The Project Gutenberg eBook of How old are fossils?
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: How old are fossils?
Author: Sharat K. Roy
Release date: November 21, 2023 [eBook #72188]
Language: English
Original publication: Chicago, IL: Field Museum of Natural History, 1927
Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD ARE FOSSILS? ***
Transcriber’s Notes:
Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
HOW OLD ARE FOSSILS?
BY
SHARAT K. ROY
ASSISTANT CURATOR OF INVERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY
[Illustration]
GEOLOGY
LEAFLET 9
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO
1927
LIST OF GEOLOGICAL LEAFLETS ISSUED TO DATE
No. 1. Model of an Arizona Gold Mine $ .10
No. 2. Models of Blast Furnaces for Smelting Iron .10
No. 3. Amber—Its Physical Properties and
Geological Occurrence .10
No. 4. Meteorites .10
No. 5. Soils .10
No. 6. The Moon .10
No. 7. Early Geological History of Chicago .25
No. 8. Agate .50
No. 9. How old are Fossils? .25
D. C. DAVIES, DIRECTOR
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO, U.S.A.
[Illustration: LEAFLET 9. PLATE I.
A VIEW OF THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA.
ZOROASTER IN BACKGROUND.
Photograph by O. C. Farrington.]
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
CHICAGO, 1927
LEAFLET NUMBER 9
How old are Fossils?
“How old is that fossil and how do you know it?” is a question
frequently asked by visitors going through the hall of fossils in
the Museum. A precise answer to such a question is impossible and
an adequate one demands a longer time than can usually be afforded.
The consequences of inadequate explanation have often proved to be
unsatisfactory. The visitor becomes skeptical and instead of taking
interest in the subject, he seems to be confirmed in his doubts.
In this leaflet is given a condensed, general statement of methods
of determining the age of ancient life. The information is drawn
from the works of various authors, especially Barrell’s “Rhythms and
Measurements of Geologic Time.” It is intended for those who are
interested in the age of past life and yet do not intend an exhaustive
study of the subject, nor have free and easy access to its literature.
The birth of life was the most momentous occasion in the history of
the earth. When one considers the myriads of evidences unearthed by
paleontologists and paleobotanists, they seem to leave no room to doubt
the great conception that the life of the land has emerged from the
sea. It is, therefore, only a natural impulse to look for the remains
of this life in the rocks laid down by the ancient seas and to wonder
at the vastness of time behind them.
Since traces of the lowest forms of life have been found in
practically the oldest known sedimentary strata, the problem of
determining the age of life necessarily involves the determination of
the age of those strata. But unravelling the dead past is not an easy
task. One trying to unlock the “secrets of the cemetery of Nature’s
dead,” walks on a shadowy road. His difficulties are many. It is like
crossing a deep moat, climbing a steep wall.
Various methods have been applied to estimate the age of different
periods of the earth’s history and much progress has been made toward
a successful issue. Broadly, the procedure of different methods is the
same. They do not differ in principle. “The rates of certain changes
at the present day are determined as accurately as possible, and in
imagination, the respective processes are traced backward in time until
limiting conditions are arrived at.” Until the epoch-making discovery
of radium, the two most outstanding methods used in calculating
geologic time were (1) the rate of land erosion and deposition and (2)
the rate of derivation of salt (sodium chloride) from the land and its
accumulation in the oceans. Theoretically, it is simple to use the rate
at which sediments are being deposited or solutions gathered into the
ocean, as “geologic clocks” for estimating the length of past time. But
in practice each method encounters its own difficulties and the results
deduced give us at best only a rough idea of the immensity of time
involved. I shall not deal with these individual estimates, but give
the mean of several, which is 100,000,000 years, speaking roundly. As
stated before, it is only a rough estimate. Nevertheless, it confirms
the fact that the earth is very old—indeed much older than is commonly
believed. In 1650, Bishop Ussher, in his interpretation of the “In the
beginning” of Genesis, estimated that the earth was created 4004 years
before the birth of Christ. According to this view the earth is 5931
years old today. Many cosmogonists and even some geologists of the 19th
century held this Biblical interpretation to be the age of the earth.
Other ancient religions held that the earth was created much earlier
then 4004 B.C. Hutton, one of the founders of Geology, in his studies,
found “no vestige of a beginning—no prospect of an end.” One cannot
help sympathizing with Hutton. Whoever has made a trip to the Grand
Canyon of the Colorado River, Arizona, must remember the awe-inspiring
depth of the Paleozoic strata and thousands of feet of Proterozoic
sediments beneath them (Pl. I). If he has traveled farther north to
the Cabinet Range, Montana, he must have carried with him an undying
impression of the 35,000 ft. of the rocky monument, there built up by
the Proterozoic seas.
