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Title: The history of the Jews
Author: Gotthard Deutsch
Release date: August 4, 2023 [eBook #71342]
Language: English
Original publication: New York: Bloch Publishing Company, 1910
Credits: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS ***
THE HISTORY
OF THE JEWS
BY
Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HEBREW UNION
COLLEGE
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
BLOCH PUBLISHING COMPANY
1910
COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY
BLOCH PUBLISHING COMPANY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY, 586 B.C., TO THE DESTRUCTION
OF THE SECOND TEMPLE, 70 C.E. 7
II. FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, 70, TO THE COMPLETION
OF THE MISHNAH, 200 20
III. ERA OF THE TALMUD, 200-600 28
Religious History of the Era 30
IV. FROM THE RISE OF ISLAM, 622, TO THE ERA OF THE CRUSADES,
1096 35
Literary Activity of the Period 39
V. THE JEWS OF EUROPE, 1040-1215 46
Spiritual Life of the Period 48
VI. PERIOD OF OPPRESSION, 1215-1492 53
Jewish Literature, Thirteenth to Fifteenth Century 63
VII. THE PERIOD OF IMPROVEMENT, 1492-1791 70
Intellectual and Literary Life 83
VIII. THE PERIOD OF EMANCIPATION FROM 1791 90
Culture in the Nineteenth Century 100
INDEX 113
PREFACE
There are two main difficulties confronting the historian, when he
attempts to write history. He must always ask himself, First: Are the
facts which I find recorded really facts, and Second: Do I interpret
them correctly? Thiers, in his “Histoire du Consulat,” Paris, 1851, Vol.
XI, p. 71, speaks of the enthusiasm with which the Jews of Portugal,
who numbered 200,000, received the French troops in 1809. There were
perhaps not two hundred Jews living in Portugal at that time, and they
played no part in public affairs. In an address to the convention of
the Order Brith Abraham, Mayor Gaynor, of New York, said on May 15,
1910: “The great Frederick issued a general privilege, and declared it
as a maxim, that oppression of the Jews never brought prosperity to any
state, and Napoleon not only followed the same course but convoked the
Sanhedrin.” The facts are in the main correct, but the presentation
is all wrong. Frederick issued his “Revidierte Generalprivilegium” of
April 17, 1750, for the Jews of Prussia, but it is based on the mediæval
idea of restrictions in the most elementary rights of human beings. His
sentiment with regard to the Jews is evident from a letter which he wrote
to the Minister von Hoym, May 17, 1780, in which he says: “If the Jews
were expelled and Christians would take their places as innkeepers, it
would be for the good of the country, and we would have more human beings
and less Jews” (_Monatsschrift fuer die Geschichte und Wissenschaft
des Judentums_, 1895, p. 379). Napoleon had by the convocation of the
“Assembly of Jewish Notables” and the subsequent Sanhedrin, 1806-1807,
insulted the Jews. The law of September 27, 1791, had declared them as
citizens, and he asked them whether they considered France as their
fatherland, and when these and similar questions were answered in the
affirmative with emphatic protestation of loyalty, Napoleon nevertheless
reintroduced the mediæval principle of Jewish disabilities by issuing
laws restricting Jews in doing business on credit. The facts quoted by
Mayor Gaynor prove the opposite of what he wished to prove by them.
These instances taken from Jewish history could be multiplied endlessly
from every period and every section of the world’s history. Jewish
history has to contend with two additional difficulties. It extends over
every part of the civilized world, but it lacks chronological sequence,
at least until we come to modern times. Another difficulty is that it
deals with almost every known spiritual activity of mankind. The student,
in order to understand Jewish history, should know the constantly
shifting boundary lines of the Italian states from mediæval times until
1870, and he should know something of the morphological theories of
Hebrew grammar and of scholastic philosophy.
These difficulties make themselves especially felt in a brief manual,
and, no doubt, every teacher of Jewish history must have had such an
experience. The Rabbis (Sanhedrin 93, b) find fault with Nehemiah for
having spoken ill of his predecessors in office (Neh. V, 15). I do not
wish to incur the same censure. It remains for the student and the
teacher who use my book to judge whether I improved upon my predecessors.
My object was to place in the hand of the student, who is guided by
a capable teacher, a concise and yet readable manual of the whole
post-biblical history. The biblical period I intentionally omitted, in
order to avoid contested ground and to allow the book to be used in all
schools regardless of dogmatic differences.
GOTTHARD DEUTSCH.
CINCINNATI, O., July, 1910.
HISTORY OF THE JEWS
CHAPTER I
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY (586 B.C.) TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE SECOND
TEMPLE (70 C.E.)
Palestine, the buffer state between Egypt and Mesopotamia, the two rival
powers of the ancient world, was an important base of operations for all
conquerors, and its possession was eagerly sought. In 722 B.C., King
Sargon of Assyria conquered the northern part, the kingdom of Israel.
The southern part, the kingdom of Judah, was at that time protected by
Assyria’s rising and already powerful rival, the Babylonian empire. When
Babylonia had become the master of Mesopotamia, Judæa’s doom was sealed,
and in 586 Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and made all of Palestine a
province of his large empire.
With the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the great Babylonian empire declined
rapidly, and in 539, Cyrus, the King of Persia, captured the city of
Babylon, and became the master of the whole of the Babylonian empire,
and so of Palestine. He was favorably inclined to the Jews, and gave
permission to the descendants of the exiles from Palestine to return to
the land of their fathers. Only a few thousand made use of this, and
returned under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a descendant of the House
of David, and of Joshua ben Jehozadak, the high priest. Of the right
to build the Temple they made no use for the time, but erected instead
an altar on the site of the former edifice. The development of the new
commonwealth, however, was slow, until Ezra, a man learned in the law,
and, therefore, called the Scribe, returned from Babylonia in 458 B.C.
and taught the people the law of God. He was joined in 445 B.C. by
Nehemiah, the cupbearer of the Persian King Artaxerxes, who received
permission from his ruler to go to Palestine and assist Ezra in his
work. He succeeded, after many difficulties, in rebuilding the walls of
Jerusalem and giving the new community a firm organization. In 432 B.C.
he returned to his post at the King’s Court, but upon learning that the
new community was suffering from many difficulties, he returned again to
Palestine to finish his work there.
It seems that the Jews lived in peace, for during the following century,
while they were under Persian rule, only two incidents are recorded. In
the reign of Artaxerxes III, Ochus (358-337 B.C.), the Jews rebelled; but
the king defeated them near Jericho and sent the rebels to Hyrcania into
exile. About the same time the high priest, Johanan, killed his brother,
Joshua, in the Temple, and the Persian governor fined the Jews very
heavily.
Not long afterwards the mighty Persian empire was conquered by Alexander
the Great (333 B.C.), and the Jews passed under the rule of the
Macedonian king.
There are various legends about Alexander’s kindness to the Jews,
especially one which states that he showed great respect to the high
priest. There is also a report that he exempted the Jews from paying
taxes in the Sabbatical year. His immense empire fell to pieces soon
after his early death, and various generals fought for a portion of
the inheritance, each expecting to become the successor of the great
conqueror. Palestine with Syria was first occupied by Ptolemy, who
founded the dynasty named after him in Egypt in 320 B.C. He lost it to
another general, Antigonus (315 B.C.), who was defeated by Seleucus at
the battle of Gaza (312 B.C.), after which the kingdom of Syria with
Antioch as its capital was founded. The Syrians counted their era from
this date and the Jews adopted this custom, keeping it up until late in
mediæval times. The struggle continued until, in 301 B.C., the battle of
Ipsus decided the issue in favor of Ptolemy and Palestine was united with
Egypt until Antiochus III of Syria annexed it to his dominions in 198 B.C.
The Jews seem to have been treated with fairness until Antiochus IV,
Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), succeeded his father. The latter had been
defeated by the Romans in the battle of Magnesia (189 B.C.), and
Antiochus IV was sent as hostage to Rome. Knowing that the Romans watched
the growth of the Syrian kingdom with great jealousy lest it should
become a powerful rival, he tried to consolidate his states and for this
reason wished to remove everything which kept the Jews apart from their
neighbors. In his attempt to Hellenize the Jews he was supported by a
party among them. Joseph, the son of Tobias, and the nephew of Onias II,
the High Priest, had already under the Egyptian kings been appointed tax
collector and was very powerful. He and his family supported the Syrian
kings in their desire to Hellenize the Jews.
Simon, a member of this family, quarrelled with the High Priest, Onias
III, and in order to revenge himself he informed the Syrian government
that the Temple of Jerusalem contained large treasures. Heliodorus was
sent to Jerusalem, but for some reason which legend has obscured by
miraculous tales, he was prevented from looting the treasury. Onias
was called to Antioch to answer certain charges of disloyalty, while
his brother Joshua, or Jason as he called himself, took his place.
Jason offered Antiochus a higher tribute than his brother had paid, and
declared his willingness to support the king in introducing Greek customs
among the Jews. He became high priest, but shortly afterwards Menelaus,
another member of the family, offered Antiochus a still higher tribute
and was made high priest in Jason’s place. Unable to pay the sum he had
promised, he appropriated valuable pieces from the Temple treasury to
bribe the King’s officials. Onias reproached him and was assassinated
upon his order.
This fact embittered the Jews. Menelaus was charged with sacrilege, but
as he possessed great influence the case was dismissed and his opponents
were executed. These events enraged the Jews still more, and when in
170 B.C., Antiochus was in Egypt engaged in warfare, the Jews rebelled
at the false report of his death. Antiochus returned and took bitter
revenge, pillaging the city, and desecrating the Temple. Two years later
he sent his general, Apollonius, to punish the rebels and the latter did
it in the most cruel manner. At the same time a strong fort was built
in Jerusalem and the practice of the Jewish religion, particularly the
observance of the Sabbath and the dietary laws, and the study of the
Torah prohibited, on the ground that they tended to keep the Jews aloof
from their neighbors. At the same time an altar to Zeus was erected in
the Temple and other heathenish altars placed in various cities. The Jews
were compelled under penalty of death to offer sacrifices to the Greek
gods.
The pious people fled from Jerusalem into the wilderness in order to
escape the fulfillment of the king’s orders. Among the leaders of those
who were determined rather to die than give up their religion was
Mattathiah, an aged priest of the family of the Hasmonæans. In the little
town of Modin he killed a Jew who made preparations to offer sacrifice
on the heathenish altar, and an officer was sent to execute the king’s
decree. This was the signal for rebellion. Mattathiah had five sons of
whom Judah, called the Maccabee, was the leader in battle. Judah gathered
a small number of the faithful around him and succeeded in defeating
various generals and finally the viceroy, Lysias. Then he entered
Jerusalem, removed all traces of idolatry from the Temple and rededicated
it to the service of God in 165 B.C. Shortly afterwards, in 164 B.C.,
Antiochus IV died and was succeeded by his son, Antiochus V, still a boy,
for whom Lysias governed as regent. The last having many difficulties to
contend with, granted the Jews religious freedom. He and the young king,
however, were soon killed, and Demetrius I, a nephew of Antiochus IV,
came to the throne in 162 B.C.
Demetrius continued to give the Jews religious freedom, but he appointed
a high priest named Alkymus, whom the people disliked, and so the
rebellion started anew. Judah defeated the general Nikanor in 161 B.C.,
but a year later he fell in battle and was succeeded by his brother
Jonathan. Meantime Syria was torn to pieces amid constant rebellion
caused by various claimants to the throne, each of whom tried to win
the Jews over to his side in order to obtain a free hand in fighting
his rivals. Thus Jonathan was confirmed as high priest by the Syrian
king (153 B.C.), but later on, being distrusted, was assassinated by
the Syrian governor, Tryphon (143 B.C.) He was succeeded by the last
surviving son of Mattathiah, Simon (143-135 B.C.). Simon drove the Syrian
garrison from the fort at Jerusalem and was not only confirmed as high
priest but also as ruler of the Jews. He manifested his sovereignty by
issuing coins bearing his name.
The Romans, who were glad to see the power of the Syrian king weakened,
formed an alliance with him, and so Israel was again an independent
nation. Simon was assassinated by Ptolemy, his own son-in-law, and was
succeeded by his son John Hyrcan (135-105 B.C.), who assumed the title
of king and was at the same time the high priest. The Syrian kingdom
became altogether dismembered, and John Hyrcan, aided by the Romans,
united under his sceptre not only the Jews living in Palestine but also
conquered those parts of the country which were inhabited by other
nations. The Idumæans and the Samaritans were forcibly converted to
Judaism. With the growing power of the new kingdom the religious life
of the ruling classes became weakened and the king alienated those
people who had formerly been the most zealous supporters of the Maccabæan
rebellion. Two parties were formed, one called the Sadducees, after the
High Priest Zadok, was in sympathy with the government while the other,
the Pharisees, became its opponent. The Pharisees (separatists) believed
in freedom only as a means of protection of their religious life, and
therefore opposed the king, who wasted the resources of the country in
wars of conquest.
Hyrcan was succeeded by Aristobul, his son, with whose reign a period of
family feuds and palace intrigues began. He ordered his brother Antigonus
to be killed and died soon afterwards, having reigned but one year
(105-104 B.C.). His successor was his brother Alexander Jannai (104-78
B.C.). The latter’s highest ambition was to become a conqueror and he
carried on constant but unsuccessful warfare with Arabic chieftains, and
with the Egyptians and other neighbors. The people rebelled against him,
but he quelled all uprisings with extreme cruelty, and on one occasion
had six hundred pilgrims massacred in the courtyard of the Temple. The
Pharisees were particularly the objects of his hatred.
Upon his death his wife, Salome Alexandra, came to the throne (78-69
B.C.). She made peace with the Pharisees, whose leader Simeon ben Shetach
was her brother, and her reign was happier than that of her husband.
Upon her death she left two sons, Hyrcan II and Aristobul, of whom the
first was to be high priest, while the second was to be king. But they
soon quarrelled, and Hyrcan, who was a tool in the hands of Antipater,
an Idumæan, his adviser, declared himself king. In the subsequent
civil war, Pompey, the Roman general and statesman, was asked to act as
arbitrator. He conquered Jerusalem, entered the Temple, and declared in
favor of Hyrcan, who, however, was not made king, but given the title
of Ethnarch. Aristobul was sent to Rome and the cities inhabited by
Syrians were annexed to the province of Syria (60 B.C.). Aristobul’s
son, Alexander, the son-in-law of Hyrcan, rebelled, but was defeated in
57 B.C. In the following year Aristobul fled from Rome and organized a
rebellion, but was soon defeated and sent a prisoner to Rome with his son
Antigonus.
Crassus, governor of Syria, entered the Temple and looted the treasury
(54 B.C.). Shortly afterwards he fell in battle and the Jews rebelled
again, but the uprising was cruelly suppressed, 30,000 being sold into
slavery (53 B.C.). Cæsar, who was now the ruler of Rome, liberated
Aristobul to use him against his rival Pompey, but Aristobul was poisoned
and his son Alexander executed (49 B.C.). Hyrcan and Antipater joined
Cæsar, who confirmed the former as Ethnarch and bestowed high distinction
on the latter (47 B.C.). Antipater’s son, Herod, was made governor of
Galilee, and as such executed the insurgent leader, Hezekiah, and put
down the rebellion. Called before the Sanhedrin for executing a citizen
without trial, he defied the court, knowing that he had the support of
the Romans. After Cæsar’s assassination Antipater joined Cassius, but was
himself assassinated (42 B.C.). His sons, however, remained in power,
and after the battle of Philippi they joined Antony, who confirmed them
as governors (42 B.C.). Antigonus, the son of Aristobul, now returned,
assisted by the Parthians, enemies of Rome, and was made high priest,
combining again the dignity of king and high priest (40-37 B.C.). Herod
fled to Rome, where he was appointed King of the Jews by the Senate.
Returning to Palestine he defeated Antigonus and reigned as king (37-34
B.C.). He married Mariamne, the granddaughter of Hyrcan and Aristobul,
and appointed her brother, Aristobul, as high priest. Becoming jealous of
his popularity, he caused him to be assassinated soon afterward.
Herod’s reign was marked by its splendor, but he was hated by the people
for his extreme cruelty. He had his wife, Mariamne, three of his sons,
the old High Priest Hyrcan II, and various other members of his family,
assassinated. His unpopularity grew in spite of the fact that the country
was prosperous and that he rebuilt the Temple in magnificent style. As a
descendant of the Idumæans, whom Hyrcan I had converted to Judaism, he
was considered a foreigner who held his power only through the assistance
of Rome. From this time the name Edom became a synonym for Rome in Jewish
Literature.
Herod left three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Philip, among whom
he divided his empire. Archelaus received Judæa, Samaria and Idumæa. He
was to reside in Jerusalem and have the title of king. Herod Antipas
was given dominion over Galilee, and Peræa and Philip received the
northern district; both were to be called Tetrarchs. In Archelaus’
kingdom a revolt broke out at once, and 3,000 people were killed in the
Temple courtyard. When he went to Rome to obtain confirmation of his
title another rebellion broke out because of the cruelty of the Roman
commander, and once more a great number of people were killed and the
Temple sacked. Governor Varus was called from Syria to quell the contest
and did so with great cruelty. The Roman Emperor Augustus confirmed
Archelaus as ruler of Judæa but refused him the title of king; he was
merely called Ethnarch. Unable to control the people, who hated him, he
was deposed and exiled to Gaul, and his land made a part of the Roman
province of Syria (6 C.E.). The Roman governors carried on an arbitrary
and oppressive rule. A census ordered by Quirinius was bitterly resisted
and almost led to open rebellion. A party of Zealots was formed under the
leadership of Judah, the son of Hezekiah, whom Herod had executed. Their
object was to overthrow the Roman rule, and for this purpose they began
a reign of terror against all people who were supposed to be in sympathy
with Rome, and assassinations were of daily occurrence.
One of the most cruel of the Roman governors, Pontius Pilate (26-36),
in every possible way provoked the religious sentiments of the people,
and on the slightest show of resistance, ordered wholesale butcheries
of them. Many complaints were sent to Rome and he was finally recalled.
Under his administration the execution of Jesus is reported to have taken
place. Emperor Caligula (37-41), a typical megalomaniac, ordered his bust
placed in the Temple. Petronius, the military commander, reported that it
was impossible to execute this order without driving the people into open
rebellion, and so Caligula modified his demand. Only his assassination
prevented an outbreak of the people. He was a friend of Agrippa, the son
of Aristobul, and the grandson of Herod and Mariamne, and showered his
favors upon him. Agrippa was first appointed the successor of his uncle
Philip with the title of king, in 37. Upon the death of Herod Antipas,
Galilee was added to his dominion, and finally Emperor Claudius, upon
his succession to the throne in 41, gave him Judæa also, so that he thus
obtained the full heritage of his grandfather Herod. While a favorite
of Rome, Agrippa was beloved by the people, but he died in the prime of
his life in 44. His brother Herod, who was his successor, possessed no
other right except to appoint the high priest; similarly Agrippa’s son,
Agrippa II, while honored with the title of king, had practically no
power. For at the death of Agrippa I Palestine was again placed under
Roman governors, seven of whom held office from 44 to 66 and did their
utmost to drive the people into despair by cruel executions and wanton
disregard of religious feeling. The reign of terror continuing, a party
called Sicarii, from Sica, a dagger, which they always carried under
their garments for the punishment of those who were suspected of Roman
sympathies, arose and spread anarchy all through the land.
The last of the governors, Gessius Florus, was the worst of all who held
this office. His extortions and murders drove the people into despair.
Especially in Cæsarea, where the majority of the population was Greek,
and constantly attacked the Jews, he refused to grant them protection.
Agrippa II made an attempt to pacify the Jews and persuade them to send
a committee to Rome, but without avail. The daily sacrifice on behalf of
the Emperor was discontinued and open rebellion was declared (66).
The Jews fortified the Temple, captured several Roman forts, including
that of Jerusalem, and Cestius Gallus, the commander of Syria, was
defeated. Vespasian, the ablest general of the Roman army, was placed in
command and began the war in Galilee, where Flavius Josephus, the famous
historian, was in command of the revolutionary forces (67). Josephus was
besieged in the fortress of Jotapat, and, after weeks of hard fighting,
surrendered. In the fall of 67 all of Galilee was in the hands of the
Romans.
In 68 Vespasian conquered the land east of the Jordan, while in Jerusalem
the reign of terror continued and the Zealots wasted their forces in a
bloody civil war. Meantime a revolution had broken out in Rome and Nero
had committed suicide (68). Three emperors followed each other in quick
succession and the internal troubles caused Vespasian to temporize in his
warfare. But by 69 he had conquered the whole land with the exception
of Jerusalem and three fortified cities held by the patriots. In this
year he was proclaimed Emperor and went to Rome, leaving the work of
continuing the war to his son Titus.
Titus began the siege of Jerusalem in April, 70, and at once the internal
feuds ceased, the besieged doing their utmost to defend the place. Titus
had to take the city step by step. Finally on August 10th the Temple, the
last retreat of the patriots, was stormed and destroyed by fire. Those
who survived intrenched themselves in the upper city and continued their
resistance until September 7th. According to Josephus, 1,100,000 perished
in the war and 97,000 were made captives and sold as slaves or taken to
the circus, where they were torn to pieces by wild beasts. Seven hundred,
selected from the noblest families, were taken to Rome to be shown with
the holy vessels captured in the Temple in the triumphal march. An arch
of triumph was erected as a memorial of victory, which is still standing
in Rome. Titus left the siege of the three remaining fortresses to his
captains. They spent three more years in reducing them, Massada, the last
one, falling in 73. The last defenders of the place killed themselves in
order to escape being taken alive by the Romans. Thus the last vestige of
the independent Jewish kingdom, founded by the Maccabees, disappeared.
