The Project Gutenberg EBook of Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th
and 17th Centuries, by John D. Shortridge
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
Title: Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th Centuries
Author: John D. Shortridge
Release Date: November 4, 2008 [EBook #27149]
Language: English
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ITALIAN HARPSICHORD-BUILDING ***
Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Greg Bergquist
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net
_Italian Harpsichord-Building
in the
16th and 17th Centuries_
by John D. Shortridge
(REPRINTED WITH CHANGES--1970)
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 225 · Paper 15, Pages 93-107
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS · WASHINGTON, D.C. · 1970
[Illustration: Figure 1.--OUTER CASE OF ALBANA HARPSICHORD.]
Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th Centuries
By John D. Shortridge
_The making of harpsichords flourished in Italy throughout the 16th and
17th centuries. The Italian instruments were of simpler construction
than those built by the North Europeans, and they lacked the familiar
second manual and array of stops._
_In this paper, typical examples of Italian harpsichords from the Hugo
Worch Collection in the United States National Museum are described in
detail and illustrated. Also, the author offers an explanation for
certain puzzling variations in keyboard ranges and vibrating lengths of
strings of the Italian harpsichords._
THE AUTHOR: _John D. Shortridge is associate curator of cultural history
in the United States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution._
Perhaps the modern tendency to idealize progress has been responsible
for the neglect of Italian harpsichords and virginals during the present
day revival of interest in old musical instruments. Whatever laudable
traits the Italian builders may have had, they cannot be considered to
have been progressive. Their instruments of the mid-16th century hardly
can be distinguished from those made around 1700. During this 150 years
the pioneering Flemish makers added the four-foot register, a second
keyboard, and lute and buff stops to their instruments. However, the
very fact that the Italian builders were unwilling to change their
models suggests that their instruments were good enough to demand no
further improvements. Anyone who has heard a properly restored Italian
harpsichord or an accurately made reproduction will agree that the tone
of such instruments is of exceptional beauty.
This paper consists of a description of the structural features of two
typical Italian instruments and a general discussion of the stringing
and tuning of Italian harpsichords and virginals that is based on
certain measurements of 33 instruments housed in various museums in the
United States. To the curators and other staff members of these
institutions I express my sincere gratitude for making it possible for
me to measure valuable instruments entrusted to their care or for
supplying similar information by mail.
The first type of instrument described below usually has been designated
in modern books about musical instruments and in catalogs of instrument
collections as a spinet, the term virginal being applied to the
rectangular instruments having the keyboard along the long side. Since
both of these types have basically the same arrangement of keyboard,
wrest plank, hitch pins, strings and jacks, and since both types were
known as virginals in 17th-century England, it is logical to reserve the
term spinet for another kind of instrument, namely the one with the
wrest plank and tuning pins in front over the keyboard, and with the
strings stretched diagonally. Such instruments were popular in England
in the late 17th and early 18th centuries and were known in English as
spinets during the period of their popularity. By using the term
polygonal virginal we can distinguish, when necessary, the five-sided
Italian model from the rectangular instruments usually produced in
northern Europe. Some rectangular virginals were made in Italy; one
Flemish polygonal virginal, made by the elder Hans Ruckers in 1591,
survives. Long instruments, resembling the grand piano in shape, are
called harpsichords. Of course it is understood that both types of
virginals as well as the spinet and the harpsichord were keyed
chordophones employing the plucking action of jacks and plectra.
[Illustration: Figure 2.--POLYGONAL VIRGINAL IN OUTER CASE.]
Throughout this paper the different octaves are indicated according to
the following system:
[Illustration: Music]
[Illustration: Figure 3.--POLYGONAL VIRGINAL REMOVED FROM OUTER CASE.]
The Typical Italian Polygonal Virginal
To give a clear idea of the construction of the Italian polygonal
virginal, a detailed description of one particular example is presented
here. This virginal is included in the Hugo Worch collection at the U.S.
