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Title: Photography self taught
Author: Lloyd I. Snodgrass
Release date: December 1, 2025 [eBook #77383]
Language: English
Original publication: Girard: Haldeman-Julius Company, 1926
Credits: Tim Miller and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHOTOGRAPHY SELF TAUGHT ***
Transcriber’s Notes:
Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
in the original text. Small capitals have been converted to SOLID
capitals. Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up
paragraphs.
LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 1139
Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius
Photography
Self Taught
Lloyd I. Snodgrass
HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY
GIRARD, KANSAS
Copyright, 1926,
Haldeman-Julius Company
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION 5
Simplicity of Photography—Early Stages.
II. MATERIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 7
Types of Cameras—Lenses—Stops and Shutters—Films
and Plates—Printing Papers.
III. MAKING THE PICTURE 24
Loading the Camera—Choice of Subject and Viewpoint
—Steps in taking the Picture—Making the Exposure—
Exposure Tables—Home Portraiture.
IV. DEVELOPING THE NEGATIVE 38
Chemical Process—Tank Development—Tray Development
—Negative Defects.
V. PRINTING THE PICTURE 46
Printing Papers—Printing Process—Enlarging—Toning
—Finishing the Picture.
VI. MOTION PICTURES 56
Importance—Principle—Pictures in the Home—Ciné-Kodak
—Film Libraries.
VII. SCOPE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 61
Business—Scientific Investigation—Illustrations—
Color Photography—Color Printing Processes—Other
Advances.
PHOTOGRAPHY SELF TAUGHT
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Of all the fields of applied science, there is perhaps no other that
has such a universal appeal as photography. While a science in the true
sense of the word it enters so intimately and frequently into contact
with our daily lives that we hardly realize its scientific aspect.
Photography is simply the making of permanent images of natural
objects on suitably prepared surfaces by physical and chemical means.
The process is easily understood and the actual making of good
pictures is simplicity itself. The light reflected from the subject
being photographed passes through the lens and forms an image on the
sensitive material at the back of the camera. An exposure of only a
small fraction of a second, if the light is good, affects this material
but not to the extent of forming a visible image. The actual image is
brought out later by a chemical process called “development.” After
being “fixed” so the image won’t fade, the “negative,” as the film
or plate is now called, is washed and dried and is then ready for
printing. This is done by allowing a given amount of light to pass
through the negative onto a piece of sensitive paper with which it is
placed in contact. After being developed, washed and dried, this paper
is the finished print or picture.
Photography had its early beginning back in the fore part of the 18th
century[1] when the “Camera Obscura” was devised.
[Footnote 1: See Photo-Miniature No. 60: _Who Discovered Photography_.]
This was a box equipped with a lens at one end and a piece of ground
glass at the other, used by artists to trace a picture on the glass.
Some time later various experiments were made to find something to
replace the ground glass which would permanently retain the image.
Eventually it was discovered that silver chloride would darken upon
exposure to light and that _hypo_ would remove the unexposed chemical,
thus fixing the image more or less permanently.
Later came the daguerreotype and the wet plate process. The latter
was very cumbersome, but many beautiful pictures were made by it, as
witnessed by Brady’s collection of Civil War pictures. These were
succeeded by dry plates which in turn have quite largely given way to
films.
Photography as it exists today covers a very broad field, and many
books have been written on the subject as a whole and its various
phases. In compiling the material for this Little Blue Book, an
attempt has been made to include only those topics which will be
of interest and assistance to the average amateur photographer.
Scientific processes are explained in such a way that the beginner,
with no previous experience in the making of pictures, should be able
to understand the various steps as they are taken up, and to get good
pictures. The last chapter is devoted to the scope of photography, its
practical applications, and to some of the developments that are now
taking place.
CHAPTER II
MATERIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
He who builds a house, manufactures an automobile, works the farm,
or produces a picture, must have certain materials and tools to work
with. In the case of photography the tools consist of the camera and
its accessories, the sensitive films or plates, chemicals and other
supplies.
TYPES OF CAMERAS
_Box Cameras_, when reduced to their simplest form, consist of a light
tight box with a lens at one end and a place for the sensitive film at
the other. Such cameras are usually fitted with a fixed focus single
(meniscus acromatic) lens, one or two ground glass view finders, and
a simple type of shutter. Also, there may be a system of two or three
“stops” for regulating the amount of light admitted by the lens.
A camera of this type is well suited for children and for the beginner.
There is nothing much to get out of order, the camera is ready on the
instant for whatever photographic subject may turn up, and the pictures
obtained compare very favorably with those produced by the most
expensive instruments. However, such cameras have their limitations.
Snapshot exposures are only possible in good light when the sun is
shining on the subject; objects nearer than about 10 feet cannot be
photographed unless an auxiliary lens is used over the regular lens,
and the camera is not so convenient for carrying as a folding type. The
Brownie is one of the best known of box cameras.
_Folding cameras_, such as the Kodaks, are preferred by the great
majority of workers. These range from the very small folding models of
vest pocket size taking pictures 1⅝ × 2½ inches, through the 2¼ × 3¼,
2½ × 4½, 2⅞ × 4⅞, up to the 3¼ × 5½, which is one of the most popular
sizes.
Cameras of this type ordinarily have rapid lenses and many are fitted
with the highest type of anastigmat lenses. Brilliant view finders
are usually furnished as the image is much more clearly seen than in
a ground glass finder. They are ordinarily fitted with shutters which
in addition to time and bulb action may work at automatic speeds from
one second to perhaps ¹/₂₀₀. This makes it possible to get snapshots
of subjects under conditions that would be out of the question with
the box cameras with their slower lenses and shutters. Some of these
cameras are provided with an autographic feature so that data can be
made on the film at the time of the exposure. Some are fitted with
combination backs so that accurate focusing may be done on the ground
glass on the back. Most styles use roll film although some are fitted
to take film packs and cut film.
_Reflecting cameras_ fitted with focal plane shutter, are the type
preferred by many advanced workers. A mirror reflects the image onto
a ground glass, full size and right side up where it is focused and
remains visible in a hood until the very instant of exposure, and thus
it takes all the guesswork out of composition, lighting and focusing.
Some focal plane shutters work as slow as ⅕ second. Such an exposure
is very useful for home portraits indoors where the light is good.
Focal plane shutters also permit of extremely rapid exposures. Cameras
of this type are used when photographing automobile races, athletic
events, etc. Naturally a reflecting camera is somewhat larger and
heavier than an ordinary folding camera.
There are also many scientific, commercial and special purpose
cameras, among which might be mentioned stereoscopic, telephoto,
photomicrographic, enlarging, copying and reducing, lantern slide,
identification, finger print, cirkut, panoramic, studio, view and
motion picture cameras.
Practically all amateur work today is made with small film cameras.
In many of the amateur photographic exhibitions large pictures will
be seen but in most cases the foundation of these pictures was a
small film negative. In selecting a camera it is well worth while to
consider the fact that any camera, even the cheapest will make fair
pictures under favorable conditions. It is only when convenience in
regard to compactness and ease of operation along with the ability to
fully expose and make microscopically sharp pictures under unfavorable
conditions are desired, that the more complicated and expensive models
are of superior advantage.
LENSES[2]
In order properly to understand the purpose and use of the lens it
is necessary to know something about the nature of light. Light
ordinarily travels in a straight line but when a beam falls on a
polished surface such as a looking glass it is reflected back in the
same way that a rubber ball striking the ground rebounds. It is this
_reflected light_ from objects, that reaching our eyes enables us to
see them, and reaching the lens of the camera enables us to photograph
them.
[Footnote 2: For a more exhaustive discussion, see Harting: _Optics for
Photographers_.]
As in the case of sound where low pitched notes are caused by a small
number of vibrations per second and high pitched ones by a great number
so in the case of light the red is produced by long wave lengths and
violet by short ones. Between these are all the other colors from red
to violet—orange, yellow, green, blue. There are wave lengths shorter
than violet called ultra-violet, which are not visible but are very
active in affecting a photographic emulsion. White light is made up by
all colors.
_Refraction_ is another property of light which very directly concerns
our discussion of lenses. When a stick is placed in water at an angle,
it appears to be bent at the surface. The explanation of this is that
in a dense medium, light travels slower than in air. When the beams
strike the surface one part reaches the surface and is slowed up while
the other part is still in the air and traveling faster, thus causing a
change in direction. The same thing taking place in glass explains the
action of light in passing through the lens.
