The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pompeii
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Pompeii
Author: Richard Engelmann
Translator: Talfourd Ely
Release date: May 12, 2026 [eBook #78658]
Language: English
Original publication: London: H. Grevel & Co, 1904
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/78658
Credits: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POMPEII ***
FAMOUS ART CITIES;
No. 1,
POMPEII
POMPEII
BY
RICHARD ENGELMANN
TRANSLATED BY
TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.;
FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON
[Illustration]
1904
LONDON, W. C. NEW YORK
H. GREVEL & CO. CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN
PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG
Table of Contents
Preface
Index
List of Illustrations
PREFACE
The present work forms the first of a series of volumes published under
the general title of “_Famous Art Cities_”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav
Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors will deal with
Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena, Ravenna and Cairo will represent a
continuation.
Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will not grudge a corner
beside his guide-book for a _Vademecum_ such as this, which offers the
inspiration of the _Genius loci_ to the traveller of artistic tastes.
As the one meets his material needs, so the other ministers to the
intellectual interests of the man of education, and may, at a later
time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his remembrance of
what he has seen.
[Illustration: Excavation (p. 9).]
“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is a saying one often
hears, a saying which means that after seeing Naples in all her beauty
one has nothing on earth left to admire.
And in a certain sense this is true enough: there are but few places
which in beauty of scenery can compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet
a visit to Naples is not all; equally with the City of the Living,
so attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly throbbing
early and late, the City of the Dead, Pompeii, deserves also thorough
investigation and careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail
to turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii. This nowadays
is so easy a matter, whether one drives along the beautiful roads
between smiling gardens that adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes
train across the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on the
embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is music and refreshment
in one of the hotels which are in front of the ruins; then quickly to
the entrance; where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through the
Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city.
But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave Naples without seeing
Pompeii also. Those whose memory goes far back enough remember that
in April 1872 the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of
Naples. But this time it was not the splendour of the country that
caused universal attention, and brought to the Bay of Naples countless
foreigners from near and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing
and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts that gathered
there. Vesuvius which for several years (since 1865) had never quite
slumbered, showed itself once more in all its terrors, and ever more
awful than before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height from
old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened the air for miles, and
filled the streets even of distant towns: immense streams of lava burst
from the mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before them.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Vesuvius before the eruption (p. 3).]
And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption did not equal the
one with which Vesuvius first in historic times announced itself as
a volcano and covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities
of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, to say nothing of less famous
places. The desolate cone of ashes which now towers high above the
ordinary surface did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the
summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on its flanks the
grape ripened into costly wine (see fig. 1, a Pompeian wall-painting
representing in all probability Monte di Somma before the evolution
of the crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another drew some
conclusion as to the volcanic nature from the depression on its summit
and the fruitfulness of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it
altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to fear from it.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the
amphitheatre (p. 6).]
Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose suddenly from the
mountain, stones were hurled forth, the heavens grew dark, so that
it might well be thought night had come on, every one took to flight
as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was out of the city
hastened back into it, to rescue what he could. He who was in the city
sought to reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those on shore
hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried to the shore. In short there
was everywhere the most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to
come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the horrors of the
situation. What in 1872 is reported of Portici and Resina and Torre
del Greco, can give but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the
danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected. A description by
the younger Pliny, whose uncle met his death at Stabiae in the eruption
of Vesuvius, has been preserved for us, telling of what happened that
day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about twenty miles in
a straight line. This may be abridged as follows--“For several days
vibrations of the earth had been noticed, but less fear was aroused
because this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that night
however they were so violent that everything seemed to be upset.”
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plaster-cast of a Pompeian woman (p. 6).]
“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in the act of getting
up to wake her in case she should still be asleep. It was now the
seventh hour, yet it was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring
houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided to leave the
city, and our example was followed by the whole of the terrorstricken
inhabitants who hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were out
of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we stopped:--there were
extraordinary things to see. The vehicles which we had collected were
being thrown in opposite directions, although the surface of the ground
was quite level, and even stones thrust under them could not keep them
in the same position. Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least
the shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to the sea were
stranded on the sands. From the other side came a threatening black
cloud, pierced by glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the
earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite enveloped Capri
and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our sight. When my mother saw this, she
adjured me to abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might at
least save my own life; I on the contrary refused to think of escaping
without her, seized her hand, and compelled her to set forth. Ashes
were already falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look
behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and pursues us; let
us, said I, while we can still see, step aside, so as not by remaining
in the road to be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by the
multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated ourselves when dark
night fell round us as it does in closed rooms when the light is put
out. Then were heard lamentations of women, cries of children, shouts
of men, some called to their parents, others to their children, others
to husband or wife; some bemoaned their own fate, others that of their
dear ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the
gods, still more cried that the gods no longer existed, that the last
eternal night had come. Nor were there wanting those who increased
existing terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in ruin and
was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed and believed though it was
not true. Gradually things became clear again; this seemed to us not
the light of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then followed
again darkness and showers of ashes; had we not often stood up to shake
ourselves free of the ashes we should have been covered by them and
overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud little by little
dispersed as if dissolved like smoke; soon it was actually day, and
the sun broke forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of
eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and covered with ashes
as if with snow.”
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Plaster-cast of a dog (p. 6).]
If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from the actual point of
eruption, things went on as here described, what scenes must have been
enacted in Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into joint
suffering in quite another way. It is commonly said that the people
of Pompeii were at the time congregated together in the amphitheatre
at the extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial contests, so
that for the most part they could more easily escape. This however is
a mere myth, as is proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre
when first discovered as well as from the history of the city. In A.
D. 60 the city had been deprived by the Roman Senate of the privilege
of exhibiting gladiatorial contests because such a performance had
given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the inhabitants of
Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were allowed a share in the use of the
amphitheatre (the scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting,
fig. 2); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had destroyed a great
number of buildings and among them the amphitheatre so that it is
certain that at the time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor
wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet the greatest number
of the inhabitants must have succeeded in escaping since on the basis
of the skeletons found up to the present time the number of those who
perished within the city can be estimated at 2,000, out of a total of
30,000 inhabitants. Many of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the
eruption of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for example in
1880-81 there were found the remains of such, who had met with their
death to the south of the city, probably on what was then the bank of
the Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm to cellars or
similar places were doomed to certain destruction, because all exit was
cut off by the falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken
refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped during a pause in the
shower of pumice-stone. Many indeed in vain: after they had worked
their way through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down exhausted
and were enveloped by the ashes. But since these ashes which came
down mixed with rain contained much Pozzolana earth they have taken a
fixed shape around the bodies; in the course of centuries the bodies
have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but the hollow impression has
remained in the shape. Thus attention having been drawn to this through
the frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a hollow appeared
in the stratum of ashes during the excavation, the opportunity has been
seized and liquid plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms
of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of inanimate objects
have been preserved, casts which do not indeed exhibit the sharp
outlines to which we are accustomed in those produced by artistically
prepared moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the observer
as direct reminders of those terrible hours. See figures 3 and 4.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Panorama of Pompeii (p. 11).]
When the mountain had in some measure discontinued its work, the
showers of stones and ashes had ceased, and the sun had appeared again,
the inhabitants of Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but
they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried beneath stones
and ashes. They endeavoured as far as it was possible, to secure some
salvage from the ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most of
the treasures in gold and silver, may well have been withdrawn from
the protecting bosom of the earth either by their lawful owners or by
unauthorised persons. A systematic excavation of the houses, however,
and a reoccupation of the city were not to be thought of, the ruin was
too complete for that. So much the better for us for whom in this way
under the ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been preserved
in the precise condition in which it was on the twenty fourth of August
A. D. 79 (apart of course from the changes which certain materials must
have undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people of Pompeii
settled further towards Vesuvius; the ruins of their old city so far as
they appeared above the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others
disappeared before the plough which began to pass over the fields,
and thus after a few centuries the name of Pompeii with the place
which pertained to it vanished from the memory of men. So it remained
throughout the whole of the Middle Ages; often enough indeed the
countryfolk while tilling their fields struck against old masonry or
found ancient utensils, but the isolated occurrences remained unnoticed.
[Illustration: Fig. 6. The Street of Mercury (p. 15).]
More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect Domenico Fontana
in the year 1594 constructed a canal to bring the water of the Sarno
to Torre dell’ Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day
intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a thorough investigation
by the numerous relics of antiquity that during these operations must
have been cleared out of the way. It was not till the discovery of
Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts were directed to another city,
smitten by a like fate--Pompeii--and when in 1748 peasants again struck
upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at last people began
to mark the spot and to undertake more extensive excavations. Not,
it is true, in a very commendable way, since it was gold and silver
and the greater treasures of art that were especially sought, the
excavators contented themselves with grubbing the earth, and when at
most the better wall-paintings had been cut away, filling up again the
excavated houses. Such for a long time was the system of excavation;
even after an interest in the matter had been roused in higher quarters
the work was carried on with more or less provision of labour, often
only two or three workmen being employed--for many years indeed the
excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the time when Naples
was under the rule of France forms a glorious exception: the work was
entered on with zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons
with twenty six carts and seven mules were employed to remove the
_lapilli_, and thus the few years 1806-1815 shew more results than
the preceding period of more than half a century. With the return of
the Bourbon _régime_ the old conditions of course reappeared, and it
is only in modern times that an improvement in this respect has been
brought about. Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy the
work (and this is especially due to the energy of Giuseppe Fiorelli)
has been arranged in a rational manner and vigorously pushed forward,
so that the completion of the excavations may be expected within a
conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily employed, some
in excavating, others in carrying the _lapilli_ in baskets to the
waggons which then are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the
illustration on page 1.)
[Illustration: Fig. 7. The Street of Nola and its continuation (p. 15).]
While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the exception of some
portions lying close to the sea, which resemble Pompeii) has been
covered by a vast stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the
mass of which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without great
trouble, so that the excavation of the city can be effected only by
a process of mining, and this too with great care, on account of the
city of Resina lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii may be
called comparatively light. Whitish-grey pumice-stones, the so-called
_lapilli_, of various sizes, cover the ground to the height of two to
three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic ashes, which mixed with
a quantity of pozzolana earth and falling with frightful torrents of
rain, the usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed through the
upper layers of pumice-stone, and made their way where the _lapilli_
could not fall (e. g. into the cellars). Over these lie in some
places, but less abundantly, other _lapilli_ which proceeded from
later eruptions of Vesuvius, and the scanty soil that in the course
of centuries has developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to
be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system and method then
according to which the excavations were in earlier times conducted was
in the highest degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings; for
since after once reaching the original ground level the excavators
worked onwards uniformly upon that level, it necessarily followed that
the upper parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the beams
were supported only by the surrounding masses of pumice-stone, fell in
ruin, and so always only slight remains were preserved.
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of a Tower.]
[Illustration: Fig. 9. View of the City Wall from outside.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10. Section of the City Wall (p. 17).]
In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s administration
(1861), the aim has been to preserve in its original position every
part of the ancient walls that is concealed under the surface. This
object is attained by the excavators as they work from above carefully
removing one horizontal layer after another and supporting the masonry
thus brought to light until it is possible to replace the woodwork
destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of equal size. Thus
they have succeeded in preserving not only a part of an upper story
overhanging the street, but also others of the higher portions of
the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way the parts of the city
lately excavated present an appearance essentially different from that
of those previously uncovered; and since too everything is left on the
spot that can be left, especially pictures and mosaics, and since every
effort is made to protect them against the unfavourable effects of the
weather, by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means; while it is
no longer the case (as it used to be) that everything is either removed
to the Naples Museum, or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed,
the visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for himself a far
more truthful picture of ancient life than was possible at an earlier
period. (See fig. 5, giving a view of part of the excavated city. The
Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the Forum. The roofs
which are seen in the illustration serve to protect the wall-paintings,
mosaics, &c. and are therefore almost exclusively modern.)
[Illustration: Fig. 11. The Gate of Herculaneum (p. 17).]
That the movable objects, especially those of gold, silver, bronze, and
terracotta, should have been brought to the Museum is of course only
reasonable and proper. Considering the various characters of the host
of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to happen that one or
other article was destroyed through too rigid an examination, quite
apart from the fact that among such visitors there are always some who
“out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry away with them
some souvenir of the city. Hence it is necessary, if we would form an
accurate representation of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves
of the Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture from Pompeii
is preserved so far as place has not been found for it in the little
museum in Pompeii itself at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however
if Italy’s financial difficulties come to an end (as they must some
day) a plan will be carried out which has long been talked of, viz.,
that a house in Pompeii should be furnished exactly as it was ages ago,
equipped with all the articles which were used in daily life, even if
they have to be collected from different houses. Thus with less trouble
one could form a general conception of the life of that epoch, a much
more difficult task under present circumstances when one has to examine
the various articles of furniture one by one in the Museum far from
their original position.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Street of Abundance (p. 18).]
These movable objects moreover are commonly to be found in the lowest
layer of pumice-stone to the height of one metre; torn from their
proper places by the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily
assumed this position. For this reason the rooms are first of all
cleared to within half a metre of the ground, and then the remainder
is subjected to a thorough examination by experienced excavators.
Since there are always some such rooms ready, it is possible, if
distinguished visitors arrive even unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called
gala excavation, such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum
of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply removed, and
something is sure to be found. For the most part it is objects used in
daily life, utensils of bronze or terracotta, with or without their
contents, also candelabra, lamps, &c. Statuettes too of bronze are not
uncommonly found. These “war-preparations” are however the cause of
great dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up water like
a sponge, and so never allows the walls to get quite dry, which is
however the first and most important condition for their preservation.
[Illustration: Fig. 13. Window in Pompeii (p. 19).]
[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pompeian inscription on wall (p. 20).]
[Illustration: Fig. 15. Pompeian graffito (p. 20).]
But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the consideration of the city
itself.
At first sight the city gives the impression of the greatest
uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth of its former inhabitants
one house seems to have been built at the same time, and adorned with
the same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the result of the
stucco-coating which under the Empire gradually became so fashionable
that it was deemed advisable to cover everything with it. A more
accurate examination however convinces us that under the stucco lie
concealed the most distinct periods of building, with the help of which
the gradual development of the city can be recognised.
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Public Fountain (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Street of Stabiae with water reservoir (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Restored View of a Cookshop (p. 21).]
To determine the architectural history of the city there are--apart
from the very meagre literary tradition--two means, firstly the
distinction of the material of which the houses are built, and secondly
the measures employed. In respect of the first point it proves that
limestone which could be procured in the immediate neighbourhood of
Pompeii from the deposits of the Sarno, was employed in the earliest
period for building houses, with clay as cement. With this was
associated also tufa, a volcanic product which when just quarried can
be easily cut. An essential progress was made by the introduction of
lime-mortar, the knowledge of which was apparently transmitted through
the Carthaginians to the western Greeks and the inhabitants of Italy.
By the aid of this lighter and smaller stones could be utilised to
form walls capable of supporting considerable weight. In place of
lime-mortar there was gradually introduced Pozzolana (named from
Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples), a volcanic earth resembling cement
in its effect. Of lasting influence was further the introduction
and gradual spread of building with kiln-baked bricks, although in
private buildings they were never employed to such an extent as in
Rome and other Italian cities. Finally, the last period, that of the
restoration, when the question was how in the shortest time and with
limited means to rebuild the city which had been almost entirely
destroyed by the earthquake of the year A. D. 63. (The devastation had
been so complete that the Roman Senate could deliberate as to whether
the people of Pompeii should be permitted to rebuild their city.) Haste
and negligence and the use of the first materials that came to hand
characterise this epoch.
As a second means of distinguishing the various periods one from
another we have the standard of measure employed. According as the
walls have been built in conformity with the Oscan or the Roman
foot (the Oscan foot has a length of .273 of a metre, the Roman of
.29) the corresponding buildings can be assigned to the one or the
other period, and since it was not usual to demolish what already
existed, but to make use of it as far as possible, people have through
observation of the various measures, attained even to the possibility
of distinguishing the older parts of buildings from the later, and
often recognising their earlier destination.
With the help of those distinguishing marks, and of the scanty notices
handed down by ancient writers, and of the inscriptions we are enabled
to establish the following as to the city’s history.
Whether the name Pompeii is connected with πέμπω, πομπή or is derived
from the Oscan _pompe_ = five is all the same to us, since we can draw
no further conclusion therefrom. In any case nothing further is known
as to the year of foundation: though from the ruins of the temple in
the Triangular Forum which belongs to the sixth century we may conclude
that the city was already in existence at that period. It was founded
in regular form by the Oscans on a hill formed by an old stream of
lava, but was at a later time about B. C. 420 occupied by the Samnites.
Two streets the _Strada di Mercurio_ with its extension southwards from
the Forum (Fig. 6) and the _Strada di Nola_ (_Decumanus major_, Fig.
7) traverse the city from one end to the other, and fix thereby the
direction of the streets from north to south and east to west. Only
now and then have special peculiarities of the surface led to slight
deviations in the parallel streets. The city was encircled by a wall,
which was protected by towers at regular intervals to give it greater
security, on the other side in order to allow of large bodies of armed
citizens mounting the wall in time of danger, steps were in parts added
to the wall, in other parts a slope of earth was placed against it.
