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Title: The Progress of Ethnology
An Account of Recent Archaeological, Philological and
Geographical Researches in Various Parts of the Globe
Author: John Russell Bartlett
Release Date: February 10, 2011 [EBook #35234]
Language: English
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THE
PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY
AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT
ARCHÆOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCHES
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.
TENDING TO ELUCIDATE
THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
BY
JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,
COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC.
OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.
SECOND EDITION.
NEW YORK:
BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.
1847.
NEW YORK:
WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,
NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.
CONTENTS.
NORTH AMERICA.
EXPLORATIONS and Discoveries in the Mounds and other earth-works in
Ohio. Similar researches and their results in Mississippi and
Louisiana.... Mr. Jomard's essay on the tablet found in the Grave Creek
mound in Virginia, p. 1.
CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO--Recent explorations in these countries, with
accounts of the Navijo and Moqui Indians; architectural remains on the
banks of the Gila.... French explorations in the Isthmus of Panama, p.
15.
RESEARCHES IN GREENLAND, and the Arctic regions; geographical and
historical results.... Late attempts for exploring the northern portions
of the American Continent, p. 21.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Details of the Scientific Expedition under Count Castelnau, sent by the
French government for exploring the interior of South America....
English expedition under Lord Ranelagh--other scientific expeditions....
Peruvian antiquities, etc. etc., p. 27.
AFRICA.
Recent attempts for exploring the interior of Africa.... Mr. Thomson's
journey from Sierra Leone.... Mr. Duncan's journey northward from
Dahomey. Missionary operations at the Gaboon.... Mr. Richardson's
journey into the great desert of Sahara.... The French expedition up the
Senegal, under Mr. Raffenel.... Extensive project for the exploration of
Soudan, in Central Africa.... Proposed expedition for penetrating the
country from the eastern side.... Contributions to the geography of
Southern Africa.... Mr. Maizan's unfortunate attempt to reach the
interior from Zanzibar, p. 32.
ALGIERS--scientific explorations by the French Government; interesting
results; errors respecting the desert of Sahara, p. 41.
DISCOVERY of the ancient LYBIAN alphabet, by M. de Saulcy, p. 44.
The BERBERS; late researches into their language, p. 45.
MADAGASCAR; recent visits of the French, p. 47.
EGYPT; results of the late explorations; state of hieroglyphic and
Coptic literature; Egyptian history and chronology, p. 48.
EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
BORNEO--Mr. Brooke's colony; the Dyaks.... The Dutch and other European
colonies in the East Indies.... New Caledonia islands.... The Sooloo
islands. The Nicobar islands, p. 54.
AUSTRALIA; accounts of late explorations, by Count Strzelecki, Dr.
Leichardt and others, p. 63.
ASIA.
ASIA MINOR--Interesting discoveries in Lycia, p. 69.
ARABIA--Historical and philological results of the researches in
Southern Arabia, the country of the ancient Himyarites; importance of
these discoveries in elucidating Scriptural history, p. 73.
THE CAUCASUS--Exploration by M. Hommaire de Hell.... Sclavonic MSS. and
inscriptions, p. 84.
ASSYRIA AND PERSIA--History of the study of the ancient arrow-headed
inscriptions.... Extraordinary results therefrom.... The Zendavesta....
The Zend language.... The great inscription of Darius.... Explorations
at Nineveh. Journeys of Dr. Robert; of Prince Waldemar, etc., p. 84.
SIBERIA--Journeys of Count Middendorff and others; geographical and
ethnographical results, p. 109.
INDIA--Progress of civilization; importance of missionary labors, p.
113.
SIAM--Decline of Boodhism; extension of Christianity, p. 117.
COCHIN-CHINA--Visit of Mr. Hedde to Turon, in Annam, p. 118.
CHINA--Latest accounts from, p. 119.
COREA--Efforts of the Catholic missionaries to christianize the natives,
p. 123.
MANCHURIA....MONGOLIA--Recent accounts from these countries; journey of
Rev. Mr. Huc, in Mongolia, p. 125.
LEW-CHEW ISLANDS--Attempt to establish a mission, by Rev. Mr. Forcade;
notices of the people, their manners, customs, and language, p. 127.
JAPAN--Recent attempts to communicate with the Japanese; peculiarities
of this people.... General view of the languages of the Japanese,
Coreans, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese, p. 131.
THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
NORTH AMERICA.
I have the pleasure of laying before the New York Historical Society a
brief account of the progress which has been made during the past year
towards extending our knowledge of the globe, particularly with
reference to its geography, and to those nations whose history is
imperfectly known. The subject is one that more properly belongs to
ethnology, but the historical results which are deduced from these
enquiries come within the scope of the objects, the elucidation of which
belongs to this Society.
A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American
Antiquities. A brief account of recent investigations carried on in a
portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is
interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of
aboriginal history and ethnology.
Every enquirer into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient
remains of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and
poorly attested character of the facts, of which the public are in
possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time
to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently thorough and
extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain
any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to
provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy, than to afford
information on the subject with which they were connected.
It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of
information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of
Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the
exploration of the ancient remains which abound in the state of Ohio,
and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.
It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds, of
various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in
some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches,
walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The
examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys
of the other works constitute the labors of these gentlemen, some of the
results of which may be stated in anticipation of a full account which
will shortly appear.
Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and
uncertainty, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries
progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what
seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as
anomalous, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent
coincidences became proofs of design.
For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that
certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their
composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a
certain fixed position with regard to other works, which the
unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that
the contents of those respective tumuli are radically and invariably
different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as
is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one
class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different
character, the design of which is to be determined, to some degree, by
the peculiarities and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.
It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind
is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions,
regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the
character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The
investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so
as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate the
mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded. The excavations were made
under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly stated,
without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.
The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them,
and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds _ninety_.
The number of tumuli which have been excavated and their characteristics
noted, amounts to _one hundred and fifteen_.
Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that
a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another
portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or
superstitious rites, while a third and much the larger number are
entirely inexplicable in our present state of information.
The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly
marked in the aggregate, though there are individual instances of an
anomalous character. These are:
1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed
in a rude, wooden coffin, or an envelope of bark or matting, and
occurring in isolated or detached groups.
2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or
burnt clay, occurring within or in the immediate vicinity of
enclosures, and always stratified.
3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or
commanding positions.
Within these monuments have been found implements and ornaments of
silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory and pottery, fashioned into a
thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race
of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine
shells, mica from the primitive regions, native copper from the shores
of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth,
pearls and instruments of _obsidian_, show the extent of communication
and intercourse had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of
animals, birds and reptiles have been found in great numbers and
variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also,
sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of
the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head
dress and ornaments of the mound-builders. Careful admeasurements of the
earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the
gentlemen alluded to, in which the interesting fact has been developed,
that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the
people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining
angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps,
sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled
the _teocallis_ or terraced edifices of Mexico and Yucatan, though they
were composed wholly of wood and earth.
The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their
religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence which their
superstitions occupied, and that a religious system existed among them,
in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense
tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they
attached to their chiefs, and the veneration in which they held their
memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which
occupy the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to
them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it
was stationary and therefore agricultural;[1] and if agricultural and
stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners
and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than
are to be found among the hunter and nomadic tribes, discovered by
Europeans in possession of the country.
Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of
which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks
sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in
outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep
by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are
visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated.
One represents an elk and is said to be very spirited.
What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier,
remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a
people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once
occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments
in which it abounds. These also show that they were to a certain extent
advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely
resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements
of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not
indeed their progenitors or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly
point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted,
will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.
A detailed account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to,
accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements,
ornaments and sculptures, &c., discovered in their excavations;--surveys
of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley,
will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American
Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still
actively engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be
extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient
relic to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains
exist.
Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States,
none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the
south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances
extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open
or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various
dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics, which
illustrate the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them.
The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to
three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound
contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it
vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads
flattened, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous
specimens of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with
pigments, ashes, ornaments, and beads, were also found.
The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of
sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to
ascertain whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr.
Benbrook, sank a shaft forty two feet, and found it artificial or made
ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and
animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear, were thrown out.
Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus
showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery of the ancient
race.
The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr.
Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: _out post_, _ramparts
or walls_, _telegraphs or look outs_, _temples_, _cemeteries_, and _tent
mounds_. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten
feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others
a cone, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten
to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to
fifty feet at the base.
The "_Look out_" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class,
Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards of ninety. They are generally on the
summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some
three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive
prospect, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems
of mounds in the distance.
The "_Temple mounds_" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and
stratified with ashes, loam, gravel, &c. They all have an earthen floor.
Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these
mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently
placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual
mode of burial, which is the sitting posture.
The "_Cemeteries_" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with
bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run
in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones
lying in heaps, promiscuously. These he believes to have been the
_canaille_.
The "_Tent or Structure mounds_" are small, and a short distance below
their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great
quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six
skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of
these than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus
was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large
bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.[2]
Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated on the tops of
ridges, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled away,
while others remain strong and perpendicular. In many instances, the
walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and
circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these
groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound,
both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images,
pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.
The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with
perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The
enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at
"the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is
partially faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation of Mr.
Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several
_bastions_, besides _squares_, _parallels_, _half moons_, and ravines
with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small
lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended,
the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the
bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken
from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.
Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay, are found in
Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and
strongly fortified, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers
who infested the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after
the massacre of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built
large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge
ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked
by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices. They are sometimes
situated on the level "bottoms."[3] In these cases one side invariably
faces a creek or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a
formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach.
The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with
gateways leading to the citadel. These walls have indications of having
been faced with dry masonry. The east and west corners are generally
flanked with a small oval mound.
In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by
Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols, clay stamps,
mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments,
rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate, &c., similar to those found
in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre, an inch
in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls, Dr. D.
discovered that _dentistry_ had been extensively practised by this
ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones,
was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted
in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked,
three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting
an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow points, in
one instance a "wagon body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within
the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found
three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points
elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have
lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South
Carolina. Carvings representing the English bull dog, the camel and
lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below
the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion has been made,
are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various
shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a
variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of
which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on
the reverse an animal.
The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in
which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others
elaborately ornamented. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in
getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are
deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the
Academy of Natural Sciences.
Dr. Dickeson has kindly furnished me a catalogue of his collection of
relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the
extent and variety of the objects found:
6000 Arrow points of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz, &c.,
&c.
150 Arrow points, finely polished, under one inch in length.
25 Arrow points, finely polished, under half an inch in
length.
1600 Unfinished Arrow and Spear points.
250 small stone Axes.
40 Quoits, Weights, &c.
20 Paint mullers.
10 Corn grinders.
3 large stone Mortars.
14 small earthen Heads of men, women and boys.
6 stone Statues, erect and sitting.
A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery,
beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm
bracelets, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen
lamps, a variety of vessels for culinary purposes, stone chisels, two
copper medals, the tusk of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved
with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical tubes of jasper
perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and
vases in every variety.
In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of
sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand
skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess
much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid test to
which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these
skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose
labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and
remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he
has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains
of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains
accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest
Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains
and relics of the ancient race.
The inscribed tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and
which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the
Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite
much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper
on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions and
Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which he has transmitted to the
Society.[4] He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious
inscription are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the
monument of Thugga,[5] and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is
worthy of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"[6] arrived
at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some
years previously, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription,
in a first note on the subject.[7] Such a coincidence gives force to the
views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French
savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved stone or tablet,
possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North
America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic characters,[8] which have
been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which
title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again
alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological discoveries in
Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.
In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan
language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it
was a language written with characters, such as we now find on the
Thugga edifice and other monuments; that it is still written with the
same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the
deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has
been to so great an extent supplanted by Arabic letters that we must
consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah,
and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language
in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of
America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior to the
settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs
perfectly resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by
their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains
an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the
characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga
characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.
In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a
learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity between
the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries
and certain Carib words.[9] The contiguity of the Canaries to the
African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient
inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan
language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to
philologists, and we may here seek for the means to unravel one of the
most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race,
and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have
been among those who believed that America derived the mass of her
population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's
Straits.
The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &c., brings to our
notice a tribe of Indians known as the Munchies (Mawkeys) or white
Indians.[10] "This remarkable nation occupies a valley among the _Sierra
de los Mimbros_ chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents of the
river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora.
They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by
lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile.
Their dwellings are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in
the solid rock. They subsist by agriculture, and raise great numbers of
horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts
of civilized life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with
many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government
is after the patriarchal order, and is purely republican in its
character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous. In
religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features
correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion and a form
equally if not more graceful. In regard to their origin, they have lost
all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners,
customs, arts or government savor of modern Europe."
Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little,
except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the
same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the
Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed to
Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of
them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground--raising
vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of
horses, cattle and sheep--make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."
The blankets manufactured by these Indians are superior in beauty of
color, texture and durability to the fabrics of their Spanish neighbors.
Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole
community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry
is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As
warriors they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions
into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds of cattle, horses and
sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists,
in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever
interest and inclination prompts them.[11]
The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible from
without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles, well situated
for defence on the approach of an invading foe. Availing themselves of
these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground
against fearful odds, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot
within their territory as conquerors.
The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced
_Navihoes_, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that
from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who
have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the
newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that
the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most
delicate whiteness."[12] I have two other accounts wherein both are
described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly
dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of
their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large
herds of cattle,--also their cultivation of fruits and vegetables. They
raise cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire
arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other
Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and
waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer
skin."
These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority
which fully corroborates them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the
rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and
distrustful Indians of the savannas to the east of New Mexico. Father
Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find
there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories,
and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction
of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the _Casas
grandes_ on the banks of the Gila."[13]
In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos
from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the
most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."[14] Their
extensive cultivation of maize and all kinds of vegetables--their
rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest
horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large
flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is
long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a
texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious to water." They
make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides
weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the
Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom they
have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their
disadvantage.[15]
It is believed by Baron Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and
Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez
and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state.
We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their
language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been
collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful
arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their
edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican
people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes,
"appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans."
The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near
the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first
abode of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering
the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points
of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the
Gila, we are tempted to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that
at the period of the migration of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the
Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to
establish themselves in these northern regions."[16]
Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these
tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous
edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of
great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico
and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and
forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with
walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace.
The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen
ware, painted in various colors. Vestiges of an artificial canal are
also to be seen.[17] Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a
volcanic substance not common to the country, and which is also found in
the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied to
the same uses.
Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast
region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and
Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps of Engineers.
The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and
examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The
information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much
service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the
United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new
homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so
widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an
interest in the subject, that it would be superfluous to give any
analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of
the expedition of this accomplished officer to the country and the
government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of
the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies
between Santa Fé and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this
expedition already rendered important services to the country, having
the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed
body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in
a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians
which have not yet been subjugated by the Spaniards, and which an
unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been
awakened from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is
to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full
reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the
geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions,
climate, &c.
An exploratory journey in the isthmus of Panama has recently been made
by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information
to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have
been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water
communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary
object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the
practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the
junction of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the
bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and
389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which
attracted his attention.
Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable
anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the
forest of the Isthmus, the virtues of which were made known to him by
the Indians. After rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a
person may handle scorpions and venomous insects with impunity, and
mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly
died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received
particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the
most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions in Senegal
or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So
valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French
commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into
France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient
monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the
river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an
ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval which separates
the rivers Atrato and Darien.
NOTE.--The following list embraces all the books relating to
Oregon, California, and Mexico, printed during the last two
years.
Narrative of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the
years 1843-4, by Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Topographical
Engineers, under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, 8vo.
Washington, 1846.
Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, des Californies, et de la
Mer Vermeille, executée pendant les années 1840, 41 et 42, par
M. Duflot de Mofras, Attaché à la Légation de France à Mexico. 2
vols. 8vo. and folio atlas of maps and plates. Paris, 1845.
The Oregon Territory, claims thereto, of England and America
considered, its condition and prospects. By Alexander Simpson,
Esq. 8vo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Territory, a geographical and physical account of
that country and its inhabitants. By Rev. C.G. Nicholay. 18mo.
London, 1846.
The Oregon Question determined by the rules of International
law. By Edward J. Wallace of Bombay. 8vo. London, 1840.
The Oregon question. By the Hon. Albert Gallatin. 8vo. New
York, 1846.
The Oregon Question examined, in respect to facts and the laws
of nations. By Travers Twiss, D.C.L. 8vo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Question as it stands. By M.B. Sampson. London,
1846.
Prairiedom; Rambles and Scrambles in Texas and New Estremadura.
By a Southron. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Life in California during a residence of several years in that
Territory. By an American. To which is annexed an historical
account of the origin, customs and traditions of the Indians of
Alta California, from the Spanish. Post 8vo. New York, 1846.
An Essay on the Oregon Question, written for the Shakespeare
Club. By E.A. Meredith. Montreal, 1846.
The Topic No. 3. The Oregon Question. 4to. London, 1846.
Life in Prairie Land. By Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham. 12mo. New York,
1846.
Green's Journal of the Texan expedition against Mier;
subsequent Imprisonment of the Author; his Sufferings, and
final Escape from the Castle of Perote. With reflections upon
the present political and probable future relations of Texas,
Mexico, and the United States. Illustrated by Drawings taken
from Life by Charles M'Laughlin, a Fellow-prisoner. Engravings.
8vo.
Travels over the table lands and Cordilleras of Mexico, in
1843-4. With an appendix on Oregon and California. By Albert M.
Gilliam, late U.S. Counsul, California. 8vo. Philadelphia,
1846.
Recollections of Mexico. By Waddy Thompson, Esq., late Minister
Plenipotentiary of the U.S. at Mexico. 8vo. New York, 1846.
Altowan; or incidents of life and adventure in the Rocky
Mountains. By an Amateur Traveller. Edited by James Watson
Webb. 2 vol. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, New Mexico,
Texas, and Grand Prairies, including descriptions of the
different races inhabiting them, &c. By a New Englander. 12mo.
Philadelphia, 1846.
History of Oregon and California, and the other Territories on
the North West Coast of North America: from their discovery to
the present day. Accompanied by a geographical view of those
countries. By Robert Greenhow. 8vo. third edition. Boston,
1847.
GREENLAND AND THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The Royal Society of Northern
Antiquaries published, in 1845, Grönlands Historiske Mindesmærker, (The
Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12
copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814
and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had
finished the compilation of his separate work, _Antiquitates Americanæ_,
which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with
Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing--also under the
auspices of the Society--the great collection of original written
sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was
first seen in 877, and colonized in 986. With a view of doing all that
lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the Society,
during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken
and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were
of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization. By
excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony,
there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities,
which are now preserved in the American Museum erected by the Society,
and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the
reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice,
as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover
embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration
undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko
and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The
present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of
Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this
part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops);
ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C.
Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and
notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the
re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography
of Greenland, drawn up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished
by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work
is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor
Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation of the notices contained in the
ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the
travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological
conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a
historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian
index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important
districts of ancient Greenland--the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd),
and the western settlement, (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of
the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations of the most important
ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones
and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.
_Scripta Historica Islandorum_, latine reddita et apparatu critico
instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol.
XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas
recording events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and
Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original
Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into
Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the
publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are
contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large
cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern
geographical gazetteer, in as much as attention has also been paid to
other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of
view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as
regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious
historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially
made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the
Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the
old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be
hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending
its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however,
contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of
Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings
published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its
Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is
investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with
modern geography.
Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration,
in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts.
Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him.
It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before
the close of the present year, he may return.
The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the
purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the
northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which
consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the
company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under
favorable circumstances;--the ice having cleared away from the shores of
the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.[18]
A memoir on the Indian tribes beyond the Rocky mountains, and
particularly those along the shores of the Pacific ocean, from
California to Behring's straits, with comparative vocabularies of their
languages, is preparing for publication by the Hon. Albert Gallatin,
from authentic materials. Mr. Hale, philologist of the United States
Exploring Expedition, has made a valuable contribution to the Ethnology
of this region, in his volume, entitled "Ethnology and Philology," being
the seventh volume of the U.S. Exploring Expedition.
Recent Works on the Arctic Regions.
Barrow's (Sir J.) Voyages of Discovery and Research within the
Arctic Regions, from the year 1818 to the present time, in
search of a north-west passage, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific; with two attempts to reach the North Pole. Abridged
from the official narratives, with remarks by Sir John Barrow.
8vo. London, 1846.
Americas Arctiske landes gamle geographie efter de Nordiske
Oldskriefter ved C.C. Rafn. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1846.
SOUTH AMERICA.
