The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Science of Animal Locomotion
(Zoopraxography), by Eadweard Muybridge
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
Title: The Science of Animal Locomotion (Zoopraxography)
An Electro-Photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases
of Animal Movements
Author: Eadweard Muybridge
Release Date: June 15, 2012 [EBook #39998]
Language: English
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL ***
Produced by Mark C. Orton, Paul Clark and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
[Illustration]
THE SCIENCE OF
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION
(ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY)
AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF
CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS
BY
EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE
EXECUTED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS
RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION
DIAGRAMS
PROSPECTUS
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
PHILADELPHIA
OR
10 HENRIETTA STREET,
COVENT GARDEN
LONDON
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION.
(ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY.)
INTRODUCTORY.
In 1872, the author of the present work at Sacramento, California,
commenced an investigation with the object of illustrating by
photography some phases of animal movements. In that year his
experiments were made with a famous horse--Occident, owned by Senator
Stanford--and photographs were made, which illustrated several phases of
action while the horse was trotting at full speed, laterally, in front
of the camera.
The experiments were desultorily continued; but it was not until 1877
that the results of any of them were published.
In the meanwhile he devised an automatic electro-photographic apparatus,
for the purpose of making consecutive photographic exposures at
_regulated_ intervals of time or of distance. Some of the results of his
experiments with this apparatus, which illustrated successive phases of
the action of horses while walking, trotting, galloping, &c., were
published in 1878, with the title of "THE HORSE IN MOTION." Copies of
these photographs were deposited the same year in the Library of
Congress at Washington, and some of them found their way to Berlin,
London, Paris, Vienna, &c., where they were commented upon by the
journals of the day.
In 1882, during a lecture on "The Science of Animal Locomotion in its
relation to Design in Art," given at the Royal Institution (see
_Proceedings_ of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, March 13,
1882), he exhibited the results of some of his experiments made during a
few antecedent years at Palo Alto, California; when he, with the
zoopraxiscope and an oxy-hydrogen lantern, projected on the wall a
synthesis of many of the actions he had analysed.
It may not be considered irrelevant if he repeats what he on that
occasion said in his analysis of the quadrupedal walk:--
"So far as the camera has revealed, these successive foot fallings are
invariable, and are probably common to all quadrupeds....
"It is also highly probable that these photographic
investigations--which were executed with wet collodion plates, with
exposures not exceeding in some instances the one five-thousandth part
of a second--will dispel many popular illusions as to the gait of a
horse, and that future and more exhaustive experiments, with the
advantages of recent chemical discoveries, will completely unveil to the
artist all the visible muscular action of men and animals during their
most rapid movements....
"The employment of automatic apparatus for the purpose of obtaining a
regulated succession of photographic exposures is too recent for its
value to be properly understood, or to be generally used for scientific
experiment. At some future time the explorer for hidden truths will find
it indispensable for his investigations."
In 1883, the University of Pennsylvania, with an enlightened exercise of
its functions as a contributor to human knowledge, instructed the author
to make, under its auspices, a comprehensive investigation of "Animal
Locomotion" in the broadest significance of the words.
A DIAGRAM OF THE STUDIO
and the arrangement of the apparatus used for this purpose is here
given.
[Illustration]
TT represents the track along which the model M was caused to move. B is
the background, divided into spaces of 5 centimetres square for the
purpose of measurement.
L, a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras, parallel to the
line of motion (at a distance of 15 metres or about 48 feet therefrom),
for a series of 12 lateral exposures.
R, a vertical battery of electro-photographic cameras, at right angles
to the lateral battery, for a series of 12 _rear_ foreshortenings.
F, a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras, at any suitable
angle to the lateral battery for a series of _front_ foreshortenings.
O, the position of the electric batteries, a chronograph for recording
the time intervals of exposures, and other apparatus used in the
investigation.
A clock-work apparatus, set in motion at the will of the operator,
distributed a series of electric currents, and synchronously effected
consecutive exposures in each of the three batteries of cameras.
The intervals of exposures were recorded by the chronograph, and divided
into thousandths of a second. These intervals could be varied at will
from seventeen one-thousandth parts of a second to several seconds.
The task of making the original negatives was completed in 1885; the
remaining years have been devoted to the preparation of the work for
publication.