Only on the west and southwest sides had the walls been broken down in
antiquity and replaced by houses, apparently to gain space for the
extension of the city. Pompeii, true to its origin, had, in the Social
War (B. C. 90-88), joined the Italians and with the rest had bravely
defended its independence against the Romans; nay in the year 89 it had
sustained a siege by Sulla himself. For this it was punished, being
compelled to give up part of its possessions to the colonists sent by
Sulla in the year 80. (Hence the new name of the city _Colonia Cornelia
Veneria Pompeianorum_.)
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Cookshop of the Casa di Sallustio (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Oilmerchant’s Shop (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Entrance to the Triangular Forum (p. 22).]
[Illustration: Fig. 22. The Triangular Forum (p. 22).]
Under Augustus also was an enlargement of the city undertaken, the
_Pagus Augustus Felix_ being then founded. That numerous storms have
broken over Pompeii may be seen by the walls, stripped as they have
been completely of their massive facing and restored only to such an
extent as was absolutely necessary (originally two massive walls were
built and the space between them filled with rubble and concrete,
see fig. 8-10); the towers seem not to have been placed on the wall
till a later time. The city has eight gates, which were more or less
strengthened by fortifications; especially in the case of the Gate of
Nola, on the east side, on which attack was most to be expected, one
can clearly recognise how one fortification has been from time to time
strengthened by others. Interesting too in another way is the Gate of
Herculaneum on the northwest side of the city, in front of which the
road is bordered right and left by graves, in accordance with the usage
of the ancients to place their graves beside the public roads outside
the city. (See fig. 11.)
[Illustration: Fig. 23. The Forum Civile, seen from the South (p. 23).]
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter (p.
23).]
The streets of the city are essentially distinguished from those of our
cities by their narrowness; the widest measure barely seven metres,
some indeed are not more than from two and a half to three metres
broad. They were made so narrow with the object of securing shade in
the streets, so necessary a requisite in the South, the want of which
one feels in a most unpleasant way for example now where in Pompeii
there is no shade. A part of the width is taken up by the footpath
running on each side, which slightly raised above the level of the
street is paved with small stones, or bricks, or pieces of marble,
according as the fancy or the wealth of the owner of the adjoining
property, (on whom evidently rested the care of the footway), prompted
the choice of one method or another. The carriage road itself is
paved with polygonal blocks of lava, in which the wheels have often
worn deep ruts. (See Fig. 12 and 17.) If the ruts were too deep, or
otherwise repair of the street was found necessary, the remedy was
applied in the simplest fashion, the stones were merely relaid so
that those little used came where the wheels ran and those cut up by
traffic were transferred to another place. This explains the curious
fact that stones worn into deep ruts are often found in positions
where no wheel can ever have come. Then on both sides of the street
run gutters, through which the water is conducted into deep drains
and so removed from the city. In the violent showers of rain which
in the South at times pour down in torrents these provisions might
often have proved insufficient and the street also may have been
under water. In order therefore to provide the foot passenger with as
dry as possible a crossing from one side of the roads to the other,
stepping-stones have been placed at intervals across the street. These
met the requirements of the case without interfering with the carriage
traffic (for the draught-animals were attached only at the extremity
of the pole, so they could pass between the stones more easily than
would be possible with our modern way of harnessing). Some streets on
the other hand were entirely closed against wheel-traffic. This was
quite possible, carriages being as a rule employed for the transport of
persons only in travelling outside the city. Besides the difference in
width the streets of Pompeii are essentially distinguished from those
of our cities by the circumstance that the houses at any rate on the
groundfloor have no windows. The ancient house in its main features was
built solely with regard to interior effect. Only occasionally was the
surface of the outer wall broken by small openings widening inwards,
which are all that can be compared with our windows (Fig. 13); and
these too, raised far above the height of a man, are barred by lattice
of iron or terracotta. On the other hand the street-front was often
enlivened by painting, the outer wall was divided into panels which
were painted red or yellow with various ornaments according to the
taste of the respective householders. Larger paintings are often to be
found, as the twelve gods, sacrifices to the Lares, the household gods,
_etc._ In places likely to be misused were painted a pair of serpents
_etc._ as a deterrent. Besides these things there were all sorts of
inscriptions on the houses. A distinction is usually made between two
classes of inscriptions, _Dipinti_ and _Graffiti_. The former are
painted on the walls with a broad brush in large letters, for the most
part in red colour on a white ground. By _Graffiti_ on the other hand
are understood inscriptions slightly scratched with a pointed style
or nail in the plaster. The _Dipinti_ contain summonses to elections,
announcements of Games &c. _Duumviri juri dicundo_, the Board of Two,
the highest magistracy of the city, are to be elected; there being
no newspaper, the names of the candidates are painted on the walls,
and underneath is written Proposed by so and so (Fig. 14). Or a new
troop of gladiators arrives: in order to entice as many spectators as
possible, an advertisement is written on the walls with the names of
the principal combatants and the number of their victories, nor do they
forget to add that to guard against the sun’s heat awnings are spread
over the theatre; in short one lights on the very footsteps and traces
of quickly throbbing life, so that one feels oneself carried back into
the time of the old citizens of Pompeii.
[Illustration: Fig. 25. Life in the Forum (p. 23).]
With almost greater originality the life of the old Pompeians rises
before us in the _Graffiti_. Scarcely a spot strikes the eye that is
not covered with such outpourings of gay or wicked fancy scratched in
the slightest strokes. Here one tells another’s secrets, there one
celebrates in verse a sweetheart, a third complains of the obstinacy
of a maiden, a fourth, no doubt a boy fresh from school--he could
not reach far--attempts to write down the beginning of a well-known
poem but he does not get much further than the first words. A second,
proud of his learning, begins the verse afresh, yet he too comes to a
standstill when he has carried the verse a little further. A third at
last completes the whole verse. At another place a parasite gives a
broad hint for an invitation or pays his debt of thanks. (See fig. 15.
Semper M. Terentius Eudoxus unus supstenet amicos et tenet et tutat,
supstenet omnem modum.)
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Bust of Jupiter (p. 25).]
Thus witticisms and drolleries abound in those inscriptions, so that
one who passed through the streets and had a liking to decipher these
scrawls need not want for amusement. Variety too is afforded by the
fountains (Fig. 16) which were fed from the public water-supply
(probably this was a branch of the conduit which brought the water to
Naples from the mountain range on the east). In Pompeii, as in Palermo
at the present day, the water was for better distribution conducted
into reservoirs raised on high pillars. From these the water was
brought through lead pipes to the public fountains and to the houses.
(See fig. 17, representing a corner of the Stabiae Street with the
pillars to support the water.) These fountains were ornamented with
small reliefs, for example a Silenus leaning on a wine-skin, from
the opening of which the water escapes; an eagle that has seized a
hare (here the water flows out of the hare’s mouth), and similar
representations. On the fountain’s brim may still often be seen the
place where the young people drinking straight from the spout used to
put their hands. To this picture of the streets however the liveliest
touches were given by the shops, rooms open on the outside their whole
breadth, in which retail trade was carried on. As at the present time,
in the palaces of Italian cities, the groundfloor is occupied by shops
which bring in to the owner an excellent rent, the rich Pompeians also
did not disdain to establish shops on the street-side of their houses
which without any connection with the principal edifice were let to
persons engaged in trade, to whom a kind of upper chamber above the
shop often served as a dwelling. Or the householder himself carried
on a trade, in which case he established a connection with the inner
part of the house by means of a door, to facilitate his watching over
the business, whether he managed it in his own person or through a
slave. There are cook shops, recognised as such by the hearth and the
pots fixed in it, from which the food was ladled out (fig. 18 and
19), oil shops with large pitchers similarly fixed, and huge barrels
in the background (fig. 20), shops where wine and other drinks were
sold, with shelves built up like steps so as to admit of arranging
the drinking vessels conveniently, and with a little room at the back
for regular customers: there are butchers’ and bakers’ shops that by
means of pictures bring before the passer by the various objects to be
purchased therein. In short an abundance of fresh sights, so that the
eye can experience no weariness.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. The Temple of Jupiter (p. 25).]
[Illustration: Fig. 28. The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction (p. 25).]
[Illustration: Fig. 29. The Macellum, (the Meat market) (p. 25).]
[Illustration: Fig. 30. Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum
(p. 26).]
So much for the streets of Pompeii. Of open spaces for public use
there have been found as yet two, if we leave out of consideration
the doubtful Forum Boarium, excavated at an earlier period in the
neighbourhood of the amphitheatre, but afterwards filled up again,
viz., the principal Forum (_Forum Civile_) and the one called from its
shape the Triangular Forum. The latter a three-cornered space in the
southwest angle of the city lying close to both theatres from which
an open flight of steps leads, is certainly one of the oldest parts
of the city, as is amply proved by the scanty remains of the Temple
situated there, which is contemporary with the most ancient temples of
Paestum and Selinus. The open space was surrounded on three sides by a
colonnade, and a portico or Propylaion forms the entrance to it (fig.
21 and 22). The Temple, dedicated according to the latest researches
to Minerva, had apparently like the Temple of Zeus at Agrigentum,
seven columns on the narrow sides, and according to its form must be
classified as Pseudodipteros (before the eruption it had already been
destroyed and on its site a very modest sanctuary had been erected).
Close to it is a seat, from which could be enjoyed the magnificent
view over the sea and the splendid Monte Santangelo far spreading and
towering high into the air. On the other side a small dome indicates
an ancient fountain. To a later epoch belongs the _Forum Civile_, lying
to the northwest of the above, and forming a rectangle (fig. 23 taken
from the south side, fig. 24 from the north). That the laying out
of this is comparatively modern, follows from the fact that through
the surrounding buildings a series of streets have been reduced to
blind-alleys, which at the time of their formation was assuredly not
intended. The decoration of the Forum, it seems, was not yet completed
when the eruption of Vesuvius buried Pompeii. The footpath was to
be paved with marble slabs, and a colonnade was to be erected all
round, double on the South, with a gallery above for women, when the
games were held in the Forum. But this was never carried out; the
architectural members lie around still unused. The built up bases too
for statues of honour and equestrian statues seem to have been still
unoccupied, if some excavation made shortly after the eruption has not
robbed us of the chief objects. The ancestors of the emperors, the
Julian family, and the Kings of Rome ought to have been placed around
on pedestals, yet the only inscriptions found are those referring to
Romulus and Aeneas. Of the business prevailing in the Forum, taken
up as it was with trade and commerce and even schoolwork, we derive
information from the Pompeian wall-paintings, e. g. fig. 25. Vehicles
were not admitted, and there are indeed indications that (at elections
and on similar occasions) the approaches could be completely closed
with railings. In no other part of Pompeii are there so many public
buildings, no private house ventured to intrude here. In the first
place at the north end, the Temple of Jupiter, clearly identified by
the bust found in it (fig. 26), springs forward far into the Forum
and rises on a lofty substructure, to which led a flight of steps
with projecting sides, once adorned with equestrian statues. Twelve
Corinthian columns, six in front, three on each side, supported the
Vestibule; while other columns within the cella (probably Ionic, above
which rose Corinthian) supported the entablature. The large pedestal
at the back was no doubt intended for the Capitoline Trinity, Jupiter,
Juno, and Minerva (fig. 27 and 28). On the right, abutting on the
Temple is a Triumphal Arch, which formerly covered with marble and
adorned with statues and fountains must have presented an imposing
appearance. The eastern long side of the Forum, is, on the north,
occupied by the so-called Pantheon, more correctly the Macellum, i.
e. Meat market (fig. 29). That such it is, is shown above all by the
space on the right at the back, which clearly contained a butcher’s
stall built up with arrangement for discharge of water, and also by
the shops on the south side, which to judge by the pictures placed
there, contained stalls for provisions of various kinds. In the midst
of the court rose apparently a domed structure on columns (hence the
pedestals). Here the fish were stripped of their scales, at least
a great number of scales were found in the drain. United with the
Macellum there was a chapel for the cult of the Imperial family; the
marble statues found here have been removed to Naples, and are replaced
in Pompeii by plaster casts. The paintings of the entrance wall (fig.
30) deserve special notice on account of the beautiful architecture.
The central picture represents Io watched by Argos. Next comes an
apartment once splendidly furnished, which is usually called Senaculum,
but its destination is not as yet ascertained. It is thought that
it was a sanctuary of the tutelary deities of the city, the _Lares
Publici_. With greater certainty the adjoining building on the right
may be designated as a “Temple of Vespasian” (fig. 31). From a relief
on the altar standing in front of the temple (fig. 32) in which the
temple itself is represented, (it is the sacrifice of a bull that is
depicted, as usually offered to the Genius of the emperor), we can
recognise that the edifice was dedicated to the worship of the emperor.
Since it was built before the earthquake of A. D. 63, yet was not quite
ready for use at the time of the catastrophe, it is most probable that
it was founded in honour of Vespasian’s Genius.
[Illustration: Fig. 31. The Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).]
[Illustration: Fig. 32. Altar of the Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).]
On the south of this follows the large building raised according to the
inscription by the priestess Eumachia at her own cost and dedicated to
Concordia Augusta and Pietas. This was apparently devoted to industrial
purposes. Since the fullers (fullones) have dedicated a statue to
the foundress in the crypt (fig. 33) we may surmise that the whole
structure served as a market hall for woollen stuffs.
The south side of the Forum is occupied by three buildings closely
resembling one another, each of which consists of a large hall. The
central hall was apparently intended for the meetings of the Decurions,
the city magistrates of Pompeii, while on its left the judicial
Duumvirs had their seat, on the right the Aediles.
On the West side first of all comes the Basilica, with its end
bordering on the Forum (fig. 35). This served for market purposes, to
the relief of the Forum, and at the same time afforded space for the
administration of justice in the raised tribunal at the end opposite
the Forum. It must have produced an impression of grandeur with its
internal columns on which the roof rested, and its walls decorated
with pillars arranged in two rows one above another, the walls being
in their upper story provided with wide openings flanked by columns.
Under the tribunal is found a cellar-like room which was formerly
always called a prison; it is however little suited for this purpose,
not being sufficiently enclosed, if at least it were a question of
imprisonment for a long period. Next comes the Temple of Apollo (fig.
36), separated from the Basilica by the Strada della Marina. That
the sanctuary which was formerly designated the Temple of Venus was
dedicated to Apollo results both from an Oscan inscription on the
floor of the Temple and also from the _Omphalos_, the Navel of the
earth introduced into the _cella_, which on account of its relation
to Delphi is frequently indicated in connection with Apollo. A Tripod
also, equally an attribute of Apollo, is painted on a pilaster in the
courtyard. This courtyard was surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade,
in front of which stood statues of deities that were honoured in
conjunction with Apollo (Venus, Diana, Mercury and others; also
a bronze statue of Apollo himself, see fig. 34). In front of the
steps leading up to the Temple stands the great altar on which the
burnt-offerings were placed. When we return to the Forum we at once
notice the gauging table with the standard measures (the original is
in Naples) with openings beneath, which can be closed or opened to
let the measured fluids or corn run out (fig. 37). Next to this is a
dilapidated chamber which is now supposed to have been a sale-room, and
north of this a public lavatory, so situated as not to be overlooked
from the Forum. An edifice of uncertain purpose (Prison? Treasury?)
ends this side of the Forum, which is united with the Temple of Jupiter
by a wall pierced by a door.
[Illustration: Fig. 33. Portrait statue of Eumachia (p. 26).]
[Illustration: Fig. 34. Statue of Apollo (p. 28).]
[Illustration: Fig. 35. The Basilica (p. 26).]
[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Temple of Apollo (p. 27).]
[Illustration: Fig. 37. Gauging Table from the Forum (p. 29).]
Of other sanctuaries there are in Pompeii the Temple of Fortuna in the
wide mainstreet leading northwards from the Forum, placed at the corner
of the Street of Nola (here too the temple is approached by a flight
of steps, on a landing in which stands the altar, see fig. 38); and
also, in the Street of Stabiae, the small temple of Zeus Meilichios
(this name belongs to it according to an Oscan inscription found at
the Gate of Stabiae). In this during the building of the temple of
Jupiter the deities worshipped in the latter sanctuary had found
refuge. Then there is the Temple of Isis near the _Forum Triangulare_
(fig. 39). This according to the inscription over the entrance had been
rebuilt after the earthquake, at his own cost, by the six years old N.
Popidius Celsinus (i. e. wealthy freedpeople who wished to obtain for
their son a position of greater distinction than they themselves could
assume must have done this in his name). In consequence of this Master
Popidius Celsinus received the title of Town-Councillor.
Besides the flight of steps in front the temple was approached by means
of a secret staircase, serving no doubt to give the priests access to
the temple unseen by the multitude of worshippers of Isis. The small
building on the left of the temple, the so-called _Purgatorium_,
contains a staircase which most likely led to a reservoir filled with
water from the Nile which was used in the ceremonies. In front of
this lies an altar approached from the side, and on this altar at the
time of its excavation were found ashes and remains of sacrifices.
On the right near the entrance is a walled up cavity which contained
the ashes and remnants of burnt fruits, undoubtedly the remains of
sacrifice. It may here be mentioned that in front of the temple there
was found a tablet of hieroglyphics which had nothing to do with the
worship of Isis, and therefore served only as an imposition; also that
at the time of the eruption the temple was shut; in the ashes from
Vesuvius there was preserved so exact an impression of the door with
its three leaves that a drawing of it could be made from the impression.
