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Title: Voyage to the East Indies
Author: Paolino da San Bartolomeo
Contributor: Johann Reinhold Forster
Translator: William Johnston
Release date: July 8, 2025 [eBook #76461]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Vernor and Hood, 1800
Credits: Carol Brown, Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGE TO THE EAST INDIES ***
Transcriber’s Note:
Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like
this_. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the
end of the book. Obvious printing errors, such as backwards, upside
down, or partially printed letters and punctuation, were corrected.
Final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were
added. Duplicate or missing letters at line endings were removed or
added, as appropriate.
Words have inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, and use of
diacriticals. These were not changed unless indicated below. Dialect,
obsolete and alternative spellings were not changed. Long dashes were
converted to elipses in Book 2, chapter 7.
The following were changed:
“1738” to “1778” ... a second time in 1778....
“emploped” to “employed”
“merchanchise” to “merchandise”
“ex-jesuist” to “ex-jesuit”
“contorsions” to contortions
“obstables” to obstacles
Pius “XVI” changed to Pius “VI”
“too” to “two” ... two days in arrest ...
“to” to “too” ... or see too clearly ...
“consideraby” to “considerably” ... are considerably changed ...
“di” to “die” ... die Zigeuner ...
“engaving” to “engraving” ... an engraving of which ...
“apparations” to “apparitions” ... In these apparitions ...
“concentred” to “concentrated”
“Phenicians” to “Phoenicians”
“too” to “two” .. yields two crops every year ...
“tranformed” to “transformed” ... transformed himself ...
A
VOYAGE
TO THE
_EAST INDIES:_
CONTAINING
An Account of the Manners, Customs, &c. of the NATIVES,
With a Geographical Description of the Country.
COLLECTED FROM
Observations made during a Residence of Thirteen Years,
between 1776 and 1789, in Districts little
frequented by the EUROPEANS.
BY
FRA PAOLINO DA SAN BARTOLOMEO,
Member of the Academy of Velitri, and formerly Professor of the
Oriental Languages in the Propaganda at Rome.
WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS BY
_JOHN REINHOLD FORSTER, LL.D._
Professor of Natural History in the University of Halle.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
BY WILLIAM JOHNSTON.
LONDON.
PRINTED BY J. DAVIS, CHANCERY LANE:
AND SOLD BY VERNOR AND HOOD, POULTRY; AND
J. CUTHELL, HOLBORN.
M.DCCC.
PREFACE.
The original of this work appeared at Rome in the year 1796[1]. A
German edition was published, in 1798, at Berlin, by the well-known
Dr. John Reinhold Forster, with copious Notes; and from the latter
the English Edition now offered to the Public has been translated.
The Notes, a very few excepted, the Translator has retained, and it
is hoped they will be found useful to illustrate various parts of the
Text.
The author, Fra Paolino da San Bartolomeo, a barefooted Carmelite,
resided thirteen years in India, and therefore may be supposed to
have been well acquainted with the subject on which he treats. He
was born at Hof, in the Austrian dominions, in 1748; and, before he
embraced the monastic life, was known by the name of John Philip
Wesdin. He was seven years Professor of the Oriental Languages in the
Propaganda at Rome, and since his return from India has published
several works relating to that country.
In regard to the present work, Dr. Forster, in his Preface to the
German Edition, says:
“It is the more valuable, as the author understood the Tamulic or
common Malabar language; and, what is of more importance, was so well
acquainted with the Samscred, (a language exceedingly difficult,) as
to be able to write a Grammar of it, which was published at Rome in
1790[2]. It appears from some of his quotations, that he understood
also the English and French.
“His knowledge of the Indian languages has enabled him to rectify our
orthography, in regard to the names of countries, cities, mountains,
and rivers. The first European travellers who visited India were, for
the most part, merchants, soldiers, or sailors; very few of whom were
men of learning, or had enjoyed the advantage of a liberal education.
These people wrote down the names of places merely as they struck
their ear, and for that reason different names have been given to
the same place in books of travels, maps, and military journals. To
this may be added, that the authors were sometimes Dutch, sometimes
French, and sometimes English; consequently each followed a different
orthography, which has rendered the confusion still greater. The
author of the present work thought it of importance to correct these
errors; a task for which he seems to have been well qualified by his
knowledge of the Indian dialects. Thus, for example, he changes the
common, but improper, appellation Coromandel into _Ciòlamandala_,
Pondichery into _Puduceri_, &c.; but the Reader ought to remember,
that, as the author wrote in Italian, his _c_ before _e_ and _i_ must
be pronounced _tch_, &c.
“As the changed orthography of the names of countries, cities, and
rivers, rendered a Geographical Index in some measure necessary, one
has been added at the end of the work.--Readers acquainted with the
tedious labour required to form such a nomenclature, and who may have
occasion to use it, will, no doubt, thank the Translator for his
trouble.”
CONTENTS.
BOOK I.
CHAP. I.
_Arrival at Puduceri (Pondichery)--Coast of Coromandel--
Going on shore--Capuchins--Jesuits--Description of the
City--Its Trade--Fortifications--White Ants--Bitter
Drops--Error of the Heathens in regard to Christianity_ Page 1
CHAP. II.
_Virapatnam--Seminary there--Error of Ptolemy the
Geographer--Apis--Error of some modern Geographers--
Etymological Catalogue of Places in Carnada, Tanjaur,
and Madura_ 18
CHAP. III.
_Geographical, statistical, and historical Observations
on the Kingdoms of Tanjaur, Marava, Madura, and Carnada_ 35
CHAP. IV.
_Journey from Puduceri to Covalan, Maïlapuri, and
Madraspatnam_ 67
CHAP. V.
_Indian Weights, Measures, Coins, and Merchandise_ 78
CHAP. VI.
_Topographical Description of Malabar_ 102
CHAP. VII.
_Population of Malayala--Manners, Customs, and Industry
of the Inhabitants--Political State of the Country_ 149
CHAP. VIII.
_Missionary Affairs--Audience of the King of Travancor_ 177
CHAP. IX.
_Quadrupeds, Birds, and Amphibious Animals on the Coast
of Malabar_ 210
CHAP. X.
_Seas, Rivers, Vessels used for Navigation, Fish,
Shell-fish, and Serpents in India_ 229
BOOK II.
CHAP. I.
_Birth and Education of Children_ 253
CHAP. II.
_State of Marriage among the Indians_ 269
CHAP. III.
_Laws of the Indians_ 284
CHAP. IV.
_Classes or Families of the Indians_ 293
CHAP. V.
_Administration of Justice among the Indians_ 309
CHAP. VI.
_Languages of the Indians_ 313
CHAP. VII.
_Religion and Deities of the Indians_ 324
CHAP. VIII.
_Hieroglyphical Marks of Distinction among the Indians_ 340
CHAP. IX.
_Division of Time--Festivals--Calendar of the Indians_ 345
CHAP. X.
_Music, Poetry, Architecture, and other Arts and
Sciences of the Indians_ 364
CHAP. XI.
_Medicine and Botany of the Indians_ 401
CHAP. XII.
_Author’s Voyage to Europe--Some Account of the Island
of Ceylon_ 424
CHAP. XIII.
_The Author’s Voyage to Europe continued--Short Account
of the Isles of France and Bourbon, the Cape of Good
Hope, and the Island of Ascension._ 437
ERRATA.
Page 28, last line, for _Krishavaram_, read _Krishnavaram_.
56, sixth line from the top, for _Condur_, read _Coudur_.
64, third line from the bottom, for _Tindacalla_, read
_Tindacolla_.
125, first line, for _Clagnil_, read _Elagnil_.
A
VOYAGE
TO THE
EAST INDIES.
BOOK I.
CHAPTER I.
_Arrival at Puduceri (Pondichery)--Coast of Coromandel--Going
on shore--Capuchins--Jesuits--Description of the City--Its
trade--Fortifications--White ants--Bitter drops--Error of the
heathens in regard to Christianity._
The ship _l’Aimable Nannette_, commanded by Captain Berteaud, in
which I sailed from l’Orient, arrived in the road of _Puduceri_[3]
on the 25th of July 1776, after a tedious passage of six months and
as many days. Our patience was, therefore, almost exhausted; and we
longed not a little to set our feet once more upon dry ground. We
directed our anxious looks towards the shore over the blue waves, and
flattered ourselves with the hopes of reaching it that evening[4]:
but, as the duration of the twilight is exceedingly short in India,
night suddenly overtook us, disappointed the accomplishment of our
wishes, and spread her dusky veil over both sea and land. At sun-rise
next morning we saluted the citadel of _Puduceri_ with eleven guns;
a compliment which the garrison returned with nine, and at the same
time hoisted the French flag.
The coast of _Ciòmandala_[5], which the Europeans very improperly
call _Coromandel_, has at a distance the appearance of a green
theatre. The sea-shore is covered with white sand; and a multitude
of beautiful shells are here and there to be seen. The country is
intersected by a great many rivers and streams, which flowing down
from the high ridge of mountains on the west, called the _Gauts_,
pursue their course towards the east, and discharge themselves into
the sea; some with impetuosity and noise, others with gentleness
and silence. In the months of October and November, when the rainy
season commences, these streams are swelled up in an extraordinary
degree, and sweep from the mountains a multitude of serpents, which,
to the no small terror of the unexperienced traveller, they carry a
great way out with them into the sea. This, in all probability, has
given rise to the fabulous tales of sea monsters, which some pretend
to have seen in the Indian ocean. The land here is covered, to a
considerable distance, with trees of all kinds, and particularly that
called by the Europeans the real Indian palm or the coco-nut tree.
The Indians give it the name of _tenga_, and make much use of it for
planting neat gardens, with which not only the coast of Malabar,
but a great part of that of _Ciòlamandala_ also is, in a manner,
overspread. Various hamlets and villages are interspersed between
these gardens, and the whole surrounding country delights the eye
with never-fading verdure.
During my travels through India I found the climate every where
mild and healthful; and in no place did I hear complaints of bad
weather. The Indians generally sleep with their doors and windows
open, except when there is any appearance of the _Caracatta_, which
is a certain kind of wind that blows from the quarter of the _Gauts_.
This chain of mountains begins at Cape _Comari_[6], in the eighth,
degree of north latitude, and extends thence towards the north; so
that it almost intersects India in the middle. The eastern part
is called _Ciòlamandala_, that is, the _land of millet_[7]; the
western _Malayala_, or the _land of mountains_. The latter is called
by the Arabians and Europeans Malabar, or the Malabar coast. The
_Gauts_, the highest ridge of mountains in this country, occasion
that difference in the weather, and that remarkable change of
seasons which take place on both these coasts. This is one of the
most singular phenomena of nature ever yet observed. On the coast
of _Ciòlamandala_ the summer begins in June; but on the coast of
Malabar it does not commence till October. During the latter month
it is winter on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, whereas on the coast
of Malabar it begins so early as the 15th of June. The one season
therefore always commences on the east coast at the time when it ends
on the western. When winter prevails on the coast of Malabar; when
the mountains and valleys are shaken by tremendous claps of thunder,
and awful lightning traverses the heavens in every direction, the
sky is pure and serene on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_: ships pursue
their peaceful course; the inhabitants get in their rice harvest, and
carry on trade with the various foreigners who in abundance frequent
their shores. But when the wet season commences; when these districts
are exposed, for three whole months, to storms and continual rains,
hurricanes and inundations, the coast of Malabar opens its ports to
the navigator; secures to its inhabitants the advantages of trade,
labour and enjoyment; and from the end of October to the end of
June presents a favourable sky, the serene aspect of which is never
deformed by a single cloud. This regulation of nature appeared to
Strabo, the geographer, altogether incredible; and he, therefore,
abused those travellers who, on their return from India, asserted
that in the course of the year, in that country, there were two
summers and two winters. In this manner must the writers of travels
often suffer by the ignorance of their readers[8]. “When I called
in the aid of commentators to illustrate such passages,” says
Chardin, “I every where observed the most palpable errors; for these
people grope in the dark, and endeavour to explain every thing by
conjecture.”
On the 26th of June I left the ship about noon, and, in company with
M. Berteaud the captain, went on board a small Indian vessel of that
kind called by the inhabitants _shilinga_. As it is exceedingly
dangerous and difficult to land at _Puduceri_ and _Madraspatnam_,
these _shilingas_ are built with a high deck, to prevent the waves of
the sea from entering them. This mode of construction is, however,
attended with one inconvenience, which is, that the waves beat with
more impetuosity against the sides; raise the _shilinga_ sometimes
towards the heavens; again precipitate it into a yawning gulph, and,
at length, drive it on shore with the utmost violence[9]. In such
cases the vessel would be entirely dashed to pieces, if the _Mucoas_,
or fishermen, who direct it, did not throw themselves into the sea,
force it back by exerting their whole strength, and in this manner
lessen the impetuosity of the surf. I was greatly alarmed before I
reached the shore; and was so completely drenched by the waves, that
the water ran down my back.
When I approached the city, I was exactly in the same state as if
I had entered a furnace; for the sun had rendered the sand, with
which the shore is covered, almost red hot. The reflection of his
rays caused an insufferable smarting in my eyes, and my feet seemed
as if on fire. I was met on the road by some Indian Christians,
who conducted me to the convent of the Capuchins, in the southern
extremity of the city. These good fathers were then employed in
building: for the English, in the year 1764, had bombarded _Puduceri_
from their ships lying in the road; and the poor Capuchins, as
well as others, felt the effects of their vengeance, their church
and convent being converted into a heap of ruins. The English,
perhaps, were not acquainted with the maxims of the Pagan Indians,
who consider it as an unpardonable crime to destroy the temple and
house of God; for they say, _Covil kettium tannir pandel kettium
nashikarudàae_; which may be thus translated: “It is never lawful to
destroy a temple, and the halls in which travellers have lodged.”
For want of room the Capuchins were not able to admit me into their
convent, and therefore I repaired to the French missionaries,
belonging to the so called _Missions étrangères_, who resided in
the pagan quarter of the city. Here I found the procurators of this
establishment, Messrs. Jallabert and Mouthon, by whom I was received
with every mark of kindness and attention. After dinner I took a walk
to the Jesuits’ college, where I saw Father Julius Cæsar Polenza, a
learned Neapolitan, who was celebrated on account of his political
talents, but still more on account of his knowledge of the Tamulic
language; also Father le Fabre, Father Anzaldi; and fifteen other
missionaries who had not long before assembled there, for the first
time, from _Tanjaur_ and _Madura_.
The governor of _Puduceri_, at that time, was M. Law de Lauriston, a
man of very moderate principles, who perfectly understood the art of
living in a state of peace and friendship, both with the English at
Madraspatnam, and the Pagan Indians his neighbours. Few of those who
preceded him in the government of Puduceri possessed the same virtue.
On the contrary, most of them made it their chief study to endeavour
to extend their dominion. This man’s prudence and moderation were
not, therefore, approved by some of his hot-headed countrymen; and
Sonnerat[10] inveighs bitterly against the friendly reception which
Lord Pigot the governor of _Madraspatnam_ experienced when he passed
through _Puduceri_. _Cum vitia prosunt, peccat qui recte agit_--When
vice thrives, those who act right become criminal.--The moderation of
M. Law de Lauriston could not then fail to give offence to illiberal
minds, subject to the impulse of their passions.
_Puduceri_, in my time, was a large and very beautiful city. The
governor resided in an elegant palace. It was not uncommon to
see a hundred covers on this gentleman’s table; and I once had
the honour, together with M. Jallabert, of being invited to one
of his entertainments. The city, towards the north and south, is
defended by excellent fortifications, constructed in the year 1769,
under the direction of M. Bourcet, who also formed the plan of
them. In the southern part, some of the houses, inhabited by the
Europeans, are exceedingly large and beautiful, and are ornamented
with projecting galleries, balustrades, columns and porticoes. The
European quarter is entirely separated from that of the Mahomedans
and Pagan Indians. The latter live altogether in the western part.
When a certain quarter is in this manner assigned to the Indians for
their residence, one of their countrymen is always placed over them
as a superintendant, who is obliged to preserve peace and good order
among them, and to take care that they do not transgress the laws. At
_Cottate_, _Padmanaburam_, _Tiruvandapuram_, _Cayancollam_, and other
towns on the Malabar coast, the same establishment is made, that no
strife or contention may arise among the various tribes, castes, and
religious sects, on account of the difference of their manners and
customs. Every one here is allowed to live in his own manner, and to
enjoy his own belief; as it is not possible that so many classes and
so many thousands of people should ever unite in one common system of
religion[11].
The gate of the city towards the west was guarded by the so called
_sipoys_ (seapoys) or Indian soldiers, who consist of people of every
caste, and of all religions. They were exercised according to the
French manner. _Hayder Aly Khan_, that celebrated and formidable
warrior, who reduced under his dominion _Maissur_, _Carnate_,
_Concao_, _Canara_ and _Calicut_, was originally a seapoy who did
duty at this gate of _Puduceri_[12]. In that city he became first
acquainted with the French tactics, which he afterwards employed not
only against the Indian kings and princes, but against the Europeans;
and it is not improbable that another Indian hero may arise in
the course of time, and, in like manner, make use of the military
discipline of the English, which that nation still teach to the
native Indians. As the English and French in India are in a continual
state of enmity, some enterprising Indian generally steps in between
them, and attacks either the one or the other of the contending
parties. Such was the conduct of _Hayder Aly Khan’s_ son, _Tippoo
Sultan Bahader_, who overran a considerable district in the southern
part of India, and defeated the British troops in several engagements.
_Puduceri_ was given up to the French, on the 15th of July 1630, by
_Rama Rajah_ a son of _Sevagi_ king of the _Marattas_. This prince
was sovereign of the province of _Gingi_, and possessed a fortress of
the same name, which was situated among the mountains on the south
of _Puduceri_. _Rama Rajah_ had wrested this province, to which
_Puduceri_ belonged, from its original and lawful owner; and he
resigned the city to the French on condition of their paying two per
cent. on all the goods which should be there exported or imported.
When Captain Ricaut established the French East India Company in
1642, he entered into partnership with twenty-four other merchants;
and the only object of this society, as they then pretended, was to
carry on trade in India. These merchants, however, shewed only too
soon that their views were directed to things totally different. By
little and little they began to extend their boundaries; endeavoured
to get into their hands new possessions; from being merchants became
warriors, and at last ventured to refuse the two per cent. which they
had solemnly contracted to pay. This was done, in particular, after
the year 1695, in which the Moguls took the fortress of _Gingi_[13].
There is just reason then to be surprised at the singular conduct of
the Abbè Raynal, who throws out the bitterest reproaches against the
Portuguese, as the first conquerors of India; and yet passes over, in
perfect silence, what might be said of the violent proceedings of the
other European nations, who certainly trod in the footsteps of the
Portuguese. M. Dupleix, who was then governor of _Puduceri_, caused
the Mogul to create him a nabob, that is an Indian chief or prince;
and after that period the before-mentioned engagement and duty were,
in the course of a few years, buried in oblivion. The haughtiness of
the French still increased; the utmost degree of jealousy prevailed
between them and the English; and a war was the consequence, in
which the French soon lost their trade and their Indian possessions,
which they afterwards recovered, and lost and recovered in turns.
The Dutch East India Company, more attentive to its interest, and
less inclined to war, possessed also several considerable settlements
in India; but it excited much less jealousy, because it observed a
peaceable conduct, and by these means acquired greater riches. In
the year 1693, the Dutch took _Puduceri_, but restored it at the
peace of Ryswick. In the year 1748 it was besieged by the English;
and in 1761 it was taken by them, but given up at the peace of 1763.
They made themselves masters of it a second time in 1778, when De
Bellecombe was governor, but abandoned it afterwards in 1783. On the
commencement of the French revolution it came under the dominion of
the nabob _Mohamed Aly_ prince of _Arcate_, a faithful adherent of
the English; and ever since it has remained in his hands, or rather
in the hands of the English. To such a state have the affairs of the
French in India been reduced by their pride, their ambition and their
rage for war! What benefits or advantages could France expect, as an
indemnification for the monstrous sums which it was obliged to expend
on this Indian colony, during its varied and ever changing fate? When
in its most flourishing condition, it was said to contain, including
the district belonging to it, about 20,000 inhabitants. Of these from
four to five thousand, at least, were employed in collecting cotton;
and in carding, spinning, weaving and printing it. By means of this
industry the trade might have been so far improved that it would not
only have sufficiently indemnified the Company for their expence,
but have procured them the greatest advantages. On my arrival at
_Puduceri_, five French ships were lying in the road, and the
_Aimable Nannette_ made the sixth. Some days after four others came
to anchor. Three of these vessels were more than sufficient to supply
the colony with every necessary; for three or four French merchants
only resided in it. These ships were laden with wine, iron, cannon,
fire-arms and French cloth. Now the Indians drink no wine, and their
clothing consists of white cotton stuffs manufactured in their own
country. How then did the French dispose of their commodities? They
sold their wine, cloth, cannon, fire-arms, and, in a word, their
whole cargoes to the English at Madraspatnam and Bengal, who employed
these very cannon and arms against the French troops. On the other
hand, the greater part of the money which the French received for
these goods remained in India, as they purchased with it muslin,
cotton stuffs, ginghams, sugar, pepper, cinnamon, cardamums,
handkerchiefs, pearls, precious stones, and male and female slaves.
Whether such a trade could be beneficial to France, I shall leave the
reader to determine[14].
The garrison of _Puduceri_ consisted of 4000 men. The city is
situated on a sandy plain, not far from the shore, which produces
nothing but palm trees, millet, and a few herbs; though the
surrounding district produces cotton, with a little rice and capers.
Neither _Puduceri_ nor _Madras atnam_ can be compared with the
cities on the Malabar coast, in regard to abundance in provisions.
On the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, which forms the eastern part of
this peninsula, the heat is more intense, and the soil much sandier
than any where else; and fewer rivers are found here, because it is
too far distant from that ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_. To
these circumstances it is to be ascribed that it produces very little
cotton, and much less rice; that a greater trade is carried on here,
while agriculture is neglected; and, in short, that its inhabitants
are much more active and ingenious, handsomer, blacker, and more
superstitious than on the coast of Malabar. The kingdom of _Tanjaur_
forms, however, an exception; for this district is watered by several
rivers that flow through it, and supplies with rice the whole coast
of _Ciòlamandala_. The English, therefore, never ceased quarrelling
with the Indian princes till they had reduced this kingdom under
their subjection, as I shall soon relate in a more particular manner.
I remained at _Puduceri_ till the 8th of September. During that time,
which I employed in making myself acquainted with the geography of
the country, the manufactures and manners of the Indians, I met with
two incidents, which to me were new, and on that account excited
more my astonishment. I had put all my effects into a chest which
stood in my apartment, and being one day desirous of taking out a
book in order to amuse myself with reading, as soon as I opened the
chest I discovered in it an innumerable multitude of those white
insects which the _Tamulians_, that is the inhabitants of the coast
of _Ciòlamandala_, call _Carea_, and those of Malabar _Cedel_. They
are the white ants which have been already described by naturalists,
but which I never before had an opportunity of seeing[15]. When
I examined the different articles in the chest, I unfortunately
observed that these little animals had perforated my shirts in a
thousand places; gnawed to pieces my books, and among others had
already half destroyed a copy of Father Gazzaniga’s Theology; my
girdle, my amice, and my shoes fell to pieces as soon as I touched
them. The ants were moving in columns each behind the other, and each
carried away in its mouth a fragment of my effects, As I expressed my
astonishment by a loud shout, M. Jallabert ran into the room, and,
seeing the swarms of these insects, repeatedly exclaimed, _Carea!
Carea!_ He then ordered my chest to be placed in the sun, and as
soon as these careas found themselves exposed to his rays, they all
speedily left it. My effects, however, were more than half destroyed;
but it was very fortunate for me, on this occasion, that cotton goods
are sold exceedingly cheap at _Puduceri_. One of the finest shirts,
ready made, costs no more than five Roman paoli, or a rupee[16],
according to the course of exchange in that settlement. I therefore
clothed myself anew from head to foot, and with articles made of
cotton.
One evening, a few days after, I had entered into a conversation with
M. Jallabert on the religious ceremonies of the Heathens, and the
properest means of converting them to the Christian faith; while his
two servants had thrown themselves down on mats, spread out in the
fore hall, in order to sleep. All of a sudden one of them began to
scream out dreadfully; to beat his forehead; to stamp on the floor,
and to roar and writhe his body like a madman. On asking him what was
the matter, he pointed to one of his ears. We found on examination
that a centipede had got into it; and the animal not being able
to find its way out, kept pushing itself forwards, and gnawed the
interior part of the ear. M. Jallabert immediately made the poor
fellow lie down, and poured into his ear a spoonful of bitter drops
(_droga amara_). The insect was dead in a moment; the patient’s pain
and terror ceased, and, as soon as a little water was poured into his
other ear, the centipede dropped out. These bitter drops are prepared
in the following manner. You take mastic, resin or colophonium,
myrrh, aloes, male incense, and calamba root, and pound them very
fine when the weather is dry, that is to say when the north wind
blows, which, in other parts of the world, supplies the place of what
is here called the _Caracatta_. If you wish, therefore, to make a
quantity of this medicine equal to 24 pints, you must take 24 ounces
of resin or colophonium, 12 ounces of incense, 4 ounces of mastic, 4
ounces of aloes, 4 ounces of myrrh, and a like quantity of calamba
root. Put all these ingredients into a jar filled with strong
brandy, and keep it for a month in the sun during dry weather. If the
brandy is sufficiently impregnated, it assumes a red colour, and the
mass is deposited at the bottom. You then draw off the brandy very
slowly, and bottle it up for use. One or two spoonfuls is the usual
dose administered to sick persons. This medicine is of excellent
service in cases of indigestion, colic, cramp in the stomach, and of
difficult parturition; also for wounds and ulcers; against worms, and
in scorbutic and other diseases which arise from corrupted juices.
It is the best and most effectual remedy used by the missionaries
during their travels. It is prepared in the apothecary’s shop of the
ex-jesuits at _Puduceri_; at _Verapoli_ by the barefooted Carmelites;
and at _Surat_ by the Capuchins. I myself cured with these drops a
young man who was almost totally deaf. After pouring two spoonfuls of
them into his ear, a cylindric piece of a hard yellow substance came
from it, and the patient immediately recovered the perfect use of his
hearing.
As I resided in the Pagan quarter of the city, I was visited by
several young Indians; some of whom were heathens, and others
professors of Christianity. Some of them spoke exceedingly good
French; but others, who had received instruction from the Jesuits,
spoke Latin. From this I concluded that the Indians are by nature
well qualified for study; and that the Indian dialect facilitates,
in an eminent degree, their acquiring the European languages.
Those who were still heathens, boasted much of their theology; and
extolled above all measure their learned language, which they call
the _Samscred_. This confirmed me so much the more in the resolution
I had formed of learning it, let it cost me whatever labour it
might. I observed, however, at the same time, that these young
people, either from ignorance or perversity, frequently confounded
the doctrine and principles of Christianity with the doctrine and
principles of Paganism. Thus, for example, they said that their
female divinity _Lakshmi_ was our Virgin Mary, and that _Brahma_,
_Vishnu_, and _Shiva_, represented our Trinity; that we paid to
images as much adoration as they did; and that our solemn processions
were in nothing different from theirs[17]. I shall hereafter convince
the reader of the falsity of this assertion, and shew how highly
important it is that the missionaries should make themselves well
acquainted with the religious doctrines of the Indians, in order to
open the eyes of these people, so worthy of pity, and to convert them
to the Christian faith[18]. They deceive not only themselves, but
others; for, as they endeavour to lay to the charge of the Christian
religion their own absurd tenets, they do not think it necessary to
embrace it; and as they assert that there is no difference between
their belief and ours, they mislead other Christians, who then
imagine that the religion of the Pagan Indians is nothing else than
Manicheism, or corrupted Christianity; and this error arises, like
the former, from perverted principles and fables.
As the Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians in India all wear white
cotton dresses, and made almost in the same manner, you must look
very closely at their forehead, or breast, if you wish to distinguish
an Idolater from a Christian. The former have on the forehead certain
marks which they consider as sacred, and by which you may know to
what sect they belong, and what deity they worship. In the second
book I shall explain all these marks[19].
CHAPTER II.
_Virapatnam--Seminary there--Error of Ptolemy the geographer--
Apis--Error of some modern geographers--Etymological
catalogue of places in Carnada, Tanjaur and Madura._
M. Jallabert had given-me a particular account of a seminary at
_Virapatnam_, in which young Indians who embraced the Christian
religion were educated. As education is an object which deserves the
particular attention of the traveller, we made a little excursion
thither from _Puduceri_. _Vira_, in the Samscred language, signifies
strong or courageous; and _Patna_, or _Patana_, a city. _Virapatnam_,
therefore, signifies the _strong city_. This place, at present, is
a small town situated at the distance of six miles from _Puduceri_,
towards the south west, on the banks of a river, which takes its
rise in the mountains on the east, and, flowing part _Virapatnam_,
discharges itself into the sea on the south side of _Puduceri_.
_Pudu_ in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, signifies new; _Puduna_,
newness; _Ceri_, a town: _Puduceri_ therefore signifies the _new
town_. From this etymology it is clear that _Puduceri_ cannot be a
place of any antiquity; and it was indeed built by some emigrants
from _Virapatnam_. When the Arabians first came to India, several
cities lying on the sea coast arose in the like manner. It is
therefore ridiculous when certain geographers, who endeavour to
explain Ptolemy’s geography, consider cities first built in modern
times to be the same as some of those mentioned in that author,
though they must undoubtedly have been unknown to him, as they were
not then in existence. It deserves also to be remarked, that Ptolemy,
in giving the distances of places, generally errs from two to three
degrees of latitude. The reason is, that the ancient travellers
were accustomed to reckon the latitude according to the length or
shortness of the day; and, consequently, to determine the distance of
one place from another in the same manner. But as the day and night
near the equator are almost always of equal length, it may readily
be conceived, that the degree of latitude in which a place was
situated could not be accurately ascertained in that manner; and that
Ptolemy, and all those who depended upon him, must have fallen into
errors[20]. The case has been nearly the same with M. D’Anville, as
will be shewn hereafter.
The seminary of _Virapatnam_ was situated in a palm-garden; or,
to speak more correctly, in a garden planted with coco-nut trees.
It was founded by M. Mathon, a celebrated member of the so called
_Missions étrangères_, who, at the time we were there, presided
over it as rector. The building resembled a convent, but was much
better divided; and so contrived, that these oriental seminarists did
not find the least impediment, either in their study, their bodily
exercise, or their other labours. Between three side apartments,
where the three tutors lodged, was a large hall on the ground floor,
in which were constructed two rows of small chambers all adjoining.
They were separated from each other by thin wooden partitions, of
only three or four palms in height; so that each of the students
had an apartment to himself, and all of them could be observed by
their teacher. The teacher sat at a desk, where he read his lessons;
and, while employed in teaching, he could with one view see every
thing that was doing in the different apartments. The pupils not
only studied in these apartments, but also slept in them. A table,
on which lay a mattress, supplied the place of a bed; and both
above and beneath it another small table was suspended, which could
be lowered or raised up at pleasure. If any of these young people
wished to write, he had no occasion to leave his chamber, as he had
nothing to do but to sit down at the foot of his bed; and when he
wished to go out, he had only to remove his table and fold it up.
On the other table above the bed were books, paper, pens and ink;
his long seminary dress, and several small articles necessary for
preserving cleanliness. The doors of the hall, which were exactly
opposite to each other, stood always open to afford a free passage
to fresh air; but no one could go out unperceived by the tutor, who
in his apartment was continually observing every thing that passed.
The refectory was situated in another part of the building; and it
was customary to read in it during meals. The shops of the taylor,
shoemaker, and carpenter, together with the printing-office and ovens
for baking bread, were without, and all occupied by seminarists; for
each of them was obliged to learn a trade. They all went bare-footed;
and one of their employments was to water and look after the young
palm-trees which were planted in the garden. Their time was so
divided, that they studied daily four hours; devoted one hour to
manual labour; and spent the remaining part in prayer, singing and
meditation. On two days in the week they conversed in their mother
tongue; but on other days they were obliged always to speak Latin.
M. Mathon shewed me a bull of his present holiness Pope Pius VI.
issued in favour of this seminary, and in which he bestowed great
praises upon it. This institution was destined merely for young
persons from China, Cochinchina, Tunquin, and Siam. It is much to
be lamented that no establishment of the like kind is to be found
here, for the natives of Malabar, and other parts of the peninsula
of India, who are all formed to the ecclesiastical state in other
countries, and return, for the most part, men of corrupted morals.
On the day of my return to _Puduceri_, I had an opportunity of
seeing a very singular scene; as on that day the god Apis was led
in procession through the city. This deity was a beautiful fat
red-coloured ox, of a middle size. The Brahmans generally guard
him the whole year through in the neighbourhood of his temple; but
this was exactly the period at which he is exhibited to the people
with a great many solemnities. He was preceded by a band of Indian
musicians; that is to say, two drummers, a fifer, and several persons
who with pieces of iron beat upon copper basons. Then came a few
Brahmans, and behind these was an immense multitude of people. The
Pagans had all opened the doors of their houses and shops, and before
each stood a small basket with rice, thin cakes, herbs, and other
articles in which the proprietors of these houses and shops used to
deal. Every one beheld Apis with reverence; and those were considered
fortunate of whose provisions he was pleased to taste a mouthful as
he passed. Philarchus conjectured, as we are told by Plutarch in his
treatise on Isis and Osiris, that Apis was originally brought from
India to Egypt by the inhabitants of the latter. Plutarch himself
asserts that the Egyptians considered Apis as an emblem of the soul
of Osiris; and, perhaps, he here meant to say, that under this
expression they understood that plastic power by which Osiris had
produced and given life to every part of the creation. I shall, in
another place, endeavour to prove, that Osiris was nothing else than
the Sun, and consequently what among the Indians is represented by
the idol _Shiva_, or _Mahadèva_. Hence it happens, that this _Shiva_,
the emblem of the Sun, rides on an ox; and that in the solemn
invocations of the Brahmans he is called _Pashupadi_, that is, _the
man of the cow_. The cow again is nothing else than a symbol of the
goddess _Ishami_, or the woman, as the Indians are accustomed to
call the Isis to whom the cow is dedicated when they speak of her
by her sacred name. On the Egyptian monuments Osiris, as the symbol
of the Sun, is represented with rays around his head; and his wife
Isis bears horns, the symbol of the cow, and also of the new moon,
between which and the sun there is the same relation as between wife
and husband. On the Indian monuments the idol _Shiva_ has an ox under
him; and the goddess _Ishami_, as she is represented in one of the
oldest Indian temples, is leaning with one of her arms on a cow[21].
Pliny in his Natural History, speaking of Apis, makes use of the
following remarkable words: “When he eats out of the hand of those
who come to consult him, it is considered as an answer. He refused to
have any thing from the hand of Germanicus Cæsar, and the latter soon
after died[22].” From this it appears that the Egyptians entertained
the same opinions respecting Apis as the Indians. In Egypt, as well
as India, people were accustomed to consider him as an oracle; to
place food before him, and, according as he accepted or refused it,
to form conclusions in regard to their good or bad fortune. Does not
this evidently shew an analogy in the religious veneration which both
these nations shewed to Apis? As the ox, or Apis, represents the
plastic power of the sun, the cow, in the like manner, is a symbol
of the plastic power of the moon and the earth. The ox, or Apis, is
called in the Samscred _Uksha_, _Bhadra_, _Urszabha_, _Gau_, and
_Mahisha_; but, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, _Kàla_, _Muri_,
and _Cruda_. The cow in the Samscred is called _Mahey_, _Saurabhei_,
_Gò_, _Usra_, _Mahà_, _Shranguini_; when she is red, _Argiuni_; when
she is white, _Rohinni_: in the Malabar and Tamulic languages she is
called _Pashu_, _Gova_. All these appellations express some of the
properties of oxen and cows. Thus, for example, _Bhadra_ means good;
_Mahisha_, great, magnanimous; _Mahà_, a large cow, a noble animal;
_Shranguini_, handsome, ornamented, beautiful. The idolaters of
Malabar call her _Ama_ or _Tala_, mother; and the ox _Appen_, father.
May not the name Apis employed by the Egyptians and the Greeks be the
corrupted _Appen_, or _Appa_ of the Indians, which signifies father
or creator? The Egyptians were accustomed to give to their Isis the
horns of a cow, instead of a head dress. The Indians also worship the
cow as a divinity. Most of the houses belonging to the Pagan Indians,
not only at _Puduceri_, but upon the whole of both the coasts of
_Malabar_ and _Ciòlamandala_, are covered on the outside and inside
with cow-dung. The Pagans are accustomed to drink cow’s urine, in
order to purify them from their sins. When near the point of death,
they take in their hand a cow’s tail; and, according to their belief,
if they die in this manner, they are immediately transported to
paradise. I have already said, that the cow is a symbol of the moon
and the earth. For this reason she is also in India the goddess
_Parvadi_ or _Isháni_, _Ishi_ or _Isha_; that is, the woman, the
hallowed; under which appellation they understood the moon. She is
also the goddess _Ma_ or _Lakshmi_, that is the great, dedicated to
the beautiful goddess; and all these sacred names properly signify
the earth. The cow has evidently a mystic sense also, which denotes
the plastic power of the moon, and the fertility of the earth. For
this reason she is held so sacred, and honoured so much, that in
Malabar, and every other place where the Pagans have the superiority,
any person who kills a cow is hung on a gibbet. The ox which
represents Apis, must every three years give place to another. If he
dies in the course of these three years of his deification, he is
committed to the earth with all that pomp and ceremony observed at
the interment of persons of the first rank. Various pagodas, or pagan
temples, have on their front the figure of a cow, or perhaps two, of
a colossal size[23].
The habitations of the Pagans at _Puduceri_, as well as on the
coasts of _Malabar_ and _Ciòlamandala_, are in general very low and
dark. In the last-mentioned district they are built of bricks dried
in the sun, and are covered with palm leaves. The _Pondiyalas_, or
warehouses, in which the Indians keep their merchandise, are also
very dark, especially at _Puduceri_ and _Madraspatnam_. As a great
deal of muslin is sold at both these places, it is not improbable
that the merchants employ such a mode of construction, that the
faults of their wares may be better concealed.
The Capuchins of the province of Tours in France have the right of
sending a missionary priest to _Puduceri_ when the place becomes
vacant. The Ex-Jesuits, in virtue of a decree issued by Louis XVI,
have united with the society of the _Missiòns étrangères_, so that
they now form only one body. The Europeans are under the care of the
Capuchins, and the Indian Christians under that of the Ex-Jesuits.
The latter have to attend four thousand Christians: but this number
is sometimes greater, sometimes smaller, according as it is peace
or war; for, in the time of war, many Indian Christians remove from
the place, and either wander about or take refuge in the mountains.
Not long before my time, the seminary of _Virapatnam_ had been,
transferred to _Ariancopan_, which is the residence of a bishop, who
at _Puduceri_, in the kingdoms of _Tanjaur_, _Madura_, and _Carnada_,
as also in the province of _Gingi_, is invested with the dignity
of apostolical vicar. This man is involved in continual quarrels
with the bishop of _Mailapuri_, or _St. Thomas_, a Portuguese, who
endeavours to dispute with him the right of spiritual judicature.
According to M. de la Tour’s map, which is the correctest, _Puduceri_
lies in 12° N. lat. and 78° E. lon. On the 1st of January the sun
rises here at 23 minutes past six, and sets at 37 minutes past five.
On the 28th of August he appears above the horizon at 51 minutes
after five, and sinks below it at 9 minutes after six. On the first
of December he makes his appearance at 21 minutes past six in the
morning, and sets at 38 minutes past five in the evening. From these
data the reader may easily calculate the length of the days and the
nights.
The river which runs past _Virapatnam_, and discharges itself into
the sea on the west of _Puduceri_, is called properly _Ciovanàru_,
and not _Chonenbar_, as it is named by the European geographers.
_Aru_, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, signifies a river, and
_Ciovano_ red: the compound word is _Ciovanàru_, the red river:
and its water, on account of the earth which it washes down in its
course, is sometimes indeed of a blood-red colour. But as the Indians
shorten the first half of the word, and say _Ciona_, or _Tchona_,
instead of _Ciovana_, the Europeans have mutilated it completely,
and made of it _Chonenbar_. A similar mutilation of Indian words
and appellations is in general not uncommon, especially when they
are introduced into foreign languages. On the map of Coromandel,
published by M. De la Tour at Paris, in the year 1770, the above
river is distinguished by the improper name of _Chonenbar_. That
the case is the same with the word _Coromandel_, used instead of
_Ciòlamandala_, has been observed before. M. D’Anville, with equal
impropriety, not only in his _Geographical Antiquities of India_,
printed at the king’s printing-house at Paris, in the year 1775,
but also in all his maps of India, gives the name of _Carnata_ to a
large kingdom lying to the west of _Puduceri_. Its proper name is
_Carnàda_; that is, the black land; from _Car_, black, and _Nada_,
land. It is so called in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, in order
to distinguish it from _Ciòlamandala_, the land of millet; for the
millet thrives best on the districts not far from the sea coast.
But the former land lies at a distance from the sea; abounds with
excellent pastures; and produces large quantities of rice, pepper,
cotton, and other things of the like kind, which can neither grow
nor be cultivated in a sandy soil impregnated with marine salt. Of
a hundred Indian names which belong to towns and villages in those
districts, there are scarcely ten which have not been mutilated and
corrupted by foreigners. Those who study the history and geography
of India in the works of the Europeans, will every moment meet with
passages which require to be amended. In order that this may be done
in part, I shall here present the reader with an etymological list of
the principal places and towns on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, or,
as the Europeans say, of _Coromandel_; and shall adhere as much as
possible to the orthography of the Indians.
NAMES OF CITIES, TOWNS, &C. IN CARNADA
AND CIÒLAMANDALA.
_Valiacàda_, the great mountain; or _Valiacadà_, the great passage,
or ford, called by the Europeans _Pallicate_; is a city on the sea
coast, at the mouth of a small river. The Dutch have a settlement
here.
_Ottocutta_, or _Ottukottei_, a solitary city, a solitary castle.
_Pondamala_, or _Pondalamey_, a high mountain; from _Pondu_, high;
and _Mala_ or _Maley_, which, in the Tamulic and Malabar languages,
signifies a mountain. It is a fortified mountain, called by the
Europeans, _Grand Mont_.
_Madraspatnam_; _Patnam_, the city; _Madraspatnam_, the city of
_Madras_.
_Maïlapuri_, or _Maïlapuram_, the city of peacocks: the _Meliapur_,
or _St. Thomas_ of the Europeans.
_Tirupati_, a sacred place, a sacred temple; called by the Europeans
_Tirupeti_. It is situated in _Carnada_, under 14° N. lat. and 77°
15′ E. lon. It is dedicated to _Vishnu_, and is much resorted to by
people from all parts of India. The pilgrims, who repair thither
to perform their devotions, cut off their hair, and bring it as an
offering to _Vishnu_.
_Tirunamalà_, or _Tirunamaley_, the sacred mountain; corrupted into
_Tirnimalet_.
_Govalam_, the circuit of the cow; corrupted _Govelan_.
_Uttamalùr_, the good town; corrupted _Outremalour_.
_Arrucati_, a city or castle, from which one can see the river
_Paler_; corrupted into _Arcate_.
_Cangipuri_, or _Congipuram_, the golden city; from _Puri_, or
_Puram_, the city; and _Cangi_, which in the Samscred signifies gold;
corrupted into _Cangivaron_.
_Vencàtighiri_, the woody mountain; corrupted into _Vincatighiri_.
It is compounded of _Quiri_, or _Shiri_, a mountain; _Ven_, white;
and _Cati_ or _Catil_, in the forest: a city situated on the mountain
where the white forest is.
_Ciacrapuri_, or _Ciacrapuram_, the circle city, the round city;
corrupted into _Sacrapour_.
_Perumaculam_, the large pond, the large bath; corrupted into
_Permacoul_.
_Mangalur_, the fortunate city, the fortunate town.
_Calianatur_, the town of joy.
_Velur_, the town of the lance. At present it is a city.
_Villanùr_, the town of the arrow. On the maps it is called
_Villenour_.
_Puduceri_, the next town; on the maps called _Pondichery_.
_Attùr_, the town of goats, or the town where the coco-nuts are
ground.
_Krishavaram_, the blessing of the god _Krishna_: a town
distinguished on the maps by the name of _Quichenavaron_.
_Divycotta_, the divine castle; from _Divya_, divine; and _Cotta_, a
castle or fortress. On the maps it is called _Divicoté_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM
OF TANJAUR.
_Tanjaur_, a low situation; or _Tanjiaur_, a miserable, mean,
detestable town. It is the capital of a province of the same name.
The former orthography seems to be the properest; for _Tanjaur_
really stands on low ground, which is often exposed to inundations.
_Turangaburam_, or _Turangaburi_, the water city, or horse city: by
the Europeans called _Tranquebar_.
_Carincala_, the black stone, or rock. It is the _Carical_ of the
Europeans.
_Nàvur_, the dogs’ town, or the new town: the _Naour_ of the
Europeans.
_Tirumaladùvsam_, the temple of the God of the Holy Mountain, that is
of _Shiva_. By the Europeans it is called _Tiremalevasen_.
_Nàgapatnam_, or _Nàgapatana_, the city of the snake, or the city of
the elephant; for _Naga_ signifies a snake, and likewise an elephant;
and _Patna_, a city. It is the same city as that usually called by
the Greeks _Nigamos_, or _Nigama Metropolis_.
_Tiramannùr_ the town of the Holy Land: the _Tremanour_ of the
Europeans.
_Cirangam_, or _Cirangapatnam_, the city of the beautiful limbs: from
_Cir_, beautiful; _Anga_, a limb; and _Patnam_, the city. It is the
_Cheringam_ of the Europeans[24].
_Celiaolam_, the slimy pond; the _Chelicolon_ of the Europeans.
_Tricolùr_, the town of the three pools, or places of lustration. On
the maps it is called _Tricoloùr_.
_Palancotta_, the castle of the bridges, for several bridges must
be passed before one can arrive at it: from _Pàlam_, or _Pàlan_, a
bridge; and _Cotta_, a castle. On the maps it is called _Palancottè_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM
OF MADURA.
_Madura_, _Matura_, and _Madhura_, the lovely, the mild city, or
the city of the hero _Madhu_. It is the capital of the kingdom
of _Madura_, which takes its name from it, but by the Europeans
is called _Madure_. This kingdom is named also _Pandi_, or
_Pandimandala_, the land of _Pandi_, _Pando_, or _Pandava_, an
ancient Indian king, by whom, according to the opinion of the
Brahmans, it was founded. Pliny calls this city _Modusa regia
Pandionis_; but Ptolemy gives it the name of _Methora_.
_Tricinnapalli_: from _Tri_, three; _Cinna_, small; and _Palli_, a
temple or a school. At present it is the capital of _Madura_, and on
the maps is called _Trichenapali_.
_Manelùr_, the town on the sand: a town.
_Tindacalla_, the dirty stone or rock; on the maps _Tinducallu_. It
is the _Tindis_ of Ptolemy and Arrian.
_Tirnaveli_, or _Tirunnaveli_, the place where the tide ends: is at
present a considerable city.
_Mantòpo_, or _Mantòpu_, the garden on good soil: a city.
_Ciangracoil_, the temple of _Ciangra_, or _Shiva_: on the maps
called _Sangaravacoil_.
_Uttamapàleam_; from _Uttama_, the best; and _Pàleam_, or _Pàliyam_,
the house of government. On the maps it is called _Uttamapaleon_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS ON THE COAST
OF PESCARIA, OR, AS THE ANCIENTS CALLED
IT, PARALIA.
_Ràmanàthapuram_, the city of _Rama_, of the lord. On the maps it is
called _Ramanadaburon_.
_Vayparra_, the three large rocks; a town which is situated near
these rocks.
_Tùtucuri_, or _Tùducudi_, a town or place where linen cloth is
washed.
_Mannapara_, earth and rocks; from _Manna_, earth; and _Pàrra_, a
rock.
_Vadakencolam_, a pond or bath towards the north; at present a city.
_Gòvalam_, the circuit of the cow; at present a town: the _Colis_ or
_Colias_ of the antients, lying not far from _Tovala_. It is a strong
fortress belonging to the king of _Travancor_, and guards the passage
from the kingdom of _Madura_ to Cape _Comari_. On the maps it is
called _Covalan_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM
OF MAISSUR.
_Maissùr_; from _Maï_, colour; and _Ur_, a land; _Maissùr_, the land
of colour. It is not improbable that it obtained this name either
from the reddish earth found there in abundance, or the dye plants it
produces, and with which the cotton cloth is dyed. This kingdom lies
between _Carnada_, _Madura_, and the coast of Malabar.
_Bengalùr_, the white land, the white earth. This name is given to
the capital where the nabob Hayder Aly Khan formerly resided. It is a
considerable city, strongly fortified.
_Ciringapatnam_, the capital and fortress where the nabob _Tippoo
Sultan Bahader_ resides. It lies at the distance of twenty leagues
from _Bengalur_, towards the west. On the maps it is called
_Chiringapatnam_.
_Dhermapuri_, the city of good works, or the city of virtue; from
_Dherma_, virtue; and _Puri_, a city. On the maps it is called
_Darmapuri_.
_Dharàburam_, or _Dharàpuram_, the city where the rain water runs
off; for it lies at the bottom of that ridge of mountains called the
_Gauts_, from which the water pours down in torrents. On the maps it
is called _Daraburu_.
_Budhapadi_, the town of _Budha_, an Indian idol. On the maps,
_Budapari_.
_Gòculatùr_: from _Go_, a cow; _Cula_, a herd; and _Ur_, the land
or town; consequently the land of the herds of cows. On the map,
_Guclaturu_.
_Cinnabellapuram_, the small city of strength. On the maps called
_Sinnaba’lambaram_.
_Ciandrapati_, or _Tschandrapadi_, the spot in the moon. On the maps
_Sandarupati_.
* * * * *
Of such changed and corrupted names a great many more might be
produced, but most of them so mutilated, that their real meaning
can no longer be guessed, and people would only lose themselves
in uncertain conjectures if they endeavoured to discover their
etymological origin. It, however, appears by those above mentioned,
that some of the Indian cities and towns received their names from
Indian deities, others from local circumstances or the nature of
their situation; and that such appellations cannot have originated
from the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, or Romans. In the eastern part
of India no traces of Sesostris or the Greeks are to be found, as
some learned men in Europe have erroneously asserted. That India
was already civilised in the time of Sesostris, shall be proved
hereafter. In regard to the Grecian language and mythology, these
were not known in India before the invasion of Alexander the Great,
and even then only in some of the maritime cities of the northern
part of the country[25].
* * * * *
After this digression I shall now give a short account of the
kingdoms of _Madura_, _Tanjaur_, and _Carnada_, according to the
information I received from the missionaries resident in those
countries; for, as I was not able to remain longer on the coast of
_Ciòlamandala_ than from the 26th of July till the 20th of October,
it was impossible for me in the course of these few months to learn,
by my own experience, every thing that regards this remarkable land.
The reader, therefore, will not take it amiss, if I here insert what
was communicated to me by intelligent missionaries, who had spent the
greater part of their lives in those provinces.
CHAPTER III.
_Geographical, statistical, and historical Observations on the
Kingdoms of Tanjaur, Marava, Madura, and Carnada._
The principal cities in the northern part of India are the following:
_Caschemir_, which, according to the map published at Paris in the
year 1781, is situated under the 35th degree of north latitude.
This city is certainly the _Caspira_ or _Caspirus_ of Herodotus, as
D’Anville has already very properly observed[26].
_Cabul_, a city which, on the side of Persia, is as it were the key
of India. It was obliged formerly to pay _tria millia nummum talenta_
to Alexander the Great, as he was returning from the war against
Porus. It lies in the latitude of 34°[27].
_Tatta_, or _Tattanagar_, occurs in Pliny under the name of
_Pattala_, or _Pattalena_, and is situated at the mouth of the Indus,
or _Sindhu_. In this city Apollonius of Tyana once resided a month.
It contained formerly 30,000 looms employed in weaving cotton cloth.
_Hastinapuri_, in the Samscred _Hastinanagari_, called by others very
improperly _Assanapur_, or _Hassnapur_, and by D’Anville _Astanagar_.
At present it is known by the name of _Hassanabad_, and is the first
and oldest city in all India. It lies in the latitude of 32° and
a few minutes. In the book _Bharada_ the following passage occurs
respecting it:
_Hasti tàn nirmicion puramàyadu mùlam
Hastinapuramennu ciollunit arignàlum._
That is: “King _Hasti_ built a city, and therefore it was called
_Hastinapuri_, from king Hasti.” Its inhabitants, and in all
probability some of its kings, were once subdued by the Assyrians:
afterwards they fell under the dominion of Cyrus, to whom they were
obliged to pay tribute. The celebrated Indian kings known by the
names of _Pandu_, _Pando_, or _Pandavi_, resided thirteen months
in the city of _Hastinapuri_. They lived 1550, and not 3102, years
before the birth of Christ, as Mr. Wilkins erroneously asserts. It
appears from my copy of the work called _Bharada_, written on palm
leaves, that _Hastinapuri_ existed a long time before these _Pandos_
or _Pandavi_, and was built at least 2000 years before Christ,
consequently must be of the same antiquity as the Assyrian monarchy.
The consort of king Hasti was named _Ashodara_, and was a daughter
of king _Trigarta_. They had a son called _Vikugnen_, who married
_Sumanda_ a daughter of king _Dashahanda_[28].
The city _Dionysiopolis_, mentioned by Ptolemy and Arrian[29], is
_Nisa_, the city of _Devanishi_, that is of Dionysius, or the Indian
Bacchus. In the Samscred language it is called _Shrinagari_, which
signifies the city of the celebrated, the fortunate, or the blessed
Bacchus[30]. It is called also _Nishadabury_ or _Naishadabur_, that
is, the city _Nisa_. It lies in the latitude of 31°, on the river
_Allakandara_, which discharges itself into the Ganges. According to
the assertion of St. Jerome, it was built by Bacchus 550 years after
the birth of Abraham. _Pallibothra_ was likewise built by Bacchus.
That city, however, is neither the present _Patna_ on the Ganges, as
Major Rennel pretends, nor _Eleabad_, or _Allahabad_, which lies also
on the Ganges, in the latitude of 25 degrees and some minutes; but
_Pallipatur_, now a small town on the river _Yamunà_, at its influx
into the Ganges, in the latitude of 26°. Robertson and D’Anville, who
assert that _Pallibothra_ is the present _Eleabad_, or _Allahabad_,
deserve no credit; because these appellations are of Persian and not
of Indian extraction[31].
_Benares_, _Venares_, or _Kasi_, a celebrated temple, together with
an academy and an observatory, is situated on the Ganges, in the
latitude of 25°, and is the _Cassidia_ of the ancients[32].
_Ayodhya_, an ancient Indian city, where the first Indian monarchs on
the Ganges resided, was situated on the river _Deva_, in the latitude
of 25°, exactly in the spot where _Faizabad_ now stands. It was the
birth-place of _Shiràna_, or _Rama_, an Indian hero, or the younger
Bacchus, whose heroic achievements were celebrated in songs before
the times of the Pagan Indians.
_Modhura_, or _Moturapuri_, called by Pliny _Modura Deorum_, is
also a very ancient city, lying between _Agra_ and _Delhi_, in the
latitude of 27°. It is the birth-place of the god _Krishna_, or the
Indian Apollo, who here tended his herds. For this reason it is
called likewise _Gocula_ and _Ambàdi_, that is, the circuit of the
cows. It is situated on the river _Yamuna_, for which the Pagans have
the utmost veneration.
_Eloura_ or _Illoura_, properly _Ellur_, the city of sesamum, is at
present a town called _Douletabad_. It lies four Indian miles to
the north-west of _Aurungabad_. There is here a very ancient and
celebrated temple, a description of which has been given by Thevenot.
_Canudi_, and not _Canouge_, as Renaudot writes, is an ancient city,
the residence of the first Indian kings. The five brothers _Pandu_,
or _Pando_, who make so great a figure in the ancient history of
India, kept here their court. It lies in the latitude of 27°, on the
river _Càlini_, at the place where it discharges itself into the
Ganges.
_Patna_, a celebrated city on the Ganges, is placed in Father
Tiefenthaler’s map under the latitude of 25°. It contains a million
and a half of inhabitants, according to the assertion of Father
Marcus a Tumba, who has written a description of it. The English have
here a council and government, who are, however, subordinate to the
supreme council at Calcutta.
A more minute account of Indian cities and places may be found
in Tiefenthaler’s description of Hindostan, Anquetil du Perron’s
Historical and Geographical Researches, Rennel’s Memoir, and a very
important manuscript of Father Marcus a Tumba, preserved in the
Borgian museum at Velitri, and entitled _Su i luoghi santi dell’
India_. My object was merely to mention some places in the southern
part of India, which have been passed over in silence by the above
writers.
According to the assertion of the before mentioned Capuchin, Father
Marcus a Tumba, who resided a long time as missionary at _Patna_
and _Tschandranagar_, the _Chandernagor_ of the French, the flux
and reflux of the sea extend, by means of the Ganges, more than
sixty leagues into the country, so that ships of war can proceed
that far up the river. On the _Dèva_ or _Sarayuva_ vessels can go
even to Delhi, and on the river _Son_ to _Rotasgar_. The English
possess, on the Ganges, the cities of _Calcutta_, _Monguiri_,
_Patna_, _Benares_, and _Allahabad_ or _Eleabad_, and have at all
these places factories, fortresses, governors, and collectors of the
public revenues. The province of Bengal alone brings them an annual
income of above three millions sterling. It appears from a letter of
Mr. Hastings, formerly governor-general of Bengal, that the English
ships which sailed from that settlement between the 1st of December
1782, and the 1st of January 1784, had on board goods to the value of
two _cores_ (or _codi_) and sixty-five lack of rupees[33]. A rupee
is equal in value to five Roman _paoli_; a hundred thousand rupees
make one lack; and a hundred _lac_, a _core_ or _codi_. This immense
sum was exported too at a time when the English were involved in a
war with the Indian princes; but to how much will their exports at
last amount in times of war?--Their great revenues will and must
infallibly decrease hereafter; for, in the first place, the natives
are too much oppressed: 2dly, In a state of continual warfare and
plundering, agriculture is neglected: 3dly, Trade and manufactures
decline: 4thly, The country is ruined by monopolies: 5thly, An
immense quantity of specie has been drawn from it of late years; and
at present much fewer rupees and pagodas are seen in circulation than
formerly[34].
Those who wish to form a clear idea of the degraded condition of
the greater part of the Indian kings and princes in the southern
and northern part of India, must recur to the hostile invasions
by which foreign conquerors reduced those countries under their
dominion. In the year 1202 the Tartar _Gingsa Khan_, or _Gengis
Khan_, made an incursion into the kingdom of _Tangut_, and in 1209
into India. He was followed in 1409, two centuries later, by _Timur_
_Bec_, or Tamerlan, when he had crushed the dynasty of the Moguls,
which afterwards was divided into two branches, the eastern and the
western. Timur established himself in the neighbourhood of _Agra_;
expelled, as far as his power extended, the legal Indian kings and
princes; and committed the care of the provinces he had subdued to
nabobs and governors of his own appointment. This was the first time
that the Mogul Tartars took possession of India. Some writers assert,
that _Gengis Khan_ did not enter India till the year 1218, and that
the conquest of that country by Timur falls about the year 1398.
However this may be, _Mir Shah_, called by some _Mirzan Pir Mohamed_,
kept possession of the northern part of India for several years,
and composed for his subjects a new code of laws according to the
political system of the Moguls. The next conqueror of India was _Abu
Said Shemor Ami Shah_, who reigned in 1493. During the persecution
which Timur permitted against the Indians, the Gypsies, who belonged
originally to the caste of the _Pareas_, a people residing on the
_Sindhu_, or Indus, fled from their native country, wandered through
Scythia, and, proceeding thence to Hungary, dispersed themselves
over various parts of Europe[35]. In the year 1519, or, according to
some, 1526, the celebrated conqueror _Bahur_, a descendant of Timur,
extended the Mogul empire in India; or was rather, as some assert,
the real founder of it. He had four sons, _Homaon_ or _Omayoun_,
_Sehir Shah_, _Selim Shah_, and _Firuz Shah_, who reigned after him.
In the year 1550, or 1556, _Akbar_ the wise, a son of _Homaon_,
rebuilt the city of Agra, introduced new laws, and appointed new
nabobs or viceroys in the provinces. He caused various Indian books
to be translated also into the Persian language; and among these
were the work called _Mahabhàrada_, and another named _Ayin Akberi_.
The latter was a book of Indian laws, which had been collected by
his minister _Albufazel_. _Akbar_ died in 1605, and was succeeded by
_Gehanguir_. The latter had five sons, one of whom swayed the sceptre
of the kingdom of _Dàkshima_ or _Decan_, which he had subdued by
force. In 1627 _Gehanguir_ was followed by _Shah Gehan_, who also
left behind him five sons. According to some, however, a prince named
_Bolasci_ reigned a considerable time before him. _Akbar_ restored
to the Brahmans their observatory at Benares, in order that they
might continue their astronomical observations, which had been long
interrupted by the war. _Gehanguir_, on the other hand, had no taste
for the sciences, and could not prevail upon himself to tread in
the footsteps of his father: both he and _Shah Gehan_ were rather
formed for war. These Moguls made an incursion, for the first time,
into the kingdom of _Carnate_, or more properly _Carnada_, in 1632
or 1633; and they thence over-ran the southern part of India, into
which no foreign conqueror had ever before penetrated. _Shah Gehan_
transferred the seat of government from _Agra_ to _Delhi_. The
dominion of the Moguls was still farther extended under the reign of
_Aurengzeb_, one of the sons of _Shah Gehan_. This prince conquered,
in 1686, the kingdoms of _Velur_, _Visapur_, and _Goloonda_; in
1695, subdued _Carnada_ a second time; and, in 1698, made himself
master of the provinces of _Gingi_, _Satara_, and _Panin_. Major
Rennel says, that the revenue of this monarch amounted annually
to thirty-five millions sterling. He died in 1707, and left four
sons, one of whom, _Shah Alem_, assumed the reins of government
the same year. The latter had two sons, who reigned till the year
1739. Their successor _Shah Mohamed_ was dethroned by _Thamas Kuli
Khan_, who plundered the treasury, levied exorbitant contributions
from the people, and carried off an immense booty. _Thamas Kuli
Khan_, or _Nadir Shah_, was followed in 1748 by _Achmet Shah_, a
son of _Mohamed Shah_. After this the throne of Delhi was possessed
from 1756 to 1760 by _Azizeddoulah_ or _Alemguirsani_, king of the
Patans. Under the government of this prince almost all the nabobs
refused obedience to his lawful commands. The districts over which
they presided as viceroys being of considerable extent, and at a
great distance from Delhi, it was therefore much easier for them to
render themselves totally independent. His son was deprived of the
throne by his own prime minister; and bloody feuds ensued, which
continued, without interruption, till the year 1773. As it was far
more advantageous, in every case, to have to contend with several
weak and petty princes, than so formidable and powerful a monarch,
the English, during this state of warfare, considered it as of great
importance to support the rebellious nabobs against their supreme
lord, in order that they might establish themselves more firmly in
the possession of their colonies, and at the same time have allies
in case of need. After this period the power of the Great Mogul
sunk into nothing. The policy by which the English, as well as the
_Subadars_, or Mogul governors, effected this change, may be found
circumstantially described in Pallebot de St. Lubin’s Historical
Memoirs, under the head Revolutions of Bengal. The _Seiks_, whom I
consider as a people originally Christians, but who again adopted
the Pagan religion, taking up arms, now entered in a hostile manner
into _Lahor_, _Multan_, _Delhi_, and other possessions of the Great
Mogul; while the English, in another quarter, combining their own
private interest with that of the rebellious nabobs or viceroys, made
themselves masters of several provinces also: and thus this mighty
empire, notwithstanding its greatness, its monstrous extent, and its
riches, sunk back into its former insignificance. After this period
nothing but war and contention prevailed in _Carnate_, _Tanjaur_,
_Gingi_, _Madura_, and _Maissur_, and in all the provinces, of which
I shall soon give a more particular account.
The first province on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, which begins in
the south-west, and extends towards the north-east, is _Marava_, the
capital of which, having the same name, is situated, according to M.
De la Tour, in the latitude of 9° 35′ north; as appears by the map
which he published at Paris, in 1770, under the title of _Theatre de
la Guerre dans l’Inde_. This map, which was constructed with great
accuracy on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, exhibits with much clearness
and precision the different districts, cities, and rivers in the
theatre of the war carried on by the English, French and Indians
against each other, as well as the boundaries of these districts, and
the principal roads through them. It was constructed by order of the
French government for the trial of Count Lally, who had been governor
of _Puduceri_. I consider it as much more correct than the map of the
Brahmans, which Anquetil du Perron has inserted under the title of
_Portion d’une Carte du Sud de la presqu’Isle de l’Inde, faite par
des Brahmes_, in the first part of his _Récherches Historiques et
Geographiques sur l’Inde_, published at Berlin in 1786. The Brahmans
were unprovided with good astronomical instruments, and consequently
not in a condition to construct an accurate map.
The province of _Marava_ is bounded on the east and south by the
sea, on the north by _Tanjaur_, and on the west by _Madura_. It is
intersected by the _Veyarru_, that is, the great river, which flows
down from the _Gauts_, divides the kingdom of _Madura_ or _Pandi_
into two parts, and, running past the ancient city of _Madura_,
spreads itself through the province of _Marava_ into several
branches. By means of this river vessels can be navigated to the sea
through both the before-mentioned provinces, in a direction from west
to east; but it is exceedingly difficult and laborious to return.
While the flood, called by the Indians _Velli_, continues, there is
no impediment, as it each time drives the vessel three or four miles
up the country; but when it is over, the troublesome part of the
navigation commences, because the sailors must then row against the
stream with all their strength. The case is the same, in general, on
the coasts of _Ciòlamandala_ and _Malabar_, with all the rivers which
flow down from the _Gauts_, and which for the most part have their
sources in that ridge of mountains. But with whatever difficulties
this return may be attended, the advantages procured by these rivers
to the inhabitants of the surrounding districts are of the utmost
importance. They facilitate inland as well as foreign trade, render
the soil fruitful, purify and cool the air; in a word, it is to be
ascribed to them alone that the country is habitable by human beings;
which certainly would have been impossible, had not Providence placed
in this part of the torrid zone that immense ridge, and supplied it
so abundantly with water.
The principal cities in the province of _Marava_ are: _Elluvancotta_,
_Ciangucotta_, _Tiruvananganur_, _Ciòlaburam_, _Kavaricotta_, and
_Ràmanàthapuram_, of which I have already spoken. The country is
covered with forests, underwood, and shrubs. The inhabitants are
rude and uncultivated. The men, though of low stature, are strongly
built and excellent warriors. I saw several of them, who had behaved
with great gallantry in the war which _Rama Varmer_, the king of
_Travancor_, carried on against the nabob _Tippoo Sultan Babader_.
Each wore around his head a turban of blue cotton cloth; had a white
jacket which descended to his thighs, a sabre by his side; in his
right hand a lance, and in his left a shield. These people march,
however, in bodies without any certain order, and perform their
evolutions by the sound of a horn. They let their beards grow; have
coarse hands and faces; go bare-footed; and wear a blue girdle around
the body. They are much braver than the _Tamulians_, who can never be
accustomed to the fatigues of a military life.
_Marava_ was formerly a province of the kingdom of _Madura_. The
ruler of it was called _Nyaquen_, that is, the lord; but the
Europeans have corrupted this word, and made of it _Naik_ or
_Naiken_. The northern part of _Marava_ is at present under the
dominion of the nabob Mohamed Aly and his friends the English; but
the western is subject to the king of _Travancor_, who possesses also
a part of _Madura_ and _Marava_ on the east, from Cape _Comari_,
in consequence of a treaty which he entered into with the English
and Mohamed Aly. This king of Travancor, however, is obliged to pay
the _Coppa_, that is, a yearly tribute, to Mohamed Aly, who may be
called a creature of the English, and whom they generally employ as
a state engine when they wish to exercise their oppression against
the Indian princes. The Jesuits formerly had a great many Christian
congregations in _Marava_, and this missionary establishment was
connected with those in _Tanjaur_ and _Madura_; but, in my time,
these congregations had for the most part dropped off; and the few
still remaining were under the direction of priests from _Goa_, who
did not bestow too much attention upon them. The interior parts
of _Madura_ and _Marava_, in matters of spiritual judicature, are
subject to the archbishop of _Cudnegalur_ or _Craugalor_; and places
on the sea-coast, which do not extend farther than ten miles into
the country, belong to the diocese of the bishop of _Cochin_.
_Tanjaur_ lies between the tenth and eleventh degree of latitude, and
25 seconds farther towards the north east. This kingdom is bounded
on the south by the sea and the province of _Marava_, not far from
the fortress of _Tiruvananganur_, which belongs to _Marava_. On the
east it is washed also by the sea, and towards the north by the
rivers _Cavèri_ and _Colàrru_, the latter of which is very improperly
written _Colram_. In the Samscred language it signifies the river of
the wild hogs; from _Cola_ a wild hog, and _Arru_ a river; for these
animals were formerly found there in great abundance. Both these
rivers, the _Cavèri_ and _Colàrru_, are exceedingly large, and are
held in as great veneration by the eastern Indians as the Ganges is
by the northern. Those who belong to the sect of the _Vishnuvites_,
address their prayers to _Vishnu_ as the ruler of the waters; and
they believe that he created the universe from water: for this reason
they perform their lustrations at rivers, and on their return carry
with them some bits of yellow earth, which they pick up on the banks.
When an individual of this sect dies, his body is burnt, and the
ashes are thrown into one of these rivers. From this it appears that
the Indians show divine honours to the elements after the manner of
the ancient Persians.
_Tanjaur_, the capital of the province, is situated in 10° 35′ north
latitude, between the two arms of the river _Cavèri_. The most
considerable cities next to this are: _Vallam_, _Màdèvipatnam_, or
the city of the great goddess _Lakshmi_, _Patucòtta_, _Tiruvalur_,
and _Tirumannur_. Beyond the boundaries of _Tanjaur_, towards the
west, on the left bank of the _Cavèri_, and in the latitude of 10°
45′, lies the celebrated city of _Tricinapalli_, where at present the
English have their seat of government, and the principal part of
their forces. They made choice of it for the capital of the province,
and their chief magazine of arms, because they can thence keep in
subjection, with the greatest ease, the two kingdoms of _Tanjaur_
and _Madura_; overawe the deposed kings and princes; collect the
public revenue, the rice crops, and the taxes, without much trouble;
and can be always ready to march with their troops, at a minute’s
warning, to any quarter wherever symptoms of insurrection may appear.
On the sea-coast, towards the east, in the kingdom of _Tanjaur_,
lies the temple _Collamedu_; and the city of _Negapatnam_, which
belongs to the English, and is strongly fortified; also the city
of _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_; _Naur_, particularly celebrated
on account of its cotton manufactures; the city and fortress of
_Karinkalla_, which once belonged to the French; _Cialenbron_,
an ancient Pagan temple; and _Divyacotta_, which was formerly an
excellent castle. The river _Cavèri_ divides itself into several
arms or channels: one of these, which branches off not far from
_Cirangam_, is distinguished by the name of _Colàrru_. It is much
larger and broader than even the _Cavèri_ itself. The latter flows
towards the east, but the former pursues its course towards the
north; and both discharge themselves into the sea through several
mouths. It is to be ascribed chiefly to these two rivers that the
kingdom of _Tanjaur_ produces such an abundance of rice. It grows
there in so great quantities, that this land may with propriety
be called the granary of all _Ciòlamandala_. Most foreigners
endeavour to establish themselves in this province, or at least
to carry on trade with it. In the year 1619 the king of Tanjaur,
_Raghu-nathe-nayaguen_, gave up the city of _Torangapuri_, or
_Tranquebar_, to the Danes, who immediately formed there a celebrated
missionary establishment for propagating the Lutheran religion.
In 1638 the French obtained from _Sovadsadiragia_, another king
of Tanjaur, the city and harbour of _Carinkalla_, which they name
_Carikal_. In 1658 the Dutch and the Portuguese made themselves
masters of the city of _Nagapatnam_, and in 1783 it was taken from
the Dutch by the English, and never again restored. It is of the
utmost importance to the latter, since they have had possession
of the kingdom of _Tanjaur_. Before they added this country to
their Indian possessions, they employed every method possible, by
their creature and ally the nabob of _Arcate_, _Mohamed Aly_, to
get it into their hands; but when they at length obtained it, the
injustice of the measure appeared so glaring, that the Court of
London protested against the violent proceedings of the government
of _Madraspatnam_, and sent out Lord Pigot to India, with orders to
restore the kingdom to the Maratta prince, its lawful owner. Lord
Pigot, in my time, was kept in a state of arrest at _Mont Grand_,
not far from _Maïlapuri_. The merchants of _Madraspatnam_, who
derived immense advantages from the kingdom of Tanjaur, opposed the
disposition made by the British Court for restoring it; and General
Stuart, whom the adherents of Mr. Stratton and the merchants had
brought over to their party, enticed Lord Pigot to take an airing
in his carriage; had him arrested on the road, and conveyed to the
before-mentioned fortress _Mont Grand_, which lies at the distance of
a few miles towards the west from Madraspatnam. Here he remained for
a considerable time in confinement, till he at length died in 1777.
_Tullasuragia_, king of _Tanjaur_, who, by the command and exertions
of Lord Pigot, was restored to the throne, experienced a similar
fate. He was put in confinement also by the assistance of Mohamed
Aly, and died in prison in 1776. Such is the manner in which kingdoms
and provinces are acquired in India! The Europeans first get a
footing there as merchants; imperceptibly endeavour to extend their
power; are no longer satisfied with the advantages of trade, and
begin gradually to oppose their own private interest to the interest
of those princes who have admitted them into their dominions. In a
little time they find means to involve them in a war; sometimes they
give them assistance, in order that they may afterwards make them
pay for it; and sometimes they incite one prince against another,
or endeavour to create confusion in their political relations: in a
word, they never rest until they get possession of the land which is
the object of their ambition. _Timur-Bec_, _Thamas Kuli Khan_, the
_Moguls_ and _Marattas_, the _English_ and _French_, all pretended to
have just reasons for seizing the possessions of others; and no man
was able to refute these reasons, which, while they had arms in their
hands, were rendered sufficiently valid. “The right of conquest,”
says Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, “is a necessary, lawful, but
unhappy power, which leaves the conqueror under a heavy obligation of
repairing the injuries done to humanity[36].”
It has been already said, that in former times the kingdom of
_Tanjaur_ was dependent on that of _Madura_. The princes who were
subordinate, and obliged to pay tribute to that of the latter, were
called _Nayaga_, that is, lords; and not _Rajah_, or kings. In the
ancient classical writers they are seldom mentioned, and at later
periods all intercourse between Europe and India was interrupted by
the incursion of the barbarians, so that scarcely any traces of them
are to be found. The relation of the two Arabian travellers of the
ninth century, a translation of which has been given by Renaudot,
is exceedingly dry and barren; for these travellers speak only of
such princes in India as received them with friendship, and of places
where they were kindly entertained by their countrymen the Arabs.
The most authentic information now extant, respecting the kingdom
of _Tanjaur_ and its sovereigns, has been collected by Anquetil du
Perron in the first part of his _Recherques historiques_, &c. often
already mentioned, under the following head: _Suite chronologique
des rois Marates du Tanjour commençant à Ekogi (Egavàgi), l’an 1471
de l’ere Chretienne jusqu’a Toullason Rajah en 1783; accompagnée de
détails sur les principaux rois de la presqu’ile de l’Inde depuis
la fin du 15 siecle_. In the year 1360 _Tanjaur_ was under the
government of king _Prabudhadeven_, which signifies the attentive,
careful god; from _Prabudha_, attentive, careful; and _Deven_, a god.
People who were ignorant of the Indian languages corrupted this word,
and made of it _Parabudeideven_. After him, an officer of the king
of _Bisnagari_, or _Narasinha_, called the Emperor of the Coast of
Coromandel, was raised to that dignity. This kingdom fell afterwards
into the power of some Maratta princes, who retained it till the year
1773, when the nabob of Arcate, _Mohamed Aly_, an Arabian prince, was
forcibly put in possession of it by the English, in whose hands it
remains at this day[37].
Some of the missionaries, such as, Father de Magistris, Frederick
Schwarz a Dane[38], and Father Johannes de Brito, whose manuscript
works, never yet published, I have now in my hands, complain
bitterly of the oppression which the subjects of the Pagan kings had
to endure. M. Anquetil du Perron endeavours to defend the latter,
and to prove that private persons enjoyed real and individual
property, among which he reckons gardens and meadows. I can, however,
establish, by historical documents, that this assertion is altogether
false, and that Anquetil was totally unacquainted with the ancient
Indian laws. The kings either let their rice fields to the farmers
called _Vayshya_, or gave up the use of them to their soldiers for
military service. It is very certain that a great many abuses were
connected with the regal authority; and, in my opinion, this was
the principal cause why the kings of _Madura_, _Maïssur_, _Tanjaur_
and _Marava_ came at last to destruction. Their subjects were,
indeed, divided into nobles, patricians and plebeians; but these
three ranks were always at variance, and the people groaned under
the severest oppression. It was very customary for one, under the
pretence of avenging some injury he had sustained, to fall upon the
property of another and to carry it off. The monarchs were at great
pains to keep up these feuds, and they seldom suffered the offended
party to receive justice. Continual jealousy prevailed between these
petty tyrants; military discipline was totally neglected, and
nothing was encouraged at court but luxury and flattery. Under these
circumstances, it needs excite no wonder that the people received
foreigners bent upon conquest with open arms; and that these kings,
after a dominion of two thousand years, brought themselves at last to
ruin, as must be the case with all those who suffer such abuses in
their government. The revolution which happened in these kingdoms,
when the English interfered in the affairs of India, might perhaps
have been of some use, had not that nation, as avaricious as it is
industrious, carried away all the productions and other riches of the
country. It is thus that the nations of the earth are punished, when
they abandon themselves so completely to vice that they shut their
eyes against the light of reason, and in their blindness stray from
the paths of justice and virtue.
At _Navur_ great quantities of cotton articles, _Tapissendis_[39],
and cloth of all colours are manufactured. The blue cotton stuffs of
_Nagapatnam_ and _Torangapuri_ are sent throughout all _Tanjaur_,
_Madura_ and _Malabar_. _Nagapatnam_ is the place where the
spiritual jurisdiction of the bishop of _Cochin_ ends, and that
of the bishop of _Maïlapuri_ commences. The latter extends not
only over the whole coast of _Ciòlomandala_, but over that also of
_Orixa_, and throughout all _Bengal_, where the above-mentioned
bishop has a vicar-general. The Jesuits formerly were in possession
of a great many Christian churches in _Tanjaur_, and the missionary
establishment there depended on that of _Madura_, which was founded
by Father Robert Nobili, a native of the Papal territories. At
present an ex-jesuit resides at _Tricinnapalli_.
The kingdom of _Madura_ begins, in the south, under about 8° 10′ N.
lat. near the sea, and extends thence, towards the north, between the
_Gauts_, which lie on the west, and between _Madura_ and _Tanjaur_,
the latter of which lies on the east and ends in the north at the
rivers _Cavèri_ and _Veyàrru_, in 11° 15′ N. lat. These rivers
intersect the whole country. The _Veyàrru_, or great river, is, on
Anquetil’s map, named by the Brahmans _Madura_. It directs its course
from west to east, and flows past the ancient city of _Madura_, which
is the capital of the kingdom, and from which the whole province
derives its name. The _Cavèri_ descends also from the Gauts, and,
running past _Tricinapalli_, _Ceringham_, and various other cities,
discharges itself through several mouths into the sea. This tract of
land lies much higher than the rest, and therefore it produces much
less rice; but for that reason it abounds more with cotton, cummin,
garlic, ginger, gum-lac and capers. There are found here also a great
many bezoar goats, civet cats, wild hogs, deer, antelopes, tygers,
apes, and elephants. In some of the valleys there grow likewise
considerable quantities of very white rice, the grains of which are
small, and which has an excellent aromatic taste. The inhabitants of
this province, like all mountaineers, are large, robust people, and
capable of bearing the heaviest burthens on their head and shoulders.
They carry on a considerable trade with the maritime cities on the
coast of _Ciòlamandala_, and since the earliest periods have been
accustomed to cross the _Gauts_, mountains of tremendous height; so
that they even transport their cotton stuffs to the coast of Malabar,
and either sell them in some of the towns and villages lying at the
bottom of these mountains, or exchange them for salt, dried fish,
areca nuts, pepper, copper, iron, and other articles in which the
kingdom of Madura is deficient. Necessity is the oldest and first
instructor which mankind had in regard to commerce; avarice, luxury,
and the thirst of gain afterwards associated themselves with her, and
still follow in her train. Among the trading cities, at the foot of
the Gauts, on the Malabar coast, is _Arampalli_, the _Arguropolis_ of
the ancient Greeks, which lies nine miles up the country from Cape
_Comari_, and as much from _Covalam_. Formerly there were in this
city above two thousand looms employed in weaving cotton stuffs.
Even at present it is a place of some importance in regard to its
cotton trade; but formerly it was, as it were, the mart or general
magazine to which the inhabitants of the Malabar coast and the
province of Madura carried all their merchandize. Since navigation
increased, many of the manufacturers have removed from this as
well as from other cities, and formed new settlements and places
of trade at a distance from those harbours which are frequented
by foreign ships. The other Malabar cities, which still keep up
their former connection and trade with _Madura_, are: _Cottàte_,
_Càgnarapalli_, _Iratugè_, _Pugnàda_, _Mohatugè_, and _Codamangalam_.
The cities in the interior part of the kingdom of _Madura_,
which formerly sent and still send merchandize to the Malabar
coast, are: _Cambam_, _Uttamapàliam_, _Periaculam_, _Sindacalla_,
_Badagare_, _Tuvàrencurici_, _Veluvàracotta_, _Andipatti_, _Tevàram_,
_Ciundrapandi_, _Cettur_, _Shivagari_, _Tirunaveli_, _Cencotta_,
_Condùr_, _Tèdanàda_, _Perumanel_, _Ceruvatti_, _Caricàttur_, and
_Manimàla_. Notwithstanding the great number of missionaries and
European geographers who have written on this country, not one of
them has so much as mentioned the names of these cities, or given
any account of the connection which subsists between the two coasts
of the peninsula of India. All of them confine themselves rather to
a general view, and speak only of the possessions of the Europeans.
I can, however, with truth assert, that I have seen whole companies
of these merchants from _Madura_, partly at _Codamangalam_ at the
bottom of the Gauts, and partly at _Mohatuge_ and _Padmanaburam_.
They are accustomed to transport their merchandize upon oxen, which
are loaded with cotton goods of every kind. These merchants are
almost all well armed, because they are obliged to pursue their way
through narrow passes in the mountains, which, on account of the
numerous tygers found in them, are exceedingly dangerous. From the
before-mentioned cities, in the interior part of Malabar, merchandize
is transported to those on the coast both by land and by water. They
are sent to _Covalam_ at Cape _Comari_, _Coleci_, _Tiruvancòda_,
_Collam_, _Porrocàda_, _Muttam_, _Cocci_, _Cudungalùr_, _Colicòtta_,
_Cannanùr_, _Valiapatnam_ and _Calianapuri_, and thence conveyed
on board foreign ships. Some of these cities were celebrated in
ancient times. Thus, for example, _Arampalli_ was by the Greeks
called _Arguropolis_; and _Covalam_, _Colis_ or _Colias_; _Coleci_,
in Strabo, is named _Cojaci_; and _Cottàte_ occurs, in Ptolemy,
under the name of _Cottiara Metropolis_, and in Pliny under that of
_Cottona_. Neither the Egyptians, whose vessels consisted merely of
papyrus, nor the Greeks and the Romans, who were not very expert in
the art of navigation, and whose ships were built in an exceeding
slight manner, ever ventured to double Cape _Comari_, where such
violent storms sometimes prevail, that the Portuguese called it _The
Little Cape of Good Hope_. The mariners of these nations ran their
vessels, therefore, either into the small harbours of _Covalam_ or
_Coleci_, where the sea forms a bay or haven, in which ships of a
moderate size can lie at anchor in perfect security. It was necessary
that every article of merchandize from Bengal and Pegu, the island of
Ceylon, the coast of _Coromandel_, _Tanjaur_, and _Madura_, should
be sent to both these places, which was done more frequently by Land
than by water. A part of them were then transported up the Red Sea to
Alexandria; the rest were conveyed through the Persian gulph to the
Tigris and the Euphrates, and thence they made their way to Greece
and Rome; as has been very justly remarked by Strabo, Pliny, Arrian,
Marco Polo, Schmidt, Montesquieu, and lately by the celebrated
Robertson.
The kingdom of _Madura_ or _Pandi_, said to have been founded by one
of the five brothers _Pandu_ or _Pandava_, A. M. 1550, was always
governed by its own lawful sovereigns, natives of the country.
_Porus_, or _Puru_, sat upon the throne in the time of Octavius
Augustus. King _Cerambotti_, who is mentioned by Pliny, Arrian,
and Ptolemy, under the names of _Cuprobottes_, _Celebothras_, or
_Cerobothron_, was descended from this family; and his government
extended both over _Malabar_ and the kingdom of _Canara_. The
kings of _Travancor_, who about sixty years ago were very obscure
princes, had their origin also in _Madura_. The kings of _Madura_
kept their court in the city of the same name, and their vassals
shewed them a veneration almost without bounds. After the death
of _Virabhanàyaguen_, no fewer than three hundred of his wives
ascended the funeral pile, and voluntarily suffered their bodies to
be burnt with that of the king. In the year 1740 the Marattas made
an incursion into _Madura_, and since that period the dominion of
the national kings has been at an end. After the Marattas _Nisam al
Malek_ penetrated into the country, and at last came _Mohamed Aly
Khan_, in the year 1742. The latter caused the viceroy of _Madura_,
named _Khan Saheb_, to be put to death; took possession of the
throne; entered into an alliance with the English at _Madraspatnam_,
and divided the kingdom of _Madura_ between himself and his allies.
The English then converted the city of _Tricinapalli_ into a place
of arms; beset the high ways with guards, and got into their hands
the whole trade. By these means the ancient _Madura_ fell totally
into ruin. The English have also another army at _Tirunaveli_[40],
a city lying to the south of _Madura_. This place is separated from
_Paliamcotta_ only by a river, which serves as a boundary between
the English and the king of _Travancor_. _Paliamcotta_, a strong
fortress, is situated on the southern bank of that river, and belongs
to the king of _Travancor_, who is also in alliance with the English.
When the English are desirous of procuring money from this prince,
they instigate their ally _Mohamed Aly Khan_ to send an army against
_Tovala_, in the neighbourhood of Cape _Comari_; and if the king of
_Travancor_ wishes to prevent this disagreeable visit, he must pay to
the English whatever they choose to demand. When I was at the court
of this prince, in 1784, the army of _Mohamed Aly Khan_ required
him either to send them a certain sum, or to give them permission to
march through _Tovala_, in order that they might obtain money from
_Travancor_. _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_, however, a man of talents,
who was then prime minister, settled the whole business by paying to
the English 200,000 rupees[41].
The kingdom of _Carnada_, from the year 1754 to 1762, was the
continual theatre of the war carried on against each other by
the English and French, _Hayder Aly Khan_, the father of _Tippoo
Sultan_, and the nabob of _Arrucate_. It is bounded on the west by
that ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_; and lies between the
12th and 14th degree of north latitude, and the 77th and 78th of
east longitude. Towards the south it is bounded by _Tanjaur_, or the
river _Vellaru_, which flows down from the mountains in _Maïssur_
on the west, intersects _Carnada_, and throws itself into the
eastern sea at the extremity of the kingdom near _Puorto Novo_.
_Golconda_ forms its boundary on the north, in the latitude of 15°.
_Carnada_ is the kingdom so much extolled by ancient travellers
under the name of _Narasinha_. It is watered by three rivers, the
first of which, called the _Paler_, runs past the cities of _Velur_,
_Arrucate_, _Cangipuri_ and _Sadras_. It is extremely broad at the
last-mentioned place, and discharges itself into the eastern sea.
The second, named the _Ciovanàrru_, falls into the sea on the south
of _Puduceri_, after having united, not far from that city, with
the _Gingi_, which flows down from the mountains of the same name.
The third is called the _Ponarru_, or the golden river. It has its
source in the Gauts, not far from _Dhermapuri_ in _Maïssur_, runs
past _Tricolur_, and on the north of _Gudelùr_ throws itself into
the sea. The interior part of this country produces abundance of
rice, though not in such quantity as _Tanjaur_. Numerous herds of
cattle are also seen in it; and, according to the assertion of the
Indians, it contains mines of gold and silver. The cotton articles
manufactured here are exceedingly fine. The maritime cities of
_Carnada_ are, _Gudelùr_, _Puduceri_, _Cangimaram_, _Sadras_,
_Maïlapuri_, _Madraspatnam_, and _Valiacada_ or _Paliacate_. Various
kinds of cotton stuffs, both coloured and white, are manufactured to
a considerable extent in all these cities. _Gingi_, the capital of
a small province, and _Arrucate_, are two pretty strong fortresses
in the interior part of the country, and at the same time cities
of great antiquity. According to Ptolemy, _Brahmanes Magi_ resided
formerly at _Cangipuri_ in the kingdom of _Carnada_, and therefore
it is beyond all doubt that in the first century of the Christian
æra there were magi in India as well as in Persia. In the remotest
periods there was a temple at _Cangipuri_, which is still frequented
by a great number of pilgrims. It is dedicated to _Vishnu_, who,
according to the doctrine of the Indians, first created water, and
from water the whole universe. The image of this deity, who is
here represented with four hands, is carried round in triumph, on
certain days, in a very high carriage drawn by sixty persons. In his
first hand he holds the sacred wheel; in the second, a huntsman’s
horn; in the third, a diamond; and in the fourth a club, in order
to combat the giants. A festival is still held here in honour of
Fire, which has been already described by Sonnerat in the second
part of his Voyage to India. _Tirunamala_, _Tirupadi_, _Tiruvalur_,
_Cirangam_, and _Cialembron_, are also very beautiful pagodas or
Pagan temples, which are not unworthy of a particular description.
Some of these occupy a large square, surrounded by four lofty walls.
In the middle of each wall stands a very high sharp-pointed tower,
ornamented with the figures of various animals, which represent
the different symbols of the deity. Under the tower is a gate,
through which you enter the forecourt of the pagoda; and as there
are commonly four towers on each wall, the most of these pagodas
have also four gates. These towers, with their gates, are called
_Gòburam_, which signifies both the tower and the gate of the
fore-court of the temple. The before-mentioned symbols are in part
offensive to decency. They allude to the creation and destruction
of all created things, which are effected by the sun, moon, and the
earth; and these are represented under the symbols of the three
deities _Shiva_, _Parvadi_, and _Lakshmi_. The towers are square,
and consist of several stories; some of which are large, but others
very narrow. Each story is furnished with windows, and in the upper
story a lamp is kept burning during the night. The temple itself
stands in the middle of the court, and for the most part is of a
conical form. These pagodas or Pagan temples, which in the Samscred
language are called _Ksetra_, _Devassa_, or _Devalea_, consist of
three divisions. The first forms the main body, or nave; the second,
the sanctuary; and the third, the _Shrikoil_, that is, the chapel,
in which the _Bimbam_ (statue) or the _Deven_ deity, or the _Punya
Murti_, sacred body, is preserved. This chapel is constructed in
the middle of the sanctuary, and has only one small window, so that
in the inside it is exceedingly dark: a circumstance which not only
increases the reverence and respect entertained for the divinity,
but contributes also to conceal the functions of the _Eburandiri_,
or high priest, who alone has the right of approaching the image.
A great many lamps, filled with oil and butter, are kept burning
around the chapel; and the offerings, which consist of rice, coco
nuts, flowers, sesamum, pisangs, and other fruits, are deposited on
a stool before the god, and left at the disposal of the priest. From
the roof of the temple arises a long pole, to which is fastened, on
days of solemnity, a large flag 70 feet in length. On this flag is
represented an ox (the _Vahana_ or riding animal of the god _Shiva_)
when the temple is dedicated to that deity; and in that case the ox
or Apis is represented also in bas-relief above the small door of
the chapel already described. There must always be a stream in the
neighbourhood, in order that the Indians may wash themselves, and
perform those ablutions which the service of the god requires. The
sanctuary, for the most part, is surrounded by five or six rows of
stone pillars, from eighteen to twenty feet in height, and ornamented
with bas-reliefs of ingenious workmanship. In many temples the number
of these columns amounts sometimes to sixty. It is astonishing
how carefully the rules of architecture have been observed in
constructing them: and as some of these temples are of very great
antiquity, it consequently follows that this art must have flourished
in India in the remotest periods.
The most considerable cities and fortresses in _Carnada_, the
latter of which are almost always built in the form of a square,
are: _Palancotta_, _Balancada_, _Atur_, _Calianatur_, _Shelon_,
_Tatagari_, _Calicurici_, _Tirucolur_, _Tiruvanelur_, _Trividi_,
_Tiruvamatur_, _Valdur_, _Villamur_, _Perumaculam_, _Vìcravandi_,
_Tindivanam_, _Gingi_, _Tirumala_, _Penatur_, _Palur_, _Cettupeli_,
_Vandavagi_, _Uttamatur_, _Tiruvatur_, _Harani_, _Timeri_,
_Arcati_, _Caveripac_, _Tacaculam_, _Tirupassur_, and _Tirupadi_.
One will scarcely find a country so pre-eminently distinguished
by its architecture, and which can exhibit so great a number of
elegant temples and other public buildings. It is therefore highly
probable that the sovereigns of _Carnada_ were formerly in the most
flourishing circumstances, and that population and industry were
carried to their utmost extent; for, without the united effect of
these causes, such magnificent monuments could never have been
erected[42]. In the early periods this district was subject to the
kings of _Bisnagari_ or _Narasinha_. It afterwards came under the
dominion of the great Mogul, who caused it to be governed by a nabob
or viceroy; but as one unjust possessor generally endeavours to
expel another, the Marattas found means to make themselves masters
of it in 1740. They were, however, again driven out by the nabob
of _Arrucate_, a prince of Indian extraction, who had embraced the
Mahometan religion. The French, at that time, espoused the cause of
the great Mogul; but the English, who lived in a state of hostility
with the Marattas, interested themselves for the nabob of _Arrucate_,
who had rebelled against the great Mogul, and with whom they were
besides in alliance. A bloody war ensued, during which the English
and French, together with their different allies, fought more than
fifteen battles in the kingdom of _Carnada_; and the contest was
continued, with various success, till _Carnada_ at length came
under the dominion of the nabob of _Arrucate_ and the English, the
latter of whom are now in possession of _Puduceri_, the capital of
the French colonies in India. They made a conquest of it since the
commencement of the French revolution; and as the English at present
have great power in India, this city is not likely to fall again into
the hands of the French, unless it be restored on the conclusion of a
peace.