National Museum. The maker's name is not known, but the instrument is
believed to have been built around 1600.
As is true of the great majority of Italian virginals and harpsichords
of the 16th and 17th centuries, the instrument proper is removable from
its outer case. The outer case (fig. 2), of sturdier construction than
the virginal which it was designed to protect, is made of wood about
1/2" thick and is decorated with paintings of female figures and
garlands. The original legs are missing.
Our main interest is in the virginal proper (fig. 3), the construction
of which is comparable in some ways to that of the violin. The very thin
sides of the virginal are held together at the corners by blocks, and
the soundboard is supported by a lining.
The cross section drawing (fig. 4) shows the 9/16" thick bottom and the
sides which are 1/8" thick. The lining, 1/2" by 1-1/3", runs around four
sides of the instrument, the wrest plank replacing it on the fifth side.
The soundboard thickness, measured inside the holes through which the
jacks pass, varies from 1/16" in the bass to 1/8" in the treble. The
manner in which variations in thickness are distributed over the entire
soundboard has not been determined. The cross section drawing also shows
the beautifully executed mouldings that make the sides appear to be
thicker than they really are.
The positions of the knee braces, the shape of which can be seen in
figure 4, are shown along either side of the keyboard in figure 5. These
braces are 3/4" thick. The positions of the blocks, small pieces with
the grain running perpendicular to the bottom, and the wrest plank,
which is 1-1/4" thick, are also shown. The two ribs are attached to the
underside of the soundboard in the positions indicated. The jack guide,
built up of separate pieces held together by long strips down either
side, is glued to the underside of the soundboard and extends as far as
the lining in the treble but stops a little short of it in the bass
(fig. 5). The jack guide is 15/16" thick.
The layout of the soundboard in figure 6 gives the relative positions of
the bridges, tuning pins, hitch pins, strings, jacks, and jack rail.
There is, of course, one jack and one string per key. The jacks
presently in this virginal, not being original, will not be described.
Typical Italian jacks will be described later. The bridges are 5/16"
wide and vary in height from 7/16" in the bass to 3/8" in the treble. A
cross section of one of the bridges appears in figure 4. The jack rail,
also shown in figure 4, extends over the jacks 1-1/8" above the
soundboard. It serves not only to prevent the jacks from flying out
during play but also to terminate the downward fall of the fronts of the
keys. The keys do not drop far enough to touch the key frame, but
instead are stopped by the jacks striking the jack rail.
[Illustration: Figure 4.--CROSS SECTION OF POLYGONAL VIRGINAL. A, side;
B, bottom; C, knee; D, liner; E, soundboard; F, rib; G, bridge; H
string; I, jack rail. Scale, 1:2.]
The keyboard has an apparent compass of four octaves and one note from
_E_ to _f´´´_. Short octave tuning would have extended the compass down
a major third to _C_ in the bass, with the _E_ key sounding _C_, the
_F#_ key sounding _D_, the _G#_ key sounding _E_, and the remaining keys
sounding their proper pitches. These three keys will hereafter be
referred to as _C/E_, _D/F#_ and _E/G#_.
The lowest eight keys have small wire eyes attached to their undersides
near the front. A corresponding slot is cut through the inner and outer
cases, allowing the eyes to be connected to a short pedal keyboard which
has not survived.
The keys themselves vary in length from 10" in the bass to 18-1/2" in
the treble; they are mounted on a trapezoidal key frame which is
removable from the instrument. The balance rail and balance rail pins
are on a diagonal, resulting in a gradual but noticeable change in the
touch from one end of the keyboard to the other. The rack, 1/2" thick
and 1-3/4" high, is fastened along the back of the key frame and has one
vertical saw cut for each key. Projecting from the back of each key is a
small sliver of wood which rides in its proper saw cut and serves to
guide the key. The natural keys are veneered with boxwood and have
arcaded boxwood fronts. The sharps are small blocks of hardwood stained
black.