PINHOLE LENS. The simplest lens which we could use would be a small
hole. If we take a sheet of cardboard and make a hole in it with a pin
and then in a darkened room, hold the cardboard between a sheet of
white paper and an electric lamp we shall see on the paper an image of
the lamp’s filament. The same principle is applied to the making of
pinhole photographs. A very fine smooth hole is made in a piece of thin
brass or tin-foil and this is used in place of the lens. The diagram
(Figure 1) shows how the image is formed by the use of the pinhole.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
Remarkably good pictures can be made with nothing but a pinhole for a
lens. No object is perfectly sharp but all are equally sharp and the
result may be very fine pictorially. However, the exposure is very
long, taking from a few seconds up to several minutes with the object
in good bright sunlight even when a very fast film is being used. As
the pinhole is made larger so as to admit more light, then the image
will become more and more indistinct until no picture is formed at all.
FORMATION OF AN IMAGE BY A LENS. When a ray of light passes through a
prism it is bent as it enters the glass and again as it leaves it. The
lens works very much the same as two prisms.
[Illustration: Fig. 2]
The lens is used in the front of the camera for the purpose of so
directing the rays of light that they will form an image of the object
being photographed on the sensitive film or plate in the back of the
camera. Figure 3 shows how the image is formed by the lens. It will be
noticed that parallel rays of light are bent so as to go through F (the
principal focus) and that rays passing through the center of the lens
do not change in direction. This determines how far away the image will
be from the lens. If the subject being photographed is 100 feet from
the camera, the image will be formed a fraction of an inch closer to
the lens than will be the image of an object only 10 feet away. This is
shown by dotted lines in the diagram.
[Illustration: Fig. 3]
_Focusing_ is the bringing of the lens to the proper distance from the
film so that the image will be sharp, and as explained this is changed
according to how far away the object is which is being photographed.
This distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane
or position of the films when focused on a distant object is termed
_focal length_. When choosing a camera and lens for ordinary usage it
is well to select one having a lens of a focal length at least equal to
the diagonal of the negative. A short focal length lens gives a small
image. For this reason the worker is inclined to approach close to the
subject in order to get a larger image. In such a case any portion of
the subject such as a foot or hand of the person projecting a little
toward the camera, will appear much too large in proportion to the
remainder of the subject. This is often noticeable in amateur pictures.
For instance, the focal length of a lens on a post card size camera
should be from 6½ to 7 inches.
KINDS OF LENSES. The _meniscus lens_ is the simplest type, being made
from a single piece of glass. Such lenses are used only on small fixed
focus cameras. When a beam of light is passed through a prism it will
be noticed that a band of color is formed. This is because the longer
wave lengths such as the red colors are bent less than the shorter ones
such as the violet. A meniscus lens will not focus the various colors
in the same plane and therefore is used only on the very cheapest
cameras.
A _meniscus achromatic_ lens is more fully corrected, being made from
two kinds of glass, flint and crown, and overcomes the difficulty
just mentioned. Such lenses are used on most of the box cameras and
the less expensive folding models. These lenses are made to be used
only with rather small openings and so the user is limited to making a
snapshot exposure in good bright sunlight. A lens such as this is very
fine for landscape work or portraiture but if the subject is a building
or other object containing straight lines, the lines will appear
slightly curved if they come near the edge of the picture. If the stop
opening is in front of the lens the lines will curve outward, but if
behind it then they will curve inward.
Double lenses overcome this defect by combining two single lenses, one
in front and one in back of the stop, so as to get straight lines to
photograph as such, clear to the very edge of the picture. These lenses
can be used at much larger stop openings in proportion to focal length
than the meniscus achromatic or single lenses, and hence the name for
the old type of double lens—“rapid rectilinear.” These older double
lenses still have one defect known as astigmatism or the inability to
photograph both vertical and horizontal lines sharply to the very edge
of the picture.
About 30 years ago, Professor Abbe and Otto Schott working together
at Jena, found how to produce new kinds of optical glass from which
lenses could be made that would give flat field images with the blue
and yellow rays at the same focus. By the use of these new glasses the
opticians have been able to make lenses that give sharp images and a
flat field to the very edge of the picture. These lenses are called
_anastigmat_. Better defining power, however, can only be obtained
by the most careful and skilled work when making the lens, this work
being of a far higher quality than that applied on the older types
of lenses, which accounts for the higher cost of anastigmats. They
can be used with larger stop openings and thus it is possible to make
snapshots on days when the sun is not shining and also to get slow
snapshot exposures near a window if the light is good.
The “_Kodar_” lens is a recent development intermediate in type between
the old “rapid rectilinear” and the anastigmat. It has many of the
practical advantages of the latter though it is an inexpensive type of
lens.
There are several types of lenses which are used for special purposes.
Two of the most common are wide angle lenses and telephoto lenses.
_Wide angle lenses_ have a very short focal length for the size of the
film or plate covered and are especially useful for photographing in
confined positions, such as in a room where it is desired to include
the greater portion of it. They are also rather necessary when trying
to photograph buildings on the opposite side of a rather narrow street.
The perspective is rather poor when working up close, as nearby objects
appear too large in proportion to those more distant. The room looks
much larger than it really is. Wide angle lenses must always be used
with a smaller stop opening than those of ordinary focal length. For
example, the Bausch & Lomb Medium Wide Angle Protar Lens Series IV has
a maximum speed of f.12.5. The extreme wide angle Protar lens made by
the same firm has its largest stop opening at f.18. The Goerz Hypergon
lens has only a maximum opening of f.22, but this lens embraces an
extremely wide angle of 135 degrees. The lens on the average hand
camera includes an angle of perhaps 42 to 49 degrees.
_Telephoto lenses_ on the other hand are most useful for photographing
objects that are so far away as to appear too small with a normal lens.
Not only are they useful for photographing animals, birds, and other
wild life but are useful for taking pictures of persons or buildings
that are not usually accessible. As the light reflected from the
subject must cover a larger proportion of sensitive film, it naturally
follows that the exposure would be longer than when no telephoto
lens was used. A steady tripod must be used as the least vibration
will spoil the picture. A longer bellows draw is generally necessary
although some of the new fixed magnification telephoto lenses do not
require a long bellows extension for the equivalent focal length.
_Soft focus lenses_, an example of which is the Wollensak Verito f.4
lens, produce an image which is very pleasing for certain types of
pictorial and portrait work.
STOPS AND SHUTTERS
When using a camera, it is very necessary to know something about
_stops_ or diaphragm openings.
A very instructive experiment for the beginner, if he has a camera
with a ground glass focusing screen, is to set it up in front of some
well illuminated object and focus it on the ground glass screen by
moving the lens nearer or further from the ground glass. A coat or
other dark cloth should be thrown over the head of the operator and
back of the camera to exclude the light. When the shutter is set so as
to remain open and the largest stop opening is used it will be noticed
that there is a brilliant image of the subject on the ground glass but
that it is upside down. If the picture being examined is a landscape
or other subject containing objects at different distances, it will
also be noticed that those at a certain distance away will be sharply
defined whereas others nearer and further away are somewhat diffused or
blurred. In other words, they are out of focus.
If the size of the stop opening in front of the lens is decreased, it
will be noticed that the image of objects nearer and farther than the
one focused on becomes sharper, and that the image is not as bright as
before. Thus we see that the two principal functions of the stop are to
increase or decrease the depth of focus and to regulate the amount of
light admitted to the sensitive film. This last function makes it an
important factor in exposure. In the case of portraits it is usually
better to have only the subject sharp for if the background were also
sharp it would detract from the interest of the subject. For landscapes
it is more necessary to have the entire picture sharp.
The amount of light reaching a given portion of the sensitive film
depends not only on the size of the stop opening but on the distance of
the lens from the film. With longer focal length lenses the distance
is greater and therefore the light spreads over a larger area. Thus it
is less concentrated, and so the exposure needs to be longer with the
same actual size stop opening. The diaphragm or stop opening is always
referred to in terms of its proportion to the focal length. In one
system the stop is expressed simply as a fraction of the focal length.
Thus, f.8 means that the diameter of the aperture or opening is ⅛ of
the focal length. For example, if the lens opening or stop is ½ inch
in diameter and the focal length is four inches, then the stop is f.8.
Again, if the focal length is 8 inches and the stop opening is one
inch the ratio would be the same, and the stop would be marked f.8.
In the latter case four times as much light would have been admitted,
yet it would have had to cover four times as much space thus giving
equivalent illumination to the film. The comparative exposure of two
stops varies with the square of their f. values, the larger numbered
one being the slower and requiring the longer exposure. In the U.
S. (Universal System), the stops are so marked that each succeeding
smaller one requires twice the exposure of the next larger.
The following table gives a comparison of the two systems:
F. f.4 f.5.6 f.6.3 f.8 f.11 f.16 f.22 f.32 f.45
U.S. 1 2 (2½) 4 8 16 32 64 128
Most of the rapid rectilinear lenses have U. S. numbers. Anastigmat
lenses usually have f. markings. The single lenses are more often
marked with three or four numbers, 1, 2, 3 and 4, of which each
succeeding larger numbered stop usually admits about half as much light
as the next smaller and therefore requires approximately twice the
exposure.
