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Title: New discoveries in science
Author: Hereward Carrington
Editor: E. Haldeman-Julius
Release date: October 9, 2026 [eBook #79745]
Language: English
Original publication: Girard: Haldeman-Julius Company, 1924
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/79745
Credits: Tim Miller, anthropohistorian and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW DISCOVERIES IN SCIENCE ***
LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 493
Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius
New Discoveries in Science
Hereward Carrington, Ph. D.
Author of “The Coming Science,” “Modern
Psychical Phenomena,” etc., etc.
HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY
GIRARD, KANSAS
Copyright, 1924,
Haldeman-Julius Company.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
NEW DISCOVERIES IN SCIENCE.
WHY DO YOU CRY?
At first sight, it might appear that we invariably cry because we are
sad, but this is by no means the case! We may cry because we are hurt,
physically or mentally, or because of joy or excessive happiness, or
because of any tender emotion, or when hearing beautiful music, or
seeing some splendid action of bravery, or for many other reasons.
Like laughter, crying may thus be due to various causes. Some of these
are purely physiological, due to sensory impressions or congestion of
the circulation. Thus, smelling onions will induce a flow of tears--a
defensive mechanism to protect the eyes. A foreign body, an insect or
a particle of dust in the eye will induce the same result. Again tears
are protective. Coughing, vomiting, strong effort, will also cause the
eyes to water; and here again “crying” is brought about by physical
means alone.
Weeping is usually due to some strong psychic initiation, however, such
as some powerful emotion. But this must find expression through the
mechanism of the body, and this consists in a stimulation of the tear
glands (lachrymal glands) situated just above the eyes, whose normal
duty it is to supply just enough fluid to keep the eyes moistened.
Excessive stimulation of these glands will cause a flow of tiny drops
of water, which run across the eyes, and into the nose; but if an
excessive quantity of water be produced at once, they overflow the
eye-lids and fall onto the cheeks--“crying.”
This sudden increase of the lachrymal secretion depends upon the
increase in the pressure of the blood; this in turn is increased by the
emotions of joy or tenderness, as is proved by the “shining” of the
eyes. The appearance of tears would be the natural consequence. Tears
produce relief by lessening this congestion within the head. They are
a safety-valve on the part of Nature. We cry to relieve this internal
congestion.
WHY DO YOU FROWN?
If you are worried, anxious, angry, you knit the brows into a “frown,”
and the same is true if you are trying to recall some lost thought. Why
should the same outward expression be the symbol of so many differing
emotions? There being so many varying emotions, it seems strange, at
first sight, that the frown should represent them all! Why is this? Why
do we frown, on these various occasions?
A frown is due, physiologically, to the bringing together and lowering
of the eye-brows and the muscles just above them. This is accomplished
by the “corrugator” muscles, whose duty it is to contract the brows.
Now, a man may be working along for several hours, on an abstruse
problem, and never contract his brows; suddenly he does so! He has
struck something in his line of thought which is particularly difficult
or displeasing to him. It is the occurrence of this emotion which has
induced the frown.
Anything which induces an unpleasant emotion, therefore, may induce a
frown. If the food is not good, a man may frown at his wife; if the
milk is too cold, a baby will frown before crying. During intense
thought, the brows are only contracted when an idea, or a word, or
mode of expression is lacking. This sub-conscious irritation is then
expressed in a frown.
Another cause had probably strengthened the habit of frowning. That is
the endeavor to see more clearly at a distance. Short sighted people
often contract the eyes and the forehead in an effort to see with
greater distinctness. (This action has, in fact, given rise to the term
“Myopia,” from the Greek.)
Contraction of the brows also tends to shut out an excess of light,
which would also be an impediment to clear seeing. Frowning, therefore,
serves several good purposes, and may be brought about by several
distinct causes.
WHY DO YOU SMILE?
You know that when you meet a stranger, or even an old friend, and you
greet him, your impulse is to smile as you extend your hand. This is
a smile of recognition, of good-feeling and affection. It has become
instinctive with us, and we do it without ever thinking of its origin
or significance. But there must be some natural reason for this habit.
What is it?
Charles Darwin first pointed out that the muscles used in smiling were
also the muscles used in snarling. You have often seen two dogs, who
are doubtful of each other, approach gradually, pulling back their
lips in a half snarl, as though uncertain of their reception by the
new-comer. It indicated that the dog was ready to fight, if necessary,
and was a sign of warning--to “beware.”
Now, when one smiles, it is probably an evolution of the snarl, which
was originally a sign of defense. We smile on meeting strangers because
our animal ancestors snarled at them--as monkeys do to-day when any
stranger approaches them or attempts to handle them or pick them up.
(This can be observed in the case of any pet monkey.)
However, there is doubtless more to the smile than this. We smile,
it is true, even after we are assured of their friendship, and we
smile when we say “goodby.” We would not naturally snarl under
these circumstances! So the smile is also a physical expression of
happiness--a half-laugh, of gladness, of joy. It is also an expression
of amusement. The smile lifts the muscles of the face, keeping it
young and fresh, and free from wrinkles, and has a beneficial effect
upon it--just as worry and gloom cause the features to droop, and the
corners of the mouth to “sag.” For these reasons, it is safe to say:
“Smile, smile, smile!”
WHY DO YOU BLUSH?
“The blush of maidenly modesty” has often been the theme of the
poets--and the novelists! It is an indication of timidity or
bashfulness. Girls and young women are particularly subject to
blushing; and a pretty speech, a compliment, a personal allusion will
bring a blush to the cheeks as readily as will shame or anger. Intense
emotions of this character will usually bring about a blush.
Needless to say, a blush is, superficially, a sudden rush of blood to
the face and neck, filling the smaller blood vessels with arterial
blood--for if it were venous blood we should blush blue! This
instantaneous control of the circulation by a sudden emotion is in
itself of remarkable interest. It must be brought about by sudden
nervous impulses, checking and accelerating the blood-supply in the
face. Hack Tuke asserts that the blush of shame begins in the neck
and ears, that of anger begins with the eyes, and that of love in the
forehead.
Darwin attempted to account for blushing by supposing that a person
who thinks that others are looking at him directs his attention to
his own face; hence results a flow of blood towards that part. Such
explanations are now rejected. The experiments of Mosso and others, on
the circulation of the blood, seem to point to the view taken by the
psychologist Wundt--who contended that the normal checks to the blood
supply were temporarily suspended, as compensation for the accelerated
pulsations of the heart, produced by emotion.
On this view, the emotions of shame, anger, etc., cause you to blush
because the nerves which control the blood supply in your face
are temporarily “inhibited”; more blood to these parts reacts in
consequence.
WHY DO YOU TURN PALE?
When an ordinary individual thinks he suddenly sees a “ghost” he turns
pale, his hair stands on end, and he “trembles from head to foot.”
Often he breaks out into a cold perspiration, and may even faint!
All these symptoms are well known; there is only one which many persons
would refuse to believe--putting it down to a subjective hallucination.
That is the hair standing on end! This is actually the case, however,
at such times; for, attached to each hair is a tiny muscle which
shortens under the influence of this emotion, and as it shortens, it
pulls the hair upright just as a beam might be pulled upright by a
rope--thus causing it actually to “stand on end.”
The face turns pale, under the stress of fear, because the blood
vessels under the skin are suddenly emptied of blood--due to nervous
control of the so-called “vaso-motor” system. This blood is emptied
into the great blood vessels in the interior of the body, which rapidly
expand to receive it. A new distribution of the blood takes place, in
which the surface of the body is left without it, while the interior of
the body is filled instead.
This does not only happen in the case of fear, for sudden anger may
also make the face blanche. Furthermore, the face alone is not bereft
of blood in this manner; the whole surface of the body is affected, so
that it becomes pale and anaemic, for the time being. When this sudden
withdrawal of blood extends to the brain the subject becomes faint,
and may even lose consciousness. Facial pallor, therefore, is just the
reverse of blushing, and curiously enough, may be due to the same
emotions--and succeed each other in waves.
WHY DO YOU KEEP WARM?
There are two types of creature in the world--the cold-blooded and the
warm blooded. Frogs, snakes, etc., are examples of the former; cats and
dogs of the latter category. Lizards, snails and fish are cold blooded;
lions, tigers, horses are warm blooded. Man is also a warm blooded
animal.
There is this remarkable distinction between them: That, whereas
cold blooded creatures take on the temperature of their environment
(whatever that may be), warm blooded animals always remain at
approximately the same temperature, no matter what the external heat
or cold may be. Thus, if a frog is placed in a temperature of forty
degrees Fahrenheit, he will soon be of that temperature also. Cold
blooded creatures may even be frozen stiff, and yet revive, when thawed
out. Above a certain temperature of heat, however, they all die.
In the case of warm blooded animals, however, the case is quite
different. Thus, man’s temperature, in health, always remains the
same--about ninety-eight degrees Fahrenheit. No matter whether he is
sweltering in the tropics, or exploring the icy regions of the Polar
Seas, his bodily temperature remains the same. (As soon as he dies,
however, his corpse assumes the temperature of the surrounding air.)
The constant temperature of the human body, therefore, is somehow
dependent upon life. Nature has provided a number of mechanisms and
adjustments to keep the temperature normal. In very cold weather, the
skin contracts, to prevent too large a volume of blood from reaching
the surface, and becoming cooled. In hot weather, the pores of the
skin open, perspiration pours forth, evaporation takes place, and this
serves to cool the body.