[Illustration: LEAFLET 9. PLATE II.
COMPARISON OF AN ANCIENT AND A MODERN MARINE ANIMAL OF ALLIED GROUPS.
1, A CAMBRIAN TRILOBITE (AFTER WALCOTT). 2, A MODERN HORSESHOE CRAB.]
The present rate of denudation in the Hudson Bay region is one foot in
about 47,000 years. How long then, has it taken the seas to lay down
these miles of sediments, which are but a small fraction of the whole
geologic column? Having considered all this, can we estimate, even
approximately, the vast length of time that has elapsed between these
periods of sedimentation, the so-called “gaps” or “breaks”—the torn,
illegibly written pages of the history of the earth? Indeed, there are
moments when all may feel that it is much beyond their comprehension.
But, man, by nature, is at once humble and exalted. He is willing to
admit his defeat, yet his thirst to conquer new knowledge, to know the
truth, is never satiated.
The reason for the failure to arrive at an absolute result is not very
far to seek. In computing geologic time, one has to calculate that
which has elapsed, by some process in nature that takes place in one
direction only and that does not change its rate when conditions alter.
Whatever the method applied, be it the deposition of sediments, or the
gathering of solutions, or the losing of heat by the sun and the earth,
its rate of action should be uniform and uninterrupted. It should be
independent of the changing conditions of the earth. Uniformity of
the rate of action is the criterion for precise calculation. But we
know that the past was quite different from the present. Different
conditions have existed at different times during the earth’s history.
The configuration of the earth, its climate, humidity, temperature and
many other factors have varied from time to time and with them the rate
of erosion, deposition and solution has either accelerated, diminished
or ceased. The doctrine of uniformitarianism cannot be assumed in a
changing world, even though our knowledge of the earth of the past can
only be gained from a fuller study of the earth of the present.
When we consider the rate of sedimentation as a method for estimating
geologic time, we take the total observed thickness of the geologic
column, (estimated to be 70 miles) and divide it by the rate at which
the sediments are now being laid down. But do we know this rate? By
taking the average rate of sedimentation of nine large rivers[1] now
in existence and assuming it to be the rate at which sediments were
deposited in the past, an approximate conclusion can be arrived at.
But it will be noticed from the figures of the rate of sedimentation
of different rivers that they are widely variable, the highest being
many times greater than the lowest. Can we then use an average of nine
figures so out of proportion and yet expect a reliable quantitative
value? Furthermore, the rate of deposition along the coast, near the
mouth of a large and active river, is much higher than on a coastline
where no rivers empty their sediments into the sea. The rate is also
largely controlled by the character of the sediments deposited.
Sandstone and shale are more rapidly deposited than limestone.
Moreover, just as there is no knowledge of the duration of time of
erosion between periods of sedimentation, there is also no record of
the amount of detritus that has fallen off the edge of the continental
shelf during widespread emergence of the continents.
[1]
-----------+-----------+-------------+-----------+------------------
River | Drainage | Total tons | Ratio of |Height in feet of
| areas in | annually | sediment |column of sediment
| square | | to water | with a base of
| miles | | in weight | 1 square mile
-----------+-----------+-------------+-----------+------------------
Potomac | 11,043 | 5,557,250 | 1: 3,575 | 4.0
Mississippi| 1,244,000 | 406,250,000 | 1: 1,500 | 241.4
Rio Grande | 30,000 | 3,830,000 | 1: 291 | 2.8
Uruguay | 150,000 | 14,782,500 | 1:10,000 | 10.6
Rhone | 34,800 | 36,000,000 | 1: 1,775 | 31.1
Po | 27,100 | 67,000,000 | 1: 900 | 59.0
Danube | 320,300 | 108,000,000 | 1: 2,800 | 93.2
Nile | 1,100,000 | 54,000,000 | 1: 2,050 | 38.8
Irrawaddy | 125,000 | 291,430,000 | 1: 1,610 | 209.0
-----------+-----------+-------------+-----------+------------------
Babb. Science, Vol. XXI, p. 343, 1893.
We have also no record of the vast quantity of shallow water sediments
that were stirred up by the penetration of storm waves, and carried to
abyssal depths by the currents and tides.
