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Title: Social devices for impelling women to bear and rear children
Author: Leta S. Hollingworth
Release date: August 10, 2024 [eBook #74224]
Language: English
Original publication: United States: The American Journal of Sociology, 1916
Credits: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIAL DEVICES FOR IMPELLING WOMEN TO BEAR AND REAR CHILDREN ***
SOCIAL DEVICES FOR IMPELLING WOMEN TO BEAR AND REAR CHILDREN
LETA S. HOLLINGWORTH
Bellevue Hospital, New York City
“Again, the breeding function of the family would be better discharged
if public opinion and religion conspired, as they have until recently,
to crush the aspirations of woman for a life of her own. But the gain
would not be worth the price.”—E. A. ROSS, _Social Control_ (1904).
In this quotation from Ross we have suggested to us an exceedingly
important and interesting phase of social control, namely, the control
by those in social power over those individuals who alone can bring
forth the human young, and thus perpetuate society. It is necessary that
at the very outset of this discussion we should consent to clear our
minds of the sentimental conception of motherhood and to look at facts.
Sumner[1] states these facts as well as they have ever been stated, in
his consideration of the natural burdens of society. He says:
Children add to the weight of the struggle for existence of their
parents. The relation of parent to child is one of sacrifice. The
interests of parents and children are antagonistic. The fact that
there are or may be compensations does not affect the primary relation
between the two. It may well be believed that, if procreation had not
been put under the dominion of a great passion, it would have been
caused to cease by the burdens it entails.
This is especially true in the case of the mothers.
The fact is that child-bearing is in many respects analogous to the work
of soldiers: it is necessary for tribal or national existence; it means
great sacrifice of personal advantage; it involves danger and suffering,
and, in a certain percentage of cases, the actual loss of life. Thus we
should expect that there would be a continuous social effort to insure
the group-interest in respect to population, just as there is a
continuous social effort to insure the defense of the nation in time of
war. It is clear, indeed, that the social devices employed to get
children born, and to get soldiers slain, are in many respects similar.
But once the young are brought into the world they still must be reared,
if society’s ends are to be served, and here again the need for and
exercise of social control may be seen. Since the period of helpless
infancy is very prolonged in the human species, and since the care of
infants is an onerous and exacting labor, it would be natural for all
persons not biologically attached to infants to use all possible devices
for fastening the whole burden of infant-tending upon those who are so
attached. We should expect this to happen, and we shall see, in fact,
that there has been consistent social effort to establish as a norm the
woman whose vocational proclivities are completely and “naturally”
satisfied by child-bearing and child-rearing, with the related domestic
activities.
There is, to be sure, a strong and fervid insistence on the “maternal
instinct,” which is popularly supposed to characterize all women
equally, and to furnish them with an all-consuming desire for
parenthood, regardless of the personal pain, sacrifice, and disadvantage
involved. In the absence of all verifiable data, however, it is only
common-sense to guard against accepting as a fact of human nature a
doctrine which we might well expect to find in use as a means of social
control. Since we possess no scientific data at all on this phase of
human psychology, the most reasonable assumption is that if it were
possible to obtain a quantitative measurement of maternal instinct, we
should find this trait distributed among women, just as we have found
all other traits distributed which have yielded to quantitative
measurement. It is most reasonable to assume that we should obtain a
curve of distribution, varying from an extreme where individuals have a
zero or negative interest in caring for infants, through a mode where
there is a moderate amount of impulse to such duties, to an extreme
where the only vocational or personal interest lies in maternal
activities.
The facts, shorn of sentiment, then, are: (1) The bearing and rearing of
children is necessary for tribal or national existence and
aggrandizement. (2) The bearing and rearing of children is painful,
dangerous to life, and involves long years of exacting labor and
self-sacrifice. (3) There is no verifiable evidence to show that a
maternal instinct exists in women of such all-consuming strength and
fervor as to impel them voluntarily to seek the pain, danger, and
exacting labor involved in maintaining a high birth rate.