In the open space behind the Tribunal of the Basilica the latest
excavations (since 1898) have resulted in the discovery of a temple
which certainly was dedicated to the guardian goddess of the Roman
colony, Venus Pompeiana. At the time of the catastrophe of the year 63
it was thrown down, and was to have been completely rebuilt, as the
building stones lying around indicate. It would assuredly have been the
largest and most splendid sanctuary of the city, if the outbreak of
Vesuvius had not prevented the carrying out of the plan.
[Illustration: Fig. 38. The Temple of Fortune (p. 29).]
[Illustration: Fig. 39. The Temple of Isis (p. 29).]
[Illustration: Fig. 40. The smaller Theatre (p. 32).]
[Illustration: Fig. 41. The larger Theatre (p. 32).]
[Illustration: Fig. 42. Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides (p.
32).]
Of first rank among the other public buildings are the two theatres,
which closely connected with each other lie between the _Forum
Triangulare_ and the Street of Stabiae (a broad flight of steps
designed for festive processions leads from the _Forum Triangulare_ to
the Theatres). The smaller theatre (fig. 40), formerly roofed over,
served probably for musical performances, while the larger (fig. 41)
was employed for scenic exhibitions. Of these figure 42, an extremely
fine mosaic from Pompeii may perhaps serve as a specimen. It is to be
observed that, as in the case of most theatres, the seats have at the
back a hollow for the feet of those sitting above. The broad low steps
of the lowest row were utilised for the arrangement of _bisellia_,
that is wide seats properly intended for two persons, the use of which
was a privilege of the Decurions. Above, on the edge of the enclosing
wall, stones are to be seen which served to carry the masts from which
awnings were stretched for protection against the glare of the sun. It
is to this that the promise _vela erunt_ refers in the advertisements
of the theatre.
[Illustration: Fig. 43. Interior view of the Amphitheatre (p. 34).]
[Illustration: Fig. 44. Barracks of the Gladiators (p. 36).]
[Illustration: Fig. 45. Weapons of Gladiators (p. 36).]
Together with the theatres should be named the amphitheatre, situated
at the southeast extremity of the city, a building of very great size,
which was calculated to meet the requirements of the neighbouring
towns as well. Apparently it originally lay without the walls, and
was included in the time of fortification only at a later period as
forming a point of danger. Seen from without the building produces
a comparatively mean impression (fig. 57), since to avoid having to
raise the outer walls too high the arena or fighting place has been
dug out (fig. 43). From the outside steps lead to the upper tiers,
the lower tiers are reached by means of steps from a vaulted corridor
which runs round the whole amphitheatre under the second tier. This
is interrupted in the middle of both the longer sides, on the west
by reason of a small entrance to the arena by which the corpses of
the slain gladiators were dragged out. To the arena itself two wide
entrances led from north and south, one of which, the southern, turns
at a right angle on account of its nearness to the city wall. At the
northern entrance a small separate passage could be made in order to
keep the spectators apart from the gladiators who passed in and out at
this point. This was effected by means of a latticed partition, for
which purpose stones with holes in them were used, which are still
to be seen. Small dark rooms at the entrances, provided with very
low doorways, may have served as cages for wild beasts. Here too, as
in the Theatre, the steps of the first row were broad and low, being
intended for the arrangement of _Bisellia_. The wall which separated
the spectators from the arena were found when first excavated to be
adorned with paintings, which are now indeed completely destroyed,
but are preserved in copies made immediately after their discovery.
Without exception they represent scenes from the Amphitheatre, partly
fights between wild beasts, partly combats of gladiators. (See fig. 56
as to which it is doubtful whether it was found in the amphitheatre;
the gladiator standing on the right being badly wounded has let fall
his shield; standing quietly he raises the thumb of the left hand to
entreat the mercy of the people, for only if he looks death in the
face unmoved can he hope to be granted his life; in our case his death
seems certain, for his opponent steps up to him with drawn dagger
to give him the _coup de grâce_.) On the breastwork wall traces were
still visible of a lattice by means of which the spectators were to be
protected against possible attacks of the wild beasts in the arena.
[Illustration: Fig. 46. Wall at the Stabian Baths (p. 37).]
[Illustration: Fig. 47. The Apodyterium (p. 37).]
In connection with the amphitheatre may be mentioned also the barracks
for gladiators, situated to the south of the large Theatre (fig. 44).
To all appearances the large space surrounded by columns belonged
originally to the Theatre, and was intended to afford protection to
visitors to the Theatre in case of rain occurring suddenly. But when
the passion for gladiatorial exhibitions had so prevailed that even
smaller cities thought themselves obliged to keep special bands of
gladiators, the second row of columns that no doubt originally existed
was done away with and in its place paltry cells erected for them.
That we have to do with gladiators and not, as has been supposed, with
soldiers, a garrison for Pompeii, has been indisputably proved by the
discovery of gladiators’ weapons (now in the Naples Museum, fig. 45 and
60) of paintings and _Graffiti_ relating to gladiators. The cells were
raised in two stories, and in such a way that the upper were approached
by means of a wooden gallery. In one cell on the west side a great set
of fetters was found used for chaining prisoners; in the same room, but
not as is commonly reported fastened in the fetters, some skeletons
were found, those therefore of prisoners who when the catastrophe
came had not been able to escape. The surrounding columns are painted
red and yellow, only the two centre ones of the east and west sides
are blue, perhaps because these served as marks in certain military
exercises.
[Illustration: Fig. 48. The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths (p. 38).]
[Illustration: Fig. 49. Arrangement of a Caldarium (p. 38).]
The baths too, which played so great a part in the life of the
ancients, must not be forgotten among the public places of resort.
Of large Public Baths three have up to the present time been found
in Pompeii, the so-called Central Baths, which at the time of the
eruption of Vesuvius were still in course of construction, the Baths
by the Forum, and the Stabian Baths, at the corner of the Stabiae
and Abbondanza streets. These last named are the best preserved, and
deserve on this account a more thorough consideration. We come first
into a large courtyard surrounded with pillars, the Palaestra, devoted
to gymnastic exercises; here there was a stone track constructed, for
rolling stone balls, further a swimming bath (_Natatio_), with the
dressingrooms appertaining thereto (fig. 46). The reliefs in stucco,
which are preserved on the outer walls of these rooms, merit special
notice. On the right of the principal entrance two doors lead to the
men’s bath, which consisted of the _Apodyterium_, where people took
off their clothes (the niches served to keep them in, fig. 47), the
_Frigidarium_ or cold bath, the _Tepidarium_ or lukewarm bath, and the
_Caldarium_ or hot bath. (Fig. 48 represents the Tepidarium of the
Baths near the Forum; here the heating is derived from a large brazier
presented by Vaccula.) Both these rooms received their heating through
the hollow pavement and hollow walls, i. e. the pavement rests on
small pilasters about two feet high, and the walls are overlaid with
tiles, which being provided with raised sidewalls form a kind of flue
on the wall (figs. 49 and 50). By this method the heat introduced from
beneath, could penetrate under the pavement and between the double
walls. Of late it is true this way of heating has been disputed.
[Illustration: Fig. 50. Section of the Caldarium (p. 38).]
[Illustration: Fig. 51. Ground Plan of the House of Pansa (p. 39).]
[Illustration: Fig. 52. Atrium Tuscanicum (p. 41).]
The women’s bath adjoins the men’s, with the same rooms required for
bathing; between the _Caldarium_ of the men’s bath and that of the
women’s bath lies the furnace-room; here were placed three large
caldrons for hot, tepid, and cold water. Of such a furnace-room and
the arrangement of caldrons an idea may also be formed from the well
preserved bathing plant excavated in a Roman villa at Bosco Reale
(where was made the great discovery of silverplate, now at Paris). This
has recently been set up at Pompeii, in a small house behind the Temple
of Jupiter in the street called Del Foro.
Besides these public bathing establishments there were of course
also in the better class of houses private baths which show the same
arrangements, though naturally more or less curtailed.
[Illustration: Fig. 53. Cave Canem (p. 40).]
[Illustration: Fig. 54. Doorknockers (p. 40).]
[Illustration: Fig. 55. Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to
the Peristyle (p. 42).]
[Illustration: Fig. 56. Scene from the Amphitheatre (p. 35).]
[Illustration: Fig. 57. External View of the Amphitheatre (p. 34).]
[Illustration: Fig. 58. Iron Strongbox (p. 42).]
[Illustration: Fig. 59. Domestic Shrine (p. 42).]
The private houses are of course, according to the wealth of the
owners, of very various descriptions, and planned on a sometimes
more, sometimes less imposing and costly scale, since here one, there
another circumstance must have influenced the building of the house
and altered its form. Something however remains common to all, and out
of the variety it is possible to reconstruct the design of a standard
Pompeian house. The house has in general the form of a rectangle of
which the small side faces the street, see fig. 51. The door is in the
middle of this side, and is flanked right and left by one or two rooms,
which are either used as shops and then open outwards for their whole
width, or are entered from the interior and form part of the house.
Between these a passage leads from the door to the chief apartment
situated behind, viz., the _Atrium_. This passage is called _fauces_
or _prothyron_. In the superior class of houses the door is set back a
little so as to leave a free space in front, called _Vestibulum_. Then
there are usually two doors, one a wide folding-door corresponding in
size to the passage leading to the Atrium, and a smaller door at the
side intended for the _Ostiarius_, or porter, who could thus refuse
admittance to an importunate or unpleasant visitor, without exposing
the interior of the house to the gaze of those standing before the
door. A salutation such as _Have_ or _Ave_, “Hail” inlaid in the
threshold of the door, or a _Cave Canem_, “Beware of the Dog” with the
representation of a dog in mosaic (fig. 53) is a not unusual ornament
which meets the eye as one enters. A knocker on the door served to
summon the _ostiarius_. The _atrium_, a room usually square, contains
in the middle a rectangular tank sunk in the ground for the reception
of rainwater; for this an opening was left in the roof. Five classes
of _Atrium_ are generally distinguished. In the simplest, the _Atrium
Tuscanicum_, the roof sloping inwards was supported by two main beams
crossing the Atrium and two side beams resting on them (fig. 52; in
the new _Casa_ of Reg. V, Ins. IV the ancient construction of the roof
of the Atrium has been re-erected). If the opening thus formed was to
be large, or it was impossible on account of the breadth of the Atrium
to leave the weight of the roof to rest only on two beams, pillars
were placed under the four points of junction and on these pillars the
beams were laid; this is the _Atrium Tetrastylum_. If it was desirable
to make the aperture still larger, additional pillars were employed
besides the four at the corners, so that regular halls with colonnades
were produced (_Atrium Corinthiacum_). If the roof sloped outwards so
that above the _impluvium_ there rose walls supported by the principal
beams or the pillars, the Atrium was called _displuviatum_, from the
fact that in this case the rain flowed away outwards. Finally the
_atrium testudinatum_, a very rare form at Pompeii, had its roof
equally sloping outwards, but was devoid of the quadrangular opening.
This opening is called _compluvium_; the name _impluvium_ is given
to the tank sunk beneath to receive the water, and out of which the
water was conducted by pipes into the reservoirs under the atrium.
For protection against the intrusion of unbidden visitors who might
without difficulty let themselves down from the roof into the room
through the _compluvium_, the opening could be closed beneath by means
of an iron grating. On both sides of the _Atrium_, which receives
its light from above, are placed mostly small chambers, storerooms
or sleeping apartments; the last one on each side usually opened its
whole width to the atrium and is called _Ala_. Here in Patrician
houses of distinction the representations of ancestors were generally
placed. Opposite the entrance lies the _Tablinum_, usually opening
with full width on the _Atrium_, and closed only by curtains (fig.
55). This was specially the room of the master of the house, here he
kept his valuable documents, here he received visits, in front of the
_Tablinum_; in the _Atrium_ is as a rule the place for keeping the
_Arca_, or strongbox, made of iron, often artistically decorated, and
let into a huge stone, to prevent its being stolen (fig. 58). Past the
_Tablinum_ a narrow passage generally leads into the back rooms of the
house, which, grouped around the Peristyle, an oblong quadrangular
court surrounded by columns, comprising not only livingrooms and
bedchambers, but also diningrooms, often different ones for winter and
for summer. These are for the most part rather small, sufficing only
for the arrangement of the three couches around the little table, from
which the _Triclinium_ has its name. In this part a little on one side
is usually found the kitchen with other rooms required for domestic
purposes, and placed in close proximity to the kitchen for the sake
of supply and discharge of water. The wealthier establishments have
also one of the chambers lying round the Peristyle fitted up as a kind
of domestic chapel for the worship of the _Lares_, if there is not a
special _Sacrarium_ erected in the _Atrium_ for this purpose. Houses
of more moderate pretensions content themselves with having their
household gods, the _Lares_ and the serpents sacred to them, painted
in the kitchen above or near the hearth, in order to offer sacrifice
to them there (figs. 59 and 62). From the Peristyle we pass on further
to the garden, in which, where the owner was a rich man, there is
likewise no lack of architectural adornments, airy halls and porticoes.
Upper stories were generally in little favour, with the increase of
population however they could not have been dispensed with. For the
most part they were let, as a rule with the shops situated on the
street, on which account stairs leading upwards are often found in the
shops; in wealthier establishments the upper chambers were allotted to
the slaves. These upper stories, just as in our mediaeval towns, often
project considerably over the street; one such projecting apartment, as
was stated above, is well preserved (fig. 61).
[Illustration: Fig. 60. Helmets for Gladiators (p. 36).]
[Illustration: Fig. 61. House with _maenianum_ (p. 43).]
[Illustration: Fig. 62. Domestic Altar (p. 42).]
How was the Pompeian house decorated? Let us begin with the floor. In
most houses the flooring is provided with _opus signinum_, that is
pieces of tile are pressed into a mass of stucco and then the surface
is polished; in better houses their place is taken by mosaic, generally
only black and white, and comprising only patterns and ornaments;
more rarely a coloured picture is produced with smaller cubes in the
middle of the room. Quite peculiarly rich in mosaics, and indeed such
as artistically belong to the most splendid that have come down to
us in this department of art, was the so-called Casa del Fauno, in
which was discovered the famous Battle of Alexander, now in the Naples
Museum (fig. 64). The irresistible onset of the Greeks who in spite
of inferiority in number drive the Persians in headlong flight before
them is expressed with unsurpassable power. Alexander whose helmet has
fallen from his head in the impetuous attack has just transfixed with
a powerful thrust of his spear one of the leaders of the Persian host,
who was in the act of leaping from his dying horse and saving himself
on a fresh one offered to him by a faithful follower. His fall arouses
in the king who stands in his chariot, the deepest sympathy, so that
in his sorrow for his general’s death he almost loses sight of his own
escape. His charioteer however thinks only of bringing the chariot and
his lord to safety over dead and dying. From the same house comes also
the mosaic threshold in the Naples Museum, a portion of which we give
in figure 63. Leaves and fruits of all kinds are joined to a cylinder
held together by rings and garnished with various masks.
Figure 65 recommends itself by remarkable fidelity to nature. A cat has
seized a bird (apparently a partridge) with the intention of strangling
it. The cat probably belongs to the species of wild cats, since cats
as domestic animals were not common among the Greeks and Romans
before the fourth century of our era (hence is explained the fact that
no skeleton of a cat has been met with among the ruins of Pompeii).
Below two ducks are swimming, and mussels and other aquatic animals
are represented. At Pompeii too mosaic had begun to be employed for
the covering of walls, especially beside fountains. The paving of the
ground with slabs of marble, a practice very common at Rome since the
time of Sulla, seems to have been comparatively rare at Pompeii.
[Illustration: Fig. 63. Mosaic Threshold (p. 44).]
[Illustration: Fig. 64. Alexander’s Battle (p. 43).]
The eyes of visitors will be attracted by the walls even more than
by the pavements. Although, as said before, the greatest number of
the wall-paintings discovered have been cut out and brought to the
Naples Museum, yet sufficient material exists in Pompeii also to form
a judgment as to the effect of the Pompeian wall-painting, especially
in the more recently excavated houses, in which the colours are still
more fresh. (For the removal of wall-paintings a wooden frame is
placed over and around the pictures, and the stones are taken away from
behind till the stucco is reached; then plaster is poured in at the
back of the picture, and so the whole becomes one single mass and can
be removed.) We must not however forget that the rooms in which the
paintings are found have at the present day a much more glaring light
than in antiquity, a circumstance not without influence on the effect
of the painting.
[Illustration: Fig. 65. Pompeian Mosaic (p. 44).]
[Illustration: Fig. 66. Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di
Sallustio) (p. 47).]
[Illustration: Fig. 67. Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of
Spurius Mesor) (p. 48).]
[Illustration: Fig. 68. Process of Plastering (p. 49).]
According to A. Mau four consecutive styles are to be distinguished.
1. Pre-Roman Period: Imitation of marble incrustation by means of
plastic stucco work; no pictures (fig. 66).
2. Period of the Republic: Imitation of Marble incrustation by means
of simple painting, together with representation of architecture, not
fantastical but as it might actually exist. This style is however but
scantily represented at Pompeii.
3. Period of the Early Empire, to about fifty years after Christ:
Egyptianising ornamental style distinguished by beautiful and pure
forms, and delicate, finely distinguished colours (fig. 67).