The heat of the body is maintained by combustion, burning up the food
we eat; and if too much is yielded, the body disposes of it. But just
why Nature has decided upon the exact degree of bodily heat we possess
is as yet an unsolved mystery. It seems, however, the one best suited
for our purposes.
WHY DO YOU FEEL HUNGRY?
“I feel hungry because I need food,” or “because I want to eat,” would
be the usual answer to this question. And yet a moment’s thought would
show us that these are no answers at all. Why do you want to eat?
Because you are hungry! We are in what is termed a “vicious circle” of
reasoning at once, in which we run around like a dog chasing its own
tail, and getting nowhere!
What is the real cause of hunger? In a certain sense, of course, it may
be said to be a general expression of craving on the part of the body
for food, in order to repair the wastes, due to exercise, etc. In one
sense, hunger is a general condition--the bodily cry for solid food,
just as thirst is the bodily cry for liquid of some sort. The tissues
need to be fed. And this cry finds its local expression in the stomach,
when it is empty.
But we must be careful to define just what we mean by hunger. There is
a true hunger and a false hunger--known to physiologists as “habit
hunger.” This often appears at meal times, just from habit, no matter
whether the body really needs food at all, or not. This is not true
hunger, or appetite: for if a glass of water be taken and the mind
diverted, this craving will soon disappear--which would be impossible
if true hunger were being manifested.
As soon as the stomach is really empty, slight muscular contractions
begin to take place. These pass like waves or ripples across the
stomach, and increase in frequency and violence the longer food is
withheld. These contractions are what we feel, and know as “the pangs
of hunger.” They are the local cry of the stomach for food. We feel
this craving in the stomach, and also bodily craving. Together, they
make up the set of symptoms known as hunger, and it is because of them
that we feel “hungry.”
WHY DOES YOUR HAIR TURN GREY?
Perhaps the cynic might reply to this question that women’s hair
does not turn grey any more--there are too many good “tinting”
and “retouching” lotions on the market! But this answer is merely
superficial--as all cynical answers are. Hair _does_ continue to turn
grey, and the discovery of the reason is of great scientific interest.
It is hardly necessary to say that human hair is of various colors,
because of the coloring matter which it contains within its hollow
shaft. This coloring matter is its “pigmentation,” and is golden,
brown, black, etc., as the case may be, or combinations of various
simpler colors. When the hair turns grey or white, the hair remains,
but the pigmentation is somehow removed. Where has it gone, and how?
Various answers to this question have been suggested. Professor
Metchnikoff suggested that the coloring matter in the hair was
gradually eaten up or consumed by “phagocytes,”--which are hungry
cells, that attack and devour any weakened and devitalized cells or
tissues in the body. It is said that the particular cells, in this
case, are situated in the central shaft of the hair, and when they once
become active, they proceed to devour all the pigment within their
reach! In this manner the hair gradually turns grey and finally white.
This theory may be true in a number of cases--probably the
majority--but it certainly fails to account for many instances, in
which hair has been turned white, or blanched, over night, as the
result of worry or fear. In these cases, strong emotion has produced
the change. Science cannot as yet explain how this comes about, and
this sudden blanching of the hair is yet a mystery. In the majority of
cases, however, the pigment in the hair is undoubtedly consumed.
WHY DO YOU LAUGH?
“Oh,” you will say, “I laugh because I am happy or amused!”
Which may be very true, but your simple reply does not quite answer our
question. You may also laugh in derision or disdain, you may laugh when
at play, you may laugh at something novel, from a sense of freedom,
from the mere joy of living, or even at the misfortune of another--as
you so often do when looking at slap-stick comedy. So there are many
kinds of laughs, all of which are due to varying causes.
There are probably two main causes for all laughter. One is physical,
or rather physiological; the other is mental or emotional. When we
laugh in play, or because we “feel good,” this is due to superabundance
of energy. It is always the robust, hearty man who laughs, though his
crabbed, anaemic brother rarely does. This energy can find a ready
outlet in no other manner, so finds its expression in smiles and
laughter.
Comedy situations of any sort--on the stage or screen or in real
life--cause laughter because they release, in an individual this spring
of reserve energy. Laughter follows. This spring of reserve is loosed
when the sense of the comic, the ludicrous or the absurd is touched.
And this brings us to the mental factor.
Why does anything strike us as particularly “funny”? Many things do
merely because they are unusual or novel (different clothes), or
because we see someone finding it difficult to perform an action we
could easily perform, (lifting some light object), or because some man
is abnormally stupid or foolish or ignorant. The source of laughter
in all such cases is the same; we feel a sense of superiority over
that individual, and laughter arises from our consciousness of our
superiority. We laugh from strength, at weakness. It is ultimately a
case of the “survival of the fittest.” It is biological.
WHY DOES YOUR BLOOD COAGULATE?
If you cut your finger, or cut or break the skin on any part of your
body, you begin to bleed, for the simple reason that some of the tiny
blood vessels near the surface have been injured, and blood oozes from
them. But, after a few moments, the bleeding tends to stop, and, if the
cut is not a very severe one, it usually ceases of its own accord very
shortly. A sort of protecting crust is formed, and the flow of blood is
stopped by Nature’s own methods.
What has happened to cause the flow to cease? Various things, the most
important of which is “coagulation,” or clotting of the blood, as soon
as it is exposed to the air. It is very interesting to see just what
happens here--during this process of clotting.
The cause of clot-formation has been found to be the precipitation
of a solid form, the liquid plasma of the blood. This solid is in
the form of very minute threads, and hence is termed _fibrin_. The
threads traverse the mass of blood in every direction, interlacing, and
thus confining in their meshes all the solid elements of the blood.
They soon begin to contract, when out of the body, and form a minute
mesh-work or net, carrying within it the corpuscles of the blood. These
corpuscles within the fibrin form the _clot_.
After a time, a yellowish fluid forms on the outside of the clot;
this is the _serum_, and is squeezed out of the solid constituents
of the blood, as the latter dries like water from a squeezed sponge.
Altogether, about a third as much serum is formed on the clot as the
solid material of the clot itself!
Recent experiments conducted in Harvard University have shown that
the adrenal glands (one of the ductless glands in the body) will
hasten coagulation, and any strong emotion will do the same thing.
As most injuries are received during some strong emotion, this is
evidently another of Nature’s plans to hasten clotting and prevent the
unnecessary loss of blood.
WHY DO BLONDS LIVE IN THE NORTH: BRUNETTES IN THE SOUTH?
It is a curious fact that most of the blond races of the earth live
either in the temperate or frigid zones, while the brunettes live in
the hotter, tropical countries. Thus, the Swedes, Norwegians, Danes,
Germans, English, etc., are generally blond or fair people; while the
Spanish, French, Italians, Portuguese, Greeks, Turks, etc., are dark.
The further south we go, the darker do the inhabitants become: witness
the Turks, Arabs, Moors, Hindus, etc.,--ending with the Negroes in
Africa and other tropical countries. (I am speaking, of course, of
original, native inhabitants of these zones, and not individuals of
races who have lately migrated there.)
Nations once fair and blond in coloring become brunette in time, if
they continue to live in southern climes. The Greeks are a good example
of this. They were, as we know, originally fair, with beautiful golden
hair; yet today they are dark, with swarthy complexions and black hair.
They no more resemble their ancestors than chalk resembles cheese!
Why is this?
The answer undoubtedly is that the intense heat of the tropical sun
darkens these people, in succeeding generations. As a defense against
the intense heat-rays, Nature begins to lay down pigmentation under the
skin, as a protection from the sun. This pigmentation under the skin
serves to shut off the most burning rays, and to protect the individual
against excessive “scorching.” We notice an extreme example of this in
the Negro, whom Nature has evidently adapted to live in a hot climate.
Even white people living in the tropics soon become so tanned that they
remain permanently brown. The gradual darkening of the skin and hair,
therefore, is a protective mechanism on the part of Nature, showing us
that brunettes are more adapted to warm climates than are blonds, who
are the natural inhabitants of temperate or cold climes.
WHY DON’T YOU FEEL PAIN WHEN EXCITED?
Every veteran of the World War will bear testimony to the fact that
wounds inflicted in the heat of battle frequently do not hurt; pain is
only experienced later on! A man may be wounded--even badly--and hardly
realize it for the time being. In his anger or excitement he does not
feel any pain or notice his injury. And we do not have to go to war for
proof of this. We have all of us scraped a finger, and drawn blood,
probably, without noticing it at the time. Only when our attention is
drawn to it later do we feel qualms, and perhaps pain! One is almost
reminded of “Alice Through the Looking-Glass,” when she observed the
White Queen scream first, bleed next and prick her finger last!
Yet even the slightest injury will cause us pain if our attention be
centered upon it at the time. A slight prick of a needle--enough to
draw one drop of blood--is keenly felt, if the mind is centered upon
that spot at the time. Why is it that the distraction of attention, and
particularly the arousing of strong emotions at the time, will prevent
or “inhibit” the sensation of pain?
The reason probably is that the nervous currents of the body, at such
times, are almost entirely “motor” currents--that is, nervous currents
which rush outwards from the central nervous system to the surface of
the body. Pain currents are incoming currents, and if there is no room
for them to get by, so to say, pain will not be experienced at the time.
It is like a railroad terminal, with an outgoing train on every track.