The French expedition which has been engaged for the last three years in
exploring the interior of South America, has at length reached Lima,
from which place Count Castelnau has transmitted a detailed report of
his journey, to the French Minister of Public Instruction.[19]
This expedition is by far the most important that has yet been sent out
for the exploration of South America, and has already traversed a large
portion of its central parts, little known to geographers. Their first
journey was across the country from Rio Janeiro to Goyaz, on the head
waters of the river Araguay (Lat. 16° 11´ S. Long. 50° 29´ W.) which
river they descended to its junction with the Tocantiu, and then
returned by the last named river and the desert of the Chavantes.
They made another journey to the north of Cuyaba, to explore the diamond
mines, and examine the sources of the Paraguay and Arenos. In the next
journey,[20] the particulars of which have just been communicated from
Lima, the expedition descended the rivers Cuyaba and San Lorenzo to
Paraguay. During this voyage they entered the country of the Guatos
Indians, one of the most interesting tribes of the American aborigines.
"The features of these Indians," says the Count, "are extremely
interesting;--never in my life having seen finer, or any more widely
differing from the ordinary type of the red man. Their large, well
opened eyes, with long lashes, nose aquiline and admirably modelled, and
a long, black beard, would make them one of the finest races in the
world, had not their habit of stooping in the canoe bowed the legs of
the greater number. Their arms, consisting of very large bows, with
arrows seven feet long, demand great bodily strength--and their address
in the use of them passes imagination. These savages are timid,
nevertheless, and of extreme mildness. By taking them for our guides,
and attaching them by small presents, we were enabled to explore parts
wholly unknown, of that vast net-work of rivers which they are
constantly traversing." In Paraguay the party met a tribe of the
celebrated Guaycurus nation. These people are eminently
equestrian--transporting their baggage, women and effects of every kind
on horseback, across the most arid deserts. They are mortal foes to the
Spaniards, and a terror to the whole frontier. They wear their hair
long, and paint themselves, black or red, after a very grotesque and
irregular fashion; the two sides of their bodies are generally painted
in a different manner. "Their chief arms are the lance, knife, and a
club, which they throw with great precision at a full gallop. Their hats
are made of hides. Each warrior has his mark, which he burns with a red
hot iron on all that belongs to him--his horses, dogs and even wives.
One of the most atrocious traits in the manners of this people, is that
of putting to death all children born of mothers under thirty years of
age."
After traversing the country between Paraguay and Brazil, the expedition
proceeded north by the river Paraguay, and passed the mouths of the San
Lorenzo, where it entered the great lake Gaiva, and from thence the
greater lake Uberava, the limits of which could not be traced, being
lost in the horizon. An Indian told the Count that he had travelled for
three whole days in his canoe, without finding its extremity, which
supposes a length of twenty-five or thirty leagues. This great inland
sea is unknown to geographers. At Villa Maria a caravan of mules awaited
the travellers, when they entered the desert or Gran Chaco, as it is
called, and proceeded to the town of Matto-Grosso, which is considered
the most pestiferous place in the world. Out of a population of 1200
souls, there were found but four whites, of whom three were officers of
the government; all the rest was composed of blacks and Indians of every
variety and color, who alone are able to support this terrible climate.
From this place the expedition proceeded to Santa Cruz of the Sierra,
where they found bread, of which they had been deprived for two years;
after a month's repose, a journey of eight days brought the party to
Chuquisaca, in Bolivia, and from thence by Potosi to Lima.
The results of this expedition are already of great interest. It will
make known people, the names of which were unknown to geographers.
Rivers which appear on our maps are found not to exist, while hitherto
unknown rivers and large bodies of water have been discovered. Many
geographical positions have been determined, and the particulars of the
trade which is extensively carried on in the centre of this vast
continent by means of caravans of mules, are made known.
M. de Castelnau has paid particular attention to the productions of the
country, with a view of introducing such as are valuable into the French
colony of Algeria. Large collections in Natural History have already
been received at the museum in Paris; observations on terrestrial
magnetism and meteorology have been made, in fact, no department of
science seems to have been neglected by the expedition, which will
reflect great credit on its distinguished head, Count Castelnau, as well
as on the French government, by whose liberality and zeal for the
promotion of science it has been supported.
From Lima, Count Castelnau intended to prosecute further researches in
the country of the Incas, after which he would proceed to the Amazon
river.
PERU. Some interesting remains of the ancient Peruvians, have lately
been brought to light in the Province of Chachapoyas, about five hundred
and fifty miles north of Lima and two hundred and fifty miles from the
coast. The particulars of these ruins were communicated by Señor Nieto
to the prefect of the Department.[21] "The principal edifice is an
immense wall of hewn stone, three thousand six hundred feet in length,
five hundred and sixty feet in width and one hundred feet high.[22] It
is solid in the interior and level on the top, upon which is another
wall six hundred feet in length, of the same breadth and height as the
former, and like it solid to its summit. In this elevation, and also in
that of the lower wall, are a great many rooms eighteen feet long and
fifteen wide, in which are found neatly constructed niches, containing
bones of the ancient dead, some naked and some in shrouds or blankets,"
placed in a sitting posture.
From the base of this structure commences an inclined plane gradually
ascending to its summit, on which is a small watch tower. From this
point, the whole of the plain below, with a considerable part of the
province, including the capital, eleven leagues distant, may be seen.
In the second wall or elevation are also openings resembling ovens, six
feet high, and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference. In these, skeletons
were found. The cavities in the adjoining mountain were found to contain
heaps of human remains perfectly preserved in their shrouds, which were
made of cotton of various colors. Still farther up this mountain was "a
wall of square stones, with small apertures like windows, but which
could not be reached without a ladder," owing to a perpendicular rock
which intervened. The Indians have a superstitious horror of the place,
in consequence of the mummies it contains, and refused to assist the
exploring party, believing that fatal diseases would be produced by
touching these ghastly remains of their ancestors. They were therefore
compelled to abandon their researches, though surrounded by objects of
antiquity of great interest.
Mr. Chas. Frederick Neumann, a distinguished oriental scholar of Munich,
has lately published a work "On the Condition of Mexico in the Fifth
Century of our Era, according to Chinese writers." It purports to be an
account of that country, called Fu-Sang, in the Chinese annals. De
Guignes, in his celebrated work on China, supposes that America was the
country referred to, while Klaproth, on the contrary, believes it to be
Japan.
It is stated in the English papers[23] that an expedition, which
promises the most important results, both to science and commerce, is at
this moment fitting out for the purpose of navigating some of the great
unexplored rivers of South America. It is to be under the command of
Lord Ranelagh; and several noblemen and gentlemen have already
volunteered to accompany his lordship. The enterprising and scientific
band will sail as soon as the necessary arrangements are completed. He
proposes to penetrate, by some of the great tributaries of the Amazon,
into the interior of Bolivar--for which purpose a steamer will be taken
out in pieces. Returning to the Amazon, he will ascend this great river
to its highest sources. The distance and means of communication between
the Pacific and the basin of the Amazon will be minutely examined.
Another scientific expedition has been sent out by the French Government
to its West India colonies and the northerly parts of South America,
under M. Charles Deville, a report from whom was read at a meeting of
the Paris Academy of Sciences in June last. Its publication was
recommended.
The French Government gave notice to the same Academy, at its meeting on
the 31st August last, of an intended expedition by Lieut. Tardy
Montravel, to the Amazon river and its branches, with the steamer
Alecton and the Astrolabe corvette; and invited the Academy to prepare a
programme with a view to facilitate the researches which M. de Montravel
is charged to make.
NOTE.--The following is a list of the books relating to South
America which have recently been published.
Historia fisica y politica de Chile segun documentos adquiredos
en esta Republica durante doze anos de residencia en ella, y
publicada bajo los auspicios del supremo gobierno. 7 livr. 8vo.
with an Atlas of 27 plates. Paris. 1844.
Memoria geografico economico-politica del departmento de
Venezuela, publicada en 1824 por el intendente de ejercito D.
Jose M. Aurrecoechea, quien la reimprime con varias notas
aclaratorias y un apendice. Quarto. Madrid. 1846.
Twenty-four years in the Argentine Republic, embracing the
author's personal adventures, with the history of the country,
&c. &c., with the circumstances which led to the interposition
of England and France. By Col. J.A. King. 1 vol. 12mo. New
York. 1846.
Travels in the interior of Brazil, principally through the
northern provinces, and the gold and diamond districts, in
1836-1841. By George Canning. 8vo. London. 1846.
Travels in Peru, during the years 1838-1842, on the coast, and
in the Sierra, across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the
primeval forests. By Dr. J.J. Tschudi. 2 vols. 12mo. New York.
1847.
Mr. Thomas Ewbank is preparing for the press a work on Brazil,
being observations made during a twelve months' residence in
that country. From a personal acquaintance with this gentleman,
his reputation as a man of observation, and his well known
capacity as a writer, we think a valuable book may be expected.
AFRICA.
The zeal which was manifested a few years since for the discovery and
exploration of the interior of Africa, and which seemed to have
terminated with the Landers, and the unsuccessful voyage of the steamers
up the Niger, has again shown itself, and we now find as much curiosity
awakened, and as much zeal manifested for geographical discovery in this
vast continent, and the solution of questions for ages in doubt, as has
been exhibited at any former period.
The Travels of M. d'Abaddie, Dr. Beke, Isenberg, and others make known
to us the immense extent and windings of the Bahr-el-Abiad and the
Bahr-el-Azrek, or the white and blue Nile, but they have not yet been
traced to their rise, and the solution of the question of the true
source of the Nile, remains still unsettled.
We have received from Mr. Jomard, member of the French Institute, a work
entitled "Observations sur le voyage au Darfour" from an account given
by the Sheikh Mohammed-el-Tounsy, accompanied by a vocabulary of the
language of the people, and remarks on the white Nile by Mr. Jomard.
This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a portion of the
interior of Africa, only known to us by the visit of Mr. Browne in 1794,
and forms a link in the chain between Lake Tchad and a region of country
quite unexplored, and of which we have no knowledge whatever.
We have some information of interest, relating to Senegal, communicated
to the Royal Geographical Society of London,[24] being a narrative of
Mr. Thomson, linguist to the Church Missionary Society at Sierra Leone,
from that place to Timbo, the capital of Futah Jallo. His place is about
four hundred miles northeast of Sierra Leone. "The principal object of
the mission, was to open a road for a regular line of traffic through
that country, between the colony and the negro states on the Joliba or
Niger."
Mr. Thomson's narrative is full of interest and shows the great
hardships to be encountered in effecting a communication with the
interior. No man could be better prepared for such an enterprize, both
by knowledge of the languages of the country, and the manners of the
people; zeal, perseverance, and courage, also were prominent traits in
his character; yet his enterprize failed and death cut him off, when on
the point of starting for the eastward.
An expedition more successful in its results, has been undertaken in
Dahomey on the Guinea coast, the particulars of which are given in the
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, (vol. 16.) This
journey was performed by Mr. John Duncan, from Cape Coast to Whyddah,
and from the latter about five hundred miles due north, through the
Dahomey country to Adofoodiah. Although the king of Ashantee had refused
permission for Mr. Duncan to pass through his territory, and had
endeavored to prejudice the king of Dahomey against him, he was received
with great kindness by the latter, and every facility given him to
travel in his dominions. A guard of one hundred men was furnished to
accompany him--a path was cleared for upwards of one hundred miles, and
arrangements made so that at every village through which he passed,
provisions were always waiting, ready cooked for them. Among the strange
things seen by this traveller was a review of six thousand Female
troops, well armed and accoutred. Their appearance, for an uncivilized
nation, was surprising, and their performance still more so. The slave
trade is carried on extensively in Dahomey. In the market of Adofoodiah,
articles from the Mediterranean, and from Bornou in the interior were
exposed for sale, showing the immense extent of the trade of the
country. He met people from Timbuctoo and gathered some particulars of
that remarkable city, as well as some information respecting Mungo
Park's death. This enterprising traveller has lately been provided with
the means to enable him to set out on a new journey with a determination
to penetrate the country to Timbuctoo, from whence he will endeavour to
follow the Niger to its mouth.
The American Missionaries at the Gaboon, (Western Africa), with a view
of establishing a mission in the Pong-wee country have been preparing a
grammar of the Pong-wee language, the peculiarities of which are such as
to deserve notice. The Missionaries call it "one of the most perfect
languages of which they have any knowledge. It is not so remarkable for
copiousness of words as for its great and almost unlimited flexibility.
Its expansions, contractions, and inflections though exceedingly
numerous, and having, apparently, special reference to euphony, are all
governed by grammatical rules, which seem to be well established in the
minds of the people, and which enable them to express their ideas with
the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant
to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its
inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to
retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds as to
express themselves with almost unvarying precision and, uniformity, are
points which we do not pretend to settle. It is spoken coastwise nearly
two hundred miles, and perhaps with some dialectic differences, it
reaches the Congo river. How far it extends into the interior is not
satisfactorily known."[25]
An attempt to penetrate this continent from the north has been made by
Mr. James Richardson, by advices from whom it appears that on the 23d
November, 1845, he had reached Ghadames, in the Great Desert, where he
had been residing for three months, and whence he was to start on the
following day, with a negro and a Moor, for Soudan. If successful in
reaching that country, he intended to proceed to Timbuctoo and other
parts of the interior. Mr. Richardson was well received by the people
and Sultan of Ghadames; but his journey to Sackatoo the capital of
Soudan, which would take three months to accomplish, through some of the
wildest tribes and without any guarantee from the English or Ottoman
government, was considered foolhardy and desperate.[26]
Later accounts state that Mr. Richardson had returned after a successful
exploration in the very centre of the Great Zahara, and that he has
collected important information relating to the slave trade, one of the
objects of his undertaking. We shall look forward with interest to the
publication of his travels.[27]
The details of the expedition under M. Raffenel of the French navy and
other scientific gentlemen, up the Senegal, have just been
published.[28] The party ascended the Senegal to the river Falémé, and
from the mouth of the Falémé they penetrated the country to Sansanzig.
They then visited the gold mines of Kenieba, on the Bambouk, the country
of Galam, Bondou and Woolli, and returned by the river Gambia. Seven
months were spent on this expedition. They found the country beautiful,
but its cultivation neglected, and of course little was produced. They
visited the place where the French were formerly established, with the
view of making treaties with the natives for its occupation anew. Few
traces of the colony were to be found. They were kindly received by the
various tribes of aborigines, wherever they went; though when at the
extreme point of their journey, owing to the wars among the natives,
they did not think it safe to proceed farther. The results of the
expedition are interesting to science, as well as to the friends of
humanity, who wish to improve the condition of this people.
For the more complete exploration of this portion of the African
continent, it has been proposed to send another expedition under M.
Raffenel for the purpose. This gentleman has submitted a memoir to the
Minister of Marine, by whom it was presented to the Geographical Society
of Paris. The result was favorable, and Mr. Raffenel has been provided
with instructions for his guidance in his proposed journey.
A journey of exploration and civilization in Soudan, is about to be
undertaken by four Jesuits from Rome--Bishop Casolani, and Fathers
Ryllo, Knoblica, and Vinco. Casolani and Ryllo will start from Cairo in
January, 1847--having previously obtained a Firman from Constantinople;
and, proceeding through Upper Egypt, Nubia, and thence by Kordofau and
Darfour, they hope to reach Bornou,--and meet there their brethren, who
travel by the way of Tripoli and Mouryok. Should they be fortunate
enough to meet, it will then be determined which route shall afterwards
be followed. They have determined to accomplish what they have
undertaken, or perish in the attempt. From the high character of all the
parties, great hopes are entertained of the result of this journey. They
are all men of extensive learning, and familiar with the languages,
manners and customs of the East.[29]
A project is on foot in London and a prospectus has been issued for a
new Expedition of Discovery to penetrate the interior of Africa from the
eastern side. Many advantages are presented by beginning the work of
exploration here; among them, the populousness and civilization of
Eastern Africa, which is in general superior to that of the western
coast. The languages of the former bear a close affinity to each other,
and extend over a very large space, which is not the case with the
latter. "The absence of foreign influence, (particularly of the
Portuguese, by whom the slave trade is carried on), and the readiness of
the Sultan of Muscat to listen to British counsels," are strong
inducements to carry out the scheme proposed.[30]
Lieutenant Ruxton of the Royal Navy, who has lately made an interesting
journey into Africa from the southwestern coast, near the island of
Ichaboe, is about to undertake a second journey with the intention of
crossing the continent from this point to the eastern coast, under the
sanction of the British Government.
Some valuable contributions have been made to our knowledge of the
geography of Southern Africa by Mr. Cooley[31] and Mr. McQueen,[32]
which tend to elucidate portions of this continent hitherto enveloped
in much obscurity. Mr. Cooley's investigations relate to the country
extending from Loango and Congo, the Portuguese settlements in Western
Africa, to the eastern coast between Zanzibar and Sofala, in lat. 20°
South.
He commences by examining the statements of the Portuguese geographers
of the 16th century, Lopez, Joao Dos Santos, Do Couto, and Pigafetta.
"The information collected by Lopez, was elaborated by Pigafetta into a
system harmonizing with the prevalent opinions of the age, and in this
form was published in 1591. Yet in the midst of this editor's theories,
we can at times detect the simple truth." Much confusion seems to have
arisen by misapplying the names of lakes, rivers and people, as this
information was in a great degree derived from natives, and not properly
understood by the persons who received it from them. Mr. Cooley, by a
rigid examination of these various statements, together with the
accounts derived from later writers and from native traders, has been
enabled to rectify the errors which had crept in, and clear up much that
had been considered fabulous. The great lake called N'Yassi, and the
natives occupying the country around it, are among the most interesting
subjects of our author's enquiries. This lake, or sea, as it is called
by the natives, is some five or six hundred miles from the eastern
coast. Its breadth in some places is about fifteen miles, while in
others, the opposite shores cannot be seen. Its length is unknown,
neither extremity having been traced. It probably exceeds five hundred
miles, according to the best authority. Numerous islands filled with a
large population, are scattered among its waters. It is navigated by
bark canoes, twenty feet long, capable of holding twenty persons. Its
waters are fresh, and it abounds in fish. The people seem more advanced
in civilization than any African nations south of the Equator, of which
we have knowledge. Pereira, who spent six months at Cazembe, in 1796,
describes the people as similar, in point of civilization, to the
Mexicans and Peruvians, at the time of the conquest. The nation called
the Monomoesi, or Mucaranga, north of the lake, as well as the Movisa,
on its opposite shores, are a tall and handsome race, with a brown
complexion. "They are distinguished for their industry, and retain the
commercial habits for which they were noted two centuries and a half
ago, when their existence was first known through the Portuguese. They
descend annually to Zanzibar in large numbers. The journey to the coast
and back again, takes nine or ten months, including the delay of
awaiting the proper season for returning. They are clothed in cotton of
their own manufacture; but the most obvious mark of their superiority
above other nations of Eastern Africa is, that they employ beasts of
burden, for their merchandize is conveyed to the coast laden on asses of
a fine breed." Mr. Cooley believes that "the physical advantages and
superior civilization of these tribes, who are not negroes," explain the
early reports which led the Portuguese to believe that the empire of
Prestor John was not far off.
Mr. M'Queen's memoirs consist of the details of a journey made by Lief
Ben Saeid, a native of Zanzibar, to the great lake N'Yassi, or Maravi,
alluded to in Mr. Cooley's memoir. This visit was made in the year 1831.
The facts collected corroborate what has been stated by Mr. Cooley. He
found the country level, filled with an active population, civil to
strangers, and honest in their dealings. A very extensive trade was
carried on in ivory, and a peculiar oil, of a reddish color. The
Manumuse (Mono-moezi) are pagans, and both sexes go nearly naked. Near
the lake there are no horses or camels, but plenty of asses, and a few
elephants. The houses on the road and at the lake, are made of wood and
thatched with grass. Dogs are numerous, and very troublesome. Some are
of a very large kind.[33]
The region which forms the subject of the memoirs just alluded to, is
doubtless one of the most interesting fields for exploration of any on
the African continent. The languages spoken by the several nations
between the two oceans, which are here separated by a space of sixteen
or seventeen hundred miles, in a direct line, are believed to belong to
one great family, or at least to present such traces of affinity, that
an expedition, if sufficiently strong, aided by interpreters from the
Zanzibar coast or the Monomoezi tribes, might traverse the continent
without difficulty. Obstacles might be thrown in the way by the
Portuguese traders, who would naturally feel jealous at any
encroachments by rival nations; but by a proper understanding, these
might be overcome, and this interesting and hitherto unknown portion of
Central Africa be laid open to commerce and civilization.
The latest attempt to explore this region was that of M. Maizan, a young
officer in the French navy, who towards the close of the year 1844, set
out for the purpose. In April, 1845, he left Zanzibar, furnished with a
firman from Sultan Said to the principal chiefs of the tribes of the
interior, though in reality they enjoyed the most complete independence.