Similar uncertainties beset us when we consider the rate of chemical
denudation, that is, the rate at which salts have been dissolved from
the lands and accumulated in the oceans, as a measure of geological
time. Here, again, we take the total amount of salts that is in the
oceans today and divide it by the present rate of annual supply. We
know with reasonable accuracy the quantity of salts in the oceans
and if it were possible to assume the present rate of supply to be a
true mean for all geological time, a satisfactory age of the oceans
might be obtained. But it cannot be assumed as such. An assumption of
this nature will only lead us from the domain of exactness to that of
uncertainty. Aside from various other factors, neither the area of
the continents, nor their relief was in the past the same as today.
Consequently, the stream gradient and its power of dissolving salts
from the land surfaces have not been the same. It is also not known how
much salt the ocean derived from the shore line and from beds beneath
the ocean, nor how much of the rock-salt beds on the earth that has
been precipitated out of ocean water.
It is plain, therefore, that the rate of any process that is controlled
by so many conditions cannot be used (even making generous allowances
for irregularities and inaccessible data) as a reliable guide to
evaluate geologic time. “It is a clock,” says Harker, “which now
hurries and now creeps or stands still, and it cannot be trusted as a
timekeeper.”
Any estimate based on the temperature of the earth, or of the sun,
encounters similar practical difficulties, for the temperature of a
body may not be constant. It may rise or it may fall. Further, the rate
of change of temperature is controlled by a variety of conditions, such
as the amount of energy radiated, the supply of energy and so forth.
Nor is there any record of the immense quantity of heat produced by
igneous agencies and radio-activity.
Another estimate, one of the earliest, was based on the rate of life
transformation in successive periods. The geological series were
divided into twelve periods and it was believed that 20,000,000 years
were required for an entire change in the species of each period, or
240,000,000 years in all. This does not include the time in which we
have no record of plant or animal life.
There is no reasonable debate as to the passage of one species to
another. It is clearly manifested in the succession of fauna found
today all over the world in the sedimentary rocks. Even the most casual
student of paleontology is convinced of this glaring truth. “The brutal
cogency of a slab of fossils could be hated and fought, but could not
be gainsaid.” But when we are confronted with the question of setting
a standard of measuring geologic time by means of this paleontological
record, more precisely, through this biological process, we cannot
help pondering over the grave uncertainty of the result. When we fix
our gaze upon a trilobite, a three-lobed, crab-like creature (Pl. II
fig. 1) that ruled the seas in the dim days of the Cambrian period (p.
11) and see that it was equipped with gills and swimming organs, with
powers of digestion and excretion, with specific organs of circulation
and reproduction and with motor and sensory nerves, and compare it
with one of its tribe, a present day horseshoe crab, (Pl. II fig. 2)
we do not find any noticeable progress in structure, in intricacy or
in the degree of specialization. Yet the time that has elapsed since
the Cambrian is, according to a moderate estimate, nearly 600,000,000
years! (p. 11). Geologic record testifies that evolution awaits
environmental change, that animals in some way adjust themselves to
their environment, either by discarding or modifying old characters or
by acquiring new ones. Yet, what are known as “immortal” types, such as
the brachiopods, Lingula, Crania and Terebratula (Pl. III figs. 1-3)
or the pelecypods, such as Pecten, Pinna and Arca (Pl. III figs. 4-6)
or the gastropods, such as Pleurotomaria, Natica and Trochus (Pl. III
figs. 7-9), have withstood all possible environmental changes and have
steadfastly held their own ever since we have records of their very
early appearance on earth. On the contrary, we have records of types
that have yielded so rapidly to change that their evolution is almost
explosive. It is almost incomprehensible how, within such a limited
period of time, fishes have changed into amphibians, amphibians into
reptiles, and reptiles into birds and mammals (Pl. IV figs. 1-4). With
these conflicting evidences staring us in the face, with the knowledge
that the entire organic world has been subject to earth-wide periods
of long stagnation and rapid intensive change, one may well ponder
whether it is within our power to establish a standard for measuring
geologic time on the evidence of life transformation. The study of the
succession of faunas—the change of one species to another, can only
indicate the magnitude of time involved. It cannot afford any basis,
whatsoever, for a concrete expression of geologic time.
During the last three decades, a number of radio-active changes of
one chemical element into another have been discovered and studies of
certain minerals and rocks containing various radio-active elements
have created means to calculate their age with remarkable accuracy.
“A study of the various radio-active elements contained in minerals
and rocks,” says Harker, “has shown that it is possible, in certain
favorable cases, to calculate directly their age in years.”
The radio-active minerals are commonly found in igneous rocks. They
are widely distributed all over the world. The parents of the whole
series of radio-active elements are uranium and thorium. They possess
the highest atomic weights of all known elements. Each of these
parental elements transforms itself through a succession of changes.