There is no room for incoming trains. The incoming trains are the
“pain” trains, which carry sensations. The outgoing trains correspond
to the motor nervous currents. That is why pain is not felt at such
times. As soon as the human tracks are cleared, and incoming nervous
currents can get through, pain is experienced for the first time.
WHY ARE YOU TALLER IN THE MORNING THAN AT NIGHT?
The answer to this question, in the estimation of many people, would
be very simple: “I’m not!” They would contend that they are the
same height in the morning and at night, and may even think that the
question is more a joke than anything else.
And yet, if such skeptics would take the trouble to measure themselves,
upon arising, and again just before going to bed at night, they would
find that they are a goodly fraction of an inch taller in the morning!
This may be much more noticeable in some cases than in others, of
course; but the fact remains that an appreciable difference exists, and
can be clearly proved in very many instances.
And why? There seems to be no reason, at first sight; and yet, if true,
there must be some reason after all. What happens to make us taller in
the morning?
The human body is held erect partly by the skeleton and partly by the
muscles. The “backbone” (spine) is the main support which holds the
body erect. But the spine is not a solid bone; if it were, we should
never be enabled to bend in various directions at will. It is made up
of a number of small bones called “Vertebrae,” tightly bound together
by ligaments.
If these bones rested one upon another, they would tend to “grate,”
and the jarring to the human brain and body would be terrible. In
order to prevent this, Nature has provided a sort of soft pillow or
cushion between each vertebra, and this cushion becomes, as it were,
“puffed-out” at night, when the weight is taken off the spine. During
the day time, the little cushions become somewhat flattened. That is
why we are taller in the morning than at night. The little cushions
between the vertebrae made the difference in height!
WHY DOES THE BABY SAY “DA” AND NOT “GA”?
It has frequently been pointed out that “da” is among the first of
the voluntary sounds produced by a baby. Why is this? The reason is
probably that the sounds which are first produced are those which
require the least effort; these are the guttural sounds, produced
by the mouth organs, produced further back, near the throat, and
the dental sounds, in the production of which the teeth (or gums)
coöperate with the tongue. These nerves and muscles, controlling these
portions of the anatomy, are also those connected with the primative
sensorimotor activity, so that the first sounds are produced in
connection with some physical motion--such as pointing. The nervous
impulses which are utilized in pointing also pass over and assist in
producing the first primative sounds, which as we have seen are the
dental and guttural.
Why, then, does the baby say “da” instead of “ga” when it points?
The answer is to be found in the considerations which we have just
applied. The act of pointing sets into motion one of the extremities
of the body. The nervous process, one of whose divisions goes into
this extremity, can naturally reach by one of its other divisions more
easily the muscles of the frontal part of the mouth, belonging to
the periphery (surface) of the body, than the muscles of the throat,
belonging to a different, an internal, system of muscular activity. Try
yourself to accompany a pointing movement by a dental or a guttural
sound. The latter seems more natural. (See Max Meyer: “The Fundamentals
of Human Behavior.”)
WHY DO OBJECTS HAVE DIFFERENT COLORS?
Objects appear to us to have different colors--some of them are green,
some are red, some blue, some black, etc. Yet modern science has shown
us that no such thing as “color” exists in the universe at all! Nothing
is colored; color does not exist upon the object; color exists in the
human mind, and objects merely _appear_ to us to be colored. We put the
color _onto_ them, so to speak. Color is a quality of an object. Why,
then, do objects appear to us to have different colors!
The reason for this is that the surface of the object is so made
or constituted that certain light rays of the visible spectrum are
absorbed, while others are reflected. Those which are thus reflected
represent the “color” of the object. If _all_ the light rays were thus
absorbed, and none reflected, the object would become “invisible” to
us, but no object does this: if such a substance could be discovered,
we should have the “Invisible Man” of H. G. Wells. Color does not exist
on the object, therefore, but is merely a quality of the object; and
different objects appear to us to have varying colors because of their
varying absorption and reflecting qualities.
Similarly, no such thing as _sound_ exists in the universe. If there
were no living being on our globe, no such thing as “sound” could
exist. A train of cars might fall off a high bridge with a terrific
crash, but no sound would be emitted! Sound consists of air vibrations,
which are in themselves soundless; these impinge upon our ears, are
carried to the brain, and there transformed into sound. We then “hear”
them. But these air vibrations in themselves are soundless; they might
go on forever, if no human ear intercepted them, into space, and
no sound would ever be heard. We feel that we might take a pair of
scissors, so to speak, and snip them in the middle, before they reach
the human, and thus destroy them. In such case, no sound would ever
reach us. Sound, like color, is really non-existent.
SOAP BUBBLES, AND WHAT THEY TEACH US.
Blowing soap bubbles may strike you as a very childish amusement, but
from them there is much to be learned of scientific interest.
The soap bubble, as ordinarily blown, by means of a bubble pipe
contains within it carbon dioxide gas, given off by the lungs. The
coat of the soap bubble, composed of a mixture of soap and water,
is elastic, and capable of being stretched or pulled in different
directions without being broken. In order to give greater strength and
elasticity to this film, a mixture of soap, water and glycerine may be
employed. Common yellow soap is better than most of the fancy soaps.
Castile soap will furnish an excellent soap bubble mixture.
If the soap bubble be examined, it will be found that various beautiful
colors are reflected upon its surface. These colors are usually very
delicate, and consist largely of pinks, blues and greens. After a few
seconds, a darkish spot begins to appear at one point on the surface
of the bubble. This spot becomes darker until it is almost black, and
almost immediately after this the bubble bursts.
This black spot is in reality the thinnest portion of the soap bubble,
and it is at this point that the film gives way first. The soap bubble
skin has at this point become so thin that it will no longer reflect
light-rays.
Soap bubbles have even furnished us a means of determining the size of
the molecules of matter. Knowing the amount of soap and water employed,
in order to produce a definite bubble, the size of the bubble, when
blown, is measured, and in this way the number of molecules of
soap and water in any given square centimetre of its surface can be
calculated. The thickness of the film may be determined by the coloring
of the bubble. Knowing the area and thickness of the soap bubble film,
the number of molecules can be calculated, and in this way it has been
ascertained that approximately a given number of molecules of matter
are contained within that space.
This elastic coat, which we see in soap bubbles, may also be noted in
other mixtures, such as alcohol and water. The strength of this skin
may be seen on the side of a wine glass, in which there is some fairly
strong wine, such as port. The liquid is observed to climb up the sides
of the glass, and then to gather into drops and run down again, and
this goes on for a long time.
This is explained as follows: The thin layer of wine on the side of
the glass, being exposed to the air, loses its alcohol by evaporation
more quickly than the wine in the glass. It, therefore, becomes weaker
in alcohol or stronger in water than that below, and for this reason
it has a stronger skin. It, therefore, pulls up more wine from below,
and this goes on until there is so much that “drops” form, and run back
again into the glass.
There can be no doubt that this movement is referred to in Proverbs
xxiii, 31: “Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it giveth
its color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright.”
Much more might be said on this interesting topic, but the above will
at least serve to show us that we can learn facts of great interest
even from the lowly soap bubble.
WHAT SPINNING TOPS TEACH US.
Are we in danger of reverting to a “second childhood” when we study the
action of spinning tops? By no means, for we can learn much of great
scientific value in consequence, and even throw light upon certain
astronomical phenomena by an analysis of their motion.
Spinning bodies behave in a very different manner than the same bodies
do at rest. For example, you can loop a chain over a wheel, which
is then revolved with considerable rapidity. If, now, the chain is
suddenly disengaged, it will go running off like a solid hoop, and will
only collapse in an inert mass when it comes to relative rest.
If you throw a coin into the air it will come down “anyway.” But if
you give it a rapid spinning motion when throwing it upwards, it will
always come down with the same side upwards as when it started. (For
example, if “heads” is on top when thrown, it will invariably come down
“heads.”)
The same thing is true of a hat, an ink bottle, or any other object.
Another curious thing is that a spinning body, such as a top, can
maintain its balance at an angle, seemingly against the pull of
gravity, when the same body would at once fall to the floor when at
rest.
A gyroscopic top is a good example of this: it will lean far over to
the side, but it will not fall. Its spinning motion holds it in place.
If our earth were to stop its spinning motion, it would fall into the
sun at once, and we should all be burned alive.
When a top is spinning, it begins to “wobble,” and these oscillations
gradually increase until the top falls to the ground. If, when the top
is still, you hit it a smart blow in a north-and-south direction, it
will at once begin to “wobble” in an east-and-west direction. And vice
versa.
All spinning bodies tend to rise up onto their longest axis. Thus, if
you spin an egg rapidly, it will get up on end, and only settle back
onto its side as it slows down in its speed.
Again, all spinning bodies tend to point to the Pole Star. That is why
the North Pole of our earth is pointed in that direction. Every top,
every wheel of every factory, and on every train and automobile in the
country, when in revolution, is gently tugging to turn its axis to
point toward the Pole Star. This is a remarkable and little known fact.
Of course, the energy of the spinning body may not be sufficiently
strong to effect this, but the effort of the spinning body is there
nevertheless, and, if allowed to spin long enough and given free play,
will be found ultimately to point in that direction.
An electrically driven gyroscope will prove this. In fact, there is a
very interesting experiment, based upon this fact, by means of which
the revolution of the earth on its axis may be seen going on before the
eyes of the spectator, even if he is in a dark dungeon in the bowels of
the earth!