4. Ornamental Style of the last period of Pompeii, with special
preference for architectural painting, fantastically slender and of a
playfully ornamental fashion. The examples of this style are in Pompeii
by far the most numerous (fig. 69).
Above the plinth of uniform shape the walls are for the most part
divided into panels, which usually are painted alternately yellow and
red; in their midst they have figures of various kinds floating in
the air, women, satyrs, Loves, Victories and such like, or they are
adorned with imitations of easelpictures, the subjects being taken from
mythology. Numerous too are scenes from every day life, still more
numerous landscapes; the historical motive is as yet only very rarely
indicated. Very frequently mythological figures are introduced as
engaged in the avocations of daily life in the midst of the fantastical
architecture which covers the walls as ornament. The artistic value
is naturally very different, but in general it must be admitted that
the vividness of colour, the lightness of touch in creations which
are due assuredly to no famous artist cannot be sufficiently admired.
As to the process by which the wall-paintings were executed the most
multifarious conjectures were formerly made; now on the contrary the
view universally adopted is that we have to do almost exclusively with
fresco painting, i. e. painting on fresh plaster, only that here and
there recourse was also had to painting in tempera (fig. 68).
Some wall-paintings still in their original position will be dealt with
later when we come to speak of the respective houses; a few examples
out of the rich treasure removed to the Museo Nazionale in Naples may
here suffice.
[Illustration: Fig. 69. Wall Decoration. Fourth Style (p. 49).]
[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sacrifice of Iphigenia (p. 49).]
Figure 70 represents a painting which may rank as one of the most
famous and the most frequently discussed, the Sacrifice of Iphigenia,
probably a copy, though a feeble one, of a famous picture of an
earlier period. Ulysses and Diomedes are holding the hapless maiden
through whose sacrifice Agamemnon desires to appease the wrath of
Artemis and to obtain a favourable wind for the expedition to Troy;
they hold her ready for sacrifice before the image of Artemis standing
on a column. Calchas the priest has already drawn the knife from its
sheath to give the fatal stroke, but still he hesitates, as though he
felt some scruple as to undertaking the cruel deed. Agamemnon stands
aside, shrouded entirely in his robe, since as a father he cannot
bring himself to look with his own eyes upon the carrying out of the
sacrifice, to which as king and leader of the army he sees himself
compelled. In the gaze which Ulysses directs to the image of Artemis
we may read the reproach that she, the goddess, should demand such
cruelty. Yet the merciful solution is prepared by the scene enacted
above in the sky; there we see the goddess Artemis herself, to her
hastens a nymph who brings the deer that is to fall by the sacrificial
knife in place of Iphigenia. Figure 71 is derived at any rate from a
famous ancient theme, perhaps after a painting by Timomachos; this is
the single figure of Medea, who sword in hand plans the murder of her
sons. The sword is still sheathed, sunk in deep deliberation she has
folded her hands, and pressed thumb against thumb, she is a mother who
loves her children tenderly, but she is also a wife who is bitterly
sensible of every neglect on the part of her husband. Which feeling
will gain the victory? Will it be gained by a mother’s love which
pardons everything, or by the jealousy that knows how to strike the
husband in the most painful way through the slaying of his children?
The conflict of feelings is undoubtedly expressed in a most striking
manner in the picture. Figure 73 also represents a picture remarkable
for excellent preservation, the abduction of Europa by Zeus in the
form of a bull. Europa daughter of Agenor, sports with her companions
on the shore of the sea, gathers flowers and weaves garlands. There
a bull approaches them (Zeus had concealed himself under this form),
who through his tameness gives the maidens courage to busy themselves
sportively with him. They deck him with flowers, caress him, nay at
last Europa becoming bold mounts his back. It is this moment that the
painter has chosen to depict. Europa has lain down on his back, the
girls are still playing with him, yet he is already striding forward,
only a few steps and he is in the sea, and then will Zeus bear his
sweet burden to Crete, and her terrified playmates will vainly stretch
forth their arms after the king’s daughter borne far away.
[Illustration: Fig. 71. Medea, from Herculaneum (p. 52).]
[Illustration: Fig. 72. The so-called Ephebus of bronze (p. 57).]
[Illustration: Fig. 73. Europa with the Bull (p. 52).]
[Illustration: Fig. 74. Mars and Venus (p. 54).]
[Illustration: Fig. 75. Paquius Proculus and his wife (p. 54).]
[Illustration: Fig. 76. Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (p. 59).]
Figure 74 represents a subject often occurring at Pompeii, Venus united
with Mars. Mars lays his left hand on the left arm of Venus, who
resting at ease lays her left arm on the right thigh of Mars, who with
his right hand raises the robe of the goddess so that the whole upper
part of her person is uncovered. That the god of war has already quite
forgotten his own peculiar mission, and is quite given up to love, is
shown by the two Cupids, of whom the one is engaged in girding himself
with the god’s sword, while the other is trying his helmet on his own
head. Figure 75 offers us a picture with quite a modern interest. The
worthy baker Paquius Proculus has had his portrait painted with his
better half, since photography has not yet been invented. But for this
purpose it is not sufficient to have brought the external form into
order, to have neatly smoothed the moustache, and to have crisped the
little locks so that they curl daintily over forehead and cheeks and
roll deep upon the neck, no, they wish their intellectual interests
to be recognised; therefore he takes in his hand a written roll, and
she grasps with her left hand a diptychon, while with her right she
holds to her lips the style to write on the wax tablet, as though in
the next moment some brilliant idea would occur to her which she need
only write down in order to be included for all time in the list of
the intellectual Bluestockings. Just as in our own day many people get
their portraits taken with books in their hands as though the study of
literature formed their whole ordinary day’s work.
[Illustration: Fig. 77. The Dancing Faun (p. 55).]
[Illustration: Fig. 78. The so-called Narcissus (p. 56).]
[Illustration: Fig. 80. Casa del Balcone pensile (p. 59).]
[Illustration: Fig. 79. Cupid with a Dolphin (p. 57).]
The decoration too of houses by means of statues of marble and bronze
must here be briefly mentioned. It has already been stated that in the
temples and public buildings numerous marble and bronze statues have
been found. These discoveries can therefore be passed over here. As
the most beautiful of the works of art which have been discovered in
private houses may be mentioned the statue of the Dancing Faun (after
which the Casa del Fauno is named) and the so-called Narcissus, found
in a house of the Vico del Balcone pensile. In the former (fig. 77) the
artist has represented a comrade of the circle of Dionysos, full of
Bacchic pleasure, turning in wild dance; it is a rough sensual comrade,
whose half animal being is sufficiently suggested by his goat’s ears
and the little tail that is just visible. The strained muscles show
with what energy he gives himself up to the activity of the dance,
while on the other side the unrestrained joyousness expressed in his
countenance, and the freedom and ease he displays in the movement
of the upper part of his body and his arms clearly reveal with what
sportive agility he copes with the exertion. Almost more beautiful is
the so-called Narcissus (fig. 78) a youth just outgrown the years of
boyhood, over whose left shoulder hangs the skin of a goat or a doe,
who however is otherwise naked except the feet which are clothed with
elegant sandals. With slight movement of the arm he supports the left
hand against the hip, and stretches out the right hand, while at the
same time he bends his head to this side as though he were turning his
attention to some distant sounds. People have chosen to see in this
figure a Narcissus listening to the flattering words of Echo, but such
a situation is nowhere to be found in the myth. Others suggest Dionysos
playing with his panther; for this the doeskin and the wreath of ivy in
the hair would be very suitable, as also the beautiful sandals; but
then we should have to suppose that the figure had already in antiquity
been removed from its original base and placed on a new pedestal. For
the enjoyment however which the work of art affords us the name which
is given it is a matter of indifference, and this enjoyment will be
experienced by every one who contemplates the beautiful statuette.
Also the recently found statuette of a youth, completely plated with
silver, (fig. 72) which in antiquity was altered into a lampholder, and
therefore has experienced some damage, deserves careful inspection on
account of its beauty.
[Illustration: Fig. 81. Mosaic Fountain (p. 59).]
[Illustration: Fig. 82. Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo (p. 60).]
[Illustration: Fig. 83. Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus (p.
60).]
[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bust of Cornelius Rufus (p. 60).]
While this figure was to be employed in the house for lighting
purposes, both the others seem to have had their place at the fountain
of the house, with which in a certain way they were connected, in that
the relation of Satyrs and similar beings to springs is a well-known
one in antiquity. In other places the marble and the bronze statues are
employed actually as fountain figures, so in the case of figure 79,
the bronze statuette of a Cupid who exerting all his strength holds
a dolphin up high, from whose mouth the water flows. As to how such
statuettes were grouped with fountains and how also in small houses an
attempt was made to enliven the narrow space left for the garden by the
erection of all sorts of works of art, a sufficiently clear example
is afforded by the little garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (fig. 76).
Here on both sides of the fountain niche in which stands a Silenus as
distributor of water, double Herms or busts are placed which represent
Bacchus with Ariadne. Of the other figures above all let the group
standing in the foreground be mentioned, a group of a Satyr extracting
a thorn from Pan’s foot. A dainty motive too is that of a fountain
figure (fig. 80) from the Casa del Balcone pensile. A boy whose dress
falls down long over his back (in this way a support for the marble
figure is obtained) stands in easy pose, while he lays his right arm on
his head and stretches out the left hand with a mussel shell. From this
shell trickled the water, and a more copious stream flowed from the
waterpipe straight into the marble basin.
[Illustration: Fig. 85. A _Bisellium_ (p. 62).]
[Illustration: Fig. 86. Marble Table (p. 62).]
Mosaic is frequently united with sculpture in the ornamentation of
fountains, for example in that of the Casa delle Fontana Grande (fig.
81). Here the fountain takes the form of a retiring arched niche, in
which the water from beneath the mask of a water-god flowed out of an
aperture in a broad jet over a flight of steps, while marble masks with
wide opened eyes are placed on the piers of the niche.
Between the columns of the Peristyle, to judge from the wall-paintings,
there were often placed also medallions hung on ribbons, the so-called
_Oscilla_, now and then shaped like a _pelta_ (i. e. as the shields of
Amazons are commonly represented). These are sculptured in relief on
both sides. None are of course found in their original position, but a
whole series of such medallions, which were found lying on the ground,
is exhibited in the Naples Museum.
[Illustration: Fig. 87. Dining-couch of Bronze (p. 62).]
An entirely different class of ornament is to be found in the Atrium;
here sometimes a portrait bust of the owner has been found inserted in
its pedestal, which in at least one instance is plainly designated as a
dedication on the part of one formerly belonging to the house. Figure
84 represents the bust of C. Cornelius Rufus, an interesting work in
marble, which clearly shows how remarkably well the sculptors of the
earlier Roman Empire understood how to seize and to reproduce the
characteristic features of their sitter. The bust is let into a square
pillar, from which, right and left, instead of arms, quadrangular
stumps protrude, on which it was customary to hang wreaths as ornaments
on days of commemoration. Figure 82 gives a view of the whole atrium
with the bust, by which we are enabled to recognise the harmonious
way in which this ornament fits into the whole surroundings. Still
more striking perhaps in its effect is the bronze bust of L. Caecilius
Jucundus (fig. 83:--the original is now in Naples), the Banker, in
whose house was found the chest with wax tablets, of which mention
has been made on another page. Here is a bronze bust which has been
inserted in its marble pedestal, a dedication by the Freedman Felix
to the Genius of his master (_Genio L. nostri Felix L._). Many a one
who has seen the bust in the Museo Nazionale, has, at a first glance,
without knowing any more about it, been led to exclaim that he might
be off at once to the Exchange, so characteristically has the sculptor
rendered his portrait. Friend Caecilius is certainly not handsome, so
he cannot have been flattered by the artist, who has suppressed neither
the broad outstanding ears, nor the great ugly wart, almost suggesting
representations of Satyrs. But through the marvellous mixture of
bonhomie which is stamped on his countenance and keen calculation and
decision which are expressed in the closed lips and the glance of
the eyes (unfortunately the pupils formerly represented by coloured
smalt have fallen out) a personality has been successfully depicted
which carries in itself the stamp of genuineness. Caecilius Jucundus
evidently knew full well how to feather his nest, but he was no mere
miser who only brooded over his treasures, no, he not only prized very
highly his cheerful enjoyment of life, but he also loved gaiety and
good fellowship, and in the circle of his boon-companions he was ready
to take a joke, and was himself capable of enlivening conversation by
many a jest.
[Illustration: Fig. 88. A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting (p. 63).]
So much for the decoration that was provided for the house by painter
and sculptor. How stands it then with the household furniture?
[Illustration: Fig. 89. Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale (p. 73).]
Our rooms are filled with a quantity of furniture, numerous tables,
chairs, cupboards with every possible name and object, sofas, and
whatever else pertains to modern housekeeping. Compared with all
this the ancient house would seem to us empty. In the first place
cupboards for keeping clothes and the like are hardly to be found. To
a great extent small rooms were made available for keeping movable
articles by putting up shelves, but for clothes chests standing on
the ground had to serve, which might be compared with our presses and
trunks. They were the better suited for this purpose inasmuch as the
dress consisted more of stuffs which did not assume their definite
form as dress until they were put on. These trunks could at the same
time be used as seats, often, as at the present day in the East, for
reclining on. There were too regular seats, for the most part without
backs, and like foot-stools; among them we ought particularly to
mention the _bisellium_ which properly could hold two persons, but as
a special honour was granted by decree of the Decurions to a single
individual (fig. 85). Tables, especially show tables of costly woods,
to display the ornamental tableservice may have existed, but none of
these have come down to us; on the other hand marble tables, generally
placed close to the impluvium (fig. 86), have in many instances been
preserved. Among them are some that can be raised at pleasure. They
often have feet artistically shaped, the forms of all possible fabulous
beings, griffins &c. being employed as ornaments. Such tables as we
are accustomed to take our meals at are no where to be seen, because
the custom of the ancients was to eat while lying down. The furnishing
of a triclinium was as follows:--around a central point of masonry
only about a foot and a half in height, on which the table-top or tray
was placed, stand three low couches abutting on one another at right
angles, occasionally (in the open air) of masonry, otherwise of bronze
(fig. 87), or of wood, on each of which three persons recline at meals;
the fourth side is left open for the attendants. The arrangement of
the couches can often still be seen by examining the mosaic floor. To
one or other of the couches a still lower seat is frequently attached,
probably for the children. The inner side of the _lecti_ (for that is
the name of these sofas) was as a rule somewhat higher than the outer;
people got upon them from the lower side, and lay with the left arm
on the cushions serving as a support in such a manner that the right
arm was free to take the food to the mouth. The tables of masonry were
generally without ornament, since they were covered by the tray with
food; once only has an ornament been found in this position at Pompeii,
a mosaic representing a death’s head, a motive borrowed no doubt from
the Egypto-Alexandrian custom of inviting people to brighter enjoyment
of life by allusion to its fleeting nature and the nearness of death.
When towards the beginning of the Empire round tables (_orbes_) came
more generally into use in place of square ones, the three couches
arranged at right angles around the table had naturally to be united
in a single semicircular sofa corresponding to the circular shape now
adopted for the table. Such a semicircular sofa received the name
_Sigma_ or _Stibadium_ on account of its resemblance to the Greek
letter C. This style must--to judge from wall-paintings--have been
usual in Pompeii, yet we are unable to point it out among the existing
remains in the rooms. (Fig. 88 is from a wall-painting; this gives also
the conversation of the guests at table: _facitis vobis suaviter_, you
are having a good time, says one; another, _ego canto_, I sing; _est
ita_, _valeas_, so it is, good luck to you, says the third.)
[Illustration: Fig. 90. Food-warmer (p. 64).]
[Illustration: Fig. 91. Tripods and Bronze Table (p. 63).]
[Illustration: Fig. 92. Portable Stove (p. 64).]
[Illustration: Fig. 93. Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_
(p. 65).]
Of tripods, which in the ancient house formed part of the necessary
furniture, beautiful shapes have come down to us, (cf. fig. 91). Tables
then and chairs, chests and couches, with these the house furniture
is pretty well exhausted; but one must include with them the movable
stoves by which in winter some measure of warmth could be secured.
Stoves, as we know them were non-existent in antiquity, as even now in
the greatest part of Italy. If it became cold, a brazier of charcoal
was brought, as at the present day, at which people warmed themselves.
(The best example of such a brazier is that dedicated by one Vaccula
in the Baths, which may be seen in figure 48 behind the railing.)
Richer folk had for this purpose also a special stove which could be
carried from one room to another, as now in Paris, see figure 92. The
question of heating, as that of chimneys in the kitchen, is for us
northeners one of great importance, which however for the South plays
no great part, as one can see any day at the present time. Apart from
the resorts of foreigners, in which on practical grounds full allowance
is made for the ideas and usages of people belonging to northern
countries, the Italy of to-day remains for the most part at the stand
point of antiquity. There are no stoves and as few chimneys, because
the fuel used is almost exclusively charcoal, which kindled in the open
air continues to glow without requiring a special exit for smoke. And
if there is any smoke, it has to find its way where it pleases. This
is the origin of the name _Atrium_, because everything became black
(_ater_) through smoke. However we must not omit to mention that in
some Pompeian kitchens a wide pipe or channel is provided, through
which an escape to the street is allowed to any smoke that there may
be, subject to its own good will. To suppose any such thing as an
actual chimney (apart of course from baking ovens) would be mere wild
imagining, there was in fact absolutely no necessity for such a thing.
