The Project Gutenberg EBook of Tacitus: The Histories, Volumes I and II
by Caius Cornelius Tacitus
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Title: Tacitus: The Histories, Volumes I and II
Author: Caius Cornelius Tacitus
Translator: W. Hamilton Fyfe
Release Date: October 23, 2005 [EBook #16927]
Language: English
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TACITUS
THE HISTORIES
TRANSLATED WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY
W. HAMILTON FYFE
FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOLUME I
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1912
HENRY FROWDE
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK
TORONTO AND MELBOURNE
TO D.H.F.
'The cause of undertaking a work of this kind was a good will in
this scribling age not to do nothing, and a disproportion in the
powers of my mind, nothing of mine owne invention being able to
passe the censure of mine owne judgement, much less, I presumed, the
judgement of others....
'If thy stomacke be so tender as thou canst not disgest Tacitus in
his owne stile, thou art beholding to one who gives thee the same
food, but with a pleasant and easie taste.'
SIR HENRY SAVILE (A.D. 1591).
CONTENTS
VOLUME I
INTRODUCTION 5
TEXT: BOOKS I, II 17
VOLUME II
TEXT: BOOKS III-V 9
INDEX OF NAMES 231
MAPS
INTRODUCTION
Tacitus held the consulship under Nerva in the year 97. At this point
he closed his public career. He had reached the goal of a politician's
ambition and had become known as one of the best speakers of his time,
but he seems to have realized that under the Principate politics was a
dull farce, and that oratory was of little value in a time of peace
and strong government. The rest of his life was to be spent in writing
history. In the year of his consulship or immediately after it, he
published the _Agricola_ and _Germania_, short monographs in which he
practised the transition from the style of the speaker to that of the
writer. In the preface to the _Agricola_ he foreshadows the larger
work on which he is engaged. 'I shall find it a pleasant task to put
together, though in rough and unfinished style, a memorial of our
former slavery and a record of our present happiness.' His intention
was to write a history of the Principate from Augustus to Trajan. He
began with his own times, and wrote in twelve or fourteen books a full
account of the period from Nero's death in 68 A.D. to the death of
Domitian in 96 A.D. These were published, probably in successive
books, between 106 and 109 A.D. Only the first four and a half books
survive to us. They deal with the years 69 and 70, and are known as
_The Histories_. _The Annals_, which soon followed, dealt with the
Julian dynasty after the death of Augustus. Of Augustus' constitution
of the principate and of Rome's 'present happiness' under Trajan,
Tacitus did not live to write.
_The Histories_, as they survive to us, describe in a style that has
made them immortal one of the most terrible and crucial moments of
Roman history. The deadly struggle for the throne demonstrated finally
the real nature of the Principate--based not on constitutional
fictions but on armed force--and the supple inefficiency of the
senatorial class. The revolt on the Rhine foreshadowed the debacle of
the fifth century. Tacitus was peculiarly well qualified to write the
history of this period. He had been the eye-witness of some of the
most terrible scenes: he was acquainted with all the distinguished
survivors: his political experience gave him a statesman's point of
view, and his rhetorical training a style which mirrored both the
terror of the times and his own emotion. More than any other Roman
historian he desired to tell the truth and was not fatally biassed by
prejudice. It is wrong to regard Tacitus as an 'embittered
rhetorician', an 'enemy of the Empire', a 'détracteur de
l'humanité'.[1] He was none of these. As a member of a noble, though
not an ancient, family, and as one who had completed the republican
_cursus honorum_, his sympathies were naturally senatorial. He
regretted that the days were passed when oratory was a real power and
the consuls were the twin towers of the world. But he never hoped to
see such days again. He realized that monarchy was essential to peace,
and that the price of freedom was violence and disorder. He had no
illusions about the senate. Fault and misfortune had reduced them to
nerveless servility, a luxury of self-abasement. Their meekness would
never inherit the earth. Tacitus pours scorn on the philosophic
opponents of the Principate, who while refusing to serve the emperor
and pretending to hope for the restoration of the republic, could
contribute nothing more useful than an ostentatious suicide. His own
career, and still more the career of his father-in-law Agricola,
showed that even under bad emperors a man could be great without
dishonour. Tacitus was no republican in any sense of the word, but
rather a monarchist _malgré lui_. There was nothing for it but to pray
for good emperors and put up with bad ones.
Those who decry Tacitus for prejudice against the Empire forget that
he is describing emperors who were indubitably bad. We have lost his
account of Vespasian's reign. His praise of Augustus and of Trajan was
never written. The emperors whom he depicts for us were all either
tyrannical or contemptible, or both: no floods of modern biography can
wash them white. They seemed to him to have degraded Roman life and
left no room for _virtus_ in the world. The verdict of Rome had gone
against them. So he devotes to their portraiture the venom which the
fifteen years of Domitian's reign of terror had engendered in his
heart. He was inevitably a pessimist; his ideals lay in the past; yet
he clearly shows that he had some hope of the future. Without sharing
Pliny's faith that the millennium had dawned, he admits that Nerva and
Trajan have inaugurated 'happier times' and combined monarchy with
some degree of personal freedom.
There are other reasons for the 'dark shadows' in Tacitus' work.
History to a Roman was _opus oratorium,_ a work of literary art. Truth
is a great but not a sufficient merit. The historian must be not only
_narrator_ but _ornator rerum_. He must carefully select and arrange
the incidents, compose them into an effective group, and by the power
of language make them memorable and alive. In these books Tacitus has
little but horrors to describe: his art makes them unforgettably
horrible. The same art is ready to display the beauty of courage and
self-sacrifice. But these were rarer phenomena than cowardice and
greed. It was not Tacitus, but the age, which showed a preference for
vice. Moreover, the historian's art was not to be used solely for its
own sake. All ancient history was written with a moral object; the
ethical interest predominates almost to the exclusion of all others.
Tacitus is never merely literary. The [Greek: semnotês] which Pliny
notes as the characteristic of his oratory, never lets him sparkle to
no purpose. All his pictures have a moral object 'to rescue virtue
from oblivion and restrain vice by the terror of posthumous
infamy'.[2] His prime interest is character: and when he has
conducted some skilful piece of moral diagnosis there attaches to his
verdict some of the severity of a sermon. If you want to make men
better you must uncover and scarify their sins.
Few Christian moralists deal much in eulogy, and Tacitus' diatribes
are the more frequent and the more fierce because his was the morality
not of Christ but of Rome. 'The Poor' are as dirt to him: he can stoop
to immortalize some gleam of goodness in low life, but even then his
main object is by scorn of contrast to galvanize the aristocracy into
better ways. Only in them can true _virtus_ grow. Their degradation
seems the death of goodness. Tacitus had little sympathy with the
social revolution that was rapidly completing itself, not so much
because those who rose from the masses lacked 'blood', but because
they had not been trained in the right traditions. In the decay of
Education he finds a prime cause of evil. And being a Roman--wherever
he may have been born--he inevitably feels that the decay of Roman
life must rot the world. His eyes are not really open to the Empire.
He never seems to think that in the spacious provinces to which the
old Roman virtues had taken flight, men were leading happy, useful
lives, because the strong hand of the imperial government had come to
save them from the inefficiency of aristocratic governors. This
narrowness of view accounts for much of Tacitus' pessimism.
Recognition of the atmosphere in which Tacitus wrote and the objects
at which his history aimed helps one to understand why it sometimes
disappoints modern expectations. Particular scenes are seared on our
memories: persons stand before us lit to the soul by a fierce light of
psychological analysis: we learn to loath the characteristic vices of
the time, and to understand the moral causes of Roman decadence. But
somehow the dominance of the moral interest and the frequent
interruption of the narrative by scenes of senatorial inefficiency
serve to obscure the plain sequence of events. It is difficult after a
first reading of the _Histories_ to state clearly what happened in
these two years. And this difficulty is vastly annoying to experts who
wish to trace the course of the three campaigns. Those whose interest
is not in Tacitus but in the military history of the period are
recommended to study Mr. B.W. Henderson's _Civil War and Rebellion in
the Roman Empire_, a delightful book which makes the dark places
plain. But they are not recommended to share his contempt for Tacitus
because his accounts of warfare are as bad as, for instance,
Shakespeare's. Tacitus does not describe in detail the tactics and
geography of a campaign, perhaps because he could not do so, certainly
because he did not wish to. He regarded such details as dry bones,
which no amount of literary skill could animate. His interest is in
human character. Plans of campaign throw little light on that: so they
did not interest him, or, if they did, he suppressed his interest
because he knew that his public would otherwise behave as Dr. Johnson
did when Fox talked to him of Catiline's conspiracy. 'He withdrew his
attention and thought about Tom Thumb.'
There is no worse fault in criticism than to blame a work of art for
lacking qualities to which it makes no pretension. Tacitus is not a
'bad military historian'. He is not a 'military' historian at all.
Botticelli is not a botanist, nor is Shakespeare a geographer. It is
this fault which leads critics to call Tacitus 'a stilted pleader at a
decadent bar', and to complain that his narrative of the war with
Civilis is 'made dull and unreal by speeches'--because they have not
found in Tacitus what they had no right to look for. Tacitus inserts
speeches for the same reason that he excludes tactical details. They
add to the human interest of his work. They give scope to his great
dramatic powers, to that passionate sympathy with character which
finds expression in a style as nervous as itself. They enable him to
display motives, to appraise actions, to reveal moral forces. It is
interest in human nature rather than pride of rhetoric which makes him
love a good debate.
The supreme distinction of Tacitus is, of course, his style. That is
lost in a translation. 'Hard' though his Latin is, it is not obscure.
Careful attention can always detect his exact thought. Like Meredith
he is 'hard' because he does so much with words. Neither writer leaves
any doubt about his meaning. It is therefore a translator's first duty
to be lucid, and not until that duty is done may he try by faint
flushes of epigram to reflect something of the brilliance of Tacitus'
Latin. Very faint indeed that reflection must always be: probably no
audience could be found to listen to a translation of Tacitus, yet one
feels that his Latin would challenge and hold the attention of any
audience that was not stone-deaf. But it is because Tacitus is never a
mere stylist that some of us continue in the failure to translate him.
His historical deductions and his revelations of character have their
value for every age. 'This form of history,' says Montaigne, 'is by
much the most useful ... there are in it more precepts than stories:
it is not a book to read, 'tis a book to study and learn: 'tis full of
sententious opinions, right or wrong: 'tis a nursery of ethic and
politic discourses, for the use and ornament of those who have any
place in the government of the world.... His pen seems most proper for
a troubled and sick state, as ours at present is; you would often say
it is us he paints and pinches.' Sir Henry Savile, Warden of Merton
and Provost of Eton, who translated the _Histories_ into racy
Elizabethan English at a time when the state was neither 'troubled'
nor 'sick' is as convinced as Montaigne or the theorists of the French
Revolution that Tacitus had lessons for his age. 'In Galba thou maiest
learne, that a Good Prince gouerned by evill ministers is as dangerous
as if he were evill himselfe. By Otho, that the fortune of a rash man
is _Torrenti similis_, which rises at an instant, and falles in a
moment. By Vitellius, that he that hath no vertue can neuer be happie:
for by his own baseness he will loose all, which either fortune, or
other mens labours have cast upon him. By Vespasian, that in civill
tumults an advised patience, and opportunitie well taken are the onely
weapons of advantage. In them all, and in the state of Rome under them
thou maiest see the calamities that follow civill warres, where lawes
lie asleepe, and all things are iudged by the sword. If thou mislike
their warres be thankfull for thine owne peace; if thou dost abhor
their tyrannies, love and reverence thine owne wise, iust and
excellent Prince.' So whatever guise our age may assume, there are
lessons to be drawn from Tacitus either directly or _per contra_, and
his translators may be acquitted at a time when Latin scholarship is
no longer an essential of political eminence.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Napoleon's phrase.