HOW A SINGLE STONE HAS INFLUENCED HISTORY.
Just one hundred years ago a flat stone was discovered in Egypt which
has revealed the secrets of that ancient civilization, and has, in
fact, supplied us with a key to the dim past.
For centuries the Egyptian “hieroglyphics” remained a mystery. No
scholar could read them, since there was no means of beginning their
interpretation. It was realized that, if these hieroglyphics could
be read, they would reveal to us much concerning the civilization of
ancient Egypt--its life, art and science.
While excavating in upper Egypt, M. Jean Champollion discovered a flat
stone, since known as the “Rosetta Stone,” because it was discovered
near the Egyptian port of Rosetta. This stone had cut in its surface an
inscription in two languages--Egyptian and Greek. Further, the Egyptian
language was written both in the older form of hieroglyphics and in
the more modern “Demotic” characters. It seemed obvious that all three
of these probably referred to the same thing, and that the Demotic
and Greek lettering were but modern variations or translations of the
earlier hieroglyphic script.
It therefore became the object of Egyptian students to attempt the
translation of the hieroglyphics, with the other languages as partial
keys.
The translation was gradually effected as follows:
It was first of all assumed (correctly) that a continuous line about
certain figures indicated a royal name. This is known as a “cartouche.”
It was also assumed that if the cartouche contained the name of
Ptolemy, the characters in it would have the sounds of the Greek
letters--since the Greek was an attempted translation.
A stone had already been found known to contain the name of Cleopatra,
some of the letters of which were the same as in the name Ptolemy.
For example, “l” is the second letter in Cleopatra, and the fourth in
Ptolemy. “P” is the fifth letter in Cleopatra and the first in Ptolemy,
etc.
Now, in examining the two stones, certain hieroglyphics were found to
be the same. For example, a bird occurred in one name and apparently
stood for a certain letter, where it should stand in both names
according to their spelling. This bird was therefore translated as “a.”
In a similar manner, a sign resembling a closed mouth was translated as
“r.” A sign resembling a folded umbrella was translated as “e,” etc.
In this way, letter by letter, the whole alphabet was gradually worked
out, and the message deciphered.
After this, the interpretation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics became
merely a matter of time and study, and today they can be read almost
with facility. We now know much more of ancient history than any
previous generation, so that, the further we progress from ancient
times, the more we know concerning them! All this has been rendered
possible by the discovery of a single piece of stone.
NEW THEORIES AS TO THE FORMATION OF OUR EARTH.
When we look at a map or globe of the world, we are struck by several
peculiarities which require explanation. In the first place, nearly
every peninsula, large and small, points toward the _south_--and this
is even true of vast bodies, such as Africa, South America and India.
Secondly, the distribution of the land and water upon the surface
of the earth is peculiar--nearly all the land lying in the northern
hemisphere, while the water occupies the southern half of the globe.
Further, if a map be made of the land-area of the northern hemisphere,
looking at a globe from the point-of-view of the North Pole, and this
be laid over a similar map, drawn from the point-of-view of the South
Pole, it will be found that land hardly ever falls on land, but that
land in one hemisphere almost invariably coincides with water in the
other. The only exception to this rule, of any importance, is that
a portion of South America will be found to lie over a portion of
northern China.
Why is this?
One of the newer theories of the formation of our earth explains
these odd facts in a rather ingenious manner. It has been shown that
a spherical or round body, when subjected to great pressure, tends to
collapse into a triangular or “tetrahedral” form. The reason for this
is that a “tetrahedron” presents the greatest amount of surface of any
body, next to a sphere. A “tetrahedron” is composed of four equilateral
triangles, and may readily be constructed by cutting four triangles of
the kind out of cardboard, and pasting them together at the edges--when
it will be found that you have a top-shaped figure, with a flat surface
at the top, and a point at the bottom.
Now, it has been found, by recent researches, that our earth is
slightly top-shaped. This is doubtless due to the tendency of the earth
to collapse into a tetrahedron, as it cools and contracts--whereas
there is also a tendency for the earth to maintain its spherical form,
by reason of its rotation.
If the tetrahedron constructed of cardboard be examined, it will be
found that the sides are much nearer the center of gravity of the
figure than the points; and if water could be made to stay upon the
surface of this figure, it would naturally tend to flow onto the smooth
sides, leaving the points exposed. These “points” would then be found
to correspond, roughly, with the continents or earth-surfaces of our
globe, while the oceans would be found to correspond, largely, with the
smooth surfaces.
There are, of course, differences to be noted, such as the large land
area, which is not to be found on the South Pole, but it is thought
that these changes of land and water areas of our globe have been
gradually brought about, through millions of years, until they present
the approximate surfaces which we note today.
This theory at least explains many facts which before had been
puzzling, and there is much to be said in its favor. It was suggested
by Mr. Lothian Green, of Cambridge, England.
WHAT KEEPS THE SUN HOT?
The question of the sun’s heat is one which concerns us in a very vital
manner, since all life upon the earth is directly dependent upon the
sun’s radiations, and, were these cut off, all forms of life would soon
become extinct.
Until about a hundred years ago, it was thought that the sun was merely
an enormous body of fire, and that the heat emitted from it was of
the same character as that emitted by a grate of burning coals. This
was the _chemical_ theory of the sun’s heat, and it was thought to be
no more mysterious than the combustion noted in any furnace--only of
course, on a vaster scale!
This purely chemical theory had to be given up when it was shown that,
at any ordinary rate of combustion, the heat emitted by even so large
a body as the sun would be exhausted in a few tens of thousands of
years--whereas the course of evolution on our earth shows us that life
has been continuous here for many millions of years, with practically
no variation of heat upon the earth surface.
Certainly, therefore, the purely chemical theory of combustion does not
suffice, and other theories were accordingly advanced, in attempts to
explain the maintenance of the sun’s heat.
It was first of all suggested that, as the sun cools, it _contracts_,
and that this contraction tended to raise the heat, and consequently
its temperature would be maintained for a long period of time. But
again, it was proved that, if such were the case, the heat of the sun
would have been expended millions of years ago.
The theory was then advanced that the sun’s heat was maintained by the
_impact_ upon its surface of quantities of meteors and other small
bodies which crashed into it--being attracted by the enormous pull
of gravitation exerted by the sun. We know that heat is generated by
friction or rapid impact, and it was suggested that this might be one
of the long period of time. But again, it was proved mathematically
that this would entirely fail to account for the continuous and steady
heat emitted by our central luminary.
One of the latest theories is that the sun’s heat is maintained by the
activity of _radium_, and that the constant flow of energy which has
been noted uninterruptedly for so many millions of years is due to the
intra-atomic energy of the atoms composing it. We know that radium can
continue to give-off energy for thousands of years, and that even a
minute speck of it has a life of extraordinary length. (It has been
argued that the heat of our earth is also to some extent maintained
by the quantities of radium hidden beneath its surface, in the deeper
layers of the earth’s crust.)
Of late, however, even this theory has been questioned, and it must be
admitted that, today the heat of the sun remains an unsolved problem.
It remains for the future to determine its exact nature and causation.
WHAT HAPPENS TO AVIATORS?
Men are not naturally adapted to extremely high altitudes, like birds,
and consequently, when they rise to great heights suddenly, all
sorts of odd things take place. The intense cold numbs them; the low
air-pressure forces them to use an artificial supply of oxygen; they
become dulled, numb, nervous, dizzy, blind and sometimes unconscious. A
detailed study of the changes which take place in the body and mind of
the aviator has lately been undertaken, with interesting results.
In its normal state the blood contains about 5,000,000 red corpuscles
per cubic millimetre. At great heights, this number is largely
increased, that is, “hyper-globia” is produced, becoming more
pronounced as the elevation attained becomes higher. The number of the
white corpuscles is not augmented.
Respiratory changes are most marked. As the tension of oxygen
diminishes the oxygen is more perfectly utilized; but at very great
altitudes, the compensation is insufficient, and asphyxiation then
commences. Muscular force diminishes, and work at great heights rapidly
produces fatigue. At still greater heights, torpor renders work
impossible, and the slightest effort becomes very painful.
The sense of hearing is greatly modified, little clicking sounds
are often heard in the ears--often noted in the act of swallowing.
Visual keenness seems, on the other hand, to be increased. The general
sensitiveness diminishes.
In the recent expedition which attempted the ascent of Mount Everest
these psycho-physiological changes were carefully studied. In every
case it was found that the oxygen content of the arterial blood was
lower than at sea level and in equilibrium with the oxygen content of
the lung-air. Arterial-blood is from 95 to 100 per cent saturated with
oxygen at sea level, but at 14,000 feet where the barometric pressure
is 460 instead of 760, which is the normal sea level reading, the blood
is from 80 to 90 per cent saturated.
These various effects, coupled with the rapid motion, the roar of the
motors, etc., produce in most persons what is known as aeroplane or
balloon sickness, identical in character with mountain sickness. It
is attended by difficult breathing, loss of appetite, nausea, loss
of muscular energy, acceleration of the pulse, venous congestion of
the face, headache, drowsiness, etc. Many persons who have taken
an aeroplane trip for the first time, anticipating a mere pleasure
excursion, have discovered these various symptoms in themselves to
their cost! But it is rather late then to “get out and walk!”