The sides, soundboard, ribs, jacks, guide, jackrail, and mouldings are
made of cypress, the wrest plank and bridges are of walnut, and the
framework, bottom, keys, and key frame are of pine.
The photographs (figs. 2, 3) show the decorative use of ivory studs. On
the soundboard appears the Latin inscription _Vita brevis, ars longa_. A
laminated parchment rose, 3-3/16" in diameter, is placed in the
soundboard in the position indicated in figure 6. A typical example of
this decorative device is shown in figure 12.
The above-described virginal is typical of Italian practice. Other
examples studied generally have differed from it only in small details,
except in the case of compass and vibrating lengths of strings. These
factors will be discussed in detail in a following section.
[Illustration: Figure 5.--INTERIOR OF POLYGONAL VIRGINAL. A, lining; B,
wrest plank; C, rib; D, jack guide; E, knee; F, rack. Broken lines
indicate positions of corner blocks and brace under wrest plank. Scale,
1:8.]
[Illustration: Figure 6.--SOUNDBOARD LAYOUT OF POLYGONAL VIRGINAL.
Scale, 1:8.]
[Illustration: Figure 7.--RIDOLFI HARPSICHORD REMOVED FROM CASE.]
[Illustration: Figure 8.--CROSS SECTION OF RIDOLFI HARPSICHORD. A,
bottom; B, knee; C, lining; D, soundboard. Scale, 1:2.]
The Typical Italian Harpsichord
The instrument chosen to illustrate the stylistic features of the
Italian harpsichord is also in the collection of the U.S. National
Museum. This harpsichord, purchased for the Museum in 1892 by Dr. G.
Brown Goode, was made in 1665 by Giacomo Ridolfi, who claimed Girolamo
Zenti as his teacher. The inscription on the nameboard reads "Jacobus
Rodolphus Hieronymi de Zentis Discipulus MDCLXV Facieba."
Like the virginal described above, this harpsichord is separable from
its outer case. The outer case rests on a separate stand consisting of
three gilt cupids and a floral garland. Since the painted decoration of
this case is not original, another outer case, belonging to a
harpsichord made by Horatius Albana in 1633, was selected for the
illustration (fig. 1).
Two unison strings per key and two registers of jacks are provided. The
apparent compass of the keyboard is from _C/E_ to _c´´´_. The remains of
pedal connections can be seen on the lowest eight keys.
The sides of the harpsichord are 5/32" thick; the bottom is 9/16" thick.
The sides and lining are supported by knees that do not extend clear
across the bottom of the instrument as they do in the virginal.
The knees are small triangular pieces, as shown in figure 8. Since the
added tension of the second set of strings demands a somewhat more
substantial framework than that employed in the virginal, a series of
braces are attached to the floor. These are connected to the lining by
several diagonal braces (fig. 9). This produces a remarkably strong but
very light structure. The keys (not shown) are of more constant length
than those of the virginal; therefore, the touch is much more uniform.
[Illustration: Figure 9.--FRAMEWORK OF HARPSICHORD. A, wrest plank; B,
belly rail; C, rib; D, bottom brace; E, diagonal brace; F, knee; G,
lining. Scale, 1:8.]
[Illustration: Figure 10.--LAYOUT OF HARPSICHORD SOUNDBOARD. Scale,
1:8.]
The wrest plank is supported by two end blocks, against which the
partition behind the action (called the belly rail) is also placed. The
soundboard is glued to the top of the belly rail. The wrest plank is
veneered with cypress, giving the appearance that the soundboard extends
over it. The jack guides also rest on the end blocks in the space
between the wrest plank and the belly rail. Figures 8 and 11 clarify the
arrangement of these structural features.
Figure 10 shows the layout of ribs, bridges, and strings on the
soundboard. The soundboard is about 1/8" thick. The bridge on the wrest
plank tapers in height from 3/8" in the treble to 7/16" in the bass and
in width from 5/16" to 7/16". The soundboard bridge measures about 3/8"
by 1/4" and has virtually no taper. The soundboard does not have a rose,
although that decorative device is fairly common on Italian
harpsichords.