The missionary establishment in _Carnada_, which was entrusted
to French Jesuits, can boast of a great many celebrated men. It
commences in the west at the mountains of _Maïssur_, which separate
this province from _Carnada_; extends thence towards the east along
the rivers _Vellaru_ and _Paler_, and comprehends the whole kingdom.
The principal places where the Jesuits resided, were: _Puduceri_,
_Gingi_, _Vencàttiguiri_, and _Arrucate_. The most considerable
congregations, which they formed in the kingdom of _Madura_, were at
_Madura_, _Tindacalla_, _Aur_, _Ilpiur_, _Puradacudi_, _Ayambel_, and
_Conacupam_. In Tanjaur they had congregations of the like kind at
_Varugapattì_, _Sirgani_, _Tanjaur_, _Suran_, _Camanaichenpatti_,
and _Tirnaveli_. Monseigneur Dolicha, the apostolic vicar, resides
sometimes at _Puduceri_, sometimes at _Ariancopan_, and belongs
to the _Corps des Missions étrangeres_ at Paris. The Portuguese
bishop at _Maïlapuri_ pretends to act as superintendant of all these
congregations, which were formed neither by him, nor any other
Portuguese; and though he is expressly forbidden by the Pope to
exercise his spiritual jurisdiction in places which are not under
the dominion of Portugal[43]. Since the destruction of the order of
the Jesuits, many of these congregations have fallen into decline,
because they were destitute of proper pastors. Some of them, however,
still exist; and the bishop of _Maïlapuri_ furnishes them with
priests, natives of India, sent from Goa to discharge the sacerdotal
functions: but these men can never be so useful as Europeans, because
they are not much respected by the heathens, and have too little
learning to support the reputation of a Christian congregation, while
surrounded by Pagans and Mahometans. In my time there were reckoned
to be in _Madura_ eighteen thousand Christians; in _Carnada_,
twenty thousand; and in _Tanjaur_, ten thousand: whereas the Danish
missionaries at _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_, with all their
exertion could scarcely muster a thousand Lutheran Christians, as
I was assured by several Catholics who resided at _Puduceri_[44];
and many even of this insignificant number abjured the Lutheran
religion, as soon as they removed to any place beyond the boundaries
of _Torangapuri_. The native Christians are fond of the images of
the saints, processions, and in general the ceremonies and solemn
festivals of the Catholic church; and, as the Protestants want all
these things, it may be readily conceived that their simple religion
can have very few attractions for the Indians[45].
* * * * *
This general account of the above countries, in which I resided three
months, I must here conclude. It was necessary to be given, that the
reader might be better enabled to understand the remaining part of my
Travels.
CHAPTER IV.
_Journey from Puduceri to Covalan, Maïlapuri, and Madraspatnam._
In the year 1776, a Portuguese ship, the _Nossa Senhora de Luz_, was
lying at anchor in the road of Puduceri, the owner of which, John
Gonzalvez, had made a voyage to Madraspatnam on his own account.
As this vessel was now destined for the coast of Malabar, and as
I was obliged to proceed thither in consequence of my mission, I
thought it advisable not to neglect so favourable an opportunity,
and to request M. Gonzalvez to give me a free passage: a request
which I found myself the more obliged to make, as I had not money
to defray the expences of a voyage in any other manner. Having
some business, however, to settle at Madraspatnam, I set out from
Puduceri on the 9th of September, in a _Dooly_ or palanquin, the
bottom of which is woven of Indian cane, after the manner of our
chairs, and which is covered with cloth supported by pieces of
wood, in order that the traveller may not be incommoded by the
beams of the sun. This palanquin is suspended from a pole, and born
by six men, whom the Indians call _Coolies_, or porters; and the
English, _Boys_. These people go almost naked, having nothing on
their bodies but a small piece of cotton cloth, which covers what
nature bids them conceal, and which is fastened round the loins
with a girdle. This cloth is called by the Indians _Lingacutti_,
that is, the covering of the _Lingam_ or privities, which the
Europeans have converted into _Langotti_. In the Malabar language
it is called _Cila_, a clout. These _Coolies_, almost perfectly
naked, convey the traveller from one place to another with as much
speed as a posthorse; but they must from time to time be relieved
by other six of the same kind. The dexterity and expedition with
which they carry the _Dooly_, or palanquin, is really astonishing.
_Puduceri_ is 100 miles from _Madraspatnam_; and yet some of the
servants of the English East India Company commonly perform that
journey in fifteen hours. These, however, are forced journeys, for
which a great number of such palanquin-bearers are necessary. The
road from _Puduceri_ to _Madraspatnam_ is exceedingly good, and in
many places bordered by bushy trees, under the shade of which the
traveller is protected from the scorching beams of the sun. Every
two or three miles there are elegant _Balam_, _Ambalam_, or taverns,
by the Europeans called _Chauderies_, and in which conveniences of
all kinds are to be found. They are beautiful edifices, raised by
the charitable contributions of the Indians, and not unfrequently
by the benevolence of some wealthy individual, for the use of
travellers; as hospitality, so rare among us Europeans, forms, among
the Orientals, a point of religion, and is one of the chief virtues
by which they are distinguished from all other nations. In general,
the case is very different in India from what it is in Europe, where
people, when travelling, must not only expend large sums of money,
but are cheated, robbed and plundered by landlords, coachmen and
postilions, and meet with every possible kind of bad usage[46]. In
India a man can openly carry money with him on the public highway,
without having occasion to be in any dread of robbers; for it is
sufficient that the _Coolies_ be persons of good character. This
security prevails at least in the kingdom of _Travancor_, where I
have travelled more than twenty times by day as well as by night from
_Cochin_ to Cape _Comari_[47].
The excellent establishments and police regulations formed in India,
in regard to highways, are extolled by Strabo in the fifteenth book
of his geography. The modern Indians consider it as one of the
greatest crimes to destroy edifices or inns destined for the use of
strangers. These inns consist of a building somewhat raised from
the ground, and which contains three divisions or apartments. As
the roof, which projects, is supported by pillars, the outer space
forms a kind of hall or gallery, where the _Doolies_, or palanquins,
are deposited, that they may not be injured by the rain or the heat
of the sun. In the middle apartment stands a stone image, which
is generally a representation of _Gannesha_; and in the two side
apartments mats are spread out, which are wove either of palm leaves,
or the leaves of the _Caida_[48], (a wild plant of the species of
the Ananas,) and on which the travellers sleep. Some Brahman priest
generally resides in the neighbourhood to wait upon them, and who for
a few _Panam_ will provide a meal according to the Brahman manner.
It consists for the most part of rice boiled and afterwards dried,
together with some dishes of small preserved oranges, and soup made
of herbs, pepper, ginger, and mustard, and sometimes of boiled,
toasted, or raw cheese. Instead of this soup, sour milk, or fresh
cream-cheese, is frequently served up. _Cagni_, or boiled rice water,
which the Europeans name _Cangi_, is given free of all expence, in
order that the traveller may quench his thirst with a cooling and
wholesome beverage. Statues, which supply the place of mile-stones,
and serve to guide strangers, are found every where erected along
the high roads. As the Greeks and Romans employed for this purpose
the god Terminus, the Indians use their deity _Gannesha_, who by the
common people, not well acquainted with the Samscred language, is
called _Poleyar_. This god has the head and trunk of an elephant,
four hands, the body and legs of a man; and is represented sitting
cross-legged, according to the manner of the Chinese and Indians.
On some monuments he is represented with a semicircle or half-moon
around his head, holding in one hand an iron style, which the Indians
use for writing on palm leaves, and in the other a palm leaf, or
perhaps a bundle of such leaves, covered with writing. On other
monuments he has in one hand a pomegranate, or a key in the form
of a hook, like those used in the early ages, when doors had no
iron-work, and were shut only by a wooden bar on the inside. Instead
of the _Vahana_, or riding-animal, he has always under him a mouse,
which is held in the utmost abhorrence by the elephant. This mouse,
according to the Indians, represents the wicked demon, the enemy of
wisdom, or, in other words, the devil. Indian women, who are married,
wear an image of this deity, which they call _Taly_, suspended from
their neck by a string. It supplies the place of a love-pledge,
and serves as a token of their chastity and conjugal fidelity. The
literati honour this deity as their protector; and salute him always
at the beginning of their writings with the words _Namà Guru_,
Adoration to the Lord; or _Sal Gurve Namà_, Adoration to the true
Lord; or _Gannabadàye Namà_, Adoration to _Gannabadi_ the Lord. They
are accustomed also to paint the elephant’s trunk of _Gannesha_
before the first line of their letters, as a symbol of wisdom and
prudence.
From _Puduceri_ I continued my journey by _Calapada_, _Congimaram_,
and _Carpuncolam_, where I passed the night in one of the
before-mentioned _Balams_. Towards evening I was visited by some
female Indians, each of whom carried a basket filled with garlands
of white flowers, which they hung around the neck of _Gannesha_.
Next morning, at sun-rise, some Brahmans brought a copper vessel
with coco-nut oil; poured it over the statue of _Gannesha_, and at
the same time muttered a certain form of prayer in the Samscred
language. As one of them spoke a little Portuguese, I entered
into conversation with him. Near such a _Balam_, or inn, there is
generally a pond, called in the Tamulic language _Colam_, and in
corrupted Portuguese _Tanque_. To this _Colam_ all the Indians who
live in the neighbourhood hasten as soon as they get up in the
morning, and men and women, boys and girls, placing themselves close
to each other, wash the parts of nature with the utmost dexterity,
and repeat certain prayers. This ablution, which is renewed every
morning, has been introduced into India in the earliest periods, and
is a general practice among the inhabitants of the country, as they
are of opinion that purity of soul cannot exist without personal
cleanliness[49]. The excessive heat of the sun, and the continual
perspiration thereby occasioned, may have first given rise to this
custom, as also to the worshipping of the _Lingam_, which, among the
Indians, in the same manner as Priapus among the Romans, supplies
the place of a god. That the parts of generation might remain in a
sound state, the Indian philosophers commanded cleanliness by means
of water; and that this practice might never fall into disuse, they
ordered that divine honour even should be paid to these parts, which
represent the creative power of the sun, moon, and elements. An
Indian book, entitled _Lingapurànam_, a copy of which was preserved
in the king’s library at Paris, is a treatise on the worship of this
deity. The Indian philosophers, by whom it was first introduced, gave
as the inventor of it one of their gods named _Mahadeva_, or _Shiva_,
the symbol of the all-creating sun.
Next morning I continued my journey, and passing through _Vepur_,
_Tengacetti_, and other places of little importance, arrived in
the evening at _Sadras_. This beautiful town, at which there is a
castle, belongs to the Dutch, who manufacture here cotton goods
of a superior quality, which they send to Europe. Their so called
_Gingams_ are highly esteemed. This populous place is chiefly
inhabited by people employed in carding, preparing and dyeing
cotton. One part of it is occupied by Brahmans, whose sole business
is commerce. Among the latter seldom can there be found a man who
possesses knowledge, and who at the same time will be so candid as
to communicate it to strangers. It is of no use, therefore, to enter
into conversation with these people, or to request information from
them respecting the religion of the Indians. The English, however,
do so; for they always boast of having obtained their knowledge
immediately from Brahmans appointed to the service of some temple,
as if it were not well known that these priests seldom converse with
Europeans. At _Sadras_ there is a Christian congregation, which
consists of two thousand souls. Most of the members are natural
children of the Dutch and other Europeans. I baptised there some
new-born infants; and as I was inserting their names in the church
register, I everywhere found in the book _Filho de fulano, Filho
de fulano_. As I could not conceive it possible that a father
should have so many children, I asked the sexton the meaning of
the word _fulano_: he replied that it signified a person whose
name was unknown; and that when the father of a child could not
be with certainty discovered, they generally put in the register
_Filho de fulano_. I now knew who the supposed _Mr. Fulano_ was.
As the officiating clergyman, a priest from _Goa_, was at that
time absent, I read mass in the church, and pursued my journey. On
the third day after, having visited _Canatur_, _Tirupatur_, and
_Tirupalur_, I arrived about noon at _Covalam_, which is inhabited
by a few Christians, and for that reason by a much greater number
of Mahometans. The Imperial East India Company at Ostend had here
formerly a strong fortress, close to the sea-shore; but which, lying
too near the English, was on that account dismantled. Charles VI. who
established that company at Ostend, found himself obliged to abolish
it, in order to avoid a war with the English and French, who were
then contending for the possession of _Carnada_. _Covalam_ produces
nothing but millet and salt, the latter of which may be collected
by the Christians as well as the Pagans. A great number of the most
beautiful shells are cast on shore here by the sea. The ruins of the
fortress, which formerly belonged to the Imperial East India Company,
afford a retreat to a multitude of snakes. Here I saw, for the first
time, the operations of an Indian snake-conjuror, who by music and
various processes attracted one of these animals, a circumstance
which I had before considered as a fiction, and impossible. I shall
speak more at large of this art hereafter.
At the end of a few days I departed from this place, and proceeded
to _Maïlapuri_ and _Madraspatnam_. The former, by the Christians,
is called the city of St. Thomas, and is situated close to the
sea, which forms there a kind of bay or small haven. It stands on
a beautiful plain, abounding with coco-nut trees, which retain
their verdure throughout the whole year. The episcopal church,
the church of St. Rita, and the _Madre de Deos_, the bishop’s
palace, and that of the Portuguese governor, who at that time was
Dom Caravalho, attracted my attention by the regularity of their
architecture. This city, however, has lost a great deal of its
former magnificence. The authority of the Portuguese seems to be
transferred to the English and the nabob of _Arrucate_, who has
his stables here. The inhabitants consist of Pagans, Mahometans,
and Christians. The latter are a bastard race, descended from the
Indians and the Portuguese. They are of a black complexion, but a
little of the European whiteness still appears through it. They are
distinguished by the name of _Mestize_, by which is understood people
born of an European father and an Indian mother. They are called
also _Topazi_, that is _Duibhashi_, or interpreters, because they
speak two different languages, Indian and corrupted Portuguese. They
form the smaller part of the inhabitants of _Maïlapuri_, where the
Mahometans have the superiority. The last bishop of _Maïlapuri_ was
Dom Bernardo da San Gaetano, of the Augustin order, who in 1787 was
succeeded by Dom Emanuel di Gesu, an Augustin also, born at Goa. The
former, being an European by birth, conducted himself as a prudent,
liberal-minded man; but the latter has all the violent, restless, and
litigious character of a hot blooded Indian. He even proceeds so far
as to expel from his diocese all missionaries who are not Portuguese,
or who do not acknowledge his jurisdiction. At St. Rita I lodged
in the house of the vicar-general, Father Luiz, an Augustin, who
treated me with much hospitality, and from whom I received a great
deal of information, both respecting the history of the country,
and the state of Christianity in it. The bishop, Dom Bernardo, had
at that time undertaken a journey to Bengal, to visit the churches
of his diocese. In the evening I always wrote in my journal such
observations as occurred in the course of the day; and when the
inhabitants told me there was nothing farther to be seen, I proceeded
to _Madraspatnam_.
This city is distant only three miles from _Maïlapuri_. The road
which conducts to it is one of the most beautiful in all India. It
is level and broad, well beat, and on both sides of it are seen a
great number of houses, gardens, tents, taverns, horses, carriages,
palanquins, and doolies of all kinds; also elephants and draught
oxen, the last of which are yoked to carriages. About mid way lies a
garden, in which the nabob of _Arrucate_, _Mohamed Aly Khan_, has his
residence in a palace built after the European manner. The external
avenues to it are guarded by Indian militia; but in the interior part
that duty is performed by English soldiers, under the command of a
captain, who must keep an accurate journal of every thing which takes
place at the court of this prince. This is called a mark of honour,
but in reality it is nothing else than magnificent imprisonment. The
nabob enjoys personal security; but for this security he must do what
the English bid him.
At _Madraspatnam_ I paid a visit to the congregation of St. Andrew
the apostle; and found, at the convent of Capuchins, Father
Bonaventura from Fuligno, Father Medardus from Alsace, and Father
Marcellus from Aleppo. I took a turn through the city which is of
considerable extent, but the houses lie insulated and scattered.
Near the noblest palaces are seen the most wretched hovels; broad
streets and narrow crooked lanes occur in turns; and, instead of
cleanliness, filth and dirt are every where seen. Fort St. George,
in which none but English must reside, is called the white town; but
the outer district, inhabited by Europeans, Armenians, Bengalians,
Chinese, Peguans, Arabians, and black and white Indians of all
classes, castes, and religious sects, is called the black town. Fort
St. George, one of the strongest in India, lies close to the sea,
which is there exceedingly boisterous. The gate towards the sea,
as well as that of the black town, has a strong guard. The fort is
furnished with bastions, a double ditch with two bridges; and the
garrison consists of the finest European troops to be found in all
India. This fortress was taken from the French in 1746, and besieged
by Count Lally in 1758 for the second time. He was, however, forced
to raise the siege; and the treasure which had been conveyed from the
place was again brought back to it. This city lies under the latitude
of 13° 15′, exactly at the place where formerly stood the small
town of _Cinnapatnam_, which belonged to the king of _Bisnagari_ or
_Narsinha_, by whom it was given up to the English in 1645.
CHAPTER V.
_Indian Weights, Measures, Coins and Merchandise._
I. The _Aratel_, an Indian word, signifies a pound, merchants’
weight, of sixteen ounces. Twenty-four such _Aratel_ or pounds make a
_Manna_, which commercial people call _Mao_. Four _Manna_ and eight
_Aratel_ make, in some provinces, a hundred weight. Of this kind is
the hundred weight at Cochin. At Calcutta or Calicut the hundred
weight is heavier than at Cochin. At the latter place and Travancor
it contains, at present, only one hundred and twenty-eight _Aratel_.
The _Tulam_ or _Tulao_ is a weight equal to a hundred _Palam_.
The _Palam_ consists, in some places, of an hundred and fifty
Cochinese _Panam_ or _Fanam_; but in others, of two hundred and ten;
and in some, of three hundred.
The _Rupee_ at Madras and Puduceri weighs thirty-two Cochinese
_Panam_, as the silver _Panam_ current at Cochin makes the thirtieth
part of a silver rupee. Eighteen Cochinese _Panam_ weigh one ounce.
_Calangia_ is a weight equal to eleven Cochinese _Panam_ and one
quarter.
_Mangiadi_ is a weight equal to half a Cochinese _Panam_.
_Kaicia_ is a weight equal to four _Calangias_.
The great _Panam_ of Madras is the sixth part of a rupee.
The small _Panam_ is the twelfth part of a silver rupee.
The large _Panam_ of Madras makes almost five Cochinese _Panam_ and
a quarter; but the rupee, which weighs thirty-two Cochinese _Panam_,
is never worth more than twenty, or at most twenty-four, according
to the course of exchange and the value of money, the determination
of which depends merely on the government and bankers. It is said
in some books of Travels, that these weights and their names have
been conveyed from India to Ormus, Bassorah, and Mascate in Arabia,
as well as to Malacca and the island of Ceylon. It is, however,
worthy of remark, that the amount of these weights has been changed,
and their names corrupted. Thus some write _Rotoli_, _Ratoli_, and
_Rutoli_, instead of _Aratel_; _Tulao_, instead of _Tulam_; and
_Palao_, instead of _Palam_.
The heaviest weight in India is the _Candil_, which is equal to
five hundred _Aratel_, or pounds. There is also a kind of _Candil_
which weighs sixteen, and another which weighs twenty _Manna_. It is
highly necessary, therefore, that people should acquire an accurate
knowledge of the Indian weights, since they are as different as the
European pound, which consists sometimes of sixteen, sometimes of
ten, and sometimes of twelve ounces.
Articles of merchandise are weighed in India with two different kinds
of instruments. The oldest is the _Tulàsa_, or Roman steel-yard,
called by the French _Crochet_, or _Péson_. In the Malabar language
it is known by the name of _Vellicòl_ or _Niracòl_; and, when very
large, by that of _Taranacòl_. The other balance, which has two
shells, is called _Tulam_. The former is the most common, and the
figure of it may be seen on ancient monuments.
II. The measures for liquids are:
1. _Dangàgi_, which contains four _Nàgi_ or _Nali_.
2. _Nàgi_, or _Nali_, which is equal to one pint.
3. _Ciòdana_, which contains thirty-two _Nàgi_.
4. _Araciòdana_, equal to sixteen _Nàgi_ or pints.
5. _Codam_, which contains five _Ciòdanas_.
6. _Uszakada_, the quarter of a pint.
7. _Aszaca_, the eighth part of a pint.
8. _Uri_, half a pint.
9. _Muszaca_, three quarters of a pint.
III. The Indian measures of length, &c. are:
1. _Cora_, the eighth part of an inch.
2. _Virel_, an inch.
3. _Col_, a foot in length, containing twenty-four
_Virel_.
4. _Mulam_, an ell, the length of one’s arm; called
by the Portuguese, _Covodo_; and by the
French, _Coudée_.
5. _Ciana_, a palm.
6. _Tumà_, a square foot.
7. _Candi_, a cubic foot.
All these weights and measures have been introduced at Madraspatnam,
Puduceri, Paliacate, Nagapatnam, and on the coast of Malabar; at
Cochin and Calicut, as also at Collam and Angiutenga near Cape Comari.
A _Candil_ of Teka wood, which is the best in all the Asiatic
countries for being manufactured, cost at Cochin, in my time, eight
rupees; but as soon as it was carried to Madraspatnam, where none
of it grows, it could be sold for sixteen or eighteen rupees. White
cotton cloth is sold by the _Mulam_, or ell. Some pieces contain
thirty-two _Mulam_, and others sixty-four. A piece of the former kind
is worth from ten to fifteen rupees: one of the latter twice as much.
For ten rupees, therefore, you may purchase sometimes in India eight
or ten cotton shirts, which in Europe could scarcely be procured for
twenty Roman _Scudi_.
A _Dangàgi_ of raw white rice, called _Arri_, was worth at Cochin,
in my time, four _Panam_ or _Fanon_ of that place. If this sum be
reduced to Roman money, a _Nagi_ or pint would cost about two and
a half Roman _Bajocchi_. A _Ciòdana_ of coco-nut oil was sold,
at Cochin, for thirty-two and thirty-three or at most thirty-six
_Panam_; but at Madraspatnam, on the coast of Ciòlamandala, where
there are few coco-nut trees, this oil was much dearer.
A hundred weight of dry clean pepper is worth, at Allapushe,
Porrocàda and Collam, on the coast of Malabar, between 60 and 70
rupees; but on the coast of Ciòlamandala it costs from 90 to 100.
The _Vediuppu_, or saltpetre, which comes from Bengal, brings
only a low price at Madraspatnam; but if transported to Cochin on
the Malabar coast, it becomes exceedingly dear on account of the
carriage. If readers in general, therefore, do not pay particular
attention to the distances of places, they will be often at a loss
in regard to the price of merchandise; because the same article
valued at fifty rupees by one traveller, is estimated by another at
a hundred. The case here is the same as when one says: In the month
of July it is winter in India, while another asserts that at that
period it is summer. Both at bottom are right; for the one alludes
to the coast of Coromandel, and the other to the coast of Malabar,
where in July the rainy season commences, and consequently winter.
These apparent contradictions disappear when people reflect on time,
place and climate, and the particular circumstances under which the
traveller or writer lived.
In Pegu a weight called _Tical_ has been introduced. It weighs
fourteen Roman _Danari_, twenty-four of which are equal to an ounce.
In Siam the _Tical_ weighs also fourteen Roman _Danari_. The _Tical_
of Pegu contains four _Tomat_, or four _Magnon_, which is a piece of
silver equivalent to about four Roman _Julios_[50]. Half a _Tomat_
is called _Tebe_, and, to be standard, should be equal in weight to
eight grains of rice. Sixteen of these grains make, therefore, a
whole _Tomat_. A hundred _Tical_ are equal to one _Bisa_; and the
_Bisa_ contains thirty-four ounces Italian weight. Two rupees of
Madras weigh in Pegu seven _Tomat_. Such is the information given by
Father Joseph de Amato, in his notes to the manuscript of the Peguan
philosopher _Maha Tabassi Dharma Rajah Guru_, which is preserved
in the Borgian Museum at Velitri. In the same museum there is also
an original standard of the Peguan _Tical_, with all the weights
belonging to it. They are of brass, have a cylindric form, and bear
the impression of a four-footed dragon, with an elevated crest, and
its tail doubled over its back. The Peguan coins are ugly shapeless
pieces of pure silver, which have no mixture of alloy. They are
weighed like other articles of merchandise by the _Tical_, _Tomat_,
_Tebe_ and _Bisa_.
The chief articles with which trade is carried on in India are:
Paradise wood from Malacca; _Copra_, that is, the kernel of the
coco-nut, from which oil is made; excellent copper from Japan;
coco-nut oil; Palma Christi; calamine; storax; cassia bark from
Malabar; yellow wax from Malabar and Madura; assa fœtida; Armenian
bole; borax; sweet cosius root; myrrh from Mascate; sal-ammoniac from
Arabia and Persia; Arabian and Persian dates; cummin from Madura
and Bengal; cuncuma (not curcuma) or yellow saffron, called also
_Terra merita Malabarica_; white and yellow pulverised sugar-candy
from China, Batavia, and Bengal; Chinese rhubarb; turbith; Arabian
frankincense from Mascate; purging aloes; prunes from Malabar; ginger
from Malabar and Madura; gum lac from Bengal and Malabar; lac,
gold, and precious stones from Pegu; ivory from Ceylon and Pegu;
apes from Malabar and Ceylon; benzoin from the Maldivan islands;
black amber from the same; musk from Thibet and Bengal; opium from
Bengal; sweet flag, mirrors, porcelain, tortoise-shell and tea from
China; spikenard from Thibet and Bengal; gum sandarac; long pepper
from Bengal; black-grained pepper from the same; red and white
sandal wood, and dried fish from Malabar; Chinese varnish; China
ink; pearls from Cape Comari and the island of Ceylon; cinnamon from
Ceylon; nutmegs and cloves; canes from Malacca; purging cassia from
Malabar; tamarinds from Malabar and other parts of India; silk from
China and Bengal; saltpetre from Bengal; rice from the same and from
Mangalor; different kinds of wood from Malabar, such as _Teka_,
_Bitti_, _Ayani_, _Benga_, and coco-tree wood; male and female slaves
from the coast of Ciòlamandala and Malabar; Cafre slaves from the
coast of Africa; horses from Arabia; precious stones from Ceylon and
Pegu; white and coloured cotton stuffs, _Tapissendis_, and other
kinds of cloth, from Bengal, Paliacate, Madras, Sadras, Puduceri,
Naur, Nagapatnam, Tutucuri, Manapar, Coleci, and other places on the
coasts of Malabar and Ciòlamandala; coarse stuffs and woollen cloth
from Arabia; gold and silver from Bengal; horns of the rhinoceros,
from which are made rings wore on the fingers; Indian tyger skins;
crucifixes, small figures, and other toys of ivory from Goa;
rose-water from Persia, and wine from the Cape of Good Hope. Among
these articles I have not included those brought from Europe and
America to be sold in India. Were I to give the prices of all these
articles, and to relate in what manner they are bartered and sold,
I should be obliged to write a whole volume. The slaves are treated
exactly like cattle. A youth in full health and without blemish
costs, according to his age and make, twenty, thirty, or forty
rupees. The females are sold cheaper. An ass from Mascate costs two
or three scudi, and an Arabian horse from thirty to fifty.
A Persian mile, _Angatsch_, contains 16,878 Roman feet. The Indian
mile, _Casam_ or _Cas_ (not _Cosse_) is different in different
places: in general it consists of 2400 geometrical paces. The large
Malabar mile is equal to from two to three leagues; the smaller,
however, is equal only to one. The same difference is observed in the
miles in other provinces of India. The smaller Indian mile has three
divisions: viz. _Casara vagi_, three quarters of a mile; _Aracasam_,
half a mile; and _Cuvida_, or _Vilipada_, a distance at which one
can hear the voice of a man calling out as loud as he is able. This
distance is commonly reckoned to be equal to a quarter of a mile.
* * * * *
The coins current in India consist of the following:
I. The _Rupee_ of Bengal, Arrucate, Puduceri, Madras, Bombay, Tippoo
Sultan, or Hayder Aly Khan, and Surat. _Rupya_ is properly a Samscred
word, and signifies in general silver, without distinguishing any
particular denomination of silver coin. I am therefore inclined to
think, that the rupees current in India, which are worth five Roman
_Paoli_, were not originally Indian coins. This piece of silver has
inscribed on it, in Persian characters, the place where and the name
of the prince under whom coined; which confirms me in my opinion,
that it belongs properly to the inventions of the Persians. The
oldest Indian coins have no inscription, but only the representation
of a cow, an elephant, the _lingam_, or some Indian deity. Anquetil
du Perron, however, asserts that he saw some with writing on them,
which, as he pretends, were coined before the period of king
_Vitramàditya_[51]; but I never had an opportunity of seeing any of
this kind. A rupee is not worth more in Europe than two livres eight
sous, or, according to the Roman method of reckoning, four _Paoli_
and eight _Bajocchi_.
* * * * *
II. The silver _Fanon_, called by the Indians _Panam_, is a small
round coin like the rupee. The rupee of Arrucate is equal to six
large or twelve small _Panam_; that of Puduceri, to eight _Panam_.
When rupees of Surat, Puduceri, and Arrucate are exchanged at
Cochin, you receive for each, according to the course of exchange,
only twenty or at most twenty-four _Panam_, though they are worth
thirty-two Cochinese _Panam_. The rupee of Madras is worth in Bengal
3040 _Cauris_.
The _Dudu_ of Madras or Bombay, a small coin of copper, tin, or other
metal, according to the nature of the country, is equal in value to a
Roman _Bajocco_.
The Cochinese _Panam_, a very small round coin, made of tin or
lead, which has on one side a horn, is called _Ciangupanam_, the
horn-fanon. This horn represents the arms of the king of Cochin. Six
Cochinese _Cembu Casha_, a copper coin bearing the stamp of the Dutch
East India Company, are equal to one Cochinese _Panam_. There are
also small coins of tin called _Jyacàsha_. The silver _Ciacram_, a
small coin of the king of Travancor, is equal to the twenty-sixth
part of a rupee. The Spanish _Piastre_, or Roman _Scudi_, is worth in
India two rupees. The Dutch Rupee, current in the island of Ceylon,
consists of silver alloyed with tin.
A kind of small shells, brought from the Maldivan islands, and to
which the French give the name of _Pucellage_, are current in Bengal.
These shells are called by the Indians _Cori_ or _Cauri_, and 350
of them make a rupee. A _Cauri_ is the sixtieth part of a _Pesha_,
a Bengal coin equal in value to six French deniers. In Ethiopia
small laminæ of salt, about a foot in length, are used instead of
money. Ten of these laminæ are equal in value to a drachm of gold.
The king of Candy has introduced in the island of Ceylon a kind of
money, which consists of a piece of silver wire rolled up like a
wax taper. When a person wishes to make a purchase, he cuts off as
much of this silver wire as is equal in value to the price of the
article. The relative value of gold and silver in India is as ten
or eleven to one. The proportion, however, does not always continue
the same. When a great number of Venetian sequins are brought to
India from Egypt or Arabia, through the Red Sea, the value of them,
or rather the course of exchange, falls on the coast of Malabar, and
they are worth no more than three and three-fourths or at most four
rupees; but if there be a scarcity of them, their value rises, and
they become worth four rupees and a quarter. The case is the same
with Spanish piastres, which are sometimes worth two rupees, and
sometimes two and a quarter. This happens in order that there may be
an equilibrium between gold and silver in the different places of
trade; but at the same time it may arise from necessity, when there
is a scarcity of gold and silver coin. It is also not unfrequently
owing to the fraudulent arts of some governor, in conjunction with
the bankers, who devise that scheme to answer their own private
purposes. As the gold and silver exchanged by the Indians and the
Chinese is exceedingly pure, they gain considerably by the exchange,
as they can raise the course of it at pleasure, which cannot be done
in regard to coin of small value. There is no proportion, however,
in the influx and efflux of money among the Indians and foreigners.
The Indians sell a great deal and purchase little, consequently the
balance is always in their favour. Little luxury and few wants render
the inhabitants of a country opulent.
* * * * *
III. The _Bhagavadi_, a gold coin with the figure of the goddess
_Bhagavadi_, called by the Europeans very improperly _Pagodi_
or _Pagoda_, is round, and on one side a little convex. The so
called star pagoda of Madraspatnam, the reverse of which bears the
impression of an Indian idol, is worth, according to the Roman method
of reckoning, seventeen _Paoli_[52] and eight _Bajocchi_. The gold
pagoda of Hayder Aly Khan, called _Aydernaik_, and that of Mangalor,
are worth four silver rupees, or nine livres twelve sous. The latter
have on one side a half moon, and on the other two idols who hold a
trident. They represent _Shiva_, together with his wife _Parvadi_.
The gold pagoda of _Portonovo_ is worth three silver rupees.
The gold _Panam_ of Palicate is equal in value to nine French sous;
that of Calcutta and Tanjaur, to one quarter of a silver rupee, or
twelve and a half _Bajocchi_. The gold _Panam_ of Madura is worth
seven sous, or seven Roman _Bajocchi_ and six French deniers.
The gold rupee of Bengal, Surat and Bombay, is worth sixteen silver
rupees, or eight Roman scudi.
The _Golmor_ of Bengal, a gold coin ornamented on one side with
flowers and Hindostan characters, and on the other with a sword and
some characters, is equal in value to eight Roman _Scudi_. This coin
came originally from _Nepal_ in India; for it bears the arms of the
king of that place.
The _Kalien_ from Travancor is worth the fourth part of a silver
rupee.
The _Uilkàshya_, or Venetian sequin, is worth, in common, about
four silver rupees.--All these coins are struck with the hammer.
On those which are alloyed, that is, which have a mixture of other
metals, the government gains nearly a hundred per cent. Thus, if a
thousand rupees are melted down in order to be converted into other
alloyed coins, such for example as _Panams_, five hundred rupees
only, according to their intrinsic value, come into circulation:
the other five hundred go to government, to defray the expence of
coinage; and if any thing remains over, it is clear gain. This method
of adulterating gold and silver was first introduced into these
countries by the Europeans. The natives of India always suffered
their gold and silver to remain pure; never added to it the least
alloy; and to this day they observe the same practice. This is the
true method of increasing the opulence of a country, whatever short
sighted politicians may say to the contrary. Bills of exchange are
totally unknown in India. When money-changers conclude any bargain
with each other, it is ratified by an oath before the door of some
temple, and in view of the idol; and in such cases they seldom or
never deduct any thing from the payment[53].
* * * * *
Having finished my business at Madraspatnam, I continued my journey
with as much expedition as possible, for the whole colony was in
the utmost confusion. Mohamed Aly Khan had under various pretences,
as already mentioned, taken possession of the city and kingdom of
Tanjaur, on the 17th of September 1773. Lord Pigot, however, by
the express command of the court of London, restored to the throne
Tullasuragia, the lawful sovereign, in the month of April 1776,
amidst the thunder of cannon and the acclamations of an immense
concourse of people; but he and that prince became the sacrifices of
this measure, as wise as it was just, and Mohamed Aly Khan again made
himself master of the kingdom. The fortress of _Arrucate_, from which
he takes the title of Nabob, lies west from Madraspatnam on the river
_Paler_ or _Palarru_, in the latitude of 13° North.
On my return to Maïlapuri I resolved to visit the small mountain in
that district on which the apostle St. Thomas suffered martyrdom. I
placed myself, therefore, in my _Dooly_, and after two hours arrived
at the bottom of this steep hill. It consists of several rocks, which
altogether form only one group. Having clambered up to the top, not
without considerable difficulty, I came to a small church, formed
according to the modern plan, but, like many ancient Indian temples,
of which I shall speak hereafter, hewn out in the solid rock. In an
adjacent apartment I found an English Catholic, who resided there
from devotion. The surrounding district abounds with coco-nut trees,
and a number of beautiful houses belonging to the English, who retire
hither to enjoy the pleasures of a rural life. Below these trees
several cotton-weavers and spinners had erected their low hovels of
the leaves and branches of the palm-tree plaited through each other;
and I here had an opportunity of seeing every thing that belongs to
a cotton manufactory. All the Indians, Christians as well as Pagans,
unanimously assured me, that this was really the mountain on which
the apostle Thomas (not that Thomas who was a disciple of Manes, and
who is entirely unknown to them,) had been martyred. The Christians
who reside on the coast of Malabar, and even the Christians of St.
Thomas, though Nestorians, make many pilgrimages to the grave of this
apostle, and, through religious zeal, carry home with them small bits
of earth which they pick up near it, and which they afterwards use
for preparing their holy water. This has been done since the earliest
periods, not by a few, but by many thousands; so that the question
whether St. Thomas actually lost his life on this mountain, cannot
any longer be a subject of the smallest doubt. The event took place
under the government of the Indian king _Salivahan_ or _Salbahan_,
who, according to the Indian tradition, died in the sixty-eighth
year of the Christian æra. On _Mont Grand_, also, there is a church,
much frequented by pilgrims, and where the Catholics from Bengal,
Pegu, Siam, Ceylon, Malabar, and every part of Hindustan, as well
as the Nestorian and Armenian Jacobites, perform their devotions.
Even Pagans and Mahometans resort thither, and carry with them, as
offerings, butter, milk, cheese, candles, oil, goats, and cows. In a
word, every person in India is convinced that this was actually the
place where St. Thomas suffered martyrdom[54].
In the interior part of the provinces of Carnate and Madura,
where the Indians, under the protection of their kings, enjoy
more extensive religious liberty, the custom of widows burning
themselves, three days after the death of their husbands, still
prevails, though it is less common than formerly. This horrid scene
I never had an opportunity of witnessing myself; but I am able to
confirm the accounts given of it by other travellers, and to add
a few particulars which may serve to throw more light upon them.
Immediately after the death of the husband, the widow rubs her whole
body over, as far as the girdle, with a kind of Indian saffron called
_Magnel_. This saffron is a symbol of fire, which the Indians honour
as a deity. The widow then goes about through the streets, and with
the greatest politeness takes leave of all those whom she meets.
Three days after, a round or a square hole is dug in the open fields,
which is filled with a large quantity of dry wood and cow-dung placed
above each other. The latter is dedicated to the goddess _Lakshmi_,
who represents the earth under the symbol of a cow. Some also pour
coco-nut oil over the funeral pile, in order that it may be sooner
consumed by the flames. When every thing is completely ready, the
widow proceeds from her habitation, clothed in white, crowned with
flowers, and ornamented with all her trinkets and jewels. She is
accompanied by a numerous train of women and her nearest relations,
who, as I have been assured, give her opium, and certain kinds of
acids, by which she is stupified and prepared for contempt of death.
As soon as she approaches the burning pile, before which a carpet is
suspended, she throws some butter and _Magnel_, or Indian saffron,
into the fire; but over the carpet, which it is unlawful for her
to touch. This is a libation or offering which she brings to the
fire as a divinity. She then retires to the distance of about forty
steps from the pile, and divides her trinkets among her relations
and acquaintances. A confused noise is heard of drums, fifes, and
basons beat upon with sticks; the hanging is removed; the widow
advances with courage and coolness towards the burning pile, throws
herself into the flames, and in a few minutes is converted into
ashes. According to the doctrine of the Brahmans, her soul passes
immediately into the glory of _Vishnu_ and _Shiva_, and her name is
preserved, to the latest ages, in the annals of her country[55].
We are told by Diodorus Siculus, in the nineteenth book of his
history, that there was once a time when the Indian women were
accustomed to desert their husbands in the most capricious manner,
and when they would not hesitate to dispatch them by poison. It is
not improbable that, to put a stop to these practices, a law was
introduced that widows should burn themselves along with the bodies
of their husbands. Plutarch, however, is of opinion, that they did
so as a proof of their purity of conduct and conjugal fidelity. But,
be that as it may, it is certain that the origin of this singular
custom is to be sought for in principles of religion and policy.
When a woman is fully convinced that the death of her husband must
occasion her own at the same time, she will be more anxious for his
preservation. A woman who has children, or who is under certain
other circumstances, is not permitted to burn herself; and this is
a sign that she loved her husband, and that she may still enjoy the
society of the male sex. Widows who refuse to die with their husbands
are considered afterwards as disgraced, and must devote themselves,
as public prostitutes, to the service of some deity who favours
prostitution. Such for example is the goddess _Bhavani_, or the Venus
of the Indians. All Indian widows, however, do not burn themselves
with the bodies of their husbands, but those only who belong to the
cast of _Kshetria_ and _Rajahputra_. These are the casts of royal
personages and warriors, who have most to fear from the infidelity of
their wives. When a king, therefore, dies in India, all his wives and
concubines must mount the funeral pile, in order to shew that they
had no hand in his death. There are, nevertheless, widows belonging
to the cast of the _Vaishya_ or farmers, who also burn themselves in
the like manner.
From Pondamala, that is, _Mont Grand_, I proceeded to Covalàm, where
I had the pleasure of conversing with Father John Maria a Santo
Thoma, upon different philological subjects. To this learned man,
who had resided twenty-five years in India, I am indebted for various
corrections in different parts of my journal, which I employed as my
guide in the present work. Gladly would I have remained some time
longer with this worthy man; but, to my great regret, I was obliged
to leave him after a stay of fourteen days. I now pursued my way back
to Puduceri, but by a different route, in order that I might see the
seven pagodas which are situated on the seacoast between Covalàm
and Sadras. But how shall I describe this master-piece of ancient
Indian architecture? It consists of seven temples, cut out by art
in a rock of the hardest stone, in a mountain covered with trees.
Never in my life did I behold a work of the like kind. The entrance
fronts the sea, from which it is not far distant, and consists of
a passage cut out in the solid rock, forming part of the summit of
the mountain. The sides of this passage, which is about twenty Roman
palms in breadth, and fifteen in height, is covered with the figures
of different sacred animals cut out, of their natural size. Here I
saw the elephant of _Rama_ and _Gannesha_; the tortoise of _Vishnu_;
the ape of _Rama_; the wild sow, into which _Vishnu_ metamorphosed
himself; the cow of the goddess _Parvadi_ and _Lakshmi_; the fish, as
a symbol of water; the snake, as the symbol of life and death; and
other animals, the names of which I do not at present remember[56].
The external appearance of the walls of this temple, which were
totally black, clearly shews that it is no modern work, and that
several centuries must have been necessary, in such a pure, serene,
dry and mild climate as that of India, to cover the surface of them,
as well as the sculptured figures, with a black crust. Having got
to the end of the above-mentioned passage, you arrive at a final
round place in the same rock, where you observe on the left a few
stone steps, and on the right two passages hewn out also in the rock,
each of which appeared to me to be seven palms in breadth and twelve
in height. These steps and passages conduct to the temple itself,
which consists of large vaulted apartments or grottos, separated
from each other by walls cut out of the solid rock, but in such a
manner that you can go from the one into the other. The largest are
below, and the smaller above. They are all cut out in the rock, and
are supported by pillars of the same. Around the walls stand a great
number of very large statues, representing heathen deities, formed
of stone masses, which have been also cut from the rock. Among these
I observed, of Colossal size, the gods _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, _Shiva_,
_Rama_, _Krishna_, _Devendra_, _Kartiguna_, and _Gannesha_; also the
goddesses _Parvadi_, _Sarasvadi_, and _Lakshmi_; and the various
figures into which _Vishnu_ transformed himself while he remained on
earth. When I visited this place, I was attended by five Brahmans,
who all spoke Portuguese, and gave me an explanation of every thing I
saw. The information I received from them I immediately wrote down,
and paid them five rupees for their trouble. In the seventh and tenth
chapter of the second book I shall give a farther account of this
temple[57].
At the bottom of the mountain, not far from the above-mentioned
temple, is a sacred pond, in which, since the earliest ages, all
those who visit the temple have been accustomed to wash themselves.
Near it stands a tree, with a thick shady top, which is surrounded
by a low stone wall. The internal space is filled with earth, which
is well watered; and by these means the tree is supplied with
nourishment. In the Tamulic language it is called _Arasu_; in that
of Malabar, _Arayal_ or _Arashu_; and in corrupted Portuguese,
_Pimpolu_. If the bark of this tree be bruised, it yields a juice
which is an excellent remedy for schirrous tumours in the liver and
diseases of the spleen. This juice taken inwardly, to the quantity
of two ounces, stops spitting of blood; and, used as an ointment, it
cures the itch. The dried fruit of the tree pulverised, and taken
in water for fourteen days, removes asthmatic complaints; and it
is said also that it promotes fruitfulness in women. This _Arashu_
tree is held in great veneration by the Indians, chiefly because
it represents the deities _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_, who are
supposed to reside in it. On this account a white cloth, intended
as a representation of the robe or covering of these deities, is
suspended round its trunk on certain days of solemnity.
On the 16th of October 1776 I proceeded from Maïlapuri to Sadras,
where I passed the night. The weather at that time was more
tempestuous than I had ever seen it on the coast of Coromandel;
because, as I have already observed, the winter commences there about
the 20th of October. The rain then pours down in torrents; the rivers
and streams precipitate themselves from the Gauts with prodigious
noise, inundate the highways, and swell up to such a degree that they
overflow their banks, sweep away houses, trees, men and animals, and
carry them along with them into the sea. This was exactly the case
on the 17th of October, in the morning, when I arrived at the river
_Paler_ or _Palarru_, which discharges itself into the sea on the
south of Madras. It was nearly half a mile in breadth, and flowed
along with the utmost violence and impetuosity. All the travellers
from Sadras were obliged to stop here, because there were no boats to
carry them over; and even if there had been any, it was much to be
apprehended that they would be driven out to sea by the force of the
stream. Besides others, there was an English gentleman from Madras
who intended to go to Gudelur; but when he saw the great number of
people stopped by the river, and how dangerous it would be to attempt
to pass it, he caused himself to be immediately carried back in his
palanquin to Sadras. I was extremely curious to see how the Indians
would proceed in order to get over. There were about a hundred of
us who all wished to cross the river; and I thought that if others
effected a passage I might do the same. The Indians pulled off all
their clothes, kneeled down on the sand, and raised their eyes and
hands towards heaven. Under such circumstances mankind are taught to
reverence the supreme Being; for, in cases of life or death, even an
atheist or materialist can hardly remain indifferent. After offering
up a prayer, some of the best swimmers threw themselves into the
stream, while the remaining part of the company stood gazing with
anxious expectation to see whether they would succeed in getting
over. In less than half an hour these intrepid swimmers had reached
the opposite shore. When my _Coolies_ saw this, they stripped in the
like manner, and having sought out two pieces of wood, bound them
fast together, and putting my _Dooly_ upon them, pushed it into the
water. They then desired me to place myself in the _Dooly_; to draw
up my feet, and to hold fast with both my hands. I was so terrified
at this proposal, that my heart began to palpitate. They, however,
repeated it; and as I clearly saw that it would be impossible to get
over in any other manner, I promised my _Coolies_ a rupee; contracted
myself in my _Dooly_ as much as I could; held fast by the pole, and,
rather dead than alive, sat as it were in the water, which every now
and then forced itself in around me. The _Coolies_ began to swim, and
from time to time gave the _Dooly_ a smart push, in order that it
might advance also: Four of them swam on the right side, and four on
the left; all taking care that it should not deviate from its proper
direction. When we reached the middle of the river, where the force
and velocity of the stream were greatest, they began all together
to push and exert themselves, bawling out as loud as they could. My
_Dooly_ now seemed to dance with me on the waves, which tossed us up
and down; but by incessant labour and exertion I was pushed to the
shore without any misfortune. I then gave my _Coolies_ the rupee I
had promised them; changed my clothes, and continued my journey to
Puduceri[58].
I found there Father Medardus, a Capuchin missionary from
Madraspatnam, who intended to proceed to Surat in the Portuguese
vessel the captain of which had promised to give me a passage. I
was extremely happy to have such a worthy man for the companion of
my voyage; but unfortunately my joy was soon embittered by a very
melancholy accident. The ship _Nossa Senhora de Luz_ was to sail
on the 22d of October; for this is the fixed time when all vessels
leave Puduceri, because if they remain they must be exposed to the
attack of most tremendous storms, as the winter then sets in on
the coast of Coromandel. In order that our departure might not be
delayed, we got every thing ready to go on board on the 21st, at a
time when there was a very hollow sea. In that neighbourhood the
waves are sometimes so furious that they tear up trees on the shore,
and hurry them along with them into the harbour of Puduceri: we
employed therefore a _shilinga_ to convey us to the ship. Besides
such articles as were necessary for my voyage, I carried with me a
small packet containing two thousand scudi sent from Rome for the
missionary establishment on the coast of Malabar, and which was
entrusted to my care. When Father Medardus, who was fond of a joke,
saw this packet, he observed that I had done a very imprudent thing
in taking it with me, as the Capuchins generally experienced some
misfortune when they carried money with them. “And as that is the
case,” said he, “I would rather dispense with your company and pursue
my voyage alone.” We rallied each other on this subject, and got on
board about five in the afternoon. The crew, who seemed to be expert
seamen, avoided with great dexterity the first wave that dashed
itself against the mast: but the sea raged with the utmost fury;
and as these people were obliged to row in an opposite direction,
their strength was soon exhausted. We, however, got over the second
billow, after great labour and exertion; but the third and most
dangerous beat with such impetuosity against our _shilinga_, that it
was thrown on its end, and stood almost in a perpendicular direction.
Just as this happened we were all in the forepart of the vessel.
Every thing in the _shilinga_, therefore, rolled over us; the waves
forced themselves into it, and we were surrounded by chests, casks,
and bales all in confusion, so that we could not stir. As if struck
by lightning we stood pale and motionless, staring at each other,
without being able to utter a single word. Our rowers, who had been
thrown into the sea, clung to their oars, or endeavoured by swimming
to overcome the waves, while we almost gave ourselves up as lost. The
third wave at length disappeared; our _shilinga_ again recovered its
proper position; our rowers got back to their places; and being all
gradually freed from our terror, we returned thanks to God for having
rescued us from the jaws of death. This dreadful accident, however,
had made such an impression upon me, that I was seized with a violent
fever, which lasted ten days; and for some time after I could never
hear people relate any danger of the like kind without being ready
to faint. This weakness continued almost three years; and I was
not able to get rid of it but by using bark and the cold bath. The
worthy Father Medardus died some months after this event at Surat.
So dear did my missionary expedition cost me! I had wandered all
over Italy, Portugal, England and France, and travelled more than a
thousand leagues by water before I arrived on the coast of Malabar.
On the 23d of October, early in the morning, we left the road of
Puduceri; and after passing the island of Ceylon, and doubling Cape
Comari, came to anchor on the 14th of November at Cochin, on the
Malabar coast, which Providence had assigned me as the theatre of my
missionary labours.
CHAPTER VI.
_Topographical Description of Malabar._
In describing Malabar I can speak from experience and without
trusting to the information of others, as in the course of my
travels I had an opportunity of being better acquainted with that
country than with my own. The business of my mission; temporal as
well as spiritual concerns; visits of state, which, on account of
the affairs of Christianity, I was obliged to pay to kings and their
ministers; the visitation of churches; continual intercourse with
Pagans and Christians; journeys into the interior districts; the
settling of disputes which it was my duty to terminate; epistolatory
correspondence with the inhabitants, and many unlucky accidents
which occurred to me, have all contributed to enable me to give an
accurate, clear, and full account of this part of India.
The original and proper Indian name of Malabar is _Malayalam_. _Mala_
signifies a mountain, _Alam_ a habitation, district or country.
_Malayalam_, therefore, signifies the mountainous land, which
indeed Malabar really is; for, except towards the west, where it is
bounded by the sea, it is every where surrounded by high mountains:
_Malanàda_ and _Malangàra_ have the same signification; and from the
latter has been formed, by various contortions, the word Malabar.
The opinion of Father Raulin, who contends that Malabar is of Arabic
extraction, being compounded of _Mala_ and _Barr_, has no foundation
whatever. The old Samscred name of this country is _Kerulara_, the
kingdom of _Kerula_. I shall have occasion hereafter to offer some
conjectures respecting this appellation. The inhabitants of Malabar
call themselves _Malayalese_, and not _Maleatese_; as Sonnerat says,
the inhabitants of the Gauts, a kind of people who have little
intercourse with those who reside in the towns, are called Malays,
that is, inhabitants of the mountains.
This kingdom commences in the south at _Tovàla_, a castle situated
on Cape Comari, towards the east, in latitude 8° 6′, and borders
on the kingdom of Madura, as well as the coast of Pescaria. On the
west it is bounded by the sea, and on the east by the Gauts, the
latter of which separate it from Madura and Maïssur. Towards the
north it borders on Canara and the mountain _Illi_, which, according
to J. Hamilton Moore, lies in 12° 5′ north latitude, and 75° east
longitude. According to the same author, Cochin lies in the latitude
of 10° and the longitude of 75° 52′; Calicut in the latitude of 11°
21′; and Cape Comari in the latitude of 7° 55′, and the longitude of
77° 20′. From the Gauts to the sea, that is from east to west, this
country is sometimes thirty, forty, thirty-five, or twenty leagues
in breadth, according as these mountains extend themselves more
or less into the interior parts. Its whole length amounts to more
than 120 leagues. It is intersected by a great many rivers, which,
falling down from these mountains, pursue their winding courses in
different directions, and at last proceed westwards towards the
sea. The most remarkable of these rivers are: the _Cariapatnam_,
the _Coleci_, the _Valavaley_, and the _Modelaposha_, which run
past _Attinga_, _Ceringa_, and _Angenga_; also the _Paru_, which
flows past _Chidàcolam_, _Paru_ and _Mainàda_, and, uniting itself
with several other rivers, forms, from _Cochin_ to _Codungalur_,
towards the north, a kind of stagnant lake; so that people can travel
through the greater part of Malabar by water. The rivers of less
note are: the _Vaypur_ and _Porotta_; the _Feira d’Alva_, which
in its course washes _Maleatur_, _Cognur_, _Ciovare_, _Varapole_,
_Angicaimal_ and _Cochin_; the _Alangata_, which after running past
_Alangata_, _Cenotta_ and _Codungalur_, discharges itself into the
sea at _Aycotta_; also the _Cettuva_, the _Paniani_, the _Calicut_,
the _Mahe_, the _Baliapatnam_, and several others, which extend a
great way into the country, and form an innumerable multitude of
small islands. As this country, besides being intersected by so many
rivers, is surrounded also by the sea and by mountains, not only
is its interior trade much promoted, because merchandise can be
transported in boats and other vessels from the most remote districts
to all the towns and places of trade on the sea coast, but it is
almost impregnable, because the marching of troops would be rendered
extremely difficult, and be much retarded by having so many streams
to cross; because cavalry could scarcely any where act in a land so
intersected; and because a hostile army, if its commander were not
perfectly acquainted with the nature of the interior parts, would
every moment have to apprehend an attack from the inhabitants. These
are the true reasons why this country has never yet been subjected to
a foreign power. The Greeks, Tatars, Moguls and Arabs, who penetrated
hither, were merely merchants; and the original Malabar sovereigns
still retain peaceful possession of this kingdom, which they have
enjoyed for three thousand years. Tippoo Sultan once attempted to
subdue it; but his troops were beat, and again driven from the
country[59]. It is here, therefore, that the original manners,
customs, laws, arts and sciences of the Indians must be studied; for
if not quite free from mixture, they have at any rate been preserved
much purer than in any other of the provinces or countries of India.
Besides, it is highly worthy of notice on account of the trade
which it formerly carried on with the Egyptians, the Greeks, the
Romans, the Persians and the Armenians, and of its giving birth to
the Christians of St. Thomas, who existed here in the earliest ages
of the Church. In the last place, it deserves to be better known,
because the Portuguese carried on war for a long time with one of the
kings of Calicut, named _Samuri_, who makes a shining figure in the
history of Persia, and because Several Christian congregations were
founded here by St. Francis Xavier.
The climate of Malabar is healthful, warm, and somewhat moist,
except during the hot months of April and May, a little before
the commencement of the rainy season, which begins on the 15th of
June, and ends about the 20th of August. In the two former months
the atmosphere is so much rarified by the violent heat, that the
inhabitants would be in danger of perishing, were there not such a
number of rivers in the country, and if, at the periods when the heat
has attained to its highest degree, a fresh breeze did not blow from
the ocean, by which the air is purified and cooled--A daily proof
that Providence has dispensed to all countries and all nations of the
earth a certain measure of inconveniences and enjoyments.
Malabar is inhabited not only by Pagan Indians, who are aborigines
there, but also by Mahometans, Christians and Jews. The Mahometans
and Jews both came from other countries; but the Christians are in
part the original inhabitants of India.
The different tribes of people still existing in India are:
1. The _original Pagan Indians_. They live in a state of oppression
from foreigners, and form the greater part of the inhabitants.
2. The _Mahometan Arabs_. These came to India under the Caliph
_Valid_, in the ninetieth year of the Hegira, or the year 710 of the
Christian æra: their descendants are called _Afguans_ or _Aghuans_;
in the Indian language _Patans_: they are a brave warlike people, and
once made themselves masters of the city of Delhi[60].
3. The _Mappulians_. These are the descendants of Arabian merchants,
who, in the eighth century established themselves on the coasts of
Malabar and Coromandel, and married native Indians.
4. The _Tatars_, or _Tartars_, who came to this country in 1398, with
the conqueror Timur Bec. From these are descended the Mogul emperors,
and in general all the Moguls who have existed to the present time in
India.
5. The _Christians_. These are partly the descendants of those
original inhabitants of the land who were converted to the Christian
faith by the apostle Thomas, and partly other Christians who went
from Mesopotamia and Chaldea to India, and with whom the whole coast
of Malabar is at present filled.
6. The _Ghaurs_, _Gebers_, or worshippers of Fire, who, being
expelled from Persia, emigrated to India about the year 630 of the
Christian æra, and settled at Surat, Tatta, Bombay, and other parts
of Malabar.
7. The _Seiks_. These worship the only true God, and acknowledge as
their chief a Patriarch of their own nation, who has made himself
master of the city of _Lahur_ or _Laor_.
8. The _Jews_. These people came to India from Persia, after they
had been freed from their servitude by Cyrus, about 540 years before
the birth of Christ. So at least we are told by a tradition of the
Jews who reside at Cochin on the coast of Malabar. It is, however,
more probable that they belong to the remainder of those Jewish
people who continued in Persia; who were consequently separated from
the rest of the tribes, and who, after the downfall of the Persian
empire, about 500 years before Christ, fled to India[61].
9. The _Portuguese_. They went to India in the year 1498, under the
reign of the Mogul emperor Akbar, and are still in possession of Goa,
and some small places belonging to it.
10. The _Dutch_. In 1603 they established themselves in the island of
Ceylon, and about the year 1658 began gradually to make themselves
masters of the Portuguese settlements.
11. The _English_. They were at first merchants; but became warriors,
and subdued the kingdom of Bengal[62].
Idolatry is the oldest and most prevailing religion in India; but
toleration is granted to the Jews, Christians and Mahometans, who are
all allowed to perform public worship without being in the least
interrupted, provided they do not interfere with the established
religion or the government of the country; the former of which
is Paganism, and the latter unlimited monarchy. The Christians
of St. Thomas, who are considered as noble, make a part of the
states; attain to public offices and dignified rank, and form among
themselves a kind of Christian republic. The king now on the throne
is a Pagan by birth, and named _Rama Varmer_. The king of Cochin
is descended from the family of _Perumpadapil_, which is one of
the oldest in Malabar. The English are in possession of the town
of _Angenga_, together with the city and fortress of _Talicera_.
_Cochin_ and the fortress of _Collam_ belong to the Dutch; and the
Danes have a factory at _Coleci_. King _Samuri_ reigns at Calicut;
and the city of _Cananur_, with the district around it, is under the
dominion of queen _Còlatiri_.
* * * * *
After this general view I shall proceed to a description of
particular places on the Malabar coast, and begin with Cape Comari;
which, according to John Hamilton Moore, lies in lat. 7° 55′, and
according to astronomical observations made on board the Calypso
frigate, in which I returned to Europe, in the longitude of 80°.
On the western side of Cape Comari lies _Covàlam_, the _Colis_
or _Colias_ of the ancients, at present a town of very little
importance. Advancing farther into the country, you arrive at
_Arampalli_, the _Arguropolis_ of the Greeks, who from the name of
this city called the bay of Manar _Sinus Argaricus_. It was formerly
in high repute on account of its cotton stuffs, which were partly
manufactured on the spot, and partly brought thither for sale.
The next place is _Tovàla_, a fortress belonging to the king of
Travancor. It protects the frontiers of the country, and the king
maintains in it a strong garrison to prevent any hostile incursion
on the side of Madura, which begins there, and extends towards the
north-east. Malabar ladies of rank dare not go to Tovàla, for the
natives of Malabar believe themselves to be descended of the noblest
families, and are unwilling that their wives and daughters should
have any intercourse with the female inhabitants of Madura, or of any
of the other cities on the coast of Coromandel. Malefactors, who have
been banished by government, are carried beyond the boundaries of
_Tovàla_; and such cases frequently occur on the coast of Malabar.
We next come to Cape _Canymuri_, or _Comari_, lying towards the west,
where there is a small harbour, and a Christian church founded by
St. Francis Xavier, which stands upon a hill. On another hill, a
few miles farther up the country, is a monastery inhabited by Pagan
philosophers, known under the name of Gymnosophists, or _Yoqui_[63].
Following the sea-coast we then find the cities of _Mannacudi_ and
_Rajahcollamangalam_, where there are still to be seen the ruins
of the celebrated palace of the family of the present king of
Travancor, who was born in the latter. Higher up the country lies
the town of _Sushindram_, together with a celebrated temple of the
god _Kàmadèva_. Farther towards the west stands the celebrated
city of _Còttate_, or _Cottàram_; the _Cottona_, or _Cottiara_,
of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This city, a considerable place
of trade, is upwards of 2000 years old; and is much frequented
by merchants from the island of Ceylon, the provinces of Madura,
Marava, Tanjaur, and the coast of Coromandel. A river, which flows
through the middle of it, divides it into two parts. It contains
abundance of merchandise, and is inhabited by a great number of
weavers, money-changers, silver-smiths, jugglers, comedians, quacks,
dancing-girls, conjurers, and black artists.
Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, in the longitude of 8°,
lie _Pullatopo_, _Cariapatnam_, _Coleci_, _Curumpana_, _Patnam_ and
_Valavaley_. The city of _Coleci_ has a small harbour, where the
largest ships are secured from the stormy winds under the protection
of some large rocks. This harbour is the general place of shelter
resorted to by all the small vessels on the coast of Malabar; and was
known to the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and Persians. Beyond these
lie _Tiruvancòda_, or _Tiruvancor_, from which the king of Travancor
takes his title. As this place was the residence of the court, the
Portuguese, who gave themselves very little trouble respecting
the proper orthography of Indian titles, called the sovereign king
of Travancor, His real title properly is _Tripapu_, or _Bennàti
Sorùbam_, that is, king of the white earth; for, around this city,
the soil to a considerable distance is white, sandy, and dry.
_Padmanàburam_ is a considerable castle not far from _Tiruvancoda_,
where the king resides and keeps his treasure. _Odeaquiri_ is also
a place of strength, and the king’s principal magazine of arms and
warlike stores. There is a garrison in it of European soldiers; and
it contains an arsenal, and a cannon foundery.
On the sea-coast, and under the latitude of 8° N. lies also
_Pulluvalley Bingiam_, a town, cape, and small harbour which has the
form of a half moon; _Valiatora_, a town; _Puntora_, a town, with an
entirely new harbour, which the reigning king of Travancor caused
to be constructed, and where the European and Chinese ships lie at
anchor in order to take in pepper; and _Veli_ and _Canantora_, two
towns inhabited by Christian and Mahometan fishermen. Then follows
_Tiruvandaram_ or _Tiruvandaburam_, the summer residence of the king
of Travancor. The garrison of this place consists of four hundred
Patan cavalry; about a thousand _Nayris_, or noble Malabar warriors;
and nearly ten thousand seapoys, a corps composed of all kinds of
people, but instructed in military discipline according to the
English manner. The remainder of the troops are distributed here and
there in the country. The castle of _Tiruvandaram_ is exceedingly
ill-built. The royal palace is ornamented with a great number of
paintings, clocks, and other European pieces of furniture. It is
large, exceedingly beautiful, and built in the European taste; but
is not inhabited by the king, who prefers residing in a mean edifice
which stands in a palm-garden, where he is surrounded by Brahman
priests, in whose company he performs his daily ablutions, prayers,
and other religious duties. In the year 1787, M. Donaudi, a native of
Turin, and a captain in the king’s service, was preparing to supply
the castle with gates and cannon. This city is populous, and contains
a great number of palm-gardens, each of which is surrounded by a wall
eight feet in height. These walls are constructed either of bricks
dried in the sun, or of red and yellow clay beat together.
The next places on the sea-coast are: _Puttentopo_, _Caniarata_,
_Puducurici_, _Perimatorà_, _Angiutenga_--an English colony called
by the Europeans _Angenga_, and the town of _Mampulli_. Farther on
lies _Attinga_, the residence of the queen, a title always given to
the king’s oldest sister, as his spouse cannot nor dare not become
queen; also _Ciranga_, or _Cirangapatnam_, which is likewise a
populous city. All merchandise exported from the country must be
here deposited and weighed, after which it is sent to the English
at _Angenga_, who transport it to Bombay and thence to Europe. The
interior districts of the country are entirely inhabited by Pagans,
whereas on the sea-coast the greater part of the inhabitants are
Christians and Mahometans. The reason is, that the Pagan Indians,
like the ancient Egyptians and Persians, have a certain aversion
to the sea, and approach it only at particular times, when it is
absolutely necessary on account of their purifications, which must
be performed in it. The Christian congregation at Mampulli was
founded by St. Francis Xavier; but at present it has assumed a quite
different form.
The next place on the sea coast is _Barcale_, a town, mountain, and
highly celebrated Brahman temple; in the neighbourhood of which is
an uncommonly beautiful _Colam_, or sacred pond, where the king
is accustomed to bathe once every year. A spring of very pure,
healthful, purgative water has its source in the adjacent mountain.
I could not learn why it possessed these qualities till I happened
to be in company with Mr. Hutchinson, who informed me, that both the
mountain of _Barcale_ and that of _Kidàcolam_ contain abundance of
iron. After passing the _Barcale_ you immediately arrive at a river
which flows down from the district of _Cottàracare_, lying towards
the west. On this river, which runs past the town of _Paru_, where it
discharges itself into the sea, _Vira Martanda_, king of Travancor,
a predecessor of the present king _Rama Varmer_, encamped ten years,
because the king of Ciangacèri or Collam disputed with him the
passage. In 1746 Vira Martanda at length found means to force his way
over, and to take prisoner the king of _Ciangacèri_, as well as that
of _Ceràva_ or _Porrocàda_, together with several petty princes whose
dominions extended as far as Cochin. Besides _Mainàda_ there is no
other place to be mentioned on this coast, as the eighth degree of
northern latitude here ends.
_Collam_, called by the Europeans, very improperly, _Coelan_,
_Coilon_, or _Coulan_, lies under the 9th degree of north latitude.
It was built in the year 825 after the birth of Christ and formerly
was a city of considerable note. The Christian as well as Pagan
natives of Malabar begin their æra at the period of its foundation;
for they say, _Collam tollairata arravata a manda_; that is, 965
years after the founding of Collam; which, according to our mode of
computation, corresponds with the year 1789. I must not, however,
forget to mention, that the months of the people on the Malabar
coast end ten days later than ours; so that the tenth day of their
month corresponds with the twentieth of ours. This they call _Palè
Cänuaca_, or the old style. In this city there were formerly a
great many weaving looms, as well as manufactories of cotton and
stone-ware. Various articles of household furniture were also made
here, of _Ayani_, _Benga_, _Teka_, and _Biti_ wood, the last of which
is perfectly black, and as highly esteemed as ebony. Even at present
the most ingenious artists on the Malabar coast reside at Collam.
Cotton, pepper, ginger, cardamoms, and other kinds of merchandise,
are carried hither by water, and deposited in warehouses. The
Christian congregation here have St. Thomas for their patron, and,
though adjacent to the coast, belong to the diocese of the archbishop
of _Angamali_, the true pastor of the Christians of St. Thomas.
Alexius Menezes, the first archbishop of Goa, opened here his first
conference with the Christians of St. Thomas, when he made them
renounce the principles of Nestorius, and embrace the doctrines of
the Romish church, to which they are in part united. The same prelate
caused an excellent fortress to be built at Collam on the sea-coast;
which, however, afterwards fell to ruin, because the Dutch neglected
to keep it in repair. The Brahmans possess, in this city, a very
ancient temple, which is dedicated to _Shiva_ or _Mahadèva_; and
the Catholics have three congregations. The latter were formerly
under the care of the Jesuits, by whom they were founded; but since
the destruction of that order, they have been entrusted to the
Franciscans at Goa, who have the management there of every thing that
relates to ecclesiastical establishments. Between Collam and Cape
Comari there are reckoned to be altogether seventy-five Catholic
congregations, some of which are large and some small, some poor and
some rich, and of which some are on the sea-coast, and others higher
up in the country. The climate at Collam is exceedingly mild and
healthful. There is here abundance of excellent fish, tortoises,
very good rice, bananas, pine-apples and other fruit, pulse, milk,
butter, and in short every thing necessary for those who wish to live
according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, which is indeed the case
with all the Pagan inhabitants on the coast of Malabar.
On the east of Collam, and towards the interior part of the country,
lie _Perumnàda_ and _Cirumuttu_, two beautiful and uncommonly fertile
districts, which belong to the ancient kingdom of _Kòttaràcare_,
and which produce great quantities of pepper, ginger, cardamoms,
gum-lack, cotton, and various kinds of valuable wood. The river on
which these articles are transported takes its rise in the Gauts,
and, proceeding past _Callare_, _Tuyam_, and on the north side of
_Collam_, discharges itself into the sea, towards the south, not far
from the town of _Aybica_. At the last-mentioned place the king of
Travancor causes small ships to be built from time to time, and in
general gives employment to a great number of seamen. Lime is burnt
here also from oyster and muscle shells, immense quantities of which
are found in the neighbouring lakes and between the small islands.
Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, lies _Coyttòta_,
together with the church of _Madre de Deos_; and towards the
east, _Krishnapuram_, _Puttencarà_, _Tumhanur_, _Carimbanàda_,
and _Tevelacare_. All these, which are of considerable size, and
inhabited by Pagans and Christians, contain a great deal of riches,
and carry on an extensive trade with pepper, cardamoms, and _pacca_,
or areca nuts. The _areca_ is an Indian fruit, which the natives wrap
up in an aromatic leaf (_betel_) and chew in their mouths, after
they have sprinkled over it fine chalk, which they call _Ciunamba_.
Excellent sugar-canes grow also in this district, and in such
abundance that a sugar manufactory might easily be established, were
not the king afraid of entrusting the management of it to Europeans.
There are found here, likewise in great plenty, all kinds of wood,
pepper, cassia root, tamarinds, tyger and buffalo skins, officinal
herbs, apes, papajays, virgin wax cotton, and other productions of
the like kind. All these articles are conveyed to the two populous
cities of _Mabalicarè_ and _Cayamcollam_, where they are weighed, and
preserved till they are transported to _Porrocàda_ or _Pòrca_, and
shipped on board Indian as well as foreign vessels. At _Mabalicarè_,
or _Mavelicarè_, the king always keeps a civil officer, to settle
such disputes as arise between the inhabitants, and to take care of
the royal revenue.
Still following the sea-coast we find also _Porrocàda_ or _Pòrca_,
a very populous city, inhabited by a great number of Mahometan,
Pagan, and Christian merchants. The Dutch East India Company has a
factory here, for the purpose of receiving the pepper, and putting
it on board the Dutch ships. Then follows _Callurcàda_, a district
abounding in water, which produces large quantities of rice. It may
be called the granary of Malabar.
Farther on, towards the east, lies _Callupare_, an ancient town
of considerable note, inhabited by Schismatics, who were formerly
Nestorians, but at present are Jacobites: also _Vaypur_, where there
is a Catholic congregation; and _Cagnarapalli_, a town celebrated on
account of its trade with the kingdom of Madura, and which transports
its merchandise thither over the Gauts. In these mountains there are
found diamonds, sapphires, opals, and rock crystal. We are informed
by Ptolemy, that in his time beryls also were found near _Pugnatil_:
but they must now be exceedingly scarce; for I was acquainted at
_Barcale_ with several Brahman families who had expended their whole
fortunes in searching for such precious stones, and by these means
had reduced themselves to poverty.
We next come to the celebrated temple of _Ambalapusha_, which lies
also on the sea-coast, and is dedicated to _Shiva_ or _Mahadèva_.
This temple, which is exceedingly rich, has belonging to it
particular districts and villages, and is under the direction of
chiefs who are totally independent of the government of the country.
The latter, however, keeps here a _Cariacarer_, whose business is
to watch the conduct of these chiefs. The infamous festival, called
_Padèni_, during which the statue of the god _Shiva_ is carried
round in the night time, and before him a _lingam_, or phallus, is
celebrated at this temple. These diabolical nocturnal orgies are
attended, not only by the Pagan Indians, but it is required that
all the Christians residing in the territories dedicated to the god
should be present also. On this occasion the Pagan Indians perform a
dance, to which the Christian women are invited; and if they refuse
to come voluntarily, they are dragged thither by force. I applied,
therefore, at different times, both to _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_,
a magistrate of distinction, and to his successor _Padmanàbha
Cembaga Ràmapulla_, earnestly intreating that they would prevent
the overseers of the temple from thus abusing their power, and no
longer suffer them to compel the Christians to be partakers in so
detestable a festival. The overseers, however, found means to make a
thousand excuses, and always referred to ancient usage. But this did
not discourage me from pursuing the accomplishment of my object; and
as I was invested with full power by the above magistrate, I caused
some Christian fishermen from _Cattur_ and _Tumbòli_, who had taken a
share in the celebration of this festival, to get a severe beating
before the church-door, as a warning to other Christians not to
participate in such abominations in future[64].
Still following the coast, we arrive at _Alapushe_, a town of
considerable size, inhabited by a great number of Pagans, Mahometans,
and Christians of St. Thomas. The king of Travancor caused a large
canal to be dug here, in order that the inhabitants might send their
merchandise by water, to be put on board foreign ships lying on
the coast. In this town one of my friends, Manuel Fernandes, was
established as factor for the king, and inspector of the warehouses.
We have here a striking instance of the manner in which circumstances
change in regard to harbours and places of trade. In the first
century after the birth of Christ, the greatest trade was carried on
at _Covàlam_, _Arampalli_, and _Coleci_. In the ninth century, when
the Arabs settled on the sea coast, _Collam_ was the most celebrated
place of trade. After that period the cities of _Cochin_, _Calicut_,
_Porrocàda_, and _Cubungalur_, held the next rank; and at present,
by the wise regulations of the king of Travancor, _Puntora_ and
_Alapushe_ enjoy the same advantages.
Towards the east, _Cianganaceri_, _Pulingunne_, and _Nerenam_,
considerable towns surrounded by abundance of rice-fields, deserve
also to be mentioned. _Nerenam_, which lies on a river, is the
residence of Mar Thoma, the schismatic bishop of the Jacobites. He
has under his direction thirty-two Jacobite congregations, which
however adhere in part to the practices of the Nestorians, and, like
the Pagans, admit various superstitious ceremonies. The new bishop,
who lodged with me on the 22d of December 1785, called Mar Dionysio,
was descended from the family of _Palamattam_ at _Corolongatta_. I
have still in my possession some of his letters, written in answer to
a proposal which I made to him, of uniting himself with the Romish
church.
_Ettumanur_ is a celebrated temple of _Vishnu_, and the residence
of a Pagan magistrate. The Brahmans here have a very considerable
revenue.
_Iratushe_, a town inhabited by Christians and Pagans, lies at the
bottom of the Gauts, and carries on trade with Madura.
Still proceeding along the coast, we arrive at the following places:
_Tumbòli_, _Cattur_, _Artunkel_, _Tanghi_, _Mannacodam_, _Mannacèri_,
_Saude_, and _Cochin_ a city and fortress belonging to the Dutch.
Higher up the country lies _Muttam_, a town of great trade, and
inhabited by Christians, black Jews descended from the white Jews of
Cochin, Mahometans, and a great number of Pagan Canarians, called
also _Banyans_ or _Cettis_. The last mentioned have a great knowledge
of trade, and are active, industrious, moderate, and opulent people.
At _Certele_, a town of considerable note, inhabited only by Pagans,
is a celebrated temple dedicated to _Bhagavadi_, that is, the
fortunate woman, the spouse of the god _Shiva_. In the month of March
1777 I had an opportunity of seeing the image of this deity during
the celebration of her festival. It was exhibited to the populace,
amidst the sound of various musical instruments, by a Brahman, who
sat upon an elephant, and held an umbrella over it. Some Indian
dancing girls preceded the statue; and the procession was closed by
an immense multitude of people, who seemed frantic with joy, and who
sung all kinds of indecent songs on the subject of generation, which
they say is effected by the influence of this female deity, combined
with that of her husband _Shiva_, or the sun. The statue was at last
carried to a sacred pond, where it was washed and purified by the
Brahmans; who, during the ceremony, repeated a great many prayers.
The Pagans worship this deity as the ruler of all fluids, from which
every earthly thing was produced by means of heat. Women in labour
are under her protection; and the small-pox are the consequence
of her pernicious influence. For these and such like reasons the
above solemnity was instituted to her honour. A cock is sacrificed
before the gate of her temple, and the door-posts are besprinkled
with the blood. In the second book of this work, I shall give a more
particular account of this divinity. She has several names, such as
_Parvàdi_, _Kàli_, _Umà_, and _Ishvari_. An image of her, made of
bronze, is preserved in the Borgian Museum at Velitri.
_Vaikam_, or _Vaikatta_, is also a _Gràmam_, or district belonging to
the Brahmans, who are generally accustomed to establish themselves at
a distance from the other casts. There is here likewise a celebrated
temple of _Shiva_, together with a Brahman school or academy. The
revenue of this temple is very considerable, and arises from rice
fields, which are let, without any distinction, to Mahometans and
Christians. One of the king’s civil officers resides here. In the
years 1788 and 1789, when the cruel Tippoo Sultan Bahader, son of
Hayder Aly Khan, persecuted the Brahmans, and caused them either to
be unmercifully beat, or circumcised according to the Mahometan
manner, a great many of them fled to _Vaikatta_, where they received
every kind of protection possible from the king of Travancor.
_Udiamper_ is the place where the celebrated synod was held, on the
26th of June 1599, at the conclusion of which the Christians of St.
Thomas, who had before been Nestorians, returned to the bosom of the
Romish Church[65]. The inhabitants of this town, which lies on a
river, are at present exceedingly poor.
Farther towards the east lie _Cadaturuti_, a town with two churches;
_Badeati_, formerly the residence of the court of the king of
Travancor; and _Muttiera_ and _Corolongatta_, where there are two
considerable congregations of the Christians of St. Thomas. At the
latter place they have a very beautiful church dedicated to St. Mary,
in which service is performed by priests who are natives of the
country. The Nestorians had formerly a monastery here, inhabited by
people of their order from Persia and Chaldea, who were the spiritual
guides of the Christians of St. Thomas. There were monasteries also
of the like kind at _Edapalli_, _Angamali_, and at _Maïlapuri_ on
the coast of Coromandel; but they all fell into decline after the
Portuguese had established themselves on the coast of Malabar[66].
This district produces a great deal of pepper; and a peculiar kind of
potatoes, black on the outside, but exceedingly white internally, and
which have a remarkably fine taste. They are called _Kàtschil_. There
is also great abundance of round potatoes, such as ours; but they are
of a much superior quality, and have really an aromatic taste[67].
In the forests at the bottom of the Gauts, near _Corolongatta_,
_Clagnil_, _Badagare_, _Aragoshe_, _Mailacomba_, and _Modelacodata_,
forming districts which I have twice travelled through, there are
a great many elephants, buffaloes, parrots of all kinds, deer, and
black and white apes. The last-mentioned animals go about in whole
flocks of from two to three thousand, and climb up the trees in order
to carry away the wild fruits. In these forests there are found also
abundance of tygers, and particularly of the so called Royal Tyger,
which is almost as large as a small cow[68]. _Ràmapurata_, _Cuincam_,
and _Mohatushe_, are connected in commerce with _Maïssur_, which
lies on the other side of the mountains, and send their merchandise
to Cochin by water.
Cochin is situated on the sea-coast, and, according to J. Hamilton
Moore, in the latitude of 10° N. but according to observations made
on board the Calypso in 9° 57′. In the Malabar language it is called
_Cocci_, and obtained that name from a small river which formerly
discharged itself there into the sea. In the year 1341, however, when
the sea threw up the small island of _Vaypi_ on the north side of
Cochin, the waters, which during the rainy season pour down from the
Gauts, broke through the banks of the river _Cocci_, and overwhelmed
the village of the same name with such violence that it swept it
away, and formed in that district a very large river, a lake, and a
harbour so spacious that the largest ships can now lie at anchor in
safety on the north-east side of Cochin, where the river runs into
the sea. In the months of August and September this river commonly
washes away the sand hills, which the sea in the months of June and
July, when it is most boisterous, throws up at its mouth. At that
period nature always exhibits here a most magnificent spectacle, as
a violent contest then arises between the sea and the rain water
which falls down in torrents from the mountains. If the latter is
sufficiently powerful, it forces its way through every thing that
opposes it; cleanses its bed, and drives the sand before it into
the sea; but if the sea proves victorious, the mouths of the river,
the canal, and even the harbour, are choaked up with sand. The sea
then overflows its banks, inundates the adjacent country, and,
forming in one place an island, and in another a lake obliges the
inhabitants to abandon their dwellings, and gives to many districts a
totally different appearance. In this manner new towns and harbours
gradually arise; and the old ones are so destroyed, that, at the
end of four or five centuries, their former site can scarcely be
discovered[69].
The before-mentioned island of _Vaypi_ is thirteen miles long and
one in breadth. The inhabitants, who have immured themselves there,
begin their æra at the period of its origin, as the other natives
of Malabar begin theirs at the building of the city of _Collam_.
This æra is called _Puduvepa_; from _Pudu_, new; and _Vepa_, the
foundation or introduction of any thing. I was assured by Mr. John
Truyns, the sworn interpreter of the Dutch East India Company at
Cochin, that the origin of this new period, and the epoch when
it began, are registered in the chancery of the company. I saw
also several Malabar letters, written by members of the Christian
congregation at _Nharakel_, which were dated according to this new
æra. The soil both in the island of _Vaypi_, and in most of the flat
districts of Malayala, consists of sea sand and calcareous matter
combined with various kinds of earth and clay, which, during the
rainy season, are washed down from the Gauts. The Indians assert,
that the sea formerly extended even to the bottom of these mountains.
This tradition, as evidently appears, has, however, no foundation;
but it is certain that some of the plains found in this country have
been produced by conflicts between the waves of the sea and torrents
of rain. The devastation occasioned by such inundations can hardly
be described. Grandchildren sometimes can scarcely point out, with
any certainty, the spot where their grandfather resided, because it
has assumed a form totally different[70]. When I arrived in Malabar,
a stream flowed so near our convent at _Verapole_, that the water
touched the steps of the door of our garden; and in the course of
eight years it washed up so much earth that we acquired an entirely
new garden. As I saw that this spot always increased, and was already
300 paces in length, I waited on the king of Travancor, who at that
time resided at _Perur_, and requested he would make a present of it
to our church of St. Joseph at _Verapole_. The worthy prince complied
with my request, and the letter of donation is still preserved
among the archives of the place. Our sub-prior made it his business
afterwards to get this spot planted with young coco-nut and banana
trees. In like manner I saw an island, a mile long, produced, in
the course of ten years, before our church at _Cettiyatti_, by the
opposite effects of the rain and sea-water. Those changes, which are
observed in all parts of the world on the sea-coasts and in the low
lands, have been produced by the force of water; whereas those in the
mountains have resulted from subterranean fires. The former is the
case in India, in particular, where the ebbing and flowing of the sea
succeed each other every six hours, and where the latter is so strong
that in many of the streams and rivers it extends to the distance of
six leagues up the country. The terrible and awfully grand scenes of
nature which take place on such occasions are beyond description:
those who have not seen them can hardly form any idea of them.
Navigation on these coasts is attended with great danger, on account
of the currents. The ancients, therefore, were accustomed always
to drop their anchors towards evening, and to remain in that state
during the night, that they might not have the misfortune of being
driven out by the violence of these currents into the open sea. This
practice is still observed by the Portuguese seamen, when they sail
along the coast of Malabar. It, however, sometimes happens, that an
unexperienced captain, after doubling Cape Comari with great toil
and labour, and just at the moment when he flatters himself with
the hopes of reaching the Malabar coast, is driven to the Maldivia
islands, which lie at the distance of nearly 300 sea miles. Such
was the case with Father Louis Maria à Jesu, of the order of the
barefooted Carmelites, apostolical vicar and bishop of _Usula_. He
had taken his passage from Puduceri to Malabar in a small vessel
commanded by an unexperienced navigator; and the vessel having got
into one of these currents, was carried by it to the Maldivia
islands, and thence to Mosambique on the eastern coast of Africa[71].
Cochin is a beautiful city, built by the Portuguese, in the tenth
year after the arrival of Vasco de Gama at Calicut. In 1663 it was
besieged by a Dutch fleet under the command of Peter Van Bitter and
C. Valkenberg, who made themselves masters of it, and who carried
off from it a great deal of riches. After that period the beautiful
cathedral was converted into a warehouse for the Dutch East India
Company. This edifice is now employed for preserving the sugar which
the Company obtains from Batavia, and the cinnamon they receive from
Ceylon, together with nutmegs, cloves, iron, copper, cordage, rice,
pepper, and various other articles of merchandise, which they bring
hither from foreign countries, and sell partly to the Indian princes,
and partly to the Arabian as well as other native and foreign
merchants. Cochin is intersected by beautiful streets: the arsenal is
well provided with all kinds of military stores, and the citadel is
strongly fortified. The latter, in the year 1778, was supplied with
new ditches, bridges, batteries and bastions, under the direction
of the governor Adrian Moens. It lies on the southern bank of the
_Coci_, and commands the harbour, which is open to merchant vessels,
but into which no ship of war is suffered to enter[72]. _Mattanceri_,
a very populous town, lying a quarter of a league higher up on the
same river, or rather lake, is a kind of magazine where merchandise
of all kinds, both the production of India and of other countries, is
deposited for sale.
The Jews, the Banians or Cettis, and the Mahometans, have here very
considerable warehouses filled with goods. More than an hundred
Arabian ships from Mascate and Mocha, which, besides Egyptian and
Arabian merchandise, bring with them very large sums of money, come
to anchor here every year. Venetian sequins brought from Grand Cairo
are much more current at this place than in Europe. Many of the
Arabian ships make two voyages hither in the course of the year.
The first time, they arrive in September, and depart in October
and November; the second time, they arrive in February, and return
in April or May. The Arabs, who conduct these vessels, have a most
horrid appearance. They are strongly built; wear their beards long;
have nothing on their bodies but a shirt and a pair of wide trowsers
made of white cotton cloth; are of a dark-brown complexion, and pay
very little attention to cleanliness. They are active; never go
but in companies, and well armed; sleep under tents, or a piece of
cloth extended on poles; cook their victuals in the open streets;
work at night by the light of the moon; have a great fondness for
areca, or palm wine; are extremely faithful to each other while they
are getting their goods on board, and unite to avenge themselves
in common when any of them is injured. What a difference there is
among nations! The Indians, for example, are agile, nimble and weak,
but civil and polite; they act only after mature deliberation; are
fond of temperance, and lead an honest and harmless life. The Arabs,
on the other hand, are forward, rustic, robust and faithful; but
pay very little attention to decency, or the dictates of reason.
The latter devour without any scruple their _Pillow_, a dish which
consists of boiled rice, with a fowl or piece of kid’s flesh; but
the former eat only rice, herbs or roots; and consider it as a great
crime to kill an animal. If an Indian is attacked by the small-pox,
a disease which in that country occasions great devastation, all the
neighbours employ every possible precaution to prevent themselves
from being infected. In like cases, however, the Arabs spread out
mats in the open streets; place on them the infected persons; give
them palm-wine, which, as they pretend, will expel the poison; and
before the pustules are ripe, or begin to dry, strew them over with
ashes, under a firm conviction that the poison will by these means be
dried up and dispersed. The Indians are always accustomed to perform
their ablutions before and after meals, and to repair to their
temples when they pray to their gods, or present offerings to them.
The Arabs always kneel down in the evening in the open street; keep
their eyes fixed on the moon; incline their bodies before it times
without number; and repeat their prayers publicly and aloud. A like
contrast is observed in the manners and customs of the other tribes
who inhabit the coast of Malabar; and for that reason they are all
tolerated by the government, which punishes only those who attempt
to interrupt their neighbours in their public worship or private
devotions.
Besides the Creoles, Mestise, and real Indian females, there are at
Cochin a great many European women. These, as soon as they set a
foot in India, are converted into ladies of the first rank, though
at Paris, London or Amsterdam they had been only fruit-sellers or
washer-women. The English, in consequence of an express law, dare
not marry Indian women, in order that the race in their colonies
may remain pure and unmixed. They indemnify themselves, however,
by keeping several mistresses, without caring whether they are
Mahometans or Christians. The Dutch are acquainted with no such law,
and therefore can choose wives just as they please; but the state
of celibacy is so much the mode in this country, that marriages
are seldom heard of. Could any one believe that people who act
according to such principles, should take the liberty to reprobate
the celibacy of the Roman Catholic clergy[73]? Instances of this kind
have occurred to myself; for I remember an unmarried tobacconist at
Cochin, who kept a whole dozen of females, and yet asserted that it
was improper in the Roman Catholic clergy not to marry. In Cochin
there are every where houses inhabited by great numbers of male and
female slaves, who are guilty of the most scandalous transactions.
This kind of dissipation was tolerated as soon as the city fell into
the hands of the Portuguese; and a very intelligent author thinks
he can here discover the real cause why the Portuguese were driven
from the city of Cochin, as well as their other possessions in
India[74]. Avarice, insolence, dishonesty, infidelity and injustice
will always bring kingdoms and states to destruction; and if there be
any truth in this observation, some other colonies, perhaps, will not
remain long in the hands of the Europeans. Monopolies, discord, and
peculation have already greatly increased; and the Indians cannot be
too much astonished at the villanies which they daily see committed
by the Europeans.
The Dutch East India Company has often been in a state of variance
with the king of Cochin, who, according to his surname, is called
_Perumpadapil_, and resides at _Terpunatre_[75], a place lying
east of Cochin, on the other side of the lake which separates the
possessions of this prince from those of the Dutch. On the 18th
of April, 1792, I received a letter from Father Francis a Sancto
Elisæo, in which he gave me a circumstantial account of the last
disputes between the Dutch and _Viròlam Tamburàn_, the present king
of Cochin. King _Mutta Tamburàn_, of the family of _Perumpadapil_, a
quiet peaceable man, with whom I had an interview at _Ciovare_, in
the year 1787, died of the small-pox. He was succeeded by his younger
brother _Viròlam Tamburàn_, of whom I had several times an audience
at _Mattincera_, where he frequently sent for me to the palace, as he
wished to be made acquainted with different particulars respecting
the affairs of Europe. He spoke Dutch exceedingly well, and was
desirous of learning English also. As he was a brave, enterprising
man, possessed of considerable talents, and no little share of
pride, he could not bear the idea of being satisfied with the income
enjoyed by his predecessors. He, therefore, exercised every kind of
oppression against the merchants; caused three of the overseers of
the temple _Tirumala Devossam_ to be put to death, because they would
not resign to him any part of the treasure belonging to it; plundered
the shops; carried away the merchants’ property, and asserted that
he alone had a right to rule the Pagan Indians, as since the earliest
periods they had always been under the dominion of his forefathers.
This last claim was, without all doubt, agreeable to the principles
of justice. The sovereigns of the country had by no means sold the
district around Cochin to the Portuguese; they merely gave permission
to Vasco de Gama and his followers to establish themselves there as
merchants: and the Dutch, by whom the Portuguese were expelled, had
made themselves masters by force of that city and neighbourhood. But
what avails such rights against the power of cannon? In a word, the
Dutch broke into the palace of _Viròlam Tamburàn_ at _Mattincera_;
took from him all the merchandise he had seized; and compelled him
to retire to _Terpunatre_, where he is now so hemmed in that it is
impossible for him to stir. The following places, and some other
towns, belong to this prince: _Nhàrica_, _Candenàda_, _Perimanùr_,
_Angicaimal_, _Udiamper_, _Mullaventurutti_, _Pallicarè_, _Cenòtta_,
_Ciovàre_, _Pucòtta_, _Arshtamiciare_, and _Puttencera_.
King _Perumpadapil_, whom the Europeans call king of Cochin, is
descended from the celebrated Malabar monarchs, _Ceramperumal_, who
were formerly distinguished by the title of _Maharàgia_, that is,
emperor, or great emperor; for all the petty Malabar kings were
obliged to be obedient to his orders, when he had to defend the
country against king _Samuri_, or any other enemy. But when these
petty kings were gradually subdued, and deprived of their territories
by the commander in chief of the king of Travancor, the celebrated
_Màrtandapulla_, and his successor general Eustachius de Lanoy, by
birth a Fleming, a treaty was concluded with king _Perumpadapil_,
in consequence of which he was left in possession of the few places
above mentioned, as the last remains of royal dignity. This happened
in the year 1761.
Since the king of Travancor laid open the trade at _Alapushe_ and
_Puntora_ to foreigners, the revenues of the Dutch East India Company
have been considerably lessened[76]. The duties at Cochin brought
them formerly every year 30,000 rupees; and they received a like sum
from the rents of their palm-groves, gardens, and other lands which
they let on lease. In the time of peace they generally maintain a
body of 4000 men; but when a war breaks out, they must increase these
troops to 10,000. It is, therefore, evident, that the expences of
the Company far exceed their income. Formerly they had possession of
the excellent fortress of _Cudungalur_, or _Cranganor_, five leagues
towards the north of Cochin; but as they clearly foresaw that it
would be difficult for them to defend it against the repeated attacks
of Tippoo Sultan Bahader, they sold it to the king of Travancor. The
latter would gladly have retained it as a valuable acquisition; but
in the year 1790 it was taken from him, and dismantled by M. Lally,
Tippoo Sultan’s general. The troops of Tippoo were, however, again
driven from the country in 1791 and 1792; but I do not with certainty
know whether the works were ever rebuilt[77].