The _shutter_ is a mechanical device for controlling the length of the
exposure. One of the simplest forms is shown in the following diagram:
[Illustration: Fig. 4
Fig. 4 shows the position of slide B when the smallest stop is in front
of the lens.]
This form is known as a rotary shutter and may give snapshot exposures
of approximately ¹/₂₅ of a second. An instantaneous exposure is made
by pushing lever “C” across in one direction only. Ordinarily the
largest of the three stop openings (controlled by slide “B”) is used
for snapshots in good light, the middle one for snapshot exposures of
very distant objects and for time exposures of interiors. The small one
is more often used for time exposures outdoors. To make a time exposure
slide “A” is pulled up and then when lever “C” is pushed across in one
direction the shutter will open and remain open until lever “C” is
pushed across in the opposite direction. Figure 5 illustrates one of
the more comprehensive types of shutters. The size of the stop opening
is controlled by moving “B” to the proper f. value.
[Illustration: Fig. 5]
FILMS AND PLATES
Photography begins with the chemical action of light on compounds
of silver, particularly those of chlorine and bromine. This action
is familiar to anyone who has added a solution of silver nitrate to
a sodium chloride solution and watched the resulting precipitate of
silver chloride darken after a short exposure to sunlight. Briefly,
films consist of a base or support of either glass or transparent
cellulose on which is coated an emulsion which holds in suspension
some sensitive silver salts. Silver bromide is the principal sensitive
material in films and plates. This, together with the gelatin
which is added to keep it from settling, makes up the emulsion. The
different degrees of sensitiveness are obtained by varying the amount
and duration of heat to which the emulsions are subjected during
manufacture. Other substances may be added which also affect its
sensitiveness.
The silver bromide or other compound in the emulsion is so sensitive
to light that an exposure in the camera for but a very small fraction
of a second under good lighting conditions, is sufficient to produce
a developable image. The emulsion is composed of innumerable grains,
perhaps from 10 to 30 billion per square inch, lying several deep.
The number acted on during exposure depends on the intensity of the
light and the duration of its access to the film. The light action is
not visible after exposure but every grain that was at all affected
during exposure can be developed. This is explained later in Chapters
III and IV. It naturally follows that if the sensitive film is exposed
to light at any time other than when the picture is being made, for
even the smallest fraction of a second before being developed, it will
be completely fogged as all of the grains of silver bromide will be
affected and when developed will be completely dark.
In addition to speed another characteristic of modern films and plates
is _latitude_. This means that the exposure can be varied considerably
without appreciably affecting the final picture. Thus, if the least
correct exposure was ¹/₁₀₀ sec. this could perhaps be increased to
¹/₂₅, or four times as much, without affecting the final result except
that the negative would be denser and require a longer time in printing.
Films or plates with very slow emulsions are more often used for
copying and other work where it is desired to have considerable
contrast and where speed is no object. The most rapid emulsions
are necessary where extremely short exposures under ideal lighting
conditions must be given, as for athletic events, and for slow snapshot
exposures in poor light.
Ordinary plates and films are sensitive to the shorter wave lengths of
light such as the ultra-violet, the violet and the blue, but little if
any to the yellow and red. For this reason a blue flower or similar
subjects will photograph so as to appear almost white, whereas a yellow
or red one will appear nearly dark as the light reflected will not
affect the film to any extent.
To counteract this some plates and most films are made somewhat _color
sensitive_ or orthochromatic by the incorporation in the emulsion of
certain dyes which makes it less sensitive to blue light and more to
the yellow-green rays.
For the exact rendering of reds and other colors, plates and films are
sometimes still more fully corrected and these are termed panchromatic.
While they are sensitive to all colors, yet they are somewhat more
sensitive to the blues than the reds, and therefore a filter is often
used.
The _filter_, which may be a piece of colored gelatin between two
pieces of glass, is placed over the lens when photographing certain
colored objects, and its function is to absorb or hold back the blue
rays or certain other ones as desired. This will give time for the
yellows and reds to affect the film and thus a denser deposit of silver
will be obtained which will result in that part of the print being
lighter. As the filter holds back some of the most actinic light, it
is evident that the exposure will have to be longer than when no
filter is used. The length of the exposure will depend upon the type
of sensitive emulsion being used and the kind of filter. A variety of
filters can be obtained which will absorb different colors and thus
it is possible to have any given color photograph lighter or darker
if desired. For full correction so that all colors will photograph
to appear relatively as dark as they should, it has been found that
Eastman Commercial Panchromatic Film and a Wratten K-3 filter will
produce the desired result.[3]
[Footnote 3: Discussed more fully in _Color Films, Plates and Filters_.
Eastman Kodak Company.]
PRINTING PAPERS
Printing papers are sensitive in the same way as films or plates except
that the emulsion is slower, and is coated on a paper base instead of
glass or cellulose. The more rapid enlarging papers have a slow bromide
emulsion while ordinary contact developing printing papers are usually
silver chloride. The various contrasts and surfaces will be discussed
in the chapter on printing.
CHAPTER III
MAKING THE PICTURE
_Loading the Camera_
Most hand cameras are made to take _roll film_. This is especially
convenient as a darkroom is not required for loading. Extending the
full length of the strip of film and several inches beyond each end is
a strip of lightproof paper, which in connection with the flanges on
the spool, forms a lightproof cartridge.
The loading operation is performed entirely by daylight, but a position
should be selected where the light is somewhat subdued. Care must be
taken before beginning the work to see that the shutter is closed. The
empty spool is inserted in the winding end and the full spool is placed
in the recess at the opposite end by pulling out the spool pins and
allowing the film cartridge to drop into place, care being taken that
the top of the spool is at the top of the camera. Otherwise the opaque
red paper would be between the lens and the film. The spool pins are
then pushed back into place in the holes at the end of the spool so
that the spool revolves upon them. The gummed strip that holds the end
of the red paper is next removed and the paper is sufficiently unrolled
to thread into the empty spool. Unless it is kept taut it may slip and
loosen sufficiently to admit light which would fog the film. The back
of the camera is next replaced and the winding key turned until the
figure 1 appears at the little red window.
_Film packs_ contain film similar to roll film but cut to the various
sizes in use. They can be loaded and removed from the camera in
daylight, the darkroom only being necessary when the films are to be
removed from the pack and developed. The film pack consists of 12 flat
cut films packed in a lightproof case and attached singly to strips
of black paper the ends of which project from the top of the pack and
terminate in tabs numbered from 1 to 12. By the use of a film pack
adapter an ordinary plate camera is transformed into a daylight loading
film camera. After the pack is placed in position in the camera, the
tab marked “safety cover,” is pulled out and torn off at the place
marked. The first film is now ready for exposure. After making the
first exposure, tab No. 1 is pulled out and torn off in the same manner
and so on until No. 12 is removed which will draw the last film to the
back of the pack. The films now being protected from light, the pack
can be removed in daylight and another inserted.
_Plates_ must be loaded into plate holders or into the plate magazine
in the dark room illuminated only by a safelight lamp. _Cut films_ are
loaded similarly into film holders, film magazines, and also into film
sheaths which are to be used in plate holders, by the aid of suitable
safelight in the darkroom.
CHOICE OF SUBJECT AND VIEWPOINT
There are of course subjects innumerable which will make pleasing
pictures. Regardless of whether the picture is a landscape or a
portrait, there are several points that should be kept in mind in
regard to artistic composition if the picture is to be pleasing
pictorially as well as good technically.
COMPOSITION[4]. This may be defined as the bringing of things together
in an orderly and symmetrical arrangement. It is not an exact science
that can be depended upon to produce results mechanically, but its
general principles can be applied in such a way as to aid materially in
avoiding the inartistic.
[Footnote 4: See, Hammond: _Pictorial Composition in Photography_.]
The first lesson to be learned is to leave out what is not required.
This is known as _selection_. By moving the camera to the right or
left, up or down, focusing at different planes, and using different
stop openings, much that is objectionable may be either eliminated or
at least made unobtrusive.
_Simplicity_ is the keynote of artistic work. Over-crowding must be
avoided. Ordinarily the picture should have but one object or group of
principal interest, all others being subordinate and helping support it.
There should be such a combining of masses, tones and lines as to
produce a pleasing whole. This is known as _harmony_ and _balance_.
Objects should be so grouped that there will not be too many shadows
or highlights of equal importance. The exact center is the weakest
portion of the picture and so important objects should be a little to
one side and in some cases slightly above or below. The picture should
balance, both vertically and horizontally, a large mass near the center
being balanced by several smaller objects on the other side or by a
smaller one further from the center.