CHAPTER II
FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM (70) TO THE COMPLETION OF THE MISHNAH
(200)
The destruction of Jerusalem had thrown the Jewish people into a terrible
crisis. Although the Jews, as individuals, did not fare worse than during
the preceding one hundred and thirty years, Judæa was now a province of
the Roman Empire.
The only new law, enforced after the destruction of Jerusalem, was that
of a special tax of two Drachmæ, which every male had to pay. This tax,
called “Fiscus Judaicus,” took the place of the half-shekel formerly
paid by every male Jew into the treasury of the Temple, according to the
Rabbinic interpretation of the Law in Exodus xxx, 11-16. Some of the
Jews were sold into slavery; some went to Rome, where they swelled the
congregation existing there since the second century B.C., and where
they had several synagogues and catacombs used as cemeteries. Others
again emigrated to Babylonia, where a Jewish settlement existed since the
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, or settled on the northern
coast of Africa, and on the islands of the Mediterranean.
Under Domitian, the brother and successor of Titus (81-96), the tribute
of the “Fiscus Judaicus” was exacted with great severity. Domitian was
altogether hostile to the Jews; yet in his reign Jewish propaganda
increased in Rome, and people belonging to the highest class of society,
among them Flavius Clemens, a nephew of the Emperor, with his wife
Clementina, were converted to Judaism. Flavius Clemens was put to
death and his wife exiled for their change of faith, as the Roman law
considered it a crime, and called it atheism. Dio Cassius, the historian
of Rome, speaks of a class of people who were not Jews by descent, but
had adopted the Jewish religion. Similar proofs of the existence of a
Jewish propaganda are found in the New Testament (Matthew xxiii, 25)
where the Pharisees are denounced for their efforts in making converts,
and in the daily service, composed about one hundred, in which a special
prayer for the proselytes is offered.
Under Emperor Nerva (96-98) the “Fiscus Judaicus” is said to have been
abolished.
Under Trajan (98-117) serious rebellions of the Jews occurred in Egypt,
Cyprus, Cyrene, and Mesopotamia. About the causes of the disorder and
the battles of the rebellion, we know nothing definite. It may be said,
however, that in all likelihood oppressive taxation, cruel treatment of
the people by the Roman officials, and the traditional enmity between
the Jews and the Greek-speaking population of the Orient were the causes
of this constant friction. Trajan sent his general, Quietus, to quell
the uprising, and made him governor of Palestine. The insurrection was
still in progress when Hadrian came to the throne (117-136). At first
he was friendly toward the Jews and began to rebuild the Temple, by
which he hoped to reconcile them. This new Temple, however, was to be
dedicated to the Jupiter of the Capitol, who, as Hadrian believed, was
also the God of the Jews, although he had a different name. As the Jews,
however, were not willing to accept this condition, Hadrian resorted to
severe religious persecution. He prohibited the practices of the Sabbath,
circumcision, and the study of the Law. The result was another rebellion
under the leadership of Simeon Bar Koziba, who adopted the name of Bar
Kochba—“The Son of the Star”—with reference to the prophecy of the star
which would smite the enemies of Israel (Num. xxiv, 17). Bar Kochba, who
called himself Prince of Israel, and had coins struck with his name, was
supported by a priest, Eleazar of Modin, and by Rabbi Akiba. Details of
this war are unknown. It lasted, however, over three years (132-135), and
then was quelled by Tineius Rufus, and Julius Severus, the latter having
been called from Great Britain to take some of the troops against the
rebels. The victory was complete. Whatever had been left of Jerusalem
after its destruction by Titus was destroyed. The city was called Ælia
Capitolina, in honer of Hadrian, whose first name was Ælius and in honor
of the Jupiter of the Capitol, to whom the Temple, built on the site of
the ancient Temple of Solomon, was erected. Over one of the gates of the
city Hadrian had the head of a swine placed, and the Jews were forbidden
entrance into the city. A great many Jews were killed in battle and
many prisoners, including the most prominent spiritual leaders of the
rebellion, such as Rabbi Akiba, executed. A mediæval legend speaks of
ten martyrs, and gives a list which, however, comprises men who lived in
different ages.
With the death of Hadrian, and the succession to the throne of Marcus
Antoninus Pius (136-161) a change for the better took place. We are
informed that, upon the representations of prominent Jews, Antoninus
repealed the cruel laws passed by his predecessor. Jewish legends have
preserved the name of Antoninus Pius as one of the most benign of rulers,
and they represent him as a close personal friend of Judah the Patriarch,
as a great admirer of Judaism, and even as a secret convert.
Only a few disconnected facts are known about the following emperors.
Under Marcus Aurelius, the philosophic author (161-180), who, in one
instance speaks with contempt of the Jews, we hear of a slave, named
Callistus, sentenced to penal servitude in the mines of Sardinia for
having disturbed the services of a synagogue.
Under Septimius Severus (193-211), we learn of the participation of the
Jews in a rebellion, and an edict, passed in 204, declared conversion to
Christianity from Judaism a crime. It was evidently intended to check
the rapid progress of Christianity. Alexander Severus (222-235) is said
to have been very favorable to the Jews, and his mother, Mammæa, who
was regent during the first years of his reign, is said to have been
favorably inclined toward the Jewish religion. Alexander had a statue of
Abraham in his room and on the wall was inscribed the famous saying of
Hillel, “What is hateful unto thee, do not unto thy neighbor.” The Jews
of Rome had a synagogue which was named the Synagogue of Severus in his
honor; he presented to it a scroll of the Torah which had been brought
from Jerusalem. The mobs in Alexandria and Antioch, ever hostile to the
Jews, called him Archysynagogos, “leader of the Synagogue.”
The spiritual life of the Jews, after the destruction of the Temple,
received its strongest impetus from Johanan ben Zakkai, in Jabneh
(Jamnia), whom legend makes a disciple of Hillel and a member of the
Sanhedrin in Jerusalem at the time of the destruction of the Temple.
Legend further says that he succeeded in escaping from Jerusalem during
the siege at a time when the Zealots in the city would not allow any one
to leave it, and that he came to Vespasian, to whom he prophesied his
elevation to the throne of Rome, for which, out of gratitude, the latter
allowed him to open a school and establish a Sanhedrin in Jabneh. At
any rate, Jabneh became the spiritual centre of Judaism at that time.
Various ordinances, which Johanan ben Zakkai issued, show his desire to
harmonize ancient traditions with the conditions as they developed after
the destruction of the Temple. Thus, it is understood that he ordered the
Shofar to be blown in Jabneh, even if New Year fell on a Sabbath; this
formerly had been done only in the Temple at Jerusalem.
His successor was Gamaliel, usually called Gamaliel II, Gamaliel the
elder, or Gamaliel of Jabneh (100-130). He was the great-great-grandson
of the famous Hillel, who, according to tradition, was president of
the Sanhedrin during the time of King Herod (Hillel, Simeon, Gamaliel,
Simeon, Gamaliel). In the work of harmonizing tradition with the
exigencies of the time, Gamaliel followed in the footsteps of Johanan
ben Zakkai. His main activities consisted in the organization of public
worship. To him is ascribed the introduction of the daily prayer
(Tefillah), the eighteen benedictions (Shemoneh Esreh), to which later
in his life he added one more, containing a petition against sectaries
(Minim). He also composed the grace after meals, and the Passover
Haggadah. He further endeavored, in all possible ways, to strengthen
the authority of the President or Nasi or Ab Beth Din of the Sanhedrin,
especially by claiming for himself the exclusive right to fix the
calendar. In the interpretation of the law he took a lenient attitude,
insisting more on the spirit than on the letter.
Opponents of his hierarchical tendencies were Eliezer ben Hyrkanos and
Joshua ben Hananiah; Akiba occupied an undecided position between the
two parties. Eliezer, who seems to have been favorably inclined toward
Christianity, objected to a fixed ritual, but otherwise was rigorous
in his interpretation of the law, and a firm believer in the authority
of tradition. From obscure reports we learn that he was excommunicated
by Gamaliel, his brother-in-law. Joshua was strongly opposed to
Christianity, and to the hierarchical tendencies of Gamaliel, and his
harsh treatment by the latter caused opposition, with the result that
Gamaliel was removed from office and Eleazer ben Azariah appointed in
his place. But later on a reconciliation took place, and Gamaliel was
reinstated.
Akiba, the disciple of Eliezer, was the strictest opponent of
Christianity, and especially of the principle which declares that the law
is merely a symbol, and also of the demand that the Jews give up their
national distinctiveness. His opposition to the symbolic interpretation
of the law led him into its literal interpretation, based on the view
that every word and letter of the Torah must be explained independently
of the context. He was also a zealous advocate of Israel’s national
independence, and so became the spiritual leader of the Bar Kochba
rebellion. When he said, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself; this
is the fundamental principle of the Torah,” he probably gave expression
to his nationalistic sentiments. Evidently in order to accentuate the
universality of Judaism, Simeon ben Azai, Akiba’s contemporary, says
that the words, “This is the book of the generation of Adam,” are
the fundamental principles of the Torah. Rabbi Akiba’s principle of
interpreting the Torah was opposed by his contemporary, Rabbi Ishmael,
who says the Torah speaks the language of men; that is, every text must
be explained by its context. An important figure of that time seems
to have been Elisha ben Abuyah, who is called Acher the Apostate. The
stories told of him are legendary to such an extent that it is impossible
to know how much, if any, historical fact underlies them.
The uprising of Bar Kochba and the subsequent prohibition of the study
of law interrupted, for a while, the development of religious doctrine.
Soon, however, after the succession to the throne of Antoninus Pius,
in 136, the study of the law was resumed. A synod of prominent rabbis,
who were mostly disciples of Akiba, met at Usha, and passed several
resolutions, mostly in regard to civil law, required by the exigencies
of the time. One of these provides that every one shall give one-fifth
of his income to charity, thus diverting the two tithes formerly
devoted to the sacrificial needs, the Levites or the poor, to communal
requirements. Another resolution declared that every father was under
the duty of providing for his son until the latter was twelve years old.
The spiritual leaders of this age were Rabbi Meir, Judah bar Ilai, and
Jose bar Halafta, and the office of Nasi was given to Gamaliel’s son,
Simeon ben Gamaliel II (140-170). The latter was in turn succeeded by his
son, Judah Hanasi, called Rabbi, or Rabbenu-Hakadosh, who according to a
legend was born on the day on which Rabbi Akiba died (135-216). To him is
due the compilation of the Mishnah or compendium of the Rabbinic law.
The word Mishnah is derived from Mishneh Torah (repetition of the law),
the name of Deuteronomy. This compilation was preceded by others on a
smaller scale which we do not possess. They are called, after their
authors, the Mishnah of Rabbi Akiba, that of Rabbi Meir, and that of
Rabbi Nathan. The object of the code compiled by Judah Hanasi was to
collect the whole of the Rabbinic law. The authorities quoted in the
Mishnah are called Tanaim, from תנא which is the Aramaic, for
שנה, the latter being a word derived from Mishnah. The Mishnah was
not intended to be a code of the law but a compendium for its study. It
was soon, however, accepted as an infallible book of laws, and believed
to be based on early tradition dating back to Moses himself.
CHAPTER III
ERA OF THE TALMUD (200-600)
The constant progress made by Christianity in Palestine had an
unfavorable effect on the condition of the Jewish population and the Jews
began to emigrate to Babylonia in constantly growing numbers. The latter
country had, in the meantime, passed from the rule of the Parthians to
that of the neo-Persians, or Parsees (225). These having thrown off the
yoke of foreign invaders, acted like others under similar conditions and
introduced a government marked by religious and national fanaticism,
from which the Jews suffered very severely. The Parsees, who worshipped
fire, would not allow the Jews to have any light on the Sabbath during
their period of mourning, which comprised the shortest winter days, and
consequently the Hanukah lights were also forbidden. Another prohibition,
which the Jews especially resented, was directed against the burial of
the dead, not allowed by the religion of the Parsees.
At the same time, the Roman Empire, passing more and more under Christian
rule, became hostile toward the Jews. Of Diocletian (284-305) it is
reported that, while he tried to suppress Christianity, he allowed the
Jews freedom of worship. Another story reported of him, to the effect
that he ordered Judah Hanasi to appear before him on the Sabbath,
wishing to punish him for the insult he had suffered from Jewish boys,
while a swineherd, is evidently legendary. Constantine (305-337), who
removed all the disabilities from which the Christians had suffered, and
according to some authors, a professing Christian himself, issued the
first edict which discriminated against the Jews. This law prohibited the
circumcision of a slave, and there is no doubt that it was intended to
check propaganda for Judaism.
Julian the Apostate (361-363), who wished to suppress Christianity and
attempted to reintroduce a refined worship of the old gods, is said to
have attempted to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem. The church historians
tell us that an earthquake and similar accidents made this impossible. It
is, however, not unlikely that the whole report was merely an invention
to show that the Temple could never be rebuilt, and that all attempts to
fight Christianity must be vain.
The discrimination against the Jews became stronger when Theodosius
issued the edict of Ravenna (380), which made the profession of
Christianity a requirement for all who held office under the government.
After the death of Theodosius the Roman Empire was divided into an
Eastern and a Western Empire. Palestine and the majority of the Jews
were in the Eastern Empire, with its capital at Constantinople; and they
remained subject to this rule until the Holy Land was conquered by the
Mohammedans in 634.
The legal treatment of the Jews, in both divisions of the Empire, was
hostile, but the authorities tried to protect their lives and properties
against the constantly increasing attacks of the mob. Such outbreaks
occurred especially in the Greek cities of the Orient. Cyril, Bishop of
Alexandria, and St. Simeon, the Stylite, who for years lived on a pillar,
stirred up the religious fanaticism of the masses by setting them against
the Jews. These attacks resulted in loss of life and property, and when
the emperors issued orders demanding the punishment of the lawless
elements, the ecclesiastic leaders condemned this action as the evidence
of partiality toward the Jews. Under Emperor Justinian (527-565) we hear
for the first time of an interference with the internal religious life of
the Jews by the secular authorities. An edict of this Emperor prohibited
the reading of the Deuterosis in the synagogue. The word is a literal
translation of the word Mishnah, but as the Mishnah could not have been
read in the synagogue, we must assume that other Rabbinic works or the
Targum are meant.
The Byzantine Empire frequently had wars with its Persian neighbor, and
one of these which threatened to be very critical occurred under Emperor
Heraclius (622-628). In this, the Jews at first sided with the Persians,
but when the Emperor on his way to the East appeared in Palestine, he
promised them an amnesty if they would join his cause. This they did.
On his return he broke his pledge, the monks assuring him of the divine
pardon for this breach of faith, and punished the Jews severely for their
defection.
RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF THE ERA
The position of the patriarch remained hereditary in the house of
Judah Hanasi, until the office was abolished by the decree of Emperor
Theodosius II (about 420). The successors of Judah Hanasi were Gamaliel
III, Judah II, Gamaliel IV, Judah III, Hillel II, Gamaliel V, Judah
IV, and Gamaliel VI. These patriarchs, however, were not prominent as
scholars, and while they were the religious heads of the community, the
prerogatives of the president of the school of Tiberias were transferred
to a scholar of prominence. Thus Judah Hanasi himself appointed his
son Gamaliel as his successor before his death, but Rabbi Hanina was
named as president of the school. It is probable that the head of this
school presided also over the court sessions, so that he was the Ab
Beth Din; the Nasi, who formerly exercised these prerogatives, was the
representative of the Jewish community only through the dignity of his
office.
Prominent among the disciples of Hanina were Johanan bar Nappaha, Simeon
ben Lakish, and Eleazar bar Padath (250-280). Even at this period the
Mishnah was already considered revealed law, which the teacher could
only explain, but not alter. We therefore very often find their names
in the Talmud at the head of discussions of a passage in the Mishnah.
They introduced the period of the Palestinian Amoraim, as the scholars
following the era of the Mishnah are called in contradistinction to the
teachers of the Mishnah, known as Tanaim. To the school of Johanan belong
all prominent Palestinian rabbis of the succeeding generation. Prominent
among them is Abbahu of Cæsarea. He is known not merely as an expounder
of the law but as a controversialist against Christianity.
Tiberias continued to be the center of Jewish spiritual life, and quite
a number of young scholars from Babylonia came there to finish their
studies; some of them remained in Palestine. Of the teachers of the
fourth century, little more than their names is known. Prominently
mentioned, however, is Rabbi Jose, to whom is ascribed the final
redaction of the Palestinian Talmud (350). At about this time Hillel II
gave up the only tangible privilege of the Nasi, the announcement of the
calendar. Instead of announcing the leap-year whenever it was necessary
to postpone the Passover, fixed rules for the calendar were made. By
this arrangement it became necessary to keep the second holydays, which
had been celebrated in those places the messengers of the Nasi could
not reach in time. Hillel ruled, however, that this practice had become
hallowed by tradition, and that even henceforth the Jews living outside
of Palestine should continue to celebrate two holydays.
When finally the office of patriarch was abolished, Palestine lost
its place as the spiritual center of Judaism. The study of the law
declined, and from the middle of the fourth century we find in Palestine
studies confined to homiletical and exegetical works, due in part to
the controversies with the Christians. Some of their greatest teachers,
such as Jerome, the translator of the Bible into Latin, were disciples
of Palestinian rabbis. Of the homiletical explanations collections were
made; these are called Midrash. The oldest of these collections is the
Midrash Rabba to Genesis, compiled in the seventh century.
BABYLONIA
Although in the fifth century B.C., Ezra is already mentioned as an
expounder of the law, who had come from Babylon, although Hillel is said
to have arrived in Palestine also from Babylon in the first century B.C.
with a reputation for scholarship, and although Judah Hanasi is quoted as
having said that the only man whose superiority he acknowledged was Huna,
the Exilarch of Babylon, we find no distinct traces of literary activity
in Babylon until the third century. At that time two men were prominent
as scholars: Abba Areka, called Rab, and Samuel. Both had spent some
time in Palestine, studying under Judah Hanasi. Rab was a member of the
committee which assisted Judah Hanasi in the compilation of the Mishnah.
Before he left Palestine, he was ordained by Judah Hanasi somewhat
restrictedly, because it was a rule that the full prerogatives of the
members of the Sanhedrin could not be exercised outside of the Holy Land.
Probably for this reason Judah Hanasi refused to confer ordination upon
Samuel. Rab taught in Sura, and Samuel in Nehardea. Both these places
were for centuries the seats of prominent schools.
At this time, Rab was considered the greatest authority on ritual law,
while Samuel was considered learned in civil law. Rab’s decisions are
characterized by rigorous interpretation of the law, especially as to
Passover. Samuel accommodated himself more to the spirit of the times.
From him we have the famous decision which makes the civil law of the
country binding upon the Israelites as a religious obligation. He also
partly abolished those laws of the Sabbatical year which had become
obsolete, such as the cancellation of debts. He also declared that the
celebration of the second holydays was unnecessary. He further laid down
the principle that the Messianic prophecy merely meant the political
independence of the Jews, and not a change in the condition of humanity.
To the next generation (250-300) belong Nahman bar Jacob, who reformed
the legal procedure by introducing an oath in cases where formerly no
oath had been necessary, Huna, Hisda, Shesheth and Judah bar Ezekiel,
the last of whom was the founder of the new school of Pumbeditha,
subsequently the most prominent of all Babylonian schools existing until
the middle of the eleventh century. The characteristics of this age were
the growth of dialecticism, Pilpul, and the neglect of Biblical studies.
To the succeeding generation belong Rabba bar Nahmani and Rab Joseph. The
latter is known as the author or compiler of the Aramaic translation of
the prophets (Targum), more a paraphrase than a translation.
In the succeeding generation we have (350-380) Abaje and Raba, whose
teachings are quoted as the most pronounced type of keen dialecticism.
The most important of Babylonian Amoraim is Rab Ashe (350-431) who
compiled the commentaries and the discourses on the Mishnah, and so
became, with his successor Rabina (died 499), the compilers of the
Babylonian Talmud. The successors of these teachers are called Saboraim
(reasoners). Of their chronology and work we know nothing with exactness
except that they lived during the sixth and in the early part of the
seventh century. They arranged the subject-matter of the Talmud, which
they divided into chapters and to which they added some explanatory
remarks.
CHAPTER IV
FROM THE RISE OF ISLAM (622) TO THE ERA OF THE CRUSADES (1096)
Jews had been living in Arabia long before the time of Mohammed, perhaps
as early as the pre-Christian era. Their mode of life was like that of
the Arabs. They were divided into tribes, and had fortified places to
which they retreated in case of feuds with their Arab neighbors. Like the
Arabs they had their warriors, who were at the same time poets. A famous
man from the time preceding Mohammed is Samuel ibn Adijah. He is known
among the Arabs as a faithful friend, because when an Arab chieftain,
one of his friends, sought refuge in his fortress, he allowed his son,
who was in the hands of the enemy, to be killed rather than deliver the
fugitive into their hands.
Mohammed had frequent intercourse with the Jews, and received from them
the first impetus to found a new religion in place of the crude worship
of the old Arabs. He laid particular stress on converting the Jews to the
new religion, which was to be a universal theocracy. For this purpose
he adopted some of the Jewish ideas, customs, and modes of worship, the
strict monotheistic idea, the fast of Yom Kippur and the turning toward
Jerusalem in prayer. The Jews, however, were offended at his sensuality,
and ridiculed him for his ignorance. He therefore became their enemy,
and after the capture of one of their forts, killed the inhabitants who
had surrendered. All other Jews were expelled from Arabia, which was to
be a theocratically governed state, where only the religion of Mohammed
would be tolerated.