[Illustration:
LATERAL elevation of some consecutive phases of action by representative
horses.
Each line illustrates the successive fallings of the feet during a
single stride.
After the last phase illustrated, the feet, during continuous motion,
will revert practically to their position in the first phase.
The comparative distances of the feet from each other or from the ground
are not drawn to scale; and, in any event, would be merely approximate
for the succeeding stride.
In the conjectural stride No. 10, phase 3 is very doubtful, phases 5 and
7 seem probable in a very long stride.]
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
The results of this investigation are
=Seven Hundred and Eighty-one Sheets of Illustrations=, containing more
than 20,000 figures of men, women, and children, animals and birds,
actively engaged in walking, galloping, flying, working, jumping,
fighting, dancing, playing at base-ball, cricket, and other athletic
games, or other actions incidental to every-day life, which illustrate
motion or the play of muscles.
These sheets of illustrations are conventionally called "plates."
Each plate illustrates the successive phases of a single action,
photographed with automatic electro-photographic apparatus at regulated
and accurately recorded intervals of time, _consecutively_ from one
point of view; or, _consecutively_ AND _synchronously_ from _two_, or
from _three_ points of view.
=Each Plate is complete in itself without reference to any other Plate.=
When the complete series of twelve consecutive exposures, from each of
the three points of view, are included in ONE Plate, the arrangement is
usually thus:--
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | Laterals.
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | Rear Foreshortenings from
| | | | | | | | | | | | | points of view on the same
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12| vertical line, at an angle
| | | | | | | | | | | | | of 90° from the Laterals.
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | Front Foreshortenings from
| | | | | | | | | | | | | points of view on the same
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12| horizontal plane, at suitable
| | | | | | | | | | | | | angles from the Laterals.
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
The plates are not _photographs_ in the common acceptation of the word,
but are printed in PERMANENT INK, from gelatinised copper-plates, by the
New York Photo-Gravure Company, on thick linen plate-paper.
The size of the paper is 45 × 60 centimetres--19 × 24 inches, and the
printed surface varies from 15 × 45 to 20 × 30 centimetres--6 × 18 to 9
× 12 inches.
The number of figures on each plate varies from 12 to 36.
To publish so great a number of plates as one undivided work was
considered unnecessary, for each subject tells its own story; and
inexpedient, for it would defeat the object which the University had in
view, and limit its acquisition to large Libraries, wealthy individuals,
or Institutions where it would be beyond the reach of many who might
desire to study it.
It has, therefore, been decided to issue a series of One Hundred Plates,
which number, for the purposes of publication, will be considered as a
"COPY" of the work. These one hundred plates will probably meet the
requirements of the greater number of the subscribers.
In accordance with this view is issued the following
_PROSPECTUS_
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION,
AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF CONSECUTIVE PHASES
OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS,
BY
EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE.
1872-1885.
PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
_Exclusively by Subscription._
CONSISTING OF A SERIES OF
ONE HUNDRED PLATES,
AT A SUBSCRIPTION PRICE OF
ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS
For the United States, or
TWENTY GUINEAS
For Great Britain;
Or the equivalent of Twenty Guineas in the gold currency
of other countries in Europe.
This will be for
Austria,
Two Hundred and Ten Florins;
Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland,
Five Hundred and Twenty-five Francs;
Germany,
Four Hundred and Twenty Marks;
Holland,
Two Hundred and Fifty Guilders.
The Plates are enclosed in a strong, canvas-lined, full AMERICAN-RUSSIA
LEATHER PORTFOLIO.
For the purpose of placing all of the subscribers upon an equal footing
in regard to cost, a copy of the work will be sent in the portfolio, and
packed between boards, to any well-established Institution, or to any
subscriber, properly endorsed, to any city in Central or Western Europe,
or in the United States.
FREIGHT CHARGES PAID,
if so requested, to the railway station, with the understanding that the
subscription price is remitted within one week of the day of the arrival
of the work at the station.
Custom duties, or any other expenses, if any, at the cost of the
subscriber.
Additional Plates in any required number will be supplied to the
subscriber at the same proportionate rate; these, however, must be
ordered at the same time as the subscription Plates.
The Plates will be supplied
EXCLUSIVELY TO SUBSCRIBERS.