In the case of landscapes, neither the horizon nor a vertical line
should ever exactly divide the picture into two equal parts. If there
are subjects of importance in the near foreground, the horizon line
should be perhaps 1–3 down from the top as this gives a prominent
foreground; for broad expansive views it should be the same distance
from the bottom in order to direct attention to the sky and more
distant parts of the landscape. A clouded sky should be included if
possible. Clouds are a pictorial asset as they break up the monotony of
the white sky and add greatly to the beauty and attractiveness of the
picture, but they cannot ordinarily be obtained without the use of a
filter. A sky filter is a little attachment which slips over the front
of the lens, and as only the upper portion of the filter is colored
it keeps back the excessive light from the sky without appreciably
affecting the exposure. Thus many clouds will be brought out nicely in
the picture which ordinarily do not show because of overexposure.
In landscape photography it is not generally advisable to introduce
human figures as in nearly all cases they fail, either in costume
or in pose, to harmonize with the subject. The domestic animals,
such as horses, cows and sheep, can, however, frequently be included
with success. When human figures are introduced they should not look
directly at the camera.
For pictorial landscape work a diffusion attachment as the Kodak
Pictorial Diffusion Disk may be placed over the regular lens or a soft
focus lens such as the Verito[5] may be used.
[Footnote 5: Wollensak Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.]
LIGHTING. This is of equal importance with the arrangement of the
subject in the picture as it determines the strength and position of
the lights and shadows. It is the variation in these that gives the
picture depth and roundness, making the subject stand out from the
surroundings. The beginner when making exposures in the sunlight should
have the sun behind him, but a little to one side. If the illumination
comes from directly back of the camera, the shadows are more or less
lost, giving a flat appearance. However, contrary to the generally
published advice, some of the most pleasing results may be obtained
with the sun from in front but a little to one side. In such a case it
is necessary to shade the lens from the direct rays of the sun. The
exposure should be increased as there are more deep shadows.
STEPS IN TAKING THE PICTURE
After the folding camera is loaded, there are still the following steps
to be carried out in taking the picture:
1. See that an unexposed portion of film is
in position for the exposure.
2. Open the camera, and set the focus if
a focusing model is being used.
3. Adjust the diaphragm opening.
4. Set the shutter (on some types).
5. Hold the camera level and include the
view wanted.
6. Make the exposure.
1. When roll film is being used, a fresh section should be turned into
position immediately after each exposure. Similarly with film packs the
tab should be pulled out as soon as each exposure is made so as to be
all ready for the next. This is often overlooked by beginners with the
result that two pictures are made on the same section of film.
2. On the bed of most adjustable hand cameras, is a _scale_ marked with
figures, usually 6 to 100, indicating feet. The front of the camera
must be extended until the pointer is over the figure indicating the
number of feet which the operator has estimated to be the distance to
the subject. Some types of cameras are equipped with a screw focusing
device—a revolving ring, which is marked with a scale and moves the
lens back and forth. When using a large stop and working up close, it
is necessary to estimate the distance carefully but when using a medium
small stop such as f.16 and photographing an object 50 feet or farther
away, the focus need be estimated only with approximate accuracy.
If the camera is 3¼ × 4¼ or smaller it may be used as if it were a
fixed focus type by extending the front to the 25 foot mark on the
focusing scale and using stop f.11 (U.S.8).
3. In choosing the stop to use it is necessary to consider the amount
of light available, the rapidity of movement of the subject, the depth
of focus needed, and the shutter speed that is to be used. Large stops
are necessarily used for slow snapshot exposures under poor lighting
conditions, and for very rapid instantaneous exposures of moving
objects in bright sunlight. They are also used to limit the depth of
focus so as to make the principal object stand out from its background.
This is more particularly desirable in portraiture. Smaller stops
give sharper images especially over a greater depth of field, and are
generally used for groups, views and other subjects, where the entire
picture must be sharp. In such a case it may be necessary to use a
tripod and give a time exposure.
While there are exceptions to the appended table of stops to be used,
yet it will be helpful, especially to beginners.
f.4.5 (a) For extra rapid exposures when the light is
very good, i. e. for moving objects at 1–100 to
1–1000 of a second.
(b) For portraiture indoors when the light is only
fair and short time or bulb exposures are made.
(c) For slow snapshots outdoors when the light is
poor, or indoors by a sunlit window.
This opening gives but little depth of focus so the
camera must be carefully focused.
f.6.3 (a) For quick exposures of moving objects in good
light with shutter speeds to about 1–300 second.
(b) For slower speeds on hazy and slightly cloudy days.
(c) For indoor home portraiture.
f.7.7 or f.8 (U.S.4) (a) For instantaneous exposures in
slightly cloudy weather, speed 1–25. (Do not attempt
instantaneous exposures on dark, cloudy days.)
(b) For flashlight groups.
(c) For portraiture indoors or outdoors in the shade.
f.11 (U.S.8) (a) For all ordinary instantaneous exposures
when the subject is in bright sunshine, using 1–25 sec.
(b) For flashlight interiors.
f.16 (U.S.16) (a) For instantaneous exposures when the
sunlight on the subject is unusually strong and there
are no heavy shadows, as for views on the seashore,
or on the water, using speed 1–50.
(b) For ordinary landscapes in bright sunshine with clear
sky overhead, speed 1–25.
(c) For interior time exposures.
f.22 (U.S.32) (a) For instantaneous exposures of
extremely distant views.
(b) For marine or snow scenes, or clouds in bright
sunshine, at speed 1–25.
(c) For time exposures of interiors, and of outdoor
scenes in cloudy weather.
f.32, f.45 (U.S.64, U.S.128) (a) For time exposures
outdoors in cloudy weather. Never used for snapshots.
4. When making instantaneous exposures it is necessary to see that
the shutter is set at “I.” In addition to this some shutters must be
“set” by special levers, much as a gun is cocked, before they can be
operated. If instantaneous exposures are to be made while holding the
camera, a large enough stop must be used so that the exposure will
be ¹/₂₅ second or less, as few people can hold a camera steady for a
longer time.
5. When making the exposures, care must be taken to hold the camera
level and have it include the exact view wanted. If the camera is
inclined to one side, horizontal lines will be at an angle in the
picture; if pointed up, a building will photograph smaller at the top;
if down, the opposite will be the case. If the camera is fitted with
a rising front, it will be found useful for eliminating undesirable
foreground or including the top of a tall building. In the case of
architectural subjects it is especially important that the back of the
camera remains vertical in order to prevent any distortion of the lines
of the building.
A single reversible view finder is provided with most cameras. It is
notched to indicate the view that will be included both when the camera
is used vertically and horizontally. One should always look at the
finder from directly above and not at an angle, or the view included
will not be accurately seen.
6. Exposure is made by means of a lever, or cable release.
MAKING THE EXPOSURE
Exposure depends on such a variety of factors that only with practice
will the worker be able to give consistently the correct amount under
varied conditions. Nearly all of the subjects ordinarily photographed
by daylight may be classified into four groups. Since the normal
exposure for each of these groups may be easily memorized, the outdoor
exposure problem is reduced to the simple one of determining to which
group the subject belongs. While the table is eminently satisfactory
for stationary objects, it is not adapted for rapidly moving objects as
the shutter speed would be too slow. When using these tables, a faster
or slower shutter speed may be used if the stop opening is varied
accordingly so as to give the same amount of light. As explained, each
succeeding smaller stop than f.8 (U.S. 4) admits about half as much
light as the next larger. The exposure tables are for from 2½ hours
after sunrise until 2½ hours before sunset on days when the sun is
shining on the subject.
OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TABLES (Rectilinear and Anastigmat Lenses)
Rectilinear Anastigmat
Shutter Lenses Lenses
Groups Speed Stop Stop
1—Snow, marine and
beach scenes, extremely
distant landscapes ¹/₂₅ U.S. 32 f.22
2—Ordinary landscapes
showing sky, with a
principal object in the
foreground ¹/₂₅ U.S. 16 f.16
3—Nearby landscapes
showing little or no
sky, groups, street
scenes ¹/₂₅ U.S. 8 f.11
4—Portraits in the open
shade, not under trees
or the roof of a porch; f.7.7 or
shaded nearby scenes ¹/₂₅ U.S. 4 f.8
OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TABLE (Single Lenses)
Folding Cameras
Shutter
Groups Speed Stop Box Cameras
1 ¹/₂₅ 3 Snapshot with middle stop
2 ¹/₂₅ 2 Snapshot with largest stop
3 ¹/₂₅ 1 Snapshot with largest stop
4 1 second 4 1 second with smallest stop
MOVING OBJECTS. The briefest possible exposure must be given to moving
objects in order that the motion may be stopped. Consequently such
pictures can be taken only in bright sunlight and in most cases the
largest stop opening must be used. Best results are usually obtained
by taking the picture from somewhat in front of the subject and a
little to one side or perhaps at about a 45 degree angle. In this way
the actual movement of the subject in relation to the camera is not so
apparent as at right angles, and the perspective will be more pleasing.