Under Mohammed’s successors, the Caliphs, Islam rapidly spread over a
great part of Asia and the theocratic principle could not be maintained.
Under Omar (634-644), who conquered Jerusalem in 637, a law called
the Covenant of Omar governing the treatment of non-Mohammedans was
proclaimed. By this law the Jews had to pay a poll-tax, and were exempt
from military service. In spite of certain disabilities, they enjoyed a
relative state of freedom, and, as the literature of the period proves,
greeted the rise of Islam as a relief from the oppression they had
suffered in Christian countries and in Persia. They also looked upon
Islam as the first step toward the realization of the Messianic kingdom.
The improvement of their condition was especially manifest in Spain,
which was conquered by the Mohammedans in 711.
GERMANIC NATIONS
Beginning with the fourth century, various Germanic tribes settled on the
soil of the old Roman Empire, and began to establish independent kingdoms
in the fifth century within its limits, until in 476 the last Emperor,
who was a ruler in name only, was deposed. In Italy, where Theodoric
had founded the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in 493, the Jews were fairly
treated, although Theodoric, a fanatical Christian, considered the Jews
an undesirable element. He would, however, allow no injustice to be
done them, and when a mob in Ravenna destroyed a synagogue in 519, he
ordered the city to make restitution; for this he was severely censured
by Ambrosius, the Bishop of Milan. The Jews held the rule of the Goths to
be preferable to that of the Byzantines, and in the war between these two
powers, which ended with the overthrow of the Gothic kingdom (555) they
aided the former, and their bravery in defending the city of Naples was
highly praised by Greek historians.
After a short period of domination by the Byzantines, the Longobards,
another German tribe, conquered Italy in 568. They do not seem to have
taken any interest in the Jews, as their government was restricted to
members of their own nationality. The Jews, as Roman citizens, were
under the authority of the Roman government, which, as the Byzantines
could not exercise any authority, was left almost entirely in the hands
of the Bishop of Rome, the highest local dignitary. From the records of
this period, we possess information as to the attitude of Pope Gregory
I (590-604), in dealing with Jewish affairs. While naturally not in
sympathy with the Jews, he insisted that they be treated fairly. Thus, he
ordered that a cross, which a Jewish convert to Christianity had placed
in a synagogue to spite the Jews, be removed, and when a synagogue had
been converted into a church, he ordered an indemnity paid to its former
owners. But he very often censured the Frankish kings for allowing the
Jews to hold public offices and to keep Christian slaves.
FRANCE
The Merovingian kings who conquered Ancient Gaul in 496 were the first of
the Germanic rulers to adopt the Roman Catholic religion. All the others
were Arians. In the sixth century they treated the Jews kindly; we hear
of a Jew named Priscus, a favorite of King Hilperic (561-584), whom that
king loved so well that he wished him converted to Christianity. On one
occasion Priscus discussed religious problems very freely in the presence
of the King, with Bishop Gregory of Tours, and criticized Christian
dogmas fearlessly. In spite of the representations of Pope Gregory I, the
Frankish kings entrusted the Jews with offices, such as tax collector,
and allowed them to deal in Christian slaves. Church councils, however,
as early as the fifth century, legislated against social intercourse
between Christians and Jews.
SPAIN
The Visigoths, who ruled over Spain, treated the Jews worse than any
other nation at that time. All the mediæval disabilities, such as the
seclusion of the Jews in certain quarters and the restriction of their
worship, had their origin in that country. Frequently we hear of a law
prohibiting the holding of Christian slaves by Jews. Repeatedly Jews
were converted by force, and occasionally whole communities expelled.
Bishop Isidore of Seville (560-630) wrote a book entitled “Against the
Jews,” which was widely read and translated into different languages.
His example was imitated in later times. In the Frankish kingdom,
Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons (814-840), wrote five books on the Jews,
the titles of which show his animus: “On the Insolence of the Jews,”
“On the Necessity of Guarding Against Having Company with Jews,” etc.
He opposed the law which prohibited the baptism of heathenish slaves
owned by Jews and agitated for their social seclusion. Similar was the
literary activity of Amolo, Archbishop of Lyons (841-852), who wrote a
book against the Jews and dedicated it to Emperor Charles III.
Charlemagne (768-814) is reported to have called Kalonymus of Lucca to
Mayence as chief rabbi of all the Jews of Germany; but this report is
legendary. Equally unauthentic are laws ascribed to Charlemagne, among
them the one imposing upon the Jews an ignominious form of oath. A law
of Charlemagne’s son Louis (814-840), required the markets to be held on
Sundays in order to make it possible for the Jews to attend them.
The Jews in those days were chiefly traders, importers of merchandise
from foreign lands, and slave dealers, and acted as the pioneers of
commerce in the countries of Western and Northern Europe.
LITERARY ACTIVITY OF THE PERIOD
The improvement in the condition of the Jews of Spain, which began with
the Arabic conquest of that country in 711, made itself felt in their
literary activity. Especially was this the case in the Caliphate of
Cordova, under Abderrahman (912-961). At his court, Hasdai ibn Shaprut
rose to prominence, and, like the Mohammedan nobles of the time, gathered
around him a number of eminent authors and scholars. Among them were
Menahem ben Saruk and Dunash ibn Labrat, who first laid the foundation
for a scientific Hebrew grammar. Their disciples were Judah Hayug and
Mervan ibn Ganah, called Marinus. The center of Jewish learning still
remained in Babylonia, where, after the conquest of the Persians by the
Mohammedans, a revival of learning took place.
The two principal schools were those of Sura and Pumbeditha, and at
the head of each was a president, ריש מתיבתא. The one at Sura was
the higher in rank, and was called Gaon (excellency), a title which
later was transferred to the president of the school in Pumbeditha. The
function of the Gaon was to preside over the regular course of studies,
Sidra, and the popular extension course called Kalla, held twice a year
in the months preceding the Passover and the fall festivals. He further
rendered decisions in important cases submitted to him from all parts of
the world. A number of collections of these decisions called Teshubot
(Responsa), have come down to us. They are written partly in Aramaic and
partly in Arabic, according to the language in which the question was
written.
The Gaon licensed rabbis, or judges, as they were called, because their
chief function was to act as judges in civil cases. These licenses
were endorsed by the Exilarch, Resh Galutha, the political head of the
communities in Babylonia, representing them before the government and
appointing the Gaon. The former, in turn, was appointed by the Caliph,
and his office was hereditary as a rule. The oldest literary works of the
period are collections of laws regarding matters of frequent occurrence,
such as liturgy, mourning, the reception of proselytes, etc. They are
known as the “Small Tractates,” and are usually found in the ninth volume
of our editions of the Talmud.
Other compendia of the law are the Halakot Gedolot by Simeon Kayara,
written in the eighth century, and the Sheeltot of Ahai of Shabha, the
latter arranged according to the Pentateuch, and containing some moral
lessons besides the legal exposition of the text. The compilation of
these works was opposed by the Gaonim, who considered them injurious to
the study of the law and detrimental to their own authority.
In the ninth century the first Talmudic dictionary ערוך was written
by Zemah Gaon. His work has not come down to us, but most of it was
incorporated in the Talmudic dictionary of the same name, written by
Nathan of Rome in the eleventh century. The title has also been retained
by subsequent compilers of Talmudic dictionaries, including the Aruch
Completum, edited by Alexander Kohut (1878-1892). At the same time
Amram Gaon compiled the first liturgy, Seder Rab Amram, and thus is the
originator of our present prayer-book. The form in which this compilation
has come down to us is not as the original left the hands of its editor,
for quite a number of later texts are found in it and its order of
services is not exactly identical with any of the rituals in use at
present. Still, it is the groundwork of the liturgy of Judaism to-day all
over the world.
From the same period dates, probably, the first Kabalistic book which
we possess, the “Sefer Yezirah” (Book of Creation). It may be called a
theosophical treatise, written in the language and form of the Mishnah,
and based on the philosophy of the Pythagorean and Alexandrian schools.
Its subject-matter naturally makes it obscure; from the tenth century at
least it has been commented upon. Legend has ascribed its authorship to
Rabbi Akiba, and even to Biblical persons such as Abraham.
In the ninth century we meet the first traces of a scientific literature.
Prominent here is Saadya Gaon (892-942), born in Fayum, and called to
Sura as Gaon, quite an unusual event. His literary activity extends
over the whole field of Jewish literature. He wrote commentaries on the
Bible besides an Arabic translation, and on Talmudic topics. He also
composed religious hymns, but the most important of all his works is his
אמונות ודעות (Dogma and Science), the first attempt at a scientific
apology for Judaism from a philosophical point of view. His independence
brought him into conflict with the Exilarch David ben Zakkai, to whose
dictates he would not submit in a matter which he regarded as unjust;
consequently he was deposed. Saadya contended that this act was illegal
and excommunicated the Exilarch. The latter proved stronger and Saadya
was forced into exile. Later on, however, they became reconciled, and
Saadya was reinstated (934).
The last two Gaonim of any importance lived in Pumbeditha. They were
Sherira, who died in 999, and his son, Hay Gaon, who died in 1038.
From the former we possess a very important historical treatise on the
development of Rabbinic law known as the epistle of Sherira Gaon. It
was written at the request of a man in Morocco, and was inspired by
apologetic motives to prove that the law had been handed down unaltered
from generation to generation. From Hay Gaon we have various Talmudic
works, many responsa, and a didactic poem. Their contemporary was
Samuel ibn Hofni, a rationalistic writer, who rejected the belief in
the miracles related in the Talmud. Otherwise the age of the Gaonim
is characterized by a blind faith, not only in Bible and Talmud, but
also in popular superstitions and in the preservation of superstitious
customs. Hay was succeeded by Hezekiah, who after holding his office for
two years was put to death by the Caliph in 1040. After this time the
office lost all significance. Names of a few of those who held office
after this time are found, but nothing is known of their activity, nor
has any literary work of this age come down to us.
The blind faith which characterized the period of the Gaonim aroused
considerable opposition, culminating in the foundation of a religious
sect called the Karaites, בני מקרא “Sons of the Bible.” Their founder
was Anan ben David (760) who claimed the Bible as the only authority
for faith and practice, and therefore rejected all Rabbinic law. His
successors founded a congregation in Jerusalem, and very soon spread
in the East. The most prominent teachers of the Karaites are Benjamin
of Nehawend, and Salman ben Jeroham, the latter of whom carried on a
literary controversy with Saadya. Judah Hadassi, in the thirteenth
century wrote אשכל הכפר the standard work of the Karaite law, written
in rhymed prose. Other important Karaite scholars are Aaron ben Elijah,
who died in 1369, the author of גן עדן, a compendium of the religious
law, and עץ חיים, a work on religious philosophy.
In the fifteenth century Elijah Bashjazi wrote another compendium of
the Karaite religion entitled אדרת אליהו. By this period a large
Karaite community settled in Lithuania, where Isaac of Troki wrote a very
able polemical treatise directed against Christianity, known as חזוק
אמונה. In 1698, Jacob Trigland, professor at Leyden, made inquiries
concerning the Karaites by means of a letter addressed to their chief
sent through an ambassador to Poland. He received a reply, דודמרדכי,
written by Mordecai ben Nissim. This was, for a long time, the only
source of information on the history of the Karaites. The last Karaite
author of any consequence was Abraham Firkovitch (1787-1874) of Russia,
who discovered and published important Karaite documents. Some of these,
however, he forged in the interest of the Karaite claim that the Karaites
represent the original Judaism from which the Rabbanites seceded.
At the same time that the Karaite schism occurred, the Chazars, a Tartar
tribe, were converted to Judaism. Reports of the existence of a Jewish
kingdom had reached the Jews of Western Europe. Hasdai ibn Shaprut
wrote a letter of inquiry on this. He received a reply from the King of
the Chazars, and these two letters are the chief source of information
concerning this remarkable event. Toward the end of the tenth century
the kingdom of the Chazars was conquered by the Russians. Judah Halevi,
who wrote his Kuzari about 1140, used the story of the conversion of the
Chazar King in the form of a philosophic dialogue between him and the
rabbi who converted him. The knowledge he had of an independent Jewish
state was the basis of the fanciful reports circulated by an adventurer
who called himself Eldad Hadani and pretended to be a descendant of one
of the lost ten tribes. Their habitation and modes of life he described
in a book. He appeared in the tenth century in Morocco, but nothing is
known as to what finally became of him.
In the ninth century, the literature of religious hymns, Piyut, begins.
The authors of these are called Payetanim (poets). Their works are
characterized by arbitrary handling of the Hebrew grammar, by the
creation of new words in an arbitrary style, and finally, by obscure
allusions to the Midrash. The oldest of these poets are Jose ben Jose and
Jannai. Their successor, Eleazar ben Kallir, is the most prolific of all.
Of his life we know nothing with certainty.
The literary activity of the Jews of Europe began in the ninth century.
The first work is probably the Josippon, a history of the Jews from the
destruction of Babylon by Cyrus to the downfall of Jerusalem in 70, which
was ascribed to Josephus Flavius. Another anonymous writer, who lived in
Italy in the ninth century, is the author of the Midrash, called Pirke
Rabbi Eliezer. But the first Jewish author who lived in Europe, known by
name, is Sabbatai Donolo (913-982), who wrote on medicine, astrology, and
Kabbala.
CHAPTER V
THE JEWS OF EUROPE (1040-1215)
The first mention of Jews in Germany is found in two orders of Emperor
Constantine (321), in which he regulated the condition of the Jews
of Cologne. It is possible that this settlement was of a temporary
character, for nothing is heard of the Jews in Germany until the
tenth century. A statement to the effect that Charlemagne called
Rabbi Kalonymus of Lucca in Italy to be Chief Rabbi of all the Jews
of Germany is first reported in the sixteenth century, and is in all
likelihood legendary. Under Charlemagne the Jews appear in Germany only
as travelling traders. In 1016, however, there was already a bloody
persecution of the Jews in Mayence. Gershom ben Judah, a native of
France, was rabbi in Mayence. He occupied so prominent a position that
he was called מאור הגולה (light of the exile). He wrote commentaries
on various parts of the Talmud, responsa, other Talmudic works, and
liturgical poetry. He died in 1028. To him are ascribed various rules,
among them a prohibition of polygamy and an injunction to respect the
secrecy of letters. At the same time there lived in Mayence Simeon bar
Isaac, the liturgical poet, whose hymns are found in the ritual of the
German Jews for the second day of Rosh Hashana.
In 1090 Emperor Henry IV granted charters to the Jews of Worms and
Speyer. These are the oldest laws regulating the status of the Jews in
Germany, granting to them freedom of trade and travel, proclaiming the
inviolability of their cemeteries, and prohibiting the kidnapping and
baptism of their children. Six years later the first crusade broke out,
and the mobs composing the army of the crusaders on the Rhine invaded the
Jewish settlements, chiefly Cologne, Mayence, Speyer and Worms, in that
part of the country. Houses were sacked, synagogues desecrated, and many
Jews cruelly murdered; others committed suicide after killing their own
children in order to save them from forced conversions. A number of Jews
who had been converted to Christianity, in order to save their lives,
later on returned to Judaism in spite of the ecclesiastic law which put
this under the penalty of death. The Emperor, who at that time was in
Italy, sanctioned this in spite of the protests of the Pope.
Another persecution broke out in 1146, when the second crusade began.
But the consequences were not as serious as those of the first crusade.
Bernard of Clairvaux strongly condemned all acts of violence toward the
Jews, who found refuge in the castles of the lords, and the Bishop of
Speyer opened his castle, the Wolkenburg, to them, protecting them from
the attacks of the mob. Still, in Wuerzburg, quite a number were killed,
under the charge of having murdered a Christian. This may be considered
the first blood-accusation on the European continent, although no
particular motive for the crime was given. There is, however, a case on
record in England in 1144, where the Jews were accused of having murdered
a boy, William of Norwich, and nailed him to a cross in order to mock the
crucifixion of Jesus.
During the course of the twelfth century, local outbreaks of mob violence
occurred everywhere in Europe, notably at Blois, France, in 1171, where
thirty-four Jews were burned at the stake. In 1189, on the occasion of
the coronation of King Richard Cœur de Lion, a bloody persecution took
place in London, and soon spread over the other cities of the kingdom.
Notable is the case of Benedict of York, who, in order to save his life,
turned to Christianity and returned to Judaism on the next day. Both King
Richard and the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted this, although it was
against the canonical law.
The climax of the ill-treatment of the Jews was reached in 1215, when
the Lateran Council, presided over by Pope Innocent III, passed various
laws repeating the usual prohibition against office-holding by Jews, and
decreeing that they should wear a distinct mark on their outer garments.
This is the origin of the Yellow Badge, which in some countries continued
to be in force until the end of the eighteenth century. The Pope stated
that the Jews should be like Cain, singled out for their wickedness, and
that their treatment should be an object lesson to Christians.
SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD
The spiritual life of the Jews reached its highest development in Spain,
where the contact with the cultured Arabs, whose language the Jews
spoke, made the works of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientists
accessible to them. In the beginning of the eleventh century Bahya ibn
Pakuda, a philosopher, wrote “The Duties of the Heart,” perhaps the most
popular work of this literature. His ideal of life is asceticism. His
contemporary, Solomon ibn Gabirol (born 1022), wrote a philosophical
book, “The Fountain of Life,” which, however, is only extant in a Latin
translation. He also wrote an ethical treatise, “The Choicest of Pearls,”
and some Hebrew poetry. His poems, of which quite a number have found
place in the liturgy, are among the best works of their class. Of his
secular poems in Hebrew, a wine song is the most famous. About the same
time Samuel Hanagid was secretary to the King of Granada. He was not
only a patron of Jewish learning but an author of considerable note. He
wrote an introduction to the Talmud, and various works which are sequels
to Biblical books, such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. His son,
Joseph, succeeded him, and was killed in a riot in 1060.
The greatest Hebrew poet of mediæval times is Judah Halevi (born about
1080, died 1141). Of his numerous poems, some are of a religious, others
of a secular character. Of the latter the best known is a description of
a sea voyage; of the former, the Ode to Zion, embodied in the ritual for
the ninth of Ab and translated into various modern languages. He also
wrote an apology for Judaism, called Kuzari, previously mentioned, which
presents its doctrines in the form of dialogues between the King of the
Chazars and the rabbi who converted him. In 1140 he went to Palestine to
spend the remainder of his days there. He seems to have died before he
reached his goal. A younger contemporary is Abraham ibn Ezra (1092-1167).
He was born in Spain, and travelled through a great part of Europe and
the Orient. Of his numerous works, comprising the fields of poetry,
Hebrew grammar, astrology, and other subjects, the most noteworthy is
his commentary on the Pentateuch, which makes him rank as the first
Biblical critic. He proved by his strong critical arguments that the
Pentateuch as we possess it does not come from Moses but was partly
the product of later times. His contemporary is Moses ibn Ezra, a very
prolific Hebrew poet, whose poems, however, suffer from an excessive play
on words. It is not known whether the two Ibn Ezras were relatives.
The most illustrious author of mediæval times is Moses ben Maimon
(Maimonides, born at Cordova, 1135; died at Cairo, 1204). His first work
was a commentary on the Mishnah, written in Arabic, and translated into
Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon. This work was a preparation for the greatest
work of his life, the “Mishneh Torah,” in which he presents the whole
doctrine and law of Judaism. It is written in clear Hebrew, and, while
in the law following the Rabbinic sources, it shows here and there,
especially in the dogmatic part, the author’s object to harmonize Judaism
with philosophical thought. He is the author of a philosophic work, “The
Guide of the Perplexed,” written in Arabic and known by its Hebrew title,
Moreh Nebukim. His object of harmonizing religion with philosophy is
made manifest in the first part of this work by his attempt to explain
the anthropomorphic passages of the Bible. He also explains prophecy as
a divine gift and tries to present reasons for the divine laws, showing
that they are intended for the instruction and the material and moral
elevation of mankind. The book was translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn
Tibbon in the twelfth century, and by Judah Alcharizi in the thirteenth.
It was at an early date translated into Latin, and in recent times into
various modern languages. Maimonides in addition wrote quite a number of
works on scientific subjects, notably on medicine, and various Rabbinic
works. He was physician in ordinary to the Sultan.
Of the Talmudists of this period, the greatest is Solomon ben Isaac
(Rashi) of Troyes (1040-1105). He wrote a commentary on almost the whole
Babylonian Talmud printed in all Talmuds, and a standard work to-day.
He is the author of commentaries on most of the Biblical books. His
commentary on the Pentateuch contains in clear and concise language the
Rabbinic interpretation of the Mosaic law and well-chosen homiletical
interpretations from the Midrash, and is one of the most popular works
in the Rabbinic literature. It has been printed with the text of the
Pentateuch innumerable times, and is a very popular text-book in Jewish
study circles all over the world. Rashi wrote other Rabbinic works and
religious hymns. The most prominent Rabbinic author of this period in
Spain was Isaac Alfasi (born in Fez, 1013; died in Spain, 1103). He wrote
an abridged Talmud, omitting all discussions of matters not of legal
interest and all the laws not in force after the destruction of the
Temple. By this method he facilitated the rendering of legal decisions.
In Italy there lived at this time Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome, who wrote a
Talmud dictionary “Aruk,” using the work of the same title by Zemach Gaon.
