided with an
exhaust system capable of removing the dust in a satisfactory manner.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of the Western Electric News._
FIG. 16. CABINETS FOR SAND-BLASTING SMALL CASTINGS.
(The castings are placed in the cabinets and are held and turned about
by the operators, who watch the progress of the work through glass
panels. The dust is carried off through the exhaust ducts.)]
Illumination.
The average foundry is poorly lighted, and many accidents may be
attributed directly to this condition. There are many problems to be
considered in providing proper and adequate light for foundries, and as
the conditions that have to be met vary a great deal, it is impossible
to make any general recommendations that will be applicable in all
cases.
The floors, walls, supporting columns, ceilings, and materials in
foundries are usually covered with grime and dust which absorb from 95
to 98 per cent. of the light that strikes them, and which give them
all the same general tone or color. With no contrasting background
it becomes exceedingly difficult, at times, to distinguish objects
lying upon the floor, and care should therefore be taken to see that
the floor is kept free from tools, materials, and obstacles of every
other kind, over which the workmen might stumble. Moreover, if the
ventilating system is inadequate to keep the air reasonably clear,
the dust, smoke, and gases will not only reduce the intensity of the
illumination and thereby invite accidents, but may also affect the
health of the working force.
During certain stages of the work,--notably at pouring time,--the men
are exposed to a dazzling, blinding radiation from the white-hot,
molten metal. Very often, too, lighting units of intense intrinsic
brilliance and high candle-power are placed where they shine directly
into the eyes of the men. Conditions such as these impair the vision
of the worker, thereby reducing his efficiency as a producer, and
multiplying the opportunities for accidents.
One of the best artificial lighting sources for foundry work is the
Mazda C lamp (500 to 1,000 watt sizes). To determine the proper
location of the lamps, and their spacing, suspension heights, and other
features (such as the types of reflectors that should be used) it is
necessary to understand, as fully as possible, the exact conditions
that must be met. Where incandescent lighting units are to be used,
wall brackets, fitted with angle reflectors, provide the best means of
securing satisfactory illumination at the floor level. Good results may
be obtained by installing the brackets on the supporting columns, under
the crane runway and below the smoky zone.
Although we have spoken only of artificial light for foundries, it is
important to admit the greatest possible amount of natural light. As
a usual thing, skylights are of little value on account of the clouds
of smoke that often fill the upper part of the building, and therefore
practically all the natural light that can be really serviceable
must pass through windows in the side walls. For the same reason the
effective window area must be considered as only that below a height of
approximately twelve feet. It is essential that the windows occupy as
much of the wall space as possible, and, where the width of the room
is great, prism glass should be used. Prism glass, when properly set,
will reflect the light into the room in a nearly horizontal direction.
Satisfactory natural illumination can hardly be had without keeping
the windows clean; and we also strongly advise whitewashing the walls,
ceilings, and supporting columns, applying fresh coats whenever they
are needed.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of American Blower Company._
FIG. 17. GOOD DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS IN A FOUNDRY.
(Observe also the ventilating duct, near the roof, and the
downwardly-projecting Y-shaped nozzles connected to it through which
the smoke and dust are drawn out of the building.)]
The Foundry Yard.
The fact that orderliness and system promote safety is probably nowhere
better exemplified than in a large foundry yard. The maintenance and
cost of a foundry yard is small as compared with that of the foundry
itself, and it is good economy, therefore, to use the yard as much
as practicable for the storing of scrap, sand, flasks, finished
product, raw materials, and miscellaneous supplies; but the maximum
efficiency and economy cannot be realized unless the yard is kept in a
neat and orderly condition. If a yard is just large enough to meet the
needs of a foundry, and is not used to its full capacity, it usually
follows that the foundry floor space is littered with material that
could be stored in the yard more advantageously; and the crowding of
the foundry floor increases the number of accidents, many of which
might be eliminated if the yard were utilized to better advantage.
This is specially true of a foundry where every available foot of
floor space is required for production. In this class belongs the
“jobbing foundry,” in which work of a miscellaneous nature is done, as
distinguished from the “repetition foundry,” in which the work consists
mainly in the continuous reproduction of certain standard stock
patterns.
The jobbing foundry owes its existence to the fact that many
manufacturers who use castings have no room for a foundry, or have too
limited a need for castings to warrant the expense of maintaining a
foundry of their own. A foundryman who depends largely or wholly upon
job contracts to keep his plant in operation usually has to turn out
an exceedingly varied assortment of castings, and speed is often an
essential factor in the contract. This means that as soon as one job is
finished, the flasks and patterns must be removed and a different set
substituted. If the yard is not well kept there is little likelihood
that there will be ample space in it for the flasks and sand, and
if there is not, it may be necessary to use the foundry floor for
storage until the new flasks are brought in. The floor is then in
a disorderly, crowded state, just when clear space is needed. It is
evident that the probability of accident is greatly increased when such
conditions prevail.