[2] _Ann._ iii. 65.
SUMMARY OF CHIEF EVENTS
I. THE FIGHT FOR THE THRONE.
A.D. 68.
_June_
9. Death of Nero.
16. Galba, Governor of Nearer Spain, declared Emperor at Clunia.
Fonteius Capito, Governor of Lower Germany, Clodius Macer,
Governor of Africa, and Nymphidius Sabinus, Prefect of the
Guard, murdered as possible rivals. Verginius Rufus, Governor
of Upper Germany, refuses to compete.
_October_
Galba enters Rome. Massacre of Marines at Mulvian Bridge.
His government controlled by Laco, Vinius, and Icelus.
A.D. 69.
_January_
1. News of mutiny in Upper Germany, now governed by Hordeonius
Flaccus.
3. The armies of Upper Germany (under Caecina) and of Lower Germany
(under Valens) salute Vitellius, Governor of Lower Germany, as
Emperor.
10. Galba adopts Piso Licinianus as his successor.
15. Otho declared Emperor in Rome and recognized by Praetorian
Guard.
Murder of Galba, Vinius, and Piso.
Otho recognized by the Senate.
_February_
The Vitellian armies are now marching on Italy: Caecina through
Switzerland and over the Great St. Bernard with Legio XXI Rapax
and detachments of IV Macedonica and XXII Primigenia: Valens
through Gaul and over Mount Genèvre with Legio V Alaudae and
detachments of I Italica, XV Primigenia, and XVI.
_March_
Caecina crosses the Alps.
Otho dispatches an advance-guard under Annius Gallus and Spurinna.
Otho starts for the Po with Suetonius Paulinus, Marius Celsus,
and Proculus.
Titianus left in charge of Rome.
Otho sends fleet to Narbonese Gaul, and orders Illyric
Legions[3] to concentrate at Aquileia.
Spurinna repulses Caecina from Placentia.
Otho's main army joins Gallus at Bedriacum.
Titianus summoned to take nominal command.
_April_
6. Battle of Locus Castorum. Caecina defeated.
Valens joins Caecina at Cremona.
15. Battle of Bedriacum. Othonian defeat.
17. Otho commits suicide at Brixellum.
19. Vitellius recognized by the Senate.
_May_
Vitellius greeted by his own and Otho's generals at Lyons.
24. Vitellius visits the battle-field of Bedriacum.
_June_
Vitellius moves slowly towards Rome with a huge retinue.
_July_
1. Vespasian, Governor of Judaea, proclaimed Emperor at Alexandria.
3. At Caesarea.
15. At Antioch.
The Eastern princes and the Illyric Legions[4] declare for
Vespasian. His chief supporters are Mucianus; Governor of Syria,
Antonius Primus commanding Leg. VII Galbiana, and Cornelius
Fuscus, Procurator of Pannonia.
Mucianus moves slowly westward with Leg. VI Ferrata and
detachments from the other Eastern legions.
Vespasian holds Egypt, Rome's granary.
Titus takes command in Judaea.
Antonius Primus with Arrius Varus hurries forward into Italy.
_August_
Vitellius vegetates in Rome.
Caecina marches to meet the invasion. (Valens aegrotat.) His
Legions are I, IV Macedonica, XV Primigenia, XVI, V Alaudae,
XXII Primigenia, I Italica, XXI Rapax, and detachments from
Britain.
FOOTNOTES:
[3] i.e. in Pannonia Legs. VII Galbiana and XIII Gemina; in
Dalmatia XI Claudia and XIV Gemina; in Moesia III Gallica, VII
Claudia, VIII Augusta.
[4] See note above.
NOTE
The text followed is that of C.D. Fisher (_Oxford Classical Texts_).
Departures from it are mentioned in the notes.
BOOK I
PREFACE
[A.D. 69.] I propose to begin my narrative with the second 1
consulship of Servius Galba, in which Titus Vinius was his colleague.
Many historians have dealt with the 820 years of the earlier period
beginning with the foundation of Rome, and the story of the Roman
Republic has been told with no less ability than truth. After the
Battle of Actium, when the interests of peace were served by the
centralization of all authority in the hands of one man, there
followed a dearth of literary ability, and at the same time truth
suffered more and more, partly from ignorance of politics, which were
no longer a citizen's concern, partly from the growing taste for
flattery or from hatred of the ruling house. So between malice on one
side and servility on the other the interests of posterity were
neglected. But historians find that a tone of flattery soon incurs the
stigma of servility and earns for them the contempt of their readers,
whereas people readily open their ears to the criticisms of envy,
since malice makes a show of independence. Of Galba, Otho, and
Vitellius, I have known nothing either to my advantage or my hurt. I
cannot deny that I originally owed my position to Vespasian, or that I
was advanced by Titus and still further promoted by Domitian;[5] but
professing, as I do, unbiassed honesty, I must speak of no man either
with hatred or affection. I have reserved for my old age, if life is
spared to me, the reigns of the sainted Nerva and of the Emperor
Trajan, which afford a richer and withal a safer theme:[6] for it is
the rare fortune of these days that a man may think what he likes and
say what he thinks.
The story I now commence is rich in vicissitudes, grim with 2
warfare, torn by civil strife, a tale of horror even during times of
peace. It tells of four emperors slain by the sword, three several
civil wars, an even larger number of foreign wars and some that were
both at once: successes in the East, disaster in the West, disturbance
in Illyricum, disaffection in the provinces of Gaul, the conquest of
Britain and its immediate loss, the rising of the Sarmatian and Suebic
tribes. It tells how Dacia had the privilege of exchanging blows with
Rome, and how a pretender claiming to be Nero almost deluded the
Parthians into declaring war. Now too Italy was smitten with new
disasters, or disasters it had not witnessed for a long period of
years. Towns along the rich coast of Campania were submerged or
buried. The city was devastated by fires, ancient temples were
destroyed, and the Capitol itself was fired by Roman hands. Sacred
rites were grossly profaned, and there were scandals in high
places.[7] The sea swarmed with exiles and the island cliffs[8] were
red with blood. Worse horrors reigned in the city. To be rich or
well-born was a crime: men were prosecuted for holding or for refusing
office: merit of any kind meant certain ruin. Nor were the Informers
more hated for their crimes than for their prizes: some carried off a
priesthood or the consulship as their spoil, others won offices and
influence in the imperial household: the hatred and fear they inspired
worked universal havoc. Slaves were bribed against their masters,
freedmen against their patrons, and, if a man had no enemies, he was
ruined by his friends.
However, the period was not so utterly barren as to yield no 3
examples of heroism. There were mothers who followed their sons, and
wives their husbands into exile: one saw here a kinsman's courage and
there a son-in-law's devotion: slaves obstinately faithful even on the
rack: distinguished men bravely facing the utmost straits and matching
in their end the famous deaths of older times. Besides these manifold
disasters to mankind there were portents in the sky and on the earth,
thunderbolts and other premonitions of good and of evil, some
doubtful, some obvious. Indeed never has it been proved by such
terrible disasters to Rome or by such clear evidence that Providence
is concerned not with our peace of mind but rather with vengeance for
our sin.
FOOTNOTES:
[5] To Vespasian Tacitus probably owed his quaestorship and a
seat in the senate; to Titus his tribunate of the people; to
Domitian the praetorship and a 'fellowship' of one of the
great priestly colleges, whose special function was the
supervision of foreign cults. This last accounts for Tacitus'
interest in strange religions.
[6] This project, also foreshadowed in _Agricola_ iii, was
never completed.
[7] Referring in particular to the scandals among the Vestal
Virgins and to Domitian's relations with his niece Julia.
[8] i.e. the Aegean islands, such as Seriphus, Gyarus,
Amorgus, where those in disfavour were banished and often
murdered.
THE STATE OF THE EMPIRE
Before I commence my task, it seems best to go back and consider 4
the state of affairs in the city, the temper of the armies, the
condition of the provinces, and to determine the elements of strength
and weakness in the different quarters of the Roman world. By this
means we may see not only the actual course of events, which is
largely governed by chance, but also why and how they occurred.
The death of Nero, after the first outburst of joy with which it was
greeted, soon aroused conflicting feelings not only among the
senators, the people, and the soldiers in the city, but also among the
generals and their troops abroad. It had divulged a secret of state:
an emperor could be made elsewhere than at Rome. Still the senate was
satisfied. They had immediately taken advantage of their liberty and
were naturally emboldened against a prince who was new to the throne
and, moreover, absent. The highest class of the knights[9] seconded
the senate's satisfaction. Respectable citizens, who were attached as
clients or freedmen to the great families, and had seen their patrons
condemned or exiled, now revived their hopes. The lowest classes, who
had grown familiar with the pleasures of the theatre and the circus,
the most degraded of the slaves, and Nero's favourites who had
squandered their property and lived on his discreditable bounty, all
showed signs of depression and an eager greed for news.
The troops in the city[10] had long been inured to the allegiance 5
of the Caesars, and it was more by the pressure of intrigue than of
their own inclination that they came to desert Nero. They soon
realized that the donation promised in Galba's name was not to be paid
to them, and that peace would not, like war, offer opportunity for
great services and rich rewards. Since they also saw that the new
emperor's favour had been forestalled by the army which proclaimed
him, they were ripe for revolution and were further instigated by
their rascally Praefect Nymphidius Sabinus, who was plotting to be
emperor himself. His design was as a matter of fact detected and
quashed, but, though the ringleader was removed, many of the troops
still felt conscious of their treason and could be heard commenting on
Galba's senility and avarice. His austerity--a quality once admired
and set high in soldiers' estimation--only annoyed troops whose
contempt for the old methods of discipline had been fostered by
fourteen years of service under Nero. They had come to love the
emperors' vices as much as they once reverenced their virtues in older
days. Moreover Galba had let fall a remark, which augured well for
Rome, though it spelt danger to himself. 'I do not buy my soldiers,'
he said, 'I select them.' And indeed, as things then stood, his words
sounded incongruous.
FOOTNOTES:
[9] Probably those who owned one million sesterces, the
property qualification for admission to the senate.
[10] This includes 'The Guards' (_cohortes praetoriae_) and
'The City Garrison' (_cohortes urbanae_), and possibly also
the _cohortes vigilum_, who were a sort of police corps and
fire brigade.