Modern improvements in aeroplane construction, however, have largely
obviated many of these more serious discomforts, and, of course, in
ordinary passenger flights such great altitudes as those here mentioned
are not attained. But the changes which take place within man’s body on
reaching these great heights are extremely interesting from the medical
and physiological point of view.
WHAT ARE COMETS?
The discovery of a new comet is always of considerable interest to the
scientific world. Professor Baade, of Hamburg, has just announced that
he has discovered a new comet in the constellation Cygnus. This comet
is too faint to be seen without a telescope, but is rapidly increasing
in brightness, and has increased since its discovery from magnitude 115
to magnitude 9. It must, therefore, be rapidly approaching our solar
system at great speed.
This question of the velocity of comets is very remarkable, some of
them reaching the inconceivable speed of a million miles an hour.
Some of them are seen but once in several hundred years, but modern
astronomical science is so perfect that it is possible to predict the
precise day and hour of a comet’s return, several hundred years hence.
The comet is usually composed of three parts--the nucleus, the coma,
and the tail. The nucleus is the bright centre which resembles a star
in appearance. The coma is the luminous hood-like envelope by which the
nucleus is covered. The tail of the comet is composed of luminous gas,
which streams out from the coma sometimes for many millions of miles.
One interesting fact about comets has only been explained of late
years, due to the genius of Professor Arrhenius, of Sweden. It had long
been noticed that the tail of a comet invariably turns away from the
sun--that is to say, as the comet travels across the heavens, the tail
turns so that it always streams away from the direction of our central
luminary.
Why is this? The explanation is that the light-rays coming from the sun
exert a definite physical pressure, and this pressure is sufficient to
push the gaseous particles composing the comet’s tail away from it so
that the tail is invariably seen to flow away from the sun.
Comets invariably travel in an elliptical course. They come from the
vast depths of space, approach our sun, traveling with greater and
greater speed as they do so, then “turn tail” (in two senses) and
retreat again into the vast depths whence they have emerged. The size
of the curve taken by the comet enables the astronomers to calculate
the exact date of its return, once they have ascertained the speed with
which the body is traveling.
Comets bring home to us, perhaps, more than any other astronomical
phenomena, the relative brevity of human life. Some comets return
but once in several thousand years. One such was noted a few years
ago. When last seen by inhabitants on this earth it must have been
before the greatness of Greece and Rome, before the building of the
pyramids and the civilization of ancient Egypt! When next it returns,
civilizations now existing may have ceased to be! Continents may
have been submerged. The whole fate and future of our race may have
undergone a profound change. All this in but a single sweep of one body
through the vast stretches of stellar space!
IS MARS INHABITED?
Mars is our nearest neighbor, next to the moon, and the question as to
whether or not life is possible upon its surface is of interest to
us because, with the advent of wireless telegraphy, it is possible
that “communication” with beings upon that planet might be some day
established--provided they exist!
The so-called “canals” on Mars have long been the subject of popular
debate. It has been proved that great fields of ice form at the north
and south poles, during the winter time. In spring, these ice-fields
melt, and, in view of the scarcity of water on Mars, it has been
suggested that the inhabitants of that planet have utilized this
supply, by constructing vast canals, which would conduct this water
over the surface of their globe, for the purpose of irrigation. It
was, of course, pointed out that these canals would have to be miles
in width, in order to be visible from our earth. But, to this, it was
replied that what is seen are not the canals themselves, but great
stretches of vegetation, which exist on either side of the canals, as
water flows through them.
The geometrical regularity of these markings seems to point to their
construction by thinking beings; but it must be admitted that not all
astronomers agree upon this point, and that many of them have been
unable to “see” what others claim they have perceived clearly.
The question as to whether living beings like ourselves could exist
upon the surface of Mars is in reality part of a larger question,
namely--is life possible at all upon its surface? Now, we know that
living bodies require water, a certain temperature, and a certain
atmosphere in order to render their existence possible. Do these
conditions exist upon Mars?
Take, first, the question of temperature. Life is possible only between
certain narrow limits. These are the freezing and boiling points of
water. The mean, annual temperature on our earth is considerably above
the freezing point of water, while the mean annual temperature on
Mars falls below it. At the same time, the greatest summer heat is
considerably above the freezing point--so that life would be possible
at such times. If, therefore, the inhabitants of Mars have somehow
learned to keep themselves warm during the long period of cold, it is
possible that they might exist upon its surface.
Water is extremely scarce upon Mars. Being a smaller planet than ours,
it has dried-up more completely. Our own earth is gradually losing
its water supply, and in time will lose it completely. It is because
of this fact (that water is so scarce) that the “canals” have been
built--provided they are such. The surface of Mars is covered with vast
stretches of sandy desert, which give to this planet its characteristic
red glow. It is possible, therefore, that, with due economy, the amount
of water on Mars might be sufficient to sustain life.
As to its atmosphere, it is much deeper than that of our earth, but
might be of a character capable of supporting life.
Scientifically, therefore, it is probable that life on Mars might be
possible, and the question remains--is it a fact? Investigations which
will be undertaken in 1924 may prove this to us, one way or the other,
decisively.
WHERE DAYS BEGIN.
A “day” begins in any particular locality when the sun rises in that
place; but officially a day begins at precisely twelve o’clock,
midnight, and lasts until midnight, twenty-four hours later, when the
next day begins. But this is a shifting point, constantly moving as the
earth revolves on its axis, and it will be seen that this would be very
unsatisfactory for official science, which would thus have no “check,”
so to speak, as to where any particular day actually begins. In order
to establish this, what is known as an Official Date Line has been
fixed, which is the International Standard for the beginning of each
new day.
The meridian running through Greenwich (London) is accepted as the
standard meridian; meridians east and west of this are drawn upon the
maps, and marked, so many degrees east or west, as the case may be.
The 180th meridian (half way round the globe) fortunately falls about
the middle of the Pacific Ocean, where there is no land, and this has
been settled upon as the international date line. This line is slightly
bent, in two places--in the southern hemisphere, to include certain
small islands close to New Zealand (so that they may have the same
time) and, in the northern hemisphere, it is bent first to the left and
then to the right--the former to include certain small islands adjacent
to Alaska, and the latter to permit the inclusion of all the main land
of Siberia. This may be seen by referring to any map or globe of the
world.
While a day at any particular place is twenty-four hours long, each
day lasts on earth at least forty-eight hours. Any given day, say
Christmas, is first counted as that day just west of the date line. An
hour later, Christmas begins 15 degrees west of that line, two hours
later it begins 30 degrees west of it, and so on round the globe. The
people just west of the date line, who first hailed Christmas, have
enjoyed twelve hours of it when it first reaches England, eighteen
hours of it when it begins in Central United States, and twenty-four
hours of it, or a whole day, when it begins in Western Alaska, just
east of the date line. Christmas, then, has existed twenty-four hours
on the globe, but, having just begun in Western Alaska, it will tarry
twenty-four hours longer among mankind, making forty-eight hours that
the day blesses the earth.
If the date line followed the meridian 180 degree without any
variation, the total duration of a day would be exactly forty-eight
hours as just explained. But this line is quite irregular, as shown
on the map. Because of this irregularity of the date line, the same
day lasts somewhere on earth about forty-nine hours! Suppose we start
at Cape Deshnef, Siberia, longitude 169 degrees West, a moment after
midnight on the 3d of July. The 4th of July has begun, and, as
midnight sweeps round westward, successive places see the beginning of
this day. When it is the 4th in London, it has been the 4th at Cape
Deshnef twelve hours and forty-four minutes. When the Glorious Day
arrives in New York, it has been seventeen hours and forty-four minutes
since it began at Cape Deshnef. When it reaches our most western
point on this continent, Attu Island, 173 degrees East, it has been
twenty-five hours and twelve minutes since it began at Cape Deshnef.
Since it will tarry twenty-four hours at Attu Island, _forty-nine hours
and twelve minutes_ will have elapsed since the beginning of the day,
until the moment when all places on earth cease to count it that day.
Portions of three days exist at the same time between 11:30 o’clock,
a.m., and 12:30 p.m., London time. When it is Monday noon at London,
Tuesday has begun at Cape Deshnef, but Monday morning has not yet
dawned at Attu Island; nearly half an hour of Sunday still remains
there.
HOW YOU CAN SEE YOUR OWN BRAIN.
Reader, have you a brain? If so, you can be made (apparently) to see it
by the following little experiment, which you can try for yourself with
no more complicated apparatus than a lighted candle, a black cloth, and
a dark room.
Secure a piece of black cloth about three feet square, and pin this
onto a wall at such a height that its lowest edge is about on a level
with your eyes, when seated or standing, as the case may be. The cloth
should be smooth and free from wrinkles. The room should be completely
darkened, and a lighted candle should be provided.
The experimenter should then take up his position, about three feet
from the black cloth and, while keeping the head level and the chin
down, he should elevate the eyes to an angle of about forty-five
degrees, so that he is now looking at the centre of the black cloth.
While holding the head and eyes in this position, the lighted candle
should be held at a distance of about six inches from the nose--that
is to say, the flame of the candle should be about this distance.
The candle is now moved slowly across the face, from side to side,
at a speed of about two seconds for each movement. The length of the
sweep should be about eight inches. Care should be taken, during this
process, that you do not blow on the candle flame, as it should be kept
as evenly lighted as possible.