On the sea-coast, beyond Cochin, farther to the north are:
_Badagare_, or _Vaypin_, a populous town belonging to the district
of Cochin; _Nharica_, a town together with a church belonging to the
Christians of St. Thomas[78]; _Palipuram_, where there is a Christian
congregation; and _Aycotta_, a fortified town, with a very ancient
harbour, where, according to tradition, St. Thomas once landed.
Higher up the country, towards the east, lie _Paravur_, formerly a
very large and considerable town, which was, however, reduced to
ashes by the troops of Tippoo Sultan[79]; _Curiapalli_, the military
magazine and arsenal of the king of Travancor; and _Verapole_, the
residence of the apostolic vicar, where there is a seminary, a
catechumen house, and a convent of barefooted Carmelites, who have
the care of the missionary establishments on the coast of Malabar.
This monastery was founded in the year 860 after the building of
Collam, or, according to the usual mode of reckoning, in 1673. The
palm-grove in which it is situated, is called _Tattàracèrri Paramba_,
and was given to the Carmelites by the king of Cochin.
A league farther towards the east lies _Edapalli_, called by the
Europeans _Rapolim_. In this town there is a church, a mosque,
and the palace of the king of the Brahmans, who is likewise their
high-priest or pope. The district belonging to this sovereign may be
about three leagues in circumference. This town, together with a few
others, were given to him by the king of Travancor, out of respect
for his high descent and sacerdotal dignity.
Towards the north-west lies the old city of _Alangatta_, called by
the Portuguese, very improperly, _Mangate_. It is subject to a
king of its own, and contains the largest church belonging to the
Christians on the coast of Malabar.
On the north-east stands _Angamàli_, a very ancient city also,
where there are three Christian congregations. It was formerly the
residence of the bishop of the Christians of St. Thomas; but great
part of it has been burnt or destroyed by the troops of Tippoo Sultan.
_Ambalacòtta_, was formerly a populous town, where the Jesuits had a
convent and seminary; but at present it is falling to ruin.
_Maleatur_, is a celebrated church of the St. Thomas Christians, to
which an immense multitude of people resort on Whitsunday.
The following places also lie on the sea-coast: _Palur_, _Cettuva_,
_Paniani_ or _Ponàni_, _Ciavacàda_, and _Tannur_.
Higher up, towards the east, lie _Puttencera_, and _Vettiacòtta_, a
fortress belonging to the king of Travancor, and erected to prevent
an enemy from entering the country over the Gauts, on the side of
_Maïssur_, a kingdom which at present is under the dominion of Tippoo
Sultan.
Farther towards the north, and at the distance of about ten leagues
from _Cranganor_, lies _Triciur_, a town and district belonging to
the Brahmans. They have here a celebrated academy, public and private
schools; also an university, where young persons are instructed in
their sciences, and the principles of their religion. This place was
also destroyed by Tippoo Sultan; but rebuilt by the Brahmans, after
Tippoo’s defeat. All these cities, towns and churches, are situated
under the latitude of 10° north.
On the sea-coast, in the latitude of 11° north, lies _Tannur_,
formerly a city of considerable note, but at present a miserable
village; and _Vaypur_, _Baypur_, or _Sultanpatnam_, a noble harbour,
which Tippoo Sultan Bahader spared as much as possible, because
he intended to establish here a considerable foreign trade. Large
quantities of pepper, cardamoms, and sandal wood, began indeed to be
carried hither from the eastern parts of the country; but, in the
year 1773, when war broke out, and the roads by these means were
rendered unsafe, the above plan was abandoned.
On the east, towards the Gauts, lies the celebrated city and fortress
of _Pàlacaticeri_. It is entirely built of hewn stone; has strong
works, and in general is capable of making an obstinate defence. The
garrison always consists of the flower of Tippoo Sultan’s troops.
This fortress is situated on the borders of _Conoam_, and covers the
passage to the coast of Malabar towards the mountains which separate
Malayala and Maissur.
The well-known city of _Calicut_, which has experienced such a
variegated fate, lies also on the sea-coast, and in the latitude
of 11° 15′ north. It consists partly of houses constructed of teka
wood, and partly of huts composed of palm branches interwoven through
each other, and covered with palm leaves. Of stone buildings there
are very few. The fortress of Calicut is of much greater antiquity
than the city to which it has given its name. The natives of Malabar
believe that it was built by king _Ceramperumàl_, from whom all the
petty Malabar princes are descended. This city was rased almost to
the ground by Tippoo Sultan, who destroyed its flourishing trade;
expelled from the country the merchants and factors of the foreign
commercial houses; caused all the coco-nut and sandal trees to be cut
down; and ordered the pepper plants in the whole surrounding district
to be torn up by the roots, and even to be hacked to pieces, because
these plants, as he said, brought riches to the Europeans, and
enabled them to carry on war against the Indians.
King _Samuri_, a very powerful prince, who is distinguished also
by the name of _Nediriparàgia_ or _Tamulpada_, took from king
_Ceramperumal_, not only this city and district, but the whole
kingdom of which it forms a part. In remembrance of this heroic
exploit, he made the sword and the lamp of his conquered enemy to be
always carried before him when he appeared in public. He was able
to bring into the field 100,000 men, and was a sworn foe to the
Portuguese, and _Perumpadapil_, or king of Cochin, who was descended
from _Ceramperumal_, and who could also bring into the field an army
equally numerous. These kings, _Samuri_ and _Perumpadapil_, were the
only two of all the Indian princes who had a right, as a token of
their unlimited power, to have carried before them the branch of a
coco-nut tree, bound round with a bandage at the lower end, and quite
free at the top. The petty Malabar kings used indeed a branch of the
same kind; but it was necessary that it should be bound round at
the upper as well as the lower end, in order to shew that they were
subject to both these emperors.
_Samuri_, whom the Mahometan merchants at Calicut support as the
most powerful among all the petty princes, had given battle several
times to _Perumpadapil_, and always came off victorious; but in the
year 1760, his troops, being divided at _Cranganor_, _Paravur_,
and _Verapole_, were attacked unexpectedly by _Martandapulla_, the
commander in chief of the king of Travancor, and totally routed.
In 1773, thirteen years after, Hayder Aly Khan, who had already
made himself master of the kingdom of Maïssur, marched down
from _Palacataceri_, fell upon the city of Calicut, and reduced
to subjection the whole of Malayala, including the fortress of
_Cranganor_ or _Cudungalur_. King _Samuri_, who called himself
_Krishna Tamburàn_, with five thousand of his Nayris, or armed
nobles, fled to the mountain _Koledimala_, in the neighbourhood of
the Gauts, from which they often descended to attack Hayder Aly’s
out-posts, and harass his army. Hayder Aly’s son, Tippoo Sultan
Bahader, was at length so incensed against the inhabitants of Calicut
and the neighbouring district, because they assisted, by every
possible means, their former sovereign, that he resolved to punish
them; and for that purpose took the field in person. He was preceded
by 30,000 barbarians, who butchered every person who came in their
way; and by his heavy cannon under the command of general Lally, at
the head of a regiment of artillery. Then followed Tippoo Sultan
himself, riding on an elephant; and behind him marched another corps,
consisting of 30,000 men also. The manner in which he behaved to
the inhabitants of Calicut was horrid. A great part of them, both
male and female, were hung. He first tied up the mothers, and then
suspended the children from their necks. The cruel tyrant caused
several Christians and Heathens to be brought out naked, and made
fast to the feet of his elephants, which were then obliged to drag
them about till their limbs fell in pieces from their bodies. At
the same time he ordered all the churches and temples to be burned
and pulled down or destroyed in some other manner. Christian and
Pagan women were compelled to marry Mahometans; and Mahometan women
were compelled to marry Heathens and Christians. The Pagans were
deprived of the token of their nobility, which is a lock of hair
called _Cudumi_; and every Christian who appeared in the streets,
must either submit to be circumcised, or be hanged on the spot. This
happened in the year 1789, at which time I resided at _Verapole_. I
had then an opportunity of conversing with several Christians and
Pagans, who had escaped from the fury of this merciless tyrant; and
I assisted these fugitives to procure a boat to enable them to cross
the river which runs past that city.
This persecution continued till the 15th of April 1790. I had then
quitted the coast of Malabar; but I was informed by the bishop
and apostolic vicar there, that, on the above day, Tippoo Sultan,
having forced the king of Travancor’s lines, penetrated as far as
_Verapole_, and had renewed the bloody scenes begun the year before.
“The troops,” said the bishop in a letter dated May 23, 1791,
“advanced to Verapole, and set some houses on fire, but did not enter
the island. We were visited only by a few marauders, who converted
our church, our seminary, and our convent into real dens of thieves.
They plundered and destroyed whatever they could lay their hands
on; for it had been almost impossible for us to remove any thing
out of the way. By the peculiar providence of God, however, and of
St. Joseph (the patron of the congregation), neither our church nor
our convent fell a prey to the rapacity of the soldiery, or to the
flames.” Soon after, the army of Tippoo Sultan was defeated by the
English under the command of Lord Cornwallis, and totally routed.
He himself was driven into the fortress of _Ciringapatnam_, in the
kingdom of Maïssur, where he was obliged to enter into an engagement,
to pay the expences of the war, to give back his conquests to their
former possessors, and to deliver both his sons into the hands of the
English as hostages[80].
The harbour of Calicut is at present far from being so capacious as
formerly: a great part of it has been filled up with sand by the sea,
and for that reason the trade at Calicut is now in a very languishing
condition. As the Mahometan Arabs, however, have the superiority
here, and are connected in business with other merchants at _Mascate_
and _Mocha_, it is to be hoped that measures will be taken to remedy
this evil.
Still farther, on the sea coast, lies _Mahè_ or _Mahi_, a town and
colony belonging to the French. When the European inhabitants of this
place heard of the French revolution, they ran into the streets,
bawling out in full jubilee, “Liberty and Equality!” The Pagans and
the Mahometans did the same, calling out “Liberty and Equality for
us also! As we are now all free and equal,” added they, “it is very
evident that we can no longer acknowledge you for our masters.”
This idea they indeed actually carried into execution, and expelled
all the French from the town. The Carmelites had here a church, a
catechumen house, and a missionary establishment.
A mile farther, towards the north, lies _Talicèri_, a city belonging
to the English, where they have a considerable settlement, a council,
and an arsenal. They employ this city as a military post, where they
collect troops brought from Bombay, in order to keep in subjection
the inhabitants of Malayala. King Samuri and the king of Travancor
are at present in alliance with the English. A brisk trade is carried
on at _Taliceri_, and foreign ships take on board here pepper,
various cotton articles, biti and teka wood, cardamoms, rice, sandal
wood, and other Malabar productions, which they transport to Bombay
and thence to England. The palace in which the council sits, is one
of the most beautiful buildings in India.
The next place, worthy of notice, is _Baliapatnam_, or _Valiapatnam_,
formerly a large and considerable mart of trade, but at present a
very obscure town. The harbour here is more than half filled up with
sand.
Proceeding along the sea-coast you then arrive at _Cannanur_, a town
with a castle, and subject to the government of queen _Còllatiri_, by
the Europeans called _Collastri_. This city is of great antiquity,
and the kings of _Còllatiri_ belong to the first class of the Indian
princes. The mother of the present king of Travancor, _Rama Varmer_,
was descended from this family. She died in the year 1780, exactly
at the time when I was at _Angenga_. I was shewn a letter written by
the king to the commander of the English troops there, in which he
requested that he would cause every mark of respect to be paid at
_Angenga_ to the memory of his deceased mother. In consequence of
this request, all the shops were kept shut for three days; and no one
during that time durst fish in the sea, because the Indians believe
in the transmigration of souls, and are therefore afraid that the
soul of a deceased person may be prevented from going into some fish
or other. Niebuhr and Anquetil du Perron are, therefore, in an error
when they assert that the king of Travancor is of mean extraction.
The capital of the kingdom of _Cannanur_, called also _Còlanàda_,
lies in the latitude of 11° 50′, and is distinguished by the same
name. The whole surrounding district, which towards the north extends
as far as the mountain _Illi_, is inhabited by the _Molandis_, who
live merely by piracy. These sea-robbers are mentioned by Pliny,
Arrian, Ptolemy, and other ancient authors. They unite themselves to
other pirates, who reside on the _Angedib_ islands, near Goa, and
capture all the small vessels which sail from Goa to Cochin. The huts
in which their wives and children live stand on the eastern side of
Mount Illi[81]. This mountain, which forms a cape or head-land, lies
in the latitude of 12° 5′; and here Malabar, or Malayala properly so
called, ends.
* * * * *
We now come to the kingdom of _Canara_, which is partly under the
dominion of Tippoo Sultan, and partly divided under that of the
Marattas and different petty princes, the latter of whom have
maintained themselves here and there in the mountains. On the
other side of mount Illi, the language, manner of life, and in a
certain measure the legislation of the inhabitants of Malabar, begin
gradually to cease, and to be succeeded by those of the natives of
_Canarà_. Both nations, however, acknowledge one system of religion;
worship the same deities; and in their liturgy employ the Samscred
language. Anquetil du Perron is under a mistake, when he says, that
the Tamulic language is generally used on the coast of Malabar. It
may be easily perceived, that he never visited but a few maritime
towns, where the merchants indeed speak both the Malabar language and
the Tamulic. In the interior parts of the country, the inhabitants
use only the former, which is totally different from the Tamulic,
though both these dialects have been originally derived from the
Samscred. In the second book I shall explain this subject farther[82].
* * * * *
Having now finished the topographical description of the most
remarkable cities, towns and places in Malayala, I shall add the
distances of some of them from Cochin; which, as I have already said,
lies in the latitude of 10° north, and in the longitude of 75° 52′.
PLACES.
Leagues
_Calicut_ is distant from Cochin, towards the north, by sea 30
_Cudungalur_, or _Cranganor_, towards the north, by water 5
_Palacaticeri_, by land 30
_Vettiacotta_, towards the north-east 12
_Maleatur_, towards the north-east, by water 10
_Verapole_, towards the north-east, by water 3
_Codomangalam_, towards the east, by land and by water 15
_Aragoshe_, towards the east, by land 20
_Modelacodam_, towards the east, by land 30
_Ciuncam_ and _Nediala_, towards the east, by land 32
_Mòhatushè_, towards the east, by water 19
_Cagnarapalli_, towards the south-west, by land and by water 32
_Vaypur_, towards the south-west, by water 28
_Corolongatta_, towards the south-west, by water 14
_Cadalarutti_, towards the south-west, by water 12
_Caturcàda_, towards the south, by water 14
_Alapushe_, towards the south, by sea and by water 12
_Muttam_, towards the south, by water 6
_Porrocàda_, or _Porca_, towards the south, by water 14
_Cayamcollam_, or _Calicoulon_, towards the south, by sea and
by water 18
_Collam_, by sea and by water 24
_Tiruvandaburam_, towards the south, by sea and by water 40
_Angutenga_, or _Angenga_, towards the south, by land, by sea,
and by water 34
_Coleci_, towards the south, by sea 52
_Padmanaburam_, towards the south, by the interior high road 52
_Cottaram_, or _Cottate_, towards the south, by the interior
high road 64
_Cape Camari_, by sea 72
_Tovala_, towards the south, by land 74
In this calculation the windings and turnings of the roads have been
taken into account; for none of them proceed in a straight line. The
post, called in the Malabar language _Angela_[83], travels indeed
along the high road, in the interior part of the country, which is
the shortest and straightest; but the Europeans dare not use it,
lest the Brahmans should be polluted by them. For this reason the
Europeans must pass along the sea-coast, which is inhabited only by
fishermen, and people of the lowest casts. Hence it happens, that
few Europeans have the least knowledge respecting the interior part
of the country, though they talk a great deal of their travels in
India. The European missionaries, however, besides other privileges
and advantages, have a right to employ umbrellas of as large a size
as those used by the Indian princes; and by means of this privilege
they may go over the whole interior part of the country; only they
must take care not to approach too near to a temple where a festival
is celebrated in honour of any deity.
CHAPTER VII.
_Population of Malayala--Manners, Customs and Industry of the
Inhabitants--Political State of the Country._
The inhabitants of _Malayala_, which, comprehending all its provinces
from Cape _Illi_ to _Tovala_, is 120 Indian miles in length; and from
the Gauts to the sea, between twenty-five and thirty in breadth,
consist, besides the native Indians, who are partly Pagans and partly
Christians, of Arabs, black and white Jews, Canarians, and Europeans
of different nations, who have there formed establishments. In the
year 1771, the Christians of St. Thomas, according to M. Florentius
à Jesu, the bishop and apostolic vicar on the coast of Malabar,
amounted to 94,600. In the year 1787, when a poll-tax was about to be
imposed on them by the king of Travancor, they estimated their number
themselves at 100,000 persons. Ten thousand of them, I confess, lost
their lives during the war against Tippoo Sultan; but still there
will remain 90,000 Catholic Christians, who follow the Syrio-Chaldaic
ritual. They have in their possession sixty four churches, some of
which however were destroyed by Tippoo. The Jacobites have thirty-two
churches, to which belong 50,000 Schismatics. These, therefore, form
all together 140,000 Christians, who adhere to the Syrio-Chaldaic
rites. There are likewise seventy-five churches of the _Mucoas_ and
_Paravas_ on the coast of Travancor; and twenty churches belonging
to the Latin ritual, which lie in the district between _Porrocada_
and Cape _Illi_. All these churches can muster more than 100,000
Christians, newly converted to the Romish faith. The number of the
Jews who reside at _Mattincera_, _Muttam_, and _Cayamcolla_, may
be about from 15 to 20,000. To these must be added 100,000 Arabs,
established there since the ninth century; also the _Canarians_,
_Banians_, _Cettis_, and _Cumuttis_, who together amount to 30,000
souls; and, lastly, 15,000 Europeans, Creoles, Mestises, and
_Topazis_, who are partly Catholics, partly Lutherans and Calvinists.
But far greater than the sum-total of all these foreigners, is the
number of the original inhabitants of the country. The former may
be estimated at 400,000, the latter at 1,600,000, so that Malayala
contains above two millions of inhabitants. This calculation was
made too at a time when the population of the country had greatly
suffered by the wars with Hayder Ali Khan and Tippoo Sultan. If we
reflect, therefore, that this district is not very large, that it is
intersected by a great number of streams, and that on the east it is
bounded by high mountains and impenetrable forests, it is evident
that, in proportion to its cultivated surface, it is extremely
well peopled[84]. This is to be ascribed chiefly to the simple and
temperate manner in which the Indians live, as they eat nothing but
rice, milk, fruit, herbs, butter, coco-nut oil, fish, and other
kinds of food which are easy of digestion, and promote the generative
powers[85]. Monogamy, which prevails among the Christians and Pagans,
though among the latter it is not general, contributes also to
increase the population; for, by these means, the affection between
parents and children is preserved, and that also between husband
and wife. Another circumstance which tends to promote population
is, that all young women, without exception, must marry. One of the
chief objects of every father, whether Christian or Pagan, is to
procure husbands for his daughters; and when he is not able to give
them portions, he is assisted either by the cast to which he belongs,
or by the Christian congregation of which he is a member. There are
here neither convents, nor any other establishments, in which young
women can be immured; but they are obliged, as already said, to
enter into the state of matrimony, and to gain their livelihood by
the labour of their hands. The Indians are not fond of celibacy, and
the state of widowhood is held in the utmost contempt. The women in
Malabar, indeed, bring forth few children; but the loss occasioned to
population by this natural deficiency is fully supplied by the great
number of marriages. The expence of rearing children is also rendered
extremely easy, as they require very little for their nourishment
and clothing[86]. In the second book I shall give a fuller account of
these and other causes which contribute to increase the population of
India. I must, however, not omit here to observe, that it is impeded
also by very great obstacles. Among these are:
1. The small-pox, which, in India, are extremely malignant, and which
every year sweep off many thousands[87].
2. Polygamy, and the celibacy of a great number of persons who cannot
resolve to confine their affections to one object[88].
3. The continual wars and revolutions in India, by which a great
number of men are destroyed.
4. The oppression of sovereign princes, who impose on their subjects
excessive labour, and by these means ruin many persons both married
and unmarried.
5. The slave trade, by which several thousands of men are sold
annually, like cattle, and sent out of the country.
The complexion of the natives of Malabar is brown, but much brighter
than that of the _Tamulians_, who inhabit the coast of Ciòlamandala.
The _Mucoas_ or fishermen, the _Paravas_ or people who manufacture
and dye the cotton articles with which they carry on trade, and all
those who reside on the sea-coast, are totally black; because, by
the nature of their employments, they are always exposed to the heat
of the sun, and to the sea air. The nobler casts, and other families
who live in palm-gardens and enclosures[89], are much fairer; because
they spend the greater part of their time under the shade of trees,
and are surrounded by a milder atmosphere, which moderates the heat
of the sun. I have seen Brahman women, both married and unmarried,
who were uncommonly beautiful. The most of the female Indians have
fine long hair, black eyes, extended ears which are pierced, and
straight delicate persons. They are accustomed to wash themselves
twice a day; to anoint their bodies every week with coco-nut oil,
or the white of an egg; and to rub their skin with a plant called
_Incia_, the rind of which has the property of removing all filth.
This ablution and friction strengthen the body, and at the same time
prevent too violent perspiration. Till their thirtieth year they are
stout and vigorous; but after that period they alter much faster
than the women in any of the nations of Europe[90]. Early marriage,
labour and diseases exhaust their constitutions before the regular
time of decay. They are lively, active and tractable; possess great
acuteness; are fond of conversation; employ florid expressions,
and a phraseology abundant in images; never carry any thing into
effect till after mature deliberation; are inquisitive and prying,
yet modest in discourse; have a fickle inconstant disposition;
make promises with great readiness, yet seldom perform them; are
importunate in their requests, but ungrateful when they have obtained
their end; behave in a cringing obsequious manner when they fear any
one, but are haughty and insolent when they gain the superiority;
and assume an air of calmness and composure when they can acquire no
satisfaction for an injury, but are malicious and irreconcileable
when they find an opportunity of being revenged. I was acquainted
with many families who had ruined themselves with law-suits, because
they preferred the gratification of revenge to every consideration
of prudence. The men, both of the higher and lower classes, bind a
piece of cotton cloth round their loins, and for the most part leave
the remainder of the body uncovered. The women of the inferior casts
go about almost in the same manner. The wives and daughters of the
Brahmans, on the other hand, conceal the upper part of the body with
a piece of fine cotton cloth, the extremity of which is thrown over
the shoulder. They go bare-footed; but wear a great many ornaments,
which generally consist of three or four bracelets of brass, a
necklace of gold or precious stones, and ear-rings of gold or of
diamonds. They bind their hair together in a roll on the top of the
head, and paint on the forehead some sacred mark. They bear in their
hand an umbrella of palm-leaves, which they always hold before their
face when they meet any of the male sex. They, however, turn speedily
round, in general, when a man has passed them, and seem to cast a
wistful look towards him. This is a plain proof that in every country
of the globe the daughters of Eve are subject to the like weaknesses.
The houses of the nobility and opulent persons consist of two
storeys. Before the lowest there is generally a small hall, supported
by thin pillars of _Teka_ wood, which is of a yellow colour, and
exceedingly hard. This hall is called _Varanda_, and supplies the
place of a parlour. The upper storey is called _Malaga_; and in this
the Indians are accustomed to sleep, to study, or to perform any
business in which they do not wish to be interrupted. A building,
which consists of seven storeys, is called _Elàmmaliga_, that is,
a tower; and is considered as a habitation which none but a king
or reigning prince dare inhabit. The huts of the poor people are
constructed of the branches of the coco-nut tree interwoven through
each other; and are covered with its leaves, or with rushes or straw.
The entrance into these huts is low, and the interior part of them is
dark. Their whole furniture consists of a _Kattila_, or bed-frame,
on which a mat is placed; a few flat dishes of copper or brass; a
_Kindi_, or brass drinking vessel with a spout; a pot or kettle,
in which they boil their rice; a _Vilacca_, or round lamp of iron
or brass, fastened to a chain, by which it can be suspended in the
middle of the hut; and a large wooden mortar, in which they pound
their _Nella_, or unshelled rice. Though the Indians see daily before
them the furniture and cooking utensils of the Europeans, they have
never yet thought proper to make use of them. The customs prevalent
among them above three thousand years ago still remain unchanged[91].
We must, however, do the Indians the justice to confess, that they
are very well acquainted with agriculture, botany, gardening,
hunting, fishing, and architecture[92]. Their style and taste are
indeed extremely wretched; but they possess a wonderful aptitude for
imitating the arts and inventions of the Europeans, as soon as the
method has been pointed out to them. The greater part of the houses
in Malabar are built of _Teka_ wood, which is much harder and heavier
than oak, and which withstands corruption for a very great length
of time. I have seen several houses more than 400 years old, which
during that period had suffered little or no decay. The palm-leaves
with which they are covered, and the above wood, have the property
of attracting the moisture, and of suffering it again to escape, as
soon as a breath of air begins to stir, of the sun to shine. Hence
it happens, that these houses are much healthier than those of stone
and lime; which, if not allowed to dry properly, evaporate, for a
long time after they are built, a great many calcareous and highly
pernicious particles[93].
The Indians, after the manner of all the oriental nations, never
eat at noon. In the morning, before they go out to labour, they
generally take their _Cagni_, or beverage consisting of water in
which a certain quantity of rice has been boiled till all its mealy,
nourishing, and cooling particles are dissolved. After this breakfast
they proceed to their labour, and continue it without interruption
till about four o’clock. An hour after, or sometimes later, they take
their evening meal; go to sleep at sun-set, and rise next morning at
break of day. This mode of life is perfectly agreeable to the nature
of man, for whom the elements and heavenly bodies were created. It
not only saves the Indians a great deal of oil, but secures to them
agreeable repose, and preserves their bodies healthful. The day and
the night are almost always of the same length near the equator, and
therefore they seldom or never depart from the above regular course.
The women are obliged to cook, and to place the dishes on the table.
The husband and wife never eat together; for the Indians consider
it as indecent, and contrary to that respect which is due to the
former. The consequence is, that their meals are very short; and
that nothing takes place, in the presence of the rest of the family,
which can offend against decency or good manners. At table they use
merely the right hand; for the left, with which they wash the lower
part of the body, &c. they look upon as unclean. The rice is served
up on a broad banana leaf, which supplies the place of a dish; and
near it is placed the _Karil_, that is, soup which consists of herbs,
fruit, pepper and cardamoms. It is exceedingly well prepared; has
a delicious smell, and a pungent taste. This soup they pour, at
different times, over the rice, which in very small morsels they
put into their mouth with the right hand. If they have no _Kail_,
or spoon, they employ in its stead a _Mava_ leaf rolled together.
When their meal is finished, they throw away their dish and spoon,
because leaves of the like kind may be every where found. Persons
of condition, however, employ at their meals vessels of copper and
brass, which they keep remarkably clean, and which are always washed
after they have been used. They eat, along with their rice, sour milk
and butter, or herbs which have been baked in butter or oil. The
king of Travancor has generally at his table fifteen different kinds
of soup, which are varied from time to time. He eats also preserved
nutmegs with his rice, which of itself has an excellent and aromatic
taste.
During their meals the Indians sit down on a mat spread out on the
floor, and, according to the oriental custom, place their legs
across each other under them. They drink nothing but water; and when
they wish to quench their thirst, they pour it from their _Kindi_,
or drinking vessel, directly into their throat, without letting it
touch their lips. When the men have ended their meal, it is then
the women’s turn; and as soon as these have finished, they repair
altogether to a river or pond, where they wash themselves, and
mutter over various forms of prayer[94]. This ablution is called
_Sandhivanana_, that is, the evening’s devotion; and is directed
either to _Shiva_ or _Vishnu_, _Bhagavadi_ or _Bhavani_, to the
goddess of nature and her children, the stars and the elements.
They are convinced that the whole world, with every thing in it,
had a beginning; that it will endure for a certain period, and at
last have an end: and this belief conducts them to exalted ideas
respecting their present and future destination. Never are they heard
to pronounce an indecent word, except on the festival of _Shiva_,
or _Bhagavadi_, in honour of which deities they always sing obscene
songs. As for love letters, they are totally unknown to them. No
young man dare venture to visit the object of his affection at
her home; for the parents, on whose will the marrying of the girl
depends, would consider this as an infringement on their right. This
observation, however, is applicable only to the nobility and families
of distinction; for people of the lower casts have manners and
customs peculiar to themselves. Thus, for example, when they address
themselves to a prince, brahman, magistrate or superior, they salute
him by folding the hands together, raising them above their head,
letting them then fall down, turning the fingers of both hands three
times outwards, and raising up their folded hands again. They then
place the left hand on their breast, the right on the mouth, and in
that posture wait for permission to speak. This ceremony is called
_Tolunu_. When a scholar wishes to address his preceptor, he must
first prostrate himself at full length before him. This method of
shewing respect is called _Shashtanga_. A scholar never dares to sit
down in the presence of his _Guru_ or teacher[95].
The industry of the Indians does not arise so much from their
ingenuity, as from the fertility of the soil which they cultivate.
They plant rice, pepper, the areca tree, millet, ginger, sugar-canes,
_magnel_ or saffron, beans, pease, and _mudira_, a kind of corn which
they use for feeding horses. From the sesamum, of which they raise
also great quantities, they procure an oil, employed either for
burning in their lamps, or for anointing their bodies during their
lustrations. Prunes, tamarinds, cardamoms, wild cinnamon or _Cassia
lignea_, _Cassia fistula_, long pepper, _Ciaca_, _Teka_, _Biti_,
_Ayani_, _Mava_, and _Sandal_ wood, grow here without any nursing
or care. Of the so called _Nella_, or rice in the shell, there are
three kinds, viz. _Virippa_, _Mundaven_, and _Puncia_. The first
kind is reaped in September, the second in December or January, and
the third in March or April. These three crops, however, are not
procured from the same field; and the last, during the summer, is
brought forward by strong and often repeated watering. The water is
drawn from the rivers in buckets, and conducted to the rice-fields
by channels between them. The _Nella_ is reaped in such a manner
that the straw is left standing on the ground: it is then threshed;
scalded in hot water; spread out on mats, where it is left to dry
in the sun; and afterwards preserved in _Patajas_, or granaries,
built of _Teka_ wood. Those people who in the course of the year use
only a small quantity of _Nella_, hoard it up without scalding it,
and subject it to that operation as they consume it. The scalding
and pounding, as well as every other preparation of the _Nella_,
are left entirely to the women. When it is dried, pounded, and
perfectly white, though still raw, it is called _Ciorra_, and in
the Samscred language _Annam_ or _Odanam_. The straw, as already
mentioned, is left standing on the ground in order that it may rot
and serve as manure. If it be not sufficient for that purpose, they
make small pits here and there in the ground, fill them with leaves
and tender twigs, which they cover with earth; and in this manner
prepare whatever quantity of manure may be necessary. As the Indians
consider cow-dung to be sacred, and daub it over their houses, it may
be readily conceived that they never carry it out to their fields.
All the lands, without exception, belong to the king, who sells them
at pleasure, or lets them on lease. The _Olà_, or deed, in virtue
of which the sovereign disposes of any piece of ground, and puts a
person in full and free possession of it, is called _Attipèra_ or
_Attiperòla Caranam_. If the _Olà_ relates only to the lease of such
a piece of ground, it is named _Pàttòla_. The case is the same in
regard to the sale or lease of a palm-garden.
That fruit, called in the Malabar language _Tenga_, and in the
Samscred _Sasyaga_, is a large nut produced by the real palm-tree,
or _Tengamaram_. When the young trees are carefully watered, they
bear a number of such nuts at the end of five years. This tree and
its fruit supply almost every thing necessary for the wants of man.
Small ships, houses and roofs are formed of the trunk. Of the husk
of the nut ropes are made; and the shell is employed for dishes and
spoons. If the fruit be not quite ripe, the milk in it affords an
excellent, cooling, and very wholesome beverage. When the milk is
converted into a kernel, an oil is expressed from it. The sap which
flows from the branches, gives the agreeable well-tasted _Sura_; and,
when distilled, becomes a kind of brandy. If it be placed in the sun,
with the addition of a little _Nella_, it is converted into strong
vinegar. Of the tender bark of the tree, a sort of coarse linen is
prepared. If the kernel be bruised while young, a kind of sweet cream
will be obtained; and the pith extracted from the upper young shoots
of the tree is employed for preparing the so called _Aciara_, a kind
of confection which is eaten with rice. The substance which remains
after the oil has been expressed from the kernel, and which is known
by the name of _Pinàca_, supplies food for swine, ducks and poultry.
In a word, I have reckoned up forty different properties which this
tree possesses, and which are all useful to man.
Ginger grows at _Cadaturutti_, _Adirampushe_, _Codamalur_, and, in
general, in districts to which the seawater cannot penetrate. The
small black pepper is a kind of ivy, planted for the most part at
the bottom of trees, the trunks of which are tall. Large forests of
it may be found at _Aragoshe_, _Poròtta_, _Valaya_, _Vaypur_, and
every where at the foot of the Gauts, where the soil is black, rich,
argillaceous, and hot. The wild cinnamon grows in gardens as well
as in the woods; and it is not improbable that it would equal in
goodness that produced in the island of Ceylon, were it treated with
proper care. The coffee plant propagates readily in the gardens and
groves, and is not easily extirpated where it has once taken root;
but it is not cultivated by the natives of Malabar, who bestow their
attention on other productions of more utility.
The different kinds of wood known under the names of _Teka_, _Viti_,
_Ayani_, and _Ciaca_ or _Plava_, all grow on the mountains. The
_Teka_ wood is employed chiefly for building houses and ships. Of
the _Viti_ commodes, small tables, side-boards and bureaus are made.
The forests are let upon lease by the king. The principal lessee of
these kinds of wood, during my stay in India, was _Mattu Taraguen_, a
Christian native, possessed of great property.
The cardamom is an aromatic production of a triangular form, and a
hot fiery taste. This plant is about three or four feet in height,
and has at the top a few broad, green, prickly leaves. Its stem,
which is smooth, has neither leaves nor branches. From its root,
concealed by the earth, there arise a few fibres, which bend
backwards in a parabolic direction, and bear some small pods, that
contain the seeds inclosed in four different small capsulæ. This
production is stronger than pepper, and of more value. It is found
at the bottom of the Gauts, at _Maleatur_, _Codomangalam_, _Vaypur_,
and various other places. It is fond of growing under the shade of
large thick-leaved trees, through which the sun cannot penetrate, and
where the soil is manured by the fallen leaves that have rotted in
the moisture. Pepper and cardamoms belong to the _Bhandàraga_, that
is, the royal revenues; and no private person is permitted to trade
with either of these articles. The king makes a real monopoly of
them. Formerly those who smuggled them out of the country had their
nose and ears cut off; but at present they are punished only with
imprisonment. In regard to all the other productions of India trade
is free; because the kings, in ancient times, were of opinion that
it was contrary to their dignity to cause them to be sold on their
own account. The modern kings, however, are not ashamed to act the
part of merchants; but from this conduct their dominions derive very
little benefit.
It appears, from what has been here said, that the inhabitants of
Malayala are supplied with every necessary which their climate or
manner of life can require; that the country produces much more
than is annually consumed; and consequently that the inhabitants
sell a great deal to foreigners, and receive in return every year
considerable sums of money. Besides what they use themselves, they
annually sell 10,000 bags of rice, and 1000 _candil_ of pepper,
to the English alone; who, in my time, paid for each _candil_, of
500 pounds, ninety rupees. The English also gave to the king of
Travancor, for each _candil_ of Malabar cinnamon (called of the old
_Cassia lignea_), eighty rupees; and Malabar supplied at least 500
_candil_[96]. To this may be added 1000 _candil_ of pepper sold every
year to the Dutch; and 1000 _candil_ more which the king delivered to
the Chinese, Arabs, and other merchants, who sold it again on their
own account.
I shall say nothing of the sale of _Teka_ wood, which the Arabs and
Persians employ for building their ships; nor of the trade carried
on with cardamoms, as well as _Copra_, large quantities of which are
every year sent to Persia, Arabia, and other eastern countries.
_Anandacetti_, a merchant at _Mattincera_, always kept by him,
for sale, _Teka_ wood to the value of five lacks of rupees[97].
The stuffs and different articles of cotton which he had in his
warehouses, without reckoning other merchandise, were worth four
lacks more. This man purchased and sold, sometimes in a quarter of
an hour, a whole ship’s cargo valued at five millions of rupees.
Such instances are not uncommon in India. The merchants show to
each other catalogues of their goods; select the principal articles
by which they think they can acquire profit; mark and erase, sell,
exchange and purchase, according as they find it for their advantage;
and in this manner gain often in a single hour incredible sums. The
king of Travancor purchases every year, from the Europeans, iron,
cannon, and cloth for the use of his soldiers; but as the merchandise
which he gives in return amounts to much more than the value of
these articles, the English and Dutch are always in his debt. This
in general is the result in regard to the balance of the Malabar
trade; and we here see where the French crowns, the Dutch ducats,
the Venetian sequins, the Spanish piastres, and the Portuguese
lisabonines at last remain.
* * * * *
The king lets the lands on lease, four different ways:
1. Instead of money which he has to pay for military service
performed; so that in time of peace a portion of land is assigned to
each soldier. This land he must cultivate, and is obliged to live on
its produce.
2. As _Canam_, or in lieu of a certain capital equivalent in value to
such a piece of ground, and which is lent to the king as proprietor
for a certain period mentioned in the lease or deed. The capital lent
in this manner yields six per cent. annually in _Nella_ or rice.
3. As _Panam_, that is, on mortgage, in virtue of which the person
put in possession can use and cultivate such a piece of land.
4. As _Pattam_, that is, for a certain rent which must be paid to the
lessee or possessor of the land, in case he lets it again.
In the contract, a copy of which, written on an _ola_, or palm leaf,
is kept by each person, it is said: “I let a _Parra_ of _Candam_,
lying in such a place, under such conditions, and for such a length
of time.” A _Parra_ contains eight _Dangaszi_; one _Dangaszi_ makes
four _Nali_, and a _Nali_ is equal to a bushel of rice. _Candam_ is
a field: a _Parra_ of _Candam_ is, therefore, a piece of land of
such an extent that a _Parra_ of rice can be sown in it. All lands,
whether let on lease or not, must bring to the king the _Muppara_,
that is, three _Parra_ per cent. They are subject also to another tax
called _Nilavari_, which must be paid every ten years for the first
evaluation and measuring of them. The ground and soil, cultivated
by the people, belong every where to the king. But the pagodas or
temples have around them certain districts, their peculiar property,
which belonged to them before this feudal system was introduced. The
nobility alone can possess rice-fields or palm gardens; but this is
applicable only to the Pagans. The rents must be paid _in natura_;
and amount to a fourth part of the income which remains after all the
taxes and imposts have been deducted.
It is unfortunately too true, that there are ministers who
exercise the severest and most cruel oppression; by which means
sovereigns are rendered odious or contemptible to their subjects,
and whole countries and kingdoms brought to ruin. That this is
sometimes the case on the coast of Malabar will appear from what
follows:--_Ceramperumal_, who reigned in the tenth century, had a
great many sons and grandsons, among whom he divided his dominions at
his death. Each of them acquired a particular portion of land, or at
least fief[98]. This was a great violation of the maxims of political
prudence. It is well known how soon the conquests of Alexander the
Great were lost after they had been divided among his generals. It
was impossible for so many princes to unite in one common object,
because each had his own private interest, and none of them placed
confidence in another. The consequence of their weakness was, that
they became contemptible to their subjects, and seldom or never
were able to carry any measure into execution. _Samuri_, who by the
Europeans is very improperly called _Samorin_, endeavoured to acquire
a superiority over the neighbouring princes, by entering into an
alliance with the Arabs of Calicut, who had established themselves
in his dominions. He might, however, have foreseen, that these Arabs
would one day become his most implacable enemies. He was so fortunate
as to defeat the king of Cochin in several battles; and the latter
found himself at length obliged to solicit the assistance, first
of the Portuguese, and then of the Dutch: but neither of these
nations could be sincere in their engagements to this prince; for,
being foreigners, their views were directed merely to their own
interest. By their help he was able to reduce his opponent _Samuri_
to subjection; but, on the other hand, he was under the necessity of
giving up a part of his revenues to the Portuguese.
For some time before, the Christians of St. Thomas had observed, to
their great sorrow, that their mortal enemies the Arabs were always
acquiring more influence, and that they were gradually endeavouring
to get the chief power into their hands. On that account they retired
from Canara and various other provinces belonging to _Samuri_, and
established themselves in the territories of the king of Cochin. This
event took place several years before the arrival of the Portuguese
at Calicut. They chose from among their own number a king, who was
called _Beliarte_, and who was obliged to engage that he would
defend them from the Mahometans as well as the Pagans. He resided
at _Udiampera_, a city belonging to the king of Cochin. The joy of
the Christians of St. Thomas, when the Portuguese first arrived at
Calicut, on the 18th of May 1498, may be readily conceived. They now
expected not only to receive support in regard to the affairs of
their religion, but also to recover those rights and privileges which
they had enjoyed in the times of the _Perumpadapil_. They likewise
flattered themselves that the Portuguese would assist their king, who
was in a state of ruin.
Such a variety of circumstances, directly contrary to each
other, were, according to their nature, inconsistent with public
tranquillity. The war between _Samuri_ and the king of Cochin
continued. The faction of the former, distinguished by the name of
_Panircurra_, was supported by all the princes and tribes in the
northern parts of Malayala. The other party, at the head of which
stood the king of Cochin, was called _Ciovarecurra_, and to it
belonged all the petty princes in the south. _Samuri_ was supplied
by the Arabs with arms, money, and in short every necessary; and
his safety depended entirely on the continuance of the war. If he
made peace, he had to fear that the Arabs would revolt against him,
as they only waited for a favourable opportunity to drive him from
the throne; and this indeed actually took place in the year 1773,
when he was stripped of his territories by Hayder Aly Khan, the king
of Maïssur. The Mahometans now publicly called Hayder Aly their
protector; and believed, as he professed the same religion, that he
would treat them much better than _Samuri_, who was very much hated,
not only on account of his acknowledging a different faith, but on
account of his avarice, the oppression which he exercised against
various merchants, and the luxury and licentiousness which prevailed
at his court. In the above year Hayder Aly took Calicut, and deprived
_Samuri_ of the greater part of his territories. Thus ended the
arbitrary government of one of the mightiest kings in all India; who
was able to bring into the field more than 100,000 men, and who had
in his hands almost the whole of the Malabar trade.
The king of Cochin was able to withstand his enemies till the year
1760; and perhaps would have gained the superiority, had he been in
a condition to overawe the petty princes who were dependent on his
government. These princes, who were not unanimous among themselves,
attacked each other’s territories; carried away their subjects as
captives; excited the chief men against one another; deprived several
families of their property; and, as they were too weak to subdue an
opulent and high-spirited people, gave to some private individuals
full freedom to revenge the injuries which they had suffered.
Scarcely a week now passed in which some murder was not committed.
Children massacred their parents; and even the sovereign was no
longer safe in his palace. Such crimes could not remain unpunished;
and the inhabitants soon experienced that chastisement which their
cruelty deserved.
The kings of Travancor had hitherto been insignificant princes,
whose territories extended only about fifteen or twenty miles up the
country from Cape Comari; and were, besides, not very fruitful. The
sovereign of this district, at that time _Vira Martanda Pala_, was
uncle to the present king _Rama Varmer_. He was a man of great pride,
courage and talents; capable of undertaking grand enterprises, and
from his youth had been accustomed to warlike operations. As he had
concluded an alliance with the king of _Madura_, it needs excite no
wonder, that, agreeably to his character, he should conceive the idea
of making conquests, and of enlarging his unproductive dominions
by the acquisition of new provinces. For this purpose he crossed
the river _Palur_ in the year 1764; fought a decisive battle with
king _Ciangaceri_, and, having entirely subdued him, laid waste his
territories with fire and sword; caused all the palaces, and even
some of the Pagan temples, to be demolished; and took prisoners
the neighbouring petty princes. The latter had been called in by
_Ciangaceri_ to his assistance; but they were at open variance with
each other, and too much occupied with their own feuds to unite
in one common cause against _Vira Martanda Pala_, who advanced to
_Airucutti_, which is only three leagues distant towards the south
from Cochin. His commander in chief, _Martandapulla_, laid siege
to the place, and continued his conquests, which were completed
by M. Eustatius de Lanoy, with whom I formed an acquaintance at
_Curriapalli_ in the year 1777. He drove _Samuri_ on the other side
of the river from _Alangatta_ and _Codungalur_; assigned a small
spot to the king of Cochin for his support; made himself master of
all the fortresses; put the king’s troops on the same footing as
the European; divided among them the conquered lands; caused them
frequently to march through the country with full military parade,
in order to keep the people in subjection to their rulers; and
after _Vira Martanda_’s death, gave the kingdom, in which perfect
tranquillity was now restored, to the present sovereign _Rama
Varmer_, who had just entered the twenty-fourth year of his age. Thus
ended the dominion of the petty Malabar sovereigns and princes: thus
was humanity avenged; and thus were the crimes punished, and the
licentiousness suppressed, by which this country had been distracted
ever since the tenth century.
Before _Vira Martanda_ undertook this expedition, he celebrated,
at _Tiruwandaburam_, a horrid festival, which I have described in
my _Systema Brahmanicum_. He caused several of the Pagan temples
to be burnt; and this crime, one of the most heinous according to
the principles of the Indians, could no otherwise be atoned for
than by a very peculiar kind of purification. He was obliged by
the Brahmans to get a cow made of gold, under which he was forced
to creep in order to be freed from his sins. Niebuhr and Anquetil
du Perron are therefore in a great error when they assert, that
the object of this ceremony was to raise the king to the degree of
nobility. Both these authors ought to have reflected, that this tale
was invented by the conquered people, to whom the king behaved with
great severity, merely for the purpose of ridiculing him. The above
golden cow was preserved, in the year 1787, in the royal treasury at
_Padmanaburam_. I was at least told so by M. Donaudi, a captain in
the king’s service, who had seen it.
Of a great part of the above events I was myself an eye-witness: the
account given of the rest is taken from the information of persons
worthy of credit, and in particular from the valuable manuscripts
of Father Cruz Fernandez, a Malabar priest, which contain a minute
relation of the war carried on by _Vira Martanda Pala_. I had an
opportunity also of consulting a great many original documents,
quoted in this work, which were preserved among the archives of the
missionary establishment at _Verapole_. I conversed likewise on this
subject with the present king and his generals _Martandapulla_ and M.
de Lanoy, who all three often came to _Verapole_, and to whom we were
indebted, besides other marks of kindness, for freeing our convent,
church, and surrounding district, from the payment of all taxes.
The military forces of the present king of Travancor consist of
50,000 men, disciplined according to the European manner; and 100,000
Malabar _Nayris_ and _Cegos_, armed with bows and arrows, spears,
swords, and battle-axes. He keeps two _Valia Sarvadicàriacàrer_, the
_Vadakemugham_ and the _Tekmugham_, one of whom is established in
the north and the other in the south. Each of these has under him
four other officers, called only _Sarvadicàriacàrer_. These have
inspection over four subalterns or _Cariacàrer_; and these subalterns
have under them _Pravarticàrer_, _Ciandracarer_, and _Torracarer_;
or collectors of the taxes, overseers and judges. The troops are
always marching up and down through the country, to change their
cantonments, to enforce the collection of the taxes, and to preserve
peace and tranquillity. Public security is again restored throughout
the whole country; robbery and murder are no longer heard of; no one
has occasion to be afraid on the highways; religious worship is never
interrupted; and people may rest assured, that on every occasion
justice will be speedily administered. The present king has caused
several canals to be constructed, in order to unite different rivers
with each other and with the sea. By his desire also a very beautiful
road has been completed between Cape Comari and _Cudungalur_; so
that in the course of twenty-four hours he can be informed of every
thing that takes place throughout his whole kingdom. After deducting
the expences of government, his yearly income may amount to half a
million of rupees, arising from trade, duties, and various kinds of
fines. One half of this revenue is deposited in the royal treasury,
and never touched but in cases of the utmost necessity. The king, as
well as all the other Pagan Indians, the chief men even not excepted,
live according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, and use no other
food than rice, milk, fruit and herbs. He generally wears a turban
of dark blue silk; a long white robe, fastened at the breast with a
string of diamonds; long wide drawers, of red silk; and shoes, the
points of which are bent backwards like those of the Chinese. A sabre
is suspended from his shoulders; and in the blue girdle bound round
his loins is stuck a poniard or Persian dagger, which can be used
either for attack or defence. When he shews himself to the people in
full state, he is attended by 5000 or 6000 men, together with a great
number of palanquins and elephants. At the head of the procession is
a band of musicians, and two court-poets, who celebrate in songs his
great achievements. He is borne in a palanquin; and the principal
gentlemen of his court must walk on each side of it. In my time he
was very much attached to the Catholic missionaries. As often as
he passed by the parsonage house at _Angenga_, where I resided two
years, he always sent two of the gentlemen of his bed-chamber to
enquire after my health.
This sovereign had two powerful enemies: one in the north, Tippoo
Sultan, now prince of _Maïssur_ and _Concam_; and another in the
south-east, the prince of _Arrucate_, Mohamed Aly Khan, of whom I
have already spoken in the preceding chapter. The latter has it in
his power to make an attack, by _Tovala_, one of the fortresses
which lie near Cape Comari, towards the east; and the former can
attempt the same thing in the district of _Palacaticeri_, the last
city in the kingdom of _Concam_, towards the west. Through a dread
of these two dangerous neighbours, the king of Travancor found
himself obliged to conclude a treaty of alliance with the English,
and to make a common cause with them both in peace and war. As long
as he enjoys the friendship of these allies, from whom he purchases
freedom and security at a sufficiently dear rate, and as long as he
pays regularly what is due on that account, his dominions will be
protected and defended; but if ever a quarrel should arise between
him and the governor of Madras, he is one of the first Indian princes
that will fall a sacrifice. The annual tribute which he is obliged
to pay to the English, amounts to half a lack of rupees, or 25,000
Roman scudi. In the time of war he must supply them, over and above,
with horses, cannon, soldiers, and rice. He is an affable, polite,
contented, prudent, and friendly man. On account of the integrity of
his character, and his many good moral qualities, it is the more to
be lamented that he is so zealously attached to idolatry, and is so
much blinded as not to perceive the value of the Christian religion.
It cannot, however, be denied, that nothing tends so much to rivet
the affection of subjects, as when the sovereign adheres to the
established religion, and worships the deity in the same manner as
his people. _Rama Varmer_ never omits being present at the ceremonies
and devotional exercises of the Pagans, as will be seen in the
following chapter[99].
CHAPTER VIII.
_Missionary Affairs--Audience of the King of Travancor._
Pope Clement XIV. by an apostolical letter had recommended, in a
particular manner, the Christians of Malabar to the protection of
the king of Travancor. This letter, dated July 2d. 1774, arrived at
_Verapole_ just at the time when the _Pravaticarer_ of that place
took possession of our rice-fields and gardens, under a pretence
that the missionaries, as well as the bishop, ought to pay the usual
imposts and taxes, which all other subjects were obliged to pay for
their lands. We insisted, however, on our immunity, and represented
to him, that _Martandapulla_, the commander in chief and prime
minister of the former king _Vira Martanda Pala_, had declared us
free from all public burdens whatever: but the _Pravaticarer_ paid
no regard to our remonstrances; endeavoured to enforce payment by
violent means, and for that purpose caused our convent and church to
be beset by fifty Mahometans, who suffered no person to go out or
to enter. These people, who at all times are sworn enemies of the
Christians, behaved in so indecent a manner, and made so much noise,
that our bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, was
half dead with fear. I tried to compose his mind as much as possible;
and as I knew that the deed by which immunity from all imposts was
secured to us, as well as the pope’s letter, were to be found among
our papers, I sent for the _Pravaticarer_, and, in the presence
of more than thirty Christians, protested against his conduct, and
summoned him to appear before the king. At the same time I wrote to
Father Clemens à Jesu, requesting that he would repair to _Verapole_
as soon as he could. When he arrived, we submitted the whole affair
to mature discussion, and at length resolved to appeal immediately to
the king.
We therefore purchased without delay two European paintings, a large
mirror, fifteen pounds of red sandal wood, and twelve bottles of
Persian rose water; articles which, according to the established
etiquette, must be presented to the king by those who wish to
obtain an audience. On the 20th of June 1780, we proceeded to
_Tiruvandaburam_, and immediately made the prime minister acquainted
with our intention. As M. Adrian Moens governor of Cochin, and M.
John Torless governor of _Angenga_, had both written letters to the
king in our favour, the minister embraced the earliest opportunity of
gratifying our wishes; and the more so as we had taken the precaution
to announce ourselves as delegates from the pope, and procurators of
the missionary establishment.
As soon as we made our appearance before the gate of the castle, the
guard presented his arms, and the minister sent a guide to conduct
the persons who bore our palanquin to the door of the palm-garden
in which the king resided. Here our coolies, or palanquin-bearers,
were obliged to remain behind us, lest, being people of the lowest
cast, they might contaminate the royal palace. At this door we were
received by the king’s commander in chief, who conducted us through
the palm-garden to a second door, where the king was waiting for
us. He received us standing, and surrounded by a great number of
princes and officers. Near him stood his son, with a drawn sabre in
his hand; and, in a shady place were three chairs, one of which was
destined for the king, and the other two for me and my colleague.
When we had all three taken our seats, the attendants formed a circle
around us. I then produced the pope’s letter, which I had hitherto
carried in a pocket-book richly embroidered according to the eastern
manner; raised it aloft; applied it to my forehead in order to shew
my respect for the personage in whose name I presented it; and then
delivered it to _Sampradi Keshavapulla_, the secretary of state. The
latter handed it to the king, who also raised it up, and held it to
his forehead as a token of respect for his holiness. At the moment
when the pope’s letter was delivered there was a general discharge
of the cannon of the castle. After the king had asked us some common
questions respecting the naval war between the English and the French
he enquired of me, in particular, how long I had been in Malabar;
and how I had learned to speak the language of the country with
so much fluency. “I have often observed,” added he, “that other
Europeans are either unacquainted with it, or, for want of the proper
pronunciation, express themselves so badly that they can scarcely
be understood.” I immediately replied, that I had carefully studied
the Brahman book _Amarasinha_. The king, on this answer, seemed
highly pleased. “What!” said he, “do you read our books?”--This is
the real and principal cause why the king, during the whole time of
my residence in Malabar, behaved to me with so much kindness. He
entertained the utmost reverence for the writings and religion of
his people; and as he saw that they were studied by the Europeans,
this paved the way for my obtaining from him afterwards many favours,
which were of the greatest benefit to the Christian religion.
When the king had conversed for some time on various topics, he
ordered his minister and secretary to give such an answer to our
petition, and such relief to our grievances, which we had specified
on an _Ola_, that we might return home perfectly satisfied and
easy. For my part, I could not help admiring the goodness of heart,
affability, and humanity of this prince, as well as the simplicity of
his household establishment and way of life. At that time he and all
the persons of his court, according to the Malabar mode, had nothing
on their bodies but a small piece of cloth fastened round the loins;
and the only mark of distinction by which his royal dignity could be
discovered, was a red velvet cap with gold fringes. At our departure
he accompanied us as far as the door. Next morning the prime
minister, _Cumàren Cembaga Ramapulla_, sent for us to his apartments,
and enquired very minutely respecting the behaviour of the
_Pravaticarer_ at _Verapole_. Being informed that this officer, with
the assistance of the Mahometans, had prevented the Christians from
frequenting our church, he was highly displeased; and immediately
wrote to the _Cariacarer_ at _Parur_ to remove him from his office
as an inconsiderate man, who was little acquainted with the king’s
interest. A new instrument was expedited in our presence, by which
immunity from all imposts whatever was secured to our convent in
future. The king then sent to us by a Brahman, who acted the part
of household steward, and who was accompanied by another officer, a
service of dishes prepared after the Malabar manner, and which were
paid for out of the royal treasury. These particular marks of favour
are shewn only to such persons as give the king distinguished proofs
of their respect.
The king had learned English for several months, and spoke it
exceedingly well. As he observed that the English was as familiar
to me as the Malabar, he sent to me in the evening his chamberlain,
_Payampalli Curipu_, to request that I would explain to him, in the
Malabar language, the parts of speech of the English grammar, because
he was always at a loss respecting them. He had indeed an English
master; but he was not able to give him a proper explanation, in
the Malabar language, of the precise meaning of these technological
terms. I immediately wrote them down on a piece of paper, and
arranged them in two opposite columns, the one in English and
the other in the Malabar language. The king found my explanation
perfectly clear, and ever after called me always his _Guru_ or
preceptor. He was extremely desirous to retain me at his court; but
the crafty Brahmans found means to dissuade him from his design.
My companion and I therefore returned home; the _Pravaticarer_ was
displaced; and our convent, as well as the missionary establishment,
was suffered to remain in peace and tranquillity. The Christians of
_Alapushe_ and _Muttam_ were so rejoiced at the deposition of the
_Pravaticarer_, that they came to meet us, as we returned, with drums
and other musical instruments.
Some time before I sailed for Europe, being desirous to obtain an
answer from the king to the letter which had been written to him
by Clement XIV. I at length received one by means of _Payampalli
Curipu_, before mentioned. It was addressed to the present pope
Pius VI. and contained, besides other things, an assurance from
the king that he would take under his protection the missionaries
and Christians in general, who had been recommended to him by his
holiness. M. Pietro de Vegas, who instructed the king in English,
and who had the care of the correspondence with foreign courts,
translated it into Portuguese. The king subscribed it with his
own hand, and, according to the oriental custom, caused it to be
inclosed in a bag, in which I transmitted it to M. Antonelli, the
director of the _Propaganda_. The present pope returned an answer in
an apostolic letter dated February 24th 1790, and at the same time
sent him his portrait, which arrived safely on the coast of Malabar,
and was delivered to his majesty in the month of March 1793, by
my agent Franciscus à Sancto Elisæo, a barefooted Carmelite. This
ecclesiastic, in a letter dated _Verapole_ May 13th 1793, informed
me that the king had received him in the politest manner, and had
testified the utmost satisfaction on account of the letter, as well
as the pope’s portrait; so that he expected the best consequences
from them. The king, indeed, soon after, took such measures that
all the grievances of the Malabar Christians were redressed in the
kindest manner; and he presented Father Franciscus with a gold
bracelet worth 100 rupees. There is reason, therefore, to hope that
Christianity on the Malabar coast will acquire new strength, and be
again raised to its former state of respectability.
In the year 1783 some of the clergy on the coast of Travancor thought
proper to impose certain fines on the Christian fishermen belonging
to their congregations. The fishermen complained to the king, who
was then at _Padmanaburam_, and requested he would expel these
ecclesiastics from the kingdom. The king, in consequence of this
application, sent a letter to the bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus
à Sancto Conrado, in which he informed him that he had resolved to
separate totally seventy-five congregations from the diocese of
Cochin, and to place them under the inspection of the apostolic
vicar, that he might commit the charge of them to his missionaries
belonging to the _Propaganda_. He therefore desired that the bishop
would immediately repair to _Patnam_, to examine into the conduct of
the above Portuguese clergy; and that he would dismiss those found
culpable, and take possession of the before-mentioned churches.
The bishop being at that time sick, I was obliged to supply his
place, and to proceed to _Padmanaburam_. At _Tiruvandaburam_ my
coolies or palanquin-bearers ran away; so that I was obliged
to travel twelve miles on foot on the king’s high road, named
_Madacava_, which none but the Brahmans and nobility dare to tread.
As soon as I approached _Padmanaburam_, I repaired to a very small
church on the south side of the castle; for the gates were shut, and
no person belonging to the inferior casts, in which the Europeans are
commonly included, was suffered to enter the city. This took place
on the 23d of September 1783. Scarcely, however, had the king heard
of my arrival, when he resolved to make an exception in my favour
from the severity of this law. He therefore sent to me, next morning,
four of the nobility of his court to conduct me into the city. They
accompanied me to the habitation of the king’s secretary, where his
majesty was waiting to receive me; for on that day he could not give
me audience in his own palace, lest it should be defiled.
When I approached the place, the king’s guard of honour, consisting
of 500 men, came under arms to meet me; and formed themselves into
two lines, between which I was obliged to pass. The king, who was
sitting in an European arm-chair, received me with great friendship,
and addressed me as follows: “I have sent for you, Father, that
you may settle the disputes between my Christian subjects and your
clergy. It is my will that the clergy have a sufficient maintenance,
and a proper income for their support; but I will not suffer them
to oppress my subjects by the imposition of fines. Look,” added
he, “here stands my minister (the _Sarvadicariacàrer Nagampulla_),
and there my secretary (_Sampradi Keshavapulla_), devise with them
what is best to be done, and then let me know the result.” We did
as the king desired; and as I had no great inclination to undertake
the very difficult and burthensome administration of seventy-five
congregations, I endeavoured to prevail on the ministers to write
to the archbishop of Goa, and accommodate the matter in an amicable
manner. Some of the clergy complained of were obliged to pay a
certain sum of money, by way of punishment; and a new _Padiòla_,
or tarif, was established, to settle once more the fees which the
Christians should pay to the clergy for discharging their sacred
functions, and which the latter should be authorised to exact.
As the king would not suffer me to depart till this business
was completely settled, I was obliged to remain sixteen days at
_Padmanaburam_. During that period his majesty sent to me every day
the _Kopu_, which is a certain dish prepared in the Malabar manner.
As the festival of the goddess _Sarasvadi_ was then celebrating,
(on which account, as I have already said, the gates of the city
were shut,) I employed a part of my time in observing the religious
practices of the Brahmans.
_Sarasvadi_ is the wife of Brahma, the creator of the universe; and
the harmony, proportion, and order observed in it, are, according
to the doctrine of the Brahmans, to be ascribed to her influence
alone. Her opponent is the goddess of disorder and contention, named
_Mudevi_. A tabernacle had been constructed for Sarasvadi under a
large tent, and a great number of Brahmans were busily employed in
waiting upon her. After many libations, the statue of the goddess was
at length carried round in procession, strewed over with flowers, and
then placed upon an altar. After this the king approached in great
magnificence, and with the most devout respect presented to her his
dagger as an offering. During this time all the gates of the city
were beset with soldiers, and no one was suffered to go out or to
enter. The festival continued eight days; and when it was finished,
the king distributed presents to the Brahmans. Each received a rupee,
though more than 4000 were sometimes assembled. The high-priest
presented to the king a _Vastram_, that is, a piece of silk or cotton
stuff; a _Viraghen_, or piece of gold, worth about three scudi; and a
cow, as the support of life, because these people live chiefly upon
milk and butter. Such a present is called _Godànam_. It has been
usual in India since the earliest ages; and no greater favour can be
shewn to a Brahman by the king than to give him a cow.
At the end of sixteen days I at length obtained leave to depart;
but before I set out, I wrote to the bishop and apostolic vicar,
to inform him in what manner I had settled the business. This
letter has been printed at full length in my _India Christiana_.
As the _Cassanar_ or clergyman of the Christians of St. Thomas at
Callurcada, whose name was _Ciandi_, had applied to me to get some
abuses reformed which had crept into his congregation, I conversed on
that subject with the prime minister _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_, and
procured from him a letter to the officer at _Ambalapùshe_, to whose
jurisdiction _Callurcada_ was subject. I shall here subjoin a copy of
it, translated word for word from the Malabar language:
“The business respecting which I write is this: Father Paolino
appeared before his majesty at _Padmanaburam_, and informed him
that some _Mappulians_ (so the Christian women are commonly called)
in the parish of _Callurcàda_, which is subject to the jurisdiction
of the governor of _Cembacolam_, indulge in criminal intercourse
with various _Shuddras_ (Pagan nobility of the fourth cast), and
condescend to live with them as concubines. Now, as this is the
case, continued the Father in name of the bishop of _Verapole_,
the distinction between the casts will be destroyed, and nothing
but confusion will prevail among the different classes of the
inhabitants; which gives him great uneasiness.
“Some person in the neighbourhood, and particularly the governor,
ought certainly to have communicated by letter an account of these
irregularities, of so much importance to be known. When the Father
transmits to you a list of those who keep concubines, you will
immediately cause them to be arrested and imprisoned. If they are
convicted of the crime, send them hither under a military guard,
that they may be banished from the country, and transported beyond
the boundaries of _Tovàla_. The effects of the _Mappulians_, who
condescend to be kept as concubines, shall be seized and confiscated;
and an account of their immoveable goods shall be delivered in to his
majesty’s exchequer[100]. Such is the will of his majesty.
“The Father states farther, that when the _Mappulians_ (Christians
of St. Thomas) assemble to attend divine service, the _Pravaticarer_
(receiver of the king’s revenue) seizes the boat in which they
arrive, drags the people by force from the church doors, and compels
them to serve his majesty. In the last place, the Father has
complained to his majesty, that some magistrates at _Ambalapushe_
borrowed money, a long time ago, from the church, and have paid
neither principal nor interest; and also that a large copper kettle
borrowed from them had received considerable damage, and that no
compensation had been made for it.
“In consequence of these complaints, his majesty has ordered, and
commands by the present letter, that all money borrowed from the
church shall be repaid as speedily as possible, with the usual legal
interest; and it is at the same time expressly forbidden to borrow
any thing from it in future. Those who took possession of the boat
shall be condemned to pay a fine, and to give the proprietors of the
boat a proper compensation for the use of it. Those who employed the
kettle shall make good the damage, and be over and above punished.
The kettle shall be immediately returned, and never again taken from
the church for any profane purpose.
“That all these commands of his majesty may be strictly attended
to, and immediately put in execution, his majesty transmits to you,
at _Ambalapushe_, the present letter, by a _Velkaren_ (one of his
guards of honour, armed with a pike and staff), who has orders not
to suffer you to quit your house till every thing be punctually done
as here desired. Should you, however, be indisposed, his majesty
will not enforce his orders with severity; but requests that you
immediately write to the _Cariacarer_ (inferior magistrate), and
charge him with the execution of these commands. The _Velkaren_ will
confine him in his own house under a proper guard till every thing
is done to your satisfaction. His majesty also requests, that he may
be informed by the _Velkaren_ when this business is brought to the
wished-for conclusion. This rescript shall be transmitted by the
clerk and secretary of the criminal court to the _Sarvadicariacarer_
at _Alampushe_, and be registered among the royal rescripts. This was
written, in consequence of his majesty’s orders, by _Cumaren Cembaga
Ramàpulla Ramen_.”--On the back of it were the following words;
“_Ambalapusha mughatta Sarvàdicàriacarerka varuna Sadhànam_;” that
is, Letter to be transmitted to the chief magistrate at Ambalapushe.
This letter of a Pagan minister may serve as a proof how much power
the light of sound reason has among a people whom the Europeans call
barbarous. It affords a specimen also of the policy and attention
to the executive part of government which prevail at the court of
this Malabar monarch. He has only to command, and his orders are
immediately executed with the utmost punctuality. His ministers
neither can nor dare have recourse to such subterfuges as those of
the European courts. An oath from the king, a small twig suspended
at the door in his name, or mere confinement at one’s own house, is
a check upon the conduct of the minister, as well as upon that of
the other subjects. When such mild measures, however, do not produce
the intended effect, the offenders are subjected to a fine, or to
corporal punishment; to imprisonment, banishment from the country, or
perpetual slavery in chains.
As soon as I had received the two letters before-mentioned, I
departed from _Padmanaburam_. The minister paid me 100 _Kalis_, to
defray the expences of my journey; and gave orders that the coolies
who carried my palanquin along the sea-coast, from one place to
another, should be paid from the royal treasury. When I arrived at
_Parur_, the Mahometans there protested against the king’s order,
and would not carry me farther, under the pretence that, being a
_Tanguel_, or Christian priest, I was an enemy to their religion.
I was obliged, therefore, to stop five whole hours till the king’s
_Pravaticarer_ appeared, who caused the refractory coolies to be
soundly beaten, and commanded them to again take up my palanquin.
At _Callurcada_ the Christians came to meet me in procession
with musical instruments; and as soon as they learned that I was
bearer of the above-mentioned letter from the minister, and had
brought the _Valkaren_ with me merely on their account, they made
the intelligence every where known; so that many of the dissolute
females, who were to have been called to an account, immediately
absconded. Some of them, however, were punished; but the order for
confiscating their property was not carried into execution. In every
other respect the injunctions contained in the minister’s letter were
strictly obeyed. In the course of this journey one of those worthy
priests, against whom complaints had been made to the king, attempted
to destroy me at _Tiruvancada_, by putting poison in my drink. As
soon as I observed it, I took three doses of a medicine known under
the name of the Antidote of Madura, and in great tribulation and
distress sought shelter in the Danish factory at _Coleci_. Here I was
confined to bed; but, being well nursed and attended, I was able in a
few days to continue my journey.
In the month of April 1784 the overseers of the temple of _Shiva_
at _Mattincera_ would not permit the missionaries to sow the
rice-fields which they had on lease from them. As no other piece of
land could be procured at that time, the missionaries complained to
M. Van Angelbec, governor of Cochin. This gentleman, finding that
the fields lay in the dominions of the king of Travancor, and that
he could do nothing in the business, advised me to take a second
journey to _Padmanaburam_, in order to procure another rescript from
the king; and he at the same time furnished me with some letters of
recommendation. On the 21st of April I reached _Padmanaburam_ in
safety. I carried along with me the Malabar, English, and Portuguese
grammar, which I had composed at _Ciattiyàti_, and which the king
had required from me, that the ministers of his court might learn
English and Portuguese by the assistance of the Malabar language.
Scarcely had the king heard of my arrival when he sent two young
noblemen, _Padmanàbhenpulla_ and _Payampalli Curipu_, to welcome
me in his name, and to attend me to an audience. I found the king
in the _Varanda_, that is, the portico of his palace, sitting on a
Persian carpet, and leaning with one arm on a large velvet cushion
ornamented with gold fringes. When I delivered to him the grammar,
his joy seemed to be beyond all description. In my presence he sent
for the two lords of his bed chamber, before mentioned; shewed them
the grammar; advised them to study it diligently; and represented
to them how necessary it was that princes as well as statesmen, on
account of their continual intercourse with the Europeans, should
make themselves acquainted with these languages. On this occasion
the king presented me with a gold bracelet, a gold style for writing
on palm-leaves, and a small knife for cutting these leaves to the
proper size. I received from him also a letter to the civil officer
at _Parur_, in consequence of which he was to announce publicly that
the king had done me the honour to appoint me one of the gentlemen
of his court. The intrinsic value of the above presents was indeed
not very considerable, for it was equal only to about twelve sequins;
but in other respects they were of the highest importance, as the
king gives such articles to those only who have merited his favour.
No person in Malabar dare use any of them without the king’s express
permission. They are marks of honour, which he distributes in the
same manner as our European princes do ribbons of different orders.
Those also who receive them enjoy certain privileges and advantages;
such, for example, as that they cannot be carried before any
magistrate till the king is previously informed; that they can travel
every where along the highways; that they are not obliged to wait in
the minister’s antichamber, and that they are not required to give
place to any person whatever; with other things of the like kind.
The king made no hesitation to cause a rescript to be prepared, in
virtue of which we were authorised to sow our fields with rice.
Having thus accomplished the object of my journey, I set out to
return; and, proceeding along the sea-coast, arrived in five days at
_Verapole_. Here I was obliged to supply the place of vicar-general;
for our bishop, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, had gone to Bombay, where
he fell ill, and died on the 6th of January 1785.
On the 8th of September 1786 I again had an audience of the king
_Rama Varmer_ at _Parur_, where I obtained another rescript, by which
he granted to the congregation at _Verapole_ a small piece of land,
that had been gradually thrown up, and formed by the river before our
convent.
In the year 1787 I remained at his court at _Tiruvandaram_ during
the whole month of April, and defended there the privileges of the
missionaries against the rebellious Christians, who refused any
longer obedience to the European bishop of that district.
In the year 1788 I paid a visit to the king of _Travancor_ near
_Canigia_, at the country seat of the before-mentioned governor
of Cochin, M. Van Angelbec, a man of great talents and integrity.
Though a Lutheran, he rendered us essential service upon many
important occasions, and particularly during the disputes which the
Pagan governors began with the missionaries and bishops. The prime
minister _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_ had died, and was succeeded by
the king’s secretary _Sampràdi Kèshavapulla_. This ambitious young
man assumed the name of the Indian Bacchus, _Devanishi_, and exacted
from the subjects exorbitant taxes, in order to increase the public
revenue, and ingratiate himself with the king. During the contest,
in which we were involved with the rebellious Christians of St.
Thomas, in the year 1787, he imposed on the missionary establishment
at _Verapole_ a tribute of 500 crowns. The king, however, had long
before remitted this tax; but we had no written document to adduce
as a proof. _Devanishi_, just at this time, took it into his head to
send to _Verapole_ six soldiers, under a petty officer, with orders
to confine the apostolic vicar, Louis Maria à Jesu, to his apartment,
and to guard him there till the 500 crowns were paid. The bishop
having informed me, by a note, of his arrest, I immediately repaired
to the king, who at that time was at _Perimannùr_, not far from
_Angicaimal_. As _Devanishi_ knew too well that I was in great favour
with the king, he refused me the letter of introduction necessary to
obtain an audience, lest his majesty should be made acquainted with
his bad conduct. The bishop had been already two days in arrest, with
two muskets placed across each other before the door of his chamber.
In this state of distress I applied to M. Van Angelbec, and informed
him of every thing that had happened. He sent for me to his house;
and the king, as soon as I appeared, saluted me with great civility,
and we immediately entered into conversation. All the magistrates and
members of the council at Cochin, who were there assembled to pay
their respects to the king, and to settle some business respecting
the Dutch East India Company, were struck with astonishment. When
I told him that our bishop was in confinement, he seemed quite
surprised; turned instantly round to the minister, and asked who had
given such orders. The minister endeavoured to exculpate himself; but
M. Van Angelbec, interrupting him, said, that bishops ought not to be
treated in that manner. The king then caused a letter to be written
to the petty officer commanding the party by whom the bishop was
guarded, which contained an order for him to withdraw his men; and
the minister, who heard all this, seemed greatly ashamed.
Of such disagreeable disputes, in which I was involved with the
subaltern magistrates, I could relate various instances. The cause
of them was the oppression and extortion which these people were
always exercising against some of the Christian congregations. I
was constantly employed, by day as well as by night, either in
accommodating quarrels between congregations, or putting a stop
to the irregularities of the Christians, and the rapacity of the
officers of government, who endeavoured to procure money, both from
individuals and congregations, sometimes by cunning and sometimes by
open force. It may with truth be asserted, that nothing is the cause
of the eternal disputes between the Indian Christians and the Pagans,
but hatred on the part of the inhabitants, and avarice on the part of
the sovereign and his ministers, I must, however, render homage to
truth, by acknowledging that the latter do not go unpunished, when
their knavery is made known, and communicated to the king.
It is probable that a great part of the Christians of St. Thomas in
India came from Persia or Chaldea. I conclude so from the following
circumstances: 1st, because the Arabs established in India are also
foreigners; 2d, because the Jews there were originally from Persia;
3d, because the Christians of St. Thomas, as well as those of the
same sect in Persia, follow the Syrio-Chaldaic ritual; 4th, because
their bishops formerly were ordained in Persia; and, 5th, because the
Christians of St. Thomas in India, like those of Persia, were in the
earliest periods Nestorians; and because, on accurate examination,
a great similarity is observed in the worship and religious
practices of both. The rites, liturgy, ceremonies and books of these
Christians, bear evident marks of a Chaldaic or Persian extraction.
Though the Malabar dialect is at present the mother tongue of the
Christians of St. Thomas in India, they, however, employ Chaldaic
phrases when they speak of sacred and religious objects. Thus, for
example, they call God _Alaha_; the Holy Ghost, _Ruha_; the grace
of God, _Taibusa_; baptism, _Mamodisa_; the cross, _Shliva_; and
mass, _Curubana_. Had they been originally Indians, why should they
make use of such Chaldaic expressions, and not much rather of words
peculiar to the Malabar or Samscred languages? It is, therefore, not
improbable, that a considerable number of Christians went from Persia
and Chaldea to India, and united themselves to the small body of the
original Indian Christians, whose ancestors were formerly converted
to the Christian faith by the apostle Thomas at _Mailapuri_, which
they unanimously consider as the place that first gave birth to
Christianity in India. This much is certain, that all these
Christians, in the year 1502, at which period Vasco de Gama came a
second time to Malabar, were Nestorians. Some of them denied the
divinity of Christ, and could not endure images; but, on the other
hand, they shewed a greater reverence for the holy cross. They had no
other sacraments than Baptism, the Last Supper, and the Consecration
of Priests. They believed that the souls of the just were not
admitted into the presence of God before the final judgement, and
that till that period they were to remain in Eden. They employed a
kind of baptism quite different from ours; and their priests all
practised simony, as they dispensed the sacrament merely for money.
Many of the poor people were not baptised, because they were not able
to pay the fees. The sacrifice of the Mass was established according
to the manner of the Nestorians. The wine which they consecrated was
palm-wine, called by the Indians _Tàgaram_ or _Aracca_. The Host
consisted of some wheaten flour mixed with salt and oil; and it was
always let down from a hole above the altar, when the priest was
to bless it. Mass was read every Sunday, but no person was obliged
to attend it. On Sunday evening every one might eat flesh; on
Wednesdays and Fridays they ate fish or herbs; and on Shrove-Sunday
there was a general fast. Their holy water, the preparation of
which was left to the sacristan, consisted of common river water,
in which a few particles of earth, brought from the grave of St.
Thomas at _Mailapuri_, were dissolved. Their festivals always began
the preceding evening, and ended towards evening the day following.
During that time the shops were shut, and all labour ceased. Their
priests were accustomed to employ excommunication, known under the
name of _Maharon_, and which is very severe against offenders[101].
In the year 1599, these Christians, by the exertions of Alexis
Menesez, archbishop of Goa, were united to the Catholic church. As
some customs of the oriental churches were, however, introduced
among them in the council at _Udiamper_, and as they by degrees
found the arbitrary conduct of the Portuguese insupportable, they
raised a violent outcry against them; and in a tumultuary congress,
held on the 22d of May 1653, at _Alangatta_, at length formally
separated from the Catholic church[102]. A re-union was, however,
effected by the barefooted Carmelites; and at present there are, on
the coast of Malabar, as I have already observed, eighty-four Roman
Catholic, and thirty-five Schismatic congregations, the latter of
which adhere to the errors of the Jacobites. These congregations
support each other, and form a kind of Christian republic. If any
one of them is injured, they all make a common cause of it. The
clergy and elders settle all quarrels and disputes which arise among
the members of their different congregations; excommunicate the
contumacious, but with the consent of the bishop or missionary, and
exclude them from the society of the faithful. Confession and the
holy sacrament are denied to such persons; no priest dare enter their
habitations; they can be married neither publicly nor privately;
and are not allowed to be present at the _Ciata_, or festival of
commemoration, which is celebrated every year in their houses in
remembrance of deceased relations. This sentence of excommunication
is never recalled till those who lie under it have made sufficient
atonement for their sins, which must always be done before the
judgement-seat of the congregation. If the offender wishes to be
again received into the bosom of the Church, he must crave mercy on
his knees at the church-door, on a Sunday or Festival, when all the
people are assembled to public worship. The _Cassanaris_ or priests,
the _Cariacarer_ or overseers, and the _Muppenmar_ or elders, then
assemble and examine the conduct of the penitent, together with every
concomitant circumstance, and likewise the state of his property
and goods. If he is rich, he is with one voice required to pay a
_Pràcittam_, that is, a public fine; so that he must present to the
church a _Ciodana_ of lamp-oil, a large umbrella covered with red
cloth, a covering for the altar, or some other thing of the like kind
which can be used in divine service. If he has no property, a large
wooden cross is placed on his shoulders while he is kneeling at the
church-door; a human skull is put into his hand, and in that manner
he is made to creep round the church; or he is sent to _Maleatur_,
where he must do penance at the foot of the holy cross, which is said
to have been erected there by the apostle Thomas himself. Women must
bear a death’s head, or a wax-candle. When the penance is over, the
bishop, missionary, or priest gives the offender absolution in the
presence of the whole congregation by means of a whip or rod, that
the scandal which he brought on his Christian brethren may thereby be
removed[103].
The Christians of St. Thomas still celebrate their _Agapæ_, or
love-feasts, as was usual in former times. They give them the name of
_Nercia_, public vows. On such occasions they collect and store up a
great quantity of sugar-canes, rice, bananas, honey, and rice-flour,
of which they bake a certain kind of small cakes called _Appam_.
These _Appam_, or rice-cakes, are prepared publicly in an apartment
adjoining to the church. On the day of the solemnity all the people
assemble in the church-yard; and the priest, placing himself in the
door, distributes to them his blessing. They then arrange themselves
in rows, and each spreads before him a banana leaf, to supply the
place of a trencher. When this is done, the priest commands silence;
and the overseers of the church, walking through between the rows,
give to each his portion of _Appam_ and a few slices of banana. No
Christian departs without having had a share. What is left is given
to the Pagans, that they also may participate in this love-feast, and
be incited to embrace the doctrines of the Christian religion. It is
certainly an affecting scene, and capable of elevating the heart,
to behold six or seven thousand persons of both sexes and all ages
assembled, and receiving together, with the utmost reverence and
devotion, their _Appam_, the pledge of mutual union and love[104].
Christian young women, who have no property, always receive a dowery,
either from the congregation or the treasury of the church, or the
fines imposed on the rich. In general, it amounts to a thousand
_Panam_, or twenty-five scudi; but according to their circumstances
they receive sometimes no more than ten or twelve scudi, because
they are never destitute of work. Such of the clergy as do their
duty, must always keep a list of the female orphans who belong to
their parish; and they and the overseers of the church are bound
to provide them with husbands. This is never done by lot, but
according to their age; and in choosing the husbands no regard is
paid to property, but whether they lead regular lives, and are in a
condition to maintain a wife by their industry. Vanity, sensuality,
and indolence are too often characteristic properties of the European
women; but those of Malabar distinguish themselves by simplicity
of manners, diligence, and contentment[105]. I should never have
done were I here to delineate a picture of the harmless inoffensive
manners of the Christians and Pagans who live retired among the
distant mountains and forests, where they seldom have an opportunity
of becoming acquainted with the vices and shameful practices of the
Europeans. With these, however, the inhabitants of the maritime
towns are unfortunately too much infected. Many centuries ago Plato
expressed a wish, that people of virtuous morals might never settle
on the sea-coast, because it was always to be apprehended that their
good morals would be corrupted by the vices of the strangers who
arrived there. In this he was right; for we are taught by experience
that the inhabitants of a country are no where so worthless and
debauched as in places lying near the sea. In Malabar it is much
easier to keep in order fifty congregations in the interior part of
the country, than two on the sea-coast, where the inhabitants have
intercourse with the Europeans. Disturbances prevail there without
end, and break out anew at least every three years. They are to be
ascribed chiefly to their _Cassanaris_ or priests; for these men, who
are both ignorant and proud, incite the people and encourage them to
rebel against the bishop and missionaries. Had these native priests
sufficient learning; were they in any degree acquainted with their
duty; and did they know how to procure from the Pagans the least
respect, they might certainly be fit to be entrusted with the care
of Christian congregations: but unfortunately they are strangers to
these qualities, live like the irrational animals, and by these means
are the cause that their parishes are converted into dens of thieves.
The following instance will serve as a specimen of the way of
thinking of these people. The Christians of St. Thomas are accustomed
to abstain from their wives during Lent. A certain female Christian
having asked her _Cassanar_ why this custom had been introduced, the
priest replied, “That it was established by the Church, in order that
the wives of the Christians, during the above period, might sleep
with the _Cassanaris_!”
These _Cassanaris_ were the cause also of the schism which took place
in 1653. In the year 1709 they had an intention of uniting themselves
with the schismatic bishop. In 1773 they declared themselves under
the jurisdiction of the bishops of the Latin or western church; but
in 1777 they sent a request to Rome, that they might be allowed
to have bishops of their own nation. In the year 1787 they made
themselves independent of the apostolic vicar; but as I went to the
court of the king of Travancor, as well as to Cochin, in favour of
the bishops and missionaries, the rebels were punished, and again
brought under subjection[106].
Pope Clement XIV. transmitted to me by the often before-mentioned
bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, full power to
confirm newly-converted Christians, and caused it to be sanctioned
by his successor M. Louis Maria. In consequence of this authority I
confirmed, on the coast of Malabar, in the course of two years, viz.
1780 and 1781, above 20,000 persons. During that period I visited
_Angamali_, _Maleatur_, _Codomangalam_, _Molicolam_, _Puttenpalli_,
_Mageapre_, and other Christian congregations lying at a great
distance in the forests; and I can say that I was resorted to by
great numbers. The desire of obtaining confirmation went so far that
sick people were brought to the church on beds, in order that I might
administer to them the sacrament.
From what has been said, the reader may easily conceive what are
the peculiar functions of a missionary in _Malayala_. He is obliged
to instruct children; to preach, to confess, to visit churches,
and to punish and absolve, _in foro externo_, Christians who have
transgressed. He must also take care that the priests under his
inspection read their Breviary in public; that they diligently visit
their parishioners, and administer the sacraments properly: that the
overseers lay out the church money with economy; that they embezzle
none of it; and that they give a just account of it at the stated
time: that the Christians regularly attend divine worship; follow
no superstitious practices; and frequent neither the festivals nor
public processions of the Pagans: that their wives and daughters
do not lead unchaste lives; with various other things of the like
kind. These missionaries have jurisdiction at the same time over
the Christian congregations, to settle the disputes which arise
among the members, and to punish all civil crimes committed by the
Christians. Every thing that relates to marriage, family quarrels,
offences of the clergy, irreligious conduct, and even the oppression
which the Christians suffer from the Pagans, must be brought before
the tribunal of the bishop and the missionaries. Their cognizance
extends to every thing except murder and robbery. For this reason the
king of Cochin grants them the privilege of causing a large umbrella
of palm-leaves, and even sometimes a sword, to be borne before them,
in order that both Christians and Pagans may know that they are
entrusted with the power of administering justice among the former.
When the missionaries are on good terms with their congregations, the
Pagan magistrates, so far from interfering with, stand in awe of them.
The method and means employed to convert the Indians to the
Catholic religion, are as follows: The missionaries go round among
the congregations who adhere to the Latin and Syriac ritual; get
acquainted with persons in whom they can place confidence, and desire
them to give them immediate information when they hear of any Pagan
who is inclined to become a Christian. When they find out any of
this description, they give notice privately to the missionary, who
then sends him a short introduction to the Christian religion, and
perhaps a catechism, in order that he may read in it, make him self
acquainted with its contents, and perhaps get some passages of it by
heart. After this preparation he is conducted by the catechumen,
with great privacy, to the missionary, who converses with him
respecting his conduct, and endeavours to bring him over completely
to the right faith. In Malabar there are some excellent manuscripts
in verse, which on such occasions are of great service. Among these
are _Nishithaparvam_, a poem by _Giaco Mappulla_, written, against
the religion of the Pagans, and to ridicule their deities. There is
also the Life of Christ by Ernest Hanxleden; and I myself wrote a
poem under the title of _Dèvasya shashta cinha gànam_, that is, A
Hymn on the six attributes of God; and converted into verse the Life
of St. Theresa. Such works are highly gratifying to the Pagans, who
are as fond of poetry as they are of moral subjects; and produce
far more effect than the strongest persuasion and the most laboured
arguments of the missionaries[107]. If the new converts are fully
convinced of the truth of the doctrines which they have embraced,
they return from time to time and bring with them their parents,
sisters, and other relations. The missionary then baptises them in
the church during the night, and only in the presence of some trusty
persons, in order that it may be concealed, and to avoid giving
any occasion to the Pagan magistrates to make complaints against
the missionary. If he be afraid that the circumstance will not be
concealed, he sends his catechumen to _Verapole_, or some other
congregation under the Dutch government, where he will be exposed to
no danger. There he is fully instructed by the clergyman, or some
other Christian, and then baptised. It happens not unfrequently,
that some of the Pagans go to _Verapole_ of their own accord, and
cause that ceremony to be performed. Their view on these occasions
generally is to marry some Christian; to shun the persecution of
some despotic ruler; to avoid a law-suit; or to live in a happier
manner under the Dutch government. Such motives are, indeed, not pure
and disinterested; but it often happens that they are sanctified
by the blessing of God. Even if these people are not sincere in
their conversion, their posterity at least abandon the Pagan vices,
and strive to be real followers of Jesus Christ. In short, it is
customary to place such new converts in some numerous Christian
family, and to have a watchful eye over their conduct. Seldom do
any of them return to Paganism; for, according to the laws of the
Brahmans, they must be subjected to the severest punishment and
purification before they can be again admitted among their former
brethren. A _Giàdi bhrshten_, that is an apostate, who has been
unfaithful to his cast, is detested by them; and it cannot be denied
that this circumstance greatly contributes to the spreading of
Christianity. At _Verapole_, however, it is not customary to baptise
converts until they have gone through the severest probation[108].
In the two first years of my missionary charge, that is in 1777 and
1778, I had the good fortune to convert to the Catholic religion
forty-six persons, among whom there were even some protestants[109].
These were afterwards followed by more than 300. I shall say nothing
of what was done by other missionaries, who exert themselves in
the business of conversion also; but I must not omit to mention,
that a house has been built at _Verapole_ for the particular use
of the catechumens. It consists of two divisions; one destined for
persons of the male sex, and the other exclusively for females. The
former, in my time, were under the direction of _Toma Mapulla_,
who had been once a Brahman; and the latter were committed to the
care of _Vittanda Umà_, a matron of threescore. From this house 300
converts were sent out one year, and distributed among different
Roman Catholic congregations, all consisting of such newly-converted
Christians who by the Pagans are called _Marggacarer_, that is,
people who have a law. I have already said, that the number of
these Christians amounts to 100,000, without reckoning those who
reside only in the neighbourhood of Cochin. The latter are called
_Mundocàrer_, or people in white clothing, to distinguish them from
the _Tupasi_[110], who wear indeed hats and drawers, but neither
shoes nor stockings. Both these are under the protection of the
Dutch East India Company, and belong to the government of Cochin.
That they may be kept in proper order and subjection, two captains
are appointed, one of whom is placed over the _Mundocarer_, and the
other over the _Tupasi_. These captains have the right of commanding
them; but are accountable for their conduct to the governor of
Cochin. Among these people there are some very rich families; for,
at present, they are generally in better circumstances than the
Christians of St. Thomas. The cause is, that the latter employ
themselves only in agriculture, and receive very little support
from the government; whereas the former are merchants, and carry
on a considerable trade with _copra_, oil, pepper, mats, and other
productions of the country. The newly-converted Christians on the
coast of Malabar are the chief support of the Dutch East India
Company at Cochin; for, as they are protected by the government
of that place, they consider it their duty to assist it by every
possible means, and are always ready to take up arms in its defence.
These Christians are all natives of the country, and therefore have
many adherents. They not only possess palm-gardens, which are
hereditary property, but procure a great deal also by their own
industry. If they should ever undertake to effect a revolution in
favour of the king of Cochin, or the king of Travancor, they would
soon bring matters to such a state as to oblige the Dutch to leave
Cochin. But I will here repeat, that the native Indians are the
strongest support of the Europeans. The Pagans and Mahometans are
naturally enemies to the Whites, as they call the Europeans; because
they have no similarity to them, either in their external appearance,
or in regard to their manners, their religion, or their interest.
If the English and Dutch, therefore, do not endeavour to secure the
friendship of the Christians in India, on whom can they depend?
How can they hope to preserve their possessions in that remote
country[111]?
The king of Cochin sends every year to the bishop of _Verapole_ a
letter, in which he expressly forbids him to receive any of his
subjects into the catechumen house at that place, or to baptise
them. The king of Travancor threatens with imprisonment and death
every nobleman who shall quit his court to become a Christian, and
who shall afterwards fall into his hands; and indeed _Nilampulla_,
an officer of a noble family, was shot at _Arampalli_ because he
refused to renounce the religion of Jesus Christ[112]. In the year
1787 I saw four _Nayris_, or noble _Shudris_, thrown into prison
at _Tiruvandaburam_, because they would not apostatise from the
Catholic Church. _Sampradi Keshavapulla_, at that time, entered with
me into a long conversation on Fatalism, in which he endeavoured to
prove, that embracing Christianity was of no use, as the destiny of
the spiritual part of man has been determined from all eternity. He
did every thing in his power to make the above four _Shudris_ abjure
Christianity; even paid them a visit himself, and, to gain his point,
employed every possible art of persuasion. As these were not attended
with success, his substitute proceeded to coercive means, and not
only tortured the prisoners with hunger and thirst, but even caused
them to be scourged twice a-day. These heroic souls, however, were
not to be shaken, and acknowledged openly in prison the word of God;
so that _Sampradi Keshavapulla_ was at length afraid they might make
proselytes. The king was unwilling to punish them with death, because
he had been informed, several years before, by a Catholic master of
languages, who taught him English, that he never would thrive if he
executed any person for having embraced Christianity. The king was
much struck with this observation; and he had made a principle of it
which he ever after followed. As he wished still to adhere to it, the
four captive Shudris, after every thing had been tried to make them
alter their opinion, were at last transported beyond the boundaries
of _Tovala_.
In the year 1786 the civil magistrate at _Parur_ sent a party of six
soldiers to bring me before him, in order that he might be informed
why I had baptised a Pagan family, consisting of eleven persons. I,
however, got rid of the soldiers, by making oath, and immediately
writing to the king, that these persons had come to me of their own
free will, and offered to embrace the Christian religion, and that
consequently it was impossible for me to reject them. The king had
already honoured me with the _Viraciangala_, by which the magistrate
perceived that the business might involve him in more trouble than he
expected; and for that reason he let it drop. These newly-converted
Christians had by this time been sent away from _Verapole_, and
therefore they were beyond his reach. From this it appears that too
much precaution cannot be employed when attempts are made to convert
the Indians to the Christian religion: and incidents of this kind
give an able missionary a sufficient opportunity of displaying his
talents.
CHAPTER IX.
_Quadrupeds, Birds, and amphibious Animals on the Coast
of Malabar._
That there is no want of oxen and cows in India appears from the
second chapter of this work. Horses were brought hither from Arabia
and Persia. They are of small size, but strong, exceedingly swift,
and capable of enduring long fatigue[113]. I am of opinion, that all
the horses here are of Arabian or Persian extraction; because there
are none in the southern parts, and because horses of the like kind
are still brought to Malabar in Arabian ships.