Having been warned that a chief, named Pazzy, manifested hostile
intentions towards him, he stopped some time on his way, and after
having acquired information relating to the country he wished to survey,
he made a grand _détour_ round the territory over which this savage
chief exercised his authority. After a march of twenty days, he reached
the village of Daguélamohor, which is but three days' journey from the
coast in a direct line, where he awaited the arrival of his baggage,
which he had entrusted to an Arab servant. This man, it appears, had
communication with Pazzy, and had informed him of the route his master
had taken. Pazzy, with some men of his tribe, overtook M. Maizan towards
the end of July, at Daguelamohor, and surrounded the house in which he
lived. After tying him with cords to a palisade, the savage ordered his
men to cut the throat of their unfortunate victim.[34]
Mr. M'Queen gives some particulars obtained from a native African
relating to the country between Lake Tchad, or Tshadda and Calabar. This
portion of the African continent has never been visited by Europeans,
and although little can be gained of its geography from the statements
of this man, there is much in them that is interesting on the
productions of the country, the natives, their manners, customs, &c.
ALGIERS.
The publication by the French government of the results of the great
scientific expedition to Algeria has thrown much light on the districts
embraced in Algiers and the regency of Tunis, as well as on the
countries far in the interior. Among the subjects which have received
the particular attention of the commission, are, 1. An examination of
the routes followed by the Arabs in the south of Algiers and Tunis;
2. Researches into the geography and commerce of Southern Algiers, by
Capt. Carette; 3. A critical analysis of the routes of the caravans
between Barbary and Timbuctoo, with remarks on the nature of the western
Sahara, and on the tribes which occupy it, by M. Renou; 4. A series of
interesting memoirs on the successive periods of the political and
geographical history of Algiers from the earliest period to the present
time, by M. Pelissier; 5. The History of Africa, translated from the
Arabic of Mohammed-ben-Abi-el-Raini-el-Kairouani, by M. Remusat, giving
a particular account of the earliest Musselman period.
Gen. Marey in an account of his expedition to Laghouat in Algeria,
published in Algiers in 1845, has contributed important information on
this country, which deserves a rank with the great work of the
scientific expedition.[35] In this work the author has corrected the
erroneous opinion which has long been held, of the barrenness of the
Sahara. Among the Arabs this word _Sahara_ does not convey the idea
which the world has generally given it, of a desert or uninhabitable
place, but the contrary. Like every country, it presents some excellent
and luxuriant spots, others of a medium quality as to soil, and others
entirely barren, not susceptible of cultivation. By _Sahara_, the Arabs
mean a country of pastures, inhabited by a pastoral people; while, to
the provinces between the Atlas mountains and the sea, they apply the
name of _Tell_, meaning a country of cereals, and of an agricultural
people.
M. Carette, in his exploration of this region, has also discovered the
false notion long imbibed in relation to it. "The Sahara," says he, "was
for a long time deformed by the exaggerations of geographers, and by the
reveries of poets. Called by some the Great Desert, from its sterility
and desolation, by others the country of dates, the Sahara had become a
fanciful region, of which our ignorance increased its proportions and
fashioned its aspect. From the mountains which border the horizon of
Tell, to the borders of the country of the blacks, it was believed that
nature had departed from her ordinary laws, renouncing the variety which
forms the essential character of her works, and had here spread an
immense and uniform covering, composed of burning plains, over which
troops of savage hordes carried their devastating sway. Such is not the
nature, such is not the appearance of the Sahara."
This region, occupying so large a portion of the African continent, "is
a vast archipelago of oases, of which each presents an animated group of
towns and villages. Around each is a large enclosure of fruit trees. The
palm is the king of these plantations, not only from the elevation of
its trunk, but from the value of its product, yet it does not exclude
other species. The fig, the apricot, the peach and the vine mingle their
foliage with the palm."
The Algerine Sahara has lately been the object of a special work of Col.
Daumas who intends completing the researches begun by Gen. Marey and the
members of the scientific commission. He has made an excursion to the
borders of the desert, and has collected much that is new and
interesting in ethnology, particularly relating to the Tuarycks, a great
division of the Berber race whose numerous tribes occupy all the western
part of the great desert.[36]
Among the interesting Ethnological facts which the late expeditions in
this region have brought to light, is that of the existence of a white
race, inhabiting the Aures mountains, (_mons Aurarius_) in the province
of Constantine.[37] Dr. Guyon, of the French army of Africa, took
advantage of an expedition sent out by General Bedeau to the Aures, to
collect information about this people, to whom other travellers had
referred. He describes them as having a white skin, blue eyes and flaxen
hair. They are not found by themselves, but predominate more or less
among various tribes. They hold a middle rank, and go but rarely with
the Kabyles and the Arabs. They are lukewarm in observances of the
Koran, on which account the Arabs esteem them less than the Kabyles.
They are more numerous in the tribe of the Mouchaïas, who speak a
language in which words of Teutonic origin have been recognized. In
Constantine where they are numerous, they exercise the trades of butcher
and baker. Late writers believe that they are the remains of the Vandals
driven from the country by Belisarius.
M. Bory de Saint Vincent in making some observations to the Academy of
Sciences, on the paper of Dr. Guyon, exhibited portraits of individuals
of this white race, which had been engraved for the Scientific
Commission, and stated his belief that they were evidently of the
northern Gothic and Vandal type.[38]
In Northern Africa, an important discovery has lately been made of the
ancient Libyan alphabet, by Mr. F. de Saulcy, member of the French
Institute. This curious result has been produced, by a study of the
bilingual inscription on the monument of Thugga, which is published in
the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of New
York. The reading of the Phoenician part of this bilingual inscription
having been established, the value of the Libyan or Numidian letters of
the counter part, has been as clearly proved, as the hieroglyphic part
of the Rosetta stone has been established, from a comparison with the
Greek text of that bilingual inscription.
By this discovery, a vast progress has been made in the ethnography and
history of ancient Africa. Two facts of the greatest consequence have
been established by it:--That the Libyan language was that of Numidia,
at the early period of its history, when the Phoenicians were settled
there; that the Numidians of that early day, used their own peculiar
letters for writing their own language. To these facts, may be added
another of no less ethnographic value; that the present Numidian or
Berber race of the great Sahara, who are called Tuarycks, make use of
these identical letters at this day.
For this recent and valuable acquisition to science, we are again
indebted to Mr. de Saulcy,[39] who has published a Tuaryck alphabet as
communicated to him by Mr. Boisonnet, Captain of Artillery at Algiers.
It was furnished to him by an educated native of the Oasis of Touat, in
the great Sahara, and is called by him _Kalem-i-Tefinag_.[40] What the
_writing of Tefinag_ means, it would be curious to know. This Touatee,
Abd-el-Kader, has promised more extended information, in relation to the
writing of the Tuarycks, than which, no more valuable contribution to
African ethnography can be imagined. He asserts that, the Tuarycks
engrave or scratch on the rocks of the Sahara, numerous inscriptions,
either historic or erotic. This subject has been alluded to by Mr.
Hodgson, in his "_Notes on Africa_" in which he mentions the Tuaryck
letters copied by Denham and Clapperton.
The impulse first given by our countryman Mr. Wm. B. Hodgson, in his
researches into the Berber language, and the ethnographic facts which
were the results of his elucidations, has extended to England, France
and Germany, and the last two years have been productive of several
valuable and important works, including grammars and dictionaries of the
Berber language. These have added greatly to our previous knowledge of
the ancient and primitive people, who at a remote period, coeval with
that of the ancient Egyptians occupied the northern part of Africa.
Mr. de Saulcy has already unravelled the intricacy of the demotic
writing of Egypt and the popular characters of ancient Libya. He is thus
working at both ends of the Libyan chain. He will find the Berber thread
at the Oasis of Ammon, and at Meröe. We shall thus probably find, that
the Berber language was the original tongue of that part of Ethiopia.
Dr. Lepsius found in that region, numerous inscriptions in the Egyptian
demotic, and in Greek characters, but written in an unknown language. He
strongly suspects, that the old Ethiopian blood will be found in the
Berber veins; and that the Nubian language has strong affinities with
the Berber. When these inscriptions in an unknown language are
decyphered, it will be known how far the interpretation of Egyptian
mythology and the local names, heretofore proposed by Mr. Hodgson, is to
be received as plausible. He has proposed the Berber etymologies of Aman
or Ammon as water; Themis as fire or purity; Thot as an eye; Edfou and
Tadis as the sun.
Books on Algiers.
Algeria and Tunis in 1845. An account of a journey made through
the two Regencies, by Viscount Fielding and Capt. Kennedy. 2
vols, post 8vo. London, 1846.
Le Maroc et ses Caravanes, ou Relations de la France avec cet
Empire, par R. Thomassy. 8vo. Paris 1845.
Exploration Scientifique de l'Algeria pendant les années 1840,
1841, 1842. Publié par l'ordre du gouvernment et avec le
concours d'une commission Académique. 4 vols, folio. (now in the
course of publication.)
Recherches sur la constitution de la propriété territoriale dans
le pays mussulmans et subsidiairement en Algeria; par M. Worms.
8vo. Paris, 1846.
A visit to the French possessions in Algiers in 1845. By Count
St. Marie. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
AFRIQUE (l') française, l'empire du Maroc et les déserts de
Sahara. Histoire nationale des conquêtes, victoires et
nouvelles découvertes des Français depuis la prise d'Alger
jusqu'à nos jours; par P. Christian. 8vo.
Algeria en 1846; par J. Desjobert. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Guide du voyageur en Algeria. Itinéraire du savant, de
l'artiste, de l'homme du monde et du colon; par Quetin. 18mo.
Paris, 1846.
Le Sahara Algerien. Etude geographiques, statistiques et
historiques sur la region au sud des établissements Françaises
en Algérie; par Col. Daumas 8vo. Paris, 1845.
L'Afrique Française l'Empire de Maroc et les deserts de Sahara,
conquêtes et découvértes des Français. Royal 8vo.
Dictionnaire de Géographie économique, politique et historique
de l'Algérie. Avec une carte. 12mo. Paris, 1846.
Géographie populaire de l'Algérie, avec cartes. 12mo. 1846.
Histoire de nos Colonies Françaises de l'Algérie et du Maroc;
par M. Christian. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
The following list embraces the latest publications on Africa
generally.
Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale, comprenant l'exploration du
Senegal depuis St. Louis jusqu'à la Félemé jusqu'à Sansandig;
des mines d'or de Keniéba, dans le Bambouk; des pays de Galam,
Boudou et Wooli; et de la Gambia; par A. Raffenel. 8vo. and
folio atlas. Paris, 1846.
Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentale, di _Toto Omboni_, gia medico
di consiglié nel regno d'Angola e sue dispendenze, 8vo. Milan,
1845.
A visit to the Portuguese possessions in South Western Africa.
By Dr. Tams. 2 vols. 8vo.
Life in the Wilderness; or, Wanderings in South Africa. By
Henry W. Methuen. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
Voyage au Darfour par le Cheykh Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy;
traduit de l'Arabe par Dr. Perron; publié par les soins de M.
Jomard. Royal 8vo. Maps. Paris, 1845.
Observations sur le Voyage au Darfour suivies d'un Vocabulaire
de la langue des habitans et de remarques sur le Nil Blanc
Supérieur; par M. Jomard. 1846.
Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de
l'Afrique Septentrionale, leurs origines, leurs mouvements et
leurs transformations depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos jours; par
Pascal Duprat. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
MADAGASCAR.--The island of Madagascar has recently attracted and
continues to occupy attention in France. In 1842 M. Guillian, in command
of a French corvette, was sent by the governor of the isle of Bourbon to
this island, to select a harbor safe and convenient of access, and to
obtain information relative to the country and its inhabitants. After
visiting various parts of the island on its western side, in which
fourteen months were spent, M. Guillian returned to Bourbon, and in 1845
the results of his visit were published in Paris. The first part of this
work gives a history of the Sakalave people, who occupy the western
parts of the island. The second details the particulars of the voyage
made in 1842 and 1843, embracing the geography, commerce and present
condition of the country, an abstract of which is given in the Bulletin
of the Geographical Society of Paris, Feb. 1846.
So important were the results of the visit of M. Guillian that a new
expedition has been sent to Madagascar under his direction, with
instructions for a more extended examination, particularly in relation
to its animal and vegetable productions. A more extensive work by M. de
Froberville, is preparing for publication in Paris, in which more
attention will be given to the ethnography of this important island.
Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce de la
partie occidentale de l'île de Madagascar; recueillis et redigés
par M. Guillian, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
Histoire d'établissement Français de Madagascar, pendant la
restauration, précédée d'une description de cette île, et
suivie de quelques considérations politiques et commerciales
sur l'expédition et la colonisation de Madagascar. Par M.
Carayon, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
Histoire et Géographie de Madagascar, depuis la découverte de
l'île en 1506, jusqu'au récit des derniers événements de
Tamative; par M. Descartes. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Madagascar expedition de 1829. Par M. le Capitaine de frégate
Jourdain. _Revue de l'Orient_, tom. ix. April, 1846.
A short memoir on Madagascar is contained in the "Bulletin de
la Société de Géographie, July, 1845," by M. Bona Christave.
Etchings of a Whaling Voyage, with notes of a sojourn in the
Island of Zanzibar, and a history of the whale fishery, by
J.R. Browne. 8vo. New York, 1846.
EGYPT.
I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing
the ethnological and archæological researches of the day, as to whether
I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been
on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in
amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.
In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archæology is the most
fruitful topic among the learned. In Paris, it forms the theme of
lectures by the most distinguished archæologists, and the subject
absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has
established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian
antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the
most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head
of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley
of the Nile.
It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work
published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great
national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of
Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately
followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt,
laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most
laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the
expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of
Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts
of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.
But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting
such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned
Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized
under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse
is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and
author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by
competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make
additional explorations.
As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the
career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze
their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly
along the road opened by _Champollion_, and that the science which owed
its first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts,
to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the
great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts
and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen,
Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthiér, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and
many more.[41]
A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and
researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to
mention.
Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology,
entitled _Das Alte Ægypten_. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of
German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are
carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of
the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and
this is but a beginning.
De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of
Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done.
He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta
stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as
placed on a firm basis.
Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it
will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian
merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter
must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de
Rivière, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old
Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating
the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language,
the only one yet discovered.[42] On a farther examination of this
manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient
Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with
much interest.
M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the
continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia--50 plates
are in press.
Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the
titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in
hieroglyphical writing those of the _chief butler_, _chief baker_, and
others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also
discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600)
his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with the _tribute_
exacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which
Egyptian archæology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of
new books on the subject.
The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has
been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable
labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far
transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried
it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about
2750, B.C. Böckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it
at 5702 B.C.
Henry of Paris, in his "_L'Égypte Pharaonique_," from historical
deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.
Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and
Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's
History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions,
places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.
I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreign savans, without
alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known,
has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his
possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his
scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr.
Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical
literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a
deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting
lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters
on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr.
Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently
of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the
aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the
monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to
make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.
The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling
to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to
believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond
the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew
Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives
the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are
adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man,
which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of
civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.
But we do not fear these investigations--truth will prevail, and its
attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.
I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use
of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr.
Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his
command, and with a taste for archæological studies, acquired
by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected
a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all
the great works published by the European governments on that
country. This costly and unique collection, which few but
princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the
command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require
them.
Mr. Haight's interest in archæological researches has been
noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the
Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des
Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United
States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy
justly remarks--"Il a été puissamment secondé, dans cette
louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un
pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, dévoué de tous les
hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribué, par sa généreuse
assistance, a répandre aux Etats-Unis les belles découvertes
qui concernent les temps pharaoniques." _Revue des Deux
Mondes._ Paris, June 15, 1846.
The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:
The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and
Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the
Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.
The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest
by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.
A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and
Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
1846.
L'Égypte au XIX siècle, histoire militaire et politique,
anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin.
Illustrée de gravures.
Panorama d'Égypte et de Nubie avec un texte orné, de vignettes;
par Hector Horeau. folio.
Recherches sur les arts et métiers de la vie civile et
domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de
l'Éthiopie, suivi de détails sur les moeurs et coûtumes des
peuples modernes des mêmes contrées; par M. Frederic Cailliand.
folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.
Das Tödtenbuch der Ægypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in
Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.
Schwartze. Das alte Ægypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion
und Verfassung d. alt. Ægypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.
Ægyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3
vols. 8vo.
Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte
der Pharaonen: Von August Böckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.
Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha
und Wién, mit Übersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wüstenfeld.
4to. Göttingen, 1845.
Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives
conformes aux manuscrits autographes rédigés sur les lieux par
Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.
L'Égypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui régirent
les Égyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2
vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof.
Barucchi. 4to. Turin.
Voyage en Égypte, en Nubie, dans les déserts de Beyonda, des
Bycharís, et sur les côtes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2
vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.
THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
BORNEO.--Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a
communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr.
James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the
condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this
hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the
northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the
interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the
good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried
on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with
them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his
right and title to the government of the district, in which he was
afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has
attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose
intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese,
is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most
enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and
institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored
with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with
various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for
the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned
with success.
Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's
Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or
aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser
tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their
language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted,
particularly along the coast, a large number of Malayan words. It also
exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In
speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea
of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently
of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief
seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers,
make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no
occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all
other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols
with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as
civilized beings do to their invisible God."[43] From their
comparatively innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of
being easily raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of
manners, the purity of their morals and their present ignorance of all
forms of worship, and all idea of future responsibility, render them
open to conviction of truth and religious impression, when their minds
have been raised by education."[44] It is a well known fact, that since
the establishment of Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency
of the Polynesian races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr.
Brooke, however, now warrants us in hoping that such a result need not
necessarily and inevitably ensue.
While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American
missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally
failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks
to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose
interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it
is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will
see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it no
longer. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I
have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very
desirous."[45]
The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had
made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral
and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become
so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set
by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their
hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.
Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other
islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally
rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony,
and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than
Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.
I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the
islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not
fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present;
although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly
a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An
interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the
commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr.
Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States
government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as
to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial
relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and
government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many
of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from
some distinguished functionaries of the government.[46] England,
France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment,
expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned
for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of
their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be
desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken
up valuable positions for the purpose.
Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new
and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we
talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern
trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a
depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java,
Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &c. An extended commerce demands it, and
we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its
importance.
England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the
East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has
three prominent stations in the China Sea,--Singapore, Borneo, and
Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she
looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance,
commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous
to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is
possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China
Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,'
could contrive some means of obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in
their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore,
and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."[47]
It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed
in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been
suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only
surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations,
of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in
which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not
before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.
The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch,
more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests
to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and
Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way
through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide,
their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and
a cruiser.
It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers,
which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is
much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may
effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal
races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to
prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr.
Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the
destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them
throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies
of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except
those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people.
Addicted to a seafaring life, and tempted by a love of gain, they
traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which
are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese
markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of
trade--this desire for the accumulation of wealth--and we believe that
nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment
of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.
It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands
of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of
the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products.
There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction,
abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable
rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a
higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many
parts of the adjacent continent.
To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should
require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of
human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown.
Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of
barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor
natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care
of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social
existence.
The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the
monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit
on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been
treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination
has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been
cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble
subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those
costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland has
hitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude,
moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of
the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies
their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling,
repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The
wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of
toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."[48] The northern
portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same
latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices.
They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement
was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of
Europe and America.
THE ISLAND OF BALI, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a
narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty
growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is
an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her
commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its
protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed
for its annexation.
NEW CALEDONIA ISLANDS. Later information has been received from the
Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those
distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are
represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of
the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in
Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the
Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which
time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, and but
little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was
hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the
language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The
natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground
with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never
in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are
compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of
trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards
are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the
word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess
the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a
little labor, an abundance could be raised.
Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are
completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands.
Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields,
their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is
any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at once _tabooed_ by
the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.
The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the
horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were
addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among
them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are
less frequent."[49] They are beginning to understand the motive which
brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be
instructed.
The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the
Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of
the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been
cruelly murdered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the
isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most
discouraging.[50]
SOOLOO ISLANDS.--Mr. Itier, attaché to the French mission in China, has
recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo,
between that island and Mindanao.[51] His researches on the natural
history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is
exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in
intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread
fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits
and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior
quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive
forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A
considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten
to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the
most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its
products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity
to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore,
make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not
appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and
there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by
European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be
secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited
islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be
an advantageous point for an American colony or station.
The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris,
the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which
it appears that that large and important croup is not inferior in
interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the
soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their
commerce and political history, are described in detail.[52] The group
embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000,
of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed
race, and the remainder natives.
THE NICOBAR ISLANDS, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal,
have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an
expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes
planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in
consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French
made an attempt with no better success.
Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.
Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the
U.S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.
Reise nach Java, und Ausflüge nach den Inseln Mudura und S.
Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.
Philippines (les), histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture,
industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie;
par _J. Mallat_, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris,
1846.
The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy;
by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of
James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New
York.
Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of
twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and
China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.
Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives
of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York,
1846.
Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary
Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the
Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other
similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on
the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South
Sea Islands.
AUSTRALIA. This vast island continues to attract the attention of
geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown,
notwithstanding the various attempts which have been made from various
points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the
last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to
its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.
Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de
Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive
tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an
extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five
thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers,
and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to
settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and
'44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,[53]
"comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour
of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate
compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries,
of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the
physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of
colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other
countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel
through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and
discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the
Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal
to Count Strzelecki.[54]
Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in
Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and
other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of
a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of
several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of
expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in
various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A
remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the
natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and
approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old
acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and
aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men
before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these
were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in
the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to
account."[55] The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be
in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their
implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays.
They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet
found among them.[56] The rite of circumcision was practised on the
northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at
the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr.
Eyre.[57] For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote
distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only
account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was
practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the
languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt.
Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the
island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they
were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that
like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a
wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure
may be the same. This is a more important test in ethnological
comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of
Australia are extinct.
By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration
of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by
Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on
the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to
Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to
open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left,
reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the
natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the
purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior.
Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a
direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water;
and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees
of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only
resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,--and with these
the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a
month--sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to
reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound
of meat per day--frequently putrescent--unaccompanied with salt, bread,
or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of
Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives,
and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December,
1845.[58]
The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published
in detail. The report[59] which has appeared consists chiefly of notices
of the geography of the region traversed, the soil, productions,
climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in
considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others
treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most
extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant
succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no
rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the
close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length
and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting
with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells,
water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or
rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with
luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen.
In lat. 18° 48´ he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine
plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering
the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands
presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east
coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral
pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the
climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by
narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent
chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this
country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many
districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.
In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided
opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from
Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the
gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is
backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of
granite and basaltic rocks, which he calls the granite range; behind
this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again
rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere
penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central
country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently
there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular
cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran
easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they
again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water.
The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable
to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters.
Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.
By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and
zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition
to explore the interior of this great island.[60] The Doctor now
proposes to leave Moreton bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the
rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed
northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored
interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the
most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who
has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe
hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with
success.
An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir
Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown
parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had
reached the latitude of 29° 45´ longitude 147° 34´. The particulars of
Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course
of future operations.[61]
The following list embraces the latest works on Australia.
Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land,
accompanied by a Geographical map, by P.E. de Strzelecki. 8vo.
1845.
South Australia and its Mines; with an account of Captain
Grey's government, by Fr. Dutton. 8vo. London, 1846.
History of New South Wales, from its settlement to the close of
the year 1844, by Thomas H. Braim. 2 vols. post, 8vo. London,
1846.
Reminiscences of Australia, with hints on the Squatters' life,
by C.P. Hodgson. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
A visit to the Antipodes; with some reminiscences of a sojourn
in Australia. By a Squatter. 8vo. London, 1846.
Enterprise in tropical Australia. By George W. Earl. 8vo.
London, 1846.
Impressions of Savage life, and scenes in Australia and New
Zealand. By G.F. Augas. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.
Travels in New South Wales. By Alexander Majoribanks. 12mo.
Lond. 1847.
Simmonds' Colonial Magazine contains a vast deal of information
relating to Australia, as well as to other British Colonies,
and is unquestionably the best book of reference on subjects
relating to the history and present condition of the British
colonies of any work extant.
ASIA.
LYCIA, ASIA MINOR. This interesting region has been further explored by
two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who,
accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the
year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose
of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir
Charles Fellows.
This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times
successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient
cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was
enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and
made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.
It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and
Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when
districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly
explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first
made known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in
making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made
short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir
Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations,
that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.
The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist
first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their
isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been
preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities
situated in more accessible places.
These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and
generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and
sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the
dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are
also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant
cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their
inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known,
may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well
as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their
sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is
contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an
appearance similar to Petræa in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the
Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi,
many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is
by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of
preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other
historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the
most common form of sepulchral inscription.
"THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE
FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE
VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."
Coins too are found, which possess considerable historic interest.
In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian
orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The
works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A
pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the
interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of
Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the
arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been
generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian
era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.
The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has
resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and
Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently
discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the
values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of
twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able
disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and
Professor Grotefend.
In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke
the language called Lycian, now first made known through these
inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their
era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet
decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the
name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned;
which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of
the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known--namely, those at
Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The
language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is
supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along
with that of the Persepolitan inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear
some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly
the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.
Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian
language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus.
This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be
expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not
say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of
the entire region,--a fact that he would not have overlooked had such
been the case.
It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in
some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the
dominant party, and introduced their language.[62]
It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well
preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so
entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in
manners, in religion, and having no interest connected with the
locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive
the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.
Travels in Lycia, Milytas and the Cibyrates, in company with
the late Rev. E.T. Daniel, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Prof.
E. Forbes. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1847.
A Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles
Fellows. royal 8vo. London, 1839.
An account of Discoveries in Lycia, in 1840. By Charles
Fellows, royal 8vo.
An Essay on the Lycian language. By Daniel Sharpe. (In the
appendix to Fellows' Journal.)
ARABIA.
If we now turn to the discoveries that have recently been made in the
southern part of Arabia, we find much in them worthy of attention. This
country, called in the Scriptures Hazarmaveth, by the natives Hadramaut,
and by the classical writers of antiquity, Arabia Felix, is celebrated
as being the kingdom of the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, as well
as for the gold, gems, frankincense and other precious productions,
which it furnished in ancient times. It is represented by the Greek and
Roman writers as a populous country, with many extensive cities,
abounding in temples and palaces; though the palpable fables with which
these accounts are intermingled, show that at least they had no personal
knowledge of the facts, but retailed them at second hand.
After Europe had awoke from the intellectual slumber of the dark ages,
the Arabs were long regarded only as objects of religious and political
abhorrence. The discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good
Hope, at the close of the fifteenth century, by diverting the channel of
Indo-European traffic from the Red Sea, left the countries bordering
upon it in such a state of solitude, that when better feelings began to
prevail, there was no means of obtaining any direct information
respecting them.
In 1650, the illustrious Pococke, by the publication of his Specimens of
Ancient Arabian History, extracted from native authors, created a
curiosity respecting Southern Arabia and its ancient inhabitants, which
successive collections of a similar nature, down to our own times, have
served rather to increase than to gratify. The researches of Niebuhr,
Seetzen, and Burckhardt, in the latter part of the last, and the
beginning of the present century, made us somewhat acquainted with the
western extremity of this country, along the shores of the Red Sea; but
before the investigations of which we are about to speak, its southern
coast had never been accurately explored, and the great body of the
interior, with its once famous capital, Mareb, remained, as it ever had
been, completely unknown to and unvisited by the natives of Europe.
The hordes of pirates, which until twenty years ago infested the Persian
Gulf, caused the government of British India to order a complete survey
of its islands and both its shores, with the view of laying bare their
haunts, and putting an end to their depredations. In 1829, after this
service had been performed, the project then recently set on foot of
establishing a steam communication between England and Bombay, caused
orders to be issued for a similar examination of the Red Sea.
The attention of the officers composing the expedition, was not
restricted to the technical duties in which they were chiefly engaged.
It was well known that information of every kind would be prized by the
government which they served; and this, together with the monotony of
life on board ship on the one hand, and the novelty of the scenes by
which they were surrounded on the other, seems to have created among
them a spirit of emulation that led to the most interesting discoveries
respecting both the geography and the antiquities of the adjacent
countries.
Among the most intelligent and enterprising of these officers was the
late Lieut. Wellsted, who thus describes his reflections on joining the
expedition in the Red Sea, on the 12th October, 1830. "From the earliest
dawn of history, the northern shores of the Red Sea have figured as the
scene of events which both religious and civil records have united to
render memorable. Here Moses and the Patriarchs tended their flocks, and
put in motion those springs of civilization, which, from that period,
have never ceased to urge forward the whole human race in the career of
improvement. On the one hand the Valley of the Wanderings, commencing
near the site of Memphis, and opening upon the Red Sea, conducts the
fancy along the track pursued by the Hebrews during their flight out of
Egypt; on the other hand are Mount Sinai, bearing still upon its face
the impress of miraculous events, and beyond it that strange, stormy,
and gloomy-looking sea, once frequented by Phoenician merchants'
ships, by the fleets of Solomon and Pharaoh, and those barks of later
times which bore the incenses, the gems, the gold and spices of the
East, to be consumed or lavishly squandered upon favorites at the courts
of Macedonia or Rome. But the countries lying along this offshoot of the
Indian Ocean, have another kind of interest, peculiar perhaps to
themselves. On the Arabian side we find society much what it was four
thousand years ago; for amidst the children of Ishmael it has undergone
but trifling modifications. Their tents are neither better nor worse
than they were when they purchased Joseph of his brethren, on their way
to Egypt; the Sheikhs possess no other power or influence than they
enjoyed then; the relations of the sexes have suffered little or no
changes; they eat, drink, clothe themselves, educate their children,
make war and peace, just as they did in the day of the Exodus. But on
the opposite shores, all has been change, fluctuation, and decay. While
the Bedouins have wandered with their camels and their flocks,
unaspiring, unimproving, they have looked across the gulf and beheld the
Egyptian overthrown by the Persian, the Persian by the Greek, the Greek
by the Roman, and the Roman in his turn by a daring band from their own
burning deserts. They have seen empires grow up like Jonah's gourd. War
has swept away some; the varieties and luxuries of peace have brought
others to the ground; and every spot along these shores is celebrated."
When the northeastern and the western shores of the Arabian peninsula
had thus been investigated, there still remained to be explored the
south eastern shore, the coast of the anciently renowned province of
Hadramaut, extending from Tehama, on the Red Sea, to the province of
Oman, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf; and it is to the discoveries
made in this almost unknown part of the world that I now wish more
particularly to allude.
In the year 1839 Capt. Haines, the commander of the expedition and the
present governor of Aden, published his survey of about two fifths of
this coast, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb as far east as
Missenaat, in long. 51° east of Greenwich.[63] In the year 1845, he
published his further survey of about an equal portion extending to Cape
Isolette, in long. 57° 51´, leaving about one fifth of the whole extent
on the eastern end still to be explored.[64]
In June, 1843, Adolphe Baron Wrede, a Hanoverian gentleman, made an
excursion from Makallah on the coast, into the interior of the country.
He visited among other places an extensive valley called Wadi Doan,
which he thus describes. "The sudden appearance of the Wadi Doan, took
me by surprise and impressed me much with the grandeur of the scene. The
ravine, five hundred feet wide and six hundred feet in depth, is
enclosed between perpendicular rocks, the debris of which form in one
part a slope reaching to half their height. On this slope, towns and
villages rise contiguously in the form of an amphitheatre; while below
the date grounds, which are covered with a forest of trees, the river
about twenty feet broad and enclosed by high and walled embankments is
seen winding through fields laid out in terraces, then pursuing its
course in the open plain, irrigated by small canals branching from it.
My first view of the valley disclosed to me four towns and four
villages, within the space of an hour's distance." He also gives an
account of some curious spots of quicksand, in the midst of the great
desert of El-Akkaf, which are regarded with superstitious horror by the
wandering Bedouins. A cord of sixty fathoms in length with a plummet at
the end, which he cast into one of them, disappeared in the course of
five minutes. His narrative is published in the fourteenth volume of the
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.
In spite of the glowing descriptions of ancient authors, the idea
hitherto entertained of this region in modern times, has been that of a
succession of desert plains and sand-hills, with nothing to give
animation to the arid scene but solitary groups of Bedouins and
occasionally a passing caravan. The recent explorations, however, of
which the one just quoted is a specimen, show that this is far from
being a correct view of the entire country. The coast is thickly studded
with fishing-villages and small seaports, which still carry on, though
on a diminished scale, the trade with India and the Persian gulf, which
has existed ever since the dawn of history. It is true, the general
appearance of the country along the coast, consisting as it does of
successive ranges of sand-hills, is such as to naturally give rise to
the views entertained and promulgated by navigators, who have had no
opportunity of visiting the interior. But the deeper researches that
have been made during the last ten or twelve years, show that these
opinions are very erroneous; for besides that there are a number of
green valleys running down to the coast, produced by streams provided
with water for at least a good part of the year, no sooner has the
traveller surmounted the first range of sand-hills, than his sight
begins to be regaled with numerous well watered valleys and mountains
covered with verdure. Besides this, even in those parts of the country
where the surface is naturally a desert plain, the inhabitants have
possessed from the remotest times the art of forming flourishing oases,
in which to establish their hamlets and towns; an operation which, as
Wellsted remarks, is effected with a labor and skill that seem more
Chinese than Arabian. This traveller says: "The greater part of the face
of the country being destitute of running streams on the surface, the
Arabs have sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath
it. A channel from this fountain-head is then, with a very slight
descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving
apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are
occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frequently
conducted from a distance of six or eight miles, and an unlimited supply
is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and
two feet deep, and contain a clear and rapid stream. Few of the large
towns or oases but had four or five of these rivulets or feleji running
into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a
soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable, common to
India, Arabia, or Persia, is produced almost spontaneously; and the
tales of the oases will be no longer regarded as an exaggeration, since
a single step conveys the traveller from the glare and sand of the
desert into a fertile tract, watered by a hundred rills, teeming with
the most luxuriant vegetation, and embowered by lofty and stately trees,
whose umbrageous foliage the fiercest rays of a noontide sun cannot
penetrate."[65]
These oases and the towns situated in them, date from various periods;
some of those already discovered being evidently of considerable
antiquity. In describing some of these towns, Wellsted says: "The
instant you step from the Desert within the Grove, a most sensible
change of the atmosphere is experienced. The air feels cold and damp;
the ground in every direction is saturated with moisture; and from the
density of the shade, the whole appears dark and gloomy. To avoid the
damp and catch an occasional beam of the sun above the trees, the
houses are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is
turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The
windows and doors have the Saracenic arch; and every part of the
building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco in bas relief,
some in very good taste. The doors are also cased with brass, and have
rings and other massive ornaments of the same metal." These descriptions
relate to the province of Oman, the eastern extremity of Southern
Arabia. The glimpses already obtained of this ancient and famous land,
sufficiently prove that the fortunate traveller who shall succeed in
obtaining access into the interior of the country, which has always been
a _terra incognita_ to Europeans and their descendants, will find an
abundance of objects of interest to reward his zeal and self-devotion.
There is however another class of interesting objects, relating to the
ancient history of the country, which I have not alluded to until now,
because I wish to speak of them more particularly. These are the ancient
_inscriptions_, of which a number have already been discovered and in
part decyphered.
Several Arabian writers have stated that there existed in the southern
part of their country, before the time of Mohammed, a kind of writing
which they call Himyaritic, after the name of the ancient inhabitants of
the country, the Beni Himyar. But the confused nature of these accounts,
together with the Arab practice of giving the name of Himyaritic to
every ancient mode of writing which they were unable to read, caused the
story to be regarded as little better than fabulous. In the year 1808
the late Baron de Sacy published a learned treatise on the subject, in
which he collected all the Arabian accounts; but no further progress was
made in the enquiry, until the discovery of a number of inscriptions on
various massy ruins situated along the coast and in the interior, by
officers attached to the surveying expedition already spoken of, in the
years 1834 and '5.
Copies of these inscriptions were transmitted to the late Dr. Gesenius
of Halle, one of the first Orientalists of Europe. After making some
progress in the investigation, he gave up the subject to his colleague
Dr. Rödiger, who had devoted himself to it with great ardor and success.
The latter published a copious dissertation containing the results he
had arrived at, which he reprinted in 1842 by way of an appendix to his
German edition of Wellsted's Travels in Arabia. By comparing the
characters of the inscriptions with the Himyaritic alphabets contained
in some Arabic manuscripts and with the present Ethiopic alphabet, he
was enabled to ascertain the powers of the letters, and even to
interpret, with various degrees of certainty, many portions of the
inscriptions themselves. Thus, these venerable records, which in all
probability have for many ages been dumb to every human being, are in a
fair way of being made to yield up to modern scientific research
whatever information they may contain. That this information must be
interesting and valuable to the historian is inferred from the imposing
nature of the structures on which they are found, and whose existence
but a few years ago was as little looked for in this part of the world
as in the forest wilds of Oregon. A full account of these discoveries
and of the attempts at decyphering the inscriptions was published in
1845 in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society
of this city. I will therefore merely proceed to state what has been
accomplished in the matter since the time when that account closes.
In the beginning of 1843, the same year in which M. Wrede made his
exploration, a French physician of the name of Arnaud being then at
Jiddah, received from M. Fresnel, the French consular agent at that
port, accounts of the Himyaritic inscriptions discovered by the officers
of the Indian Navy, and of the interest they had created in Europe. M.
Arnaud's enthusiasm being excited on the subject, he resolved to take a
share in these arduous researches. The grand object of his ambition was
to reach Mareb, the ancient capital of Hadramaut and the residence of
the famous Queen of Sheba, whose name according to the Arabians was
Balkis. Two English officers had undertaken the journey several years
ago, and had reached Sana, a town within three or four days' journey of
it; but the suspicions of the native authorities becoming excited, their
further progress was prevented.
The mode of proceeding adopted by M. Arnaud, who spoke the Arabic
fluently, was to travel as a Mussulman, in company with a caravan going
to the place. His plan was happily crowned with success. In the middle
of July he reached the city, where he saw the imposing remains of the
ancient dam, said to have been built across the valley of Mareb by
Balkis herself, and which, by collecting an immense body of water near
the metropolis, whence the surrounding country was irrigated, had given
rise to the fertility and beauty for which the region was celebrated in
ancient times. On these remains M. Arnaud discovered a number of
inscriptions, as also among the ruins of the former city; among the most
remarkable of these is one called Harem Balkis, which is thought to be
the remains of the palace of the ancient Sabean kings. The inscriptions
of which Mr. Arnaud brought away copies with him amount to fifty-six in
number. The tour of M. Wrede was also not unproductive in this respect.
He copied, among others, a long inscription in Wadi Doan; which,
according to the interpretations that have since been made of it,
contains a list of kings more copious than those which have been left us
by Albulfeda and other historians of the middle ages.
When M. Arnaud returned to Jiddah from his hazardous and toilsome
expedition, M. Fresnel, who had originally moved him to the undertaking,
set about studying the new inscriptions, aided by the previous labors of
the German scholars and his own knowledge of Arabic and the modern
Himyaritic. Possessing a far more abundant supply of materials than had
been collected before, he was able to assign to a few doubtful
characters their proper values. He transmitted to Paris a fair copy of
the original inscriptions, and also a transcription of them in the
Arabic character, showing how they should be read. A fount of Himyaritic
types having been constructed for the express purpose at the Imprimerie
Royale, they were all published in the course of last year in the
Journal Asiatique, together with several letters on the subject from M.
Fresnel. The form of the characters in these inscriptions is essentially
the same as in those discovered before; but, whereas the former ones all
read from right to left like the Arabic of the present day, some of the
new ones are found to read alternately from right to left and from left
to right, like some of the inscriptions of ancient Greece. M. Fresnel's
attention has been mainly directed to the collection and identification
of the proper names of persons, deities, and places, in which the
inscriptions abound, and in which he recognises many names mentioned in
Scripture, and in Greek, Roman, and Arabian authors. Thus he identifies
the deity 'Athtor with the Ashtoreth or Venus of the Hebrews. He finds
in an inscription at Hisn Ghorab the word Kaná, showing the correctness
of the conclusion already arrived at that this is the _Cane emporium_ of
Ptolemy. He identifies the ruins of Kharibeh, a day's journey to the
west of Mareb, with the Caripeta of Pliny, the furthest point reached by
the Roman commander, Ælius Gallus, in his expedition into Arabia Felix,
in the reign of Augustus Cæsar. He has also recognised many names of
Himyaritic sovereigns mentioned by Arabian writers, among others those
of the grandfather and uncle of Queen Balkis. M. Fresnel has also begun
to translate the inscriptions connectedly, a work of great labor and
difficulty. He has already furnished an improved reading and translation
of one at Sana, which had been copied before by English officers, and
interpreted by Gesenius and Rödiger, and has offered a translation of
another found by M. Arnaud, on the Hiram Balkis at Mareb.
The discoveries already brought to light, merely serve to show the
richness of the mine that yet remains to be explored. Other expeditions
are now planning, or in progress of execution, for penetrating into
other parts of the country; and eminent scholars are busied in
elucidating the treasures which the enterprize of travellers is bringing
to light. Their united exertions cannot fail, at least, to accumulate
many curious particulars relative to the history of one of the most
remarkable and least known nations of past ages.
The Rev. T. Brockman, who was sent by the Royal Geographical Society of
England for the purpose of geographical and antiquarian research in the
Arabian peninsula, had proceeded up the coast from Aden to Shehar,
midway between Aden and Muscat, and had coasted along to Cape Ras
al-Gat. Subsequently in attempting to reach Muscat, he was arrested by
sickness at Wadi Beni Jabor, where after a few days he died. His papers,
which will be sent to the Geographical Society, are thought to contain
matters of interest respecting this region.[66]
The following list embraces all of consequence that has been
written on Southern Arabia and the Himyaritic Inscriptions.