It is important for the foundry yard to be level and fairly smooth,
and it will pay the owner well to put forth every reasonable effort to
secure a yard of this kind. Material can be handled and stored with
much greater safety and facility, in a level yard, than in one that is
sloping or uneven. Foot paths, and passageways for wheelbarrows and
trucks, can also be kept in good condition more easily.
A considerable part of the space in a yard, particularly when it
belongs to a jobbing foundry, is devoted to the storage of flasks. The
flasks should be carefully piled, so that they will not fall over, and
they should also be arranged in an orderly manner, according to size,
type, or combinations. Attention to these details will no doubt consume
more time than would be required to store the flasks promiscuously;
but the extra time is well worth taking, on account of the ease with
which the flasks can be located, and the safety with which they can be
withdrawn when they are again needed in the foundry,--to say nothing of
the greater safety that proper storing insures, during the intervening
period. If the flasks are heaped up in disorderly piles, or stored in
other indiscriminate ways, accidents are likely to happen when the
workmen are endeavoring to extricate one that is more or less buried or
hidden. If the particular flask required cannot be located readily, a
less desirable one is used, or a makeshift is hastily constructed. In
the foundry these misfit flasks often cause burns, many of which could
be avoided if more system were used in storing the flasks in the yard,
so that the right one could be found without delay.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of the General Electric Company._
FIG. 18. DANGEROUS LOADING OF A CAR USED FOR TRANSPORTING FOUNDRY
MATERIAL.]
When materials or equipment are stored or piled by the side of car
tracks, a clear space of not less than six feet should be maintained
between the tracks and the piles. Workmen engaged in the movement of
cars, or other employees who are obliged to use the car tracks in the
performance of their work, are likely to be caught and killed, or
severely injured, unless ample clearance is provided.
At all places where railroad tracks cross roadways, runways, or
footways, planks should be nailed down between the rails and at both
sides of them, or other equivalent measures should be taken, to provide
a smooth passageway over the rails for wagons, trucks, or barrows,
as well as for foot passers. This greatly facilitates the crossing
of the tracks, and it also reduces, in large measure, the shocks to
which loads would otherwise be subjected, and the consequent danger
of material falling off and injuring the men. The planks (or their
equivalent) should be _flush_ with the rails, however, and they should
come snugly up to the rails on the outside, and as close to them, on
the inside, as the flanges of the car wheels will permit. Warning signs
should be posted at all crossings, and the men engaged in car movements
should always blow a whistle or sound a gong or bell as the cars
approach a crossing.
Whenever tracks or roadways are depressed, they should be guarded by
substantial railings. Furnace pits and excavations of all kinds should
also have effective protection of the same nature.
All manholes should be kept covered with wooden tops, or with covers
made safe by the use of non-slip material or by being checkered with a
raised pattern; and the covers should be set as nearly flush with the
surrounding surfaces as possible. Many serious injuries have resulted
from workmen slipping on smooth, wet manhole covers of iron or steel,
and from tripping over covers projecting above the level of the floor
or the ground. When it is necessary to remove a cover, a guard rail
should be placed about the hole immediately, and a danger signal
secured to the guard rail.
Sand bins and coke bins, particularly those constructed of wood, often
get badly out of repair. The boards become warped and bulge out under
the weight of their contents, and they often split or crack in such a
way as to present dagger-like points, or slivers, that are likely to
catch the unwary workman, especially at night or during late afternoons
in winter months, when the light is poor.
Good, serviceable walks should be provided throughout the yard. If the
walks are conveniently located and are kept in good order, the workmen
will use them; but if these conditions are not fulfilled, the men will
climb over scrap piles or under cars, in order to “make a short cut.”
Cinder paths are no doubt the most serviceable for foundry yards.
Loosely-laid boards are continually getting out of place, and they are
also likely to become warped so that they will not lie flat. Boards
often warp enough to split, even when they are nailed down; and in such
cases they may constitute a more or less dangerous tripping hazard to
the workmen.
The safest way to store pig iron is to stow it in bins, or pile it
up in neat stacks. This is more costly, however, than throwing it
down promiscuously in piles, and hence the safer methods are often
neglected. Electromagnetic cranes are coming into wide use for
handling pig iron, and although they are very convenient, they have
serious drawbacks when regarded from the safety standpoint, and their
hazards should be clearly understood and carefully avoided. When the
electromagnet is used no one should be permitted to stand, walk, or
work near the path followed by the magnet, because any interruption of
the electric service, from the opening of a switch, the blowing of a
fuse, the short-circuiting of the magnet coil, or any other cause, will
instantly let the whole load drop. Sometimes, too, a pig is barely held
by the magnet, so that the least jar will break its contact and allow
it to fall.
