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Title: A Racial Study of the Fijians
Author: Norman E. Gabel
Release Date: March 14, 2012 [EBook #39140]
Language: English
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[Illustration: Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of
population made by the author.]
A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS
BY
NORMAN E. GABEL
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS
Vol. 20, No. I
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS
Editors: C. W. Meighan, Harry Hoijer. Eshref Shevky
Volume 20, No. 1. pp. 1-44, plates 1-15
Submitted by editors April 11, 1957
Issued March 27, 1958
Price. $1.00
University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles
California
Cambridge University Press
London, England
Manufactured in the United States of America
CONTENTS
_Page_
Introduction 1
The problem and procedure 1
The habitat 2
History 3
Population 3
Racial background 4
Acknowledgments 4
Measurements and indices 5
General 5
Weight 5
Stature 5
Span 5
Span-stature index 5
The trunk 5
Sitting height 5
Relative sitting height 5
Biacromial 6
Relative shoulder breadth 6
Bi-iliac 6
Shoulder-hip 6
Chest breadth 6
Chest depth 6
Thoracic 6
Arms and legs 6
Arm length 6
Humeral length 6
Radial length 7
Radial-humeral 7
Leg length 7
Tibial length 7
Calf circumference 7
The head 7
Head circumference 7
Head length 7
Head breadth 7
Cephalic index 7
Head height 8
Length-height 8
Breadth-height 8
Cranial module 8
Minimum frontal 8
Fronto-parietal 8
The face 8
Bizygomatic 8
Cephalo-facial 9
Zygo-frontal 9
Total face height 9
Total facial index 9
Upper face height 9
Upper facial index 9
Bigonial 9
Fronto-gonial 9
Zygo-gonial 10
Nasal height 10
Nasal breadth 10
Nasal index 10
Nasal depth 10
Nasal-depth index 10
Mouth breadth 10
Lip thickness 10
Ear length 10
Ear breadth 11
Ear index 11
Bicanine breadth 11
Morphological observations 12
Pigmentation 12
Skin color: exposed 12
Skin color: unexposed 12
Hair color 13
Eye color 13
Hair 13
Hair form 13
Hair texture 14
Head hair quantity 14
Hair length 14
Baldness 14
Beard quantity 14
Body hair 15
Grayness: head 15
Grayness: beard 16
The face 16
Prognathism: total 16
Prognathism: mid-facial 16
Prognathism: alveolar 16
Malar projection: lateral 16
Malar projection: frontal 16
Gonial angles 16
Palate shape 16
Chin prominence 17
Chin type 17
The head 17
Temporal fullness 17
Occipital protrusion 17
Lambdoidal flattening 17
Occipital flattening 17
Median sagittal crest 17
Parietal bosses 17
Cranial asymmetry 17
Facial asymmetry 18
Eyes 18
Eye folds: external 18
Eye fold: median 18
Eye folds: internal 18
Eye obliquity 18
Eye opening 18
Forehead 18
Brow ridges 18
Forehead height 19
Forehead slope 19
Nose 19
Nasion depression 19
Root height 19
Root breadth 19
Nasal septum 19
Bridge height 19
Bridge breadth 19
Nasal profile 19
Nasal-tip thickness 20
Nasal-tip inclination 20
Nasal wings 20
Mouth 20
Lip thickness: membranous 20
Lip thickness: integumental 20
Lip eversion 20
Lip seam 20
Teeth 21
Bite 21
Caries 21
Crowding 21
Tooth eruption 21
Wear 21
Ears 21
Ear helix 21
Darwin's point 21
Ear-lobe type 22
Ear-lobe size 22
Ear protrusion 22
Ear slant 22
Body build 22
Body build: endomorph 22
Body build: mesomorph 22
Body build: ectomorph 22
Summary 23
Conclusions 25
Literature cited 26
Plates 27
MAP
Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population
made by the author ... frontispiece
A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS
BY
NORMAN E. GABEL
INTRODUCTION
This paper concerns itself with a physical survey of the native male
population of Fiji. The main objective is a description of these people
by means of anthropometric procedure.[1] The treatment includes, first,
a description of the Fijians as a whole, second, a comparison with
neighboring people, and third, regional differences among the Fijians
themselves.
THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE
The data used in this survey were secured in 1954 during a stay of seven
months in Fiji. My plan was to obtain anthropometric samples from
several parts of the archipelago; this plan was only slightly altered as
time and transportation facilities directed. Each of the three main
administrative districts into which the islands are divided were visited
and within each district samples were secured from most of the
constituent provinces. The original sample consisted of 880 subjects.
Later, 65 subjects were excluded for various reasons: some were part
Samoan or Tongan, a few were Rotumans, and others were immature. The
number finally used stands at 815.
A limited amount of comparative material has been included in order to
help locate the Fijians in the overall Pacific picture. These data were
drawn from W. W. Howells, "Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the
Solomon Islands" in The American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers, volume 33, part 4, 1933, and from L. R.
Sullivan, "A Contribution to Tongan Somatology" based on the field
studies of E. W. Gifford and W. C. McKern, in Memoires of the Bernice P.
Bishop Museum, volume 8, number 4, 1922. The latter report provides
comparison with what may be termed western Polynesians who are also the
nearest Polynesians to the Fijians. The Fijian data in Howell's paper
make it possible for me to check some of my own Fijian material, and the
Solomon Island data in the same report provide a Melanesian measuring
stick.
Since an over-all description of the Fijians is the initial concern of
this paper, each physical trait measured or derived from measurement is
tabulated according to range, average, and deviation. Traits observed
but not measured are presented according to degree of development, e.g.,
absent, medium, and pronounced, and according to percentage of
occurrence. Further statistical manipulation is not deemed necessary for
the writer's purposes.
It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people. They are
regarded, and with good reason, as a hybrid of, mainly, Melanesian and
Polynesian components. Their geographical location, their history, and
their physical appearance bear this out.
The proportions of Polynesian and Melanesian elements are, of course,
not evenly distributed throughout Fiji. Even superficial observation
indicates that the natives range from strongly Melanesian to markedly
Polynesian. To demonstrate how this variability follows certain regional
trends, the data have been broken down into four geographical areas.
This subdivision rests on several considerations and merits further
comment.
One of the subgroups represents the people of the mountainous interior
of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji (see accompanying map). This
region may be regarded as something of a refuge area. Fijians from this
relatively isolated locality might reasonably be expected to exhibit
more of the earlier racial elements of the total composition. It should
be pointed out, however, that the degree of isolation associated with
this; interior; group is not extreme. Fiji tradition and history
indicate extensive interregional movement. Particularly in early
historic times, when the advent of firearms and other Western culture
greatly stimulated intergroup warfare and cannibalism, there was much
moving about from one region to another. With all this, the interior
people still remained, as indeed they are today, more apart from the
rest of the population and less subject to outside influence.
The second segment chosen for interregional comparison is in the central
Lau Islands and is designated in this paper as the "eastern" group.
Lying as they do, at the eastern end of Fiji, they are closest to Tonga,
the nearest Polynesian neighbors. Tongan contact with Fiji in
prehistoric as well as more recent times is well established.[2] It is
in the Lau Islands that Polynesian cultural affinities are most marked.
Hence, it seems a logical choice for a second and separate glance in the
racial history.
The third comparative sample might be termed an intermediate group. It
is taken from the coastal villages of eastern Viti Levu, largely from
the provinces of Rewa and Tailevu. This area is geographically between
the "interior" and "eastern" groups and is referred to in this paper as
the "coastal" group.
The final regional division represents the northwestern parts of Viti
Levu. This is the place where, according to Fiji tradition, their
ancestors first landed after migrating from the west.[3] Fijian legend,
which gives this hint of their ancestry, does not include a physical
description of these immigrants. Nor does it define the physical
appearance of the earlier people whom the newcomers encountered and with
whom they mingled. On the rather slim hope that anthropometry might shed
a little light on this questionable phase of Fijian history, this area,
along with the first three, has received separate treatment.
THE HABITAT
The islands of Fiji are centrally located in the southwest Pacific. Over
three hundred islands and islets make up the archipelago, which spreads
between latitudes 15' and 22' south of the equator for 300 miles. The
international date line runs through Fiji at the Koro Sea and the Moala
Island group.
The total land area of the islands is about the equivalent of the state
of Delaware, somewhat over 7,000 square miles. Two great islands account
for nearly 95 per cent of the total area: Viti Levu, the largest, is
over 4,000 square miles, and Vanua Levu, about half as large. Over 90
per cent of the native population lives on these two islands although
nearly a hundred other islands are inhabited.
Most of the islands are made up of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The
largest islands rest on a submerged portion of an ancient land mass,
sometimes called the Melanesian continent, which goes back in time to
the Paleozoic and, in its prime, intermittently connected Fiji with
southeastern Asia and Australia. Subsequent submergence, followed by
cycles of volcanic upbuilding, erosion, and more submergence over eons
of time, gave the big islands their upper foundations. The last
extensive volcanic activity and land uplift occurred in the Pleistocene
and accounts for many of the present mountain masses. The final touches
to the Fiji profile have been wrought by more recent weathering and
erosion. Sedimentation is still going on at river mouths and along the
coasts, where deltas are being built and mangrove thickets flourish.
Many of the smaller islands are old limestone masses that were pushed up
from the sea. Unlike the high craggy volcanic islands, these are lower
and flat-topped. Typically, they contain a basin-shaped depressed area
that is surrounded by a rim. These depressions are usually fertile and
heavily forested.
Coral islands make up the third variety of land forms. These are always
small and low. Their small size, thinner soil, and lack of fresh water
make them much less suitable for human habitation. But even a thin layer
of soil produces a luxurious vegetation.
Fringing and barrier reefs are abundant throughout the archipelago,
surrounding nearly every island. The most striking of these formations
is the Great Sea Reef, which forms an arc of nearly 300 miles along the
western fringe of Fiji and encloses large areas of coral-infested sea.
Moderately high mountains give to the larger islands a generally rugged
terrain. The more extensive ranges lie across the path of the prevailing
south and easterly winds producing windward and leeward climatic areas.
On the windward side rainfall is heavy and rather evenly distributed
over the year. Here the valleys and mountain slopes support a typical
dense tropical growth. The leeward side, however, receives much less
moisture and has wet and dry seasons. Scattered patches of trees and
grasses cover the ground, whereas heavy stands of forest are confined to
valley bottoms and higher mountain slopes. The mountainous interior of
Viti Levu contains a number of peaks over 3,000 feet, the highest of
which is Mt. Victoria, 4,341 feet.
Surface water is abundant on the bigger islands. Several large and
navigable rivers drain Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Rewa River, on the
east side of Viti Levu is the largest and is navigable for small craft
for 70 miles. Smaller rivers and hundreds of streams are important
sources of food and drink for the people of the interior.
Great flood plains are formed at the mouths of the larger rivers. These
and the fertile flats that run back along the valleys contain the
greatest population densities.
The climate is generally pleasant and healthful. Tropical extremes of
heat and humidity are moderated by the prevailing trades, which usually
supply cool and pleasant breezes from the east. Still, days of
uncomfortable heat and oppressive humidity are not unknown; however,
such periods are protracted only in the interior. The climate is far
from uniform throughout the islands. The windward sides, where rainfall
often exceeds a hundred inches, have a more even temperature and
sunshine is more moderate. On the leeward sides there is less general
cloudiness and more sunshine, especially during the dry season. The
smaller islands generally resemble the leeward areas in climate.
Native plant and animal life, like much of the southwest Pacific, is
southeastern Asiatic in type and in origin. In the more profuse and
varied windward sides there are several general vegetation zones. Along
the coasts and in the larger river basins occur alluvial vegetation
largely dominated by several kinds of mangrove, which is densest in mud
flats washed by the tide. In this zone trees are scattered, and many of
them bear useful nuts and fruits. On the slopes and ridges behind the
coastal belts are the great tropical rain forests. They make up a dense
cover of evergreen trees interwoven with wild creepers and vines. Thick
stands of shrubs and smaller trees add to the tropical profusion. Above
2,000 feet the forests thin out and become more heavily coated with moss
and lichens, and ferns and orchids attach themselves to the branches.
Beyond 3,000 feet is the cloud belt, and above this trees become stunted
and are finally replaced by hardy shrubs that cling to the rocks and
crags.
On the leeward sides, patches of rain forest are found only in the
moister areas. More typical of this zone are thin-leaved trees
interspersed in large expanses of meadow and grassland.
A number of native plants are very vital to the Fijian livelihood and
some have modern economic importance. Several timber trees are essential
to house building, canoe construction, and wood carving. The ubiquitous
palms, here as elsewhere in the Pacific, are vital sources of food,
drink, building, and weaving materials and cordage. The mangrove
provides firewood, house poles, fishing fences, and traps, laths for
bows and black dye for their hair and tapa. Valuable starch is secured
from the sago palm, which is cut just before flowering, and the leaves
are a common thatching material. Various reeds, canes, and bamboos and
lianas are useful to Fiji economy. In the drier areas reeds and grasses
provide material for house walls, thatch, fish fences, and arrow shafts.