We must consider charcoal as the fuel also for various utensils which
served for the preparation of warm drinks, the so-called _Calda_, or
for keeping food warm, and which certainly had their place not in the
kitchen but in the diningroom or other apartments. One of such utensils
(fig. 90) is garnished after the fashion of a fortress with towers
at the four angles and battlements on the surrounding wall; while
the interior served for the reception of charcoal and for keeping
food warm, the surrounding wall and towers were used for water, which
at pleasure could be drawn off by a tap. On the other hand the vase
represented in figure 93 is near akin to the Russian samovar; here a
wide pipe is introduced into the body of the vessel, which could be
filled with glowing charcoal in order to heat the liquid contained in
the vessel. Or on the contrary if the liquid was to be cooled, all
that was necessary was to fill the pipe with snow. Of course owing to
the open pipe the liquid could in neither case be poured out, but had
to be ladled out. For the preparation of warm drink as well as for
the heating of food the apparatus represented in figure 94 was also
undoubtedly employed. In this instance a high cask-like vessel is
connected with a cylindrical one having a spout, while the enclosed
space holds charcoal.
The question of lighting also merits some brief consideration. It has
already been stated that the apartments on the principal floor had
scarcely ever any direct light from the street, but received indirect
light from the atrium or the peristyle. We are not however on this
account to imagine them to have been dark; the sun’s power in the
South is so great that even in the case of indirect light a very
considerable brightness is attained; if the door-spaces were closed by
wooden doors, or by curtains, still sufficient light fell into the room
through an opening introduced above the door, or the doors and curtains
were so arranged that the light above was not shut out. Artificial
lighting was supplied by oil lamps, which must have been employed in
great numbers, to ensure sufficient brilliancy. Hence lamps, especially
of course the ordinary terracotta lamps, are the most numerous of the
objects found. Candelabra served to support them, of these very elegant
forms have been preserved. One of the most interesting is represented
in figure 96, where four lamps, each with two wicks, hang down from a
pillar raised on a basis semicircular in front. The candelabra also
often take the form of trees, on the boughs of which the lamps are
suspended, so for example in figure 97. Besides these there are lofty
candelabra which spring from a basis usually supported by the feet of
an animal, and rise to a considerable height in the form of slender
columns; on the top, which generally spreads out as a calyx, there
usually stood only one lamp with several wicks.
[Illustration: Fig. 94. Food-warmer (p. 65).]
[Illustration: Fig. 95. Silver Cups (p. 68).]
[Illustration: Fig. 96. Candelabrum (p. 66).]
[Illustration: Fig. 97. Candelabrum (p. 66).]
[Illustration: Fig. 98. Bronze Vessel (p. 67).]
Next to the candelabra may be mentioned under the head of domestic
utensils more or less costly vases, which were frequently displayed on
handsome tables or the tripods described above. Of these too a great
number have been found in Pompeii and deposited in the Museo Nazionale
at Naples. Thus figure 98 shows a large vessel of bronze, a crater or
mixing bowl, the elegant twisted handles of which are fastened to the
body of the vase by means of a winged Medusa mask. That its purpose was
merely ornamental is shown by the circumstance that it is placed on a
separate basis supported by lion’s claws. A more bowl-like vessel, also
supported by lion’s claws, is represented on page 107.--On each side
of this two united bodies of lions connected with serpents are employed
as handles. The jugs in figure 99 display different shapes, in the
one the handle is formed by a soaring bird with broad bill (a swan or
perhaps a goose), while an eagle sits enthroned above the mouth; in the
other the body of the vessel consists of a head with eyes separately
inlaid, but now lost. Numerous too are the ornamental vessels of
silver. Two cups famous above all are represented in figure 95, on one
side of which is placed a male centaur, on the other a female. On their
backs are seated Erotes (Loves). Although both cups are without doubt
intended as companion pieces which belong so to speak to the same set,
yet there are distinctions in details. These cups, so finely chiselled,
are provided with a smooth lining inserted specially for the reception
of the liquid, a circumstance illustrating a well-known passage in the
speech of Cicero against Verres. There it is stated that Verres in
Sicily had in preference to everything seized the silver vessels, that
he had not however set so much value on the silver, but had restored
the cups _emblemate_ or _sigillo avulso_. Now the _emblemata_ or
_sigilla_ are nothing else than the outer cases adorned with work in
relief, which were united by solder to the smooth inner cases.
If we would form a more accurate estimate of the valuables with which
the show tables (_abaci_) were loaded, we can avail ourselves of a
recent discovery not indeed made in Pompeii itself, but yet in its
entire character belonging to Pompeii. In Bosco Reale, a small town
situated nearer Vesuvius, where in ancient times there seems to have
been a sort of suburb of Pompeii, a villa had been discovered in 1894
on the estate of Cav. de Prisco, buried under the ashes from Vesuvius,
and in this every chamber was found in an undisturbed state. In one
apartment, the storeroom, there were found large vessels full of corn
and pulse, in another place the explorers came upon a great heap of
agricultural implements, a furnace for baths was unearthed, in which
all the water pipes with their taps were preserved (the same that is
now placed in position behind the Forum), in short everything was found
intact, exactly in the condition (except of course changes brought
about by length of time) in which the villa was on the 24th of August
in the year 79. But still greater treasures were destined to come to
light from the villa. On the 13th of April 1896 the skeleton of a man
was suddenly discovered: he had fallen with his face on the ground,
stifled under the hot showers of ashes which pressed upon him from
every side. In his convulsively clasped hands he grasped bracelets and
a long gold chain; many gold coins with the heads of the Emperors from
Augustus to Vespasian, several of them still quite fresh as if they had
just been issued by the mint, lay scattered near him on the ground. He
had sunk to the earth before a little niche, in which he had doubtless
just laid down a part of his burden, and where he had wished to put
also the remainder that he was carrying, in order to protect all from
unbidden intruders.
[Illustration: Fig. 99. Silver Jugs (p. 68).]
[Illustration: Fig. 100. The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria (p. 70).]
In the niche itself, wrapped in a piece of coarse woollen stuff, lay a
great treasure of silver, which through the liberality of Baron Edm.
de Rothschild has reached the Louvre. It falls into two categories,
in the first place such vessels as can be designated objects of use
(these however also merit careful observation on account of the fine
ornament that appears on them); and secondly a series of cups, bowls,
and other utensils which are adorned with artistic representations.
Though the others are also interesting we can here deal only with
the latter of the two classes, so far as representations of them are
available. Chief among them is a bowl that in size and shape compares
best with the Minerva bowl of the Hildesheim Treasure. In quite free
form there raises itself from the ground as a centrepiece the bust of
a goddess who wears on her head the spoils of an elephant, so that the
trunk projects over the centre of her forehead and the tusks on both
sides over her temples. She is clad in a light chiton with many folds,
fastened over the arm by numerous studs; the overlapping portion of the
chiton is gathered together at the breast into a roll in which appear
ears of corn with grapes and all kinds of fruit. In her left hand the
goddess holds a cornucopia containing bunches of grapes, pomegranates
&c., in her right a Uraeus serpent. There is no question that the
tutelary deity of Alexandria alone can be intended by the figure (fig.
100).
[Illustration: Fig. 101. Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne (p. 71).]
A second bowl has as its central ornament the upper portion of a
man’s body boldly projecting from the surface, which may be noted as
extremely characteristic. The shortcropped hair lies closely on the
head, the large ears protrude, many a wrinkle furrows the brow, clearly
marked crow’s feet enable us to infer that the subject is pretty well
advanced in age. The cheeks have fallen in, and so leave the cheek
bones standing forth in strong relief. The attribution of the figure
to the Emperor Claudius is assuredly groundless, still the features
remind one of members of the House of the Claudii, and above all this
one thing cannot be questioned that we have to deal with a Roman and
no Greek. Of the companion bowl with a woman’s bust the centrepiece
has come to London. On the other hand the Louvre has secured two hand
mirrors once belonging to the _mundus muliebris_, the toilet apparatus
of a Pompeian lady; one with elegant handle formed of twigs intertwined
bears as an ornament in the middle of its back a wonderful bust of
Ariadne (fig. 101); the head slightly inclined towards the left arm
is crowned with a wreath of ivy, and the drapery leaves free the left
breast shaped with wondrous beauty. A second mirror bears as ornament
for the back (the polished front always serves as the actual reflecting
surface) the representation of Leda with the swan. Leda almost nude is
seated on a rock, and while she supports herself on the rock with her
left hand, holds out with her right a bowl to the swan standing before
her.
[Illustration: Fig. 102. Cup with Olivewreath (p. 73).]
[Illustration: Fig. 103. Cup with Still Life (p. 73).]
Besides these there are comprised in the treasure four eggshaped cups
with large handles rising above the rim, and twisted feet, two of
which have the exterior adorned with storks in low relief which are
seeking food in the neighbourhood of their nest, while both the others
represent the life of cranes, how they search for food, struggle over
their booty, and engage their rivals with powerful blows of their
beaks. Other vases remind us of the great bell-shaped vessel of the
Hildesheim treasure. From a graceful calyx grows up a flower-stem
divided into joints, on which as they spread out are introduced groups
of animals fighting, while elegant arabesques springing from flower
cups fill the body of the vase with their charming windings and
twinings. Of wonderfully fine execution also are two low vessels, each
provided with two handles, round the body of which twine two olive
branches with berries. (Fig. 102.) Other cups are ornamented with
so-called “Still Life” (fig. 103); others have allusions to literary
efforts. There we see skeletons of poets as Euripides and Menander
(fig. 89), or philosophers as Zeno and Epicurus in various actions,
with inscriptions appended which show the connection. One and all
preach the doctrine of Epicurus, enjoy life while you may, life passes
away only too quickly. The placing of such scenes on vessels destined
to minister to the keener enjoyment of life is for antiquity no unusual
thing; I need refer only to the above mentioned mosaic of a death’s
head which served as the ornament of a table, and to the well-known
scene from Trimalchio’s Banquet (in Petronius), who has a silver
skeleton with movable limbs brought upon the table, and invites his
guests to brighter enjoyment of life with the words “Alas for us poor
wretches! What a nothing we are! Like this skeleton shall we all be as
soon as Orcus carries us off; so let us enjoy life while we may!”
[Illustration: Fig. 104. House of Pansa (p. 75).]
Fine tables laden with such and similar vases must have been found
in every one of the better class of houses in Pompeii, so they could
not be passed over in describing the furniture. Yet some may miss in
the catalogue of furniture the mention of looking-glasses. In Pompeii
however these would be sought in vain. There were indeed mirrors enough
for the toilet, as we have seen in the treasure from Bosco Reale, but
only hand mirrors, mostly of metal, occasionally, as it seems, also of
glass, yet always only so small that even if fixed on a stand they are
to be treated as articles of the toilet, not as constituent parts of
the furniture. We may suppose that refined luxury in individual cases
may have led to the employment of larger mirrors (cf. Lessing, _Rettung
des Horaz_), but these things have nothing to do with Pompeii, to judge
at least by what has been found there.
[Illustration: Fig. 105. Bakery with Mills (p. 76).]
[Illustration: Fig. 106. House of the Tragic Poet (p. 76).]
Now that we have gained an idea of the Pompeian house in general and
of its equipment, it is possible to examine more thoroughly individual
houses of special note. We begin with the Casa di Pansa, or, as the
house has been officially named from a painted inscription, which has
now disappeared, the Domus Cn. Allei Nigidi Mai. For two appellations
have usually to be distinguished, a popular one, often due to the
presence of people of rank on the occasion of the excavation (e. g.
in the case of the Casa dell’ Imperatore di Germania), or derived
from special objects discovered (Casa del Fauno); frequently too the
electioneering inscriptions which are written on the houses have led
to (unauthorised) conclusions as to the owner. On the other hand the
second, the official appellation, is founded on the discovery of
seals or inscriptions within the house that allow of a conclusion
as to the former possessor. The so-called House of Pansa then (fig.
104) is situated in the Street of Nola, opposite the Baths. It
displays a façade of tufa, of the Samnite epoch, with unusually lofty
doorway, which runs back from the street and so forms a _vestibulum_.
Through the doorway we catch sight of the _Atrium_ with its very deep
_impluvium_, and behind this the _tablinum_, from which two steps lead
to the peristyle. The tufa columns of the peristyle are of the Ionic
order, but by a coat of stucco were turned into Corinthian. Behind the
peristyle an entrance leads to the kitchen garden, the beds of which
were still discernible at the time of the excavation. A large portion
of the ground pertaining to the house is taken up by shops and a bakery
with three mills. It is worth while to examine such a bakery somewhat
more in detail.
[Illustration: Fig. 107. Pompeian Loaves (p. 76).]
Every bakery was connected with several mills, in which was prepared
the flour required for baking. Each mill consists of a conical support
(_Meta_) and upper part forming a double funnel (_Catillus_); the
latter is so placed over the supporting cone that the upper cavity
serves to receive the corn as it is poured in, while by the rubbing
between the lower funnel and the fixed cone the grains of corn are
reduced to powder. That the turning may proceed more easily the
external double funnel rests by means of a cross bar of wood upon an
iron point fixed in the cone beneath, at the narrowest point of the
_catillus_ holes are made in which are fixed bars by means of which
the turning of the mill is effected by a donkey. For this reason the
ground round about is paved. Near the space in which the mills stand
is the oven, and by this is seen a hollow for the reception of water
(fig. 105); to the left was a room in which the bread was put into
shape. Here are also often remains of a peculiar contrivance for the
kneading of dough, a cylindrical vessel of lava in which the dough was
kneaded by means of a roller turning round an iron rod. Shelves on the
wall, of which there are still to be seen traces served to display the
baker’s wares. It may here be remarked that in the villages of Sardinia
at the present day mills are in use which correspond almost exactly
to those at Pompeii, and also that the machine for kneading dough is
still employed in a similar form at Palermo. From a well closed baking
oven eighty-one loaves were taken which naturally were somewhat stale,
inasmuch as they were put into the oven as early as the 24th of August
79! (Fig. 107.) Some of them are exhibited in the museum at Pompeii.
Next to the House of Pansa comes the House of the Tragic Poet, which
plays a part in Bulwer’s romance as the house of Glaucus (fig. 106).
It has its name from a painting wrongly explained as a rehearsal (in
reality the myth of Admetus and Alcestis is represented), and also a
Mosaic relating to the theatre. On account, however, of the magnificent
paintings found in the Atrium which refer to Homeric themes (the
carrying off of Briseis, Zeus and Hera on Ida _etc._) it is also
called Casa Omerica. Here the photograph is taken from the Atrium; the
fountain close to the impluvium is seen in the foreground, behind, a
step higher, is the tablinum, with mosaic ornament, opening with its
whole width on the peristyle. There is still to be seen the little
chapel of the Lares in which a statuette of Silenus was found. From
this house comes the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, a painting represented on
an earlier page.
[Illustration: Fig. 108. Fullonica (Fulling-mill) (p. 78).]
[Illustration: Fig. 109. Casa del Fauno (p. 80).]
[Illustration: Fig. 110. The Fuller at his Work (p. 78).]
Bordering on the house of the Tragic Poet is the Fullonica, the
house of a fuller, where the arrangements necessary for carrying on
the trade are so completely preserved and so clearly illustrated by
wall-paintings that one can form an accurate idea of the process of
fulling. In figure 108 is given a picture of the second fulling-mill
situated in the Street of Stabiae. In the atrium are preserved the
marble table and the troughlike basin into which fell the stream of
water; in the peristyle beyond the tablinum we have a glimpse of
the vats of masonry in which the cleansing of the woollen stuffs
took place. In the small entrance which near the tablinum led to the
workroom was found at the time of the excavation a great mass of
whitish argillaceous earth (_terra fullonica_), which was used for
the cleansing of woollen stuffs. The pictures of the other Fullonica
(fig. 110) inform us as to the process itself. Vats placed in niches
are seen, standing in which the fullers partly wash the material
partly tread it with the feet. Beyond we see a workman carrying a
frame like a crinoline (on this the clothes were spread to be bleached
with sulphur), while another brushes or cards the garment hung up on
a bar; beneath on the left sits a woman who seems to be giving a girl
instructions as to the treatment of a piece of cloth. Another painting
represents the press with which the woollen material when washed was
smoothed; it is exactly like those in use at the present day.
[Illustration: Fig. 111. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa
d’Arianna) (p. 81).]
[Illustration: Fig. 112. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa
d’Arianna) (p. 81).]
[Illustration: Fig. 113. Casa del Centenario (p. 81).]
[Illustration: Fig. 114. Casa del Imperatore di Germania (p. 82).]
If one follows the Street of Nola further towards the East one soon
comes to a house which may be designated as one of the most famous and
best preserved of those in Pompeii, the Casa del Fauno (fig. 109), so
named from the bronze statue of the dancing faun found therein (fig.
77). In the footway before the threshold the visitor is greeted on
entrance with the word _Have_ (Hail!). The house has two entrances with
two _Atria_, of which the one here represented, the principal Atrium,
may serve at the same time as an example of the _Atrium Tuscanicum_,
inasmuch as no columns are placed around the impluvium as supports for
the beams of the roof.
[Illustration: Fig. 115. Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius
Jucundus (p. 83).]