GALBA'S POSITION
Galba was old and ill. Of his two lieutenants Titus Vinius was the 6
vilest of men and Cornelius Laco the laziest. Hated as he was for
Vinius' crimes and despised for Laco's inefficiency, between them
Galba soon came to ruin. His march from Spain was slow and stained
with bloodshed. He executed Cingonius Varro, the consul-elect, and
Petronius Turpilianus, an ex-consul, the former as an accomplice of
Nymphidius, the latter as one of Nero's generals. They were both
denied any opportunity of a hearing or defence--and might as well have
been innocent. On his arrival at Rome the butchery of thousands of
unarmed soldiers[11] gave an ill omen to his entry, and alarmed even
the men who did the slaughter. The city was filled with strange
troops. A legion had been brought from Spain,[12] and the regiment of
marines enrolled by Nero still remained.[11] Moreover there were
several detachments from Germany, Britain, and Illyricum,[13] which
had been selected by Nero, dispatched to the Caspian Pass[14] for the
projected war against the Albanians, and subsequently recalled to aid
in crushing the revolt of Vindex.[15] These were all fine fuel for a
revolution, and, although their favour centred on nobody in
particular, there they were at the disposal of any one who had
enterprise.
It happened by chance that the news of the death of Clodius Macer 7
and of Fonteius Capito arrived in Rome simultaneously. Macer,[16] who
was undoubtedly raising a disturbance in Africa, was put to death by
the imperial agent Trebonius Garutianus, acting under Galba's orders:
Capito[17] had made a similar attempt in Germany and was killed by two
officers, Cornelius Aquinus and Fabius Valens, without waiting for
instructions. While Capito had a foul reputation for extortion and
loose living, some people yet believed that he had withheld his hand
from treason. His officers, they supposed, had urged him to declare
war, and, when they could not persuade him, had gone on to charge him
falsely with their own offence,[18] while Galba from weakness of
character, or perhaps because he was afraid to inquire too far,
approved what had happened for good or for ill, since it was past
alteration. At any rate both executions were unpopular. Now that Galba
was disliked, everything he did, whether right or wrong, made him more
unpopular. His freedmen were all-powerful: money could do anything:
the slaves were thirsting for an upheaval, and with so elderly an
emperor were naturally expecting to see one soon. The evils of the new
court were those of the old, and while equally oppressive were not so
easily excused. Even Galba's age seemed comic and despicable to a
populace that was used to the young Nero and compared the emperors, as
such people will, in point of looks and personal attraction.
FOOTNOTES:
[11] i.e. the marines, whom Nero had formed into a reserve
force (Legio I Adiutrix). They had met Galba at the Mulvian
Bridge, probably with a petition for service in the Line.
[12] Legio VII Galbiana, sent later to Pannonia.
[13] Illyricum included all the Danube provinces.
[14] The Pass of Dariel over the centre of the Caucasus. The
Albanians lay to the east of its southern end, on the
south-west coast of the Caspian.
[15] Vindex, Pro-praetor in the Lyons division of Gaul, had
revolted against Nero early in the year 68 and offered his
support to Galba, then governor of the Tarragona division of
Spain. He was defeated by Verginius Rufus, commanding the
forces in Upper Germany, and committed suicide. Verginius
afterwards declared for Galba, though his troops wanted to
make him emperor. Cp. chap. 8.
[16] Clodius Macer commanded Legio III Augusta and governed
Numidia, which Tiberius at the end of his reign had detached
from the pro-consulate of Africa.
[17] Governor of Lower Germany. See chap. 58 and iii. 62.
[18] Cp. chap. 58.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES
Such then at Rome was the variety of feeling natural in so vast a 8
population. To turn to the provinces abroad: Spain was under the
command of Cluvius Rufus, a man of great eloquence, and more skilled
in the arts of peace than of war.[19] The Gallic provinces had not
forgotten Vindex: moreover, they were bound to Galba by his recent
grant of Roman citizenship and his rebate of their tribute for the
future. The tribes, however, which lay nearest to the armies stationed
in Germany had not received these honours: some even had lost part of
their territory and were equally aggrieved at the magnitude of their
own injuries and of their neighbours' benefits. The troops in Germany
were proud of their recent victory, indignant at their treatment and
perplexed by a nervous consciousness that they had supported the wrong
side: a very dangerous state for so strong a force to be in. They had
been slow to desert Nero, and Verginius[20] did not immediately
declare for Galba. Whether he really did not want the throne is
doubtful: without question his soldiers made him the offer. The death
of Fonteius Capito aroused the indignation even of those who had no
right to complain. However, they still lacked a leader: Galba had sent
for Verginius under a pretence of friendship, and, when he was not
allowed to return and was even charged with treachery, the soldiers
considered his case their own.
The army of Upper Germany felt no respect for their commander, 9
Hordeonius Flaccus.[21] Weakened by age and an affection of the feet
he was without resolution or authority, and could not have controlled
the mildest troops. These fiery spirits were only the further inflamed
when they felt such a weak hand on the reins. The legions of Lower
Germany had been for some time without a commander,[22] until Aulus
Vitellius appeared. He was the son of the Lucius Vitellius who had
been censor and thrice consul,[23] and Galba thought this sufficient
to impress the troops. The army in Britain showed no bad feeling. All
through the disturbance of the civil wars no troops kept cleaner
hands. This may have been because they were so far away and severed by
the sea, or perhaps frequent engagements had taught them to keep their
rancour for the enemy. Quiet ruled in Illyricum also, although the
legions, which had been summoned by Nero,[24] while lingering in Italy
had made overtures to Verginius. But the armies lay far apart, always
a sound assistance to the maintenance of military discipline, since
the men could neither share vices nor join forces.
The East was still untroubled. Licinius Mucianus held Syria with 10
four legions.[25] He was a man who was always famous, whether in good
fortune or in bad. As a youth he was ambitious and cultivated the
friendship of the great. Later he found himself in straitened
circumstances and a very ambiguous position, and, suspecting Claudius'
displeasure, he withdrew into the wilds of Asia, where he came as near
to being an exile as afterwards to being an emperor. He was a strange
mixture of good and bad, of luxury and industry, courtesy and
arrogance. In leisure he was self-indulgent, but full of vigour on
service. His outward behaviour was praiseworthy, though ill was spoken
of his private life. However, with those who were under him or near
him, and with his colleagues he gained great influence by various
devices, and seems to have been the sort of man who would more readily
make an emperor than be one.
The Jewish war was being conducted by Flavius Vespasianus--appointed
by Nero--with three legions.[26] He had no ill-will against Galba, and
nothing to hope from his fall. Indeed he had sent his son Titus to
carry his compliments and offer allegiance, an incident we must
reserve for its proper place.[27] It was only after Vespasian's rise
that Roman society came to believe in the mysterious movings of
Providence, and supposed that portents and oracles had predestined the
throne for him and his family.
Of Egypt and its garrison, ever since the days of the sainted 11
Augustus, the knights of Rome have been uncrowned kings.[28] The
province being difficult to reach, rich in crops, torn and tossed by
fanaticism and sedition, ignorant of law, unused to bureaucratic
government, it seemed wiser to keep it in the control of the
Household.[29] The governor at that date was Tiberius Alexander,
himself a native of Egypt.[30] Africa and its legions, now that
Clodius Macer had been executed,[31] were ready to put up with any
ruler after their experience of a petty master. The two Mauretanias,
Raetia, Noricum, Thrace, and the other provinces governed by
procurators had their sympathies determined by the neighbourhood of
troops, and always caught their likes or dislikes from the strongest
army. The ungarrisoned provinces, and chief amongst these Italy, were
destined to be the prize of war, and lay at the mercy of any master.
Such was the state of the Roman world when Servius Galba, consul for
the second time, and Titus Vinius his colleague, inaugurated the year
which was to be their last, and almost the last for the commonwealth
of Rome.
FOOTNOTES:
[19] He wrote a history of his own time, which was one of
Tacitus' chief authorities.
[20] See note 17.
[21] Verginius' successor.
[22] Since Capito's death, chap. 7.
[23] He died in A.D. 54. In the censorship and in two of his
consulships he had been Claudius' colleague.
[24] For the war with Vindex.
[25] See note 164. The fourth legion is III Gallica,
afterwards moved into Moesia.
[26] See note 163.
[27] ii. 1.
[28] Cp. _Ann._, ii. 59. 'Amongst other secret principles of
his imperial policy, Augustus had put Egypt in a position by
itself, forbidding all senators and knights of the highest
class to enter that country without his permission. For Egypt
holds the key, as it were, both of sea and land' (tr. Ramsay).
Cp. iii. 8.
[29] i.e. to govern it by the emperor's private agents. The
province was regarded as part of the emperor's estate
(patrimonium). This post was the highest in the imperial
service.
[30] A member of a Jewish family settled in Alexandria and
thus entitled to Roman citizenship. He was a nephew of the
historian Philo; had been Procurator of Judaea and chief of
Corbulo's staff in Armenia.
[31] See chap. 7.
THE GERMAN REVOLT AND THE ADOPTION OF PISO
A few days after the first of January a dispatch arrived from 12
Belgica, in which Pompeius Propinquus,[32] the imperial agent,
announced that the legions of Upper Germany had broken their oath of
allegiance and were clamouring for a new emperor, but that by way of
tempering their treason they referred the final choice to the Senate
and People of Rome. Galba had already been deliberating and seeking
advice as to the adoption of a successor, and this occurrence hastened
his plans. During all these months this question formed the current
subject of gossip throughout the country; Galba was far spent in years
and the general propensity for such a topic knew no check. Few people
showed sound judgement or any spirit of patriotism. Many were
influenced by foolish hopes and spread self-interested rumours
pointing to some friend or patron, thereby also gratifying their
hatred for Titus Vinius,[33] whose unpopularity waxed daily with his
power. Galba's affability only served to strengthen the gaping
ambition of his newly powerful friends, for his weakness and credulity
halved the risk and doubled the reward of treason.
The real power of the throne was divided between the consul, Titus 13
Vinius, and Cornelius Laco, the prefect of the Guards; and an
influence as great was enjoyed by Icelus, one of Galba's freedmen, who
had been given the gold ring[34] and was now greeted by the name of
Marcianus. These three ordinarily disagreed, and followed each his own
interest in smaller matters: on the question of the succession they
fell into two camps. Vinius was for Marcus Otho. Laco and Icelus were
agreed not so much on any one as on any other. Galba was aware of the
friendship between Otho and Vinius. Otho was a bachelor and Vinius had
an unmarried daughter: so gossip, never reticent, pointed to them as
father and son-in-law. Galba, one may suppose, felt some concern for
his country, too. Why take the throne from Nero, if it was to be left
to Otho? Otho had led a careless boyhood and a dissolute youth, and
endeared himself to Nero by aping his vices. Thus it was to Otho, as
being already in the secret, that Nero entrusted his favourite
mistress, Poppaea Sabina,[35] until he could get rid of Octavia. Later
he grew jealous and removed Otho to the province of Lusitania under
cover of a governorship. Otho had been popular in his administration
of the province, and was one of the first to join Galba's party. Being
a man of action and one of the most distinguished of Galba's officers
in the war, when once he had conceived the hope of succeeding him, he
eagerly indulged it. Most of the soldiers were on his side and the
Court supported him as Nero's double.