Buffaloes are found here in abundance. They are employed chiefly in
cultivating the land instead of oxen, as the latter are used for
drawing waggons, and, in particular, for transporting goods. Cheese
from cow’s milk, as well as all kinds of cheese in general, is not
common in Malabar; because the inhabitants employ as food the milk
that would be required for making it. Some of the Malabar women have
indeed lately begun to make cheese, but they sell it only to the
Europeans. The assertion that the people of Malabar are unacquainted
with the method of preserving butter, is entirely groundless. The
inhabitants of the Gauts certainly understand this part of domestic
economy; and, to preserve their butter, add to it a little salt,
some aromatic herbs, and _magnel_, or Malabar saffron. This kind
of butter, which contains the noblest parts of those nourishing
herbs and plants on which the cattle feed on the mountains, has a
singularly exquisite taste[114]. The _Vaishaya_, that is, those
Indians who apply to agriculture and the breeding of cattle, are
exceedingly well acquainted with the art of curing the diseases of
animals by very simple means. This art they have learned partly from
their own experience during the course of a great many years, partly
from the _Samanæi_, and are instructed in it from their infancy[115].
Tame goats, called in the Malabar dialect _Aada_, in the Samscred
_Haga_, _Staba_, and, when red, _Menda_, _Mesza_ or _Uranna_, are
found here in great numbers. These animals are under the care of
certain shepherds named _Idaya_, who form a particular cast called
_Idayagiadi_. The _Menda_, or red goats, belong to the sacred
animals, for which the Indians entertain the utmost reverence. They
make use of them chiefly in their great festivals, known under the
appellation of _Iaga_, instituted in honour of the sun and the
planets[116].
Sheep on the coast of Malabar are exceedingly rare; for, as they bear
a great deal of wool, they cannot thrive in a climate so hot as that
of India. Goats, on the other hand, thrive remarkably well, because
they climb the steepest mountains, and every where find food. Their
hair is uncommonly beautiful. In the northern part of India there is
a kind of wild goats, from the hair of which the shawls are made.
These excellent pieces of stuff, which are manufactured at Cachemir,
excel not only the finest cloths of Persia, but even the silk stuffs
of the Chinese[117]. The Europeans in India eat a great deal of
goat’s flesh; but the native Indians, who in general have an aversion
to flesh, eat only that of kids, and even the latter they never touch
except in the time of war.
The flesh of the Malabar swine is very difficult of digestion, and
has a disagreeable taste. This is owing to their being too much
fed with pilchards, which are found on the Sea coast in the utmost
abundance. The native Christians, however, eat sometimes pork; but
they are almost always sick afterwards[118].
Of dogs there is only one kind in Malabar. They are of a large size,
not unlike our butchers’ dogs; have little hair, and can be trained
to hunting.--The ass is never reared in this country.
Elephants, which among the wild animals deserve the first rank, are
found in great number in the forests of the Gauts. In the provinces
of _Aragoshe_, _Modelacodata_, and _Maleatur_, they may be sometimes
seen in herds of 200 or 300; and it happens not unfrequently that
they destroy whole fields of rice. The inhabitants endeavour to
frighten them away, by kindling large fires and beating drums. They
are caught in pits, which are covered over with green boughs. When
an elephant falls into one of these, it sends forth such a loud cry
as astonishes all the inhabitants of the forest. Ropes and chains
are then made fast around its legs, in a very ingenious manner, and,
when drawn up, it is conveyed to a place where these animals are
generally tamed. I had an opportunity of seeing one of these places
at _Magnapre_. It consisted of three stalls: those on the right
and left were destined for two tame elephants, and the wild animal
intended to be broke was shut up in the middle one. Its food was let
down to it through the roof; for no person durst approach it till it
was completely tamed. When that was accomplished, it would drag, over
the mountains, large logs of _Teka_ wood, and throw them into the
river which conveyed them to the place of their destination. By these
means this useful animal saved us great expence, which would have
been necessary, had we caused such large trunks to be transported
to the sea-coast, through these frightful mountains, by the hands
of men. Thus has the wise providence of God taken care, that in all
countries, and under every climate, certain kinds of animals shall be
subservient to the necessities of man!
Next to the elephant in this respect may be ranked the camel. It is
found in the twenty third degree of north latitude; but it does not
properly belong to the animals which are natives of India, though it
is found there[119]. The case is the same with the lion, which is
seldom seen in these countries.
The urus belongs properly to the genus of the wild ox, and never
appears beyond the borders of the thick forests of the Gauts. It is
about ten feet high, and proportionably thick; has large beautiful
horns, and very fine hair of a silvery ash-grey colour. Its tongue
is so rough and sharp that it can peel off with it the bark from the
trees: a wonderful provision of nature, in order that it may not want
a supply of food in the time of summer when a single blade of grass
is not to be found. The urus is of such strength that it ventures
to contend with the elephant and the tyger. Of its hide the Indians
make soles to their shoes, and various other things. Its flesh,
however, is coarse, fibrous, and hard; but exceedingly wholesome and
nourishing. It has also an excellent taste; because the animal feeds
only on aromatic herbs[120].
The case is the same with the wild swine, the flesh of which has a
very agreeable aromatic taste. I here speak from experience, having
often ate of both. A wild hog killed in hunting costs a rupee;
sometimes it may be procured for two or three charges of gun-powder,
by which the huntsman thinks himself sufficiently paid, as he can
then kill another.
The above-mentioned forests serve also as a retreat for the
wolf[121], and likewise for the mountain bear, which is even fiercer
than the tyger, and more dreaded by the _Malèr_, or inhabitants of
the Gauts. If the king of Travancor could resolve to hunt these wild
animals, he would procure essential advantages both to himself and
his subjects. But this is not done, because the Indians believe in
the doctrine of transmigration. By these means, indeed, the heart
of man is inspired with softer sensations, and a stop is put to the
shedding of blood; but, on the other hand, such ideas are attended
with this bad consequence, that the number of ravenous animals is
prodigiously increased.
The rhinoceros is found here and there in India; but on the coast of
Malabar it is never seen. Of the horn, from which it takes its name,
the Indians make drinking cups and bracelets.
Of tygers I have seen three kinds in Malabar. The royal tyger, called
in the Malabar language _Caduva_ or _Parienpuli_, and in the Samscred
_Vyacra_, or _Duìbina_, is of a yellowish colour, with long black
horizontal stripes. It is as large as a two-year-old heifer; but
long, and rather of low stature. It is much scarcer than the Malabar
_Puli_ or _Cuguar_, which is the real leopard, whatever may have been
said to the contrary by Pliny and Linnæus. The _Puli_, or common
Malabar tyger, is of a yellowish colour, inclining to black, and
marked with a few perfectly black spots on the back: hence it takes
its name _Puli_, that is, the spotted animal.
The panther, which frequents the Gauts, is a kind of royal tyger, but
of a dark chestnut colour. Here and there it is marked with a few
horizontal stripes, like the royal tyger; but with this difference,
that they are considerably blacker. This animal is much fiercer than
the tyger, and pursues its enemies with the most savage ferocity.
The above-mentioned _Puli_, or Malabar tyger, is often so bold as
to enter the towns and villages. One day, in the year 1786, while I
was in the church at _Vaypur_ employed in examining the overseer’s
accounts, a _Puli_ entered the village at noon, and, in the sight
of more than 200 persons, carried off a dog which was running about
in the street, not fifteen paces from the church. After that period
the people of _Vaypur_ always took care to shut their houses at the
time they were repeating the _Ave Maria_; but with trelliced doors,
in order to admit the light. At _Badagare_, one of these _Pulis_
took from the stall a calf belonging to the _Cassanar_, while I was
sitting with him in his apartment. We, however, pursued the animal
with muskets; but were not able to overtake him, for he had seized
the calf by the throat, and, having strangled it, dragged it away
with him, and soon disappeared. Some of these animals frequently
paid me a visit at _Magnapre_, during the time of _Ave Maria_. The
Christian women were generally the first who perceived them from
their houses, and on such occasions they immediately ran into the
streets, crying out: _Acia, patti vannu, patti vannu!_ that is, Sir,
the dog is there, the dog is there! This dog, however, was always a
tyger, to which the common people give that appellation.
The animal called by Pliny a panther, by Zimmermann an ounce, and
by Linnæus a leopard, has a white skin covered with black spots;
but neither the Malabar leopard nor the panther is ever seen in
the Gauts. Those who wish to destroy a tyger conceal themselves by
night on the top of some tree, near a pond or ditch where the animal
is accustomed to drink, and in that manner shoot him. The skin is
given to the king, and the hunter always obtains a reward from the
inhabitants of the district[122].
The flying cat I have several times seen in India, particularly at
_Vaypur_, _Puttenpalli_, and _Mohatushe_. It is properly a kind of
squirrel, but as large as a cat. It has two cartilaginous wings like
the bat, and a large thick tail, which, in its flight, it uses by way
of a rudder. Its hair is exceedingly fine, and of a silver colour. It
is generally seen on the _Mava_ tree, the fruit of which serves it as
food[123].
Another animal, of a kind totally different, is the Malabar
_Marapatti_, which the naturalists call Serval. It lives also
on trees, but cannot fly like the former, and feeds only on the
coco-nut. It is a sort of polecat, which destroys poultry, and sucks
their eggs. It is also a mortal enemy to serpents; and its flesh has
an offensive smell[124].
Of deer there are various kinds in Malabar. _Kàla_ is the common
stag; _Man_ is the hind; _Pulimàn_, the white spotted axis of the
ancients. The roe-buck, with crooked horns, twisted like a vine
branch, is catted _Krshnamrgam_, and is a kind of antelope with black
hair. Another kind, called in the Malabar language _Kesza_, and in
the Samscred _Rohida_, is not larger than a goat, and has red hair.
It is in all probability the _Antelope cervicapra_ of Zimmermann[125].
In Malabar there is also a great number of bezoar goats. In the
mountainous districts of the province of _Maleatur_ they wander about
in herds; and the largest and best bezoar stones are procured from
them.
The _Kuran_ is an antelope with hair entirely black, which I never
saw but in this country[126].
The civet cat, by the Indians called _Meruva_, is found here also. I
have seen great numbers of this animal in the forests of _Cernì_ and
_Cidàcolam_.
The _Kirri_ appears to be the same animal as that which the ancients
called the Ichneumon. It is found on the coast of Malabar, and in
considerable numbers. It is a mortal enemy to the snakes, which it
torments till they twist themselves together, and lie as if in a
state of torpor, when it springs upon them, and, seizing them by the
neck, soon dispatches them. During this contest the snake raises up
half its body, erects its crest, hisses, and endeavours to wound its
antagonist; but this little animal, which is exceedingly active and
sharp-sighted, finds means to avoid the threatened blow with the
utmost dexterity, till the snake at last loses its strength, and
resigns the victory. This contest I have myself seen more than once.
The _Kirri_ has fine hair of an ash-grey colour, a thick tail, a
sharp-pointed snout, keen eyes, small ears, and is not bigger than
a large mouse. This pretty animal is very much attached to man; is
fond of playing with him; and is not soon irritated. It creeps into
every hole and corner; frequently steals eggs; lies in wait for the
bats and other night birds, and never allows any of them to remain
in the house where it resides. In Malabar there is also another
kind of ichneumon, of a red colour, and much larger than that above
described, but which can never be rendered tame[127].
The _Annan_, or small squirrel, which generally frequents the
coco-nut trees, has hair of a whitish-brown colour, with beautiful
black stripes, like the zebra, or Indian wild ass. The latter,
however, is not found on the coast of Malabar.
The _Maleannan_ is a black squirrel, which is found only on the
highest trees[128].
The _Perciali_, or _Periciaszi_, is a large mouse, called by the
Portuguese _Fossador_, because it digs every where, and occasions
great devastation.
The _Cundeli_ is another kind of mouse, which emits an agreeable
smell[129]. The _Pucia_, or common house cat, never attacks the
larger kind of mice[130]. The small hedge-hog I never saw in Malabar;
but I have seen the porcupine, in the bowels of which bezoar is said
to be found. The truth of this, however, I doubt. The flesh of this
animal has a bad taste, and is difficult of digestion[131].
Of apes there are great multitudes in the forests of _Maleatur_,
_Codamangalam_, _Badagare_, _Codolur_, and _Vaypur_. The small
white ape is called _Vellacuranga_; and the large black ape,
_natibus calvis_, _cauda prælonga_, _Coringuranga_. The latter has
a large beard; and its head is entirely covered with hair. This ape
is, in all probability, the _Faunus_ or _Silenus_ of Zimmermann.
Another, with a small tail, I consider as the _Silvanus_ of the same
naturalist. The _Rajah-keda_, or royal ape, is of a black colour, and
has a long black beard, with a ruddy countenance like a man. It is
highly valued by the Pagans; because, according to their theology, it
represents the deity _Hanuman_, the Pan of the ancients. Such apes
run about in thousands, and defend themselves when attacked[132].
The _Adibe_, called in the Malabar _Curuken_, and in the Samscred
_Gembuga_, or _Kroshtàva_, is a kind of fox or wild dog. These
animals in Malabar are exceedingly numerous. If a dead body be buried
without the walls of a church, it is in great danger of being torn by
them and devoured[133].
The Malabar wolf is called _Cenna_, and has reddish hair. The wild
cat is called _Kokàn_.
Besides the above-mentioned civet cat, or _Meruva_, there are two
other kinds of that animal; viz. the _Malaweruva_, or mountain civet
cat; and the _Naypulla_, which has a variegated skin covered with
black spots[134].
The feathered tribe in Malabar, as in other countries, are partly
wild and partly tame. Among the latter are poultry, ducks and
turkeys. The house cock, according to the Indian mythology, is
dedicated to the goddess _Bhagàvadi_, and is presented at the door
of her temple as an offering. In the time of infectious diseases,
which the Indians ascribe to that goddess, their priests and
fortune-tellers sometimes slaughter a cock on the patient’s bed, rub
his body with its blood, and mutter over certain forms of prayer;
such, for example, as _Om bhadracàli namà_: that is, “Adoration to
thee, O goddess! thou who art black and good, so be it!” or, _Hum_,
_varàhi namà_: “Adoration to thee, thou offended, angry deity!” _Om,
panciamughi yumè_: “Adoration and health to thee, O woman with the
five visages!” _Hum varàhi namà_: “Adoration to thee, O goddess, who
art formed like a wild swine, so be it!”
The _Tarava_, or tame duck, is found in great abundance in the
neighbourhood of Cochin; because in that district there are a great
many rivers, where they procure nourishment. Their flesh, however, is
almost unfit for food, as they devour too many pilchards. On board
ship these animals are kept a long time on different food before they
are killed[135]. An immense trade is carried on with these fowls in
the maritime towns of India. It gives employment, in particular, to
the Christians, Mahometans, and black Jews.
The peacock is found also in Malabar. At _Vaypur_ and _Kidacolam_ I
saw whole flocks of these fowls. They occasion great destruction in
the gardens[136].
The wild cock, called _Kattucoli_, or _Kikidiri_, is a very beautiful
animal. Its feathers are diversified with all sorts of colours, and
have a shining appearance like gold[137].
The sparrow hawk, called in the Malabar language _Paranda_, and
in the Samscred _Garhuda_, is, according to the Indian mythology,
the vehicle on which _Vishnu_ commonly rides. It is held in great
veneration, particularly by the Malabar women; and if one of these
animals snatches a fish from their hand, they consider it as a most
fortunate omen.
The falcon affords the Indian warriors an agreeable diversion, for
they train it to pursue game.
The raven, _Kaka_, is considered by the Indians as a symbol of the
human spirit after death. It is not, therefore, surprising, that in
Malabar there should be an immense number of these birds of prey,
which are exceedingly troublesome to the Europeans.
The _Cembòtta_ is as large as the raven; but has red feathers, and
eats snakes.
The _Vesbàmbel_ is a fowl not much inferior in size to the ostrich,
which devours snakes also. Father Hanxleden and Viscoping call it,
in Portuguese, _Passaro de duos bicos_; for it has two bills, one
of which is always filled with water. This water it procures in the
plains, and preserves for a long time; as nature has assigned for its
place of residence very high mountains, where scarcely any water is
to be found, and from which it seldom descends[138].
The _Magnakli_ is one of the most beautiful birds in Malabar. It is
entirely yellow, except the wings, which are black.
The bird of paradise has a very small body, but two exceedingly long
feathers in its tail[139].
_Pindàramcòli_ is the name of a water fowl, the feathers of which are
blue[140].
The _Umen_ is a kind of geir falcon, or vulture.
The Malabar bats are almost as big as chickens. They have large
wings, terrible claws, and their whole bodies are covered with hair.
Their head is shaped somewhat like that of a horse. The people
of Malabar use them as food, and I myself have ate of them with
pleasure. Their flesh is dry, and tastes almost like that of the
hare[141].
Parrots, of all colours, forms and sizes, are found in Malabar in
immense numbers. They and the apes are real plagues to the districts
which they frequent; for they rob and steal wherever they come.
_Càda_ is the name of the Indian quail.--The snipe is found in the
marshy districts of _Ciranga_ and _Puducurici_.
In the Gauts there is a kind of black-bird, the body of which is
totally black; but its head is covered with a hood of a bright yellow
colour, which represents a small crown. This bird, on account of the
excellence of its song, is held in the highest estimation by the
inhabitants[142].
_Ciula_ is the wood-pigeon with greenish feathers; _Ciangalli_, the
turtle-dove; _Koca_, the crane. The flat parts of India swarm, as one
may say, with these animals.
The _Gnara_, or _Garça real_, is a kind of ibis, but larger than the
crane. The Indians, however, entertain no particular respect for
these birds; but they do not drive them away from their rice fields,
which they frequent in large flocks, and destroy the insects and
other vermin.
One of the most remarkable birds in India is that called in the
Malabar language _Olamàri_, in the Hinduvee _Bajà_, and in the
Samscred _Berbera_. It is of the size of the European sparrow, or
at least not much larger. This bird constructs its nest in a very
curious manner, with the long fibres of plants, or dry grass; and
suspends it by means of a kind of cord, nearly half an ell in length,
from the extremity of an exceedingly slender branch of some tree,
in order that it may be inaccessible to snakes and other animals
which might destroy its eggs or its young. This hanging nest, though
agitated by the wind, is so strongly secured that it never sustains
the least injury. The interior part of it consists of three neat
apartments or divisions. The first, which forms the forepart, is
occupied by the male; the second is destined for the female; and
the third contains the young. In the first apartment, where the
male always keeps watch while the female is hatching the eggs, a
little tough clay is found stuck against one side of it, and in the
top of this clay a glow-worm, which serves to afford light in the
night-time. These birds feed upon insects. Their head and feet are
yellowish; the body is of a dark yellow, and the breast is whitish.
They chiefly frequent the coconut trees, in which I observed the
greater part of their nests[143]. I had five of them in a chest,
which I was desirous of carrying with me to Europe; but as they
occupied too much room, I was obliged to leave them[144].
Among the amphibious animals of this country, are the _Nirna_,
or Malabar otter; the _Nirpucia_, a kind of water-cat; and the
_Nìrudumba_, a water salamander, called by the Portuguese _Talagoya
de agoa_. The salamander properly so called, which is a large black
lizard, from three to four palms in length, known by the natives of
Malabar under the name of _Udumba_, is found only in the woods. Its
flesh has an exquisite taste, forms a wholesome kind of food, and is
much relished by the Indians. The water lizard is of a black colour
also, but not so large.
The _Cicanni_, or _Scinco_, is a small crocodile, or rather large
lizard, four or five palms in length. It is of a dark brown colour,
and found for the most part in ponds or other stagnant water not far
distant from palm-gardens and rice-fields: but it is sometimes seen
on land, and consequently belongs to the class of amphibious animals.
The _Mudela_, or proper crocodile, which is also an amphibious
quadruped, is of all colours. It eats not only fish, but also dogs,
calves, and other animals; and even men, if they approach too near
it. Almost all the rivers in Malabar are full of these monsters.
I have seen several of them which were larger than a wild ox or
buffalo. Some of them are of a brown and greenish colour; others
brown and bright red; and the most of them are larger than the
Egyptian crocodile, which appears to me to be longer, but not so
thick. The crocodile belongs to the sacred animals of the Indians,
and has particular temples erected to it. Formerly, a person accused
of any crime was made to walk, in the presence of the Brahmans,
through a river frequented by a _Mudela_. If he got through in
safety, he was declared innocent. The _Mudelas_ are caught by means
of an iron hook, to which a piece of flesh is fastened. When the
animal is hooked, it is dragged to the bank with a strong rope.
Neither the crocodile nor the tyger ever attack man till pressed by
hunger; but this is not often the case, as they are accustomed to
eat a great deal at one time. In the head of the _Mudela_ is found
a yellow kind of musk, which emits a strong smell, and which is
used by the Pagans for painting the sacred marks on their forehead.
The following anecdote may serve as a proof how much these animals
are to be dreaded. A woman in the eighth month of her pregnancy,
being one day busily employed in washing at the river _Edacoci_, a
crocodile approached her imperceptibly, which it could do with the
greater ease, as these animals always swim with their head raised
only a very little above the surface of the water. As soon as the
monster got within reach, he made a sudden spring at the poor naked
woman, and tore the unborn child from her body. She was immediately
conveyed to a neighbouring church; but she soon after expired. The
large crocodile is called, in the Samscred language, _Shishumàra_;
the small one, _Cumbhìra_; the otter, _Udru_; the tortoise, _Curma
Camada_, or _Caciàba_; and the salamander, _Gòdha_. Those who wish to
study the natural history of India, must make themselves acquainted
with these names[145].
CHAPTER X.
_Seas, Rivers, Vessels used for Navigation, Fish, Shellfish, and
Serpents in India._
The whole sea-coast from Surat to Cape Comari is inhabited by
fishermen, who, because they belong to the despised or rather lowest
casts, dare not settle in the interior part of the country, and
are consequently obliged to construct habitations for themselves
on the sea-coast, or in the neighbourhood of harbours, rivers, and
other streams of water. These people are almost all Christians; a
small number of them only are Pagans and Mahometans. The latter
were induced to embrace Mahometanism by the Arabs, who established
themselves there in the eighth and ninth centuries; the former were
converted to the Christian faith by the Franciscans, Dominicans,
Jesuits, and bare-footed Carmelites. As most foreigners who visit
India travel along the sea-coast, and have no opportunity of going
far into the interior parts, they form an opinion of the country
and its inhabitants from the manners, customs, laws, peculiarities,
and fabulous relations of these fishermen. Hence the unfounded,
ridiculous, partial and insipid tales respecting the Indians, which
have been spread throughout all Europe. The _Mucarèr_ (fishermen,
or, according to the literal meaning of the word, people who dive
under water), _Paravas_, _Ciànas_, _Tupasis_, _Mestizes_, _Creoles_,
and other inhabitants of the sea-coast, are certainly incapable of
giving any authentic information respecting India; as they never saw
the interior part of the country, and dare enter into conversation
neither with the nobility nor the Brahmans. This regulation is
founded on the religious system and political constitution of the
Indians.
The sea, in the Samscred language, is called _Samudra_, _Abdhi_,
_Sàgara_, _Arnavà_, _Ambudhi_, and _Udadhi_; but, in the Malabar,
_Cadel_. According to the poetical fables of the Indians, there are in
this world _Sapta Sagara_, that is, seven seas. The first, named in the
Samscred _Kshìròda_, consists merely of milk; the Second, _Lavonoda_,
of salt; the third, _Suroda_, or _Sura_, of coco-nut juice; the fourth,
_Dadhimaṅòda_, of water which separates itself from the sour milk; the
fifth, _Ikshùda_, of water from the sugar-cane; the sixth, _Svavduda_,
of fresh water; and the seventh, _Navanidàmbudhi_, of fresh butter. In
the centre of these seas lies the island _Gembhu_, that is, the globe
which we inhabit. The English have promised to explain this allegorical
system in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches; and I shall not,
therefore, dispute with them that honour.
The Brahmans are not ignorant that the sea, under the equator, is
much salter than towards the poles; but they explain this physical
phenomenon by a very ridiculous fable, for they say that _Cashyaba_,
one of their _Munis_ (who is nothing else than the star which we
call _Canopus_), lets his urine fall into the sea under the equator,
which is never the case in the neighbourhood of the north pole. The
real cause why it was established by the all-wise Creator of the
world, that the sea at the equator should contain a greater quantity
of salt than elsewhere, and that it should be exposed to greater
agitation from its flux and reflux, and also from strong currents,
winds and storms, was undoubtedly to prevent the atmosphere from
being corrupted and impregnated with infectious vapours in so hot
a climate, and to render that part of the world as agreeable a
residence for man as either of the poles, where, on account of the
severity of the cold, no corruption can take place.
The principal and most remarkable rivers in India are the _Ganga_ or
_Ganges_; the _Sindhu_, which the Europeans very improperly call the
_Indus_; the _Jamunà_, called improperly also by the Greeks and the
Romans the _Jomanes_, or _Djemma_; the _Rèvà_; the _Sharavadi_; the
_Vaitravadi_; the _Ciandrabbàga_; the _Sarayuvà_; the _Sarasuadi_;
the _Devi_ or _Deva_; the _Caveri_, and the _Collàru_. All these
Samscredo-Indian appellations have been corrupted by foreigners.
Those not acquainted with the original languages of India must be
much bewildered when they cast their eye on the maps of India. To
be convinced that the above names have been totally disfigured, one
needs only look at D’Anville’s _Antiquités Géographiques de l’Inde_,
or Tiefenthaler’s and Rennel’s maps.
The importance of this point, which tends so much to throw light
on the history of India, makes it necessary for me to correct the
errors of these writers. The Brahman book, _Amarasinha_, which the
Indians hold in high esteem, according to the testimony of Sir
William Jones, Wilkins, Anquetil du Perron, and Davis, contains,
besides other things, in the division entitled _Samudravargga_, a
description of the principal rivers in India. The author begins with
the Ganges, which in the Samscred language is distinguished by the
following names: _Ganga_, _Vishnuvadi_, _Gehnutanayà_, _Suranimnaga_,
_Bhaguirathi_, _Tisròda_, _Bhishmasù_. After these come the names of
the river _Jamunà_; which are, _Jamunà_, _Càlini_, _Suryatanayà_,
_Shamanasuasà_. Then those of the _Rèvà_; viz. _Rèvà_, _Nammadà_,
_Somolbbavà_, _Mèghala_, _Canyagà_, _Karatoyà_, _Sadanirà-bahudà_,
_Saidavahini_. These Samscred names are accompanied with the
following Brahman observation, written in the common dialect of
Malabar: _Vindyattinguelnina purapetta Revajede per_; that is,
names of the river _Rèvà_, which has its source in, and springs
from the mountain _Vindhia_. We next find the names of the river
_Sarajuvà_; viz. _Shududri_, _Shadrada_, and _Sarajevà_, with the
following gloss: _Himavànguelnina purapetta Sarayùvinde per_; that
is, names of the river _Sarayùvà_, which has its source in, and flows
from the _Hima_. And after these the names of the river _Dèva_;
viz. _Vipàshà_, _Vipal_, and _Dèva_. On this occasion the Brahman
glossographer says: _Sanhjattinguelnina purapetta Dèvadajede per_;
that is, names of the river _Dèva_, which has its source in, and
flows from the mountain _Sanhya_. The names of the next five most
remarkable rivers are then mentioned; viz. _Sharavadi_, _Vetravadi_,
_Ciandrabhagà_, _Sarasvadi_, and _Caveri_; but not a word is said in
the gloss respecting their origin. All these different appellations
are contained in three Indian manuscripts, which I have now before
me. I must, however, observe, that there is no gloss in the Samscred
text of the _Amarasinha_, which is written in _Shlogas_, or distinct
paragraphs; but it is found in all the other Samscred manuscripts of
this work, which the Brahman literati have explained word by word. I
have in my possession a copy of this kind, written on palm-leaves;
and that it is genuine, no one who understands the Brahman characters
will entertain the least doubt. It is evident that the above
passage, which I have quoted from the _Amarasinha_, is of the utmost
importance; for it makes us acquainted with the sources of the three
largest rivers in India, which have hitherto been confounded by
geographers. This will appear from what follows:
I. Some consider the Ganges as the _Sarayuvà_, which Anquetil du
Perron calls _Sarjou_. Instead, therefore, of distinguishing two
large rivers, they mention only one, and give it the name of the
Ganges. This great error is observed in all the maps of India. Father
Tiefenthaler is the only author who has avoided it. De l’Isle, for
example, in his _Carte des Indes à Paris_ 1781, makes the Ganges and
another river take their source from one lake, and says: _Rivière qui
fort du même lac que le Gange; elle arrose le Royaume de Thibet_. He
then shews how the Ganges directs its course through India; but does
not speak a word of the _Sarayuvà_, which, however, is one of the
large rivers of that country.
II. Father Tiefenthaler and Anquetil du Perron were the first who
made a distinction between the Ganges and the _Sarayuvà_; who
assigned to each of these rivers a different source, and traced out
their proper courses. It is, however, here worthy of remark, that
the _Brahmaputra_ ridge of mountains, in which these two geographers
make the _Sarayuvà_ or _Sardjou_ take its rise, is called, in the
before-mentioned _Amaràsinha_, the mountain _Himala_. We thence find
that the Ganges is quite a different river from the _Sarayuvà_;
and we at the same time learn the real situation of the mountain
_Himala_, the _Imaus_ of the Greeks; for, according to Tiefenthaler’s
map, the _Sarayuvà_ has its source in the latitude of 35° north,
and the longitude of 78°; but according to M. De l’Isle’s map, in
the latitude of 34°, and the longitude of nearly 100°. We observe
farther, that the two appellations of the same river, which the old
Brahman catalogue in the _Amarasinha_ calls in the Samscred language
sometimes _Sarajuvà_, and sometimes _Shadrada_, have been changed
into _Sardjou_ and _Gagra_.
III. Tiefenthaler and Anquetil make, of the two streams _Sarayuvà_
and _Dèva_, only one, as may be seen in the before-mentioned map.
This is a very gross error; for, according to the book _Amarasinha_,
the _Dèva_ not only has a different name, but a totally different
origin. This river takes its source in the mountain _Sanhya_, and
in the Samscred language is called also _Vipasha_ and _Vipal_; both
which appellations belong to the _Dèva_ alone, and consequently
cannot be given to the _Sarayuvà_.
IV. We find likewise that the _Rèva_, which others very improperly
call the _Ravì_ or _Revi_, flows down from the ridge of mountains
called _Vindhya_. These are the _Vinidi Montes_ of Strabo and
Ptolemy, which were seen at a distance by the troops of Alexander
the Great. Hence there is reason to conjecture, with some degree of
probability, that Alexander, though he crossed the _Rèva_, did not
penetrate so far as the _Jamunà_. Had the case been otherwise, this
river would have been mentioned, by historians, among those which
Alexander’s army passed; for it was exceedingly well known to the
ancients under the name of _Jomanes_. But, as they observe perfect
silence in this respect, it may with certainty be admitted, that the
Macedonian hero, whose deeds have been so highly extolled, saw and
reduced to obedience only a very small part of India.
V. The word _Sindhu_, in the Samscred language, signifies the sea;
from which it appears, that this appellation does not properly belong
to the whole of the river called the _Sindhu_, _Sandus_, _Indus_, and
_Hendo_; and that it can be applied to it only where it discharges
itself into the sea. In the old Brahmanic writings this river is
called the _Rèva_; for towards the north east, in the latitude of
30° north, and the longitude of 34°, the _Rèva_ forms the principal
stream of the _Sindhu_. It does not flow from Thibet, nor from the
mountains _Imau_, _Parvada_, or _Parapomiso_, as some pretend, but
from the _Vindhya_ mountains, lying in the latitude of 34°, and the
longitude of 94°. These mountains, however, are to be found neither
on De l’Isle’s map, nor in that of D’Anville.
VI. In the last place, we here see that in the Samscred language the
_Rèva_ is distinguished by several names, which geographers have
considered as belonging to so many different rivers, and therefore
they have mentioned a considerable number which never existed. Thus
M. De l’Isle speaks of a river in the latitude of 25°, to which he
gives the name of _Dimadee_. He has been led into this mistake by the
corrupted orthography of the word _Namadà_, an appellation given to
the _Rèva_, and which means that river alone. Such is the case when
writers do not understand the languages of India, and are not able to
procure accurate information by reading Indian works! The Samscred
names of the principal Indian rivers may be found, however, in
Biscoping’s dictionary. The _Rèva_, _Jamunà_, _Ganges_, _Sarayuvà_,
and _Caveri_, are considered by the Indians as sacred; and, according
to their belief, purify from their sins all those who bathe in them.
The different kinds of vessels employed for navigation on the coast,
and in the rivers of Malabar, are the following:
1st, _Candimaram_. It consists of two pieces of wood closely joined,
and strongly fastened together. With this frail and simple vessel the
Indians venture even out to sea. It is indeed often overset; but,
as the person who directs it rows quite naked, and on his knees, he
soon clambers back into his _Candimaram_, and escapes the fury of the
waves[146].
2d, _Toni_, _Mangi_, or _Vallam_. These are canoes, which consist of
the trunk of a tree made hollow.
3d, _Ciangada_. This is the name given to a certain number of planks
joined together so as to form a kind of raft.
4th, _Cemboca_. Is a broad boat or wherry, perfectly flat at the
bottom.
5th, _Pàrram_. This is also a kind of wherry, nearly of a square
form, and so narrow at the top that the aperture through which people
enter it is scarcely a foot in diameter. These vessels are built on
this construction, because they are employed for transporting the
_nella_ and other articles, which would be infallibly spoiled if the
sea-water should find admittance into them.
6th, _Koppel_ or _Padava_. This is the name given in the Malabar
language to large ships which have from two to three masts, and are
furnished with anchors, ropes, and sails. In the Samscred language
they are called _Nau_, _Pòda_, and _Janapàtra_.
The observation often repeated, that the Indians make little use of
nails or iron-work in building their ships, is perfectly just. They
can, indeed, dispense with both; for they join the planks together
with the greatest ingenuity; pay the seams with different kinds of
dissolved gum; and fill them up with the fine fibres of the coco-nut
tree, so as to be impenetrable to the water. On the outside they daub
them over with oil procured from pilchards and other fat substances,
which render the wood smooth, and at the same time defend it from
the saline particles of the sea-water, and from being destroyed by
worms[147]. The properties of the magnet are at present as well
known to the Indians as to other nations; but that they employed
the compass in very early periods, is much to be doubted. It is
probable that they then directed their course at sea by the monsoons,
and the motion of the heavenly bodies. Many of the Arabs, however,
still venture to cross the open sea to India without the help of
the compass. And, indeed, when it is considered that the Indian sea
during one half of the year is perfectly calm and still--that the
sun remains only a short time below the horizon--that the nights are
exceedingly serene, because the brightness of the stars is never
obscured by thick vapours or clouds--that the wind blows invariably
from one quarter, and that the currents never change their course, it
will readily appear that such a passage may be attempted and happily
effected without the help of that useful instrument.
The Indians are abundantly supplied with fish of all kinds. The
whale, which they call _Cadelàna_, that is the sea elephant, is not
uncommon in these seas. It may be frequently seen at Cape Comari,
and on the neighbouring coast. Some years ago a whale was driven by
the tide into the river at Cochin; and as it remained there till the
ebb tide, it was not able to return. It, therefore, proceeded up the
stream; but it soon got into shallow water, and was killed by the
Indians.
The _Souffleur_, a large fish of the like kind, is called in the
Malabar language _Turàva_. It received this name because it always
spouts up water through its nostrils, so that it rises as if from two
springs. It is said to be a great enemy of the whale. For farther
particulars respecting it I shall refer the reader to a work of the
celebrated Professor Schneider, published at Leipsic in the year
1795, under the title of _Collections towards a Natural History of
the different kinds of Whales_. The author describes there all the
species of this fish, together with their distinguishing characters
and properties[148].
The _Wallrus_, the isinglass-fish, and the sturgeon, are not found in
the Indian Seas.
The _Cadapami_, or sea-swine, is called so with great propriety, as
it has really a snout like that of a swine. Its flesh is tough, oily,
and difficult of digestion; and for that reason is not much used by
the natives of Malabar.
The sea-horse, called in the Malabar language _Cadelcudira_, the
hippopotamus of the ancients, is also seen sometimes in the Indian
Seas.
The _Tirada_, is the well-known salmon, a delicate fish, which
frequents the sea, as well as the streams and rivers. It is caught in
such abundance in Malabar, that I have often purchased from four to
six pound of it for two Cochinese _Panam_, which are equal in value
to about four Roman _Bajocchi_. At this rate three men for a _Paolo_
may procure a day’s maintenance, even including rice.
Pilchards are caught in such immense quantities on the coast of
Malabar, that the Indians often do not know how to employ them. They
feed their ducks, dogs, and swine with them; and even mix them among
the dung used as manure for their coconut trees. Were not the Indians
too lazy to salt these fish, they might carry on a very considerable
trade with them[149].
_Muri_, or oysters, are exceedingly plenty in the rivers near Cochin
and Collam. I have often purchased 300 of them for a _Panam_ (about
six-pence sterling). They are fished up in the same manner as the
pearl muscles. The fishermen repair to a place where the sea is not
too deep, and make fast their canoes to two posts. One of them then
ties a rope round his body, and dives under the water with a basket.
When he has filled his basket with oysters, he makes a signal to his
companion, who remained in the canoe, to draw him up; and while he
is doing so, the one who is bringing up the oysters assists him by
clambering up one of the posts.
The _Palagamim_, or sea-bream, is of a shining colour like gold, but
has a bad taste.
The _Neymin_, or oil-fish, is from three to four palms in length, and
has an excellent taste, but is somewhat difficult of digestion. The
_Karimim_, or stone-fish, appears to me to be the European sea-bream.
The _Ayla_, called in Portuguese _Cavala_, has a good taste when
fresh; but, when salted, becomes like the herring.
The Indian eel is very delicious; but too fat, and consequently
difficult of digestion.
The _Tirandi_, or roach, has an exceedingly good taste, though not
nearly so large as the roaches sold at Rome.
The _Anicannen_ and _Kòlen_ are both small fish of a bad quality.
The tench, pike, and mackarel are also caught on the Malabar coast;
but I do not find their names in Father Hanxleden’s dictionary.
The _Ettamin_ is in all probability the red sea-bream.--Soles and
flat fish are no where so good as at _Collam_ and _Angenga_.
The tortoises, which inhabit the sea, as well as the rivers, are here
of considerable size. I have seen some of them which weighed forty
pounds. The people of Malabar, however, do not eat the tortoise; and
if one of them enters a house, they consider it as a bad omen.
The Xiphias, or sword-fish, is caught in great abundance in the
Indian seas.--The barbel is found only in rivers which the water of
the sea never enters.
Crabs, called in the Malabar language _Gnanda_, and in the Samscred
_Carchidaga_, are poisonous in October and November; for about that
period the poisonous aquatic plants, such as the blue tithymal, or
wolf’s milk, grow up; and as these animals feed upon them, they are
rendered so poisonous as to occasion death to those who eat them.
It would be therefore proper, that in Malabar, as is the case in
the Isle of France, a law were made to prohibit crabs being caught
during these two months. M. Passavant the Danish factor at Calicut,
Father Louis Maria à Jesu, now a bishop, and myself, once happened to
be in company, and to eat of these animals. The other two gentlemen
each ate two of them; but I contented myself with one. Three hours
after, M. Passavant became pale as death, and was seized with so
violent a vomiting, that we absolutely thought he would have expired.
Father Louis Maria was attacked with vertigo; all the veins in his
body were swelled; his face, lips, and hands became blue, and he
experienced an oppression at the heart which threatened to prove
fatal. I immediately gave him some theriac, which the missionaries
generally carry about with them, and sent for a barber to bleed him.
In regard to myself I was seized with a giddiness and vomiting, the
latter of which I endeavoured to provoke. This accident, and others
of the like kind, which frequently happen in this country, ought to
serve as a caution to those who travel through Malabar, not to eat
crabs there during the summer months. The case is the same with some
kinds of fish. At Cochin and the neighbouring districts the water
also is exceedingly unwholesome. The natives of Malabar are not so
fond of springs as they are of their _Colam_ or ponds, from which
they draw the water they use as drink. As it, however, contains too
much marine salt and calcareous particles, if it be not properly
filtred, it gradually produces such bad effects on the body, as to
make the feet of those who drink it swell up in an extraordinary
manner. I have seen some of these people whose legs were as thick
as the body of a full-grown man. The most beautiful women at Cochin
have sometimes feet like an elephant[150]. Rich people cause their
water for drinking to be brought, for the most part, from the _Feira
d’Alva_, which is very pure, and has an excellent taste.
When a Malabar king, prince, or great man dies, the _Mucaver_ must
for some time give over fishing; and, as a signal that it is then
prohibited, branches of trees are always stuck up here and there on
the banks of the rivers. They are generally suffered to remain eight
or ten days, in order that the soul of the deceased during that time
may choose for itself a new habitation in the body of some fish.
* * * * *
SHELL-FISH.--The sea hedge-hog is found at Collam, and other places
on the coast; but it is much larger than at the Cape of Good Hope
and the Isle of France. These animals adhere so fast to the rocks
and stones, that it is almost impossible to detach them. On one
side they are covered with black, sharp prickles, which serve them
as a defence against their enemies; on the other is observed a round
smooth aperture, which supplies the place of a mouth, and through
which, by means of a few tender hollow fibres, they receive their
nourishment. When they are sated with food, they attach themselves
to the rocks with these fibres so fast that a knife is necessary to
disengage them. When they are desirous of removing from one place
to another, they use their prickles instead of oars, and swim along
the surface of the sea with great ease, so that they almost have the
appearance of black balls.
The sea-star is found in great abundance in the ocean to the east
of Cochin. These animals, like other kinds of fish, form themselves
into a sort of society; for it is very rare to see one of them alone.
They swim in shoals at the surface of the water, and always direct
their course according to the wind: their movement, however, is
scarcely perceptible. They have a few small suckers, through which
they receive their nourishment, and which they contract as soon as
they are touched. Their stomach, from which the nourishing juices are
conveyed to the smallest vessels, is probably in the centre of their
body, where all their points are united. They have neither eyes nor
mouth; but a most delicate sense of feeling, which supplies the place
of sight.
On the rocks near the sea there are found also a kind of testaceous
animals called in Italian _Ballani_, which are of a flesh colour, and
have an excellent taste. Their shell has the form of a half-blown
tulip.
The pipe coralline, _Tubipora_, has almost the appearance of a leaf
covered with prickles.--At Collam there are found also various kinds
of Turbinites.
* * * * *
SNAKES.--The commonest, though not the most poisonous kind of
these animals, found in Malabar, is the _Nallapamba_, that is, the
beautiful snake. It is so called, because it has hanging round its
neck two pieces of skin, which shine like a pair of spectacles, and
which it can extend over its head like a hood or cap. Of this snake
there are several varieties. One has a complete cap at both sides of
the head, and is called _Padamuliaven_: another is furnished with
this cap only on one side, and is called _Ottapadaven_. A third kind
has a complete cap, but is much smaller than the other two, and
is the most poisonous of all. When these snakes attack a man, or
fight with the _Kirri_, they raise themselves up in a perpendicular
direction; turn round on their tail, whistle, move the upper part
of their body from side to side, and in that manner endeavour to
wound their antagonist. Some of these snakes are from three to four,
others from six to eight palms in length; but the smallest, which
the Indians call _Caytolacurungni_, is, as already said, the most
poisonous. A person bit by it dies generally in three or four hours;
but this depends on the place where the wound has been inflicted,
whether in any of the nobler parts of the body from which the poison
is conveyed sooner to the heart. With theriac of Poictiers, and the
antidote of Madura, I have cured more than fifty persons who had
been bitten by serpents of this kind. When I took charge of such
patients, I caused them, above all things, to be kept under a very
warm covering, and both the doors and windows to be carefully shut,
that no cool air might touch them. As I knew from experience that
the poison communicates to the blood a deadly coldness, by which
it is curdled, I made my patients frequently drink warm water, and
gave them two or three doses of theriac or the Madura antidote.
If a perspiration followed, and if their breathing became freer,
I continued the same treatment, making them take theriac and warm
water. If the whole mass of the blood, however, was already infected,
my method of cure failed, and the patients infallibly died. The
previous symptoms were blueness of the lips and around the eyes;
the face became of a dark brown and white colour, and all the limbs
turned rigid. The most effectual remedies which can be used in such
cases are, eau de luce, and caustic alkali. These spirituous things,
however, are difficult to be procured in India; because they soon
evaporate, and cannot be preserved. The natives of Malabar generally
employ the _Alpam_ root, and pulverised _Amelpori_: they also bind
up the wounded part, and cauterise the wound with a red-hot iron.
The latter process is of little or no use; and for that reason this
poison proves mortal to so many people, who might perhaps be saved by
a different treatment.
The description given by the ancients, of the aspis, agrees
exceedingly well with this serpent, and there is reason to conclude
that it is the same animal[151]. The wild swine, and different kinds
of fowls, however, eat them; but they always leave the head. It is
not improbable, that the _Kirri_ destroys this snake, because it
sucks eggs in the same manner as it does, lies in wait for mice and
bats, and consequently deprives it of its food; but, when killed, the
_Kirri_ is satisfied, and leaves it untouched. It may be rendered
as tame as any domestic animal, if a little milk and sugar be daily
placed before it, as is done in Malabar. It comes then every day
at certain hours to eat its food; never offers the least injury to
any one; and suffers itself to be taught various tricks. I saw this
pastime several times, in the house of the _Pennicare_ at _Verapole_,
and was no longer astonished at the art of the ancient priests, who
are said to have been acquainted with the method of taming snakes
also. When these snakes arrive at any place where there are a great
many poultry, they unite together, and range themselves in order of
battle against the enemy. In this respect they seem to be guided
by the same instinct which induces the buffaloes, as soon as they
discover a tyger, to form themselves into a circle, with their hind
parts squeezed close together, and thus to present their horns to
the ravenous animal. This snake is fond of frequenting gardens where
there are pineapples, by the smell of which it seems to be attracted.
On the other hand, all snakes, without exception, fly from burning
sulphur, and from all plants, roots, and vegetables which emit a
strong smell.
Another poisonous snake is, by the natives of Malabar, called
_Velliketten_, or _Vallumi_, and by some of the Europeans the ringed
snake, because it has several white rings around its body. It is,
however, only two palms in length, and as thick as the finger, but
exceedingly poisonous. People, therefore, cannot be too much on their
guard against this animal, for it enters sitting apartments, and
creeps not only under tables and chairs, but even under the beds.
The spotted snake, called _Maudali_, is totally different from the
_Anelli_, with which it is confounded by Father Vincentius à Sancta
Catherina, who has given a description of it in the eighth chapter of
the fourth book of his Voyage to the East Indies.
The snake _Ettadimuken_ is called by the Portuguese _Cobra de oitto
passos_, because it always contracts itself together, and then
springs forwards eight paces.
The _Cerattapàmba_, that is, the springing snake, is of a small
size, perfectly white; always holds its head erect, and, when it
moves, forms its body into a bow. I found snakes of this kind on the
mountains of _Maleatur_, where they conceal themselves under the
fallen leaves.
_Tevi_ is the name of a beautiful, small, striped snake, which hurts
nobody. When one of this kind is killed, a great many of the same
species resort to the place, and remain in the neighbourhood till
their dead companion is removed. However incredible this circumstance
may appear, it is certain that an instance of it occurred at the
seminary of _Ambalacatti_, in the presence of at least thirty
persons. I have several times been on the point of killing one of
these snakes; but the Christians, as well as Pagans, always requested
me for Heaven’s sake not to do it, else it would be impossible for
them to remain in their houses, on account of the great number of
snakes which would assemble from all quarters, and which they would
not get rid of for several days. I shall leave it to naturalists to
explain this singular phenomenon.
_Malapàmba_, or _Perimpàmba_, the mountain-snake, found in the Gauts,
is altogether of a dark-brown colour; from thirty to forty feet in
length, and as thick as a fed ox. It has no teeth; but it devours
dogs, deer, cows and other animals, which it seizes by twisting
itself round their bodies. The existence of this monstrous animal
is beyond all doubt; for some of them have been seen at _Vaypur_,
_Cagnarapalli_, and other places. Sometimes they are swept down from
the mountains by the violence of the streams. I myself caused a
snake of this kind to be caught, and sent it as a present to M. de
l’Ormier. It was fifteen feet in length. If a person takes a spoonful
of the fat of this snake, and drinks warm water afterwards, it expels
the leprosy. I have in my possession a bottle filled with it.
The _Irutalakuszali_ is a snake with two heads, whatever Charleton
and others may say to the contrary. In Portuguese it is called _Cobra
de duas cabeças_, and in Latin the _Amphisbæna_. M. Rosier, the
commandant at Collam, shewed me two snakes of this kind, which he
preserved in a glass jar. I saw one of them also in the mountains
of _Maleatur_. It is a palm or a palm and a half in length; has the
colour of withered leaves; and does not, like other snakes, creep
straight forwards, but always rears one of its heads, and makes an
arch with its body when it moves. Its bite always occasions a tumour
filled with venom; but the poison acts very slowly, so that it is
seldom or never too late to apply a remedy[152].
The most poisonous and most dangerous of all the Malabar serpents
is called the _Rudhiramandali_. This Samscred word implies that it
is spotted, and that its poison forces the blood from the bodies of
those whom it wounds; for _Rudhira_ signifies blood, and _Mandali_
ornamented with spots. The dreadful effect of its poison is described
by Lucan in the following lines:
Deeply the fierce _Hæmorrhoïs_ imprest
Her fatal teeth on Tullus’ valiant breast:
The noble youth, with Virtue’s love inspir’d,
Her, in her Cato, followed and admired;
Mov’d by his great example, vow’d to share,
With him, each chance of that disastrous war.
And as when mighty Rome’s spectators meet
In the full theatre’s capacious seat,
At once, by secret pipes and channels fed,
Rich tinctures gush from every antique head;
At once ten thousand saffron currents flow,
And rain their odours on the crowd below:
So the warm blood at once from every part
Ran purple poison down, and drain’d the fainting heart;
Blood falls for tears, and o’er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted passage trace:
Where’er the liquid juices find a way,
There streams of blood, there crimson rivers stray;
His mouth and gushing nostrils pour a flood,
And even the pores ooze out the trickling blood;
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d,
And the whole body seems one bleeding wound[153].
In this horrid situation I once saw a young woman of about twenty
years of age at _Verapole_. A great number of people earnestly
requested that I would endeavour to mitigate the sufferings of this
unfortunate girl; but neither theriac, volatile alkali, nor the
antidote of Madura, could be of any service, and she died in the
course of about three hours. The bite of this snake, therefore,
produces an effect directly contrary to that produced by the bite of
the asp. The latter causes the blood to coagulate, and to freeze as
it were in the veins; but the former decomposes it entirely, and sets
it in such a fermentation that it runs from the body, as one may say,
in the same manner as boiling water from a kettle that stands over
the fire. No remedy has ever yet been discovered for the bite of this
animal.
No less dangerous is another snake called _Polaven_ (not _Polaga_),
the body of which is covered with tumours and pustules. Those
unfortunate persons who are bit by it, sweat blood; but with this
difference, that it oozes from the body in drops.
The _Karuwaèla_ has on its head three knobs or excrescences, which
form a comb; and three red rings round its neck. It is an ell in
length, and of a shining black colour, as far as the eyes, which are
of a fiery red, and sparkle with savage wildness. It is said that it
can kill people merely by its look; and, if this be true, it may with
propriety be called the Malabar basilisk. It is found no where but in
the Gauts, from which it never descends unless when swept down by the
rains.
The _Cancutti_ is a small snake, which generally makes a spring at
the eyes. I never had an opportunity of seeing this snake, or the
preceding; but I was assured by the natives of Malabar, that both
kinds are found in the country.
During my residence at _Verapole_ I found snakes every where,
not only in the gardens, but also in the houses, and even in the
_Patayas_, or rice magazines. People, therefore, must be always on
their guard, and keep every thing neat and clean. They must also
burn frequently strong smelling substances, and such in particular
as occasion a great deal of smoke and vapour; for these are the best
means to drive away snakes, which generally take up their abode in
places where little attention is paid to cleanliness.
It is well known, that the Indians are acquainted with a method of
charming serpents, or of enticing them towards them by a certain
kind of art. This operation I have several times seen, and I always
observed that the whole process was perfectly natural. The people
who charm the snakes rub their hands with various kinds of sweet
smelling herbs, and employ at the same time the assistance of singing
and music. As soon as the snake, which is acute of hearing as well
as sharp-sighted, perceives what is doing, it creeps from its hole,
becomes as it were inchanted, and twists itself round a slender stick
which is presented to it. The charmer then takes out its poison, puts
it into a basket, and carries it about through the streets, where it
is made to amuse the populace with all kinds of tricks[154].
According to the Brahmanic mythology, there is a snake which
surrounds the whole world. They give it the name of _Sarparagia_,
the king of the snakes, or _Vàsughi_. Properly speaking it is
nothing else than the _Annulus Platonis_, a symbol of life and
death; the eternal revolution of every thing in the universe. It is
well known that Plato was indebted for this idea to his preceptor
Pythagoras[155], to whom it was first communicated by the Magi in
India.
Among the zoophytes, or animal plants of Malabar, is the sea-nettle;
called by some _urtica marina_, and by others _flamma maris_. It
is a spongy body, with a hole in the middle, which is surrounded by
a purple-coloured band, that forms as it were a sort of cap. In the
sea, near Cochin, there are two kinds of this animal, which swim
about in the same manner as the sea-star. When held in the hand it
occasions a painful sensation, like that produced by the common
nettles. In the Malabar language it is called _Cioriunu_.
Mother of pearl is employed by the Indians to make panes for their
windows. They are prepared at Cape Comari, where there is a pearl
fishery. The pearls themselves are not sold there by weight as
in Europe, but merely by an estimation of their value. Twenty
pearl-oysters may be bought for a rupee, and the purchaser is not
allowed to open them till he has paid the money. If only one pearl
is found in these twenty oysters, he has sufficient reason to be
satisfied with his bargain; but if they contain none, he must put up
with the loss.
VOYAGE
TO THE
EAST INDIES.
BOOK II.
CHAPTER I.
_Birth and Education of Children._
The Indians of Malabar say that women conceive in silence, but bring
forth amidst noise. When a woman is pregnant, the greatest respect
is paid to her; not only by her husband, but by her parents, her
relations, and her neighbours; and all the inhabitants of the place
belonging to her cast interest themselves for her health and safety.
They consider pregnancy as a very distinguished proof of the blessing
of the goddess _Lakshmi_[156], who is a symbol of the fertility of
the earth; and in the same degree that they detest widowhood and
barrenness, they treat with care and tenderness married and pregnant
women. The attention shown to the latter is founded in principles
of wise legislation and sound philosophy, which employ these means
to increase population and promote parental affection. When a woman
has attained to the seventh month of her pregnancy, a particular
festival is celebrated on her account. A bower, consisting of the
branches, leaves, and bloom of the coco-nut tree, is constructed in
the court-yard of her habitation; and her husband sends betel leaves
to all her friends and relations, and invites them to the solemnity.
As soon as the company have assembled in the arbour, boiled rice is
brought as an offering to the gods on a banana leaf. This offering is
called _Ponghel_, that is, the rice offering. The rice is accompanied
with some figs, a little sugar, and butter; so that the whole has
the appearance of a libation. It may be readily perceived, that the
object of this ceremony is to induce the gods to provide for the
support of the child, and to protect the mother, during the last
months of her pregnancy, from every thing that might prove hurtful
or prejudicial to her. After the libation, a coco-nut is broken and
presented as an offering to _Gannesha_. A garland of flowers is then
hung round the neck of the pregnant woman, who sits in the middle of
the arbour; and a dish filled with saffron and chalk, which have been
previously dissolved in water, is placed before her. The saffron, or
_cuncuma_, is consecrated to the planets, which are worshipped by
the Indians as deities, and which are said to possess the power of
driving away the mischievous demons. For this reason all the women
present at this solemnity take the above vessel in their hands, one
after the other, and move it three times backwards and forwards
before the face of the _Garbhani_, that is, the pregnant woman, to
fright away the evil demons, and to guard against all witchcraft
and sorcery which might do hurt to the child or the mother. These
women then take another wooden vessel, with a little milk, into
which are put several gold and silver medals. This vessel is given
to the pregnant woman, who holds it in her hand, and at the same
time bends her body forwards; upon which all the women present take
in succession a piece of gold or silver from the vessel, and place
it between her shoulders. This is done with a view to implore for
her the blessing of _Lakshmi_, whom the Indians worship as the
goddess of riches, milk, fruit, corn, and every thing produced by
the fertility of the earth. Many ceremonies and customs, which have
a striking similitude to the above, may be seen represented on some
of the Grecian vases; and I am fully convinced, that a satisfactory
explanation of them cannot be given till they are compared with the
manners of the orientals.
A woman for a certain time after her delivery is considered as
unclean; but the period prescribed in this respect is different
according to the cast to which she belongs. For the cast of the
Brahmans ten days are fixed; for that of the _Kschetria_, or
_Ràgiaputra_, eleven; and for the lowest cast, or that of the
_Vayshya_, fifteen. The wives of the _Shudras_, or artisans, and
other people of inferior rank, do not adhere very strictly to this
law; but in general they must remain a few days by themselves in a
separate apartment, which is sometimes fitted up for the purpose,
in order that the other inhabitants of the house may not render
themselves impure, contrary to the strict prohibition of their
religion. It, indeed, cannot be denied, that this practice is
connected with a great deal of superstition; but in so hot a country
as India it is useful and proper. The ablutions and bathing, which
these women must employ, are attended with equal advantages. They not
only promote cleanliness, but they strengthen the body and preserve
it from nervous weakness, as well as universal debility, which would
undoubtedly be the consequence of too violent perspiration[157].
As soon as a child comes into the world, it is not bound up, as among
us, in clothes and bandages, but is suffered to have the free use
of its limbs and is laid, quite naked, on a mat. After it has been
repeatedly washed with cold water, the mother gives it the breast.
Every female Indian, whatever be her condition, would consider it as
a great cruelty to neglect this duty of nature, and to commit her
child to the care of a nurse, from whom, as unfortunately is too
often the case in other countries, it might imbibe, at the same time
with her milk, her shameful passions, or her diseases[158]. In India,
therefore, there is no reason to apprehend that a nobleman will be
depraved by his nurse, and converted into a clown; for every child
receives the same education that was given to his father, and to
every member of the same cast.
When a woman is delivered, her husband, or lover, must acquaint the
magistrate or overseer of his cast, that the new-born child may
be added to the list of those persons who compose that cast. This
overseer, called _Giàdi Egiamàn_, is bound by the nature of his
office to transmit to the king an accurate account of the number and
qualities of the persons under his inspection. By this list the king
is enabled to discover, on the first view, the extent of his power;
how many vassals he has, and the amount of the tribute which he can
demand from them. This political establishment of the Indian princes
was usual in the oldest periods, and occurs in Strabo. It was equally
beneficial as that law of Servius Tullius at Rome, which obliged
every father of a family, as often as he had a child born, to bring a
piece of money to the temple of Lucina. The Brahmans are accustomed
also to mark, with equal care, in their pagodas or temples, the
birth-day of every child. In each of these there is always a Brahman,
if not two, paid by the overseer of the temple, whose business
expressly is to keep a register of the births, marriages and deaths,
and also of every interesting event that concerns the class to which
they belong. These _Vàriar_, or calculators, are therefore enabled to
give such an accurate and minute account of the family, connexions,
life and condition of every person in the neighbouring district, as
is truly astonishing. This knowledge is acquired, indeed, in the
most natural manner; but it has so much the appearance of something
supernatural, that persons of weak minds are at a loss how to account
for it. When a father has a child born, he sends for one of these
astrologers, who pretend to understand the twenty-eight houses of the
planets, through which the moon passes every month. The astrologer,
having learned the moment of the child’s birth, makes it the ground
of his calculations to discover the planet and constellation under
which it was born, and, according to the result, he foretels the
circumstances of its future life, of rather its destiny. This
destiny, which they call _Giàdaga_, is written by the god Brahma on
the forehead of all mankind at their birth; and from him proceed all
the unavoidable events to which they are exposed during their whole
lives. A belief in this destiny is the true cause why most of the
Indians are real stoics: and their stoicism is evidently seen by
their conduct when sick; by the women burning themselves with the
bodies of their husbands; by the singular apathy, and in part horrid
penances of their philosophers; and, in general, by the wonderful
patience with which the Indians endure pain, labour, slavery, and
other sufferings.
When the days of purification are over, it is then time to give the
child a name; and on that occasion the company before mentioned
assemble once more at the house of the mother. The latter having
washed herself several times with pure water, and put on a complete
new dress, appears with the child in her arms; presents it to her
female friends; and sits down in the middle of the company, close to
her husband. A Brahman then repeats publicly a number of prayers,
and kindles the _Hòma_, or burnt-offering, in virtue of which the
child is consecrated to _Shiva_, as the symbol of the Sun and of
Fire; which, according to the Brahmanic doctrine, is supposed to be
an image of the only true God. The substances used for this burnt
offering are wood, rice, and butter. The name given to the child is
taken immediately either from the elements, planets, and other stars;
or from the symbols and figures by which the elements, stars and
planets are represented. As soon as it is determined what the name is
to be, some boiled rice is poured upon a banana-leaf; a vessel filled
with water is placed upon the leaf; some _Vepa_ or _Amargoseira_
leaves are put into the vessel, and a coco-nut is laid over its
mouth. The Brahman consecrates the water by a great many prayers;
dips the leaves into the consecrated water, and besprinkles with it
both the child and every person present. He then splits the coco-nut
into two parts, and laying both halves upon a banana leaf, together
with some figs, and a little betel and areca, presents the whole as
an offering to an image of _Ganesha_. In honour of this deity he also
throws incense into the fire, which is carefully kept up during the
whole ceremony. The Brahman, at length, tells the father the name of
the child; the latter repeats it three times; and the company retire,
after some compliments of congratulation.
These ceremonies, however, are not all generally practised, as they
occasion considerable expence, which poor people are not able to
bear; and the Brahmans never do any thing without being paid. When
a child, therefore, is born to parents in indigent circumstances,
it receives a name from the chief of the cast; and the father or
grandfather makes it known to the other relations. In whatever light
these customs may be considered, it appears that they have been
invented by the Brahmans, and are founded on the philosophy of the
Heathens, by means of which their legislators endeavoured to make
the people obedient to the laws. This, however, holds good only
so far as these practices have a relation to the religious system
of the Indians, and are not merely ceremonial. Thus we know, for
instance, that the bananas represent fruitfulness, and are dedicated
to Bacchus or the sun; that the _Vepa_ leaves, which are extremely
bitter, cleanse wounds, and that they are consequently used in these
practices to represent, in a symbolical manner, the purification of
the mind and body; that the coco-nut is dedicated to _Gannesha_,
because it makes a whole without any joining; and that the Indian
philosophers are accustomed to combine with their ceremonies a
mystical sense, as was always the case among all the ancient nations
of the east[159].
All the Grecian historians represent the Indians as people of greater
size, and much more robust than those of other nations. Though this
is not true in general, it is certain that the purity of the air,
wholesome nourishment, temperance and education contribute, in an
uncommon degree, to the bodily conformation, and to the increase of
these people. Their new-born children lie always on the ground, as
if they were thrown away or neglected; and they are never wrapped
up with bandages, or confined in any other manner, as is done in
Europe. Their limbs, therefore, can expand themselves without the
least restraint; their nerves and bones become more solid; and when
these children attain to the period of youth, they acquire not only
a beautiful figure, but a sound, well turned, and robust bodily
conformation. The frequent use of the cold bath, repeated rubbing the
body with coco-nut oil and the juice of the _Ingia_ plant, as well as
their exercises, which have a great resemblance to the _Juvenilia_,
and which I have often seen in Malabar, all contribute to increase
their strength and agility. These advantages also are seldom lost,
unless some of these young people abandon themselves to debauchery,
or weaken their bodies by too great labour or excessive perspiration.
However healthful and lively the young Indians may be in general,
those who marry before the twentieth year of their age, for the most
part, soon become feeble and enervated. In a word, I seldom saw in
India a person either lame, crooked, or otherwise deformed. The
people of Malabar, who live towards the west, are much handsomer and
more robust than the natives of Coromandel, or the Tamulians on the
eastern coast of India.
The education of youth in India is much simpler, and not near so
expensive as in Europe. The children assemble half naked under the
shade of a coconut tree; place themselves in rows on the ground,
and trace out on the sand, with the fore finger of the right hand,
the elements of their alphabet, and then smooth it with the left
when they wish to trace out other characters. The writing master,
called _Agian_, or _Eluttacien_, who stations himself opposite to his
pupils, examines what they have done; points out their faults, and
shews them how to correct them. At first, he attends them standing;
but when the young people have acquired some readiness in writing,
he places himself cross-legged on a tyger’s or deer’s skin, or even
on a mat made of the leaves of the coco-nut tree, or wild ananas,
which is called _Kaida_[160], plaited together. This method of
teaching writing was introduced into India two hundred years before
the birth of Christ, according to the testimony of Megasthenes, and
still continues to be practised. No people, perhaps, on earth have
adhered so much to their ancient usages and customs as the Indians.
A schoolmaster in Malabar receives every two months, from each of
his pupils, for the instruction given them, two _Fanon_ or _Panam_.
Some do not pay in money, but give him a certain quantity of rice,
so that this expence becomes very easy to the parents. There are
some teachers who instruct children without any fee, and are paid by
the overseers of the temple, or by the chief of the cast. When the
pupils have made tolerable progress in writing, they are admitted
into certain schools, called _Eutupalli_, where they begin to write
on palm leaves (_Panà_), which, when several of them are stitched
together, and fastened between two boards, form a _Grantha_, that is,
an Indian book. If such a book be written upon with an iron style, it
is called _Granthavari_, or _Lakya_, that is, writing, to distinguish
it from _Alakya_, which is something not written.
When the _Guru_, or teacher, enters the school, he is always
received with the utmost reverence and respect. His pupils must
throw themselves down at full length before him; place their right
hand on their mouth, and not venture to speak a single word until
he gives them express permission. Those who talk and prate contrary
to the prohibition of their master are expelled the school, as boys
who cannot restrain their tongue, and who are consequently unfit
for the study of philosophy. By these means the preceptor always
receives that respect which is due to him: the pupils are obedient,
and seldom offend against rules which are so carefully inculcated.
The chief branches taught by the _Guru_ are: 1st, the principles of
writing and accompts: 2d, the Samscred grammar, which contains the
declensions and conjugations; in Malabar it is called _Sidharùba_;
but, in Bengal, _Sarasvada_, or the art of speaking with elegance:
3d, the second part of this grammar, which contains the syntax, or
the book _Vyagarna_: 4th, the _Amarasinha_, or Brahmanic dictionary.
This work, which is highly esteemed by the Brahmans, does not
consist, as Anquetil du Perron says, of three, but of four parts;
and contains every thing that relates to the gods, the sciences,
colours and sounds, the earth, seas and rivers, men and animals, as
well as to the arts and all kinds of employment in India. To render
the construction of the Samscred language, and its emphatic mode of
expression, more familiar to their pupils, the _Guru_ employs various
short sentences clothed in Samscred verse, which are called _Shloga_.
These verses serve not only as examples of the manner in which the
words must be combined with each other, but contain, at the same
time, most excellent moral maxims, which are thus imprinted in the
minds of the young people as if in play; so that, while learning the
language, they are taught rules proper for forming their character,
and directing their future conduct in life. That the reader may
be better enabled to conceive some idea of the morality of the
Brahmans, I shall here subjoin a specimen of these sentences.
I. What is the use of study, if the object of it be not to learn
knowledge and fear, which is true wisdom?
II. Why have we ceased living in the forests, and associated
ourselves in cities and towns, if the object of our doing so be
not to enjoy friendship; to do good mutually to each other, and to
receive in our habitations the stranger and wanderer?
III. The wounds occasioned by a slanderous tongue occasion far more
pain, and are much more difficult to be healed, than those which
proceed from fire and the sword.
IV. Of what use is it to thee to shut the door of thy house? It is
necessary in order that thy wife may learn to be upon her guard.
V. He who revenges an injury enjoys a pleasure which endures only a
day; but he who forgives receives a satisfaction which will accompany
him through life.
VI. Modesty becomes every one, but is a particular ornament to the
learned and rich.
VII. The state of a married pair, who never deviate from the path of
honour, virtue, and mutual duty, is as difficult as that of those who
impose on themselves the severest penances.
In the gardens, or sacred enclosures, in which children are taught,
the _Lingam_, or Priapus, represented under the form of a cylinder,
is generally found. It is, however, not worshipped by all the
Indians, but only by the _Shivanites_. These are a particular sect,
who pay divine honour to Fire, under the form of the god _Shiva_, as
the principle or creative power by which every thing was produced.
Besides the above idol, there are two other statues, which, for the
most part, are placed before the entrance of the school. One of them
represents _Ganesha_, the protector of the sciences, and of learned
men; and the other the goddess _Sarasvadi_, the goddess of eloquence
and history. Every student, as he enters the school, always directs
his eyes to these two idols; raises his hands to his head, and shews
his respect for them by repeating certain forms of prayer. That with
which he salutes _Ganesha_ is commonly in the following words: _Sal
Guruve namà_: Adoration to thee, thou true master! Or, _Ganabadaye
namà_: Adoration to thee, O Ganabadi! This is real idolatry; but
these practices at any rate prove that the Indians accustom their
children early to honour the gods, and to consider them as their
protectors and benefactors. “Those who are desirous of knowing the
power of religion, and the influence of religious opinions,” said the
marquis of Kergariou, who commanded the Calypso frigate, “need only
go to India.” This observation is indeed just; for among 2000 Indians
you will scarcely find one who is not convinced of the necessity of
supplicating the gods. Education, and the nature of the climate, are
the strongest incitements to the natives to worship the deity, and to
submit themselves to his will.
The other sciences and branches of learning taught to the Indian
youth are: Poetry, _Cavya_; Fencing, _Payatta_; Botany and medicine,
_Vaydyashastra_, or _Bheszagiashastra_: Navigation, _Naushastra_:
The use of the spear on foot (_Hastiludium_), _Cundèra_: The art of
playing at ball, _Pandacali_: Chess, _Ciudarangam_: Tennis, _Colàdi_:
Logic, _Tarkashastra_: Astrology, _Giòdisha_: Law, _Svadhyaya_:
Silence, _Mauna_[161]. The reader will have already remarked, that
surgery, anatomy, and geography are excluded from this catalogue.
The Indians are of opinion, that their country is the most beautiful
and happiest in the whole world; and for that reason they have very
little desire to be acquainted with foreign kingdoms. Their total
abstinence from all flesh, and the express prohibition of their
religion which forbids them to kill animals, prevent them from
directing them, and examining their internal construction.
Of the Indian poetry I have already spoken in my Samscred grammar;
and I shall give some farther account of it hereafter. Their
navigation is confined merely to their navigable rivers; for, in
general, the Pagan Indians have the greatest aversion to the sea.
The management of the lance, fencing, playing at ball and tennis,
have been introduced into their education on good grounds, to render
their youth active and robust, and that they may not want dexterity
to distinguish themselves in battles and engagements where cannon are
not used. There are particular masters for all these exercises, arts
and sciences; and each of them, as already mentioned, is treated with
particular respect by the pupils. Twice a year each master receives
a piece of silk, which he employs for clothing; and this present is
called _Samànam_.
All the Indian girls, those alone excepted who belong to the casts of
the _Shudras_ and _Nayris_, are confined at home till their twelfth
year; and when they go out, they are always accompanied by their
mother or aunt. They inhabit a particular division of the house,
called _Andarggraha_, which none of the male sex dare approach.
The boys, in the ninth year of their age, are initiated with great
ceremony into the calling or occupation of the cast to which their
father belongs, and which they can never abandon. This law, mention
of which occurs in Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Arrian, and other Greek
writers, is indeed exceedingly hard; but, at the same time, it is
of great benefit to civil order, the arts and sciences, and even
to religion. According to a like regulation, no one is allowed to
marry from one cast into another. Hence it happens that the Indians
do not follow that general and superficial method of education by
which children are treated as if they were all intended for the same
condition, and for discharging the same duties; but those of each
cast are from their infancy formed for what they are to be during
their whole lives. A future Brahman, for example, is obliged, from
his earliest years, to employ himself in reading and writing, and to
be present at the presentation of offerings; to calculate eclipses
of the sun and moon; to study the laws and religious practices; to
cast nativities; in short, to learn every thing, which, according to
the injunction of the _Vèda_, or sacred books of the Indians, it is
necessary he should know. The _Vayshya_, on the other hand, instruct
youth in agriculture; the _Kshetria_, in the science of government
and the military arts; the _Shudra_, in mechanics; the _Mucaver_, in
fishing; the _Ciàna_, in gardening; and the _Bànyen_, in commerce.
By this establishment the knowledge of a great many things necessary
for the public good is not only widely diffused, but transmitted
to posterity; who are thereby enabled still farther to improve
them, and bring them nearer to perfection. In the time of Alexander
the Great, the Indians had acquired such skill in the mechanical
arts, that Nearchus, the commander of his fleet, was much amazed
at the dexterity with which they imitated the accoutrements of
the Grecian soldiers. I once found myself in a similar situation.
Having intrusted to an Indian artist a lamp made in Portugal, the
workmanship of which was exceedingly pretty, Some days after he
brought me another so like my own that I could Scarcely distinguish
any difference. It, however, cannot be denied, that the arts and
sciences in India have greatly declined since foreign conquerors
expelled the native kings; by which several provinces have been laid
entirely waste, and the casts confounded with each other. Before
that period, the different kingdoms were in a flourishing condition;
the laws were respected, and justice and civil order prevailed: but,
unfortunately, at present every thing in many of the provinces must
give way to absolute authority and despotic sway.
CHAPTER II.
_State of Marriage among the Indians._
Marriage, in the Samscred language, is called _Vivàha_, or
_Pànigrahanna_; the latter of which implies joining of hands, from
_Pàni_ the hand, and _Grahanna_ laying hold. In the common Malabar
dialect it is called _Pennbeta_; that is, a bond or an union with
a female. _Kettunu_ signifies to bind; _Pennkettunu_, to bind
one’s self, or to unite a woman to one’s self by means of a bond.
_Kettiastri_ signifies a bound woman; _Kettiaven_, a bound man, that
is, a man who gives a woman a love-pledge; who puts a necklace round
her neck, betrothes himself to her in this manner, and declares her
to be his married wife. _Bharta_ signifies a husband, he who rules;
and _Bharya_, a woman or wife, who is subject to rule. These modes of
expression are, however, common only among the noble casts, and are
to be distinguished from the word _Kùtticondupògunu_, which implies
the same as to lead a woman to your father’s house, or to take her
home to your own; by which is signified, at the same time, the method
of betrothing practised among the meaner casts. This second kind of
marriage is performed, as among the Romans, _per usucapionem_; but
with this difference, that the bridegroom must present himself before
the superintendant of his cast, tell him the name of his bride, and,
as a token that he actually takes her to wife, put into his hand a
small stone. From this it appears, that the foundation of marriage
among the Indians is in all cases a real contract or agreement,
which acquires perfect validity according to the laws, and in a court
of justice.
Though polygamy is tolerated by the Indian laws, because it tends
to promote population, the _Bharta_, whatever number of wives he
may maintain, has only one lawful spouse, to whom he is actually
married, and who superintends his domestic concerns. She is called
in the Samscred _Pànigrahidì_, the woman with whom he joined hands;
_Pradhaninì_, the chief; _Mahishì_, the great; _Cudbumbinì_, the
housewife; _Sadhadharmanì_, the woman of a thousand services, virtues
and advantages. The rest are called only _Bhòguinya_, concubines. The
children of the former are called _Sudharmaputra_, that is, lawful,
and inherit the property left by their father; but the children
of the concubines, as soon as born, are degraded into the cast of
the _Shudra_, which may with propriety be considered as a nursery
for the illegitimate children of the higher casts, as almost all
concubines belong to that of the _Shudra_, and as the rule in law,
_partus sequitur ventrem_, prevails, in full force, throughout all
India. It thence follows, that a prince who espouses a woman of a
cast different from his own, cannot make her children his heirs, and
much less appoint them his successors. Such was the case, while I was
in India, with the king of Cochin, _Perumpadapil_, and the king of
Travancor, _Rama Varmer_. When I resided at _Tiruvandaburam_, I saw
with my own eyes that the children of the latter were educated in the
same manner as the _Shudras_. The particular object of this law is,
that persons of a low condition may never rise to the throne or the
priesthood.
The crime of adultery, _Abàradha_, which may be committed by two
betrothed as well as married persons, is punished by expulsion from
the cast, and, according to circumstances, even with banishment.
If the bride or spouse is alone guilty, she loses the prerogative
of her cast, and is sold as a slave to some foreigner, whether he
be Christian, Jew, or Mahometan. This was the case, in particular,
with the celebrated wife of a Brahman at _Alangatta_, who had been
degraded and sold, and who was afterwards baptised by the bishop of
_Arcopolis_ in Malabar. She spoke and wrote the Samscred language
with great ease. I myself once baptised, at _Edapalli_, a Brahman
woman, who had also been guilty of the like offence. When I asked her
why she wished to embrace the Roman Catholic religion, she replied:
_Inika dòsham vannu poi_; that is, I have been guilty of a sin. This
is the common mode of expression employed by the Indians in such
cases; for adultery is one of the five mortal sins, which they call
_Pancia mahà pàva_. Other women, however, not of the Brahmanic cast,
are sold as slaves when they hold criminal intercourse with a man
of inferior condition, or do so when they have married into another
cast. But this crime is overlooked when women, over whom their cast
has no power, lead irregular lives, or when they indulge in such
licentiousness with men belonging to a higher cast. If the wife of
a man who married _per usucapionem_, and who belongs to an inferior
class, is guilty of conjugal infidelity, the husband repairs to the
superintendant of the cast, and causes him to return the stone which
he delivered to him at his marriage. If he has accused his wife of
adultery only in this manner, he conducts her back to the house
of her parents; and this ceremony supplies the place of an actual
separation. In India marriages are allowed to the third degree of
consanguinity. On the coast of Malabar a custom prevails, in the cast
to which the braziers belong, that the eldest brother alone marries;
but the rest, when he is absent, supply his place with their
sister-in-law.
According to a custom which the Brahmans, the _Vayshya_, the
_Kshetria_, and the Christians of St. Thomas in Malabar have
introduced among themselves, the bride must always carry her dowery
to the bridegroom. When she has done this, and left her father’s
house, she receives nothing farther, and loses her right of
inheriting any of the patrimony destined for the female part of the
family. By means of this regulation, which prevails throughout all
the superior casts, the Indians endeavour to prevent their property
from being divided, and their families from being reduced to poverty,
which would undoubtedly be the consequence if the married daughters
were allowed to come in for an equal share. The governor of Cochin,
M. Van Angelbeck, whom I have already had occasion to mention, was
desirous of making some change in this respect among the Christians
belonging to the Malabar cast, _Mundacàrer_, who were subject to the
Dutch East India Company. He therefore commissioned me to negotiate
on this head with these Christians, who assembled several times for
that purpose in my habitation at _Mattincèra_; but I was not able
to prevail on them to comply with his wishes. They always referred
to the antiquity of the practice; and maintained, that the greater
part of their families would be infallibly ruined if any other was
substituted in its stead. However this may be, it is certain that
many young women never get husbands, because it is considered as
absolutely necessary that they should bring with them a handsome
portion. This is the case in particular with the daughters of the
Brahmans, six or seven of whom are often in the same house together,
and remain unmarried for want of doweries. The condition of these
girls is indeed deserving of pity; and chiefly for this reason,
because the Indians, as I have already observed in another place,
combine a very contemptible idea with a state of celibacy. The
_Taly_, or love-pledge, is hung round the neck of a betrothed girl,
even so early as her seventh year, though she remains in the house of
her parents till her twelfth.
The ceremonies used in India, at betrothing and marriages, are as
follows:--When the parents of the _Canya_, or young woman, have
made choice of a young man whom they wish to give her as a husband,
they announce their intention to the two Brahmans, whom the two
families employ in astrological affairs. These Brahmans make strict
enquiry respecting the young man’s character, and examine the
constellations under which the presumptive bride and bridegroom
were born. If these constellations have a favourable aspect, the
parents of the _Canya_ must procure a considerable quantity of white
sandal wood, magnel, salt, coco-nut oil, betel, areca, and about
two or three hundred coco-nuts. When all these articles are ready,
the bridegroom is conducted to the house of the _Canya_; and the
Brahman, in the presence of all the relations assembled, performs in
due order the ceremony of the _Hòma_, or burnt-offering, presented
to the whole _Dèvà_, that is, the gods, under whom are understood
the seven planets, which are solemnly invoked as witnesses of this
betrothing, and entreated to grant a fortunate and long continuance
to the union. For this purpose he takes different kinds of costly and
sweet-smelling wood, such as sandal, _aghil_, _arasu_, and camphor
wood; cuts them in pieces about a palm in length; places them in
a square pit, and makes a fire of them; which, however, must not
be blown, but excited by a fan. As soon as it begins to burn, the
Brahmans repeat certain forms of prayer, by which they solicit the
protection of the before-mentioned gods; and throw into the fire oil,
butter, sugar, honey, barley, and rice boiled in milk. The bride
and bridegroom stand by with the most devout attention, and from
time to time throw into the fire also inflammable substances of the
like kind, that it may burn incessantly for at least a fourth part
of the day. When this ceremony is finished, the Brahman causes the
bridegroom to kneel down; places a piece of gold or silver brocade
on his head; puts a gold ring on his finger, and paints a crescent
on his forehead with pulverised sandal wood and _curcuma_. When he
has ornamented the bridegroom in this manner, he puts into his hand a
coco-nut painted with all sorts of colours, and says: “Such a person
(repeating his name), the son of ----, in presence of all the gods,
now gives his daughter (here he repeats her name), as wife to ----,
who is the son of ----.” This form the _Canya_ must repeat word for
word, and at the same time mention all the names. Two copies of it
are then written upon _Olas_, or palm-leaves, on which are inscribed
also the day of the betrothing, and the names of the constellations
under which the bride and bridegroom were born. These _Olas_, painted
with _curcuma_, and ornamented with various kinds of figures, are
exchanged by the newly-betrothed pair; and from that moment their
union is considered as insoluble. Different musical instruments
are then heard in concert, with singers of both sexes, who join in
songs of joy; and female dancers exhibit their whole art, to afford
entertainment to the wedding guests. During this time the mother of
the bride presents to the Brahmans a bason filled with consecrated
ashes, the remains of the above-described burnt-offering; and she
always chooses such a position that her face is directed towards the
east. The Brahman takes from the bason, three times in succession,
a handful of ashes, and suffers them to escape slowly through his
fingers. When these ashes form on the ground a round figure, it
is called _Sudharshana_ and _Ciakra_, that is, the wheel of happy
omen; for the _Ciakra_, or wheel, is the badge and characteristic
mark of _Vishnu_, and consequently has a reference to the unanimity,
happiness, and fruitfulness of the new-wedded pair. These consecrated
ashes, together with the above mentioned _Olas_, are carefully
preserved in a particular vessel, and considered as a valuable
pledge of mutual fidelity. The Brahman, however, first distributes a
small quantity of them to every person present; and paints on their
forehead, with a sort of ointment, consisting of pulverised sandal
wood, saffron, and dried cow’s dung, the name of God, or the word
_Tirunàma_. When these ceremonies are ended, the bride’s mother
washes the Brahman’s feet; but the father pours water on his hands,
and, having dried them, presents him with a piece of silk or cotton
stuff, and a few _panams_ in gold or silver. Sometimes the Brahman
receives also a calf; and this present is, in general, the most
agreeable.
When the marriage contract has, in this manner, been confirmed on
both sides, the bridegroom returns home, and the _Canya_ is left at
her own house; for the consummation does not actually take place till
the bride has had her monthly purification, so that no doubt can
remain of her being arrived at the state of puberty. As soon as this
is told to the bridegroom, he makes preparations for the wedding,
and with that view repairs, accompanied by all his relations, to the
house of the bride, before which an arbour has been constructed. It
is made fast to four poles sunk to a considerable depth in the earth;
but before the first pole has been erected, the Brahmans approach
the hole destined to receive it, and, in honour of _Gannèsha_ and
_Lakshmi_, besprinkle it with milk and water, and throw into it a few
_Arasu_ leaves, together with a little raw rice mixed with saffron.
When all the four poles are placed upright, a red cord, to which a
great number of _Mava_ leaves are fastened, is wound three or four
times round them at the top. In the middle of the arbour is raised a
small altar, on which is deposited the image of the god _Poleyar_,
who is the same as the before-mentioned _Gannèsha_; and behind the
altar is planted a twig of the tree _Arasu_, which, as I have already
said, is considered as a symbol of the Trinity of the Indians; that
is to say, of _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_. Near this branch is
placed seven earthen vessels, in which rice has been sown, and which,
at the time of this solemnity, must be at least two inches in height.
These seven vessels have a symbolic reference to the seven planets.
When the arbour has been sufficiently ornamented in this manner,
preparations are made for washing and purifying the bride. For that
purpose seven married women, each of whom bears a vessel, go in
company with the Brahmans, and attended by musicians, singers, and
female dancers, to some river or pond in the neighbourhood, and draw
from it water, which, with various ceremonies, and the greatest
carefulness, is carried to the house where the wedding is celebrated.
Widows are altogether disqualified for this office, and in general
for all those which relate to marriage; and on such occasions dare
not even shew themselves, because they are considered as beings from
whom society derives no benefit whatever. The above seven married
women undress the bride; pour a few drops of water upon her head, and
rub her body over from top to bottom with the fibres of the _Ingia_
plant. They then anoint her breast, shoulders and knees with the
_curcuma_, and bind a piece of white muslin around her loins. This
piece of muslin is made fast behind to a girdle, which consists also
of a piece of muslin of the like kind. Over this sort of apron they
clothe the bride with the so-called _Pidambara_, being a piece of
very fine silk of a golden-yellow colour, which hangs down from the
head, is drawn under the left armpit, and, forming a kind of mantle
on the middle of the body, descends to the feet so as to cover
the legs behind. The Indians consider this _Pidambara_ as sacred;
because _Vishnu_, according to their mythology, always uses such a
robe when he appears to those who worship him. Such of my readers as
are acquainted with antiquities will here no doubt call to mind the
_Flammeum_ of the ancient Romans, which seems to have had a striking
similarity to this _Pidambara_.
The ornaments which the bride puts on are very numerous, and consist
of the following articles:
1st, The _Tòlvalà_, a bracelet, which is fastened on above the elbow.
2d, The _Cadacam_, a golden bracelet worn below the elbow.
3d, The _Nettipatam_, a small golden frontlet.--Both these may be
seen on the ancient Egyptian monuments.
4th, The _Shigamani_, a golden pin round which the hair is twisted up
in such a manner that it lies quite flat.
5th, The _Karniga_, a golden rose, which the Indian women, when they
wish to appear in state, fasten into the aperture of their ears,
because they are very long and wide.
6th, _Cundala_, golden ear-rings, which are often set with jewels.
7th, The _Màla_, a gold chain which is put around the neck, and hangs
down to the middle.
8th, _Urmiga_, a gold ring, which the bride wears on her finger.
9th, _Talà_, a silver hoop, or ring, which the Indian women fasten
round their naked ancles, because they use neither shoes nor
stockings.
10th, _Cadacam_, a second golden bracelet, which, besides the one
above mentioned, surrounds the wrist.
11th, _Pushpamàla_, a necklace of artificial flowers.
12th, _Tularsimàla_, a garland of sweet basil, for which the Indians
have a particular fondness.
When the bride is completely dressed, and covered with all her
ornaments, she is conducted, by the before-mentioned seven women,
to the door of the dressing-room, where she remains standing for
some time with her face looking outwards. She is preceded by one of
the women, who holds in one hand a burning lamp with seven wicks,
and in the other seven pieces of rice dough mixed with _magnel_.
The Brahman then repeats some prayers, the intention of which is to
protect the bride from all kinds of misfortune and witchcraft; but,
in particular, from the witchcraft of the eyes. For the same purpose,
the woman who goes before her raises the seven pieces of rice dough
three times above the bride’s head, and then does the same thing with
the lamp.
When this ceremony is ended, and the bride’s feet have been washed,
she is seated on a mat, which supplies the place of a marriage-bed.
The singers then begin to sing all sorts of nuptial songs, in which
great praise is bestowed on the new-married couple, with wishes that
they may produce many and good children; and, in general, that in the
married state they may be fortunate and happy. The bride, in the mean
time, holds a betel leaf before her face, in order to conceal her
virgin blushes. As a specimen of these songs, I shall subjoin the
following, in the dialect of Malabar:
Shri sagala gunna nàthane
Shri Lakshmi gunna madàve
Mahà Meru yatha sughame
Sadadam pùrti tarename
Sàdhu dèhangam sushilaye
Sàdhu cusuma sugha bàle
Mahà virakti su canyaghe
Mahà viren Kitti Bartavine.
That is: “Happy Sun! the giver of all felicity; and thou happy mother
_Lakshmi_! grant them the enjoyment of all those good things which
rejoice the heart on the mountain _Meru_ (the abode of the blessed
gods). Ensure this pleasure to the modest, timid bride, who exhales
an odour like that of the sweetest flowers.--Grant this, ye who have
blessed the beautiful, worthy maid with a good husband!”
While these songs are sung, the bridegroom puts on his wedding
dress, in another apartment of the same house in which the _Canya_
resides; and as soon as he appears, the _Hòma_ is kindled, which the
new-married couple carefully endeavour to keep up, by throwing into
it sandal wood, frankincense, oil, butter, and other inflammable
substances. After this ceremony the bridegroom seats himself on a
kind of stool, called _Pida_; places both his hands together, and
holds them straight out before him. The Brahman fills them with rice,
betel, and areca; puts a coco nut on the top, and binds around his
left arm a woollen band, to the end of which is fastened a piece of
_curcuma_, or Indian saffron. Whilst he is doing this he repeats the
names of the three chief Indian deities, viz. _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and
_Shiva_ (or _Rudra_); and, at the same time, casts three knots on the
band. Still repeating the names of these deities, he next paints a
sacred sign on the bridegroom’s forehead with the hallowed ashes of
the _Hòma_ which have remained; and which are called _Tirunìra_. This
figure represents either the eye of Shiva, a crescent, the water-lily
(_Nymphæa_), or a pyramid, the emblem of fire. When these ceremonies
are finished, the bridegroom orders a small dish to be brought;
throws into it every thing put into his hands, as a token of his
respect for the gods; and makes a present of the whole to his barber,
or the man who washed him, and to the surrounding musicians. The
Brahman then steps forwards, and hangs a garland of flowers around
his neck; upon which he rises up from his stool, places himself in
a palanquin, and in that manner is carried through all the streets
of the town. He is attended by the company assembled to celebrate
the wedding, and by all the musicians, singers, and female dancers,
making a loud noise, which resounds throughout the whole place. As
such marriage-processions are generally in the night, a great number
of torches, lamps, candles and lights are exhibited on the occasion;
and various small transparent figures, painted upon paper, and
representing different Indian deities, are carried round at the same
time.
As soon as the bridegroom and his attendants have returned to the
house, a number of superstitious ceremonies are performed, the
object of which is to preserve the new-married pair from witchcraft.
When they are finished, a small copper vessel is placed before the
bridegroom, filled with betel, areca and bananas, on the top of
which lies a coco-nut streaked with saffron, and also the _Taly_
or pledge of conjugal fidelity. The father then desires the bride
to hold out her hands, pours all the above-mentioned articles into
them, and lays a piece of gold coin on the top. As soon as the bride
has received them, the father lays hold of her hands, and, taking
every thing from her that she held in them, puts them into the
hands of his son-in-law. At that moment the Brahman says, with a
clear loud voice, “All the gods are witnesses, that I give thee this
my daughter to wife. Behold her portion!” These words are repeated
three times by the bride’s father. The Brahman then takes the _Taly_,
pronounces a prayer over it, divides the coco-nut, which lay in
the bason, into two equal parts, and again deposits in it the two
halfs. After this he presents the _Taly_ to be touched by each of the
wedding guests, and, when that is done, gives it to the bridegroom,
who hangs it around the neck of the bride. The observation of this
circumstance is of the greatest importance; for upon it depends
properly the validity of the marriage, which is afterwards considered
as insoluble. The _Taly_ itself is a small gold figure, representing
the deity _Poleyar_, or, what amounts to the same thing, _Gannèsha_.
It is suspended by a small cord, dyed with saffron, and consecrated
by the Brahman. Some of the inferior casts use, instead of this gold
figure, the tooth of a tyger, which is dedicated to _Shiva_. When the
bridegroom has hung the _Taly_ around the bride’s neck, the Brahman
lays hold of the new-married pair, each by the ring-finger, and in
that manner leads them thrice round the small altar, upon which the
image of _Gannèsha_ is placed. During this ceremony the new-married
pair must always have a burning lamp near them. One thing never
neglected is, that the bridegroom, when he passes with his bride
over the flat stone on which the Brahman broke the coco-nut, must
always manage so that the bride may touch the stone with her foot.
When these ceremonies are ended, the bridegroom takes a vessel with
milk, applies it to his mouth, and gives it to his bride to drink:
the vessel is then handed round from guest to guest, who all put it
to their lips in succession. The solemnity is then concluded with
a second procession. The bridegroom again places himself in his
palanquin, and is borne round through the city in the same manner
as before. Some days after, the band, which the Brahman, as already
observed, bound round his arm with great solemnity, is unloosed. The
young wife now attends to the management of her domestic affairs;
performs her ablutions, purifications, and offerings; and never goes
beyond the threshold of her house without the express permission of
her husband.
* * * * *
To conclude this chapter, I shall here subjoin some Samscred verses,
which relate to the illicit amours of the Indians, and which place
the morality of these people in a very advantageous point of view.
Ròguinì, Reggiasuàlá, Garbhanni, Dhrdàvrda,
Ràgia vargida brshya, Lagida, Bhayàdhara.
Ittaram èszuvidham strìgenanghele Cennu
Satvaram parigrahicìduvan yògyamalla.
That is: “It is unworthy of a man to make use of the following kinds
of women: 1st, A sick woman, _Ròguinì_; 2d, One who has her monthly
purifications, _Reggiasuàla_; 3d, One who is pregnant, _Garbhannì_;
4th, One who has been divorced, _Drdhàvrda_; 5th, One who has been
proscribed, or excluded from her cast, _Ragia vargida brshya_;
6th, One who has no shame, _Lagidà_; 7th, One who is afraid of the
mysteries of love, _Bhyadharà_.”--Could any one have expected among
these Pagans such pure and sound morality?
I must also observe, that the marriage-ceremonies, which I have here
described, are every-where practised in the same manner throughout
_Malayalam_, that is, Malabar; in the kingdom of _Pandi_, or
_Madura_; in _Maïssur_, _Congao_, and _Carnàdage_ or _Carnate_. I
will not, however, assert that they are generally used in districts
where the ancient religious system of the inhabitants is not
preserved in its original purity. In the northern part of India,
which has been exposed to the hostile incursions of the Persians,
Greeks, Arabs, and Tartars, many things may perhaps be established on
a different footing; but I cannot speak of this with any certainty,
as I never had an opportunity of visiting those parts of the
country[162].
CHAPTER III.