If these instructions have been carried out accurately, and the head
kept well down with the eyes turned-up, the experimenter will see
slowly forming before him in space what appears to be a phantom image
of his own brain.
On a pinkish-gray background, he will begin to see innumerable tiny
veinings resembling those seen in the leaf of a tree. These are usually
black in color, and ramify in all directions unequally. As soon as
this image begins to form, the experimenter should keep his eyes fixed
upon it, without allowing his eyes to waver in the least. This black
ramifying network consists really of the blood vessels, which are
seen against the lighter background. It should be noted that only the
experimenter himself can see this effect, and that other persons in the
room cannot see anything until they try the experiment for themselves.
Practically everyone can see it, however, if he will but follow out the
directions carefully.
This is, of course, merely an optical illusion. The sight seems to be
turned inward, instead of outward, for the time being. Nothing exists
objectively in space. It is merely a hallucination, but it is one which
corresponds with the inner structure of the eyes and brain.
It has, of course, been claimed that what is really seen is not the
brain itself, but the retina at the rear of the eye-ball. It is this
which the light of the candle illuminates, and which is actually
perceived in the above experiment. As a practical “stunt” for parties,
however, it is much more interesting to think that the brain itself is
seen in this manner, and in fact what is perceived does very closely
resemble the convolutions of the human brain.
Try it for yourself, and see if you do not obtain an interesting result.
HAS THE SECRET OF GRAVITATION BEEN DISCOVERED?
Gravitation has always been considered the most mysterious of all
forces. It seems to act instantaneously and continually across millions
of miles of space, and at the same time holds the atoms of matter
together, which are so infinitely small that billions of them could be
crowded upon a needle point!
No substance has yet been found which is “opaque” to gravity. One can
interpose a screen of some kind, which will shut off light or heat or
any of the other energies; but no screen has ever been discovered which
is opaque to gravity! For example, glass transmits light, but insulates
electricity. A sheet of steel is opaque to light, but is transparent
to electricity. But no substance will act as a screen to the pull of
gravitation!
The exact nature of gravitation has long been the subject of scientific
debate. Various theories have been advanced, but objections exist to
them all. Only lately, however, Professor T. J. J. See, government
astronomer of Mare Island, California, has advanced the claim that he
has discovered the real cause of gravity, and that his theory accounts
fully for all known phenomena,--there being no objections against it.
If true, this is indeed a revolutionary discovery of great importance,
and Professor See’s name will go down in history as one of the greatest
scientists of all times!
Briefly stated, his theory is that the pull of gravity consists in
a peculiar series of electromagnetic waves, longer than those of
light and heat, but closely connected with magnetism. These waves are
propagated through space with the speed of light,--that is, 186,000
miles a second, which is the greatest speed ever attainable. These
waves are radiated in all directions, from any given mass of matter,
and their strength is proportional to the size of any given body.
His theory is that these waves interlace and exert, as it were, a
pulling action on each other, in much the same way that two corkscrews,
interlaced and twisted in opposite directions, would pull the handles
nearer and nearer together. In this way the celestial bodies are really
pulled or drawn together, by the action of these interlacing waves.
Professor See also demonstrated before the California Academy of
Science, by a series of experiments, that the north and south magnetic
poles on our earth are not of the same power. At the Equator, the two
poles of the earth’s magnetism are equal; but the magnetic poles are of
unequal depth in the earth,--the north pole being 0.76 of the radius
downward from Hudson Bay, and the South Pole only 0.66 of the radius
downward from King George’s Land, near the South Pole. The result
is that, throughout the southern hemisphere, the magnetic force is
considerably stronger than the northern hemisphere of our globe.
It remains to be seen whether this theory of gravitation is justified
by further experiments.
LIGHT WITHOUT HEAT.
It is well known that any light created by man wastes a large
percentage of its energy in the production of heat. This is plainly
noticeable even in our electric light, for the bulb soon becomes hot,
when the current is on, and light is produced. Nature is far more
economical. She has learned to produce light which is practically
100 per cent efficient, so that almost no heat is generated in its
production. This is generally known to science as “cold light,” and is
produced by fireflies, glowworms, and certain fish and bacteria, which
create this light for themselves whenever they desire.
A prolonged study of this cold light has lately been undertaken,
with a view to obtaining it artificially; for, if its secret could
be discovered it would have great commercial value, inasmuch as a
large percentage of the energy expended in producing the light could
be saved. Scientists have accordingly undertaken the study of these
light-producing creatures, and much has been discovered concerning them.
In a paper recently read before the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia,
Dr. E. Newton Harvey, Professor of Physiology at Princeton, stated
that the cold light of the firefly is the result of the combination of
oxygen in the air and a substance called “luminiferin.”
This substance is produced by certain glands, specially constructed
by nature for the purpose, known as light-organs. They are virtually
minute lanterns, and are frequently provided with a special lens, which
focuses the light. In the firefly, however, there is no true lens.
The photogenic (light-producing) cells in the firefly contain a mass
of granules, spherical in the male, and short rods in the female.
Each group of cells is surrounded by a clear ectoplasm containing
no granules. Behind this is a layer of special cells which act as
reflectors. Air and water are necessary for the production of this
light.
Much work has been done upon the chemistry of the luminous substances
produced by these living organisms. Two distinct kinds of substances
have been detected. These are known respectively as “luciferase,” and
“luciferin,” which have quite different properties. The former is
unquestionably a protein, and its properties are like those of other
albumins. Luciferin, on the other hand, is more closely associated with
the peptones and proteoses.
This light, produced by living organisms, may have a variety of
uses--such as a warning, to scare away other animals, which would
otherwise feed on the luminous organism; or as a sex signal, to bring
them together for mating purposes; or merely to be used as lanterns.
Many of the deep-sea forms, which live in complete darkness, have no
other light, and it is reasonable to suppose that, in their cases at
least, living light is used for purposes of illumination.
If the secret of this cold light could be discovered, it would probably
save millions of dollars yearly, which is now expended in useless
heat-production; for this could be saved, and a much smaller amount of
energy utilized in the production of light--in which this energy-loss
would not be present.
SHALL WE FIND AN ELIXIR OF LIFE?
An elixir of life was one of the things sought by the mediaeval
alchemists. Throughout the ages, man has sought a means of prolonging
life--and he is still searching!
One of the latest discoveries of modern biological science holds out
to us the hope that life may at least be prolonged for a considerable
period, and rejuvenated, by a process of grafting portions of certain
glands, which serve to stimulate the activities of the body and, to
some extent, at least, renew its youth.
It has been shown that the rapidity of growth of the body, and its
aging, depend largely upon the vitality of certain ductless glands
within it. The secretions of these glands, to a great extent, control
the life and death of the body.
Professor Voronoff, of Paris, has succeeded in restoring youth and
vigor to several patients by grafting portions of these glands onto
the inactive glands in the patient’s body. The portions which have
thus been grafted seem to restore the whole gland to a renewed life
and vigor, and the health and youth of the subject is thereby largely
restored.
These glands have been taken from the higher apes, which are blood
relations of man. The demand for apes has consequently increased so
enormously that an attempt is now to be made to “corner the market”
in apes, and a company has been formed to proceed to Africa, capture
a large number of these creatures, and breed them especially for this
purpose!
Dr. Voronoff believes that the glands obtained from the ape are better
than glands obtained from human beings, since the vitality of the ape
is higher and its health is more robust.
It is the secretions of these ductless glands, therefore, to which we
must look for our “elixir of life” at the present time, and there seems
no reason to doubt that when such operations become simplified, we
shall have here a means of extending life and rejuvenating it, in many
instances.
It is not known _why_ the human body should die at all, seeing that it
is a mechanism which has somehow learned to repair itself. The food we
eat is constantly being converted into new tissue, and in this sense it
is true that the body of a man of seventy is as young as the body of a
baby six months old! Both have been newly made from the food eaten,
and yet in one case we have an infant, and in the other, the body of an
old man.
Science does not yet know precisely the cause of this, but we are now
beginning to suspect that the causes of old age lie in the nature of
the secretions of the ductless glands, and particularly the sex glands,
and that so long as these are vigorous, youth is maintained, and that
when they become devitalized, old age and general degeneration set in.
The importance of these ductless glands, therefore, may readily be
seen; and it is possible, in view of this, that, in a generation or
two, we shall have “gland-mothers” instead of grandmothers!
WHAT ARE EARTHQUAKES?
Earthquakes, more than any other phenomena, bring home to us the
relative insignificance of man, and his helplessness, in the presence
of any of the titanic activities of nature. The recent earthquakes
which have occurred in Japan have brought this subject to the fore, and
have set scientists to work afresh on the study of their causation.
Broadly speaking, it may be said that earthquakes are caused by
relatively slight changes in the earth’s crust. The earth is
continuously shrinking, and, as it does so, readjustments of the land
and water surfaces of the globe take place. When an earthquake occurs
under the ocean, this is less noticeable to us, for the reason that the
fluid water rapidly adjusts itself to the changed contour of the ocean
bed; but land earthquakes are not only more obviously noticeable to
us, but cause vast destruction of lives and property.
Certain areas of the land surface of the globe are particularly
susceptible to earthquakes. Japan and Central and South America may
be mentioned as countries where earthquakes are most frequent. The
tremors of earthquakes are transmitted at varying speeds through the
earth’s crust, which speeds can be measured by an instrument known as
a “Seismograph.” Sometimes these earth-tremors are slight, and are
transmitted across only a superficial and limited area of the earth
crust. Sometimes they are vast, and are transmitted across practically
the whole globe, so that it may be said that in such cases, the whole
earth trembles.