After receiving the news of the German revolt, although Galba knew 14
nothing for certain of Vitellius' plans, he was fearful to what
lengths the outbreak of the troops might go; so, being unable to trust
the troops in the city,[36] he had recourse to what seemed his sole
remedy and held an Imperial Election. Besides Vinius and Laco he
summoned Marius Celsus, consul-elect and the City-Prefect Ducenius
Geminus.[37] After prefacing a few words about his own advanced age he
ordered Piso Licinianus[38] to be sent for, either on his own
initiative, or, as some believed, at the instance of Laco. Laco had
met Piso at Rubellius Plautus' house and they had formed a friendship,
but he cunningly pretended that he was supporting a stranger, and
Piso's good repute gave colour to this policy. Piso was a noble on
both sides, being the son of Marcus Crassus and Scribonia. There was
an old-world austerity in his face and bearing, and just critics spoke
of his strict morality: people who took a less favourable view thought
him soured. But while those who disliked this side of his character
carped at it, it was a recommendation in the eyes of the emperor who
intended to adopt him.
Galba is said to have taken Piso's hand and addressed him as 15
follows: 'Were I a private citizen, and were I to adopt you in the
presence of the Priests by the usual formality of a curial
statute,[39] it would be an honour for me to introduce into my family
a descendant of Cnaeus Pompeius and of Marcus Crassus, and for you it
would be a distinction to add to your noble ancestry the glories of
the Sulpician and Lutatian houses.[40] As it is, I have been called by
the consent of gods and men to be an emperor. Your distinguished
qualities and your patriotism have persuaded me to offer to you
peacefully and quietly the throne for which our ancestors fought on
the field of battle,[41] and which I too won by war. In so doing I am
following the precedent set by the sainted Augustus, who raised to the
rank next himself first his nephew Marcellus, then his son-in-law
Agrippa, then his daughter's sons,[42] and finally his stepson
Tiberius Nero. However, while Augustus looked for a successor in his
own family, I have searched throughout the country. Not that I lack
either kinsmen or supporters, but it was by no favour of birth that I
myself came to the throne, and, to prove my policy in this matter,
consider how I have passed over not only my own relatives but yours.
You have an elder brother,[43] as noble as yourself. He would have
been worthy of this position, but you are worthier. You are old enough
to have outlived youthful passions. Your life has been such that you
have nothing in your past to excuse. So far you have only experienced
misfortune. Prosperity probes the heart with a keener touch; misery
only calls for patience, but there is corruption in success. Honesty,
candour, and affection are the best of human qualities, and doubtless
you yourself have enough character to retain them. But the
complaisance of others will weaken your character. Flattery and
servile compliments will break down its defences and self-interest
too, the bane of all sincerity. What though you and I can talk plainly
with each other to-day? Others will address themselves not to us but
to our fortunes. To persuade an emperor what he ought to do is a
laborious task: any one can flatter him without a spark of sincerity.
'If the vast bulk of this empire could stand and keep its balance 16
without a guiding hand, the Republic might well have dated its birth
from me. As it is, things have long ago come to such a pass that
neither I in my old age can give the Roman people any better gift than
a good successor, nor you in your prime anything better than a good
emperor. Under Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, Rome was the heirloom
of a single family. There is a kind of liberty in the free choice we
have begun to exercise. Now that the Julian and Claudian houses are
extinct, by the plan of adoption the best man will always be
discovered. Royal birth is the gift of fortune, and is but valued as
such. In adoption we can use a free judgement, and if we wish to
choose well, the voice of the country points the way. Think of Nero,
swollen with the pride of his long line of royal ancestry. It was not
Vindex with a powerless province at his back, nor I with a single
legion that freed Rome's shoulders of that burden: it was his own
cruelty and profligacy. And that was before there was any precedent
for the conviction of an emperor.
'We have been called to the throne by the swords of those who thought
us worthy. Our high state will not escape the eye of envy. You may be
sure of that. But there is no reason for you to feel alarm because in
this world-wide upheaval a couple of legions have not yet settled
down. I myself did not succeed to a safe and peaceful throne, and,
when once the news of your adoption is spread, I shall cease to be
charged with my advanced age, which is now the only fault they find in
me. The rascals will always miss Nero: you and I have got to see that
good citizens do not miss him too.
'A longer sermon would ill befit the time and I have fulfilled my
purpose, if I have done right in choosing you. The soundest and
easiest criterion of right and wrong policy is to consider what you
would have approved or condemned in another emperor. For Rome is not
like the nations which are ruled by kings, where one house is supreme
and the rest are slaves. Your future subjects are men who cannot
endure the extremes either of bondage or of freedom.'
Galba spoke these words and more to the same effect in the tone of one
creating an emperor: the rest addressed Piso as though he were emperor
already. He is said to have betrayed no sign of amazement or 17
elation either before those who were then present, or later when
everybody's eyes centred upon him. His language to his emperor and
adoptive father was deeply respectful and he spoke modestly of
himself. He made no change in his expression or bearing, showing
himself more able than anxious to rule. A discussion then took place
whether the adoption should be announced before the people or in the
senate, or in the guards' camp. They decided in favour of the camp, on
the ground that it would be a compliment to the troops, whose goodwill
was hard to win by flattery or bribes, but was by no means to be
despised, if it could be won by good means. Meanwhile the curiosity of
the populace, impatient of any important secret, had brought together
crowds all round the Palace, and when once the rumour began to leak
out an attempt at suppression only resulted in spreading it.
The tenth of January was a dreary wet day, and an extraordinary 18
storm of thunder and lightning showed the displeasure of Providence.
Such phenomena were regarded in old days as a sign for the suspension
of public business, but they did not deter Galba from proceeding to
the camp. Either he disregarded such things as the result of pure
chance or else he felt that the blows of fate may be foretold but not
forestalled. He addressed a crowded assembly of the soldiers with true
imperial brevity, stating simply that in adopting Piso he was
following the example of the sainted Augustus, and the old military
custom whereby each man chose another.[44] He was afraid that by
suppressing the news of the German rebellion he might only seem to
exaggerate the danger, so he voluntarily declared that the Fourth and
Twenty-second legions had been led by a few traitors into seditious
murmurings but no further, and would soon return to their allegiance.
He made no attempt to enhance his words either by eloquence or
largess. However, the tribunes and centurions and those of the
soldiers who stood nearest to him gave well-sounding answers. The rest
were sorry and silent, for the war seemed to have lost them the
largess that had always been usual even in peace. Everybody agrees
that they could have been won over had the parsimonious old emperor
made the least display of generosity. He was ruined by his strict
old-fashioned inflexibility, which seems too rigorous for these
degenerate days.
From the camp they proceeded to the senate, and Galba's speech to 19
its members was no fuller or finer than to the soldiers. Piso spoke
graciously, and there was no lack of support in the senate. Many
wished him well. Those who did not were the more effusive. The
majority were indifferent, but displayed a ready affability, intent on
their private speculations without thought of the country's good. No
other public action is reported of Piso during the four days which
intervened between his adoption and assassination.
FOOTNOTES:
[32] i.e. the emperor's finance agent in the province of
Belgica.
[33] Cp. chap. 6.
[34] A gold signet-ring was the sign of a free-born Roman
knight. Its grant to freedmen was an innovation of which
Tacitus disapproved.
[35] Tacitus here follows the story told by Suetonius in his
life of Otho. In the _Annals_, xiii. 45, 46, Tacitus gives in
detail a more probable version. It is more likely that Poppaea
used Otho as a stepping-stone to Nero's favour than that Otho,
as Suetonius quotes, 'committed adultery with his own wife.'
[36] See chap. 5, note 10.
[37] One of the three Commissioners of Public Revenue
appointed by Nero in A.D. 62 (_Ann._, xv. 18).
[38] Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus was the son of M.
Licinius Crassus Frugi, and adopted son of L. Calpurnius Piso
Frugi. His mother, Scribonia, was a descendant of Pompey.
[39] Adoption from one family into another needed in old days
the sanction of the Comitia Curiata. When that assembly became
obsolete, the priests summoned a formal meeting of thirty
lictors, and their sanction of an act of adoption was still
called _lex curiata_. Galba was now _Pontifex maximus_.
[40] Galba belonged to the _Gens Sulpicia_, and was connected
through his mother, Mummia, with Q. Lutatius Catulus, who had
led the senatorial party in the first half of the last
century.
[41] i.e. Galba's great-grandfather had fought for Caesar
against Piso's ancestor, Pompey.
[42] The children of Julia and Agrippa.
[43] Crassus Scribonianus, cp. chap. 47, and iv. 39.
[44] i.e. co-optation, employed in former days to raise a
special contingent for emergencies.
GALBA'S MEASURES OF PRECAUTION
Reports of the German rebellion grew daily more insistent and the
public was always ready to believe any news, provided it was bad.
Accordingly the senate decided that a commission must be sent to the
army in Germany. It was discussed in private whether Piso should go
himself to add dignity to the commission, since he could carry the
authority of the emperor, while the others represented the senate. It
was also proposed to send Laco, the prefect of the Guards, but he
objected. The senate had allowed Galba to nominate the commissioners
and he showed the most miserable indecision, now nominating members,
now excusing them, now making exchanges, yielding always to pressure
from people who wanted to go or to stay at home according as they were
determined by their hopes or their fears. The next question was 20
one of finance. After investigating all possible sources it seemed
most reasonable to recover the revenue from those quarters where the
cause of the deficit lay. Nero had squandered in lavish presents two
thousand two hundred million sesterces.[45] Galba gave instructions
that these monies should be recovered from the individual recipients,
leaving each a tithe of their original gift. However, in each case
there was scarcely a tenth part left, for these worthless spendthrifts
had run through Nero's money as freely as they had squandered their
own: they had no real property or capital left, nothing but the
apparatus of their luxury. Thirty of the knights were entrusted with
the duty of recovering the money. This commission, for which there was
no precedent, proved vastly unpopular owing to the scope of its
authority, and the large number of the victims. Every quarter seemed
beset with sales and brokers and lawsuits. And yet lively satisfaction
was caused by the discovery that the beneficiaries of Nero's bounty
were as poor as the victims of his greed.
At this time several officers were cashiered, Antonius Taurus and
Antonius Naso of the Guards, Aemilius Pacensis of the City Garrison,
and Julius Fronto of the Police.[46] However, this proved no remedy.
The others only began to feel alarmed, thinking that Galba's craft and
timidity had sacrificed a few, while his suspicions rested on them
all.
FOOTNOTES:
[45] About twenty-three million sterling of our money.
[46] i.e. of the cohorts which formed the police and
fire-brigade of the city. See chap. 5, note 10.
THE RISE OF OTHO
Meanwhile Otho had nothing to hope from a peaceful settlement: all 21
his plans demanded a disturbance. Many motives spurred him on: his
extravagance would have ruined a prince, and his poverty have
perplexed a private person: he was angry with Galba and jealous of
Piso. He also alleged fears for his safety, by way of whetting his
ambition. 'I proved a nuisance to Nero,' he would say, 'and can
scarcely expect the compliment of a second exile to Lusitania.[47]
Besides, monarchs always hate and suspect the man who is mentioned as
"next to the throne". This was what did me harm with the old emperor,
and it will weigh still more with the youthful Piso, who is naturally
savage and has been exasperated by a long period of exile. It would be
easy to kill me. I must do and dare while Galba's authority is on the
wane and Piso's not yet established. These times of change suit big
enterprises; inaction is more deadly than daring; there is no call for
delay. Death is the natural end for all alike, and the only difference
is between fame and oblivion afterwards. Seeing that the same end
awaits the innocent and the guilty, a man of spirit should at least
deserve his fate.'