Several kinds of trees yield edible nuts and fruits.
Like other central-Pacific island groups, Fiji is poorly provided with
indigenous mammals. A small gray rat is a considerable pest in gardens
and homes, and a large nocturnal bat, which is called a flying fox,
lives in tree colonies and is often seen at dusk in banana groves or
other feeding places. All the economically important animals of Fiji
have been introduced, such as pigs, fowl, dogs, cattle, horses, sheep,
and goats.
Bird life is diverse and interesting, although in a number of places
introduced forms, like mynahs and turtle doves, have forced the native
varieties back into the jungle. Several game birds such as doves,
pigeons, and ducks are occasionally hunted.
Snakes and lizards are fairly common on the islands; none is poisonous.
Some are eaten, but the practice is not usual. Snakes had a more
important place in the former religious and totemic practices.
Much more vital to the native economy is the abundant and varied marine
life. This, with gardening, provides the foundation of Fijian
subsistence. Turtles, crabs, prawns, eels, to say nothing of scores of
fishes, are hunted, trapped, poisoned, speared, and netted. The cycle of
the balolo worm has here the same importance as in other Pacific
islands.
HISTORY
The first western contact with Fiji was made in 1643 when Captain Abel
Tasman entered Fijian waters and sighted several islands and reefs
without realizing the nature of his discovery. Over a hundred years
later, Captain Cook made a second contact by stopping at one of the
southern Lau Islands. Real knowledge of the area began in 1792 when
Captain Bligh sailed through the archipelago from the southeast to the
northwest, following the famous mutiny of the _Bounty_. Bligh made an
attempt to land, was attacked by natives, and continued through the
islands with no more landings. He did, however, make a record of most of
the islands he passed.
In the nineteenth century, commercial contacts began in the form of
sandalwood trade. This profitable commodity brought Europeans and
Americans first to the Sandalwood Coast on the west side of Vanua Levu.
During this period the first systematic survey of Fijian waters was
made by the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840. After little more
than a decade the sandalwood supply was depleted to the point where
trade virtually ceased.
As a result of this initial commercial contact, which was mainly around
western Vanua Levu and eastern Viti Levu, some marked changes were
effected in Fijian culture. After the sandalwood traders abandoned Fiji
for more profitable fields, a number of deserters and ship-wrecked men
remained. These beachcombers, along with firearms that had been
introduced by trade or salvaged from wrecks, brought about the first
striking alterations. Rival chiefs competed for the acquisition of
muskets, gunpowder, and beachcombers. The latter in some instances
became attached to royal households as dubious advisors and instructors
in the use of guns, powder, and shot. Some of these coaches enjoyed a
status resembling that of household pets.
The introduction of firearms changed the native political scene and
increased the scope and destructiveness of warfare. For a time the
rulers of Mbau in eastern Viti nearly monopolized the supply of muskets
and white men. This established their political supremacy over rival
leaders. Larger and stronger political and military alliances, some
resembling small kingdoms, developed for purposes of defense or
aggression. As warfare grew more frequent, new diseases entered the
islands and trade in liquor advanced.
After the third decade of the nineteenth century better elements began
to enter Fiji and ensuing culture contact was not so consistently
deplorable. _Bêche-de-mer_ traders and whalers began to visit the islands
for trade goods and supplies. Some began to settle at the east end of
Viti Levu. Missionaries came in the 1830's and the Christianization of
Fiji began.
Internal conflict between rival chiefs, attacks on French, British, and
American ships, with subsequent reprisals, continued and intensified. By
mid-century, rivalry between the local kingdoms of Mbau and Rewa reached
a peak. At this time the powerful ruler of Mbau, Thakombau, who
dominated a large segment of eastern Viti Levu, had become hard pressed
by his Rewa enemies. Thakombau submitted to the missionaries who had
been pressing his conversion. With his support of the missionaries, the
native struggles became a religious war between Christianity and
paganism as well as between nativism and westernism. Thakombau's cause
was rescued in 1855 when King George of Tonga brought an army of 2,000
warriors to Fiji and combined his strength with that of the kingdom of
Mbau. Thenceforth Thakombau remained the paramount chief in eastern Fiji
and for some twenty ensuing years ruled under the dominance of Tongan
princes. Another Tongan chief, Ma'afu, arrived in 1848 and set up a
political domain that rivaled the kingdom of Thakombau.
Throughout these struggles and particularly with the conversion of
Thakombau and the leadership of the already Christianized Tongan chiefs,
native religion, including cannibalism, rapidly declined. Meanwhile,
English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were augmenting earlier
trade contacts. Plantations and trade centers developed, and in 1857 a
British consul was appointed and set up at Levuka on the east coast of
Viti Levu. A few years later Thakombau sought relief from the payment of
indemnities to foreign powers and from internal harassments by an offer
to cede his dominions to Great Britain. The initial offer was declined
and the British consul was recalled in 1860.
The next ten years saw a continuation of political and military turmoil
stemming from rival interests of native rulers, Tongan interlopers, and
European immigrants. A second appeal to the British government resulted
in an unconditional deed of cession on October 10, 1874, which marks the
beginning of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony.
POPULATION
Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these about 140,000 are
native Fijians. The others are arranged in the following divisions:[4]
Indians 154,803
Europeans 6,500
Part European 7,496
Polynesians }
Melanesians } 4,133
Micronesians }
Rotumans 3,990
Chinese 3,857
Others 649
When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874 the population was
entirely native except for a handful of outsiders. At that time the
population has been variously estimated at approximately 200,000.
Shortly thereafter a measles epidemic reduced their number severely.
This, with other epidemics and maladies for which they had little or no
immunity or resistence, continued the decimation until by 1905 there
were only 87,000. During the next decade they held their own, until in
1919 the influenza scourge brought them to their lowest level of 83,000.
This was the last serious setback to their number; since that time the
population has been on the upgrade.
A present threat to Fijian population, in the opinion of many, stems not
from disease but from the Indian presence. This began in the latter part
of the nineteenth century when Indian immigration of indentured laborers
began. The influx went on until 1916 by which time some 40,000 to 50,000
Indians had come to Fiji and very few had returned to India. Since then,
the Indians have increased more rapidly than the Fijians until they now
outnumber them. This situation has, of course, created numerous problems
beyond the scope of this paper.
It is significant to point out that intermarriage or interbreeding
between Fijians and Indians is relatively slight. The amount of mingling
of Fijians with Europeans or Orientals cannot be demonstrated
statistically, but it has not been extensive. The Fijians, on the whole,
retain pretty much of their prehistoric racial make-up.
RACIAL BACKGROUND
It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people, derived
mainly from Melanesian and Polynesian sources. Both of these parental
strains in turn are commonly believed to be racial blends. Hooton
describes the Melanesians as Oceanic Negroes whose composition includes
Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediterranean plus minor
fractions of Malay and Polynesian."[5] Birdsell sees the same three
strains in Melanesia which he believes contribute to the Australians,
namely Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, plus a small amount of
Mongoloid. He believes they differ from Australians in being "basically
negritic in their genetic composition as a result of the rain forest
environment."[6] Polynesians, however, are usually thought to be derived
from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid strains in which the Caucasoid
component is more often the strongest.
The composite character of the Fijians has been variously explained as
far as order and time of the contributing elements are concerned. One
theory regards a Negroid stock as aboriginal to which a Polynesian
strain was later added. An early explanation of this sort is that of
Fornander who held that the ancestors of the modern Polynesians coming
from southeastern Asia via Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. made a
prolonged stopover in Fiji as they moved eastward. This left a
Polynesian imprint on the native Fijian physical appearance as well as
on their language and culture.[7] Later on, Churchill added a second
movement of Polynesians from the west about a thousand years later. This
was used to explain a certain amount of Mongoloid elements that needed
accounting for in western Polynesia.[8]
A differing interpretation brings the Polynesian influence into Fiji
from the east in relatively recent times. Thomson, for example, regards
it as mainly Tongan. There are many references in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries to Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to
fight, and merely to visit.
Hocart believes the Polynesians at one time occupied most of Fiji until
they were driven eastward to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.[9]
Howells tentatively suggests another possibility: originally all of Fiji
was occupied by Polynesians except perhaps for some Melanesian tribes in
the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century a
wave of immigrants from the west reached Fiji. "The newcomers, taking
possession of the archipelago, partly amalgamated with and partly pushed
out the Polynesian tenants, just as did the hill tribes of Hocart's
theory, the refugees fleeing to Somoa and Tonga."[10] Howells associates
this immigration with the Fijian tradition of an arrival of ancestral
families from across the western sea.
This Fijian tradition of their own origin includes a landing on the west
coast of Viti Levu at Nandi by an ancestral chief and his sons who came
across the sea from the west. Several of his sons moved eastward and
eventually founded families with native wives in various parts of the
archipelago. These families ultimately became consolidated into
present-day tribes or federations. Most Fijian social units derive their
origin from this or similar legendary immigrations. These eposodes
occurred eight or ten and, in one case, fifteen generations ago.[11]
Where these ancestors came from or what their racial affiliations were
is not described in the stories. On the basis of supposed similarities
of place-names, claims have been made for Africa as the place of origin,
but the validity of them is dubious. It is likely that these traditions
refer only to the more recent immigrations from the west. As to the
racial make-up of the ancestors, it is commonly believed that they were
Polynesians who, after settling in various parts of Fiji, took native
wives, presumably Melanesian, and originated many of the existing family
lines. This assumption does not rest on any actual physical reference to
their appearance but on such cultural data as their patrilineal
succession and their tradition of strong hereditary chieftainship.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to a number of people of Fiji whose assistance and
coöperation were helpful. Thanks are due to Sir Ronald Garvey, governor
of Fiji, whose approval of my project gave administrative sanction. Mr.
G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured for me the
coöperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which in turn gave me
access to the proper native officers and leaders, furnished me with
necessary transportation; he also gave me some sound advice. Also of the
Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi helped me make the necessary
contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H.
Yarrow, safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was most
helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I secured an excellent sample
of the northern provinces.
The young Fijian who acted as my interpreter, guide, and recorder was
Joji Qalelawe; my especial thanks to him for his intelligent and
cheerful coöperation.
MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES
GENERAL
_Weight_[12]
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 814 105-300 163.0 20.3 12.5
Interior 0 0 0 0 0
East 73 130-245 168.1 19.3 11.5
Coast 210 118-300 160.7 22.8 14.2
N.W. 79 120-212 161.9 16.9 10.4
The average weight of 163 pounds, coupled with their rather tall
stature, describes the Fijian as a large person, on the whole. Their
generous weight does not reflect excessive obesity; the body build, as
will be pointed out later, is prevailingly muscular and athletic.
Variation among the regional samples is not significant; all the groups
average more than 160 pounds.
_Stature_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 150.1-195.0 172.5 6.1 3.5
Interior 154 150.1-183.7 169.6 6.0 3.5
East 120 160.2-190.5 173.3 6.0 3.5
Coast 210 156.1-195.0 173.4 5.8 3.4
N.W. 79 159.8-186.0 172.7 5.8 3.3
Fiji (Howells) 133 158-190 170.8 6.1 3.6
Solomons (Howells) 85 146-181 160.2 6.8 4.2
Tonga (Sullivan) 92 160-188 173.0 5.2 3.0
The stature of the Fijians is moderately tall. Howells' series of
Fijians, as well as mine, indicate this category. In this measurement,
the Fijians are similar to the Tongans. They are 12 cm. taller than the
Melanesians.
Among the Fijian themselves, the interior people of the highlands are
definitely shorter than the rest of the population.
Rumors still persist of remnants of pygmoid people in the interior
mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence of them either in my travels
in the interior or by extensive inquiries among natives and Europeans
who had thorough knowledge of the whole island.
_Span_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 155.0-208.0 180.0 15.1 8.8
Interior 154 155.0-201.0 179.5 7.5 4.2
East 120 166.4-200.5 178.1 24.3 13.6
Coast 210 160.1-208.0 181.2 14.6 8.1
N.W. 79 165.1-202.0 180.0 21.6 11.9
Span of the arms also reflects the generous proportions of the Fijians.
Regional difference is not marked. Relative to stature, the hill people
have the longer arms and the eastern natives the shortest. The greater
relative arm length of the hill tribes seems to be owing more to
deficiency of stature than to excessive arm length or shoulder breadth.