Land earthquakes which occur near the seashore or in the ocean-bed near
the coast-line are often the most destructive, being followed by tidal
waves of enormous height. During an earthquake in Alaska in 1899, the
land swayed and waves rose and fell 80 feet every few minutes. Great
destruction was wrought up to 40 feet above sea-level.
During a great earthquake shock in 1835, on the Chilean coast the sea
retired from the bay, so that sand banks usually from 40 to 50 feet
beneath the surface of the sea were exposed. Then a monstrous wave
returned 30 feet above high water mark, and swept all before it. This
was followed by a second and third, each exceeding the previous one in
power, and it was three days before the tremblings of the earth finally
came to rest. These shocks were felt 6,000 miles away, and caused
violent floods upon islands in the Mid-Pacific. The whole of the ocean
oscillated in its bed.
The Carnegie Institute of Washington has recently undertaken the
protracted study of the ocean bed along the Chilean coast, with a
view to discovering the causes of these earthquakes. The American
destroyers--the Hull and the Corry--have been equipped with novel
apparatus, by means of which they will make a complete map of the ocean
floor along the western American coasts. This apparatus is based upon
the invention of Professor Harvey C. Hayes, of the Naval Engineering
Station, at Annapolis. It is based upon the principle of the speed with
which sound can be reflected from the ocean-bed, so that its depth may
be immediately ascertained. In this way a chart can be made of the
bottom of the ocean, and possible earthquake-areas readily detected.
WHAT IS THE “FOURTH DIMENSION”?
The fourth dimension, so-called, has been drawn to the public
attention, of late, by reason of the wide publicity given to Prof.
Einstein’s theory of Relativity. What _is_ the fourth dimension? How
can it be conceived?
The world in which we live is a three-dimensional world. It has length,
breadth and height, (Combinations of these). Starting at a given point,
draw a line. This is one dimension--length. Move this line at right
angles to itself, on a flat surface, and you generate a square--length
and breadth. Move this square at right angles to itself, and you
generate a cube--adding height. Theoretically, it should be possible
to move this cube at right angles to itself, in some direction,
and generate a “tesseract” or “hypersolid.” That would be a fourth
dimensional figure.
Or again, take a point. Two lines can be drawn through this point at
right angles to one another, on a sheet of paper; but if you want to
draw a third line through the point, at right angles to the first two,
you have to draw it at right angles to the paper itself, as though it
were standing up in the air. How can a fourth line be drawn through
that point, at right angles to the other three? That would be the
fourth dimension.
Theoretically, a fourth dimension is provable, and a great deal is
known concerning fourth dimensional geometrical figures. Dr. Manning
has written a whole book on the subject: “Geometry of Four Dimensions.”
But it is practically impossible for us to conceive the fourth
dimension in our minds. We can only arrive at it by analogy.
For instance, a right-hand glove cannot be turned into a left-hand
glove; but if it is turned inside out, it becomes one. Similarly, it
has been proved that a hollow rubber ball can be turned inside out in
the fourth dimension without tearing the ball!
It is impossible to tie a true knot in a piece of string in two
dimensions; one end has to be lifted over the other (into the third
dimension). And, in our three dimensional space, it is impossible to
tie a knot in a piece of string both ends of which have been held or
sealed. But Prof. Zollner obtained such knots in the presence of the
medium Slade, and this made him believe in the fourth dimension, and
caused him to write his famous book “Transcendental Physics.”
Einstein has proposed that time is the fourth dimension, as we know;
but this is not a dimension, strictly speaking. This idea has been
worked out in some detail, from an original point of view by P. D.
Ouspensky, in his ingenious book “Tertium Organum.”
It has been contended that “clairvoyance” is fourth dimensional sight.
It is certainly true that, by adding another dimension, we are enabled
to see things which would otherwise be invisible. Thus, if you have
a box containing some rings, you cannot see the rings so long as the
box is kept on a level with the eyes--that is, in two dimensions. But
if you elevate your eyes (or lower the box) and look into it from
above, you can see the rings inside. That is, by adding another (third)
dimension, you are enabled to see what you could not see before, in a
“closed” space. Similarly, it has been contended, by adding a fourth
dimension, it is possible for clairvoyants to see into what is to us
a “closed” room, or closed box, and describe its contents. Of course,
this is merely an analogy, which cannot be pressed too far.
While the fourth dimension cannot be visualized by the mind, therefore,
a good deal has been learned concerning it, from the theoretical
point of view, and mathematically it can be shown to be possible.
Its geometry is also well known. The interested reader may find the
subject exhaustively treated in Hinton’s books; in the books of Claude
Bragdon, and in “The Fourth Dimension Simply Explained,” issued by Munn
and Co., New York.
WHAT “RELATIVITY” MEANS.
Within the past few years Professor Einstein has made his theory of
Relativity famous, but it is probable that the theory itself is not
clearly understood by the general public, and the following brief
exposition may be of help in this connection.
If you give a boy a piece of apple pie, he may consider it a large
piece until you give another boy a bigger slice, when he will at once
consider his own small. That is to say it is small _relatively_ to the
other piece.
Professor Einstein first brought home to us the fact that all motion
in our physical universe is not “absolute” but “relative” motion--that
is to say, its speed cannot be measured from any stationary point, for
there is no stationary point on our world from which to measure it.
The earth on which we live is itself moving on its axis, and that axis
“wobbles,” and the earth is also revolving around the sun at a speed of
approximately eighteen miles a second, and our whole solar system is
rushing through space at an unknown speed!
If one man is on a moving ship, walking up and down the deck, and he
passes another man, walking up and down the deck of another boat,
moving in another direction, there are all sorts of complicated
motions which must be taken into account, and this gives you an idea
of the difficulty of obtaining a stationary point, from which to make
measurements of other motions (that is to say, matter _in_ motion).
The first point, therefore, is that all motion is merely relative
motion; and Einstein also proved that _time_ on bodies moving at
different rates of speed was not the same length of time--that is to
say, that an “_hour_” on a body moving at very great velocity was not
the same length of time as an hour on one moving at a slower rate of
speed. Time is, therefore, only relative, just as motion and space are
relative. Both depend upon the velocity of the moving body, and both
vary as the speed of that body varies.
These are two of the simplest conclusions of the theory of relativity.
There are, of course, many more complicated theories involved within
it, into which we have not time to enter now.
The theory itself explains several astronomical phenomena which had
been puzzles until the theory was propounded, such as certain minor
motions of the planet Mercury. The _proof_ of the theory rests largely
upon a certain historical experiment, conducted some years ago, in
which it was proved that a beam of light, coming from one of the
distant stars, was bent or diverted by the pull of gravity exercised
upon it by the sun. Very briefly, the experiment was as follows:
A photographic chart of the heavens having been made, certain stars
were found to occupy certain fixed positions when the sun was not
present in the heavens. When the sun _was_ present it was, of course,
impossible to photograph these stars, because the extreme brightness
of the sun prevented the stars from being seen by the eye of the
camera. When, however, the sun was eclipsed, these stars could be seen,
and during the eclipse of the sun photographs were taken of these same
stars and the plates were compared.
It was then found that the position of these stars did not coincide
exactly. The stars themselves had not varied relatively to the
surrounding stars, as subsequent photographs proved. What, then, had
happened? Light rays coming from these stars had been slightly bent or
pulled inward by the gravitational pull of the sun! This deviation was
exactly that required on the Einstein theory of relativity.
HOW TO BOIL WATER, CONTAINING ICE, WITHOUT MELTING THE ICE.
“Impossible,” you say?
Many things may seem to you impossible, which are nevertheless facts!
Things which are every-day experiences to us were “impossible” for
the last generation. We must be careful before pronouncing that word
“impossible.” For, strange as it may seem, this is a simple little
experiment which you yourself can perform in a few minutes, with a
little apparatus, procured from Mr. Woolworth or any drug store.
If you take an ordinary dish-pan, fill it with water, and drop a piece
of ice into it, the ice will of course melt long before the water comes
to a boil. But there is a way of doing this so that the ice does not
melt, and the water is boiling nevertheless!
Procure, if possible, a “Bunsen burner,” and a few feet of rubber
tubing. A Bunsen burner is merely a gas jet with a small hole in the
pipe, allowing a certain amount of air to mix with the gas as it burns.
In this way, you get a small, pointed flame of gas, hot and blue, like
the flame seen on a gas stove. Connect the tube to your gas supply, and
light it.
You must have already provided yourself with a glass “test tube,” about
eight inches long and a half an inch in width. (This can be obtained
for a few cents.) Also a piece of ice about an inch long, and just
large enough to fit into the tube; a couple of leaden shot or small
weights, and a handle for holding the test tube.
Place the ice in the tube, and drop the shot or weights upon it. Then
fill it nearly full of ice-cold water. The weights will keep the piece
of ice at the bottom of the tube, and prevent it from floating to the
top of the water.
Then hold the test tube, by means of the handle, over the gas flame,
at an angle of about forty-five degrees, in such a way that the flame
strikes the side of the tube about an inch below the surface of the
water. Do not heat the _bottom_ of the tube, containing the ice! (It is
best to approach the tube to the flame several times slowly, to prevent
the glass from cracking.)