The jack guides are built up of spacer blocks held together by thin
strips along the sides. There is now no provision for moving the guides,
although plugged-up holes visible in the right end of each guide suggest
that they originally could be disengaged. In Italian harpsichords
generally, the jack guides were controlled by knobs projecting through
the sides of the case. Sometimes these harpsichords had levers pivoted
on the wrest plank and attached to the guides. The Ridolfi case has not
been patched and there are no holes in the wrest plank where levers
could have been attached; so, the guides probably were not intended to
be movable.
The jacks are simple slips of walnut measuring about 3/16" by 7/16" by
3-1/8". The arrangement of the tongue, spring, plectrum, and damper are
shown in figure 11. The dampers are small pieces of buckskin held in
slots at the tops of the jacks. The plectra, perhaps not original, are
of leather. Of course, there are no adjusting screws or capstans of any
variety.
The direction in which the plectra of each row of jacks should be
pointing is not known. Two clavicytheria having two registers of strings
and a single row of double tongue jacks have been examined by the
author. Each of these jacks has two plectra, one pointing to the right
and one to the left. Turning these jacks around does not alter the order
of direction. The plectra nearest the keyboard points the same way
whether the jack is upside down or not. In the clavicytherium at the
Smithsonian Institution the plectra nearest the keyboard points to the
player's left. In a clavicytherium at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts the
opposite is true. Probably both arrangements were used in harpsichords
also.
String Lengths and Pitch Standards
The vibrating lengths of the strings of the polygonal virginal and of
the Ridolfi harpsichord can be roughly determined from the drawings. For
purposes of comparison, a tabulation of the vibrating lengths (in
inches) of the _C_ strings on both instruments follows:
_Polygonal _Harpsichord_
virginal_
c´´´ 6-5/8 5-1/16
c´´ (pitch C) 12-15/16 10
c´ (middle C) 25-9/16 20-1/2
c 43-5/16 42-1/16
C/E 50-5/6 61-1/4
The lengths shown for the harpsichord represent the shorter of the two
strings with which each key is provided.
In order to produce a uniform tone color throughout the compass of a
stringed instrument, it is necessary, among other things, to have the
tension of all the strings reasonably uniform. In the treble this is
accomplished by varying the string lengths. Since the length of a
vibrating string is inversely proportional to its frequency, each string
is made about half as long as the string an octave below, two thirds as
long as the string a fifth below, etc. This principle cannot be carried
all the way into the bass since the lowest strings would be
inconveniently long, so somewhere below middle _C_ the strings are
gradually shortened and the diameters of the wires are increased in
compensation.
As the above comparison shows, the string lengths are approximately
doubled at each descending octave down to _c´_ on the virginal and _c_
on the harpsichord. The shape of the case allows the harpsichord to have
longer bass strings than the virginal; between _c´_ and _c_ the string
length is doubled in the harpsichord. However, in the virginal the _c_
string is considerably less than twice as long as the string an octave
above. In fact, the bass strings of the virginal are shortened to such
an extent that the lowest string of the harpsichord is much longer than
the lowest string of the virginal, although in the treble the virginal
has longer strings than the harpsichord.
If the length of one treble string of an instrument of this sort is
known, the lengths of all but the bass strings can be readily inferred;
we can approximately describe the lengths of two-thirds to three-fourths
of the strings of either of the above instruments by giving the length
of one string. It has become customary to use _c´´_ for this purpose,
and to refer to it in such cases as pitch _C_.
