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Title: Geological and solar climates
Their causes and variations
Author: Marsden Manson
Release date: December 13, 2025 [eBook #77456]
Language: English
Original publication: Printer: San Francisco: University of California, 1893
Credits: Jamie Brydone-Jack, BlueDiamondHead, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGICAL AND SOLAR CLIMATES ***
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
Small caps is converted to all caps.
Errata have been applied to the etext.
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Geological and Solar Climates
Their Causes and Variations.
A THESIS.
BY
MARSDEN MANSON, C. E.
_Geology and Physics_:
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,
May, 1893.
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1893,
By MARSDEN MANSON,
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.
SAN FRANCISCO:
George Spaulding & Co., Printers.
414 Clay Street.
ERRATA.
Preface, next line to last, for _waiver_ read _waver_.
Page 5, foot-note, 7th line from bottom, for _Hetvetic_ read _Helvetic_.
Page 14, in foot-note, 6th line from top, for _Zenographic_ read
_Zenographical_.
Page 17, last line, for _area_ read _era_.
Page 20, 14th line from top, for _wherever_ read _whenever_.
Page 23, 3d line from bottom, for _area_ read _era_.
Page 23, 4th line from bottom, for _merging_ read _emerging_.
Page 41, 15th line from top, after _necessary for the_, insert,
_removal of glacial conditions, and for the_
Page 44, the second paragraph should read: The trapping process not
being a function of the orbital distance, nor of the actual amount of
heat received, but of the composition of the atmosphere, this rise, etc.
Page 47th, 6th line from top, insert ” at end of paragraph, after out.
_Ib_, 6th line from bottom, for * substitute †.
PREFACE.
The worshipers of truth are delving in every hamlet--many have before
them the daily burdens of life, from which they can snatch but a few
hours each day to give to their chosen faith.
Every now and then one comes forward with some skillfully carved jewel
which he has wrought into shape to deck his shrine. Sometimes it is
only a little piece merely good for inlaying the walls, yet it fits
well in its place and strengthens the faith of other workers. Again it
is the great keystone for some massive arch whose other stones were
laid in bygone times. Yet again it is a mighty truth that will not fit
in the great building at all until the wrong work be torn down, and
then it forms the base for one of the steadfast and everlasting towers.
So pure must be the faith of those who bow at the hallowed shrines of
truth that they would tear down these shrines rather than let them
stand upon, or even harbor error.
The writer gives in this little book a keystone which he knows will
not fit in the present building unless some errors be torn out. Those
whose faith is true will not waver nor come grudgingly to the work of
rebuilding.
GEOLOGICAL AND SOLAR CLIMATES,
THEIR CAUSES AND VARIATIONS.
THE CAUSE OF THE ICE AGE.
“_The most important problem in terrestrial physics_ * * _and the one
which will ultimately prove the most far reaching in its consequences,
is: What are the physical causes which led to the Glacial Epoch and
to all those great secular changes of climate which are known to have
taken place during Geological Ages?_” (_Dr. Croll_, _Climate and
Cosmology_.)
“_An attentive study of the physical Geography of the earth and its
influences on Climate, together with a judicious application of the
simplest physical theories, will enable us to gain by and by a better
knowledge of Geological climates._” (_Prof. A. Woeikof_, _Nature_,
_March 2, 1882, p. 426_.)
Since Agassiz announced[1] the past existence of an age during which
ice covered temperate and tropical land areas, _the cause_ of this
wonderful phenomenon has been a problem of profound interest. Upon the
correct solution of it hinges also the cause of Geological climates.
So great has been the interest attaching to this subject, that more
study has been devoted to it during the past fifty years than perhaps
to any other in Geology; hardly a leading scientific magazine runs
through a year’s numbers without one or more articles upon it; and no
Geological Society is without zealous students of glacial phenomena.
Some have become so absorbed in the subject that, led by the recurrence
of certain slight astronomical influences, they recognize a glacial
period for slight and widely scattered evidences of possible early
local glaciation, forgetful of the fact that an era of frigid climate
could not intervene between two eras of tropical climates without the
intervention of eras of temperate climates.
The evidences establishing the reality of the Ice Age[2] during the
Quaternary period are now beyond dispute. It is difficult, however, to
establish by geological evidence the synchronal glaciation of all the
continental areas known to have been heavily glaciated. This difficulty
arises from the fact that the identity of various strata has to be
established by fossils of varying conditions and characters; it is also
rare that the same geologist has visited and compared the evidence
upon more than two continents, thus eliminating probable errors from
unequal sub-aerial denudation and exposure in the different zones of
present climates and upon different continents. Again, the proof of
the contemporaneous existence of corresponding strata upon different
continents in the same latitude is sometimes attempted by a comparison
of land fauna and flora, with marine fauna and flora, or even by more
complex comparisons. Fossil plant life is by far more reliable than
animal life for comparative purposes.
Another misleading factor is found in the interpretation of the great
trans-continental lines of terminal moraines into the absolute limits
of glaciation. Considering the great lapse of time since the removal
of glacial conditions in temperate and tropical latitudes, it is more
than probable that the existing unobliterated evidences by no means
mark the extreme limits of a lighter and more extended glaciation
whose traces have been destroyed, but which can justly be interpolated
between the existing very marked traces of enormous glacial extension
during Quaternary times. It is not impossible, nor entirely improbable,
that early local glaciation did not occur during the early part of the
Cenozoic Era, or even earlier, but the data upon which to establish the
occurrence of such early local glaciation are both meagre and obscure.
Should the evidences of such early local glaciation be developed beyond
dispute, they will in no way interfere with the interpretation to be
given, but they will strongly corroborate certain portions of this
interpretation. So far as the author has been able to examine such
evidence, it has been found to be between strata containing fossil life
of a torrid character, with no evidences of a gradual merging into a
temperate climate above and below it, as in Quaternary glaciation.[3]
Before entering further into this discussion, it may not be out of
place to briefly review the principal theories advanced to account
for the Ice Age. It will be seen that physicists and astronomers have
vied with geologists in the diligence of the search for the cause
of this age, and their minds have been as fertile in the number of
causes assigned as the true one. Not one of all the causes suggested
has been sustained by argument without a flaw in the reasoning, and
no demonstration has been made which has carried conviction to the
scientific world.
It would not be instructive to attempt to review all of the theories
which have been urged. The tendency to ascribe remote inadequate
or obscure causes, rather than to interpret facts and phenomena in
accordance with known laws, is apparent in many. Some writers have
ascribed causes resting only upon hypotheses beyond the range of
either analysis or investigation; such hypotheses can only stand in
the absence or failure of all other assignable causes. Therefore the
leading causes only will be briefly mentioned.
In a recent monograph on the subject, the following are given:[4]
1. A decrease in the original heat of the globe.
2. Changes in the elevation of land, and consequent variations in
the distribution of land and water.
3. Changes in the obliquity of the axis of the earth.
4. A period of greater moisture in the atmosphere.
5. Variations in the amount of heat radiated by the sun.
6. A variation in the heat absorbing power of the sun’s atmosphere.
7. Variations in the temperature of space.
8. A coincidence of an Aphelion winter with a period of maximum
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit.
9. A combination of 8 and 2.
10. The views of Sir Robert Ball, LL. D., etc., as expressed in his
recent work, _The Cause of an Ice Age_.[5]
The first of these theories is universally admitted, and taught in
even elementary works on Physical Geography, but it fails to account
for all the phenomena accompanying the Ice Age, or to account for the
disappearance of that age, and, so far as the author is aware, has not
been presented in such form as to satisfactorily account for geological
and present climates in rigid conformity with the facts and known laws.
Nor has it been presented in such form as to account for that era of
geological climates known as the Ice Age; moreover, it fails to account
for the disappearance of that Age.
The second has been proved to be a local and correlated phenomenon, but
cannot be accepted as a _cause_, since glaciation did not solely depend
in the same latitudes upon elevation above sea level.
As to the third, whilst slight changes in obliquity have occurred, and
must continue to occur, the results are too slight and the distribution
of glacial phenomena is too general to warrant the acceptance of such
change as a prime cause.
The fourth is a necessary consequence of the first, but, like the
first, fails when the crucial test of accounting for the disappearance
of the continental Ice Sheets is applied.
The fifth, sixth and seventh theories are mere hypotheses, unsupported
by either demonstration or observed facts.
The eighth has been presented to the scientific world through the
labors and researches of that eminent geologist and physicist, Dr.
James Croll, in his various articles in leading scientific magazines,
and lastly, in his grand contributions to the subject under discussion,
“Climate and Time” and “Climate and Cosmology.”
The ninth has been maintained by one of the greatest English
naturalists, Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace. He combines the theory of Dr.
Croll with that of Sir Charles Lyell, and very ably presents his views
in “Island Life.”