The house is decorated in the first style, that is to say its
decoration consists of an imitation of marble slabs. It is a curious
fact that the walls are covered with sheets of lead beneath the stucco
to keep all dampness from it. Paintings are not to be found here; on
the other hand the house was rich in valuable finely executed mosaics,
among which is to be specially mentioned the greatest of all mosaics,
Alexander’s Battle. It was in the chamber opening upon the peristyle,
the red columns of which are visible in the illustration beyond
the tablinum. The columns seen behind belong to a second peristyle
embracing the whole breadth of the house, which has taken the place of
what must be supposed to have been originally a garden.
[Illustration: Fig. 116. House with several stories (p. 83).]
The Casa dei Capitelli Colorati, also called Casa d’ Arianna, is placed
obliquely with regard to the Casa del Fauno. We pass from the Street of
Nola first into the garden, which is surrounded by a colonnade (figs.
111 and 112); next comes the peristyle with the sittingrooms. The house
has received its name from the fact that in the last period of Pompeii
the capitals of the Ionic columns dating from the Samnite period were
newly covered with stucco and painted.
One more house in the Street of Nola deserves special attention, the
Casa del Centenario, so entitled because it was excavated on the
occasion of the celebration of the eighteenhundredth year after the
overwhelming of Pompeii (fig. 113). Here also are two _atria_ with a
large peristyle behind, which had a low railing between the columns
as may be seen by the incisions in them. The claim of this house to
rank among the most important properties in Pompeii is established by
the discovery of many paintings and statuettes of bronze and marble,
as well as of ample baths, for warming which the heat from an oven was
employed, besides a Shrine of Lares of some importance, in which was
a small portable altar. Here too was discovered the picture given on
an earlier page, which represents Bacchus entirely made up of grape
clusters, in close proximity to a mountain, in which may be recognised
the present Monte di Somma before the eruption of Vesuvius.
[Illustration: Fig. 117. Kitchen with Hearth (p. 84).]
To the north of the Casa del Centenario lies the Casa delle Nozze d’
Argento, also called Casa dell’ Imperatore di Germania, because the
house was excavated in 1893 on the occasion of the Silver Wedding of
the King and Queen of Italy in the presence of the Emperor of Germany
(fig. 114). The Atrium is _Tetrastylum_, that is the roof beams rest on
four columns which are excellently preserved; behind comes the tablinum
with a mosaic pavement, and thence one reaches a peristyle which is in
an equally good state of preservation.
Here too let there be described a house in the Street of Stabiae, the
little garden of which adorned with statuettes has been mentioned
above (fig. 76). The house has received its name from a painting
representing a letter with the address of Marcus Lucretius, _M.
Lucretio flam. Martis decurioni Pompei_; on the left of this is
represented a _diptychon_, a doubled wax tablet with the style for
writing, on the right, beneath, an inkpot with pen. The house of
Lucretius had many well preserved paintings of the last period of the
city. Together with this letter the wax tablets may also be mentioned
which have been found in the house of Caecilius Jucundus. Figure 115
represents such a tablet.
[Illustration: Fig. 118. Plan of the House of the Vettii (p. 83).]
From another point of view the house depicted above (fig. 116) is
noteworthy. As said above on p. 6 the citywall is on the west and
southwest sides for the most part broken down and its place taken by
houses. Since these houses thus overlapped the wall and descended to
the level of the plain below, they gained at the back an additional
story on this lower level; and the top of this story formed a terrace
from which a marvellous view over plain and sea could be enjoyed. And
so many more houses in Pompeii might be examined in detail, were it
not that the very abundance warns us to observe due moderation.--We
must not however leave Pompeii without taking sufficient notice of one
more house, a house that on account of the good condition in which
it has risen out of the ashes from Vesuvius, and on account of its
great number of paintings, and the decoration of its peristyle will
leave a lasting impression on every beholder. This is the house of the
Vettii only recently excavated, in which everything that could be left
has been left in its original position, in order to produce the most
complete idea of a Pompeian house.
The new house lies to the east of the so-called Casa del Labirinto,
and is entered from the east side, the Vicolo which represents the
continuation of the Vicolo degli scienziati. We first enter the
vestibulum (fig. 118 at _a_). To pass hence into the ostium proper
persons either availed themselves of the wide opening principal door,
or were admitted through a smaller sidedoor on the right. Thence they
stepped into the Atrium (_c_), in the centre of which is placed the
impluvium with a wastepipe passing into the street; right and left
are seen large slabs of stone with remains of the iron chests let
into them, the strongboxes of the master of the house. Right and left
of the ostium two small chambers open on the atrium, so also on the
west of the two strongboxes are situated the two alae and a chamber
by each strongbox, one of these chambers, however, has in later times
been cut off from the atrium by a low wall, and turned into a kind of
storeroom. But here ends the symmetrical arrangement of the atrium;
while on the left an apartment opens widely on the atrium as a winter
triclinium, on the other side appears the entrance to a second atrium
provided with its own impluvium, and at the back with the shrine of
the Lares. On this small atrium open several rooms intended for the
slaves, and therefore left without ornament; there too lies the kitchen
with wide hearth of masonry, on and near which have been found a large
number (fig. 117) of utensils serving for boiling and grilling &c. The
little room, that could be entered only from the kitchen, evidently the
cook’s room, is now kept under lock and key, on account of the somewhat
objectionable paintings with which this household dignitary had had his
apartment adorned.
[Illustration: Fig. 119. Love on a Crab (p. 86).]
[Illustration: Fig. 120. Love with Dolphins (p. 86).]
On the other side of the atrium also follow rooms for the household;
there, close to a staircase by which the upper story was reached, a
passage leads to two chambers of uncertain destination. Noteworthy is
a fountain beside the staircase, by means of which the water could be
drawn directly for the upper story.
Out of the atrium in front of which in this instance no tablinum is
placed, we at once pass into the peristyle, the principal apartment
of the house, the portico of which is supported by seven columns
on the longer sides and four on the shorter; by this the garden is
enclosed. On the southeast, in the first place two rooms open on the
peristyle, and on the north two others, of which one, the large
Oecus, is a principal apartment of the building, further on the east
is a triclinium. From the peristyle a small suite of rooms is also
accessible, which, not without plausibility, have been designated
women’s apartments; here again a small garden is found. Let this
suffice for the orientation of the discovered chambers. How then as to
their decoration?
The possessor of the property has evidently set no store by the
decoration of the pavement, for the better class of mosaic has nowhere
been employed, but the floor consists almost exclusively of stucco in
which small bits of marble have been inserted. All the more richly are
the walls ornamented.
[Illustration: Fig. 121. Candelabrum, Wall-painting (p. 86).]
Just as we go in (to say nothing of smaller pictures) there is seen on
the pilaster at the entrance to the atrium a Priapus. Pictures of this
kind were usually placed just at the entrance of a building in order
to avert disaster and the evil eye. The walls of the atrium, owing to
the numerous openings leading from it to the surrounding rooms, are
almost entirely broken up into mere pilasters, which however display a
style of painting systematically arranged. Above an imitation of marble
reaching to no great height, rises the yellow plinth, in which are
inserted pictures on a red ground; there we see boys bringing dishes
with fruits, others playing with parrots or guinea fowl, carrying
glass jugs and dishes; another raises the cover of a vessel to spy
curiously into its contents, again another tastes the contents of the
vessel entrusted to his care, others seem equipped for a festival,
they are clad in gala fashion and decked out with garlands, they hold
garlands too in their hands. Above this plinth there next comes a small
field of black, displaying Cupids in their merry pranks as imitators
of human pursuits. Here one has harnessed a ram to a chariot, another
has his carriage drawn by two dolphins (fig. 120). A sacrifice to
Fortune too is offered by the little rogues with all earnestness;
again a duel between two hero Loves is depicted with every truth of
detail; bestriding goats and armed with shield and lance they charge
each other, but while one at full gallop couches his lance against his
adversary, the latter, causing his steed to swerve, seems to avoid the
blow; two other Loves attend the duel on foot. Another picture must
certainly contain the continuation of this warfare; one has fallen
with his steed, and in this helpless condition is sorely maltreated
not only by his original opponent, but also by his seconds, while his
own second has made off. Again a race is represented, but as fiery
coursers dolphins are harnessed to the chariots. A highly droll effect
is produced by a Cupid mounted on a crab (fig. 119) and another on a
locust, who urges his steed on with whip and rein. Then the Cupids
are busy hunting butterflies, in short every pursuit of adult and
child is imitated by them in their bright busy way, but with all the
seriousness that the situation demands. Above the moulding adorned with
masks and lionheads by which the upper part of the wall is divided from
the lower, there follow now in an upward direction red (partly burnt
black) stripes, with columns and candelabra (fig. 121). The vases out
of which these grow are apparently richly adorned with reliefs. Behind
them are introduced balustrades, to which steps lead up; above they
support large hoops, on which figures are seated. A somewhat larger
wall surface is preserved only behind the strongbox on the right, here
is seen above the plinth a hunting scene on a larger scale. Hounds are
pursuing a wild boar and a bear, others have pulled down a stag; then
comes a stripe with two Psyches, who bring fruits in baskets and empty
them into other baskets.
[Illustration: Fig. 122. Hero and Leander (p. 87).]
[Illustration: Fig. 123. Cyparissus (p. 88).]
The little room by the ostium displays in its plinth again an imitation
of marble, above this the wall is painted yellow with white panels
framed with green, in the middle of each of which is introduced
a picture. On the wall lying to the left of the entrance is the
abandonment of Ariadne on Naxos. The fair one deserted by Theseus at
the bidding of the gods is, as it seems, just awaked from slumber.
Astonished and terrified at being forsaken she lays her left hand
on her chin, while an Eros in order to bring her to understand her
position points to the ship of Theseus speeding away with sail full
set. The second picture is unfortunately destroyed, the slab of
stucco bearing it was in antiquity fastened on the wall with a series
of nails. The picture on the third wall represents the well-known
adventure of Hero and Leander (fig. 122). Besides these more important
pictures there are birds pecking fruit; above these comes a zone
of water with fish and other marine fauna, crowned by architecture
represented in perspective, on detached portions of which hanging
baskets and drinkinghorns are introduced, and also wild beasts chasing
one another. The room was once vaulted.
A richer decoration is to be seen in the paintings of the next room
towards the south, a triclinium: here the plinth is yellow and
ornamented with garlands, arabesques, hanging masks _etc._; above
come white panels, between which rises architecture with seated
and recumbent sphinxes. Of larger pictures only two are preserved;
of the other two one was destroyed, probably before the eruption of
Vesuvius, while the other fell a sacrifice to the diggers for treasure
who after the destruction of Pompeii lawfully or unlawfully explored
the abandoned houses, and for this purpose knocked holes through the
walls. On the side opposite the entrance the wrestling match between
Eros and Pan is represented, on the entrance side, Cyparissus and his
hind (fig. 123). Above these panels decorated with pictures comes a
cornice plastically constructed, higher still than this rise fresh
architectural forms comprising in their midst a broad exedra, with the
fore-part of a building approached by three steps. The central panels
are devoted to the representation of Jupiter and his mortal favourites,
there is seen on the right of the entrance Jupiter in youthful form
seated on his throne, while the other walls show Leda, Danaë, and a
third lady. But also the side panels, the out buildings made accessible
by stairs, are decorated with figures mostly taken from the Bacchic
cycle.
On the other side of the ostium the picture of the Lares (fig.
124) demands a brief notice. In the little temple supported by two
Corinthian columns and crowned by a pediment stands the Genius holding
patera and incense box. To right and left of him are painted the two
Lares, who symmetrically carry in one hand a bucket in the other a
drinkinghorn. Beneath them is observed the serpent that in many a curve
approaches the altar richly furnished with offerings. The remaining
apartments, with the exception of the cook’s bedroom, are without
painting.
The two cubicles lying west of the strongboxes have only unimportant
decorations; both alae display a black plinth enlivened by green
shrubs, and have above yellow panels with red borders, and having in
the centre small representations of still life; of these a cockfight
executed in a most lively style merits special attention. Beside a herm
stands a table with a large vessel; there stand two cocks, preparing
themselves for the fight; a third, the defeated one, lies under the
table, while the fourth, the conqueror, proudly marches off to the
right, with a twig of palm in his beak.
The peristyle has a black plinth decorated alternately with green
plants and vases (the pyramids of ivy there represented are now
imitated in nature in the garden of the peristyle). Above come
alternately large black panels framed in red, and fantastic pieces of
architecture on a white ground, which are bounded beneath by a yellow
slab with green or dark red border. The figure compositions introduced
in the centres of the panels consist for the most part of still life,
to which fish, fowls _etc._ contribute material, though there is no
lack of more important figures. To these belongs above all that of a
thick-set man who sits beside a chest filled with books. Scientific
efforts are suggested also by the figure of a Urania, who represented
as though in the act of imparting information, points with her staff
to the celestial globe lying before her (fig. 142); otherwise the
decoration of the hall is supplied by Satyrs and Bacchanals and the
winged female figures so frequently employed in Pompeii, together with
the attributes of various deities.
[Illustration: Fig. 124. The Shrine of the Lares (p. 88).]
Much more important however than these wall-paintings of the portico
are the sculptures which have been preserved in the enclosed garden
(fig. 125). In all four corners, and further at the second and third
columns of the narrower sides and the fourth and fifth of the long
sides there were once statuettes, twelve therefore in all, of which
nine are still preserved in their original position (fig. 126), while
two were removed to other parts of the building for repair. All these
statuettes, of which two are of bronze, the rest of marble, served
for fountains. The water either came directly out of them, or branch
pipes of the aqueduct were so laid on to them that it seemed as though
the water came from them; between them are placed several troughs and
receptacles of marble, which by their graceful shapes and beautiful
ornaments make a pleasing impression. The conduit too, save for slight
damage, was in such good repair that it has been found possible to
renew the play of the waters by means of a reservoir placed on the
roof. Marble tables between the columns and within the garden that is
still quite clearly marked out in beds, as well as two ivy-encircled
marble pedestals on each of which rests a double bust (fig. 127)
contribute in no slight measure to make the whole peristyle most
charming, and indeed a spot as yet unique in Pompeii.
[Illustration: Fig. 125. The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii (p.
89).]
A series of apartments too open on the peristyle, and in the first
place a triclinium. On a low foundation of imitation marble rises
the dark red plinth, over which again mounts a fanciful style of
architecture, leaving space in the centre for a sort of canopy.
The smaller pictures executed soberly in monochrome fall into the
background behind the large ones occupying the centre of the wall. Of
these large pictures the first is Hercules strangling the serpents
(fig. 128). The child Hercules has seized both the serpents sent by
Juno, and is throttling them, while his mother flies in terror, and
Amphitryo, his earthly father, is in the act of hastening to the
rescue. Yet the sight which presents itself to him checks any further
action, he sees that the child needs no help against the wretched
snakes: astonished and thoughtful he lays his right hand on his chin,
and he has every reason to be full of thoughts, for he could not have
expected such bravery from his own son. Jupiter in the meantime has
despatched his eagle to receive information as to his hero son. The
subject of the second picture is the punishment of Pentheus. The third
picture also is taken from a Theban myth, it represents the punishment
of Dirce, and corresponds to the well-known group of the so-called
Farnese Bull.
[Illustration: Fig. 126. Bacchus (p. 89).]
[Illustration: Fig. 127. Bacchus and Ariadne (p. 90).]
In like manner the corresponding room to the north of the _Ala
dextra_, which also opens its whole width on the peristyle, displays
rich ornament on the walls. In the plinth there is again an imitation
of marble, above in the middle is a red panel with a large square
picture, next is on each side a blue panel with the usual fantastic
architecture; then comes on both the longer sides a white panel. In the
centre of each of the three wallsurfaces a painting of larger size is
placed: first Daedalus and Pasiphae (fig. 129). The ingenious craftsman
has prepared the wooden cow as commissioned by the spouse of Minos, and
now the queen comes into the master’s studio to inspect his work. The
second picture treats of the punishment of Ixion. Mercury has delivered
over the miscreant to punishment, and Vulcan is just fastening him to
the wheel; vainly the mother or wife of Ixion implores Mercury to have
mercy; for even if he on his own account were inclined to grant her
prayer, yet this would be prevented by the presence of Juno, who in
queenly state has appeared with Iris to take note of the due exaction
of punishment (fig. 130).
[Illustration: Fig. 128. Hercules strangling Serpents (p. 90).]
While the connecting idea of both these pictures, viz unlawful love
and its punishment, is clear enough, the third picture, the finding of
Ariadne by Bacchus and his following, falls somewhat outside this range
of thought. I believe however that critics have gone too far in their
efforts to discover a harmonious unity of idea for the paintings of a
room. That the owner of the house might often demand of the artist to
see that a single harmonious train of thought was carried throughout a
room, is of course easily understood, but on the other hand it is again
quite clear that in the often great number of rooms to be decorated
the whole mythology was more or less drawn upon, and that frequently
the number of subjects at command, and therefore chance, determined
the choice of the pictures. So we cannot be surprised if we see the
Deliverance of Ariadne placed with pictures treating of the punishment
of unlawful love. Ariadne in her grief at being deserted by Theseus,
whose ship is still seen in the distance, has sunk into a slumber that
frees her from care: then Bacchus with his followers approaches, who
will raise Ariadne to be his bride.