_Laws of the Indians_[163].
The principal laws which the Indians have to observe, may be reduced
to twelve, and relate to the following points:
1. _To kill no one._--He who commits murder renders himself guilty
of one of the five mortal sins, which the Indians call _Mahàpàva_,
and for which, as we shall hereafter see, the severest punishment
has been appointed. In those provinces where the Pagans have the
superiority, he who kills a cow is punished as a murderer. I once
saw five natives of Malabar suspended from a tree in a forest near
_Ambalapusha_, on account of this supposed crime. As the cow is a
very useful animal, and as every one knows, that, according to the
Indian mythology, she is considered as a symbol of the goddess
_Lakshmi_, this law might in some measure be justified; but there are
Indian philosophers and priests who wish to extend it to all kinds
of animals in general. It may, however, be readily understood, that
animals used for sacrifice or offerings form an exception.
2. _To rob no one of his property._--We are told by Strabo, that, in
ancient times, the Indians never entertained any idea of shutting
their houses: so great was the contentment and simplicity of the
people of India, and so great their respect for the laws! At present,
there is great reason to suspect that things are considerably
changed. At _Collam_ I saw a native of Malabar, of the cast of the
_Cianas_, hanging on a gallows, for having stolen three coco-nuts in
the house of a _Nayr_. The _corpus delicti_ was suspended from his
neck, in order that it might serve as a warning to all passengers.
3. _Never to offend with a neighbour’s wife._--This law refers to
adultery, of which an account has been already given in the preceding
chapter.
4. _Never to say any thing that is contrary to truth._--The orientals
were formerly so addicted to lying, that governments were reduced to
the necessity of employing the severest means to extort the truth
from persons accused of any crime. Thus, for example, they caused the
culprit to hold his finger in boiling oil, or poured melted lead into
his hand, in order to make him confess. This practice was afterwards
transferred from the east to the west; and we still find traces of
its having been actually introduced among different barbarous nations.
The people of Malabar have such a bad character as liars, that every
magistrate or merchant, who transacts any business of importance with
them, causes the affair to be committed to writing, and to be signed
by them. Such a document is called _Caicitta_; that is, a writing or
note under a person’s own hand.
5. _Not to drink what may occasion intoxication._--This law refers
not only to all strong liquors in general, but, in particular, to the
use of opium, and the _Canjava_ or _Bangue_ leaves. Tippoo Sultan
forbade his soldiers to use any of these things, under the punishment
of death. In the year 1787, _Rama Varmer_, the king of Travancor,
issued an order by which the use of _Tàgara_, that is, palm-brandy,
was prohibited under pain of the confiscation of property. At
_Pullingune_, a woman was condemned to the besom, and her house
confiscated, because contrary to this prohibition she had sold
_Tàgara_. The contempt which the Indians entertain for the Europeans,
arises chiefly from the latter being so much addicted to drinking.
For this reason also they are called _Ciandàler_, or _Nisher_; that
is, contemptible, impure, unclean people.
6. _Never to leave one’s tribe (cast)._--This the Indians consider as
one of the greatest crimes they can commit. A _Giadibrshda_, that is,
a man unfaithful to his cast, is exposed to the greatest persecution
from all the members of it, and never is left at peace till he again
unites himself to it. On his re-admission he is obliged to drink
the so called _Panciadevya_, a peculiar kind of beverage, which
consists of cream, sour milk, liquid butter, cow’s hair, and cow-dung
dissolved in cow’s urine. By this, however, he is not fully freed
from his sin, but must spend a whole month in a sequestered hut; and
that he may have no pretence for leaving it, the necessary food is
carried to him daily till the time of his penance and purification
is expired. At _Tiruvandaburam_ I once saw a woman, of the cast of
the _Shudras_, who was subjected to this kind of life. It may be
readily perceived, that the object of this regulation is to prevent
the Pagans from embracing any other religion than their own, and to
preserve the respectability of the cast.
7. _To destroy no public edifice or construction._--Under these
are understood temples, the ponds in which the Indians perform
their ablutions, royal palaces, and, in particular, the _madam_,
_ambalam_, or inns erected on the public roads for the accommodation
of strangers, and which I have before described. It deserves here to
be remarked, that people pay nothing for the good entertainment which
they there receive. In these inns those philosophers known under the
names of _Yogui_ and _Gosuami_, and by some called very improperly
_Fakirs_, who subject themselves to the severest penances, are
treated at the king’s expence, though this is done sometimes in some
neighbouring temple. They eat nothing but rice, fruits, and herbs.
8. _To adulterate neither gold nor silver, nor any kind of coin._
9. _Not to be a tyrant or despot, or a cruel and unmerciful tormentor
of mankind._--This law, introduced by the ancient philosophers and
magi, was the strongest support of monarchical government, and
ensured duration to the different states of India; but as soon as the
princes who ruled over _Carnate_, _Maïssur_, _Madura_ and _Concao_
began to abuse their power, and to suffer their ministers to oppress
their subjects, that unwise conduct gave the first occasion to
revolutions. Hence it happened that these people, who had been long
tired of the galling yoke of their sovereigns, though they did not
wish to rise up in rebellion against them, received with open arms
the foreign conquerors who entered the country; and by these means
their imprudent rulers lost their thrones, and at the same time all
their influence.
10. _To exercise no violence against priests, philosophers, persons
subjecting themselves to penance, farmers, and women._--When I was
in India, a Brahman received a violent blow from a petty officer, on
the high road between _Padmanaburam_ and _Tiruvandaram_. The offender
was immediately seized; and the king of Travancor, _Rama Varmer_,
caused his little finger to be cut off. A _Mucoa_, or fisherman,
laid hold of the wife of a _Nayr_, and endeavoured to compel her to
submit to his embraces. The woman called out; and the _Mucoa_ being
seized was carried before a judge, who, finding the crime proved,
sentenced him to lose his right hand. At _Alangàtta_ I saw a _Nayr_,
who instructed young persons in writing, and who held the iron style
necessary for that purpose in the interior part of the joint of his
arm, because the king of Cochin, as a punishment for his offering
violence to a woman, had ordered his hand to be chopped off. To touch
a woman against her will is allowed to no person, not even the king’s
ministers and officers, unless the king expressly commands it. If
women are guilty of any thing that deserves punishment, they may be
deprived of their liberty, and sold as slaves; but to hang them, or
put them to death in any other manner, is contrary to the laws of
India.
11. _To with-hold from no workman, artisan, or day-labourer, his due
wages._
12. _Never to enter a temple, or any sacred place, without having
first purified one’s self in a river or Kulam (consecrated
pond)._--The _Parreas_ or skinners, the _Palleyas_ or slaves, who
cultivate the fields under the inspection of the _Vayshyas_, and
other people of the like kind, who belong to the lowest classes, dare
never enter a temple which is destined for the higher classes. These
mean classes are called _Nisher_, and have pagodas of their own. On
grand festivals, celebrated by the whole nation, such as that of the
goddess _Bagavadi_, they must deposit their offerings before the door
of that temple in which the higher orders assemble, and be contented
to worship the deity in it at a distance. In general, almost the same
divisions, and the same degrees of rank, are found among the Indians,
as those which were common among the Jews.
These are the chief laws of the Indians. They are contained in a
book entitled _Maha Tobassi Dhermaragia Guru_, a copy of which is
preserved in the Borgian Museum at Velitri; also in the Peguan text
of the book _Kamuva_, preserved in the library of the _Propaganda_,
and which is written with black letters on palm leaves gilt. Some
of them may be found also in the book _Amarasinha_, in _Manusmrti_,
and in _Magala Tara_, the latter of which has been translated from
the original _Pali_ by Father Amato, and is now in the possession of
Cardinal Borgia. All these laws are of Indian origin, as I have shewn
in my _Systema Brahmanicum_[164].
* * * * *
The author of the above-mentioned work, _Dhermaragia Guru_, a
Talapoin, who wrote it for the instruction of king _Dhermaragia_,
extends his moral precepts even to the words and thoughts. The sins,
says he, which the tongue commits, are:
1st, Lies.
2d, Calumny, the object of which is to interrupt the harmony of two
persons who are attached to each other by friendship and love.
3d, Improper and disrespectful words.
4th, Idle discourse.
* * * * *
A man sins with his thoughts:
1st, When he wishes to deprive his neighbour of his property.
2d, When he hates any one, or wishes the death of his neighbour, or
to see him reduced to a state of misfortune.
3d, When he approves erroneous doctrines.
* * * * *
Good works consist in the following points:
1st, Alms-giving.
2d, Observation of the five commands, which are: Thou shalt not kill;
thou shalt abstain from whoredom, and adultery; thou shalt not steal;
thou shalt not drink wine.
3d, Obedience to parents, relations, and men of wisdom.
4th, Prayer.
5th, Giving assistance to parents and superiors when in narrow
circumstances.
6th, Participating in the good works of one’s neighbour.
7th, The communication of good works which are done to others.
8th, Hearing the word of God, and reading the Sacred books.
9th, Explaining to one’s neighbour the divine laws; which, according
to the author’s opinion, are those which proceeded from the god
_Gautama_ or _Gòdama_.
10th, True belief, that is, in _Gòdama_.
* * * * *
The manner in which this deity, the _Budha_ of the Indians, must be
worshipped, is described by the author as follows: “Those who wish to
obtain a knowledge of the laws of God must, above all things, read
over with care three times the forms of prayer, and employ them with
a true and lively faith, viz.
“1st, The respect which I am bound to shew to the all-wise God is
deeply imprinted on my heart, and nothing shall make me deviate from
it.
“2d, The respect which I am bound to pay to his sacred laws is deeply
imprinted on my heart, and nothing shall make me deviate from it.
“3d, The respect which I am bound to shew to all the precepts of his
ministers is deeply imprinted on my heart, and nothing shall make me
deviate from it.”
What a contrast between the system of these Talapoins, and the
principles of many of the so-called modern philosophers, whose whole
aim and object is to convert men into infidels, and to degrade them
to the rank of the brutes! Ought not these people, if they do not
believe the Bible, to consider at least the following passage of
Plato[165]? “We are all under the superintendance of Nemesis. The
Eternal has appointed her the judge of our conduct. No mortal can
escape her eye; and every one will receive from her what his deeds
deserve.”
* * * * *
To conclude, it deserves here to be remarked: 1st, That in all the
copies of these laws now extant, a great number of Samscred words
occur; such as _Mangala_, _Uttama_, _Gòdama_, _Niba_, &c.: from which
there is strong reason to conjecture, that they were originally
written in the Samscred language. 2d, It is highly probable that
these laws were committed to writing about 1600 years before the
birth of Christ, and at a period when the school of the _Samanæi_ was
in a flourishing condition. 3d, It is evident that all these laws are
merely of a moral tendency, and, as such, belong to the _Sàmavèda_,
that is, the moral laws of the Indians. There are, however, some
others of a dogmatic nature, and these form the _Ircuvèda_, that
is, those parts of the Indian code of laws which treat of divine
and celestial things. In the last place, there are also ceremonial
laws, which relate to the practices of divine worship, offerings,
lustrations, &c. and these together form the _Yagiurvèda_. All these
three kinds are mentioned in the Brahmanic dictionary _Amarasinha_,
in the chapter entitled _Shabdàdivargga_. Copies of these laws are
preserved in all the temples and academies; but they are under the
keeping of the Brahmans, and besides them no one is suffered to read
them[166].
CHAPTER IV.
_Classes or Families of the Indians._
Of these classes, called by the Indians _Giadi_ or _Varna_, and by
the Europeans, very improperly, _casts_[167], there are a great
many. The principal are: _Brahmana_, _Kshetria_, or _Ràgiaputra_,
_Vayshya_, and _Shudra_. Their origin is lost in the period of Noah,
whom the Indians call king _Menu_[168]. The Brahmans form the class
of priests. Their high-priest _Sarvavèda_, that is, a man who has
performed all the duties of the law, has the superintendance of the
public worship, and no offerings are ever presented without his
order. All the Brahmans in general, who have ever brought to the gods
a public offering, are called _Eburandiri_. In this respect, however,
they are divided into several classes. Those who have been present at
the grand festival of oblation, which I have described in my _Systema
Brahmanicum_[169], are called _Yagiamàna_ or _Yashda_. Others who
have brought solemn offerings to the god _Sòma_ (the moon) are called
_Sòmàdri_, _Sòmabadi_, or _Dikshida_. _Guru_ is the appellation of
those persons who teach morality and other philosophical sciences.
Those who instruct the people in what manner to pray in the temples,
and on other solemn occasions, are called _Shrotria_. Those, on the
other hand, who give precepts respecting the so called _Mandra_,
or meditation of the heart, are called _Aciàrya_. The title of
those who employ themselves with astronomy is _Grahashastri_; but
the astrologers, who form a class entirely distinct, are called
_Giòdishyashàstri_.
Among these Brahmans there are several philosophical sects:
1st, The _Brahmaciàri_, that is, the continent, the unmarried.
2d, The _Grahasta_, that is, the married.
3d, The _Vanaprasta_, that is, the hermits, the anchorets. To these
belong, besides others, the _Muni_, or _Mauni_, that is, the silent,
for they speak only very seldom.
4th, The _Bhikshu_, or begging monks, who live merely on alms.
These are the most numerous of all[170]. To their sect or order
belong those philosophical begging monks known under the name of
_Talapoins_, who in the first century of the Christian æra emigrated
from India, and introduced the religion of _Budha_, or _Gòdama_, in
Pegu, Siam, China, and Japan. They believe neither in the Trinity of
the Indians, that is, _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_--nor in the
goddess _Bhavani_, who represents nature personified; nor do they
ever worship the Elements, to which the Brahmans pay divine honours
under the symbols of various sacred animals. Their religious worship
is somewhat less familiar to the senses. The highest deity to whom
they pay divine honours is called _Budha_, _Shakya_, _Gòdama_, or
_Amida_. These are pure Samscred appellations, which signify Mercury;
for _Budha_ means as much as wise, skilful; _Shakya_, cunning,
crafty, acute; _Gòdama_, a cowherd; _Amida_, immense. The opposer
of the god _Gòdama_, or the wicked dæmon, they call _Dèvada_. They
believe in the immortality of the soul, as well as in transmigration;
are much attached to fasting and ablutions; read carefully the sacred
books; live in a state of celibacy; and observe the beforementioned
five commandments in the same manner as the Indian Budhists. This
sect, who are extremely numerous, and who every where live by
begging, have diffused themselves from Cape Comari to Thibet among
the Calmucks, and even to Siberia[171].
Diodorus Siculus[172], however, asserts that the Brahmans engaged
in no public business, and accepted no dignified places; but this
is a palpable falsehood. The kings who hold the reins of government
at _Edapalli_, on the coast of Malabar, and also at _Parur_ and
_Aracèri_, are certainly Brahmans; and the king of Travancor, in the
year 1776, had a _Dalava_, or prime minister, who also belonged to
that cast. In states which are under the dominion of Pagan princes,
they are still, as in the time of Diodorus Siculus, overseers of
religion, high-priests, instructors of the people, observers of
eclipses of the sun and moon, and the king’s counsellors. They are
formally consecrated to the priesthood; and for that purpose certain
forms of initiation are appointed. In Malabar they go barefooted;
and the upper part of their body is quite naked to the girdle. Their
dress consists of a piece of muslin fastened round their loins,
which hangs down to the feet, and entirely covers them. In one hand
they generally bear an umbrella of palm-leaves, and in the other
a stick. For the most part also they wear a ring on one of their
fingers, and have a _Grantha_ (book) under the arm. Some, besides the
above-mentioned piece of muslin, have also another which hangs over
their shoulders; and which, according to every appearance, is the
_superhumerale_ mentioned by Apollonius of Tyana[173].
When we reflect that these philosophers retain the same principles,
manners and customs as they had in the time of Alexander the Great,
this perseverance appears really astonishing. No person can remember
an instance of their ever having admitted into their cast a man
of the common class, or chosen such a one for their chief. When a
Brahman comes into the world, his parents immediately hold a feast,
or rather solemn festival, which, in the Samscred language, is called
_Giàtaga Karma_, that is, the birth-feast. _Giàtaga_ signifies
birth, the star of one’s nativity; and _Karma_, a ceremony. The
object of this festival is to examine under what constellation the
child was born, and thence to foretell its future destiny. Eleven
days after, the _Nàma Karma_, or name-feast, takes place. The name
given to the child is commonly borrowed from some of the principal
deities, as _Krishna_, _Rama_, _Govinna_, &c. On the hundred and
fiftieth day after birth, a solemnity called the _Carnakarma_, or
_Ceutakarma_, is celebrated, because on that day holes are bored
in the ears of the young Brahman, and a pair of gold earrings put
into them. In the seventh year he becomes a real _Brahmaciàri_,
that is, continent, or chaste; and in the twelfth he is made a
_Grahi_, _Grahasta_, that is, betrothed, a husband. For all these
solemnities, particular libations, offerings, purifications and
festivals are instituted. In the seventh year such a child receives
a kind of sash, called _Yagnapavada_, which forms the distinguishing
badge of the priesthood. It consists of a hundred and eight threads
knit into each other, and passes from the right shoulder under the
left arm, where it is fastened with three knots. In virtue of this
badge the initiated person obtains, besides other privileges, that
of assisting at grand offerings, called _Yaga_, or _Yagna_, which
are presented to the Sun; and he is ever after authorised to read
in the three _Vedas_, or books of the law, known under the names of
_Ircu_, _Sàma_, and _Yagiurveda_. He also bears the _Cudumi_, or
_Curumbi_, or tuft of hair left by the Brahmans on the crown of their
head, which every where else is close shaved. This tuft is likewise
a distinguishing mark of their cast, and shows that the person who
bears it is consecrated to the priesthood. When a Brahman by his
own fault has forfeited his sash, or his tuft of hair, he loses all
his privileges, and can no longer discharge any of the sacerdotal
functions. If he wishes to be restored to his former condition,
various acts of humiliation and penance are prescribed to him; and,
in particular, strict fasting and abundant alms-giving. When he
has performed all these, he is received by nine Brahmans with the
same forms and ceremonies as when first admitted to the priesthood.
All mutilated, blind, squint-eyed, or deformed persons, as well as
all those who have any kind of scab or eruption on the skin, or
white spots in the eyes, are totally excluded for ever from the
priesthood[174].
If it is proved that a Brahman has killed a man or a cow, all the
other Brahmans of the same _Gràma_ or district unite against him;
cut off his _Curumbi_; take from him his sash; deprive him of the
sacerdotal dignity, and expel him from the cast. He is then put upon
an ass with his face towards the tail, and in that manner conveyed
beyond the boundaries of the place. As I have already given, in my
_Systema Brahmanicum_[175], a full account of the condition, as well
as of the different classes, customs, consecration and institutions
of the Brahmans, it would be here superfluous to repeat them. One
time when the king of Travancor made a tour in order to inspect the
state of his fortresses, and passed through _Parur_, he was attended
by more than a thousand of these Brahmans. On that occasion I
observed that eight of them bore a square tabernacle suspended from a
long pole. Within it stood a small statue of the goddess _Bhagavadi_,
for which the Indians have a particular veneration; and it was
covered with a piece of yellow cloth, because yellow is in as high
esteem among the Indians as red formerly was among the Egyptians.
The rest of the Brahmans walked on each side of the tabernacle, and
recited, in the Samscred language, a number of prayers. No person
belonging to the inferior classes durst approach this sanctuary; for
two of the Brahmans who walked at the head of the procession cried
out continually, in the Malabar dialect, _Po! Po!_ that is, Away!
Away!--as if they meant to say: Keep at a distance, ye contemptible,
unclean, profane wretches! At certain times the Brahmans described
a circle on the ground, placed the statue within it, and, standing
close to each other, formed themselves into a ring around it. They
then repeated, all together, certain prescribed forms of prayer;
and the _Sarvavèda_, or Brahman whose business it was, bestrewed
the statue with flowers. This ceremony is called _Archyapugia_, the
offering of flowers. On other occasions they make a like circle on
the ground, but place eight smaller statues on its circumference, in
such a manner that they stand at a certain distance from each other,
and look towards the eight points of the heaven from which the winds
blow. The Brahmans entertain an opinion, that the eight subordinate
deities, whom they call _Indrà_, _Aghni_, _Yama_, _Nirudi_,
_Varunna_, _Vàgu_, _Vaishrava_, and _Shiva_, have the care of these
eight districts of the heavens; and for this reason they place the
above eight statues at an equal distance from each other, and request
them to take the world under their protection, that it may not vary
in its course.
The second noble cast consists of the _Kshetria_, or _Ragiaputra_,
that is, the children of kings; for _Ragia_ signifies a king, and
_Putra_ a son or child. Father Marcus à Tumba says, very erroneously,
in, his manuscript that _Ragput_ are a kind of Brahmans who devote
themselves to the military state. The word _Ragput_ is properly
nothing else than the Samscred _Ragiaputra_, which has been most
wretchedly corrupted; and these _Ragiaputra_ are not Brahmans,
but warriors, from whose cast the Indian kings are chosen. Father
Norbert, the missionary, who examined this point better than Father
Marcus, explains himself respecting it as follows, in a manuscript
which I have now before me: “The second cast, which is called
_Satrias_ (_Kshetria_), consists only and exclusively of the royal
family.” And indeed this is actually the case: the true and lawful
sovereigns are all descended from the cast of the _Kshetria_, though
Brahmans also reign in some provinces, such as _Edapalli_, _Parur_,
_Pandalam_, &c. The _Kshetria_ are educated from their infancy in
the schools and academies of the Brahmans. They wear likewise the
sash, but are not authorised to read or explain the _Vèda_. This
sash serves merely as a memorandum to the members of the cast, that
it is the duty of a king to sway the sceptre with wisdom, and to
behave with the strictest justice towards his subjects. The art of
government is, therefore, the principal science which the _Kshetria_
must study in the schools of the Brahmans. _Perumpadapil_ the king of
Cochin, the old king of Madura, king _Colatiri_ or _Colastri_, and
_Rama Varmer_ the king of Travancor, were all educated by Brahmans
in such temples. Every reigning prince has around him priests and
philosophers of this kind, who must assist him by their service
and advice, in order that he may undertake nothing contrary to the
religion or laws of the country. When the dominion of a sovereign
extends over a district confiding of a hundred provinces, and called
_Ràshtra_, he is a _Ciacravartti_, or _Maharagia_: if it consists
of twelve provinces, he is called _Ishvara_, master; or _Duàdasha_
_Mandaleshvara_, master of twelve provinces; or _Nrba_, king: but
if he possesses only one province, he is called _Ragia_, king;
_Adishvara_, illustrious lord; _Náyaga_x, lord; _Pála_ or _Pálaga_,
regent; _Karta_, a reigning lord.
From the word _Nayaga_, which is originally Samscred, ignorant
geographers and travellers have made _Naik_; from _Pálaga_, the
corrupted _Paleagar_; and from _Ragia_, the equally distorted _Naza_,
_Rag_, or _Rajah_. The king’s court is called _Ràgiadhani_; a privy
counsellor of the king, _Mandri_ or _Amàdya_; the king’s favourite,
_Mitra_, _Sagghi_, or _Suhrl_; his mistress, _Bhògynya_; the place
where the _Kshetria_ deliberate on state-affairs, _Ragiasabha_;
the secret objects of these deliberations, _Rahasya_; the throne,
_Sinhàsana_; the inspector-general, _Mahà Kárta Kritaga_; the
minister of justice, who has the care of criminal affairs, _Mahá
Danda Náyaga_; the generalissimo, _Mahásèna_; the tutor or preceptor
of the royal children, _Mahácumáramatya_; the warden of the privy
chambers, _Dvadsta_, _Darshaga_, or _Dvárapála_; the commandant of
a fortress, _Cottapala_; the governor of a city, _Purapala_; the
overseer of the sea-coasts and rivers, _Turapala_; the overseer of a
district, _Adhigari_; an embassador, _Sandeshaciara_, or _Duda_; the
king’s private spy, _Abasarpa_, or _Ciara_; the court-astrologer,
_Giòdisha_; the lord steward of the king’s household, _Cangiuguia_;
and the treasurer, _Coshadhyaksha_. All these appellations occur
in the _Amarasinha_, the _Vyagarina_, and also in the inscription
of _Monguir_. And as these books were written a hundred or two
hundred years before the birth of Christ, it thence follows, that
all these offices and places actually existed at that period in
the courts of the Indian princes. In Malabar the following royal
officers are still in existence: The _Torakáren_, intendant of the
sea-coasts and rivers; the _Sènabadi_, generalissimo of all the
military forces; four _Sarvadis_, or governors, each of whom has the
superintendance of four provinces; a great many _Kariakarer_, or
superior magistrates; the same number of _Adhigari_, or overseers
of districts; together with a multitude of _Pravartikarer_ or
tax-gatherers, and _Pullas_ or writers.
The first and earliest Indian princes were _Egàvagi_, that is,
monarchs; from _èga_, one, and _vàgi_, a reigning king. As a proof
that the monarchical form of government has been preserved till the
present period among the Pagan Indians, I need only refer to the
princes of the _Marashdi_, who are very improperly called _Marattas_;
to some kings of _Nepal_; to the king of _Candia_ in the island of
Ceylon, and to the king of Travancor, who all now rule as unlimited
sovereigns. According to tradition, _Menu_ was the first king of
the Indians. This _Menu_, who in some Indian works is called _Menu
Mahusha_, was certainly the patriarch Noah, as Sir William Jones
acknowledges. Anquetil du Perron, Father Tiefenthaler, and the editor
of the _Asiatic Researches_, have given us different catalogues of
the oldest Indian kings; and I myself was induced to give, in my
_Systema Brahmanicum_, the commencement of a nomenclature of the like
kind. They are all transcribed from the _Mahabhàrada_, that is, the
_Great History_, which is written in Malabar verse, and consists of
eighteen books. But the reader will perceive, on the first view, that
these catalogues are in open contradiction with each other, and that
they contain the names of kings whose descent is deduced from the sun
and the moon.
All that can be gathered from my copy of the _Mahabhàrada_, and
the pretty long catalogues of the Indian kings in the _Asiatic
Researches_, is as follows: _Menu_ the 1st, or Adam, lived 5794 years
before the year 1788 of the Christian æra. _Menu_ the 2d, or _Menu
Mahusha_, the _Nochos_ of the Greeks, and the Noah of the Israelites,
lived 4737 years before that period. Under the government of this
king happened the _Vellapralaya_, that is, the deluge or devastation
of the earth by water. Then comes _Hirannyacasipu_, perhaps Nimrod,
whom the Brahmans class among the wicked dæmons, and who lived 4006
years before the birth of Christ. _Bali_, or _Mahábali_, the Belus
of the Assyrians, lived 3892; and _Budha_, the _Thaut_ of the
Egyptians, and _Hermes_ of the Greeks, 2815 years before the year
1788. Next follow _Vikramàditya_, _Devapàla_, and _Salbahin_, or
rather _Salivahan_. The first lived 1844, the second 1811, and the
third 78[176] years before 1788. With the death of the last begins
the _Salivàhana Sagàptam_, that is, the new Brahmanic period of the
Marattas, Canarians, Malabarians, and Tamulians. _Bharaden_, or
_Bharata_, is the head or chief, from whom the Indians deduce the
descent of their national kings. He lived 1600 years before the birth
of Christ.--Kings who actually existed are:
I. _Ciassar_, a cotemporary of Cyrus, to whom he wrote a letter, and
sent money. Cyrus in all probability had conquered that part of India
which extends from the _Sindhu_ towards the north-west, and at that
period was sometimes under the dominion of the Persian, and sometimes
under that of the Indian kings. _Candahar_ was the metropolis.
II. At the time when Alexander the Great conquered a part of India,
there existed a certain queen named _Cleophidis_, who put herself
at the head of a considerable body of the chief women of India,
and went to oppose that hero. King Porus, or more properly _Puru_,
also opposed that conqueror; as did likewise _Abisar_, but _Omphis_
surrendered at discretion. More information on this subject may be
found in D’Anville’s _Antiquité Géographique de l’Inde_, published at
Paris in 1775.
III. _Sandracoto_, or rather _Ciandracotta_. This prince, after the
death of Alexander the Great, brought under his dominion all the
Indian provinces which had been conquered by the Macedonian hero.
He also entered afterwards into a treaty of alliance with Seleucus,
who wished to recover them; but this treaty extended only to places
_qui secus Indiam sunt_, that is, which lay on the north-west side
of the _Sindhu_. His son, _Allitrocates_, repelled the incursions of
the Greeks with such happy effect, that they were never again able to
penetrate into India. Antiochus, indeed, made some attempts to enter
the country, and laid the _Sopagases_ under contribution; but this
prince remained independent and free.
IV. _Porus_, or _Pandi_, by Strabo called _Pandion_. He was king of
Madura; and, when the Greeks were driven entirely from India, sent an
embassy to Augustus, to propose entering into an alliance with him.
V. _Cemproboto_, or _Cermbotti_, a cotemporary of the above-mentioned
_Pandi_, possessed, besides other places, _Calianapur_ and
_Baliapatna_, two considerable cities on the coast of Malabar.
VI. _Vikramàditya_, by some called _Bekermadiit_. He succeeded
his brother _Sughàditya_, and died fifty years before the birth
of Christ. A new æra, by which the chronology of the history of
India can with certainty be determined, begins at the death of this
sovereign. Before that period many of the Indians reckoned according
to the epoch of king _Yudhishthira_, of the family of the _Pandos_,
whom Anquetil calls improperly _Djetaschter_. Between that epoch and
the death of _Sughaditya_ there are reckoned to be 3044 years. The
Carnadians, Tamulians and Malabarese adopt this mode of reckoning
also; but use much oftener the _Salivàhana Sagàptam_, which, as
already said, begins at the death of _Salivahan_ or _Salbahin_, the
sovereign of the Dekan, who died 78 years before the birth of Christ.
From this epoch also the Brahmans at _Cangipuri_, _Tiruvatur_, and
_Triciur_, date all their astronomical calculations.
Some pretend that the family of the real _Kshetrias_ is totally
extinct in India; but I can, on the other hand, assert, that I
found among the Gauts, not far from _Vaipur_, a town, together with
a temple, which belonged to these _Kshetrias_, who cultivated the
surrounding fields, and lived on their produce. I was assured also
by Father Pavone, who for thirty years had been superintendant of
the missionary establishment at Madura, that a great many of the
_Kshetrias_ had fled to these mountains from Madura, in order to
avoid falling into the hands of Hayder Aly Khan, Tippoo Sultan,
Mohamed Aly, and the English.
The third noble class of the Indians consists of the _Vayshya_,
who are never distinguished by the name of _Bice_, as Hodges and
Robertson pretend. This cast was founded also by _Menu_ or Noah,
if we can confide in the book _Manushastra_, and the traditions
of the Indians. The employments of the _Vayshya_ are: _Krshi_, or
agriculture; _Pashupalya_, breeding of cattle; and _Vànigiya_, the
sale of their productions. They supply the public with rice, corn,
mustard, ginger, pease, millet, maize, and other articles of the like
kind; but they preserve their butter and milk entirely for their
kings, their Brahmans, and their temples, that the gods may never be
in want of such offerings.
The _Vayshya_, with their families, generally live in the country,
where each has his own house and separate grove. In the latter stands
a small temple, with an image of _Shiva_, or of some other deity, to
which flowers are presented every morning after they have performed
their ablutions. According to the appointment of _Menu_, the king
is the sole lord and proprietor of all the land in the kingdom; and
this rule prevails in Malabar to the present day. Anquetil du Perron
is, therefore, entirely wrong when he contradicts Mr. Dalrymple, who
asserts the same thing[177]. That this assertion is well founded,
appears, to omit other testimony, from an old inscription found among
some ruins near the old city of _Monguir_, in which it is expressly
said, that king _Dèvapàla_ lets a certain piece of land to an Indian
family. Mr. Wilkins translated this inscription, which was cut out
in stone twenty-three years before the birth of Christ, and inserted
it in the first volume of the _Asiatic Researches_. King _Dèvapàla_
there says: “Be it hereby known, that I give up the city _Meseeka_,
&c.” and it appears from the connection, that he let the piece of
land in question, and for that purpose resigned his territorial
right for a certain time specified. Temples next to kings are also
considered as proprietors; for a belief prevails in India, that the
piece of ground which they occupy belongs to the gods. For this
reason they are excepted from the lease, by king _Dèvapàla_, in the
before-mentioned inscription.
That the overseers of temples on the coast of Malabar have still
the power of letting such pieces of ground, appears from this
circumstance, besides others, that our convent at _Verapole_ had
actually a lease of part of a field which belonged to a Pagan temple.
No private person, whether noble or not, can pretend to any such
property in land. On the contrary, every ten years the _Nilavarì_, a
tax established at the first measurement of lands, must be paid for
all fields and pieces of ground every ten years. Besides this tax, a
third or fourth part of the rent is also sometimes imposed according
as the contracting parties have agreed.
From the palm-gardens the _Ettona_, that is, the eighth palm, is
exacted. The poorer classes must pay the _Talapanam_, an impost
which amounts to five _Panam_ for each head, and is equivalent to
the poll-tax introduced into some of the countries of Europe. The
_Mucaver_, or fishermen, pay a tax called _Valà_, that is, net-money;
and consists of a _Ràgi_ of gold, or ten _Ciacras_, twenty-six of
which are equal to a florin. It is unfortunately too true, that
the Indians live in a state of oppression, and in time of war are
treated with particular severity. Robertson, however, has drawn a
very flattering picture of the humanity and mildness of the Indian
princes and British governors; but it is much to be lamented that it
is contrasted, in so striking a manner, with the conduct of a Moens
and many others.
The fourth noble cast consists of the _Shudra_. To these belong
the _Citracàra_, painters; the _Tunaciaya_, dyers of cloth; the
_Pushpaga_, garland-makers; the _Shastramagia_, smiths; the
_Ciaruna_, singers; the _Ciarmacàra_, coblers; also the weavers,
taylors, carpenters, silver-smiths, clockmakers, and other artisans.
All these people form separate classes, the members of which cannot
eat with each other, and much less intermarry.
The meaner casts are called _Nisha_, or _Ciandala_; that is, the
contemptible, low, impure. To these belong the fishermen; the
_Cianas_, or labourers in gardens, who carry water, and water the
young palm-trees; the _Parreas_, or skinners; those persons who
cleanse ponds; barbers, potters, and the Malabar _Pelleyas_. The last
are only slaves, but a very useful kind of men; for they guard the
fruits of the earth, keep the buffaloes employed in ploughing, take
care of the crops, and separate the rice from its husks.
CHAPTER V.
_Administration of Justice among the Indians._
Religious Matters.--All affairs which relate to religion are
determined by the Brahmans alone, in the presence of their
_Sarvavèda_, or high-priest. The king, who, as is well known,
does not belong to the sacerdotal cast, acts here the part of
a _Kshetria_, and never gives his vote till the Brahmans have
sufficiently examined the case before them, and delivered their
opinions. The assembly or society who deliberate and determine
upon it, is called _Yòga_. Each member of it has a voice. Their
decision is considered to be infallible; and those who oppose it
are expelled from the society. These _Yògas_ take cognizance of all
disputes which arise in regard to betrothing, marriage, settlements
to daughters, and other things of the like kind, as well as of all
offences committed against religion or the cast. Hatred, enmity,
abortions, giving blows without shedding blood, quarrels between
parents and children, in a word, all affairs which have even the
remotest connexion with religion, are brought before this tribunal.
Every man has the right of defending himself, of making a reply, and
of employing an advocate without being obliged to pay lawyers’ fees
or to consume paper; for every thing is done _vivâ voce_. The members
of the _Yòga_ sit upon mats; but the parties must stand.
Civil and Criminal Affairs.--These are determined only by the king
and his servants. The punishment of the gallows is appointed for the
following criminals:
1st, The _Svàmidròhi_, that is, those who excite insurrections, or
meditate the death of the king.
2d, The _Bramahanda_, those who kill a Brahman.
3d, The _Madruhanda_, those who commit matricide.
4th, The _Pidruhanda_, those who murder their father, uncle, or any
other relation.
5th, The _Mànuszahanda_, all murderers in general.
6th, The _Gòhanda_, those who kill a cow.
7th, The _Kshetra Stèna_, those who commit sacrilege.
8th, All those belonging to an inferior class, who pilfer any thing
from the house of a person of rank.
9th, Those who steal the _Bhandàra_, that is, the royal treasure.
10. Those who hold illicit intercourse with one of the king’s
concubines, or only with an unmarried female belonging to the king’s
_Andarggraha_.
11. Those who debase the current coin.
12. Those who commit adultery with the wife of a Brahman, or the wife
of their preceptor.
* * * * *
The offenders are always hung on the spot where the crime was
committed. The gallows consists only of two beams, and can with
great ease be transported from one place to another. A hook is fixed
to one end of the rope, and this hook the executioner forces, with
all his strength, into the flesh below the criminal’s chin; he is
then hoisted up, and the other end of the rope is made fast to the
gallows. The delinquents sometimes are hanged also in the European
manner, so that they are instantly suffocated. Lesser crimes are
punished by cutting off the nose and ears; by hacking off the
right hand; banishment from the country, imprisonment, hunger and
thirst; sequestration or confiscation of property, and sometimes by a
pecuniary fine.
The sentence of death must, in general, be subscribed by the
delinquent’s own hand, after he has been heard and convicted of
the crime laid to his charge. The place where the trial is held
is called _Mandava_, and forms a sort of court of judicature in
the magistrate’s habitation. Of such magistrates there are a great
many, and they always reside in the neighbourhood of a temple. As
soon as the delinquent is convicted, the magistrate repairs to the
_Mandrashàla_, or judgement-hall, where all the other magistrates,
together with some Brahmans, are assembled. On their opinion and
sentence the life or death of the delinquent depends. He is, however,
at liberty to appeal to the king; and on such occasions is never
executed till the king confirms the sentence. In doubtful cases,
the superintendants and elders of the cast are consulted. In these
assemblies the first object of the members is to enquire into the
laws, customs and usages formerly established in the cast, or in the
town or city where the trial takes place; and according to these old
precedents the point in question is determined.
During the whole time I resided in Malabar I never heard of a
criminal being beheaded, but sometimes that one or two had been run
through with a lance. Oaths are always taken before the gate of a
temple; and the person who swears, places both hands on his head,
and invokes _Mahadeva_, that is, the great god, the avenger, to
punish him as a perjuror if he violates the truth. The courts of
justice are kept open daily for every person from an early hour to
the time of ablution, and from the time of supper till midnight.
At the periods of new and full moon, and on the festivals of
_Shiva_ and _Bhagavadi_, when the king must be present at the solemn
presentation of offerings, no judiciary business is done, and the
courts of justice are shut. Women, slaves, exiles, and persons to
whom infamy is attached, are incapable of giving valid testimony. In
former times, if a suspected person waded through a stream infested
by a crocodile, or put his finger into boiling oil, melted lead, or
a coco-nut shell in which a snake was concealed, and drew it out
unhurt, he was declared to be innocent. This practice, however, is no
longer in use.
In Malabar, Tanjaur, and Madura, there once existed, before the
incursion of Mohamed Aly, a sort of itinerant justice. A magistrate,
together with four soldiers, went about through all the streets;
and if they observed any disturbance, they quelled it on the spot,
and punished the offenders. This custom prevails at present only
in Malabar. A magistrate of this kind is called, in the Malabar
dialect, _Pravaticàrer_, or _Adhigàri_; and has power to try
offenders wherever he pleases; sometimes under the shade of a
tree, and sometimes in a house; at one time in the market-place,
and at another in the open fields. Some of these magistrates are
very avaricious, and receive presents or bribes, _Kosha Colunnu_;
but when such corrupt practices are brought to light, the king
causes the unrighteous judges to be imprisoned, and their goods to
be confiscated. Every thing I have here said relates to the Pagan
natives; for among the Christians an establishment totally different
prevails.
CHAPTER VI.
_Languages of the Indians._
The _Samskrda_ is the mother of all the languages in India. Its name
implies that it must be a perfect and excellently formed language;
for _Krda_ signifies a perfect, complete work; and the particle
_Sam_, with each other, together, contains an allusion to the
connection of its parts into one harmonious and regular whole. It
is called the language of the gods and of philosophers; the sacred
language. According to the doctrine of the Brahmans, it arose from
the conversation which the _Ishvara_ (the Lord) had with the goddess
_Shakti_ or _Bhavàni_ (Nature), when in conjunction they created the
world.
The original word _Samskrda_, which exists in no other language, is
written in many different ways, not only by foreigners, but also by
the Indians themselves, viz. _Samskrit_, _Samskretan_, _Samscrudam_,
and _Samscret_. All these variations arise from the alphabets of
the different provincial dialects which have been derived from this
original language, and introduced into India. The case is the same
here as with the Latin word _homo_, of which the Italians have
made _uomo_, the French _homme_, and the Portuguese _homem_. The
_Samskrda_ consists of fifty-two radical characters; and among this
number there are many not to be found in any other language. It is,
therefore, extremely difficult to pronounce properly the original
Samscred words, and almost impossible to express them in other
languages, and particularly the European.
The Greeks, Persians, Romans, Chinese, Peguans, and Europeans have so
corrupted and mutilated a great many Samscred words, that they can
scarcely be known. Thus, for example, the river _Yamuna_ is in Pliny
called _Jomanes_, and in Ptolemy _Djemna_ and _Diamuna_. M. De l’Isle
calls it the _Gemené_, and Father Marcus à Tumba the _Giamuna_.
Of these fifty-two radical Samscred characters a great number of
others are formed; and this multiplication is carried so far, that
I can shew a Samscred alphabet which contains no less than 8004
component parts. The multiplication of these characters, so numerous
of themselves, arises from the formation of the syllables; as what
forms a syllable, among us Europeans, is expressed in the Samscred
by one letter, or one single character. Thus, if we wished to write
in Samscred the syllables _kra_, _kre_, _kri_, _kro_, _kru_, _krai_,
_krau_, we should place, instead of them, seven single characters,
each of which is equivalent to a whole syllable[178].
The manner in which the syllables are formed and connected with
each other, and the number of characters hitherto employed in all
the Indian provincial dialects derived from the Samscred, are the
same; except this difference, that each of these dialects, as the
Negaric, Talengic, Canarian, Tamulic, Malabaric and Guzaratic have
each their own alphabet, which, in regard to its shape and form, is
different from all the rest. The most remarkable circumstance here
is, that all the component parts in the alphabet of the Barmans in
Pegu and Ava are contained, but with some variation, in the Ethiopic
alphabet of _Gheez_ and _Ambhar_; have the same value, and are joined
together in the like manner. It appears to me historically certain,
that the Peguan _Barmans_ obtained from India the writings extant in
the Samscred, as well as the alphabet belonging to that language, and
instructions how to learn it[179]. Many, nay most of the words of the
_Pali_ language are either entirely Samscredamic, or at least derived
and compounded from it. A dispute having once arisen among the
Talapoins of Pegu respecting the explanation of certain expressions
contained in the _Pali_ books, the present king of Pegu sent a
deputation to the king of Candia, in the island of Ceylon, with
orders to procure information, from the Brahmans and Budhists there,
respecting the real meaning of the expressions in dispute. This
circumstance, and the close affinity observed between the languages
of these two kingdoms, afford, in my opinion, a sufficient proof that
the _Pali_ language in Pegu is a dialect of the Samscred.
With regard to the Ethiopic alphabet, which has a certain
resemblance to the Samscredamic, there is reason to suppose that
it was brought to Ethiopia by those Indian gymnosophists who, in
the time of Apollonius, resided on a certain mountain not far from
the Nile[180]. Who knows but the Ethiopians, Persians, Thibetians
and Peguans might have carried the Samscred language with them
from India to their present countries, in the same manner as the
_Parreas_, who, according to the testimony of Mr. Grellman[181],
fled from India during the tyrannical government of Timur, dispersed
themselves through Tartary, Scythia, and Hungary, and still speak a
language which has a striking resemblance to the Samscred used in
the kingdom of _Guzarat_, and particularly in the city of _Tatta_.
This conjecture will appear the more probable, when we reflect that
these tribes, in ancient times, had the same intercourse with the
Indians, as the Arabs have at present with the inhabitants of the
coast of Malabar; that, according to their own acknowledgment, they
obtained their religion and their sacred books from India, and that
consequently the Samscred language might easily have been conveyed
from _Tatta_, _Cabul_; and _Candahar_ to Persia, as well as from
_Nepal_ through Thibet to Tartary, and also to Asem in Pegu, and to
Ava.
The Samscred contains a great many words, which both in sound and in
meaning have a similarity to Latin. For example: _dendha_, dens, a
tooth; _yuga_, jugum, a yoke; _juncta_, junctus, juncta, junctum,
joined; _nau_, navis, a ship; _nàviga_, navita, navicularius, a
ship-master; _nava_, novem, nine; _sapta_, septem, seven; _tri_,
tres, three; _dui_, duo, two; _adja_, hodie, to-day; _vidhava_,
vidua, a widow; _nò_, non, no; _sua_, suus, his, &c. These and other
words of the like kind are a sufficient proof that the Samscred
language did not exist before the Flood, as Father Pons once
asserted. It is more probable that it took its origin in Chaldea,
at the time of the general confusion of tongues, from which we must
deduce the analogy of many other words used by so many different
nations, and consequently by the ancestors of the Brahmans and the
Latins. The Samscred is far more abundant in synonyms than the
Latin. There are thirty different expressions for the sun; more
than twenty for the moon; twenty for a house; from six to seven for
a stone; ten for a tree; five for a leaf; ten for an ape; and nine
for a raven. The case is the same with other things both visible and
invisible[182].
The common Indian dialects, the origin of which is to be sought for
in the Samscred language, are the following:
I. The sacred language employed by the Priests and Budhists in the
island of Ceylon. Ptolemy, in his Geography, where he speaks of this
island under the name of _Salica_, has preserved several Samscred
appellations; such as, _Sindocanda_, which properly ought to be
written _Sindhucanda_. He also mentions the mountain _Malà_ under the
name of _Malea_; and the large district of _Màhàgramam_, belonging to
the Brahmans, is by him called _Maagramum_[183]. See on this subject
the map in D’Anville’s _Antiquité Geographique de l’Inde_, published
at Paris in 1775. This language is still spoken in the kingdom of
Candia; but not on the sea-coast, where the people in general speak
the Cingalese--a wretched dialect, which consists of a confused
mixture of the Tamulic and Malabaric.
II. The Tamulic language, which is spoken in Tanjaur, Madura,
Maïssur, Concao, in some places on the coast of Malabar as far as the
neighbourhood of Collam, and also in the Gauts. It is harmonious,
uncommonly well adapted for poetry, and can be easily learned,
because its elements are very simple. When there occur in it Samscred
words, which cannot be expressed by its alphabet, it borrows some
characters either from the Granthamic or Samscredamic. The characters
which it borrows from the former are: _ksha_, _sza_, _shda_, _sa_,
_spa_, _sma_, _stra_, _skra_. As it wants the characters _V_ and _H_,
it supplies their place by _B_ and _G_; and writes, for example,
instead of _Aham_, which in the Samscred signifies _I_, _Agam_ or
_Akam_; and instead of _Vàva_, the new moon, _Baba_. It consists only
of thirty characters, which are far from sufficient to express all
the Samscred words.
III. The Malabar language. It extends from Cape Comari to the
mountain Illy, which separates the provinces of Malabar and Canara.
This language employs two alphabets, viz. the _Maleyam Tamul_, and
the _Grantha_. The former consists of twenty-three, and the latter
of fifty-two characters, which are fully sufficient for writing the
Samscred. The latter characters have been employed by the authors of
all the sacred books which are seen in Maïssur, Madura, Carnada, and
on the coast of Malabar.
IV. The Canarian language, which is spoken in the district of mount
Illy belonging to the kingdom of Canara, and from thence as far as
Goa.
V. The Marashda language. It is prevalent throughout the whole
country of the _Maràshdi_, who are very improperly called _Marattas_.
VI. The Talenga, an harmonious, nervous, masculine, copious, and
learned language, which, like the Samscred, has fifty-two characters;
and these are sufficient to write the latter. It is spoken on the
coast of Orixa, in Golconda, on the river Krishna, and as far as the
mountains of Balangate. All these languages have their own alphabets;
so that in every province you must make yourself acquainted with a
distinct kind of characters, if you wish to express your thoughts in
the dialect common in each.
VII. The common Bengal language: a wretched dialect, corrupted in
the utmost degree. It has no _V_, and instead of it employs the _B_;
so that instead of _Ved_ you must write _Beda_. It is spoken at
Calcutta, and in Bengal on the banks of the Ganges.
VIII. The Devangaric or Hindostan language; called by some _Nagru_,
_Nagari_, and also _Dèvanagari_. It is spoken at Benares or Venares,
and consists of fifty-two characters, with which you can write
the Samscred. Its mode of writing has been introduced into all the
northern part of India. A specimen of it may be seen in the first
volume of the Asiatic Researches.
IX. The Guzaratic, which has been introduced not only into the
kingdom of Guzarat, but also at Baroche, Surat, Tatta, and the
neighbourhood of the Balangate mountains. Its characters are little
different from those of the Devanagaric.
X. The Nepalic, which is spoken in the kingdom of Nepal, and has a
great similarity to the _Dèvanagaric_.
Of all these languages a more particular account may be found in
my Samscred grammar, in which I have clearly proved that they all
proceed from the Samscred, though Mr. Wilkins and Sir William Jones
maintain that the _Nagru_, or _Devanagari_, makes properly the
original and true character of the Samscred language, and that it is
by no means of Indian extraction, but was transplanted to India from
Persia.
The most important book of all those written in the Samscred language
is the _Vèda_. This word, which has been changed by the English very
improperly into _Bed_, or _Beadh_, does not signify exclusively
a sacred book; but implies in general as much as a _sacred law_,
whether observed by the Indians or other nations. Thus, for
example, the law or religious system of the so-called Nazarenes, or
Christians or St. Thomas, is named _Nasrànni Vèda_, and the Jewish
law _Judhavèda_. That this word is used, in other respects, in a very
extensive sense, seems to appear from various circumstances, and, in
particular, from the following fable: “The god Brahma, at the time of
the general deluge, having fallen asleep, the wicked dæmon, called
_Hayagriva_, stole from him the _Veda_, and threw it into the sea.
It would then have been infallibly lost, had not the god _Vishnu_
instantaneously transformed himself into a fish, and gone in search
of it. As soon as he found it, he gave it to the man who had saved
himself, with king _Menu_, in the _Yanapatra_ or floating vessel.”
It is very evident that this fable cannot allude to the present
_Vèda_; but if we admit that the word, as is actually the case,
signifies the _law of nature_, this ingenious allegory may be easily
explained. The Brahmans wished to signify by it, that the natural
order and connexion of the elements, which at the time of the flood
were totally destroyed, had been again restored by _Vishnu_[184].
The other Indian books held in high estimation are:
_Manushastra_ and _Mahabhàrada_, which, according to tradition, are
as old as the age of _Menu_, of Noah.
The nine _Purana_, or _Canda_, in which the nine appearances of
_Vishnu_ are described.
The book _Ràmayana_, which contains the fabulous history of the god
_Ràma_ and _Sida_.
The _Baghavada_, a highly valued book, which treats of the
incarnation of _Vishnu_, when he shewed himself in the form of
_Krishna_, that is, the black god.
Of the childhood of the latter a particular account is given in the
_Balagapurana_.
The _Lingapuràna_ contains the oldest history of the _Lingam_ or
_Phallus_.
The _Shivapuràna_ contains the history of the god _Shiva_ or
_Mahadèva_.
The _Gangabhakya_, that is, _Gangis Felicitas_, treats of the
happiness in which those participate who purify themselves in that
river.
The _Raghu-vamsha_ contains the genealogical tree of _Raghu-nàtha_,
that is, of _Vishnu_, who is descended from the family of _Raghu_.
_Aadiparba_ is a poem, the subject of which is the origin of all
things.
The _Sandhya-carma_ contains precepts how to behave during those
lustrations which are performed in the evening.
The _Yudhisthiravigea_ is a very beautiful Samscred poem, which
celebrates the victory of king _Yudhisthira_, who was one of the five
sons of _Pando_.
To these may be added the book _Bhagavatguita_, of which a
translation has been given by Mr. Wilkins.
The books which must be studied by those who wish to learn the
Samscred language according to grammatical rules, and not merely by
practice, like most of the Europeans, are:
_Sidharùba_, or _Sarasvada_, the Samscred grammar.
_Vyàgarna_, the syntax.
Various _Sloga_, or versified sentences, by which one can learn the
true meaning and proper use of the Samscred words.
But in particular the _Amarasinha_, already often mentioned, an
excellent dictionary of the Samscred language compiled about sixty
years before the birth of Christ. It is written in verse, like
all the Indian books; and is not divided into chapters, but into
certain heads; so that the words which belong to a certain genus
are collected together without regard to choice or order. Thus
one division is intitled _Svarggavargga_, that is, the genus of
the appellations which belong to the heavens. Another is called
_Manushavargga_, that is, the family of the words applied to man, &c.
This arrangement is a sufficient proof of the high antiquity of the
work; for the practice and method of dividing books, according to
the quantity of their contents, into particular chapters, and of
employing for that purpose a certain regular plan, is an invention of
later times. _Amarasinha_, the author of this dictionary, named after
him, according to a tradition, received as true among the inhabitants
of the northern part of India, was minister to king _Vikràmaditya_,
who died fifty-seven years before the birth of Christ[185]. This
opinion is adopted by Sir William Jones, Davis, Hastings, Anquetil
du Perron, and other learned men who have made researches into the
history of India; and the Brahmans are so fully convinced of the
great antiquity of this book, that they employ it as a standard by
which they examine the purity of the Samscred words that occur in
other writings.
CHAPTER VII.
_Religion and Deities of the Indians._
The almighty, infinite, eternal, incomprehensible, and self-existent
Being is called in the Samscred language _Parabrahma_, _Tatva
Paramèshvara_, _Svayambhu Paràbara_. _Parabrahma_ signifies the
highest wisdom, the most wise Being; _Tatva_, the Being who exists
by himself; _Paramèshvara_, the Almighty; from _Parama_ the highest,
and _Ishvara_ lord; both which words are joined together by an
elision, and formed into one: _Svayambhu_, a Being who exists for
and by himself; as _Svaya_ signifies, in the Samscred, by himself;
and _bhu_, existing: _Paràbara_, the most excellent of all exalted
beings. All these expressions, which are taken partly from the
Brahmanic grammar, and partly from the Indian dictionaries, clearly
shew that the Indians believe in one only true God, who has the
principle of existence within himself, and who lives from eternity to
eternity. In the Indian book _Mahabhàrada_ he is distinguished by the
following appellations:
_Canmasza vináshana_, he who cannot possibly lose his purity; the
pure Being who never sins.
_Karmasákshi_, the observer of all the actions of men.
_Genmanáshádihina_, he who loses neither his being nor existence.
_Nirmala_, the unspotted.
_Nirmádiguelkoru dharmanáyaga_, the beneficent lord, or the
fundamental principle of every thing that is pure.
Father Joseph de Carignan, who was settled as missionary at _Bettia_,
says, therefore, in a book which he dedicated to the king there:
“Your Pagan authors write in your _Puràna_ (a history of ancient
times), and a part of your philosophers teach that there exists one
God, who is an almighty, incorporeal, and pure spirit.” Could he
have written thus with impunity in the presence of the Brahmans, and
particularly to a king, had he not been certain of what he advanced?
Niebuhr, Pallot de St. Lubin, and others have sufficiently proved,
that many Indians entertain the purest notions of the Divinity. One
day having asked an ignorant Malabar Pagan how extensive the love of
God was, according to his idea, he replied: _Saptasagaram eluranda
lògavum onnu ciuttia vàsughi sarpamàya avene pidicia caratina
ábharatinál ettarudáde oru mey_. That is: “God is so great, that the
serpent _Vásughi_, which surrounds the seven seas and the fourteen
worlds, would be too small should he wish to employ it on his finger
instead of a ring.” It is here seen, that this heathen formed a
very exalted conception of God, though he expressed himself in a
figurative manner. It must, however, be confessed, that there are men
also in India so stupid and blind as to believe the Deity to be a
being that consists of several parts; and who consequently worship,
as their god, the sun, the atmosphere, water, and even the rice which
serves them as nourishment. But where is the country in the world in
which there are not fools?
Respecting the manner in which God produced the world, and still
conducts himself in the government of it, the Indians are divided in
their opinions.
1. Some believe that God first produced the goddess _Bhavàni_, that
is, all-creating nature. The latter, having brought forth three
gods, called _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_, converted herself
into three females, and these married their own sons. The office
assigned to the first was to produce every thing useful in the world;
the second was to preserve them; and the third was commissioned
to destroy them, when they should be no longer necessary. Life,
increase, and death--or creation, preservation, and destruction--are
every where observed in the kingdoms of nature. The above-mentioned
goddess _Bhavani_, who represents all-creative nature, according to
the doctrine of the Brahmans, is the deity who, next to the Supreme
Being, is entitled to the greatest veneration.
2. Others assert that _Vishnu_, the spirit of God, (for this is
shewn by the appellation _Pranen_, which in the book _Mahabhàrada_
is expressly added,) created in the beginning every thing from
water; and from his navel proceeded _Brahma_, _Shiva_, and the whole
multitude of the other gods.
3. Others are of opinion that the god _Parabrahma_ first created the
elements: these were enclosed in a _motta_, that is, an egg; the egg
burst in such a manner that the upper fragments formed seven equal
parts, and the lower fragments the same number; and from these arose
the seven superior and the seven inferior worlds, so that they reckon
fourteen of them. When the Supreme God, _Parabrahma_, had created the
elements, and all these worlds, his appeared on the gold mountain
_Meru_; called the other gods thither, and assigned to _Brahma_ the
office of continuing the creation; to _Vishnu_, that of preserving
it; and to _Shiva_, that of again annihilating every thing in the
world.
The whole theology of the Brahmans is founded on these three
different systems. They are contained in the _Mahabharada_,
_Bhavagavada_, _Aadiparva_, and other Indian manuscripts. A more
particular account of them may be found in my _Systema Brahmanicum_,
and in the explanations of the Indian manuscripts preserved in the
Borgian Museum at Velitri. From all these systems it incontrovertibly
follows:
1. That the Indians believe that God created the world, though they
do not agree in their ideas respecting the manner in which it was
produced.
2. That they are neither Atheists nor Materialists, because they
believe in an exalted self-existent being, who produced every thing,
and who is the creator of the world.
3. That they are also not Manichæans, as they acknowledge that the
only true God is exalted over and independent of every other being.
According to their opinion he is eternal, the only one of his kind,
and the sole creator of the universe.
According to the first system, God, before the origin of all
creatures, created a female. But who is this female supposed to
be? From the name given to her by the Brahmans, it appears that
they understand by it Nature, which they have personified under the
figure of a woman. In the Samscred she is called _Paramèshavari_,
the supreme woman; _Ishi_ or _Ishani_, the woman; _Bhavani_, the
creatoress, who gives existence to all things; _Aadicumari_, the
first maid, the first virgin; _Manassa_, the will of the lord;
_Shakti_, the strength, the power, &c. Father Joseph de Carignan
and Father Marcus à Tumba assert, that the Indians under these
appellations understand the will of God, which emanated from him in a
female form, in order to begin the creation of the world. According
to the doctrine of the Brahmans, this goddess _Bhavani_ changes and
transforms herself into a thousand shapes, and appears sometimes
as a man, and sometimes as a woman. In Thibet she is called
_Lhamaciupral_; in Nepal, _Mayadevi_; in Bengal, _Ishani_; and, as
Sir William Jones has very properly remarked, she is every where
worshipped as the goddess of Nature. Some ignorant Indians believe
that she is the wife of the Supreme God; and others consider her as
the spouse of _Sura_ or _Suraya_, that is, the Sun.
On some Indian monuments, and in some paintings, this divinity is
represented with a band round her neck, from which are suspended a
great many skulls, as a sign that she has power over life and death;
and that she produces, and again destroys, all things. From her
menstrua, which she let fall on the earth, the flowers and all other
created things arose. The rest of the Indian deities are indebted to
her for their existence; and for this reason the heathens paint on
her forehead, as well as on their own, the _Yoni_ or _Medhra_ (female
organs of generation), which are represented by two side strokes and
a red one in the middle.
The fables which the Indians, Thibetians and Chinese relate of this
deity, are so numerous that it would be impossible to mention them.
A nocturnal solemnity has been instituted in honour of her; but it
is so scandalous that decency forbids me to describe it. All that
can be said of it is, that a female perfectly naked appears on this
occasion, and that the parts of sex are not only bestrewed with
flowers, but even worshipped. This festival of offering is called in
the Samscred, Malabar, and Tamulic languages, _Shaktipùgia_; that is,
the festival of the goddess _Shakti_, or Nature, who is the mother of
all things; who produced every thing that exists.
This female deity bore three sons, _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_,
the latter of whom is also called _Mahadèva_. The first creates,
the second preserves, and the third destroys. These three different
effects are called in the Samscred _Srshti_, _Stidi_, and _Samhàra_;
that is, creation, preservation, and annihilation. The above three
gods are the symbols of the three elements, earth, water, and fire.
The earth produces all earthly things; the water promotes their
growth, and preserves them; and by fire they are again destroyed. For
this reason the Tamulians and people of Malabar say, that _Brahma_
is of the nature of the _Bhu_ or _Bhumi_ (the earth); _Vishnu_, of
that of the _Apu_ or _Gelam_ (the water), and _Shiva_, of that of the
_Aghni_, or fire. All the three bear on their foreheads the sign of
the _Yoni_, to shew that they were born by _Bhagavani_; and that they
are consequently created beings, who represent elements, and create,
preserve, and again destroy every thing for which the menstrua of
their mother supplied the original matter.
_Brahma_ is represented as a man with four visages, because the world
consists of four parts; and he rides on a swan, because the earth
floats on water. _Vishnu_ reclines on a leaf of the water-lily,
_nymphæa_, which is the symbol of water. _Shiva_ holds in his hand a
ray of lightning, in order to shew that he represents fire. One needs
only to cast a look at the figures of these deities to be immediately
able to discover the meaning of the allegory concealed under them.
They assume sometimes a male and sometimes a female appearance; and
act their part sometimes as the husbands, sometimes as the children,
and sometimes as the brothers of the goddess _Bhagavani_; in the same
manner as the Juno of the Romans was represented to be the wife,
mother, and sister of Jupiter. They are, however, different from each
other; but together form the monstrous trinity, the _Trimurti_ of
the Indians, which is shut up in the trunk of a tree, and cannot be
separated. In this manner they are represented in the ancient temple
in the island of Elephanta, an engraving of which has been given by
_Niebuhr_ in the second part of his Travels. _Tri_ signifies three,
and _Murti_ a body; _Punya Murti_, a sacred body; _Vishnu Murti_, the
body or image of _Vishnu_. The word _Trimurti_ signifies, therefore,
not three gods, or three distinct powers, but three visible bodies,
which were produced by the goddess _Bhavani_, and united together in
one trunk. In this sense the word occurs both in the _Mahabhàrada_
and _Sambhava_, and in the dictionaries of Fathers Hanxleden and
Pimentel. These three gods were in the egg created by _Paramèshvara_;
and, according to the book _Ciandròdeya_, will perish by death at the
end of the world[186].
The word _Brahma_ signifies, in the Samscred, both the science
of law, and, as Father Hanxleden says in his dictionary, the god
_Brahma_, the creator, who, according to the doctrine of the
Vishnuvites, arose from the _nymphæa_ which sprang from the navel
of _Vishnu_. As creator he is with propriety styled the science of
law, because he arranged the whole creation according to the laws of
nature. The _Veda_, which he holds in his hand, is nothing else than
the book of nature, where he found instructions how to order every
thing, according to the laws of necessity, by weight and by measure.
Sometimes he is represented as a man sitting on an egg, from which he
created all other things.
The wife of _Brahma_ is _Sarasvadi_, the goddess of grammar, poetry
and music. In the book _Amarasinha_ she is called _Brahmi_, the
goddess of the sciences; _Bhàradì_, the goddess of history; for the
old Indian history is called _Bhàrada_, or _Mahabhàrada_, after
the name of king _Bharaden_, or _Bharada_, from whom the Indians
deduce a genealogical catalogue of their oldest kings, which is,
however, fabulous. This goddess, who is distinguished by a great
many other names, signifies, without doubt, the earth, as _Vishnu_
is the symbol of water. She presides over gold and silver, trees,
fruit, rice-fields, plants, cattle, and particularly fire, which she
restrains both in habitations and in the fields. She is represented,
in general, as sitting on a leaf of the _nymphæa_; suckling a child
at her breast, or pouring from a bag the productions of the earth.
Her symbol is the cow.
The wife of _Mahadèva_, _Shiva_, or _Rudra_, is the goddess
_Parvadi_, that is, the ruler of the mountains. She is called also
_Ishàni_, the woman; _Gaurì_, the yellow, shining; _Gauri_, the
white; _Haimavadì_, the ruler of every thing that is moist and cold;
_Rudràni_, the goddess who is the cause that women in labour cry,
and that men are afflicted with fevers, the small pox, the plague,
and other diseases; _Sarmangala_, the goddess of pleasure, of joy,
who promotes the growth and increase of all earthly things. She was
destined to be the wife of _Shiva_, that is, the sun, because the
moon receives her light from the latter, and in conjunction with him,
at least according to the physical principles of the Indians, has an
influence on all earthly things, and contributes to their creation
as well as destruction. Her husband _Shiva_ has also several other
names by which his properties and effects are distinguished. Thus,
for example, he is called _Mahadèvi_, the great god; _Rudra_, the
god who visits mankind with sickness, and by these means compels
them to shed tears; _Isha_, the lord; _Shuli_, he who bears the
trident, the symbol of the three worlds, viz. the heavens, the
earth, and the infernal regions, which are all under his inspection;
_Shrikanda_, the lord of light; _Andagaribu_, the enemy of darkness;
_Vyomaghesha_, the lord of the firmament, &c. All these appellations
sufficiently prove that this deity represents the sun.
According to the Indian mythology, these two deities, _Shiva_ and
_Parvadi_, produced the following children:
1. _Gannèsha_, of whom some account has been already given.
2. _Kartiguna_, or _Scanda_, the leader of the celestial armies.
3. _Hanumán_, the symbol of the air and the wind.
4. _Bhagavàdi_, of whom an account has also been given.
The next in order among the celestial gods is _Budha_, that is, the
intelligent, the vigilant, the crafty, the acute. He is supposed
to be a bosom friend of _Shiva_, and supplies the place of his
private secretary. This office has been conferred on him by the
Indian mythologists; because, according to their ideas, each planet
is governed by a particular genius; and because _Budha_ represents
Mercury, which is nearest the sun. This god is said to have been
the author of a great many books, and to have invented arithmetic,
the art of writing, geometry, astronomy, and, in short, all those
sciences which have been cultivated and improved by the industry of
man. The opinion or those who consider him as having been really a
writer, a king, and a legislator, is ridiculous.
The other deities of the Indians are:
1. _Indra_, or _Devendra_, the genius who presides over rain and the
atmosphere.
2. _Yama_, the genius under whose inspection the dead are placed; the
angel of death who dispenses rewards and punishment.
3. _Aghni_, fire, as a personified deity.
4. _Kamadèva_, or _Manmatha_, the god of pleasure, who blinds the eye
of reason, and inspires men with wicked desires.
5. _Varuna_, the genius who presides over the sea, and also over
ponds, lakes and rivers.
6. _Vaishrava_, who presides over buried treasures, and over all pits
and caverns in which riches lie concealed.
7. _Vishvacarma_, the inspector of all manual labour and mechanical
arts.
8. _Yaksha_, certain genii who are in the service of the
above-mentioned _Vaishrava_.
9. _Gandarva_, the genii who make music in the heavens.
10. _Kinnara_, the musician of the female deities.
11. _Rakshasa_, the nocturnal apparition; a malignant genius,
delighting in mischief; produced by the goddess _Adidi_, and detested
by the other gods. This appellation is applied, in ridicule, by
the Brahmans to the Europeans. It is remarkable that the Assyrians
and Medes are in various ancient books called also _Rakshasa_. The
Indians describe them as a wild, cruel, hostile people, who reside on
the other side of the mountain _Imau_ or _Himala_.
12. _Bhùda_, with the long _ù_, are also spectres in the service of
_Mahadèva_.
13. _Pishasha_, wicked dæmons, the damned devils.
14. _Apsarastri_, nymphs who reside partly in heaven, and partly on
earth.
The Indians believe that good and bad genii of this kind wander
always about, and sometimes suffer themselves to be seen. For this
reason they are accustomed to invite them to eat in their houses;
and, on such occasions, they clean their habitations that they may be
ready to receive them.
Of the above kind are the apparitions of _Vishnu_, who, as the
preserver of the world, shewed himself to mankind under nine
different forms. In these apparitions the whole history of the
_Vishnuvites_, both sacred and profane, is contained. As they are
highly interesting, I shall here insert them, together with the
Malabar text, as it is written in the Indian book _Mahabhàrada_. The
description of them is as follows:
1. _Hayagrìvane connu Vèdanguel vìndu munnam bhayate tirpan Malsya
vèszam adhava geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst conquer _Hayagriva_
(the ringleader of the wicked), and who, with a view to free us from
our first terror (occasioned by the flood), didst assume the form of
a fish, and bring us back the lost _Vèda_.”
2. _Kshìra ságaram-athanándare munnam adhibháramò dánnìduna mandiram
uyartuvan ghòramáyoru? kùrma vigraham dharicìdum kárana murte geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who in the sea of milk, in
which the world with its monstrous burden had sunk and was near being
plunged to the bottom, didst assume the form of a huge tortoise;
didst again raise it up, and save it from apparent destruction.”
3. _Dhàtrie rekshiciuden kádelittadhò lòga prapti-cuhhávicioru
Hiranyáccene munnam potriyàgavadáram ceidu nigrahiciuden dhàtrie
stànatà-keum yagnànga murte geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the form of
a boar, and in that form didst destroy the _Hirannya_, who through
malice threw the world from its equilibrium, and hurled it to
destruction; but which thou didst save by thy wisdom, and hast again
fixed on its centre[187].”
4. _Hiranyà Kaschipu vamá Asurendrene Kolluvan Narasinba-Karamay
ciamagna nalhá geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the mixed form
of a lion and a man, in order to destroy the _Hirannya_, the leader
of the wicked dæmons, who wished to force mankind to worship him.”
5. _Didigia-adhibenaya Bálie ciadipadina Didinnadidi Sudanaya Vàmana
murte geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the form of a
dwarf, and didst give thyself out as a son of the goddess _Didi_, to
deceive king _Bali_, the prince among the sons of the goddess _Didi_,
and to punish him[188].”
6. _Dharanni Suragena dvèshiguel áyundáya dharanni Pàlemnáre giama
daghni genáya irivattoru tude vadhiciu tábam tirkum Parashuràma murte
parápalaya geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the form of a
hero, who called himself _Parashuràma_; thine is the victory, thou
preserver of the world, thou who didst destroy twenty-one of those
kings who rebelled against the celestial gods, and who didst free the
earth from their oppressive burthen.”
7. _Pankti kanane connu munnam àbatu tìrpàn Panktisyandana sudenàya
Rágghava geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who wast born as man, of the
race of king _Ragghu_, under the name of _Rágghava_; who didst
destroy the _Panktikana_ (the giant _Ràvana_), and didst free the
world from that pest.”
8. _Annanni vanna mundàya .... Madhura puri tannil Vàsudèva-àtmagenày
Dèvaguì taneyanay vannu Ngiàn genicìdum bhumiyil pirrakennam
Dèvaguelòda-aruli ceidu satya lògavum pukidinàr .... Krshnenày
pirranidu ingane gegan-nàlhen Vishnu bhaktenmaroke sèviciar-anandiciàr._
“These apparitions of Vishnu were over .... He now appeared in the
form of a child produced by _Vasudèva_ (the name of the father),
and _Devaguì_ (the name of his mother), and thereby fulfilled the
desire of the gods, who, as soon as they were informed of it, raised
themselves together to heaven ---- He was born in the form of
_Krishna_, and so _Vishnu_ became lord of the world, honoured and
worshipped by all the upright to the present day.”
9. The ninth apparition of _Vishnu_ was made in the person of
_Budha_, the attentive, cunning, and vigilant god, who observes the
good and bad actions of men, in order to punish or reward them,
when the tenth apparition of _Vishnu_ shall take place. _Dusdhere
shikshikeyum shistere rekshikeyum_, says the _Mahabhàrada_; that is,
he will punish the wicked, and reward the good.
These were the nine apparitions of _Vishnu_, as I find them described
in two Malabar manuscripts of the _Mahabharada_. One of them is
written on palm-leaves, but the other on paper; and both perfectly
agree in regard to the words, and even the accents. I, however, know
that in this respect there are many variations, which may be seen in
the second volume of the _Asiatic Researches_; but, in my opinion, it
is always better to adhere to the Indian originals, than to depend on
the ornamented relations of inconsiderate travellers.
The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is an article of belief
generally acknowledged as true by the philosophers, as well as by the
common people in India. _Dhermaragia Guru_, the Peguan philosopher,
explains himself on this subject as follows, in his short account of
the _Barman_ laws[189]: “Those who honour the Deity, his laws and
his priests will one day share the fate of all good men. For, in
regard to the good and bad actions of every living being, the case is
the same as with the shadow of our body, which never quits it, but
follows it wherever it goes. Among all living creatures there are
good and bad. Man becomes either a _Nat_ (dæmon), or an animal. The
soul of the animal transmigrates either into a man or a _Nat_. The
_Nat_ becomes either animal or man. In a word, all those who have not
rendered themselves worthy of being admitted into the _Niban_ (the
habitations of the blessed), go alternately upwards and downwards.”
This transmigration of the soul from one body into another is called
_Punar-genana_. The body in which the soul is purified and cleansed
is _Yadana Dèba_, the body of affliction or torment. A person who is
perfectly purified, glorified, and blessed, is called _Punnyadeha_.
Virtues and meritorious actions are either _Ulkrsha_, great deserts;
_Madhyama_, moderate; or _Samánya_, altogether trifling and common.
Sins are divided in the like manner; and according to this gradation
the soul has to endure a greater or less degree of torment. The gods,
that is the dæmons, are subject to this metempsychosis also; and
hence it happened that _Budha_ was obliged to wander from one body
into another 999 times, _Vishnu_ ten times, and _Shiva_ and _Bhavani_
an infinite number of times.
It is evident, that such transmigrations of the soul, or apparitions,
can be considered properly as nothing else than repeated incarnation;
and therefore the Greeks never said, “the Soul of Zoroaster, of
Semiramis, or Pythagoras, has again become man, but that it has
entered into another body.” When the soul has attained its full
purity, it is then, according to the doctrine of the Indians,
susceptible of five degrees of eternal joy and happiness:
1. _Sànitya_, the presence of God.
2. _Sàmipya_, approximation to God.
3. _Sàyugia_, union with God.
4. _Sàlocya_, holy contemplation of God.
5. _Sàrubhya_, participation in the divine essence.
The damned, on the other hand, are exposed in _Naraga_ (hell) to the
most dreadful torments. The _Preda_ or _Naragagendu_, that is, the
souls of the damned, have to expect there:
1. _Tabana_, pain.
2. _Avici_, internal anguish.
3. _Samhàra_, sufferings and punishment for their sins.
4. _Kàlasùtra_, an extraordinary length of time, which does not end
till full atonement has been made for their sins.
5. _Tipravèdana_, torments effected by fire.
6. _Pìdha_, a dreadful malignity and exasperation of their minds.
The inspection of the damned belongs to _Yàma_, that is, the god
who is always vigilant; or _Shràdhadèva_, the god of tears and
lamentations. The five principal places where good works are rewarded
are:
1. _Nìba_, or _Mòksha_, the true abode of the blessed in the highest
heaven, where _Parabrahma_ the God of gods has his residence.
2. _Brahmalòga_, the heaven of the god _Brahma_, to which those
ascend who have particularly devoted themselves to the service of
this god.
3. _Caylàsa_, the heaven of _Shiva_ or _Mahadèva_, to which their
adherents attain.
4. _Vaicunda_, the heaven of _Vishnu_, which is peculiarly destined
for the worshippers of that deity.
5. _Indraloga_, or _Suargga_, the heaven of _Dèvendra_. This is
situated in the air. It is consequently the lowest of all, and is
appointed for the reception of those who on earth devoted themselves
to the service of any deity.
The _Mòksha_, or _Niba_, is the only one of these heavens from which
souls have no need of again descending to the earth; for in it they
are already cleansed, and have attained to the highest degree of
perfection. From all the rest they are now and then sent down; but
they again ascend to them, according as their past conduct in life
has been meritorious or deserving of punishment. Souls transmigrate
also sometimes into animal bodies, and hence the prohibition to kill
animals.
CHAPTER VIII.
_Hieroglyphical Marks of Distinction among the Indians._
It is a part of the superstition and religious practices of the
Indians, to paint on their forehead or breast certain hieroglyphical
marks, which serve to shew either their peculiar veneration for some
particular deity, or their attachment to a certain philosophical
sect. Those who understand the secret meaning of these marks of
distinction can immediately tell, when they meet a Pagan Indian,
to what religion or school he belongs. It may afford satisfaction,
therefore, to the reader, to see here an explanation of them
illustrated by a plate.
I. _Trishula_, the trident which _Shiva_, _Rudra_, or _Mahadèva_
holds in his hand, as a symbol of his power over heaven, the
earth, and hell. For this reason he is called by the Indians
the _Trident-bearer_. He is distinguished also by the name of
_Tripurandaga_, that is, the god who pervades and governs three
worlds. The symbol of these three worlds are three mountains, called
_Tripura_.
II. _Shula_, which also represents the trident. The _Shivanites_
paint it, as they do the former, with white earth, both on their
forehead and breast. Some call it _Tirunama_, that is, the most
sacred name of God.
III. _Ciakshu_, or _Trkanna_, the sacred eye of _Shiva_. This god
has three eyes, and that with which he observes every thing stands
in the middle of his forehead. For this reason he is called also
_Trilocèna_, the triple-eyed god[190]. The Shivanites paint this eye
on the forehead.
[Illustration: _Lowry sculp._]
IV. _Aghni_, or _Ti_, that is, fire, which the _Shivanites_ worship
as a symbol of _Shiva_ or the sun. They bear this mark both on their
forehead and breast. The pyramidal form of the Indian temples shews
that they are dedicated to the sun or fire.
V. _Tirumanna_, the holy earth. This mark is painted on the breast
and forehead with yellow, red, or white earth; and is used at
_Jagarnat_ on the Ganges; at _Caveri_, _Cangipuram_, and, in general,
every sacred place. The lateral strokes are white or yellow; but
that in the middle always red. This mark represents the _Meddhra_,
that is, the womb of _Bhavàni_, from which every thing existing was
produced. It is much used by the _Shivanites_ and _Vishnuvites_.
VI. _Tripundara_, that is, the ornament of the three stripes. It is
painted with sandal wood and ashes; and signifies _Bhavani_, the
goddess of nature, together with her three sons _Brahma_, _Vishnu_,
and _Shiva_--earth, water, and fire. Some are of opinion that this
mark represents properly _Vishnu_, as he swam in the water at the
time of the creation.
VII. The _Tripundara_ with the _Puttu_. It has the same signification
as the preceding, and is formed with ashes. Both these marks are very
common among the Indians.
VIII. The _Lingam_ or _Phallus_ of _Shiva_: a symbol of the creative
power of the sun. Some bear it on their neck; others paint it on the
arms, and some on the forehead.
IX. _Pàdiciandra_, the half-moon, which is painted on the forehead
with yellow. It is a mark of the _Shivanites_, who worship the sun
and the moon; and the symbol of _Ishàni_ and _Parvadi_, the ruler of
mountains, the woman of the mountains, that is, the moon.
X. _Pàdiciandra_ with the _Puttu_: has the same signification.
XI. _Pattavardhana_, that is, growth, increase. This mark is an
ornament of the priesthood, and is painted with yellow. It represents
the square pit in which the _Homa_ or _Yaga_ is burnt.
XII. _Vìdavardhana_, happiness, domestic felicity; a mark formed with
cow’s dung, the symbol of abundance. The _Vishnuvites_, that is, the
worshippers of water and earth, are accustomed to make great use of
it.
XIII. _Gòbura_, the tower; a mark which is painted also with a yellow
colour. It is dedicated to _Ishi_, or _Lakshmi_, and relates in
particular to the thriving of cattle. The above female deity bears on
her head a turret of this kind, as Cybele did formerly.
XIV. _Villa_, the bow. It is dedicated to _Shrivàma_, that is, the
young Bacchus (the symbol of the sun), who with it combats the king
of the night, the leader of monsters and giants, who is called
_Ràvana_. According to tradition he was a king in the island of
Ceylon: but properly he is the Pluto of the Indians.
XV. _Tamara-ila_, or _Padma-ila_, the calyx, together with a leaf of
the _nymphæa_. It is painted with yellow, for which the Indians have
a particular fondness; and signifies water, from which every thing
was, and still is, produced by the influence of the sun.
XVI. _Munghi-ila_, a single leaf of the _nymphæa_, placed in water in
an inverted situation. Like the preceding, it is also a mark of the
_Vishnuvites_, and has the same signification.
XVII. _Tamaramotta_, the bulb of the _nymphæa_. It is painted with
yellow, and has also a like signification.
XVIII. _Puttu_, that is, the mark of colour. It is either red, white,
or black. In the middle of it is a raw grain of rice, dedicated to
_Lakshmi_ the goddess of the fruits of the earth, and particularly of
corn.
XIX. _Ciacra_, the wheel of _Vishnu_, which he always turns round,
and by which he directs the world. A great many wonderful powers and
properties are ascribed to it by the Vishnuvites. The oldest Indian
kings employed this wheel instead of a sceptre; and were, therefore,
called _Ciacravartti_, that is, persons who direct the wheel. The
Thibetians still retain this ancient custom, and carry round a wheel
during their public processions, festivals, and other solemnities.
This mark is particularly characteristic of the _Vishnuvites_. Some
consider it as the symbol of the sun; and I am of the same opinion,
because that luminary is worshipped by the Indians as the ruler of
the world.
These different kinds of marks have, in the Samscred language,
a common appellation, viz. _Tilaga_, a mark on the forehead;
_Todocuri_, a stripe or mark which is made by touching colours;
_Citraga_, a coloured ornament on the forehead; _Pattikìra_, a stripe
made through devotion; _Vishèszaga_, marks by which the different
sects and worshippers of God may be known. Some of these marks are
painted with red sandal wood, others with _curcuma_, others with
_magnel_; some with the ashes of burnt cow’s dung, others with
rice-meal, and others with earth which has been collected in the
neighbourhood of a temple, a sacred river, or a place consecrated to
a deity: ashes from burnt human bodies are also sometimes mixed with
this earth. The sandal wood, saffron and ashes are consecrated to
fire, the sun, moon, and planets; but the sacred earth, the ricemeal,
and burnt cow’s dung, are employed in honour of _Lakshmi_ and her
husband _Vishnu_[191].
CHAPTER IX.
_Division of Time--Festivals--Calendar of the Indians._
In the reckoning of time the Indians employ partly solar years, and
partly lunar. A solar year is called _Sura_, or _Surya Valsara_;
a lunar year, _Somanda_, or _Ciandra Valsara_. A _Suraya Valsara_
contains twelve months, during which the _Sura_ or _Surya_ (the sun)
passes through the _Rashiciacra_ (zodiac). The _Rashi_, or signs of
the zodiac, are:
1. _Mèsza_, a horned animal, that is, Aries. It corresponds with
April, called _Mèsza-mòsa_.
2. _Idava_, _Vrsha_, or _Mahisha_, that is, Taurus. It corresponds
with _Idavamasa_, or _Vrshamasa_, May.
3. _Mithuna_, Gemini, couple, or man and wife, as seen represented
on an Indo-Thibetian painting preserved in the Borgian Museum. It
corresponds with _Mithunamòsa_, or June.
4. _Carkidaga_, and not _Carcata_, as it is called very improperly by
Sir William Jones, Cancer. It corresponds with July.
5. _Sinha_, Leo, an animal which not only existed in India in the
remotest ages, but is still found there; as Zimmerman has observed,
with great propriety, in his Zoology. _Sinhamasa_, the sun in the
sign Leo; August.
6. _Cani_, or _Canya_, Virgo; _Canimasa_, the sun in the sign Virgo,
September.
7. _Tula_, Libra; _Tulimasa_, the sun in the sign Libra, October.
8. _Vrshvica_, Scorpio; _Vrshvicamasa_, November.
9. _Dhanu_, or _Dhanussa_, the Bow (not the bowman); _Dhanumasa_,
December.
10. _Magara_, or _Macara_, the Whale (_Souffleur_); _Magaramàsa_,
January.
11. _Cumbha_, a Water-pitcher, a vessel with a narrow neck, the sign
Aquarius; _Cumbhamasa_, February.
12. _Mina_, or _Malsya_, Two Fish; _Minamasa_, March.
Anquetil du Perron believes that the Indians adopted this zodiac
from the Arabs; but Bayer and Montucla are of opinion that they
borrowed it from the Greeks. Sir William Jones, however, maintains
that all nations of the earth were acquainted with the zodiac before
their dispersion; and this conjecture appears to me to be the most
probable[192].
The days of the week have also significative appellations, as follows:
1. _Aadityanàl_, _Suryanàl_ or _Suryavàra_, the day of the sun,
Sunday.
2. _Sòmanàl_, _Sòmavàra_, _Tinguelashicia_, _Tinguelkelami_, the day
of the moon, Monday. The three first names are Malabar; the last
Tamulic.
3. _Mangalanàl_, _Ciovanàl_, _Ciovavàra_, _Ciovashicia_, is, in
Malabar, the day of Mars, Tuesday. This Mars, however, was not a
warrior, but a priest and counsellor of the sun.
4. _Budhanàl_, _Budhavàra_, _Budhanashicia_, _Budhakelami_, the day
of Mercury, Wednesday. By Mercury the Indians understand also a
priest and counsellor of the Sun.
5. _Brhaspadinal_, _Brhaspadivàra_, _Vyashicianàl_, _Vyashakelami_,
the day of Jupiter, Thursday. The Indian Jupiter was also a priest
and a poet.
6. _Shukranàl_, _Shukravàra_, _Vishnavàra_, _Velliashicia_,
_Villikelami_, the day of Venus, Friday. The genius of this planet is
of the male sex; and is a priest, poet, and contemplative philosopher.
7. _Shaninàl_, _Shanivàra_, _Pangunal_, _Shaniashicia_, _Shanikelami_,
is the day of Saturn, Saturday. The genius of this star is supposed,
by the Indians to be an old man invested with the priesthood, who
presides over the course of time, and devours children. According to
every conjecture, this is merely an allegorical allusion, by which
they mean to shew that a great many men always die before it has
completed its revolution, which, as is said, continues thirty-nine
years six months[193].
The Indians believe that the world was created under the sign of
Aries; and therefore they begin, every year, on the commencement of
April, when the sun enters into that sign, a new period, according to
which they determine the course of the sun and the other planets. On
this occasion they always hold their great and celebrated festival
of offering known under the name of _Yaga_. A great many Brahmans
assemble in a tent in the open fields, and, amidst a variety
of ceremonies and religious practices, strangle a ram which is
consecrated to the sun and the planets. The object of this sacrifice
is, that the genii of these stars may confer good fortune and
happiness on their worshippers during the course of the new year. In
my _Systema Brahmanicum_ I have given a particular description of
this festival.
According to the assertion of Le Gentil, Bailly, De la Lande, and
Sonnerat, the Brahmans use a cycle of sixty years, reckoned according
to the method of the Chaldæans. A period of 24,000 years, they say,
is necessary before the whole host of the heavens, together will all
the fixed stars belonging to them, can perform their revolution from
east to west. Now, as the motion of the celestial sphere, in the
course of sixty years, advances fifty-four minutes in longitude, it
thus produces the above-mentioned cycle of sixty years, which forms a
part of the 24,000 years which must elapse before the whole rotation
of the heaven is completed.
Mr. S. Davis, however, is of opinion, that this cycle of the Brahmans
relates merely to the revolution of _Rasha_ (Jupiter.) This much
at any rate is certain, that this cycle actually occurs in the
astronomy of the Brahmans. Walther, Sonnerat, and Father Beschi have
mentioned the different appellations of the sixty years, of which
this cycle consists, in the order as they follow each other; and it
appears, that such years are expressly quoted in the horoscopes and
descriptions of the nativities of the Indian princes. It is equally
certain, that this cycle existed in the _Pancianga_ of the _Brahmans_
at _Carnate_, _Malayala_, _Madura_, and _Tanjaur_. This _Pancianga_
is the calendar used by all the Brahmans who live towards the East.
It consists of five divisions, as appears by its name, which is
compounded of _pancia_ five, and _angia_ a part. The first contains
the days of the moon’s increase and decrease; the second, the usual
days of the week; the third, the constellations, with an account of
the moon’s daily position; the fourth, those days which announce good
or bad fortune; and the fifth, auguries and horoscopes, together with
the current year of the above-mentioned cycle of sixty years.
The Brahmans employ also another period called _Mahayuga_, which
they determine by an anomalistic movement of the whole stars, which
ends when the moon together with her apogeum and ascending nodes
are in conjunction with the sun on the first day of April. Repeated
observation of the starry heavens gave the Brahmans an opportunity
of remarking that the course of the stars was in a certain measure
retarded by their ascension and distance from the earth. They
calculated, therefore, this retardation, and found, that, since
the time when the above position of all the stars took place,
1,955,884,890 years must have elapsed; and that 2,364,115,110 years
were necessary to produce it again. This great anomalistic period of
the revolution of the stars, which they call _Calpa_, is divided into
four epochs. The first is called _Satayayuga_, the age of truth and
justice, or the golden age; _Tredayuga_, the second, we should call
the silver age; the third, _Duabarayuga_, is the brazen age; and the
fourth, _Caliyuga_, the iron age.
Years.
The _Satyayuga_ contains 1,728,000
The _Tredayuga_ 1,296,000
The _Duabarayuga_ 864,000
The _Caliyuga_ 432,000
The whole _Calpa_, comprehending the _Sandhi_[194], lasts
4,320,000,000 years.
* * * * *
Of all the Europeans, no one, as far as I know, has placed in a
clearer light this subject, as well as the whole Brahmanic astronomy,
so difficult to be explained, than Mr. Samuel Davis[195]. From his
explanation, founded upon Indian manuscripts, it evidently appears
that the above periods, as well as the division of the different ages
into a certain number of years, is not a poetical fiction, but a
real astronomical period, founded upon the hypothesis, that so many
thousands of years, which form the _Calpa_, are requisite before all
the celestial bodies can be found together in the above position;
which however has never yet existed. M. Bailly was therefore in a
great error when he endeavoured to prove, from the astronomical
calculations of the Brahmans, that the world is much older than it is
according to the chronology of Moses[196].
We are told by Strabo, in the fifteenth book of his Geography, that
the Brahmans admitted, as a thing well known, that the earth was of a
spherical figure; and indeed they are actually convinced of the truth
of this principle. They divide the diameter of it into a hundred
and sixty equal parts, which they call _Yogiana_. When they wish
to determine the degree of latitude under which a place lies, they
employ the _Palabhá_, that is, the shadow projected by the gnomon of
a dial, placed in a perpendicular direction, exactly at the time when
the sun is on the equator. The longitude, called _Deshándara_, they
determine by eclipses of the moon; and it is reckoned from the first
meridian, which most of the Brahmans make to pass through the western
extremity of the island _Lanca_ or _Ceylon_. The place where it does
so is called _Salmala_, and is probably a mountain on the coast of
_Pescaria_, which is adjacent to that island; at least we have reason
to conclude so from this circumstance, that the coast of _Pescaria_
is called in the Samscred language _Salàbhabu_. We know from the
Indian mythology, that _Rama_ (the Indian Bacchus, or the Sun,) went
to the first meridian in _Lanca_, when he wished to expel _Ravana_
the king of the night; and that, for this purpose, he passed over
the bridge _Ràma_, which is properly nothing else than a sand-bank,
that affords a passage from _Pescaria_ to _Lanca_. Here then in the
island of _Lanca_ is the first meridian, where, according to the idea
of the Brahmans, immediately after midnight the natural day begins to
appear, and then diffuses itself earlier or later over all the other
places towards the east or the west, according as they lie under
a nearer or more remote degree of longitude. There are, however,
various other places which the Brahmans make their first meridian to
pass through: such, for example, as _Avanti_, a town in the country
of the Marattas.
The inhabitants of the coast of Malabar reckon the hours of the day
and the night from the rising and setting of the sun. Thus they say,
in the first _Nàliga_ (hour) of the day; in the second _Nàliga_ of
the night, &c. Few of the Indians reckon the hours from noon. The
duration of time, called _Ràla_, or _Muhurta_, is reckoned by the
breathings of a person in health. Six breathings make a _Vinàlica_,
or minute; sixty _Vinàlica_ make a _Danda_; and sixty _Danda_,
_Dina_, or _Nàliga_, form one _Nakshatranàl_, that is, a natural day;
and thirty such _Nakshatranàl_ make a _Masà_, or astronomical month.
In Malabar the day and night consist of sixty _Nàliga_, which
together, according to the Italian method of reckoning time, amount
to twenty-four hours. The night is divided into four _Yama_, or
watches; so that the two first last till midnight, and the other two
till morning. There is a similar division of the day. These watches
have not been borrowed from military regulations; but were first
established by the Brahmans employed in celestial observations.
The hours in the Samscred language are called _Shalkshana_; in
the Tamulic and Malabar, _Nàliga_; in the Nepalic, _Ghahu_; and
in Hindostan, _Palà_. They are announced from the summits of the
pagodas, or heathen temples, by beating upon copper basons, the sound
of which can be heard at a great distance. Is it not possible that
these basons or copper vessels, which were employed for this purpose
in the earliest ages, may have given rise to the invention of our
bells? On some pagodas the hours are announced by means of a large
cow’s horn, which emits a strong and penetrating sound. Some reckon
the time by water-clocks, and others by lamps; some by the position
of the sun, and others by the flux and reflux of the sea, which, when
the moon is visible, they can determine with wonderful accuracy. Here
and there may be found a few Indians who make use of the Berosian
clocks.
The astronomical year of the Indians consists of 365 days, six
hours, twelve minutes and thirty seconds. When this division and the
astronomical tables of the Brahmans are closely examined, it appears
that they agree perfectly with the Egyptian, Chaldean and Babylonian;
and that they were long known among them before the origin of the
Alexandrian school, from which Anquetil du Perron deduces the
astronomical knowledge of the Brahmans.
* * * * *
The Indian books which treat of astronomy are:
1. The _Sùrya Sidhànda_, that is, observations of the sun.
2. _Sòma Sidhànda_, observations of the moon.
3. _Vashista Sidhànda_, observations of _Vashista_.