If you have carried out these instructions, you will find that the
upper layer of water will be heated, and will boil, giving off steam,
whereas the lower portion of the test tube is still cold, and you can
invert the tube--when the solid block of ice will tumble out onto the
table.
The reason for this is that, whereas solids are heated by what is known
as “conduction” (one particle passing on its heat to the next), liquids
are heated by “convection” (circulation of the fluids). In this case,
no circulation takes place below the spot where the heat was applied,
and hence the lower portion of the tube remained cold.
You can see “convection” going on in any ordinary pan or kettle, by
dropping a few bits of bran or saw-dust into the water.
A NEW TEST TO SHOW THE PRESENCE OF LIFE.
By an ingenious device, it is now possible to tell whether a plant,
a leaf, a seed, or a piece of organic tissue is living or dead. A
sure test for the presence of life is very desirable since it at once
informs the experimentalist whether or not the specimen before him can
be made to respond, and live again, or not. It is possible that this
method may be applied to human beings, in the future.
There are two main tests or signs which all living things show and
which are indices of life. One of these is an _electrical_ disturbance.
This was discovered more than a hundred years ago. The other is the
_chemical_ sign, which has only lately been discovered by Professor
Shiro Tashiro, of the University of Chicago.
In a recently published work upon his researches and discoveries in
this field, he says:
“It is a matter of very great interest that I have recently found that
there is always and everywhere an accompanying chemical change of a
particular kind, which is a sure sign of life, and as invariable an
accompaniment of the vital reaction as the electrical change.
“This chemical sign is the sudden outburst of _carbon dioxide_ which
all living things show--plants as well as animals, dry seeds as well
as the nerve tissues of the highest mammals--when they are stimulated
in any way. The instrument which I have made to detect this carbon
dioxide I have called a “Biometer,” because it is an instrument for
the measuring or detecting the amount of life possessed by different
things.”
By means of this instrument, it was shown that _nerves breathe_, that
is to say, they take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide, just as we
do. Seeds do the same thing, when they are stimulated; every living
thing does so! But the moment that thing is dead, no more carbon
dioxide is given off.
The nervous impulses within the body are closely allied to electricity,
but they are also chemical in nature, to a great extent. Taking in
oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide is essential for their life. The
same sort of thing occurs in the human brain; accompanying all thought
these transformations take place. Some of these are physical in nature,
some vital and some psychical. Professor Tashiro is careful to note
this, for the last sentence in his book is:
“Three kinds of nervous changes, then, occur in our brains, when the
nerve impulses are passing--an electrical change, a chemical change,
and a psychical change. Which is the fundamental change?”
That which makes up our mental life is the psychical change--the
thought itself. For _us_, this is the greatest reality!
YOUR AURA, AND WHAT IT IS.
Surrounding everybody there is said to be an atmosphere or “aura,”
which is radiated from it some distance into space. This is most
noticeable about the head, and is said to be the “halo” or “nimbus,”
which was portrayed by the old masters about the head of Christ and
other holy personages.
Baron Reichenbach made a study of this subject about the middle of
the last century, and published an extensive work upon it. His views
received no credence, however, and it remained for Dr. Kilner, of St.
Thomas’ Hospital, London, to prove scientifically that such an aura
exists surrounding every human being.
He perfected a series of slides or screens by means of which this
aura can be seen by nearly everybody. A coal-tar product known as
“dicyanin” renders the eyes of the on-looker susceptible to vibrations
not ordinarily perceived. When the subject is viewed through these
slides, the aura may be distinctly seen surrounding the nude body
of the subject, who must be placed against a black background in a
semi-darkened room.
This misty atmosphere was shown to consist of three layers. First,
there is a dark outline, just touching the surface of the body, which
he called “the etheric double.” Extending two or three inches into
space, beyond this, is a relatively dense layer, known as the “inner
aura.” Beyond this, again, is a more tenuous layer, known as the “outer
aura.”
This aura extends further in the case of women than in the case of men,
and is modified by the physical, mental, and emotional state of subject
at the moment. The color and shape of the aura is changed immediately
over any diseased spot in the body, and because of this fact, it has
been found possible to use the aura as a means of diagnosis.
The precise nature of this human atmosphere is as yet unknown, but Dr.
Kilner believes that it is an ultra-violet phenomenon. While it has
been seen by many persons, it has not as yet been photographed, but a
number of experiments in this direction are being undertaken in the
Laboratory of the American Psychical Institute of New York.
There is no aura about dead bodies; the greater the degree of vitality,
the further does this aura extend from the body, showing that it is
more or less directly dependent upon _life_. Experiments have shown,
also, that both poles of the magnet will attract the aura, showing that
it has no polarity.
When the body of the subject is charged with static electricity, the
aura slowly vanishes, but after the current has been turned off, it
will enlarge to a greater size than before. The radiations of the aura
will discharge an electroscope without physical contact.
The vapor of certain chemicals, such as bromine and chlorine, causes
the aura to recede, and it is also modified by the thought, will and
emotion of the subject. The scientific study of the aura is one of the
fascinating fields open to our future scientists.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.
At the crisis of the Great Revolution, the French Nation--so gifted
alike in scientific and artistic talents--determined to make their
system of time, length, breadth, weight, etc., a decimal system, so
that it would be strictly accurate, in accordance with certain rules,
and at the same time as simple as possible. A new calendar was made.
The Christian Era was wiped out, and was replaced by the new French
era, dating September 22, 1792. Instead of our week of seven days, a
week of ten days was established, the tenth day being set apart for
rest, like our Sunday. Instead of the mythological names of the month,
others deduced from the prevailing seasons of the year were substituted.
Everything was to be reduced to the basis of Reason, which was deified.
The Notre Dame was converted into a “Temple of Reason.” Mme. Momero,
the young and beautiful wife of a Jacobin printer, was chosen to
represent Reason. She was dressed in white, with a mantle of azure blue
hanging from her shoulders. Her hair was crowned with a cap of liberty.
Adorned in this way, and seated upon a chair decorated with ivy, she
was borne, amid the shouts of the people, to the Notre Dame, by four
citizens.
It was decreed that the following table should be adopted, and held to
be official throughout France:
AUTUMN
Vindemaire (vintage month)--Sept. 22-Oct. 21.
Brumaire (foggy month)--Oct. 22-Nov. 20.
Frimaire (sleety month)--Nov. 21-Dec. 20.
WINTER
Nivose (snowy month)--Dec. 21-Jan. 19.
Pluviose (rainy month)--Jan. 20-Feb. 18.
Ventose (windy month)--Feb. 19-March 20.
SPRING
Germinal (budding month)--March 21-April 19.
Floreal (flowery month)--April 20-May 19.
Prairial (pasture month)--May 20-June 18.
SUMMER
Messidor (harvest month)--June 19-July 18.
Fervidor (hot month)--July 19-August 17.
Fructidor (fruit month)--August 18-Sept. 16.
In order to complete the 365 days of the common year (Sept. 16-22) five
“complimentary” days, which were considered festivals, were added.
Primidi, dedicated to Virtue--Sept. 17.
Duodi, dedicated to Genius--Sept. 18.
Tridi, dedicated to Labor--Sept. 19.
Quartidi, dedicated to Opinion--Sept. 20.
Quintidi, dedicated to Rewards--Sept. 21.
While such a system doubtless had much to commend it, it speedily fell
into neglect, when the new order of things was restored in France and
even came in for its share of ridicule. The late George Gates, for
example, caricatured the method by the following ludicrous verse:
Autumn--Wheezy, sneezy, freezy;
Winter--Slippy, drippy, nippy;
Spring--Showery, flowery, bowery;
Summer--Hoppy, croppy, poppy!
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
The original spelling has been retained, including inconsistent
hyphenation. Italics are surrounded with underscores. However,
the following changes have been made, as they were deemed to be
typographical errors.
p. 9: Changed “palor” to “pallor”
p. 10: Changed “machanisms” to “mechanisms”
p. 15: Changed “consciousness or our” to “consciousness of our”
p. 17: Changed “Swedes Norwegians,” to “Swedes, Norwegians,”
p. 19: Changed “reson probably” to “reason probably”
p. 26: Removed quotation mark before “If you throw”
p. 27: Changed “energy of he spinning” to “energy of the spinning”
p. 28: Changed “these heiroglyphics could” to “these hieroglyphics could”
p. 28: Changed “form of heiroglyphics” to “form of hieroglyphics”
p. 30: Changed “Why it this?” to “Why is this?”
p. 31: Changed “tetrahedal” to “tetrahedral”
p. 32: Changed “first of all sugegsted” to “first of all suggested”
p. 33: Changed “admited that, today” to “admitted that, today”
p. 36: Changed “new coment is” to “new comet is”
p. 37: Changed “a elliptical” to “an elliptical”
p. 41: Changed “the 5th in London” to “the 4th in London”
p. 48: Changed “certain ductles sglands” to “certain ductless glands”
p. 51: Changed “where earth quakes” to “where earthquakes”
p. 51: Changed “Siesmograph” to “Seismograph”
p. 52: Changed “earthquakes The” to “earthquakes. The”
p. 54: Changed “coused him to write” to “caused him to write”
p. 56: Changed “histoical experiment” to “historical experiment”
p. 60: Changed “things is dead” to “thing is dead”
p. 60: Changed “kinds or nervous” to “kinds of nervous”
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