_Span-Stature Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 96.1-116.3 104.3 8.5 8.15
Interior 154 99.4-115.1 105.2 2.3 2.2
East 120 99.1-108.5 102.7 13.5 13.14
Coast 210 97.9-116.3 104.4 7.7 7.4
N.W. 79 100.2-109.7 104.1 12.0 11.5
THE TRUNK
_Sitting Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 75.1-100 87.0 3.5 3.9
Interior 154 75.1-94 84.4 9.4 11.0
East 120 81-100 88.5 3.5 3.9
Coast 210 80-99 87.7 3.2 3.6
N.W. 79 80-94 86.0 2.9 3.3
Fiji (Howells) 132 78-101 88.3 3.06 3.46
Solomons (Howells) 85 69-95 83.6 3.8 4.5
A total sitting height average of 87 cm. attests the generous general
body length. A regional trend follows the same curve as that for
stature. The eastern body length is greatest; it exceeds the over-all
average by 1-1/2 cm. and is more than 4 cm. larger than the interior
people who fall at the bottom of the scale of sitting height. Howells'
Fijian series is close to my eastern average. Compared with the Solomon
Islands natives, the Fijians are much more elongated.
_Relative Sitting Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 45-58 50.4 1.5 3.0
Interior 154 46-56 49.8 1.4 2.8
East 120 48-54 51.0 1.3 2.5
Coast 210 46-56 50.5 1.4 2.8
N.W. 79 47-54 50.2 1.4 2.8
Fiji (Howells) 132 46-57 51.7 1.36 2.63
Solomons (Howells) 85 46-57 52.1 1.64 2.92
The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 per cent. The
eastern average of 51 per cent indicates a little more legginess,
whereas the interior groups tend somewhat to longer trunks.
_Biacromial_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 28-47 39.7 8.2 6.2
Interior 154 29-43 39.0 6.2 4.7
East 120 35-45 39.9 6.1 4.0
Coast 210 28-45 39.7 7.6 4.9
N.W. 79 35-47 40.5 6.6 3.9
The Fijians are generally a broad-shouldered people. The inhabitants of
Ra and Ba have the highest average and the interior people are least
broad-shouldered.
_Relative Shoulder Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 18-27 22.3 1.3 5.8
Interior 154 19-25 22.9 1.0 3.9
East 120 20-26 23.0 1.0 3.9
Coast 210 18-26 22.9 1.0 4.4
N.W. 79 20-27 23.4 3.1 13.2
Relative to total stature, shoulder breadth averages 22.3 per cent. No
significant regional differences are indicated.
_Bi-Iliac_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 23-40 29.2 5.6 5.3
Interior 154 25-38 29.0 5.1 5.2
East 120 27-34 29.5 4.1 4.8
Coast 210 23-37 29.2 5.9 5.5
N.W. 79 26-32 29.3 4.6 5.0
The Fijians, as a whole, are fairly broad-hipped; this condition holds
with little variation in all the provinces.
_Shoulder-Hip_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 58-101 73.7 4.3 5.8
Interior 154 65-100 74.6 4.2 5.6
East 120 67-82 73.8 3.2 4.3
Coast 210 58-99 73.5 4.3 5.9
N.W. 79 62-86 72.8 5.9 8.1
The total shoulder-hip ratio describes the shoulders as 73.7 per cent as
wide as the hips. These ratios do not vary greatly in different parts of
Fiji. The somewhat higher index of the hill groups is owing largely to
their narrower shoulders, whereas the superior shoulder breadth of the
northwest provinces contributes mostly to the lower hip-shoulder index.
_Chest Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 24-39 28.6 6.4 5.7
Interior 154 25-33 28.6 3.3 4.7
East 120 26-39 29.4 7.2 5.8
Coast 210 25-37 28.7 7.8 6.2
N.W. 79 25-32 28.9 4.3 4.9
Broad chests are also characteristic in Fiji. The eastern men surpass
the Viti Levu males, and the interior groups have the narrowest chests,
but the regional variations are small.
_Chest Depth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 184-308 22.9 5.5 7.0
Interior 154 195-263 22.4 3.2 5.8
East 120 189-295 22.5 4.9 6.6
Coast 210 184-300 21.7 5.7 7.2
N.W. 79 192-250 21.8 3.3 6.0
The chests of the Fijians are also fairly deep. The close similarity in
chest depth of the interior group and the eastern sample is rather
striking inasmuch as the former are nearly 4 cm. shorter in stature.
This would indicate that the interior group, for their size, are
relatively deep-chested.
_Thoracic_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 59-96 76.4 4.6 6.0
Interior 154 69-88 78.5 3.9 5.0
East 120 65-85 76.3 4.3 5.6
Coast 210 56-89 75.5 4.7 6.2
N.W. 79 65-85 75.7 4.4 5.8
The thoracic index shows that the Fijians are deep-chested relative to
thoracic breadth as well as in absolute values. Again the interior
people stand out for their deeper chests.
ARMS AND LEGS
_Arm Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 45-87 75.2 5.0 6.6
Interior 154 45-83 73.6 4.8 6.1
East 120 52-84 75.1 3.9 5.2
Coast 210 57-87 76.0 4.9 6.4
N.W. 79 55-86 75.3 6.6 8.8
The over-all arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms seem to be
characteristic of the interior population where the average is nearly 2
cm. less than the over-all average. The eastern group has the longest
arms; the other samples are intermediate.
_Humeral Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 26-39 32.8 8.6 5.7
Interior 154 28-38 32.8 7.1 5.2
East 120 28-39 32.9 8.3 5.6
Coast 210 26-38 32.9 9.1 5.8
N.W. 79 28-38 33.0 7.9 5.4
Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm. for all Fijians; the several
provinces are closely similar in this trait.
_Radial Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 23-35 27.6 4.1 5.1
Interior 154 24-33 27.3 2.4 4.5
East 120 23-34 27.5 6.9 6.1
Coast 210 24-35 27.9 3.5 4.8
N.W. 79 25-32 27.9 3.4 4.8
Lower arm length is 27.6 cm. and also varies but little among the
regional samples.
_Radial-Humeral_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 65-113 84.0 4.2 5.0
Interior 154 77-104 83.0 3.8 4.6
East 120 65-95 83.5 4.7 5.6
Coast 210 75-113 84.7 4.2 4.9
N.W. 79 77-94 82.2 3.6 4.3
The radial-humeral ratio indicates that the lower arm of Fijians is 84
per cent as long as the upper arm. None of the subgroups deviates
markedly from this average.
_Leg Length_[13]
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 61-98 84.3 10.5 12.5
Interior 154 74-96 81.1 8.6 12.9
East 120 73-96 84.1 8.6 10.3
Coast 210 68-97 85.3 7.2 8.5
N.W. 79 75-95 85.7 4.4 5.2
Average leg length is 84.3 cm., and some regional differences are
manifest. The legs of the hill people are shorter by 3 cm. than are the
other groups. Their neighbors to the northwest and east have the longest
legs, and the eastern are intermediate.
_Tibial Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 34-49 40.9 8.3 6.9
Interior 154 35-45 40.3 13.4 10.8
East 120 35-47 40.7 6.2 5.2
Coast 210 35-47 41.2 6.8 5.1
N.W. 79 36-47 40.9 6.1 5.9
Lower leg length is around 40 cm. for all Fijians. The regional pattern
is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands,
intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern
districts.
_Calf Circumference_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 29-57 37.6 6.7 7.1
Interior 154 31-51 37.0 6.4 7.1
East 120 33-50 38.1 4.7 6.5
Coast 210 29-48 37.2 9.4 7.9
N.W. 79 30-43 37.7 7.6 6.3
The generous girth of the calf of the Fijians reflects their sturdily
muscled legs. The eastern groups excel the other Fijians in this
respect, whereas the interior groups have the lowest average for calf
circumference.
THE HEAD
_Head Circumference_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 410-630 562.4 7.8 6.7
Interior 154 537-613 565.3 4.1 2.5
East 120 528-630 566.3 4.9 2.9
Coast 210 410-630 563.5 4.6 3.5
N.W. 79 537-597 557.7 14.3 11.5
The head circumference average of 562.4 mm. Probably is a little on the
large size because of the thick wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern
groups appear to have the largest heads and the northwestern groups show
a rather abrupt drop.
_Head Length_[14]
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 162-215 187.9 9.4 5.0
Interior 154 170-210 190.1 7.6 4.0
East 120 172-209 188.6 6.6 3.5
Coast 210 162-215 187.4 13.5 7.2
N.W. 79 165-214 187.2 7.9 4.2
Fiji (Howells) 133 164-208 188.8 7.29 3.86
Solomons (Howells) 85 170-208 188.5 6.5 3.5
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 173-213 191.0 6.6 3.5
Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; longest heads occur in
the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands
series are close to the above value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191
mm. Somewhat exceeds the Fijian.
_Head Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 122-186 155.9 6.8 7.7
Interior 154 135-170 152.1 6.6 4.3
East 120 144-172 157.2 5.2 3.3
Coast 210 141-186 158.3 9.3 8.5
N.W. 79 122-185 152.9 8.6 8.2
Fiji (Howells) 133 135-170 153.7 6.1 3.9
Solomons (Howells) 85 126-158 144.7 5.2 3.6
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 145-167 154.8 4.3 2.8
General head breadth is 155.9 mm., and considerable regional variation
is shown. Fijians of the interior have the narrowest heads, whereas the
coastal and eastern people have appreciably wider heads. Howells' series
of Fijians are closest to my highland groups.
The Solomon Islanders are markedly narrower headed than the Fijians,
whereas Sullivan's Tongan series is nearer the Fijian average.
_Cephalic Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 68-99 83.0 6.4 7.7
Interior 154 68-96 80.0 6.0 7.3
East 120 72-92 83.9 3.8 4.5
Coast 210 72-99 84.2 7.2 8.6
N.W. 79 71-95 81.6 10.3 12.6
Fiji (Howells) 133 68-94 81.54 4.7 5.7
Solomons (Howells) 85 65-88 76.8 3.9 5.1
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 73-89 81.1 3.1 3.9
Most Fijians tend to brachycephaly. The eastern natives and those of the
coastal series have the broadest heads. The interior people show
definitely lesser values in this ratio than do the other groups.
Howells' Fijian series is close to the northwestern Fijians in their
mesocephaly, and so is the Tongan mean. The Solomon series borders on
dolicocephaly.
_Head Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 110-154 129.5 6.8 7.9
Interior 154 114-140 127.7 4.8 3.8
East 120 114-148 129.6 5.0 3.9
Coast 210 112-154 120.0 7.0 5.4
N.W. 79 117-142 127.6 9.2 8.9
Head height averages do not differ greatly among the provinces. The
interior and northwestern people have somewhat lower heads; the coastal
and eastern people show slight superiority.
_Length-Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 55-84 69.0 3.4 3.6
Interior 154 59-77 67.2 3.9 5.8
East 120 61-78 68.7 3.2 4.7
Coast 210 55-84 69.4 3.7 4.3
N.W. 79 58-84 68.1 4.5 3.5
Relative to head length, the cranial vault of Fijians is high. The
mountain people show the lowest relative head height, whereas the other
provinces are nearer to the over-all average.
_Breadth-Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 66-102 83.0 3.0 3.3
Interior 154 75-96 84.0 3.9 4.6
East 120 75-91 82.4 3.4 4.1
Coast 210 66-97 82.8 5.3 8.4
N.W. 79 73-92 81.2 8.6 9.7
Head height relative to total breadth is 83 per cent. In this ratio the
interior groups have the highest index, a condition owing more to
deficiency in cranial breadth than to superior head height.
_Cranial Module_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 141-176 157.7 10.5 6.7
Interior 154 147-166 156.6 11.5 7.3
East 120 148-172 158.4 4.4 2.7
Coast 210 143-176 158.5 15.5 9.7
N.W. 79 141-171 155.9 10.7 6.7
Head size as expressed by the cranial module averages 157.7 mm. for all
Fijians. Regional fluctuation is unimportant.
_Minimum Frontal_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 99-125 109.9 4.0 2.7
Interior 154 100-121 109.8 3.6 3.3
East 120 99-122 110.8 3.8 3.4
Coast 210 100-125 109.7 4.7 4.3
N.W. 79 101-120 109.4 3.7 3.4
A minimum frontal diameter of 109.9 mm. indicates a fairly ample
forehead breadth for the total sample. None of the subgroups depart much
from this value.
_Fronto-Parietal_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 58-89 70.6 4.3 6.1
Interior 154 63-82 72.2 3.3 4.6
East 120 64-79 70.5 3.0 4.3
Coast 210 58-77 69.9 4.1 5.9
N.W. 79 61-89 69.7 8.7 12.5
Forehead breadth relative to total cranial width is 70.6 per cent. The
greatest deviation from this average occurs in the interior where the
fronto-parietal ratio is 72.2 per cent and lesser head breadth more than
greater forehead width causes the higher index.