Otho's character was by no means so effeminate as his person. His 22
intimate freedmen and slaves, who were allowed a licence unusual in
private households, dangled before him the baits for which he was
greedy: the luxuries of Nero's Court, the marriages he could make, the
adulteries he could commit, and all the other imperial pleasures. They
were his, they pointed out, if he would bestir himself; it was
shameful to lie quiet and leave them to others. He was also incited by
the astrologers, who declared that their study of the stars pointed to
great changes and a year of glory for Otho. Creatures of this class
always deceive the ambitious, though those in power distrust them.
Probably we shall go on for ever proscribing them and keeping them by
us.[48] Poppaea[49] had always had her boudoir full of these
astrologers, the worst kind of outfit for a royal ménage. One of them,
called Ptolemy, had gone with Otho to Spain[50] and foretold that he
would outlive Nero. This came true and Otho believed in him. He now
based his vague conjectures on the computations of Galba's age and
Otho's youth, and persuaded him that he would ascend the throne. But,
though the man had no real skill, Otho accepted the prophecy as if it
was the finger of fate. Human nature always likes to believe what it
cannot understand.
Nor was Ptolemy himself slow to incite his master to crime, to 23
which it is only a short step from such ambitions. But whether his
criminal designs were deliberate or suddenly conceived, it is
impossible to say. He had long been courting the goodwill of the
soldiers either in the hope of being adopted by Galba or to prepare
the way for treason. On the road from Spain, while the men were
marching or on outpost duty, he would address the veterans by name,
reminding them how he and they had served together under Nero, and
calling them his comrades. He renewed acquaintance with some, asked
after others and helped them with money or influence, frequently
letting fall complaints and ambiguous remarks about Galba, using all
the arts which work upon uneducated minds. The soldiers grumbled
bitterly at the exertions of the march, the shortage of provisions,
and the strict discipline. What they were used to was a journey to the
Campanian Lakes or Greek seaports on board ship;[51] they found it
hard to struggle over the Pyrenees and Alps, and march immense
distances under arms.
While the soldiers were thus already fired with discontent, 24
Maevius Pudens, one of Tigellinus'[52] intimates, added fuel to their
feelings by luring on all who were naturally unstable or in need of
money, or rashly eager for a change. Eventually, whenever Galba dined
with him, Otho went the length of presenting a hundred sesterces to
each of the soldiers on guard, on the pretext that this was instead of
entertaining them.[53] This system of public largess Otho extended by
making presents in confidence to individuals, and such spirit did he
show in bribery that when a member of the Body Guard, Cocceius
Proculus, brought an action to claim part of his neighbour's farm,
Otho bought the whole property out of his own pocket and gave it to
him. He was enabled to do this by the inefficiency of the Prefect
Laco, who was no less blind to notorious than to secret scandals.
Otho then put Onomastus, one of his freedmen, in charge of the 25
projected crime, and Onomastus took into his confidence Barbius
Proculus, an aide-de-camp, and a subaltern named Veturius, both in the
Body Guard.[54] Having assured himself by many interviews that they
were both bold and cunning, Otho proceeded to load them with bribes
and promises, providing them with funds to enable them to test the
feelings of the others. And so a couple of common soldiers took it
upon them to transfer the Roman Empire: and they did it. A very few
were admitted as accomplices. These, by various devices, worked on the
indecision of the others. The non-commissioned officers who had been
promoted by Nymphidius felt themselves under suspicion; the private
soldiers were indignant and in despair at the constant postponement of
Galba's largess; some few were fired by the recollection of Nero's
régime and longed for the days of licence; all in common shared the
fear of being drafted out of the Praetorian Guards.
The infection of treason soon spread to the legions and 26
auxiliaries, whose excitement had been aroused as soon as they heard
that the armies of Germany were wavering in their allegiance. So, as
the disloyal were ready for treason and the loyal shut their eyes,
they at first determined to acclaim Otho as he was returning from
dinner on the night of the fourteenth. However, they hesitated: the
darkness spelt uncertainty, the troops were scattered all over the
town, and unanimity could scarcely be expected from drunken men. They
were not deterred by any affection for their country's honour, which
they were deliberately preparing to stain with its emperor's blood,
but they were afraid that, as Otho was unknown to the majority, some
one else might by mistake be offered to the Pannonian or German
legions and proclaimed emperor. Some evidence of the brewing plot
leaked out, but it was suppressed by the conspirators. Rumours even
reached Galba's ears, but Laco made light of them, being totally
ignorant of soldiers' characters, hostile to any suggestion, however
wise, that was not his own, and extremely obstinate with men who knew
more than he did.
On January 15, as Galba was sacrificing in front of the temple of 27
Apollo, the priest Umbricius declared the omens unfavourable: treason
was impending, and an enemy within the walls. Otho, who was standing
beside Galba, overheard and construed the omen as being from his own
point of view a good one, favourable to his plans. In a few moments
his freedman, Onomastus, announced that the architect and contractors
were waiting to see him. This had been agreed upon as the signal that
the troops were assembling and the conspiracy was ripe. On being asked
where he was going, Otho pretended that he was buying an old property,
but suspected its condition and so had to inspect it first. Thus,
leaning on his freedman's shoulder, he passed through Tiberius' house
into the Velabrum and thence to the Golden Milestone at the foot of
the Temple of Saturn.[55] There thirty-three soldiers of the Body
Guard saluted him as emperor. When he showed alarm at the smallness of
their number they put him hastily into a litter, and, drawing their
swords, hurried him away. About the same number of soldiers joined
them on the way, some accomplices, others merely curious. Some marched
along shouting and flourishing swords; others kept silent, intending
to take their cue from subsequent events.
Julius Martialis was the tribune on duty in the camp. He was so 28
overcome by the magnitude of this unexpected crime and so afraid that
the treason was widespread in the camp, and that he might be killed if
he offered any opposition, that he led most people to suppose he was
in the plot. So, too, the other tribunes and centurions all preferred
present safety to a risky loyalty. In fact the general attitude was
this: few dared to undertake so foul a crime, many wished to see it
done, and everybody was ready to condone it.
FOOTNOTES:
[47] Cp. chap. 13.
[48] Decrees excluding astrologers from Italy had been passed
in B.C. 33, A.D. 16, and again in A.D. 52. Vitellius passed
another. See ii. 62.
[49] Nero's wife. Cp. chap. 13.
[50] i.e. to Lusitania. See chap. 13.
[51] They were 'Guards' who had escorted Nero on his singing
tours through Greece. Perhaps some of them came to meet Galba
on his way from Spain. Otherwise they could not have shared
the toils of this march.
[52] See chap. 72.
[53] The public dinner given in older days by patrons to their
clients had long ago been commuted for a 'tip' (sportula).
Pudens, instead of providing dinner for Galba's guard, sought
their favour by giving them about 17_s._ apiece.
[54] The English terms do not of course represent the exact
position of these soldiers. The former was one of the
emperor's personal body-guard (speculatores), who received the
watchword (tessera) and passed it round: the latter was one to
whom a centurion had delegated some part of his work.
[55] Plutarch explains this. 'He passed through Tiberius'
house, as it is called, and walked down to the Forum, where
stands the golden pillar to which all the high-roads of Italy
lead.' The Velabrum lies between the Forum, the Tiber, and the
Aventine.
THE FALL OF GALBA
Meanwhile Galba in total ignorance and intent upon his sacrifices 29
continued to importune the gods of an empire that had already ceased
to be his. First there came a rumour that some one or other of the
senators was being hurried to the camp, then that it was Otho.
Immediately people who had met Otho came flocking in from all quarters
of Rome; some in their terror exaggerated the truth, some minimized
it, remembering even then to flatter. After discussion it was decided
that the temper of the cohort on guard in the palace should be tested,
but not by Galba himself. His authority was held in reserve for more
heroic remedies. The troops were summoned. Piso, standing out on the
steps of the palace, addressed them as follows:
'Fellow soldiers, it is now five days since I was made a Caesar. I
knew nothing of the future nor whether the name was more to be desired
or feared. It now lies with you to decide whether or no my adoption is
to prove a calamity for my house and for my country. In saying this, I
do not dread disaster on my own account. I have known misfortune, and
I am now discovering to the full that prosperity is just as dangerous.
But for the sake of my adoptive father, of the senate, and of the
whole empire, I deplore the thought that we may have to-day either to
die or--what for good men is as wretched--to kill. In the recent
revolution our comfort was that Rome was spared the sight of blood,
and the transfer was effected without disturbance. We thought that my
adoption would be a safeguard against an outbreak of civil war even
after Galba's death.
'I will make no claims to rank or respectability. To compare 30
myself with Otho, I need not recite my virtues. His vices are all he
has to be proud of. They ruined the empire, even when he was only
playing the part of an emperor's friend. Why should he deserve to be
emperor? For his swaggering demeanour? For his effeminate costume?
Extravagance imposes on some people. They take it for liberality. They
are wrong. He will know how to squander money, but not how to give it
away. His mind is full of lechery and debauchery and intrigues with
women. These are in his eyes the prerogatives of the throne. And the
pleasure of his vices would be all his, the blushes of shame would be
ours. No man has ever ruled well who won the throne by bad means.
'The whole Roman world agreed to give Galba the title of Caesar. Galba
with your approval gave that title to me. Even if the "country", the
"senate", the "people", are empty terms, it is to your interest, my
fellow soldiers, to see that it is not the rascals who create an
emperor. From time to time one hears of the legionaries being in
mutiny against their generals. But your good faith and your good name
have stood to this day unimpaired. It was not you who deserted Nero:
he deserted you. Are you going to allow less than thirty deserters and
renegades to bestow the crown? Why! no one would tolerate their
choosing so much as a centurion or a tribune for themselves. Are you
going to allow this precedent, and by your acquiescence make their
crime your own? You will soon see this lawless spirit spreading to the
troops abroad, and in time the treason will recoil on us and the war
on you. Besides, innocence wins you as much as the murder of your
emperor: you will get from us as large a bounty for your loyalty as
you would from others for your crime.'
The members of the Body Guard dispersed. The rest of the cohort 31
paid some heed to his speech. Aimlessly, as happens in moments of
confusion, they seized their standards, without as yet any fixed plan,
and not, as was afterwards believed, to cloak their treachery. Marius
Celsus had been dispatched to the picked detachments of the Illyrian
army, which were quartered in the Vipsanian arcade,[56] while
instructions had been given to two senior centurions,[57] Amullius
Serenus and Domitius Sabinus, to summon the German troops from the
Hall of Liberty. They distrusted the legion of marines, who had been
alienated by Galba's butchery of their comrades on his entry into
Rome.[58] Three officers of the guards, Cetrius Severus, Subrius
Dexter, and Pompeius Longinus, also hurried to the camp in the hope
that the mutiny was still in its early stages and might be averted by
good advice before it came to a head. The soldiers attacked Subrius
and Cetrius with threats and forcibly seizing Longinus disarmed him,
because he had not come in virtue of his military rank, but simply as
one of Galba's private friends; and for his loyalty to his master the
rebels disliked him all the more. The marines without any hesitation
joined the guards. The Illyrian draft[59] drove Celsus away at the
point of their javelins. The German detachments[59] wavered for some
time. They were still in poor condition physically, and inclined to be
passive. Nero had dispatched them as an advance-guard to
Alexandria;[60] the long voyage back again had damaged their health,
and Galba had spared no expense in looking after them.