In examining a number of Italian harpsichords and virginals dating from
1540 to 1694, lengths for pitch _C_ ranging from 8" to 13-3/4" have been
found. This seems to be a great discrepancy for instruments that are
otherwise so standardized. Since a uniform standard of pitch did not yet
exist in the 16th and 17th centuries, we would expect the string lengths
employed to be varied somewhat in order to accommodate the instruments
to higher or lower tunings. Also, a preference for the sound of thinner,
longer wires or shorter, thicker ones may have caused some builders to
increase or decrease the string lengths on their instruments in
proportion to the string diameters chosen. We have no precise evidence
concerning the original wire gauges of the strings of Italian
harpsichords and virginals. Although the variety of pitch _C_ lengths
encountered on the instruments studied can partially be accounted for by
these two factors, a third and more important cause existed.
Among the 33 instruments about which information has been secured, a
correlation is discernible between the apparent manual compass and the
pitch _C_ string lengths. Sixteen of the instruments ascend to _f´´´_.
For these, the length of the pitch _C_ string varies from 10-1/4" to
13-3/4". The remaining instruments, with either _a´´_ or _c´´´_ as the
highest notes, have pitch _C_ strings ranging from 8" to 11-3/8" in
length. If the average tension and wire diameter of the two groups are
assumed to have been about equal, the difference in string lengths would
suggest a corresponding difference in pitch, the instruments having the
compass extended to _f´´´_ sounding somewhat lower than the others.
[Illustration: Figure 11.--ACTION OF HARPSICHORD. A, bottom; B, belly
rail; C, soundboard; D, wrest plank; E, key frame; F, rack; G, key; H,
jack; I, jack rail. Scale, 1:2.]
There is some historical evidence that this actually was the case. In
his _Theatrum Instrumentorum_ Michael Praetorius[1] pictures a polygonal
virginal, which appears to be very much like the many Italian examples
that survive today, and a rectangular virginal that seems to be Flemish.
He specifies that both are _so recht Chor-Thon_ (at regular choir
pitch). Praetorius also shows a harpsichord[2] that looks like a
typical Italian instrument except for the presence of a set of strings
tuned an octave above unison pitch, a rare feature on Italian
harpsichords. This harpsichord is described as _so eine Quart tieffer
alss Chor-Thon_ (a fourth lower than choir pitch), clearly indicating
that single manual keyboard instruments a fourth apart in pitch were in
existence. Since no reason is given for the harpsichord being tuned a
fourth lower than the two virginals, we may assume that the author
considered the matter commonplace enough as to demand no further
elaboration and that instruments a fourth apart in pitch were not rare.
Praetorius does not state that the harpsichord in his illustration was
tuned to a low pitch standard, which was actually used for certain
purposes or in particular localities. He discussed the numerous pitches
in use before and during his time, but the only one that he mentioned as
being a fourth below choir pitch he considered obsolete and suitable
only for plainsong. If the harpsichord was not intended to be tuned to
this standard and used for this purpose, it must have been tuned to
choir pitch and treated as a transposing instrument.
Querinus van Blankenburg,[3] writing in 1739, states:
At that time [the beginning of the 17th century], men had so little
experience in transposition that in order to be able to transpose a
piece a fourth downwards they made a special second keyboard in the
harpsichord for this purpose. This seems incredible, but the very
remarkable proof is the fact that the famous Ruckers from the
beginning of the last century for a period of more than thirty
years made harpsichords only in this way.[4]
That the second manual of the two-manual harpsichord originated as a
device for transposition is well known. In an article titled
"Transposing Keyboards on Extant Flemish Harpsichords," Sibyl Marcuse[5]
discusses surviving examples that show how the second keyboard was
arranged. The upper keyboard was the principal one, with the lower
keyboard sounding a fourth below. The strings acted upon by a _c_ key on
the upper manual were sounded by an _f_ key on the lower; so, in
changing from the upper manual to the lower, the player would have to
move his hands to the left the distance of a perfect fourth in order to
strike the same keys, thus producing the downward transposition. The
compass of the upper manual was _E/C_ to _c´´´_. Since the lower
keyboard was shifted to the left, space was provided for five additional
keys at its treble end. The apparent treble range of the lower keyboard
was therefore extended to _f´´´_, although the lower _f´´´_ and upper
_c´´´_ keys worked on the same strings and produced the same pitch. Room
was also made for five extra bass keys at the lower end of the upper
manual. However, since short octave tuning was employed and it was
desirable to be able to use the same fingering in the bass on both
manuals, the tails of the _C/E_, _D/F#_ and _E/G#_ keys of the upper
manual had to be bent to the left in order to work on the strings played
by the _F_, _G_, and _A_ keys respectively of the lower manual. The
vacant space to the left of the upper manual _C/E_ was filled by a block
of wood. Hence the five extra bass strings not used by the upper manual
were those played by the _C/E_, _D/F#_, _E/G#_, _B_, and _c#_ keys of
the lower keyboard.