THE FACE
_Bizygomatic_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 110-164 145.7 5.0 3.4
Interior 154 110-163 145.8 6.3 4.3
East 120 137-161 146.7 4.3 2.9
Coast 210 128-164 145.2 4.9 3.4
N.W. 79 136-156 145.1 4.3 3.0
Fiji (Howells) 132 130-159 144.05 5.05 3.5
Solomons (Howells) 84 115-149 138.0 5.5 4.0
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 131-159 143.5 5.9 4.1
Broad faces are the rule among most of these people, as the total
average of 145.7 mm. shows. Regional values for this criterion are
closely alike in all parts of Fiji, the eastern showing a slight
superiority in bizygomatic breadth.
Howells' Fiji series is slightly lower in this diameter as is the Tongan
average. The Solomon Islands natives have definitely narrower faces.
_Cephalo-Facial_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 82-108 93.5 5.7 6.1
Interior 154 84-108 96.0 4.8 5.0
East 120 82-102 93.3 3.2 3.4
Coast 210 85-103 92.5 5.7 6.2
N.W. 79 80-104 92.6 6.4 7.3
Fiji (Howells) 132 85-111 93.7 3.5 3.7
Solomons (Howells) 84 85-111 95.4 3.8 4.0
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 85-103 92.8 3.5 3.7
Face breadth relative to head width averages 93.5 per cent for all
Fijians; Howell's series is much the same. The narrower heads of the
interior people largely account for their higher index; otherwise there
is general similarity in the several provinces.
_Zygo-Frontal_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 64-100 75.5 3.0 3.9
Interior 154 64-98 75.4 3.2 4.2
East 120 68-99 75.5 2.5 3.3
Coast 210 66-100 75.5 3.1 4.1
N.W. 79 66-93 75.4 2.9 3.8
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 63-84 73.1 4.2 5.8
The ratio of forehead width to face breadth is 75.5. All of the regional
averages for the zygo-frontal index are strikingly alike among the
Fijians in every instance; the forehead is about three-quarters the
breadth of the face. The Tongan ratio is a little lower.
_Total Face Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 100-147 122.5 6.0 4.9
Interior 154 103-137 121.3 5.6 4.6
East 120 110-147 124.7 5.8 4.7
Coast 210 107-142 122.6 6.1 5.0
N.W. 79 100-143 121.7 6.8 5.6
Fiji (Howells) 133 105-159 121.8 6.9 5.7
Solomons (Howells) 85 100-129 116.4 6.6 5.7
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 112-147 128.2 6.8 5.3
Fijian faces have the moderate average height of 122.5 mm. Slightly
shorter faces occur in the interior people, whereas the greatest total
face height average occurs in the east. The Fijian of Howells' series is
close to mine. The Tongan value for face height describes them as
definitely longer faced. The Solomon Islanders depart in the other
direction with decidedly shorter faces.
_Total Facial Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 68-104 84.1 4.6 5.5
Interior 154 73-96 83.2 4.4 5.3
East 120 75-101 85.0 4.4 5.2
Coast 210 73-97 84.5 4.6 5.4
N.W. 79 68-104 83.9 5.6 6.7
Fiji (Howells) 132 74-105 84.7 5.0 6.0
Solomons (Howells) 84 74-97 84.5 4.4 5.2
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 78-102 89.3 4.4 5.0
Relative to maximum breadth, the Fijian face tends to shortness,
although this is due largely to their generous facial breadth rather
than absolute deficiency of height. The interior groups have the lowest
values and the eastern groups show relatively broad faces.
The Tongan average is much higher than any of the Fijian values, whereas
the Solomon Islanders show similarity to the Fijians in this feature.
_Upper Face Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 56-84 70.2 5.1 7.3
Interior 154 59-79 69.1 3.9 5.6
East 120 64-83 71.7 4.0 5.6
Coast 210 59-84 70.4 6.6 9.4
N.W. 79 58-80 69.4 4.8 6.9
The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the
Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern
people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate.
_Upper Facial Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 37-65 48.2 3.7 7.7
Interior 154 41-65 47.4 3.3 7.0
East 120 42-59 48.9 2.9 5.9
Coast 210 40-59 48.5 4.8 9.9
N.W. 79 39-56 47.8 3.5 7.3
The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the
Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern
people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate.
_Bigonial_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 95-146 109.7 5.1 4.6
Interior 154 95-146 109.8 6.0 3.6
East 120 97-125 110.6 5.1 4.6
Coast 210 95-129 109.9 5.3 4.8
N.W. 79 99-119 109.1 4.5 4.1
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 92-119 104.8 5.8 5.5
Lower jaw breadth as expressed by the bigonial diameter indicates a
tendency to broadness shared with little variation among all the
subgroups. The Tongan value is considerably smaller.
_Fronto-Gonial_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 80-122 99.9 5.5 5.5
Interior 154 84-122 100.0 6.0 6.0
East 120 86-115 99.9 5.3 5.3
Coast 210 80-114 100.3 6.0 6.0
N.W. 79 85-113 99.8 4.8 4.8
Similarly the bigonial diameter in relation to forehead breadth is much
the same in all groups, the general average nearly 100 per cent.
_Zygo-Gonial_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 65-86 75.3 4.1 5.4
Interior 154 67-86 75.4 6.0 8.0
East 120 65-82 75.4 3.5 4.6
Coast 210 66-83 75.7 3.4 4.5
N.W. 79 68-83 75.2 3.4 4.5
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 63-87 73.2 4.6 6.2
Relative to face breadth, jaw width is 75.3 per cent with very little
geographic variation.
_Nasal Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 42-65 53.9 3.4 6.3
Interior 154 45-65 53.2 3.5 6.6
East 120 48-62 54.7 3.1 5.7
Coast 210 46-63 54.1 3.4 6.3
N.W. 79 45-61 52.9 3.5 6.6
Fiji (Howells) 133 44-63 52.4 3.9 7.4
Solomons (Howells) 85 40-59 49.9 3.8 7.7
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 47-65 57.4 3.9 6.8
The Fijian nose may be called medium long. Greatest nasal heights occur
in the eastern and in the coastal series. The interior and northwestern
groups have shorter noses. The Fijians of Howells' series fall near the
short end of my averages. Natives of the Solomons are definitely lower
in nasal height, whereas the Tongan's average is so much higher that one
suspects a difference in the location of the nasion.
_Nasal Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 31-62 46.7 3.4 7.3
Interior 154 40-61 47.6 3.4 7.1
East 120 38-53 45.5 3.0 6.6
Coast 210 38-62 46.4 3.3 7.1
N.W. 79 31-57 47.4 3.6 7.6
Fiji (Howells) 133 37-54 46.19 3.0 6.0
Solomons (Howells) 85 34-51 44.6 2.8 6.3
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 38-55 44.4 3.0 6.8
Broad noses are common to most Fijians. The greatest contrast is between
the narrower-nosed eastern people and the interior people, among whom
the widest noses occur. The nose of the Solomon Islanders is somewhat
narrower, according to Howells' data, and the Tongan average is also
lower.
_Nasal Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 61-112 87.1 8.2 9.4
Interior 154 69-109 89.7 8.1 9.0
East 120 61-100 83.2 7.6 9.1
Coast 210 63-111 86.0 7.1 8.7
N.W. 79 63-110 89.9 8.6 9.6
Fiji (Howells) 133 68-123 88.8 8.3 9.3
Solomons (Howells) 85 68-119 87.1 8.9 10.2
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 61-98 77.6 7.6 9.8
Platyrrhini is the rule in Fiji, but individual and regional variations
are great. There are some leptorrine subjects in every province, and
there are some whose noses are broader than long. The interior people
and the northwestern groups have the relatively broadest noses, whereas
the eastern index is more moderate. The noses of Sullivan's Tongans are
relatively longer than the Lauans. The Solomon Island average is
identical with the Fijian.
_Nasal Depth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 16-32 22.0 2.9 3.2
Interior 154 17-32 22.5 2.1 9.3
East 120 17-28 21.9 1.8 8.2
Coast 210 17-32 21.8 3.6 6.5
N.W. 79 16-29 22.3 1.9 8.5
Nasal depth averages 22 mm.; the regional variation is very small.
_Nasal-Depth Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 32-60 47.2 6.8 6.8
Interior 154 34-59 47.4 5.1 6.6
East 120 35-60 48.4 4.6 9.5
Coast 210 32-58 47.0 8.1 7.2
N.W. 79 34-58 47.2 5.5 6.7
_Mouth Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 29-72 57.6 4.7 8.2
Interior 154 34-72 59.6 4.4 7.4
East 120 33-66 56.5 3.9 6.9
Coast 210 29-67 57.3 4.0 7.0
N.W. 79 36-65 57.3 4.4 7.8
Mouth breadth averages show the interior groups to have widest mouths,
the eastern people least wide, and the coastal and northwestern people
intermediate.
_Lip Thickness_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 9-45 22.4 3.8 6.9
Interior 154 12-31 23.4 3.6 5.4
East 120 12-29 21.7 3.4 5.7
Coast 210 16-45 20.8 3.6 5.3
N.W. 79 10-29 22.0 3.9 5.7
Thick lips are characteristic of most Fijians. The interior average is
highest for this diameter, whereas the northwestern Fijians have
least-thick lips.
_Ear Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 55-83 66.6 4.5 6.8
Interior 154 53-83 66.0 4.8 7.3
East 120 55-80 67.2 5.0 7.4
Coast 210 55-77 66.7 4.9 7.3
N.W. 79 57-75 66.5 3.7 5.6
Tonga (Sullivan) 117 56-81 66.0 4.6 6.9
Fijian ears on the whole tend to be long, as the average 66.6 mm.
indicates. Regional differences are slight. Tongans closely resemble
Fijians.
_Ear Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 24-55 34.3 3.2 9.3
Interior 154 27-41 33.7 2.5 7.4
East 120 29-40 34.1 4.0 11.7
Coast 210 29-55 34.7 3.9 11.2
N.W. 79 25-42 33.8 2.9 8.6
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 25-42 34.5 2.6 7.6
Ear breadth is also generous, and regional differences hardly exceed 1.5
mm., including the Tongans.
_Ear Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 38-62 51.6 5.0 9.7
Interior 154 40-61 51.1 3.6 7.0
East 120 41-59 50.6 5.8 11.5
Coast 210 42-62 52.1 6.7 12.9
N.W. 79 38-59 50.9 4.0 7.9
Tonga (Sullivan) 116 41-62 52.4 3.9 7.5
Length-breadth ear ratios indicate that coastal groups have somewhat
broader, and the northwestern people the relative longest, ears.
_Bicanine Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 24-72 39.8 11.7 19.4
Interior 154 37-49 39.9 10.7 16.8
East 120 36-68 41.8 7.4 7.7
Coast 210 24-72 39.0 13.4 14.3
N.W. 79 38-49 38.6 14.0 16.3
Bicanine breadth is characteristically great among Fijians, reflecting
the ample jaws and teeth. Widest diameters are seen in the east,
followed by the hill people of the interior. The northwestern groups
have the least bicanine diameter.
MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
PIGMENTATION
_Skin Color: Exposed_
Brunet Swarthy Lt. Brn Med. Brn Dk. Brn Black Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 1 .01 5 .6 30 4 400 48 377 46 0 0 813
Interior 0 0 0 0 1 1 55 36 97 63 0 0 153
East 0 0 3 2 12 10 99 83 6 6 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 1 0 7 3 85 41 116 56 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 0 0 1 1 42 53 36 46 0 0 79
Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 128 96 5 4 0 0 133
Solomons 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 79 93 2 3 85
Tonga (Range from Lt. Brown to Dk. Brown.)
Color of skin includes exposed and unexposed areas. The former was
observed on the face, since the Fijians do not use any kind of face or
head covering. This condition in the total series divides itself quite
evenly between medium brown and dark brown. A few have light-brown skin;
only six individuals are classified as swarthy and brunet. None was
judged to be completely black. The Fijians of Howells' series are
described as 96 per cent medium brown[15] and 5 per cent dark brown, a
discrepancy I would attribute to personal judgment difference. The
Solomon Islanders are markedly darker than the Fijians, the majority
have dark-brown skin and 3 per cent are black, whereas 5 per cent have
medium-brown complexions.
Tongan data on skin color cannot be directly adjusted to my statistics.
Sullivan's comment on their skin color states that it is "a medium
yellowish-brown where it is unexposed to the sun. Exposed parts of the
skin of a few of the persons were a very dark chocolate" (Sullivan,
1922, p. 248).
Among the Fijians themselves, the greatest contrasts occur between the
eastern and the interior groups of Viti Levu. Where 63 per cent of the
latter have dark-brown skin, only 5 per cent of eastern fall into this
category. The bulk of eastern (83 per cent) have medium-brown skin as
against 36 per cent of hill people. The coastal and northwestern
provinces are, like the total series, more evenly divided between medium
and dark brown.