Rashi’s grandsons, Samuel, Isaac and Jacob ben Meir were also
prominent Talmudic authors. Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam) wrote several
Talmudic treatises, supplements to his grandfather’s commentaries,
and a commentary on the Pentateuch somewhat more free from the blind,
unrestricted submission to Rabbinic authority which characterizes his
grandfather’s work. The greatest Talmudist among the brothers was Jacob
ben Meir (Rabbenu Tam, died 1171), whose chief work is “Sefer Hayashar,”
in which he proclaims the principle that the contradictions in the Talmud
must be harmonized. These men are the founders of a school of authors
known as Tosafists, from “Tosafot” (Additions), glosses to Rashi’s
Talmud commentary. These glosses are printed in most of our editions of
the Talmud. Through the activities of these men the French province of
Champagne and Western Germany became the chief seats of Rabbinic studies.
CHAPTER VI
PERIOD OF OPPRESSION (1215-1492)
During the thirteenth century the persecutions of the Jews continued,
although they are of a more sporadic character than those of the time of
the crusades. In 1235 a number of Jews were killed in Fulda on the charge
of ritual murder. This is the first distinct case of its kind, but was
frequently repeated in France and various places in Germany, although
Emperor Frederick II (1236) and Pope Innocent IV (1247) defended the Jews
against this accusation.
An important change in the political condition of the Jews resulted from
the law of Frederick the Belligerent of Austria (1244). In this law the
territorial ruler for the first time proclaimed his right to legislate
for the Jews, heretofore considered the exclusive privilege of the
Emperor of Germany, as overlord of all the Jews. This law deals largely
with the regulation of money-lending. It permits a very high rate of
interest, and allows the Jews to be tried in accordance with their own
laws. It prohibits all violence toward the persons and properties of the
Jews, their synagogues and cemeteries, and forbids the forcible baptism
of Jewish children. It became the prototype for all similar mediæval
legislation, and was repeated almost verbatim in subsequent laws issued
by the kings of Bohemia, Hungary, the Dukes of Saxony and Silesia, and
others during the thirteenth century.
In England, the Jews were constantly being blackmailed by King John
(1199-1216) and by King Henry III (1216-1272). The most notable and
typical instance of the extortion of money from the Jews, is that
reported of King John, who imprisoned a Jew and ordered that one of his
teeth should be drawn every day until he agreed to pay the sum demanded
of him. The heavy taxes laid upon the Jews forced them to charge higher
rates of interest, thus embittering the people against them, and making
them so miserable that they asked to be permitted to emigrate. Finally
Edward I, in 1290, ordered the expulsion of all the Jews from England.
They were permitted to take their property with them, and a sea captain,
who put the Jewish exiles aboard his vessel on a sand bar where they were
drowned by the high tide, was put to death.
In France the vassals possessed power independent of the crown. There the
Jews were expelled from the territory of the king and recalled several
times during the fourteenth century. At each expulsion they were robbed,
so that an assembly of Jewish notables proposed to declare it unlawful,
under penalty of excommunication, for any Jew to settle in territory from
which the Jews had been previously expelled. Judah Hechasid, author of a
book on religious ethics, however, condemned this resolution because it
would not be effective and merely cause the Jews to transgress the law.
A very serious persecution broke out in Franconia, in 1298, the Jews
being accused of desecrating the host in Roettingen. This is the first
case of this kind, often repeated up to the sixteenth century. The
leader of the mob was a man named Rindfleisch. Another bloody persecution
broke out in Alsace, in 1336, under the leadership of an innkeeper, John
Armleder, so-called because he fastened to his arm a patch of leather
which was imitated by all his followers. These riots were finally
suppressed after having brought great misery upon the Jews, but the
evil-doers were not punished.
The most serious persecutions broke out in 1348-1349, during the
so-called Black Plague which spread all over Europe. As a reason for
these attacks the rumor was circulated that the Jews had poisoned the
wells or had smeared some poisonous salve on the doors. In many cases
the Jews were killed and their houses sacked. The protection of the
Emperor availed them nothing; even if the Emperor threatened a city with
punishment for breach of the peace, the affair was usually compromised
by allowing the city to retain part of the plunder taken from the Jews,
the Emperor taking the rest. The Flagellants, who appeared at about this
time, by their religious fanaticism also stimulated the hatred against
the Jews.
Other annoyances were frequent. On the basis of the view that the Jews
were chattels of the king, various rulers occasionally declared void the
bonds held by the Jews. The most typical instance is that of Wenzel,
King of Bohemia and German Emperor, who in 1385 annulled all the bonds
held by Jews and accepted from the debtors a fraction of their debts in
settlement.
During the fifteenth century frequent expulsions took place. The cities,
originally small settlements where the Jews were the merchants and
bankers, had grown in size and importance, and the citizens were jealous
of their successful Jewish competitors. Such expulsions were often
ordered under the excitement aroused by some false accusation. Thus, in
1421, the Jews of Vienna were accused of having desecrated the host, and
a number of them were publicly burned at the stake, all the others being
expelled from the city and the entire province. Such expulsions took
place in 1426 at Cologne, the oldest Jewish settlement in Germany, in
1440, at Wittenberg, and in 1475 at Bamberg.
The religious troubles of this period contributed to turn the people
against the Jews. The Hussites were then a great menace to the Church,
and John Capistrano, an Italian monk, preached against them in various
places in the kingdom of Bohemia. Everywhere he set the mob against
the Jews, and occasionally as at Breslau in 1453, he tried them on the
charge of ritual murder. A number of Jews were burned at the stake, and
many others expelled. From other cities of that kingdom, as Bruenn and
Olmuetz, the Jews were expelled.
Another Catholic revivalist, Bernardin of Feltre, appeared in Trent,
where he arranged a ritual murder trial. The body of a boy named Simon
was found, and the Jews were accused of having murdered him (1475). Again
a number of Jews were cruelly put to death and the remainder expelled
in spite of the fact that the Doge of Venice exonerated them from the
charge, and that the Pope declared the accusation to be baseless. Simon
was considered a martyr and later on made a saint. A similar charge was
brought against the Jews of Ratisbon, but they succeeded in proving
their innocence. The expulsions continued. In 1499 the Jews were expelled
from Nuremberg and Ulm, in 1493 from Magdeburg, in 1496 from the province
of Styria, and somewhat later from Ratisbon and Saxony. The exiles sought
refuge in villages and little towns under the rule of the nobles, or
emigrated to Poland, where, toward the end of the fifteenth century,
there was already a considerable Jewish settlement. This soon became in
numbers the most important in Europe.
FRANCE
Under Louis IX (1226-1270), a religious fanatic, the Jews were
treated badly. In 1236 a mob of crusaders attacked them, and wrought
great suffering among them. In 1240 Nicholas Donin, a converted Jew,
brought charges against the Talmud as containing statements which were
blasphemous to the Christian religion. Consequently all copies that could
be found were seized and in cart-loads were publicly burnt at Paris in
1244. In 1254 the King decreed the expulsion of all the Jews from France,
but the decree was repealed under Philip IV (1288-1314). All the Jews
found in the kingdom were imprisoned and their property confiscated under
Philip’s successor, Louis X.
They were recalled in 1315, but under Philip V suffered greatly from
a fanatical mob, known as Shepherd Crusaders. After many vicissitudes
their final expulsion was decreed in 1394. Only in the south of France,
where the feudal barons still had sovereign rights, and in the Papal
possessions at Carpentras and Avignon, a few isolated Jewish communities,
with a ritual of their own, remained. Most of the Jews exiled from
France went to the adjoining German territories of Alsace and Lorraine,
and when these territories were annexed to France in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, the Jews were permitted to remain there. But they
were not allowed to settle in France proper until 1791.
SPAIN
The Christian kingdoms in the latter part of the Middle Ages continually
expanded, so that the Moors were restricted to the southern part of the
peninsula. The growing religious fanaticism of the Christians affected
the condition of the Jews unfavorably, but individuals rose to prominence
as financiers or physicians. James VIII of Aragon ordered a public
disputation between Jews and Christians held at Barcelona in 1263. The
Jewish side was defended by Moses ben Nachman, and, although he had been
assured perfect freedom of speech, the Christians took such offence at
his remarks that they demanded his execution. The King sent him instead
into exile. He went to Palestine, where he died. Alphonso X (1254-1284),
of Castile, employed Don Isaac, a Jew, as his astronomer. Alphonso’s
constitution, regulating the condition of the Jews, is rather severe.
They were restricted in their commercial activity and compelled to wear
yellow badges.
In a civil war between Peter the Cruel (1350-1369) and Henry II
(1369-1379) the Jews sided with the former, and although Henry was
victorious he treated them with moderation. In 1391 Ferdinand Martinez
began to preach violent sermons against the Jews in Toledo, the largest
Jewish community of Spain. His example was followed in many other
places, and in consequence of these incendiary speeches, riots broke
out all over Christian Spain. A great many Jews were killed or forcibly
converted to Christianity. Many of the latter fled as soon as they were
able to do so to Mohammedan countries in order to be able to practice
the Jewish religion openly. They were called Marannos, probably from
the Hebrew מוחרם (excommunicated). The Jews called them אנוסים
(compelled to profess the Christian religion).
In 1413-1414 another public disputation between Jews and Christians was
arranged by Pope Benedict XIII, one of the three who claimed the Papal
throne at that time. It took place in Tortosa, Aragon. The idea had been
suggested to the Pope by Solomon Halevi, a converted Jew who called
himself Paul and later on became Bishop of Burgos. He was an influential
friend of the King of Castile. Another convert, a Jewish scholar like
Paul, had written a satire against Paul and his conversion. This was
Joshua Alorqui, who as a Christian took the name of Geronimo de Santa Fe,
and was derisively called by the Jews מגד״ף, “Blasphemer.”
Among those who took up the cudgels for the Jews at Tortosa was Joseph
Albo, author of the philosophic work “Ikkarim.” The many converts whom
the Church forced to remain in her fold while they were Jews at heart
and secretly practiced Judaism, provoked the ecclesiastic authorities.
For their sake a special court of inquiry, called the “Inquisition,” was
created in 1480. This may be defined as a court-martial to try cases of
heresy. It proceeded with the utmost severity and with absolute disregard
of the most elementary forms of court procedure. From time to time it
arranged public executions, at which those convicted of heresy were
burned at the stake, often after having undergone terrible tortures. Such
an execution was called an auto-da-fe.
In 1483 Thomas Torquemada was appointed Grand Inquisitor, and he was
assisted by the blind monk, Peter Arbues. During the time of the
existence of the Inquisition (1480-1808), 31,712 were burned at the stake
and hundreds of thousands were punished with imprisonment, confiscation
of property, or were publicly disgraced. One of the latter kinds of
punishment was the sentence compelling the victim to wear a hideous
penitential gown, the San Benito. Peter Arbues was assassinated by
Marannos, and Pope Pius IX declared him a saint in 1868. The victims of
the Inquisition were mostly converted Jews, although there were also
Moors and native Christians among them. In spite of the terrors of
the Inquisition, the Jews assisted the Marannos in the observance of
the Jewish religion, and this was the cause of the edict of expulsion
promulgated by Ferdinand, King of Castile, and his wife Isabella, Queen
of Aragon, on March 30, 1492, soon after the capture of Granada, the last
Moorish stronghold in Spain.
Most of the exiled fled to Portugal, where they found a temporary home.
But when Manuel, King of Portugal, married the daughter of Ferdinand
and Isabella, it was stipulated in the marriage contract that the Jews
should be expelled from that country also. This expulsion took place in
1498. Most of the exiles went to Turkey, where they were kindly received.
Others went to the Barbary States in Northern Africa, and especially to
Morocco. A number went to Italy and settled in the various cities, even
in the Papal possessions. Still there were a great many Marannos left in
Spain, and while they were compelled to profess and practice the Catholic
religion, they remained Jews for many generations. Hence up to the end
of the eighteenth century, they were always autos-da-fe held at which
Jews were publicly burned. From time to time the wealthy Marannos would
escape and seek refuge in countries where they were permitted to publicly
practice their religion.
ITALY
Italy was split up into many petty states whose boundary lines were
constantly shifting. The treatment of the Jews varied in its details
according to time and locality but is the same in general throughout
mediæval times. It was characterized by restriction of economic liberty
and humiliation in social position. The Jews produced quite a number
of eminent scholars, physicians (sometimes attending on the Popes),
astronomers and translators of Arabic works into Latin. Their economic
activity was largely confined to money-lending and, in the fourteenth
century, they became the pioneers of banking by combining the pawn-shops
in a certain city into companies which were given the exclusive privilege
of money-lending.
In the fifteenth century clerical agitation became very strong, and
loan associations were formed under priestly management to suppress
money-lending by Jews. One of the most notable agitators in this respect
was Bernardin of Feltre, who is known through his participation in the
ritual murder trial at Trent (1475). Italy became a force in Jewish
culture by the establishment of the first Hebrew printing presses.
The first book printed seems to have been published in 1474. One of
the earliest printed books was the “Psalms” with the commentary of
David Kimhi, 1475. The edict of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain
affected also those of Sicily and southern Italy, at that time Spanish
dependencies. Since that period there has existed no Jewish community in
that part of Italy.
HUNGARY
In Hungary the Jews settled at a very early date. They were tax-farmers
and financiers. Our first documentary evidence goes back to 1251, when
King Bela IV granted them a charter, essentially a reproduction of that
granted by the Duke of Austria in 1244. Under Louis (1342-1382) they were
given the alternative of expulsion or conversion to Christianity. During
the fifteenth century the Jews suffered from persecution and expulsion.
POLAND
In Poland the Jews appear in the thirteenth century as a small community
without any intellectual life. In 1264 they obtained their first charter,
this being confirmed by Casimir the Great (1333-1370). It is also a
reproduction of the Austrian law of 1244. When Capistrano appeared (1450)
in Poland the Jews suffered from mob attacks but fared not as badly
as those of Bohemia. The persecution of the Jews in Western Europe,
beginning with the crusades, drove many of them to emigrate to the large
and thinly settled kingdom of Poland. Hence toward the close of the
fifteenth century, Poland was the center of Rabbinic learning and has
to-day proportionately the largest Jewish population in the world.
THE EAST
In 1187 Saladin reconquered Jerusalem. From that time Jews began to
emigrate to Palestine and Egypt. The persecution of the Jews through the
Inquisition and their expulsion from Spain drove many to Morocco and
Algeria. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 brought
many Jews to the Balkans, and the number of the immigrants was so large
that their dialect, Ladino, became the universal language of the Jews of
the East, just as in Poland and Hungary the immigrants from Germany made
Yiddish predominant.
JEWISH LITERATURE, THIRTEENTH TO FIFTEENTH CENTURY
From the thirteenth century the spiritual life of the Jews declined.
Talmudic literature, ritualism and Kabbala were almost exclusively
cultivated. Poetry, exegesis, philosophy and scientific literature were
constantly declining. The most prominent representative of Maimonides’
tradition is David Kimhi of Narbonne, 1170-1230. He wrote a Hebrew
Grammar, מכלול, and commentaries to most of the Biblical books. He
also took an active part in the defense of Maimonides’ works when the
orthodox of Spain and France, influenced by the zeal of the Dominican
Friars in their attack on the Albigenses and the scholastic philosophy,
wished to commit the “Moreh” to the flames. Besides Kimhi two members
of his family are noted for grammatical and exegetical works. These
are his father Joseph and his brother Moses. To Southern France belongs
also the family of Ibn Tibbon, four generations of which were prominent
translators of philosophical, Rabbinic and scientific books from Arabic
into Hebrew.
Judah the Elder (1100-1150) translated Bahya’s “Duties of the Heart,”
Saadya’s “Dogma and Science,” and Judah Halevi’s “Kuzari.” His son
Solomon translated Maimonides’ “Moreh” and the commentary on the Mishna.
But the orthodox party prevailed in their opposition to Maimonides, and
in 1233 the “Moreh” was publicly burned at Paris. The Dominicans, who
had been appealed to, extended their inquisitory activities, and on the
testimony of Nicholas Donin, a converted Jew, charged the Talmud with
hostility to the Christians. All copies of the book that could be found
were burned at Paris in 1244. In spite of these attacks philosophical
studies did not die out completely. In the fourteenth century Levi ben
Gershom (1288-1344) flourished in Southern France. His philosophical
work, “The Wars of the Lord,” is an attempt to reconcile Judaism with
Platonic philosophy. He also invented an astronomic instrument in which
the great astronomer Kepler was much interested.
To the fourteenth century belongs Hasdai Crescas, whose commentary to
Maimonides’ “Moreh” and philosophical treatise, “The Light of the Lord,”
have great scientific value. Of little independent value is the work
“Ikkarim” (Fundamental Principles), by Joseph Albo (1380-1440). He is an
imitator of Maimonides; but, instead of thirteen fundamental articles of
faith, he recognized only three—God, revelation and the future life.
To the school of the preachers belongs Isaac Arama, whose work, “Akedat
Yizhak,” is a philosophical interpretation of the Midrash, and follows
the weekly portions of the Haggadic writers.
Isaac Abarbanel, born in Lisbon, 1447, died in Venice, 1508, wrote
various dogmatic treatises in which, as in his commentaries on the
Pentateuch, he outlined his views. He showed little independence,
sometimes plagiarized, and is very verbose. He put together a great
number of questions on some topic in Biblical literature, and attempted
to answer them. From this time philosophy and scientific literature are
on the decline. The intellectual activity of the Jews is confined mostly
to Rabbinic literature.
Secular subjects are rarely taken up until the end of the eighteenth
century. Then a revival of secular knowledge and scientific literature
took place. Of the scientific writers Jacob Anatoli, 1200-1250, in Italy,
translated serious scientific works from Arabic and Hebrew into Latin
for Frederick II. Kalonymos ben Kalonymos of Rome, 1280-1340, wrote an
ethical treatise, “Eben Bohan” (Tried Stone from Isaiah xxviii, 16), and
a travesty on the Talmud, “Masseket Purim.” To the same period belong
Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome, a friend of Dante, author of “Mehabberot,”
a poem in the style of the “Divina Commedia.” This in some places is
lascivious, and was condemned by Joseph Caro in the “Shulhan Aruk.” In
the style of Dante, Moses Rieti (1388-1460) wrote his “Mikdash Meat.”
To the fifteenth century belong Judah Messer Leon of Mantua, who wrote
a text-book on rhetoric in Hebrew, Nofet Zufim (honeycombs), and Elijah
del Medigo, a native of Crete, who was professor of philosophy in Padua.
He wrote an apology for Judaism in Hebrew, “Behinat Ha-Dat” (Evidenced
Religion). In this class the polemical writers against Christianity are
included. Joshua Allorqui of Spain, who later on became a convert to
Christianity, wrote such a polemical treatise under the title “Be not
like thy fathers.” In scientific literature we have the anthology of the
Midrashim called “Yalkut Shimeoni,” by Simeon Kara (the Bible reader) of
the thirteenth century. This is a selection of homiletical expositions
from old Rabbinic works arranged in the order of the books of the Bible.
A similar work is the “Yalkut Machiri” of uncertain date, but most likely
from the fourteenth century, by Machir ben Aba Mari. Only parts of it are
in existence.
TALMUDIC LITERATURE
In the beginning of the thirteenth century, orthodox authorities in
France and Spain attacked Maimonides’ philosophy. Their leaders were Meir
Abulafia in Spain, and Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier in France. They
denounced the work of Maimonides to the Dominicans, and the latter burned
it publicly at Paris in 1244. Of Talmudic authorities who possessed
secular learning and worked in the field of exegesis the most prominent
was Moses ben Nachman of Gerona (Ramban, 1200-1270). His commentary on
the Pentateuch contains sound exegetical views, is strictly traditional
and gives space to Kabalistic interpretations. He indulged in vehement
invectives against Ibn Ezra, and in his notes on Alfasi vehemently
attacked Zerahiah Halevi for his critical remarks on Alfasi in “The Wars
of the Lord.”
One of the most prominent Spanish Rabbis was Solomon Ibn Adret (Rashba),
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. He was opposed to philosophy
and issued a prohibition that no one should read the Moreh before he was
twenty-five years old. He professed a belief in every statement in the
Talmud, even if in conflict with well-known scientific facts. He left
thousands of responsa.
A younger contemporary of his is Asher ben Yechiel, a disciple of Meir
of Rothenburg (German rabbi of the thirteenth century), who emigrated to
Spain in 1305 and died in Toledo in 1327. He wrote a work on the plan of
that by Alfasi, making an abstract of the practical laws of the Talmud.
It is printed in most of the Talmud editions, and quoted as Rosh. He had
eight sons who were Talmudic scholars, and of these the most prominent
was Jacob ben Asher, who died in 1350. He wrote an important set of
codes of the Rabbinic law, called Turim. The first, Orah Hayyim, treated
chiefly of liturgics, the second, Eben Haezer, of matrimonial laws, the
third, Yoreh Deah, of dietary laws, the fourth, Hoshen Mishpat, of civil
laws.
Another disciple of Meir of Rothenburg was Mordecai ben Hillel, who
was killed in Nuremberg during the Rindfleisch riots of 1298. He wrote
notes to Alfasi’s code of value, because of their many historical
references. To the fourteenth century belongs Isaac ben Sheshet (Ribash)
of Barcelona, who fled after the persecution of 1391, and became Chief
Rabbi of Algiers, where he died about 1410. In his decisions he is very
orthodox, but distinguished by his humanitarian views. Thus he forced
his congregations to rescind an order against the landing of further
immigrants. His successor was Simeon ben Zemach Duran, whose responsa
are collected under the title (Tashbez). He is supposed to have been the
first rabbi who received a salary. In Italy, in the thirteenth century,
Isaiah di Trani the Elder, and his grandson, Isaiah di Trani the Younger,
flourished.