[Illustration: Fig. 129. Daedalus and Pasiphae (p. 92).]
The side panels of this room also are adorned with paintings, which
though of smaller proportions are nevertheless well worth our notice.
These are oblong pictures of ships. Two to four strongly manned vessels
are represented, which rowed at full speed hasten against one another,
and by clever turnings seek to escape the enemy’s onset, the dangerous
blow with the ship’s beak. On the shorter sides the corresponding
positions are occupied by subjects of still life (birds with fruit, and
so on). Above these come flying figures arranged in pairs, swinging
garlands over their heads: they are probably intended for the Four
Seasons; above comes again architecture with figures.
The most splendid room however and the most interesting in the house
is, next to the garden of the peristyle, the large Oecus, which is
connected by a wide doorway with the portico, and by a small door with
another chamber devoid of ornament. The groundcolour of the whole room
is in the lower portion red and black, the plinth is sober black and
adorned with floral arabesques, above, however, the walls are red,
with black stripes. Beneath each vertical black stripe a picture is
introduced on the plinth, generally Amazons in warlike guise, buckler
and battleaxe in hand, but also Satyrs, Maenads, persons offering
sacrifice, _etc._ Over these figures comes a small oblong picture,
usually Psyches gathering flowers (fig. 131), here and there, however,
mythological scenes also are inserted. Three of these are preserved,
first Orestes and Pylades in Tauris. To the left sits Orestes, near him
is Pylades, towards them Iphigenia advances with the image of Diana,
on the right king Thoas is seated on a throne. The second picture
represents the triumph of Apollo over the serpent Pytho. The god has
killed the snake which guarded the sanctuary at Delphi; proud of his
victory he seized the lyre to sound the first paean in praise of the
omnipotence of the gods, and to his own especial glory; in his honour
the goddess of the place brings a bull, who is to fall as a sacrifice.
The third relates presumably to the sacrifice of Iphigenia in Aulis.
Before an altar, on which fire is burning, stands a woman with bowl
and chalice, from which she seems to besprinkle a hind standing in
front of her. From the right of the altar a wide-striding warrior
hastens up with drawn sword; a female figure wearing a wreath hurries
away to the left, evidently terrified at the warrior’s action. The
rendering varies from others relating to the same myth, yet scarcely
any other interpretation is left. That Iphigenia is not herself
introduced, but only the hind, may be pronounced remarkable, though why
should not the painter have hit upon this means of representing the
sudden change, especially if the other pictures in the room (cf. no. 1
of this series, Orestes and Pylades in Tauris) made the relations clear?
[Illustration: Fig. 130. Ixion’s Punishment (p. 92).]
The horizontal black bands beneath the red panels are occupied by
Erotes and Psyches, who with a naturally bright earnestness and
conscientiousness imitate the employments of daily life, chiefly the
exercise of certain trades, so that these bands may be reckoned among
the most interesting of Pompeii’s pictures. Here we have in the first
place the representation of a game, Erotes are busied in throwing
balls at a board. Further the manufacture and sale of garlands. Here
flowers are brought to the city by the gardener and his son, there
others are busy with the preparation of garlands, while on the left
haggling is going on about the finished garlands. Then follows the
production of oil, and the ointments prepared therefrom. A race too is
introduced (fig. 133); four Erotes distinguished by the four colours
of the Circus drive chariots harnessed with gazelles. On this follows
the representation of the goldsmith’s art, further that of the fuller’s
work, so important for ancient cities: two Erotes tread in a vat the
clothes to be cleaned, after this comes the removing of stains and the
brushing, or the raising the nap of the clothes, still further on the
clothes that have been cleaned are submitted to a thorough inspection
by Psyches. The following picture, the festival of Vesta, representing
the so-called _Vestalia_ is pretty well ruined, Erotes and Psyches are
reclining on the ground at a merry feast, and even the much tormented
donkeys have for once some rest. The next picture too is not well
preserved; on the left the vintage is represented, on the right the
wine-press. On the vintage follows the triumph of Bacchus, who is of
course represented by an Eros. The close of this series, so damaged
unfortunately in several of its scenes, is formed by the tavern with
the sale of wine (fig. 132). On the left stand a number of amphoras
just as they are still often found in Pompeii leaning on the wall in
a somewhat slanting position, in front of them stands mine host in an
easy posture, while he offers to his customer, who carries a little
stick, a bowl of wine to taste; two other Erotes are busy in drawing
wine for another sample from an amphora in a horizontal position.
In the centre of the red panels flying couples are depicted, derived
from mythology; we note, however, the want of freedom in choice which
the requirement as to pictures has imposed on the artist; here, as in
the War against the Giants at Pergamon, the whole force, so to speak,
has been mobilised. The figures preserved are those of Poseidon with
an inamorata, of Apollo with Daphne, of Bacchus with Ariadne, and of
Perseus with Andromeda.
In the centre of each wall there was also a large picture, these
however have not survived. On the other hand the upper part of the wall
above the red panels framed in black is still partly preserved; we
see here again new structures rising, which were peopled by numerous
figures, chiefly derived from the entourage of Bacchus.
[Illustration: Fig. 131. Psyches gathering Flowers (p. 94).]
Now it remains to describe the small space set apart for the ladies.
Here too the walls are adorned with paintings which attract less
attention only because the abundance of treasures offered to our gaze
in the Casa dei Vettii leaves scarcely time or inclination for the
smaller works of art. The first room has a black plinth, with green
shrubs and flowers as ornament, over this red panels separated by
white stripes; in the centre of each panel is a fabulous creature.
Here a Pegasus grazing beside a wall and the attributes of Athena is
most deserving of notice. The second room has black walls with white
bands, which as it were open up a view into the open air with trees &c.
In the centre of each wall there was originally a large picture, now
however only two are left; first the Discovery of Achilles in Scyros,
where Ulysses and Diomedes by a stratagem detect Achilles disguised in
woman’s clothing among the daughters of Lycomedes, and induce him to
take part in the expedition against Troy (fig. 134). The second picture
represents Hercules and Auge.
Next to these large wall-pictures, medallions with flying female
forms are placed on the side panels. It may be stated in passing that
throughout the whole mansion the medallions always prove to have been
separately inserted: clearly these pieces were produced by the artists
on slabs of stucco and kept in stock, so that during the preparation of
a wall they had simply to be let into it. Hence we cannot be surprised
if the medallions sometimes betray a style more or less at variance
with the other decorations of the wall.
[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cupid as Host (p. 95).]
Such are the paintings of the house known as _Domus Vettiorum_, a
house that in the number of pictures which are placed in it, and
in the beauty and grace of its peristyle, excels without doubt all
other houses as yet excavated. Of course we have not always to do
with masters of the first rank; should we ask as to the origin of
the pictures and how they had come to a little provincial town like
Pompeii, several hands that had been employed upon them might easily
be distinguished. Taken as a whole however the wall decorations are
unique; nay with regard to individual representations, above all in
the case of the frieze of Cupids in the Oecus, one can pronounce only
a favourable judgement, especially when one sees how lightly and
naturally, and yet with what a sure hand, and how characteristically,
the pictures have been conceived and executed. If ordinary decorative
painters produced such wall decoration for a small provincial town,
what triumph of art must have graced the mansions of the leading men in
the great cities! We have indeed a specimen of these in what is called
the House of Livia on the Palatine, and in the _Domus Transtiberina_,
the remains of which are exhibited in the Baths of Diocletian; these,
however, are but insignificant fragments as compared with the vast mass
of that which has been irretrievably lost.
Now that we have thus examined a house in its entirety we might take
our departure. Yet hold! Pompeii is indeed, as said above, in contrast
to Naples, the city of the Dead, yet in Pompeii there is still one spot
that in a greater degree may be designated the place of the Dead, this
is the Street of Tombs in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. Almost
all roads that led out of ancient cities were lined by the monuments
of the dead; so too at Pompeii, where on all the roads leading out of
the city, e. g. on that to Scafati, numerous burial places have been
discovered, but not one of these roads can compete with the place of
sepulture that lies in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. This then
deserves a more thorough investigation.
[Illustration: Fig. 133. A Race (p. 95).]
This is not the proper place to describe the methods of burial
prevailing among the Romans; it is sufficient here to state that in the
most ancient times the dead were laid to rest in sarcophagi; examples
of such a method of interment, which at Rome in particular gentes, or
clans, was observed uninterruptedly to the latest period, e. g. among
the Cornelii, are found also in Pompeii, but seem to go back to the
Oscan epoch. In those times the bodies were laid in coffinlike chests
of limestone, which were made up of square blocks or smaller stones,
and covered with earth, after all sorts of little vases, chiefly of
Nolan manufacture, had been put in with them. Examples of such a
method of burial are exhibited in the small Museum at the Porta della
Marina. Later, however, when Pompeii was added to the Roman Empire,
cremation generally took the place of interment. For this purpose in
a space specially set apart called _Ustrinum_, the funeral pile was
erected, to which the form of an altar was regularly given, the height
and decoration of which were naturally decided according to the rank
and wealth of the deceased. Such _ustrina_ were of course assigned
by the city, frequently however, where space permitted and police
regulations did not hinder, there were private grounds of this kind at
the hereditary burying places of distinguished families. At Pompeii
too such an _ustrinum_ has been supposed to exist before the Gate of
Herculaneum, but wrongly, for the insufficient distance from the city
would alone have absolutely prohibited the burning of corpses there.
The bier with the corpse was placed on the pyre and covered with sweet
smelling unguents, incense, costly stuffs &c. and then kindled by a
relative or friend with averted face. When the funeral pile was burned
to the ground the ashes had to be extinguished with water or wine, the
bones that were left collected, and then, after the customary lustral
sacrifice had been offered, the funeral feast had to be held at the
grave. The place required for such a feast, the _triclinium funebre_,
is still remaining at Pompeii. Some days later the bones, which in the
meantime had been dried in the sun, were sprinkled with milk and wine,
and, after the addition of fragrant materials, placed in a sepulchral
urn, that was afterwards conveyed to the tomb. The sepulchral urns were
generally hermetically sealed, but often provided with holes at the
top, so that on appointed days the usual libations to the dead could
be poured right on to the cremated remains, in order to ensure to the
deceased person the enjoyment of the sacrifices offered to him. Nay
pipes have (in the case of some of the graves situated on the road
leading to Scafati) been fixed in such a way as to render it possible
to convey directly to him such libations also as were dedicated to the
dead man outside the tomb.
[Illustration: Fig. 134. Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes (p. 96).]
[Illustration: Fig. 135. The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum
(p. 100).]
Apart from some few graves dating back to Oscan times, the monuments in
front of the Gate of Herculaneum belong entirely to the Roman period
(fig. 135). Immediately to the left, behind the Gate, is seen a vaulted
niche, in which then was originally placed a statue, that of course of
the person buried there, with an altar before it for the sacrifices;
according to the inscription the grave belongs to the Augustalis M.
Cerrinius Restitutus, for whose burial the Decurions presented the
ground. The _Augustales_ formed a _collegium_ consisting of freedmen
dedicated to the cult of the emperors. This is the niche to which is
attached the well-known legend of the sentry fabled to have remained
at his post during the eruption of Vesuvius, and thereby met his
death: in reality there is no question of a sentrybox nor of a sentry,
for, according to the reports of the excavations, no skeleton at all
was found at this point. Passing on from the grave of M. Cerrinius
we come on the left to a semicircular bench which according to the
inscription was erected by decree of the Decurions in honour of Aulus
Veius, who had held the highest magistracies of the city. Probably his
remains were interred behind the bench. His statue will have stood on
the pedestal in the centre of the seat; it may be inferred from the
dignities named in the inscription as enjoyed by him that he lived not
later than Augustus.
[Illustration: Fig. 136. Continuation of the Street of Tombs (p. 103).]
The following grave belonged to M. Porcius, whose name is mentioned
in connection with the smaller Theatre and the Amphitheatre; a son
or other relative may of course have borne the same name. The third
monument on the left hand side again takes the form of a semicircular
seat, it marks the spot where the priestess Mamia was buried (behind
the seat). We need not dwell on the pleasing thoughts aroused in the
beholder when he recognises that the monument here assumes a form
specially useful to the living, and affording rest to the wearied
wanderer. Behind Mamia’s seat a large sepulchral building is preserved,
in the chamber of which niches for the urns containing ashes are to
be seen (fig. 137). As is proved by several inscriptions, the tomb
belonged to the distinguished Pompeian family of the Istacidii. After
this comes a now closed street, which according to an inscription seems
to have led to the bathing establishment of M. Crassus Frugi. This
included, as we know from other sources, a medicinal spring rising out
of the sea. That the sea came up nearer Pompeii than is now the case
has already been stated. Here the buryingplaces on the left cease for
some distance, and there follows a villa site, now once more covered
with ashes _etc._, in which, without sufficient ground, people have
sought to recognise a villa of Cicero (who is known to have possessed a
villa at Pompeii). Let us therefore retrace our steps to the Gate, to
examine the graves placed on the righthandside.
[Illustration: Fig. 137 Interior of a Grave (p. 101).]
[Illustration: Fig. 138. Vessel of blue Glass (p. 103).]
[Illustration: Fig. 139. Herm-cippus (p. 104).]
Here first meets us a large altar-shaped grave without inscription in
the chamber of which, when opened a few years ago, two clay vessels
were found enclosed for better preservation in leaden covers, which
contained the remains of bones covered with a cloth, together with a
coin of the time of Augustus. Coins are frequently found placed with
the remains. Although originally the idea of such parting gifts was
that the property left was thereby purchased from the deceased, the
earnest money as it were being handed to him to prevent his return, yet
gradually the belief became universal that passage money was handed to
the dead man for Charon, whose boat was to carry him to the Underworld.
As long as the dead body was buried in the earth, it was the custom to
lay the coin in the mouth; when burning came into vogue in place of
burial, it was quite natural that the coin should still be added to
the remains. The second tomb on the right was erected to the Aedile M.
Terentius Felix Major, by his widow Flavia Sabina, after the city had
granted not only the site, but also a contribution of 2000 sesterces
(about 21 pounds). The remains of M. Terentius were discovered under
the table on the left, in a glass vessel, doubly protected by being
placed in a terracotta urn and wrapped in lead. Of the graves that
follow, number 6 deserves special notice, the Grave of the Garlands,
so called from the ornament affixed on one side. The structure is
solid; nevertheless there will be found in all probability a sepulchral
chamber underneath, but as yet no search for it has been made. The
grave no. 8 is famous for the discovery of the blue glass vessel (fig.
138) now in Naples, representing the vintage in white relief on a
blue ground. To the cheerful sound of flutes and the syrinx, a Genius
carries grape clusters to a vessel, in which another treads them down,
as he merrily swings the thyrsus, while on the other side the gathering
of grapes and the enjoyment of wine are brought to view. Most charming
however is the network of twining tendrils that form a web around the
whole vase. Then comes a semicircular niche, as to which it is doubtful
whether it has actually served for a funeral monument. It was certainly
erected for this purpose, but since the space for the inscription in
the pediment has remained unfilled, it seems as though the purpose for
which it was originally intended had not been carried out.
[Illustration: Fig. 140. Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche (p.
105).]
At this point the graves come to an end on the right side also, and
there appear two villas bordering on the road, which have profited
by their favourable position through the construction of shops and
taverns for those passing along the street. From the mosaic fountain
there to be seen come the four pillars covered with mosaic, that have
been taken to the Naples Museum; they supported a pavilion in front
of the fountain. On the other hand the tombs soon begin again on the
left (fig. 136); in the first place one which passes for an unfinished
structure, because its upper portion is not completely preserved; here
is a gravestone the peculiar shape of which is found outside Pompeii
only at Sorrento, a stone formed in imitation of a bust, on the back
of which plaits of hair hang down; on the smooth surface in front it
bears the inscription.--_Junoni Tyches Juliae Augustae vener._ While
the Genius is the protecting spirit of the man, the Juno takes this
place in the case of women; the Tyche whose remains are buried here was
probably a favourite slave of Julia Augusta, i. e. of Livia, but the
meaning of _vener_ is at least doubtful (fig. 139).
[Illustration: Fig. 141. Villa of Diomedes (p. 105).]
One of the most important monuments is the next one, belonging to
Umbricius Scaurus, erected by his father, when the Town Council had
granted the site and 2000 sesterces. The chief interest of this
monument consists in the stucco reliefs with which the front walls and
the steps of the altar are adorned, and which represent scenes from the
Amphitheatre, gladiatorial combats and wildbeast hunts. The deceased
had once given these spectacles to his native city, so that the father
could bethink himself of preserving the remembrance of this liberality
by the ornamentation of the monument. Next comes the so-called Round
Tomb, which in the interior has a peculiarly vaulted chamber with three
niches, in the bottom of which the urns are fixed in masonry and closed
with covers, just as in the Roman _columbaria_. Further on the grave
of the Augustal, Calventius Quietus, demands our special notice, on
whom on account, of his munificence the Town Council had conferred the
honour of the _bisellium_, i. e. had given him the right to sit on a
special seat in the Theatre among the Town Councillors. The _bisellium_
is depicted on the monument. Particularly striking, however, through
its ornaments executed in relief, is the tomb of Naevoleia Tyche,
which she, according to the inscription, erected to herself and C.