_Skin Color: Unexposed_
Brunet Swarthy Lt. Brn Med. Brn Dk. Brn Black Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 6 1 9 1 242 30 545 66 11 1 0 0 813
Interior 0 0 0 0 20 13 133 87 0 0 0 0 153
East 3 3 4 3 77 64 36 30 0 0 0 0 120
Coast 1 1 2 1 56 27 148 71 2 1 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 1 1 20 25 57 72 1 1 0 0 79
Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 127 96 5 4 0 0 132
Solomons 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 11 74 87 2 2 85
Unexposed skin color was observed on the under surface of the upper arm
near the armpit. The anticipated shift in color range results in a
reduction of dark-skin incidence to a mere 1 per cent, and an increase
in medium brown to 60 per cent and of light brown to 30 per cent.
Howells' describes 96 per cent of his Fijians as medium brown, 4 per
cent dark brown, and none light brown. The Solomon Islanders seem
definitely darker than the Fijians whether they are compared with
Howells' or my series.
The eastern groups continues to contrast with the interior people. The
former show a majority of 64 per cent in the light-brown category as
compared with 13 per cent among the interior groups; the latter have a
medium-brown incidence of 87 per cent against 30 per cent among Lauans.
_Hair Color_
Black Dk. Brn Med. Brn Lt. Brn Red-Brown Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 757 93 31 5 1 0 0 0 18 2 807
Interior 145 95 8 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 153
East 114 95 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 120
Coast 193 92 11 5 0 0 0 0 5 2 204
N.W. 70 89 5 6 0 0 0 0 4 5 75
Fiji II 118 91 9 7 0 0 0 0 3 2 130
Solomons 55 65 26 31 0 0 3 4 0 0 84
Tonga 0 94 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Black hair is the usual color, although 5 per cent are described as dark
brown and a few red-brown. This latter variation is a rufous color
(reddish-brown) and it may be a little more frequent than the data
indicate because the Fijians frequently dye their hair with a substance
extracted from mangrove bark. This intensifies the usual blackness of
the hair and adds a satisfying gloss. More sophisticated natives have
access to modern hair dye and lacking this, some have been known to
resort to black shoe polish.
Hair bleaching is no longer practiced in Fiji.
The hair of the Solomons Islands is not so uniformly black, nearly a
third have dark-brown hair and a few are light brown.
_Eye Color_
Black Dk. Brown Med. Brown Lt. Brown Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 2 0 550 68 257 31 4 1 813
Interior 0 0 131 86 22 14 0 0 153
East 0 0 71 59 48 40 1 1 120
Coast 0 0 127 61 81 39 1 0 209
N.W. 1 1 53 67 25 32 0 0 79
Fiji II 0 0 130 98 0 0 2 2 132
Solomons 0 0 85 100 0 0 0 0 85
Tonga 0 3 0 94 0 0 0 3
A little more than two-thirds of Fijians' eyes are described as dark
brown. The remaining third have medium-brown eyes. There were four
individuals who were light brown. Howells, with his Fijian series, is
more generous with the darker designation; he designated 98 per cent as
dark brown and 2 per cent light brown. His Solomons sample is described
as dark brown without exception. The Tongan data also is recorded as
more uniformly dark brown than my Fijians.
The Fijians of the interior of Viti Levu have more deeply pigmented eyes
than the others; 86 per cent are classed as dark brown and only 14 per
cent medium brown.
HAIR
_Hair Form_
Straight Low Wave Deep Wave Curl Frizz Wool Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 0 0 7 0.1 13 0.2 91 11.0 702 862 0 0 813
Interior 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 149 97 0 0 153
East 0 0 1 1 10 8 37 31 72 60 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 0 1 3 0 18 9 188 90 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 2 3 0 0 7 9 70 89 0 0 79
Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 16 38 33 59 51 116
Solomons 2 3.3 1 1.6 0 0 16 26 17 28 25 41 61
Frizzly hair is the condition of over 85 per cent of Fijians; 11 per
cent are curly-haired, whereas over twenty individuals have wavy hair.
Straight hair is absent. The Fiji II series of Howell distinguishes
between frizzly and wooly hair, which I do not. Their combined incidence
is 83 per cent, quite close to my frequency of frizzly. Whether one does
or does not distinguish between frizzly and wooly hair, there is no
doubt that most Fijians have Negroid hair form. The Solomon Islanders
are surprising with somewhat less Negroid hair form than the Fijians.
Their combined percentage of frizzly and wooly is 69, which is nearly 20
per cent less than that of the Fijians. Twenty per cent have curly hair
against 11 per cent among Fijians. Also, the only instances of straight
hair occur in the Solomons.
In the Fijian breakdown, the interior groups have the most Negroid hair;
97 per cent have frizzly hair and 3 per cent have curly hair. The
eastern people are the least Negroid in this respect; frizzly hair drops
to 60 per cent, whereas curly hair advances to 30 per cent and wavy hair
to 9 per cent. The coastal and northwestern series are closer to the
interior groups with about 90 per cent frizzly hair.
_Hair Texture_
Course Medium Fine Total
No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 804 99 9 1 0 0 813
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153
East 116 97 4 3 0 0 120
Coast 208 100 1 0 0 0 209
N.W. 78 99 1 1 0 0 79
Hair texture is prevailingly coarse; only 1 per cent of the total series
shows medium coarseness and none have fine hair. This preponderance of
coarse hair is much the same in all the provinces, although the eastern
people do depart slightly with a 3 per cent incidence of medium-coarse
hair.
It might be added that Fijian hair is quite stiff or wiry. For example,
when the hair is unshorn, it stands out like a mop. A Fijian can insert
a long stemmed flower in his hair and it will stay in place with no
additional fastening.
_Head Hair Quantity_
Absent Subm. +[16] ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 0 0 61 7 219 27 533 65 0 0 813
Interior 0 0 26 17 27 18 100 65 0 0 153
East 0 0 5 4 24 20 91 76 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 11 5 63 30 135 65 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 7 9 21 27 51 65 0 0 79
Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 132 92 133
Solomons 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 80 94 85
Head hair quantity is pronounced in the majority of Fijians (65 per
cent); it is moderate in 27 per cent and submedium in 7 per cent.
Howells describes nearly all the Fijians as having very pronounced head
hair--99 per cent, which would appear to be a personal difference in
appraisal. In any case, the two series agree that Fijians have hair of
more than moderate quantity. The Melanesians of the Solomons are also
characterized by much head hair.
Regionally, the only significant variation in this trait is shown in the
east, where more individuals have a submedium designation. In the
absence of age data, this contrast cannot be fairly interpreted.
_Hair Length_
It might be observed here that although hair length was not included in
this survey, on the basis of personal but unrecorded observation, the
Fijians conform to the Melanesian pattern. Most Fijian men now cut their
hair short in the Western style, but some still do not. Women generally
trim their hair but not short. The natural length of head hair is
intermediate between the short-haired African Negroes and the
long-haired Caucasians and Mongolians.
_Baldness_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 731 90 40 3 30 4 12 1 0 0 813
Interior 122 80 12 8 12 8 7 5 0 0 153
East 112 93 3 3 4 3 1 1 0 0 120
Coast 194 93 10 5 4 2 1 0 0 0 209
N.W. 72 91 1 1 3 4 3 4 0 0 79
The lack of age correlations also limits the value of data on baldness,
but some meaning can nevertheless be extracted. Regardless of age, with
an incidence of pronounced baldness of 1 per cent among all adult males
and of 4 per cent for a moderate condition, it is a clear indication
that Fijians are not prone to loss of head hair.
_Beard Quantity_
Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 0 0 234 29 370 44 208 26 1 .01 813
Interior 0 0 22 14 67 44 64 42 0 0 153
East 0 0 45 38 59 49 16 13 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 60 29 94 45 54 26 1 0 209
N.W. 0 0 22 28 30 38 27 34 0 0 79
Fiji II
cheeks 27 21 2 2 44 34 46 35 12 9 131
skin 9 7 0 0 52 40 56 43 14 10 131
Solomons
cheeks 21 25 0 0 42 49 22 26 0 0 85
chin 7 8 0 0 53 62 25 29 0 0 85
Tonga
chin 0 0 0 19 0 31 50 0 0 0 0
lower chk. 0 4 0 37 0 18 40 0 0 0 0
Moderate beard quantity is shown by 44 per cent of Fijians; the
remainder are fairly evenly divided between the submedium and pronounced
categories. Howells' series, which records beard quantity for the cheeks
and chin separately, shows a higher frequency of pronounced and very
pronounced designations. However, his data includes many individuals who
have no beards at all. Both series are doubtless influenced by the fact
that they contain a preponderance of young adult; a greater proportion
of older men would have greatly raised the incidence of the pronounced
categories.
Nearly all modern Fijians have adopted the Western practice of shaving.
Examination of earlier pictures and written description of Fijians
leaves no doubt that the majority of mature men possess luxurious beards
when nature is unrestrained.
The natives of the Solomon Islands, according to Howells, are a little
less bearded than the Fijians.
The Tongans are a little more heavily bearded than the Fijians.
Some geographical variation is indicated by my data. The interior people
of Fiji have the highest incidence of face hair; 42 per cent are
recorded as pronounced. Least endowed are the eastern Fijians, where 13
per cent have pronounced beards and 38 per cent are submedium. The
coastal and northwestern series conform more closely to the overall
distribution.
_Body Hair_[17]
Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 0 0 243 30 328 40 162 20 80 10 813
Interior 0 0 31 20 56 37 41 27 25 16 153
East 0 0 55 46 45 38 14 12 6 5 120
Coast 0 0 57 27 82 39 46 22 24 11 209
N.W. 0 0 16 20 36 46 19 24 8 8 79
Tonga 0 0 23 29 0 26 0 22 0 0 0
The body hair endowment is also not unimpressive. Forty per cent show a
moderate condition, 20 per cent are pronounced, and 10 per cent very
pronounced; none are totally devoid of body hair; 30 per cent are
submedium. Chest hair among the Tongans is somewhat less in evidence;
although the majority range from submedium to pronounced, 23 per cent
are described as hairless.
The provincial distribution in Fiji follows that of face hair: the
interior groups are hairiest and the eastern people least so.
The anatomical distribution of body hair deserves some comment, even
though specific observations were made on the chest. Not infrequently
the hair is heavier on the upper legs than on the chest. Occasionally,
too, the back of the shoulders is quite hairy as well as the belly.
_Grayness: Head_
Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 621 76 82 10 82 10 28 3 3 3 813
Interior 80 52 37 24 19 12 17 11 0 0 153
East 91 76 13 11 16 13 0 0 0 0 120
Coast 176 84 14 7 17 8 2 1 0 0 209
N.W. 60 76 8 10 9 11 2 3 0 0 79
_Grayness: Beard_
Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Total sample 610 75 61 8 90 11 52 6 0 0 813
Interior 72 47 30 20 20 13 31 20 0 0 153
East 89 74 9 8 18 15 4 3 0 0 120
Coast 178 85 8 4 21 10 2 1 0 0 209
N.W. 60 76 6 8 11 14 2 3 0 0 79
Grayness of the hair data without corresponding age incidence is not
particularly significant. It is clear, nevertheless, that premature
grayness is not common. I would hazard the judgment that on the whole
the Fijians show less tendency to grayness than do Caucasians.
The higher incidence of grayness of the interior sample of Fijians is
likely due to a larger number of older men in that series.
THE FACE
_Prognathism: Total_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 206 25 306 38 288 35 13 2 813
Interior 40 26 59 39 52 34 2 1 153
East 54 45 55 46 11 9 0 0 120
Coast 47 22 84 40 73 35 5 2 209
N.W. 18 23 29 37 32 41 0 0 79
Tonga 63 53 26 22 29 25 0 0 118
_Prognathism: Mid-Facial_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 517 64 184 23 109 13 3 1/2 813
Interior 133 87 15 10 5 3 0 0 153
East 100 83 17 14 3 3 0 0 120
Coast 122 58 49 23 37 18 1 1 209
N.W. 48 61 20 25 11 14 0 0 79
_Prognathism: Alveolar_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 798 98 9 1 4 1/2 2 0 813
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 153
East 120 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 120
Coast 207 99 0 0 1 1/2 1 1/2 209
N.W. 76 {96} 2 3 0 0 1 1 79
Slight and moderate total prognathism characterizes most Fijians but it
is pronounced in only 13 of the 813 subjects. A quarter of the series
show no prognathism. The eastern people are least prognathic with a zero
incidence of 45 per cent. The other regional sample are close to the
general condition.
Mid-facial prognathism has a submedium incidence of 23 per cent and a
medium of 13 per cent; the remainder lack the condition, except three
individuals who are pronounced.
The coastal and northwestern groups have more frequent medium
designations. Alveolar prognathism is almost entirely lacking in all
groups.