It is necessary to work back at some little distance if the subject
is moving rapidly. If the shutter speed is ¹/₁₀₀ it will be necessary
to get back perhaps 75 or 100 feet. On the other hand if a focal
plane shutter is being used in connection with an f.4.5 lens, then an
exposure of from ¹/₅₀₀ to ¹/₁₀₀₀ will enable the worker to get somewhat
closer and get sharp images of automobile races or similar subjects.
INTERIORS. Stop 16 or smaller should ordinarily be used for interiors
in order to get nearby objects and those at the furthest side of the
room sharp at the same time. Do not include any objects in the picture
that are very close to the camera. The exposure for interiors varies
widely according to different conditions but the following table for
use with stop 16 (next to largest stop on single lens cameras) may be
found useful as a guide:
White walls and more than one window—Bright sun outside,
4 seconds; cloudy bright, 20 seconds; hazy sun, 10 seconds;
cloudy dull, 40 seconds.
White walls and only one window—Bright sun outside,
6 seconds; cloudy bright, 30 seconds; hazy sun, 15 seconds;
cloudy dull, 60 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings and more than one
window—Bright sun outside, 8 seconds; cloudy bright,
40 seconds; hazy sun, 20 seconds; cloudy dull, 80 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings with only one
window—Bright sun outside, 12 seconds; cloudy bright,
60 seconds; hazy sun, 30 seconds; cloudy dull, 120 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and more than one
window—Bright sun outside, 20 seconds; cloudy bright,
20 seconds; hazy sun, 40 seconds; cloudy dull, 2 minutes,
40 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and only one window—Bright
sun outside, 40 seconds; cloudy bright, 2 minutes,
40 seconds; hazy sun, 80 seconds; cloudy dull, 5 minutes,
20 seconds.
HOME PORTRAITURE
Excellent home portraits can often be made—pictures that will reveal
the personality of the subject—in the unconventional surroundings of
the home. In order to have the exposure time cut down to a minimum so
that the subject will not move or have a set expression, a large stop
opening should be used and the subject be placed close to a window.
The most pleasing results are usually obtained when the light falls at
about a 45 degree angle.
Too much posing is ruinous, especially in the case of children. They
appear at their best when unconscious of the presence of the camera.
It is very important that neither the hands nor feet or other portions
of the subject project out too much toward the camera or they will
appear too large in proportion to the remainder of the body. This is
particularly true when using a short focus lens and working up close to
get a large image.
By following out the diagram, (Figure 6), a good plain lighting is
obtained:
[Illustration:
A Subject
A-1 Direction of Face
A-2 Direction of Body
B Camera
C Reflector
D Window
E Background (if used)
Fig. 6]
It will be noticed that the subject is placed even with the edge of the
window or a little back of it and about as far into the room as the
window is wide. The body is turned somewhat away from the light and
then the face turned back into it until a v-shaped patch of light is
noticed on the cheek. This will give roundness to the features. A sheet
or newspaper may be used to reflect light onto the shadow side of the
subject. Enough reflected light must be used to show detail, but if too
much is used the face will appear flat.
A more difficult lighting is the one shown in Figure 7.
[Illustration:
A Subject
A-1 Direction of Face
A-2 Direction of Body
C Reflector
D Window
E Window (for general illumination)
F Background (if used)
Fig. 7]
A back lighting of this type is much used in showing movie effects.
Because of taking the picture toward a window it is much more difficult
than the plain lighting. It may be necessary to use a lens hood to keep
the excess light from the window from striking the lens, producing a
fogged appearance.
_Flashlight_ if properly controlled is one of the best sources of
illumination for home use. The light is available on dark days and
evenings, and as the flash occupies but a fraction of a second, there
is not much danger of movement. The lighting should be arranged the
same as shown in Figure 6, the flash taking the place of the window.
CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPING THE NEGATIVE
After exposure, the film or plate shows no visible change but the
“latent image” is there and by the aid of suitable chemicals and
solutions it can be brought out and made visible or in other words be
“developed.” Such solutions are termed developers.
CHEMICAL PROCESS. This consists in the removal of the bromine or
chlorine from the silver bromide or silver chloride of the emulsion
where the light has acted, so as to leave the grains of metallic silver
which constitute the photographic image.
Of the _developing agents_ which are capable of bringing out the image,
pyro, hydroquinone and Elon are perhaps the most commonly used for
negatives, although Elon is seldom used except in connection with one
or the other.
Although one of the oldest developers, pyro has long been considered
one of the best for the development of films and plates. It surpasses
other developers in the control it gives over the printing quality
of negatives as the color can easily be varied from a blue-black to
a slightly olive or yellowish tone. A slight stain image in addition
to the silver image is desirable as thus the negatives will not need
to be so dense as though they were blue-black. The present tendency
is to use pyro either in connection with Elon or with Elon and
hydroquinone. Beginners are likely to get the negatives a too decided
yellow; also pyro if somewhat oxidized will stain the finger nails. An
Elon-Hydroquinone combination is one of the most popular developers,
and being non-staining it is especially good for tray development.
A solution of pyro, Elon, or hydroquinone and water, will develop so
slowly that an _alkali_ such as sodium carbonate is added to speed
up the action. In the presence of an alkali, however, the developing
agent quickly oxidizes, making the solution somewhat colored. To
prevent this oxidation, a _preservative_ such as sodium sulphite is
added which keeps the developer clear without otherwise affecting its
properties. In order to minimize the tendency to fog (the development
of the unexposed grains of silver salts), a trace of potassium bromide,
a _restrainer_, is usually added.
TANK DEVELOPMENT
[Illustration: Fig. 8]
Within recent years the tank method has come to be preferred by the
majority of workers. If _roll film_ is being used, a special tank
developing machine consisting of a wooden box, a lightproof apron,
transferring reel, and metal solution cup will be necessary (Fig. 8).
No dark room is required. The film is wound into the apron according
to instructions and transferred to the solution cup where it is
left in the developer for a predetermined time. This is a logical
scientific method, development being continued for a definite time in
a solution of a given strength at a known temperature. It will produce
a technically correct negative and in the hands of the average person
will no doubt give the highest percentage of good results. If the
exposure is at all within the latitude of the film, the negatives will
be of proper contrast, differing in density according to the exposure
and although requiring different printing times will give prints of
similar quality.
_Film packs_ may also be developed in special tanks but a dark room is
necessary when loading them into the tank.
_Cut films_ and _plates_ are usually developed in open tanks and this
operation must be carried on in the dark room. The work may be done
either by the time and temperature system or the inspection method.
TRAY DEVELOPMENT
Tray development is not usually considered as convenient a method as
tank development but it has its advantages and is used by many workers.
Not only does it give an insight into the actual process, but it
affords an opportunity for the pictorial worker to secure results other
than an exact representation of the subject. Tray development must
be carried on in a dark room which is entirely free from white light
and which is illuminated only by a light such as given by a Brownie
Safelight Lamp when fitted with a Series 2 Safelight.[6]
[Footnote 6: Described in _Modern Dark Room Illumination_, Eastman
Kodak Co.]
Four trays are necessary, one for clear water, one for the developer,
one for a rinse bath, and one for the fixing bath.
Many workers prefer to purchase their chemicals made up in small
packages and ready for use with only the addition of water. This is a
very convenient method. Others are interested more in the science of
photography, and prefer to make up their own solutions from formulas.
Of the many good formulas available but one will be given here[7]:
[Footnote 7: Those who are interested in preparing other types of
formulas should have a copy of _Elementary Photographic Chemistry_
which can be obtained free from the Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.]
_Elon-Hydroquinone Tray Developer_
Water (about 125° F.) 8 ounces
Elon 22 grains
Sodium sulphite 1½ ounces
Sodium bisulphite 15 grains
Hydroquinone 42 grains
Sodium carbonate 82 grains
Potassium bromide 12 grains
Water to make 16 ounces
For use dilute with equal parts of water. The temperature should be 65
degrees Fahrenheit.
_Development._ If roll film is being used it is first detached from
the red paper on the roll, and then, one end being held in each hand,
it is passed face down through a tray of clear water several times to
eliminate air bubbles and to prevent curling. Next it is passed back
and forth through the developer in the same manner, this motion being
continued until development is complete.