Pococke, Specimina Historiæ veterum Arabum. Oxford, 1649,
reprinted 1806.
De Sacy, sur divers Évènemens de l'histoire des Arabes avant
Mahomet, in Mém. de Lit. de l'Acad. Française, Vol. L. Paris,
1805.
Historia Jemanæ, e cod. MS. arabico, ed. G.T. Johannsen. Bonn,
1828.
Travels in Arabia, by Lieut. Wellsted, 2 vols. 8vo. London,
1838.
Memoir on the south coast of Arabia, by Capt. Harris. Journal
Royal Geographical Society, Vol. VI. IX.
Narrative of a Journey from Mokha to Sana: by C.J.
Cruttenden.--Ibid. Vol. VIII.
Gesenius, Über die Himjaritischen Sprache und Schrift, Halle,
1841.
Rödiger, Versuch über die Himjaritischen Schriftmonumente.
Halle, 1841. This was republished, with many improvements, in
an Appendix to the author's German translation of Wellsted's
Travels. 2 vols. Halle, 1842.
Ewald, on an inscription recently dug up in Aden, Zeitschrift
für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1843.
The Historical Geography of Arabia, or the Patriarchal
Evidences of Revealed Religion. By the Rev. Charles Forster, 2
vols. 8vo. London, 1844.
F. Fresnel. Letters to M. Jules Mohl, on the Himyaritic
Inscriptions. Paris, 1845.
Account of an excursion to Hadramaut, by Adolph Baron Wrede.
Journal Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XIV.
Memoir of the south and east coast of Arabia, by Capt. S.B.
Harris.--Ibid. Vol. XV.
SCLAVONIC MSS.--It is stated in the Russian papers that M.
Grigorowitsch, professor of the sclavonic tongues in the Imperial
University of Kasan, has returned to that capital from a two year's
journey in the interior of Turkey, by order of the Russian government,
in search of the graphic monuments of the ancient Sclavonic nations. He
has brought home fac-similes of many hundred inscriptions, and 2,138
Sclavonian manuscripts--450 of which are said to be very ancient, and of
great importance.
THE CAUCASUS.--The results of a scientific expedition for the
exploration of the Steppes of the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and of
Southern Russia, under the direction of M. Hommaire de Hell, has lately
been published. This portion of the East has been little noticed by
travellers, and the present work has therefore added much to our
previous knowledge of the country. It is accompanied by a large map, on
which the geographical and geological peculiarities are defined with
great minuteness and elegance.[67]
ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.
The discoveries recently made, and the researches now in progress in
those regions of the world known in ancient times as Assyria, Babylonia
and Persia, are among the most interesting and important of the age. Of
the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians we know nothing, but what we find
in the Bible, or what has been preserved and handed down to us by the
Greek historians. Unlike Egypt, who has left so many records of her
greatness, of her knowledge of the arts, and of her advancement in
civilization, in the numerous and wonderful monumental remains in the
valley of the Nile, the Assyrians were supposed to have left nothing, no
existing monuments as evidences that they ever had an existence, save in
the vast and misshapen heaps along the banks of the Euphrates and
Tigris, believed to wash the spots where the great cities of Nineveh and
Babylon once stood. The site of Nineveh still remains doubtful; and so
literally have the prophecies in regard to Babylon been fulfilled, that
nothing but vast heaps of rubbish, of tumuli, and traces of numerous
canals, remains. The language of the Assyrians is unknown, and the
impressions of characters in the form of a wedge or arrow-head stamped
upon the bricks and other relics dug from these heaps, have been looked
upon as mysterious and cabalistic signs, rather than the representatives
of sounds, or belonging to a regular form of speech. For more than
twenty centuries, these countries have been as a blank on the page of
history; and all we have gathered from them consists in the observations
of curious travellers, who, at the risk of their lives, have ventured to
extend their wanderings this way.
Pietro della Valle, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, and Ouseley,
have given us descriptions of the ancient remains in Persia and Assyria,
particularly those at Persepolis, Pasargadæ, and Babylon. These consist
of views of the monuments and sculptures, together with copies of the
inscriptions in the cuneiform, or arrow-head character. The object of
the edifices, the subject of the sculptures, and the meaning of the
inscriptions, were wholly matters of conjecture; and it seemed a
hopeless task to arrive at any conclusions in relation to them, until
some key should be discovered, by the means of which the language should
be made known, and the numerous inscriptions decyphered. No bilingual
tablet, such as the Rosetta stone of Egypt, had been discovered; and,
although it appeared that many of the inscriptions were recorded in
three different languages, no means seemed to exist by which
philologists could obtain a clue to their meaning. With this dark
prospect in view, the task of decyphering the arrow-headed characters
was attempted by M. Grotefend, one of the most sagacious and
distinguished philologists of Europe. The particulars of the attempt and
its results, we shall briefly state.
At Persepolis it is known are extensive ruins, chiefly belonging to a
large edifice, with every indication that this edifice was originally a
royal palace. History and tradition supported this belief; and the
general character of the sculptures and architecture, together with the
inscriptions, would carry its origin back to a period some centuries
before the Christian era. It was doubtless the work of one of the great
monarchs of Persia; of Cyrus, Cambyses, Xerxes, Darius, or some other
with whom history is familiar.[68] On some of the monuments at
Persepolis, are inscriptions in the Pehlvi character, parts of which
have been decyphered by M. de Sacy. In one of these, the titles and name
of a king are often repeated; these titles M. Grotefend thought might be
repeated in the same manner in the arrow-head characters.[69]
Over the doorways and in other parts of this edifice, are portraits,
evidently of kings, as there is always enough in the dress and insignia
of a monarch to enable one to detect him on any ancient monument. Over
these portraits are inscriptions; these it was natural to suppose
related to the person represented, and if so, contained the name of the
king and his titles. Such would be the conclusion of any one who
reflected on the subject, and such was the belief of M. Grotefend and
other philologists. In these inscriptions one group of characters was
repeated more frequently than any other, and all agreed that the
decyphering of this group would furnish a key to the whole. On this
group of characters then our Savans set to work.
According to the analogy of the Pehlvi inscriptions, decyphered by De
Sacy, it was believed that the inscriptions then under consideration,
mentioned the name of a king son of another king, that is the names of
father and son. M. Grotefend first examined the bas-reliefs at
Persepolis, to ascertain the particular age of the Persian kings to
which they belonged, in order that he might discover the names
applicable to the inscription. A reference to the Greek historians
convinced him that he must look for the kings of the dynasty of the
Achæmenides, and he accordingly applied their names to the characters of
the inscriptions. "These names could obviously not be Cyrus and
Cambyses, because the names occurring in the inscriptions do not begin
with the same letter; Cyrus and Artaxerxes were equally inapplicable,
the first being too short and the latter too long; there only remained
therefore the names of Darius and Xerxes;" and these latter agreed so
exactly with the characters, that Mr. Grotefend did not hesitate to
select them. The next step was to ascertain what these names were in the
old Persian language, as they come to us through the Greek, and would of
course differ somewhat from the original. The ancient Zend, as preserved
in the Zendavesta, furnished the only medium through which the desired
information could be obtained.[70] He next ascertained that Xerxes was
called _Kshershe_ or _Ksharsha_; and Darius, _Dareush_. A farther
examination gave him the name of _Kshe_ or _Ksheio_ for 'king.'[71] The
places or groups of characters corresponding with these names, were then
analyzed and the value of each character ascertained. These were then
applied to other portions of the inscriptions, and led to the
translation of two short ones, as well as to the formation of a
considerable portion of the alphabet.
Such was the result of Professor Grotefend's labors up to the year 1833.
His first discovery was made and announced as early as 1802, but an
account of his system of interpretation did not appear until 1815, in
the appendix to the third German edition of Heeren's Researches. This
was afterwards enlarged in the translation of Heeren published at Oxford
in 1833, when it was first made known to English readers. In 1837 he
published a treatise containing an account of all the Persepolitan
inscriptions in his possession, and another in 1840 on those of Babylon.
The brilliant success which attended Grotefend's earlier efforts, soon
attracted the attention of other philologists to the subject. M. Saint
Martin read a memoir before the Asiatic Society of Paris in 1822, but
did not make any additions to our previous knowledge. Professor Rask
next took it up, and discovered the value of two additional characters.
M. Burnouf followed in 1836, with an elaborate memoir, in which he
disclosed some important discoveries.[72] Professor Lassen, in his
Memoir published in 1836, and in a series of papers continued up to the
present day,[73] has identified at least twelve characters, which had
been mistaken by all his predecessors, and which, says Maj. Rawlinson,
"may entitle him almost to contest with Professor Grotefend the palm of
alphabetical discovery."
In 1835, Major Rawlinson, then residing in Persia, turned his attention
to the subject, and decyphered some of the proper names on the tablets
at Hamadan. In the following year he applied himself to the great
inscription at Behistun, the largest and most remarkable that is known
in Persia, and succeeded in making out several lines of its contents.
The result of Major Rawlinson's first attempt at decyphering the
Behistun inscription, was the identification of several proper names,
and consequently the values of additional characters towards the
completion of the alphabet.[74] But more was wanted than the alphabet,
which only enabled the student to make out proper names, but not to
advance beyond; and it was the lack of this knowledge which prevented
the sagacious and indefatigable Grotefend from carrying out to any great
extent, the discoveries which he had so well begun.
The language of the inscriptions must next be studied; and as the Zend
had been the medium through which the first links in the chain of
interpretation had been obtained, it was naturally resorted to for aid
to farther progress. The Zendavesta, with the researches of Anquetil du
Perron, and the commentary at the Yaçna by M. Burnouf, wherein the
language of the Zendavesta is critically analyzed, and its grammatical
structure developed, furnished the necessary materials. To the latter
work, and the luminous critique of M. Burnouf, Major Rawlinson owes the
success of his translations; as he acknowledges that by it he "obtained
a general knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language of the
inscriptions."
But the Zend was not of itself sufficient to make out all the words and
expressions in the Behistun and other inscriptions. Other languages
contemporary with that of the inscription and of the Zend must be sought
for, to elucidate many points which it left obscure.[75] The Sanscrit
was the only one laying claim to a great antiquity, whose grammatical
structure was sufficiently developed to render it useful in this
enquiry. A knowledge of this language had previously been acquired by
Major Rawlinson, and he was therefore fully prepared for the arduous
task he had undertaken. Neither of these, it must be observed, was the
language of the inscriptions, which it is believed had ceased to be a
living form of speech, at the period when the Sanscrit and Zend were in
current use.
It is unnecessary to note in detail the difficulties and great labor
attending the decyphering of the Behistun tablets, on which Major
Rawlinson was occupied from time to time during a space of ten years.
His discoveries were announced in London, in a memoir read before the
Royal Asiatic Society in 1839, but were not published in extenso until
1846.
Briefly to sum up the results of his labors, it will suffice to state
that they present "a correct grammatical translation of nearly four
hundred lines of cuneiform writing, a memorial of the time of Darius
Hystaspes, the greater part of which is in so perfect a state as to
afford ample and certain grounds for a minute orthographical and
etymological analysis, and the purport of which to the historian, must
be of fully equal interest with the peculiarities of the language to the
philologist." In a few cases it may be found necessary to alter or
modify some of the significations assigned; but there is no doubt but
that the general meaning of every paragraph is accurately determined,
and that the learned Orientalist has thus been enabled "to exhibit a
correct historical outline, possessing the weight of royal and
contemporaneous recital, of many great events which preceded the rise
and marked the career of one of the most celebrated of the early
sovereigns of Persia."
Such is the history of this great discovery, which has placed the name
of Major Rawlinson among the most distinguished Oriental scholars of the
age. He will rank among the laborers in cuneiform writing, where
Champollion does among the decypherers of Egyptian hieroglyphics; for
though, like Champollion, he did not make the first discoveries in his
branch of Palæography, he is certainly entitled to the honor of reducing
it to a system, by ascertaining the true powers of a large portion of
the alphabet, and by elucidating its grammatical peculiarities, so that
future investigators will find little difficulty in translating any
inscription in the particular class of characters in question.
The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) or arrow-headed character is a system of
writing peculiar to the countries between the Euphrates and the Persian
frontier on the East. Various combinations of a figure shaped like a
wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute
the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
Medes, and the Achæmenian kings of Persia. The character seems to have
been as extensively employed in this portion of the world, as the Roman
letters now are in Europe. Particular arrangements or combinations of
these characters apparently belonged to different nations, speaking
different languages. When and where this system of writing originated is
not known. Professor Westergaard[76] thinks that "Babylon was its
cradle, whence it spread in two branches, eastward to Susiana, and
northward to the Assyrian empire, from whence it passed into Media, and
lastly into ancient Persia, where it was much improved and brought to
its greatest perfection."
Major Rawlinson makes of the arrow-headed writing three great classes or
divisions, the _Babylonian_, _Median_ and _Persian_. The first of these
he thinks is unquestionably the oldest. "It is found upon the bricks
excavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia,
Babylonia, and Chaldea, that possess the highest and most authentic
claims to antiquity;" and he thinks it "not extravagant therefore to
assign its invention to the primitive race which settled in the plain of
Shinar."[77] In the recent excavations made by M. Botta and Mr. Layard,
on or near the site of ancient Nineveh, numerous inscriptions in this
form of the arrow-head character were found. It also occurs in detached
inscriptions from the Mediterranean to the Persian mountains.
A comparison of the various inscriptions in the Babylonian class of
writing has led Major Rawlinson to believe that it embraces five
distinct varieties, which he calls the Primitive Babylonian, the
Achæmenian Babylonian, the Medo-Assyrian, the Assyrian, and the
Elymæan.[78] The peculiarities of these several varieties, with the
countries in which they are found, are pointed out in the second chapter
of our author's learned Memoir on cuneiform writing. The Median and
Persian classes are peculiar to the trilingual tablets of Persia, and
are better known than the first class or Babylonian.
Mr. Westergaard[79] divides the cuneiform writing into five classes: the
_Assyrian_; the _Old Babylonian_; and the three kinds on the trilingual
tablets of Persia, which embrace the _Median_ and _Persian_ varieties,
and the one called by Rawlinson the _Achæmenian Babylonian_.
The history we have already given of the progress made in decyphering
these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the
tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost
invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three
different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be
the primary or original inscription, of which the others are
translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were
the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their
efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to
exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is
now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is
alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single
articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a
great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much
more difficult.
For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian
trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of
Professor Westergaard.[80] These characters had remained entirely
undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was
evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a
translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this
learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the
proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &c.,
which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major
Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next analyzed each and ascertained
the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are
composed. By this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He
next examined the introductory words and the titles of the sovereigns,
and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most
satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in
which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing
the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic
classification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which
seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of
division between words. The character of the language, which for
convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though
he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the Japhetic
class of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The
Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains
several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and Lassen, on the
arrow-headed inscriptions.
In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achæmenian
Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The
contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued
the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying
the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the
other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic
values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a
knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was
also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840,
singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes,
Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan
writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three
accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, Lassen, and Westergaard,
which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by
making out the characters and language of this species of writing also.
A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the
information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is
assignable.
It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan
writing, there are two other distinct classes of arrow-head characters,
called Babylonian and Assyrian. Little or nothing has yet been
accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that
they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been
found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other
language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Löwenstern, who has
applied himself to the study of the Assyrian tablets, published in 1845
an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad
near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand
for the words _great king_, and also several alphabetical characters.
Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his
conclusions are correct.
It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to
light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The
great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this
monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest,
magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are
indebted for all that is most valuable in the palæography of Persia.
Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent passion for monumental fame, he
was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis
with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking
the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate
workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of
his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest
regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign
to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their
emulation. At Persepolis, the high place of Persian power, he aspired
to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their
future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over
the feudatory provinces of the empire,[81] while upon the sacred rock of
Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect
the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and
power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy
of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of
the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence,
the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in
which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive
overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most
favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."
The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at
Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the
arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given
fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in
Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a
translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on
each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as
possible.
"I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of
Persia, the king of (the dependent) provinces, the son of
Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achæmenian.
"Says Darius the King:--My father was Hystaspes; of Hystaspes,
the father was Arsames; of Arsames, the father was Ariyaramnes;
of Ariyaramnes, the father was Teispes; of Teispes, the father
was Achæmenes.
"Says Darius the King:--On that account, we have been called
Achæmenians: from antiquity we have been unsubdued; from
antiquity those of our race have been kings.
"Says Darius the King:--There are eight of my race who have
been kings before me, I am the ninth; for a very long time we
have been kings.
"Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, I am king;
Ormuzd has granted me the empire.
"Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have fallen
into my hands--by the grace of Ormuzd, I have become king of
them--Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt; those
which are of the sea, Sparta and Ionia; Armenia, Cappadocia,
Parthia, Zarangea, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, the Sacæ,
the Sattagydes, Arachosia, and the Mecians; the total amount being
twenty-one countries.
"Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have come to
me; by the grace of Ormuzd, they have become subject to me--they
have brought tribute to me. That which has been said unto them by
me, both by night and by day, it has been performed by them.
"Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd has granted me the empire. Ormuzd
has brought help to me until I have gained this empire. By the
grace of Ormuzd, I hold this empire.
"Says Darius the King:-- ... He who was named Cambyses, the son of
Cyrus of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that
Cambyses a brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and
mother as Cambyses. Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew
that Bartius, the troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had
excited. Then Cambyses proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone
to Egypt, the state became heretical; then the lie became abounding
in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other
provinces."
He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the
death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no
one dared to resist him. He continues:
"every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I
arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought
help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the
Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace
of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."
He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of
old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and
restored the old families to office,--all of which was accomplished by
the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became
rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.
"Says Darius the King:--Then I proceeded to Babylon against
that Natitabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser
(Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Natitabirus held the Tigris;
there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed
a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I
assaulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by
the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in passing the Tigris. Then I
entirely defeated the army of that Natitabirus. On the 27th day
of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."
Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army
of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army
into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this
monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who
took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.
"Says Darius the King:--whilst I was at Babylon, these are the
countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media,
Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia."
He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers
sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles
were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result,
in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After
speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.
"Says Darius the King:--Then Dadarses by name, an Armenian, one
of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him:
'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite
it.' Then Dadarses marched. When he reached Armenia, then the
rebels having collected came before Dadarses arraying their
battle ... by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged.
Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces
entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month
Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."
In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of
Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no
monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times,
at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are far more
ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings,
do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the
details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his
acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected
him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this
remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the
following.
"Says Darius the King:--This is what I have done. By the grace
of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou
whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to
thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been
falsely related.
"Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd is my witness, that this record
I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.
"Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much
else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not
been inscribed.... If thou publish this tablet to the world,
Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be
numerous.
"Says Darius the King:--If thou shalt conceal this record, thou
shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and
mayest thou be childless.
"Says Darius the King:--As long as thou mayest behold this
tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if
from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to
thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be
long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for
thee in after times."
The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is
sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the
arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There
are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words
and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two
inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of
sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his
officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and
nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had
severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and
have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons
they represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract
given.
"This Natitabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am
Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."
The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for
the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character,
require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an
archæological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king
of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of
a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in
Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those
wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he
accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he
copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the
preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success.
He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit
scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the
Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well
acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the
inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors,
Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his
transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.
It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are
triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of
the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor
Lassen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying
his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving
conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and
near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical
value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but
consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of
himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The
following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense
portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]
"Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created
the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of
mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only
emperor of many.
"I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of
realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of
this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achæmenide.
"I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of
Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people.
Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal,
and in this palace--the palace which my father built for
abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.
"I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also
this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace
protect, O admirable Ormuzd."
No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first
son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G.
Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three
species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and
its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longpérier,
who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or
Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the
hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]
An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has
been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one species of the
Achæmenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a
most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone
in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a
philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early
a decline of the Persian language.
But the most important part of this inscription consists of the
genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the
father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian
historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far
decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them,
and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an
all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.
NINEVEH. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the
researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient
Nineveh.
This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his
discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues,
and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound,
where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were
covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and
scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The
drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments
of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the
anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the
Egyptians--they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head,
and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their
dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings.
Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately
wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The
discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground
in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened
a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It
contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at
Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of
chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and
inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the
class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was
built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the
Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered
by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as
though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged
lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance
to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the
highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There
are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs
consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads--others entirely
human but winged--with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]
Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned,
announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and
every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh,
whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic
dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and
her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by
the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and
uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance
previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty
feet long and thirty broad--entirely built of slabs of marble covered
with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the
highest interest--battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the
finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary
spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the
Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines
of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans--such as
the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing
can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords,
daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances,
each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other
chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every
chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or
inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a
great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand
eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to
light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be
looked forward to with intense interest.