In the latter half of the fifteenth century Joseph Colon wrote a volume
of responsa. His opponent was Elijah Kapsali. Of special interest in
Colon’s decisions is the case of the congregation of Nuremberg, in
which he held that all German congregations were obliged to contribute
toward the expenses of the trial of Israel Bruna, who was accused of
complicity in the murder of a Christian child in 1477. In Germany the
most important rabbi of the fifteenth century was Israel Isserlein of
Marburg, 1400-1470, author of Terumat Ha-Deshen, a collection of responsa
containing important historical notes. When the authorities in Breslau
issued a law that Jews had to swear with uncovered head and by the name
Yahve, he permitted it, provided it was not meant as an attempt to
convert the Jews.
The German and French rabbis in the thirteenth century were characterized
by their strict adherence to authority and rigorous view of the law. The
most prominent is Judah ben Samuel Hechasid, author of “Sefer Hasidim.”
Eleazar ben Jehudah of Worms, a descendant of the Kalonymos family, and
author of Rokeah (druggist), is a type of this ascetic school. Another
is Moses of Coucy, author of a compendium of the 613 commandments Sefer
Mizwot Haggadol, abbreviated Semag.
In the thirteenth century the study of Kabbala received strong impetus
from Isaac, the blind, son of Rabed. His disciples were Ezra and
Ezriel; their disciple was Ramban, and he introduced Kabbala into his
commentary on the Pentateuch. About 1390 Moses of Leon wrote the Zohar,
a Kabbalistic Midrash on the Pentateuch, which he claimed was written by
Simeon ben Yohai, disciple of Akiba, and discovered by him in a cave. It
is written in Aramaic.
CHAPTER VII
THE PERIOD OF IMPROVEMENT (1492-1791)
The Jews of Spain went to Turkey, North Africa, Oriental countries, and
especially to Palestine. They came in such numbers that their language,
the so-called Ladino, became the language of the Jews in these countries,
taking the place of Arabic and Greek. Sultan Bajazed II, 1481-1513,
is reported to have said that he could not understand why Ferdinand
of Spain should be called a wise king, since he had impoverished his
own country and enriched Turkey. Jews stood very high at Court. Joseph
Hamon was physician to Sultans Bajazed II and Selim I (1512-1520) and
his son, Moses Hamon, to Sultan Soliman II (1520-1566). Joseph Mendes
(died 1579) and his aunt, Gracia, whose daughter Reyna he had married,
were Marranos who had fled from Spain to Antwerp, then to Venice, and
finally to Constantinople. Joseph was a special favorite of the Sultan,
who forced the Republic of Venice to surrender the property of Donna
Gracia, which had been confiscated. The Sultan made Joseph Duke of Naxos,
and he seriously contemplated the establishment of a Jewish state there.
Owing to Don Joseph’s influence, the Pope was forced to free a number of
Marranos who had been imprisoned in the Papal States and charged with
apostasy. A number of Jews, prompted by Messianic expectations, founded
settlements in Jerusalem and Safed.
In Italy the condition of the Jews changed for the worse. Venice
established the first ghetto, called thus after the gun foundry “Gietto”
in the vicinity. At the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
sixteenth century the Popes employed Jewish physicians, such as Bonet
del Lattes under Leo X. But Paul IV and Pius V issued oppressive laws
against the Jews, restricting their commercial activity to trading in
cast-off clothing, enforcing the marks of distinction, Jew Badges, and
ordering the censorship of Hebrew literature. The reaction against
Protestantism and the foundation of the Jesuit order further tended to
make the condition of the Jews still worse. The Council of Trent, 1563,
prohibited the Talmud altogether, but later on modified its decree to the
effect that the word Talmud should not be printed on the title page of
the work and that every edition should be submitted to the ecclesiastic
censor aided by Jewish converts. Prominent among the latter were Elijah
and Solomon Romano, grandsons of Elijah Levita.
The Italian Jews, in order to obviate the dangers arising from
informations against Jewish literature, decided in 1564 that no book
should be printed without the consent of three prominent rabbis and the
trustees of the congregation in the district where the press was located.
By these measures the Hebrew printing trade, which had flourished in
Italy during the first half of the sixteenth century, was ruined and the
press transferred to Poland. There, owing to the low state of industry,
the art of printing declined.
The frequent expulsions and the constant oppressions fostered Messianic
hopes. In 1507 a Messianic pretender arose in Northern Italy. His name
was Asher Lemlein. Of the particulars of his career we know nothing. Of
greater importance is the appearance of a man who called himself David
Reubeni in Venice, 1522. He pretended to be the brother of the reigning
king of the tribe of Reuben, living in Arabia, and planned an alliance
of the Christian powers against the Mohammedans. For this he pledged
the aid of the ten tribes living there. The Pope sent him to Portugal,
where he made the acquaintance of Solomon Molcho, a young Marrano, who
returned with Reubeni to Italy, preached and prophesied there and became
a favorite of the Pope. The Jews feared the results of his eccentricities
and denounced him to the authorities as an apostate from Christianity,
but the Pope shielded him. Finally both went to Germany in 1530, where
they hoped to win Charles V to their plans. They were imprisoned; Molcho,
as an apostate, was burned at the stake and Reubeni sent to Portugal,
where every trace of him was lost. Who he was is not known. He seems to
have travelled in the East, and probably was an Arab.
The Reformation of 1517 at first influenced the condition of the Jews
for the better. The accusations that the Jews desecrated hosts ceased.
As late as 1492 a number of Jews were burned for this supposed crime
at Sternberg in Mecklenburg. In 1510, thirty-nine Jews were burned at
Berlin for the same cause. But aside from this Protestantism in itself
stood for religious toleration. Luther, in the beginning of his career,
spoke of the Jews as “cousins of our Lord,” who should be treated with
kindness. He thought that his purified Christianity would win them over,
but, toward the end of his life, when he had failed in his efforts and
was embittered for other reasons, he wrote two pamphlets filled with
invective against the Jews. In these he advocated the confiscation of
their property, the destruction of their synagogues, and the forcible
baptism of their children. Still more bitter than Luther’s attacks were
those of John Eck, his Catholic opponent.
It seems, however, that the Reformation increased the number of Jewish
converts. Prominent among these was Emanuel Tremellius, an Italian, who
first became a monk and then a Protestant. He was a friend of Calvin,
and translated the Bible for him into Latin. He also translated Calvin’s
Catechism into Hebrew. Another convert was Luke Helic, who assisted the
Moravian Brethren in translating the Bible into the Slavic language. A
calumniator of Judaism was Antonius Margaritha, the son of a rabbi of
Ratisbon, named Jacob Margaliot, who in 1530 wrote a libel on Judaism.
Characteristic was the act of the Protestant Landgrave, Louis of Hesse,
who advised the suppression of an anti-Jewish book, “Jüdenfeind,” by
Nigrinus (1570) saying that the same arguments might just as well be used
by Catholics against Protestants.
The Renaissance, which produced the Reformation, also had a favorable
effect on the position of the Jews. When John Pfefferkorn, a convert
from Judaism, in 1506 accused the Jews of blaspheming Jesus in their
prayers and in their literature, and proposed the confiscation of
all their books, John Reuchlin, a famous diplomat and expert Hebrew
scholar, rendered an opinion in their favor. The Dominicans of Cologne,
among them a former rabbi, Victor von Karben, whose tool Pfefferkorn
had been, made the latter’s cause their own, but did not succeed. In
Frankfort-on-the-Main, where the books had been confiscated, they
were ordered to be returned to their owners, and a long and bitter
controversy, in which both parties engaged in vile attacks, ensued. In
the meantime the Reformation intervened; and the Pope, who had been
appealed to, ended the matter by an order in 1516 that both parties
should keep their peace. He reversed this decision in favor of the
Dominicans in 1520.
Such occasions as the calumniations of Pfefferkorn and others showed
the arbitrariness of municipalities and lords in the treatment of the
Jews, and pointed out the advisability of Jews appointing an advocate,
“Shtadlan,” who would always defend their rights when necessary. One of
the most famous of these was Josel Rosheim (1478-1554) who was originally
appointed as their advocate by the Jews of Alsace, and often acted in
behalf of all the Jews of Germany, here and there arbitrating dissensions
in congregations. He obtained various charters from Emperor Charles V,
in which protection to the Jews was promised. Among these stipulations,
one issued in 1530 is of special interest. The Emperor prohibited the
expulsion of Jews from his territory without his consent. This rule,
however, was not even observed in the immediate possessions of the
German rulers. At various times Ferdinand I, brother of Charles V, and
German Emperor (1522-1564) ordered expulsions from Austria in 1557, and
in 1541 and 1561 from Bohemia; they were hardly ever carried out. When
the expulsion from Bohemia was decreed, Mordecai Meisels, a wealthy Jew
of Prague, 1528-1601, and the descendant of the Italian family Soncino,
which in 1513 established a printing press in Prague, went to Rome and
obtained a bull from the Pope for the protection of the Jews. The law of
expulsion from Bohemia was repealed. Meisels was in other ways a great
benefactor of his co-religionists.
In Berlin, where the Jews had been expelled in 1510, Leopold (Lippold)
was a physician and favorite of the Margrave Joachim II of Brandenburg.
After the death of his master he was accused of having poisoned him and
executed in 1573. A new refuge was opened to the Jews in Holland, when
this country gained its independence from Spain. A family of fugitive
Marranos is said to have been driven to Emden, Hanover, by unfavorable
winds, and thence they were advised to go to Amsterdam (1593). Moses
ben Uri of Emden followed them and instructed them in Judaism. Some
other converts followed, among them monks, statesmen and scholars. One
of the most prominent rabbis of Amsterdam was Menasseh ben Israel, who
in 1654, tried to obtain from Cromwell official permission for the Jews
to resettle in England, whence they had been expelled in 1290. A bill
introduced into Parliament for the readmission failed to pass, but
prominent jurists rendered an opinion that the expulsion was not a legal
act. The Jews already in London were not molested, opened a synagogue and
acquired a cemetery in 1660. Charles II was favorable to the Jews, some
of whom had assisted him financially before he had ascended the throne;
in 1664 he confirmed their right of residence.
About the middle of the seventeenth century a colony of Marranos from
Amsterdam settled in Brazil, which was then under Dutch rule. When the
Portuguese reconquered it (1654) the Jews were expelled and settled
in the Dutch West Indies and New York, then New Amsterdam. Governor
Stuyvesant objected to their landing, but the directors of the West India
Company, among whom there were several Jews, overruled his decision.
Meantime the Jews had settled in Rhode Island, where Roger Williams had
promulgated full religious freedom in 1657.
In Amsterdam the Portuguese community combined strict traditional piety
with secular learning and great commercial activity. To the Portuguese
Jews, Amsterdam owes its importance as the center of the diamond trade.
Uriel Acosta, who held high office in Spain and emigrated to Holland in
order to openly profess Judaism, became imbued with deistic ideas, was
tried as a heretic and did penance. Then, excommunicated as a backslider,
he became despondent and, having attempted to kill Rabbi Saul Morteira,
committed suicide in 1640. Baruch or Benedict Spinoza (1633-1677) was
also excommunicated, but disregarded all attempts to bring him back to
Judaism. He is the originator of a famous system of philosophy, called
Pantheism or Monism, laid down in his principal work, the “Ethics.” He
also occupies a prominent place in the history of Biblical Criticism
through his work, “Tractatus Theologico Politicus.”
In 1666, the year which the Christian Millenarians regarded as Messianic
by reason of a passage in Revelation xiii, 18, Judaism was stirred by
Sabbatai Zebi of Smyrna, who proclaimed himself the Messiah. Expelled
from that city he went to Egypt, where he received the enthusiastic
support of Raphael Joseph, a wealthy tax-farmer. In Palestine, whither he
went, he found many admirers, and the prophet, Nathan of Gaza, proclaimed
him the true Messiah. Being denounced for high treason, Sabbatai was
brought to Constantinople and imprisoned in the fort of Abydos, but
the means supplied by his followers enabled him to hold court like a
prince. Everywhere in Europe the majority of the Jews believed him to
be the Messiah. The representatives of the Jews in Poland sent two
prominent rabbis as a committee to him, but Nehemiah Hakohen, the Polish
Kabbalist, who had come to ascertain the truth, denounced him as an
impostor. Sabbatai Zebi was brought before the Sultan to answer a charge
of high treason; and, in order to save his life, he turned to Islam.
The Sultan gave him an office, and for ten years, until his death, he
remained in contact with the Jews. Many of his followers turned to Islam,
and still exist as a special sect called Donmah in Salonica. Others of
his followers who remained true to Judaism formed a mystic community,
which adopted the name of Hasidim. They were excommunicated by the most
prominent rabbis, but progressed rapidly, although many of them were
unmasked as frauds. Nehemiah Hayon, an Oriental, wrote a book in which
he taught the doctrine of the Trinity (1712) and Jacob Frank, a Polish
Jew, formed a Judæo-Christian sect. The latter was supported by those who
wished to convert the Jews to Christianity, and lived in princely style
in Offenbach, where he died in 1793.
The center of Hasidism was in Podolia and Volhynia; Israel Besht,
1695-1760, may be considered as its founder. His work was continued by
his disciples, among whom Baer Mezdzyrzecz (1700-1772) was the most
prominent. Later Nahman of Bratzlav (1779-1810) developed the theory
of miraculous powers of healing granted to favored individuals and the
mystic interpretation of the Bible and the Rabbinic commands. They still
have a great number of devotees in parts of Austrian and Russian Poland.
Persecutions in the seventeenth century are of rarer occurrence than
in former times. The most serious one was that which, with several
interruptions, lasted from 1648 to 1655, and the leader of which was the
Cossack captain Chmelnicki. The Cossacks, who were under the sovereignty
of the Polish king, rebelled against their masters, and the Jews had to
suffer, partly because they were unable to protect themselves, and partly
because, as tax-farmers, they had been the instrument of the extortion
practised by the Polish nobles. Thousands were massacred, and since that
time the 20th of Sivan is observed as a fast-day in Poland. They fled in
all directions, and many great Talmudists among them became rabbis in
Western Europe.
The Jesuits in Poland and in those places where the Catholic Church had
succeeded in crushing the Reformation became very powerful and fostered
hatred of the Jews, often resulting in mob violence. In 1664 such a
massacre occurred in Lemberg. The Jews were accused of the murder of
Christians; similar charges were often made. In 1659 two prominent Jews
were put to death on Rosh Hashanah in Rossieny, Lithuania, under the
charge of ritual murder; in 1694 Lazarus Abeles and a friend of his were
imprisoned in Prague, charged with having killed the son of Abeles, who
wanted to become a Christian. Abeles hanged himself and his friend was
cruelly put to death. In Vienna and Prague mission services, which the
Jews were compelled to attend every Sabbath, were held by the Jesuits
since 1630. In 1670 Emperor Leopold I expelled the Jews from Vienna,
influenced partly by the hatred of the citizens and partly by the bigotry
of the Empress, a Spanish princess. Some of the refugees were given
permission by the Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg to settle in
Berlin. At about the same time Halle, Halberstadt and Dessau were opened
to them. In 1670 Herz Levi of Metz was accused of having murdered a
Christian child and was put to death. His innocence was afterwards proved.
Peculiar to the history of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were
the court Jews, Hof-Jude, Hof-factor, Minister-Resident. Prominent among
them were Elijah Gomperz of Cleve, Moses Benjamin Wolf of Dessau, Jost
Libman of Berlin, Behrendt Lehman of Dresden, and Samuel Oppenheimer and
Samson Wertheimer of Vienna. These Jews did service as jewelers, bankers,
general brokers and army contractors, and, as such, were exempt from
Jewish taxes and certain disabilities. They possessed great influence,
which they used to good advantage for their fellow-Jews. Samuel
Oppenheimer, who died in 1703, obtained from Emperor Leopold an order
of confiscation of an anti-Jewish book, “Entdecktes Judenthum,” by J.
A. Eisenmenger (1700), which, up to date, has served as a repertory for
anti-Semitic writers.
In 1614 a serious riot broke out in Frankfort-on-the-Main, led by the
guilds, which accused the patricians controlling the municipal council of
partiality to the Jews. The council, aided by imperial troops, succeeded
in suppressing the rebellion after considerable difficulty. Vincent
Fettmilch, the leader, was quartered, his home demolished, and his family
expelled from the city. Other ringleaders were beheaded. While the city
council thus showed its sincere intention to have the law respected
even with regard to the Jews, the new legal regulation for the Jews
of Frankfort, “Juden-Staettigkeit,” was a specimen of mediæval ideas,
maintaining the usual restrictions on occupation, marriage, residence and
quite a number of measures, like the yellow badge, meant to disgrace a
Jew. It remained in force until 1807.
The political condition of the Jews at this time nevertheless shows
steady improvement, although their threatened expulsion from the city of
Metz and their actual expulsion from Vienna and the province of Lower
Austria in 1670 were a relapse into the conditions of the fifteenth
century. Still, such events are local and few and far between; on the
other hand, an improvement is manifest in various instances where Jews
were admitted to countries or cities from which they had been expelled in
mediæval times. Particularly important was their settlement in Hamburg
and Berlin at this time. In Hamburg the municipal council gave to some
Portuguese Marranos, who came there to escape from the Inquisition,
the right of residence in spite of clerical protest. The first
settlers were soon followed by Jews from Germany in the course of the
seventeenth century, and finally (1710), they formed a legally-organized
congregation. Similarly Portuguese Jews had found a haven of refuge in
various cities of Southern France, although there in a Catholic country
they had to conceal their Judaism.
In Berlin and the Margravate of Brandenburg, the Elector Frederick
William I allowed some Jews, expelled from Vienna, to settle in his
states on their plea that they were persecuted for conscience’ sake
(1671). Still more important was the readmission of the Jews to England
by Cromwell in 1654; and, although the bill for their readmission did not
pass, their settlement was quietly overlooked and declared by jurists to
be legally justified. Another new country was opened to Jewish settlement
by the end of the sixteenth century when the Spanish Netherlands had made
themselves independent of the Spanish crown. The constitution of the new
country was based on perfect religious freedom, and naturally fugitives
from the Inquisition were among the first to avail themselves of this
opportunity. They were soon joined by the settlers from other countries,
and in the seventeenth century Amsterdam was one of the leading Jewish
communities of the world.
The greatest importance, however, attaches to the settlement of the
Jews in the New World. While in the Spanish colonies there was not only
no religious liberty but even persecutions of Marranos culminating
in autos-da-fe, as in the mother country, the conquest of Brazil by
the Dutch in 1624 resulted in the first organized Jewish community on
the American continent. The loss of Brazil in 1654 forced the Jews to
emigrate, and some settled in the Dutch and British possessions in
Central and South America, Surinam, Curacoa and Jamaica. But the most
important settlement was that of New York in 1654. The intolerance of
the Dutch, governor Stuyvesant drove some of the newcomers to Newport, R.
I. (1657), where Roger Williams had proclaimed full religious liberty.
In 1733 some Portuguese Jews from England availed themselves of the
opportunity created by James Oglethorpe, who made Georgia an asylum for
convicts who were willing to reform. They sent some of their poor to
Savannah. As the governor was unfavorable to the settlement of the Jews,
fearing that their presence would prejudice the success of the colony,
some Jews went to South Carolina, for which the philosopher John Locke
had drafted a liberal constitution (1697). He expressly declared equal
rights for non-Christians. They formed a congregation at Charleston in
1750, for a long time the most flourishing Jewish settlement in the
territory now comprised in the United States. Yet up to the end of the
eighteenth century only six Jewish communities are known: New York,
Newport, R. I., Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S. C., Philadelphia, and
Lancaster, Pa. These Jews took part in the American Revolution, and their
patriotism was expressly recognized in the reply of George Washington to
their addresses of congratulation when he was elected President.
An English law of 1740 gave to the Jews in the American colonies full
rights of naturalization, also extended to Canada when it became a
British possession. The growth of Jewish population was slow and did
not begin until the reactionary governments of Europe, after the July
revolution of 1830, made the hope of any improvement appear vain. Thus,
since 1830 large streams of Jewish immigrants have settled all over
the United States. Another far stronger current of immigration began in
consequence of the persecutions in Russia in 1881. The Jewish population
of America may now accordingly be figured at 2,000,000 souls. In Spanish
America the only settlement of any consequence is in Argentine.
INTELLECTUAL AND LITERARY LIFE
The Reformation was promoted by the Renaissance, essentially a critical
examination of traditional views. While this movement had not a very
deep influence on the Jews, it did not pass entirely unnoticed. Elijah
Mizrahi, Chief Rabbi of Constantinople (1455-1525), took notice of
the Copernican system, and in his supercommentary on Rashi, tried to
harmonize this modern conception of the cosmos with Rabbinic statements.
He also wrote a text-book of arithmetic, a commentary on Euclid’s
elements, an astronomical book, besides various Talmudic works.
More evident is the influence on Elijah Levita, born in
Neustadt-an-der-Aisch, Bavaria, 1468, died in Venice, 1549. Elijah Levita
was a teacher of many prominent Christian theologians, both Catholic and
Protestant, then very much interested in the study of Hebrew. He wrote
various works on Hebrew grammar, among them “Bahur” (1518), a glossary of
Rabbinic words, “Tishbi” (1541), and a book on the Massorah, “Massoret
ha-Massoret” (1548), in which he laid down the bold and since that time
generally-accepted theory that the vowel points and accents were not
invented until the eighth century. He was also a writer of popular works,
translated the Psalms into Judæo-German and published the Bobo book, a
translation of an Italian romance based on the English story of “Sir
Bevis of Hampton,” underlying Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” (1540).