Ordinarily the films should remain in the developer until the picture
is about faded out on the side where it first appeared and begins to
show quite well on the back. Longer development will not only make
the negative denser but will result in more contrast or a greater
difference in density between the highlights and shadows. Therefore
development should be continued until the negative is of the proper
density and contrast to give good prints on the type of printing paper
which is being used. Naturally it will take some experience to know
just when the correct point is reached. The negatives may be examined
by holding them up in front of the safelight lamp but they should not
be held there for more than a few seconds at a time.
Because of the extra transparent coating on film packs, the purpose
of which is to lessen the possibility of scratching the emulsion
on drawing the tabs, about 1–3 longer development is required than
for roll film. Super-speed film also requires longer development.
Panchromatic film, being sensitive to all colors, must be developed in
total darkness or by the aid of a deep green light.
_Rinsing._ When developed, films are rinsed for a few seconds in clear
water and then transferred to the fixing bath. The following rinse bath
may be used instead of clear water and has the advantage that it will
not only harden the films but will stop development at once.
Water 16 ounces
Potassium chrome alum ½ ounce
The negatives should be left in this bath for two or three minutes,
being moved about especially when first being immersed. The hardening
bath should be renewed frequently.
_Fixing._ After the negatives are developed the particles of silver
bromide which were not affected by the light are still sensitive and so
must be removed by a process called “fixation.” Here the hypo (sodium
thiosulphate) combines with the unexposed grains of silver bromide or
other silver salts to form a compound which is soluble in water and
therefore which can be removed by washing.
Either a chrome alum fixing bath or an acetic acid fixing bath may be
used, but the latter will be given here as this formula is suitable for
prints as well as negatives.
_Acetic Acid Fixing Bath_
A
Hypo 16 ounces
Water to make 64 ounces
When thoroughly dissolved, add
the following hardening solution:
Water (about 125° F.) 5 ounces
Sodium sulphite 1 ounce
Acetic acid (28%) 3 ounces
Potassium alum 1 ounce
The chemicals should be dissolved in the order given using water at
about 125° F. Be sure that the sodium sulphite has completely dissolved
before adding the acetic acid. After the sulphite-acid solution has
been thoroughly mixed, add the potassium alum and stir until completely
dissolved. Add the cold hardener solution (B) slowly to the cold hypo
solution (A), stirring the latter continually.
The negatives when first being placed in the fixing bath should be
moved about for a few seconds and then occasionally during the entire
time of fixation. This should be for about 15 minutes or for twice as
long as it takes to clear them of the white milky appearance. If not
kept separated properly or if removed too soon the negatives will later
discolor, probably showing yellow stain. Sixty-four ounces of this
bath will completely fix the equivalent of 200 3¼ x 5½ negatives if the
Alum Rinse Bath is used.
_Washing._ When removed from the fixing bath, negatives contain in the
gelatin a number of chemicals which must be removed if permanency is to
be assured. These include the hypo and other chemicals of the fixing
and hardening bath and also other compounds formed by the reaction
between the hypo and silver salts, and also possibly some carried over
from the developer. Washing should be for 30 minutes in running water
or for five minutes each in six changes of water.
_Drying._ Superfluous water together with any grains of dirt from the
wash water should be removed from the film or plate by swabbing gently
with absorbent cotton which has been saturated with water. Roll film
may be hung up to dry in such a way that neither side touches anything.
Drying should take place where there is circulation of warm, dry air,
but not in the sunlight or where the temperature is too high or the
emulsion may melt. Neither should the negatives be dried in a dusty
location as any specks of dust will show up as white spots when the
negatives are printed.
NEGATIVE DEFECTS
After the process of development is complete and the negatives are dry,
it may be found that some of them have been underexposed or overexposed
or underdeveloped or overdeveloped. The following table indicates
the results that should be expected from variations in exposure and
development.
Exposure Development Result
Under Under Very thin and weak, only highlights
visible.
Under Normal Thin, shadow detail weak or
lacking.
Under Over Thin shadows, dense highlights,
very contrasty, often fog.
Normal Under Thin, flat, detail throughout but
weak.
Normal Normal Correct density and contrast,
good detail in all parts.
Normal Over Rather dense with too much contrast;
detail may be obscured in highlights.
Over Under Somewhat thin, very flat, full
detail.
Over Normal Rather dense, somewhat flat,
plenty of detail in all parts.
Over Over Very black or nearly opaque,
shadows too heavy, detail lost in
the highlights.
Sometimes negatives are defective in some way and need treatment
before being printed. Those that are too thin and flat, having a
short scale of contrast as the result of underdevelopment, should be
_intensified_. On the other hand if the negatives have been overexposed
or overdeveloped they should be _reduced_. Formulas for these processes
are given in _Elementary Photographic Chemistry_.
CHAPTER V
PRINTING THE PICTURE
Printing is perhaps the most interesting of all the phases of
photographic work. While correct lighting, exposure, and negative
making cannot be too strongly emphasized, it is after all the finished
print that has been the end in view through each successive step.
PRINTING PAPERS
PRINTING-OUT PAPERS. The earliest printing paper, plain silver paper,
was introduced by Fox Talbot about 1840. This was followed by albumen
papers, examples being found in the family albums of a generation ago.
Later came the silver chloride papers of the collodion and gelatin
types. In addition to these printing-out papers are others such as
platinum, and carbon, both of which are used quite largely by pictorial
workers. Blue-prints, which are now mainly used for architect’s
drawings, are made by one of the simplest of processes. After exposure
to sunlight through the negative until the image is visible except in
the highlights, washing in water completes the process, as development
and fixing are not required.
DEVELOPING PAPERS. These are used almost exclusively at the present
time. They are very similar to films except in regard to the kind of
support and in the speed. Papers for contact printing usually have
silver chloride for the sensitive silver salt. These are not as fast
papers as those used for enlarging, which more often have silver
bromide for the sensitive compound.
SELECTION OF PAPER. The multiplicity of papers available presents
a valuable means of producing not only distinctive work but also
getting out that which is best technically and artistically from every
negative. Photographic papers are made in both _single_ and _double
weight_, the former being well suited to small prints and those which
are to be mounted flat; the latter being more desirable for post
cards, for prints with borders that are to be left unmounted and for
professional work that is to be placed in folders.
Emulsions are usually coated on a white or buff stock though
occasionally on a cream or ivory base. Printing papers are made in
many _surfaces_—glossy, semi-gloss, semi-matte, velvet, smooth-matte,
slightly rough, rough lustre, rough matte and others. If something out
of the ordinary is wanted there are papers with silk, linen and canvas
surfaces as well as emulsions on tissue, parchment and canvas. The
semi-matte, and velvet surfaces are preferred by many, although the
brilliant glossy prints are best for reproduction. Matte papers are
used for a large proportion of portraits.
_Contrast._ As the print is made by allowing light to shine through the
negative on to a piece of sensitive paper with which it is placed in
contact it follows that a very thin portion of the negative will result
in dark shadows in the print. Similarly over-dense highlights of the
negative will hold back so much of the light that the lightest parts
of the print will be perfectly white. The professional photographer
produces negatives of reasonable uniformity and therefore professional
papers are usually made with only one degree of contrast. The amateur
on the other hand works under such widely varying conditions that it is
almost impossible to secure uniform negatives. So his printing papers
are made in several degrees of contrast, usually three or four, to take
care of the different types of negatives. In the case of papers such as
Velox or Azo, having contrasts numbered from one (the softest) to four
(the most contrasty), the following table should be of help:
No. 1.—A very soft paper used when printing from contrasty
negatives, or when soft effects are wanted.
No. 2.—A medium contrast paper used for average negatives.
Portrait papers are of about this contrast.
No. 3.—A more contrasty paper desirable for weak, thin
negatives.
No. 4.—A very contrasty paper for negatives that are thin
and flat. Also used where much contrast is wanted as when
making pictures of printed matter, line drawings, and maps.
A print to be technically perfect must correctly reproduce the
variations in light and shade of the original subject in their proper
relation and depth. In other words, a paper should be selected which
is of such contrast that when printed, no portion of the picture will
be absolutely white without detail and none will be completely black,
obliterating detail. However, the scale of tones should be as long as
possible without losing this detail.
PRINTING PROCESS
The necessary materials for making prints are few in number and simple
in character. Developing and fixing solutions as well as a short stop
bath, and water for washing and prints are of course essential and
should be ready before starting. As the printing papers are sensitive
to white light the work must be done in a very subdued light or in a
dark room lighted by a safelight lamp fitted with a yellow safelight.