4. _Graha làghava_, observations of the stars.
5. _Grahanamala_, or a catalogue of eclipses.
* * * * *
The astrological books of the Indians are:
1. _Giodisha Shástra_, that is, the science of casting horoscopes,
and observing the constellations.
2. _Giadagàrnava_, that is, the light by the help of which one can
discover what is good or bad in the hour of a person’s nativity.
3. _Kramadìpiga_: Instructions for the knowledge of good or bad
actions; the production of which depends on the constellations.
4. _Suhudidìpiga_: Instructions how to perform ablutions and
purifications by observing the revolution of the heavens.
In the scientific writings of the Brahmans, astronomy is treated in
a manner entirely different from that of the so-called _Purana_,
or ancient histories. The latter contain nothing but a multitude
of insipid fables, the foundation of which is astronomy; but which
are entirely destitute of probability. Anquetil, Bailly, and other
learned men have however suffered themselves to be so far misled
by them, as to consider the astronomy of the Brahmans in a very
erroneous point of view.
Besides the solar year, the Indians have also a particular lunar
year, which, according to the testimony of Curtius[197], was
introduced in the earliest periods, and by which most of them at
present are accustomed to form their computations. Some of the
inhabitants of the coast of Malabar reckon, as we do in Europe, by
solar years; and adopt our _Annum expunctionis_, or leap-year, which
they call _Kuttucàla_. Others reckon as we do, but differ from us
in regard to the days of the month; as they increase or lessen them
without making any variation in the number of the months. Their month
begins after the seventh and before the twelfth day of ours, and
consequently ends some days later. This difference, however, is not
confirmed by the authority of the king or government, but depends
merely on the astronomical observations of this or that astronomical
sect and school, one of which reckons one way, and another in a
different.
* * * * *
That the reader may form some idea of the lunar months of
the Indians, I shall here give the names of the twenty-seven
constellations which the moon passes through every month, and to
which particular regard has been paid in this division of time. Sir
William Jones has transcribed them in the Bengal language; but I
shall employ the Malabar and Tamulic.
1. _Ashvadi_,
2. _Bharanì_,
3. _Kártiga_,
4. _Rohanì_,
5. _Magaira_,
6. _Tiruvádira_,
7. _Punarda_,
8. _Aylya_,
9. _Magha_,
10. _Pura_,
11. _Puya_,
12. _Uttara_,
13. _Atta_,
14. _Cittra_,
15. _Ciodi_,
16. _Vishággha_,
17. _Anila_,
18. _Trketta_,
19. _Mula_,
20. _Puráda_,
21. _Uttaráda_,
22. _Tiruvonna_,
23. _Avitta_,
24. _Ciadèya_,
25. _Puraviruttàdi_,
26. _Uttaraviruttàdi_,
27. _Irabadi_.
Some add also the twenty-eighth, _Abhijit_. Mr. Sonnerat has totally
mutilated these names, which may be found in the second volume of
his Voyages. I have written them exactly as they are pronounced in
Italian. Whoever will take the trouble to compare them with the
Bengalo-Samscredamic appellations, which Sir William Jones has
published, will find that they entirely correspond with them, and
that the Brahmans on the coast of Malabar understand the Samscred as
well as the Brahmans of Bengal and at Benares[198].
According to the principles of the Indians, the moon continues in
each of these constellations during the period of sixty Malabar
_Naligas_, or twenty-four hours. In their calculations the Indians
do not take into account the days of new and full moon, but reckon
only those of her increase and decrease. Full moon is called in
the Samscred language _Pùrmimà_, or _Velutavà_, the white moon.
New moon is called _Amàva_ or _Carttavàva_, that is, the new, the
black moon; because at that time she is not quite visible. As soon
as full or new moon is past, they begin to reckon in the following
manner: _Prathema_, the first day after new or full moon; _Duidia_,
the second; _Tridia_, the third; _Ciadrtti_, the fourth; _Penciami_,
the fifth; _Shasdi_, the sixth; _Saptami_, the seventh; _Ashdami_,
the eighth; _Navamì_, the ninth; _Dashamì_, the tenth; _Egadashi_,
the eleventh; _Dvàdashi_, the twelfth; _Trayodashi_, the thirteenth;
_Ciadurdashi_, the fourteenth. Her increase is called _Purvapaksha_,
and her decrease _Abaraksha_, that is, the fore-part and hind-part of
the moon. According to the above method of reckoning, a lunar month
seems to consist of fourteen days: two such lunar months and two days
make a solar[199].
The festivals of the Indians, according to the lunar calendar, are
established in the following order:
I. In _Purnima_, the month of March, the festival of the goddess
_Bhagavadi_ is celebrated, which, next to that of the sun, when a ram
is sacrificed, is the most celebrated of all. The principal part of
the solemnity is, that the Brahmans, in honour of the moon, present
a large offering, which, they call _Sòmayàga_ (the moon-offering).
On this occasion they bruise certain aromatic herbs, and prepare
from their juice a particular kind of beverage, which they partake
of, repeating at the same time a great number of private forms of
prayer, called _Mandra_. These _Mandras_ always end with the words
Om or _Sváha_, which signify, Be it so, or Amen! Happiness, health,
and prosperity, be thine! For example: _Pranane Svàha_; _Abàne
Svàha_; _Samane Svàha_; _Vyana Svàha_:--that is: _Prosit_, May it do
thee good, Spirit of Life (_Pràna_)! _Prosit_, &c. Spirit of those
below (_Abàna_)! _Prosit_, &c. Spirit of Breathing! _Prosit_, &c.
Spirit of Sight! _Prosit_, &c. Spirit of Hearing!--These, in all
probability, are the five spirits which the Egyptians worshipped, as
we are informed by Origen in his fifth book against Celsus; and to
which they added, besides others, _Crepitus Ventris_. This festival
is always celebrated in the month of March, on the first Monday
after the equinox. I had an opportunity of seeing it at _Muttam_,
_Tiruvandaram_, and _Craganor_. The concourse of people on these
occasions is immense. Through religious zeal, the Indians bring with
them a great many cocks, and give them to the Brahmans, who slaughter
these animals before the door of the temple of _Bhagavadì_, and
besprinkle the earth with their blood. The attributes of this deity
have been fully explained already.
II. The second lunar feast is called _Egadashi_, or _Egashì_,
because it always falls on the eleventh day on which the moon
either increases or decreases. On this day, all women who have
been delivered in the course of the week, or who approach the time
of their delivery; all barren females, or those who suffer from a
suppression of the menses; likewise all patients who have been cured
of the small-pox, and all fishermen and farmers, must observe a
strict fast in honour of the goddess _Bhagavadi_. All these people
are fully convinced that the moon assists women in labour, expels
the fever of the small-pox, promotes the growth of the fruits of
the earth, is propitious to fishing, and has an effect on menstrual
purification. They repair, therefore, very early, as I had an
opportunity of seeing several times at _Feira d’Alva_ and _Barcale_,
either to the sea, or, as circumstances may serve, to some river or
pond, where they perform their usual ablutions, and then cause a
half-moon, or some other sacred mark which has a symbolical relation
to the moon, to be painted on their foreheads. When this is done,
they hasten to the temple of _Bhagavadi_; bring her an offering of
coco-nuts, rice, butter, pepper, flowers, and other vegetables;
deposit all these before the door of the temple, and pray to the
goddess with uplifted hands. On this day they are not allowed to take
the least nourishment before sun-set; and even then they must use
nothing but boiled rice, fruit, pulse, and water. Milk, fish, and
betel, are strictly forbidden during these fasts.
These devotees, and particularly the philosophers among them, have an
uncommon dexterity in observing the phases and aspects of the moon,
and of foretelling from them the changes of the weather. When the
moon is obscured by a cloud, and it begins to lighten, they regulate
their predictions by the following rule:
_Vadàya cabilà vidyul atabáyádi lohini_
_Pìda vrshàya vigneyà._
That is: “When the lightning appears of a dark blue colour, it
prognosticates wind: if it be very red, drought will follow: if it
has a yellow appearance, it denotes rain.” All the physical and
astronomical observations commonly ascribed to _Zoroaster_, or
_Zera-Thust_, have originated properly from the Indian _Shamanæi_,
and agree perfectly with the observations of the modern Brahmans.
III. The third festival is celebrated merely by females, at the time
when the moon is in the constellation _Tiruvàdira_, which always
happens in the sixth lunar month. The origin of this festival
is thus related in the Indian mythology:--_Shiva_, that is, _the
good_, (a sacred name given to the solar deity,) once burnt the god
_Ramadèva_, (the Cupid of the Indians,) and deprived him of life.
The death of this beautiful boy made a deep impression of grief on
the heart of the goddess _Parvadi_, the lunar deity, or wife of
_Shiva_. She requested, therefore, in the most earnest manner, that
her husband would restore him to life; which he at length did. In
remembrance of this remarkable event, the principal Indian women
subject themselves to strict fasting; and at the same time offer
to _Parvadi_ milk, fruit, rice, flowers, and bananas, to give her
to understand that they entertain a grateful remembrance of her
intercession, by which _Ramadèva_ was again restored to life. On
this day the Indian women perform a peculiar kind of dance called
_Tiruvàdiraattam_. Many of them also are accustomed to amuse
themselves in a swing; and this practice seems to have a particular
relation to the divine worship of the sun and the moon. The elements
which were animated by these two planets are: _Aghni_[200], fire;
_Bhu_, or _Bhumi_, the earth; _Gela_, water; _Vayu_, air; and
_Agàsha_, the æther.--Some of the Pagans form such grovelling ideas
of the Deity, that they consider the earth as his body, the air as
his skin, water as his tongue, fire as his eyes, and the æther as his
ears[201].
IV. The fourth grand festival, celebrated in _Maleyàla_, is called
_Onam_, and happens always in the month of September, on the day of
new moon.--About the 10th of September the rain ceases in Malabar.
All nature seems then as if renovated: the flowers again shoot up,
and the trees bloom: in a word, this season is the same as that
which the Europeans call spring. This festival seems, therefore, to
have been instituted for the purpose of soliciting from the gods a
happy and fruitful year. It continues eight days, and during that
time the Indians are accustomed to adorn their houses with flowers,
and to daub them over with cow’s dung; because the cow, as already
observed, is a sacred animal dedicated to the goddess _Lakshmi_, the
Ceres of the Indians. On this occasion they also put on new clothes,
throw aside all their old earthen ware, and supply its place by new.
The men, particularly those who are young, form themselves into
two parties, and shoot at each other with arrows. These arrows are
blunted, but exceedingly strong; and are discharged with such force,
that a considerable number are generally wounded on both sides. These
games have a great likeness to the _Cerealia_ and _Juvenalia_ of the
ancient Greeks and Romans.
About this time the god _Vishnu_ is accustomed, as the Pagans
pretend, to pay a visit to the earth, and to wander about under a
thousand forms, in order to observe in what state terrestrial affairs
are: whether, for example, there has been a good harvest; whether
princes rule their dominions properly; and other things of the like
kind. They prepare, therefore, in honour of _Vishnu_, a large wheel,
which is the symbol of this god, made of flowers, and place it in the
fore-court of their houses. During my residence at _Ràmapurata_ I had
several times an opportunity of seeing such wheels, which are called
_Ciacra_, in the habitations of the Brahmans. They thereby shew, in a
very ingenious manner, that, the rainy season being over, the sun is
again on the point of approaching, and about to resume his dominion
as it were anew.
Besides these grand festivals, there are several others; such as the
_Shivaratri_, or the night of _Shiva_; in which the _Phallophoria_
ceremonies, that relate to the worship of the _Lingam_, are
celebrated. This festival, on the coast of Malabar, is held always in
March, when the sun enters the last sign of the zodiac, or Pisces.
On this occasion all the inhabitants of both sexes hasten in great
numbers to the temple of _Shiva_, or _Mahadèva_; remain there the
whole night; sing all sorts of indecent songs in honour of the
_Lingam_; go a hundred times in solemn procession either around the
temple or around a tree, under which the _Lingam_ is placed; and
carry about with them, at the same time, a wooden representation
of the _Lingam_; amidst dancing and singing. These circular
perambulations have an allusion to the circle which the sun describes
in his course through the zodiac, and the _Lingam_ represents the
creative power of that luminary.
In the month of December is celebrated the festival of the five
brothers, _Pando_, whom the god _Krishna_ delivered from the
oppression of their uncle _Kaurava_, or _Kuru_, as he is called by
Mr. Wilkins.
_Màsu Ubavàsa_ is a festival observed by the devout every month, and
in which they use nothing but a little fruit, herbs, and roots. By
means of this festival they hope to obtain forgiveness of their sins,
and to pave the way for a tranquil and happy passage into the other
world.
The festival of _Sarasvadi_, who, as the goddess of music and the
sciences, is highly honoured by the Indians, I shall pass over in
silence, to avoid being too prolix; as well as several other small
festivals, which have been introduced only among a few casts or
classes[202].
It appears from these laws, which are in general use; from the
religious practices of the Brahmans, the origin and attributes
of their duties; from their division of time, their festivals,
and their calendar; from the many conical and pyramidal buildings
found in India; from the etymology of various Samscred words, and
from many other circumstances, that the Indians are a very old
people, whose character has a striking resemblance to that of the
Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Persian Magi. Sir William Jones was
induced, therefore, to conjecture that a great emigration must have
taken place in the twelfth century, before the birth of Christ, by
which the religion and religious practices, as well as the arts
and sciences, of foreign nations, were conveyed from Egypt to
India. According to my researches, and the testimony of the most
respectable authors, the origin of all these inventions is to be
deduced from the successors of the Noachites, who first settled in
the province of _Kurdistan_, and thence spread themselves to India
and other places.
CHAPTER X.
_Music, Poetry, Architecture, and other Sciences of the Indians._
It is a certain truth, long known, that the art of poetry flourished
in the earliest periods among the eastern nations. Thus the Hebrews
had their hymns, and their popular songs, long before they were
acquainted with any method of committing their thoughts to writing.
As a proof that they had made considerable progress in this art, I
need mention only the Book of Job, and the ancient Song which is to
be found in the writings of Moses. It may be readily conjectured that
the Indians also, a people who attained sooner to cultivation than
many others, were not destitute of poetry some thousands of years
ago; and indeed several pieces which belong to that period are still
extant. Of this kind are some War Songs, which celebrate the exploits
and heroic deeds performed by the god _Ràma_, the Indian Bacchus,
in the island of _Lanca_, or Ceylon. They contain panegyrics on the
first Indian warriors and heroes, on the love of one’s country, on
the virtues of the people, and the happy condition of India during
the remotest periods; all objects which give full scope to the
imagination, and animate the soul with a desire of achieving splendid
actions. The reader will be better enabled to form an idea of these
different kinds of poetry from the following specimens:
WAR-SONG IN THE SAMSCRED LANGUAGE.
Mada gagia padanàndam Vigghna vicèsha daksham
Sarasigia bhava giàyàm bhàradi sòma mìsham
Nisiciara cula càlàm Ràghavam giàna kinciam
Pradidinam anubhaktyà naumivanmica màryam.
That is:
“To him who subdued the warlike hosts and the elephants, who
overcame every obstacle;
“To him who was conducted thence in triumph by his spouse, the
ruler of the moon;
“To him who frightened away the nocturnal monsters, the conqueror
_Raghàva_ (_Rama_),
“Be daily praise and adoration!--Yes, adoration be to him, the
Lord!”
WAR-SONG IN THE MALABAR LANGUAGE.
I.
Uttama puràna purushende ciaridànam
Uttamamidàdi RAGGHU nàyaga ciaritram
Bhaktiyòdu ciolluvadinna tuniyuenen
Mukti padam-èguga namuka HARI RAMA.
“I begin to sing the ancient deeds of the god Vishnu, the lord
descended from the race of Raghu! And, that I may be able to relate
them in a worthy manner, do thou thyself inspire my song, O _Hari
Rama_!”
II.
Ràkshasa culàdhipadi RAVANA bhuyokshmati
Kanalil vìnnu shalum-a tri dasha pàli
Pal cadalil mèvinna purànna purushende
Kal caladipettu bhuvi vinnu HARI RAMA.
“The three worlds, the gods, and we unfortunate men, have fallen
under the fiery hand of _Ràvana_, the giant king. Free us again, O
thou that sittest in the sea of milk! We implore it, prostrate at
thy feet, O _Hari Rama_!”
III.
Màdhava geyka, Madhu Sùdane gèyoit
Tàdhi ciamanaya bhava nila ghana dhàma
Sàdhu gena pàlanani bhoda nagarasmal
Pàhi gegadhìshvara namostu HARI RAMA.
“Destroy, destroy, O Màdhava! destroy the giant Madhu! Thou, who in
battle exertest thy force like the bursting thunder, free us, free
the world, from this pest of hell! To thee alone belongs praise and
adoration, O _Hari Ràma_!”
This poem relates to the sixth apparition of _Vishnu_, during which
he shewed himself as Bacchus, whom the Indians call _Hari Ràma_.
_Modhava_ is called _Vishnu_, because he is married to the goddess
_Mà_ or _Lakshmi_. During his sixth appearance, he married the
goddess _Sida_, the Ariadne of the Greeks, and took the field against
_Ràvana_, the king of the night, and the giants, monsters produced
by the night, who at that time inhabited the island of _Lanca_.
_Madhu_ was one of _Vishnu_’s mortal enemies, and a sworn friend of
_Ràvana_. During his three first apparitions, _Vishnu_ supported his
character, as the ruler of the waters, by saving the world from being
overwhelmed at the period of the general deluge. Here, however, he
is represented as the genius who rules the sun, and who combats and
subdues the night, together with all her progeny.
* * * * *
ANOTHER MALABAR SONG.
[Illustration: Music
Schu-ga ta-runni ge-na Mannijumanni maguda ma-li-ghe ciolle-dò
ciolle-dò Krshna li-tamr-dam.]
I.
Shuga tarunni manniyum manni maguda malighe
Ciolledo ciolledo Krshna lit-àmrdam
Sugha vibhavam adiladhìgam-iha nahi namukahò
Dugghanguel agambiloke ninghi tulom.
“Young, delicate, female papagay[203]! Thou joy and delight of
mankind! Relate, O relate the noble deeds of the god _Krishna_!
Enliven our hearts by thy song! and banish every care which distracts
our minds, in order that it may flee from us!”
II.
Suerdamidu parcyuna nin manassa telivòlavum
Tuma cerpal culambum panciadhàrayum
Madhura parinada cadali phala madhu gulangalum
Bhakshicirunna teligna paragà ni.
“Behold, beautiful little bird! when thou hast related to us these
noble deeds, we will boil for thee milk, add to it sugar and bananas,
and prepare for thee a noble meal. Compose thyself, then, and begin
thy relation.”
III.
Amara pari vrdham amarapadi sudanu sùdanay
Aasharicilay ò saratha vèlayum
Avidemarivadinu para-kalaghi nòdu Shàrigue
Aatma shudhi pradam bhacti mucti pradam.
“Thou will’st not? Canst thou no more remember those times when
_Krishna_ ascended the chariot of _Argiuna_? the hero begotten by
the God of gods, the Prince of heaven. Relate to us, O songstress!
those actions, in order that our inflamed hearts may be fitted for
devotion, for holiness of life, and the enjoyment of felicity.”
IV.
Asurer aver adhigu shadur avani padi vireraij
Adyanda dushdtarij ulbhavicidinàr
Avani bhara-maga-luvadin-avergale yòducuvàn
Aadi déven-mudrttàn oru yòdhanam.
“The giants, a horrid race, endowed with irresistible strength,
immediately after their birth became exceedingly arrogant, and
exercised the most detestable violence. They made themselves masters
of the globe; and the earth groaned under their insupportable burden.
To combat and extirpate them a god appeared. It was the Supreme God,
the god _Krishna_, who took the field against them.”
This poem has great beauties; the versification is smooth, easy,
harmonious, and lively; and expresses, as it were, the march of
an army. The first verse, in each strophe, consists of eighteen
syllables or feet, which are called _Pada_. The second verse has
always twelve such _Pada_. The melody to this song is rather quick
than slow; and holds a medium between the alt and bass. The tone
always lies on the first syllable of the three or four first words
with which the verse begins; and, altogether contrary to the European
manner, never on the final words. In the Samscred song, which occurs
hereafter, each verse consists of fifteen _Pada_. There are, however,
other kinds of verse, the quantity of which is sometimes longer. For
example:
Aghila shàstra citram parama gnana mitram
Agghana gunna màtram carunàm purna pàtram.
The first of these two verses contains fifteen, and the other only
fourteen syllables. The metre is called _Parra_, and not _Porb_, as
Anquetil du Perron asserts. It serves as a proof that our so-called
Leonine verses, which rhyme in the middle and at the end, are not
unknown to the Indians. Their public songs are always sung with an
instrumental accompaniment. Their singing voices, of which they
reckon six, have very singular names, and are as follows:
1. _Shlagia_, the peacock voice.
2. _Nishada_, the elephant voice.
3. _Irszubha_, the ox voice.
4. _Sandhara_, the sheep’s voice.
5. _Madhyama_, the voice of a certain bird called _Anilpakshi_.
6. _Dheivada_, the horse voice[204].
The instruments which they use with their vocal music are the large
drum, _Perumpara_; the small drum, _Tudi_; two clarinets, _Kushel_;
a kettle-drum beat upon with pieces of iron; two copper or brass
basons, and a couple of cow’s horns. During the song they frequently
clap their hands; often change their tone and voice, according as the
circumstance may require; sing sometimes in _piano_, and sometimes
_forte_; and either let the tone issue through the nose, or force it
out between their teeth with the greatest violence, and by quick and
repeated clapping with the tongue. All this gives it the character
of a Bacchanalian and warlike music, which imitates the noise made
by people who are engaged in battle. Their pastoral songs, on the
other hand, are full of soft and tender expressions, and have in them
somewhat languishing[205]. They describe the kind of life which the
god _Krishna_ led as a shepherd during his residence on earth; but
the former celebrate either the god _Rama_ as a hero, or describe
the actions performed by _Krishna_, in the war which he carried on
in conjunction with the five brothers, _Pando_ or _Pandava_, against
their relations the _Cauravas_. The wars of _Rama_ are described in
the epic poem _Ramayana_, which is highly esteemed in every part of
India. The description of the heroic deeds of _Krishna_ is contained
in the book _Yudhishtira-vigea_, a poem in the Samscred language, on
which the Indians set a great value also. The subject of the latter,
a particular explanation of which may be found in my account of the
Borgian manuscripts, is briefly as follows:
The Indian king _Pandu_, of the race of those who deduced their
origin from the Sun, had five sons, called _Yudhishtira_, _Bhìma_
or _Bhimasèna_, _Argiuna_, _Naghala_, and _Sahadeva_. These five
brothers, who are known under the name of _Pando_ or _Pandava_,
had their court at _Kanudi_, or _Hastinapuri_. The inhabitants of
that district are mentioned in Arrian under the appellation of
_Assaceni_, or _Astaceni_, and act a very conspicuous part in the
Grecian as well as Indian history. The period of their existence
falls about the time when Semiramis ruled over the Assyrians. These
five _Pando_ were expelled from their possessions by their cousins
the _Curu_, or _Caurava_, who together formed a hundred brothers, and
who behaved to them with great cruelty. While they were wandering
about as fugitives, _Krishna_, or the Indian Apollo, appeared to
them; declared himself their protector and fought a desperate battle
with the two principal leaders of the _Caurava_, who were called
_Suyodhana_, or _Duryodhana_, and _Karna_. When he had overcome them,
he restored to the _Pando_ the possessions taken from them. Such is
the subject of this beautiful poem. The sixth part of the manuscript,
which I have now in my hands, contains 125 _shloga_; and the whole
consists of eight such parts. The Samscred text is exceedingly
difficult; and it requires great knowledge of that language to be
able to understand it completely. The best helps for that purpose
are the grammar; the dictionary _Amarasinha_, and the perusal of
some other poems; but as there are a few only among the Brahmans who
study such works, it is rare to find any of them who comprehend the
true meaning of these _shloga_. It is certain, however, that the
_Yudhishtira-vigea_ appears to be a poem of great antiquity. It does
not make the least mention of the worshipping of human figures and
idols; for this kind of superstition was certainly posterior to the
introduction of the planetary worship, and had its origin about 700
years before the birth of Christ. Prior to that epoch, Sabæism was
the prevailing religion in India. For this reason no other deities
occur in the _Yudhishtira_, but _Shiva_ and _Parvadi_; that is, the
god of the Sun, and the goddess of the Moon; and no other offerings
than fruit or flowers, which were presented to these deities.
Besides this poem there are three others, called _Ràmàyana_, _Magha_,
and _Bhagavada_, to which it has some affinity. They were all
originally written in the Samscred language; but in various provinces
they have been translated into the usual dialects of the country.
The _Bhagavada_, which _Niebuhr_, in the second part of his Travels,
calls _Sri baha gavant poram_, instead of _Shri Bhagavada puràna_, is
so highly esteemed by the Indians, that when any one repeats a few
verses to them from it, they immediately stand up and uncover their
heads. On this subject I can relate the following anecdote from my
own experience.--In the year 1787 I was obliged to appear before the
tribunal of the king of Travancor, respecting an affair between me
and four of his magistrates, who wished to compel me not to baptise
any more Pagans. During this litigation, _Sampradi_ thought proper
to put me to the test respecting my knowledge of the languages.
I repeated to him the four first verses of the above-mentioned
_Bhagavada_; upon which the three magistrates, with all their
assistants, rose up, gazed at me with every mark of astonishment,
and treated me with much more civility than before. I gained my
cause; and can with truth assert, that these four verses of the
_Bhagavada_, which I have explained in my Samscred grammar, chiefly
contributed to the fortunate issue of the business. I had once an
opportunity of making a similar observation at _Vaipur_. Having
gone to that place with a view of examining into the state of the
church accounts, I was one day invited to dinner by a _Mapulla_, or
Christian of St. Thomas. Some of this man’s neighbours, of the same
religion, had spread a report among the inhabitants that I understood
the Samscred; upon which I received a visit from two learned Pagans,
who were desirous of trying how far my knowledge extended. I caused
them to sit down, after the Malabar manner, on a small bench; and
when they had repeated to me a great many verses from various poems,
I began to recite the above lines from the _Bhagavada_. Scarcely had
I pronounced the first words, when they started from their seats,
uncovered their heads, and laid the right hand on their mouth, in
order to shew their veneration for that book. By these means I
acquired so much reputation among the Pagans, that on every occasion
they treated me with the utmost respect.
There are also in India a great many dramatic pieces, which are
really acted, and of which the Tamulians and natives of Malabar
are remarkably fond. This taste is carried so far, that the
newly-converted Christians represent sometimes, before the doors
of the churches, pieces of this kind, in which the actions of the
Pagan deities are exhibited. The apostolic vicar and archbishop of
_Codungalur_, or _Cranganor_, finds himself, therefore, under the
disagreeable necessity of issuing a new order every year against such
improper amusements[206]. Some of these dramatic poems are at least
2000 years old; as I could prove from the subject and composition of
them. Of this kind is the poem _Sacontala_, which has been translated
into English by Sir William Jones[207]. In Malabar there are also
other dramatic poems highly esteemed, the most remarkable of which
are the _Sharnishta_, _Devayàni_, and _Calàbadì_. Of the latter I
shall here insert a few specimens, that the reader may at least see
what liberties the Pagan theatrical poets allowed to themselves in
their writings.
Ingane prasidhamam Dasharha Kshmàpadi
Mangalàm guiàm Kashi ràgia Canyaque vèttu
Canyaca Calàbadi yennum pèreyullavell
Mannidam pucashnoru ciàru saunaryatodu.
“King _Dàsharda_ afterwards celebrated in a public manner his
marriage with the beautiful _Calàbadi_, the virgin-daughter of king
_Káshi_ (or of Benares), who was distinguished not only by her
remarkable beauty, but also by her virtue and modesty.”
Dhanyànam nrben tande dherma pàriniyày
Sannadâmguinmàr mannì tal grehamèvum càlam
Càmalilaguel tudarniduvànar ambhiciu
Càmini manniyàle viliciu paducave.
“When queen _Calàbadi_ entered the apartment of this rich and
powerful monarch, and when the king observed that she excelled in
beauty all the princesses present, a desire was awaked in him of
embracing her as his spouse. He addressed her, therefore, in the
words of love, and said:”
Sunarì variguedò talpam èruga shubhè
Cundahà sini ninde lagna yendidu nèram
Ittarum Nrbavaren cionnadu kèttu neram
Uttaram pareyàde ninnidu Calàbadi.
“Come, O come, thou fortunate, thou beautiful bride! why are thy
virtuous cheeks covered with the blushes of modesty?--On these words
of the king, _Calàbadi_ began to quiver and shake; and was not able
to return him an answer.”
Satvaram anagnaven caypidicia-dupiciang
Uttama striratnatè punnarnòranandaram
Cattum aghni yittu tàbicia lòham pole
Matta Càshiniyude gàtram etreyum Ushnam.
“The king hastened towards her, laid hold of her hand, and kissed
this precious jewel without waiting for her permission. But ah! as
iron becomes glowing when it has lain a long time in the fire, so
glowing and hot became the body of the bride.”
Endedò ninde déham ciuttu ciuttiricunnu
Bendham endinennu bhenduràne ciol nì
Purna Ciandraguen ninuanga tábam givalicidò
Ciurna ceshamam ende vigraham ninne tottàl.
“Tell me, benign countenance, why thou burnest, why thou glowest:
tell me the cause of this fire. Has the full moon concentrated all
its rays in thy body? When I touch thee, it appears to me as if I
were about to melt.”
Ciannanam tannilninu vàhni yennadupòle
Sunari ninghelninnu Ciùdinendadò bandham.
“Tell me, thou most beautiful of the beautiful, why thy body burns
so, why it is so hot, and at the same time emits an odour as
delicious as sandalwood when it is consumed by the fire.”
Inganeyulla vàku Kettapol còbatòdu
Anganà manni paragnìdinàl nrbanòdu
Aadi Càlame cennu sahasam pravarticiàl
Kèdamundàgum bàla strìguelka dharica nì.
When the enchanting _Calàbadi_ heard these words, not without
considerable agitation of mind, she said to the king: “Know, O my
Lord, that it grieves and pains a young tender maid when she is about
to subject herself, for the first time, to the embraces of a man.”
Onnumè nirbhandiciu vannatu taramalla
Mannava Shigha manne anga pòvirnnàlum
Sangamàgraham inikundàgum nèrattu gnàn
Angu vannannugula kriddayum ceidìduven.
“O King, my spouse! noblest jewel of my crown! remove from me,
and seat thyself in a distant place. Do not again surprise my
inclination; when Nature prompts, I will voluntarily obey her soft
impulse, and resign myself to thee as thy property.”
Angalànanam còndum ishda dànanguel còndum
Manganmàrude manò ragnam varuttenam
Nalla vàkuguel condu nanaciu tannupiciu
Vollabhen shubhaguennullatu tonnikenam
Mallave vashattay tìrum à càlam pinne
Valladu prayoguiciàlapriam illàdàgum.
“It is only by politeness, sportfulness, and agreeable presents,
that the inclination of a young maid can be captivated. A lover must
employ sweet words: the long restrained and involuntary tears must
trickle down his cheeks. When his beloved then perceives that he is
magnanimous and kind; when he has insensibly secured her approbation;
then--then, without doubt, no part of his conduct can give her
offence.”
* * * * *
All these verses consist of fourteen feet, and are sung in a soft
recitative tone. But however some may attempt to vindicate the
liberties used by these theatrical poets, it is an undoubted truth
that they have a very pernicious influence on the morals. To guard
against this destructive effect, the Christians of St. Thomas have
been here and there induced to convert some of the historical parts
of the Bible into dramas, and to represent them on the stage.
_Alangatta Capiar_, and the catechumen _Rama Nayer_, who died while I
was in India, have distinguished themselves with great advantage in
this kind of composition.
The music and songs employed before the Heathen temples form a
part of the Indian legislation, so far as the object of them is to
render the people obedient, and to inspire them with a love for
their country and for religion. The case was the same, in ancient
times, with the music of the Greeks[208]. When it became gradually
lost; when it was employed only for private devotions; and when the
whole host of poets began, by their lascivious compositions, to sap
the foundations of morality, and to corrupt the morals, the Grecian
governments fell to ruin. To guard against a like evil, the Indian
legislators have established as a law, that, on public festivals,
and other solemn occasions, the actions of their gods only, which
are described in their sacred books, can be exhibited on the stage.
These, however, are of such a nature that they give great offence to
the newly-converted Christians, who are not sufficiently attached to
the principles of their belief[209].
The gamut, the notes of which we distinguish by _Re_, _mi_, _fa_,
_sol_, _la_, is by the Indians called _Shabdasvara_, and consists
of eight notes. They are called _Sa_, _ri_, _ga_, _ma_, _pa_, _da_,
_ni_, _sha_. From this it appears, that the Indians were by no means
such rude barbarians as the Greeks pretended[210].
* * * * *
Respecting the Indian architecture, I have already given a sufficient
account in different places of this work, but particularly in
the eighth chapter. I must, however, here add a few observations
respecting the form of their pagodas. These temples, their external
inclosure excepted, are built either in a conical and pyramidal form,
or cylindric and round. Both these forms have a symbolic allusion
to that of _Mahadèva_, the great god; or, what amounts to the same
thing, the Sun. Reuben Burrow once saw a truncated cylinder standing
on a cone, which represented the _Lingam_ of _Mahadèva_. It was
sixty-four feet in diameter, and sixty-five in height. The cone,
its pedestal, was ninety-three feet in height, and its diameter
at the base was 363. The same form is observed in other Indian
buildings, particularly the ancient pagodas, dedicated to _Mahadèva_,
in _Carnada_, and on the coast of _Coromandel_. The pagodas at
_Màbalipuram_, _Salsette_, and the island of _Elephanta_, together
with a few others which are cut out in the solid rock, form however
an exception. I consider the latter to have been temples dedicated in
former times to _Mithra_, who was worshipped not only in Persia, but
also in India. Some pyramidal temples, such as that at Pondicherry,
form at the summit a blunt or obtuse angle, yet represent fire, or
the _Lingam_ of _Shiva_, the oldest of all the gods of the Indians,
the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and the Persians.
The greater part, or rather almost all the pagodas on the coast
of Coromandel, are built of large square stones, so arranged and
connected that they form a pyramid. Those seen on the coast of
Malabar consist of black basaltes, found in the Gauts; which is
exceedingly hard, and very proper for building[211]. They are, for
the most part, circular, and covered with plates of copper, as those
at _Padmanàburam_, _Molicolam_, _Tirumannur_, and _Certele_. Some of
them, however, are square, as that at _Mattinceri_, which is called
_Tirumala Dèvasam_; that also at _Ciovare_, and two others. The front
and doors of these pagodas are either of marble or basaltes, and
ornamented with figures of various kinds, which have a symbolical
meaning, and represent the _Vahana_, or riding animals of the gods.
On the front of a temple at _Tirapalur_ there are two cows cut out,
of a colossal size. On some the god _Hanumàn_, or Pan, is represented
under the form of an ape; and on others _Shiva_, who is exhibited
in a form altogether horrid and frightful. Between these pieces of
sculpture and that of the Greeks no comparison can be made; but
they at any rate deserve to be preferred to the shapeless statues
of the Egyptians. It is seen by them that they are finished in an
original Indian style, which is very different from the Grecian or
the Egyptian. I am induced, therefore, to conjecture, that the art
of constructing such works was conveyed to this country neither from
Egypt nor Greece. Thus the deities _Shiva_, _Ràma_, _Parvadi_, &c.
are represented in the pagodas at Salsette, Mabalipuram, and in the
island of Elephanta, as men perfectly naked, who have nothing on
their bodies but a small piece of cloth to cover their parts of sex.
Their arms and fingers are ornamented with bracelets and rings, and
around their ancles they have a couple of broad bands. On their head
they bear a conical cap, and in each of their long perforated ears
hangs a large ring. These, however, are neither Egyptian nor Grecian,
but Indian ornaments, which are still used by the inhabitants of the
country. Were there no other difference between the sculpture of the
Greeks and Indians, the dress and costume of these statues would
serve as an irrefragable proof that the temple of Salsette cannot
possibly have been the work of Alexander the Great and his army,
as has been erroneously asserted by Gemelli, Careri, and Spilberg.
How could Alexander the Great be capable of building a temple at
Mabalipuram on the coast of Coromandel, a country which he never
entered? Yet statues of the Indian deities, of the like kind, are
found there, and with the same costume and ornaments as those in the
pagodas of Salsette and the island of Elephanta. This sufficiently
shews that these monuments are of Indian origin, and must have been
formed long before the period of Alexander the Great.
We find also, by the sacred Scriptures[212], that the custom of
worshipping _Priapus_, as the symbol of the all-creating Sun,
(_Shiva_,) in subterranean temples and caverns, prevailed fourteen
hundred years before the birth of Christ. Besides, a period of more
than four hundred years would certainly be necessary, before a
mountain which consists of massy rock, and which must have been cut
with the chissel and mallet, could be hollowed out in such a manner
as to exhibit so many apartments, grottos, vaults, stairs, reservoirs
for water, statues, and columns, as are found in the two temples
of Salsette and the island of Elephanta. Alexander and all his
successors, whose dominion in general did not last above a hundred
years, and whose authority extended over a very small district of
land, on the sea coast, could not have been in a condition to bring
all these works to a conclusion. Gemelli Careri, who carefully
examined the proportions of the temple at Salsette, and who has given
an accurate description of it, acknowledges that it is one of the
greatest master-pieces in Asia, and that its wonderful architecture
exceeds all description[213]. All travellers, such as Niebuhr,
Sonnerat, Anquetil, and several Englishmen, who have seen this
temple, extol it in the highest degree, and express the astonishment
which it excited in their minds when they beheld it. As the shortness
of my stay did not allow me to measure its different parts, and
as on that account I cannot describe it properly myself, I shall
here insert an extract from the description which has been given by
Gemelli Careri, of a part of this temple.
* * * * *
“You pass,” says he, “through an opening forty palms in circumference,
made in a wall of the same stone; fifty in length, and eight in
breadth; and on which there are three statues. Before entering the
pagoda, you observe, on the right, a round grotto, which is more
than fifty-one palms in circumference. It contains a great number of
statues, some in a sitting posture, others erect; and one, on the
left, which is much larger than the rest. Over this grotto arises
a cupola, cut out from the rock also, and which forms with it one
whole. All around the walls are seen various characters, which no
one has ever yet been able to explain[214]. On entering the first
vestibule of the temple, which is fifty palms square, you observe,
on both sides, two columns sixty palms in height, including their
chapitres, and six in diameter. On that which stands to the right
as you enter are two lions, with a shield near them; and on that to
the left two statues. Having passed these pillars, you see, at the
entrance of a grotto on the left hand, two large statues in an erect
posture, which seem as if looking at each other. Proceeding farther,
you find, on the left, two other statues of a prodigious size, and
a third on the right, all standing, with several small ones near
them. All these are in the vestibule; for, on entering the adjoining
grotto, which forms a square of twenty-four palms, you observe
nothing curious. On the right side, where the lions stand, there are
no statues, but two large vases on well-proportioned pedestals.
“You then enter another place, on the same level, by three doors,
thirty palms in height and eight in breadth, exactly similar to each
other, except that the one in the middle is level with the ground,
whereas those on the sides are raised five palms. In this place
there are four pillars, also cut out of the rock, which are twelve
palms in height, and stand between the five windows that supply the
pagoda with light. On the right side of the door you observe several
unknown characters, which, like the rest of the work, have suffered
considerable injury from the hand of time. Besides various small
figures, there are in this apartment two colossal statues more than
twenty-five palms in height. They are in an upright position, have
the right hand stretched out open, and hold a dress in the left.
Their heads are covered with conical caps; and in their ears they
have pendants, exactly like those of the Indians.
“At the entrance of the large door of the grand pagoda, which is
fifteen palms in height and ten in breadth, there are four upright
statues, one of which represents a female holding a flower in her
hand; together with twelve smaller ones, some in a sitting and others
in a standing posture, and having the right hand, which seems to
contain something, placed on the breast. On the left are observed
four other statues cut out of the same rock, two of which represent
females, and have around their legs large rings. Towards the sides
there are sixteen smaller statues, which, like those just now
mentioned, have their hands on the breast, and are partly sitting and
partly standing. Over this door you find also two large statues, with
two small ones sitting opposite to each other, and three of the same
kind in an upright posture. On the left side, below, there is another
inscription in the same characters as those before mentioned[215].
Above the architrave of this door is a window, the breadth of which
is forty palms, and consequently equal to that of the whole pagoda. A
large stone supplies the place of an architrave, and is supported in
the inside by eight octagonal pillars.
“In regard to the pagoda itself, which is a hundred palms in length,
and forty in breadth, it is arched like that of _Mabalipuram_, and
of a circular form at the extremity. Besides the four columns at the
entrance, there are thirty of the same kind within, which divide
the whole into three apartments. Seventeen of these pillars are
ornamented, some with chapiters, and others with figures representing
elephants. The rest have no ornament except that of being cut into
an octagonal form. The space left between the columns and the solid
rock, that is, the breadth of the side apartments, is about six
palms. At the end of the pagoda there is a kind of cupola, cut out in
the rock; which, however, is not hollow in the inside. It is thirty
palms in height, and sixteen paces in circumference. I am convinced
that it was formerly destined for some particular use, with which at
present we are not acquainted.
“Every thing hitherto described is cut out from the solid rock, so
that I could observe neither in the statues nor any where else the
smallest appearance of joining. On the floor of the pagoda, a few
cut stones lay scattered about, which may formerly perhaps have been
employed for stairs. On coming out of the pagoda, having ascended
sixteen steps cut from the solid rock, I arrived at a cistern filled
with potable water; and, on ascending sixteen steps more, I found a
grotto sixteen palms square, and a little farther another much larger
and filled with muddy water. Proceeding twenty paces more, I came to
three other grottos, all adjoining; the first of which was twenty,
and the last only twelve palms square. In the first was a window, to
which you could ascend by means of twelve steps; also two columns and
a small cistern.”
Such is the construction of the celebrated temple in the island of
Salsette, which lies as it were in the middle between the other two,
formed exactly in the same manner. The before-mentioned pagoda of
_Mabalipuram_, which I have seen, is, like the rest, cut out in the
subterranean rock, and constructed in the same taste, except that
the proportions seem to be different. The description of this pagoda
will, therefore, enable the reader to form some idea of the antiquity
of these temples under the earth, and to judge what progress the
ancient Indians had made in the art of architecture. It appears from
the account of Careri, that some of the columns and pillars in these
temples are square at the bottom, octagonal in the middle, and round
at the top. In the pagoda at _Mabalipuram_, I observed, however, that
the pillars were perfectly round; had no ornaments, and approached
pretty near to the Corinthian order. If I am not much mistaken, the
stem and calyx of the Lotus plant, or _Nymphæa_, has here served as
a pattern; for, as the calyx of this plant, according to the Indian
mythology, is assigned to the gods as a place of residence, it was
very natural that the Indians should copy it in their architecture;
and, as I have frequently remarked, apply it on columns, pillars,
and architraves. I was, therefore, always more and more convinced
that they did not imitate the Grecian style, or borrow the smallest
ornament from it. This will appear more probable, when we reflect
that the antiquity of these temples is far anterior to the age of
Alexander the Great, whose conquest of India might certainly have
given the natives an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
architecture of the Greeks.
The Indian architect is not confined so much by mythology as the
statuary. The latter must make the statues of the gods exactly in
the way and manner prescribed by the priests; in order, according
to their opinion, that the attributes of the deity may be properly
expressed. Hence it happens that the Indian statues have from four to
six hands; three, and sometimes more heads; and, in general, a very
horrid appearance. The architect, however, has full scope for his
genius, and is by no means subjected to the arbitrary prescriptions
of the Brahmans. For this reason the Indian architecture exhibits
more taste, and is much more perfect than their works of sculpture:
but I will not deny that the statuaries also make excellent pieces
when they are allowed to follow the impulse of their own genius; as
is proved by the many bas reliefs, crucifixes, madonnas, vases, and
other articles of ivory, which are here and there executed by the
Indian artists.
In the neighbourhood of every temple there must be always reservoirs
or cisterns, in which the Pagans wash and bathe before they perform
their devotions. These cisterns, named _Cula_, are for the most part
of marble, and of very beautiful workmanship. Before the entrance
of the temple is a so-called _Mandava_, or covered hall, which is
totally separated from it, and rests upon pillars. Here the priests
are accustomed to assemble when they have any temporal business to
transact respecting the temple. Not far from it are houses for the
high-priest, the astrologer, or nativity-caster, and the overseer
of the temple. The other side is set apart for the habitations of
the women who belong to the temple, and the female servants of the
deity. The latter are called _Dèvadàsi_; from _Dèva_, a god; and
_Dàsi_, a female servant, or maid. Their employment is to clean the
temple, light the lamps, and contribute to the private pleasures
of the pilgrims. These women, however, must not be confounded with
those female dancers who commonly precede processions, and supply
the place of _mænades_. The latter, in the Samscred language, are
called _Nrtagui_--and in Portuguese, _Balhadeiras_. By means of these
women the Brahmans become acquainted with every particular respecting
the state and condition of the pilgrims; so that they are enabled,
when they appear in the temple, to tell them, with the greatest
correctness, what are their circumstances; how they live; what fate
they have experienced, and other things of the like kind. These
people then are filled with astonishment, and imagine that the deity
must have revealed all this knowledge to the priest in a supernatural
manner.
In regard to the painting of the Indians, the case is the same as
with their sculpture. This much is certain, that no one can follow
the dictates of his own genius, and paint the gods as he pleases.
Every innovation of this kind is considered as an act of impiety.
The Brahman prescribes the figure and form which a statue must have:
under these, and no other, it must be painted; and the least part of
his care is whether these be consistent or not with the rules of art
and of good taste. I have already observed, on different occasions,
that the Indian mythology gives to each deity a certain surname
and appellation, the object of which is to express their different
qualities: and a painter, when he sketches out a god, must represent
these qualities also. Thus, for example, _Shiva_, is called the
god who bears the trident; and for that reason he must be always
represented with a trident in his hand. He is called, likewise,
_Mrdyugeya_, the conqueror of death; and, on that account, must be
delineated with a number of sabres, daggers, and sculls lying around
him, and with a man under his feet. He exhibits a horrid countenance:
his mouth stands awry; his eyes seem to dart forth fire; and he has
around his neck a cord on which a great number of sculls are strung.
The case is the same with all the other deities, which must always be
represented in such a manner as is agreeable to their character and
attributes. From this it appears, that the painting of the Indians,
like their sculpture, is in the closest connection with their
theogony; and as the Brahmans alone have the right of explaining it,
they assume the exclusive privilege of judging in regard to works of
painting and statuary. As the painters are acquainted neither with
the Samscred language nor their mythology, it has been imposed on
them as a duty to consult the Brahmans; and whoever transgresses this
law, is punished by expulsion from his cast. This is the true reason
why painting and statuary have made so little progress in India.
To this may be added also, that necessity, the mother of all the
arts, is far from being so great in India as elsewhere; for as
this country supplies rice, fruits, and other natural productions
in abundance, it may be readily conceived that no person can find
it difficult to procure a living. Under these circumstances young
people feel no inducement to study painting; and among the few who
apply to that art, there is not the smallest emulation to bring
it to perfection. The Indians, in general, are not very fond of
painting; for in a country where every person almost goes naked,
little scope is naturally left for the imagination in this respect;
and therefore their desire to paint such nudities, and to represent
them in their full beauty, cannot be very strong. Here and there,
however, I observed, on the external walls surrounding the pagodas,
several beautiful paintings, which were delineated with great freedom
and correctness. This may serve as a convincing proof that the
Indians are not destitute of talents sufficient to enable them to
make as great progress in this art as other nations. They possess
also a wonderful dexterity in imitating the paintings and drawings
which are given them by the Europeans to copy. Their colours, which
they prepare from the juice of certain trees, flowers, herbs and
fruits, are uncommonly lively, and seldom or never fade. Their
painted cottons, which were celebrated in the earliest periods,
are still transported to most countries in the world, and form one
of the principal articles of the Indian trade. The small figures
in bas-relief, with which they ornament the sides of the triumphal
cars employed to carry about the images of their gods on days of
solemnity, are also of very beautiful workmanship. Some of these
cars cost from twenty to thirty thousand rupees, and are drawn by
sixty, eighty, and sometimes a hundred persons. They have from twelve
to sixteen wheels, and are painted and ornamented with figures
of all sorts. Of this kind is the car of Bacchus, in the temple
_Ramanacoil_, on the boundaries of the kingdom of _Marava_. There
are others of the like kind also at _Tiruvancòda_, _Cangipuri_, and
_Jagarnat_.
Of optics, and the art of making glass, the Indians have little or no
knowledge. An Indian prince was one day reconnoitering at a distance
an hostile army, which was advancing to attack him. An European
missionary, whom he had in his suite, gave him a spy glass, that he
might have a more distinct view of the enemy. When the prince looked
through it, he firmly believed that the army was really close to
him, and, under a conviction that this was actually the case, gave
immediate orders for engaging. But how great was his astonishment
when, by desire of the missionary, he took the glass from his eye,
and found that the enemy were still at the same distance as they had
before appeared; so that his orders would have been fruitless, even
if he had employed cannon.
The art of making glass, an invention ascribed to the Phœnicians,
seems in ancient times to have been totally unknown to the Indians.
This much, however, is certain, that glass, as a foreign article
of commerce, was conveyed to India from the Greeks and the Romans.
In the ancient Samscred book, _Amarasinha_, glass is called
_Suryacanda_; that is, a bright transparent mass, through which the
rays of the sun can penetrate. The most valuable present which can be
made to a Malabar judge or magistrate is a mirror, a telescope, or a
magnifying-glass.
The case, however, is totally different in regard to the art of
cutting precious stones, in which the Indians have made very
considerable progress. It appears from Solinus, that, in the earliest
periods, they understood the method of cutting all sorts of gems, and
giving them the proper polish. We are told, likewise, by Pliny[216],
that they were acquainted with the art of imitating different kinds
of precious stones, and particularly the beryl. This, indeed,
supposes a continual experience of many years. At Colombo, in the
island of Ceylon, I saw the Indians cut stones with a wheel, which
they turned in the same manner as the knife-grinders do theirs. This
method appeared to me much superior to ours, in which the gems are
laid on a flat square stone, fixed so as to remain immoveable, and
are then turned round by means of the hand till they are properly
polished[217].
The price of uncut diamonds in India is different, and determined
according to weight. A diamond that weighs one carat is worth from
twelve to thirteen rix-dollars; if it weighs two, it is worth sixteen
or seventeen; if four, thirty-eight; and if five, forty-two: but
this price is subject to variations. Precious stones are found on
the tops of the mountains in Golconda, Visapour, and Bengal; and in
the neighbourhood of the Gauts, particularly in the districts of
_Pugnatil_, _Cencotta_, _Attinga_ and _Velidur_, on the coast of
Malabar. The Brahmans and other opulent persons are accustomed to
purchase from the king certain pieces of land where they expect to
find these valuable stones, and to dig for them at their own expence.
But this is a very hazardous undertaking, which very frequently
does not defray the expences, and by which many families in India
are reduced to beggary. It, however, sometimes happens, that these
precious stones are washed down from the mountains by the violent
rains, and are found on the banks of different streams after they
have returned to their usual beds.
The diamond spar, employed for polishing these stones, is found in
great abundance on the coast of Malabar. The Indians are accustomed
to examine the water of diamonds always at night by the light of
a lamp. In Europe diamonds are separated by sawing them; but the
Indians split them, or cut them down to the proper size--a labour
in which they are much more expert than the Europeans. Some years
ago the Great Mogul had a diamond which weighed 279½ carats. It
was valued at two millions five hundred thousand rix-dollars. This
diamond, therefore exceeds in value any hitherto known; for the large
diamond of the Grand Duke of Tuscany weighs only 139, the Sanci 106,
and the so-called Pitt 136 carats three grains.
The artists of Ceylon prepare rings and heads for canes, which
contain a complete assortment of all the precious stones found in
that island. These assemblages are called _Jargons de Ceilan_, and
are so named because they consist of a collection of gems which
reflect various colours, such as the red ruby, the sky-blue sapphire,
the golden yellow topaz, called by the ancients chrysolite, the green
emerald, which I found myself in Ceylon, though some assert that it
is not a production of that island[218]; also the amethyst, beryl,
opal, and garnet. All these stones may be procured at Colombo in the
island of Ceylon, at Cochin and Calicut in Malabar, and at Madras on
the coast of Coromandel. The people who deal in them are Armenians,
Jews, Mahometans, and Banians; but in particular the Canarians, or
so-called _Cettis_, who are particularly well acquainted with the art
of ascertaining their quality and value. People who apply to this
branch of trade can never employ too much caution, because those who
carry it on exercise every kind of artifice and deception.
The oriental diamonds are octagonal and sharp-pointed. This form,
their colour, water and lustre, with the liveliness of their
irradiation, are the essential characteristics by which they may be
distinguished from the Brasilian diamonds. The different kinds of
agates, cornelians, chalcedonies, swallow stones, opals, onyxes,
and cats-eyes, which, according to the system of Wallerius, belong
to the silex genus, are not much esteemed on the coast of Malabar,
though some of them are brought thither from Arabia, Persia, and the
northern part of India.
The diamond, in the Malabar language, is called _Vairamanni_; the
ruby, _Patmaràgam_; the emerald, _Pociaratnam_; the sapphire,
_Nilaratnam_; rock crystal, _Palunca_, and in the Grantham dialect
_Spadika_; and pearls, _Mutta_.
On a seal ring of the king of Travancor, which consists of a very
hard and valuable stone, the following words are inscribed: _Shri
Padmanàbhen_. This is one of the sacred names given to _Vishnu_, and
contains an allusion to the birth of that deity. _Shri_ signifies
sacred, _Padma_ denotes the _nymphæa_, and _Nabben_ one who sits in
the interior part of this flower. The reader will recollect, from
what has been before said, that the _nymphæa_ is a symbol of water,
and of every thing created from it. The above words serve as a
convincing proof, that the Indians are certainly acquainted with the
art of cutting upon stone. A like ring was in the possession of the
king of Ceylon, _Vimala Dherma Suryada_, who embraced the Christian
religion, and at baptism got the name of Don John of Austria. On this
ring the god _Budha_ was represented under the human form.
The art of printing, in all probability, never existed in India;
and, perhaps, we should not be far wrong if we ascribed, in a
great measure, to this circumstance, the natural simplicity and
the irreproachable manners of the inhabitants. They copy no other
writings than such as are useful and good. The first book printed in
this country was the _Doctrina Christiana_ of Giovanni Gonsalvez,
a lay brother of the order of the Jesuits, who, as far as I know,
first cast Tamulic characters in the year 1577. After this appeared,
in 1578, a book entitled _Flos Sanctorum_, which was followed by
the Tamulic Dictionary of Father Antonio de Proenza, printed in the
year 1679, at Ambalacate, on the coast of Malabar. From that period
the Danish missionaries at Tranquebar have printed many works, a
catalogue of which may be found in _Alberti Fabricii salutaris Lux
Evangelii_.
So early as the time of Alexander the Great, the Indians were
accustomed to write on palm-leaves, as they do at present. This
appears by Curtius in particular[219]; and, according to the
testimony of Arrian[220], the Indians, at those periods, had hymns,
songs, and poems. These, as I have already said, were written either
on palm leaves, or a kind of paper wove of cotton, which was drawn
through rice water, and then pressed smooth. Some of the ancient
Indian kings, such as _Puru_, who sent a letter to Augustus Octavius
Cæsar, wrote either on cotton or silk cloth, as the Thibetians do
at present. The well-known Indian fables, ascribed to Pilpay, were
written by _Vishnu Sarman_, a Brahman, who belonged probably to the
Sect of the _Samanæi_. He flourished twenty years before Zoroaster,
and was prime minister in the court of the Indian king _Dabshelim_.
His fables were translated into Persian, in the sixth century
before the birth of Christ, by a Persian physician, _Buzerchumir_,
(Herbelot calls him _Buzervich_,) who was sent to India by king
Artaxerxes, or _Anushirvan_[221]. When I combine, therefore, every
thing I have already said, viz. the ancient inscriptions in the
subterranean temples at Salsette, Cialembron, Mabalipuri, and other
places; the testimony of so many respectable writers, and the
concordant traditions preserved among the Brahmans as well as among
the Persians, I am more and more confirmed in the opinion, that the
Indians, many centuries before the birth of Christ, had their own
peculiar characters and mode of writing, as well as original written
works, the authors of which, such as _Amarasinha_, _Kalidàsa_, and
_Pilpai_, or rather _Vishnu Sarman_, lived before that period. We
shall approach pretty near the truth, if we suppose that the fables
of _Pilpai_, as well as the _Mahabhàrada_, _Yudhishtira_, _Ràmàyana_,
and different astronomical works, were written about the fifth or
sixth century before the Christian æra.
Cotton, in Portuguese _Algodao_, and in Latin _Gossypium_, is, in
the Malabar language, called _Cerupagni._ A coarser sort, produced
by the tree _Ilava_, is called, by the natives of Malabar, _Pagni_.
The _Ilava_ is a large lofty tree, and the cotton it yields is
employed only for mattresses and bolsters. That which grows on the
shrub _Parutti_ is much finer. Both kinds are contained in an oval
capsule divided into different small cells, and called by the French
_La Coque_. The best cotton grows in Bengal and on the coast of
Coromandel; and hence it happens that the cotton articles procured
from these districts are the finest. The next in quality are those
manufactured in the provinces of _Madura_, _Marava_, and on the
coasts of _Pescaria_ and Malabar. The gradation proceeds thus to
_Canara_, where the cotton is not spun so fine, and the articles
consequently are much coarser.
The shrub _Parutti_, which produces the finer kind of cotton,
requires in India little cultivation or care; and the tree _Ilava_
requires none at all. The former thrives best on the high mountainous
districts; the latter in the flat open country. When the cotton has
been gathered, it is thrown upon a floor and threshed, in order
that it may be separated from the black seeds and the husks which
served it as a covering. It is then put into bags, or tied up in
bales, containing from 300 to 320 _Aratel_, or pounds of sixteen
ounces each. After it has been carded, it is spun out into such
delicate threads that a piece of cotton cloth twenty yards in length
may almost be concealed in the hollow of both hands. Most of these
pieces of cloth are twice washed; others remain as they come from
the loom, and are dipped in coco-nut oil, in order that they may be
longer preserved. It is customary also to draw them throw _Cangi_,
or rice-water, that they may acquire more smoothness and body. The
_Cangi_ is sometimes applied to cotton articles in so ingenious a
manner that purchasers are often deceived, and imagine the cloth to
be much stronger than it really is; for, as soon as it is washed, the
_Cangi_ vanishes, and the cloth appears quite slight and thin.
There are reckoned to be no less than twenty-two different kinds
of cotton articles manufactured in India, without including muslin
or coloured stuffs. The latter are not, as in Europe, printed by
means of wooden blocks, but painted with a brush made of the fibres
of the rind of the coco-nut, which, when beat, approaches near to
horse-hair; becomes very elastic, and can be formed into any shape
the painter chooses. The colours employed are indigo, _Indaco_,
_Anil_, or _Coachan_, all appellations borrowed from foreign
languages; and which signify, not a shrub, as some have erroneously
asserted, but a plant which grows in great abundance in the district
of Agra, and in other places of India. The stem and leaves of this
plant yield that beautiful dark blue with which the Indian chintzes,
coverlets, _tappisendis_ and other articles are painted, and which
never loses the smallest shade of its beauty. Also _terra merita_,
called _Curcuma_, or Indian saffron, a plant which dyes yellow; and,
in the last place, gum lac, together with some flowers, roots and
fruits, which are used to dye red. With these few pigments, which are
applied sometimes singly, and sometimes mixed, the Indians produce
on their cotton cloths that admirable and beautiful painting which
exceeds every thing of the kind exhibited in Europe.
The French, English, and Dutch have endeavoured to imitate these
articles; but, notwithstanding all their labour and art, they
have never yet been able either to produce these colours from the
vegetable kingdom, or to attain to the same fineness in their
cloth. No person in Turkey, Persia or Europe has yet imitated the
_Betille_[222], made at _Masulipatan_, and known under the name of
_Organdi_. The manufacturing of this cloth, which was known in the
time of Job, the painting of it, and the preparation of the colours,
give employment in India to male and female, young and old.
It may with truth be asserted, that in spinning, weaving, and dyeing,
the Indians excel all other nations in the world. A great deal of
cotton is brought from Arabia and Persia, and mixed with that of
India. The principal places where it is manufactured are: _Bengal_,
_Masulipatan_, _Paleacate_, _Madras_, _Sadras_, _Pondicherry_,
_Naur_, _Nagapatnam_, _Paleamcotta_, _Tutucuri_, _Manapar_, and
_Tiruvancoda_. The Indians work slowly and unwillingly; a fault which
is of great benefit to the Europeans. Were they more active and
industrious, they would inundate our quarter of the world with their
merchandize, and draw from us the little money still in circulation.
We clothe ourselves in their stuffs, while our woollen cloths are
to them unnecessary. On the contrary, we must pay money for all
the goods which we procure from India and China; so that these two
countries may be compared to two pits, in which we stand with both
feet and still sink deeper[223]. Pliny in ancient times complained
of the luxury of his countrymen[224], who procured similar articles
from the island of _Taprobane_, now called Ceylon; but what would he
say were he now alive and beheld our extravagance[225]? Wo to the
people who are not contented with the productions of their native
country!
CHAPTER XI.
_Medicine and Botany of the Indians._
Diseases prevail at the north pole as well as in the torrid zone;
but those to which the Esquimaux, Greenlanders, and other northern
tribes are subject, are for the most part different from those
common between the tropics. Cold concentrates the vital spirits,
strengthens the nerves, and causes heat, the proper vital power, to
be accumulated in the interior parts; so that the body acquires a
solid consistence, becomes strong and well-conditioned, and can bear
all hardships without injury. It is attended, however, with this
consequence, that it attracts the most dangerous diseases; creates
violent, deep-rooted passions; blunts the judgement; and, if I may
use the expression, involves it in dark clouds: though it cannot be
denied that the mind thereby acquires a certain firmness, obtains
dominion over itself, and is enabled to act with more caution. Heat,
on the other hand, makes the body tender, and the nerves weak; gives
more play to the human mind, and particularly the imagination;
inflames the passions, and brings on diseases; but the former soon
subside, and the latter are seldom dangerous.
I shall not here examine whether the assertion, that mankind increase
no-where so much as in cold countries, be well founded; but it is
certain that they never thrive better than under a temperate climate.
If the heat at the equator be scarcely supportable in the day-time,
the nights, on the other hand, are more refreshing and pleasanter;
and as they are equal to the days in length, the inhabitants are
sufficiently indemnified for the oppression of the latter[226]. I
cannot, therefore, agree with that French philosopher, who asserts
that a six months residence at the north pole could be much easier
endured than one of three at the equator, where, at certain hours of
the day, the heat is moderated by a fresh cooling breeze. As long
as the effects of nature do not contradict each other, so long will
this principle be just, that men live much more agreeably under a
mild climate, than in districts which are seldom visited by the
benign influence of the sun. This is proved by many circumstances,
and particularly by the emigrations of the Cimbri, the Huns, the
Teutones, and the Marsi[227], who, leaving their unhospitable
regions of the north, exposed to excessive cold, over-ran other
countries lying more towards the south. The case was the same with
the Turks, who, about the year 625, emerged from Scythia and Tartary;
proceeded always further towards the east; and at length, after long
and bloody wars, made themselves masters of Constantinople, in 1452.
These, and other circumstances of the like kind, sufficiently confirm
what I have said in regard to diversity of climate, and its influence
on man.
It is an incontestible truth, that the strength or weakness of a
people depends, in a great measure, on these causes; and Hippocrates
was so much convinced of the justness of this assertion, that he
affirmed one might discover by a man’s countenance under what climate
he was born, and to what country he belonged[228].
* * * * *
The diseases which prevail among the inhabitants of the southern
part of India, that is, of _Malabar_, _Canara_, _Maïssur_, _Madura_,
_Tanjaur_, _Marava_ and _Parava_, are as follows:
_Shralanòva_, the wind-colic.
_Sanivali_, nervous cramps and convulsions.
_Adisàram_, flux or dysentery.
_Calladapa_, the gravel and stone.
_Grahanni_, the bloody flux.
_Mujali_, a kind of gout.
_Kaszalapani_, St. Anthony’s fire, with feverish
symptoms.
_Pani_, violent fever.
_Tridoshagioram_, the fever which has three bad
properties; that is, the violent fever.
_Mallampani_, a fever that lasts only one day, and
is occasioned by a certain wind which blows
from the Gauts.
_Vidàtapani_, the continued fever.
_Dnnaràdenpani_, the tertian fever.
_Nàlampani_, the quartan fever.
_Kshaja_, phthisis.
_Ragiakshaja_, consumption of the lungs.
_Nirvàszicia_, involuntary emission of urine.
_Pramèham, Gonorrhœa benigna._
_Aadram_, the hemorrhoids.
_Mahòdoram_, the dropsy.
_Kamala_, the jaundice.
_Sannhi_, phrensy combined with convulsions.
_Velupa_, or _Cushtam_, leprosy.
_Nirtiripa_, or _Nircomben_, an intestinal colic, which
proceeds from cold. This disease is in common
called _Mordexim_, of which Sonnerat drolly
enough makes _Mort de chien_, dog’s death.
In the months of October, November and
December it prevails much on the coast of
Malabar; for about that period certain winds
blow from the Gauts, and carry with them a
multitude of nitrous particles.
_Astisràva_, an inflammatory disease which affects
the whole body, and consumes the marrow of
the bones.
_Ciardhi_, vomiting which proceeds from bile or
other causes.
_Ractapittam_, bilious fever, which is commonly
followed by a flux of blood and putrid matter.
_Tipolla_, burning ulcers on the exterior part of
the body.
_Masuri_, the small-pox; a disease which in India
is exceedingly infectious, and sweeps off
prodigious multitudes.
_Ciori_, the itch.
_Arbuda_, cancer.
_Ceravarpa_, an ulcer, the fetid smell of which
attracts the snake _Cera_. This snake, however,
is not poisonous.
_Araklèsham_, buboes.
_Sannivàdam_, apoplexy.
_Engal_, asthma.
_Ciuma_, cough.
Those who read this catalogue of diseases with attention, will find
that the greater part of them proceed either from too great heat,
or from catching cold. Some kinds of boils and ulcers, which break
out on the legs during the rainy season, are difficult to be cured;
while there are others, on the contrary, which cannot be healed
during the summer. The women, who lead an indolent life, and do not
take sufficient exercise, are tormented with convulsions, spasms, and
other hysteric symptoms. I have often seen some of these women start
suddenly up in the middle of mass, when the bell was rung; run up
and down in the church, and begin to dance as if frantic. Those who
were not acquainted with the cause of this singular behaviour, and
did not know that it proceeded from hysteric affections, might have
believed that the women were possessed by the devil. After jumping
and capering for some time, the blood resumed its former circulation;
the corrupted juice, which had occasioned the stoppage, were in part
thrown off by perspiration; the nerves recovered the necessary tone,
and the women became tranquil and easy. This kind of dance is called
_Tullunu_; and the agitation of the body occasioned by it is named
_Tullel_. Such persons should be made to beat unshelled rice; bark
and the cold bath should be prescribed for them; and they should,
above all, be cautioned to avoid every thing that tends to disquiet
or disturb the mind[229].
People who complain of a weakness of the stomach and nerves are
accustomed in the morning to chew a little opium, which they say
strengthens the nerves and promotes digestion. This custom, however,
is in reality highly pernicious; for those who acquire a habit of
chewing opium can never renounce it; and if not supplied with it,
they suffer horrid pain; fall into fainting fits, and lie as if dead.
I was acquainted with several persons who always, at table, took
a small dose of opium, and yet enjoyed good health. It mitigates
the too great fermentation of the animal juices, as well as too
great tension of the nerves, against which, in this hot climate,
it is impossible to use too many precautions. For this reason the
Mahometans, who, as is well known, have a plurality of wives, are
accustomed to employ opium when they wish to enjoy the company of
their females, lest the impulse of nature, being too strong, should
prove prejudicial to health. However useful opium may be under such
circumstances, its effects are highly dangerous when a large dose
of it is taken dissolved in lemon juice, or any acid solvent. When
prepared in this manner it renders men bloodthirsty; converts them
into savage beasts; and inspires them with such fury, that they would
rather suffer themselves to be cut to pieces than give up the weapon
which they have in their hand. The desperadoes who allow themselves
to be intoxicated by opium, dissolved in this manner, are called
_Ammochi_; and are either Nairs or Mahometans, who have resolved to
sacrifice their lives to serve their king, their country, or any
person whole cause they have undertaken to espouse[230].
Formerly there were a great many of these _Ammochi_ on the coast of
Malabar; but since the king of Travancor prohibited the natives from
drinking coco-nut brandy called _Tàgara_, to smoke _Cangiàva_, and to
use opium prepared as above mentioned, such ravenous animals in the
human form have become uncommon; and should any one venture, in so
horrid a manner, to disturb the tranquillity of the public, he would
be instantly punished with death. Some persons, however, who were at
_Ciavacàda_ during the war against Tippoo, assured me that they had
seen several _Ammochi_ among his troops; but it is certain, beyond a
doubt, that he forbade the use of opium to his soldiers, because the
_Ammochi_ in their fury spare neither friend nor foe, but destroy
every person who comes in their way. The best method of being saved
from these inhuman wretches is to throw sand into their eyes. The
_Cangiava_, or leaves of the _Bangue_, a plant of about five or six
feet in height, which are smoked instead of tobacco, produce the same
effect as opium, and render men quite frantic[231].
The venereal disease is very little known in the interior parts of
India. As the Indians are remarkably attentive to cleanliness, and as
both male and female live with the greatest temperance, use food easy
of digestion, are in continual perspiration, wash the parts of sex
three times a-day, and adhere to other strict regulations rendered
necessary by the nature of the climate, this detestable disease has
not been able to make much progress in the inland provinces. In the
towns on the sea coast, however, where there is a very great influx
of foreigners, who indulge in every kind of dissipation, and where
the above salutary practices and regulations are almost entirely
neglected, the venereal disease has greatly increased; but it
prevails only among the low, contemptible casts, and the Europeans,
who are the original cause of this, as well as of all the other evils
which the Indians have to complain of.
As the body, however, in this hot climate, is in continual
perspiration, the above disease may be easily removed, provided the
patient employs, immediately on its appearance, attenuating and
detergent medicines. The most effectual is the _Velladamba_, or
sarsaparilla. From this wood the Indians prepare a decoction, which
is sweetened with a little sugar; and if from two to three pints of
it be given to a venereal patient, before the disease has acquired
much strength, he will be soon cured. This disease would be much less
destructive, in general, were suitable remedies used in proper time.
Boerhaave, a man whose name I cannot mention but with the utmost
respect, says expressly that the venereal disease is far from being
so dangerous in India as it is in Europe[232].
Far more dreadful are the consequences of the before-mentioned
intestinal colic, called by the Indians _Shani_, _Mordexim_, and
also _Nicomben_. It is occasioned, as I have said, by the winds
blowing from the mountains, which carry with them a great many
nitrous particles, and which commonly commence immediately after the
rainy season, when the wet weather is succeeded by a great heat and
continued drought. On the coast of Malabar this is the case from the
beginning of October till the 20th of December; and on the coast
of Coromandel in April and May. People are then liable to catch
colds: and the consequence is, that malignant and bilious slimy
matter adheres to the bowels, and occasions violent pains, vomiting,
fever, and stupefaction; so that persons attacked with this disease
die very often in a few hours. It sometimes happens that thirty or
forty persons die in this manner, in one place, in the course of a
day, unless speedy relief be administred. The bitter essence, _Droga
amara_, which I have mentioned in the beginning of the present work,
is the best remedy for this colic; as it opens the pores, thins the
juices, counteracts the effects of the saltpetre, warms the body,
brings on perspiration, and, in that manner, inspires it with new
life. In the year 1782 this disease raged with so much fury that a
great many persons died of it. The above essence is pretty dear;
and it was not possible to procure it in such quantity as to supply
all the patients. In its stead, therefore, we employed _Tàgara_,
coco-nut brandy, distilled over horses dung. All those recovered to
whom this beverage was given, but the rest died in three or four
hours. This circumstance made so much noise among the Pagans, that
the fame of our medicine, and the cures it performed, was spread as
far as Cochin. When the physicians of the Dutch East India Company
at that place, Messrs. Martinfard and Errik, were informed of this
circumstance, they not only gave our medicine their approbation, but
even employed it in their practice.
The tertian fever is easily removed by a decoction of _Veppa_, or
Malabar china[233]. _Veppa_ is the name of a tree which has a very
bitter bark, and green prickly leaves, which are also exceedingly
bitter. It grows on dry, sandy soil, without any culture or care. The
decoction is prepared from its leaves, which are called _Vippela_.
The property of this tree is well known to the Brahmans; but the
common people have very little knowledge of it.
The _Kàcil_, or inflammation connected with the _Gonorrhœa benigna_,
is removed by means of rice-water, mixed with a little sugar, and
given to the patient to drink. Cold fomentation, and decoctions of
bananas, milk, salt-petre, and other softening, cooling and diuretic
medicines are also prescribed. This malady is very prevalent on the
coast of Malabar.
All these diseases, which proceed from a decomposition of the animal
juices, enervate the Indians at an early period, and hasten their
dissolution.--They die, almost without any pain, in the same manner
as consumptive persons; and become extinct like a lamp which has no
longer oil. At the moment of their death no contraction is observed
in their features, no convulsive throbs, and they never whimper or
complain, like so many of the Europeans, who quit the world in the
most painful manner imaginable. Many of the women lose their lives
the first time they bring forth.
The small pox, a disease which in India is highly infectious,
commonly makes its appearance in Malabar after the rainy season; that
is, in December and January and the months following. Thousands are
swept off by it every year. At the periods when it prevails, parents
abandon their children, and children their parents; for this disease,
as already said, is so infectious and dangerous that people can never
be too much on their guard against it. To this may be added, that the
Indians are not capable of forming a proper judgment respecting the
symptoms, and consequently treat their patients in a very improper
manner. The doors and windows are shut, that the patients may not
be exposed to the smallest breath of cool air, and heating things
alone are given them. The most common medicines employed in this
disease are sugar, boiled onions, the urine of a healthy child,
coriander-seed, boiled rice, green pepper, _carambola_ leaves[234],
onion-juice, and other things of the like kind, partly useless and
partly pernicious. The object of them, however, is to expel the
poison from the body; but they never suffer it to ripen properly;
and they prescribe for the patient neither emollient nor cooling
things, which would tend to allay the internal heat, and to moderate
the ferment of the animal juices. Rice-water and fresh air would be
far more proper; but the Indians are obstinate in adhering to their
deep-rooted prejudices, and therefore all attempts to persuade them
are in vain.
India alone contains more medical writings, perhaps, than are to
be found in all the rest of the world. As printing has never been
introduced here, all hands are employed in copying manuscripts,
and particularly such as relate to the prolongation of human
life, viz. medical and botanical. The greater part of the Indian
manuscripts preserved in the library of the late king of France,
those of the _Propaganda_ and Mr. Samuel Guise, and in the Borgian
Museum, consist of works of this kind. The often-before-mentioned
Dictionary, _Amarasinha_, under the head _Auszadhivargga_, that is,
Class of the Simple Medicines, gives the names of above three hundred
herbs and plants used in medicine. Those who wish to be convinced
of the multitude of articles that occur in the Medicine and Botany
of Malabar, need only recur to the work published at Amsterdam, in
the year 1689, under the title of _Hortus Malabaricus_. Both these
sciences were cultivated in India above three thousand years ago,
and at present give employment to a great number of people. When a
physician is sent for, you are sure to be visited by five or six.
There are even boys who possess an extensive knowledge of botany;
and this is not surprising, as, from their earliest years, they
are made acquainted with the nature of plants, and their different
properties.--Did the religion of the Indians allow them to dissect
animals and study anatomy, they would certainly attain to great
proficiency in medicine; but as these are strictly forbidden, it may
be readily conceived that the above sciences can make very little
progress. I have, however, seen instances of Malabar physicians
curing patients who had been totally given over by the Europeans. The
Malabar physicians, in general, are superior to most Europeans in the
knowledge of simples. Among those which they employ in their cures,
the following are the most worthy of notice:
_Veppa_, the Chinchina tree, which has been mentioned already. In the
Samscred language it is called _Nimba_, in the Tamulic _Aipu_, and
in Portuguese _Amargozeira_. There are two kinds of it: one of them,
which has a black appearance, is called _Karinveppa_; the other,
with green prickly leaves, which have an exceedingly bitter taste,
is known under the name of _Aryakarinvepa_. The latter, properly, is
that which produces the real Malabar china. The bark of this tree,
however, is employed by the Indians only in cases of necessity; for
a decoction of the leaves, if the coarser parts which subside to the
bottom of the vessel be used, produce as powerful an effect. The
Brahmans are accustomed to prepare, from the juice of these leaves,
what they call _Karil_; that is, a sauce which they eat with their
rice. This medicine is of excellent service in tertian fevers, in
cases of worms, and in all disorders arising from indigestion and
weakness of the stomach and nerves. If the green leaves be bruised,
and applied to wounds or ulcers of a long standing, they cleanse
them, and prevent them from spreading or becoming cancerous. In a
word, they answer the same purpose as the china bark, and in much
shorter time, because more power is contained in the juice of the
leaves than in the woody parts of the stem and the branches. The
properties of this tree being therefore so nearly allied to those
of the real china, which grows in America, the Indians can very well
dispense with the latter, especially since it loses much of its
virtue by long voyages, as the saline volatile particles it contains
evaporate by the way.
The nettle _Codituva_, as the Brahmans say, is an excellent remedy to
purify and thin the blood; to expel the gout, leprosy, and malignant
fevers; and to check coughs connected with spitting of blood.
_Avanaka_, the so-called wonder and cross tree, in Portuguese
_Figueiro d’Inferno_, bears a fruit which by expression yields a
very salutary oil. It purifies and sweetens the blood, dissolves the
corrupted juices, expels worms, and is of excellent service in the
sciatica.
_Ulatunwera_, the root of the tree _Ulam_, is an effectual remedy
for the jaundice. It cleanses the urinary passage when obstructed by
slimy accumulations, and cures the _Gonorrhœa benigna_. In the latter
case the root is administered after it has been pulverised and mixed
with sugar and milk.
The _Ulam_, in Portuguese _Pareira brava_, is that kind of large ivy
which bears very small fruit, enclosed in small husks like those
of the coffee-berry. Its root only is officinal[235]. The _Ulam_,
however, must not be confounded, as it has been by some, with the
_Vallicàgneram_, which grows also in Malabar. Geofroy has given a
particular description of this plant in his _Materia Medica_, where
it occurs among the exotics.
_Konna_, the _Cassia purgans_, carries off bile, purifies the reins,
and is of a cooling nature; at least we are told so by the Brahmans.
The areca-nut, bananas, the coco-nut tree, the _Mava_ or _Mangueira_,
the _Kaja_, _Ciamba_, _Plava_, and _Papamaram_, have been described
by Gemelli Careri, in the third part of his Travels round the Globe,
where figures of them may be seen.
The _Nellimaram_ is a large tree which bears the so-called _Emblis_,
a kind of plum used also in medicine, and in the Malabar language
called _Nellika_. Its chief property, according to the natives, is,
that it carries off the bile and slime which give rise to most of the
diseases in India. It is customary to pickle these plums, and to eat
them with rice[236].
_Karuvà_, or _Ilavanga_, is the name of that tree the bark of which
is the _Cassia lignea_, or wild cinnamon[237]. It is of the size of
a large European plum-tree, and has smooth green leaves, which are
somewhat pulpy, and emit a strong smell. They are used in India as we
use cinnamon. This Malabar cinnamon-tree grows without any nursing or
care, and, were it cultivated, would approach near to that of Ceylon.
The Dutch, however, do not wish it to thrive, and extirpate the trees
in Malabar wherever they find them, in order that their cinnamon,
which grows in the island of Ceylon, may not become of less value.
_Muringa_, is the name of a tree which is highly valued by the
inhabitants on the coast of Malabar. In the Arabic it is called
_Moriaben_, and in Persian _Tamen Guzarat Trerida_. Its leaves, as
well as the fruit, both of which are very small, are eaten with rice.
They are said to cure the cholic, and expel poison. However this may
be, it is certain that they afford a wholesome kind of nourishment.
I several times caused soup to be made of the leaves as well as fruit
of this tree, and always found it of benefit[238].
The only Malabar plant which I can with certainty call an antidote
of poison is a shrub, about three or four feet in height, named
_Alpam_. The root is pounded, and administered in warm water to
those who have been poisoned. A Malabar proverb says: _Alpam agatta,
Veszam poratta_; As soon as the Alpam root enters the body, poison
leaves it. I must, however, confess, that the Theriac of Andromache
(_Theriaca di Andromaco_) is much more powerful.
The Indian saffron, in the Malabar language is called _Magnel_, in
the Portuguese _Acafrao Indico_, and in the Samscred _Kunkuma_[239].
The Europeans employ this plant, which has yellow leaves, merely for
dyeing; but the Brahmans ascribe to it the property of curing the
itch and the gout, extenuating the juices, and purifying the skin
from all spots arising from scorbutic acridities.
The senna-tree, _Cassia Senna_, is called in the Malabar language
_Nilavague_, and grows in the mountainous districts of Cape Comari.
Its leaves, it is well known, are employed as a purgative.
_Panicurca_, the Malabar _Melissa_, in Portuguese _Cidreira
Malabarica_, has broad, thick, round, prickly leaves, and is
therefore very different from that of Europe. It however possesses
the same power and properties; that is, it strengthens the head and
stomach, and is to be recommended, in particular, to those subject to
hysteric affections[240].
_Kadelsalada_, dandelion, in Portuguese _Almeyrao_, is, as is well
known, a plant of a detergent nature, and purifies the blood.
_Tottavàdi_ is the name of the sensitive plant, as it is called,
which, as soon as touched, contracts itself together[241].
_Vayambu_, in Latin _Acorus_, and in Portuguese _Dringo_, the
sweet-flag, grows on the coast of Malabar, in ponds and stagnant
water. It has long green leaves, and a very aromatic root[242].
The Scorzonera root is called in the Malabar language _Ciadaveli_,
and in the Tamulic _Nirvàlikilanga_. The Indians boil it: they
preserve it also, and eat it with their rice.
In order that I may not be too prolix, I shall here give a list only
of several plants and vegetable productions which I ought not to omit.
_Perumciragam_, Lat. _Fœniculum_, Port. _Funcho_, fennel.
_Velladamba_, sarsaparilla, of which there are two kinds, one with
white flowers and the other with red. The latter is the Malabar
sarsaparilla.
_Cerupula_, Lat. _Saxifraga_, sassafras.
_Muszelcevi_, Lat. _Sonchus_, Port. _Seralha_, lettuce.
_Manelcira_, Lat. _Portulaca silvestris_, Fr. _Pourpier_, purslain.
_Codaven_, Lat. _Cochlearia_, Port. _Rabaça_, scurvy-grass.
_Pramì_, or _Caipacira_, Lat. _Nasturtium fontanum_, Fr. _Cresson_,
water-cresses.
_Cáttutrtáva_, Lat. _Ocymum thyrsiflorum_, the herb basil.
_Pandila_, Lat. _Trifolium pratense_, purple trefoil.
_Gurgul_, Lat. _Scammonia_, scammony bindweed.
_Panna_, Lat. _Polypodium_, common polypody.
_Irattimadhiram_, Lat. _Glycirrhiza_, liquorice.
_Puliàrila_, marsh trefoil.
_Manday_, Lat. _Eupatorium_, liver-wort.
_Mandàram_, Lat. _Admirabilis Malabarica_, Port. _Fula de Merenda_.
_Cattàsha_, Lat. _Aloes_, Port. _Herva bàbosa_, Arab. _Saber_, the
aloe.
_Màdalam_, Lat. _Arbustum mali Punici_, Port. _Romoeira_, the
pomegranate tree.
_Pavaca_, Port. _Momordica_, the garden balsam.--Plants of it are
called, in the Malabar language, _Pàvel_.
_Kiszanelli_, Lat. _Millefolium_, common yarrow.
_Makipuva_, Lat. _Absynthium_, wormwood.
_Ceruciaca_, the annanas.
_Cannati pauna_, or _Madilpanna_, Lat. _Adiantum_, Port. _Avenca_,
maiden-hair.
_Ciragam_, Port. _Erva dolce_, anise.
_Velluram_, Port. _Malvaisco_, mallow; an emollient medicine, which
is of great service.
_Orumbulicica_, Port. _Salbao Canarin_, is a tree, the fruit of which
answers the purpose of our soap. The natives of Malabar employ it for
washing, not only their bodies, but also their clothes.
_Curantotti_, a plant about a palm in height, from the root of
which is prepared a decoction said to be useful in the gout, cough,
gonorrhœa, flatulency, and feverish affections. This decoction must
be mixed with sugar and milk.
_Ellacalli_, Lat. _Euphorbium_, spurge; a very sharp and powerful
medicine, which properly ought to be prohibited.
_Ciangupusham._ The root and leaves of this plant are used as a
decoction for the gout, cholic, and poison.
_Calumba_, a yellow root, known as a certain remedy for the tertian
fever, pain of the stomach, and poison. It promotes also the menses
and parturition. It has an exceedingly bitter taste, and is given in
wine. I suspect it to be the same root as that called _Vallìcàgnaram_.
_Cumbula_, a large tree, the root of which expels the gout, and
carries off bile.
_Ciaca_, the largest of all the fruits produced on the earth, for
one of them is almost more than a man can carry. It grows on the
_Plava_ tree, the wood of which is in the inside yellow. It has been
described by Gemelli Careri and other authors. The raw Seeds of this
fruit have a strong aromatic smell, and are called _Ciacacuru_: a
decoction of them excites venery.
_Trigolpaconna_ is the Malabar name of a detergent kind of _Turbith_.
_Cagnaravera_ is the root of the tree _Solor_.
_Parutti_ is the name given to that tree which produces cotton.
_Caruppa_ is the name of opium.
_Umana_, Lat. _Datura_, Port. _Dutro_, is a plant with a dark
blue flower, containing a seed, which, if given to any person to
drink in wine or water, excites involuntary laughter, clouds the
understanding, occasions dimness of sight, and at last brings on
sleep. Female libertines are accustomed to give this beverage to
their husbands or lovers, that while these guardians of their
chastity are lost in stupor, they may gratify their scandalous
passions at freedom and without restraint. This plant has been
described by Father Schott, in the Appendix to the second part
of his _Physica Curiosa_, which is entitled _De Mirabilibus
Miscellaneis_. I was acquainted with a Frenchman at Cochin, who,
having been imprisoned and condemned to the gallows, swallowed some
of these seeds with a view to avoid the shame of his punishment. The
consequence was, that he lost his senses, and fell into a deep sleep,
which in three days carried him into eternity. This event may serve
as a proof that too strong a dose of these seeds proves mortal.
_Tettamperel_ is a fruit of the size and figure of hare’s dung. When
put into a vessel which contains muddy water, it purifies it in such
a manner that all the unclean slimy particles instantly deposit
themselves at the bottom, and the water becomes clear and bright. The
same effect is produced when a branch of the tree is put into a pool
or muddy well. I should have doubted the truth of this circumstance,
had I not several times seen it with my own eyes. I have still in my
possession one of these fruit, and can perform the experiment when I
please.
_Bhudianarti_, in Portuguese _Pau de merda_ or _Pau sujo_, is a kind
of wood, of a dark red colour, which smells like human dung. By way
of amusement, people in company sometimes put a piece of it secretly
into the pocket of some one unacquainted with its properties, in
order to divert themselves with his embarrassment. It has a great
similarity to _Assafœtida_, called in the Malabar _Cayam_, or
_Hingu_, with which the natives are accustomed to season their boiled
rice.
Of the banana fig, one of the most valuable of the Indian fruits,
there are four different kinds, viz. _Cannpala_, the hollow fig;
_Cadalipala_, or _Puvancà_, the garden-fig; _Eràden_, the sugar-fig,
so called on account of its sweet taste; and _Nendaracà_, the
roasting fig, which cannot be eat raw.
The _Pála_, or proper Indian fig tree, has been very incorrectly
described by Pliny in his Natural History[243]. He evidently
confounds the _Pála_ with another tree called by the Portuguese
_Arvore de raiz_. This tree rises to the height of the common
chestnut-tree, but throws out from its branches a number of fibres,
which become so long that they at last hang down to the ground, where
they take root and produce other trees of the same kind perfectly
similar to the parent-tree. In this manner they continue till from
one tree there at length arises a whole forest. Certain travellers
are, therefore, not in the wrong, when they assert, that, in India,
there are trees under which a thousand men might find shelter. The
Indians are accustomed to plant such trees in the neighbourhood
of their temples or pagodas, that they may defend the people when
assembled from the rain and the sun. I saw several of these trees at
_Tiruvandaram_ and _Ciranga_, and could not help being wonderfully
struck with this singular _lusus naturæ_. The Europeans settled on
the coast of Malabar call this _Arvore de raiz_, the pagoda-tree. It
has been described by Nierenberg in his Natural History[244].
* * * * *
It cost me immense labour to collect this numerous catalogue of
simples, and to add their Malabar, Latin, and Portuguese names; but
it will perhaps enable those fond of botany to form some idea of
the knowledge of the Indians in that branch of science. The sources
I employed, besides my own experience, are the Dictionaries of
Hanxleden, Viscoping, and Pimentel; the Herbarium of Father Feraz;
and a manuscript containing observations by many regular physicians
and botanists, natives of the coast of Malabar. To those acquainted
with the appellations of the European simples and vegetables, and
the purposes to which they are applied, it will not be difficult to
learn the Malabar botany; but without such knowledge it will indeed
be impossible to study it with advantage.
The intelligent reader will readily observe that the Indians have
made much more progress in botany than in mineralogy; because they
prepare the greater part of their medicines from vegetables. This
method corresponds very exactly with the system of Hippocrates. As a
proof, one needs only recur to the second book of that physician, _De
Diaeta_, where he treats of the powers and properties of vegetable
and animal food, but passes over the mineral kingdom entirely.
Medicines prepared from the last are for the most part, in India,
attended with very dangerous consequences; because, in general, they
are not only far less suited to human nature, but affect, in a very
extraordinary manner, the weak bodies of the natives. The method
and prescriptions of Van Swieten and Tissot are therefore almost
impracticable in those climates. On the other hand, I know, from
certain experience, that several physicians of Cochin, who followed
the prescriptions of these two celebrated men, and ordered certain
medicines in small doses, no longer employ them with confidence.
The Indians never take an emetic or purgative without causing the
physician to prescribe something for them by which the too violent
effects of the medicine may be checked. They abhor phlebotomy, and
employ only cupping; but this even very seldom. They are accustomed
also never to pay the physician until they are completely freed from
their disease. This is an excellent method to guard against the
ignorance and quackery of those pretenders who sometimes prolong a
disease merely that they may extort more gold from their patients.
When a Malabar physician fails of a cure, the patient gives him a
certain present, according to the trouble he has had, but he is under
no obligation to pay him fully. In antient times the medicines of the
Indians consisted chiefly, according to the testimony of Strabo, in
regularity, temperance, and the choice of food. This is exactly the
doctrine of Hippocrates.
CHAPTER XII.
_Author’s Voyage to Europe.--Some Account of the Island of Ceylon._
On the 12th of March 1789 I embarked at Cochin in order to return to
Europe, that I might proceed to Rome and deliver the letters which
I had received from the procurator of the Missionary Establishment
on the coast of Malabar, and from the agents appointed by the
_Propaganda_ for its correspondence with the Christians of St.
Thomas. The ship in which I took my passage was the Calypso frigate
of thirty guns, having on board three hundred and forty persons,
partly seamen and partly marines. This vessel was commanded by Count
Kergoriou Loemaria, knight of the order of St. Louis, and member of
that also which was instituted by the American congress[245]; a man
who acquired great honour by his conduct in the American war when he
commanded the Juno frigate. The Calypso had been sent out to protect
the French trade in India, accompanied with the Astræa, Medusa, and
Penelope, the last of which was lost at the Cape of Good Hope. The
commodore of the whole squadron was M. St. Riveul. As this gentleman
was, at that time, on board the Medusa frigate, in the road of
Cochin, my friend Count Kergoriou procured from him permission for
me to return to Europe in his vessel, at the expence of Louis XVI.
king of France.
We directed our course towards Cape Comorin, called in the Malabar
language _Comari_, or _Canyamuri_, which we sailed past two days
after, on the 14th of March. The pleasure we enjoyed in this
agreeable passage, and the beautiful prospects with which our eyes
were gratified, can hardly be described. Having kept as close to
the land as possible, the whole coast of Malabar appeared before us
in the form of a green amphitheatre. At one time we discovered a
district entirely covered with coconut trees, and immediately after
a river winding through a delightful vale, at the bottom of which it
discharged itself into the sea. In one place appeared a multitude of
people employed in fishing; in another, a snow-white church bursting
forth to view from amidst the thick-leaved trees. Whilst we were
enjoying these delightful scenes with the early morning, a gentle
breeze, which blew from the shore, perfumed the air around us with
the agreeable smell wafted from the cardamom, pepper, betel, and
abundance of aromatic herbs and plants. Towards noon, however, there
arose a brisk gale, which sweeping the surface of the ocean, hastened
the course of our Calypso, and soon carried us beyond the view of
this enchanting country.
On the morning of the 18th of March we cast anchor in the harbour of
Colombo, in the island of Ceylon, where we found two European ships,
and one Savoyard, the owner of which was a French merchant named Le
Fabre. M. Van de Graaf, brother-in-law of the often before-mentioned
commandant of Cochin, M. I. G. van Angelbec, who was then governor of
the Dutch possessions in the island of Ceylon, sent to meet us his
three state carriages, one of which was destined for the commander
of our frigate, and the other two for the rest of the officers. With
this equipage we were conducted to a garden without the city, in
which the governor-general, M. De Graaf, at that time resided, and
where an elegant breakfast had been prepared for us. For a few days
after I had sufficient time and leisure to wander about through the
island, in order to make observations on the nature of the country
and its productions; but I had nearly experienced the same fate as a
hundred other travellers who visit both the coasts of India, and who,
for want of the necessary knowledge of the languages, are obliged
to put up with the erroneous information they receive from poor
fishermen and other ignorant persons, which they afterwards, without
reflection or proper examination, insert in their journals. Such,
indeed, would have been the case with me, had I not met with people
in Ceylon who understood both the Malabar and the Tamulic languages,
and who were able to gratify my curiosity. My residence there was,
indeed, too short to enable me to give a complete description of the
island; but I can certainly communicate some useful information on
the subject: and if I enlarge it by what I have learned from Knox,
Sonnerat, Spilberg, Cossigny, and other travellers, I hope the reader
will not think his labour lost to peruse it.