Of the 16 Italian harpsichords and virginals studied that ascend in the
treble to _f´´´_, 13 range to _C/E_ in the bass, thus having exactly the
same compass as the lower (transposing) keyboard of the Flemish
two-manual instruments. Twelve of the 14 Italian examples having _c´´´_
as the highest key stop on _C/E_ in the bass and are identical in
apparent compass to the Ruckers upper manual.
The correlation of compass and string length of the Italian instruments,
the statements of Praetorius, and the similarity of the Italian keyboard
ranges to those of the Ruckers transposing harpsichords have been
considered. A plausible conclusion is that the Italian instruments
extending to _f´´´_ were transposing instruments sounding a perfect
fourth lower than the prevailing pitch standard. Adopting the
terminology used for orchestral wind instruments, these could be
referred to as harpsichords in _G_.
The evidence of the correlation between string length and compass
becomes much more convincing if we assume that the Italian builders
abandoned the practice of making transposing harpsichords about the same
time that the Ruckers family stopped employing the transposing lower
manual. In the quotation previously given, Querinus van Blankenburg
tells us that the Ruckers did not make transposing instruments later
than the 1630's. Of the 10 dated Italian instruments with the keyboard
extended to _f´´´_, only three were made after the third decade of the
17th century. Each of these has a shorter pitch _C_ string than any of
the seven earlier instruments. These three harpsichords, dated 1654,
1658, and 1666, are accordingly considered nontransposing instruments,
with the extra treble keys representing an actual extension of the
upward range. The six undated instruments with _f´´´_ in the treble are
classified as transposing instruments because of their pitch _C_ lengths
and are accordingly believed to have been made before about 1635.
[Illustration: Figure 12.--TYPICAL DECORATIVE DEVICE, known as rose,
that appeared in soundboards of virginals and harpsichords.]
The 33 instruments on which this study is based are classified in the
list on page 107. They are grouped according to whether the highest key
is _f´´´_ or _c´´´_, with the exceptions of the three harpsichords
mentioned in the preceding paragraph and three instruments that go only
to _a´´_. That the three instruments ending on _a´´_ belong with the
nontransposing group is indicated by their string lengths.
The listing gives additional information about each example. String
lengths of instruments having two registers are for the shorter of the
two pitch _C_ strings.
Information has been secured on two Italian virginals which were not
included in the tabulation. Their measurements are completely at
variance with the pattern consistently set by the other 33 examples
studied. One, made by Giovanni Domenico in 1556, is in the Skinner
collection; it has a pitch _C_ string 14-1/16" in length and an apparent
compass of _C/E_ to _c´´´_. The other, with the same apparent compass
and a 7-1/2" pitch _C_ string, is at Yale University. Whether these
instruments are exceptional in terms of the pitch to which they were
tuned, the tension which was applied to the strings, or the thickness
and weight of the strings themselves, has not been determined.