The tenth is a presentation by Dr. Ball, F. R. S., etc., of an
interesting demonstration, to the effect that 63 per cent. of solar
heat reaches either hemisphere during its summer exposure, and the
remaining 37 per cent. during winter exposure. Nothing is added to the
Physical Theory of Dr. Croll, nor does the demonstration in any way
remove the serious objections which have been urged against Dr. Croll’s
views.
The strongest support that has been given to any of the above theories
is made by the arguments and deductions of Dr. Croll and Mr. Wallace;
yet they have failed to produce conviction, for, in a recent work on
Geology, the author, after reviewing the various theories as to the
cause of the Glacial Period, uses this expression: “This seems to be by
far the most probable yet presented.”[6]
This opinion is directly given upon only one--the ninth; but its terms
are such that it embraces all. If the ninth is “by far the most
probable,” it would be difficult to fix the degree of probability or
improbability of the others.
The only explanation which can be accepted is one which will admit of
definite proof, and will satisfy all the conditions, and not require
the distortion of known facts, by forcibly fitting them into arbitrary
molds. It must start from universally admitted premises, and in rigid
consonance with known laws, correctly interpret the grand eras of
climate which have marked the geological history of our globe, and
further, it must point out and fully elucidate wherein and why the
present climates of our globe differ so radically from those vast
secular variations recorded by fossil life--aye, more, it must be so
general as to be of universal force and applicable to other members of
the solar system constituted as our globe.
In the brief review just made of the principal theories urged by
various scientists as causes producing the Ice Age, it was remarked of
the first that it was universally admitted as true, and even taught in
elementary works on Physical Geography, but that it failed to account
for all the facts developed by the Ice Age. This first theory was a
decrease in the original heat of the globe, the truth of which is
established by a mass of indisputable geological evidence.
The present conditions are so radically different from any of the eras
of climate known to have existed, that the explanation of this range of
secular changes becomes the grandest problem in terrestrial physics,
and has an important bearing in the solution of existing conditions
upon the other planets.
It is universally admitted that this original heat has been so lost
that it is no longer a factor in the surface temperature of the earth,
and that solar energy is now the controlling source of heat.
There can then be no mistaking the first nor the present condition of
the earth as regards its exposure to the only two sources of heat--(1)
solar and stellar[7] heat, and (2) resident, internal, or earth heat.
There can therefore be no error as to the main features of the problem.
There must have been two marked eras of climatic control--(A) a past
era, during which both sources were active; (B) and the present era, in
which the greater exterior source only remains, the local and lesser
source having been practically exhausted.
Or, in other words, we have, _first_, a heated globe having resident in
its mass a finite quantity of heat, undergoing loss and exposed to an
exterior source of heat and light, which source may be either constant
or decreasing in its energy, but so slowly that it may be considered
sensibly constant during the eras under consideration; _second_, the
same globe deprived of its heat to such an extent that a crust of
non-conducting material has formed, the outer surface of which is
exposed only to solar heat, and whose climates are entirely controlled
thereby. The objects in view being to explain (1) the peculiar
uniformity of climates prior to the exhaustion of the first source, and
(2) the occurrence of an age of general glaciation in all latitudes
prior to the establishment of the sole control of the exterior source;
(3) the reasons of the differences between heat distribution during
geological and present climates. Such explanations to be in strict
conformity with admitted facts and known laws, and without omitting
the one nor distorting the other.
To be explicit we will state that the prime objects are to demonstrate--
1. That in the passage of the earth from an era during which its
climates have been controlled by internal heat into an era during which
its climates are controlled by solar heat, eras of uniform climates
must have been passed through during which isotherms were independent
of latitude.
2. That before climates could have passed under solar control that
an age must occur during which continental areas must be glaciated;
and that this stupendous phenomenon, occurring before solar climatic
control, was also independent of latitude.
3. That the direct _cause_ of the Ice Age was a combination of the
remarkable properties, in relation to heat and cold, possessed by the
various forms of water. As _vapor_, in the form of fogs and clouds it
prevented the loss or receipt of heat by radiation; as _water_, by
reason of its high specific heat, it retained to the last moment the
effective remnant of earth heat; as _ice_, it assumed a solid form,
storing the maximum amount of cold.
4. To point out in a general way the fallacies of previous attempts to
explain geological and present climates.
The problem will be given in a general proposition, which is capable of
demonstration in perfect accord with known laws.
[This demonstration was first given by the Author in September, 1891,
and is reproduced here slightly modified and extended from Vol. VIII of
the Transactions of the _Technical Society of the Pacific Coast_.]
THE GENERAL PROPOSITION.[8]
_GIVEN.--A heated globe, constituted and circumstanced as the earth,
and whose surface temperatures, by reason of internal heat, are
above the boiling point of water, to prove that before its surface
temperatures can pass under the control of the solar heat_ (1) _that
climatic changes must be independent of latitude, and_ (2) _that the
continental areas_[9] _must be glaciated._
It will be observed that the surface temperatures of a globe thus
situated are entirely controlled by its own internal or earth heat;
for between such surface and any external source, a dense cloud of
vapor must exist. The fact that direct or radiant heat rays cannot
pass through dense fogs and clouds is well known;[10] therefore,
a globe thus situated can neither give off, nor receive radiant
heat. The peculiar function of solar heat during the existence of
appreciable quantities of earth heat was to warm the upper regions
of the atmosphere and the outer surface of the clouds exposed to its
power, thus partly replacing the heat lost by radiation into space, and
causing the store of earth heat to last longer.
By the conditions of the problem presented, we thus have a globe having
resident in its mass a finite quantity of heat exposed to loss only by
means of the gradual expansion of water into vapor, and the exposure
of this vapor to loss of heat by radiation from its upper surface into
space. This vapor would then condense, and as rain, snow or hail,
descend all, or part of the way to the earth, receive another increment
of heat, and ascend as before. A slow process, but exhaustive in time.
Thus the property of water to assume three forms, each of which
possesses remarkable qualities with regard to heat and cold, afforded
the only means for exhausting the earth heat. As vapor, it possesses
the property of storing more heat than any other known substance;[11]
as snow or ice it possesses the property of storing more cold than
any other known substance. The function of solar heat, until the
exhaustion of earth heat by this process, was simply conservative; it
merely warmed the upper layers of the atmosphere, through whose dense
vapor its heat rays could not pass. Clouds being more translucent than
transcalent, light rays reached the planetary surface prior to heat
rays.
The earth may thus be regarded as having been surrounded by a series
of spheroidal isothermal shells of mean temperatures. The one next
the surface represented a mean temperature of 212° + t° Far.; t
being positive, and proportioned to the greater pressure of the
heavier atmosphere existing. Above this isothermal shell were others
representing mean temperatures of 90°, 60°, 32°, Zero, etc., to -x°
Far., the extreme cold of interplanetary space. Between the two
spheroidal isotherms of 32° and -x° Far., was one which had a mean
temperature of 32° - y°, and equally exposed to both sources of heat.
That the spheroidal isotherm of 32° Far. was within the sphere of
influence of earth heat, is proven by the formation of snow or ice at
that temperature, both being the resultant of vapor expanded and raised
by earth heat to that height as a minimum. Moreover, vapor would have
reached that height as a minimum were solar and stellar heat suspended
for a definite period, and the earth absolutely exposed to loss by
radiation with no partial return of heat, from exterior sources.
It therefore follows that the isotherm equally heated by both exterior
and interior sources was colder than 32° Far. or below that temperature
at which snow and ice form. (It is well known that solar energy cannot
maintain a temperature as high as 32° Far. except in the lower regions
of the atmosphere.)
The isothermal shells nearest the earth were spheroidal in shape, and
by reason of the conditions their surfaces were practically parallel
with that of the earth; those most remote from the earth, by reason of
solar influences, protruded at the equator and flattened at the poles,
so as to be slightly more oblate than the earth; they were sensibly
parallel with the spheroidal isotherm now marked by the “snow line.”
Hence at the equator the direct action of the sun was first felt and
established.
As the earth heat was a finite quantity exposed to loss, it was in
time exhausted. As this loss proceeded, these spheroidal isothermal
shells of mean temperatures shrunk in upon the earth, and their contact
with its surface marked the zones of corresponding climates prevailing
during the dual source of heat. Since these isotherms were independent
of equatorial or polar exposure to solar energy their contacts with
the planetary surface established climates independent of equatorial
or polar position, or in other words of latitude; and not until
those, whose distance from the surface mainly depended upon solar
energy, shrunk to the surface could climates ranged in latitudinal
zones be established. As the climates established by the contact of
the isotherms inside of 32° - y° Far. were independent of direct solar
heat, they varied from the climates established by solar heat alone;
hence the marked difference between climates antedating and succeeding
the Ice Age. The isotherms preceding this age were dependent almost
entirely upon elevation above sea level, fractures and conductivity of
the earth’s crust; those succeeding it are dependent upon proximity to
the equator, elevation above sea level, and the distribution of heat by
ocean currents.