_Malar Projection: Lateral_
Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 1 0 2 0 264 32 543 67 3 0 813
Interior 0 0 0 0 62 41 91 59 0 0 153
East 0 0 0 0 25 21 95 79 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 0 0 68 33 141 67 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 0 0 28 35 50 63 1 1 79
_Malar Projection: Frontal_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 4 1/2 0 0 709 87 100 12 809
Interior 0 0 0 0 139 91 14 9 153
East 0 0 0 0 103 86 17 14 120
Coast 1 0 0 0 181 87 27 13 209
N.W. 0 0 0 0 67 85 12 15 79
The facial contours generally include lateral malar projection;
two-thirds show a pronounced condition and the balance are medium. The
eastern people have high cheek bones oftener than do the others.
Frontal malar projection is also common but more often moderately so; 87
per cent show medium projection and 12 per cent are pronounced.
_Gonial Angles_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 24 3 459 56 325 40 5 1 813
Interior 0 0 97 63 55 36 1 1 153
East 1 1 65 54 54 45 0 0 120
Coast 7 3 110 53 90 43 2 1 209
N.W. 3 4 49 62 27 34 0 0 79
_Palate Shape_
Parabolic Sm. U Lg. U Square Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 493 61 2 0 303 37 15 2 813
Interior 94 61 0 0 59 39 0 0 153
East 81 68 0 0 38 32 1 1 120
Coast 131 63 0 0 71 34 7 3 209
N.W. 50 63 1 1 27 34 1 1 79
A fairly strong tendency to well-developed gonial angles is indicated;
40 per cent show pronounced angles and nearly all the rest are medium.
These proportions hold pretty much for all groups.
Palate shape also attests to the well-developed jaws of Fijians; it is a
large U in 37 per cent of the subjects; 2 per cent are square and the
remainder parabolic.
_Chin Prominence_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 2 0 164 20 593 73 54 7 813
Interior 0 0 36 24 110 72 7 5 153
East 0 0 25 21 89 74 6 5 120
Coast 0 0 41 20 153 73 13 6 207
N.W. 1 1 11 14 55 70 9 11 76
_Chin Type_
Median Bilateral Total
No. % No. %
Fiji I 673 83 140 17 813
Interior 130 85 23 15 153
East 112 93 8 7 120
Coast 162 78 45 22 207
N.W. 62 82 14 18 76
A well-developed chin further typifies most Fijian faces; nearly
three-quarters have a moderate chin prominence, 7 per cent are
pronounced, and the remainder are submedium. This range is much the same
in the subgroups.
The chin is commonly median although 17 per cent have the bilateral
type. The bilateral chin is least frequent in Lau (7 per cent).
THE HEAD
_Temporal Fullness_
Absent Subm. + Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 1 0 563 69 249 31 813
Interior 0 0 113 74 40 26 153
East 0 0 70 58 50 42 120
Coast 1 0 148 71 60 29 208
N.W. 0 0 59 75 20 25 79
_Occipital Protrusion_
Absent Subm. + Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 13 2 775 95 25 3 813
Interior 4 3 149 97 0 0 153
East 0 0 116 97 4 3 120
Coast 3 1 193 92 13 6 209
N.W. 0 0 79 100 0 0 79
A narrowness in the temporal part of the head is indicated. Sixty-nine
per cent of the subject show submedium temporal fullness, whereas the
remainder are moderate. This condition is not marked and may best be
described as a discernable tendency.
The back of the head is generally rather flat as the 95 per cent
incidence of occipital protrusion indicates. This is a natural
condition; no intentional flattening is practiced by Fijians.
_Lambdoidal Flattening_
Absent Subm. + Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 754 93 32 4 27 3 813
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153
East 113 94 5 4 2 2 120
Coast 188 90 13 6 8 4 209
N.W. 72 91 3 4 4 5 79
_Occipital Flattening_
Absent Subm. + Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 809 100 2 0 2 0 813
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153
East 120 100 0 0 0 0 120
Coast 209 100 0 0 0 0 209
N.W. 79 99 0 0 1 1 79
_Median Sagittal Crest_
Absent Subm. + Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 600 74 177 22 36 4 813
Interior 96 63 46 30 11 7 153
East 109 91 10 8 1 1 120
Coast 160 77 43 21 6 3 209
N.W. 53 57 24 30 2 3 79
_Parietal Bosses_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 17 2 413 51 381 47 2 0 813
Interior 1 1 130 85 22 14 0 0 153
East 4 3 66 55 50 42 0 0 120
Coast 6 3 82 39 120 57 1 0 209
N.W. 1 1 40 51 38 48 0 0 79
A median sagittal crest though not striking is recorded in a number of
cases. It has a submedium incidence of 22 per cent and pronounced 4 per
cent. Among the interior people, the crest is more common. Because of
the heavy, bushy, and wiry hair of Fijians it is probable that some
instances of this feature were not detected by simple palpation, and the
incidence may be higher than the data indicate.
Submedium development of the parietal bosses is rather common occurring
in 51 per cent of the series. It is very common in the interior (85 per
cent).
_Cranial Asymmetry_
Absent Left Right Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji 813 100 0 0 0 0 813
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153
East 119 100 0 0 0 0 119
Coast 208 100 0 0 0 0 208
N.W. 79 100 0 0 0 0 79
_Facial Asymmetry_
Absent Left Right Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji 806 100 1 0 0 0 807
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153
East 117 98 0 0 2 2 119
Coast 206 99 0 0 2 1 208
N.W. 78 99 1 0 0 0 79
Cranial and facial assymetry are generally lacking, at least in any
marked degree. Normal asymmetries of the face and head were ignored in
this description.
EYES
_Eye Folds: External_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji 804 98 5 1 4 1 0 0 813
Interior 152 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 153
East 119 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 120
Coast 209 99 1 1 1 1 0 0 208
N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 79
_Eye Fold: Median_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 782 96 3 1/2 25 3 3 1/2 813
Interior 152 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 153
East 108 90 1 1 10 8 1 1 120
Coast 202 97 1 0 5 2 1 0 209
N.W. 78 99 0 0 0 0 1 1 79
_Eye Folds: Internal_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 778 96 4 0 30 4 1 0 813
Interior 151 99 0 0 2 1 0 0 153
East 102 85 1 1 17 14 1 0 120
Coast 203 97 0 0 6 3 0 0 209
N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 79
Fiji II 116 89 7 5-1/2 7 5-1/2 0 0 130
Solomons 80 94 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 0 0 85
Tonga 63 57 33 30 9 8 6 5 111
Eye folds are not a feature of the Fijian facial make-up. The external
fold is present in only 2 per cent of the total series. The median fold
shows a 96 per cent absence. The eastern groups exceed the other
provinces with a 10 per cent occurrence. The internal eye fold has a
total presence of 4 per cent and is also commoner in the east (14 per
cent).
_Eye Obliquity_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 251 31 358 43 201 25 3 1 813
Interior 92 60 46 30 14 9 1 1 153
East 33 28 52 35 45 38 0 0 120
Coast 47 22 102 49 58 28 2 1 209
N.W. 27 34 32 41 20 25 0 0 79
_Eye Opening_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 75 9-1/2 737 91 1 1/2 813
Interior 0 0 24 16 128 84 1 1 153
East 0 0 13 11 107 89 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 9 4 200 96 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 7 9 72 91 0 0 79
Some degree of eye obliquity is present in the majority of cases; 43 per
cent show a submedium condition; 25 per cent are medium and three
individuals have pronouncedly oblique eyes. The remainder, or 31 per
cent, have no obliquity. In the east, the natives depart from this total
distribution in opposite directions. The interior groups have much less
eye obliquity; the eastern people, a great deal more. The other
provinces are quite close to the total frequencies.
Eye opening height is preponderately moderate (91 per cent). The
remaining 10 per cent with one exception show submedium eye opening.
Regional variation is not great. The eastern and interior groups have a
little higher frequency in the submedium class.
FOREHEAD
_Brow Ridges_
Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 148 19 364 44 295 36 6 1 813
Interior 0 0 16 10 69 45 64 42 4 3 153
East 0 0 28 23 42 35 50 42 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 42 20 99 47 67 32 1 0 209
N.W. 0 0 19 24 40 51 19 24 1 1 79
Brow ridges are a marked feature of Fijians in general. None of them
lack some supraorbital development. Forty-four per cent have medium brow
ridges, 36 per cent are pronounced, and 1 per cent are very pronounced.
The other 19 per cent are small. The interior and eastern groups share a
little higher incidence of pronounced brow ridges; the other regions are
nearer the total distribution of variations.
_Forehead Height_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 444 55 369 45 0 0 813
Interior 0 0 90 59 63 41 0 0 153
East 0 0 68 57 52 43 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 110 53 99 47 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 46 58 33 42 0 0 79
_Forehead Slope_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 8 1 280 34 460 56 65 8 813
Interior 0 0 53 35 87 57 13 8 153
East 0 0 38 32 72 60 10 8 120
Coast 4 2 78 37 113 54 14 7 209
N.W. 2 3 27 34 47 59 4 4 79
Tonga 1 1 70 60 45 39 0 0 116
Forehead height is submedium in more than half the cases (55 per cent);
the others are all medium. There is no significant variation among the
subgroups.
A sloping forehead is quite characteristic of the Fijian head; 56 per
cent are moderately sloping, 8 per cent are pronounced, and 34 per cent
are submedium. Only 1 per cent have foreheads with no recession.
Regional differences are very slight.
NOSE
_Nasion Depression_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 1 0 170 21 579 71 63 8 813
Interior 0 0 41 27 103 67 9 6 153
East 1 1 32 27 85 71 2 2 120
Coast 0 0 45 22 144 69 10 10 209
N.W. 0 0 18 23 56 71 6 6 79
_Root Height_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 1 0 63 8 555 67 194 24 813
Interior 0 0 16 10 96 63 41 27 153
East 1 1 3 3 77 64 39 33 120
Coast 0 0 10 5 157 75 42 20 209
N.W. 0 0 4 5 57 72 18 23 79
_Root Breadth_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 1 0 258 32 554 68 813
Interior 0 0 0 0 38 25 115 75 153
East 0 0 1 1 53 44 66 55 120
Coast 0 0 0 0 67 32 142 68 209
N.W. 0 0 0 0 24 30 55 70 79
_Nasal Septum_
Straight Concave Convex Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 777 99 0 0 36 4 813
Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153
East 118 98 0 0 2 2 120
Coast 196 94 0 0 13 6 199
N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 79
_Bridge Height_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 54 7 644 79 115 14 813
Interior 0 0 13 8 124 81 16 10 153
East 0 0 1 1 98 82 21 18 120
Coast 0 0 10 5 173 83 26 12 209
N.W. 0 0 7 9 60 76 12 15 79
Tonga 0 0 21 22 81 70 9 8 111
_Bridge Breadth_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 0 0 265 33 546 67 813
Interior 0 0 0 0 29 19 124 81 153
East 0 0 0 0 72 60 48 40 120
Coast 0 0 0 0 62 30 147 70 209
N.W. 0 0 0 0 23 29 56 71 79
_Nasal Profile_
Concave Straight Convex Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 14 2 625 77 173 21 812
Interior 0 0 123 80 30 20 153
East 1 1 88 73 31 26 120
Coast 4 2 171 82 34 16 209
N.W. 1 1 59 75 19 24 79
Moderate nasion depression characterizes the majority of noses (71 per
cent). Pronounced depression is recorded for 8 per cent, and submedium
occurrence in 21 per cent. Only one individual lacks any depression.
This distribution does not vary much among the provinces.
A well-elevated nasal root is also characteristic; 67 per cent show
moderate elevation and 24 per cent pronounced, whereas 8 per cent are
submedium; one individual is without any elevation. The interior Fijians
have a little higher frequency of low nasal root (10 per cent), whereas
the eastern people, with a 30 per cent incidence, excel in the
pronounced category.
More striking is the breadth of the Fijian nasal root. It is pronounced
in 68 per cent and moderate in the remainder of the series. Pronounced
breadth is commoner among the interior people (75 per cent) and least
preponderant in the east (55 per cent).
The nasal septum is nearly always straight; the only departure from this
condition is a 4 per cent incidence of convexity. Regional differences
are not significant.
Nasal bridge height is commonly medium (79 per cent) in the totality of
noses. Fourteen percent are pronouncedly high and 7 per cent are
submedium. The several provinces do not depart very far from this
distribution.
The Fijian nose shows a strong tendency to broadness of the bridge.
Two-thirds show pronounced breadth of bridge and the remainder are
medium. Pronounced broadness increases in the interior groups (81 per
cent) and shows a marked decline in the east (40 per cent).
Nasal profiles are most often straight (77 per cent), but convex noses
are not uncommon (21 per cent). Convexity is slightly more frequent in
the east (26 percent), whereas in the coastal people its incidence drops
to 16 per cent.