All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by
Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first empire under
Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political
institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly
disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A
learned author of the last century[90] has endeavored to throw distrust
on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries,
because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus
and other prominent characters which fill important places in the
Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the
arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate
in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The
observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this
subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and
civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to
have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can
but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent
revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such
scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a
testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted
with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger
is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with
severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a
predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is
repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]
A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was
directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the
Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical,
and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont.
The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the
inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his
intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China
on the north.[92]
In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince
Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor
for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on
foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the
Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93] The prince
has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural
history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return
to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.
The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and
Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head
inscriptions.
The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and
translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in
general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C.
Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Vol. 10. London, 1846.
On the Decyphering of the second Achæmenian or Median species
of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the
Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
Copenhagen, 1844.
Lettres de M. Botta sur les Découvertes à Khorsabad, près de
Ninive, publiées par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris,
1845.
Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phénicie, sous
les rois Achæmenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.
The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters
and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of
the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo.
London, 1847.
Essai de Déchiffrement de l'Écriture Assyrienne pour servir à
l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Löwenstern. 8vo.
Paris, 1846.
Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erläutert. Von F.
Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.
Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the
upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Mülbach.
Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art
of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient
Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the
Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.
Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil
d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes
et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio.
250 plates and text.
This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by
order of the French government, under the directions of the
Institute, and now published by a commission of savans,
consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the
course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most
complete work ever published on this interesting country and
will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.
G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die
Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.
G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die
Beschaffensheit des ältesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.
The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled
"Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many
papers of great interest on these subjects.
SIBERIA. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia,
has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most
successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the
northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive
exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of
the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished
and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans
of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am
indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94]
The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west,
and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of
Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in
obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next
undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast
continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and
thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey
through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers,
was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to
St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region
never previously explored by a man of science."
"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M.
Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and
perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild
regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by
_following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of
underwood and birch trees_" In his return journey, he examined the
frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and
ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the
Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and
China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to
either Emperor.
In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid
traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were
investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these
respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen
subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the
shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below
the surface, the cold is 2° 4´´ Réaumur, and that it is probable the
frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet!
Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of
which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye
succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions,
and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M.
Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation.
He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow
on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40´, indigenous plants, requiring less
warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical
stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!"
This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of
vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to
climatological and local conditions.
In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in
Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of
Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially
organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as
grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72° which
would suffice for their sustenance.
The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who
by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these
remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent
stocks.
Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and
southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this
journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a
knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have
been neglected.[95]
Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed
in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of
his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the
river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks,
the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and
Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The
Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their
religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of
thinking.
A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by Prof. Von
Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for
the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries
of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and
some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the
Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both
physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of
Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which
Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to
Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities
of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these
were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of
these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the
Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."
A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to
which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually.
The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and
patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of
the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60° north (Bogoslafsk) to the
Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling,
already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation
in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound
acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed,
during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild
Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by
Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation.
Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will
elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the
mammoths.[96]
INDIA. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have
retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually
removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General,
for promoting education in that country.[97] This benevolent and
excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not
more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education
among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition,
"has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged
with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the
provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the
students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and
capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to
their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed
qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools,
or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people,
towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good
education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the
Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most
powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the
last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the
service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces
the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of
recruiting the public service in every department from those who have
earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be
found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the
country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge
and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse
their influence through every district."
The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the first steps in
this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in
southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred
and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity.
This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.[98]
Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the
natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross
superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can
be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling
to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards
its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the
innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they
are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in
monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry.
Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these
things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the
subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be
rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.
The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to
which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in
opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in
every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their
false prophet.[99] A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his
own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous
distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.
In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to
proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without
first making themselves acquainted with the fabric which they were
laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives
were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers
had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and
of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended
with success--and a conflict between Oriental and European
civilization--between Hindooism and Christianity--between the false
science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time
existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would
triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids
fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and
China.
It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a
failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who
are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount
there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social
condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages
and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and
reform, the printing press.[100]
But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books,
that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is
true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth
and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved
their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe
and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of
philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely
known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were
spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and
from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into
forms adapted to written speech.
While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should
do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve
the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant
countries. In the most barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do
we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition
of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance
of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself,
which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise.
Neither François Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the
pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or
devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in
Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and
Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the
inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their
narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the
countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that
interests us.
SIAM. An interesting fact connected with the progress of European
civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam,
seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the
American Mission in that country.
"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close
of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited
to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh
ecclesiastical embassy to that island--regarded by all Boodhists as very
sacred--to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of
their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in
June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in
Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion
of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the
influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of
the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and
that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling
Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly extinct. The
writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of
his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested
that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds,
with which he might build a _Wat_ (Religious house) and support priests
in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a
great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of
Boodhism."[101]
The following list embraces the recent works on India.
Travels in the Kashmir and the Punjab; containing a particular
account of the Sikhs. From the German of Baron Hugel, with
notes by Major Jervis, royal 8vo. London, 1846.
The Punjaub; being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs,
its extent, history, commerce, productions, religion, &c., to
the recent campaign of the Sutelege. By Lt. Col. Steinbach,
post, 8vo. London, 1846.
A Peep into Turkistan; by Capt. R. Burslem, 8vo. London, 1846.
Travels in the Punjab, Affghanistan and Turkistan, to Balk,
Bokhara and Herat, by Mohan Lal, 8vo. London, 1846.
History of the Punjab, and of the rise, progress and present
condition of the Sikhs, 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
The history of the Sikhs, with a personal narrative of the war
between the British and the Sikhs. By W.L. McGregor, 2 vols.
8vo. London, 1847.
The Sikhs and Affghans, immediately before and after the death
of Runjeet Singh. By Shahamat Ali, post, 8vo. London, 1847.
The Hindoo Castes; or history, manners and customs of the 42
castes or sects of the Brahmins of British India, with highly
colored plates: By E.A. Rodriguez, 24 numbers.
COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.
COCHIN-CHINA. M. Hedde has published a few notices of a visit to Turon
in Annam in 1844, on his passage from Singapore to Macao.[102] He
represents the country as altogether in a wretched, declining condition,
misgoverned and beggared by despotic officers, presenting a painful
contrast in its general prosperity with the Chinese empire. The present
monarch is named Thieufri (or Yuen-fuh-siuen in Chinese) and succeeded
his father Ming-ming or Minh-menh in 1841, but no improvement in the
domestic or foreign administration of the government has taken place.
Several Cochin-Chinese youth have been educated at Singapore, and the
king purchased two steamers several years ago from the Dutch, but the
natives probably were too little acquainted with the machinery and
motive power to make the least use of them, as nothing has since been
heard of them. The country is highly favored by its natural advantages
and navigable rivers for maintaining a large population, but oppression
on the part of the rulers and ignorance among the people, vitiate the
sources of national prosperity. The port of Turon alone, is open in
Annam for foreign trade, but no American vessels have been there for a
cargo since Lieut. White's unsuccessful voyage in the Franklin in 1804.
Capt. Percival of the U.S. ship Constitution anchored there in May,
1845, but no official account of his visit has been published, which if
the rumors of his firing upon the town are true, is not strange. The
Peacock and Enterprize also anchored there in 1836, but Mr. Roberts, the
American diplomatic agent, was too ill to have any communications with
the authorities.
CHINA. The late war between England and China has directed the attention
of other nations towards that empire in an unusual degree. Except the
immediate details of the contest and the personal incidents connected
with it, however, the works of those officers who have written upon that
war, have not contained so much information as was expected by some, but
quite as much as could be collected under the circumstances. The war was
almost wholly a maritime one, confined to attacks upon cities and forts
upon the coast and rivers, by both the army and navy, and few or none of
the officers were acquainted with the language of the people, so that
little information could be obtained from those natives whom suspicion
or terror did not drive away. The region around Ningpo, Chusan and the
mouth of the Yangtsz kiang, has been described with more minuteness than
any other part of the maritime provinces; and the careful survey of the
coast from Amoy to Shanghai, with the Chusan and Pescadore archipelagoes
by Captains Collinson, and Kellet and others, has left little to be done
for the navigator's benefit, in making known the hydrography of this
part of China. The general topography of China is, however, but little
better known now than it was at the close of the general survey of the
Jesuits in 1714, and their maps form the basis of the best extant.
The embassy sent by the French government in 1844, under M. Th. de
Lagrené, to form a commercial treaty with China, was furnished on a most
liberal scale with everything necessary to make the greatest improvement
of the opportunities offered to examine into the mechanical arts and
productions of the land. Four gentlemen were attached to the
ambassador's suite, to make inquiries into the various agricultural and
mechanical arts of the Chinese, one of whom, M. Isidore Hedde, was
especially designated to investigate everything relating to the growth
and preparation of silk. In pursuance of this object, he visited the
city of Tuchan fu, which lies a few miles northwest of Shanghai, and is
the capital of the province of Kiangsu. This place is probably the
second or third city in the empire, Canton or Hangchau fu being the only
ones which can compete with it for wealth and beautiful manufactures. It
lies in a highly cultivated region, and is connected with Peking and
other large places, through the Grand canal and the Yangtsz kiang. M.
Hedde went in a Chinese dress, and succeeded in visiting the principal
buildings in the city, such as the provincial mint, the hall of
examination, an establishment for the education of unhappy females
destined for sale for the amusement of the opulent, and some
manufactories. The suburbs of Suchau, as is the case with most Chinese
cities, exceed that part within the walls, and here he found most of the
craftsmen in iron, ivory, gold, silver, wood, bone, horn, glass, earth,
paper, cotton and silk. His errand being chiefly to examine the silken
fabrics, he noticed whatever was peculiar in spinning, dyeing and
weaving, in the shops he entered. The Chinese have no such immense
establishments as are found in this country, where large buildings
accommodate an immense quantity of machinery and numerous workmen, but
all their products are made by manual labor in small establishments. M.
Hedde was struck with the immense population of the city and its
environs, including a floating suburb of great extent, the whole
comprising a population of not far from two millions. The Chinese census
gives an average of over nine hundred souls to a square mile in the
province of Kiangsu, and every opportunity which has been offered for
examining it, has added new evidence to the truth of this statement,
though closer investigation and further travel is necessary before we
can give implicit reliance to the assertions made on this subject.
Two English missionaries have lately gone long journeys into the
interior, but as Protestants have no coadjutors among the people away
from the ports, who would be willing to receive and conceal them; and as
their system of operations aims rather to impart a true knowledge of
Christianity than to make many converts to a form of worship, these
excursions have not been frequently made. One of the two here referred
to, was across the country from Ningpo to Canton, by the same route Lord
Macartney came, and the other was up the Yangtsz kiang. Two American
missionaries visited the large city of Changchau fu near Amoy in 1844,
where they were received with civility though not with kindness.
Mr. Robert Fortune, sent out to China by the Horticultural Society, has
lately returned to England, with new plants of great beauty, and a large
collection of botanical and ornithological specimens, among which are
doubtless many not heretofore described. Mr. Fortune visited all the
ports, and made excursions in their neighborhoods, and his reception
among the people was generally kind. The people in the cities of Ningpo
and Shanghai, and their vicinities, compare favorably for their kindness
and general courtesy, with the coarse mannered natives of Canton.
The opening of this great empire to the commercial enterprise of western
nations, has given rise to anticipations of an extensive trade, and the
importation of cotton and woolen fabrics during the last few years has
been increasing; and if it was not for the abominable traffic in opium,
which is both impoverishing and destroying the Chinese, there would be
every reason for believing the commerce with China would soon be one of
the largest branches of trade. The principal articles in which it is
most likely to increase are tea and silk, but there is a great
assortment of other productions, which can be taken in exchange for the
cloths, metals and wares of the west. Mr. Montgomery Martin for a short
time colonial treasurer of Hongkong, has collected all the statistics
bearing on this subject in his work, which will aid in forming an
opinion on this point. Commercially, politically and religiously, the
Chinese empire now presents a most interesting spectacle, and the
experiment of regenerating it and introducing it into the family of
nations, without completely disorganizing its present form of government
and society, will constantly go on and attract still more and more the
notice of Christendom. The probabilities at present are in favor of a
successful issue, but it is impossible to contemplate the desolating
effects of the use of opium, brought to the people in such quantities,
without great apprehension as to the result. The lava like progress of
the power of Great Britain in Asia, has just commenced on the borders of
China, and when the country is drained of specie in payment for this
drug, there is reason to fear that the native government will be unable
to carry on its operations and maintain its authority.
COREA. Since the extermination of the Catholic priests from Corea in
1839, the most rigid measures have been adopted to exclude all
foreigners; in fact, the determination on the part of the government of
Corea to prevent all intercourse between its people and those of other
countries seems to have been adopted from its neighbor of Japan. These
measures are even extended to the Chinese, against whom a strong natural
antipathy exists, growing out of the persecutions formerly inflicted on
the Coreans by them. Accurate descriptions of Europeans are kept at the
various posts on the frontier, and from their well known characteristics
they are easily distinguished. The Coreans themselves on leaving their
country for China for purposes of trade, receive a passport, which on
returning must be given back or they are not permitted to enter. Many
Christians still remain in Corea, and though they are subject to
persecution, the minds of the people are well disposed towards the
Christian religion. The literary class hold it in the highest
estimation, and seem only to be waiting for the moment when they will be
free to declare in its favor.[103]
Farther accounts from this country have lately appeared in the Annals of
the Propaganda Society,[104] in a letter from Keemay Kim a native of
Corea, and a Christian, who had just completed his studies at Macao in
China. He was sent on a mission to the Christians in Corea, but owing to
the vigilance observed on the frontiers of that country, was unable to
enter it. Determined to persevere in the attempt, he posted on to
Hoong-tchoong, a small frontier town near the mouth of a river which
separates Corea from Manchuria, where he waited until the period arrived
when the great fair was to take place at Kee-eu-Wen, the nearest town in
Corea, four leagues distant. "They supply the Coreans with dogs, cats,
pipes, leather, stag's horns, copper, horses, mules and asses; and
receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine,
paper, mats, oxen, furs and small horses." A few officers are permitted
to trade every year, but they are closely guarded. All others who pass
the frontier are made slaves or massacred at once. Our traveller here
met a few Corean Christians in the immense crowd which had come to
traffic, and whom he recognised by a badge previously agreed upon; but
so great was the confusion and hurry on the occasion, added to the fear
of being recognized, that the interview does not seem to have been
productive of good, or increased our information of the people or
country. Since the great persecution a few years since, the church had
been at rest; and though a few converts had been made, the faithful had
retired to the southern provinces for better security. They still
entertained the idea of introducing a European missionary through the
north, though with the knowledge that if discovered by the authorities,
instant death would follow. Such is the zeal and perseverance with which
these men pursue their philanthropic and Christian labors.
The fair to which allusion has been made, is thus described by our
Corean. The traders cannot begin their operations until a signal is
given, by hoisting a flag and beating the gong, "when the immense and
densely packed crowd rush to the market place; Coreans, Chinese, and
Manchus, are all mingled together. Each speaks in his own tongue, and so
great is the uproar produced by this mass of people, that the echoes of
the neighboring mountains repeat their discordant shouts."
"Four or five hours is the whole time allowed for buying and selling;
consequently, the tumult which takes place, the quarrels which arise,
the blows which are exchanged, and the plundering which goes on, give
the place more the look of a city taken by storm and given up to
pillage, than that of a fair." At evening, when the signal is given,
the strangers are driven out by the soldiers with the points of their
lances.
MANCHURIA. The vast regions of Manchuria, lying north of Corea to the
Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains, and east of the Sialkoi to the ocean, are
inhabited by various tribes speaking different dialects and subsisting
principally by hunting and fishing. The Manchus are now the dominant
race, but some of the tribes near the sea and in Taraka island, bear no
tributary relations to them, if indeed they are much acquainted. Since
the conquest of China, the Manchus have gone on steadily improving this
part of their possessions by stationing agricultural troops at the
principal ports of observation, and collecting the hunters around these
points as much as possible. Criminals are also constantly banished
there, who carry with them their arts, and by their industry both
maintain themselves and set an example to the nomads. The southern part
called Shingking, has become well cultivated in many parts, and
considerable trade is carried on at Kinchau with other parts of China.
Manchuria produces pulse, maize, (Indian corn), millet, barley and
buckwheat; pulse, drugs and cattle, form the leading articles of trade.
The climate of this country is so inhospitable, as to prove a serious
obstacle in the way of its settlement and cultivation.
The Manchus have no national literature; all the books written in their
language are translations of Chinese works, made under the
superintendence of the Academies at Moukden and Peking. Their written
characters are derived from the Mongols, but have undergone many
changes. The emperors have taken great pains to elevate their countrymen
by providing them with the best books in Chinese literature, and
compelling them to go through the same examinations before they can
attain any office; but the numerical superiority of the Chinese and
their active habits, give them so much the advantage, that except in
their own country, the Manchus find it difficult to preserve their
native tongue to the second generation.
MONGOLIA. The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda Society
contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by the
Rev. Mr. Huc.[105] This vast country, covering a million of square
miles, consists of barren deserts and boundless steppes. In the limits
allotted each corps, there is seldom more than one town, where the chief
resides. The people live in tents, without any permanent residence. They
move from place to place, with the changes of the seasons, or when their
immense herds of oxen, camels and horses have exhausted the grass around
their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of
tents, filled with an active population; the children playing as happy
and contented as though surrounded with every luxury a civilized life
affords; the women cooking their food and drawing water from a well just
dug; and the men, mounted on horseback, are galloping over the plain,
keeping their countless herds from straying away. To-morrow, this
picturesque and animated scene will be changed to a dreary and
forbidding desert. Men, flocks, and tents have vanished, and nought
remains to mark the visit of this wandering race, but the curling smoke
of their unquenched fires, or the birds of prey hovering over the
carcase of some dying camel, or feeding on the remains of their late
repast. The Mongols are irreclaimable nomads, though some tribes of
them, as the Tsakhars, Ortous, and Solous, cultivate the soil. The four
khanates of the Kalkas are called Outer Mongolia, and comprise within
their borders, several well built towns, though none of any size,
compared with the cities in China. Few Chinese have settled among the
Mongols, except near the Great Wall, nor will they allow them to do so,
as there is a deep antipathy between the two races. The Mongols of the
present day have probably made no advances in civilization over their
ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublai.
The approaches of the British power up the valley of the Sutlej, into
the regions lying along the base of the western Himalayas, are such that
they will ere long come in contact with Tibet through Ladak, and with
Yarkand through Badakshan. But there is probably more geographical than
ethnological information to be gained by traversing these elevated
regions, where stupendous mountains and arid deserts offer nothing to
tempt man from the fertile plains of India and China. Two Romish
missionaries have lately arrived in Canton from H'lassa in Tibet, by the
overland route through Patang in Sz'chuen to the capital of Kwangsi, and
thence to Canton. This route has never been described by any traveller.
LEWCHEW ISLANDS. This group of islands, including the Madjico sima,
lying between it and Formosa, form a dependency of the principality of
Satzuma, in the southwest of Japan, though the rulers are allowed a
limited intercourse with China through Fuhchau fu. During the late war
between England and China, the transport Indian Oak was lost on
Lewchew,[106] August 14, 1840, and the crew were treated with great
kindness, and provided with a vessel, in which they returned to Chusan.
Every effort was made by the authorities to prevent the officers and men
from examining the island, but their kindness to the unfortunate people
thus cast on their shores, made such an impression, that a mission to
the islanders was determined upon in London, by some naval gentlemen
connected with the expedition, and a society formed. The Rev. B.J.
Bettelheim was appointed to the post, and had reached Canton in March,
1846. He afterwards proceeded on his voyage, and his journal received at
Hongkong, from Napa, contains a few details of interest, but shows
plainly that the authorities are decided in refusing to allow foreigners
to settle in their territories.
An attempt has been made by the Romish missionaries to establish a
mission in this group.[107] The Rev. W. Forcade and an associate were
left on Lewchew in May, 1844, and after a residence of fifteen months
were able to transmit some notices of their treatment to the directors,
through Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. who stopped at Napa in August, 1845.
On their arrival, M. Forcade and his companion were conducted to their
dwelling, where they were surrounded by a numerous guard under the
control of officers, and attended by domestics, as they were told, "to
charm their leisure moments." Their table was bountifully supplied, and
everything they could ask to make them comfortable was granted them,
except their liberty. Whenever they went abroad, they were accompanied
by a guard, but allowed to hold no intercourse with the natives; they
had not been able to proceed beyond twelve miles into the interior, but
as far as they had opportunities of conversing with the natives, found
them simple and courteous in their manners, and disposed to talk when
not under surveillance. It is probable, however, that under such
restraint as these gentlemen were placed, it is not likely that they had
attained to such fluency in the language as to be able to hold very
ready communication with natives met in this hasty manner. The
intentions of the government were plain, however, not to allow them to
disseminate their doctrines, (if it had learned their real object), nor,
by intercourse with the people, become acquainted with their character,
or the state of the country. No assistance was granted them in learning
the language, and they were forbidden to adopt the native costume.