At the expiration of a period of time T., the earth lost sufficient
heat to cause the isothermal shell of 90° Far. to shrink to the
surface except at fractures, and a particularly uniform, moist, and
highly torrid climate was established, and types of life developed,
culminating in the Carboniferous Age.
The crust cooled sufficiently to permit the demarkation of the
continental areas, but the cooling did not proceed to that point which
upheaved the massive mountain ranges, nor greatly depressed the ocean
areas. Therefore, an era of low, flat continents, and shallow hot seas
followed. The life of that period abundantly shows this condition from
one pole to the other, and the prevailing temperature is distinctly
recorded in the fossil life of the Palæozoic and Mesozoic Eras.
Light rays reached the surface prior to this time, as evidenced by the
development of visual organs in animal life.
The greater part of the vapors and gases existing previously in the
atmosphere were condensed, and existed upon the surface; the vapors
as highly heated oceans, and the gases in various combinations of the
mineral and life kingdoms. Now, in the oceans thus formed and further
enlarged, there was stored up a vast quantity of the original earth
heat, by reason of the _high specific heat of water_, from which it was
not exhausted until the last moment; and in this process of exhaustion,
it must have maintained the cloud shield, shutting out solar heat
until this the last remnant of effective earth heat was exhausted. Not
only this, the oceans thus formed had a mean temperature of 90° + z°
Far., z being a positive increment due to the heat received from the
bottoms and sides of the ocean. Not until the bottoms of the oceans
were subjected to a degree of cold approximating that to which the
continental areas were exposed could the crust be cooled uniformly and
reach that degree of uniform thickness and stability suitable to the
safety and comfort of the human race.[12]
At the expiration of the period of time, T′, the spheroidal isothermal
shell having a mean temperature of 60° Far., similarly shrunk to the
surface of the earth, and a corresponding uniformly temperate climate
was established.
The further cooling of the crust caused its shrinkage, and a consequent
greater upheaval of those areas most exposed to loss of heat, the
continents. This further shrinkage caused the strata formed during
the previous eras to be upheaved and fractured, and the lines of
demarkation between oceans and continents were thus more strongly
accentuated.
The life developed in the interim evidences an approach to that of the
present temperate zones, and its wide distribution demonstrates the
complete control of the climates of the globe by internal heat. The
isothermal lines were entirely at variance with those established by
solar heat, therefore the functions of solar heat remained conservative
of those operating on the surface during this period also.
The extreme and uniform distribution of fur or hair-covered animals and
of the deciduous and coniferous trees of the Cenozoic era mark further
the control of a source of heat more uniformly distributed than solar
heat could possibly be. For reasons previously given, this isotherm
also reached continental areas earlier than ocean areas. When the mean
temperature of the land was 60° the tepid oceans must have had a mean
temperature of 60° + y° Far., y, like z, being positive, and due to
increments of earth heat received from the bottom.
At the expiration of this period T′, or at some time, T′ ± a, the
isothermal shell of 32° Far. shrunk so as to reach the more elevated
portions of the continental areas, and thus established a snow line
independent of the influences now establishing and maintaining such
snow line. The resulting glaciation was controlled by the same general
laws that now exist, only the distribution of heat being independent
of latitude, and mainly dependent upon altitude above sea level,
glaciation of present tropical and temperate latitudes was as certain
to occur as in polar regions. The moment a snowflake reached the
earth which the waning earth heat was unable to melt, the Ice Age was
inaugurated; and the conditions were such as to favor its extension
until the exhaustion of the store of heat beneath the oceans and
resident in them, by reason of the high specific heat of water. It will
be noted here that whenever, in obedience to the expansive force of
this waning earth heat, a particle of water was vaporized and made the
last round of its circulation, it returned to the earth in that form
which stored the maximum degree of cold, or, in other words, in that
form which required the maximum amount of solar heat to change.
From the moment that snow began to accumulate, every remaining vestige
of earth heat was available for producing those conditions favorable
to glaciation, namely, warm seas, dense fogs and cold continental
areas; and every unit of solar energy reaching the upper regions
of the atmosphere was available for maintaining those favorable
conditions.[13] Glaciation under these conditions would be cumulative
until the oceans, exhausted of their heat and lessened in area, were
no longer able to supply the moisture necessary to completely shroud
the earth from direct solar heat.
At the expiration of the time T″, the isothermal shell, having a mean
temperature of 32° Far., shrunk in upon the globe, and the oceans
were exhausted of their store of heat and their bottoms brought in
contact with water having a mean temperature of 31° Far., a temperature
approximating that of the ocean depths at present, and of ice in masses.
The isothermal shell 32° Far. was a spheroid circumscribing the earth.
In shrinking to the earth its intersections with the surface were
controlled by the elevation of the surface above sea level, and by the
local escape of earth heat; elevated equatorial or temperate areas were
therefore as much exposed to glaciation as polar lands. (For maximum
depth of glaciation see page 32.) By reason of the high specific
heat of water, this isotherm also reached continental areas prior to
reaching ocean areas.
The crust beneath the ocean, having been protected from loss of heat
by the superincumbent water, shrunk to its final shape subsequent
to that portion forming continental areas. The ocean bottoms in
thus shrinking approximately to their present shape must have been
fractured, as continental areas had previously been. In this way very
considerable increments of earth heat were set free after glaciation
had commenced. This process, which is entirely in consonance with known
laws, would result in increasing the depth of glaciation, or even in
re-establishing it after partial recedence.
There would also result a complicated series of crust movements as
the continents were relieved of pressure by the melting of the ice
caps, and the ocean bottoms subjected to increased pressure by the
restoration of water to the oceans.[14]
Thus the same forces which, even before the eras we have been
considering, must have built up upon the surface of the globe
mineral forms of surpassing beauty, only to be destroyed and ground
down to give place to vegetable and animal forms of wonderful
development--these same forces were called upon to well nigh obliterate
every living individual of both kingdoms. The efficiency of their work
is attested in every zone of life from the equator to the poles.
The exhaustion of the residuum of earth heat in the oceans and beneath
them could only have been accomplished by the same means as before,
and this exhaustion resulted in the preservation of those conditions
most favorable to glaciation. When by the chilling of the oceans to
about 31° Far. and by the glaciation of continental areas, the air was
cleared of obscuring clouds and fogs, the wonderfully uniform series of
climates was at an end.
With the dominion of solar heat there dawned upon our planet an era
of climatic zones whose lines sensibly follow parallels of latitude;
then also began seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter, with the
varying changes of the earth’s annual round.
The climatic changes during the control of earth heat, and within the
range of geological research extended over eras:
1. An era of torrid heat.
2. An era of tropical heat.
3. An era of temperate heat.
4. An era of glacial cold.
Each merged gradually into the others, but each recorded its period of
existence in unmistakable terms, all shrouded from the direct action
of solar heat, and all evidencing by the life produced, the stifling,
smothered character of the climate.
That solar heat was shut out from the surface of the earth during
the Ice Age is geologically recorded in the glaciation of the North
Temperate Zone over continental areas, where solar energy has removed
glacial cold and established in its stead a mean annual temperature
of 40° Far., and in the torrid zone it has removed glacial cold and
established a mean annual temperature of 76° Far., where snow never
falls.
Consequently, in a heated globe, constituted and circumstanced as the
earth, exposed to two sources of heat, internal heat and solar heat,
before its climates or surface temperature can pass under the control
of solar heat climatic changes must be independent of latitude and the
continental areas must be glaciated.
A GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE DEMONSTRATION WITH THE FACTS OF GEOLOGY.
The dawn of the Archæan Era found the earth a heated globe emerging
from an unrecorded and unfathomable era of greater heat. The
crystalline character of the earliest rocks demonstrates the high
temperature which prevailed upon the surface at that time. Such
being the temperature of the surface, it is beyond question that the
existence of uncombined water upon it was an impossibility, and as
vapor it could only shroud the earth in dense clouds. The earth heat
was as effectually shut _in_ from loss by radiation as was solar heat
shut _out_ from reaching the surface.
As this finite amount of earth heat could only escape by doing _work_
in the expanding of water to vapor, vast eras of time must elapse
before the work done could exhaust the available heat. The process
of exhaustion was further retarded by two causes: 1st, the heating
of the outer layers of the atmosphere by solar heat; and 2d, the low
conductivity of the strata of the earth itself; consequently the
climates of the earth, until the final exhaustion of earth heat, being
controlled by a uniformly distributed supply, were of remarkable
uniformity. The denudations, faults and fractures of its crust set free
additional increments of heat but slowly, so that the torrid, tropical
and temperate eras were longer than the frigid era.