The whole populace of Rome was now crowding into the palace 32
together with a good sprinkling of slaves. With discordant shouts they
demanded the death of Otho and the doom of the conspirators. They
might have been in the circus or the theatre, clamouring for
entertainment. There was neither sense nor sincerity in their
behaviour. They were quite ready on the same day to clamour for the
opposite with equal zeal. But it is an established custom to flatter
any emperor with unbridled cheering and meaningless enthusiasm.
Meanwhile Galba was torn between two opinions. Titus Vinius maintained
that they ought to remain within the palace, employ the slaves to
offer resistance and block up all the doors, instead of going out to
face the angry troops. 'This will give time,' he urged, 'for the
disloyal to repent and the loyal to unite their forces. Crimes demand
haste, good counsels profit by delay. Besides, if need be, we shall
have the same chance of leaving the palace later: if we leave and
repent of it, it will not be in our power to return.'
All the others voted for immediate action before the conspiracy 33
gathered strength and numbers. 'Otho,' they argued, 'will soon lose
heart. He crept away by stealth and was introduced in a litter to a
parcel of strangers, and now because we dally and waste time he has
leisure to rehearse his part of emperor. What is the good of waiting
until Otho sets his camp in order and approaches the Capitol, while
Galba peeps out of a window? Are this famous general and his gallant
friends to shut the doors and not to stir a foot over the threshold,
as if they were anxious to endure a siege? Much help may we hope from
slaves, when once the unwieldy crowd loses its unity and their first
indignation, which counts for so much, begins to cool. No, cowardice
is too risky. Or if we must fall, let us meet the danger half-way, and
cover Otho with disgrace, ourselves with honour.'
When Vinius resisted this proposal, Laco, prompted by Icelus,
assailed him with threats, persisting in his private quarrel to the
ruin of his country. Galba without further delay supported those 34
whose plan would look best. However, Piso was first dispatched to the
camp. The young man had a great name, his popularity was still fresh,
and moreover, he disliked Titus Vinius, or, if he did not, Vinius'
enemies hoped he did: it is so easy to believe in hatred. Scarcely had
Piso departed, when there arrived a rumour that Otho had been killed
in the camp. At first it was vague and uncertain, but eventually, as
so often happens with daring lies, people began to assert that they
had been present and seen the deed. Some were glad and some
indifferent, so the news gained easy credence. Many, however, thought
that the report had been concocted and disseminated by friends of
Otho, who now mingled in the crowd and tried to lure Galba out by
spreading this agreeable falsehood. At this point not only the 35
populace and the inexperienced mob but many of the knights and
senators as well broke out into applause and unbridled enthusiasm.
With their fear they had lost their caution. Breaking open the palace
gates they rushed in and presented themselves before Galba,
complaining that they had been forestalled in the task of revenge. All
the cowards who, as events proved, could show no pluck in action,
indulged in excessive heroics and lip-courage. Nobody knew, everybody
talked. At last, for lack of the truth, Galba yielded to the consensus
of error. When he had put on his breastplate he was lifted into a
chair, for he was too old and infirm to stand against the crowds that
kept flocking in. In the palace he was met by Julius Atticus, of the
Body Guard, who displayed a dripping sword and shouted out that he had
killed Otho. 'Comrade,' said Galba, 'who bade you?' Galba had a
remarkable power of curbing soldiers' presumption, for he was not
afraid of threats nor moved by flattery.
Meanwhile in Otho's camp there was no longer any doubt of the 36
soldiers' unanimity. Such was their enthusiasm that they were not
content with carrying Otho shoulder-high in procession; they placed
him among the standards on the platform, where shortly before a gilt
statue of Galba had stood, and made a ring round him with their
colours.[61] Tribunes and centurions were allowed no approach: the
common soldiers even called out, 'Beware of the officers.' The whole
camp resounded with confused shouts of mutual encouragement. It was
quite unlike the wavering and spiritless flattery of a civil mob. As
new adherents streamed in, directly a soldier caught sight of one of
them, he grasped him by the hand, flung his arms round him, kept him
at his side, and dictated the oath of allegiance. Some commended their
general to his soldiers, and some the soldiers to their general. Otho,
for his part, was not slow to greet the crowd with outstretched hand
and throw kisses to them. In every way he played the slave to gain a
throne. When the whole legion of the marines had sworn allegiance, he
gained confidence in his strength, and, considering that those whom he
had incited individually needed a few words of general encouragement,
he stood out on the rampart and began as follows:--'In what guise 37
I come forward to address you, Fellow Soldiers, I cannot tell. Dubbed
emperor by you, I dare not call myself a private citizen: yet
"emperor" I cannot say with another on the throne. And what am I to
call you? That too will remain in doubt until it is decided whether
you have here in your camp an enemy or an emperor of Rome. You hear
how they clamour at once for my death and your punishment. So clear is
it that we must fall or stand together. Doubtless Galba--such is his
clemency--has already promised our destruction. Is he not the man who
without the least excuse butchered thousands of utterly innocent
soldiers?[62] I shudder whenever I recall his ghastly entry into the
city, when before the face of Rome he ordered the decimation of the
troops whom at their humble petition he had taken under his
protection. That is Galba's only "victory". These were the auspices
under which he made his entry; and what glory has he brought to the
throne he occupies, save the murder of Obultronius Sabinus and
Cornelius Marcellus in Spain, of Betuus Cilo in Gaul, of Fonteius
Capito in Germany, of Clodius Macer in Africa, of Cingonius on his
march to Rome, of Turpilianus in the city, and of Nymphidius in the
camp? What province is there in the empire that has not been polluted
with massacre? He calls it "salutary correction". For his "remedies"
are what other people call crimes: his cruelty is disguised as
"austerity", his avarice as "economy", while by "discipline" he means
punishing and insulting you. It is but seven months since Nero's
death, and already Icelus alone has embezzled more than all the
depredations of Polyclitus and Vatinius and Aegialus[63] put together.
Why, Vinius would have been less greedy and lawless had he been
emperor himself. As it is, he treats us as his own subjects and
despises us as Galba's. His own fortune alone could provide the
largess which they daily cast in your teeth but never pay into your
pocket.
'Nor in Galba's successor either is there any hope for you. Galba 38
has seen to that. He has recalled from exile the man whose avarice and
sour temper he judged most like his own. You witnessed for yourselves,
my comrades, the extraordinary storm which signified Heaven's
abhorrence at that ill-starred adoption. The Senate and People of Rome
feel the same. They are counting on your courage. You alone can give
strength to the right policy: it is powerless without you, however
good it be. It is not to war and danger that I call you. All the
troops are with us. That single plain-clothes cohort[64] is no longer
a defence to Galba, but a hindrance. When once they have caught sight
of you, when once they come to take their orders from me, the only
quarrel between you will be who can do most to put me in their debt.
There is no room for delay in plans which cannot be commended until
they are put into action.'
Otho then gave orders to open the arsenal. The soldiers immediately
seized their arms in such haste that all the ordinary distinctions of
the service were neglected: neither Guards nor Legionaries carried
their own arms:[65] in the confusion they took the helmets and shields
of the auxiliaries. There were no tribunes or centurions to encourage
them: each man followed his own lead, and the rascals found their
chief incentive in the consternation of the loyal. As the riot 39
increased, Piso, alarmed by the din of their shouts, which could be
heard even in the city, had overtaken Galba, who had meanwhile left
the palace and was approaching the Forum. Marius Celsus had also
brought back no good news. Some were for returning to the palace,
others for seeking the shelter of the Capitol, many for seizing the
Rostra. The majority merely disagreed with other people's proposals,
and, as so often happens in these disasters, the best course always
seemed the one for which it was now too late. It is said that Laco,
without Galba's knowledge, proposed the assassination of Titus Vinius,
either with the idea that his execution would be a sop to the
soldiers, or because he believed him Otho's accomplice, or, as a last
alternative, hatred may have been his motive. However, the time and
the place both bred scruples; when killing once begins it is difficult
to set a limit: besides, their plans were upset by the arrival of
terrified messengers, by the continual desertion of their supporters,
and by a general waning of enthusiasm even among those who at first
had been the keenest to display their loyalty and courage.
Galba was driven hither and thither by the tide of the surging 40
mob. The temples and public buildings[66] were crowded with
spectators, who viewed a sorry scene. No shouts came from the crowd:
astonishment was on their faces, and their ears open to every sound.
There was neither uproar nor quiet, but the silence of strong emotion
and alarm. However, a report reached Otho that the populace was
arming. He bade his men fly headlong to forestall the danger. Off went
the Roman soldiers as if they were going to drag Vologaesus or Pacorus
from the ancestral throne of the Arsacids[67]--and not to butcher
their own emperor, a helpless old man. Armed to the teeth, they broke
at a full gallop into the Forum, scattering the populace and trampling
senators under foot. Neither the sight of the Capitol nor the sanctity
of the temples towering above them, nor the thought of Roman emperors
past and to come, could avail to deter them from committing that crime
which the next successor always avenges.
Seeing the armed ranks now close at hand, the standard-bearer of 41
the cohort on guard over Galba[68]--tradition says his name was
Atilius Vergilio--tore off the medallion of Galba[69] and flung it to
the ground. This signal clearly showed that all the troops were for
Otho: the people fled from the deserted Forum and swords were drawn
against any who lingered. Near 'Lake Curtius'[70] Galba was
precipitated from his chair by the panic-stricken haste of the bearers
and flung to the ground. The accounts of his last words vary according
as they are prompted by hatred or admiration. Some say that he whined
and asked what harm he had deserved, begging for a few days' respite
to pay the troops their largess. The majority say that he offered his
neck to the blow and bade them, 'Come, strike, if it serves the
country's need.' Whatever he said mattered little to his assassins. As
to the actual murderer there is a difference of opinion. Some say it
was Terentius, a reservist,[71] others that his name was Laecanius.
The most common account is that a soldier of the Fifteenth legion, by
name Camurius, pierced his throat with a sword-thrust. The others
foully mangled his arms and legs (his breast was covered) and with
bestial savagery continued to stab the headless corpse. Then they made
for Titus Vinius. Here, too, there is a doubt whether the fear of 42
imminent death strangled his voice, or whether he called out that they
had no mandate from Otho to kill him. He may have invented this in his
terror, or it may have been a confession of his complicity in the
plot. His whole life and reputation give reason to suppose that he was
an accomplice in the crime of which he was the cause. He was brought
to the ground in front of the temple of Julius by a blow on the knee,
and afterwards a common soldier named Julius Carus ran him through
with a sword.