EXPOSURE. The negative is placed upon the glass of the printing frame
or printing machine with the back or shiny side down. Over this is
placed a piece of sensitive paper with the sensitized side in contact
with the dull side of the negative and then the back of the frame is
replaced or the top of the printing machine pushed down. With the
frame the exposure is accomplished by holding it a few inches from
an electric light bulb or other light source for a few seconds. The
time of the exposure will have to be found by experiment. With amateur
papers such as Velox, the time of exposure must be such that the
print will develop up to the proper depth in about 45 seconds in the
developer designed for it at a temperature of 70 degrees. Portrait
papers usually require about 1½ minutes for full development and
enlarging papers may require still longer, in certain cases. If it
is found that upon development for the proper time that the print is
too light, it is evident that the exposure has been insufficient and
must be increased for the next print. On the other hand if the print
develops up to the proper depth too quickly, the exposure has been
too great and the print will be mottled and muddy. When making the
exposures, there is of course a good opportunity for dodging or holding
back certain parts of the picture. Also, there is endless opportunity
for making vignettes, borders, combination prints and other types that
are not especially difficult but which cannot be described in a book
of this size. The reader is urged to consult some more comprehensive
work.[8]
[Footnote 8: See Snodgrass: _The Science and Practice of Photographic
Printing_.]
DEVELOPMENT. The function of the developer and the chemistry of
development are the same as for negatives and need not be repeated. A
Metol (Elon)—hydroquinone combination (MQ) is now almost universally
used. Sodium carbonate has the same function as in the negative
developer but the sodium sulphite here largely acts as a preservative.
Potassium bromide is the chemical in the print developer that controls
the color. Enough bromide must be used to prevent fog or development
of the unexposed grains of silver salts, and this gives a print of a
blue-black color which if sepia-toned will tend to be purple. A larger
quantity under similar conditions of development gives an olive toned
black and white print which is likely to tone to a yellow sepia.
The _formula_ recommended by the manufacturer should always be used. A
specimen formula (Velox) is given:
Water (about 125° F.) 8 ounces
Elon 22 grains
Sodium sulphite (powdered) ¾ ounce
Hydroquinone 87 grains
Sodium carbonate (powdered) 1 ounce
55 grains
Potassium bromide 13 grains
Water to make 16 ounces
For use, take Stock Solution 1 part, water 1 part. Develop 45 seconds
at 70° F.
If placed in bottles filled to the neck and tightly corked it will keep
for several weeks.
_Method of Development._ Four trays containing respectively developer,
short stop bath, fixing bath, and water, arranged in that order should
be ready before starting to print. The same type of fixing bath as
recommended for negatives should be used. The short stop bath consists
of water 16 ounces and acetic acid (28%) ¾ ounce.
After the exposure is made, the tray containing the _developer_ is
tipped to one side and the print slid in face up from the high side of
the tray which is immediately tipped the other way causing the solution
to quickly cover the entire print. The print should be left in the tray
which is rocked slowly to secure evenness of development until within
about 5 seconds or so of the completion of the process. Then while the
print is held up to drain it can easily be seen when the proper depth
is reached. It should immediately be transferred to the short stop bath.
Development should be carried on for the length of time indicated
as correct by the manufacturer of the printing paper and at the
temperature recommended. After some experience it is perhaps better to
learn to develop by inspection. Correctly exposed prints are properly
developed to the correct depth when all the light affected particles
have been reduced or when the light action seems to stop. If the print
becomes too dark before it seems to pause in development, then it has
been overexposed. If it must remain in the developer for some time in
an attempt to force up the image, the print will become discolored.
The print when placed in the _short stop bath_ should be moved about
for two or three seconds and should then be transferred to the fixing
bath, or it may remain until a few more prints are made. A short stop
bath will stop development immediately and will also prevent the alkali
and carbonate from being carried over into the fixing bath. _After the
fingers have been in the short stop bath or fixing bath, they must be
washed and dried before being placed back in the developer._
FIXATION. The prints should be fixed in 15 minutes. A long immersion
may cause bleaching, or discoloration if the bath is too warm. The
prints must be turned over and separated a number of times during
the process of fixation to be sure that all the silver salts are
eliminated. If they are not thoroughly fixed they may turn pink and
gradually fade. If the rinse bath has been used, 64 ounces of the
fixing bath should properly fix 200 3¼ × 5½ prints. Should the fixing
bath become milky in appearance it should be discarded at once.
WASHING. Washing prints by hand is perhaps the most certain method of
eliminating chemicals from the paper and emulsion. Prints are placed in
a tray of clear water and after four or five minutes are transferred
one at a time to another tray of clear water of similar temperature;
the first tray is again filled with clear water and the process is
repeated until the prints have been passed through 10 or 12 changes of
water. If the change in temperature from one wash water to another or
from the developer to fixing bath or from the fixing bath to the wash
water, is very considerable, blisters are likely to result. If running
water is available and the prints are kept separated, they should
properly wash in about one hour.
DRYING. Prints except those having a glossy surface should be dried
face down on photo lintless blotters or on cheese cloth stretchers.
Glossy prints are rolled into contact on ferrotype tins and when
dry have a very smooth shiny surface. Drying machines are used in
commercial photo finishing establishments where it is necessary to turn
out hundreds or even thousands of prints a day.
After the prints are dry they are likely to have a decided curl inward.
They can be straightened by drawing them sharply over the back of a
table, although there is danger of cracking the emulsion. A better
way is to dampen the backs slightly with a wet sponge or cotton and
then place them between heavy lintless cardboards under a few pounds
pressure until dry again.
ENLARGING
Enlargements are in no way materially different from ordinary prints
except that a faster paper is used and the image is formed by
projection through a lens as when being made in the camera, instead
of by contact. With the advent of the modern fast enlarging papers of
contact quality, this method of printing has become so simplified that
beautiful enlargements of any reasonable size can easily and quickly be
made from small negatives of good quality. Thus the ambitious worker
with his ever present Vest Pocket Kodak fitted with an anastigmat lens
is always ready for any emergency, knowing that whenever a worthy
negative is secured it may be used to produce a large picture the equal
of a contact print from a larger camera.
For a long time fixed focus enlarging machines or focusing machines
were used. However, the Automatic Focusing machines are so much more
convenient that they are coming into general use. Being automatic in
focus much time is saved over the kind where it is necessary to attend
to getting the proper sized image and the correct focus at the same
time. Some of these cameras have supplementary lenses which may be
used over the regular lens when softness and diffusion are wanted. The
process of development, fixing, washing and drying is similar to that
of making contact prints.
TONING[9]
For most photographic subjects nothing is more satisfactory than a
good black and white print. Occasionally, however, such a subject as
an autumn landscape is more truthfully rendered in a warmer tone while
pictures of people are often preferred in sepia tones as being more
true to life. Of the two principal methods of producing sepia tones,
the redevelopment and the hypo-alum, the former is usually preferred
for amateur work as it is more simple.
[Footnote 9: For more exhaustive information on toning see Snodgrass:
_The Science and Practice of Photographic Printing_.
_Elementary Photographic Chemistry._ Eastman Kodak Company.]
FINISHING THE PICTURE[10]
Keeping prints loose in a box or drawer is a most unsatisfactory method
of preservation, as they soon become dirty or lost. Mounting them in
folders or on card mounts is better but for average amateur work this
is not so good as keeping them in albums.
[Footnote 10: See Photo-Miniature No. 188: _The Exhibition Print_.]
When selecting mounts, it is well to remember that a light mount will
make a picture appear darker and consequently should be used for a
print that is too light. Similarly a dark print should be placed in a
still darker mount. Black and white prints generally look best on gray
mounts and sepia on brown ones.
Nearly all prints are improved by judicious _trimming_. Anything that
does not help center the interest should be eliminated. Vertical
and horizontal lines that are not true should be corrected whenever
possible. A good, clean cut edge along with square corners can be
secured by the use of a regular trimming board.
If prints are to be _dry mounted_, they should not be trimmed until
after the mounting tissue is attached to the print. Dry mounting has
the decided advantage that prints can be mounted perfectly flat on thin
mounts or album leaves. It is very easily done and does not get the
print or mount soiled and the print is protected from possible moisture
and injurious chemicals in the mount. A piece of dry mounting tissue is
attached to the back of the print by touching it in a couple of places
with a hot iron. The print is now turned face up and with the adhering
tissue is trimmed to the proper size. Next it is placed in position on
the mount, covered with a thin card and put under pressure for a few
seconds in a dry mounting press, or a flat iron may be used.
After the print is mounted it is often necessary to do some _spotting_.
Any small white spots are filled up using a No. 1 sable brush and a
card of spotting colors.
Many prints are made more effective by _hand coloring_. Tinting with
water colors is perhaps the most popular method, although studio work
is often done with oil or pastel colors.
CHAPTER VI
MOTION PICTURES
From an economic standpoint the motion picture business, including the
manufacture of film and other materials, and the production and showing
of pictures, is one of the major industries of the country.
In the past, entertainment has been the primary aim of motion pictures.