Another exponent of the Renaissance was Azariah dei Rossi of Ferrara
(1511-1578), who in his work, “Meor Enayim,” a collection of critical
essays, defended the theory that the Talmudic writings are not
authoritative on matters of history and science, but merely on Rabbinic
law. Joseph Solomo del Medigo, born in Crete, 1591, died at Prague,
1655, was an ambiguous character and adventurer, a wanderer during
most of his life. In his work, “Elim” (1629), he had the courage to
criticize Rabbinic theology, and especially the Kabbala. Leon Modena of
Venice (1571-1648), who was a very prolific author, went still further,
attacking the Rabbinic law as in many instances incongruous with the
Bible, and recommending a change of the religious practices. In the works
which he published he merely indicated his liberal ideas; he clearly
stated them in works that remained unpublished for two centuries.
In Italy, where secular education was not held in such abhorrence as
was the case in Northern Europe, in the seventeenth century two women
wrote Italian poetry and made translations from Hebrew. These are
Deborah Ascarelli and Sarah Copia Sullam. An attempt to rationalize
Talmudic passages was made as early as the beginning of the sixteenth
century. Jacob ibn Habib, who was among the exiles from Spain, settled in
Constantinople, and collected the Haggadic passages of the Talmud, with
the intention of publishing them with an apologetic commentary. He died
in 1516 after having finished only part of his work; it was edited after
his death by his son. It is even now, as “En Jacob,” a very popular book
for the study of Talmudic ethics.
While on one side there was a liberal tendency noticeable in Rabbinic
Judaism, on the other a consolidation of the Rabbinic legalism and a
progress of mysticism were noticeable. Joseph Caro (1488-1575), a native
of Spain who toward the end of his life lived in Safed, Palestine,
compiled a brief compendium of the Rabbinic law, “Shulhan Aruk.” It
was printed during the author’s lifetime in Venice in 1564, and often
reprinted afterwards. The author followed the arrangement of Jacob ben
Asher, but otherwise is quite independent. It was his object to give the
whole Rabbinic law in one volume, without showing its development and
without regard to different opinions. He prepared himself for his work
by writing exhaustive commentaries on the codes of Maimonides and Jacob
ben Asher. During his lifetime the book was annotated by Moses Isserls
of Cracow (1520-1572), who called his notes “Mappah” (tablecloth). It
was his object to lay down the practice of the German Jews, neglected by
Joseph Caro as a rule. This codification was strongly attacked by some
of the more liberal rabbis of the time. Solomon Luria (1500-1573), rabbi
of Lublin, but of German descent, took a more critical view of the old
sources, although apart from legal decisions he proclaimed his absolute
faith in traditions and condemned the liberal tendencies of Abraham ibn
Esra and Maimonides.
A strong opponent of Azariah Dei Rossi was Loewe Ben Bezalel (1530-1609),
rabbi of Posen and Prague and the hero of many legends. He maintained
the absolute belief in Rabbinic authority in every respect. In spite of
occasional opposition the “Shulhan Aruk” soon attained general popularity
and was considered an authoritative book, to which many prominent
rabbis, as Abraham Gombiner, Sabbatai Cohen and David Halevi added their
glosses. These were in the later editions added to the “Shulhan Aruk,”
the authority of which is indicated by the fact that the glossaries are
called “Aharonim” (epigones).
The sufferings which Jews had to endure during the fifteenth century and
of which the expulsion from Spain and Portugal was the culmination, were
the cause of a strengthening of mysticism. Particularly in Palestine,
to which quite a number of Spanish Jews were drawn by Messianic hopes,
such a center was formed. In Safed, where Joseph Caro wrote his “Shulhan
Aruk,” a number of disciples gathered around Isaac Luria, who preached
a religion based on the belief in the mysterious. He did not write, but
numerous disciples put his ideas in writing. Among them were Hayyim
Vital, who was considered a worker of miracles, and Elijah de Vidas,
whose work, “The Beginning of Wisdom,” became a favorite book for
edification. Another Kabbalistic author of the same circle was Solomon
Halevi Alkabez, best known by his popular Sabbath hymn, “Lekah Dodi,”
which also has a Kabbalistic tendency.
German Jews came to Palestine to join the circle of mystics. One was
Isaiah Horowitz (1550-1630), who had been rabbi of Frankfort-on-the-Main
and Prague. Of his works a large Kabbalistic compendium, “The Two Tablets
of the Covenant” (Shelah), became very popular. Abstracts of it were made
and translated into Judæo-German. Even in Italy, where secular culture
was far more general among Jews than in any other country in Europe,
Kabbala had a strong hold on the people. A great enthusiast for the
doctrine of mysticism was Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (1707-1747), who wrote
allegorical dramas in Hebrew, one of which, “Praise to the Righteous,”
is a masterpiece of modern Hebrew literature. His ethical treatise, “The
Path of the Righteous,” is also deservedly popular. He went to Palestine
hoping to receive prophetic inspiration there, and died at the age of
forty of the plague.
Talmudic literature monopolized the activities of the German and Polish
Jews, the latter being considered the leaders in this line and filling
most of the Rabbinic positions in Western Europe during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. Among the most prominent dialecticians
may be mentioned Jacob Joshua of Lemberg (1680-1756), rabbi of
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Aryeh Loeb of Minsk, rabbi of Metz (1700-1786),
Ezekiel Landau (1713-1793), rabbi of Prague, and Jonathan Eybeschuetz
(1690-1764), rabbi of Metz and Altona, whose works show the highest
development in this branch. Already in the eighteenth century a sounder
development of Rabbinic studies, showing the beginnings of criticism and
an interest in historical and archæological questions, began.
Among those who led to the scientific presentation of Rabbinic literature
in modern times are to be mentioned Jair Hayyim Bacharach (1634-1702),
rabbi of Worms, of whose works very little has been preserved but who
was interested in the scientific presentation of Rabbinic theology as
the theory of oral tradition, and Jacob Emden (1696-1776), the bitter
opponent of Jonathan Eybeschuetz, who gathered historical material on
Sabbatai Zebi, and the mystics who followed him and had the boldness,
although a believer in Kabbala, to state that the Zohar, as we possess
it, is not the work of Simeon ben Johai. An emancipation from the strict
Rabbinic dialectics by better attention to correct Rabbinic texts and
to the study of philological and archæological questions is found in
the works of Joseph Steinhart (1706-1776), rabbi of Fuerth, Isaiah Pick
(1720-1799), and Elijah of Wilna (1720-1797).
The sufferings of the Jews in Spain stimulated interest in historical
literature and various authors, chiefly prompted by a desire to keep up
the courage of the Jews in the midst of persecutions, wrote historical
works. Among them may be mentioned Gedaliah ibn Yahya, an Italian who
wrote the “Chain of Tradition,” Solomon ibn Verga, a Spaniard who
emigrated to Turkey and wrote “Shebet Jehudah,” Joseph Cohen of Avignon,
who wrote “The Valley of Weeping,” and Samuel Usque, who wrote a work in
Portuguese called “Consolations in Tribulation,” all of the sixteenth
century. Somewhat later David Gans (died at Prague in 1617) wrote a dry
compilation of events in Jewish and general history under the title
“Zemah David.”
To the seventeenth century belongs the Oriental, David Conforte, his
“Kore Hadorot” being chiefly valued for its accounts of Rabbinic
literature in the Orient. Jehiel Heilprin of Minsk, eighteenth century,
wrote a history in the style of a chronicle, beginning with Creation.
It shows a naive belief in the historicity of the Midrash but is very
valuable by reason of its collection of historic passages from Rabbinic
literature. Secular education was slowly beginning to find its way among
the Jews. Quite a number of German Jews studied medicine in Italy,
chiefly from a practical point of view. Tobias Cohen of Metz (1652-1729)
studied in Frankfort-on-the-Oder, being supported by the Elector of
Brandenburg. In his later years he lived in the Orient, where he wrote a
compilation on various scientific subjects, “Maaseh Tobiyah.” In this he
shows sound knowledge of medicine.
CHAPTER VIII
THE PERIOD OF EMANCIPATION FROM 1791.
In the middle of the eighteenth century a slow but marked improvement in
the condition of the Jews is noticeable. To some extent this is due to
the change in the economic life of the Jews, many of whom were engaged
in manufacturing pursuits and in such mercantile enterprises as were of
noticeable benefit to the state. Some Jews were farmers of the tobacco
monopoly, in many states an important part of the revenue, others engaged
in various manufacturing enterprises and thus received privileges which
exempted them from the disabilities imposed on other Jews. This was the
case in Prussia, where Jewish enterprises created the flourishing textile
industry in and near Berlin. One of these manufacturers was Bernhard
Isaac, in whose house Moses Mendelssohn lived first as tutor and then
as bookkeeper. Frederick the Great gave to some Jews the same rights
as Christian merchants, although he was in general not well disposed
toward the Jews, and would not allow them to engage in agriculture
or ship-building. Aaron Elias Seligmann established a large tobacco
manufactory in Laimen, Bavaria, in 1779, which gave occupation to many
hands; for his merit in developing industry the King of Bavaria bestowed
a baronetcy on him in 1814. Israel Hönig was farmer of the tobacco
monopoly in Austria, and was in 1789 knighted by Emperor Joseph II.
The distinctions bestowed on individual Jews, however, did not improve
the condition of the masses. The progress of liberal ideas made this
question a matter of serious concern for legislators. In England a bill
giving the Jews political rights was passed in 1753, but aroused such
opposition among the populace that the government found itself compelled
to repeal it in the same year. Of more permanent value were the measures
of the humane Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790). In various legislative
acts, and especially in the so-called “Toleranz-Edict” of January 2,
1782, he laid down the principle that the Jews should be treated like
human beings. Although they were still under considerable restrictions,
their lot was in many ways improved, and the Emperor laid special stress
on their education. As a tangible evidence of the improvement in their
condition the abrogation of the poll tax, “Leibzoll,” the Jew badge and
Jew taxes may be noted. The abolition of these mediæval discriminations,
which were based on the principle that the Jew was a foreign and
injurious element of the population, became more and more general by the
end of the eighteenth century.
France abolished the poll tax in 1784. As early as 1781 the Academy of
Metz offered a prize for the best essay on the improvement of the Jews.
The prize was won by Abbé Grégoire, a Catholic priest, who advocated the
abrogation of all Jewish disabilities. About the same time Christian
F. Dohm, an official in the Prussian war department, wrote an essay
on the civil improvement of the Jews, in which he likewise advocated
the granting of full equality to the Jews. This principle became for
the first time a fact when on September 27, 1791, the French National
Assembly passed a bill giving the Jews full civic and political equality
with other citizens.
When the French rule spread over adjacent countries this was everywhere
adopted. Such was the case in Holland in 1796, and in all parts of
Germany which directly or indirectly came under French influence. In
Cologne, where for nearly four hundred years no Jew had been permitted
to reside, Jews began to settle in 1798. In Mayence the population tore
down the gates of the ghetto in 1798, and this was done in Rome when the
French ruled there. In Frankfort-on-the-Main, where the Jews labored
under cruel discriminations, their condition was considerably improved in
1807 by an edict of the Grand Duke, Baron von Dahlberg, and in 1811 they
were given full civil equality. Even reactionary countries like Prussia
could not resist the current of the time, and the edict of March 11,
1812, declared the Jews to be citizens, gave them freedom of residence
and occupation and the right to professorships in the universities; and
although it withheld from them political rights, it promised to grant
them such in the future.
Jews have been drafted into the army in Austria since 1787, and in
Prussia since 1812; but numerous Jews joined the army as volunteers
and distinguished themselves by acts of bravery during the wars of
liberation. In 1809 the Austrian Jew, Israel Hönig, was made lieutenant
for bravery on the battlefield of Aspern, and a few years afterwards was
promoted to the rank of captain. In Prussia several Jews were promoted
to the rank of officers during the Napoleonic wars.
Meantime reaction began to set in. Napoleon, who as commander of the army
in the Orient in 1798, had called upon the Jews to join his army and
conquer Palestine, changed his policy. Moved by complaints against the
business methods of the Jews, he called an assembly of Jewish notables
in 1806 and laid before them twelve questions, including whether the
Jews considered themselves Frenchmen, whether their law permitted them
to take usurious interest from non-Jews and whether intermarriage with
Christians would be permitted. The answers given by this body of men
were satisfactory, and the Emperor in 1807 established a Sanhedrin to
ratify these principles and form a supreme ecclesiastic authority for
all the Jews of the world. While thus apparently showing favor to the
Jews, he issued a law in 1808 which imposed some restrictions on the
freedom of trade of the Jews of Alsace. With his downfall, however, a
general reaction set in. Some states repealed the laws which had given
full freedom to the Jews, while others, among them Prussia, limited the
efficacy of these laws by interpretation.
In Rome, where the rule of the Pope was reinstated, all oppressive
measures were put in force again. In Hamburg and Luebeck, where,
during the French rule, the Jews had enjoyed full equality, the former
restrictions were partly reintroduced. From Luebeck the Jews were
unconditionally expelled in 1816. In some cities of Bavaria attacks on
the Jews were organized by the mob under the cry of “Hep-hep” in 1819,
and an article of the Congress of Vienna of 1815, which declared that
the Jews should retain all the rights they had acquired during the time
of transition, became practically a dead letter.
The July Revolution of 1830 strengthened liberal ideas and brought the
Jewish question up for discussion in various Parliaments, particularly in
Southern Germany. In Baden and Bavaria the petition for the improvement
of the condition of the Jews was regularly met with the demand that
the Jews should first show their willingness to assimilate with their
environment by a change of their religious beliefs and practices.
Legislation made very little progress, and in some instances new
reactionary measures were introduced. King Frederick William III of
Prussia in 1836 ordered that Jews should not have any Christian names.
The decisive change came about after the French Revolution in 1848.
By and by all states of Western Europe recognized in their constitutions
the full civil and political equality of the Jews, and in the Parliaments
which were elected on this basis, Jews were members. Gabriel Riesser
(1806-1864) was one of the vice-presidents of the National Assembly
in Frankfort. The first Austrian Parliament had five Jewish members
and the Diet of Bavaria two. When the storm passed away, a reactionary
spirit again took hold, although the liberties granted to the Jews
were not entirely repealed. Some countries like Austria suspended the
constitution, while others like Prussia interpreted it in a sense which
rendered nugatory some of the rights given to the Jews in theory. This,
however, was mostly the case with regard to the right of holding official
positions. Civic equality and the right to vote at elections and hold
elective offices remained uncontested.
Finally toward the end of the ’sixties even these disabilities were
removed. The Austrian constitution of 1867 granted to the Jews
unrestricted equality. The law of the North German Federation of July
3, 1869, declared that every state must remove all disabilities imposed
upon citizens on the ground of their religious belief. This law was
embodied in the constitution of the German Empire in 1871. Sweden, which
had admitted the Jews only at the end of the eighteenth century, and in
1838 still restricted their residence to four cities, granted them full
equality in 1870. Switzerland, while a republic, had for a long time
restricted the Jews to two places in the Canton of Aargau. Not until 1878
were they given full equality with other citizens. Norway had, until
1851, a law on its statute-book which prohibited even the temporary
residence of Jews in the country.
England made slow but steady progress. In 1830 the first attempt was made
to give the Jews political rights, a year previously the disabilities
imposed on Christian dissenters having been removed. In 1833 Francis H.
Goldsmid was admitted to the bar, and in 1835 David Salomons was elected
sheriff of London and Middlesex, the first municipal office held by a
Jew. In 1845 he was elected alderman and in 1855 Lord Mayor of the city
of London. The entrance of Jews to Parliament was opposed with great
vehemence by the Conservative Party. In 1847 Baron Lionel de Rothschild
was elected to Parliament, but could not take his seat because the
prescribed oath contained “upon the true faith of a Christian.” Not until
1858 was a bill passed which allowed a Jew to omit these words from the
oath. His son, Baron Nathan de Rothschild, was in 1885 admitted as the
first Jew to the House of Lords.
Only in the East of Europe restrictions continued. Czar Alexander I in
1804 issued a law which encouraged the Jews to take up agricultural
pursuits and acquire secular knowledge. This step was isolated, and in
the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855) the Jews were subjected to terrible
persecutions, the worst of which was that children were forcibly taken
from the houses of their parents and brought up in barracks as soldiers
to serve twenty-five years after they had reached the age required
for the army. Under Alexander II (1855-1881) a slow improvement in
exceptional cases took place. Jews who engaged in manufacturing or
business enterprises, skilled mechanics and those who had received a
college education, were exempt from most of the disabilities imposed on
the masses, but the condition of the latter was not changed. They were
still restricted in their rights of residence and occupation and excluded
from all political rights.
With the assassination of Alexander II a new era of persecutions began.
This culminated in bloody riots, which spread over a great part of
Southern Russia and were periodically repeated afterwards. The bloodiest
persecutions were those of Kishineff and Homel in 1903, and of Odessa and
a great many other cities in Southern Russia in 1905, and of Bialystok
in 1906, when more than a thousand people lost their lives. Even further
restrictions were introduced. Thus a law of May 3, 1882, prohibited
the residence of Jews in rural districts and the acquisition of rural
estates, and while in former times the acquisition of secular knowledge
by Jews was encouraged by the government, laws of December 5, 1886,
and July 6, 1887, restricted the attendance of Jewish students at high
schools and universities to a percentage ranging from three to ten. While
the Jews obtained the right to participate in the elections of the Duma,
the Imperial Parliament, they have no right to participate in municipal
elections and are represented in the municipal boards only by a few
members who are appointed by the government. They are also excluded from
the county boards, Zemstvo.
Similar conditions prevail in Rumania. When that country gained its
autonomy in 1856, it not only denied to the Jews political rights but
declared them to be foreigners. Frequent mob attacks and arbitrary
treatment on the part of the courts and the officials made them
practically outlaws. A hope for improvement seemed to loom up when in
1878 the Congress of Berlin embodied an article in the treaty which
compelled the newly founded sovereign and autonomous states of Servia,
Bulgaria and Rumania to remove from their statute-books all laws
discriminating against citizens on the ground of religious belief. They
complied with this requirement, but Rumania availed itself of a ruse by
which the law was practically rendered nugatory. By declaring the Jews
to be foreigners, and naturalizing some Jews, it apparently complied
with the law, while almost all the 250,000 Jews of the country remained
in their former state of misery, enhanced by new regulations restricting
their economic freedom.
It looked in 1878 as if Europe had guaranteed the fair treatment of the
Jews even in countries of oppression; opposition began in popular ranks,
and in the same year anti-Semitism arose as a new name for hostility
toward the Jews. This first made itself felt in Germany through the
foundation of the Christian Socialist party in 1878, started with the
avowed object of withdrawing from the Jews their political rights,
including that of holding public office and advocating the prohibition of
the immigration of Jews.
From Germany the movement spread to Austria, where it first was taken up
by the radical German party in 1883, and later on by the clericals. It
spread then to Hungary and France, where the publication of Drumont’s “La
France Juive” in 1886 marks the beginning of the movement culminating
in the Dreyfus case. Captain Alfred Dreyfus in 1894 was charged with
high treason in order to stir up anti-Jewish feeling, and this was not
abated until his innocence had finally been established in 1906. Another
sign of an unfavorable change in the attitude of the masses toward the
Jews was the revival of the blood accusation. When in 1840 it made its
appearance in Damascus, where Jews were imprisoned and tortured for this
cause, it seemed that such a return to mediæval barbarism was confined to
the Orient. In 1882, however, it took place in Tisza-Ezlar, Hungary, and
other cases followed in Western Europe: at Xanten, Germany, in 1891, at
Konitz in 1899, and at Polna, Bohemia, in 1900.
The disappointment caused by the unlooked-for reaction manifested
itself also in the attitude of the Jews with regard to their future.
Soon after it had become evident that the condition of the Jews in
Rumania would not be improved by the Treaty of Berlin, and after the
bloody persecutions in Russia had destroyed the hope that Russia would
slowly improve the condition of its Jews, a movement for the settlement
of the Jews in Palestine began. In 1882 the foundation of a society,
“Lovers of Zion,” marked the beginning of a movement looking toward
the resettlement of the Jews in Palestine. It assumed more systematic
shape by the publication of “Der Judenstaat,” by Theodor Herzl in 1896,
which was followed in 1897 by the first Congress of Zionists convened at
Basle, which declared in its platform the object to establish “a legally
secured home for the Jewish people in Palestine.” At the same time an
unprecedented emigration took place from Russia and Rumania to free
countries, particularly to the United States, Canada, Australia and South
Africa, with a smaller but also considerable stream of emigration to
England.
Baron de Hirsch attempted to regulate the emigration by turning it to
Argentine, where he acquired large tracts of land in 1890. Indeed,
agricultural settlements were founded there, although they did not
realize the expectations of those who would have turned large masses of
immigrants into that country.
In spite of the retrogressive movement which the history of the Jews
seemed to present, Western Europe not only retained the principles
enacted by the constitutions promulgated in and after 1848, but
individual Jews have risen to prominence in political life. Almost all
states of Western Europe have had Jews as members of their Parliaments,
and some have obtained prominent positions in the government service.
France had several Jews as ministers. Cremieux was minister of justice in
1848, Godchaux and Achille Fould served under Napoleon III, and Raynal
under the republic. In Italy, Wollemborg was once and Luzzatti six times
minister of finance, and Joseph Ottolenghi was minister of war. In 1910
Luzzatti became premier. Holland had repeatedly Jewish ministers, and
England saw in 1909 the first Jew, Herbert Samuel, member of the cabinet.
The United States had a Jew in the cabinet in the person of Oscar S.