The average of the pitch _C_ lengths of the transposing instruments in
the list is 12.78"; that of the nontransposing group is 10.45". This
suggests a separation between the two groups of about a major third
since the first average is roughly 5/4 of the second. However, the fact
that the separation of the two averages is not great enough to
positively indicate a perfect fourth--the first average would have to
be 4/3 of the second to do so--does not disprove the theory of
transposition by a fourth. In the first place, a considerable variety of
pitches is no doubt represented in both groups since a universal pitch
standard did not exist in the 16th and 17th centuries. Also, a margin of
error of only a semitone is as good as could be expected considering the
small number of examples on which the averages are based.
A further possible justification for the relationship of the two
averages is found in Praetorius' discussion of the pitch standards with
which he was familiar.[6] He states that choir pitch was a major second
lower than chamber pitch and that _tertiam minorem_ was a minor third
lower than chamber pitch. Praetorius says of _tertiam minorem_:[7]
But in Italy and in various Catholic choirs in Germany, the said
lower pitch is much in use. For some Italians, not unjustly, take
no pleasure in high singing, and maintain it is not beautiful, and
the words cannot be properly understood, and it sounds like
crowing, yelling, singing at the top of one's voice....
Possibly some of the nontransposing instruments were tuned to choir
pitch and others to _tertiam minorem_, while the transposing instruments
were set a fourth lower than choir pitch.
Three of the instruments listed are ottavinas, small instruments tuned
an octave higher than usual. Ottavinas correspond to a four-foot
register. Mersenne[8] mentions that they existed in two sizes, one a
fifth above the usual pitch and the other an octave above. The three
ottavinas included in the table are considered to be of the size
sounding an octave above the usual pitch because they have _C/E_ to
_c´´´_ ranges and pitch _C_ string lengths about half the average length
of the other instruments in the nontransposing group. Although no
examples were found for inclusion in this study, it is probable that
some ottavinas a fifth above the usual pitch--and therefore an octave
higher than the transposing instruments in our listing--survive. Such
instruments would be expected to have apparent ranges of _C/E_ to _f´´´_
and pitch _C_ strings between 5-3/4" and 6-3/4" in length.
DATA ON THE 33 INSTRUMENTS STUDIED
KEY:
A.: _Date_
B.: _Pitch C length_ (_in inches_)
C.: _Apparent compass_
D.: _Type_
E.: _Registers_
F.: _Maker_
G.: _Present location_
A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS
1540 11-11/16 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Vi ... ies Metropolitan
virginal Museum of
Art
1569 13-1/4 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Annibale Juilliard
virginal Rossi School
of Music
1602 13-1/4 C/E-f´´´ Rectangular 8´ Ioannes Smithsonian
virginal Baptista Institution
Bononien
1610 13-1/2 C/E-f´´´´ Polygonal 8´ Pasquino Harding
virginal Querci Museum,
Chicago
1613 11-1/2 C/E-f´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Pasquino Smithsonian
Querci Institution
1617 13-3/4 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Giovanni Yale
virginal Battista University,
Boni New Haven,
Conn.
1620 13-9/16 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Francesco Rhode Island
virginal Poggio School of
Design,
Providence
11-15/16 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Skinner
virginal Collection,
Holyoke,
Mass.
12-15/16 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Smithsonian
virginal Institution
13" C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Boston Museum
virginal of Fine Arts
11-1/2 C-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Folger
virginal Library,
Washington,
D.C.
12-3/4 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Cincinnati
virginal Art Museum
13-5/8 C/E-f´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Smithsonian
virginal Institution
NONTRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS
1548 11 C/E-c´´´ Polygonal 8´ Domenicus Metropolitan
virginal Pesaurensis Museum of Art
1554 [a]10-1/2 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Padre Vassar
Stoppacio College,
Poughkeepsie,
New York
1585 [b]11-1/2 C/E-a´´ Ottavina 4´ Franciscus Metropolitan
Bonafinis Museum of Art
1602 10-1/2 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord Christoforus Stearns
Rigunini Collection,
Ann Arbor,
Mich.