It was considered inadvisable to make an _arbitrary_ selection of the
one hundred Plates offered to subscribers, and with the object of
meeting, as far as possible, their diverse requirements, they are
invited to make their own selection, either from the subjoined list of
subjects, or from a detailed catalogue, which will be forwarded free of
expense to every subscriber.
The following are the numbers of Plates published of each class of
subjects, from which the subscriber's selection can be made:--
Plates Published.
Men, draped 6
" pelvis cloth 72
" nude 133
Women, draped 60
" transparent drapery and semi-nude 63
" nude 180
Children, draped 1
" nude 15
Movements of a man's hand 5
Abnormal movements, men and women, nude and
semi-nude 27
Horses walking, trotting, galloping, jumping, &c. 95
Mules, oxen, dogs, cats, goats, and other domestic
animals 40
Lions, elephants, buffaloes, camels, deer, and other
wild animals 57
Pigeons, vultures, ostriches, eagles, cranes, and other
birds 27
----
Total number of Plates 781
Containing more than 20,000 Figures.
=Should the selection be made from the Catalogue, it will be advisable
to give the Author permission to change any one of the selected Plates
for any other illustrating the same action, if, in his judgment, the
substituted Plate illustrates that action with a better model, or in a
more perfect manner than the one selected.=
=With regard to the selection of Plates, however, it has been found by
experience that unless any special subject or plate is required it will
be more satisfactory to the subscriber if he gives the Author GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS as to the CLASS of subjects desired and to leave the
SPECIFIC selection to him.=
Many of the large Libraries and Art or Science Institutions in America
and in Europe have subscribed for, and have now in their possession, a
complete series of the seven hundred and eighty-one Plates, the
subscription price for which is
FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS
in the United States,
ONE HUNDRED GUINEAS
in Great Britain for the complete series, in eight full AMERICAN-RUSSIA
LEATHER PORTFOLIOS, or if bound in eleven volumes, each plate _hinged_,
full American-Russia leather,
FIVE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DOLLARS
in the United States,
ONE HUNDRED AND TEN GUINEAS
in Great Britain; or its equivalent for any city in Central or Western
Europe.
Subscribers who wish to make use of these Plates for the promotion or
diffusion of knowledge, or for artistic or scientific purposes, will be
afforded facilities for acquiring working copies by special arrangement
with the Author.
VALEDICTORY.
This is not exactly the place nor the time for the Author to express his
obligations and thanks to those gentlemen who have assisted him in his
labours, but it affords a perhaps not inappropriate opportunity for him
to pay a tribute of gratitude to his recently deceased friend M.
Meissonier, without whose enthusiastic encouragement it is probable the
present work would never have been undertaken.
In 1882 he invited his friends to attend an illustrated Lecture given in
his studio by the Author, and then referring to a full knowledge of a
subject being necessary for it to be truthfully or satisfactorily
translated by the artist, declared how much his own impression of a
horse's motion had been changed after having carefully studied its
consecutive phases. Attention need not be directed to the modifications
in the expression of animal movements now progressing in the works of
the Painter and the Sculptor.
The investigations of the Author are so well known, and so generally
recognised as affording the only basis of truthful interpretation or
accurate criticism of Animal Movement, that it is unnecessary to quote
from the many elaborate reviews of "Animal Locomotion," which have been
published in the American, English, French, and German Scientific,
Artistic, and other Journals.
For the value of the present work to the general student of Nature and
the lover of Art, no less than to the Artist and the Archæologist, the
Physiologist and the Anatomist, it is with much pride and gratitude that
he refers to the annexed list of some of his European subscribers.
E. M.
10 HENRIETTA STREET,
COVENT GARDEN,
LONDON,
_August 1891_.
SUBSCRIBERS.
The general or departmental Libraries of the following
UNIVERSITIES.
Amsterdam
Andrews, St.
Basel
Berlin
Bern
Bologna
Bonn
Breslau
Bruxelles
Edinburgh
Erlangen
Freiburg
Genève
Genova
Glasgow
Göttingen
Griefswald
Halle
Heidelberg
Innsbrück
Jena
Kiel
Königsberg
Leiden
Leipzig
Liège
Louvain
München
Napoli
Oxford
Padova
Pisa
Prag
Roma
Rostock
Strassburg
Torino
Tübingen
Utrecht
Wien
Würzburg
Zürich
IMPERIAL, NATIONAL, OR ROYAL ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS.