Straus, secretary of commerce and labor (1906-1909). In the Grand Duchy
of Baden, Moritz Ellstaetter was minister of finance (1868-1893). Quite
a number of Jews have occupied positions as judges, as professors at
universities, and in other public activities.
CULTURE
The improvement of the political conditions influenced the intellectual
and social life of the Jews to a considerable degree. This is noticeable
in their literature, education, religious life and finally in their
communal organizations.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), of Dessau, came as a boy to Berlin.
After a youth filled with hardship he found employment in the house of
a manufacturer, first as tutor and then as bookkeeper. His main object
was to raise Jews from their intellectual isolation. He translated the
Pentateuch, the Psalms and some smaller books of the Bible into correct
German, and edited this work with a Hebrew commentary. It soon became
popular and was the medium for teaching the young people the German
language. He also defended Judaism against various attacks and presented
its teaching in a German work, “Jerusalem.” In his work on the Bible,
he was assisted by various co-workers, among whom the most prominent is
Naphtali Herz Wesel, who called himself Hartwig Wessely (1725-1805). The
latter’s epic on the life of Moses, patterned on Klopstock’s “Messias,”
was written in elegant Hebrew verse, and became an inspiration to many
other writers disgusted with the obscure and artificial style of Rabbinic
Hebrew, and having a taste for literary beauty. An organ for such
endeavors was presented by the publication of the first Hebrew magazine,
“Meassef” (1784).
The progress of secular education made Hebrew literature soon disappear
in Western Europe, but the influence of Wessely and his disciples made
itself very strongly felt in the East of Europe, and particularly in
the countries comprising the former kingdom of Poland. Their modern
Hebrew writings introduced the young men to the knowledge of history and
science, and gave them a taste for secular education and for a western
conception of life. Isaac Bär Loewinson (1788-1860) wrote works in
defense of Judaism, and advocated secular culture, patriotism, manual
trades and the emancipation from mediæval conditions still existing in
these countries. Marcus Aaron Guenzburg (1795-1846) worked chiefly as
translator of popular works, such as juveniles like Campe’s “Robinson
Crusoe.”
A more independent character was given to Hebrew literature by Abraham
Mapu (1808-1867) who wrote two novels from Biblical life, “The Love of
Zion,” and “The Guilt of Samaria,” and another describing the life of
the Jew in his Lithuanian home, “The Hypocrite.” Mapu used Biblical
Hebrew with great facility and became the father of a new development in
Hebrew and later in Yiddish, giving to Jewish literature a high literary
character. He was followed by Judah Loew (Leon) Gordon (1833-1892),
whose satirical poems not merely possess a value for the ease with which
the author handled the Hebrew language, but have been a great force
impressing upon the minds of the Jews in Eastern Europe the defects of
their intellectual isolation and the shortcomings of Rabbinic teachings.
Among the later poets Chayim Nachman Bialik, born 1873, is the most
popular. His elegy on the massacre of Kishineff is one of the gems of
modern Hebrew literature.
Yiddish literature from its earliest beginnings in the sixteenth century
was mostly used as a vehicle for the religious instruction of women
and people of little education or merely adapted and translated some
of the popular literature of the countries where its exponents lived.
From the middle of the nineteenth century it commenced to assume a more
independent character and thus secured a place in the world’s history as
is shown by the fact that some of its works were translated into other
European languages. Among the novelists may be mentioned Shalom Jacob
Abramowitsch (born 1836) who writes under the pseudonym, “Mendele the
bookseller,” Shalom Rabinowitsch (born 1859) and, the most popular of
all, Isaac Loeb Peretz (born 1851). A poet who presents the tragic as
well as the humorous side of the New York ghetto, Morris Rosenfeld, born
1864, is to be mentioned; his works have been translated into various
European languages. Of dramatists whose works have occasionally found
their way to the German and English stage there are Shalom Asch, and
Jacob Gordin (1853-1909), who deals with the life of Russian Jews in
America.
The disappearance of the social and intellectual isolation in the life
of the Jews created a special literature which is called the ghetto
novel. This deals with the life of the Jews in the era of transition from
their isolation to modern culture. This literature began in Germany and
its best known representatives are Aaron Bernstein (1812-1884), Leopold
Kompert (1822-1886), Karl Emil Franzos (1848-1904), and, among Christians
who view the life of the Eastern Jews with sympathy, Leopold von
Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895) and Eliza de Orzeska (1842-1910). Sketches from
the life of the Alsatian Jews were presented in French by Alexander Weill
(1811-1898) and in Danish by Meier Aaron Goldschmidt (1819-1887). In the
English language, Israel Zangwill, born 1864, wrote novels dealing with
the life of the foreign Jews in England. Among his works “The Children
of the Ghetto” has obtained a place in the world’s best literature. The
English stories of Martha Wolfenstein (1869-1906) deal with the life of
European Jews.
A place in modern Jewish literature belongs to the Jewish press as it
has developed in the nineteenth century. The first Jewish periodical
that had more than an ephemeral existence was “Meassef,” published in
Hebrew with some parts in German. It began to appear in 1784, and with
some interruptions was kept up until 1810. The oldest periodical still
in existence is the “Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums,” begun by Ludwig
Philippson, rabbi in Magdeburg, in 1837. It was followed by the “Archives
Israélites” in 1840 in Paris, and by the “Jewish Chronicle” in 1841 in
London. Of the numerous periodicals published in the United States, the
oldest still existing is the “American Israelite,” founded by Isaac M.
Wise in Cincinnati in 1854.
The first Hebrew weekly, which dealt not only with Jewish affairs, was
the “Hamaggid,” founded by Lazarus Silbermann in Lyck, East Prussia,
in 1858. The first Hebrew daily paper was the “Hazefirah,” published
first as a weekly in 1862 and afterwards as a daily from 1886. Quite a
number of valuable magazines dealing with Jewish history and literature
have been published since the middle of the nineteenth century in
Hebrew and in various modern languages. “Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift
fuer Juedische Theologie” (1835-1840) and “Juedische Zeitschrift fuer
Wissenschaft und Leben” (1862-1875) were both edited by Abraham Geiger;
the “Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums,”
begun by Zechariah Frankel in 1854, was discontinued in 1887 and has
been republished since 1891. “Revue des Etudes Juives” dates from 1881;
“Jewish Quarterly Review” appeared from 1888 to 1908. Of the Hebrew
magazines there are “Kerem Hemed,” of which nine volumes were published
from 1833 to 1856, Bikure Ha-ittim (1820-1831), and “Haschiloach” since
1896.
Rabbinic literature of the older type, dealing with the law and Talmudic
dialecticism, has also a great number of representatives during this
period. Among the foremost may be named Moses Schreiber (Sofer), born
at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1762, died as rabbi of Presburg in 1839,
and Akiba Eger (1761-1837). In Western Europe this literature shows
a steady decline. Of the authors whose life belongs entirely to the
nineteenth century may be mentioned Jacob Ettlinger, rabbi of Altona
(1798-1871), and Seligman Bär Bamberger, rabbi of Wuerzburg (1807-1878).
Very numerous, however, are the Rabbinic authors of Eastern Europe and
the Orient, among whom Isaac Elhanan Spector, rabbi of Kovno (1810-1896),
Hayim David Hazan, rabbi of Jerusalem (1790-1868), Hayim Palaggi, rabbi
of Smyrna (1784-1868), and Hayim Hezekiah Medini (1834-1904), may be
mentioned.
Already before Mendelssohn’s time individual Jews in Germany and Austria
distinguished themselves in literature and science. But the education of
the masses was almost entirely confined to Bible and Talmud. With the
popularization of secular knowledge the necessity for schools arose and
the first institution of this kind was founded in Berlin as the “Jewish
Free School” in 1778. The efforts of Emperor Joseph II to promote secular
culture among the Jews of Austria led to the establishment of a primary
school in Prague in 1782. Others followed in different cities: the
Wilhelm Schule of Breslau was founded in 1791; the Herzog Franz-Schule
in Dessau in 1799. Higher schools were the Jacobson Schule in Seesen in
1801, the Samson Schule in Wolfenbuettel in 1803, and the Philanthropin
in Frankfort-on-the-Main in the next year. Even in Eastern Europe, where
religious fanaticism was bitterly opposed to secular education, such
schools came into existence like the one founded in Tarnopol by Joseph
Perls in 1815. The Alliance Israélite Universelle, founded in 1860,
made it one of its principal objects to establish schools for secular
education in the Orient, and it now has a great number of schools
which it maintains in Turkey, Northern Africa and Asia, extending from
Palestine and Asia Minor to Persia and Mesopotamia.
With the growing number of schools the need for special training schools
for Jewish teachers arose. The first of these was founded in Berlin in
1825. More important was the need for training schools for rabbis. The
old method of education by which every young man who devoted himself to
study was a Talmudic scholar was discontinued in Western Europe. On the
other hand, it became necessary to give the rabbis a more systematic
training. The first modern school of this kind was established in
Padua, then under Austrian rule, in 1829. Later the Yeshibah of Metz
was transformed into a Rabbinic seminary and subsequently transferred
to Paris. In 1854 the Rabbinic seminary of Breslau was founded and
this was followed by the establishment of similar institutions in
European countries. In 1875 the first Rabbinic seminary in America,
the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, was opened. In New York the
Jewish Theological Seminary was established in 1886. Various educational
institutions devoted to special needs, such as the school for the
deaf-mutes opened in Nikolsburg in 1845, and later transferred to Vienna,
and the first Jewish institute for the blind established in the latter
city in 1872, deserve to be mentioned in this connection.
The removal of the disabilities which kept the Jews from agriculture
and mechanical trades, and the desire of the Jews to direct the young
generation into such pursuits gave rise to quite a number of institutions
all over the world devoted to these purposes. Several of these are
located in the Orient and were founded or subventioned by the Alliance
Israélite. It established the first agricultural school near Jaffa in
Palestine in 1871. The Hebrew Technical Institute of New York, founded in
1884, the agricultural schools at Ahlem, founded 1893, at Woodbine, N.
J., 1891, and at Doylestown, Pa., 1896, may be mentioned.
With the emancipation from Rabbinic studies a new development in Jewish
learning took place. This showed itself in what is called the “Science
of Judaism,” and may be defined as a systematic study of Jewish history
and literature. The pioneer in this work was Leopold Zunz (1794-1886) who
wrote books on the history of Jewish homiletics, on the synagogal poetry
and various minor essays on all phases of Jewish literature. He found
numerous followers, not merely in western Europe, but also in the East,
and thus contributed largely to the intellectual elevation of the Jews.
In Eastern countries the first who wrote on these topics in Hebrew were
Nahman Krochmal (1785-1840) and Solomon Loew Rapoport (1790-1867). The
latter, inspired by the works of Zunz, was the author of biographies
of prominent mediæval rabbis. In Italy we have Isaac Samuel Reggio
(1784-1855) and Samuel David Luzzatto (1800-1865), who used the excellent
collections of old Hebrew prints and manuscripts for the elucidation of
the history of Jewish literature. The external side of the literature
was presented in erudite form by the great bibliographer Moritz
Steinschneider (1816-1907). History in more readable form was written
first by Isaac Marcus Jost (1795-1860), and then by Heinrich Graetz
(1817-1891), the latter’s work having gone through various editions
and been translated into French, English, Hebrew and Yiddish. Numerous
authors worked at the elucidation of portions of Jewish history and
carefully edited old manuscripts. Thus they shed light on obscure parts
of the Jewish past and showed the many-sided activity of the Jews during
the long period of their history and their influence on all human
activities.
In this connection the participation of the Jews in spiritual activity
ought to be mentioned. We find them as authors, artists, inventors and
scholars in all lines. Only the most prominent can be named. Ludwig
Boerne, formerly Loeb Baruch (1784-1837), is one of the classic essayists
of German literature. Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) is one of the greatest
of lyric poets. Both Heine and Boerne became converted to Christianity. A
classic author of village idyls is Berthold Auerbach (1812-1882). Among
the greatest tragedians of the world are Eliza Rachel Felix (1821-1858),
in her days the foremost actress on the French stage, and Adolf von
Sonnenthal (1832-1909) considered the most prominent German actor of his
time. Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) is one of the world’s best known
composers. Moritz Oppenheimer (1800-1881) was a prominent painter, and
his scenes from Jewish life possess, besides their value as works of
art, great worth as historic scenes. Marcus Antokolsky (1842-1902) is
one of the most famous sculptors, and Joseph Israels (born 1824) and Max
Liebermann (born 1849) are among the greatest painters of our age. In
the lines of science and scholarly work the names of prominent Jews are
too numerous to mention.
The great change in the life of the Jews and their education brought
about the necessity of harmonizing their religious practices with their
new life. Thus the reform movement began. The forces which promoted it
were æsthetic, political and dogmatic. In the first class may be reckoned
the efforts of Israel Jacobson (1769-1828). Although not a professional
scholar he was a man of considerable Jewish learning, and his object was
to make the services of the synagogue more attractive to the younger
generation. The synagogue established by him in connection with the
school which he founded in Seesen in 1810 was the first that introduced
some of the reforms which since have been generally accepted, namely, a
sermon in the vernacular and decorum and modern music.
In 1818 the first reform congregation was established in Hamburg. It
was followed in 1824 by a similar organization in Charleston, S. C.;
this, however, was soon dissolved. These synagogues introduced a ritual
different from the one which had up to this time been generally in
use. The most important changes were those which eliminated the belief
in the return of the Jews to Palestine and consequently also in the
restoration of the sacrificial cult. These were followed by an attempt
to present systematically the teachings of modern Judaism and to apply
the principles of the modern critical school to the whole of Jewish life,
particularly the observance of the dietary and marriage laws.
The desire to work in harmony led to the convocation of Rabbinic
assemblies, the first of which was held in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1844.
As the exponent of the most radical views Samuel Holdheim (1806-1860) is
to be mentioned. It was his idea that Judaism had lost all its former
national significance. On this basis the reform congregation of Berlin,
whose first rabbi Holdheim was, was established in 1845, introducing for
the first time solemn services on Sunday.
The most prominent scientific exponent of the reform idea was Abraham
Geiger (1810-1874), one of the most prominent workers in scientific
Jewish literature. He stood for a more historic conception of the reform
principle, although as a Bible critic his position was advanced. His
views were shared by two of the leading rabbis of America, David Einhorn
(1809-1879) and Samuel Hirsch (1815-1889). They, together with Samuel
Adler (1809-1891), represented the progressive ideas of German theology
in America.
In 1842 reform was definitely introduced in the synagogue of Charleston,
S. C., following the example set by the foundation of the West London
Synagogue of British Jews the year previously. In America, however,
reform took strongest hold and soon was accepted by the leading
congregations composed of the native and the naturalized element. The
most prominent figure in the popularization of this movement in America
was Isaac Mayer Wise (1819-1900).
A more conservative view, usually spoken of as that of historic Judaism,
was represented by Zechariah Frankel (1801-1875). He stood for freedom of
thought in theoretical matters but advocated conservatism in worship and
practice. Another division was formed by those who stood uncompromisingly
for the preservation of the traditional Jewish life based on a strict
belief in the divine origin of the Bible and the authenticity of
Rabbinic interpretation, differing from the old school only in so far
as they admitted secular education. The chief exponent of this thought
was Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888). In America his views were
represented by Isaac Leeser (1806-1868) and Sabato Morais (1823-1897),
while a compromising attitude was taken by Benjamin Szold (1829-1902)
and Marcus Jastrow (1829-1903). The traditional view of Judaism in the
sense in which it had generally existed until the latter half of the
eighteenth century, was restricted to the Orient and Eastern Europe and
to congregations formed by recent immigrants from these countries in
Western Europe and America. As a literary champion of this uncompromising
attitude Hillel Lichtenstein (1815-1891) deserves mention.
One of the features of modern Jewish development is the communal
organization rendered possible by the freedom of movement in religious,
charitable and political activities. The Alliance Israélite Universelle
deserves for this the first place. It was founded for the purpose
of defending the interests of the Jews in countries of oppression
and promoting their economic and moral as well as their intellectual
status. This organization was followed by others with similar objects,
the Israelitische Allianz of Vienna, started in 1873, the Anglo-Jewish
Association, founded in 1871, and the Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, in
1901.
Of the many organizations confined to particular countries the
Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeinde-Bund, founded in 1869, and the Union
of American Hebrew Congregations, established in 1873, deserve special
mention. Very numerous are the societies created for the promotion of
the welfare of the Jews, and aside from the local institutions, like
hospitals, homes for the aged, orphan asylums and sanitariums, the
societies for the promotion of mechanical trades and agriculture are
distinctly a product of the Jewish conditions of the nineteenth century.
Of organizations having a wider scope, the Jewish Colonization
Association founded by Baron Moritz de Hirsch in 1891, has the greatest
capital. These schemes of colonization, to which the work done by the
Zionist organizations and that contemplated by the Jewish Territorial
Organization founded in 1905, have to be added, are as yet only in their
infancy. In general, however, since the French Revolution there has been
a steady progress of Jewish life in all directions.