The island of Ceylon is called in the Samscred language _Lanca_, or
_Langa_; also _Ilam_, or _Salàbbam_. The last word is compounded of
_Sal_, true; and _Labham_, gain; consequently signifies the land
which brings real gain. The island of Ceylon is undoubtedly worthy
of this name, because a great many precious stones are found in it,
and because pearls are fished up on its western coasts. The Samscred
appellation _Salàbham_ seems to have given rise to the corrupted
name _Salica_, as it is called by Ptolemy, from which has been
formed Ceylon. According to M. De la Tour, it lies in the latitude
of 9° 15′, and the longitude of 77° and 78°. Towards the west it
borders closely on the coast of Pescaria; so that it is separated
from it only by the narrow strait of _Manàr_, where there is the
celebrated bridge of _Ràma_, called by the Europeans Adam’s bridge.
This bridge extends so far into the sea, that people can pass, in a
very small vessel, to the so-called _Rama’s Point_, on the coast of
Pescaria. Not far from the above-mentioned bridge of Rama stands the
celebrated temple of _Ramanacoil_, in which the younger Bacchus, and
also the _Lingam_ or _Phallus_ of _Shiva_, or the elder Bacchus, are
preserved. This bridge is still more remarkable, because it appears
from the _Purana_, or ancient history of India, that Ceylon by its
means was first peopled, as an Indian colony went to the island
along that bridge, and introduced into it the Samscred language,
together with the Indian manners and customs. The names of different
places, such as _Moselpati_, _Jasnapatnam_, _Terlipati_, _Villapati_,
_Moltupati_, _Malpati_, _Palliacur_, and those of various other
cities and towns, evidently shew their Samscred origin; for _Pati_
signifies a town; _Patnam_, _Patana_, or _Patan_, a city; and _Ur_,
an inhabited place.
As the wind, from whatever quarter it comes, has free room to play
around this island, the air is always pure and salubrious. This
advantage, and the great richness of the country gave rise formerly
to the fable that it was the place of Paradise, and that the
inhabitants lived to the age of 200 or 300 years. The Indians have
a tradition, that this island, in consequence of a dispute between
the serpent _Vasughi_ and the god of the wind, was broken loose from
the mountain _Meru_, the habitation of the gods, and hurled into the
eastern sea, where it now lies. The Pagans believe, therefore, that
this island is a part of Paradise; and this fable indeed, in ancient
times, was conveyed from India to other parts of Asia. Another fable,
which forms the subject of the poem called _Ràmayàna_, and which
relates to this island also, has been mentioned before.
Not far from the city of Candia, where the king of Ceylon generally
resides, is a river which flows down from one of the mountains. In
the middle of this river the king has built a small palace, where he
sometimes enjoys the cool air, and where are preserved the valuable
gems which the rain and streams wash down from the mountains. Pearls
are found in the district of _Mannàr_, at the western extremity of
the island. This country produces the most beautiful elephants in
all Asia, together with a great many deer, wild swine, and different
kinds of red and yellow birds not known in Europe. It yields two
crops every year, the produce of which is sufficient to feed all its
inhabitants; but when the Dutch are at war with the king of Candia,
they are obliged to procure their rice from Cochin on the coast of
Malabar. They might raise coffee and pepper in Ceylon; but they
cultivate neither of these articles, lest the price of the Malabar
pepper and the Batavian coffee should be lowered, and attend merely
to the culture of cinnamon, the sale of which is more profitable.
They possess all the places on the sea-coast, and _Colombo_ is their
capital. _Jasnapatnam_, _Negombo_, _Punta di Galle_, _Trinquemala_,
and other settlements are dependencies on its government.[246]
The Portuguese made themselves masters of this island in the year
1506; but in 1658 were expelled from it by the Dutch, A hundred years
after, that is in 1759, the latter were involved in a war with the
king of Candia, which threatened the most dangerous consequences. By
the greatest good fortune Captain Du Flo, with a number of French
adventurers, among whom were several able officers, hastened to their
assistance from Pondicherry, and placed himself at the head of the
Dutch troops. The war after that period assumed a different turn;
the Dutch took the city of Candia, and in the year 1766 reduced the
king to the necessity of signing a treaty of peace, in virtue of
which he resigned the whole sea-coast, and agreed to deliver to them
yearly a certain quantity of cinnamon at a very low rate. The king
of Candia[247] was then suffered to remain in peaceable possession
of the island. Not long before I arrived at Ceylon, Father Francis à
Sancto Elisæo wrote to me from Malabar, that this prince had again
quarrelled with the Hollanders, and refused to deliver the cinnamon
at the price agreed on, which gave rise afterwards to another bloody
war.
When the Portuguese took possession of Ceylon in the year 1506, it
was governed by _Abonnega Bopandar_, king of _Cotta_, a province
entirely different from Candia. This prince was married to a daughter
of _Tribul Pandar_, who bore him a son named _Parca Pandar_. The
latter was involved in a war with another raja or king of the island,
who defeated him in the year 1579. As he could no longer defend his
possessions, he fled to a place of safety, and transferred his right
to the Portuguese, who then gave themselves out as his successors.
He died the same year at Colombo, after he had been baptised by the
name of _Don Joan Parca Pandar_. It is asserted by others, and in
particular Arthus, that the Portuguese first visited Ceylon under
the reign of _Mara Ràga_ (properly _Maha Ragia_, that is, the great
king), and this was undoubtedly the prince by whom _Parca Pandar_ was
defeated. _Mahà Rágia_ had four sons, one of whom, named _Darma_, or
rather _Dherma_, was illegitimate. This prince found means to put to
death his legitimate brothers, and to get possession of the crown
alone; but he died by poison, and was succeeded by _Vimala Dherma
Suryada_, who was afterwards baptised at Goa under the name of _Don
Joan di Austria_.
As this prince had adopted the Christian religion, the Portuguese
imagined that he would readily permit them to carry as much cinnamon
and as many precious stones from the island as they might think
proper; but they were disappointed in their expectation, for _Vimala
Dherma Sùryada_ expelled them all from his states, and was absolutely
determined that they should not gain the superiority at _Cotta_
or _Candia_. A daughter of _Parca Pandar_, who had also embraced
Christianity, and had at baptism been named Catharina, was still in
life, but detained a prisoner in the fortress of _Mannar_. A certain
Portuguese gentleman, named Don Pietro Lopez de Sousa, married this
princess; caused himself afterward to be proclaimed king of Candia,
and declared war against the lawful sovereign, _Vimala Dherma
Suryada_, or _Don Joan di Austria_. The latter, however, being a
brave and enterprising man, pursued such prudent measures that his
antagonist Don Lopez was so completely defeated in a decisive battle
that he was obliged to give up the contest. After his death he
married Catharina the widow, by whom he had two sons.
This sovereign extended his dominion over the whole of Ceylon, and
caused a great many churches, which still remain, to be built in
the interior parts of the country. His object in erecting them, no
doubt, was to conciliate the affection of the Christians; to give
employment to his subjects, and to have a decent pretence for laying
them under contribution. That his attachment to religion was not very
sincere, appears, in particular, from this circumstance, that he
never completely finished or endowed any of these churches, so that
they have remained poor to this day.
After the death of this prince, his spouse Catharina resigned the
government, and in the year 1604 married _Henar Pandar_, who reigned
under the Pagan name of _Camapadi Mahadakshin_, and had by her a
great many children.
He was succeeded in 1632 by his son _Ragiasinba_, called also
_Mahasorùba_, or _Sinhamaharagia_, who, in the year 1644, received
the Dutch with great friendship; but did not give up to them the
Portuguese settlements, of which they never obtained complete
possession till the year 1658.
The successor of this king was _Sishamaharagia_, who assumed the
government in 1680, and had under his dominion _Coletur_ as well as
_Candia_.
The names of the above-mentioned kings of Ceylon are entirely
Samscredamic, and have been corrupted by Spilberg, as well as
Anquetil du Perron, the Dutch and the Portuguese, the first
conquerors of the island. _Vimala_, for example, signifies great;
_Dherma_ is the Samscred name of the deity _Budha_; and _Surya_
signifies the sun. _Vimala Dherma Surya_ signifies, therefore,
the great king _Dherma_, refulgent like the sun; _Sinhamaharagia_
signifies the lion-great king; for this appellation is compounded
of three Samscred words, _Sinha_ a lion, _Maha_ great, and _Ragia_
a king. _Mahàsorùba_ implies as much as the great prince; and
_Campadi Mahàdakshin_ signifies Cupid the great king of the eastern
districts. It may be readily perceived, that these are assumed and
not family names. We are told by Pliny, in his Natural History[248],
that, in his time, a _Rachia_ or king of this island sent an embassy
to Rome. We are informed also by St. Ambrose, that, in his time, four
kings reigned in that island, one of whom was called _Mahàràgia_, or
the great king. It appears from these and other circumstances, that
this island, as is the case in Malabar, was divided among several
petty princes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of one general head.
Among the deities of the inhabitants of Ceylon, we find also
_Gannèsha_; but he is represented here with goat’s feet; whereas the
other Indians represent him under the human form, except the addition
of an elephant’s trunk. The principal deity, however, worshipped in
this island, is _Budha_, or _Godama_, a son of Maia and Mercury, or
Hermes, to whom they have dedicated not only a great number of trees,
but also Adam’s Peak, called in the Samscred language _Salmala_,
which is the highest mountain in the island, and from which _Budha_
is said to have ascended to heaven after he had transformed himself
into 999 different shapes. The worship of this deity was introduced
into Ceylon about forty years after the birth of Christ; and about
the same time a violent dispute took place between the Brahmans and
the Budhists, the result of which was, that the latter, because they
would not acknowledge _Vishnu_ and _Shiva_ as gods, were expelled
from India by their opponents. The Budhists were originally Pagan
monks of the feet of _Sanyasi_, who led a life of contemplation;
renounced all property; took an oath of chastity and poverty, and
lived together in common. They are descended from the ancient
_Samanæi_, who are exceedingly well characterised in the writings of
Strabo, Porphyrius, Arrian, and Clemens of Alexandria. They never
marry, and support themselves by begging. By these Budhists the
religion of the Indians was transplanted to Pegu, Siam, and China, as
the Peguans and the Chinese themselves acknowledge. In Pegu, _Budha_
is worshipped in the same manner as in Ceylon; and the Talapoins,
his priests, are real descendants from the Budhists of Ceylon. The
inhabitants of Pegu call _Budha_ sometimes _Gaudama_, and sometimes
_Samonacodam_. _Soma_ signifies the moon, and _Codam_ a god. By this
appellation, therefore, they give to understand, that they consider
_Budha_ as a deity created by the moon; for the nymph _Rohini_ was
the favourite of the lunar god, and from these two _Budha_ derived
his existence.
The priests of this deity are called _Tiruvamsha_, which implies as
much as the sacred race. They are under a chief, who is a kind of
bishop, and has the power of determining all religious disputes that
may arise. This chief has generally in his hand a golden band, from
which is suspended a kind of sceptre shaped like a fan, and almost
similar to the _Tolapava_ employed by the Talapoins of Pegu. These
_Budhists_ hold a chapter, and choose their own magistrates, who are
always men of knowledge and rank. Their choice is confirmed by the
king. They are distinguished by a piece of yellow cloth (_Pidambara_)
which they wear, and by going with their heads shaved and entirely
bare. They dare neither apply to any labour, nor marry, and in
general must touch no female. They must eat a full meal only once
a-day; must drink no wine; and must neither anoint their bodies,
nor be present at dances or any other kind of amusement. They are
obliged also to have no concern with gold or silver; are kept under
the strictest obedience, and must do every thing required of them by
their superiors.
When they quit their order they lay aside the piece of yellow cloth,
and may then marry. A very accurate account of their institution
has been given in a Peguan book entitled _Kammuva_, which treats
of the ordination of the Talapoins; and also in the compendium
of the laws of the _Barmans_, written by the Peguan philosopher
_Dhermaràgiaguru_. Both these works are to be found in the library
of the Congregation _de propaganda fide_. Those desirous of more
information on this subject may consult also another manuscript,
preserved in the Borgian Museum, and entitled _Mangalatara_; that is,
the way and method to attain to real felicity. This excellent work,
which contains the noblest precepts of morality, was transmitted to
Cardinal Borgia by the learned Father Angelo Maria Cortinovis of
Udina, who obtained it from his brother Father Marcellus a missionary
in Pegu. All these laws, which occur under Nᵒ xxxviii. form the moral
theology of the Talapoins of the sect of the Budhists, and are highly
worthy of being explained and made publicly known.
Father Constantinus of Afkali, a missionary of the Capuchin order, in
his short account of Nepal, has given a description of the customs
of those Budhists who reside in Nepal and Thibet, where they are far
more numerous than any where else[249]. The Grand Lama of Thibet is
the real head of this sect. When the Budhists of Ceylon appear in
public, on solemn occasions, they always walk two and two; and their
bishop, or chief, with a sceptre in his hand, rides on an elephant.
They believe not only in the transmigration of the soul, but in the
immortality of the spiritual part of man; and entertain an opinion,
that after it has passed in succession through a sufficient number
of bodies, it is received into the _Nimban_, that is, eternity. The
other priests of Ceylon, destined for the service of _Gannèsha_,
are called _Gones_. The common people worship also _Ciadhàrva_, or
_Shastava_, the avenger of sin, an idol of a most horrid appearance,
which holds in its hand a sword.
A custom prevails in Ceylon, that several brothers may have one wife
in common. The children she brings forth belong to them all; nor
can the elder brother claim any preference of right. Many of the
inhabitants of Ceylon have only one wife; others maintain several.
In this respect there is no fixed law or precise regulation; but
adultery in all cases is punished. The Brahmans, like us, make a
distinction between the different degrees of consanguinity, but
they admit of a man marrying two sisters. Aunts and nephews are
not allowed to intermarry; but a man may take to wife the daughter
of his father’s sister, or the daughter of his own sister. In all
other cases they consider marriage between relations as incest; and
those guilty of this crime are punished either by the loss of the
limb which has committed the offence, or at any rate expelled from
their cast. The inhabitants of Ceylon, however, are not patterns of
chastity; and it may be clearly perceived that corruption of morals
is daily increasing among them.
The principal festival of _Budha_ is celebrated at the commencement
of the new year, in the month of March, which generally falls on the
27th, 28th, or 29th. The division of the year in Ceylon is the same
as that usual in Malabar and among the Tamulians.
In Ceylon, as well as in Pegu and Thibet, the Budhists may be said to
have very limited power. They are the preceptors and tutors of the
sovereign princes of the country, who consequently give themselves up
to their direction; consult them upon every occasion, and afford them
every kind of support and protection. The policy of this practice
produces the utmost benefit to the state. When princes pay honour
to the priesthood, and unite with it to promote the same ends, the
tranquillity of their dominions is never interrupted. In every
part of the globe, the people, who look up to the example of their
sovereigns, will not fail to imitate them; and the consequence will
be, respect for religion, and fidelity towards their princes; and on
the union of these two the welfare of a state depends.
CHAPTER XIII.
_The Author’s Voyage to Europe.--Short Account of the Isles of
France and Bourbon, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Island of
Ascension._
On the 20th of April, 1789, the Calypso frigate, after a pleasant and
agreeable passage, arrived in the harbour of the Isle of France. The
entrance into this harbour is exceedingly narrow and dangerous; but
when vessels have once got in they lie at anchor in great safety,
as they are sheltered from the wind on all sides, and the landing
is remarkably easy. On this island there are a great many high
mountains, and among these a volcano, which sometimes darkens the
atmosphere by its eruptions, and renders it so hot and thick that
asthmatic people can scarcely breathe. Tempests, therefore, are here
very frequent and terrible; as is the case in all countries where
there are volcanoes, for they attract the vapours and inflammable
matter with which the clouds are loaded. Fire always has a tendency
to fire. In other respects the air is tolerably pure and healthful,
though a little moist in general towards the evening; but in certain
months a far more violent heat prevails than on the coast of
Malabar, where the atmosphere is at least cooled by the evaporation
that proceeds from the rivers and lakes, by which the country is
every-where surrounded and intersected. This island lies under the
20th degree of south latitude, whereas Cochin lies under the 10th of
north latitude. This makes a difference of 10 degrees, and serves as
a proof that the greater or less heat to which people are exposed in
different climates does not depend so much on the sun, as on local
circumstances that arise from the situation of the country.
The Isle of France is about fifty miles in circumference. The soil
is argillaceous, of a reddish colour, here and there volcanic, and
full of stones except in the low valleys. It produces corn, millet,
rice, pulse, tamarinds, lemons, sugar canes, coffee, mustard, honey,
manioc, salt, and palm-oil; the last of which, however, is only fit
for burning in lamps. According to the estimation of M. Charpentier
de Cossigny, an officer of engineers in the French service, who
resided in this island, it delivered in the year 1782, into the
king’s storehouses, 811,288 pounds of rye, 662,942 pounds of maize,
85,668 pounds of rice, and 210,096 pounds of dried pease and beans.
These articles are entirely consumed in the country; and it thence
appears that the Isle of France is exceedingly well cultivated, and
supplied in abundance with every thing necessary for the inhabitants.
The timber which grows on this island is excellent, and consists of
the following kinds: _Sanayu_, iron-wood, black ebony, stink-wood,
_Oata_, the olive-tree, apple-tree, colophonium-wood (_Legno
colofane_), _Takamuka_, dark-grey cinnamon tree, white cinnamon-tree,
pine-tree, and European oak.
All these kinds of wood are here indigenous; but there are a great
many others which have been transplanted from India, such as the
_Mava_ or _Mangueira_ tree, the tamarind-tree, the _Agati_, and a
sort of Acacia without prickles, which came originally from Malabar.
All these trees, and a variety of others the names of which I do not
remember, thrive exceedingly well in the Isle of France. The case is
the same with the cinnamon-tree from Ceylon, the nutmeg and the clove
trees from the Moluccas, and the _Raven-Sára_ from Madagascar[250].
All these productions are found here in the king’s garden, where they
thrive remarkably well; but it cannot be denied that they have lost
somewhat of their original vigour, which may perhaps be owing to the
volcanic nature of the soil in which they are planted. The French,
however, procure such a quantity of these spices, that they have no
occasion to purchase any of them from the Dutch. The inspector of the
king’s garden, and the before-mentioned M. Charpentier de Cossigny,
have, by their botanical knowledge and unwearied industry, been the
chief cause of these foreign productions being cultivated in the
island. In a certain district of it called _Pampelmousse_, I observed
that private individuals cultivated these spices in their gardens,
from which they already derive some profit. When I paid a visit to
Messrs. Boucher and Istace, who were established as clergymen in the
district of _Pampelmousse_, I saw with real pleasure that they were
both, busily employed in the cultivation of these exotics; and that
they were well rewarded, by their thriving condition, for the trouble
they had taken to rear them.
There are here also a great many singular birds of prey, some cattle,
and great abundance of fish; but in particular numerous herds of
goats, which belong to the proprietors of the land. Private persons
purchase small spots of ground from the king, live as planters, and
construct for themselves habitations which they call _Reduits_. The
European planters and merchants on this island maintain about 30,000
slaves, who cultivate the lands, and who are obliged to perform the
principal labour in the towns and villages. These slaves consist
of Caffres, Indians, and natives of Madagascar. Were it possible
for them to be unanimous, they would not find it difficult, as they
far exceed the Europeans in number, to expel them entirely from
the island; but as they belong to different tribes, they never can
unite in one general plan; and to this circumstance the planters
are indebted for their safety and the peaceable possession of their
property. The laws of morality are violated here in the most flagrant
manner: the various nations who are intermixed with each other,
the state of licentiousness in which the colonists live, and the
immodest conduct of the women, which sets all decency and restraint
at defiance, might give travellers very just reason for calling the
Isle of France _New Cythera_, or the Island of Venus. Besides, it is
the seat of knavery and infidelity, with which almost all the French
settled here are infected; for they acknowledge themselves, that,
as soon as they pass the Cape of Good Hope, they renounce religion
altogether, and employ their whole thoughts and attention on the
acquirement of riches.
Port-Louis, the chief town on the island, has several well
constructed manufactories, a very beautiful cathedral, and an
elegant hospital. From the surrounding smaller islands a great
number of tortoises are brought to the Isle of France; so that
patients afflicted with the scurvy and syphilis, two diseases which
are exceedingly prevalent in these climates, are soon restored to
strength by means of the nourishing soups prepared from the flesh of
these animals, mixed with all kinds of herbs. The advantage of this
place, where sick soldiers and sailors can be so soon recovered;
the natural liveliness of the French; the facility of procuring
fresh provisions; the number of young men of French extraction who
are found here, and who, on the sea, are as it were on their proper
element; a numerous squadron which is always lying here ready to
proceed on a cruise when necessary, and the small distance between
this island and India, render it very easy for the French, in the
time of war, to send relief to their colonies on the first notice; to
annoy the enemy in these seas by their privateers; and, in the time
of peace, to support and extend their commerce. Bailli de Suffrein,
and several other French admirals, well knew how to profit, during
the wars in India, by the advantages which this island affords to the
French fleets.
It was taken possession of by the Dutch in the year 1598, and called
the Mauritius. Before that period it was called _Cernè_, that is,
Swan Island; because the sailors by whom it was first discovered
observed on it a great number of white fowls without tails, which, on
that account, they took to be swans. As the Dutch pay no attention
to any possessions but those which bring them considerable revenues,
they abandoned this island in the year 1708. It was afterwards taken
possession of by a French naval captain named Du Fresne, who in
1715 founded in it a French colony: but it was not till 1723 that
it acquired a governor and council. The first governor was M. De
la Bourdonnais. It is to the great exertions of this man that the
increase of the colony is chiefly to be ascribed; and since that
period it has always remained subject to France.
After staying twenty days at this island, we left it on the 20th of
May, and in twenty-four hours arrived at St. Denis, in the Island of
Bourbon, which is only at a very small distance. Like the former,
it is full of mountains; only with this difference, that they are
not so high and peaked as those of the Isle of France. The latter
is much more frequented by navigators, because it has an excellent
harbour, an advantage which is totally wanting in the other. Ships
here must lie at anchor in the open road of St. Denis or St. Paul,
where they are exposed to great danger, and where mariners can never
be sufficiently on their guard to prevent their vessels from being
driven from their anchors and carried out to sea. Besides, at both
the above places, it is exceedingly difficult to land; and even in
calm weather it is almost impossible to go on shore without being
completely drenched by the surf. M. De Cossigny, the governor of
the island, resided at St. Denis, which was furnished with a strong
garrison. It is the principal town of the island, and is situated
upon an eminence which commands the whole road. Here I found M. Du
Rocher, a celebrated missionary from the convent of St. Lazarus at
Paris, who had the superintendance of the missionary affairs at the
Isles of France and Bourbon.
From the road of St. Denis our frigate proceeded to St. Paul, which
is likewise a town of considerable size, where I had some very
interesting conversation with two distinguished missionaries, Messrs.
D’Avelu and Halmat; the principal subject of which was, the extending
and improving the missionary establishments in Malabar, Madagascar,
and the Isles of France and Bourbon: but unfortunately all our plans
were deranged by the French revolution.
The island of Bourbon is sixty French miles in circumference, and is
exposed to the effects of a volcano, which from time to time throws
up a bituminous, fluid, vitrified sort of substance, which, when
cooled, has a spongy and reddish appearance. It extends already a
quarter of a mile into the sea, like a broad causeway, which by the
heat of the sun and the sea-water acquires daily more solidity, so
that the French flatter themselves with the hope that it will one
day form a haven. Both here, and at the Isle of France, the sea
throws up a great many kinds of beautiful shells as well as marine
petrifactions. It produces also abundance of well-tasted fish.
The island of Bourbon yields large quantities of coffee, which, when
the beans have been well picked, is of the best quality. It contains
a great many oily particles, and is attended with this advantage to
the purchasers, that they have no occasion to use so much of it as
of any other kind; for it is much stronger than that of Moka, though
it has not such an agreeable flavour. The English purchase whole
ship-loads of it, and set a much greater value on it than on that
of the West Indies. When well toasted and burnt it will retain its
virtue a whole year, provided it be properly preserved. Almost all
the inhabitants of Bourbon cultivate coffee of this kind in their
gardens. At the time I was on the island, a bag of it, weighing a
hundred and twenty pounds, cost twelve scudi. The inhabitants of this
island are diligent, industrious, decent, and well-behaved people.
As they reside chiefly in the country, and employ themselves in
agriculture, they have preserved their morals uncorrupted, and know
little or nothing of the vices which prevail in the towns. The ass
is the principal animal used for labour in these two islands; as
horses and oxen cannot long hold out in a country so full of hills,
therefore asses are employed in their stead. The French sea-captains
bring from Arabia whole cargoes of these animals, and sell them to
the inhabitants.
The island of Bourbon is divided into seven different districts, viz.
_St. Denis_, _St. Paul_, _Repos de Laleu_, _D’Abord_, _St. Susannah_,
_St. Bennet_, and _La Possession_. These seven districts, in the
year 1783, delivered into the king’s magazines 8,136,245 pounds of
corn, 6,704,296 pounds of maize and millet, 84,921 pounds of rice,
261,687 pounds of pease, 461,402 pounds of beans, and 300,000 pounds
of barley. Were I obliged to make a choice between the Isle of
France and that of Bourbon, I should prefer the latter, on account
of its fertility, the purity and salubrity of its air, the industry
and uncorrupted morals of its inhabitants, who have not yet debased
themselves by illicit commerce with contemptible slaves, and of many
other advantages; though M. Charpentier de Cossigny asserts the
contrary in his letter to M. Sonnerat, printed at the Isle of France
in 1784, and which, in general, displays great partiality.
The inhabitants of both these islands carry on trade with
_Madagascar_, _Goa_, and _Surat_; to the _Persian Gulph_ and the
_Red-sea_; and also to _Mascate_, _Monbaza_, _Zanzibar_, and
_Quiloa_. They send thither sugar, coffee, different kinds of wood,
Indian stuffs, and European glass wares. In return for these articles
they obtain from Madagascar beautiful cattle, a great number of
slaves, and certain kinds of cloth made from the fibres of plants
and called _Pagne_. Mascate sends them asses, and from the southern
parts of the African coast they procure slaves and gold dust. All
the natives of these islands, born of European fathers and Indian
or African mothers, are called Creoles, and of this kind are the
greater part of the inhabitants of Bourbon. As these people, both
by nature and the laws, are perfectly free, they are fond of their
native country, and apply to agriculture from inclination; whereas
the slaves in the Isle of France must be kept to this labour by
force, and cultivate the lands of their unthankful masters with the
greatest reluctance. Five of these free people are of more value than
ten slaves of the Isle of France, who are compelled to gratify the
avarice, lewdness, and licentiousness of their tyrants. The marriages
of the free people are far more fruitful, and their children are
far better nourished and educated than those of the slaves, and are
consequently much healthier. This is the cause why the Island of
Bourbon contains a much greater number of inhabitants than the Isle
of France. When the smallpox breaks out, which occasions the greatest
devastation here as well as on the coast of Malabar, a multitude
of slaves are swept off in the Isle of France, whose places must
then be supplied by others; and such large sums are required for
this purpose, that the coffers of the inhabitants become entirely
exhausted. In the Island of Bourbon, on the other hand, the number
of slaves is so small, the air is always so pure and healthful, and
the houses are so well constructed, that the above horrid disease,
which rages with so much fury in the Isle of France, seldom makes its
appearance in the former, and occasions much less ravage than in the
latter.
On the 30th of May we left the Isle of Bourbon, and, having passed
the Island of Madagascar, encountered a violent storm, which obliged
us to put into the Bay of Lagoa, on the southern coast of Africa. As
the wind was contrary, we were under the necessity of keeping close
in with the land; so that we had continually before our eyes the
horrid mountains with which this part of the world is covered. Never
did I behold any land, the situation of which is so high, and which
at the same time has so wild and dreary an appearance. During the
whole day we beheld nothing but immense wastes of sand, or mountains,
the summits of which were lost in the clouds, and which, in the
night time, threw up smoke and flames. I should have considered
these immense patches of sand as fields covered with snow, had I not
been undeceived when we entered the before-mentioned bay[251]. These
horrid and totally barren districts, where it is rare to see a single
blade of grass, except a few melancholy ones here and there on the
margin of some small stream which flows into the ocean, appeared to
me like the entrance of the infernal regions. We experienced, at
the same time, a most penetrating cold. Our apes, parrots and other
Indian birds, which were not accustomed to such severe weather, began
to be sick, and the most beautiful animals died of the cramp or
convulsions.
On the 30th of June we passed the Bay of Formosa.
On the fifth of August we were off the Bay of St. Sebastian; and on
the 10th came to anchor in False Bay at the Cape of Good Hope. This
bay is very capacious, and the water in it is strongly impregnated
with whale oil, or rather whale-spawn. When it is, therefore, put
into a state of violent agitation by the motion of ships, or repeated
rowing, these oily particles, by the friction thence occasioned,
emit, to the great astonishment of those who are not acquainted with
the phenomenon, a dark-blue and yellow light[252].
The Dutch East India Company have here a government-house, which at
this time was inhabited by Governor Brand; together with various
magazines, a large hospital, two taverns, a few private houses, and a
botanical garden. A bottle of the best Cape wine cost a Dutch ducat.
The neighbouring seas abound not only with whales, but with various
other sorts of fish. The shore was covered with a multitude of the
most beautiful shells, which enabled me to make a valuable addition
to my collection. At the Cape there are oxen, sheep, goats, and other
quadrupeds; but in particular all kinds of excellent vegetables. As I
had made myself sufficiently well acquainted with the Cape during my
first stay here, in the year 1776, I resolved on the present occasion
to visit the neighbouring mountains; to explore the interior parts,
and to procure what information I could respecting the Hottentots.
I ascended, therefore, in the company of several French officers,
one of the highest mountains, where, as far as the eye could reach,
we beheld the most beautiful pastures. The Hottentots live after
the manner of the Patriarchs, by breeding cattle, and have no fixed
habitation. When they remove from one place to another, they put
their wives and children into large waggons; dispatch these before,
and follow them with their herds. Their whole clothing consists of a
sheep’s skin, which, without any preparation, they throw over their
shoulders. They cover the parts of sex with a small piece of cloth,
and leave the rest of the body quite naked. Some even do not wear
the above piece of cloth; and, with their shaggy sheep’s skins,
their ragged hair, which is never combed, their dark brown visages,
and small black eyes, have rather the appearance of monsters than
of men. How different is that of the fortunate inhabitants of the
coast of Malabar! The Hottentot women have a nose somewhat flat, or
which seems to have been squeezed out in breadth by compression, and
exceedingly thick lips. Those who have brought forth children bind a
piece of skin around their middle, to hide that which modesty bids
them conceal. On this subject I refer the reader to the letter of M.
Beysser, surgeon, to M. de Cossigny, which is added as a postscript
to that of the latter to M. Sonnerat. There are Hottentots who have
only one testicle, because the other has been bruised by their
mother, between two stones, at the time of their birth. The reason of
this is, that these ignorant people believe that the males will, by
these means, be prevented from getting twins. It contributes also,
in their opinion, to the production of more females. The Hottentots
are exceedingly active, swift-footed, and of strong constitutions.
Those who have once gained their affection may safely depend on their
fidelity. All those, however, which I had an opportunity of seeing,
were so shy that they carefully avoided the Europeans, and neither
entered into conversation with them, nor answered any questions they
were asked.
There are some mountains in the neighbourhood of the Cape, which
contain copper and tin. In the interior parts there is a kind of
wild Hottentots, called Boshmen. They are of a colour somewhat
like an orange yellow, but darker. Beysser and Vaurien, two French
travellers, who penetrated nearly 300 miles into the country,
describe these Boshmen as eaters of human flesh, who devour all
the Europeans and Hottentots who have the misfortune to fall into
their hands. Apples, pears, cherries, plums, apricots, figs, nuts,
strawberries, and all the other fruits of Europe, grow wild in the
interior districts[253]. The Hottentots live together in hordes;
but apply neither to agriculture nor the arts, and have little or
no religion. It is supposed that they worship the moon as a deity.
They are entirely employed in tending cattle. Their common food
is the flesh of their oxen or sheep, and a kind of mealy bulbous
roots, which grow without any culture in the districts where they
settle. The Dutch, who have extended their possessions 200 miles
up the country, have taken every pains possible to encourage these
people to apply to agriculture, but without the smallest success.
The single settlements, which the Dutch have formed here and there
in the country of the Hottentots, are at a great distance from each
other; for as they are at liberty to choose whatever spot they think
proper to reside on, they generally fix upon those where the soil
is fruitful, and where they have no occasion to go far in search of
water. According to the information I received, they have nearly
40,000 slaves, who are obliged to cultivate their lands; but the
districts which I saw did not appear to be very fruitful. They
consisted of immense forests and plains, surrounded by mountains, and
intersected by marshes; and, therefore, much fitter for pasturage
than for producing corn. The farmers are chiefly Germans, and for
the most part have settled in valleys, where they found the soil
fruitful; where they were sheltered from the wind, and had in the
neighbourhood a sufficiency of wood and water. The land here, taken
in general, is exceedingly fertile. The grapes, which yield the
noble Constantia wine, the best of all the kinds produced at the
Cape, are brought forwards by artificial manure. For that purpose
deep trenches are dug, which are filled with dung, and again covered
with earth. When dung fails, which is however seldom the case, the
farmers mix with it leaves of trees and twigs, and suffer them both
to rot. This manure communicates to the soil, and consequently to the
vine plants, an extraordinary strength. In India the same process
is employed to manure the rice-fields. In June and July the vines
are pruned, and in January or February the grapes are collected; but
the vintage must never begin till they are perfectly ripe. By these
means the Constantia wine, which is produced from the best kind of
grapes, acquires such excellence that it surpasses all the other
kinds made in the country. Those, however, who wish to be acquainted
with its real virtue and properties, must drink it at the Cape, where
it is perfectly pure and unadulterated. It is much heavier than the
European wines; and this, in all probability, is owing to the oily
balsamic and saccharine particles it contains. The red muscadine is
produced from the large vineyard at Constantia, and the white wine
from the smaller. I had often before tasted both kinds on the coast
of Malabar, at the table of Governor Van Angelbeck, whom I have
several times mentioned already.
The Cape town is exceedingly well built, and contains a considerable
number of low houses and very broad streets. Every thing here is
established in the Dutch taste. Provisions are of the best kind.
During my stay, board and lodging cost a dollar a-day; and boarders
were at liberty to bring a friend with them occasionally to dinner.
We had excellent meat, particularly mutton and veal; as well as
vegetables, and abundance of European, African, and Indian fruits:
and our meals were always seasoned with a few glasses of Constantia
wine.
The gardens of the Dutch East India Company are exceedingly well laid
out, and contain a great number of foreign animals; but the king’s
garden in the Isle of France is much more beautiful and useful. In
the latter there are a great many trees, which produce fruits and
different kinds of spices; whereas the former is filled with such
as are either entirely barren, or not very useful, and which serve
merely for ornament.
On the 19th of July we left the Cape, and proceeded on our voyage.
On the 22d we encountered a most violent storm, accompanied with a
heavy rain, which shattered our topmast and bow-sprit. By the violent
straining of our frigate, which was sheathed with copper, some of
the nails gave way, so that the vessel became leaky, and the water
forced itself in through the planks. This accident threw the sailors
into great confusion; for the wind raged with such fury that the ship
became unmanageable. Had it continued ten minutes longer we should
have infallibly found a grave at the bottom of the ocean. But the
providence of that Eternal Being, who assists the distressed, and
preserves the lives of sinners as well as of the righteous, saved us
from the impending danger. The wind moderated, and we found means to
secure the loose copper with ropes, to stop the leak, and so continue
our course, though with some danger, and not without apprehension.
On the 7th of August we descried St. Helena, and on the 11th came to
anchor in a bay of the Island of Ascension, where we lay eight days
in order to repair our vessel.
This island is about nine miles in length, and seven breadth; and is
nothing but an extinguished volcano, which seems formerly to have
occasioned here the most horrid devastation. It contains no water,
has no inhabitants, and does not produce a single blade of grass.
Wherever the eye extends, nothing is seen but large accumulations of
calcined stones, and black pyramidal masses of rock, which strike the
traveller with astonishment, whether beheld near or at a distance,
and fill his mind with an awful idea of the power of the volcano,
as well as of the force of nature in general, which seems as if she
had intended to annihilate herself in this horrid desert[254]. This
island is continually buffeted by the waves of the ocean, which throw
an immense number of shells on the shore, where they are so long beat
till they at last become dust, and are converted into the whitest
and most beautiful sand that can any where be seen. At the same time
the sea often casts on shore large tortoises, which, if they fall on
their backs, cannot recover their natural position, and therefore rot
amidst the sand. The neighbouring seas teem with fish; and for that
reason the island is inhabited by a great number of men-of-war birds,
and other sea-fowl, which feed on these fish, and construct their
nests in the clefts of the rocks. These men-of-war birds, though
they seldom see a human being, are so tame, or rather so stupid,
that they suffer themselves to be caught with the hand[255]. I caught
five or six of them, which did not make the least resistance. In
the course of three days 1000 at least of these birds were caught
and carried on board our frigate. As they were more than the crew
could immediately consume, they began to spoil, and occasioned such
a stench that we were apprehensive it might produce some infectious
disease. But our commander called the whole crew upon deck, and gave
public orders that all these fowls, without the least favour of
exception, should be thrown overboard.
As this island contains no springs, nor the least trace of
vegetation, it is, as already said, entirely uninhabited; but in
order that mariners may know the proper landing-place, a cross has
been erected on a high rock, which serves them as a land-mark. I
found here several pieces of petrified wood, which clearly exhibited
the form they had when converted into stone by the volcanic eruption
that laid waste the island. They are a great curiosity to the
naturalist.
The fish caught in the adjacent seas are remarkably fat, and for that
reason unwholesome. The air here is so mild, so pure, and so clear,
that people may pass the night under the bare heavens without the
least danger. Tortoises are found of so monstrous a size as to be
capable of bearing four men on their backs. They begin however to be
rather scarce, on account of their being too much sought after by
navigators, who rob the ocean of its inhabitants.
Having had occasion to mention the effects produced by volcanoes,
I shall here insert, in compliance with the wish of a respectable
friend, some observations on those of India and Africa. Though
water has the superiority in _Malayala_, and the whole land is in
a manner inundated, traces may be found amidst it of earthquakes;
and also, though seldom, of the effects produced by electric fire.
In the month of December 1784 a general agitation of the earth was
perceived there in the night-time, which continued about two seconds.
Such a phenomenon is called in the Malabar language _Bhumikulacam_,
and in the Samscred _Bhucialana_. The mountains of _Barcale_ and
_Kidàculam_, which contain a great deal of iron and other highly
inflammable substances, are, in all probability, the principal
reservoirs which give rise to such concussions in the earth. I never
had an opportunity myself, during my residence in India, of observing
a volcano; but we are told by Father Tiefenthaler, Anquetil du
Perron, and Thevenot, that, in the province of _Nagaracotta_, the
capital of which, having the same name, lies, according to Rennel,
in the latitude of 32° 20′, and the longitude of 73°, (properly
72° 47′,) there is a hole below some rocks which throws out flames
from time to time with a loud noise, and for that reason is called
_Givàlamukha_ or _Shvàlamucha_, that is, the fiery mouth or fiery
nostrils. The Indian worshippers of fire make frequent pilgrimages to
this place.
Another volcano is situated on the river _Sarayuva_, in the latitude
of 3° 25′, and the longitude of 77° 27′, in the territories of
king _Doulou Bassanaar_. This volcano throws up, at the same time,
fire, air and water, and occasions frequent earthquakes, which are
felt all over the province[256]. The circumstance of fire, air and
water thrown up at once, induces me to adopt the opinion of those
who believe that all volcanoes are connected with the sea, or at
least some river, and that they never disengage electric matter,
in a violent manner, except when it is concentrated and pressed
together by water. My grounds for this opinion are as follows:
all the volcanoes I ever had an opportunity of seeing, lie either
close to the sea, or to some large river. Thus the before-mentioned
volcano, in the territories of _Doulou Bassandar_, is situated,
according to the account of Father Tiefenthaler, not far from the
river _Sarayuvà_, called by others the _Sardjou_. The volcano in the
Isle of France, which has thrown up flames for several centuries, has
left on the island a grey, porous, ferruginous kind of lava, traces
of which may be discovered in every part of it[257]. On various
mountains of the island, which lie at a distance from the sea, there
are found a great many calcareous substances, and different kinds of
petrified muscles and shell-fish, which have nearly their natural
form, so that they can be clearly distinguished from each other. To
imagine that after the general flood a second inundation took place,
and rose to such an amazing height as to deposit these calcareous
substances and these shells on the tops of the mountains, is contrary
to all probability. Their present situation can, therefore, be no
otherwise accounted for than by supposing that they were either
deposited at the time when these mountains were covered by the flood,
or that they were carried thither by the united efforts of water
and volcanic fire. In the granite, zeolites, chrysolites, and flint
containing iron, copper, sulphur, and other things of the like kind,
which are thrown up by Vesuvius, there are found also alum, alkali,
marine salt, sal-ammoniac, and the so-called neutral salts. In the
Dialogues on Vesuvius, printed at Naples in 1794, it is remarked,
therefore, on very good grounds, that Vesuvius, and all volcanoes in
general, give the lie to the chemists, and make them ashamed of their
art. Condamine conjectured that the chemical laboratory of Vesuvius
may extend to a considerable distance below the sea. Vesuvius, even
in the year 1731, threw up such abundance of water that it inundated
the fields, swept away the strongest trees, and buried more than
five hundred people in its waves. Ought not these phenomena to serve
as a proof that the water, at the time of an earthquake, rises
very unexpectedly to a great height, and falls again with the same
velocity? Does not this indicate the action of electric fire; and
may not the latter, combined with water in the bowels of the earth,
enter into a contest with it, and occasion the before-mentioned
movement? The volcano in the Isle of Bourbon lies also near the sea,
and the latter no doubt contributes to its throwing up abundance of
lava, which is perfectly similar to that thrown up by Vesuvius. The
volcanoes on the southern side of Africa, beyond the Cape of Good
Hope, are also at no great distance from the sea; and I saw them
throw up, in the night-time, dark red flames, and a thick smoke which
covered the whole summits of the mountains.
The volcano in the Island of Ascension, which has been totally
extinct for several centuries, has, as already observed, covered
the whole rock with a grey, porous, and ferruginous stone, which
Spilberg, in his _India Orientalis_, calls _Lapides carbones fabrorum
exustos referentes_; stones which have the appearance of smiths’
coals. It is hardly to be supposed that this island could have been
laid so entirely waste by volcanic fire, had not the sea water, with
which it is surrounded on all sides, contributed to produce that
effect. The fish found in the neighbouring seas are exceedingly
unwholesome, and emit a volcanic smell. A single drop of water is
not to be found in the whole island; and the reason of this, in
all probability, is, that the two elements, fire and water, have
here formerly entered into a dreadful contest, in which the former
obtained the superiority.
I shall leave naturalists to examine these conjectures, and to prove
the truth of them; but I can with justice assert, that the hypothesis
respecting the effect of electric fire on water is very well known to
the Brahmans, and other Indian philosophers; and by its means they
are able to account for many phenomena, the nature of which would
otherwise be inexplicable. According to their doctrine, the _Oruma_,
that is, union or peaceful combination of the elements, particularly
of water and fire, preserves the equilibrium and tranquillity of all
created things. The _Arima_, on the other hand, that is, discord and
enmity of the elements, particularly of water and fire, occasions
contention, convulsions, and explosions, by which the earth, the
atmosphere, and the sea, are thrown into the most violent agitation.
As long as the _Oruma_ takes place between the elements, they
remain peaceful and quiet; but when fire obtains the superiority,
the _Arima_ instantly begins, and occasions earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, thunder and lightning; in a word, every thing that the
Brahmans comprehend under the words _Givàlana_ and _Shvàlana_, which
signify inflammation, combustion, and the other effects of fire.
Senebier is of opinion, that the proper focus of volcanoes is at
the bottom of the sea, and that such mountains, as well as volcanic
islands, have been thrown up by submarine fire.
* * * * *
After this digression I shall resume the journal of my voyage.
* * * * *
On the 14th of September we passed the Azores. The periodical wind,
which at this time blew constantly from the African coast, was of
great service to us, as it served to waft us past the Line and the
Tropic before the stormy weather came on. Not far from the Line we
saw a great many water-spouts. In the neighbourhood of the Tropic we
were surrounded by multitudes of flying-fish; and when we reached
the Azores, we twice or thrice observed the northern lights[258]. We
spent whole evenings in admiring this noble phenomenon, as well as in
contemplating the sublime field of the heavens, which almost every
evening, the farther we advanced towards the north, presented to our
sight new stars. All this rendered our passage very agreeable; but
unfortunately, for a month past, we had been short of provisions. We
were in want of bread, beef, wine, flour, and pease. Four weeks we
had been reduced to the necessity of contenting ourselves with putrid
biscuit, and a small portion of rancid bacon, which had been smoked
four years before, and which now had a greenish and blue appearance.
This was all we could obtain for breakfast. Our dinner and supper
consisted of a plateful of beans, with a piece of biscuit, and a
little brandy, which we drank mixed with our stinking water. Under
these circumstances it needs excite no surprise that many of the
sailors were ill of the scurvy, and I myself was not entirely free
from that loathsome disease.
On the 29th of September 1789 we at length entered the harbour of
Brest, where we expected to find all our troubles at an end; but
unfortunately we learnt that the whole kingdom was in the utmost
confusion. As it was impossible for me to return to India, I was
obliged to submit to my fate, and to accommodate myself to the times,
while force had usurped the place of justice. It may readily be
comprehended, that, in the course of my journey home through France,
where the delirium of liberty had risen to the highest pitch, I had
too many opportunities of making comparisons between other nations
and my dear countrymen the Europeans, which were not much to the
honour of the latter.
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
A.
_Adirampushe_, a place on the coast of Malabar where the ginger
grows. 163.
_Agra_, one of the places of residence formerly of the Great Mogul,
or emperor of India. 38.
_Alangatta_, a river and city with a very large church. By the
Portuguese it is called very improperly _Mangalte_. The river
discharges itself into the sea near _Aycotta_, or _Tschuvocad_.
104, 137.
_Allahabad_, a considerable city at the confluence of the _Yamuna_
and the _Ganges_. (See _Palibothra_.) It is in the possession
of the English. 37, 39.
_Alapushe_, a place on the coast of Malabar, where a canal has been
dug for the convenience of conveying goods on board ships lying
on the sea-coast. Excellent pepper, in particular, may be
procured here. 81, 120, 136.
_Allakandara_, a river in the northern part of India, on which
lies Sirinagur, formerly called _Nischadapuri_, _Nisa_,
or _Dionysiopolis_. It is named also _Allaknanda_, or
_Allaknandara_. 37.
_Ambàdi._ See _Modhura_. 37.
_Ambalacòtta_, a village on the coast of Malabar, where the Jesuits
formerly had a convent and seminary. At present it is in a
state of decline. 138.
_Ambelapusha_, a celebrated temple dedicated to _Shiva_. 119.
_Andipatti_, a city in the interior part of the province of _Madura_,
which formerly sent, and still sends, various articles of
merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Angamàli_, an old city on the coast of Malabar, in which there are
three Christian congregations, and where the bishop of the
Christians of St. Thomas formerly resided. It was burnt and
plundered by Tippoo Saib. 116, 138.
_Angenga_, a city on the coast of Malabar, in the kingdom of
Travancor, in possession of the English. It is called also
_Angiutenga_. The river _Modelaposcha_ discharges itself there
into the sea. 103.
_Angicaimal_, a place in the neighbourhood of Cochin, on the coast of
Malabar, which the river _Feira d’Alva_ flows past. 104.
_Angiutenga._ See _Angenga_. 114.
_Aragoshe_, a place with a Christian church at the bottom of the
Gauts, in the forests, near which are found wild elephants,
buffaloes, tygers, deer, apes, and parrots. 125.
_Arampalli_, said to be the _Argyropolis_ of the ancients, from which
the Bay of _Manar_ is called _Sinus Argaricus_. It lies at the
distance of three leagues from Cape _Comari_, and as far up the
country from _Covalam_. 56, 110.
_Arcate_, or _Arcati_, but properly _Arrucati_, a fortified city in
the kingdom of _Carnàta_, or _Carnate_, the nabob of which is
frequently called the nabob of _Arcate_, or _Arcot_. It lies on
the river _Palur_. 28, 64.
_Ariancopan_, a place to the south of _Pondicheri_, where the bishop
of the Catholic Christians in that district resides, and where
there is also a seminary. 25, 65.
_Arrucate_, _Arrucati_. See _Arcate_. 28, 60, 64, 89.
_Arshtamiciare_, a place belonging to the king of _Cochin_. 135.
_Artunkel_, a place on the sea-coast to the south of Cochin. 121.
_Atur_ (_Attur_), a fortified place in the territories of the nabob
of _Carnate_, lying on the river _Gudalam_. This river falls
into the _Valaru_, which discharges itself into the sea at
_Porto-Nuovo_. 28, 63.
_Attinga_, a city called also _Attancal_, which is the residence of
the queen, that is to say, of the eldest sister of the king of
Travancor, as the king’s consort can never become queen. 114.
_Aur_, a place in the kingdom of _Madura_, where the Jesuits had
formerly a congregation. 64.
_Aurungabad_, a city in the south-west part of the _Soubah_ of the
_Deccan_. Near it lies _Ellur_, or _Dauletabad_, where there is
a temple, which has been described by Thevenot. 38.
_Ayambel_, a place in the kingdom of Madura, where the Jesuits had
formerly a congregation. 64.
_Aybica_, a village where the river, on which merchandise is
transported from the _Gauts_ to _Culam_ or _Collam_, discharges
itself into the sea. 117.
_Aycotta_, called also _Tschuvocat_, a place in Malabar near which
the river _Alangatta_ falls into the sea. 104, 137.
_Ayodhya_, a very old Indian city on the river _Deva_, or _Gagra_,
the residence of the first conquerors of India. _Faizabad_
is situated on the spot where _Ayodhya_, or _Audh_, stood
formerly. 37.
B.
_Badagare._ There are two places of this name: the first lies in
_Madura_, and sends merchandise to the coast of Malabar. It has
a Christian church, and is situated close to the large forests
at the foot of the _Gauts_, where wild elephants are found in
great abundance. The second is called also _Vaypin_, and lies
on the sea-coast to the north of _Cochin_. 56, 125, 137.
_Badeati_, lies eastward from _Diamper_ and _Cochin_, and was
formerly the residence of the court of _Travancor_. It is
called also in the English maps, by Rennel and by La Rochette,
_Barrate_. 123.
_Balancada_, a fortress in the kingdom of _Carnate_, which, like a
great many others, is of a square form. 63.
_Baliapatnam_, one of the rivers in the district of _Calicut_, on the
Malabar coast, which take their rise in the _Gauts_, and form
an innumerable multitude of islands. A city also near Mount
_Illy_, on the above river, has the same name. 104.
_Barcale_, a village, mountain, and celebrated spring, together with
a temple, to the south of _Culam_ or _Collam_. 115.
_Benares_, called also _Venares_ and _Kasi_, the _Cassidia_ of the
ancients, has a celebrated temple, a Brahmanic academy or
school, and an observatory. 37.
_Bengalùr_, formerly the residence of the Sultan Hayder Ali Khan. It
is strongly fortified, and its name signifies the white land.
32.
_Bisnagari_, a city which had formerly a prince of its own, but
became subject to the Great Mogul, and belonged to the district
of _Sanor_. It was afterwards conquered by Hayder Ali. It was
called also _Narasinha_. 63.
_Bombay_, an English colony in an island to the north of Goa. It has
an excellent harbour, and is the seat of a presidency. 107, 114.
_Budhapadi_, a city in the territories of Tippoo Sultan in _Maissur_.
On the maps it is called _Budhapari_. Its name signifies the
town of _Budha_. 32.
C.
_Cabul._ See _Kabul_. 35.
_Cadaturuti_, a place on the coast of Malabar which produces
abundance of ginger. 123, 163.
_Cagnarapalli_, a town celebrated for its trade with the province
of _Madura_. In the neighbouring districts of the _Gauts_,
mountain-snakes thirty or forty feet in length are found. 55,
118, 248.
_Calapada_, a place between _Pondichery_ and _Sadras_. 71.
_Calianatur_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. Its name
signifies the town of joy. 28, 63.
_Calianapuri_, a maritime city on the coast of Malabar near Mount
_Illy_. Foreign ships obtained here cargoes of the productions
of the country. 56.
_Calicurici_, a fortified city in _Carnate_. 63.
_Calicut_, a maritime city on the coast of Malabar, destroyed by
Tippoo Sultan. 8, 103, 140.
_Calcutta_, the capital of the province of Bengal, where the English
have established the seat of their chief presidency. 39.
_Calini_ (_Caliny_), a river, at the influx of which into the Ganges
lies the city of _Canoaschi_, in lat. 27°. 38.
_Callare_, a city which the river _Collam_ flows past. 117.
_Callupare_, a place on the coast of Malabar inhabited by Jacobite
Christians. 118.
_Catturiàda_, a place on the coast of Malabar, where, on account of
its wet situation, a great deal of rice is cultivated. It is
therefore called the storehouse of Malabar. 118, 186.
_Camanaichenpalti_, one of the places in the kingdom of _Madura_
where the Jesuits formerly established considerable
congregations. 65.
_Cambam_, a city in the interior part of _Madura_, which, like
many other cities, sent merchandise formerly to the coast of
Malabar. 56.
_Canarà_, a principality on the coast of Malabar, which, towards the
south, borders on Mount _Illy_, 103.
_Canantora_, a town in the kingdom of _Travancor_. 113.
_Cannanùr_, a maritime city in Malabar, which exports merchandise
sent thither from the interior parts. It has a fortress
belonging to queen _Collatiri_, called by the Europeans
_Collastri_. 56, 144.
_Canatur_, a place in the _Jaghire_ of the British on the coast of
Coromandel, or what the English possess in the neighbourhood of
Madras. 73.
_Candenàda_, a place which belongs to the king of _Cochin_, a petty
prince on the coast of Malabar. It is called also _Candanale_.
135.
_Cangimaram_ (_Congimaram_), a place called in the English maps
_Congimer_, lying on the sea-coast between Pondichery and
Sadias. 71.
_Cangipuri_, or _Congipuram_, a place in _Carnate_; called also
_Cangivaron_, which signifies the city of gold. 28.
_Caniarata_, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from _Angenga_.
114.
_Canigia_, the seat of the governor of _Coahin_. 192.
_Canudi._ See _Calini_. 38.
_Cariapatnam_, one of the many rivers by which the coast of Malabar
is intersected. 103.
_Caricattur_, a city in the interior part of _Madura_, which formerly
sent merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Carimbanàda_, a place in the kingdom of _Travancor_, which is
inhabited by Pagans and Christians, and carries on a great
trade in pepper and cardamoms. 117.
_Carnada_ (_Carnate_), a kingdom or province on the coast of Malabar,
which is under the government of a nabob. 8, 59.
_Carpuncolam_, a place between _Pondichery_ and _Sadras_. 71.
_Caschemir._ See _Kaschemir_. 35.
_Cattur_, a fishing village on the coast of Malabar, near Cochin.
119, 121.
_Caveri_, one of the most considerable rivers on the coast of
_Coromandel_, which, by a number of mouths, discharges itself
into the sea, in the kingdom of Tanjaur. 48, 54, 231.
_Caveripac_, a fortified town in _Carnate_, 63.
_Cayamcollam_ (_Cayancollam_), a city on the coast of Malabar. 8.
_Celicotam_, a place in the kingdom of _Tanjaur_, called by the
Europeans _Celicolon_. 30.
_Cencotta_, a city in _Madura_, which formerly sent merchandise to
the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Cennòtta_, a place on the river _Alangatta_, which belongs to the
king of _Cochin_. 104, 135.
_Cerenga_, a place on the coast of Malabar, which the river
_Modelaposcha_ flows past. 103.
_Certele_, a town on the coast of Malabar, with a celebrated temple
of _Bhagavadi_, the spouse of _Shiva_. 121.
_Ceruvatti_, a city in _Madura_, which formerly sent merchandise to
the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Cettiyatti_, a place on the coast of Malabar with a Christian
church. 129.
_Cettupeli_, a fortified place in _Carnate_, 63.
_Cettur_, a fortified place in the interior part of _Madura_. 56.
_Cettuva_, one of the numerous rivers which flow from the _Gauts_
through Malabar into the sea. 104, 138.
_Ceylon_, one of the largest islands in the Indian ocean, the coasts
of which were formerly in the possession of the Dutch; at
present they are in the hands of the British. 57.
_Chidàcolam_, a place on the coast of Malabar, which the river _Paru_
flows past. 103.
_Chonenbar_ (_Chonanbar_), the name of a river called properly
_Chiovanàru_, on the coast of Coromandel, which flows to the
south of Pondichery. 26.
_Ciacrapuri_ (_Ciacrapuram_), a city in _Carnate_, the name of which
has been corrupted into _Cacrapur_. 28.
_Cialembron_, _Cilamburam_, _Cillumlaram_, _Cilumbrum_, a celebrated
pagoda between _Porto-nuovo_ and _Devycotta_. 61.
_Ciandrapati_, a place in the kingdom of _Maïssur_. 33.
_Ciangaceri_, the residence of a petty prince, who, in 1746, was
defeated and taken prisoner by _Vira Martanda_ the king of
_Travancor_, and several other petty sovereigns. 115.
_Cianganacèri_, a village surrounded by rice fields on the coast of
Malabar. 120.
_Ciangracoil_, a temple in the kingdom of _Madura_. 31.
_Ciangucotta_, a city in the province of _Marava_, on the coast of
Coromandel. 45.
_Ciavacàda_, a maritime place on the coast of Malabar. 138.
_Cinnabellapuram_, a city in the kingdom of _Maïssur_. 33.
_Cinnapatnam_, a small city on the coast of Coromandel, which the
English, in the year 1645, obtained from king _Narsinha_, or
_Bisnagari_, and on the spot where it stood built Fort St.
George at Madras. 77.
_Ciòlaburam_, a city in the province of _Marava_. 45.
_Ciòlamandala_ (_Coromandel_), signifies the land of millet; because
that grain (_Holcus sorghum_, and _Durra_), are cultivated
there in abundance. 3.
_Ciovanàru._ See _Chonenbar_. 26.
_Ciovare_, a place on the coast of Malabar, which the _Feira D’Alva_
runs past. 104, 134, 135.
_Cirangam_ (_Cheringam_), in the kingdom of _Tanjaur_, not far from
_Tricinnapali_. 29, 61.
_Cirangapatnam_ (_Seringapatam_), the capital of the kingdom of
_Maïssur_, where Tippoo Saib resided. 32, 114.
_Cirumuttu_, a very fruitful district, which belonged to the old
kingdom of _Cottaracare_, and is situated near Cape _Comari_,
not far from _Collam_. 117.
_Ciuncam_, a place between _Maïssur_ and _Cochin_, which carries on
trade with both. 125.
_Ciundrapandi_, a city in the interior part of the kingdom of
_Madura_, which formerly sent merchandise to the coast of
Malabar. 56.
_Cocci_, a city on the coast of Malabar, which exports merchandise
obtained from the inland parts. Not far from this city there is
a river of the same name. 56.
_Cochin_, a place with a citadel on the coast of Malabar, lying
nearly under 10 degrees of north latitude. It belonged to the
Dutch; but is now in the possession of the British. 103, 104,
121, 126, 130.
_Cochinchina_, a kingdom on the eastern side of India, beyond the
Ganges, towards China. 21.
_Codamalur_, a place on the coast of Malabar, where ginger grows.
_Codamangalam_, one of the Malabar cities which still carry on trade,
as formerly, with Madura. 56, 220.
_Codolur_ lies in the large forests of the Gauts. 220.
_Codungalur_ (_Cudungalur_, _Cranganor_), a fortress on the river
_Allangatte_, which was demolished, in 1790, by Lally, Tippoo
Saib’s general. 56, 104, 120, 136.
_Cognur_, a place not far from _Cochin_, which is washed by the river
_Feira D’Ava_. 104.
_Colarru_ (_Colaru_), that is the river of swine; it is commonly
written _Coleroon_. It flows through the kingdom of _Tanjaur_.
See _Caveri_. 48, 231.
_Collam_ (_Collamedu_), a place where the merchandise of the coast of
Malabar is shipped. 56, 147.
_Còlanàda_, the capital of the kingdom of _Cannanur_, in 11° 50′ N.
Lat. 144.
_Coleci_, a place not far from Cape _Comari_, or _Comorin_, with a
small but safe harbour, which by Strabo is called _Colias_. 56,
103, 112.
_Colicòtta_, a place not far from Cape _Comari_, which sends on board
foreign ships the merchandise of the country. 56.
_Comari_ (_Canyamuri_), the extreme point of India, on this side the
Ganges, where the ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_ ends.
3, 103, 110, 111.
_Concao_, a kingdom in the neighbourhood of Bombay, on the eastern
bank of the Ganges, called properly _Concan_. 8.
_Congimaram._ See _Cangimaram_.
_Conoam_, a place in the neighbourhood of the kingdom of _Travancor_.
139.
_Corolongatta_, a town in _Travancor_, where a bishop of the
Jacobites has his residence. 121, 123.
_Còttàracare_, formerly a principality conquered by the king of
_Tranquelar_. 115, 117.
_Cottàram_ (_Cottàte_), a place in _Travancor_, which in the time of
the Greeks and the Romans was called _Cottana_, or _Cottiara_.
8, 112.
_Covalam_, called also _Coulam_, was the _Colis_ or _Colias_ of the
ancients. 56, 57, 74, 94, 110.
_Coytòtta_, a place lying east from _Cochin_, which carries on a
considerable trade. 117.
_Cudnegalur_ (_Crangalor_, _Cranganor_), a place on the sea-coast, to
the north of _Cochin_. 46.
_Cudur_, one of the places in Madura which formerly sent merchandise
to Malabar. 56.
_Curiapalli_, the magazine and arsenal of the king of _Travancor_.
137.
_Curumpana_, a place on the sea-coast, nearly in the latitude of 8°
North. 112.
D.
_Dakshima_, or _Dekam_, a kingdom situated in the southern part of
Indostan. 42.
_Dely_ (_Delhi_), formerly the residence of the emperor of India. 38,
42, 43.
_Dèva_ (_Devi_), a river formerly called also _Gagra_. It is known
likewise by the names _Vipascha_ and _Vipal_. 37, 39, 232.
_Dharàburam_ (_Dharapuram_), a city in the kingdom of _Maïssur_, at
the bottom of the _Gauts_, and in the district of _Coimbetur_.
32.
_Dhermapuri_, a city in _Maïssur_, called also _Dhermapura_. 32, 60.
_Divicotta_ (_Divyacotta_), a castle at the mouth of the _Coleroon_
or _Colaru_. 29, 48.
_Douletabad._ See _Aurungabad_. 38.
E.
_Edapalli_, a place in the kingdom of _Travancor_, called also
_Rambali_ and _Rapolim_. There is a temple and palace here of
the king of the Brahmans. 124, 137.
_Elagnïl_, a place in the Gauts, with a Christian church. 125.
_Elephantis_ (_Elephanta_), an island near Bombay, which contains one
of the oldest Indian temples. 22.
_Eloura (Ellur)._ See _Aurungabad_. 38.
_Elluvancotta_, a city in the province of _Marava_. 45.
_Ettumanur_, a celebrated temple of _Vishnu_, on the coast of
Malabar. 121.
F.
_Faizabad._ See _Ayedhya_. 37.
_Feira D’Alva_, a stream on the coast of Malabar, which falls into
the sea near _Cochin_. 104.
G.
_Ganga_ (the _Ganges_). 39.
_Gauts_, a ridge of mountains which divides the peninsula of India
from north to south. 3, 12.
_George_ (St.). See _Cinnapasnam_. 77.
_Gingi_, a fortified city in the territories of the nabob of
_Carnate_, lying on a river of the same name north-west from
Pondichery. 10, 64.
_Golconda_, formerly a kingdom in India, conquered by _Shah Geban_.
42, 60.
_Gocula._ See _Modhura_. 38.
_Goculator_, a place in the kingdom of _Maïssur_. 32.
_Govalam_, called also _Covalam_, the _Colis_ or _Colias_ of the
ancients. 28, 32.
_Gudelùr_, or _Kudalor_, a place on the coast of _Coromandel_,
between _Porto-nuovo_ and _Pondichery_. 60.
H.
_Harani_, a fortified city in _Carnate_. 63.
_Hastinapuri_, in the Samscred _Hastinagari_, called at present
_Aschnagur_, one of the oldest cities of India, lying under the
latitude of 32°. 35.
_Hima_ (_Himala_), the name of a mountain where the river
_Sarayouva_, which is probably the _Imaus_ of the ancients, has
its source. 232, 233.
I.
_Jamunà_, a river called also the _Jumma_. It has several other
names; and, in all probability, is the _Jomanes_ of the
ancients. 231.
_Illi_, a mountain which separates the kingdom of _Canara_ from
Malabar. 103, 145.
_Illoura._ See _Elloura_. 38.
_Ilpiur_, a place in the kingdom of _Madura_, where the Jesuits
established formerly a Christian congregation. 64.
_Iratuge_ (_Iratùshe_), a city in Malabar, at the bottom of the
_Gauts_, which carries on trade with _Madura_. 55, 121.
K.
_Kabul_, the capital of a province on the eastern boundaries of
Persia, near the river _Behat_ or _Sirbin_. 35.
_Karincalla_, called also _Carical_, a place which the French
obtained from the king of Tanjaur in 1638, but which at present
is in the hands of the English. 49.
_Kaschemir_ (_Cachemir_), a province surrounded by mountains, which
was formerly subdued by the Mogul conquerors, and taken from
its own princes. The capital is called also _Kaschemir_. At
present it is named _Sirinegur_ or _Sirinagar_. 35.
_Kasi._ See _Benares_. 37.
_Kavaricotta_, a city in _Marava_. 45.
_Kidacolam_, a place on the coast of Malabar. 222.
_Koledimalà_, a mountain in the neighbourhood of the _Gauts_. 141.
_Kottàracare_, the name of a very ancient small kingdom on the coast
of Malabar. 117.
_Krishnapuram_, a town on the coast of Malabar, which carries on a
great trade. 117.
_Krishnavaram_, a town in _Carnate_, which on the maps is called
_Quichenavaron_. 28.
L.
_Lahor_, a province in the north-west extremity of India, with a
capital of the same name. 43.
M.
_Mabalicarè_ (_Mavelicarè_), a populous city in the kingdom of
_Travancor_. 118.
_Màdèvipatnam_, a considerable city in the kingdom of _Travancor_. 47.
_Madraspatnam_, the present seat of the British government on the
eastern coast of India. 5, 12, 27, 60, 76.
_Madura_, an ancient kingdom, with a capital of the same name, called
formerly _Methora_. 25, 31, 44, 46, 65, 103.
_Magnapre_, a place in the _Gauts_, where the author saw wild
elephants tamed. 213.
_Mahe_ (_Mahi_), the name of a river, and of a fortress not far from
_Calicut_, in Malabar, which formerly belonged to the French,
but is now in the hands of the English. 104, 143.
_Mailacomba_, a place in the forests at the bottom of the _Gauts_.
125.
_Mailapuram_ (_Maïlapuri_), called also _Mailiapur_, or St. Thomas,
near Madras. 27, 60, 65, 75.
_Mainàda_, a town on the coast of Malabar which the river _Paru_
flows past. 103.
_Maïssur_, the name of a kingdom, with its capital, lying between the
coast of _Malabar_, _Carnate_, and _Madura_. 8, 32, 64.
_Malabar_, called properly _Malayalam_, the land of mountains. 102.
_Malanàda_, _Malangàra_, other appellations for Malabar. 102.
_Maleatur_, a place in Malabar which the _Feira D’Alva_ flows past.
104.
_Maleyalam (Malayala)._ See _Malabar_. 3, 102.
_Mampulli_, a town on the coast of Malabar, not far from _Angenga_.
114.
_Mannacòri_, a place on the coast of Malabar. 121.
_Mannacodam_, the same. 121.
_Mannacudi_, a place on the coast of Malabar, where there are still
to be seen the ruins of a palace belonging to the king of
_Travancor_. 112.
_Mannapara_, a place on the coast of _Pescaria_, not far from
_Tutucurim_. 31.
_Manclùr_, a town in the kingdom of _Madura_. 31.
_Mangalur_, a city in _Carnate_. 28.
_Manimàla_, one of the places in _Madura_ which formerly sent
merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Mantòpo_ (_Mantòpu_), a town in _Madura_. 31.
_Marava_, a province on the coast of Coromandel. 44.
_Mattanceri_ (_Mattincèra_), not far from _Cochin_, belongs to a
small kingdom of the same name. 130, 134.
_Modelacodata_, a province in the forests of the Gauts, where wild
elephants are found. 212.
_Modelaposha_, a river in Malabar, which flows past _Angenga_. 103.
_Modhura_ (_Moturapuri_), on the river _Yaume_, the _Modura Deorum_
of Pliny, called also _Moturapuri_. On the map by La Rochette
and Mannert it is called _Mathra_, and on that of Rennel
_Matura_. It lies in the latitude of 27°, and is known by the
names likewise of _Gocùla_ and _Ambàdi_. 37, 54, 55.
_Mohatugè_ (_Mohatushe_), one of the places in the interior part of
Malabar which still continue to carry on trade with _Madura_
and _Maïssur_. 55, 126.
_Molicolam_, a Christian congregation in the interior part of the
_Gauts_. 201.
_Monguiri_ (_Monghir_), a place in the possession of the English, on
the Ganges, in the province of _Bahar_. 39.
_Mont-Grand_, a fortified garden belonging to the East-India
Company’s government at Madras, not far from St. Thomas. 49.
_Mullaventurutti_, one of the places which the Dutch suffered to
remain in the hands of the king of _Cochin_. 135.
_Multan_ (_Moltan_), one of the eastern provinces of the ancient
kingdom of _Hindostan_, on both sides of the _Sind_ or
_Hindus_, the capital of which is called _Multan_ also. 43.
_Muttam_, one of the places on the coast of Malabar which procured
the productions of the inland parts for foreign ships. 56.
_Muttiera_, a place in the kingdom of Cochin, where there is a church
belonging to the Christians of St. Thomas. 123.
N.
_Nàgapatnam_ (_Nagapatana_, _Nègapatnam_), called by the Greeks
_Nigamos_ and _Nigama Metropolis_, a city in the kingdom of
_Tanjaur_, at the mouth of an arm of the _Coleroon_; belonged
formerly to the Dutch, but is now in the possession of the
English. 29, 48, 49.
_Naidshadabur._ See _Allakandara_. 36.
_Narasinha._ See _Bisnagari_. 60, 63.
_Naur_, _Nàvur_, and _Nagur_, a place between _Negapatnam_ and
_Carical_, at the mouth of an arm of the _Coleroon_. 29, 53.
_Nerenam_, a considerable town in the kingdom of _Cochin_, where the
bishop of the Jacobites resides. 120.
_Nharakel_, a place in the kingdom of _Cochin_, with a Christian
congregation. 127.
_Nhàrica_, one of the places which the Dutch have left in the
hands of the king of _Cochin_. On the maps it is called also
_Gnàrica_. 135.
_Nishadabury._ See _Naishadabur_. 36.
O.
_Odeaguiri_, a fortified place and arsenal of the king of
_Travancor_. 113.
_Orixa_ (_Orissa_), a large province to the south-west of Bengal. 54.
_Ottocutta_, that is, the solitary city. It is situated in _Carnate_.
47.
P.
_Padmanàburam_, a castle not far from _Travancor_ or _Tiruvancoda_,
where the king resides and keeps his treasure. 8, 113.
_Palacaticieri_, a celebrated city and fortress on the river
_Paniani_ in the _Gauts_, called also _Policat_. 139, 175.
_Palancotta_, a fortified place in _Tanjaur_. 30, 63.
_Palarru_ (_Paler_), a river which flows through _Carnate_ from the
_Gauts_, and falls into the sea near _Sadras_. 60, 89, 97.
_Paliacata._ See _Valiacadà_. 60.
_Paliamcotta_, a strong fortified place in the kingdom of _Madura_,
near _Tinivelly_, and on the river _Tunmerbury_. 58.
_Palipuram_, a place with a Christian congregation, not far from
_Cochin_. 137.
_Pallibothra_, a place known to the Greeks and Romans; at present a
town called _Palipatur_, at the confluence of the _Ganges_ and
the _Jamuna_, near _Allahabad_. 37.
_Pallicaré_, a place which the Dutch left in the hands of the king of
_Cochin_. 135.
_Palur_, a fortified Town in _Carnate_, on the sea-coast. 63, 138.
_Pandi_, one of the names formerly given to the kingdom of _Madura_;
and for this reason it was called also _Pandimandala_, from
king _Pandi_, (in Pliny, _Pandion_.) 45.
_Paniani_, one of the small streams which fall down from the
mountains. 104, 138.
_Paravur_, a considerable town not far from _Cochin_, which was
destroyed by the troops of Tippoo Sultan. 137.
_Paru_, a river, and a place situated on it, not far from Cochin.
103, 115.
_Patna_ (_Patnam_), a celebrated city on the Ganges, in the province
of _Bahar_. 39.
_Pattucòtta_, a city in _Tanjaur_. 47.
_Pegu_, a kingdom on the coast of India, beyond the Ganges. 57.
_Penatur_, one of the fortified places in _Carnate_. 63.
_Periaculam_, one of the placed which formerly sent merchandise from
Madura to the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Perimanur_, a place like _Pallicaré_. 135.
_Perimatorà_, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from
_Angenga_. 114.
_Perumaculam_, one of the fortified places in _Carnate_. 63.
_Perumanel_, one of the places which formerly sent merchandise from
_Madura_ to the coast of Malabar. 56.
_Perumnàda_, a place to the east of _Collam_, which belonged to the
very ancient kingdom of _Cottaracara_. 117.
_Pescaria._ The coast of _Pescaria_ lies between Cape _Mannapàr_ and
Adam’s Bridge, where the pearl islands are. 103.
_Pondamala_ (_Pondamalay_), a high mountain with a fortress, called
by the Europeans _Mont Grand_, not far from _Mailiapur_. 27, 93.
_Ponnaru_ (_Pannar_), that is, the gold river. It takes its rise in
the Gauts, not far from _Dhermapuri_ in _Maïssur_, and falls
into the sea near _Cudalur_. 60.
_Porca_ (_Porrocada_), one of the places which send inland
merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56, 81, 115, 118.
_Porolta_, a small river on the coast of Malabar. 104.
_Porto-nuovo_, a place in _Carnate_, at which the river _Velarru_
discharges itself into the sea. 60.
_Pucòtta_, a place which the Dutch left in the hands of the king of
_Cochin_. 135.
_Puduceri_, called commonly _Pondicheri_, lies on the coast of
_Coromandel_, and was the capital of the French possessions in
India: at present it is in the hands of the English. 1, 7, 12,
18, 24, 25, 64.
_Puducurici_, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from
_Angenga_. 114.
_Pugnoda_, one of the places on the coast of Malabar which still
carry on trade with _Madura_. 55.
_Pugnatil_, a place where formerly, according to the account of
Ptolemy, beryls were found. 118.
_Pullingunne_, a considerable town on the coast of Malabar, where
there are a great many rice-fields. 120.
_Pulluvalley Bingiam_, a new harbour caused to be constructed by the
king of _Travancor_. 113.
_Puntora_, a place on the coast of Malabar,. 113, 120.
_Puradacudi_, one of the Christian congregations established by the
Jesuits in the kingdom of _Madura_. 64.
_Puttencara_ (_Puttencèra_). See _Pallicaré_. 117, 135, 138.
_Puttenpalli_, a place lying at a great distance in the forests
of the _Gauts_, where there are a great many Christian
congregations. 201.
_Puttentopo_, a place on the coast of Malabar not far from _Angenga_.
114.
Q.
_Quichenavaron._ See _Krishnavaram_. 28.
R.
_Rajacolla mangalam_, a city where there are still to be seen the
remains of a palace belonging to the king of _Travancor_. 112.
_Ràmanàthapuram_, on the coast of _Pescaria_. 31, 45.
_Ràmapurata_, a place in the Gauts. 125.
_Rèva_, a river which takes its rise in the mountain _Vindhia_. It is
called also _Ravi_. 232.
_Rotasgar_, a place on the river _Son_. 39.
S.
_Sadras_, a place with a castle in the British _Jaghire_, on
the coast of _Coromandel_, at the mouth of the _Palir_ or
_Palarru_. 60, 72, 73, 96.
_Sanhya_, the name of a mountain where the _Deva_ has its rise. 233.
_Sarasvadi_, the name of a river. 231.
_Sarayouvà_, the name of a river. See _Déva_. 39.
_Satara_, a province on the coast of Coromandel. 42.
_Saude_, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from _Cochin_. 121.
_Sharavadi_, the name of a river. 231.
_Shelon_, a fortified place in _Carnate_. 63.
_Shivagari_, a place in _Madura_. 56.
_Shrinagari._ See _Allakandara_. 36.
_Siam_, a kingdom in the peninsula beyond the Ganges. 21.
_Sina_, or China. 21.
_Sindacalla_, a place in _Madura_. 56.
_Sindhu_, the western great river of India, which is commonly, but
improperly, called the Indus. 231.
_Sirgani_, a place in _Tanjaur_. 65.
_Son_, a river in Hindostan, which discharges itself into the Ganges.
39.
_Sultanpatnam_, a place on the coast of Malabar which Tippoo Sultan
caused to be spared. It is called also _Vaypur_ or _Baypur_.
139.
_Suran_, a place in _Tanjaur_. 65.
_Sushindram_, a town with a celebrated temple of the god _Kámadèva_,
on the coast of Malabar. 112.
T.
_Tacaculam_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Taliceri_, a city on the coast of Malabar, a mile north from _Mahe_.
It belongs to the English, and is an arsenal for the coast of
Malabar. 143.
_Tanghi_, a place on the sea-coast not far from _Cochin_. 121.
_Tangut_, a kingdom in the interior part of Asia, lying north-west
from China, which was conquered in 1202 by Gengis Khan. 40.
_Tanjaur_, the name of a kingdom with its capital lying between the
two arms of the _Caveri_. 7, 12, 29, 48, 65.
_Tannur_, a place on the coast of Malabar, called also _Tanor_,
between _Paniani_ and _Calicut_. 138.
_Tatagari_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Tatta_ (_Taitanagur_), a city at that part of the _Sindhu_ where
it divides itself into several branches, called formerly
_Pattalone_ or _Pattala_. 35.
_Tèdanàda_, a place in the interior part of _Madura_. 56.
_Tengacetti_, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from _Sadras_.
72.
_Terpunatre_, the residence of the nominal king of _Cochin_. 134.
_Tevàram_, a place in _Madura_. 56.
_Tevelacare_, a place on the coast of Malabar which exports a great
deal of pepper and cardamoms. 117.
_Timeri_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Tindacalla_ (_Tinducalla_), in _Madura_, probably the _Tindis_ of
Arrian and Ptolemy. 31.
_Tindivanam_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Tirucolur_, the same. 63.
_Tirumala_, the same. 63.
_Tirumaladùvasam_, that is, the temple of the god of the holy
mountain. The Europeans call it _Tiremalevasen_. It lies in
_Tanjaur_. 29.
_Tirumanur_, called also _Tremmanur_, lies in _Tanjaur_. 29, 47.
_Tirunamalà_, corrupted into _Tirnemalet_, a place in _Carnate_. 28,
61.
_Tirunaveli_ (_Tirnaveli_), a place in the interior part of _Madura_.
31, 56, 58, 65.
_Tirupati_ (_Tirapati_), a fortified place in the kingdom of
_Carnate_. 28, 61, 63.
_Tirupalur_, a place on the coast of Coromandel, not far from
_Sadras_. 73.
_Tiruvalur_, a place with a beautiful pagoda in the kingdom of
_Tanjaur_. 47, 61.
_Tiruvananganur_, a fortress on the borders of _Tanjaur_, belonging
to _Marava_. 47.
_Tiruvamatur_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Tiruvancàda_ (_Tiruvancor_, _Travancor_), a place on the coast of
Malabar. 45, 58, 112.
_Tiruvandaburam_ (_Tiruvandaram_), the summer residence of the king
of _Travancor_. 113.
_Tiruvandapuram_, a place on the coast of Malabar. 8.
_Tiruvanelur_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Tiruvatur_, a fortified place in the same kingdom. 63.
_Tovàla_, a fortified place in Travancor, on the boundaries of
_Marava_. 59, 103, 111.
_Tremanour._ See _Tirumanur_. 29.
_Tricinnapalli_, a city on the _Caveri_. 47.
_Triciur_, a town and district on the Malabar coast, where the
_Brahmans_ have a celebrated seminary. 138.
_Tricolur_, that is, the town of the three ponds, in _Tanjaur_. 30,
60.
_Trividi_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Tshandranagar_ or _Schandranagor_, lying to the north of _Calcutta_
in _Bengal_; belonged formerly to the French, but at present is
in the hands of the English. 39.
_Tumbanur_, a place on the coast of Malabar, which exports a great
deal of pepper and cardamoms. 117.
_Tumbòli_, a fishing village on the coast of Malabar, inhabited by
Catholic Christians. 119, 121.
_Tunquin_, a kingdom in the peninsula beyond the Ganges. 21.
_Turangaburam_ (_Toràngapuri_, also _Tranquebar_), the water-city,
or horse-city; the factory of the Danes on the coast of
Coromandel, and the chief place of the Danish missions. 29, 48,
65.
_Tutucuri_ (_Tùtucudi_), a place on the coast of _Pescaria_. 31.
_Tuvàrencurici_, a place in the kingdom of _Madura_. 56.
_Tuyam_, a place washed by a river which flows into the sea on the
coast of Malabar near _Cybika_. 117.
U.
_Udiamper_ (_Diemper_), a place where the celebrated synod was held
in the year 1599 against the Indian Nestorians. 123.
_Uttamalùr_, corrupted into _Utmalar_, a place in _Carnate_. 28.
_Uttampàleam_, a place in _Madura_. 31, 56.
_Uttamatur_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
V.
_Vadakencolam_, a city in _Pescaria_. 31.
_Vaikam_ (_Vaikatta_), a place and district belonging to the Brahmans
near _Cochin_, with a seminary and a celebrated temple. 122.
_Vaitravadi_ (_Vetravadi_), one of the largest rivers in India. 231.
_Valavaley_, the name of a river and place on the coast of Malabar,
not far from Cape Comari. 103, 112.
_Valdur_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Valiacada_ (_Paliacate_), a place lying on the sea-coast to the
north of Madras. 60.
_Valiapatnam_, a place on the coast of Malabar. 144.
_Valiotora_, a town on the coast of _Travancor_. 113.
_Vallam_, a considerable city in _Tanjaur_, called also _Vellum_. 47.
_Vandavagi_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Varugápatti_, a place in _Tanjaur_. 65.
_Vayparra_, that is, the three great rocks, a town near these rocks
in _Pescaria_. 31.
_Vaypi_, a small island formed on the north side of _Cochin_ in 1341
by an eruption of the sea. 126, 127.
_Vaypur_ (_Baypur_). See _Sultanpatnam_. 104, 118, 138.
_Velarru_, a river in _Carnate_, which falls into the sea near
_Portonuovo_. 59.
_Veli._ See _Canantora_. 113.
_Velùr_, a city in _Carnate_. 28, 42, 60.
_Veluváracotta_, a place in the kingdom of _Madura_. 56.
_Venares._ See _Benares_. 37.
_Vencàttiguiri_ (_Vencàtighiri_), a place in _Carnate_, where the
Jesuits formerly had a residence. 28, 64.
_Vepur_, an insignificant place not far from _Sadras_. 72.
_Verapole_ (_Verapoli_), a town with a monastery on the coast of
Malabar. 15, 128, 137.
_Vettiacòtta_, an inland fortress in the kingdom of _Travancor_. 138.
_Veyarru_, a large river which flows through the kingdom of Madura
and _Marava_. 44, 54.
_Vicravandi_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Villamur_, a fortified place in the kingdom of _Carnate_. 63.
_Villanur_ (_Villenur_), in _Carnate_. 28.
_Vindhia_ (_Vindhya_), a mountain in which the river _Rèvà_ has its
source. 232, 234.
_Virapatnam_, a town not far from _Pondicheri_. 18.
_Visapur_ (_Visiapur_, _Betjapur_), formerly a kingdom which,
together with _Velur_ and _Golconda_, was conquered by
Aureng-Zeb in 1686. 42.
Y.
_Yamuna_, a river which takes its rise in _Sirinagur_, and falls into
the Ganges near _Allahabad_. It is called also the _Jumna_ and
_Dschumna_. 37.
_Yindacalla_, a place in _Madura_. 64.
THE END.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY J. DAVIS, CHANCERY-LANE.
1800.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The title of it is: _Viaggio alle Indie Orientali,
umiliato alla Santità di N. S. Papa Pio Sesto,
Pontefice Massimo, da Fra Paolino da S. Bartolomeo,
Carmelitano Scalzo. Roma presso Antonio Fulgoni.
L’anno 1796._
[2] _Sidharùbam, seu Grammatica Samscredamica._ Romæ,
1790.--He is the author also of the following works:
_Systema Brahmanicum_; and, _India Orientalis
Christiana, continens fundationes ecclesiarum,
seriem episcoporum, missiones, schismata,
persecutiones, viros illustres_. Romæ, 1794.
[3] Pondichery--Respecting the author’s orthography of
names I have said a few words in the preface, to
which the reader is referred. _F._
[4] The passage, from England or France, to India is
commonly reckoned to be six months; but it depends
upon circumstances whether the voyage will be longer
or shorter, and particularly on the season of the
year and the situation of the place to which the
ship is bound. As the monsoons, or _mussongs_,
change every half year in the Indian seas, vessels
bound to a certain place must often take a long
circuitous course in order to fall in with the wind
proper for conducting them to it. The change of the
monsoons is always attended with violent storms,
by which ships in the open sea often sustain great
damage. The passage to India must, of course, be
often prolonged. I, however, know instances of ships
going thither from Europe in five months. _F._
[5] In the original there is here an error, either of
the author or of the press; for throughout the
whole work this coast is always called afterwards
_Ciòlamandala_ (_Tscholamandala_). _F._
[6] The southern extremity of India is, in all the
European maps, called Cape _Comorin_; the author,
however, gives it the proper Indian name, _Comari_.
_F._
[7] The eastern part is, without doubt, called the _land
of millet_, because the Indians cultivate, in their
fields, various kinds of that grain, such as the
_Holcus Sorghum_, _Holcus Durra_, &c. _F._
[8] When Bougainville returned from his voyage round
the world, some conceited Parisian ladies asked him
how the Chinese women were dressed. On his replying
that he had never been in that country, they were
much astonished, and could not comprehend how it
was possible to sail round the globe without being
in China. Questions have been asked me and my son
George, at which we could not help laughing, at
least afterwards. _F._
[9] On the flat coast of Coromandel there are no
harbours; and, for that reason, neither people nor
goods can be conveyed on shore from ships, but in
these _shilingas_. This labour is very dangerous
even for such small vessels, as the flatness of the
coast for so great an extent renders the breakers
extremely violent. The English, in all their
wars, have lost many of their ships for want of a
harbour on the eastern coast; and therefore it is
of the utmost importance to them to have possession
of the excellent, safe, and spacious harbour of
_Trinconomale_, on the east side of the island of
_Ceylon_. _F._
[10] See _Sonnerat, Voyages aux Indes_, vol. i. p. 1.
p. 13. Sonnerat, who was an excellent draftsman,
and possessed some knowledge of natural history,
came very young to India, and was hotheaded because
he conceived himself to be a man of importance on
account of these talents.--Law de Lauriston was a
descendant or relation of Law who made himself known
by his speculations under the regency of the Duke of
Orleans. _F._
[11] We have here a striking instance of the truth of the
observation, that travelling in distant countries,
among people of different manners, customs, and
religious opinions, tends to inspire men with
more liberal sentiments, and to render them more
tolerant. _F._
[12] The fiction respecting Hayder Aly’s mean extraction,
&c. has been long ago refuted. See _Sprengel’s Hyder
Ali_, in the preface, p. 6. _F._
[13] The most modern and authentic history of India shews
that all the European East India Companies followed
the example of the Dutch, and of merchants became
warriors. _F._
[14] See on this subject Guyon’s _Histoire de
l’Indostan_, vol. iii. p. 220-224, and _Recherches
hist. et geograph._ par Anquetil du Perron, part i.
p. 174.--The author here delineates the state of
the French trade with strong and ugly colours; but,
it cannot be denied, with a considerable degree of
truth. _F._
[15] These animals are called improperly _white ants_.
The appellation _termites_, from the Latin
systematic name _termes_, is better. There are
various kinds of them, but only in warm countries,
which are all equally destructive, and occasion
great devaluation, not only in sugar plantations,
but also among furniture and clothes in habitations.
_F._
[16] About 2s. 6d. sterling.
[17] It is certain that the religion of Brahma has
not the least similarity to the true Christian
religion; it is also of such antiquity that it
could not have borrowed any thing from it. Both
are essentially different from each other: the
principal object of the Christian religion is the
moral formation and improvement of man, and it is
totally spiritual; the doctrine of Brahma renders
the first ideas of religion familiar to the senses
by images, and allows to its followers a number
of things which Christianity forbids. It cannot,
however, be denied, that many of the old doctrines
and practices generally adopted, particularly in
the East, were received into the Catholic religion;
such, for example, as the worshipping of images,
solemn processions, monachism, the pretended great
sanctity and the different degrees of the clergy,
external pomp and magnificence, &c. The idea of the
Pagan Indians, therefore, mentioned in the text, is
extremely natural. _F._
[18] It has been remarked by English travellers, who
resided in India, that these falsehoods have been
believed and taught by ignorant missionaries. But
are there not people, even at Rome, who consider
the Indians as Manicheans, and their religion as
corrupted Christianity? It may, however, be readily
comprehended, that such hypothesis-mongers never saw
India, or studied the religion of the Indians. See,
on this subject, the _Asiatic Researches_, printed
at Calcutta in 1788, vol. I. p. 127, and _Herbelot_,
_Bibl. Orient._, p. 203, where such ridiculous
assertions are sufficiently refuted. _A._
[19] They bear such marks in honour of _Brahma_, on the
forehead; in honour of _Vishnu_, on the breast;
and in honour of _Shiva_, on the arms. These are
the three rulers of the elements--earth, water,
and fire. In commemoration of the earth having
been created by these three deities, and by means
of these three elements, the Indians, in their
lustrations, besprinkle themselves with three
fingers. They take water also in the hollow of the
hand, raise it upwards, and, in honour of the eight
superior protecting spirits, sprinkle it towards
the eight quarters of the world: they then throw it
towards the heavens in honour of the Sun, whom they
consider as the supreme divinity. These ablutions,
with the marks on the forehead, are called
_Shudhamayaga_; that is, purification, purity. The
_Bhasma_, or colour with which the sacred marks are
made, is supposed to represent the earth, from which
the whole world, and consequently these colours,
were produced. In this respect, however, the systems
differ. _A._
[20] The latitude is not always accurately determined,
even by the moderns. Thus John Hamilton Moore, in
his _Practical Navigator_, places _Puduceri_, or
Pondichery, in 11° 56′ N. lat.; but M. De la Tour
places it in 12° N. lat. and 68° of E. lon. De
l’Isle and D’Anville also differ from each other in
their maps. This difference arises partly from the
expertness requisite in determining the latitude by
means of a quadrant, partly from the greater or less
acuteness of the observer’s eye, and partly from
the perfection or imperfection of the astronomical
instruments employed. _A._
[21] See, on this subject, the second volume of
_Nieubuhr’s Travels_, where the idols in the pagoda
on the island of Elephanta are described.
[22] Responsa privatis dat (Apis) e manu consulentium
cibum capiendo. Germanici Cæfaris manum aversatus
est, haud multo post extincti.
[23] Whether the worship of the Egyptian Apis came from
India, or the sacred ox of the Indians was carried
from Egypt, cannot, as far as I am able to judge, be
determined. The mode of worship in both countries
has without doubt a great deal of similarity,
though in many things different. The sacred ox of
the Indians, for example, remains only three years
in life; whereas that of the Egyptians, according
to Plutarch, remained twenty-five, after which
he was drowned, then embalmed and deposited in a
subterranean burying-place destined for that purpose
near the village of _Abusir_, the ancient _Busiris_,
not far from Memphis. The coffin of the Apis ox was
found there by Paul Lucas and Wortley Montague, the
latter of whom carried away a stone with sculpture
on it representing the embalming of Apis. This stone
may be seen in the British Museum, to the keepers of
which I first explained it. _F._
[24] The temple at _Cirangam_, in the island _Ciranga_,
which lies in the river _Colaru_, or _Colram_, and
in M. De la Tour’s map is placed in 10° 45′ N. lat.
and 76° 45′ E. lon. is a real master-piece of Indian
architecture. This temple is surrounded by seven
walls, each of a square form, which together inclose
the whole edifice. They are entirely constructed
of hewn stone; are twenty-five feet in height,
and each is 350 feet distant from the other in a
parallel direction. Each wall has four gates, and
over each gate is a _gobura_, or high tower, which
rests on the middle of the wall, and is at an equal
distance from both ends. These gates and towers,
which stand exactly opposite to each other, looking
towards the four cardinal points, are ornamented
with columns thirty-five feet in length, and five in
thickness. In the centre of this temple, that is the
sanctuary, stands the image of _Vishnu_, to whom it
is dedicated. On the gates, towers, and walls may be
seen various figures of men and animals, which all
have a symbolical meaning. This temple is at least
2000 years old, and serves to shew how far advanced
the ancient Indians were in the arts of architecture
and sculpture. The learned Chevalier d’Agincourt
at Rome has in his possession a drawing of this
magnificent edifice, which was presented to him by
M. Law de Lauriston, the governor of Pondichery. As
this temple has been already described by English
travellers, I shall say nothing further of it at
present, than to call the reader’s attention to the
mystic number seven, which is signified by the seven
inclosures. _A._
[25] The Egyptians, however, assert, that their king
Sesostris, who lived about the time of Moses, or
1500 years before the birth of Christ, penetrated as
far as India; but this is not probable. _F._
[26] _Cachemir_ is a beautiful province or lordship
conquered by the Moguls. The capital, at the time
Bernier was in India, between 1663 and 1668, was
known also by the name of _Cachemir_; but at present
it is called, as well as the whole province,
_Siri-Negor_. The old _Caspirus_ is not _Cachemir_,
but a city lying nearer to Persia; perhaps _Ghazna_
or _Ghazmin_. _F._
[27] _Cabul_, one of the most northern cities of India,
probably the old _Argyræum_. _F._
[28] _Hastinapuri_, or _Hastinagari_, at present
_Ashnagur_, was formerly the chief city of the
_Assakani_, an ancient people of India. It is not
improbable that the Assyrian and Persian kings may
have extended their dominions thither. _F._
[29] In the eighth part of his works, p. 210-218,
according to the Venetian edition.