We should expect, therefore, that those in control of society would
invent and employ devices for impelling women to maintain a birth rate
sufficient to insure enough increase in the population to offset the
wastage of war and disease. It is the purpose of this paper to cite
specific illustrations to show just how the various social institutions
have been brought to bear on women to this end. Ross has classified the
means which society takes and has taken to secure order, and insure that
individuals will act in such a way as to promote the interests of the
group, _as those interests are conceived by those who form “the radiant
points of social control.”_ These means, according to the analysis of
Ross, are public opinion, law, belief, social suggestion, education,
custom, social religion, personal ideals (the type), art, personality,
enlightenment, illusion, and social valuation. Let us see how some of
these means have been applied in the control of women.
_Personal ideals (the type)._—The first means of control to which I wish
to call attention in the present connection is that which Ross calls
“personal ideals.” It is pointed out that “a developed society presents
itself as a system of unlike individuals, strenuously pursuing their
personal ends.” Now, for each person there is a “certain zone of
requirement,” and since “altruism is quite incompetent to hold each
unswervingly to the particular activities and forbearances belonging to
his place in the social system,” the development of such allegiance must
be—
effected by means of types or patterns, which society induces its
members to adopt as their guiding ideals.... To this end are
elaborated various patterns of conduct and of character, which may be
termed social types. These types may become in the course of time
personal ideals, each for that category of persons for which it is
intended.
For women, obviously enough, the first and most primitive “zone of
requirement” is and has been to produce and rear families large enough
to admit of national warfare being carried on, and of colonization.
Thus has been evolved the social type of the “womanly woman,” “the
normal woman,” the chief criterion of normality being a willingness to
engage enthusiastically in maternal and allied activities. All those
classes and professions which form “the radiant points of social
control” unite upon this criterion. Men of science announce it with calm
assurance (though failing to say on what kind or amount of scientific
data they base their remarks). For instance, McDougall[2] writes:
The highest stage is reached by those species in which each female
produces at birth but one or two young, and protects them so
efficiently that most of the young born reach maturity; the
maintenance of the species thus becomes in the main the work of the
parental instinct. In such species the protection and cherishing of
the young is the constant and all-absorbing occupation of the mother,
to which she devotes all her energies, and in the course of which she
will at any time undergo privation, pain, and death. The instinct
(maternal instinct) becomes more powerful than any other, and can
override any other, even fear itself.
Professor Jastrow[3] writes:
... _charm_ is the technique of the maiden, and _sacrifice_ the
passion of the mother. One set of feminine interests expresses more
distinctly the issues of courtship and attraction; the other of
qualities of motherhood and devotion.
The medical profession insistently proclaims desire for numerous
children as the criterion of normality for women, scornfully branding
those so ill-advised as to deny such desires as “abnormal.” As one
example among thousands of such attempts at social control let me quote
the following, which appeared in a New York newspaper on November 29,
1915:
Only abnormal women want no babies. Trenchant criticism of modern life
was made by Dr. Max G. Schlapp, internationally known as a
neurologist. Dr. Schlapp addressed his remarks to the congregation of
the Park Avenue M.E. Church. He said, “The birth rate is falling off.
Rich people are the ones who have no children, and the poor have the
greatest number of offspring. Any woman who does not desire offspring
is abnormal. We have a large number, particularly among the women, who
do not want children. Our social society is becoming intensely
unstable.”
And this from the _New York Times_, September 5, 1915:
Normally woman lives through her children; man lives through his work.
Scores of such implicit attempts to determine and present the type or
norm meet us on every hand. This norm has the sanction of authority,
being announced by men of greatest prestige in the community. No one
wishes to be regarded by her fellow-creatures as “abnormal” or
“decayed.” The stream of suggestions playing from all points inevitably
has its influence, so that it is or was, until recently, well-nigh
impossible to find a married woman who would admit any conflicting
interests equal or paramount to the interest of caring for children.
There is a universal refusal to admit that the maternal instinct, like
every other trait of human nature, might be distributed according to the
probability curve.