Safety, neatness, and convenience may be secured by constructing
stout bins and dividing them into compartments, preferably of one-car
capacity each, in which the pig iron can be deposited by the magnet
crane,--always provided the dangers incident to the use of the magnet
are borne in mind and avoided. When the iron is piled high in loose,
irregular heaps, there is danger of one or more of the pigs becoming
free and tumbling down upon workmen. This hazard is avoided when
substantial bins are employed.
In many foundry yards boxes and barrels are used to store worn-out
tools, small scrap material, discarded lumber, and other rubbish. It
will materially assist in keeping the yard in a neat, safe condition,
if the barrels or boxes used for this purpose are kept in convenient
places, because the men are then more likely to make use of them. It
is important, too, to keep all such receptacles in good order. It is
not uncommon to see the ragged edge of a worn-out shovel blade, or
some other discarded tool, sticking out menacingly over the edge of a
box or barrel. Heaping up the scrap so that it stands high above the
receptacles, or allowing it to project over the edges of them as just
described, should be prohibited, because careless habits of this kind
increase the dangers about the yard and invite injury, especially at
night.
Barrel hoops are frequently left lying about, and when a workman steps
on such a hoop it is likely to swing up and strike him smartly, often
causing acute pain, or perhaps producing an actual abrasion or lesion,
if it contains a sharp nail. This particular hazard may be taken as
representative of a large class of others that are seemingly trivial in
nature, but which are well worthy of attention in the aggregate. These
minor accidents are often attended by grave consequences, not only
because they may be followed by septic poisoning, but also because they
frequently occur when the workman is engaged at some important task
involving the safety of himself or others. Coming at such a time they
take him by surprise, and they are likely to make his attention lapse
momentarily from the work in hand,--perhaps with disastrous results. A
book might be written about the big consequences of little things.
When old castings and other metal objects are broken up the work should
preferably be done in the yard. A “skull-cracker” or “yard-drop” is
usually employed for breaking these objects, and this consists of a
derrick or hoist which lifts a heavy metal ball and drops it on the
castings. Pieces of the objects are likely to fly in all directions
when the weight falls on and breaks them, and all persons in the
immediate vicinity are endangered by these pieces. Every skull-cracker
should therefore be entirely surrounded by a substantially constructed
fence, barricade, or inclosure, of sufficient height to protect persons
working in the vicinity, and all passers-by, from injury from flying
fragments of metal. In addition, a suitable shelter-house should be
provided for the operator of the skull-cracker and his helpers, and
all these persons should go into the shelter-house _before the ball is
raised_. A safety drop-hook should be used to prevent premature or
accidental dropping of the ball, if the weight is held by mechanical
means; and if an electromagnet is employed to raise and hold the
weight, the utmost care should be taken to keep the electrical circuits
and devices in perfect condition. All gears, sprockets, and other
dangerous moving parts of the skull-cracker should be covered or
otherwise rendered harmless by the installation of standard guards.
INDEX
Accident in foundries, the causes of, 1.
Acid burns, protection against, 5.
Air, compressed, as employed in foundries, 52.
accidents caused by misusing, 52.
Annealing chains and hooks, 44.
Aprons, rubber and leather, 5.
Barrels, tumbling, wet and dry, 47.
guards for, 48.
Bins, sand and coke, dangers of, 63.
Boots, rubber, 5.
Bot, the proper use of the, 30.
Brakes, crane, testing, 40.
Braking, dynamic, for cranes, 37.
Buggy ladles.--See _Ladles_.
Bull ladles.--See _Ladles_; _Shanks_; _Clamps_.
Bumpers for cranes, 36.
Burns the most common injuries in foundries, 1.
--See also _Acid burns_.
Carbon monoxide in cupolas, 34.
Castings, old, method of breaking up, 65.
Chains, responsibility for selection of, 41.
and hooks, inspecting and annealing, 44.
Chipping department, accidents in the, 50.
Clamps for bowls of bull ladles, 9.
Clearance beside car tracks, 61.
Clinkers, crucibles damaged by, 29.
Clothing, suitable, for foundry workers, 1.
Crane operators, duties of, 39.
under repairs, precautions for, 44.
ladles.--See _Ladles_.
Cranes, traveling, safeguards for, 35.
electromagnetic, dangers of, 63.
Crucibles, the safe handling of, 19.
material for, 19.
improve with age, 20.
records of heats taken from, 21.
inspection, storage, and annealing of, 22.
“soaking”, 22.
“alligator cracks” in, 24.
care in filling, 25.
injured by tongs and shanks, 26.
the number of heats taken from, 26.
danger of leaving metal in bottom of, 30.
Cupola, gate for charging, opening of, 32.
Cupolas, proper method of tapping-out, 30.
precautions to be taken when relining, 32, 33.
explosions in, 33.
charging, lighting-up, and warming-up, 35.