During the existence of sensible quantities of earth heat the oceans
must have been heated from the bottom, and cooled at the surface by
evaporation. The evaporation from the total ocean surface under such
conditions would give rise to much more extensive cloud formations than
at present. Indeed, the record of temperatures and character of life
are such as to warrant--nay, even force--the conclusion that the whole
earth was one vast hothouse, from which solar heat was shut out, and
throughout which a uniform temperature was prevalent from pole to pole.
Solar heat does not penetrate the thinnest cloud; even a fog through
which the form of the sun is distinctly visible shuts out nearly
all direct solar heat.[15] The failure in the past to recognize the
climatic influence which the factor earth heat was able to produce,
and the endeavor to ascribe to solar energy the climatic conditions
existing during the activity of earth heat, has caused all the mystery
and error of attempts to explain the climatic phenomena prior to and
during the Ice Age.
Once realize the peculiar influence and domination of earth heat, and
these mysteries and errors fade, and the whole system of pre-glacial
and glacial climates becomes simple.
The function of solar heat during the activity of earth heat could be
none other than conservative of the latter; such function it is now
performing for the great planets, Jupiter and Saturn, and probably
Uranus and Neptune, whose surfaces are shrouded from our view by
clouds.[16]
_Climatic Facts Established by Fossil Life._
It would be impossible, in the limits to which it is necessary to
restrict this paper, to review the vast array of facts which could be
brought forward to demonstrate the perfectly uniform, torrid character
of the climates of the globe during the Palæozoic Era.
From the 81st degree of north latitude through every range of present
climates to the confines of the south frigid zone, the life systems
attest the stifling hothouse character of the climate. The species of
plant life and animal life, whether of land or marine forms, varied
less from the torrid to the frigid zones than corresponding species
upon different continents in the same zone do now. Nowhere below the
Permian deposits can fossil life be recognized that does not belong to
an ultra-tropical type. Such uniformity of temperature is impossible
under solar control, and hence can only belong to a climate controlled
by earth heat.
In reviewing the temperatures recorded by the fossil life of the
Palæozoic Era, the fact becomes apparent that nowhere upon the surface
of the globe during that era were there any zones of temperature. The
whole surface was subjected to one universal torrid climate--the life
developed was uniform in its general character from the Arctic to the
Antarctic circle. Under no possible conditions could such uniformity of
climate have been established and controlled by solar heat alone. Hence
during this period earth heat was the controlling source.
This era merged gradually into the Mesozoic era of tropical heat,
during which the forms of life developed into higher types, and their
range of distribution demonstrates the still perfect uniformity
of climate. One peculiar and significant fact is recognizable in
comparing the land forms with the marine forms of life. The former
developed types more suitable to tropical climates, while the latter
held more tenaciously to the torrid types, thus proving the more rapid
loss of heat by the continents.
The fossil life of the Cenozoic era corroborates to a remarkable degree
the still perfect uniformity of climate. Throughout Greenland, Iceland,
Lapland and Spitzbergen, as well as throughout present temperate and
tropical zones, a perfectly uniform and temperate climate existed. The
flora and fauna of the lower Mississippi valley flourished in those
localities in which, during the Palæozoic era, only gigantic _Ferns_,
_Lycopods_, _Calamites_ and corresponding plant and animal life could
be found, and where now only a stunted Arctic life can exist.
The palæontological evidence of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras is
equally convincing as to the perfectly uniform tropical climate of the
one and temperate and later frigid climates of the other.
During the latter part of the Tertiary and early Quaternary periods
identical types of life existed in all parts of Europe, Asia and
America and a uniformly temperate climate prevailed over the whole
northern hemisphere entirely at variance with the extreme range of
temperatures now embraced in that half of the globe.
The control of the waning earth heat was simply dying out, and had
reached that stage in which it was no longer able to maintain the high
temperatures of previous eras.[17]
The evidence that the high specific heat of water held the last
available remnant of earth heat, and thus perpetuated its control of
climates, is beyond dispute, as presented by the conditions culminating
in the Ice Age.
Whatever may be the doubts as to the actual date of the Ice Age,
there is no disputing the fact that the evidences establishing the
culmination of that Age are found _above_ or since the Tertiary, and
_below_ or before the Modern Era.
Between these two periods there is abundant evidence from every
climate, from every zone of present life, that the continents were
glaciated.
Europe and Asia, North and South America, Africa and Australia,[18] all
present glacial striæ, boulder deposits, and other marked evidences
of glaciation at the same period, just antedating the Modern Era, or
during the Quaternary period.
When we examine the evidence found in one of the present climatic
zones, this change of climate from an ultra-torrid successively to a
torrid, tropical, temperate, and, lastly frigid character, is not only
very marked, but is everywhere the same.
Upon the establishment of solar heat in the control of surface
temperatures, we find the isotherms entirely at variance with those
antedating the Ice Age. We find also strong corroboration in the lines
of retreat of the continental ice caps. These lines are sensibly
parallel with the isotherms established by solar heat, proving that
solar heat was the cause of the disappearance of glacial conditions.
These facts distinctly prove the totally different source and
distribution of heat before and since the Ice Age, and that upon the
inauguration of climates controlled by solar energy, an obliteration of
the conditions left upon the dying out of earth heat set in. Along that
zone most exposed to solar energy conditions and life corresponding to
the tropical conditions of Cenozoic times have been established; along
those zones moderately exposed to solar energy the newly established
conditions are analogous to the universally temperate climate of the
latter Tertiary and early Quaternary periods; whilst in those zones
least exposed to solar energy a removal of glacial conditions is yet in
progress.[19]
Wherever fossil life has been developed the order of climates, as thus
recorded has been: First, torrid; second, tropical; third, temperate;
fourth, frigid; and fifth, the life appropriate to the zone of solar
climate--irrespective of that existing previous to the Ice Age. The
same order is true for any portion of either temperate zone; under the
equator the order of climates has been the same, except a return to
tropical conditions and life.[20]
In the North frigid zone this same order of climates has been found,
except that there has been no change from the conditions left upon the
dying out of earth heat; in other words, solar energy has not removed
glacial cold in those regions least exposed to its action.
The removal of glacial conditions has been less in the Antarctic than
in the Arctic regions, partly from causes pointed out by Maury, and
more fully treated by Dr. Croll. This removal has also been subjected
to variations due to the mild astronomical influences ascribed by
Adhémar, Croll, Ball, Drayson and others, as sufficient to produce
glaciation.
These astronomical causes undoubtedly must have produced slight secular
variations in the relative exposures of the two hemispheres to solar
heat--but they have not been demonstrated to be of sufficient influence
to produce glaciation, and in no way could they sensibly affect
climates prior to the establishment of the control of solar heat. (See
page 41.)
The distribution of heat, prior to the Ice Age, as recorded by fossil
life, being entirely at variance with that now found, and being
entirely independent of proximity to, or distance from, the equator,
distinctly proves that climates were established and maintained
independently of solar heat, and hence belong to the only other source,
viz., earth heat.
It is also evident that under no possible conditions could solar energy
maintain a torrid, tropical, temperate and lastly glacial climate over
the whole range of the present zones of climates, and that this uniform
distribution of heat prior to and during the glaciation of the globe
was due to an evenly distributed supply from a constantly and uniformly
decreasing source.
Moreover, the wide distribution of glaciation over the present
temperate and torrid zones is a distinct proof of the exclusion of
solar heat from these regions during glaciation. Under no possible
circumstances could temperate North America, Europe and Asia and
tropical South America have been glaciated unless these regions were
shut out during glaciation from that solar energy, which when admitted
has removed glacial conditions.
Glacial dispersion followed one of two general laws: First, the great
centers or belts from which dispersion took place in apparent disregard
of the slope of the ground were areas most exposed to cyclonic activity
and resulting precipitation. Second, minor centers of dispersion (or
local glacial dispersion) were elevated lands, subjected to uniform
precipitation.[21]
Since glacial conditions in the northern hemisphere were removed from
southerly towards northerly latitudes, the gradients were increased
southerly and decreased northerly from lines of maximum glaciation.
Glacial transportation was likewise modified. The reverse of these
directions prevailed in the southern hemisphere.
Glaciated areas have been partly relieved of their loads of ice
at rates and times proportional to solar exposure, and upon lines
parallel with present mean annual isotherms. Wherever remnants of the
continental ice sheets of the Ice Age yet rest, this retreat is still
in progress from the same cause.
The ascription of great elevations above sea level during the Ice Age
is natural, and such apparent greater elevation is due to _two_ causes
during this period, whilst due to only _one_ cause during previous
eras. As the surface of the earth became subjected to a temperature
of 31° Far. under the oceans, and a corresponding temperature under
the continental ice caps, contraction and consequent elevation were
continued as before; and as snow was piled up upon the continents,
water was withdrawn from the oceans; for each million square miles of
continental ice cap three hundred feet thick a corresponding three
million square miles of ocean was lowered one hundred feet. The
continental ice caps already approximately known were too vast not to
have lowered the sea level to a marked degree.