1615 [b]9-3/4 C/E-a´´ Ottavina 4´ Pasquino Metropolitan
Querci Museum of Art
1625 10-1/8 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´ Valerius Skinner
Peres Collection,
Holyoke,
Mass.
1633 11-3/8 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Horatius Smithsonian
Albana Institution
1645 11 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Horatius Vizcaya,
Albana Miami, Fla.
1654 10-1/4 C/E-f´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Anonymous Smithsonian
Institution
1658 11-1/8 C-f´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Hieronymus Metropolitan
de Zentis Museum of Art
1665 10 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Giacomo Smithsonian
Ridolfi Institution
1666 10-15/16 A_{1}-f´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Hieronymus Metropolitan
de Zentis Museum of Art
1682 10-7/8 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Giacomo Rhode Island
Ridolfi School of
Design,
Providence
1683 8 C/E-c´´´ Polygonal 8´ B. Obici Harding
virginal Museum,
Chicago
1690 10-13/16 C/E-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´ Giovanni Smithsonian
Andrea Institution
Menegoni
1693 10-5/16 G_{1}-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´ Anonymous Smithsonian
Institution
1694 9-7/8 C-c´´´ Harpsichord 8´8´4´ Nicolaus Smithsonian
(minus C#) de Quoco Institution
9-3/4 C/E-a´´ Clavicytherium 8´8´ Anonymous Smithsonian
Institution
[b]10-3/8 C/E-c´´´ Clavicytherium 4´ Anonymous Boston Museum
(Ottavina) of Fine Arts
11 C/E-c´´´ Polygonal 8´ Anonymous Smithsonian
virginal Institution
[a] This length is approximate. It is double the length of the shortest
string on the instrument.
[b] In order to arrive at a meaningful average value for the string
lengths of the nontransposing group, it was necessary to double the
measured lengths of the pitch _C_ strings of the three instruments tuned
an octave higher.
-------+----------+---------
Figure | Negative | Catalog
| Number | Number
-------+----------+---------
1 | 56322 | 326,905
2 | 46792 | 303,544
3 | 49355A | 303,544
4 | 49355B | 303,544
5 | 49356A | 303,544
6 | 49356 | 303,544
7 | 49356D | 332,173
8 | 49356D | 332,173
9 | 49357A | 332,173
10 | 49357 | 332,173
11 | 49355C | 332,173
12 | 46795 | 303,545
-------+----------+---------
GPO: 1970 O--380-228
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington 25, D.C. Price 25 cents.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Michael Praetorius, _Theatrum Instrumentorum_, Wolfenbüttel, 1620,
pl. 14.
[2] _Ibid._, pl. 6.
[3] Querinus van Blankenburg, _Elementa Musica_, The Hague, 1739.
[4] Translation by Arthur Mendel in "Devices for Transposition in the
Organ before 1600," _Acta Musicologica_, 1949, p. 33.
[5] Sibyl Marcuse, "Transposing Keyboards on Extant Flemish
Harpsichords," _Musical Quarterly_, July 1952.
[6] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_, Wolfenbüttel, 1614-1620,
vol. 2 (Organographia), chapter 2.
[7] Translation by Arthur Mendel in "Pitch in the 16th and early 17th
Centuries, Part II," _Musical Quarterly_, April 1948.
[8] Marin Mersenne, _Harmonie Universelle_, Paris, 1636, p. 101.
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Italian Harpsichord-Building in the
16th and 17th Centuries, by John D. Shortridge
*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ITALIAN HARPSICHORD-BUILDING ***
***** This file should be named 27149-8.txt or 27149-8.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
https://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/1/4/27149/
Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Greg Bergquist
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net
Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.
Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.
*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
https://gutenberg.org/license).
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that
- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg-tm works.
- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
of receipt of the work.
- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
[email protected]. Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at https://pglaf.org
For additional contact information:
Dr. Gregory B. Newby
Chief Executive and Director
[email protected]
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit https://pglaf.org
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
https://www.gutenberg.org
This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