Notwithstanding this opposition, they had been able to acquire a partial
knowledge of the language, and to compile a vocabulary of six thousand
words. Permission to preach the Christian religion was not granted them,
lest, as the authorities said, the Chinese, to whom they are tributary,
would break off all intercourse; but the real reason was doubtless their
fear of the Japanese. Yet these obstacles did not dishearten them, and
they seem determined to persevere in their attempts, though it is not
unlikely that when Mr. Bettelheim arrives, the authorities will take
measures for deporting them all.
The Lewchewans are intimately connected with the Japanese. The language
is the same, with unimportant dialectical variations, and Chinese
letters and literature are in like manner cultivated by both. In
personal appearance, however, the two people are very unlike. The
Lewchewans are not on an average over five feet four inches high,
slightly built, and approach the Malayan cast of features more than the
Chinese. They are darker than the Chinese, and their mild traits of
character, unwarlike habits, and general personal appearance, suggests
the idea that they are akin to the aborigines of Formosa and Luçonia by
descent, while their proximity and subjugation to their powerful
neighbors on the north and west, have taught them a higher civilization,
and introduced arts and sciences unknown to their early conquerors. When
Lewchew was subjugated by the Japanese, it was agreed that embassies
with tribute might be sent to Peking, and according to the Chinese
account, they come to that court twice in three years.[108] The
secretary or deputy embassador in 1841, was drowned in his passage from
Peking to Fuhchau. This embassy is a source of considerable profit to
the Lewchewans, for their junks, which are built on the Chinese model,
have free entrance to Fuhchau, and all the goods they import and export,
are passed without duty. The travelling expenses of the embassy to and
from the capital are also defrayed, and permission is given them to
study Chinese when in the country. This intercourse is therefore both
honorable and profitable to the Lewchewans, but the Chinese are not
allowed to trade there, and the only act of sovereignty the emperor
exercises, according to M. Forcade, is to send a delegate to sanction
the accession of a new incumbent of the throne--whom, however, it would
be ridiculous for him to refuse. He adds, "In conversation, if one is a
stranger, the Lewchewans will be continually dwelling on China, they
will boast about it, they will relate its history, they will describe
its provinces and its cities; but Japan is never mentioned! Such are the
words, but the facts are quite another thing."
The real character of the connection between Lewchew and Japan is not
well ascertained. No Japanese officers are seen on landing, and the
officers appointed to attend the people of the Indian Oak, exhibited the
greatest alarm when a few were seen at a distance, while the party were
taking a walk. The trade between the two countries is confined to the
ports of Napa and Kagosima, between which the vessels of both nations
pass; the junks from other parts of Japan are not permitted to resort to
Napa, but it is not probable that the prince of Satzuma has the right of
appointing the residents, or whatever authorities are sent thither.
M. Forcade says there were from ten to fifteen Japanese vessels in the
port, but when the American ship Morrison was there, in 1837, there were
only five. Lackered-ware, grass cloth, sugar, and earthen-ware, are
exported to Kagosima, and a great assortment of metallic articles,
cloths, provisions, and stationery taken in exchange. The country in the
vicinity of Napa, and towards Shudi, the capital, is highly cultivated,
and the people appear to be as well clothed, and possess as many of the
comforts and elegancies of life as their neighbors. They still retain
enough of their own customs, however, to distinguish them from the
Japanese, even if their physical appearance did not point them out as
distinct. M. Forcade says that there is reason for supposing
Christianity to have been implanted in Lewchew at the same time it was
introduced into Japan, but Lewchew at that time seems to have been much
less dependant upon Japan than subsequently; and it is not probable that
much was done to proselyte its inhabitants. He mentions that a cross is
cut on the end of the rampart where foreigners land, who are thus
obliged to trample on this symbol; but no other visitors mention any
such sculpture or custom. The landing place at Napa is a long stone
jetty, stretching across the beach, which at low tide, prevents boats
approaching the shore.
JAPAN.
This country has recently attracted increased attention on the part of
commercial nations, and several foreign ships have lately appeared on
the coasts, whose reception has only shown the vigilance of the
authorities in taking every precaution neither to offend nor receive
their unwelcome visitors. The Dutch and Chinese are still the only
nations allowed to trade with the Japanese, and the news brought by the
latter people of the troubles they have lately gone through with their
foreign customers, has probably only more strongly convinced the siogoun
and his ministers of the propriety of their seclusive policy. Nor is
there much reason to doubt that the Chinese and Japanese have avoided
the fate of the natives of Luçonia, Java, and India, by shutting out
foreigners from free access and intercourse with their people, and owing
to their seclusion, have remained independent to this day. The works of
Siebold upon the natural history and political condition of the country
and its inhabitants, are now slowly publishing in Paris, but with such
luxury of execution as to place them beyond the reach of most persons
who might be desirous to examine them. The visits of two American ships
to the bay of Yedo, has directed the public eye again to the empire. The
first was that of the whaler Manhattan, Captain Cooper, who was led to
think of going into the port by having taken eleven shipwrecked men off
a small island near the Bonin islands, in April, 1845, lying southeast
of Nippon. As he was going north, he fell in with a water-logged junk
from Nambu, laden with rice and fish, from which he received eleven
more, and soon after made the eastern coast in the principality of
Simosa. Here he landed two men, and proceeding towards Cape King, landed
two more, who made their way to Yedo. Owing to north winds, he was blown
off the coast twice, and when he approached the estuary leading to the
capital, he was taken in tow and carried up to the anchorage.
Interpreters came off to the vessel, who could speak English
sufficiently well to carry on an imperfect communication, who informed
Captain Cooper that his wants would be supplied, but none of his company
allowed to land. A triple cordon of boats was placed around the ship,
consisting of upwards of a thousand small boats, displaying numerous
flags, and containing as many armed men as if the country was in danger
of attack. The ship was visited by crowds of natives of all ranks, who
behaved with great decorum while gratifying their curiosity, but no
trade was allowed. Many officers of high rank came on board and examined
the ship, and took an inventory of every article belonging to the
rescued seamen, before they were allowed to land. The ship was
gratuitously supplied with provisions and a few spars, to the value of
about $500, but the captain was again and again enjoined not to return
there on any account. When he inquired what he should do if he again
came across the siogoun's subjects in like distress, and exposed to a
cruel death, he was told, "leave them to their fate, or take them where
the Dutch can get them." The men rescued from starvation and death,
were, however, deeply sensible of the kindness which had been shown
them. After a stay of eight or ten days, Captain Cooper was towed out of
the port, and down the bay to the coast, and the last injunction was
only a repetition of the first order, not to come again. This
reception, though it presents no encouragement to hope for a relaxation
of the policy, deemed by the siogoun at once his safety and his profit,
is less likely to call for summary chastisement than the rude repulse
the American ship Morrison received in 1837, when she entered the bay of
Yedo on the same errand, and was driven away by cannon balls and armed
gunboats.
Captain Cooper represents the country in this portion of it as clothed
with verdure, and under a high state of cultivation. The proximity of
the mountains in Idzu, produces constant showers, which covers the
highest peaks with forests and shrubbery. Terrace cultivation is
extensively practiced, and constant labor is demanded to supply
subsistence to the dense population, who still at times suffer severely
for want of food. The capital could not well be seen from the ship, and
its enceinte was so filled with trees, that its dimensions could not
accurately be defined. No towers or pagodas were seen elevating
themselves above the dull monotony of the buildings. The harbor was
covered with vessels, at anchor and moving about; some of them unwieldy,
open-stern junks, designed for the coast trade, others light skiffs and
boats, used for communicating with vessels in the harbor and the shore.
The greatest part of the coasting trade centres at Yedo, owing to the
large amount of taxes paid the siogoun in kind, and the supplies the
princes receive from their possessions while they reside in the capital,
both of which causes operate to develope the maritime skill of the
people, and increase the amount of tonnage. The shortsighted policy
which confines the energies and capital of a seagoing people like the
Japanese, within their own shores is, however, less a matter of wonder
than the despotic power which could compel them to stay at home two
centuries ago, at a time when their merchants and agents were found from
Acapulco to Bangkok.
The Japanese empire presents the greatest feudal government now
existing, and on that account is peculiarly interesting to the student
of political science. In some respects, the people are superior to the
Chinese, but are inferior in the elements of national wealth and
progress. They belong to the Mongolian race, but are darker than the
Chinese, and not as tall, though superior in stature to the Lewchewans.
They approximate to the Kamtschatdales in their square build, short
necks, large heads, and short lower limbs. They are of a light olive
complexion, but seldom exhibit a florid, ruddy countenance.
Among the articles obtained from the junk by Captain Cooper, was a map
of Japan, including part of Yesso. It is four feet square, drawn on the
proportion of less than one degree to two inches, and contains the names
of all the places there is room for. It is cut on wood, and painted to
show the outlines of the chief principalities; the relative importance
of the places is shown by writing their names in different shaped
cartouches, but from the space occupied by the Chinese characters, there
is probably not one-tenth of all the towns inserted. The distances
between the principal points along the coast are stated, and on some of
the leading thoroughfares inland. The map is evidently the original of
Krusenstern's "Carte de Nippon," published by the Russian Board of
Longitude, and is drawn up from trigonometrical surveys. The degrees of
latitude bear the same numbers as upon European maps; the meridians are
reckoned from Yedo. The existence of such maps among the people
indicates that a good knowledge of their own country is far more
extensively diffused than among the Chinese, whose common maps are a
standing reproach to them, while they have others so much more accurate.
The coast from Cape King northward to Simosa, for the space of two
degrees, was found by captain Cooper to be better delineated upon this
map than upon his own charts. These seas present a fine field for
hydrographic surveys, and it would greatly advance the security of
navigation on the eastern shores of Asia, and redound to the honor of
our own land, if the American government would despatch two small
vessels to survey the seas and shores between Luçonia and Kamtschatka.
The visit of Commodore Biddle to the bay of Yedo, has added nothing to
our knowledge of its shores. His polite dismissal, and the refusal of
the government to entertain any commercial relations with the Americans,
only add force to the injunction to captain Cooper the year before, not
to return, and shows more strongly that while the Japanese rulers are
determined to maintain their secluded policy, they wish to give no cause
for retaliatory measures on the part of their unwelcome visitors, and
mean to keep themselves as well informed as they can upon foreign
politics. The subject of foreign intercourse between the two great
nations of Eastern Asia and Europeans since it commenced three centuries
since, is an instructive one; and the general impression left upon the
mind of the candid reader, is that foreign nations have themselves
chiefly to thank for their present seclusion from those shores, and the
restrictions in their commerce. Rear-Admiral Cecille has also paid a
visit to some part of Japan, quite recently, but met with no success in
his endeavors to enter into negotiation.
The great object in view in making these attempts to improve the
intercourse with Japan, is to find new markets for western manufactures.
It is quite doubtful, however, whether the Japanese have many articles
suitable for foreign markets. Their lackered-ware is exceedingly
beautiful, but it would not be so prized when it became more common.
Copper and tea would form the basis of exports, and perhaps some silk
fabrics, but China furnishes now all that is wanted of them both, and
can do so to any extent. Until a taste for such foreign manufactures, as
woolens, cutlery, glass-ware, calicoes, &c., is created among them, and
they are willing to adapt their own products to the tastes of their
customers, it does not seem likely that a trade at all proportioned to
the estimated population and riches of the country, would soon be
established. The Japanese are afraid of the probable results of a more
extended intercourse, and deem it to be the safest course to run no
risks; and if they read the pages of their early intercourse with the
Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch, they must feel they would run many
serious risks by granting a trade. If the siogoun and his advisers could
be rightly informed, however, there are grounds for believing the
present policy would be considerably relaxed.
Learning is highly honored in Japan, and books are as cheap and common
as in China. The written language is a singular and most difficult
mixture of Chinese characters, with the syllabic symbols adopted by the
Japanese, rendering its perusal a great labor, more so than that of
Chinese, because Chinese must first be mastered. The spoken language is
polysyllabic and harmonious, and possesses conjugations, tenses, cases,
&c., to facilitate its perspicuity, and increase its variety of
expressions. The arts in which they chiefly excel are in the manufacture
of silken and linen goods, copper-ware, lackered-ware, porcelain and
basket work. Their cutlery is despicable, and the specimens of their
carving, which are seen abroad, do not equal those produced by the
Chinese. Agriculture is pursued on much the same system as in
China--minute subdivision of the soil and constant manuring, together
with frequent watering. Rice and fish are the staples of food;
vegetables are used in great abundance, but meats only sparingly. The
habits and sports of the people are influenced so much by the peculiar
notions attending a feudal society, such as adherence to the local
prince, and maintenance of his honor, wearing coats of arms, privileged
orders, and hereditary titles, that there is little similarity in the
state of society in Japan and China, notwithstanding a similar religion
and literature. The Japanese were called the Spaniards of the East by
Xavier, and the comparison is good at this day. They have, perhaps,
more genius and imagination than the Chinese, but are not as peaceable
or industrious.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE LANGUAGES OF THE JAPANESE, COREANS, CHINESE AND
COCHINCHINESE. The four nations here briefly noticed; viz., the
Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and Cochinchinese, have been collectively
called the _Chinese language nations_, from the peculiar relations and
connections they have had through the medium of that language. The
relation has throughout been one of a literary character, fostered to
some extent by religious prejudices, but depending chiefly for its
permanence and extension upon the superiority of the writings of the
Chinese. It is, in some respects, without a parallel in the history of
man. While European languages have all been indebted for many of their
words to the two leading ancient tongues of that continent, their bases
have been diverse, and the words they have imported from Greek and Latin
have undergone various changes, so much so as sometimes hardly to be
recognized. This is not the case with these four nations of eastern
Asia. They have all adopted the characters used by the leading nation
without alteration, and with them, of course, have to a very great
degree, taken her authors, her books, her knowledge and her opinions, as
their own.
One of the most observable features of the national character of the
Chinese, is its conservative inclinations. Not only is it seen in the
actions of government and in the writings of scholars, but still more in
the habits of the people and their modes of thinking. It has been
cherished by that government, as it is by all governments, as a sure and
safe principle of preservation, but it is also advocated by the people.
The geographical position of China has isolated it from all western
nations, while the political, literary and social superiority of its
people over the contiguous nations, has combined to foster their conceit
and affectation of supremacy, and make them disinclined to have any
intimate or equal relations with others. But one of the strongest and
most comprehensive of these conservative influences has arisen from the
nature of the language, strengthened by the extent to which education
has been diffused among the people. The language is of such a character,
combining mystery and difficulty with elegance and ingenuity, as greatly
to captivate a people who have time and inclination to trace out the
marks and veins on the pavement in the temple of science, but not the
invention or investigation to seek out and explore its hidden chambers.
The character of this language and the nature of the connection between
the nations who use it, may here be briefly exhibited.
The Chinese ascribe the invention of their characters to Tsang Kieh, one
of the principal ministers or scholars in the reign of Hwangti, about
2650 years before Christ; and although there is no very certain
information recorded respecting their origin, there is nothing which
seems to be fabulous or supernatural. The characters first depicted were
the common objects in nature and art, as the sun, rain, man, parts of
the body, animals, a house, &c., and were probably drawn sufficiently
accurate to be detected without much if any explanation. They were all
described in outline, and generally with far less completeness than the
Egyptian symbols. It is not known how many of the primitive characters
were made, but one feature attached to them all,--none of them contained
any clue to the sound. The inventors must necessarily, one would
suppose, have soon perceived this radical defect in their symbols, but
they either saw the incompatibility of uniting the phonetic and
pictorial modes, or else were so pleased with their varied pictures and
symbols, that they cared very little how the reader acquired the sounds.
At first, too perhaps, the number of persons who spoke this language was
so small, that there was little difficulty in making them all acquainted
with the meaning of the symbols, and when once their meaning was
learned, they were of course called by the name of the thing
represented, which everybody knew. The necessity of incorporating some
clue to the sound of the thing, or idea denoted, became more and more
evident, however, as the variety of the symbols multiplied, and the
number of people increased. One of the strongest evidences, that the
designing of these symbols was contemporary with the earliest days of
the Chinese as a people, is deduced from the fact that they are all
monosyllabic; the radical words in all languages are mostly of this
character, but in nearly all others, the single sounds soon coalesce and
combine, while in Chinese this has been prevented by the nature of the
written language. There is not, so far as the nature of the case goes,
any reason why the sounds of Chinese characters should all be
monosyllabic, any more than the Arabic numerals. But not only was the
increase of inhabitants, as we suppose, a reason for making the symbols
phonetic, the need of reducing the labor of learning the ever growing
list, and the difficulty of distinguishing between species of the same
genus and things of the same sort, was a still stronger motive. This was
done by the combination of a leading type with some other well
understood character, chosen quite arbitrarily, but possessing the _same
sound_ as the new object to be represented. Thus, supposing a new fish
called _pih_ was to be represented by a character; by taking the symbol
for _fish_ and joining it to any well known character pronounced _pih_,
no matter what was its meaning, the compound symbol clearly expressed,
to those who understood its elementary parts, the _fish pih_. But
neither does this compound contain any more clue to its sound to those
unacquainted with the component elements, than its marks and hooks do of
its meaning to those who have never learned them. When once the form and
meaning of the primitive symbols have been learned, however, the meaning
and sounds of the compound ones can, in many cases, be inferred to a
greater or less degree; but so varied has been the principle of
combination, that no dependence can be placed upon such etymologies for
the meaning. In the various mutations the written language has
undergone, the sound is not now so certain as it was probably at first;
but in the majority of characters, it can be inferred with a
considerable degree of certainty, though the idea is exhibited so
indefinitely as to afford almost no assistance in guessing at it. A
dictionary is indispensable in ascertaining the meaning, and almost as
necessary to learn the sound of all Chinese characters. The meaning can
be explained without any greater trouble than in other languages, but
the sounds of characters can only be given by quoting other characters
of the same sound, which the scholar is supposed to know, if he knows
enough to use the dictionary.
These remarks will, perhaps, explain the general composition of Chinese
characters. By far the greater part of them are now formed, either of
the original pictorial symbols, greatly modified, indeed, and changed
from their likeness to the things they stand for, or of those joined to
each other in a compound character, partly symbolical and partly
phonetic. The former part is called the _radical_, the latter the
_primitive_. The Chinese divide the characters into six classes, viz.,
imitative symbols, or those original figures which bore a resemblance to
the forms of material objects; indicative symbols, where the position of
the two parts point out the idea; symbols combining ideas, a class not
very unlike the preceding, but more complex; inverted symbols;
metaphoric symbols, as that of the natural heart, denoting the
affections; and lastly, phonetic symbols. Out of twenty-four thousand
two hundred and thirty-five characters, (nearly all the different ones
there are in the language), twenty-one thousand eight hundred and ten of
them are phonetic, or as much so as the nature of their composition
would allow, though there is no other clue to the sound than to learn
the sound of the parts or of the whole, either from the people
themselves or from a dictionary. The Chinese tyro learns the sounds of
most of the characters, as boys do the names of minerals, by tradition.
As he stands before his master, he and the whole class hear from his
mouth their names, and repeat them until they are remembered.
Consequently, almost an infinite variety in the sounds of the characters
arise from this mode of learning them, while the meanings remain fixed;
though there still remains enough resemblance in the sounds to show
their common origin, as, _bien_, _meen_, _mien_, and _meeng_, all
meaning _the face_, and written with the same character. The local
differences in pronunciation are so great within a few hundred miles, in
some parts of China, that the people barely understand each other when
they speak; and even in two towns fifty miles apart, the local patois
can be detected, though the dissimilarity is not so great as to prevent
their inhabitants conversing together. For purposes of intercourse among
civilians, who being from distant parts of the empire, might otherwise
find considerable difficulty in making themselves understood if each
spoke his own local patois, there is a court dialect which not only
civilians, but all educated men are obliged or expected to understand.
This is the common pronunciation over the northeastern provinces of
Chihli, Shantung, Nganhwui, and Kiangsu, and somewhat in the contiguous
provinces also, though everywhere in these regions with some slight
local variations. This dialect is called _kwan hwa_, and has been
usually termed the _mandarin[109] dialect_, but it is properly the
Chinese spoken language, and the variations from it are the dialects and
patois. It is evident, however, that one sound of a character is no
more correct than another; for there being no sound in any character,
each one calls it as he has been taught, while all give it the same
meaning, exactly as Europeans do with the numerals. Of course, no one
can read or write Chinese before he has studied it, and the apparent
singularity of people from China, Japan, and Annam all being able to
communicate by writing but not converse by speech, is easily explained
by the different sounds they give the characters. It is, however, really
no more singular than that scholars in all Christian nations understand
each others' music and arithmetic, after they have learned those
sciences and the mode of notation.