The apparent general depression after the Ice Age is as natural. By the
melting of the greater portion of the ice caps, and the evaporation
of vast inland seas, the sea was approximately restored to the level
existing prior to the Ice Age, thus causing an apparent sinking of the
land.
The great difference between climatic conditions prior to and since
the Ice Age is very marked around inland seas and basins without
drainage. Lake Bonneville and Lake Lahontan, in the United States, and
the greater area once occupied by the Caspian and other seas, evidence
the superior dampness and rainfall antedating the Ice Age. During the
control of earth heat the oceans were heated to their bottoms, and
furnished moisture enough to keep these great depressions full of water
and to support a dense life upon now desert areas. The dry air of the
modern era has not only absorbed the water in these vast lakes, and
restored it to the oceans, but vaster areas have been converted into
deserts by the unequal distribution of heat and moisture under solar
control.
PALÆOZOIC GLACIATION.
“_Glacial Periods._”
It is probable and may be regarded as a fact that upon certain of the
oldest and highest mountains, glaciation was inaugurated during the
Palæozoic Era, to slowly disappear by the gradual setting free of earth
heat by vast fractures of the crust or to remain as local glaciation
until the Ice Age. Isolated glacial deposits of this nature which were
independent of solar exposure readily account for the early “Glacial
Periods,” which were evidently local phenomena antedating the Ice
Age. It is neither logical nor reasonable to interpret the finding
of evidences of early local glaciation into a Glacial Period, for
local glaciations are found now in the Alps and upon certain peaks of
the Sierra Nevada, and even in the torrid zone, but they by no means
establish the present existence of a Glacial Period.
Evidences of glaciations antedating the Ice Age are wholly of a
mechanical nature--namely, the transportation of boulders, striæ, etc.
No corroborative evidence of fossil life of Arctic habits has been
found. This is particularly the case of marine fauna and flora, which
may be held as the only indisputable evidence of an Ice Age.
Granting that the evidences found be sufficient to establish Palæozoic
glaciations, the absence of fossils of an Arctic type proves such
glaciations to have been local and possibly of short duration, for had
such glaciation been general and of long duration both plant and animal
life would have been modified into temperate and Arctic types, as
occurred later when general glaciation ensued.
It is apparent that the isotherm 32° Far. could have shrunk for a short
period to the tops of mountains and that glaciers could have formed
and coursed their way into a sub-tropical growth below; and that these
conditions would be removed by the setting free of earth heat with the
consequent rise in temperatures.
These changes followed too closely or were too limited in area to
permit the evolution of forms of continental life adapted to temperate
and Arctic conditions.
Palæozoic glaciations in no way conflict with the demonstration herein
given--they are really corroborative of the other facts advanced to
prove that prior to the Ice Age solar heat was shut out from the
surface. For the evidences of Palæozoic glaciation occur in temperate
and tropical latitudes adjacent to fossil life indicative of high
temperatures. Early glaciations were dependent only upon elevation, and
latitude did not influence their occurrence in any way whatever, and
whether in Norway or India these glacial conditions were coexistent
with tropical life at a lower elevation and equally independent of
latitude.
When the crust became too thick and non-conducting to yield a
sufficient supply of heat to hold mean temperatures at a higher degree
of heat than 32° Far. this isotherm shrunk to the surface only to
be removed by solar heat. Since the position of this isotherm was
independent of latitude its intersections with the surface depended
only upon elevation, and as the continents lost their heat more rapidly
than oceans, the latter were the last to fall to 32° Far.
As in previous eras torrid, tropical and temperate life had existed
in Spitzbergen, France and Brazil independent of the latitudes of
these countries, so too were glacial conditions equally independent of
latitudes. But in the removal of glacial conditions the isotherms of
solar climates were necessarily followed.
Thus the Ice Age marks the date at which the climates of the globe
passed from the control of earth heat to that of solar heat. The great
specific heat of water retained in the oceans, the energy necessary to
maintain the cloud shield shutting out solar heat until both land and
ocean areas could be equally cooled and contracted, thus ensuring the
maximum degree of thickness and stability to the crust. The mysteries
of geological climates, interpreted by known laws, applicable alike to
all members of the solar system, develop thus into a system beautiful
in its simplicity.
Once realize that the surface temperatures of the globe were at one era
in the past too high, by reason of _internal heat_, to permit water to
remain upon the surface, and the peculiar properties possessed by the
various forms of water and their relations to heat and cold, and follow
out these facts to their natural and logical conclusion, and the whole
mystery of geological climates clears up and becomes simple.
MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS AS TO THE DURATION OF EARTH HEAT.
It would not be proper to make the foregoing interpretation of the
cause of geological climates without briefly referring to the various
mathematical calculations which have been made by high authorities, and
which reach conclusions materially differing from the deductions herein
presented.
The arguments of Sir Wm. Thomson[22] and others, to the effect that
internal or earth heat could not have affected the climates of the
globe, by reason of the non-conductivity of a comparatively slight
thickness of crust, are not conclusive. These arguments are based upon:
1. An erroneous assumption of the manner in which heat is lost by a
planet, upon which there exists an atmosphere and a fluid possessing
the physical properties of water.
2. No account is taken in these calculations of the heat set free by
denudations, etc.
3. The conservative action of active exterior sources is not
considered.
1. To assume that in a molten or nearly molten planet heat was lost by
direct radiation from the heated surface, is to assume a mode of loss
that could not possibly occur with the constitution of our planet, nor
with one possessing a constitution generally similar.
At the period assumed as the starting point of these calculations the
earth’s crust was just forming from the molten state. At this period,
which has undoubtedly existed, all uncombined water must have been
evaporated, and must have existed as an enshrouding cloud, shutting out
solar heat and _shutting in earth heat_. Our planet at this period must
have presented an appearance similar to that now presented by Jupiter,
whose available internal heat has evidently not yet been exhausted, and
upon whose surface evaporation must be kept up by internal heat.
The loss of internal heat by a globe constituted as our planet, must
proceed, not by the radiation and loss of heat directly into space,
but by the performance of work in the expansion of water to vapor, the
exposure of the upper or cold surface of the partly condensed vapor to
loss of heat by radiation into space.
The existence of a non-transcalent cloud shield is geologically
recorded in most unmistakable terms, as previously explained, by the
maintenance of eras of tropical, temperate and frigid climates from
pole to pole--irrespective of latitude; by the glaciation of areas over
which solar energy, when not thus shut out, was capable of removing
glacial conditions and establishing much warmer climates; also by the
contrast of geological climates with solar climates, one independent
of, and the other mainly dependent upon, latitude.
Thus the loss of heat by the crust must have proceeded with great
slowness; and the crust in thus cooling was, by the laws of cooling
solids, made as thick as possible.
2. The non-conductivity of this cooling crust was a cause of the long,
instead of a cause of short duration of the internal heat, for when too
thick to yield up its heat by conductivity, additional increments were
but slowly set free by denudations, faults and fractures. The volume
of heat thus set free may be partly grasped when it is considered that
no portion of the crust can be reached that is not built up of denuded
materials. Heat imprisoned by a non-conducting crust is more certain
of liberation by denudation than if the crust were composed of strata
having the conductivity of beaten silver.
The assumption that the low conductivity of the crust was a cause of
the short duration of earth heat as a controlling factor is exactly
contrary to the actual tendency of such low conductivity.
3. From the cold outer surface of the cloud envelop heat would radiate
much more slowly than from the more highly heated surface beneath.
Indeed, there is every reason to assume that this upper surface may
have been partly composed of fine crystals of ice, as cirrus clouds
may now be. Upon this upper surface, whatever may have been its
condition, was received every thermal unit of heat reaching our globe
from exterior sources from its development to the culmination of the
Ice Age. What calculation has considered this single factor? which,
for aught we know, may have been but little less than the original
available store. To what consideration is any discussion which omits
this factor entitled?
Having properly assumed a temperature which would necessitate the
evaporation of all uncombined water and its suspension above the heated
surface, a scientist should follow the results to their legitimate
and logical conclusion, and not neglect the existence of a condition
necessarily coexistent with those assumed.
The removal of the enshrouding clouds need not be assumed; such removal
was blazed upon the globe in broad zones of climate and life which only
solar energy could maintain. These lines are as distinctly different
from those written by earth heat as daylight is from darkness.
When this removal did take place the fact was graven upon our planet by
the melting of the massive glaciers deposited during and before such
removal, and by the establishment of the existing conditions.
All calculations and discussions omitting these three factors must
reach illogical and erroneous conclusions. The omission of a single one
would be fatal, and entitle the result to no farther consideration, and
justifies the cynical view that “There is something fascinating about
science. One gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out of such
trifling investment in facts.”