Damper in blast pipe, 34.
Doors, explosion, for cupolas, 34.
Dust hazard in sand-blasting, 53.
from tumbling barrels, methods for removing, 47.
Drops.--See _Skull-crackers_.
Electricity, guarding against shocks and burns from, 50.
Elevators in foundries, 31.
Emery wheels.--See _Grinding wheels_.
Employees, new, instruction of, 12.
Explosion doors for cupolas, 34.
Explosions in cupolas, 33.
Eye-protectors for foundrymen, 3, 4, 50.
Fenders for cranes, 36.
Flasks and molds, 16.
iron and steel, superior to wooden, 16.
storage of, 18, 60.
Floors, concrete and brick, prevent spills, 8.
Foot-walks on crane bridges and runways, 36.
Foundry, jobbing, 59.
repetition, 59.
yard, the, 58.
Furnaces, oil, for heating crucibles, 25.
Garments.--See _Clothing_.
Gas.--See _Carbon monoxide_.
Gears on geared ladles to be completely inclosed, 5.
Glass, prism, for use in foundries, 57.
Glasses, safety.--See _Eye-protectors_.
Gloves for use in foundries, 4.
Goggles.--See _Eye-protectors_.
Gongs, signal, for cranes, 42.
Grinding wheels, guards for, 52.
Hand-leathers, 4.
Helmets for sand-blasters, 53.
Hoisting apparatus, care of, 47.
--See also _Cranes, traveling_; _Elevators_.
Hook, crane, method of applying, to load, 41.
Hooks, crane, with safety handles, 41.
and chains, inspecting and annealing, 44.
safety, for skull-crackers, 65.
Hoops, barrel, dangers of, 64.
Illumination in foundries, 56.
Injuries in foundries, the causes of, 1.
Iron, pig, storage of, 63.
scrap and pig, safety in handling, 31.
Jokes, practical, with compressed air, 53.
Khaki.--See _Clothing_.
Ladles, motor-operated, guards for, 5.
foundry, types of, 5.
geared, locking device for, 7.
crane, precautions in connection with, 7.
sulky and buggy, cause many accidents, 7.
bull, styles of shank-handles for, 9.
single-hand, guards for, 10.
proper method of filling, 12.
proper balancing of, 12.
damp, explosions caused by, 14.
relining, drying, and storing, 16.
--See also _Prong guards_; _Trolley systems_.
Lamps, electric, suitable for foundries, 57.
Leave-overs, proper disposition of, 14.
Leggings, suitable, for foundry workers, 2.
Lenses.--See _Eye-protectors_.
Lighting.--See _Illumination_.
Limit-stops, hoist, for cranes, 37.
Manholes, safe covers for, 62.
Molding machines, automatic, guards for, 50.
Molds and flasks, 16.
Orderliness in foundry yards, advantages of, 64.
Overalls.--See _Clothing_.
Passages, width of, between rows of flasks, 17.
Pickling processes, rubber gloves required for, 4.
Prong guards for buggy ladles, 9.
Railroad tracks in foundry yards, 62.
Rattlers.--See _Barrels, tumbling_.
Respirators.--See _Helmets_.
Riding on crane loads prohibited, 42.
Run-outs, 17.
Runways for buggy ladles, 7.
Safety-valves for cupolas, 34.
Sand-blasting, precautions in, 53.
Sand mixers and sifters, guards for, 49.
types of, 49.
Screen guard for use when relining cupola, 32.
Shanks for bull ladles, 9.
Shields for hand ladles, 10.
to intercept flying chips, 52.
Shirts.--See _Clothing_.
Shoes, congress, best for foundry workers, 2.
Signals for elevators, 31.
code of, for directing movements of crane, 43.
--See also _Gongs_.
Skull-crackers, guards for, 65.
Sleeves should be worn outside of gauntlets, 4.
Slings, responsibility for selection of, 41.
the safe angle of, 46.
to be locked up when not in use, 46.
protecting, at sharp corners of heavy objects, 46.
wire-rope, preferable to chain slings, 45.
lubricating, 45.
--See also _Chains and hooks_.
Stops, hoist-limit, for cranes, 37.
on crane runways, 36.
Sulky ladles.--See _Ladles_.
Switches, safety, for cranes, 37.
Tapping-out.--See _Cupolas_.
Tongs, types of, 27.
suitable, importance of using, 27.
Tongs, bent, method of re-shaping, 29.
Tools, defective, should not be used, 52.
Trolley systems for transporting ladles, 9.
Tumbling barrels.--See _Barrels, tumbling_.
Walks in foundry yards, 63.
Wiring for cranes to be installed in conduits, 37.
Woodwork about cranes, fire hazard of, 38.
Yard, foundry, the 58.
Yard-drops, guards for, 65.
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