The final product of uranium is the formation of the metal lead and
the gas helium. These transformations take place in one direction
only, that is, from an element of higher atomic weight to an element
of lower atomic weight. It has also been demonstrated beyond question
that these transformations are unalterable by any process whatsoever
and that they are independent of temperature, pressure or any other
physical or chemical state. Temperatures up to 2,500 C. and pressures
up to 600 tons per square inch have not been found to influence the
rate of transformation. Time estimated on the basis of these processes,
therefore, offers a more reliable result than that obtained by any
other method hitherto known. Detailed descriptions of how the metal
uranium slowly and regularly breaks down in a descending series into
the metal lead and the gas helium, will be found in the literature on
radio-activity. For our purpose, it suffices to say that according to
Barrell, an atom of uranium which breaks up will ultimately give rise
as a stable product to eight atoms of helium and one atom of lead.
Since the rate of transformation is known, data for calculating the age
of the mineral and with it the rock formation of which it is a part,
can be obtained by measuring the quantity of helium and lead in the
rock and comparing it with the quantity of uranium in the same volume
of material. But, as helium is a gas, it is likely that a certain
portion of it leaks out and consequently the estimate of age on the
basis of how long helium had been in contact with uranium and lead is
to be regarded as a minimum estimate. For example, the age of the
mineral thorianite that occurs abundantly in the sands and gravels of
Ceylon has been estimated to be 280,000,000 years, but the mineral
is doubtless much older, as, ever since it was broken away from its
original home in the pegmatite dikes of Ceylon, it lay exposed to the
action of weathering and it was, therefore, very likely that during all
these years a certain percentage of its helium contents had leaked away.
But estimates based on the lead ratios of radio-active minerals offer
results consistent among themselves. That is, whenever fresh, primary,
uranium-bearing minerals of the same geological age have been examined,
the lead ratios are always found to remain constant. The value of the
ratios increases or decreases as the geological age of the respective
mineral increases or decreases. In other words, the lead ratios are in
keeping with the geological age.
The procedure of applying the lead ratio in calculating geological time
can be briefly stated thus: The rate of production of lead from uranium
can be readily calculated. The rate at which helium is generated is
accurately known and the quantity of lead liberated in the same time is
approximately 6.5 times that of helium. In a year one gram of uranium
produces 1.25 × 10⁻¹⁰ grams of lead, and at this rate 8,000[2] million
years will be required for the production of one gram of lead.
[2] A more recent and accurate computation reduces this 8,000 million
years to 7,500 million years.
There is no serious difficulty in applying this method for measuring
geologic time, except that it is necessary to determine whether
the lead is of radio-active origin or original lead. The presence
of original lead is likely to mar the constancy of the lead ratio
essential for accurate results. But ordinary lead need not be confused
with uranium lead, as the atomic weight of ordinary lead is 207.1 and
that of uranium lead is 206.2. Values between these two figures imply
a mixture of two types of lead. For reliable calculations, a series of
fresh, primary minerals of the same geological age showing a constant
lead ratio of atomic weight 206.2 needs to be examined.
The following table shows the geologic time that has elapsed
between the first evidences of life and the present, as calculated
by Barrell from radio-active data. The figures are his minimum and
maximum estimates. It will be noticed from the figures in the table
that the earliest life of which we have fossil records is about
1,500,000,000 years old. From this, it could be safely concluded that
the inception of life on earth must have taken place much earlier.
It is quite significant that each geological era, occasionally a
geological period, has its characteristic grouping of life developed
from the life of preceding periods. As we climb higher in the
geological column, life becomes more and more complex and specialized.
From the one-celled life of the Archeozoic it passes through the
invertebrates—fishes—amphibians—reptiles—birds and mammals to man
of the Recent time.
Since Barrell’s publication of the estimates of geologic time as
measured by means of radio-activity, some further studies have been
made along the same line, but, as no generally accepted results have
shown any marked differences from Barrell’s results, it has been deemed
advisable to use his age data as perhaps our present most adequate
guide as to the length of geologic periods.
Although the measurable forces of radio-activity give on the whole a
remarkably satisfactory time gauge and are doubtless more accurate
than any method here discussed, it must not be considered that the
ages given (p. 11) are absolute. The knowledge of geological time is
of more importance for the comparative than for the absolute magnitude
of the results obtained. Just as the study of astronomy gives us the
conception of the vastness of space, so does the study of geology
reveal to us that of the immensity of time.
SHARAT K. ROY.
[Illustration: LEAFLET 9. PLATE III.
“IMMORTAL” TYPES.