INDEX
Aaron ben Elijah, 43
Abarbanel, Isaac, 65
Abaje, 34
Abba Areka (Rab), 33
Abbahu of Cæsarea, 31
Abderrahman, 39
Abeles, Lazarus, 79
Abraham ibn Ezra, 49
Abramowitsch, Shalom Jacob, 102
Abulafia, Meir, 66
Acosta, Uriel, 76
Adereth Elijahu, 34
Adler, Samuel, 110
Ælia Capitolina, 22
Agobard, 38
Agrippa, 16, 17
— II, 17
Ahai of Shabha, 41
“Aharonim,” 86
Akedat Yizhak, 65
Akiba, 22, 25, 26, 27, 41
Albigenses, 63
Albo, Joseph, 59, 64
Alcharizi, Judah, 51
Alexander I, 96
— II, 96
— Jannai, 13
—, son of Aristobul, 14
— the Great, 8
—, successors of, 9
Alexandra Salome, 13
Alfasi, Isaac, 51, 66, 67
Algiers, Chief Rabbi of, 67
Alkabez, Solomon Halevi, 86
Alkymus, 12
Alliance Israélite Universelle, 106, 107, 111
Alorqui, Joshua, 59, 66
Alphonso X, 58
Alsace, 55, 58, 74, 93, 103
Ambrosius, 37
America, 83, 99, 100, 109, 110, 111
America, Early Jewish Communities in, 81, 82
American Revolution, 82
Amolo, 39
Amoraim, 31
Amram Gaon, 41
Amsterdam, 75, 76, 81, 82, 100
Anan ben David, 43
Anatoli, Jacob, 65
Anglo-Jewish Association, 111
Antigonus, 9
—, 14
Anti-Jewish books, 38, 39, 73, 79
Antiochus III, 9
— IV (Epiphanes), 9, 11
— V, 11
Antipater, 13, 14
Anti-Semitism, Rise of, 98
Antokolsky, Marcus, 108
Antony, 14
Apollonius, 10
Arabs, 35, 39, 48, 49, 58
Arama, Isaac, 65
Arbues, Peter, 60
Archelaus, 15
Arians, 38
Aristobul, 13
—, 13, 14
Armleder, John, 55
Artaxerxes, 8
— III, Ochus, 8
Aruk, 41, 51
Aryeh Lob, 87
Ascarelli, Deborah, 84
Asch, Shalom, 103
Ashe, Rab, 34
Asher ben Yechiel, 67
Auerbach, Berthold, 108
Augustus, 16
Austria, 79, 91, 92, 94, 95, 98, 105
Auto-da-fe, 60, 61, 81
Avignon, 57
Azariah dei Rossi of Ferrara, 84, 85
Babylonia, 7, 8, 31, 32, 33, 40
Bacharach, Jair Hayyim, 87
Bahya ibn Pakuda, 48, 64
Bajazed II, Sultan, 70
Balkans, 63
Bamberger, Seligman Bär, 105
Barcelona, Disputation at, 58
Bar Kochba, Simeon, 22, 26
Bashjazi, Elijah, 43
Basle, Zionist Congress at, 99
Bavaria, Mobs in, 93
Bela IV, 62
Benedict XIII, 59
— of York, 48
Benjamin of Nehawend, 43
Berlin, 72, 75, 79, 81, 90, 100, 106, 110
—, Treaty of, 97, 99
Bernard of Clairvaux, 47
Bernardin of Feltre, 56, 61
Bernstein, Aaron, 103
Besht, Israel, 78
Bevis of Hampton, Sir, 84
Bialik, Chayim Nachman, 102
Bialystok, 96
Bikure Ha-ittim, 104
Black Plague, 55
Blois, France, 48
Blood-accusation, 47, 53, 56, 61, 78, 79, 98
Bobo book, 83
Boerne, Ludwig, 108
Bohemia, 62
Bonds, Annulling of, 54
Brazil, 81
Breslau, 56, 68
—, Rabbinic Seminary at, 106
Bruna, Israel, Trial of, 68
Bulgaria, 97
Byzantine Empire, 30, 37
Cæsar, 14
Cæsarea, 17
Caligula, 16
Callistus, 23
Calvin, 73
Capistrano, John, 56, 62
Caro, Joseph, 65, 85, 86
Carpentras, 57
Casimir the Great, 62
Cestius Gallus, 18
Champagne, province of, 52
Charlemagne, 39, 46
Charles II of England, 75
— III of France, 39
Charleston, S. C., Reform Congregation at, 109, 110
Charters, 46, 47, 62
Chazars, 44, 49
“Children of the Ghetto,” 103
Chmelnicki, 78
Cincinnati, Rabbinic Seminary of, 106
Claudius, 17
Clemens, Flavius, 21
Clementina, 21
Cohen, Joseph, 88
—, Sabbatai, 86
—, Tobias, 89
Cologne, 56, 92
Colon, Joseph, 68
Conforte, David, 88
Constantine, 29, 46
Constantinople, Conquest of, 63
Cordova, Jews in Caliphate of, 39
Crassus, 14
Cremieux, 100
Crescas, Hasdai, 64
Cromwell, 75, 81
Crusades, 47, 57, 62
Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, 30
Cyrus, 7
Czars, 96
Dahlberg, Baron von, 92
Damascus, Blood Accusation in, 98
Dante, 65
David Halevi, 86
David ben Zakkai, 42
del Medigo, Jos. Sol., 84
Demetrius I, 11
Dessau, 79
Deuterosis, 30
Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeinde-Bund, 11
Dialecticism (see Pilpul)
Dio Cassius, 21
Diocletian, 28
Disputations, 58, 59
Divina Commedia, 65
Dod Mordecai, 44
Dohm, Christian F., 91
Dominican Friars, 63, 64, 66, 73, 74
Domitian, 20
Donin, Nicholas, 57, 64
Donmah, 77
Donolo, Sabbatai, 45
Dramatists, Yiddish, 103
Dreyfus, Capt. Alfred, 98
Drumont’s “La France Juive,” 98
Duma, 97
Dunash ibn Labrat, 39
Duran, Simeon ben Zemach, 68
Eben Bohan, 65
— Haezer, 67
Eck, John, 73
Edward I, 54
Eger, Akiba, 105
Einhorn, David, 110
Eisenmenger, J. A., 79
Eldad Hadani, 44
Eleazar ben Azariah, 25
— ben Jehudah, 68
— ben Kallir, 45
— of Modin, 22
— bar Padath, 31
Eliezer ben Hyrkanos, 25
Elijah Levita, 83
— de Vidas, 86
— del Medigo, 66
— of Wilna, 88
Elisha ben Abuyah (Acher the Apostate), 26
Ellstaetter, Moritz, 100
Emden, city, 75
—, Jacob, 88
Emigration from Russia and Rumania, 99
Emunot Wedeot, 42
England, 54, 75, 82, 91, 95, 100, 110
En Jacob, 85
“Entdecktes Judenthum,” 79
Eshkol Hakofer, 43
Ethics, 76
Ets Hayim, 43
Ettlinger, Jacob, 105
Expulsion of Jews, Arabia, 36
—, Austria, 74
—, Berlin, 75, 79
—, Bohemia, 74
—, England, 54, 75
—, France, 57
—, Germany, 56, 57
—, Hungary, 62
—, Luebeck, 93
—, Portugal, 59, 60
—, Spain, 60, 62
—, Vienna, 79
Eybeschuetz, Jonathan, 87, 88
Ezra, the Scribe, 8, 32
—, the Kabbalist, 69
Ezriel, 69
Felix, Eliza Rachel, 108
Ferdinand of Spain, 60, 70
— I of Austria, 74
Firkovitch, Abraham, 44
“Fiscus Judaicus,” 20, 21
Flagellants, 55
Fould, Godchaux and Achille, 100
France, 37, 38, 39, 48, 53, 54, 57, 58, 68, 91, 98, 100
Frank, Jacob, 77
Frankel, Zechariah, 104, 110
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 80, 92, 110
Franzos, Karl Emil, 103
Frederick II of Germany, 53, 65
— the Belligerent, Law of, 53
— the Great, 90
— William III, 94
— William, of Brandenburg, 79
French Revolution, 94
Gabirol (see Solomon ibn)
Gamaliel II, 24, 25
Gan Eden, 43
Gans, David, 88
Gaonim, 40, 41, 42, 43
Gaza, Battle of, 9
Gedaliah ibn Yahya, 88
Geiger, Abraham, 104, 110
Germany, 36, 37, 39, 46, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79,
80, 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 98, 101, 103
Geronimo de Santa Fe (see Alorqui, Joshua)
Gershom ben Judah (Meor Hagolah), 46
Gessius Floras, 17
Ghetto, 71, 92
Ghetto novel, 103
Goldschmidt, Meier Aaron, 103
Goldsmid, Francis H., 95
Gombiner, Abraham, 86
Gomperz, Elijah, 79
Gordin, Jacob, 103
Gordon, Judah Loew, 102
Goths, 37, 38
Graetz, Heinrich, 108
Granada, 49
Grégoire, Abbé, 91
Gregory I, 37, 38
Gregory of Tours, 38
Guenzburg, Aaron, 101
“Guide of the Perplexed,” 50
Habib, Jacob ibn, 84
Hadrian, 21, 22
Halakot Gedolot, 40
Halberstadt, 79
Halle, 79
Hamaggid, 104
Hamburg, 93, 109
Hamon, Joseph, 70
Hanina, Rabbi, 31
Haschiloach, 104
Hasdai ibn Shaprut, 39, 44
Hasidim, 77
—, Sefer, 68
Hasidism, 77, 78
Hasmonæans, 11
Hay Gaon, 42
Hayon, Nehemiah, 77
Hazan, Hayim David, 105
“Hazefirah,” 104
Hechasid, Judah ben Samuel, 68
Heilprin, Jehiel, 88
Heine, Heinrich, 108
Helic, Luke, 73
Heliodorus, 10
Henry II of Aragon, 58
— III of England, 54
— IV of Germany, 46
“Hep-hep” riots, 93
Heraclius, 30
Herod, 14, 15
— Antipas, 15
Herzl, Theodor, 99
Hezekiah, 14
—, Gaon, 43
Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, 111
Hillel, 23, 24
— II, 32
Hilperic, 38
Hirsch, Baron Moritz de, 99, 112
Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 111
—, Samuel, 110
Hisda, 34
Hizuk Emunah, 43
Hof-Jude, Hof-factor, 79
Holdheim, Samuel, 110
Holland (see Amsterdam)
Homel, 96
Hönig, Israel, 90, 92
Horowitz, Isaiah, 86
Hoshen Mishpat, 67
Host Desecration, 54, 56, 72
Huna, 33, 34
Hungary, 62
Hussites, 56
Hyrcan, John, 12
Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 49, 85
—, Ganah, 39
—, Moses, 50
— Tibbon, Samuel, 50, 64
Idumæans, 12, 13, 15
Ikkarim, 59, 64
Immanuel ben Solomon, 65
Innocent III, 48
— IV, 53
Inquisition, 59, 60, 63, 80, 81
Ipsus, Battle of, 9
Isaac ben Meir, 51
— ben Sheshet (Ribash), 67
—, Bernhard, 90
—, Don, 58
— of Troki, 43
—, son of Rabed, 69
Isabella, 60
Isaiah di Trani, 68
Ishmael, Rabbi, 26
Isidore of Seville, 38
Islam, 36, 77
Israelitische Allianz, 111
Israels, Joseph, 108
Isserlein, Israel, 68
Isserls, Moses, 85
Jabneh, School of, 24
Jacob ben Asher, 67, 85
Jacobson, Israel, 109
Jacob ben Meir (see Rabbenu Tam)
James VIII, 58
Jannai, 45
—, Alexander, 13
Jason (Joshua), 10
Jastrow, Marcus, 111
Jerome, 32
Jerusalem, Siege of, by Titus, 18
—, by Hadrian, 22
—, by Saladin, 63
Jesuits, 71, 78, 79
Jew Badge (see Yellow Badge)
Jewish Colonization Association, 112
— Propaganda, in Rome, 21, 29
— Territorial Organization, 112
Joachim II, Margrave, 75
Johanan bar Nappaha, 31
—, high priest, 8
— ben Zakkai, 24
John, King of England, 54
— Hyrcan, 12
Jonathan, Maccabee, 12
Jose bar Halafta, 27
— ben Jose, 45
—, Rabbi, 32
Joseph II of Austria, 91, 105
—, Rab, 34
—, Raphael, 77
—, son of Samuel Hanagid, 49
—, son of Tobias, 9
Josephus, Flavius, 18, 45
Joshua ben Hananiah, 25
— ben Jehozadak, 8
—, Jacob, 87
Josippon, 45
Jost, Isaac Marcus, 108
Jotapat, Siege of, 18
Judæo-Christian sect, 77
Judah bar Ezekiel, 34
— bar Ilai, 27
— ben Samuel Hechasid, 68
— Hadassi, 43
— Halevi, 44, 49, 64
— Hanasi, 27, 28, 30, 33
— successors of, 31
— Hayug, 39
—, son of Hezekiah, 16
—, the Elder, 64
—, the Maccabee, 11
—, the Patriarch, 23
Jüdenfeind, 73
Judenstaat, Der, 99
Julian, the Apostate, 29
Julius Severus, 22
Justinian, 30
Kabbala, 41, 45, 63, 69, 77, 84, 86, 87, 88
Kalla, 40
Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, 65
— family, 68
— of Lucca, 39, 46
Kapsali, Elijah, 68
Kara, Simeon, 66
Karaites, 43, 44
Karben, Victor von, 74
Kerem Hemed, 104
Kimhi, David, 62, 63
—, Joseph, 64
—, Moses, 64
Kishineff, 96, 102
Kohut, Alexander, 41
Kompert, Leopold, 103
Krochmal, Nahman, 107
Kuzari, 44, 49, 64
Ladino, 63, 70
Laimen, Bavaria, 90
Landau, Ezekiel, 87
Lateran Council, 48
Lattes, Bonet de, 71
Leeser, Isaac, 111
Legislation, Mediæval, 53
Lehman, Behrendt, 79
“Lekah Dodi,” 86
Lemberg, 78
Lemlein, Asher, 72
Leo X, 71
Leon, Judah Messer, 65
Leopold (Lippold), 75
— I of Austria, 79
Levi ben Gershom, 64
—, Herz, 79
Levita, Elijah, 71, 83
Libman, Jost, 79
Lichtenstein, Hillel, 111
Liebermann, Max, 108
Literary Activity in Europe, Earliest, 45
Lithuania, 78
Liturgy, 41, 49
Locke, John, 82
Loeb, Aryeh, 87
Loewe Ben Bezalel, 85
Longobards, 37
Louis I of Germany, 39
— of Hungary, 62
— IX of France, 57
— X of France, 57
— of Hesse, 73
Luebeck, 93
Luria, Isaac, 86
—, Solomon, 85
Luther, 72, 73
Luzzatti, Luigi, 100
Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim, 87
—, Samuel David, 107
Lysias, 11
Maaseh Tobiyah, 89
Maccabee, Judah the, 11
Machir ben Aba Mari, 66
Magnesia, Battle of, 9
Maimonides, 50, 51, 63, 66, 85
Mammæa, 23
Manuel, 60
Mapu, Abraham, 101, 102
Marannos, 59, 60, 61, 70, 72, 76, 80, 81
Marcus Aurelius, 23
Margaliot, Jacob, 73
Margaritha, Antonius, 73
Mariamne, 15, 16
Marinus (see ibn Ganah)
Martinez, Ferdinand, 58
Massada, Siege of, 19
Masseket Purim, 65
Mattathiah, 11
Mayence, 46, 92
“Meassef,” 101, 103
Medigo (see del Medigo, Jos. Sol.)
Medigo, Elijah del, 66
Medini, Hayim Hezekiah, 105
Meir of Rothenburg, 67
—, Rabbi, 27
Meisels, Mordecai, 74
Menahem ben Saruk, 39
Menasseh ben Israel, 75
Mendele the bookseller (see Abramowitsch)
Mendelssohn, Moses, 90, 100, 101, 105
Mendes, Joseph (Duke of Naxos), 70
—, Gracia, 70
Menelaus, 10
Meor Enayim, 84
Merovingian kings, 37
Messiah, 33, 36, 70, 71, 76, 77, 86
Metz, 91, 106
Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 108
Mezdzyrzecz, Baer, 78
Midrah, 45, 65, 66
Miklol, 63
Ministers, Jews as, 100
Mishnah, Compilation of, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34
—, Commentary, 50, 64
Mishneh Torah, 50
Mizrahi, Elijah, 83
Mob Violence, 29, 40, 37, 46, 48, 54, 55, 57, 62, 78, 79, 80, 93,
96, 99
Modena, Leon, 84
Modin, 11
Mohammed, 35, 36
Mohammedans, 29, 39, 40, 70, 72
Molcho, Solomon, 72
Monism, 76
Morais, Sabato, 111
Moravian Brethren, 73
Mordecai ben Hillel, 67
— ben Nissim, 44
Moreh Nebukim, 50, 63, 64, 67
Morteira, Rabbi Saul, 76
Moses ben Maimon (see Maimonides)
— ben Nachman, 58, 66
— ben Uri, 75
— ibn Ezra, 50
— of Coucy, 68
— of Leon, 69
Nahman bar Jacob, 34
— of Bratzlav, 78
Naples, 37
Napoleon I, 93
— III, 100
Nathan of Gaza, 77
— of Rome, 41, 51
Naxos, Duke of, 70
Nebuchadnezzar, 7
Nehardea, School in, 33
Nehemiah, 8
— Hakohen, 77
Nero, 18
Nerva, 21
New York, 102
—, Rabbinic Seminary of, 106
Nicholas I, 96
Nigrinus, 73
Nikanor, 12
Nikolsburg, 106
Norway, 95
Nuremberg, 67, 68
Odessa, 96.
Offenbach, 77
Oglethorpe, James, 82
Omar, Covenant of, 36
Onias III, 10
Oppenheimer, Moritz, 108
—, Samuel, 79
Orah Hayyim, 67
Organizations, 111, 112
Orzeska, Eliza, 103
Ostrogoths, 36
Ottolenghi, Joseph, 100
Padua, School at, 106
Palaggi, Hayim, 105
Palestine, Character of Studies in, 32
Pantheism (Monism), 76
Parliaments, Jews as members of, 94, 95, 97
Parsees, 28
Parthians, 14, 28
Paul IV, 71
Payetanim, 45
Peretz, Isaac Loeb, 102
Perls, Joseph, 105
Persecutions (see Mob Violence, Host Desecration, and Blood
Accusation)
Persia, 8, 30, 40
Peter the Cruel, 58
Petronius, 16
Pfefferkorn, John, 73, 74
Pharisees, 13, 21
Philip, son of Herod, 15
— IV of France, 57
— V of France, 57, 72
Philippi, Battle of, 14
Philippson, Ludwig, 104
Pick, Isaiah, 88
Pilpul, 34, 87, 88
Pirke, Rabbi Eliezer, 45
Pius V, 71
—, Marcus Antoninus, 23, 26
Piyut, 45
Podolia, 77
Poland, 57, 62, 71, 77, 78
Pompey, 14
Pontius Pilate, 16
Popes, 37, 38, 48, 53, 57, 59, 61, 70, 71, 72, 74, 93
Portugal, 60, 76, 80, 81, 82
Press, Jewish, 101, 103, 104
Printing, 62, 71, 75
Priscus, 38
Propaganda, 20, 29
Protestantism, 72, 73
Prussia (see Berlin and Germany), 90, 92, 94
Ptolemy, of Egypt, 9
—, son-in-law of Simon the Maccabee, 12
Pumbeditha, School of, 34, 40, 42
Quietus, 21
Quirinius, 16
Rab (see Abba Areka)
Raba, 34
Rabba bar Nahmani, 34
Rabbenu-Hakadosh (see Judah Hanasi)
— Tam, 51, 52
Rabbi (see Judah Hanasi)
Rabina, 34
Ramban, 66, 69
Rapoport, Solomon Loew, 107
Rashba (see Solomon ibn Adret)
Rashbam, 51, 52
Rashi, 51, 52
Ratisbon, 56, 57
Ravenna, 37
Rebellion of Jews, under Trajan, 21
Reform Movement, 109, 110, 111
Reformation, 72, 73, 74, 78, 83
Reggio, Isaac Samuel, 107
Renaissance, 73, 83, 84
Resh Galutha, 40
— Methibta, 40
Responsa (see Teshubot)
Reubeni, David, 72
Reuchlin, John, 73, 74
Reyna, 70
Rhode Island, 76, 82
Ribash (see Isaac ben Sheshet)
Richard Cœur de Lion, 48
Riesser, Gabriel, 94
Rieti, Moses, 65
Rindfleisch riot, 55, 67
Roettingen, 54
Rokeah, 68
Romano, Elijah, 71
—, Solomon, 71
Rome, 13 sq. (see Popes), 93
Rosenfeld, Morris, 102
Rosh, 67
Rosheim, Josel, 74
Rossi, Azariah dei (see Azariah)
Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, 95
—, Baron Nathan de, 96
Rumania, 97, 99
Russia, 96, 97, 99
Saadya Gaon, 42, 43
Sabbatai Zebi, 76, 77, 88
Saboraim, 34
Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 103
Sadducees, 13
Safed, 70, 86
Saladin, 63
Salman ben Jeroham, 43
Salome Alexandra, 13
Salomons, David, 95
Samaritans, Conversion of, 12
Samuel of Nehardea, 33
— ben Meir (see Rashbam)
—, Herbert, 100
— Hanagid, 49
— ibn Adijah, 35
— ibn Hofni, 42
San Benito, 60
Sanhedrin, 24, 25, 33, 93
Sargon, 7
Schools, Modern, 105, 106, 107
Schreiber, Moses (Sofer), 104
“Science of Judaism,” 107
Secular Education, Rise of, 101, 105
Seder Rab Amram, 41
Seesen, 109
Sefer Hayashar, 52
Seleucus, 9
Seligmann, Aaron Elias, 90
Selim I, Sultan, 70
Semag, 69
Servia, 97
Severus, Alexander, 23
—, Septimius, 23
“Shebet Jehudah,” 88
Sheeltot, 41
Shepherd Crusaders, 57
Sherira, Epistle of, 42
Shesheth, 34
Shtadlan, 74
Shulhan Aruk, 65, 85, 86
Sicarii, 17
Sidra, 40
Silbermann, Lazarus, 104
Simeon bar Isaac, 46
— ben Azai, 26
— ben Gamaliel II, 27
— ben Lakish, 31
— ben Shetach, 13
— ben Yohai, 69, 88
— Kayara, 40
—, the Stylite, St., 30
Simon, the reformer, 10
—, the Maccabee, 12
—, of Trent, 56
Sofer, Moses, 104
Soliman II, Sultan, 70
Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier, 66
— ben Isaac (see Rashi)
— Halevi (Paul, Bishop of Burgos), 59
— Ibn Adret (Rashba), 67
— ibn Gabirol, 49
— Ibn Verga, 88
—, son of Judah, 64
Soncino family, 75
Sonnenthal, Adolf von, 108
Spain, 38, 39, 48, 49, 58, 70, 81, 88
Spector, Isaac Elhanan, 105
Speyer, 46, 47
Spinoza, Benedict, 76
Steinhart, Joseph, 88
Steinschneider, Moritz, 108
Straus, Oscar S., 100
Stuyvesant, Governor, 76, 82
Sullam, Sarah Copia, 84
Sultans, 70
Sura, School in, 33, 40, 42
Sweden, 95
Switzerland, 95
Syria, 9, 10, 12
Szold, Benjamin, 111
Talmud, Burning of, 57
—, Palestinian, 32
—, Babylonian, 34, 46, 51, 52, 64, 67, 71, 84
—, Travesty on, 65
Talmudic Dictionaries, 41, 51
— Literature, 66
Tanaim, 27, 31
Targum, 34
Tarnopol, 105
Tashbez (Simeon Duran), 68
Terumat Ha-Deshen, 68
Teshubot (Responsa), 40, 42, 46, 67, 68
Theodoric, 36
Theodosius I, 29
— II, 30
Tiberias, School of, 31
Tineius Rufus, 22
Tishbi, 83
Titus, 18
Toledo, 58
“Toleranz-Edict,” 91
Torquemada, Thomas, 60
Tortosa, Disputation at, 59
Tosafists, 52
Tractatus, Theologico Politicus, 76
Trajan, 21
Trani, Isaiah di, 68
Tremellius, Emanuel, 73
Trent, Blood Accusation at, 56, 61
—, Council of, 71
Trigland, Jacob, 43
Tryphon, 12
Turim, 67
Turks, 63, 70
Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 112
United States (see America)
Uriel Acosta, 76
Usha, Synod at, 26
Usque, Samuel, 88
Varus, 16
Venice, 70, 71, 72
Vespasian, 18, 24
Vidas, Elijah de, 86
Vienna, Congress of, 93
—, School for blind and deaf mutes at, 106
Visigoths, 38
Vital, Hayyim, 86
Volhynia, 77
Washington, George, 82
Weill, Alexander, 103
Wenzel, King of Bohemia, 55
Wertheimer, Samson, 79
Wesel, Naphtali Herz, 101
Wessely Hartwig (see Wesel)
West India Company, 76
William of Norwich, 47
Williams, Roger, 76, 82
Wise, Isaac M., 104, 110
Wolf, Moses Benj., 79
Wolfenstein, Martha, 103
Wolkenburg Castle, 47
Wollemborg, 100
Worms, 46
Wuerzburg, 47
Yalkut Machiri, 66
— Shimeoni, 66
Yellow Badge, 48, 58, 71, 91
Yezirah, Sefer, 41
Yiddish, 63, 102
Yoreh Deah, 67
Zadok, 13
Zangwill, Israel, 103
Zealots, 16, 18, 24
“Zemah David,” 88
Zemah Gaon, 41, 51
Zemstvo, Jews excluded from the, 97
Zerahiah Halevi, 67
Zerubbabel, 8
Zebi, Sabbatai (see Sabbatai)
Zion, Ode to, 49
—, Lovers of, 99
Zionism, 99, 113
Zohar, 69, 88
Zunz, Leopold, 107
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