Amsterdam
Antwerpen
Berlin
Bern
Birmingham
Bologna
Breslau
Bruxelles
Budapest
Dresden
Düsseldorf
Firenzi
Frankfurt
Genova
Gent
Leipzig
Liège
London
Manchester
Milano
München
Napoli
Paris
Praha
Roma (_de France_)
Sheffield
Torino
Venezia
Wien
Zürich
Architectural Institute, München
Herkomer School of Art, Bushey
ART MUSEUMS.
Amsterdam
Berlin
Budapest
ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS.
Dresden
Griefswald
Heidelberg
Königsberg
Leipzig
Prag
Rostock
Strassburg
Wien
Würzburg
Zürich
INDUSTRIAL ART AND SCIENCE MUSEUMS.
Berlin
Dublin
Edinburgh
Kensington
Paris
Wien
INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS.
Amsterdam
Breslau
Budapest
Frankfurt
Nürnberg
Zürich
LIBRARIES.
The Royal Library, Windsor Castle
Birmingham, Free Public
Edinburgh, Advocates'
Glasgow, Mitchell Free
Liverpool, Free Public
London, British Museum
Manchester, Free Public
Nottingham, Free Public
Paris, National Library
ANATOMICAL INSTITUTES.
Bern
Breslau
Freiburg
Halle
Innsbrück
Kiel
Königsberg
Leipzig
München
Pisa
Prag
Rostock
Tübingen
Würzburg
Zürich
ROYAL COLLEGES OF SURGEONS.
Edinburgh
London
PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTES.
Basel
Berlin
Bern
Bologna
Bonn
Breslau
Bruxelles
Erlangen
Freiburg
Genova
Göttingen
Griefswald
Halle
Heidelberg
Innsbrück
Jena
Kiel
Königsberg
Leipzig
Louvain
München
Napoli
Prag
Rostock
Strassburg
Torino
Tübingen
Wien
Würzburg
Zürich
VETERINARY INSTITUTES.
Alfort
Bern
Berlin
Dresden
ANTHROPOLOGICAL MUSEUMS.
Dresden
Firenze
ETHNOLOGICAL, NATURAL HISTORY, AND ZOOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS.
Amsterdam
Bruxelles
Freiburg
Kiel
Leiden
Liège
Napoli
Paris
Rostock
PHYSICAL INSTITUTES.
Basel
Bologna
Bruxelles
Genève
Heidelberg
Padova
Prag
Roma
Rostock
Utrecht
POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOLS.
Berlin
Firenze
Wien
Zürich
COLLEGES.
Charterhouse
Clifton
Dublin (Trinity)
Eton
Owens
Rossall
Wellington
ROYAL PORCELAIN MANUFACTORIES.
Berlin
Dresden
ARTISTIC, LITERARY OR SCIENTIFIC CLUBS.
Düsseldorf, _Malkesten_
Glasgow, _Western_
London, _Athenæum_
Rome, _Internazionale_
* * * * *
Agricultural High School of Berlin
Faculty of Medicine of Paris
Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow
Psychological Institute of Leipzig
Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh
Royal Institution, Edinburgh
Royal Dublin Society
Royal Society of London
The names and works of the following subscribers are so well known that
the Academical, University, and other honourable distinctions
appertaining to them are omitted, they being entirely unnecessary:--
ARTISTS, _Architects, Painters, and Sculptors_.
Albano, Salvatore
l'Allemand, Sigmund
Alma-Tadema, L.
Armitage, E.
Barabino, Nicolo
Becker, Carl
Begas, Reinhold
Benczur, Gyula
Berger, Julius
Behrens, Peter
Birch, Chas. B.
Boehm, Sir J. Edgar
Bonnat, Léon
Boughton, Geo. H.
Bouguereau, W. A.
Braith, Anton
Brandt, Josef von
Brausewetter, Otto
Bridgman, F. A.
Brock, Thos.
Canneel
Carland, Onorato
Carolus-Durand
Cavallucci, C. Jacopo
Cavelier, P. J.