ASTRONOMICAL CAUSES AND THEIR INFLUENCE.
We will now consider the effect of astronomical causes. Dr. Croll has
elaborately discussed the variations in solar exposure to which the two
hemispheres of our planet have been and are subjected.[23]
The distinguished Astronomer Royal of the Dublin Observatory, Dr.
Ball, has shown that 63% of the gross solar energy received by
either hemisphere reaches it during summer and the remaining 37%
during winter.[24] High authorities, both before and since these
publications, have discussed various phases of these influences, as
well as offered remarkable and unverifiable hypotheses regarding the
temperature of space, solar energy, and the heat absorptive power of
a solar envelope.[25] It is not necessary to attempt a discussion or
elaboration of these views. Should the interpretation herein rendered
be correct, it follows that variations in the distance from or
degree of solar energy could not have directly affected the surface
temperatures of the globe prior to the culmination of the Ice Age, and
that only since that age could these slight variations have acted,
except in a conservative way. It is unquestionable that for many
years past the temperature of the northern hemisphere has risen more
rapidly than the southern. This condition is proved not only by correct
deductions from actual conditions and laws, but by observation. This is
also recorded geologically by the greater removal of glacial conditions
in the northern hemisphere--although in both this removal is yet in
progress.
In a globe wrapped in a mass of vapor by reason of evaporation
maintained at the surface by its own heat and condensed upon the
outer surface of the spheroidal cloud envelope, it is immaterial so
far as surface temperatures are concerned, to what degree of outside
heat it may be subjected. The only possible effects of variations in
the distance from, or intensity of the exterior heat source being
to influence the duration of the interior supply and the distance
therefrom at which cloud condensation takes place.
In a globe thus enshrouded the same order of surface temperatures
would follow, whether revolving in the orbit of Venus or that of
Neptune--the actual influences being the greater rate of loss in the
remoter position, the more rapid succession of geological climates, and
the greater time necessary for the removal of glacial conditions, and
for the establishment of solar climatic control. Could the earth have
been removed during the Archæan Age to the orbit of Jupiter without
disturbing other conditions, no change could have occurred in the order
of succeeding geological climates prior to the Ice Age. The rate of
receipt of solar energy would have been in the ratio of (5.2)²:1; and
the actual retardation of loss would have been in this ratio, as also
the rate of establishment of solar climatic control; the crust would
have cooled quicker, and therefore have been thinner and less stable
than at present.
The observed movements in the cloud envelope of Jupiter
present phenomena warranting the belief that his atmosphere is
non-transcalent.[26] In this particular it resembles the clouded
atmosphere of the earth; and indicates a condition analogous to that
of the earth in pre-glacial ages. The smaller planets by reason
of their lesser masses have lost their available resident heat.
Their atmospheres have become cleared and are both translucent and
transcalent. Their surfaces can be observed, and their volumes and
densities calculated with a reasonable degree of exactness. In the
cases of the larger planets observations are confined to the surface
of their spheroidal cloud envelopes, and hence to these planets are
ascribed volumes and densities varying abnormally from those whose
actual volumes can be measured. The satellites of Jupiter possess
much greater densities than that ascribed to the great planet--were
it possible to measure the actual volume of his enshrouded mass this
apparent anomaly would be in whole or in part removed.
Not knowing the surface temperatures, the exact composition of the
atmospheres, nor the dimensions of the planetary masses, the distances
to which the cloud envelopes of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune may
be expanded, are yet matters of conjecture. Whatever is known of these
planets corroborates the interpretation herein rendered of the record
of the geological climates of the earth.[27]
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SOLAR CLIMATES.
At the culmination of the Ice Age the snow line was much lower than at
present, and elevated lands[28] at all latitudes were deeply glaciated;
the seas were intensely cold. It is evident that since the culmination
of the Ice Age and in the establishment of the present climates there
has been a great rise in temperatures in the tropical, temperate and
sub-frigid zones. There is also indisputable evidence that this rise in
temperature is yet in progress. This accession of heat must therefore
be accounted for by the correct application of laws and forces now
acting, and it is not necessary to go outside of these known laws and
forces to render a correct interpretation of the establishment and
maintenance of the zones of climate now existing.
It will be observed that when the oceans were exhausted of their heat
and the lands deeply glaciated, the crust was shrunk in upon the
interior mass by being uniformly chilled down to the lowest temperature
to which a planet, upon which water and an atmosphere exist, can be
subjected. The atmosphere was then cleared of clouds and heat rays from
exterior sources permitted to reach the planetary surface. At once
these rays began to be changed into dark heat rays, particularly those
from water, and the trapping of heat ensued; from this date a general
rise in temperatures must follow from the accession of heat from
exterior sources, until checked within the moderate limits hereafter
outlined.
The trapping process thus inaugurated is independent of the actual
amount of heat received whether from solar or stellar sources.
Were it possible for the now pent-up internal heat to raise the
temperature of the oceans, the crust at the bottom of the oceans, and
under the polar ice caps to a mean temperature of say 68 degrees Far.,
the accession of heat from exterior sources would be shut off, as in
early Quaternary times, by dense clouds; the exterior would be again
shrunk by glacial conditions, the air cleared as before and heat from
exterior sources in whatever amounts it then reached the surface would
be trapped as succeeded the Ice Age.
This action must in turn take place upon any planet upon which water
and an atmosphere resembling ours exist. The rate at which a planet
acquires heat from exterior sources is dependent upon the power of its
atmosphere to trap heat; very slight variations in the atmospheric
constituents producing great variations in heat trapping power.
The trapping process not being a function of the orbital distance, nor
of the actual amount of heat received, but of the composition of the
atmosphere, this rise, being only a function of the amount received and
not of the trapping process, this rise in temperature is as certain to
follow in one position as another.
By thus being subjected to the maximum shrinking-strains the weakest
portions of the crust were ruptured. The lava ejected from these
ruptures was spread out over the weak areas in successive layers of
a few dozen feet in thickness until the added strength reached that
belonging to thousands of feet of solid rock.[29]
To digress a moment--
These lava overflows evidently performed another important function.
The heat set free by each successive layer could not have been lost
by radiation into space, for the enshrouding clouds had not yet been
removed. The air and clouds caught this heat and bearing it eastwardly
in their general course caused warm rains instead of snow to be
precipitated upon the adjacent region. In this way the “unglaciated
area” escaped glaciation; in this area are the “bad lands” of Dakota,
whose topography distinctly shows that sub-aerial denudation, and not
glacial ice formed the controlling features. In this area are the great
deposits of tertiary fossil life, in perfect form--uncrushed by the
mighty tread of the glaciers which surrounded them on all sides, except
to the west. From areas such as these went forth the life that survived
the glacial winter.
That the isotherm marked by glacial ice is yet slowly retreating upward
is recorded not only by tradition and history but geologically and
physically, as observed by every scientist who has studied existing
glaciers.[30]
This retreat is a positive proof of either a decrease in precipitation
on the tributary areas, a rise in temperature, or both of these
agencies acting conjointly. There is no evidence to show that a
decrease in precipitation[31] is synchronously taking place over the
sub-frigid, temperate and tropical regions of both hemispheres, as
is the retreat of glaciers; and there are positive and active causes
in force which have affected, and are yet affecting an increase in
temperature. We must therefore conclude that this rise in the isotherm
marking glacial ice is due primarily, if not entirely, to an accession
of heat.
It has been demonstrated that at the culmination of the Ice Age,
much colder conditions existed than at present. It now remains to
explain the conditions acting to bring about existing climates. Upon
the exhaustion of the last available remnant of earth heat--left in
the oceans by reason of the high specific heat of water--the supply
of vapor maintaining the cloud envelope was shut off, and solar heat
permitted to reach the planetary surface.
That direct solar rays are converted into obscure or dark heat rays
by contact with the planetary surface, and that the atmosphere of
our planet is more transcalent to the former than to the latter, has
been fully demonstrated by Tyndall,[32] although slightly modified by
Buff.[33]
However small may be the difference between the transcalency of the
atmosphere to direct solar rays and to the dark rays into which the
direct are converted, a gradual rise in temperature must follow. This
rise must follow whether solar energy be constant or slowly decreasing,
the rise being due not to the actual amount of heat received, but to
the difference between the rate of receipt and the rate of loss.
The great increase of mean surface temperatures in equatorial,
temperate and sub-tropical areas being due to this small but positive
difference between the rates of receipt and loss; as has just been
shown, this action is yet in progress.