_Public opinion._—Let us turn next to public opinion as a means of
control over women in relation to the birth rate. In speaking of public
opinion Ross says:
Haman is at the mercy of Mordecai. Rarely can one regard his deed as
fair when others find it foul, or count himself a hero when the world
deems him a wretch.... For the mass of men the blame and the praise of
the community are the very lords of life.
If we inquire now what are the organs or media of expression of public
opinion we shall see how it is brought to bear on women. The newspapers
are perhaps the chief agents, in modern times, in the formation of
public opinion, and their columns abound in interviews with the eminent,
deploring the decay of the population. Magazines print articles based on
statistics of depopulation, appealing to the patriotism of women. In the
year just passed fifty-five articles on the birth rate have chanced to
come to the notice of the present writer. Fifty-four were written by
men, including editors, statesmen, educators, ex-presidents, etc. Only
one was written by a woman. The following quotation is illustrative of
the trend of all of them:
M. Emil Reymond has made this melancholy announcement in the Senate:
“We are living in an age when women have pronounced upon themselves a
judgment that is dangerous in the highest degree to the development of
the population.... We have the right to do what we will with the life
that is in us, say they.”
Thus the desire for the development of interests and aptitudes other
than the maternal is stigmatized as “dangerous,” “melancholy,”
“degrading,” “abnormal,” “indicative of decay.” On the other hand,
excessive maternity receives many cheap but effective rewards. For
example, the Jesuit priests hold special meetings to laud maternity. The
German Kaiser announces that he will now be godfather to seventh,
eighth, and ninth sons, even if daughters intervene. The ex-President
has written a letter of congratulation to the mother of nine.
_Law._—Since its beginning as a human institution law has been a
powerful instrument for the control of women. The subjection of women
was originally an irrational consequence of sex differences in
reproductive function. It was not _intended_ by either men or women, but
simply resulted from the natural physiological handicaps of women, and
the attempts of humanity to adapt itself to physiological nature through
the crude methods of trial and error. When law was formulated, this
subjection was defined, and thus furthered. It would take too long to
cite all the legal provisions that contribute, indirectly, to keep women
from developing individualistic interests and capacities. Among the most
important indirect forces in law which affect women to keep them
child-bearers and child-rearers only are those provisions that tend to
restrain them from possessing and controlling property. Such provisions
have made of women a comparatively possessionless class, and have thus
deprived them of the fundamentals of power. While affirming the
essential nature of woman to be satisfied with maternity and with
maternal duties only, society has always taken every precaution to close
the avenues to ways of escape therefrom.
Two legal provisions which bear directly on women to compel them to keep
up the birth rate may be mentioned here. The first of these is the
provision whereby sterility in the wife may be made a cause of divorce.
This would be a powerful inducement to women who loved their husbands to
bear children if they could. The second provision is that which forbids
the communication of the data of science in the matter of the means of
birth control. The American laws are very drastic on this point.
Recently in New York City a man was sentenced to prison for violating
this law. The more advanced democratic nations have ceased to practice
military conscription. They no longer conscript their men to bear arms,
depending on the volunteer army. But they conscript their women to bear
children by legally prohibiting the publication or communication of the
knowledge which would make child-bearing voluntary.
Child-rearing is also legally insured by those provisions which forbid
and punish abortion, infanticide, and infant desertion. There could be
no better proof of the insufficiency of maternal instinct as a guaranty
of population than the drastic laws which we have against birth control,
abortion, infanticide, and infant desertion.
_Belief._—Belief, “which controls the hidden portions of life,” has been
used powerfully in the interests of population. Orthodox women, for
example, regard family limitation as a sin, punishable in the hereafter.
Few explicit exhortations concerning the birth rate are discoverable in
the various “Words” of God. The belief that family limitation will be
punished in the hereafter seems to have been evolved mainly by priests
out of the slender materials of a few quotations from Holy Writ, such as
“God said unto them, ‘Multiply and replenish the earth,’” and from the
scriptural allusion to children as the gifts of God. Being gifts from
God, it follows that they may not be refused except at the peril of
incurring God’s displeasure.