Charlton, John
Clay, Sir Arthur
Coleman, Chas. Caryl
Coleman, Enrico
Colin, Paul
Conti, Tito
Costa, Giovanni
Crowe, Eyre
Dalou, Jules
Dannat, W. T.
Davinet, E.
Davis, H. W. B.
Defregger, Franz von
Detaille, Edouard
Dicksee, Frank
Diez, Rob.
Diez, Wm.
Drion, Prosper
Dubois, Paul
Ebner, L.
Eisenmenger, August
Ende, Herm
Ewald, Ernst
Faed, Thomas
Falguiere
Fildes, Luke
Ford, E. Onslow
Fremiet, M.
Frith, W. P.
Gallegos, José
Garnier, Charles
Gehrts, Joh.
Gelli, Edouardo
Gérôme, Jean Léon
Gilbert, Alfred
Gilbert, Sir John
Goodall, Fredk.
Gordigiani, Michele
Gow, Andrew C.
Grosse, Th.
Grützner, Eduard
Guignard, Gaston
Gysis, N.
Haüser, O.
Hebert, Ernesto
Herkomer, Hubert
Hess, Anton
Higgins, A.
Hübner, Eduard
Hunt, Holman
Janssen, Pet.
Kampf, Arthur
Kaulbach, F. A. von
Kips, A.
Kirchbach, Fr.
Klein-Chevalier
Knaus, Ludwig
Knight, Ridgway
Knille, Otto
Koehler, Robert
Kopf, Joseph
Kowalski, A. von
Kroner, Ch.
Kruse, Max
Kuehl, G.
Kühn, H.
Leighton, Sir Frederick
Lenbach, Franz R. von
Linton, Sir James D.
Löfftz, Ludwig R. von
Long, Edwin
Lotz, Carl
Lucas, Seymour
Luthmer, F.
MacWhirter, John
Marks, H. Stacy
Marshall, W. Calder
Maurier, George du
Max, Gabriel
Meeks, Eugene
Meissonier
Menzel
Meyerheim, Paul
Millais, Sir John E.
Miller, Ferdinand R. von
Molkenbaer, H. B. G.
Moore, Henry
Morelli, D.
Morot, Aimé
Muller, Carl
Munkacsy, Mich. de
Murgatroyd, J.
Mützel, G.
Nieper, Ludw.
Orchardson, W. Q.
Otto, Heinrich
Ouless, W. W.
Papperitz, Georg
Parsons, Alfred
Passini, Ludwig
Piglhein, Bruno
Portaels
Powers, Longworth
Poynter, E. J.
Prell, H.
Preyer, Ernest
Puvis, de Chavennes
Richmond, W. B.
Rivalta, Augusto
Riviere, Briton
Robert-Fleury, Tony
Rodin, A.
Roll
Roth, Ch.
Rümann, Wilh.
Sant, James
Sarti, Diego
Schaper, F.
Schill, Adolf
Schilling, Johannes
Severn, Arthur
Siemering, R.
Six, J.
Sommer
Stieler, Eugen von
Story, W. W.
Sturgess, John
Süs, Wilh.
Swan, John M.
Taylor, Edw. R.
Teschendorf, E.
Thiersch, Fredk.
Thoma, Hans
Thornycroft, Hamo
Uhde, F. von
Vibert, J. G.
Vinea, Francesco
Vriendt, de Jules
Vuillefroy, F. de
Wagner, Alex.
Watts, George F.
Weeks, E. L.
Weishaupt, Victor
Wells, Hy. T.
Werner, A. von
Whistler, J. McNeil
Woolner, Thos.
Zimmermann, Ernst
Zügel, H.
ARCHÆOLOGISTS, MEN OF LETTERS, AUTHORS OF ART WORKS, ETC.
Ball, Valentine
Berndorf, Otto
Berlepsch, H. E. von
Bullen, George
Coleman, Alexander
Dickson, Wm. P.
Donnelly, Genl.
Duhn, F. von
Duplessis, Georges
Eaton, Fredk. A.
Evans, John
Falke, J.
Graf, T. T.
Hirschfeld, Gustav
Holmes, Richard R.
Kekulé, Prof.
Klein, Wilhelm
Körte, G.
Michaelis, Ad.
Muntz, Eugene
Obreen, Fr. D. O.
Overbeck, Johannes
Pietsch, Ludwig
Preuner, A.