Now the field is broadening until it seems likely that their greatest
contribution to mankind will be in science, in industry, and in
education. Especially in research work are they valuable as cameras
have been devised that will take from 500 to 4000 pictures a second
of such subjects as a bullet piercing armor plate, a bird in flight,
mechanical motion, chemical action, or rapidly moving microscopic life.
The pictures can then be printed individually or can be projected as
slow motion pictures at only a fraction of the speed at which they were
taken, so the subject will seem to barely move. By analyzing motion
many extremely important facts have been learned. In industry such
pictures may be used to show where lost motion can be eliminated and
how an operation can be performed more efficiently. When it comes to
athletic sports, it is very difficult for the individual in football,
tennis or crew to realize just where his weakness lies, and what he
lacks in form, but when he sees himself on the screen as he actually
performs each individual movement, he can improve himself accordingly.
As it is generally recognized that knowledge is more quickly gained
by the visual method than in any other way, schools, colleges and
universities are using motion pictures more and more as an aid in
teaching all kinds of subjects. Often there is no sharp line between
educational and entertainment films. Dramatic films may be found
useful for art classes; science and travel films in the study of such
subjects as physical geography, geography and history. Films showing
such interesting phases of nature study as micro-organisms, the life
history of the bee, and the emerging of the butterfly are invaluable
in teaching biology and its allied sciences. Even in the lower grades,
animated drawings and maps and other types of pictures find their
places.
PRINCIPLE OF MOTION PICTURES
Motion picture cameras are arranged to take long rolls of film, often
several hundred feet in length. Standard film is 35 mm. (1⅜ inches)
wide. By turning a crank at a uniform rate of two revolutions a second,
the film is carried past the lens and eight exposures are made at
each revolution, or 16 a second, which uses about one foot of film.
A revolving shutter admits light to the film which stops during the
exposure. Each picture is made in ¹/₁₆ of a second and during this time
the shutter must open and close and a new section of film be drawn down
for the next exposure.
The film is developed, fixed, washed and dried and then printed on
positive film which in turn must be developed, fixed, washed, dried and
perhaps tinted.
The motion picture as seen on the screen is really a series or still
pictures projected at the rate of 16 a second. Each picture is on the
screen but a fraction of a second, the film not moving during this
instant. Then the rotating shutter covers the lens in the same way as
when the picture was being taken while a new view is brought down into
position. During the time between pictures, the screen is perfectly
dark, but because of “persistence of vision,” this is unnoticed so that
to the audience the projected still pictures make up the regular motion
picture with which they are familiar.
PICTURES IN THE HOME
The desire for making personal motion pictures is a very common one.
So irresistible is this appeal that almost everyone has long wished
for movies of the people who particularly interest them, movies that
they could make themselves and then show in their own homes. But until
recently there have been outstanding obstacles. Ordinary film is so
inflammable that many states have laws against its projection except in
fireproof booths. This often makes it impossible to show pictures in
a small school, church, or home. Also, standard film, which is taken
at the rate of 1 foot a second and then has to be printed on an equal
amount of positive film, makes the process expensive for those who wish
to make their own moving pictures.
To overcome these disadvantages simple motion picture cameras such as
the _Ciné-Kodak_ (Figure 9) are now made which use only a narrow width
safety film, 16 mm. (⅝ inch) wide. Some are operated by a crank the
same as professional cameras; others by a spring motor. With the type
using a motor, the camera can be held in the hands when the picture is
being taken.
[Illustration: Fig. 9]
Four hundred feet of this film gives the same period of projection when
used in the _Kodascope_ (Figure 10) as a thousand feet of ordinary
standard film, and as the film which is sent to the manufacturer for
development, is reversed to a positive by chemical treatment, printing
on a regular positive film is unnecessary. For this reason the expense
is only about ⅙ that of making standard size motion pictures.
FILM LIBRARIES. Although movies made in and around the home are so
completely fascinating in themselves, nevertheless, the Kodascope
offers another feature for the home entertainer. Hundreds of thousands
of feet of professionally made pictures have been leased for use
to the Kodascope Libraries, Inc.[11] Thus it is possible to rent
films to fit any type of entertainment—comedies, dramas, animated
cartoons, educational films—everything, in fact, most suitable for home
projection,—and new films are being added continually.
[Footnote 11: At 35 West 42nd Street, New York City.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10]
CHAPTER VII
SCOPE OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The average person thinks of photography in connection with motion
pictures, snapshots, and perhaps occasional photographs, but these are
only a small part of the total contribution photography makes to the
world.
The field of photography as an avocation comes very close home to all
of us. No matter what may be our hobby, whether swimming, canoeing,
fishing, hiking, or other kindred sports, photography is a natural
ally. It is not only the interest that our friends manifest in our
pictures that justify their making. It is the pleasure we experience in
reviewing the picture record that makes photography so eminently worth
while. As time passes and details fade from memory, the pictures of the
outings so vividly recall the various scenes and incidents that we live
those joyous days over again as often as we wish.
The ever increasing multiplicity of ways in which photography is
used commercially makes possible only a bare mention of some of the
more important. As a _business_ it consists roughly of four types
of work—portrait, commercial, amateur finishing and motion picture
work. Through the application of photography there have been many
definite advances in observational _scientific investigation_.[12]
Photography is made use of in law courts as evidence in the case
of accidents and in deciphering charred records; in dentistry and
medicine it enables the doctor through the X-ray to make a definite
diagnosis and have records for analysis and study. In meteorological
work a study of clouds, storms and floods is made by the aid of the
camera, while the astronomer is able through the cumulative character
of light action to show stars which are so faint because of their
great distance that they are invisible even through the most powerful
telescopes. In war times photography is the leading factor in securing
much valuable information, airplanes equipped with special cameras
being used to locate the enemy’s position, detect camouflage, and
make aerial maps from which firing data is worked out. In efficiency
tests in the big industrial plants motion picture records are made of
the operations both of machines and men to show where excess and loss
can be eliminated so as to speed up production. The engineer and the
contractor can also check up on the work of individuals as well as make
actual records of details and show the progress made from day to day.
[Footnote 12: See _Photography as a Scientific Implement_, published by
D. Van Nostrand Company.]
And then there is the widespread use of pictures in the magazines
and papers both as _illustrations_ and _advertisements_. There is
scarcely an article on the market which is largely advertised that is
not accompanied by a cut of some kind. In this connection it must be
pointed out the close relationship of photography and photo-engraving.
The engraver uses the photographic print to make the cut from which the
magazine and newspaper pictures are printed.
_Color Photography_ is another line in which definite advances are
being made. Pictures in monochrome while quite faithfully translating
color values into shades of black and white and answering all ordinary
requirements, yet are most unsatisfactory for depicting the grandeur of
a mountain view or the sublime beauty of an evening sunset. Innumerable
processes have been brought forward from time to time and many patents
have been granted for photographic color processes. However, no method
has yet been devised for making pictures in color that even remotely
approaches the simplicity of ordinary black and white photography.
The autochrome process as introduced by M. M. Lumière of Lyons, a
screen plate process, is perhaps the simplest adaptation. It consists
of a glass plate coated with a sticky varnish on which is dusted a
mixture of fine starch grains which have been dyed the three primary
colors and mixed together in suitable proportions resulting in a
colorless coating. Over this is applied a coat of water proof varnish
and then a very thin panchromatic emulsion. The exposure is made as
in the case of an ordinary plate except that the glass side is toward
the lens. By this means the exposure is made through the orange-red,
green and blue-violet starch grains which act as filters. The exposed
plate is developed for a definite time or by inspection, by the aid of
a special green safelight. After rinsing it is immersed in a reducing
solution which will dissolve out the finely divided silver forming
the negative image. When this deposit has been removed the starch
grains transmit light like those which came to them in the camera. The
remainder of the silver salts not affected by the primary exposure
and development is now reduced to metallic silver. This development
must take place while the plate is exposed to a strong white light. The
plates when finished must be viewed either as transparencies or on the
screen as lantern slides.
_Color printing processes_ are hardly practical for the average
amateur. Three negatives are made on panchromatic (color sensitive)
plates or films using orange-red, green and blue-violet process
filters. Each negative must be printed in its complementary color. The
colors in which they are printed may be obtained from pigmented papers
such as carbon; or colored inks, paints or other coloring materials may
be used. The three carbon tissues or prints are then transferred to the
same final support being cemented down in correct register. In spite
of all the difficulties attendant on color photography, even motion
pictures in colors are now possible.
There have been other advances which are almost unbelievable. Objects
more than one hundred miles distant, practically invisible because
of the atmospheric haze, have been photographed by suitable color
sensitive films and filters. Pictures are made in the dark by means
of the invisible ultra-violet ray while there are great possibilities
with the infra-red rays and X-rays. With other constant developments in
all phases of photographic work, who can prophesy what the future will
bring forth?
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