However, Rome found one hero that day. This was Sempronius Densus, 43
a centurion of the Guards, who had been told off by Galba to protect
Piso. Drawing his dagger he faced the armed assassins, flinging their
treason in their teeth, and by his shouts and gestures turned their
attention upon himself, thus enabling Piso to escape despite his
wounds. Piso, reaching the temple of Vesta, was mercifully sheltered
by the verger, who hid him in his lodging. There, no reverence for
this sanctuary but merely his concealment postponed his immediate
death. Eventually, Otho, who was burning to have him killed,[72]
dispatched as special agents, Sulpicius Florus of the British cohorts,
a man whom Galba had recently enfranchised, and Statius Murcus of the
Body Guard. They dragged Piso forth and butchered him on the threshold
of the temple.
FOOTNOTES:
[56] These troops, having no head-quarters in Rome, were put
up in a piazza built by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, and decorated
with paintings of Neptune and of the Argonauts. Cp. ii. 93,
where troops are quartered in collonades or temples.
[57] The term primipilaris denotes one who had been the
centurion commanding the first maniple (pilani) of the first
cohort of a legion. He was an officer of great importance,
highly paid, and often admitted to the general's council.
Otho's expedition to Narbonese Gaul (chap. 87) was commanded
by two such 'senior centurions'.
[58] See chap. 6, note 11.
[59] See chap. 6.
[60] Nero was meditating an Ethiopian campaign when the revolt
of Vindex broke out. Cp. chap. 6.
[61] Probably the colours of the different maniples as
distinct from the standards of the cohorts.
[62] Cp. chap. 6.
[63] Freedmen who had curried favour with Nero. Polyclitus was
sent to inquire into Suetonius Paulinus' administration of
Britain after the revolt of Boadicea in A.D. 61. Vatinius was
a deformed cobbler from Beneventum who became a sort of court
buffoon, and acquired great wealth and bad influence.
[64] The cohort on guard seem to have been in mufti, without
helmets and shields or their military cloaks, but armed with
swords and javelins.
[65] The legionaries armed themselves with lances (_hastae_),
and the auxiliaries with javelins (_pila_).
[66] The word _basilica_ refers to the buildings round the
Forum, used for legal, financial, and commercial purposes.
Most of them had cloisters.
[67] The Parthian royal family: Vologaesus was king of
Parthia, and his brother Pacorus viceroy of Media Atropatene.
[68] Cp. chap. 29.
[69] Attached to the pole of the standard.
[70] An enclosed pond in the middle of the Forum, supposed to
be the spot where Curtius leapt on horseback into the chasm,
or by others the spot where a Sabine chieftain was engulfed in
the days of Romulus.
[71] The word here used usually means a veteran re-enlisted in
a special corps after his term had expired. It was also
applied at this time in a special sense to a corps of young
knights, who, without losing their status, acted as Galba's
special body-guard in the imperial palace. One of these may
have been the murderer.
OTHO ON THE THRONE
None of his murders pleased Otho so much as this. On Piso's head, 44
as on no other, they say, he gazed with insatiable eyes. This was
possibly the first moment at which he felt relieved of all anxiety,
and free to indulge his glee; or perhaps, in the case of Galba and of
Vinius, the recollection of his treason to the one and of his former
friendship with the other troubled even his unfeeling heart with
gloomy thoughts, whereas, Piso being an enemy and a rival, he
considered it a pious duty to gloat over his murder. Their heads were
fixed on poles and carried along with the standards of the cohorts
side by side with the eagle of the legion.[73] Those who had done the
deed and those who had witnessed it vied with each other in displaying
their bloody hands, all boasting of their share--some falsely, some
truly--as if it were a fine and memorable exploit. Vitellius
subsequently discovered more than 120 petitions demanding rewards for
distinguished services rendered on that day. He gave orders to search
out all the petitioners and put them to death. This was from no
respect for Galba: he merely followed the traditional custom by which
princes secure their present safety and posthumous vengeance.
The senate and people seemed different men. There was a general 45
rush for the camp, every one shouldering his neighbour and trying to
overtake those in front. They heaped insults on Galba, praised the
prudence of the troops, and covered Otho's hand with kisses, their
extravagance varying inversely with their sincerity. Otho rebuffed no
one, and succeeded by his words and looks in moderating the menace of
the soldiers' greed for vengeance. They loudly demanded the execution
of Marius Celsus, the consul-elect, who had remained Galba's faithful
friend to the last. They were as much offended at his efficiency and
honesty as if these had been criminal qualities. What they wanted was
obviously to find a first excuse for plunder and murder and the
destruction of all decent citizens. But Otho had as yet no influence
to prevent crimes: he could only order them. So he simulated anger,
giving instructions for Celsus' arrest, and by promising that he
should meet with a worse penalty, thus rescued him from immediate
death.
The will of the soldiers was now henceforward supreme. The 46
Praetorian Guards chose their own prefects, Plotius Firmus, a man who
had risen from the ranks to the post of Chief of Police,[74] and
joined Otho's side before Galba's fall, and Licinius Proculus, an
intimate friend of Otho, and therefore suspected of furthering his
plans. They made Flavius Sabinus[75] prefect of the city, therein
following Nero's choice, under whom Sabinus had held that post;
besides, most of them had an eye to the fact that he was Vespasian's
brother. An urgent demand arose that the customary fees to centurions
for granting furlough should be abolished, for they constituted a sort
of annual tax upon the common soldier. The result had been that a
quarter of each company could go off on leave or lounge idly about the
barracks, so long as they paid the centurion his fee, nor was there
any one to control either the amount of this impost or the means by
which the soldiers raised the money: highway robbery or menial service
was the usual resort whereby they purchased leisure. Then, again, a
soldier who had money was savagely burdened with work until he should
buy exemption. Thus he soon became impoverished and enervated by
idleness, and returned to his company no longer a man of means and
energy but penniless and lazy. So the process went on. One after
another they became deteriorated by poverty and lax discipline,
rushing blindly into quarrels and mutiny, and, as a last resource,
into civil war. Otho was afraid of alienating the centurions by his
concessions to the rank and file, and promised to pay the annual
furlough-fees out of his private purse. This was indubitably a sound
reform, which good emperors have since established as a regular custom
in the army. The prefect Laco he pretended to banish to an island, but
on his arrival he was stabbed by a reservist[76] whom Otho had
previously dispatched for that purpose. Marcianus Icelus, as being one
of his own freedmen,[77] he sentenced to public execution.
Thus the day was spent in crimes, and worst of all was the joy 47
they caused. The senate was summoned by the urban praetor.[78] The
other magistrates all vied in flattery. The senators arrived
post-haste. They decreed to Otho the powers of the tribunate, the
title of Augustus, and all the imperial prerogatives. Their unanimous
object was to blot out all recollection of former insults; but, as
these had been hurled equally from all sides, they did not, as far as
any one could see, stick in his memory. Whether he had forgotten them
or only postponed punishment, his reign was too short to show. He was
then carried through the still reeking Forum among the piles of dead
bodies to the Capitol, and thence to the palace. He granted permission
to burn and bury the bodies of his victims. Piso's wife Verania and
his brother Scribonianus laid out his body, and this was done for
Vinius by his daughter Crispina. They had to search for the heads and
buy them back from the murderers, who had preserved them for sale.
FOOTNOTES:
[72] According to Plutarch, when they brought Otho Galba's
head, he said, 'That's nothing: show me Piso's.'
[73] i.e. the legion of marines--Prima Adiutrix. Cp. chap. 6, &c.
[74] i.e. in command of the _cohortes vigilum_. Cp. chap. 5,
note 10.
[75] Vespasian's elder brother. He continued to hold the
office under Vitellius (ii. 63).
[76] See chap. 42, note 71.
[77] As a _libertus Caesaris_ he passed into Otho's hands with
the rest of the palace furniture.
[78] The consuls Galba and Vinius (chap. 1), were both dead.
DRAMATIS PERSONAE
Piso was in his thirty-first year. His reputation was better than 48
his fortune. His brothers had been executed, Magnus by Claudius,
Crassus by Nero.[79] He himself after being long in exile was a Caesar
for four days. Hastily adopted in preference to his elder brother,[80]
the only advantage he reaped was to be killed first.
Titus Vinius in his fifty-seven years had displayed strange contrasts
of character. His father belonged to a family of praetorian rank; his
mother's father was one of the proscribed.[81] A scandal marked his
first military service under the general Calvisius Sabinus.[82] The
general's wife suffered from a suspicious desire to inspect the
arrangements of the camp, which she entered by night disguised in
soldier's uniform. There she brazenly interfered with the guard and
the soldiers on duty, and eventually had the effrontery to commit
adultery in the general's own quarters. The man convicted of
implication in this scandal was Titus Vinius. He was therefore put in
irons by order of Caligula.[83] However, the fortunes of the time soon
changed and he was set at liberty. After mounting the ladder of office
without check, he was as an ex-praetor given the command of a legion,
and proved successful. But soon again he soiled his reputation, and
laid himself under the charge of having been mean enough to steal a
gold cup from Claudius' dinner-table. Claudius gave orders that on the
next day Vinius alone of all his guests should be served on
earthenware. However, as pro-consul, Vinius' government of Narbonese
Gaul was strict and honest. Subsequently his friendship with Galba
brought him into danger. He was bold, cunning, and efficient, with
great power for good or for evil, according to his mood. Vinius' will
was annulled because of his great wealth. Piso was poor, so his last
wishes were respected.
Galba's body lay long neglected, and under cover of darkness was 49
subjected to various insults. Eventually his steward Argius, one of
his former slaves, gave it a humble burial in his private garden. His
head, which the camp-followers and servants had mangled and carried on
a pole, was found next day in front of the tomb of Patrobius (one of
Nero's freedmen whom Galba had executed) and buried with the body
which had already been cremated. Such was the end of Servius Galba,
who for seventy-three years had enjoyed prosperity under five
different emperors, happier in their reign than his own. He came of an
old and noble family and possessed great wealth. His own character was
mediocre, rather free from vices than rich in virtues. Though not
indifferent to fame, he did not court it by advertisement. Not greedy
of other people's money, he was careful of his own, and a miser with
public funds. His attitude towards friends and freedmen, if they were
honest, was one of kindly complaisance; when they were not, he was
culpably blind. But his distinguished origin and the peculiar perils
of the time disguised his apathy, which passed as prudence.[84] In the
flower of his youth he served with distinction in Germany. As
pro-consul he governed Africa wisely, and in later years showed the
same equity in Nearer Spain.[85] When he was a commoner he seemed too
big for his station, and had he never been emperor, no one would have
doubted his ability to reign.
FOOTNOTES:
[79] Cn. Pompeius Magnus was Claudius' son-in-law, and
executed by him 'on a vague charge'. M. Licinius Crassus Frugi
was accused of treason to Nero by Aquilius Regulus, an
informer, whom one of Pliny's friends calls 'the vilest of
bipeds'. Regulus' brother was Vipstanus Messala. Cp. iv. 42.
[80] Scribonianus. Cp. chap. 15
[81] Under the second triumvirate.
[82] He was governor of Pannonia under Caligula.
[83] Sabinus and his wife were prosecuted, and both committed
suicide.
[84] Under Nero, says Tacitus in his Life of Agricola, 'the
wisest man was he who did least.'
[85] He had governed the upper province of Germany under
Caligula; Africa under Claudius; the Tarragona division of
Spain under Nero. In Germany he defeated the Chatti A.D. 41.