Pulszky, Karoli
Ruskin, John
Sambuy, Conte Ernesto di
Schrieber, Th.
Sittl, K.
Smith, Genl. Sir R. M.
Sutton, Chas. W.
Tedder, Hy. R.
Thode, H.
Treu, Georg
Webster, H. A.
Wolff, Albert
PHYSIOLOGISTS.
Albertoni, Pietro
Albini
Aubert, H.
Bernstein, J.
Biedermann, W.
du Bois-Reymond
Brown-Séquard
Ewald, R.
Exner, Sigmund
Fano, Giulio
Fick, A.
Gaule, J.
Goltz, F.
Grützner, P.
Heidenhain, R.
Hensen, V.
Hering, Ewald
Hermann, L.
Kries, J.
Kronecker, H.
Kühne, W.
Landois, L.
Luciani, Luigi
Ludwig, C.
Marey, E. J.
Masoin, E.
Meissner, G.
Miescher, F.
Moleschott, Senator J.
Mosso, A.
Munk, Hermann
Pettigrew, J. Bell
Pflüger, E.
Rosenthal, I.
Schiff, M.
Slosse, A.
Vintschgau, M. von
Voit, C. von
ANATOMISTS.
Braune, Wilh.
Brunn, A. von
Cleland, John
Eisler, P.
Flemming, W.
Hasse, C.
Henke, W. J.
Humphry, G. M.
Kölliker
Marshall, John
Rabl
Romiti
Roux, W.
Rückert, J.
Schwalbe, G.
Stieda, L.
Stöhr, Ph.
Strasser, H.
Thanhoffer, L. von
Van Beneden, Edouard
Virchow, Hans
Wiedersheim
ANTHROPOLOGISTS, BIOLOGISTS, PALEONTOLOGISTS, ZOOLOGISTS, ETC.
Acland, Sir H. W.
Barrier, Gustave
Blochmann, F.
Bowman, Sir Wm.
Brandt, K. E.
Carpenter, P. Herbert
Darwin, Francis
Flower, W. H.
Galton, Francis
Günther, Albert
Hartog, Marcus
Haughton, Saml.
Hollis, W. A.
Huxley, T. H.
Jensink, F. A.
Kerbert, C.
Lankester, E. Ray
Lubbock, Sir John
Mantegazza, Senator
Meyer, A. B.
Milne-Edwards
Mivart, St. George
Müllenhoff
Müller, Max
Newton, Alfred
Owen, Sir Richard
Pasteur, L.
Romanes, Geo. J.
Schmidt, Emil
Schütz
Sorby, H. C.
Swinhoe, Chas.
Van Wulverhorst
Virchow, Rudolf
Weismann, August
Wundt, W.
Yseux
Zittell, C. A. von
PHYSICISTS, ETC.
Abney, Capt. W. de W.
Bellati
Blazerna, Pietro
Bramwell, Sir Fredk.
Bunsen, R.
Ditscheiner, L.
Glaisher, James
Hagenbach-Bischoff
Helmholtz, H. von
Huggins, Wm.
Julius, V. A.
Mach, E.
Matthiessen, L.
Moss, Rich. J.
Quincke, Georg
Righi, Augusto
Rousseau, E.
Soret, C.
Tissandier, Gaston
Thomson, Sir Wm.
Vogel, H. W.
Weber, H. F.
* * * * *
Moltke, Count von
Portland, The Duke of
Wharncliffe, The Earl of
..........
Transcriber's Note:
Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
possible.
The author spelled Greifswald as Griefswald, Innsbruck as
Innsbrück and Häuser as Haüser in this text. These spellings have
been retained.
OE ligatures have been expanded.
Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
Bold text has been marked with =equals signs=.
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Science of Animal Locomotion
(Zoopraxography), by Eadweard Muybridge
*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL ***
***** This file should be named 39998-8.txt or 39998-8.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/9/9/39998/
Produced by Mark C. Orton, Paul Clark and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.
Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.
*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
http://gutenberg.org/license).
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that
- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg-tm works.
- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
of receipt of the work.
- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
[email protected]. Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at http://pglaf.org
For additional contact information:
Dr. Gregory B. Newby
Chief Executive and Director
[email protected]
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit http://pglaf.org
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.
Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
http://www.gutenberg.org
This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