_Nasal-Tip Thickness_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 1 0 344 42 461 58 1 0 812
Interior 0 0 55 36 98 64 0 0 153
East 1 1 80 67 39 33 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 94 45 114 55 1 1 209
N.W. 0 0 27 34 52 66 0 0 79
_Nasal-Tip Inclination_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 731 90 57 7 24 3 0 0 812
Interior 147 96 6 4 0 0 0 0 153
East 109 91 6 5 5 4 0 0 120
Coast 186 89 16 8 7 3 0 0 209
N.W. 71 90 6 8 2 3 0 0 79
_Nasal Wings_
Compressed Medium Flaring Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 0 0 198 24 615 76 813
Interior 0 0 25 16 128 84 153
East 0 0 70 58 50 42 120
Coast 0 0 42 20 167 80 209
N.W. 0 0 16 20 63 80 79
The nasal tip is pronounced more often than not, 58 per cent showing
this condition. The remaining 42 per cent have tips of medium thickness.
Thicker tips occur more often in the interior (64 per cent) and in the
northwest (66 per cent), least often in the east (33 per cent).
Usually the nasal tip is not inclined downward. Slight and moderate
inclination has a combined incidence of only 10 per cent.
Flaring nasal wings are a common condition (76 per cent). This incidence
rises to 84 per cent in the interior and drops to 42 per cent in the
east.
MOUTH
_Lip Thickness: Membranous_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 19 2 428 53 364 45 2 0 813
Interior 10 7 43 28 100 65 0 0 153
East 1 1 83 69 36 30 0 0 120
Coast 1 1/2 88 42 119 57 1 1/2 209
N.W. 4 5 39 49 36 46 0 0 79
Tonga 12 10 97 84 7 6 0 0 116
_Lip Thickness: Integumental_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 4 1/2 608 75 201 25 0 0 813
Interior 1 1/2 114 75 38 25 0 0 153
East 1 1 100 83 19 16 0 0 120
Coast 2 1 164 78 43 21 0 0 209
N.W. 0 0 55 70 24 30 0 0 79
Fiji II 0 0 1 1/2 26 20 106 80 133
Solomons 0 0 0 0 12 14 73 86 85
_Lip Eversion_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 12 1 333 41 444 55 24 3 813
Interior 0 0 63 41 88 58 2 1 153
East 8 7 77 64 35 29 0 0 120
Coast 0 0 63 30 138 66 8 4 209
N.W. 1 1 26 33 51 65 1 1 79
_Lip Seam_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 33 4 429 53 343 42 8 1 813
Interior 1 1 79 52 73 48 0 0 153
East 14 12 77 64 29 24 0 0 120
Coast 6 3 105 50 94 45 4 2 209
N.W. 3 4 44 56 32 41 0 0 79
Fijian lips are Negroid in thickness in many instances. Membranous lips
are thick in 45 per cent of the series, medium in 53 per cent, and
submedium in 25 per cent. Thickest lips occur in the interior and
coastal areas where the pronounced type registers 65 per cent and 57 per
cent, respectively. In the east, lips are more moderate in thickness,
and the pronounced category drops to 30 per cent.
Integumental lips also tend to be heavy but not so much as the mucous
parts. Twenty-five per cent of the total Fijians have thick integumental
lips and the remainder are moderate. Howells' Fiji II series classes 80
per cent as very pronounced and the remainder as pronounced. The Solomon
Islanders, with an 86 per cent incidence of very pronounced, have the
heaviest lips of all.
Lip eversion varies largely between moderate and submedium, 55 percent
and 41 per cent, respectively. The interior and coastal Fijians show
this trait a little more often than the others, whereas the eastern
people have least lip eversion. The lip seam is present in nearly all
cases, but not to a pronounced degree. Fifty-three per cent are
submedium and 42 per cent are moderate. The eastern groups are
definitely less endowed with this trait. The other provinces vary but
little from the total distribution.
TEETH
_Bite_
Under E-E Subm. over + over Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 2 0 518 64 274 34 13 2 807
Interior 0 0 94 61 59 39 0 0 153
East 0 0 73 61 45 38 2 2 120
Coast 1 0 130 62 76 36 0 0 207
N.W. 1 1 49 62 23 29 3 4 76
Fiji II 4 3 50 38 77 59 0 0 131
Solomons 1 1 37 45 45 54 0 0 83
_Caries_
Absent Subm.(1-4) + (5-8) ++ (9-16) +++ (17-x) Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 645 78 80 10 58 7 22 3 8 1 813
Interior 130 84 16 10 3 2 1 1 3 2 153
East 100 83 10 12 4 3 2 1 4 3 120
Coast 153 73 29 14 16 8 8 4 3 1 209
N.W. 62 80 9 11 6 8 1 1 0 0 78
_Crowding_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 685 84 115 14 13 2 0 0 813
Interior 134 88 19 12 0 0 0 0 153
East 100 83 17 14 3 3 0 0 120
Coast 180 86 25 12 4 2 0 0 209
N.W. 64 81 14 18 0 0 0 0 78
_Tooth Eruption_
Complete Incomplete Total
No. % No. %
Fiji I 796 98 15 2 811
Interior 153 100 0 0 153
East 119 99 1 1 120
Coast 199 95 8 4 207
N.W. 74 94 2 3 76
_Wear_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 184 23 443 54 144 18 42 5 813
Interior 27 {18} 58 {38} 37 {24} 31 {20} 153
East 26 {22} 69 {57} 24 {20} 1 {1} 120
Coast 60 {29} 120 {57} 28 {13} 1 {1/2} 209
N.W. 12 {15} 47 {60} 17 {22} 2 {3} 78
The jaws of Fijians have a rather distinctive frequency of edge-to-edge
bite. I recorded this as 64 per cent, but Howells' series indicates a 38
per cent incidence.
The quality of Fijian teeth as reflected by frequency of caries is
excellent. Nearly 80 per cent of the total show no tooth decay. The
soundest teeth from this standpoint occur in the interior, the east, and
the northwest. The coastal people show the highest incidence of caries,
an interesting point since many of this sample come from around Suva and
have more access to the Western processed foods.
Tooth crowding is quite uncommon to Fijians, a condition consistent with
their generous jaw conformation. Crowding is noted in only 16 per cent
of the series, and most of it is slight.
Tooth eruption is complete in nearly all the subjects. A 2 per cent
incidence of incomplete eruption is entirely due to the immaturity of
some of the young adults. No pathological suppression was noted.
Some wear of the teeth is recorded for more than three-quarters of the
series, but lacking age incidence, the data has limited meaning. The
Fijian diet is not abrasive the way, for instance, it is for the Indians
of our Southwest, where the staple food is ground in stone mills.
EARS
_Ear Helix_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 230 28 511 63 72 9 0 0 813
Interior 45 29 99 65 9 6 0 0 153
East 29 24 74 62 17 14 0 0 120
Coast 58 28 128 61 23 11 0 0 209
N.W. 24 30 51 65 4 5 0 0 79
_Darwin's Point_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 761 94 36 4 15 2 1 0 813
Interior 150 98 3 2 0 0 0 0 153
East 112 93 6 5 2 2 0 0 120
Coast 187 89 13 6 4 4 1 0 209
N.W. 77 97 2 3 0 0 0 0 79
_Ear-Lobe Type_
Soldered Attached Free Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 80 10 531 65 202 25 813
Interior 47 31 74 48 32 21 153
East 3 3 85 71 32 27 120
Coast 9 4 141 67 59 28 209
N.W. 5 6 52 66 22 28 79
_Ear-Lobe Size_
Subm. + ++ +++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 176 22 457 56 178 22 2 0 813
Interior 49 32 66 43 38 25 0 0 153
East 16 13 76 63 27 23 1 1 120
Coast 31 15 123 59 55 26 0 0 209
N.W. 20 25 47 59 12 15 0 0 79
_Ear Protrusion_
Absent Subm. + ++ Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 2 0 262 32 463 57 86 11 813
Interior 1 1 47 31 90 59 15 10 153
East 0 0 31 26 77 64 12 10 120
Coast 1 0 75 36 114 55 19 9 209
N.W. 0 0 26 33 49 62 4 5 79
_Ear Slant_
Absent Subm. + Total
No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 416 51 332 41 65 8 813
Interior 78 51 67 44 8 5 153
East 55 46 52 43 13 11 120
Coast 118 56 74 35 17 8 209
N.W. 38 48 39 49 2 3 79
The Fijian ear is a moderately distinctive appendage from a racial
standpoint. The helix shows moderate development on the whole and is
submedium otherwise except for a 9 per cent incidence of pronounced
appearance. Regional variation is small.
The Darwin's point is noted in a number of cases: 4 per cent to a
submedium degree and 2 per cent medium.
The ear lobe is somewhat distinctive with a 65 per cent incidence of the
attached condition and 10 per cent soldered. The remaining 25 per cent
is free. This distinctiveness is more marked among the interior groups
where the soldered type of lobe increases to 31 percent.
Ear-lobe size is moderate in more than half the series, pronounced in 22
per cent, and submedium in 22 per cent. Small lobes are commoner in the
interior province.
Moderate ear protrusion is the commonest form followed by submedium.
Marked projection is recorded as 11 per cent.
Ear slant either is lacking or slight in most instances; the series is
rather evenly divided between these two categories, the zero category
having a small majority. Moderate slant is noted for 8 per cent.
BODY BUILD
_Body Build: Endomorph_
1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 260 32 334 42 126 15 46 6 33 4 12 1 811
Interior 49 32 66 43 26 17 5 3 6 4 1 1 153
East 30 25 54 45 21 18 5 4 8 7 1 1 119
Coast 77 37 82 39 28 13 10 5 8 4 3 1 209
N.W. 26 33 34 43 9 11 6 8 2 3 2 3 79
_Body Build: Mesomorph_
1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 1 {0.1} 2 {0.2} 33 4 131 16 227 28 419 52 813
Interior 0 0 1 1 11 7 27 18 41 27 73 48 153
East 1 1 0 0 2 2 14 12 38 32 65 54 120
Coast 0 0 0 0 9 4 29 14 67 32 104 50 209
N.W. 0 0 1 1 2 3 15 19 14 18 47 59 79
_Body Build: Ectomorph_
1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Fiji I 351 43 195 24 110 14 88 11 68 8 1 {0.1} 813
Interior 54 35 56 37 13 8 15 10 15 10 0 0 153
East 49 41 33 28 15 13 12 10 11 9 0 0 120
Coast 84 40 51 24 36 17 18 9 19 9 1 1 209
N.W. 39 49 19 24 11 14 6 8 4 5 0 0 79
Variations in body build have been expressed with the Sheldon method of
somatotyping.[18] Accordingly, the Fijians are primarily and definitely
mesomorphic, with endomorphy the second strongest component, and
ectomorphy, third. About 80 per cent of the total series had a
mesomorphic rating of 5 and 6 which leaves no doubt as to the
prevailingly athletic physique. Endomorphy is seldom pronounced so that
obesity may be described as no more than occasional. A pronounced linear
build is likewise relatively infrequent.
The Fijian subgroups do not vary markedly from the over-all pattern.
SUMMARY
The preceding data may be summarized from three points of view. The
first will emphasize the physical features that are common to most
Fijians. At the outset it should be pointed out that a "typical" Fijian
does not exist, except as a statistical abstraction. The racial
composition of the Fijian is complex and far from being homogeneous.
There is no doubt, from the physical and cultural evidence, as well as
the geographical location, that Fijians are related to both Melanesians
and Polynesians. The second point is to give a precise indication of
these affinities with Melanesia and Polynesia. A third concern of this
analysis is the geographical variability within Fiji. This consists of a
regional breakdown of the Fijian data into interior, eastern, coastal,
and northwestern divisions, in order to demonstrate some of the local
variation of the Melanesian-Polynesian ingredients and their possible
meaning.
_Body (pl. 1)._--In general size and appearance, the Fijian is tall and
well proportioned. His body is fairly tall and well muscled, that is,
predominately athletic in build. Obesity is relatively uncommon except
in moderate degrees. This rather tall stature allies the Fijians more
closely with the Polynesians. Shoulder, chest, and hip diameters also
indicate that Fijians are generously endowed.
The Fijians who occupy the mountainous interior of the main island are
less tall than the coastal and eastern people; they also have narrower
shoulders, relatively deeper and narrower chests, whereas their arms and
legs are somewhat shorter. The eastern Fijians are tallest of all
subgroups.
_Skin Color._--Most Fijians have either medium- or dark-brown skin on the
exposed facial surfaces. The more protected body areas show higher
frequencies of medium brown and light brown. The Fijians are definitely
less dark than the Melanesians but are darker, on the whole, than the
Polynesians.
The interior hill tribes are darker than the eastern and coastal groups.
The lightest average skin shade occurs in the east.
_Hair (pls. 6 and 7)._--In several respects the hair is the most
consistent endowment of the Fijians. In nearly all instances it is
black, frizzly, and coarse. The only departure from this condition is an
occasional instance of dark brown and a few instances of rufous shade.