[30] The Greeks were accustomed to compare with their
own all the divinities of the most distant foreign
nations; and a similarity in the name, or in
any thing else, made them immediately find in
them Grecian deities. Thus the _Deva-Nishi_ was
_Dionysius_; the _Neith_ of the Egyptians, _Minerva_
or _Athene_; their _Serapis_, _Jupiter_; their
_Horus_, _Apollo_, &c.--The river _Allakantara_ in
La Rochette’s map of 1788 is called _Allaknanda_,
and in Mannert’s map _Allaknandra_. _F._
[31] The village of _Pallipatur_ lies quite close to
_Allahabad_, the name of which is Persian, and which
is of a much later origin. _F._
[32] A description of this observatory may be found in
the _Philosophical Transactions_.
[33] Above three millions sterling.
[34] It can, however, be proved, that the English draw
much more from their Indian possessions than the
author says. For, in the first place, oppression is
not so general as the author pretends; and besides,
many abuses were rectified by the marquis of
Cornwallis. 2dly, In Bengal, from which the English
derive their greatest incomes, there has properly
been no war for a long time. 3dly, The East India
Company has issued orders and formed regulations
for reviving agriculture and manufactures. 4thly,
The monopoly is not very prejudicial, as it extends
only to a few articles. 5thly, The specie exported
to China and England has been in part made good by
the large sums which Tippoo Saib has been obliged
to pay to the East India Company. In a word, the
English, by their late conquests in India, _Ceylon_,
_Malacca_, _Amboina_, _Banda_, &c. have considerably
enlarged their revenue. _F._
[35] Sir William Jones, in one of his anniversary
discourses, says, “It seems agreed that the singular
people called Egyptians, and by corruption Gypsies,
passed the Mediterranean immediately from Egypt:
and their motely language, of which Mr. Grellman
exhibits a copious vocabulary, contains so many
Sanscrit words, that their Indian origin can hardly
be doubted. The authenticity of that vocabulary
seems established by a multitude of Gypsy words; as
_angár_, charcoal; _cásth_, wood; _pár_, a bank;
_bhû_, earth; and a hundred more, for which the
collector of them could find no parallel in the
vulgar dialect of Hindostan, though we know them
to be pure Sanscrit, scarcely changed in a single
letter. A very ingenious friend, to whom this
remarkable fact was imparted, suggested to me that
those very words might have been taken from old
Egyptian, and that the Gypsies were Troglodytes from
the rocks near Thebes, where a race of banditti
still resemble them in their habits and features;
but, as we have no other evidence of so strong an
affinity between the popular dialects of old Egypt
and India, it seems more probable that the Gypsies,
whom the Italians call _Zingaros_ and _Zinganos_,
were no other than _Zinganians_, as M. D’Anville
also writes the word, who might, in some piratical
expedition, have landed on the coast of Arabia or
Africa, whence they might have rambled to Egypt, and
at length might have migrated or been driven into
Europe.” _Asiatic Researches_, vol. iii. p. 8. _E.
Trans._
[36] See Montesquieu’s Works. London 1777, vol. i. p. 180.
[37] This nabob of _Arcate_ or _Arcot_, is merely a
nominal prince. His whole territories are beset with
English troops; and he is suffered to exist, as is
the case with many others, merely that it may appear
as if the country were actually ruled by native
Indian or at least Oriental princes. _F._
[38] The author here means, without doubt, Mr. Christian
Frederick Schwarz, missionary at Tanjaur, sent
thither by the English Society for promoting
Christian knowledge. This missionary, in the
51st part of the _New History of the Evangelic
Missionary Establishments in India_, p. 275-284,
has defended the newly-converted Christians there
against the illiberal accusations of Secretary
Montgomery Campbell, and clearly shewn that
the avaricious British commissaries, by their
oppression and extortion, are the cause of the
poverty of the country and of the wretched state
of agriculture.--The author calls Mr. Schwarz a
Dane. He has probably been led into this mistake
by his connection with the Danish missionaries at
Tranquebar; for, as far as I know, Mr. Schwarz is a
German. _F._
[39] _Tapissendis_ is a general name given to the cotton
stuffs procured from India. They are partly painted
and partly printed with wooden blocks. _Gingam_ is
properly the name given to those cotton stuffs which
come from Bengal and the coast of Coromandel. They
are distinguished by this particular circumstance,
that a thread made from the bark of a tree is
interwoven with the cotton. _A._
This information respecting the difference between the
_Tapissendis_ and _Gingams_ is new. It is, however,
a pity that the author did not give the name of
the tree which produces the bark employed in
manufacturing the latter. Had he made it known, he
would have deserved thanks from all naturalists and
technologists.--In Madagascar, the inhabitants of
the sea-coast manufacture, from the long leaves of
a tree called by them _Vattulala_, but which is no
farther known to botanists, a kind of very strong
stuffs, sometimes as fine as the best camblet, and
frequently employed by the women at the Cape of Good
Hope to make under-petticoats. _F._
[40] _Tirunaveli_, near the fortress _Palamotta_, is
called also, on the modern maps, _Tinivelly_. _F._
[41] It was a part of the political system of the
ancient Indian kings, that they never entered the
territories of their neighbours in a hostile manner
but upon the most urgent occasions. If they could
not possibly avoid it, they at least suffered
the people employed in agriculture to remain at
peace, and molested neither their temples nor their
priests. We are told so by Strabo, and by Adrian in
his History of Alexander’s Expedition to India. The
policy of the Mahometan conquerors and their allies
in India has, on the contrary, been, as far as they
were able, to reduce the mightiest sovereigns and
kingdoms to obedience, and to endeavour to govern
the latter themselves; to leave on the throne only
the weakest princes, and to render them tributary;
to foment quarrels between them, or bring about
a reconciliation according as it suited their
interest; never to undertake more than one war at a
time; to allow religious liberty in its full extent
only to their allies, and to suffer them alone to
retain their ancient usages and customs; to take
part always with one or other of two contending
parties, and in that manner to increase their power;
lastly, to furnish their allies with officers to
command their troops. _Ossa vides regum vacuis
exhausta medullis._ In this manner they suck the
very marrow from the bones of kings, says Juvenal in
his eighth satire. _A._
[42] The kingdom of _Carnate_ must certainly have enjoyed
a long state of peaceful prosperity under its native
kings. This we have reason to conclude from the
extensive pagodas, regularly built with art and a
sort of magnificence, which are found in it; and
also from the many old castles and fortified towns
on the borders of the kingdom, and in the passes
which conduct through the mountains called the
Gauts. The duration of the ancient buildings, for so
many centuries, may be explained by the nature of
the mortar used in India, which is a mixture of oil
and viscous substances, and by the dry warm climate.
The Mahometan princes first brought poverty into
this country, formerly so fortunate; and what they
began the Europeans completed, by carrying thither
as soldiers the refuse of all nations. _F._
[43] See the bull of Clement VIII. of the year 1600,
which begins thus: _In supremo militantis ecclesiæ
solio_. Also that of Clement X. issued on the 7th of
June 1674. _A._
[44] This estimation of the number of the Roman Catholic
Christians (48,000) is certainly too high, even
if we should forget how the missionaries of the
Romish church behave in regard to their so called
converts. They insinuate themselves as physicians
into the houses of the Indians; draw a wet cloth
over the head and forehead of a sick person, even
when at the point of death; mutter privately to
themselves the baptism service; and think they have
then made one Christian more, who is immediately
added to their list.--The protestant missionaries
have in the course of nineteen years baptised 19,340
persons. See _Neuere Geschichte der evangelischen
Missions-anstalten_, 51st part, Halle 1797, 4to. p.
187. _F._
[45] In warm countries sensuality is more active, and the
imagination more lively; and therefore the usages
of the Catholic church must have greater effect on
the Indians, who, when they become members of it,
imagine that they only leave one idolatrous worship
to embrace another. _F._
[46] The _Tschuderies_, or resting-places in India, are
indeed beneficent establishments, but not to be
compared with the large and elegant caravanseries
in Persia and Turkey. Each, however, are suited to
the nature of the country in which they are found.
India is extremely populous, whereas in Persia and
Turkey there are immense wilds and deserts, totally
destitute of inhabitants. In the latter countries,
merchants, for the sake of security, must travel in
large bodies, and therefore require for themselves,
their merchandize and cattle, resting-places of
greater extent. _F._
[47] I must, however, confess that I have been sometimes
robbed: but the _Kuli_, or other poor Indians,
never took any thing else from me than liquor or
provisions, which they found necessary for their
support. As they are always satisfied with little,
it may be readily comprehended that what they
purloined was of no great value. During a residence
of thirteen or fourteen years in India I never heard
of any traveller being robbed or murdered on the
highway. _A._----Travelling is not equally secure in
every part of India. In the peninsula on this side
the Ganges, Bengal and Oude, as far as the power of
the English extends, there is nothing to be feared;
but in the mountains, and farther towards the
north-west, the same safety does not prevail. _F._
[48] The _Caida_, or _Kayda_, is the _Kenra_ of Forskäl,
or the _Pandamùs odoratissima_ of Linnæus. On
account of the similarity in the leaves, it has been
called also _Bromelia_. The natives of Otaheite
cover their houses with it. The farina of the male
flowers is used as a perfume. _F._
[49] The Indians divide good works into _Gnana_ and
_Karma_: Under the former appellation they
comprehend wisdom, meditation, and internal
spiritual employment. _Karma_, on the other hand,
signifies practice, external exercise. Meditation
and spiritual works are the occupation of the
philosophers, particularly the _Budhists_. The
_Karma_, however, or external good works, such as
prayer, lustrations, offerings, and the like, are
confined by the Brahman priests merely to the common
people. _A._
[50] According to Stevens the Tical is equal to a Rupee.
_E. T._
[51] This sovereign died 56 years before the birth of
Christ. _A._
[52] A Paolo is worth about 6d. sterling; and ten
Bajocchi make a Paolo.
[53] The author’s information respecting the coins,
measures and weights in the different parts of India
is without doubt useful, and of great importance
to those who wish to be acquainted with the Indian
trade; but a fuller account of them may be found in
Stephen’s _Guide to the Trade of India_, and, if I
am not mistaken, in a volume of the _Transactions of
the Batavian Society_. _F._
[54] It is very singular to find people in the eighteenth
century bringing forward evidence to prove that the
apostle Thomas was stoned to death and interred,
seventeen hundred years ago, at _Mailapuri_ or
St. Thomas. The Mar Thomas, of whom there are so
many traditionary accounts in India, was probably
Thomas Cana, an Armenian, who must have gone to
India before the sixth century, and have there
diffused the doctrines of Christianity among his own
followers. In the year 822 two Nestorian priests
from Syria, called Mar Sapor and Mar Parges, went
from Babylon to India, and landed at Coulan. The
Indian princes granted extensive privileges to the
Christians of Mar Thomas, and to the two priests
from Babylon, by which they were raised above the
Nairs, or Malabar nobility. These privileges were
engraven on plates of copper, and it is believed
were not long ago extant somewhere in India. The
archbishop of Goa, Alexis de Menezes, a despotic
enthusiast, endeavoured, in 1599, in a synod at
Diamper, to unite the Nestorian Christians with
the Romish church, and burnt all their books and
papers; but they still exist as a distinct sect.
See La Crozes _View of the State of the Church in
India_. The German translation is fuller than the
French original, because the author supplied the
translator with a great many important improvements
and additions. _F._
[55] Some curious particulars respecting this practice
may be seen in a paper on the duties of a faithful
Hindu widow, by Henry Colebroke, Esq. in the 4th
vol. of _Dissertations and Miscellaneous Pieces
relating to the History, Antiquities_, &c. _of
Asia_, reprinted for Vernor and Hood, 1798. _E. T._
[56] See a full account of these sculptures and ruins by
William Chambers, Esq. in the first volume _Asiatic
Researches_, reprinted for Vernor and Hood, 1798.
_E. T._
[57] The oldest pagodas in India, and a great many of
the ancient Egyptian temples, are cut out in the
solid rock. This mode of architecture, peculiar to
the oldest nations, was derived from the nature of
their own dwellings. It is probable that the first
men lived in mountainous districts, and that holes
or cavities in the earth, partly natural and partly
formed by art, were their earliest habitations. The
_Troglodytes_, that is, the inhabiters of holes, dug
out places of the like kind for performing their
religious worship. At later periods they ventured
to quit the mountains to reside on low hills and
plains; and, that they might not suffer from
inundations, to build houses and towns on artificial
eminences, and to dig canals and ditches in order to
procure earth for making these artificial mounts. In
places destitute of stones they built habitations of
brick dried in the sun, which they cemented together
by means of lime, bitumen, and other substances. It
was not till periods much later that burnt bricks
and cut stone began to be employed for building
temples and palaces. _F._
[58] All rivers which have their sources in high
mountainous districts generally flow with great
impetuosity after heavy rains, so that it is
sometimes dangerous, if not impossible, to cross
them. Various instances of the truth of this
observation may be found in Vaillant’s _Travels into
the interior Parts of Africa_. _F._
[59] It is, indeed, worthy of remark, that the many petty
princes on the Malabar coast have maintained their
independence, notwithstanding the great revolutions
by which the whole face of India has been changed,
and though each singly was not sufficiently powerful
to withstand a formidable enemy, and though they
are seldom in such a state of friendship with each
other as to oppose with united forces any antagonist
that might attack them from the north and the east.
The author explains this phenomenon very properly.
The conquest of these small states is, however,
possible: 1st, by fomenting quarrels between the
princes, and then espousing the cause of one of
the parties: 2d, by establishing strong posts and
erecting fortresses in the defiles of the mountains
and places where the rivers are fordable: 3d, by
employing artillery and troops acquainted with the
European discipline. The last method was employed by
Tippoo Saib, in order to reduce some places on the
sea coast. _F._
[60] The Mahometan Arabs, who, under the Caliph Valid,
established themselves on the coast of Malabar,
and in the northern part of India, are at present
commonly called _Moors_. The _Patans_, or, as
they are otherwise called, _Afgans_ or _Afguans_,
have nothing in common with these Arabs but their
religion. They are a branch of the Albanians from
Mount Caucasus, as has been already remarked by
Gœrber and Dr. Reineggs, or Ehlich. The Armenians
cannot pronounce the letter _l_ in the middle of
a word, and therefore they call the Albans or
Alwans _Aghwans_. These aborigines of the Caucasian
territories were known to the ancient writers,
Strabo, Pliny, Ammianus Marcellinus, and Dio
Cassius. According to the last-mentioned author
they extended themselves from the Tanais (Don) to
the Ganges. These people, who had thus wandered as
far as India, were subdued by the Saracens, and
converted to the Mahometan Religion by the sword,
but they afterwards recovered their independence.
Some of these Patan chiefs founded in the
neighbourhood of Delhi small principalities; others
penetrated into the Decan, and made themselves
masters of small provinces, which have been since
taken from them by Nizam Aly, the Marattas, and
Tippoo Saib. Even the _Rohillas_ are a race
descended from the Patans. See Edwards’s _Memoir of
a Map comprehending the countries between the Black
Sea and the Caspian_. London 1788, p. 6. and M. C.
Sprengel’s _Allgem. Hist. Taschenbuch_. Berlin 1786.
_F._
[61] This account of the Jews on the Malabar coast is
partly incomplete, and partly doubtful. We know
something more certain respecting the Jews at
Cochin, by M. Adrian Moens, governor and director
of the Dutch East India Company on that coast,
which has been published in Busching’s _Magazine_,
vol. xiv. p. 123-154. The Jews on the Malabar coast
are distinguished into two kinds, white and black.
The former, in their synagogue near Cochin, have
two oblong square plates of copper, containing old
Malabar writing in lines that run across them, and
in a mixed dialect of the Malabar, Tamulic, and
Tulengic languages. The subject of this writing is
a charter granted to _Isup Rabbaan_ at Cranganor,
by _Erawi Wanmara_ emperor of Malabar, in the year
from _Kalijogam_ 3481 (that is 426 after the birth
of Christ), and in the thirty-sixth year of his
reign, in virtue of which he confirmed to _Isup
Rabbaan_ (Joseph Rabbi) the same privileges as had
been before enjoyed by the petty Malabar viceroys.
“He and the seventy-two families (related probably
to each other) were to enjoy them as long as the
sun should illuminate the earth; but all other Jews
and their descendants were to be obedient to his
commands, and to those of his successors.”--In a
Portuguese book, _Notisias dos Judeos de Cochim_,
printed at Amsterdam in 1681, it is said: In the
year of the world 4130, according to the Jewish
mode of computation (that is 369 years after the
birth of Christ), seventy or eighty thousand Jews
were landed from the kingdom of Majorca on the
coast of Malabar. Now, as the Balearic islands
were subdued by the Vandals exactly in the year
425 after the birth of Christ, it is probable
that the Jews who were settled there removed to
Jerusalem and Egypt; and being supported by their
Jewish brethren, were conveyed thence by sea to
India, in the year 426 of the Christian æra. Their
number, however, may perhaps not have been so great.
These Jews established themselves in Cranganor
and the neighbouring districts, and founded a
small kingdom. They purchased slaves, particularly
black ones, and converted them, as well as several
more of the natives, to their religion. These new
converts gave rise to the black Jews, who wished
to enjoy the same privileges as the white, and to
unite themselves with them by intermarriages. As
their claims were not allowed, they disowned the
authority of the white Jews and of their king; and
a war was the consequence, in which the latter were
almost destroyed. They were, however, assisted by
the prince of the country, and the black Jews were
again reduced to obedience. After that period the
black and white Jews had distinct synagogues, and
lived apart from each other. Two brothers of the
royal race ruled in common; but they afterwards
separated, and the native princes raised a violent
persecution against the Jews. They were so much
oppressed by the Portuguese at Cranganor, that they
were obliged, in 1565, to solicit the protection
of the king of Cochin, near which city they still
reside. The ancient royal race, and the descendants
of those who went to India before the year 1371, are
totally extinct. The white Jews, who reside near
Cochin at present, went to India at later periods,
from Palestine, Persia, Constantinople, Bagdad and
Egypt, and even from England, Poland, Germany, Spain
and Holland. The black Jews are the descendants of
the ancient race above mentioned. Their books are
according to the Spanish ritual, and they procure
them from Amsterdam. They have nine synagogues, and
consist of about 460 families, who amount perhaps to
3000 or 4000 persons. _F._
[62] A full account of the migration, incursions, wars,
revolutions, laws and manners of those foreign
nations who established themselves in India, may
be seen in the writings of _Hyde_, _Texeira_,
_Renaudot_, _Barros_, the _Abbe Guyon_, _Raynal_,
_St. Lubin_, _Anquetil du Perron_, and in the lives
of _Tamerlane_ and _Thamas Kuli Khan_; also in the
Persian books _Vakiat-Babri_, _Monte-Keb-el-Tarik_,
_Akbar Nama_, and _Magir-Gehan Guiri_, which are to
be found partly in the library at Paris, and partly
in that of Mr. Samuel Guise. _A._
[63] These philosophers are called properly _Joqui_; from
_Joga_, community; under which name is understood
people who have every thing in common. In the
Samscred they are named _Gòsuàmi_, from _Go_ a cow,
and _Suami_ a lord; consequently lords of the cow:
for they are accustomed to besprinkle and paint
their bodies with dried cow’s dung. They are known
also by a more ancient Samscred name, viz. _Samanà_
or _Shamanà_, that is, the Mild; for they kill no
animal, cut no plants, and never eat fish, but feed
merely on rice, wild herbs, roots and fruit. They
live together in company, under a common chief or
teacher, who in the Samscred is called _Guru_. As
true gymnosophists, they go quite naked, and sleep
on the ground, having nothing under them but mats
made of palm leaves interwoven with each other.
They avoid all intercourse with the world; study
philosophy, theogony, botany and astronomy, and have
written a great many treatises on these sciences
in the Indian languages. They are real stoics, and
often impose upon themselves the severest penances.
They are mentioned by Cicero, Plutarch, Clemens
of Alexandria, and Arrian. The last author says,
besides other things respecting them, that they
were accustomed to walk down into the sea at Cape
Comari, in order to purify themselves;--a custom
which they have retained to this day. _A._----These
_Dschoqui_ or _Jogui_ are therefore the followers of
the old Indian philosophers called Samanæi. Because
they went naked, they were called by the Greeks
gymnosophists, that is, naked philosophers. _F._
[64] This conduct of Fra Paolino seems rather
unevangelical and harsh, and to have been somewhat
in the style of a Boanerges, or those sons of
thunder who wished to call down fire immediately
from heaven. Our zealous monk procured full power
from the magistrate in order to execute his
inquisitorial sentence. This, no doubt, cost him
a considerable sum of money, and must have been
charged under the head of _secret service_. Instead
of advice and admonition, the monk administered a
sound beating! This may properly be called obeying
the command: _Compelle illos intrare!_ The other
means by which the Indians are converted to the
Catholic religion, are no doubt of the same kind as
this church discipline. _F._
[65] An account of the violent measures as well as arts
employed by the Romish Church to make the Nestorians
in India unite themselves to it, may be seen in
the work published by the ingenious and learned
La Croze on the state of Christianity in that
country. The above-mentioned synod at _Diemper_ or
_Udiamper_, at which the violent, enthusiastic, and
despotic Alexis de Menezes effected a pretended
union of the Christians of St. Thomas, is a real and
lasting monument of shame for the Romish Church.
It is impossible to read the history of it without
the most affecting sensations, and without being
sensible that the spirit of enthusiasm is always
combined with ignorance and the most striking
barbarity. Since the reformation the Romish Church
has exhibited very little of its former violence,
and some of its members have learned to know the
importance of ancient monuments, particularly those
of Eastern Christianity. This is sufficiently shewn
by Assemanni and Renaudot in their writings, and
by the valuable collections of the noble Cardinal
Borgia at Velitri. _F._
[66] The decline of the Nestorian monasteries on the
coast of Malabar was not occasioned merely by the
establishment of the Portuguese in that country,
but by the furious persecuting spirit and the
violent conduct of the Portuguese clergy. The mild
beneficent teachers of the Christians of St. Thomas
were either compelled to join the Romish Church, or
suffered to become extinct; as it was impossible
for new ecclesiastics or monks to go to India from
Persia, or the Persian gulph, where the Portuguese
at that time had great power. Afterwards, indeed,
when the Dutch got the better of the Portuguese,
Syrian and Nestorian ecclesiastics went from Persia
and Antioch to India; but these priests, who
belonged to different sects, were always at variance
with each other. See _Relatio historica ad Epistolam
Syriacam a Maha Thome_, _i. e._ _Magna Thoma Indo,
antiquorum Syrorum in India Episcopo, ex Chaddenad
in Malabaria scriptam ad Ignatium Patriarcham
Antiochenum, et ipsa illa Episcopi Indi Epistola
Syriaca, cum Versione Latina, &c. accurante_ CAROLO
SCHAAF. Lugduni Batavorum, 1714. 4to. _F._
[67] The two kinds of potatoes here mentioned by the
author do not probably belong to the real species of
the potatoe, _solanum_, but to some other vegetable
production of the like kind, such as the _Dioscorea
alata L._, the exterior skin of which is black,
but the internal pulpy part, when roasted in the
ashes, is white, or of a purple colour. The round
potatoes may be a kind of the Spanish potatoes,
_Convolvulus Batatas_, or the gold-coloured root of
the _Convolvulus Chrysorrhizus_, which is not only
cultivated, but grows wild also in the islands of
the South Sea, and which has been described by my
son George in his Treatise _De Plantis Esculentis
Insularum Maris Pacifici_. The _Convolvulus Batatas_
was carried from America by the Spaniards to the
Philippines and neighbouring islands; and on that
account the plant there is called _Castile_, because
it was first introduced by the Castilians or
Spaniards. _F._
[68] That in the impenetrable forests of the Gauts there
are wild elephants, is well known; but the people
on the sea-coast content themselves with those of
Ceylon, which are more docile, and easier to be
tamed.--It may be readily seen by the wild buffaloes
that this is the original country of these animals,
which were first brought from India ta Italy in
the time of Agilulph king of Lombardy, between the
years 591 and 616.--The deer mentioned by the author
form probably more than one kind. India produces,
1st, the _Cervus Axis L._ or the spotted deer,
which is somewhat larger than our fallow deer. 2d,
The porcine deer, _Cervus Porcinus L._ brown with
round white spots, and from two feet four inches
to three feet and a half in height. 3d, The elk,
_Cervus Alce L._ Professor Zimmerman, however, in
his _Zoological Geography_, does not allow the
elk, or rein-deer, to be an inhabitant beyond the
50th degree of north latitude; but the former has
been bold enough to overstep the boundaries which
he has drawn on his chart, and has penetrated to
the woody, marshy, solitary valleys of India. See
_Essais philosophiques sur les Moeurs de divers
Animaux étrangers_, par Foucher D’Obsonville, p.
115. In the same work much information may be
obtained respecting the black and white kinds of
apes, which inhabit the Indian forests in flocks of
thousands.--The real Indian striped (not spotted)
tyger, which is from nine to ten feet in length,
and from four to four and a half in height, is not
common even in India, and is to be found only in
the thickest forests. He gives place to no animals
but the lion, elephant, and rhinoceros.--The Indian
parrots are, in a literal sense, almost innumerable,
for every traveller brings home new kinds to Europe.
The old Grecian name ψιττακη, seems to be of Egyptian
origin: Π-ϹΙΤΤΑΚΗ. The Π is an article: the Germans,
therefore, have omitted it, and converted the word
into _Sittich_. _F._
[69] Many instances may be found, both in ancient and
modern history, of great changes having been
produced on the surface of the earth, and on the
coasts of the ocean, by hurricanes and earthquakes,
as well as by the waters of the sea and by rivers.
That piece of water, known by the name of the Dead
Sea, arose by a fiery eruption from the earth; and
in Egypt, along the northern bank of the Delta, and
on both sides, there are large lakes, particularly
the lakes Mœris and Serbau, which were indebted for
their origin to storms, earthquakes, and inundations
of the Nile. In Peloponnesus, or the present Morea,
the cities of Helice, Bura, and some others in
Achaia, were swallowed up by the sea, two years
before the battle of Leuctra. Even in the eighteenth
century, Callao in Peru was overwhelmed, and, with
all its houses, inhabitants, and the ships in the
harbour, became a prey to the waves of the ocean.
The great changes effected by the earthquake in
Calabria, are still fresh in the memory of every
one: during that horrid catastrophe whole mountains
and rocks were precipitated into the sea. _F._
[70] The low inundated land at the bottom of the Gauts,
which consists of marl or clay and strata of chalk,
together with the higher strata where the mountains
are steep towards the sea, being violently torn away
in the rainy season by the streams and currents
collected in the mountains, form, at their influx
into the sea, banks and accumulations which are
still raised higher, and are driven back by the sea
towards the land. In this manner are formed plains,
islands, and little hills; the origin of which can,
in this manner, be very naturally explained. _F._
[71] In the time of the Romans a freedman of Annius
Plocanus experienced a similar fate. See _Plin.
Hist. Nat._ lib. vi. c. 22. _A._
[72] More information respecting Cochin may be found
in Philip Baldæus’s _Description of the Coasts of
Malabar and Coromandel_, Amsterdam 1672, fol. p.
111-136; Francis Valentin’s _Beschryving van’t
Nederlandsch Comptoir op de Kust van Malabar_, Amst.
1726. fol. in the fifth part of his _Oude en Niewe
Oost-Indien_; and in Hamilton’s _New Account of the
East Indies, from 1688 to 1723_. Lond. vol. I. and
II, 1739. 8vo. p. 321, &c. _F._
[73] The reproaches thrown out by the Protestants against
the celibacy of the Catholic clergy is so far right,
as that state gives rise to immoral conduct and
dissipation, of which too many instances may be
found, both among the higher and lower clergy of
the Romish church. The immorality, however, of the
English and Dutch is no less worthy of censure. _F._
[74] See _Istoria della Vita e Fatti illustri del Ven.
Monsign. Giuseppe di S. Maria de’ Sebastiani_.
Roma 1719. l. xi. p. 254. where these excesses are
particularly described. _A._
[75] In the map published by Faden, in 1788, entitled
_The Southern Countries of India from Madras to Cape
Comorin_, by Capt. Wersebe, this place is called
_Tripunctare_.
[76] It is no wonder that the native princes should
endeavour to lay the trade open to foreign nations,
when the merchants of the neighbouring factories
raise the price of their own goods, and pay as
little as they can for those of India. These
monopolies must, in the end, induce the petty
princes of India to adopt wiser regulations, more
conducive to the prosperity of their dominions. The
English even, though so powerful at present in that
country, must excite the hatred of the natives and
princes if they do not alter their conduct. _F._
[77] Respecting the ancient state of _Cranganor_, the
reader may consult the before-mentioned works of
_Baldæus_, _Valentin_, and _Hamilton_. In regard
to its present condition, I know as little as the
author. _F._
[78] On the before-mentioned map of Capt. Wersebe this
place is called _Gnareca_. _F._
[79] On Wersebe’s map _Palipuram_ is called _Paliporto_;
_Aycotta_, _Aicotta_, or _Chuvocat_; and _Paravur_
is named _Parour_. _F._
[80] We know from various accounts, published by the
English and the missionaries, with what cruelty
the followers of the Brahman religion were treated
by the inhuman Tippoo Sultan, and in what manner
he endeavoured by the rack and famine to make them
embrace the Mahometan faith. He was, however,
deprived of a full third of his dominions, which
he had enlarged by robbery; and he is now closely
watched, to prevent him from entering into any
treaty of alliance with the other Indian powers, or
from disturbing the tranquillity of India. _F._
[81] That pirates formerly resided in the neighbourhood
of Mount _Illi_, which is mentioned by Ptolemy under
the name of ΕΛΑΓΚΩΝ, or EΛIΓKΩΝ, as an emporium, or
place of trade, and that even in the present century
the pirate Angria had established himself on this
coast, is well known. For an account of Angria, see
Clement Downing’s _History of the Indian Wars, with an
Account of Angria the Pyrate_. London 1737, 8vo. The
appellation of _Molandis_ given to these sea-robbers
is to me entirely new. _F._
[82] All the Indian languages and characters used on
this side the Ganges, seem to be derived from the
Samscred: and even the religious ideas of the
natives are only here and there modified in a
different manner. The Indian literature, branched
out into so many languages, merely on account of the
great extent of the country, was introduced at the
same time as its religious worship. _F._
[83] That the post has been introduced into India, and
distinguished by the name of _Angelà_, was before
unknown. A kind of post was established formerly in
Persia. Certain persons, employed by the king for
carrying letters, small articles, and dispatches,
and who were called Αγγαροι (Angari), had a right
to require of all those whom they met to remove out
of their way; to take from them horses, ships, and
carriages, &c.; and to compel the owners themselves
to carry burdens. This compulsive service the Greeks
distinguished by the name of Αγγαρειον, a word derived
from the Persian, which is to be found in the New
Testament, Matth. xxvii. This old Persian word,
_Angaros_, seems to have an affinity to the Indian
word _Angelà_; and it is not improbable that the
Persians borrowed their establishment of the post
from the Indians, or the latter theirs from the
Persians. I am almost inclined to think that it was
first introduced among the Indians. The above-mentioned
couriers are called in Persia, at present, _Tschaptar_,
that is, those who ride on a full gallop. _F._
[84] This population, in a country so small as the
coast of Malabar, or Malayala, is undoubtedly very
great. About forty _coss_ or Malabar miles make a
degree. This coast, therefore, contains at most
450 geographical square miles, and to each of
these there are consequently almost 3703 persons.
In other parts of India a far greater number of
persons live on a square mile; but we must take
into consideration the mountains, forests, lakes
and rivers in Malabar, and also the devastation
occasioned in the country by the merciless Tippoo
Saib. _F._
[85] The author ought not to have called milk, butter and
coco-nut oil food easy of digestion. The continual
use of milk renders it at length very heavy for the
stomachs of most people. The fat parts of butter
and coco-nut oil are indigestible; and as the acid
parts of fat separate from it, this acid attacks
the stomach and the bowels. Now the Indians use no
flesh, which contains abundance of alkaline parts,
and therefore the acid cannot be neutralised by
these parts. It is, however, true in general, that
the great moderation of the Indians, though indeed
often occasioned by want, contributes greatly to
their healthfulness. That such moderation promotes
the generative powers is very doubtful. _F._
[86] Monogamy, the great care employed by parents to get
their daughters married, the want of nunneries, the
great honour in which marriage is held in India,
and the little expence required for educating and
clothing children, are the real causes of the
increase of population in that country. Even among
us the middle and lower classes would produce more
children were they not afraid of the expences of
education. _F._
[87] I have, in general, observed, that the small-pox
are malignant where the body, in order to prevent
perspiration, is frequently rubbed over with fat or
oily substances. Dirtiness, immoderation, or luxury
in eating and drinking, and particularly the use
of heating things, greatly increase the malignity
of the disease. A confirmation of what I have here
asserted, may be found in America, at the Cape of
Good Hope, in Africa among the Negroes, and among
the Calmucks in Russia. Among people who employ the
warm bath, as the Russians, Turks, Persians, &c. the
small-pox are less malignant. _F._
[88] That the polygamy of the Mahometans and Indians of
higher rank does not contribute to population is
certain: for, 1st, polygamy deprives many a male
of a female; 2d, it occasions more female children
to be born, and consequently destroys the true
proportion so well suited to monogamy.--Perhaps
the polyandria of the women among the Nayrs causes
more males to be brought into the world, and thus
supplies the deficiency.
[89] It is well known, that the ancient Greek authors
have observed, in regard to the Indian literati
and persons of rank, that they lived in woods, and
places planted with palm-trees.--The intelligent
reader will here recollect Otaheite, where those who
are under no necessity of exposing themselves to
the sun and the sea air, have a pale-brown colour,
inclining to yellow; and where the complexion of the
most beautiful women approaches nearer to the colour
of the Europeans than that of the men, so that an
agreeable ruddiness can be seen to flush in their
cheeks when they are animated. The _Tautaus_, or
labouring class, are much browner; so that one might
believe they belong to another race. _F._
[90] Bruce also, during his travels through Arabia,
observed that the women soon acquired every mark of
old age, and that they left off child-bearing at
an early period. This, perhaps, has given rise to
polygamy in Arabia. _F._
[91] There are various reasons which prevent the Indians
from imitating the household furniture and cooking
utensils of the Europeans. The poorer sort of people
cannot do it, on account of their circumstances; and
the rich will not, because they hate and detest the
whites, by whom they are oppressed. Besides, many of
the European customs, articles of furniture, &c. are
not suited to the climate of India. The attachment
of the Indians to every thing handed down to them by
their ancestors, arises from that pride prevalent
among all little cultivated nations, who, like the
Chinese for example, consider what they themselves
possess as the best in the world. _F._
[92] The object of agriculture in India is almost
exclusively rice, and that kind of it the growth
and increase of which are particularly promoted
by inundating the fields. As the chief point is
to devise proper means for watering the land, the
large rivers have been divided into small streams,
and conducted by ditches and canals to the nearest
plains. When the rivers are not swelled up by
abundant rains, so as to overflow their banks,
the water is raised by machines put in motion
by men or oxen; or large reservoirs are formed,
which the Europeans call _Tangs_ or _Tanks_. In
these reservoirs the rain water, which pours down
in torrents during the time of the monsoons,
is collected, and afterwards conveyed through
different channels to the rice fields. A great
deal of sesamum is sown on account of its oil; and
poppies, particularly in Bengal, are cultivated,
in order to produce opium. Millet, maize, and the
kind of rice which grows in dry soil, are less
generally cultivated. Rice, when freed from the
husk, is called _Nella_. Every Indian has in his
house a wooden mortar and pestle for reducing it
to that state.--Horticulture, in India, consists
only in planting certain portions of ground with
palms and different kinds of fruit trees. The
fruits are figs, oranges, lemons, pomegranates,
&c. The coco, areca, and butter-palms are the
trees most common in gardens: roses, jasmin, and
different kinds of lilies, are reared on account of
their smell.--Botany is comprehended only in the
_Upaveda_ books, written in the earliest periods,
in the Samscred language; one division of which,
the _Adschurveda_, gives an account of the uses
of the Indian plants, together with the method of
cultivating them. This part of the sacred books
is, however, studied by very few of the learned
Brahmans. It is not improbable that it contains a
number of observations carefully made and collected
in the most remote ages, though it may readily
be supposed that a great deal of useless and
superstitious matter must be interspersed throughout
them; for every plant and flower is dedicated to
one or more of the Indian deities. Lovers in India
have the art, as may be seen in the play called
_Sacontala_, to express various ideas by flowers,
and by the method of arranging them, or interweaving
them into garlands; and this art is, no doubt,
taught in the before-mentioned work.--Hunting is the
occupation of great men and princes, who employ,
for that purpose, tamed leopards (_Tschittahs_),
falcons, dogs, nets, and a great number of
attendants.--Fishing is the employment only of the
_Mucoas_, or persons of the meanest and lowest
classes.--The architecture of the Indians, in their
large public buildings, and particularly those
devoted to religious worship, or the sciences,
such for example as observatories, is far from
being contemptible. Their cement, with which they
mix oil, is durable, and almost indestructible.
Their style in their oldest edifices, such as the
temple of Elephanta at Bombay, has a great likeness
to the Egyptian. Whether the Indians were taught
architecture by the Egyptians, or the Egyptians by
the Indians, will always remain doubtful, until
better and more decisive proofs are produced to
determine the question. _F._
[93] The Teka wood (_Tectona grandis_ LINN. GMEL.)
employed in India for building houses and ships,
is indeed strong and durable; but the dry climate
of that country is one of the chief causes why
edifices constructed of such timber stand so long.
The common people in India build houses of mud and
loam, the walls of which are infested by centipedes
(_Scolopendræ_), scorpions, and snakes; so that it
is not only unpleasant, but dangerous, to reside in
them. _F._
[94] Such readers as are acquainted with the different
voyages to the South Seas, will here be struck with
the similarity between the Indian manners and those
of the natives of Otaheite. _F._
[95] The great respect paid to superiors and preceptors
among the Indian nations, shows that they possess a
certain degree of cultivation, and a delicate sense
of moral obligation and gratitude. _F._
[96] Since the English have taken from the Dutch the
island of Ceylon (_Singhala_), and got possession
of the real cinnamon tree, _Laurus cinnamomum_
LINN. they will make little or no use of the
Malabar cinnamon, _Laurus cassia_ LINN. which is
perhaps only a variety of that of Ceylon. The
Malabar cinnamon will in time be totally forgotten
and banished from commerce; as the real cinnamon
tree, as well as those which produce nutmegs and
cloves, have been raised from the seed, and planted
several years ago in the isles of Reunion and France
(Bourbon and Mauritius), and also in the Sechelle
isles, Guadaloupe, Jamaica, and the northern
Circars. This much is certain, that the Malabar
cinnamon has not so aromatic a smell, and does not
contain so many particles of ethereal oil, as that
of Ceylon. The former, hitherto, has been imported
to England only through necessity, in order to
prevent the sale of the latter. _F._
[97] A lack amounts to about 12,500 l. sterling.
[98] Kings of the first, rank were, the _Samuri_,
and _Perumpadapil_, or the king of Cochin. To
the second rank belonged the kings of _Tannur_,
_Codungalur_, _Parpurangàri_, _Airur_, _Cannanur_,
_Edapallì_ or _Rapolim_, _Cajamcollam_, _Temàli_,
_Parur_, _Punettur_, _Alangatta_, _Angamàli_, and
_Ayanicurra_, Those of the third rank were called
_Karttàva_, that is, princes or lords. Such were
the _Karttàva_ of _Panamucatta_, _Nandielette_,
_Ciangracòtta_, _Puducòtta_, _Maprànam_, _Muriata_,
_Cunateri_, _Codacèri_, _Cettatur_, _Puttenpidia_,
_Curumbilaga_, and _Cettuà_. Several of these petty
princes and lords still existed at the time I
arrived in Malabar. _A._
[99] This information is of the utmost importance to the
modern history of India; and the author is entitled
to thanks for having communicated it to the public.
_F._
[100] It is here evident, that confounding the different
casts was assigned as a reason by the Roman
Catholic clergy, why women of the inferior casts,
who differed themselves to be kept as concubines,
by _Nayrs_ of the higher casts, ought to be
punished. By these means they supported a Pagan
custom, totally inconsistent with the spirit of
true Christianity, which considers all mankind as
children of the same father. This syncretism of the
Pagan and the Christian religion has at all times
been allowed by the church of Rome. In China, for
example, the Jesuits declared the heavens to be a
divinity, and permitted their adherents to worship
it, as well as allowed different kinds of oblations.
_F._
[101] That the Christians on the coast of Malabar
received their first teachers, as well as their
religious notions, customs and expressions from
the Syrio-Nestorian Christians at Bagdad and Basra
(Bassora), has been fully proved by La Croze, in his
State of the Indian Church. The deviations from the
Roman Catholic Church, here mentioned, may serve to
shew how many innovations it has gradually made in
the Christian worship without the least necessity.
_F._
[102] Of this Alexis de Menesez, or Menezes, I have
already spoken in the note, p. 91. The acts of the
council of _Udiamper_, which are extremely scarce,
clearly shew that this archbishop was a violent
overbearing man. It cannot excite any surprise, that
people united by force to the Romish church should
make themselves independent as soon as they could.
_F._
[103] This conduct, in regard to the re-admission of
excommunicated persons into the Church, is extremely
partial. Those who are rich, are merely fined. A
great many of the Roman Catholic clergy, who are as
avaricious as they are fond of power, behave in the
same manner. _F._
[104] These _Agapæ_ have been retained also in the Greek
church, and Christians of other sects are readily
admitted to them. _F._
[105] Making provision for young women in poor
circumstances is indeed praise-worthy. Were this
conduct imitated by the Christians of the west, many
a destitute girl would be saved from prostitution.
_F._
[106] The Romish Church is acquainted with no other means
than force to retain men in its bosom. If the clergy
do not possess this force themselves, they procure
by money or flattery the support of the Pagan
priests, in order to punish those who think too
freely or see too clearly. _F._
[107] It is a very just observation, that since the
establishment of Christianity, nothing has
contributed so much to its propagation, as the
singing of sacred hymns and songs. Even in the
New Testament, Eph. v. 19. we find some traces of
church-singing; and Pliny the younger, in one of his
letters to the emperor Trajan, informs him that the
Christians sung hymns in their religious assemblies.
Arius, by his talent for composing harmonious
verses, and his tender pathetic songs, gained over
many Christians to his party. It is also well known,
that the Moravian brethren, or Hernhuters, as they
are called, gain many partisans by their soft and
agreeable melody. This circumstance may be easily
accounted for by the effects produced on the greater
part of mankind by music. _F._
[108] In this method of converting the Pagan Indians there
is not much to be condemned: the secrecy employed
is, in my opinion, the only objectionable part.
The reader will hereafter see, that to convert
these people is a transgression of the laws of the
country; and the missionaries ought by all means to
be bound by them. _F._
[109] The Protestant missionaries in India boast also of
having brought over many Catholic Christians to
their church. This, however, is no proof in favour
of either party. _F._
[110] The appellation _Tupasi_ is derived from the
Samscred word _Duibhasbi_. _Dui_ signifies two,
and _Bhasbi_ a man who speaks two languages;
an interpreter. This name, indeed, may with
propriety be given to the _Tupasi_; for, besides
their mother tongue, they speak some one of the
European languages, either English, French, Dutch,
or Portuguese. At Cochin they are called _Gens
de chapeau_, because they wear a _Topi_ or small
hat; whereas the other Indians, not descended from
Europeans, make use of the _Romali_, that is, a
white turban of the finest muslin. These people
have the upper part of their bodies quite naked;
but bind round their loins a piece of white linen,
which is called _Bastra_. As long as this cloth
is new, it is named _Codi_. If it has interwoven
in it red stripes, it is called _Sòmen_, _Tòmen_,
and _Pudava_. If such stripes are painted on this
linen, it is called _Tùvaden_ or _Toren_. If
it consists of yellow or red silk, it is named
_Pattupudava_.--_Ciatta_ or _Penncupayan_ is the
name of a jacket lying close to the body, worn
by Malabar female Christians when they appear in
public. It reaches no lower than the girdle, to
which the _Pudava_ is fastened, and which they
wear as well as the men. On the head they have no
ornament whatever, but turn up their hair smooth
behind, and fasten it in a roll on the crown. How
much would these Indian dames be astonished at the
ornamented head-dresses of our European ladies! _A._
[111] In the above observations may be found one of the
reasons why neither Hayder Aly nor Tippoo Sultan
could maintain their ground against the English and
the king of Travancor, on the coast of Malabar. The
great number of Christians residing there, whom
Hayder and his son every where persecuted, and often
compelled by violence to embrace Mahometanism,
always took part with the English. _T._
[112] This will serve to explain the cause of the
before-mentioned secrecy observed in regard to
conversion. It is, indeed, very improper that
the Pagan princes should assume power over the
consciences of their subjects, and over their
freedom of thought; but many of the Christians
act no better, in being attached to the foolish
prejudice that the voice of truth can be silenced by
prohibitions. _F._
[113] The assertion, that all the Arabian and Persian
horses are small, I do not consider as just. I have
seen several Arab horses, particularly a stallion
and mare of considerable size in the stud of Lord
Grosvenor. Both these animals had been brought to
England by the way of India. _F._
[114] Cheese made of buffaloes milk is highly esteemed
by the Italians, notwithstanding their celebrated
Parmesan (Lodesan.) It is called _Caccio di
cavallo_. _F._
[115] The veterinary art of the Indians highly deserves
to be studied by the Europeans who apply to the
Samscred language. It no doubt contains good
prescriptions founded on experience. _F._
[116] The red colour of these goats relates to something
of a like kind in Egypt, traces of which may be
found in the writings of Moses. _F._
[117] The fine shawls made in Cachemir, and sold chiefly
to the Indians, are, as far as I know, made of
sheep’s wool, and not of the hair of wild goats. _F._
[118] The flesh of animals used as food is totally changed
by their way of feeding; and therefore it may be
very true that the flesh of the tame swine, which
feed on pilchards near the sea-coast in Malabar, may
be ill tasted and unhealthful. It is well known,
that the hams brought from Bayonne are firmer and
better tasted, because the swine are fed at the
bottom of the Pyrenees on chestnuts. _F._
[119] In _Coschotey_, between the latitude of 40° and 30°
north, there are wild camels with two bunches on
their backs; but I never heard of any other wild
kind of these animals. _F._
[120] The above-mentioned wild urus, ten feet in height,
with large horns, and ash-grey silver-coloured
hair, belongs probably to the same kind as that in
the northern forests of India, which rove about in
large herds. The latter, however, are fourteen feet
in height; weigh from 3000 to 4000 pounds; are of
a perfect black colour, except a tuft of red hair
between the horns; and in the northern part of India
are called _Arni_. Skulls of these monstrous oxen
are found in Russia among the bones of the elephant
and rhinoceros. See Dr. Anderson’s _Bee_ for
December 1792, and Pallas’s _Nordische Beiträge_,
vol. vi.
[121] Whether the animal here mentioned belongs to the
species of the wolf, or the hyæna, cannot with
certainty be determined. The wolf, in general, is
not such a terrible animal; whereas the hyæna, of
which there are two or three kinds in Asia and
Africa, is exceedingly fierce, and will even attack
men. _F._
[122] The striped tyger is properly the real tyger (_Felis
Tigris L._). The _Puli_ is not the _Kuguar_, which
is a ravenous animal in South America of the cat
species, but the real Leopard (_Felis Leopardus
L._). The third kind, of a chestnut colour, and
striped also, seems to be a species not yet known
to zoologists, and very inaccurately defined. The
fourth kind, of a white colour, with black spots,
(_Felis Uncia L._) is represented by Schreber in
_Tab._ C.--The animals of the cat genus, both of
the old and new world, are in general not yet
defined and described with so much accuracy as
might have been expected from the progress lately
made in zoology. The Europeans, whom avarice
induces to visit India, being engaged in trade or
war, have neither time nor inclination for the
study of natural history, which in the end would
be productive of riches were it sufficiently
cultivated. _F._
[123] The squirrel here described is different from the
_Taguan_, the _Sciurus petaurista_ of Pallas, and
the _S. sagitta_ of Nordgren. It appears to be a
kind not yet known; for the northern _S. volans_,
_S. volucella_, and _S. Hudsonius_, are none of them
so large. _F._
[124] The Malabar _Marapatti_ is by no means the Serval
of the naturalists. The latter, as is well known,
is a kind of lynx; whereas the Marapatti is an
Indian variety of the _Viverra ichneumon_, for
it is improper to make a distinct kind of the
_Mungo_.--The ichneumon climbs up the palm-trees and
eats the fruit of them, as well as cats, mice, and
particularly snakes, but especially the poisonous
kind, Naja, called in the Portuguese _Cobra de
Cabelo_. _F._
[125] The antelopes have never yet been systematically
known in a proper manner, notwithstanding the
trouble which Pallas has taken, in his excellent
works, to give an accurate description of them. The
first here mentioned, black or brown, with crooked
twisted horns, seems to be the _Orcas L._ found at
the Cape of Good Hope. The second, if it be the
_A. cervicapra_, has not red but yellow hair, and
is larger than a goat, or about the size of the
fallow-deer. _F._
[126] The bezoar goat, _Antelope Gazella L._--Which of the
antelopes of the ancients this _Kuran Antelope_ is,
cannot with certainty be determined. _F._
[127] The civet cat is the _Viverra Zibetha_, and _V.
Civetta L._ for I am convinced that these two
varieties have been unnecessarily made distinct
species.--The _Kirri_ is the small variety of the
_Viverra Ichneumon L._ and the above-mentioned
_Marapatti_ is a larger. The red variety, mentioned
afterwards, belongs also to this species. _F._
[128] Of the two kinds of squirrel, here mentioned, one
probably is the _Sciurus maximus L._ a figure of
which is given in Sonnerat’s _Voyage aux Indes_,
vol. ii. tab. 87. The second seems to be a new
animal not yet known. _F._
[129] These species of the mouse, according to the
imperfect account here given of them, are not to be
found in the system. _F._
[130] It is well known that the European cats do not
attack the Norway rat, _Mus decumanus L._ _F._
[131] This kind of hedge-hog is the hystrix, or _Erinaceus
Malaccensis_. The bezoar procured from this species
of animal is that called by the Portuguese _Piedra
del porco_, which was formerly sold at a dear rate,
but at present is of little value. _F._
[132] The above-mentioned _Coringuranga_ is without doubt
the _S. Silenus L._ or the _Ouanderou_ of Buffon.
The other apes mentioned by the author, for want of
a more accurate description, cannot be referred to
their proper place in the system. _F._
[133] The _Adibe_, or _Adive_, is the jackal, well known
in every part of the East. These animals rove about
in flocks; and when one of them sets up a cry at a
distance, he is imitated by all the rest who hear
him. In the book of Judges, ch. xv. v. 4. the hyæna
is called _Schualim_. _F._
[134] The _Cenna_ (Tschenna), with red hair, which the
author here describes as a wolf, may perhaps be
a yellowish coloured kind of that animal, as his
_Adibe_ is the real hyæna.--The mountain civet cat,
_Malaweruva_, and the _Naypulla_, are without doubt
varieties of the common civet cat. A few differences
in colour and spots are not sufficient to make new
species. _F._
[135] See the note, p. 212. Lucullus caused large ponds to
be dug, and to be filled with sea-water, in order
to keep in them conger-eels. Some of the Romans fed
these fish with the flesh of their slaves. Ducks,
which eat nothing but fish, acquire a fishy taste;
but when they have been again fed for some time with
corn, and other things of the like kind, their flesh
becomes excellent. _F._
[136] India and Ceylon are the real native country of the
common peacock. There can be nothing more beautiful
than a flock of these animals flying in the
sun-shine. This spectacle I have often seen. John
Blackburne, Esq. of Oxford Hall, near Warrington,
had a great number of peacocks in a park, which was
at least two miles from his house, yet they often
flew thither. _F._
[137] The wild cock, found in the Gauts, and the
neighbouring forests, has been fully described
by Sonnerat in his Voyage to India, vol. ii. p.
116-125. A very good engraving of it may be seen
also in plate 94. One of these birds stuffed
is preserved in the Royal Cabinet of Natural
Curiosities at Halle. It is a great rarity, and its
feathers are remarkably beautiful. _F._
[138] The falcon and sparrow-hawk were in Egypt
consecrated to Horus.--As the Nayrs, or warriors,
in the time of peace, lead a very indolent life,
they commonly employ themselves in hunting, to
which they train falcons. It is not improbable,
therefore, that the art of falconry was conveyed
from India to the Saracens. The emperor Frederic
II. learned it from the Saracens and his Arabian
subjects in Sicily during the time of the crusades,
and wrote a book on it, entitled, _Ars venandi cum
avibus_, which was continued by his son Manfredus,
and which the learned Professor Schneider published
at Leipsic, in 1788 and 1789, in two parts, 4to;
because the first edition, in 8vo, of Augsburg, was
out of print. The most valuable part of this work
are the additions and illustrations of that learned
naturalist; but one cannot help being surprised that
the above-mentioned emperor should have possessed
so much knowledge, and even of anatomy.--It is
impossible to determine to what class the _Kaka_ and
_Cembòtta_ belong, but the _Wesbambel_ is the large
Asiatic pelican (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_.) _F._
[139] The _Magnakli_ is probably the _Oriolus galbula L._
or our golden thrush, which is found every where in
the old world; but the Indian bird is a variety.
That the small bird of paradise, _Paradisea regia
L._ is to be found in the Gauts, is an observation
entirely new, which requires to be confirmed by
eye-witnesses; for, as far as is yet known, all
the different kinds of the bird of paradise are to
be found only in New Guinea, and the neighbouring
islands, particularly Aru. _F._
[140] Without doubt Buffon’s _Poule sultane_ (_Fulica
porphyrio L._) a very beautiful bird. _F._
[141] It is rather singular that the author should class
bats among the birds merely because they can fly,
when they are _mammalia_. Those here mentioned
are probably the same as Buffon’s _Roussette_
(_Vespertilio vampyrus_, or, according to
Blumenbach, _V. caninus_.) They live entirely on
fruits, and are not blood-thirsty, as we might be
induced to believe from Gmelin’s assertion in _Linn.
Syst. Nat._ ed. xiii. In this respect they are
confounded with the real Vampyre of Surinam (_Vesp.
Spectrum_). This Vampyre exhales a very disagreeable
smell, and is not eatable; but the former may be
eaten, and are used as food by the natives of New
Holland. They are accustomed to suspend themselves
in the day time by the large hooks of their wings
from the _Casuarina_ trees. I brought down six
of them at one shot in the island of Amsterdam
(_Tonga-Tabu_), and several more remained dead on
the tree; for there was an immense multitude of them
together. _F._
[142] This black-bird is the so called _Mayno_, or _Mayna_
(_Gracula religiosa L._). Numbers of them may be
seen in England, particularly in London. They are
brought from India and the Philippines, because they
pipe exceedingly pretty; are easily taught; learn
whole tunes, and even imitate words. _F._
[143] See a description of this bird in the _Asiatic
Researches_, vol. ii. p. 109.
[144] The _Bajà_ or _Berbera_ is the gross-beak of
the Philippines (_Loxia Philippina L._) already
described by Brission. A great many of these nests
are brought to Europe. _F._
[145] The Indian crocodile (_Lacerta Gangetica_,) has
very long narrow jaw-bones, and is easily tamed.
It is very remarkable that the crocodile is held
sacred in India, as it formerly was in Egypt. Some
of the Malays, for instance, at Batavia, are so
superstitious as to imagine that such a crocodile is
their brother or sister. They endeavour, therefore,
to save some of their provisions, that they may
every day carry food to the crocodile, which
approaches at their call. _F._
[146] These _Candimarams_ are, by the English sailors,
called _Catamarans_. Some of the islanders in the
South Sea venture out to fish in another manner.
Two long bundles of the boughs of trees supply the
place of a log of wood, and some tie into bundles
of the like kind canes or reeds. Several of these
are united together in strata placed cross-wise;
and sometimes the person who directs this frail
vessel ventures to add to it a mast, and a sail
formed of a mat. All vessels of this kind the
English distinguish by the corrupted Indian word
_Catamarans_. _F._
[147] All uncultivated nations formerly built, and still
build their ships without employing sometimes
a single nail. Vessels of this kind are still
constructed at Archangel. In Arabia the planks of
ships were sewed together. See Plin. _Hist. Nat._
lib. xxiv. c. 40. and _Arriani mare Erythræum_.
The latter calls these ships _Madarate_. Niebuhr
saw a ship of this kind from Oman, which was
called _Tarad_. These vessels and their name
have been therefore preserved these 1700 years;
for the syllable _ma_ is a _formativum nominis_,
and _Darate_ and _Tarad_ have a great affinity,
or are the same word. In Otaheite also, and the
neighbouring islands, all the ships, or rather large
war-boats, have their planks sewed together, and the
seams are filled up with the fibres which surround
the coco-nut, in the same manner as our ships are
caulked with oakum. Among the dissolved gums with
which the seams between the planks are daubed over
in India, we are no doubt to reckon resin. As far,
however, as I know, the _Tschinam_, which consists
of coco-nut oil, fresh lime burnt from muscle
shells, and other ingredients, is principally used
for this purpose. It is well known, that, for some
time past, large ships have been sheathed with
copper, to prevent them from being pierced by the
sea-worm (_Teredo navalis L._) or the bottoms of
them are daubed over with a particular mixture of
tar and pounded glass. It has lately been discovered
in England, that tar made from pit-coal is the best
for withstanding the sea-worm. Oil of pilchards is
here recommended for the same purpose; and indeed
it would be worth while for some of the maritime
nations of Europe to make experiments with it. _F._
[148] The Souffleur is the _Delphinus Orca L._ Because
it is often seen at the northern Cape of Europe,
the fishermen gave it the name of the _Nordkaper_.
A figure and description of it may be found in the
_Phil. Trans._ vol. lxxvii. p. ii. tab. 16, 17. I am
rather surprised that the author should have been
so soon acquainted with Professor Schneider’s work
which did not appear till 1795, and that he makes no
mention of John Hunter, whose observations on whales
were translated from the Philosophical Transactions
by my learned countryman Schneider, who added to
them very valuable and useful notes. _F._
[149] The author seems not to have known that the salting
of provisions, and particularly fish, in hot
climates, is attended with great difficulties. The
fishermen are often detained at sea by the wind and
tide; their fish, in that case, are injured by the
heat of the sun, and, if salted, spoil much sooner.
Besides, salt not mixed with too much cathartic salt
is necessary, and that is not at all times to be
procured. _F._
[150] I have seen these so called elephant feet more than
once in Otaheite and the neighbouring islands. They
were hard to the touch, and sometimes red, though
they were often of the natural colour, and like
the rest of the body. The patients were able to
walk without feeling much pain from the swelling.
I had not an opportunity of observing whether this
disease originated from the water. I am, however,
of opinion, that it was occasioned by catching cold
after violent heats, and by intemperance in eating;
for the principal _Erihs_ only were attacked by it.
_F._
[151] The snake, respecting which the author here says so
much, is the well-known spectacle-snake, _Coluber
Naja L._ called in the Portuguese, _Cobra de
Capello_. An account was published, some time ago,
in the Philosophical Transactions, by an Englishman,
that he had cured several persons, bitten by the
_Naja_, with volatile alkali. In five minutes after
a person has been bitten, a locked jaw takes place.
From 30 to 40 drops of spirit of hartshorn must,
therefore, be immediately administered in water;
the mouth must be forced open, if necessary, and
the dose, in the course of a little time, must be
doubled. Death ensues in two or three hours if no
remedy be applied, and all the limbs become stiff,
as the author says. I, however, doubt whether the
_Naja_ be the aspis of the ancients. _F._
[152] The _Amphisbæna_ of the system has not two heads,
but is of equal thickness at the head and tail;
so that it appears as if it could advance both
ways. There are, however, real two-headed snakes;
at any rate, some of that kind have been seen in
America. This monstrosity is perhaps transmitted
by generation, as the _monstra per excessum_
in the families of _Ruhe_ and _Calleja_, whose
descendants have more than five fingers and toes. It
can be determined only by accurate anatomical and
physiological examination, whether these two-headed
snakes form a particular genus. _F._
[153] Rowe’s Translation, book ix. v. 1366.
[154] An account of the different methods employed to
entice snakes from their holes, and to catch them,
may be found in the Philosophical Transactions.
For the tricks which they are taught see Kæmpfer’s
_Amœnitates exoticæ_. _F._
[155] It is impossible that Pythagoras could have been the
preceptor of Plato. The latter was born at Ægina 431
years before the birth of Christ, and the former was
killed 471 years before that period, in a battle
between the Syracusans and Agrigentines. _F._
[156] This goddess _Lakshmi_ is, by Sonnerat, called
_Latschimi_. See his voyage, vol. I. p. 132. She is
the goddess of riches, and, according to the Indian
mythology, married _Vishnu_, and with him produced
_Manmodi_ the god of love. In Fra Paolino’s Latin
work, a German translation of which was published
at Gotha, in 1797, with engravings, may be seen,
Plate XII., three figures of _Lakshmi_, taken from
brass images, preserved in the Museum at Velitri. In
that work she is called the wife of _Vishnu_: and
all the names given to her by the Indians are there
enumerated. Among these are: _the goddess of good
fortune_, _the woman in labour_, _the mother of the
world_. Here the author calls her the _fruitfulness
of the earth_, and, a little farther, _the goddess
of riches_. It will be, in general, necessary in
reading this part of the author’s book, to compare
with it Sonnerat’s Voyage to India; also the _Code
of the Hindoos_, or the _Ordinances of Menu_, by
Jones and Hüttner, Weimar, 1797; and, lastly, the
_Gentoo Laws_, by Raspe, Hamburgh 1778. These works
contain many things which will serve to illustrate
what is here said by the author. _F._
[157] The Indian legislators seem to have been early
acquainted with their climate, and its influence on
the health. In a word, they evidently seem to have
been men of prudence and sound judgement; since in
order to give their laws respecting cleanliness and
health more importance and force, they took care to
interweave them with their religious system. _F._
[158] The climate of India permits new-born children to
be laid quite naked on a mat, and to be washed, as
above, with cold water; whereas in the north it is
necessary they should be defended from the cold. The
mild Indian women, accustomed to obedience, may and
must suckle their children themselves; but among
us, where the women indulge sometimes in the most
violent passions, heat themselves with dancing, and
then expose themselves to the cold, and use sour,
sweet, and salt food at the same time, many mothers
when they suckle give their children poison, and
therefore a sound nurse, subject to few passions, is
better. _F._
[159] This is a new proof that the Indian legislators
were well acquainted with the art of combining many
things with their religion. The astrology, and other
superstitions intermixed with it, can be readily
overlooked in a people of so much mildness and
softness. _F._
[160] The _Kaida_ of Rhude Hort. Malab. as well as
the _Keura athrodactylus_, and the _Pandanus
odoratissima_ is not a wild ananas, but a plant,
the male flowers of which have a farina of an
exceedingly agreeable smell. In Arabia and India
people bestrew their heads with it, as we do ours
with perfumed powder. _F._
[161] Youth destined to be Brahmans, must spend ten years
within the precincts of the temple at _Triciur_, and
avoid all intercourse with the female sex. They are
obliged also to observe the strictest silence, which
continues five years. This is the first degree of
philosophy. _A._
It thence appears, that Pythagoras must have borrowed
his philosophy in part from the Indian philosophers,
or others whose doctrine was similar, for his
scholars were subjected to silence during the same
number of years. See _Diogenes Laertius_, lib. viii.
10. and _Aul. Gellius_, Noct. Att. lib. i. 9. _F._
[162] Sir William Jones is much prepossessed in favour of
the Brahmans at Benares, and the Pagan practices
usual in Bengal. In that country, however, greater
revolutions have certainly taken place than on the
coast of Malabar; and we have consequently just
reason to suspect, that the customs prevalent in
the former have lost much more of their original
purity than those in the latter. On this subject see
D’Anville’s _Antiquités Géographiques de l’Inde_,
Paris 1775, where it is said, among other things, p.
117. _Le Malabar defendu par les Ghattes a été moins
sujèt à des vicissitudes que d’autres parties de
l’Inde_, &c. At _Cangiburam_ in _Carnate_ there is
still a celebrated Brahman school, which, according
to the testimony of Ptolemy, existed in the first
century of the Christian æra; and its members are
certainly equal in celebrity to the Brahmans of
_Vanares_ or _Benares_. The academy of _Triciur_,
on the coast of Malabar, is also in great repute
throughout the whole southern part of India. _A._
The ceremonies by which marriage, according to the
laws of the Indians, is solemnized and rendered
indissoluble, serve as a new proof of the wisdom
of their first legislators. These men clearly saw
that chaste love and good education have a great
and useful influence on a state, and the general
happiness of its members. _F._
[163] In the original, at the beginning of this chapter,
there is an historical and critical dissertation on
the antiquity of the _Vèda_, which occupies no fewer
than ten quarto pages. The author there controverts
the opinion of the celebrated Sir William Jones,
who asserted that this book of laws existed 1000 if
not 1500 years before the birth of Christ. When Sir
William heard that Fra Paolino was of a contrary
opinion, he was so angry that he called him _Homo
trium litterarum_; and the latter, in return, called
him _Homo unius litteræ_. So far the two champions
were on a level. But we are not impressed with so
favourable an opinion of our author, when, after a
panygyric on Sir William Jones, whose early death
he laments, he concludes by saying: “He wished to
explain every thing, but unfortunately left every
thing in the dark.” After such an assertion, the
intelligent reader, it is hoped, will hardly regret
that the translator has left this dissertation in
the dark also. _F._
[164] P. 28. and 29.
[165] Dialog. iv. De Legibus.
[166] The English, since extending their conquests in
India, have found means to gain the friendship
of many of the most learned and most judicious
Brahmans. Some of their Literati have now in their
possession complete collections of the sacred
books of the Indians, and have made themselves so
well acquainted with the languages in which they
are written as to be able to translate several
of them. Thus the laws of _Menu_ were translated
by Sir William Jones; and the _Bhagwat-Dschitah_
(_Geetah_), together with _Hitopades_, was
translated by Mr. Wilkins: the _Ezur-Vedam_ has been
translated into French. It is not improbable that
in the course of time we shall have translations of
the principal and most useful part of the Indian
writings. _F._
[167] This is a Portuguese word.
[168] Whether king _Menu_ be the same person as the Noah
of the Jews, is still very doubtful. In general,
many of the modern Literati lay too much stress on
etymology. Thus Father Georgi, in his _Alphabetum
Tibetanum_, has employed a great deal of learning to
no purpose. Even Sir William Jones, in his papers on
the people of Asia, has committed the same fault.
_F._
[169] A German translation of this _Systema Brahmanicum_
was published at Gotha in 1797, with thirty
copper-plates, under the title of _Darstellung der
Brahmanisch-Indischen Götterlehre_. _F._
[170] These philosophers are not properly priests, nor
do they belong to the family of the Brahmans, who,
however, cause themselves to be received into all
these four classes; yet they have nothing in common
with the Gymnosophists, _Samanæi_, _Yoguis_ and
_Gosua_, who never eat with them, nor enter their
pagodas or temples. The last-mentioned form also
four different classes, for they consist of hermits;
members who live in common, and possess certain
portions of land; mendicants, or the gymnosophists
properly so called; and _Sanyasis_ (_Senasseys_),
who all forsake their wives, and run about naked.
All these philosophers, who, as already said, must
not be confounded with the Brahmans, impose upon
themselves penances which appear almost incredible.
“Some of these people,” says Pallebot de Saint
Lubin, vol. i. p. 25. “remain sitting on the ground
so long that they are not able to move from the
spot. Others keep their arms so long in an erect
posture, that an anchilosis is formed between the
joint of the arm and the shoulder-blade, and they
are altogether incapable of holding their arm out
straight. Some keep their hands always folded
together; so that their nails grow through the
flesh, and appear on the other side. Some drag
after them monstrous chains; others support heavy
beams in the air, and others roll themselves down
from the tops of mountains, &c.” I myself saw one
of these men who had a heavy chain suspended from
his foreskin; another had stuck his head up to the
neck in an iron cage, and a third had held his
arm so long over the fire that it was entirely
withered. The descendants of these philosophers
have spread themselves to Tartary, where a great
many of them are to be found: the _Khutuktu_ of the
Kalkasians, and the _Dalai Lama_ of Thibet, belong
to the same race. Besides the above-mentioned,
there are also a great many other sects in India;
such as the _Pandaras_, or _Phallophori_, of the
ancients; who, at present, are known under the name
of the _Lingamists_: also the _Cabirs_, _Taders_,
_Paramanghas_, and others. These people are very
improperly called _Fakirs_; for that word is not
of Indian extraction, but derived either from the
Arabic or Persian. _A._
[171] That the adherents of Bhudha have spread themselves
in the east, north, and north-west from China,
cannot be denied; but the periods assigned for the
diffusion of the Bhudhist system are very different.
According to Kæmpfer, in his History of Japan, the
Japanese reckoned the year 1690 of the Christian æra
to be the year 2234 after the _Sonkarad_, or death
of _Sammona-Khutama_, who is called also _Prah_,
and _Budha_; so that the first year must have
corresponded with the year 544 before the birth of
Christ. This æra of the Bhudhists seems, therefore,
to fall about the time of Cyrus king of Persia,
whereas the introduction of the Bhudhist system into
the north was 600 years later. _F._
[172] Vol. I. l. 2. p. 153. Edit. Amstel.
[173] The passage is as follows: “Gestant annulum
et baculum (Brahmanes). Vestis eorum in
_superhumeralis_ formam composita est.” _Photius_,
Cod. cxli. p. 999. Edit. Rothomag. 1653.
[174] This external perfection was necessary in every
priest also among the Jews. We cannot, however,
thence conclude, that the one nation borrowed this
custom from the other: it is rather probable that
they both borrowed it from the Egyptians. It is
nevertheless possible that the legislators of many
ancient nations may have conceived the idea of
excluding mutilated persons from the priesthood, as
nations in their infancy hold up their priests as
patterns of perfection, and mediators between the
Deity and man. _F._
[175] P. 45, 46, 47.
[176] There seems here to be some mistake. _E. T._
[177] See a short account of the Gentoos mode of
collecting the revenues on the coast of Coromandel.
_Lond._ 1783.
[178] Many of the oriental languages are distinguished
by this peculiarity, that a small variation in a
character causes a new syllabic variation, with
a different pronunciation. This is the case,
for example, with the Ethiopic alphabet, which
has twenty-six characters, and each of these is
varied by seven vowel marks. There are also twenty
different marks for the diphthongs; so that the
whole alphabet consists of 202 marks and characters.
The Amharic language, generally spoken in Ethiopia,
has thirty-three characters, which are also varied
by seven vowel and twenty diphthong marks; so
that the whole alphabet contains 251 marks and
characters. In the _Transactions of the Academy
of Petersburgh_, vol. iii. and iv. the learned
Theophilus Siegfried Bayer has given engravings of
a great many of these Brahmanic characters. They
amount at least to 525 variations, if not more. _F._
[179] The alphabet of the _Barmans_, in the kingdom of
Ava, was published at Rome by the Congregation _de
propaganda fide_, 1787. 8. I received a copy of it
from the learned Cardinal Borgia, so zealous for
promoting useful knowledge, together with other
alphabets which I still wanted; so that at present
I flatter myself I have in my possession a complete
collection. _F._
[180] See _Phoc._ in _Vit. Apoll. Tian. cod._ cclii.--_L.
Vives Comment. in lib._ xiv.--_S. Aug. de Civitate
Dei_, p. 1734. edit. Paris.--_Euseb. in Chron._ p.
72. edit. Scalig.--and _Philostrat. in Vita Apoll._
lib. iii. cap. 6. and lib. iv. cap. 6. _A._
The appellation _Gymnosophists_ signifies, as is well
known, naked philosophers. It does not, however,
thence follow, that the people so called by the
Greeks must have come from India. The warmth of the
climate would make clothing superfluous to such
men, even on the banks of the Nile. They led a
contemplative life, and from that circumstance also
were called gymnosophists; but they did not bring
the mode of writing by characters from India to
Ethiopia. _F._
[181] See _Historischer Versuch über die Zigeuner_,
Göttingen, 1787. _A._
[182] The richness of a language must not be estimated in
this manner. It is generally said, that the Arabic
is a rich language, because it has I know not how
many words to express a _sword_. The literal meaning
of one of these words is the _man-murderer_. This,
however, is only a metaphorical and figurative
expression; and a number of these may be found
in or compounded from every language which has
attained to any degree of perfection. Thirty or more
appellations of the Sun might be collected from the
Greek poets; but no one ever considered this as a
proof of the richness of the Greek language. _F._
[183] Such Samscred words occur not only in Ptolemy, but
also in Arrian and Strabo. This, therefore, is an
evident refutation of the conjecture of Mr. George
Forster, that the Samscred language was not known to
the Greeks, and has existed in India only since the
birth of Christ. See Forster’s Notes to the Indian
Play _Sakontala_, p. 333, and 334. _A._
[184] See on this subject the Asiatic Researches, p.
116-120. also my _Systema Brahmanicum_, p. 83,
and 279, where this event is represented from an
original Indian painting preserved in the Borgian
Museum. _A._
[185] See the _Asiatic Researches_, vol. i. p. 160, and
vol. ii. p. 123.
[186] See, on this subject, my Samscred Grammar, p. 175.
[187] These three apparitions are evidently a mystic veil,
behind which the Indian philosophers have concealed
the history of the flood, and of the fall of the
wicked angels. The former was believed by all the
ancient nations; and in regard to the latter, the
book _Mahábharáda_ contains the following remarkable
passage: _Asuranguel deivatuam codiciaver_; that is,
“The _Asuri_, or the wicked angels, contended with
the utmost desire for deification.” This passage
stands in the 13th page of the copy of the above
book, which I have in my possession. Compare with it
my _Systema Brahmanicum_, p. 279. _A._
[188] The goddess _Adidi_, or _Didi_, is the mother of
the wicked dæmons, who in the Samscred are called
_Asuri_, and who are exceedingly spiteful. See,
on this subject, Father Hanxleden’s dictionary,
under the articles _Adidi_ and _Asuri_. _Bali_,
who of all these _Asuri_ was the most wicked, and
possessed the most insupportable pride, made it his
continual business to torment the gods and men.
_Vishnu_ therefore assumed the form of a dwarf,
overcame him, and punished him as he deserved.
Other writers consider the above apparitions as
an allegory respecting the history of the first
king of the Assyrians called _Bel_ or _Belus_, who
reigned at Babylon 1322 years before the birth of
Christ, and caused himself to be worshipped as a
deity. According to this opinion the Assyrians are
to be here understood under the appellation _Asuri_.
The author of the _Masabhàràda_, already often
mentioned, relates, that _Báli_, or _Mahàbàli_,
that is, _Bali the Great_, had a hundred sons, the
first-born of which was _Bánnen_. _A._
[189] This manuscript is preserved in the Borgian Museum.
_A._
[190] The most common forms of prayer addressed by the
Indians to _Shiva_ are: _Shiva Shivaya namà_, that
is, _Shiva_, _Shiva_, adoration to thee!--and
_Maràvana namà_, To thee, O _Vishnu_ or _Naràyana_,
be adoration! Particular names, as I have already
said, are in general given to each god, and
these names serve to express their attributes or
properties. The Indians always repeat them three
times in order, during their devotions; and as often
as they pronounce one of them, they drop a bead of
their rosary. _A._
[191] When the Pagans, during their ablutions, paint marks
of this kind on their forehead, they always repeat
certain forms of prayer, in honour of the deity
to whom these marks are dedicated. At the time of
public ablutions this business is performed by the
priest, who paints with his finger the foreheads of
all those who have already purified themselves. At
private lustrations each person lays on the colours
himself, without being under the necessity of
offering up prayers. No Pagan can assist in any part
of divine worship without being painted with the
above marks. _A._
[192] Four different kinds of years occur in some of the
ancient Grantham or Samscred books. One consists
of 355, another of 365, the third of 360, and the
fourth of 324 days. Besides these, there is also the
year of Saturn, or _Shani_, which always completes
its course in twenty-nine years and six months.
Likewise the year of Jupiter, or _Brahaspadi_, which
consists of 360 days, divided into ten months. In
some of the Indian provinces the people still reckon
by these years. This variety, in determining the
revolutions of the planets, seems to shew that the
Brahmans and _Samanæi_ were diligent observers of
the heavens in very ancient periods. The orbits of
the planets are divided into a certain number of
_Yògiana_, each of which is equal to a mile. _A._
[193] It is very remarkable, that the zodiac of the
Indians contains the same signs as that of the
Greeks and other western nations: that these signs
were, in part, used by the Egyptians; and that the
seven days of the week, which Dio Cassius, _lib._
xxxvii. speaks of as an ancient establishment of the
Egyptians, are named after the same deities as among
them. The Turks, Persians, Tartars and Chinese have
in their zodiac a series of signs totally different,
consequently must have derived their knowledge from
a different source; but at the same time from a
people who had observed the courses of the heavenly
bodies, and who had endeavoured to compare the solar
year with the lunar. I cannot help entertaining an
idea that the people of Upper Egypt and Nubia, who
were considered as Ethiopians, were the first who
had a knowledge of the planets and heavenly bodies;
and that their knowledge, was communicated to the
Egyptians, Arabians, and Indians, and to the whole
East. _F._
[194] _Sandhi_, or _Sandhya_, is the time when day
and night border on each other, the morning and
evening twilight, says Mr. Samuel Davis; to
whose dissertation I am indebted for the above
calculation. _A._
[195] See, on this subject, the _Asiatic Researches_, vol.
ii. § 15, p. 225, _On the Astronomical Computations
of the Hindoos_; and § 16, p. 289, _On the Antiquity
of the Indian Zodiack_, by W. Jones; also Sonnerat,
_Voyages aux Indes_, vol. ii. b. 3. p. 178. and p.
201. _A._
[196] The first astronomical observations in India were
made in the year 1181 before the birth of Christ.
It is evident, therefore, that the Indians are
among the oldest astronomers. See _the Asiatic
Researches_, vol. ii. p. 393. _A._
[197] Lib. viii. cap. 17.
[198] See the _Asiatic Researches_, vol. ii. § xvi. p. 289.
[199] Compare with the above the calendar of the Greeks
and the Romans, published at Basle in 1545, by Lilio
Gregorio Giraldo. It will there be seen that the
calendar of the Brahmans has a striking similitude
to the ancient calendar of the Greeks. _A._
[200] In page 317, the author enumerated several Indian
words which have a great similarity to Latin
words of the same signification; and here we have
another instance in _aghni_, ignis, fire. I shall
take this opportunity of remarking, that several
Lithuanian words have a great affinity to the Latin.
Thus _awis_, ovis, a sheep; _Dièwas_, Deus, God;
_dantis_, dens, a tooth; _senis_, senex, an old man;
_arru_, aro, I plough; _wirs_, vir, a man; _gentis_,
gentilis, a relation; _rossa_, ros, dew; _angis_,
anguis, a snake; _lupus_, lupus, a wolf; _naktis_,
nox, noctis, the night; _tu_, tu, thou; _trys_,
tres, three. _Dus Diewas dantes, dus Diewas dunes_;
dat Deus dentes, dat Deus panem.
[201] Compare with this observation a passage in _Euseb.
Præp. Evang._ lib. iii. p. 102. which may serve as a
proof that Orpheus and his cotemporaries entertained
the like rude conceptions of the Deity. _A._
[202] Among the solemnities established by the Brahmans on
the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, the dedication
of their temples, which is renewed every year,
deserves also to be mentioned. On this occasion
they are accustomed to ornament the _goturas_, or
turrets, with a number of lights and lamps, in the
same manner as is done in China during the feast
of Lanterns. We may add, likewise, the festival of
_Ciangu_, or the Horn, on which the god _Vishnu_
always blows when Nature is about to renew the
business of creation. _A._
[203] _Shuga tarunni_ signifies, in the Samscred, the
female papagay, the symbol of _Sarasvadi_, the
goddess of eloquence. _A._
[204] These voices, it is probable, have an affinity to
our treble, tenor, &c. That the reader may form some
idea of the Indian singing, I have set to music the
above Malabar song. _A._
[205] The instruments employed for an accompaniment to
pastoral songs, are: the guitar (_Vina_), the
spinet (_Kinnara_), the flute (_Vàyanacol_), and
a particular kind of lyre called _Ciura_, which
is described in the first volume of the _Asiatic
Researches_. The Indian war songs correspond with
our heroics, their pastoral songs with our lyrics,
and their theatrical pieces with our dramatic poems;
but there is an essential difference between them,
as appears from the above specimens, both in regard
to the taste and quantity. _A._
[206] One of the favourite pieces of the people is the
_Pàvakali_, or so-called buffoon dance. This word is
compounded of _Pàva_ and _Kàli_, the former of which
signifies a merry-andrew, and the latter a play or
dance. The comedies, in which dancing is always
introduced, are called _Nàdaca_ or _Nadya_. The
dance is called _Nadana_; a comedian, _Nàden_, or
_Nàdaken_; a female dancer, _Nrtagui_; and theatric
singing, _Gàna_, or _Guita_. _A._
[207] Mr. George Forster translated this play into
German, from the English edition of Sir William
Jones, and added to it notes which display talents
and learning. It was published at Mentz in 1791.
_Sakontala_, or more properly _Shakuntala_, was
a daughter of _Vishvamitra_, and married to king
_Dushpanda_. She had a son named _Bharada_, or
_Bharata_, who may be ranked among the most
celebrated of the Indian kings. More information on
this subject may be found in the book _Mahàbharada_,
which contains a circumstantial history of the
heroine _Shakuntala_. If credit is to be given to
this _Mahabharada_, and the poem _Yudhishtira_,
the Indians, about the year 1600 before the birth
of Christ, were engaged in a bloody war with the
_Gebers_, or _Gaurs_; the consequence of which was,
that the _Gebers_, under the command of one of their
kings, fled to Persia, where they remained till they
were expelled by the Mahometans. _A._
[208] Plato, Dial. III. de legibus; also Dial. II. de
republica.
[209] Every body knows that poetry, especially when
assisted by music and singing, has a great influence
over all men whose sensations are not entirely
callous; and therefore it has often been used by the
founders of religious systems, to enable them to
accomplish their views. But mankind, unfortunately,
have abused this noble gift of Heaven, sometimes
to render the most sacred things ridiculous, and
to serve as an incitement to the most sensual
voluptuousness. At present, even people of
respectable talents employ it no better purpose; and
by these means disgrace their character in a moral
point of view. _F._
[210] The Indians have been looked upon with contempt, not
only by the vain Greeks, but even by the western
nations of more modern times. Holwell first directed
the attention of the Europeans to the writings of
the Indians, and the excellent ideas they contain
respecting the Deity, Providence, and Virtue. Since
that period, Hastings, Sir William Jones, Halhed,
Wilkins, and others, have made us acquainted with
many fragments of the Indian wisdom of early times.
_F._
[211] See, on this subject, _Sonnerat Voyage aux Indes_;
Vol. II. chap. 4. where engravings are given of the
principal pagodas on the coast of Coromandel. As the
Brahmans divide themselves into two different sects,
one of which worship fire, and the other water, as
the principal deity, there are also two different
kinds of temples. _Tirunamala_, _Cialembron_, and
_Tiruvalur_, belong to the _Shivanites_: _Tirupadi_,
_Ciringam_, and _Cangipuram_, to the _Vishnuvites_.
The pagoda at _Cialembron_ contains some ancient
inscriptions with Indian characters: and these
serve as a certain proof that the old Indians had
characters peculiar to themselves; for the coast
of Coromandel was never under the dominion of the
Greeks. _A._
[212] 1 Kings, ch. xv. ver. 13.
[213] Vol. III. chap. 4. p. 36. It has been doubted
whether the Venetian Doctor, Gemelli Careri, ever
actually visited those countries which he has
described; and it has been asserted, that having
collected a great deal of information in Europe,
partly from the missionaries and other travellers,
partly from books, he then withdrew himself from
society for several years, and composed his travels
in his closet. This accusation, however, in my
opinion, is entirely groundless. One needs only read
with attention the description which he gives of the
above subterranean temple, to be convinced that it
could be written only by a person who had seen it.
_F._
[214] Were these Greek characters, they might certainly be
explained; but as that is not the case, it thence
follows that neither the temple nor the statues are
of Grecian workmanship. _A._
[215] What will be said to this by the critics, who assert
that the Indians had no proper alphabet before the
Christian æra? _A._
[216] Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvii. cap. 5.
[217] I have never seen or heard that gems are polished
in Europe on a flat stone; and that, during this
operation, they are directed merely by the hand. On
the contrary, the lapidaries employ a wheel, driven
by the foot; and having affixed to it small bits of
tin, daubed over with emery and diamond-powder. By
these the stones are cut down till they acquire the
necessary form. In the island of Ceylon the small
gems, which are found chiefly in the sand of the
rivers near _Punto do Gale_, are rubbed backwards
and forwards between two boards of hard wood, one
of which is fixed, with the powder of the Corundam
stone, or so-called diamond-spar, found in great
abundance in the Gauts, near Tirunavati, and at Cape
Comorin or Comari, in the granite rocks, until they
acquire that long round form under which they are
brought to Europe. These Corundam stones are used
also for polishing steel. _F._
[218] Dutens, in his book _Des pierres precieuses et
des pierres fines_, p. 38, says, speaking of the
emerald, that it is exclusively found in America,
near _Manta_ in Peru, or the valley of _Tunka_, in
the mountains of New Granada and Popayan, and was
not known to the ancients. The author of this voyage
asserts, that he found emeralds in Ceylon, and I
myself have obtained some of them from that island.
The French jewellers, however, call these emeralds
_Peridots_, which is the name they give to a bright
green kind of stone, not very hard, found in Arabia,
Persia, and India, the crystallisations of which
have not yet been determined. I shall take this
opportunity of observing, that in the British Museum
there is a beautiful groupe of hexagonal smaragdine
columns in quartz, which was procured from South
America. Dutens, mentioned in the beginning of this
note, the son of a jeweller in London, went to Turin
as chaplain to the English ambassador at that court.
He spoke exceedingly good French; because his father
was a French refugee, and because he had himself
resided a long time at Paris. _F._
[219] Lib. viii. cap. 10.
[220] Hist. Indica, cap. 10.
[221] See _Herbelot. Bibl. Orient._ p. 206 and 456.
_Oberlin. Litterarum omnis Ævi Fata._ Argent. 1789.
Tab. I. _Traité des plus belles Bibliothèques de
l’Europe_, p. 33. and Sketches of the History,
Religion and Learning of the Hindoos, p. 92 and 93.
[222] A certain kind of white East Indian chintz.
[223] It is indeed true, that a great part of the gold
and silver brought from Brasil and Spanish America,
passes first into the hands of the industrious
Norlanders for timber, iron, flax, hemp, linen, and
other merchandize; and then goes to China and the
East Indies for articles of luxury, drugs, &c. But
England, at any rate, does not lose much, as it
draws large revenues from its extensive possessions
in India, and has in its hands almost the whole
trade of that part of the world. _F._
[224] Lib. vi. cap. 17, et 22.
[225] This observation of the author does not display
much penetration. Commerce is the bond which unites
the most distant nations with each other. Without
trade our artists and manufacturers would have much
less employment; and much less opportunity would be
afforded them for exercising their ingenuity and
invention. Ignorance and want of mental culture
prevail in all those countries which are contented
with their own productions. Providence requires more
general benevolence, and less selfishness among men;
and the only means for accomplishing that end, are
the arts and manufactures, navigation and trade.
They are indeed shamefully abused; but the friends
of humanity ought to cherish a hope, that good will
one day arise from this evil. _F._
[226] In the observations with which the author begins
this chapter, he hazards assertions very erroneous.
The intense heat in the tropical regions is
destructive both to men and to animals. At Calcutta,
which lies at a considerable distance from the line,
wild pigeons sometimes drop down dead at noon,
while flying over the market-place. People who
are then employed in any labour, such as writers
in the service of the East India Company, whose
correspondence often will not admit of delay, sit
naked immersed up to the neck in large vessels, into
which cold water is continually pumped by slaves
from a well. Such a country cannot be favourable to
health or longevity. What are properly called the
northern regions, are also a wretched and melancholy
residence for the human race. It is only a moderate
climate, such as that of Greece, Italy, and other
countries lying under the same latitude, that can
exalt men’s ideas, and produce the utmost degree of
happiness. These gave birth to those illuminating
rays which have contributed to the improvement of
the human mind; and which, diffused thence to colder
climates, still exercise their beneficent influence.
_F._
[227] How the Marsians, a people long settled in Italy,
should be here introduced among the Cimbri, the
Teutones and the Huns, is to me incomprehensible.
They inhabited their country so long that they might
be considered as the first people by whom it was
cultivated. Their history may be seen in a very
scarce book, entitled _Mutii Phœbonii Marsi Historia
Marsorum_, Napoli 1678, 4to. _F._
[228] On this very just assertion of Hippocrates, which is
confirmed by Camper, some of our modern philosophers
have founded their system of different races;
according to which, the negroes are incapable of
possessing moral qualities, and exhibit certain
proofs of it in their looks. I have, however, seen
thousands of these men, against whom so partial a
sentence has been passed, and could observe nothing
of the kind in their countenances, which often
displayed great benevolence. Climate, manner of
life, clothing, food, and other circumstances alter
the soft parts of the body, as well as the features
of the face; and the solid parts even, from the same
causes, assume gradually a different form. Thus
whole tribes acquire a peculiar cast of visage;
and the shape, size, and turn of the body become
changed. But this cannot destroy the powers of the
mind, the passions, and the moral qualities, which
alone constitute the character and the valuable part
of man. _F._
[229] The sedentary mode of life which prevailed among
the higher classes of the Grecian women formerly
occasioned diseases of the like kind. In the history
of the Argives, about the time of Megapenthes,
we find that their women, on account of their
sedentary life, occasioned by their spinning,
weaving, embroidering, and other labours of the like
kind, and perhaps also by impure air in confined
apartments, and by the use of wine, brought on
disorders which had some resemblance to the real
_Tarantismus_ (not that occasioned by the bite
of the tarantula). Bias, and Melampus the son of
Amythares, were celebrated for curing this disease.
Music and songs sung by handsome young men, kind
treatment, and perhaps also dancing, brought back to
Argos all the women, who had wandered to the forests
and mountains. _F._
[230] See _Lettre à M. Sonnerat à l’Isle de France, de
l’Imprimerie Royale 1784_, chap. vi. p. 102.
[231] The _Bangue_ is nothing else than our hemp, the
leaves of which, when smoked, have an intoxicating
quality. _F._
[232] See _Tractatio medico-practica de Lue Venerea,
Hermanni Boerhaave_, Lugd. Bat. 1751.
[233] From the name Malabar china, I suspect that the
_Vèppa_ is the _Swietenia febrifuga_, five _rubra_,
lately made known by Dr. Roxburgh. _F._
[234] Perhaps the _Averrhoa carambola_ LINN. _F._
[235] Perhaps the root of the _Cissampelos pareira_ L.
[236] This kind of plums are produced by the _Phyllanthus
Emblica_ L.
[237] See Rheede _Hort. Malabar_. vol. i. t. 57. What the
author here says is incorrect. The wild cinnamon is
the bark of the _Karuvà_, and is the _Laurus Cassia_
L. On the other hand, the true _Cassia lignea_ is
the _Katou Karuà_ in the _Hort. Malab._ vol. v. t.
53, and the _Laurus Malabathrum_ L. _F._
[238] In the _Hort. Malab._ vol. vi. p. 19. and in the
System _Guilandina Moringa_ L. _F._
[239] Amomum Curcuma LINN.
[240] Perhaps the _Melissa officinalis_ L. or our common
balm. _F._
[241] This sensitive plant, according to every appearance,
is a _Mimosa casta_ LIN. _F._
[242] The _Vayambu_ of Rheede, _Hort. Malab._ vol. xi. t.
60, is the _Acorus calamus_ LIN. _F._
[243] Lib. xii. cap. 5.
[244] Lib. xiv. cap. 38.
[245] The author probably here means the order of
Cincinnatus. _F._
[246] All these are now in the hands of the British
government.
[247] This kingdom, as well as the capital of the same
name, was called by the old geographers _Candia_;
but the more modern give it the name of _Candy_. The
translator, however, has adhered to the orthography
of the author.
[248] Lib. vi. cap. 23.
[249] An account of Thibet by Father Giuseppe, chief
of the mission, may be found in the _Asiatic
Researches_. There is also a letter on the same
subject in the _Philosophical Transactions_. _F._
[250] This tree produces a singular kind of berries, which
taste and smell as if a great number of spices were
mixed together. _A._
[251] According to the author’s description we might be
induced to believe that there were burning volcanoes
among these mountains of Africa; but on the southern
coast there are no volcanoes, and the flames seen by
the author arose from the dry grass which the wild
inhabitants of these districts are accustomed to set
on fire. _F._
[252] As the whale is viviparous, and nourishes its young
from the milk vessels which lie on each side of the
matrix, the above substance cannot be the spawn
of the whale. It is rather, as I know from my own
researches, the embryo or eggs of the sea-nettle.
_F._
[253] These fruits do not grow in the interior parts,
but in districts which have been cultivated by the
Europeans, particularly German and French settlers.
The case is the same with the beautiful oranges
and the vines from Schiras, which grow on the
plantations of Constantia. _F._
[254] On the side of the island opposite to the harbour,
where ships generally anchor, or E. by S. there is
a high mountain, which, according to its external
appearance, is of a calcareous nature, and which in
the year 1775 I actually found so. It produces a few
herbs, which afford a wretched support to the wild
goats. In a valley on this mountain there is also
a kind of spring, but it yields very little water.
To the north east of the anchoring place there was
also a spot amidst the volcanic flag, which was well
covered with grass. _F._
[255] The man-of-war bird (_Pelicanus Aquilus_ LINN.)
These birds are so careful of their eggs and
young, that, rather than desert them, they suffer
themselves to be caught by the hand. _F._
[256] I much doubt that these burning holes in the
northern mountains of India are real volcanoes. They
appear much rather to proceed from some inflammable
matter under the earth, like that at _Baku_ on
the Caspian Sea, arising from the remains of old
volcanoes. _F._
[257] See _Lettre à M. Sonnerat par Charpentier de
Cossigny, à l’Isle de France_, 1784, p. 58-60.
[258] It is remarkable that the northern lights should be
seen in so low a latitude as that of the Azores. I
have seen them in Prussia and England, but never in
any part of Europe so far to the south. _F._
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