These deductions are radically at variance with the opinion of
high authorities on meteorology, as may be seen from the following
quotation: “It is evident that our planet, considered as a whole, and
on the average of many years, loses all the heat that it receives from
the sun, but all the details of this process have not yet been worked
out.[34]”
The author is unable to find any facts to sustain this view--all
tend to refute it. The trapping of heat by vapors and gases of the
atmosphere--the gradual retreat of glaciers in both hemispheres--and
the vast rise in temperatures since the culmination of the Ice Age--all
conclusively tend to corroborate the deductions just reached--namely,
that the mean surface temperatures of the globe have been and are yet
rising from the trapping of heat.
It does not follow that this rise has an indefinite or excessive limit,
as the oceans become warmer they are cooled by giving off more vapor.
This vapor, when partly condensed into clouds, intercepts solar heat
in the upper atmosphere, and the intense white of the upper surface of
clouds reflects more heat into space than the darker planetary surface
beneath.[35]
The vast store of cold in the continental ice sheets has been
greatly exhausted; there yet remains the vaster store in the ice
cold depths of the oceans, the conservative influence of which
cannot be estimated; for besides the difficulties of heating water
from the surface downwards, there yet remains the cooling effect of
surface evaporation. There is thus presented the extreme slowness
of the methods by which vast changes are wrought. Here are agencies
whose results are so slight as not to be detected by thermometric
methods--yet recording their effects in grand eras of climates
throughout the earth.
The planet Mars is particularly interesting, having a mass less
than one-ninth (1/9.4) that of the earth. His loss of internal heat
occurred ages before that of the earth; therefore, Mars has been a
heat-gathering body longer than the earth, and enjoys a milder general
temperature,[36] although that planet receives less than half the heat
and light received by the earth. Jupiter is in a condition which our
geological history proves the earth to have passed through; Mars is in
a condition towards which the earth is gradually tending.[37]
It is now a simple matter to trace the steps by which glacial
conditions were removed and zones of climate established.
Solar energy first established its control in that zone most exposed to
its power--namely, the torrid zone. From this zone glacial conditions
were first removed, and this removal continued north and south upon
lines parallel with present isotherms.
In considering the astronomical causes, and the physical results
thereby brought about, it was argued that these causes tended to heat
the northern hemisphere more rapidly than the southern. Dr. Croll and
other physicists, have so fully discussed this question that there
remains but little to be added.
The prime reason, however, seems to have been omitted, which is simply
this, the northern hemisphere, containing so large a predominance of
land area, was more easily warmed than the southern. This unequal
heating once inaugurated would establish currents both of air and water
tending to perpetuate this action, reinforced as it is by geographical
and cosmical agencies.
When, by this gradual accession of heat, conditions and temperatures
resembling those existing prior to the Ice Age, were re-established,
we find these new conditions restricted to latitudinal belts
sensibly parallel with the equator, but modified by elevation and
ocean currents; whereas the corresponding pre-glacial climates were
independent of latitude.
By the trapping of solar heat a gradual rise in temperature was
inaugurated at that period, when by the exhaustion of the earth heat,
left in the oceans, the enshrouding clouds were removed. Then, and not
until then, do we find the removal of conditions shutting out solar
heat written in zones of life belting the earth. In these new zones of
climate there have been developed higher, nobler types of life, and
with the birth of the seasons there was ushered in upon the earth that
Light which is developing Psychozoic Life.
FOOTNOTES
[1] In 1821 Venetz called attention to the once greater extension of
Glaciers; and in 1824 Prof. Esmark made similar observations as to the
Glaciers of Norway. Phil. Mag., Vol. XXVII, p. 321.
As early as 1821 a prize of 300 livres was offered by the Helvitic
Soc. of Nat. Sci. for the collection of facts regarding the increase
or decrease of the extension of glaciers in the Alps. Tillock’s Phil.
Mag., Vol. LVII, p. 307.
But to Agassiz belongs the honor of having first pointed out the
existence of _the_ Ice Age when _all_ glaciers were vastly more
extended than at present.
[2] The writer prefers the nomenclature of Dr. Geikie and others using
the term Ice Age rather than Glacial Epoch, or Period. The duration
of this age was not recorded in the same manner and terms as either
previous or succeeding ages; this is due to the inactivity, or even
absolute suspension of the great forces, heat and moisture, over
continental areas during this age; under estimates of its duration are
thus liable to be made.
[3] This question is so important and has so broad a bearing that it
will be reverted to later under the heading _Palæozoic Glaciation_.
[4] Transactions of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast,
Sept., 1891, Vol. VIII. See also The Climate Controversy, S. V.
Wood, Jr., Geol. Mag., 1876 and 1883. Climate and Time, Climate and
Cosmology, Croll. Island Life, Alfred Russell Wallace, F. R. S.,
etc. Philosophical Magazine, May, 1864. British Association Reports,
part 2, p. 11. Proceedings Royal Soc., vol. xxviii, p. 15. Quart.
Jour. Geological Soc., Feb., 1878. Nature, July 4, 1878. Trans.
Geological Soc., Glasgow, Feb. 22, 1877. The Ice Age in North America,
Dr. Fred. G. Wright, Appendix by Warren Upham. The Cause of an Ice
Age, Sir Robert Ball, F. R. S., etc. Révolutions de la Mer. Déluges
Périodiques, Alphonse Joseph Adhémar.
[5] See also _The Date of the Last Glacial Epoch_. Gen. Drayson, R. A.
Science, Nov. 25, 1892.
[6] Elements of Geology, Le Conte, 2d Edition, page 578.
[7] Stellar heat having the same function as solar heat, and being
sensibly a constant of unknown amount but much less than solar heat,
need not be separately considered in further discussion of the question.
[8] The proposition here stated is applicable to any planet. It is
probable that Mars, Venus and Mercury have passed through periods
corresponding to our Ice Age; and that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune have not reached theirs. A study of Jupiter in this connection
is particularly instructive. Phenomena are presented which are easily
explained by the theory under discussion. See Zenographical Fragments,
London, 1891. Also the author’s views in _Circulation of the Atmosphere
of Planets_. Trans. Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, Vol. XI,
No. 4, pp. 127-143.
[9] There were circumstances protecting certain areas, such as the
“Unglaciated Area,” in the basin of the Yellowstone River, in North
America. Here vast and continuous lava overflows in Wyoming, Idaho,
Oregon and Washington, liberated earth heat; which heat, borne easterly
by the general circulation of the atmosphere, caused the precipitation
upon the “Unglaciated Area” to be warm rains instead of snow. To
this region the animals of the tertiary period retreated as glacial
conditions surrounded them. Here they were protected, and perpetuated
their species, and in these regions vast quantities of their remains
are found. _Mining and Scientific Press_, Feb. 14, 1892.
The easterly projection of the unglaciated area is opposite the
corresponding projection in the lava overflow. How this simple
explanation has escaped the researches of geologists is not known.
[10] Maury, _Physical Geography of the Sea_, 6th Edition, p. 212, _et
seq._ Croll, _Climate and Time_, p. 60, _et seq._ Also, Climate and
Cosmology, p. 51.
[11] Except hydrogen.
[12] Moreover, in cooling the subjection of one pole to glacial and the
other to temperate or sub-tropical conditions, as argued by Dr. Croll,
would have subjected our planet to very peculiar “cooling strains,” as
they are termed by foundrymen. Whereas the slow and uniform cooling,
as herein described, is productive of maximum thickness, strength and
uniformity of crust; and, as will be explained later, this crust was
finally shrunk in upon the interior mass by being subjected to the
maximum degree of cold to which it can be exposed during the existence
of the sun as a source of heat.
[13] The prime objection which is urged against all previous theories
is their inadequacy. We here have a perfectly adequate cause--resident
earth heat to supply evaporation and shut out solar energy, which
energy can only act the part of a conservator of the glacial conditions
until the exhaustion of earth heat, when its power can be spent
in melting glacial ice, and in gradually establishing the present
conditions.
[14] It will again be noted that the isotherms inside of 32° - y° Far.
were maintained by earth heat, and therefore independent of equatorial
or polar exposure to solar heat. Consequently their intersections were
upon different lines from those isotherms exterior to 32° - y° Far.,
which latter were mainly dependent upon solar heat. It will also be
observed that solar heat, when it reaches the lower, denser regions of
the atmosphere, is trapped and therefore capable of establishing and
maintaining higher temperatures than in the upper atmosphere.
[15] The truth of this fact is easily established by either
observation or experiment. At the close of a hot day should a slight
cloudiness supervene, the loss of heat by radiation from the surface
is checked; the air at the surface, and the surface, remain at the
same temperature, and nature’s delicate differential thermometer--the
deposition or non-deposition of dew--records the non-transcalency of
clouds, in terms worthy of consideration.
Again, let two delicate thermometers be exposed, one to the air
temperature and the other in addition to direct solar rays; the latter
will mark the increased temperature due to such exposure. Upon the
intervention of a cloud, or even a jet of steam, both instruments will
mark the same temperature.