The diversity of pronunciations tends naturally to break up the nation
into small communities, and the Chinese owe their present homogeneity
and grandeur in no small degree to their written language; for, however,
a man may differ in his speech, he is sure that he will be everywhere
understood when he writes, and will understand every one who writes to
him. It has also been a bond of union from its extensive literature, at
once the pride of its own scholars, and the admiration of surrounding
nations. It is perhaps owing to the fact that the literature of China
contains the canons of the Budhist religion and the ethics of Confucius,
that it was adopted by the Japanese, Coreans and Annamese. These nations
have taken the characters of the Chinese language, and given them such
names as pleased them. In Japan and Corea, there has been no uniform
rule of adoption, but the Annamese, who formerly had more intimate
connexions with China than at present, approach much nearer to the
sounds spoken by the Chinese.
The nature of the relations between these three nations and China,
therefore, somewhat resembles that which European nations, we may
suppose, now would have towards ancient Greece and Rome, if they still
existed as independent powers, and should be visited by scholars from
the shores of the Baltic, whose native countries, however, had risen no
higher in civilization and morals than their source. The comparison is
not complete in all respects, but near enough for analogy. The Japanese
have never paid tribute to China, but have been invaded by her armies,
and in their turn have ravaged the eastern coasts of the continent. The
isolated policy their rulers have adopted, has prevented our tracing
those philological comparisons between their original language and those
of Siberia or central Asia, which would elucidate its origin. The
Japanese up to the time of the sixteenth daïri, named Ouzin Tenwo, had
no written character, all the orders of government being proclaimed viva
voce. In the year B.C. 284, this monarch sent an embassy to the
southern part of Corea, to obtain learned persons who could introduce
the civilization and literature of China into his dominions, and
obtained Wonin, who fulfilled the royal wishes so satisfactorily, that
the Japanese have since accorded him divine honors. Since his day, the
Chinese characters have been employed among the Japanese. However, as
the construction of the Japanese language differs materially from that
of the Chinese, and as the same Chinese character has many meanings,
which would be expressed by different words in the native Japanese,
confusion and difficulty arose in the use of the symbolic characters.
But it was not until the eighth century, that a remedy was provided by
the invention of a syllabary, a middle contrivance, partaking chiefly of
the nature of an alphabet but containing some traces of hieroglyphics.
The characters of this syllabary were formed by taking Chinese
characters, either in whole or in part, and using them phonetically, but
as indivisible syllables. Consequently, every one of them contained a
vowel sound, rendering the language very euphonous. The characters in
this syllabary were called _katakana_, i. e. "parts of letters." There
were at first forty-seven, but another was added some years after in
order to express the final _n_, as _ma-mo-ra-n_, instead of
_ma-mo-ra-nu_, making forty-eight, the present number. This syllabary
and that invented for the Cherokees by Guess, are the only two in the
world. The number of sounds has been increased from forty-eight to
seventy-three, by the addition of diacritical marks to some of the
syllables. This syllabary enabled the Japanese to express the sounds of
their vernacular without difficulty. But the long use of the Chinese had
already introduced a great number of sounds from that language into it,
besides giving the people a liking for the elegant and ingenious
combinations of that unwieldy medium of thought, so that the scholars in
the country still cultivated the more difficult language, and wrote
their books in it. The incorporation of Chinese sounds into the native
Japanese, seems to have arisen from the necessity of distinguishing
between the various meanings of the Chinese character, so that while the
native word would express one, the original sound would express another,
but the unchangeable symbol stand for both to the eye.
The admiration of the Chinese characters, led in time to the invention
of a second syllabary, having the same sounds but far more difficult to
learn from the number of characters in it and their complicated forms.
It is called _hirakana_, or "equal writing," because it is intelligible
without the addition of Chinese characters; it is now the common medium
of communication, in epistolary composition of all kinds, story books,
and other everyday uses. There are one hundred and one characters in the
_hirakana_, or nearly three modes of writing each of the forty-eight
syllables, and they are run together as rapidly and far more fancifully
than in our own running-hand, when that is compared with the Roman
character. The characters are mostly contractions of Chinese characters
used simply as phonetic symbols, without any more reference to their
meaning than in the _katakana_. The more ancient of the two is now
usually employed in dictionaries, by the side of Chinese characters in
books to explain them to the reader, or at their bottom to indicate the
case of the word. In reading a Chinese book, a good Japanese scholar
makes a kind of running translation into his own vernacular, sometimes
giving the sound, and sometimes giving the sense, and the _katakana_ is
used in the latter case, to indicate the tense, or case of the native
word. Having the Chinese language as well as its native stores to draw
from, the Japanese is both copious and flexible, and by its syllabic
construction, also euphonious and mellifluous, in these respects being
far superior to the Chinese. The following stanza is from one of the
Dutch writers; it is written with thirty-one syllables.
Kokorodani makotono,
Michi ni kanai naba,
Inorazu totemo kamiya
Mamoran.
There are still two other syllabaries, one called _Manyo-kana_, and the
other _Yamato-kana_, both of which are formed of still more complicated
Chinese characters, also used phonetically. Neither of these syllabaries
is generally used entirely alone, but the three are joined together or
interchanged somewhat according to the fancy of the writer, in a manner
similar to Archdeacon Wrangham's famous echo poem. Such a complicated
mode of writing has this unfortunate result, however, of so seriously
obstructing the avenues to the temple of science, that the greatest part
of the common people are unable to enter, and must be content with
admiring the structure afar off. Most of them content themselves with
learning to write and read in the _hirakana_, and get as much knowledge
of Chinese as will enable them to read the names of places, signs,
people, &c., for which those characters are universally used. Besides
the phonetic use of Chinese characters in these syllabaries, they are
employed very extensively as words, with their own meanings, partly
because they are more nervous and expressive in the estimation of the
writer than the vernacular, and partly to show his learning and shorten
his labor. Commonly, characters so used are called by their Japanese
meanings, but sometimes too by their Chinese names.[110]
The connection between the Chinese and Japanese, therefore, is very
intimate, and presents a curious instance of assimilation between a
symbolic and syllabic language, though at the cost of much hard study
and labor to acquire the mongrel compound. It is another example of
Asiatic toil upon the media of thought, rather than investigations in
the world of thought and science itself; for no people who possessed
invention, research, or science, would ever have encumbered themselves
with so burdensome a vehicle of communication. The Chinese do not attend
to the Japanese language, and have no knowledge of its structure, or the
principles on which it has combined with their own. Their intercourse
with Japan is entirely commercial; that of the Japanese with them,
chiefly literary.
The Coreans have also adopted the Chinese character, but without many of
the elaborate modifications in use among the Japanese. They have had
more intercourse with the Chinese, but have not been able to make their
polysyllabic words assimilate with the monosyllables of the Chinese.
They have invented an alphabet, the letters of which combine to form
syllables, and these syllabic compounds are then used like the Japanese
characters to express their own words. The original letters consist of
fifteen consonants, called _ka_, _na_, _ta_, _la_ or _ra_, _ma_ or _ba_,
_pa_, _sa_ or _sha_, _nga_, _tsa_ or _cha_, _ts´a_ or _ch´a_, _k´a_,
_t´a_, _p´a_, _ha_, and _wa_; and eleven vowels, _a_, _ya_, _o_, _yo_,
_oh_, _yoh_, _ú_, _yú_, _u_, _í_, and _âh_. The combinations of these
form altogether one hundred and sixty-eight syllables, the last
fourteen of which are triply combined by introducing the sound of _w_
between the consonants and some of the vowels, as _kwa_, _ts´hwo_, &c.
The sounds and meanings of Chinese characters are expressed in this
syllabary in the duoglott works prepared by the Coreans for learning
Chinese; while it is used by itself in works intended for the natives.
The Coreans have not, like the Japanese, unnecessarily increased the
difficulty of their own language by employing a great number of signs
for the same sound, but are content with one series. It is to be hoped
that this facility results in a greater diffusion of knowledge among the
people. The Japanese have the inflections of cases, moods, tenses and
voices, in their language; but these features are denoted in Corean by
the collocation of the words, and the words themselves remain unchanged
as in Chinese. The sounds of the Corean are pleasant, and both it and
the Japanese allow many alterations and elisions for the sake of
euphony. Further investigation will probably show some connection
originally between the Corean and Manchu languages, though the former of
these has been more modified by the Chinese than the latter.[111]
The people of Annam have adopted the Chinese characters without making a
syllabary or alphabet to express their own vernacular. The inhabitants
of this country are evidently of the same race as the Chinese, and now
acknowledge a nominal subjection to the emperor of China by sending a
triennial embassy to Peking, partly commercial and partly tributary. The
sounds given to the Chinese characters are, however, so unlike those
given them in China, that the two nations cannot converse with each
other. The Annamese have many sounds in their spoken language which no
Chinese can enunciate. The court dialect is learned by educated men, and
books are written and printed in Chinese. The sounds given to the
characters are all monosyllabic, and slight analogies can be traced
running through the variations; but they offer very little assistance to
any one, who, knowing only one mode of pronunciation, wishes to learn
the other.
Much of the interest connected with the investigation of the Chinese and
its cognate tongues, arises from the immense multitudes which speak and
write them; and from the influence which China has, through the writings
of her sages, exerted over the minds and progress of her neighbors.
There is nothing like it in European history; but the spell cast over
the intellects of the millions in eastern Asia, by the writings of
Confucius, Mencius, and their disciples, is likely erelong to be broken
by the infusion of Christian knowledge, the extension of commerce, and a
better understanding of their political and social rights by the
multitudes who now adopt them.
For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and
the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a
monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its
accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a
residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the
written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of
the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that
branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the
Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only
man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several
natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores,
found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American
ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr.
Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written
language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York
making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu
type, for printing in these languages.
The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is
edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much
valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern
Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and
Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more
information than any other work extant, on these countries.
Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which
will contain an account of its general political divisions, including
Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical
features. The natural history of China; its government, laws,
literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic
life--History and Chronology--Religion; Christian missions; intercourse
with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.
The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the
seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist;
and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting
attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in
this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found
references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention
of the reader is directed.
The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great
interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be
genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the
year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of
Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found
covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate,
who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both
natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble,
about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese
inscription, which was translated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by
Dalquié into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and
has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese,
with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of
Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era
718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese
language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences
of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we
believe it to be."[112]
Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would
extend it beyond the bounds of the _resumé_, which it is intended to
give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it
would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia,
but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be
required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the
attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries
made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the
history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in
so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.
The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.
China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of
the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc.,
etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.
Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.
Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London,
1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.
Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.
War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.
The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and
Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.
Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.
The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.
Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israélites
de France). 1844.
Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans
l'Inde et à la Chine, dans le IXth siècle de l'ère Chrétienne,
par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.
Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo.
London, 1847.
The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a
distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works
in this department of learning. They embrace the following.
Sinico-Ægyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire
des écritures figuratives Chinoise et Égyptienne, etc. 8vo.
De l'origine des différents systèmes d'écriture. 4to.
Examen méthodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou
l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.
Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine;
traduits du Chinois. 8vo.
La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.
La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de
Tsin; illustré par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
La Chine et les Chinois, par le même. 8vo. Paris, 1844.
Systema Phoneticum Scripturæ Sinicæ, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2
vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.
Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie.
12mo. London.
A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have
also been published on China.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological
Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and
Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country,
now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having
been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had
begun its growth.
[2] This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the
symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient
temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was
used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it
is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to
the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.
[3] "Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands
adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"--as
the "Mohawk flats."
[4] Second Note sur une pierre gravée trouvé dans un ancien tumulus
Americain, et à cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo.
Paris, 1846.
[5] See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its
inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.
[6] Notes on Africa. p.
[7] The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note
addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery
of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his
opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they
were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham
in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note
was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "_Notice sur les Indiens de
l'Amerique du Nord_." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the
United States.
[8] I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to
contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and
ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr.
Jomard himself hints at their Phoenician origin.
[9] Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23
[10] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New
Englander. p. 198.
[11] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander.
p. 180.
[12] Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.
[13] Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4
vols. 8vo.)
[14] Life and Travels in California. p. 372.
[15] Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader
with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built
a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished
Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which
ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh
in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon
commenced a brisk business."
[16] Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the
testimony of the missionaries of the _Collegio de Queretaro_, versed in
the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the
Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the
seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and
Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.
[17] Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on
New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may
be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "_Relation du Voyage de Cibola
en 1540_," published in the "_Relations et memoirs originaux_" of
Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of
the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at
length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "_Grande
Maison, dite de Moctezuma_," is extracted from the journal of Father
Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in
1775.
[18] Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.
[19] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.
[20] London Athenæum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of
this journey.
[21] Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.
[22] There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would
give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at
Ghizeh.
[23] London Athenæum, Nov. 9. 1846.
[24] Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.
[25] Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.
[26] London Athenæum, March 7, 1846.
[27] Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.
[28] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846.
p. 321.
[29] London Athenæum, July 4, 1846.
[30] London Athenæum, July, 1845.
[31] The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa,
investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in
Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm.
Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
London. Vol. xv.
[32] Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.--_Ibid._
Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in
Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.
[33] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.
[34] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.
[35] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.
[36] Notice sur le Progrès des découvertes Géographiques pendant
l'année, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie, p. 245.
[37] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race
blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.
[38] Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.
[39] Revue Archæologique, Nov. 1845.
[40] The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is
deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja,
who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of
Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji
Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in
conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of _romouz_.
Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had
lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime
Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of
Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he
discovered at the top (_en vedette_) two groups of signs, which, from
their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the
Arab sacramental words, _Praise be to God_, with which all good
Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied
the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of
six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these
documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended
making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and
on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters.
Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but
more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.
Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian
characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by
him, and the result is known.--_Revue Archæologique_, November, 1845.
[41] See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.
[42] The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be
mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while
examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a
tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a
window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves
which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A
farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.
[43] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.
[44] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.
[45] Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.
[46] Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on
foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present
state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands,
Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and
Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government
of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial
relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the
Supreme Court of the United States.
[47] See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.
[48] Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much
interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.
[49] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.
[50] London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.
[51] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1846. Extrait d'une
description de l'archipel des îles Solo, p. 311.
[52] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, for 1846, p. 365.
[53] Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.
[54] Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him
with the medal.
[55] Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.
[56] p. 394.
[57] vol. 2. p. 10.
[58] London Athenæum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.
[59] Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine,
vol. 2, 1845.
[60] London Athenæum. Nov. 3, 1846.
[61] Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.
[62] Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and
Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians
boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved
with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city,
they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the
citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those
who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians, _the whole are
foreigners_, eighty families excepted."--_Clio_, 176. See also _Clio_,
171-173.
Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a
branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from
Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had
settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of
Mylians and Solymi.
Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy,
assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are
mentioned.--_Iliad_, b. v. and xii.
[63] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.
[64] Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.
[65] Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.
[66] Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of
London, November 9, 1846.--London Ath.
[67] Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée et la Russie
méridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X.
Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris,
1845.
[68] I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these
discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The
translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only
accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent
publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much
has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in
antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A
full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present
state, seems therefore necessary.
[69] Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's
Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.
[70] The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable
books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in
Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from
Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient
books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making
a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of
the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in
which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe
among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument
of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was
differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A] and others, not
only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very
harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most
distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among
the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least
six centuries anterior to the Christian era.
The Zendavesta (from _zend_ living, and _avesta_ word, i. e. "the living
word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions,
and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our
breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five
books. 1. The _Izechné_, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2.
the _Vispered_, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the
_Vendidad_, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the
_Yeshts Sades_, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5.
the book _Siroz_, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the
Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]
The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great
first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This
incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of
the universe--Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the
principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by
the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful,
active, benevolent,--in a word, the precise image of the Element; the
centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the
opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every
thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and
govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became
an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]
"The first created man was composed of the four elements,--fire, air,
water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal
spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of
separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of
sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of
practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of
animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with
the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of
the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and
are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still
professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the
Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman
and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of
Surat."[D] The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo
superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books
of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.
Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the
Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur
le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning,
illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient
Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.
[A] Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.
[B] See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations
Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.
[C] Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.
[D] Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.
[71] The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, _Shah_, is at once
recognised in the ancient name _Kshe_ or _Ksha_ of the monuments.
[72] Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvées près d'Hamadan.
Paris, 1836.
[73] Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The
other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift für die
Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn,
exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on
Oriental Philology and Archæology published in Europe.
[74] While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was
attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and
Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their
investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with
those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the
others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the
correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.
[75] The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of
its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up
with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an
infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used
in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster
lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its
antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers,
among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from
the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient
language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was
spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated
west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media.
Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language
yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among
the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson[A] adopts views at
variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard
to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic
organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the
formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion
that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of
equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees,
however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books
generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question,
for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they
were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could
be cited in proof of the same.[B]
[A] See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.
[B] See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list
of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.
[76] On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing,
by N.L. Westergaard, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des
Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.
[77] Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.
[78] Ibid. p. 28.
[79] On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Mémoires de la
Société des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.
[80] Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof.
Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Mémoires de
la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing
to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He
was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which
the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that
even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's
papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.
[81] Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.
[82] Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.
[83] For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and
page 254.
[84] Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.
[85] Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419.
Ibid. p. 423.
[86] Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près de
Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.
[87] London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard,
dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before
the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving
further accounts of his discoveries.
[88] See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople
dated Sept. 10.
[89] The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first
was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof
were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon
the feet as a man." _Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4._ The resemblance between the
animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is
striking.
[90] Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.
[91] Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans.
Fund:--by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.
[92] Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.
[93] Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society, 1846.
[94] Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
at its meeting, September, 1846.
[95] The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria
Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.
[96] Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London,
1846.
[97] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.
[98] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.
[99] English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.
[100] It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending
in March, 1845,[A] expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly
$15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making
translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the
support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of
native teachers--schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been
studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be
summed up as follows.
32 languages and dialects in India,
4 do. do. in Persia and the Caucasian countries,
5 do. in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,
4 do. in Polynesia.
The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures;
books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science,
popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several
departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety,
though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament
constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist
Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845,
fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit,
Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed
and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions was as follows.
MADRAS MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or
portions of them--books of a religious character--elementary school
books--tracts--periodicals and reports of benevolent associations
bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual
improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this
single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of
pages--or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one
hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was
doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large
establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are
printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.
CEYLON MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages were printed during
the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes,
and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million
one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.
SIAM MISSION. In the Siamese language were printed in two years two
million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.
When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the
influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged
in the same cause.
[A] Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.
[101] Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.
[102] Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.
[103] Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.
[104] Ibid. July, 1846.
[105] Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.
[106] Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.
[107] Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.
[108] Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.
[109] It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China
and eastern Asia, and the proper words _officers_, _authorities_,
_magistrates_, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime
minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by
foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the
person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in
China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things
elsewhere.
[110] Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.
[111] Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.
[112] Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected. Obvious spelling errors
in foreign language references have been corrected. Inconsistencies in
spelling have been normalized unless otherwise noted below. Questionable
or vintage spelling has been left as printed in the original
publication.
Footnotes in the original publication were marked with symbols at the
page level. Sequential footnote numbering has been applied and all
footnotes have been relocated to the end of the text.
Variations in spelling for Musselman/Mussulman left as printed in
original publication.
Punctuation marks to establish phrasing (i. e., commas and semi-colons)
that were placed inside a closing parenthesis have been moved outside
the parenthesis.
Page 3: A chapter heading entitled "NORTH AMERICA." has been added for
consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.
Page 14 (footnote 6): Page number reference for "Notes on Africa"
missing in original text.
Page 20 (footnote 17): "Grande Maison, dite de Moetezuma" changed to
"Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma".
Page 26: The second footnote on this page has been converted to appear
as block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in
which lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given
section. The footnote marker has been removed.
Page 30: Removed stray opening quotation mark mid-sentence that was
not closed. 'From the base of this structure "commences an inclined'.
Page 48: The footnote on this page has been converted to appear as
block text, consistent with the remainder of the publication in which
lists of "Recent Works" appear at the conclusion of a given section.
The footnote marker has been removed.
Page 69: A chapter heading entitled "ASIA." has been added for
consistency with chapters listed in the publication's Contents pages.
Page 87 (footnote 70): The paragraph beginning "The first created man
was composed of the four elements..." contains unmatched quotation
marks in the original publication and has been left as printed.
Page 92 (footnote 75B): Opening text 'See a note to the "Dabistan,"
Vol. I. p. in which...' is missing the page number ("p.") in the
original publication.
Page 93: Changed "Archæmenian" to "Achæmenian" in the following
sentence (as originally printed): "Various combinations of a figure
shaped like a wedge, together with one produced by the union of two
wedges, constitute the system of writing employed by the ancient
Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and the Archæmenian kings of Persia."
Page 107: Original publication is missing a numeral in what is
presumably a year in the 1800's. Transcribed here as "18_3".
Page 126: Added a footnote marker for footnote 105 at the end of
this sentence: "The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda
Society contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia,
by the Rev. Mr. Huc."
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