_Education._—The education of women has always, until the end of the
nineteenth century, been limited to such matters as would become a
creature who could and should have no aspirations for a life of her own.
We find the proper education for girls outlined in the writings of such
educators as Rousseau, Fénelon, St. Jerome, and in Godey’s _Lady’s
Book_. Not only have the “social guardians” used education as a negative
means of control, by failing to provide any real enlightenment for
women, but education has been made a positive instrument for control.
This was accomplished by drilling into the young and unformed mind,
while yet it was too immature to reason independently, such facts and
notions as would give the girl a conception of herself only as future
wife and mother. Rousseau, for instance, demanded freedom and individual
liberty of development for everybody except Sophia, who was to be
deliberately trained up as a means to an end. In the latter half of the
nineteenth century when the hard battle for the real enlightenment of
women was being fought, one of the most frequently recurring objections
to admitting women to knowledge was that “the population would suffer,”
“the essential nature of woman would be changed,” “the family would
decay,” and “the birth rate would fall.” Those in control of society
yielded up the old prescribed education of women only after a stubborn
struggle, realizing that with the passing of the old training an
important means of social control was slipping out of their hands.
_Art._—A very long paper might be written to describe the various uses
to which art has been put in holding up the ideal of motherhood. The
mother, with children at her breast, is the favorite theme of artists.
The galleries of Europe are hung full of Madonnas of every age and
degree. Poetry abounds in allusions to the sacredness and charm of
motherhood, depicting the yearning of the adult for his mother’s knee.
Fiction is replete with happy and adoring mothers. Thousands of songs
are written and sung concerning the ideal relation which exists between
mother and child. In pursuing the mother-child theme through art one
would not be led to suspect that society finds it necessary to make laws
against contra-conception, infanticide, abortion, and infant desertion.
Art holds up to view only the compensations of motherhood, leaving the
other half of the theme in obscurity, and thus acting as a subtle ally
of population.
_Illusion._—This is the last of Ross’s categories to which I wish to
refer. Ross says:
In the taming of men there must be provided coil after coil to
entangle the unruly one. Mankind must use snares as well as
leading-strings, will-o-the-wisps as well as lanterns. The truth by
all means, if it will promote obedience, but in any case obedience! We
shall examine not creeds now, but the films, veils, hidden mirrors,
and half lights by which men are duped as to that which lies nearest
them, their own experience. This time we shall see men led captive,
not by dogmas concerning a world beyond experience, but by artfully
fostered misconceptions of the pains, satisfactions, and values lying
under their very noses.
One of the most effective ways of creating the desired illusion about
any matter is by concealing and tabooing the mention of all the painful
and disagreeable circumstances connected with it. Thus there is a very
stern social taboo on conversation about the processes of birth. The
utmost care is taken to conceal the agonies and risks of child-birth
from the young. Announcement is rarely made of the true cause of deaths
from child-birth. The statistics of maternal mortality have been
neglected by departments of health, and the few compilations which have
been made have not achieved any wide publicity or popular discussion.
Says Katharine Anthony, in her recent book on _Feminism in Germany and
Scandinavia_ (1915):
There is no evidence that the death rate of women from child-birth has
caused the governing classes many sleepless nights.
Anthony gives some statistics from Prussia (where the figures have been
calculated), showing that
between 1891 and 1900 11 per cent of the deaths of all women between
the ages of twenty-five and forty years occurred in child-birth....
During forty years of peace Germany lost 400,000 mothers’ lives, that
is, ten times what she lost in soldiers’ lives in the campaign of 1870
and 1871.
Such facts would be of wide public interest, especially to women, yet
there is no tendency at all to spread them broadcast or to make
propaganda of them. Public attention is constantly being called to the
statistics of infant mortality, but the statistics of maternal mortality
are neglected and suppressed.