Munatius Faustus, to whom also the Town Council had granted the honour
of the _bisellium_ (fig. 140). Over the inscription is represented
the portrait of the foundress, and underneath a sacrifice to the
dead, while the flanks of the altar show on one side the _bisellium_
granted to Munatius, on the other side a ship, the sails of which are
reefed. By this no doubt allusion is made to the end of life. In the
gravechamber were found, with other more simple vases of terracotta,
three vases of glass, which were enclosed in a lead wrapping, and in
which the contents were preserved intact; they contained the burnt
bones in a fluid made up of water, wine, and oil mixed together.
After this comes the _triclinium funebre_ mentioned before, a place in
which the funeral feasts were usually held. The triclinium is in its
general features not different from those occurring in private houses,
one sees three couches of masonry (with the higher end inwards) round a
table on which the food was placed. With this ends the series of tombs
on the left hand.
[Illustration: Fig. 142. Urania (p. 89).]
On the righthand our special attention is claimed by the tomb with the
marble door. The interior of the tomb was occupied by various urns
of ashes, yet the exterior was still incomplete, the coating with
squared stones originally contemplated is not entirely executed. Here
a street turns off to the right, in which the Oscan graves previously
mentioned were discovered. Of the tombs on the rising ground between
the two streets that of M. Arrius Diomedes should be mentioned, which
he erected to his former lady Arria, himself, and his family. Not as
though this were distinguished above others, but because the Villa
lying opposite the tombs has been designated as that of Diomedes. This
Villa of Diomedes requires more careful consideration before we quit
Pompeii (fig. 141).
By a slope rising from the Street of Tombs we reach the door, which,
corresponding to the precepts of Vitruvius for villas, leads straight
into the peristyle. Among the chambers accessible from this are
first, on the side of the street, the bathrooms; here we distinguish
the _piscina_, that is the basin for the cold bath; further the
_tepidarium_, the air of which was warmed by an opening from the
_caldarium_, and which, on the garden side, was closed by a window
with four thick panes of glass; then the _caldarium_, the room for
the sweating-bath, the floor and walls of which were arranged for
conducting the heat in the way we have seen in the Public Baths.
Warm air and hot water were supplied from the kitchen close at hand.
Still more interesting is a sleeping-apartment, also reached from the
peristyle, in front of which is a room for the _cubicularis_, the
valet. The sleeping-apartment itself is built out into the garden
in a semicircle, here are placed three large windows which supplied
light and air, but could be quite closed by shutters according to
requirement. That even there fresh air should not be wanting was
provided for by a small quadrangular opening placed above. At the back
is seen the alcove for the bed, which was cut off by a curtain; the
rings for this were found when the excavation took place; close by we
observe a hollow in the masonry, presumably a sort of wash-hand basin.
[Illustration: Fig. 143. Bronze Bowl (p. 68).]
[Illustration: Fig. 144. Boy with Duck]
Below these parts of the establishment, and approached by stairs,
and having a separate communication with the sloping street, lies, a
series of domestic offices, slaves’ rooms _etc._, of which nothing
need be said. Then we pass into the garden, a large pleasure-ground
surrounded by a colonnade, and with a large basin and fountain in the
centre, and an open portico supported by six columns. At the further
end of the colonnade lay a small room, from which, as from the middle
of the portico, a door led into the open air; here at the time of
the excavation were found two skeletons, those as it is supposed of
the master of the house and his servant; the former had a gold ring
on his finger and a large key in his hand, and near him lay ten gold
and eighty-eight silver coins. Both then had striven to reach the
open air, but had perished in doing so. Still more terrible was the
fate of his family and dependants; eighteen adults and two children
had fled for refuge to the large room under the colonnade, marked as
a wine-cellar by the numerous amphorae leaning against the walls, to
which light and air were admitted from the courtyard through small
windows; all perished miserably when the masses of pumice-stone had
cut off their escape. The ashes pressing in had enveloped them and
faithfully preserved their forms; unfortunately at the time when this
villa was excavated the process of taking plaster-casts had not yet
been invented, and so the moulds thus formed were destroyed; it has
been possible to preserve only one portion, the impression of the neck,
shoulders, and breast of a young girl, to judge by the impression
faultlessly beautiful, and wearing a dress of the finest material. This
mould is exhibited in the Museo Nazionale at Naples.
We now come to the end of our story. The romantic histories that
have been recounted as to the destruction of Pompeii, the sentinel
who refused to desert his post, and thus met his death, the closely
embracing pair of youthful lovers overwhelmed in the street leading
from the Theatre to the Forum, the men said to have been surprised
by the eruption of Vesuvius in the midst of the funeral feast at the
_Triclinium funebre_ in the Street of Tombs--all this and whatever
else the ever active imagination has invented to depict the fate of
the city with all possible horror, are thrown deep into the shade
by the reality which the excavations reveal; we cannot depict to
ourselves darkly enough the scenes enacted in Pompeii on the 24th of
August in the year 79. And yet posterity has every reason to thank
the chance that throughout so many centuries has preserved for us an
ancient Roman city almost untouched. One cannot shut out from oneself
the thought that the eruption of Vesuvius in its ultimate results has
brought only a blessing, inasmuch as it has given us the opportunity
of casting a glance across so many centuries, right into the actual
condition and circumstances of an ancient city. There is indeed a
whole series of cities of far greater size and importance which have
existed uninterruptedly from the earliest times to the present day,
but the constant changes necessitated by the requirements and habits
of later generations have so altered their condition that the traces
of antiquity can be followed out only with the greatest toil. At
Pompeii the case is very different, there the ashes from Vesuvius
have preserved the city as a whole, just as the Pompeians left it on
the occasion of the eruption; there streets and squares, temples and
houses speak a language which cannot fail to be understood by every one
who has any power of grasping the conception of antiquity. How vastly
our knowledge of the ancient world must be advanced by such immediate
inspection of actual remains requires no further elucidation. Let then
the saying be once more repeated “Vedi Napoli e Pompei”, and, with a
slight alteration of the well-known saying as to Capri; “Non lasciar
Napoli senza aver visto Pompei”.
[Illustration: POMPEI.]
INDEX
The asterisks before the numerals refer to the illustrations.
W. = Wall-painting.
Abbondanza, via dell’, *12, 37
Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes, W., 96, *99
Ala, 41
Alexander’s Battle, 43, *46
Alexandria, Tutelary Deity of, *70
Altar, Domestic, *45
---- of the temple of Vespasian, *26
Amor with Dolphin, *56
---- with Crab, W., *84
---- with Dolphins, W., *84
---- as Host, W., *97
Amphitheatre, *33, 34, 36, *42
---- Fight in between Pompeians & Nucerians, *36
Apodyterium, *36, 37
Apollo, *27, 28
---- and Pytho, W., 94
---- Temple of, 27, *28
Arca, 42, *43
Ariadne, Deliverance of, W., 92, 93
---- in Naxos, W., 87
Atrium, 40-42
---- Restoration of, *40, 41
---- in the House of Rufus, *58, 60
---- Tuscanicum, 41
Augustales, 100
Aulus Veius, 100
Bacchus, *91
---- and Ariadne, W., *91, 92
Bakery, *74, 76
Balcony, 43, *44
Basilica, 26, *28
Baths, 35-39
Bisellium, *59, 62
Bosco Reale, 68-74
Bowls, silver, 70, 71
Boy with duck, *110
Bread, *76
Bronze table, *64
Building, periods of, 47-49
Burning the Dead, 98, 99, 102
Calda, 64
Caldarium, *38, 106
Candelabra, 66, *67
---- Painted, W., 85
Casa d’Arianna, *79, 81
---- del Balcone pensile, *56
---- dei Capitelli Colorati, *79, 81
---- del Centenario, *79, 81, 82
---- del Imperatore di Germania, *79, 82
“_Cave Canem_”, *39, 40
Cerrinius Restitutus, 100
Chapel, Private, 42, *43
Comedy, Scene from, *32, 34
Compluvium, 41
Cookshop, *14, *15, 21
Cremation, 98, 99, 102
Cups, *62, *67, 70, *72
Cupid, *56, *84, 95, *97
Cyparissus, W., *87, 88
Daedalus & Pasiphaë, W., 92, *93
Dining-couch, *60, 62
Diomedes, 105
Dioscurides, *32
Dipinti, 19, 20
Dog, in Mosaic, *39
Doorknocker, *39, 40
Ephebus of Bronze, *51, 57
Erotes, *84, 85, 86, 95, *97
Eruption of Vesuvius, 3
Eumachia, 26, *27
Europa with the Bull, W., *52, 53
Excavations, *1, 8, 9
Faun, Dancing, *55, 56
Feast, *61, 62
Fontana, Domenico, 8
Food-warmer, *63, *66
Fortuna, Temple of, 29, *30
Fountain figures, 57
Fountains, *13, 21
Fountain with mosaic, *57
Forum Civile, *18, *19, 23
---- Scene in, *20, 23
---- Triangular, *16, *17, 22
Frigidarium, 37
Fullers at Work, W., *78
Fulling, 78
Fullonica, *77, 78
Furniture, 61-64
Garlands, 95, 103
Gates, 17
Gauging table, *29
Gladiators, 36, *41
---- Barracks of, *33, 36
---- Weapons of, *34, *41, *44
Glass vessel, Blue, *102, 103
Graffiti, *13, 19, 20
Graves, 98-105
“_Have_”, 40, 80
Herculaneum, Discovery of, 8
---- Gate of, *11, 17, 98
Hercules Strangling Serpents, W., 90, *92
Herms, 90, *91, *102, 103
Hero and Leander, W., *86, 87
House of the Faun, *77, 80
---- Lucretius, *54, 59
---- Pansa, *38, *73, 75
---- C. Rufus, *58, 60
---- the Tragic Poet, *75, 76-78
---- the Vettii, 83-97, *83, *90
Impluvium, 41
Inscriptions, *13, 19, 20
Interior of Grave, 101-5, *102, *103
Io, W., 26
Iphigenia, W., 49-52, *50, 94, 95
Isis, Temple of, 29-32, *30
Istacidii, 101
Ixion, W., 92, *94
Jucundus, Caecilius, *58, 60, 61
“Junoni Tyches”, *102, 103, 104
Jupiter, Bust of, *21, 25
---- Temple of, *22, *23, 25
Kitchen, with Hearth, *82, 84
Lamps, 66, *67
Lares, Shrine of, 88, *89
Lead plates, 81
Lecti, 62
Lighting of dwellingrooms, 65, 66
Loaves, *76
Loves, *84, 85, 86, 95, *97
Macellum, *24, 25, 26
Maenianum, 43, *44
Mamia, 101
Marble Table, *59, 62
Mars and Venus, W., *53, 54
Meals, *61, 61-63
Meatmarket, *24, 24-26
Medea, W., *51, 52
Mercury, Street of, *8, 11, 15
Mirror with Bust of Ariadne, *71, 72
Misenum, 4
Mosaics, *39, 40, 43-47, *47
Naevoleia Tyche, *103, 105
Narcissus, Statuette of, *55, 56
Nola, Street of, *9, 15
Oilshops, *16, 21
Omphalos, 27
Orestes and Pylades, 94
Oscilla, 60
Ostiarius, 40
Palaestra, 37
Panorama of Pompeii, *7
Pentheus, 91
Periods of Building, 47-49
Piscina, 106
Plasterer at Work, *49
Plastering, *49
Pliny the Younger, 4, 5
Pompeii, History of, 1-8
Porcius, 101
Porta della Marina, 1, 12
Priapus, 85
Private Houses, 39
Proculus and his Wife, W., *53, 53-55
Psyches, 95, *96
Punishment of Ixion, W., 92, *94
Purgatorium, 29
Pylades, 94
Races, W., 95, *98
Rothschild, 69
Rufus, Cornelius, *58, 60
Sacrifice of Iphigenia, W., 49, *50, 50-52
Sculpture, 89, *91
Senaculum, 26
Ships, Representations of, 93
Shops, 21
Stabiae, Street of, *14, 21
Standard measures, table of, *29
Stepping-stones, 18
Stibadium, 63
Stoves, 63, 64, *65
Streets, width of, 17
Strongboxes, 42, *43
Styles of art, *47, *48, 49
Sulla, 17
Symposium, W., *61
Table of standard measures, *29
Tablinum, 42
Tepidarium, *37, 38, 106
Terentius Major, Tomb of, 102, 103
Theatres, *31, 32, 34
Thermae, *35, 35-39
Tombs, 98-105
Tombs, Street of, 98, *100, *101, 101-5
Towers, *10, 16
Triclinium, 42, 62
---- Funebre, 99, 105, 107
Tripods, 63, *64
Urania, 89, *105
Ustrinum, 98
Vases, 73
Vespasian, Temple of, *25
Vestibulum, 40
Vesuvius, on a Wall-painting, *2, 82
Villa of Diomedes, *104, 104-106
Wall Decorations, 45-55
Walls, *10, 16, 17
Wax tablets, 55, 60, *80, 83
Weapons, *34, *41, *44
Windows, *13, 19
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Front Excavation
1 Vesuvius before the Eruption
2 Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the Amphitheatre
3 Plaster-cast of a Pompeian Woman
4 Plaster-cast of a Dog
5 Panorama of Pompeii
6 The Street of Mercury
7 The Street of Nola and its continuation
8 Section of a Tower
9 View of the City Wall from outside
10 Section of the City Wall
11 The Gate of Herculaneum
12 The Street of Abundance
13 Window in Pompeii
14 Pompeian Inscription on Wall
15 Pompeian Graffito
16 Public Fountain
17 Street of Stabiae with water Reservoir
18 Restored View of a Cookshop
19 Cookshop of the Casa di Sullustio
20 Oilmerchant’s Shop
21 Entrance to the Triangular Forum
22 The Triangular Forum
23 The Forum Civile, seen from the South
24 Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter
25 Life in the Forum
26 Bust of Jupiter
27 The Temple of Jupiter
28 The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction
29 The Macellum, (the Meat market)
30 Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum
31 The Temple of Vespasian
32 Altar of the Temple of Vespasian
33 Portrait statue of Eumachia
34 Statue of Apollo
35 The Basilica
36 The Temple of Apollo
37 Gauging Table from the Forum
38 The Temple of Fortune
39 The Temple of Isis
40 The smaller Theatre
41 The larger Theatre
42 Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides
43 Interior view of the Amphitheatre
44 Barracks of the Gladiators
45 Weapons of Gladiators
46 Wall at the Stabian Baths
47 The Apodyterium
48 The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths
49 Arrangement of a Caldarium
50 Section of the Caldarium
51 Ground Plan of the House of Pansa
52 Atrium Tuscanicum
53 _Cave Canem_
54 Doorknockers
55 Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to the Peristyle
56 Scene from the Amphitheatre
57 External View of the Amphitheatre
58 Iron Strongbox
59 Domestic Shrine
60 Helmets for Gladiators
61 House with _Maenianum_
62 Domestic Altar
63 Mosaic Threshold
64 Alexander’s Battle
65 Pompeian Mosaic
66 Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di Sallustio)
67 Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of Spurius Mesor)
68 Process of Plastering
69 Wall Decoration. Fourth Style
70 Sacrifice of Iphigenia
71 Medea, from Herculaneum
72 The so-called Ephebus of bronze
73 Europa with the Bull
74 Mars and Venus
75 Paquius Proculus and his wife
76 Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio
77 The Dancing Faun
78 The so-called Narcissus
79 Cupid with a Dolphin
80 Casa del Balcone pensile
81 Mosaic Fountain
82 Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo
83 Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus
84 Bust of Cornelius Rufus
85 A _Bisellium_
86 Marble Table
87 Dining-couch of Bronze
88 A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting
89 Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale
90 Food-warmer
91 Tripods and Bronze Table
92 Portable Stove
93 Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_
94 Food-warmer
95 Silver Cups
96 Candelabrum
97 Candelabrum
98 Bronze Vessel
99 Silver Jugs
100 The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria
101 Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne
102 Cup with Olivewreath
103 Cup with Still Life
104 House of Pansa
105 Bakery with Mills
106 House of the Tragic Poet
107 Pompeian Loaves
108 Fullonica (Fulling-mill)
109 Casa del Fauno
110 The Fuller at his Work
111 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna)
112 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna)
113 Casa del Centenario
114 Casa del Imperatore di Germania
115 Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius Jucundus
116 House with several stories
117 Kitchen with Hearth
118 Plan of the House of the Vettii
119 Love on a Crab
120 Love with Dolphins
121 Candelabrum, Wall-painting
122 Hero and Leander
123 Cyparissus
124 The Shrine of the Lares
125 The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii
126 Bacchus
127 Bacchus and Ariadne
128 Hercules strangling Serpents
129 Daedalus and Pasiphae
130 Ixion’s Punishment
131 Psyches gathering Flowers
132 Cupid as Host
133 A Race
134 Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes
135 The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum
136 Continuation of the Street of Tombs
137 Interior of a Grave
138 Vessel of blue Glass
139 Herm-cippus
140 Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche
141 Villa of Diomedes
142 Urania
143 Bronze Bowl
144 Boy with Duck
End Map of Pompeii
Transcriber’s Notes.
Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=.
Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS.
Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised.
To improve text flow, illustrations have been relocated between
paragraphs. Page numbers in the list of illustrations have been
discarded.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POMPEII ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg License when
you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg™ License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 41 Watchung Plaza #516,
Montclair NJ 07042, USA, +1 (862) 621-9288. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