See Physical Geography of the Sea. Maury, 6th ed., p. 212, _et seq._
Climate and Time, Croll, p. 60, _et seq._
Climate and Cosmology, Croll, p. 51.
[16] Astronomers agree that there must exist upon Jupiter a high degree
of heat, and yet no refinement of thermometric determinations can
detect any more heat from the Jovian surface than should be reflected
from the sun.--See _Young’s General Astronomy_, page 353; also _History
of Astronomy During the Nineteenth Century_. Clerke, pp. 335-338.
[17] The author is aware that this statement is at variance with the
opinion of many Geologists of high repute, as may be seen from the
following quotations: “It is evident that the idea of connecting
the phenomena of the internal heat of the globe with terrestrial
climates, whether of the present or of past geological ages, must be
entirely abandoned, as it has been, by most writers on this subject.
The hypothesis cannot be allowed to stand as even one of the possible
theories of climatic change.”--_The Climatic Changes of later
Geological Times._ Whitney, p. 261.
“The first theory brought forward to account for glaciation was that
the earth, having been originally in a fiery state, had in cooling
passed from a condition of universal warmth to a more and more frigid
state, until the present conditions were attained. This is the least
tenable of all theories, for it neglected the now evident fact that
there had been changes from cold to warmth and back again to cold.
However, as it was invented before the existence of glacial periods was
suspected, it long commanded a general assent, and was the opinion that
held the ground until near the middle of this century.”--_Glaciers._
Shaler & Davis, p. 70.
The physicists who have held that earth heat was a cause of the Ice Age
are Prof. E. Frankland, F. R. S., Prof. A. Woeikof and Startorius von
Walterhausen. Not one of the three, however, seems to have had a clear
conception of all the facts and conditions although their views were in
the main sound.
The author hopes to extend the views held by these writers and to show
that the whole range of climates as recorded by fossil and existing
life is capable of correct interpretation, in accordance with known
laws, and without the intervention of suppositions and assumptions.
And moreover, to base his deductions upon a general plan applicable to
any planet and capable of explaining conditions prevalent upon other
planets, notably upon Jupiter and Mars.
[18] To those interested in a verification of this very wide
distribution of glaciation, the following short list of authorities is
recommended:
_Asia._--The Great Ice Age (Giekie); Note on the Glaciation of parts
of the Valleys of Jhelan and Scind Rivers, in the Himalaya Mountains
of Kashmere, Lat. 34° N. (Capt. A. W. Sleff), F. G. S.; Jour. Geol.
Soc., London, vol. xlvi, p. 66; Mem. Geol. Survey of India, vol. xxii,
also vol. xiv; Record Geol. Survey of India, Nov., 1880; Jour. Asiatic
Society, Bengal, xxxvi, p. 113; Brit. Association Report, 1880; Text
Book of Geology, A. Giekie, LL. D., etc., p. 911.
_Europe._--The European Glacial Literature is too extensive to mention.
_America._--The Ice Age in North America (Wright); U. S. Geological
Reports; State Geological Reports of Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, New
York, Minnesota, Nebraska, Colorado, Illinois, etc.; Virginia, Am.
Jour. Sci., vol. vi, p. 371; California, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. iii, p.
325, vol. x, p. 26.
_South America._--Geological Sketches, Agassiz, p. 154, _et seq._;
Geol. and Physical Geog. of Brazil (Prof. Ch. Fred. Hartt), pp. 22,
28-9, 469-70, 490, 558.
_Africa._--Geol. of South Africa (Stow); Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
London, vols. xvii and xviii.
_Australia and New Zealand._--Climate and Time (Croll), p. 295; Am.
Jour. Sci., vol. 32, third series, p. 224; Proc. Linnæan Soc., N. S.
W., May, 1886; Prestwich’s Geol., vol. ii, p. 467; Rep. Brit. Assn.,
1881, p. 742.
“The shrunken or vanished ice of mountain ranges is indeed equally
characteristic of the Himalaya, the Lebanon, the Alps, the Scandinavian
chain, the great chains of North and South America, and of other minor
ranges and clusters of mountains.”--Ramsay, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.,
1862, p. 204.
[19] Many geologists are misled by the greater modification of tropical
drift by sub-aerial agencies. Having been longer exposed to such
agencies, greater modifications are to be expected. The apparent
improbability of tropical glaciation seems to deter many scientists
from believing that such glaciation could ever have occurred, yet the
same scientists will accept the fact that fossil life establishes
the existence of tropical or even torrid conditions within the polar
circles during past ages.
[20] See Geological Sketches, Agassiz, p. 154, _et seq._ Also Physical
Geography and Geology of Brazil, Prof. Ch. Fred. Hartt, pp. 22, 28, 29,
217, 469, 470.
[21] See the author’s views in _Physical and Geological Traces of
Permanent Cyclone Belts_. Trans. Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast, Vol. VIII, No. 1, June, 1891.
[22] Phil. Mag. (4), Vol. XXV, pp. 1-14. Trans. Royal Soc. Edin., Vol.
XXIII. Influence of the Earth’s Secular Heat upon Climates. Hopkins,
Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. VIII.
[23] Climate and Time, Climate and Cosmology.
[24] The Cause of an Ice Age, chapters 5 and 6.
[25] Nature, May 1891; S. E. Bishop.
[26] Circulation of the Atmosphere of Planets.--Trans. Technical Soc.
of the Pac. Coast, Vol. IX, No. 5; pp. 136-143.
[27] For a further discussion of the conditions prevalent upon Jupiter
see _Circulation of the Atmosphere of Planets_, previously quoted.
[28] Except hot or warm lava covered areas, and the protected or
“unglaciated areas” to the eastward of such lava overflows. (See page
44 and note [9] page 14.)
[29] The Columbian Lava Plains of North America aggregate some 150,000
square miles; the Deccan Lava Plains of India cover an almost unbroken
plain 200,000 square miles in area. No Geologists ascribe these lava
overflows to an earlier date than the Tertiary; the author could find
no reason to assign the Columbian Lava Plain to so early a period,
and strong reasons to assign the continuance of the flow to the later
Quaternary; of the Deccan Plain he is unable to speak. (See Trans.
Geological Society of Australasia, vol. i, part vi, p. 162, note. Also
Mining and Scientific Press, Feb. 6th, 1892.)
[30] _Climatic changes indicated by Glaciers._
Prof. I. C. Russell, Am. Geologist, May, 1892, vol. ix, No. 5. In
addition to the very extensive list of authorities there quoted by
Prof. Russell, see also Report of The British Ass’n. 1881, p. 742.
Life of Agassiz, Vol. II, pp. 717 to 729 and pp. 743 to 747.
[31] At the culmination of the Ice Age evaporation reached its
minimum, and hence precipitation was also at a minimum. Since that
Age evaporation has slowly increased; the amount of moisture in the
atmosphere being dependant upon its temperature, this amount has also
increased. The aggregate amount of evaporation and the aggregate amount
of precipitation is slowly increasing, and has the moderate limit fixed
by natural laws for increase of mean temperature. Mars appears to have
progressed further in this mean condition than the earth. The smaller
mass partly accounts for this.
[32] Archives des Sciences, vol. v, p. 293. Proc. Royal Soc., vol.
xiii, p. 160.
[33] Archives des Sciences, Berne, vol. lvii, p. 293, _et seq._
[34] Dr. Cleveland Abbe, U. S. Meteorological Bureau. Am. Jour. of
Science, May, 1892, vol. xliii, p. 364.
[35] The albedo of Jupiter is 0.62; that of Mars, 0.26, of the moon
0.174. It will be observed that the planets distinctly shrouded in
clouds have high reflective powers; those planets and satellites not
shrouded have very low powers. Venus, in this respect, seems to have a
partially obscured atmosphere, her albedo being 0.50.
[36] General Astronomy.--Young; p. 337.
[37] Venus presents a condition which suggests that she may be partly
shrouded in clouds, shutting out solar heat, just as the thermal
equator of the earth is thus partly protected by the equatorial cloud
ring.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Page 6: “unequal subaerial denudation” changed to “unequal sub-aerial
denudation”
Page 16: “two spheroidal iostherms” changed to “two spheroidal
isotherms”
Page 25: “whole system of preglacial” changed to “whole system of
pre-glacial”
Page 30: “at variance with those ante-dating” changed to “at variance
with those antedating”
Page 31: “less in the Antartic” changed to “less in the Antarctic”
Page 33: “lowered one hundreed” changed to “lowered one hundred”
Page 35: “way into a subtropical growth” changed to “way into a
sub-tropical growth”
Page 35: “are really coroborative” changed to “are really
corroborative”
Page 46: “maintaining the cloud envelop” changed to “maintaining the
cloud envelope”
Page 48: “light received by the earth” changed to “light received by
the earth.”
Footnote 4: “la Mer. Déluges Périodique” changed to “la Mer. Déluges
Périodiques”
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