The pains, the dangers, and risks of child-bearing are tabooed as
subjects of conversation. The drudgery, the monotonous labor, and other
disagreeable features of child-rearing are minimized by “the social
guardians.” On the other hand, the joys and compensations of motherhood
are magnified and presented to consciousness on every hand. Thus the
tendency is to create an illusion whereby motherhood will appear to
consist of compensations only, and thus come to be desired by those for
whom the illusion is intended.
There is one further class of devices for controlling women that does
not seem to fit any of the categories mentioned by Ross. I refer to
threats of evil consequence to those who refrain from child-bearing.
This class of social devices I shall call “bugaboos.” Medical men have
done much to help population (and at the same time to increase
obstetrical practice!) by inventing bugaboos. For example, it is
frequently stated by medical men, and is quite generally believed by
women, that if first child-birth is delayed until the age of thirty
years the pains and dangers of the process will be very gravely
increased, and that therefore women will find it advantageous to begin
bearing children early in life. It is added that the younger the woman
begins to bear the less suffering will be experienced. One looks in
vain, however, for any objective evidence that such is the case. The
statements appear to be founded on no array of facts whatever, and until
they are so founded they lie under the suspicion of being merely devices
for social control.
One also reads that women who bear children live longer on the average
than those who do not, which is taken to mean that child-bearing has a
favorable influence on longevity. It may well be that women who bear
many children live longer than those who do not, but the only
implication probably is that those women who could not endure the strain
of repeated births died young, and thus naturally did not have many
children. The facts may indeed be as above stated, and yet child-bearing
may be distinctly prejudicial to longevity.
A third bugaboo is that if a child is reared alone, without brothers and
sisters, he will grow up selfish, egoistic, and an undesirable citizen.
Figures are, however, so far lacking to show the disastrous consequences
of being an only child.
From these brief instances it seems very clear that “the social
guardians” have not really believed that maternal instinct is alone a
sufficient guaranty of population. They have made use of all possible
social devices to insure not only child-bearing, but child-rearing.
Belief, law, public opinion, illusion, education, art, and bugaboos have
all been used to re-enforce maternal instinct. We shall never know just
how much maternal instinct alone will do for population until all the
forces and influences exemplified above have become inoperative. As soon
as women become fully conscious of the fact that they have been and are
controlled by these devices the latter will become useless, and we shall
get a truer measure of maternal feeling.
One who learns why society is urging him into the straight and narrow
way will resist its pressure. One who sees clearly how he is
controlled will thenceforth be emancipated. To betray the secrets of
ascendancy is to forearm the individual in his struggle with society.
The time is coming, and is indeed almost at hand, when all the most
intelligent women of the community, who are the most desirable
child-bearers, will become conscious of the methods of social control.
The type of normality will be questioned; the laws will be repealed and
changed; enlightenment will prevail; belief will be seen to rest upon
dogmas; illusion will fade away and give place to clearness of view; the
bugaboos will lose their power to frighten. How will “the social
guardians” induce women to bear a surplus population when all these
cheap, effective methods no longer work?
The natural desire for children may, and probably will, always guarantee
a stationary population, even if child-bearing should become a voluntary
matter. But if a surplus population is desired for national
aggrandizement, it would seem that there will remain but one effective
social device whereby this can be secured, namely, _adequate
compensation_, either in money or in fame. If it were possible to become
rich or famous by bearing numerous fine children, many a woman would no
doubt be eager to bring up eight or ten, though if acting at the
dictation of maternal instinct only, she would have brought up but one
or two. When the cheap devices no longer work, we shall expect expensive
devices to replace them, if the same result is still desired by the
governors of society.
If these matters could be clearly raised to consciousness, so that this
aspect of human life could be managed rationally, instead of
irrationally as at present, the social gain would be enormous—assuming
always that the increased happiness and usefulness of women would, in
general, be regarded as social gain.
-----
Footnote 1:
W. G. Sumner, _Folkways_, 1906.
Footnote 2:
W. McDougall, _Social Psychology_, 1908.
Footnote 3:
J. Jastrow, _Character and Temperament_, 1915.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained.
● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last
chapter.
● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
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