1, LINGULA. 2, CRANIA. 3, TEREBRATULA. 4, PECTEN. 5, PINNA. 6, ARCA.
7, PLEUROTOMARIA. 8, NATICA. 9, TROCHUS.
(Figs. 1, 2, 7, after Hall, 3, 9, after Zittel, 4, 6, after Dall, 5,
Pal. N. J. I, 8, after Cragin).
Drawings by Carl F. Gronemann.]
THE GEOLOGICAL TIME TABLE
1.0 = One million years
------------+-----------------+---------------+--------------------
| | TIME SCALE |
ERAS | PERIODS |(After Barrell)| CHARACTERISTIC
| +-------+-------+ LIFE
| |Minimum|Maximum|
------------------------------+-------+-------+--------------------
PSYCHOZOIC | Recent | | |
------------+-----------------+ 1 | 1.5 | AGE OF MAN
| Pleistocene | | |
+-----------------+-------+-------+--------------------
| Pliocene | 7 | 9 |
+-----------------+-------+-------+
CENOZOIC | Miocene | 19 | 23 | AGE OF MAMMALS
+-----------------+-------+-------+ AND MODERN
| Oligocene | 35 | 39 | FLOWERING PLANTS
+-----------------+-------+-------+
| Eocene | 55 | 65 |
------------+-----------------+-------+-------+--------------------
| Cretaceous | 95 | 115 |
+-----------------+-------+-------+
| Comanchian | 120 | 150 |
MESOZOIC +-----------------+-------+-------+ AGE OF REPTILES
| Jurassic | 155 | 195 |
+-----------------+-------+-------+
| Triassic | 190 | 240 |
------------+-----------------+-------+-------+--------------------
| Permian | 215 | 280 | AGE OF AMPHIBIANS
+-----------------+-------+-------+ AND
| Pennsylvanian | 250 | 330 | ANCIENT FLORAS
+-----------------+-------+-------+--------------------
| Mississippian | 300 | 370 |
+-----------------+-------+-------+ AGE OF FISHES
PALEOZOIC | Devonian | 350 | 420 |
+-----------------+-------+-------+--------------------
| Silurian | 390 | 460 |
+-----------------+-------+-------+ AGE OF HIGHER
| Ordovician | 480 | 590 | SHELLED
+-----------------+-------+-------+ INVERTEBRATES
| Cambrian | 550 | 700 |
------------+-----------------+-------+-------+--------------------
| | |
PROTEROZOIC | | 925 | AGE OF PRIMITIVE
| | | INVERTEBRATES
------------+ Systematic +---------------+--------------------
| classification | LONG EROSIONAL INTERVAL
------------+ variable +---------------+--------------------
| | | DAWN OF UNICELLULAR
ARCHEOZOIC | | 1500 | LIFE, ALGAL FORMS
| | | REPORTED
------------+-----------------+---------------+--------------------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARRELL, J.—Rhythms and Measurements of Geological Time.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 28, 1917, pp. 745-904.
BECKER, GEO. E.—The Age of the Earth.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., LVI., No. 6, 1910.
CHAMBERLAIN, T. C.—Diastrophism and the Formative Processes, XIII.
The Time over which the Ingathering of the Planetesimals
was Spread.
Jour. Geol., Vol. XXVIII, 1920, pp. 675-81.
HARKER, A.—Geology in relation to the exact sciences, with an
excursus on geological time.
Nature, Vol. 95, 1915, pp. 105-109.
HOLMES, A.—The Age of the Earth.
Harper and Bros., London and New York, 1913.
JOLY, J.—Radioactivity and Geology.
Van Nostrand, N. Y., 1909;
An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin, VII. 1899, pp. 23-66;
The Age of the Earth. Phil. Mag., 6th ser.,
Vol. XXII, 1911, pp. 359-80.
SOLLAS, W. J.—Presidential Address.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. 65, 1909, pp. cxii;
Proc. Geol. Soc. of London, Sess. 1908-9, pp. i-cxxii.
WALCOTT, C. D.—Geologic Time, as indicated by the sedimentary rocks
of North America.
Smithsonian Rep. 1893, pp. 301-334;
Jour. Geol. Vol. III, 1893, pp. 639-674.
[Illustration: LEAFLET 9. PLATE IV.
EVOLUTION OF FISH TO MAMMAL-LIKE REPTILE.
1, FISH. 2, AMPHIBIAN. 3, REPTILE. 4, MAMMAL-LIKE REPTILE.
(Figs. 1, 2, after Klaatsch, 3, based on Williston, 4, based on
Gregory).
Drawings by Sharat K. Roy.]
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD ARE FOSSILS? ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