Curly hair is a more common exception in the east. The coastal and
northwestern people are nearer to the interior condition of frizzly
hair. All in all, the hair form is definitely Melanesian. Hair length
conforms to the general Melanesian condition, that is, intermediate
between short Negroid and long Caucasiod or Mongoloid.
Considerable beard and body hair is common to Fijians (pls. 8 and 9).
Moderate to pronounced beard is shown by nearly three-quarters of the
total series, and body hair is even more prevelant. General hairiness is
also exhibited by the Solomon Islanders and the Tongans in the
comparative data. The interior tribes of Fiji are more hairy than the
other groups. This prevelence of body and face hair seems to conform to
parts of Melanesia where it may be regarded as an Australoid element.
Its presence in the Tongan data does not seem to be representative of
other Polynesians, who are generally described as more glabrous.
_Head (pl. 2)._--Moderate brachycephaly is the commonest head form of
Fijians, although the total range is great. In this respect the Fijians
resemble the broad-headed Tongans, and are quite distinct from the
longer-headed Melanesians. The Fijian head, despite its general
brachycephaly, is rather compressed in the temporal area and submedium
in parietal elevation. The back of the cranium is characteristically
flattened, a natural conformation as no deformation is practiced.
The interior mountain tribes of Fiji have narrower heads and lower
cranial indices than do the coastal and eastern groups. The interior
people also have lesser head heights and a higher breadth-height index.
_Forehead (pl. 10)._--Moderate to strongly developed supraorbital ridges
are a common Fijian endowment. Similarly are low and sloping foreheads.
These features have been observed in western Melanesia, where, like
hairiness, they suggest Australoid of archaic Caucasoid elements.
_Face._--Broadness characterizes the Fijian face. Bizygomatic breadth
locates them nearer to the Polynesians than to the narrower-faced
Melanesians. Strongly developed malars are common, and they tend to
project laterally more than frontally. Widest faces appear among the
eastern people.
Bigonial and bicanine widths show that generous breadth includes the
lower parts of the face, a condition born out by strong gonial angles.
Face length falls between the long-faced Tongans and the definitely
shorter-faced Melanesians (pls. 3 and 4).
Some prognathism is common among Fijians, both total and mid-facial, but
the condition is not universal nor pronounced. The eastern Fijians are
the least prognathic (pl. 10).
_Eyes._--Dark brown is the prevailing eye color, although many subjects
have medium-brown eyes. Eye folds are only occasional and eye-opening
height is usually moderate. Slight eye obliquity is common, more so in
the eastern sample.
_Nose (pl. 4)._--Great variability marks the nasal area. The commonest
condition is a broad and moderately long nose. Medium nasion depression
is frequent; the root is wide and moderately elevated. Bridge breadth is
often pronounced and the nasal profile is straight to convex. The nasal
tip is characteristically thickened and nasal wings are usually flaring.
On the whole, there is a great deal of Melanesian in the Fijian nose; it
is Negroid, but not pronouncedly. Those aspects of the nose which may be
termed Negroid are commoner in the interior hill people and the
northwest and least evident in the east.
_Lips (pl. 5)._--Thick and moderately everted lips occur in nearly half
the series. This Negroid combination is more manifest in the interior
and least in the east. Integumental lips tend to be heavy.
_Teeth._--The condition of the teeth is generally excellent. Most Fijians
have broad, roomy jaws that permit complete and uncrowded tooth
development. Dental caries are very infrequent. A rather high incidence
of edge-to-edge bite is interesting.
_Ears (pl. 5)._--The ears are usually moderate in length and tend to
protrude. Ear lobes are commonly large and are more often attached or
soldered than free.
CONCLUSIONS
On the whole the Fijians are predominately Melanesian but with numerous
Polynesian affinities that vary with locality. The Melanesian qualities
are in part Negroid or Negritoid and in part Australoid. The Negroid
resemblances are best illustrated by frizzly black hair, broad noses
with depressed nasion and flaring nostrils, thick lips, and dark
pigmentation (pls. 11 and 12). Australoid elements are general
hairiness, strong brow ridges, low, sloping foreheads, compressed
parietal and temporal areas, and some prognathism (pl. 13). The presence
of Australoid suggestions need not mean that they come from Australia,
but that they form a part of the Melanesian make-up. This interpretation
of the Melanesians as a hybrid people conforms with similar designations
by such students as Birdsell[19] and Hooton.[20] Polynesian influence in
Fiji is most clearly demonstrated by lighter pigmentation, tall and
muscular body build, moderate brachycephaly, broad faces and jaws, high
and fairly long noses and strong chins. I found much the same
resemblances between Fijians and Polynesians as did Howells;[21]
however, in my comparisons the Polynesian similarities are outweighed
and outnumbered by a greater array of Melanesian characters. The
essential Melanesian character of the Fijian population is further
demonstrated by recent blood-analysis comparisons; the conclusions of
Simmons _et al._, identify the Fijians as Melanesian.[22]
The Fijians who live in the interior of Viti Levu show the most frequent
Melanesian traits (pls. 11 and 14). These people are shorter, have
narrower shoulders and chests; their heads are narrower and lower
vaulted; they have broader noses, thicker lips, are hairier, and have
darker skins. This condition, occurring as it does in the mountainous
interior, which may be regarded as a refuge area, supports the theory
that the Melanesian is the earlier component in Fiji.
The eastern Fijians stand in considerable contrast to the interior
tribes and are the most Polynesian in appearance (pl. 15). They have
lighter skins, greater stature, and heavier musculature. Their heads are
broader, as are their faces and jaws; their noses are larger, narrower,
and higher bridged, and their chins are more pronounced.
The coastal sample might be called intermediate or a more even blend of
Melanesian and Polynesian.
The northwestern people resemble the coastal tribes. This means they
show fewer departures in either a Melanesian or Polynesian direction.
This also means they do not tell us whether the legendary ancestors, who
are supposed to have first landed in Fiji on the northwest coast of Viti
Levu,[23] were Melanesian or Polynesian. These data may mean one of
three things: (1) the Fijian tradition of a landing at this place eight
or ten generations ago is groundless, (2) the immigration did take place
but whatever racial traits predominated, whether Melanesian or
Polynesian, have been homogenized and obscured by subsequent
intermixture and by movements back and forth on Viti Levu, (3) the
landing did occur but the ancestors were already a
Melanesian-Polynesian blend when they arrived.
LITERATURE CITED
Birdsell. J. B.
1948. Racial Origin of the Extinct Tasmanians. Records of the Queen
Victoria Museum, Tasmania, Vol. II, No. 3.
Churchill, W.
1911. The Polynesian Wanderings. Carnegie Institute of Washington,
Publ. No. 134, Washington.
Derrick, R. A.
1951. History of Fiji. Printing and Stationery Dept., Suva, Fiji.
Fornander, A.
1878. The Polynesian Race. London.
Hocart, A. M.
1929. Lau Islands, Fiji. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Bull. 62,
Honolulu.
Hooton, E. A.
1946. Up From the Ape. Macmillan Co., New York.
Howells. W. W.
1933. Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands.
American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers,
Vol. 33, Pt. 4.
Roth, G. K.
1953. The Fijian Way of Life. Oxford University Press, London.
Simmon, R. T., J. J. Graydon, and G. Barnes
1945. The Medical Journal of Australia, May 26.
Sullivan, L. R.
1922. A Contribution to Tongan Somotology. Bernice P. Bishop Museum,
Vol. VIII, No. 4.
Thomson, B.
1908. The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom. Wm. Heinemann,
London.
PLATES
[Illustration: PLATE 1. NEAR-AVERAGE BODY FEATURES
Stature: 173.3 cm.
Weight: 172.1 lbs.
Arm length: 75.1 cm.
Leg length: 82.2 cm.
Shoulder breadth: 41 cm.
Hip breadth: 29.1 cm.
Shoulder-hip index: 71.0
Chest breadth: 28.8 cm.
Chest depth: 22.8 cm.
Thoracic index: 75.7
Sitting height: 86.3 cm.
Sitting height-stature index: 50.0
Body build: Strongly mesomorphic]
[Illustration: PLATE 2. NEAR-AVERAGE CRANIAL FEATURES
Head length: 187.2 mm.
Head breadth: 156.9 mm.
Cephalic index: 83.9
Head height: 128.6 mm.
Length-height index: 68.7
Length-breadth index: 81.1
Minimum frontal diameter: 109.8 mm.
Fronto-parietal index: 70.0]
[Illustration: PLATE 3. NEAR-AVERAGE FACIAL FEATURES
Bizygomatic breadth: 146.7 mm.
Cephalo-facial index: 93.2
Zygo-frontal index: 75.3
Bigonial breadth: 109.6 mm.
Fronto-gonial index: 100.1
Zygo-gonial index: 74.7
Bicanine breadth: 39.8
Total facial height: 122.3 mm.
Total facial index: 84.1
Upper facial height: 71.3
Upper facial index: 48.9
Nasal height: 53.1
Nasal breadth: 45.5
Nasal index: 85.6]
[Illustration: PLATE 4. NEAR-AVERAGE FACE AND NOSE FEATURES
_FACE_
Pronounced malars
Moderately long face
Wide gonia
Moderate chin
Moderate prognathism
_NOSE_
Broad bridge
Wide root
Moderate length
Thick tip
Flaring nostrils
Straight profile]
[Illustration: PLATE 5. NEAR-AVERAGE LIP AND EAR FEATURES
_LIPS_
Moderately thick
Pronounced lip seam
Moderate eversion
_EARS_
Moderate size
Small lobe
Attached lobe
Moderate protrusion]
[Illustration: PLATE 6. NEAR-AVERAGE HAIR FEATURES
Black color
Frizzly form
Pronounced quantity
Coarse texture
Intermediate length]
[Illustration: PLATE 7. HAIR FORM VARIANTS
CURLY HAIR WAVY HAIR]
[Illustration: PLATE 8. PRONOUNCED BODY HAIR
20 per cent occurrence]
[Illustration: PLATE 9. PRONOUNCED BEARD
26 per cent occurrence]
[Illustration: PLATE 10. FACIAL VARIATIONS
No prognathism
High forehead
Moderate browridges
Moderate prognathism
Low, receding forehead
Pronounced browridges
Pronounced prognathism
Low, receding forehead
Very pronounced browridges]
[Illustration: PLATE 11. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE NEGROID)
Shorter stature
Narrower shoulders
Deeper chest
Darker skin
Narrower head
Broader nose
Thicker lips]
[Illustration: PLATE 12. "NEGROID" FIJIAN]
[Illustration: PLATE 13. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE AUSTRALOID)
Heavier beard and body hair
Lower, more sloping forehead
More compressed parietals
More pronounced brow ridges
More prognathic]
[Illustration: PLATE 14. "AUSTRALOID" FIJIANS]
[Illustration: PLATE 15. EASTERN SUBJECT (MORE POLYNESIAN)
Lighter skin
Less beard and body hair
Wavy hair
Wider head
Higher, steeper forehead
Less prognathic
Higher, narrower nose
Moderately thick lips]
[Illustration: PLATE 16. "POLYNESIAN" FIJIANS]
[Footnote 1: Hooton, 1946, pp. 735-763.]
[Footnote 2: Derrick, 1946, pp. 5-6.]
[Footnote 3: Ibid., pp. 7-8.]
[Footnote 4: Population statistics from "Fiji Information," of 1954,
issued by Public Relations Office, Suva, Fiji.]
[Footnote 5: Hooton, 1946, p. 621.]
[Footnote 6: Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.]
[Footnote 7: Fornander, 1878.]
[Footnote 8: Churchill, 1911.]
[Footnote 9: Hocart, 1929, p. 236.]
[Footnote 10: Howells, 1933, p. 335.]
[Footnote 11: Roth, 1953, pp. 54, 55.]
[Footnote 12: One pound deducted for dress (usually shorts only).]
[Footnote 13: By subtracting sitting height from total stature.]
[Footnote 14: Cranial measurements are not distorted by cradling
practice or other causes of deformation.]
[Footnote 15: Howells records skin color with the von Luschan scale. I
have adjusted this scale to my own.]
[Footnote 16: + means medium or moderate; ++ means pronounced; +++ means
very pronounced.]
[Footnote 17: Observation taken on the chest.]
[Footnote 18: W. H. Sheldon, _The Variation of Human Physique_, Harper and
Bros., 1940.]
[Footnote 19: Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.]
[Footnote 20: Hooton, 1946, p. 621.]
[Footnote 21: Howells, 1933, p. 332.]
[Footnote 22: Simmons _et al._, 1945, pp. 3-4]
[Footnote 23: See pp. 1 and 4 of Introduction.]
[Transcriber's Note: Figures incorrectly entered as zero have been calculated
and inserted in {}.]
End of Project Gutenberg's A Racial Study of the Fijians, by Norman E. Gabel
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