THE RISE OF VITELLIUS
The city was in a panic. The alarm aroused by the recent atrocious 50
crime and by Otho's well-known proclivities was further increased by
the fresh news about Vitellius.[86] This news had been suppressed
before Galba's murder, and it was believed that only the army of Upper
Germany had revolted. Now when they saw that the two men in the world
who were most notorious for immorality, indolence, and extravagance
had been, as it were, appointed by Providence to ruin the empire, not
only the senators and knights who had some stake and interest in the
country, but the masses as well, openly deplored their fate. Their
talk was no longer of the horrors of the recent bloody peace: they
reverted to the records of the civil wars, the taking and retaking of
Rome by her own troops, the devastation of Italy, the pillage of the
provinces, the battles of Pharsalia, Philippi, Perusia, and
Mutina,[87] those bywords of national disaster. 'The world was turned
upside down,' they mused, 'even when good men fought for the throne:
yet the Roman Empire survived the victories of Julius Caesar and of
Augustus, as the Republic would have survived had Pompey and Brutus
been victorious. But now--are we to go and pray for Otho or for
Vitellius? To pray for either would be impious. It would be wicked to
offer vows for the success of either in a war of which we can only be
sure that the winner will prove the worse.' Some cherished hopes of
Vespasian and the armies of the East: he was preferable to either of
the others; still they shuddered at the thought of a fresh war and
fresh bloodshed. Besides, Vespasian's reputation was doubtful. He was
the first emperor who ever changed for the better.
I must now explain the origin and causes of the rising of 51
Vitellius. After the slaughter of Julius Vindex[88] and his whole
force, the troops were in high spirits at the fame and booty they had
acquired. Without toil or danger they had won a most profitable
victory. So they were all for marching against the enemy: plunder
seemed better than pay. They had endured a long and unprofitable
service, rendered the more irksome by the country and climate and by
the strict discipline observed. But discipline, however stern in time
of peace, is always relaxed in civil wars, when temptation stands on
either hand and treachery goes unpunished. Men, armour, and horses
they had in abundance for use and for show. But, whereas before the
war the soldiers only knew the men of their own company or troop, and
the provincial frontier[89] separated the armies, now, having once
joined forces against Vindex, they had gained a knowledge of their own
strength and the state of the province, and were looking for more
fighting and fresh quarrels, calling the Gauls no longer allies, as
before, but 'our enemies' or 'the vanquished'. They had also the
support of the Gallic tribes on the banks of the Rhine, who had
espoused their cause and were now the most eager to rouse them
against 'the Galbians'[90] as they now called them, despising the name
of Vindex. So, cherishing hostility against the Sequani and Aedui,[91]
and against all the other communities in proportion to their wealth,
they drank in dreams of sacking towns and pillaging fields and looting
houses, inspired partly by the peculiar failings of the strong, greed
and vanity, and partly also by a feeling of irritation at the
insolence of the Gauls, who boasted, to the chagrin of the army, that
Galba had remitted a quarter of their tribute and given the franchise
and grants of land to their community.[92] Further fuel was added by a
rumour, cunningly circulated and rashly credited, that there was a
project on foot to decimate the legions and discharge all the most
enterprising centurions. From every side came alarming news and
sinister reports from the city. The colony of Lugdunum[93] was up in
arms, and its stubborn attachment to Nero made it a hotbed of rumour.
But in the camp itself the passions and fears of the soldiers, and,
when once they had realized their strength, their feeling of security,
furnished the richest material for lies and won them easy credence.
In the preceding year,[94] shortly after the beginning of 52
December, Aulus Vitellius had entered the province of Lower Germany
and held a careful inspection of the winter quarters of the legions.
He restored many to their rank, remitted degrading penalties, and
relieved those who had suffered disgrace, acting mainly from ambitious
motives, but partly also upon sound judgement. Amongst other things he
showed impartiality in remedying the injustices due to the mean and
dishonest way in which Fonteius Capito had issued promotions and
reductions. The soldiers did not judge Vitellius' actions as those of
a mere ex-consul: they took him for something more, and, while serious
critics found him undignified,[95] his supporters spoke of his
affability and beneficence, because he showed neither moderation nor
judgement in making presents out of his own money and squandering
other people's. Besides, they were so greedy for power that they took
even his vices for virtues. In both armies there were plenty of quiet,
law-abiding men as well as many who were unprincipled and disorderly.
But for sheer reckless cupidity none could match two of the legionary
legates, Alienus Caecina and Fabius Valens.[96] Valens was hostile to
Galba, because, after unmasking Verginius's hesitation[97] and
thwarting Capito's designs, he considered that he had been treated
with ingratitude: so he incited Vitellius by pointing out to him the
enthusiasm of the troops. 'You,' he would say to him, 'are famous
everywhere, and you need find no obstacle in Hordeonius Flaccus.[98]
Britain will join and the German auxiliaries will flock to your
standard. Galba cannot trust the provinces; the poor old man holds the
empire on sufferance; the transfer can be soon effected, if only you
will clap on full sail and meet your good fortune half-way. Verginius
was quite right to hesitate. He came of a family of knights, and his
father was a nobody. He would have failed, had he accepted the empire:
his refusal saved him. Your father was thrice consul, and he was
censor with an emperor for his colleague.[99] That gives you imperial
dignity to start with, and makes it unsafe for you to remain a private
citizen.'
These promptings stirred Vitellius' sluggish nature to form desires,
but hardly hopes.
Caecina, on the other hand, in Upper Germany, was a handsome 53
youth, whose big build, imperious spirit, clever tongue, and upright
carriage had completely won the hearts of the soldiers. While quaestor
in Baetica[100] he had promptly joined Galba's party, and in spite of
his youth had been given command of a legion. Later he was convicted
of misappropriating public funds, and, on Galba's orders, prosecuted
for peculation. Highly indignant, Caecina determined to embroil the
world and bury his own disgrace in the ruins of his country. Nor were
the seeds of dissension lacking in the army. The entire force had
taken part in the war against Vindex, nor was it until after Nero's
death that they joined Galba's side, and even then they had been
forestalled in swearing allegiance by the detachments of Lower
Germany. Then again the Treviri and Lingones[101] and the other
communities which Galba had punished by issuing harsh edicts and
confiscating part of their territory, were in close communication with
the winter quarters of the legions. They began to talk treason: the
soldiers degenerated in civilian society: it only wanted some one to
avail himself of the offer they had made to Verginius.
Following an ancient custom, the tribe of the Lingones had made a 54
present of a pair of silver hands[102] to the legions as a symbol of
hospitality. Assuming an appearance of squalid misery, their envoys
made the round of the officers' quarters and the soldiers' tents
complaining of their own wrongs and of the rewards lavished on
neighbouring tribes. Finding the soldiers ready to listen, they made
inflammatory allusions to the army itself, its dangers and
humiliation. Mutiny was almost ripe, when Hordeonius Flaccus ordered
the envoys to withdraw, and, in order to secure the secrecy of their
departure, gave instructions to them to leave the camp by night. This
gave rise to an alarming rumour. Many declared that the envoys had
been killed, and that, if they did not look out for themselves, the
leading spirits among the soldiers, who had complained of the present
state of things, would be murdered in the dark, while their comrades
knew nothing about it. So the legions formed a secret compact. The
auxiliaries were also taken into the plot, although at first they had
been distrusted, because their infantry and cavalry had been posted in
camp all round the legion's quarters as though an attack on them were
meditated. However, they soon showed themselves the keener
conspirators. Disloyalty is a better bond for war than it ever proves
in peace.
In Lower Germany, however, the legions on the first of January 55
swore the usual oath of allegiance to Galba, though with much
hesitation. Few voices were heard even in the front ranks; the rest
were silent, each waiting for his neighbour to take some bold step.
Human nature is always ready to follow where it hates to lead.
However, the feelings of the legions varied. The First and Fifth[103]
were already mutinous enough to throw a few stones at Galba's statue.
The Fifteenth and Sixteenth[104] dared not venture beyond muttered
threats, but they were watching to see the outbreak begin. In Upper
Germany, on the other hand, on the very same day, the Fourth and the
Twenty-second legions, who were quartered together,[105] smashed their
statues of Galba to atoms. The Fourth took the lead, the
Twenty-second at first holding back, but eventually making common
cause with them. They did not want it to be thought that they were
shaking off their allegiance to the empire, so in taking the oath they
invoked the long obsolete names of the Senate and People of Rome. None
of the officers made any movement for Galba, and indeed some of them,
as happens in such outbreaks, headed the rebellion. However, nobody
made any kind of set speech or mounted the platform, for there was no
one as yet with whom to curry favour.
The ex-consul Hordeonius Flaccus stood by and watched their 56
treachery. He had not the courage to check the storm or even to rally
the waverers and encourage the faithful. Sluggish and cowardly, it was
mere indolence that kept him loyal. Four centurions of the
Twenty-second legion, Nonius Receptus, Donatius Valens, Romilius
Marcellus, and Calpurnius Repentinus, who tried to protect Galba's
statues, were swept away by the rush of the soldiers and put under
arrest. No one retained any respect for their former oath of
allegiance, or even remembered it; and, as happens in mutinies, they
were all on the side of the majority.
On the night of the first of January a standard-bearer of the Fourth
legion came to Cologne,[106] and brought the news to Vitellius at his
dinner that the Fourth and Twenty-second legions had broken down
Galba's statues and sworn allegiance to the Senate and People of Rome.
As this oath was meaningless, it seemed best to seize the critical
moment and offer them an emperor. Vitellius dispatched messengers to
inform his own troops and generals that the army of the Upper Province
had revolted from Galba; so they must either make war on the rebels
immediately, or, if they preferred peace and unity, make an emperor
for themselves; and there was less danger, he reminded them, in
choosing an emperor than in looking for one.
The quarters of the First legion were nearest at hand, and Fabius 57
Valens was the most enterprising of the generals. On the following day
he entered Cologne with the cavalry of his legion and auxiliaries, and
saluted Vitellius as emperor. The other legions of the province
followed suit, vying with each other in enthusiasm; and the army of
the Upper Province, dropping the fine-sounding titles of the Senate
and People of Rome, joined Vitellius on the third of January, which
clearly showed that on the two previous days they were not really at
the disposal of a republican government. The inhabitants of Cologne
and the Treviri and Lingones, rivalling the zeal of the troops, made
offers of assistance, or of horses or arms or money, each according to
the measure of their strength, wealth, or enterprise. And these
offers came not only from the civil and military authorities, men who
had plenty of money to spare and much to hope from victory, but whole
companies or individual soldiers handed over their savings, or,
instead of money, their belts, or the silver ornaments[107] on their
uniforms, some carried away by a wave of enthusiasm, some acting from
motives of self-interest.
Vitellius accordingly commended the zeal of the troops. He 58
distributed among Roman knights the court-offices which had been
usually held by freedmen,[108] paid the centurions their furlough-fees
out of the imperial purse,[109] and for the most part conceded the
soldiers' savage demands for one execution after another, though he
occasionally cheated them by pretending to imprison their victims.
Thus Pompeius Propinquus,[110] the imperial agent in Belgica, was
promptly executed, while Julius Burdo, who commanded the fleet on the
Rhine, was adroitly rescued. The indignation of the army had broken
out against him, because he was supposed to have intrigued against
Fonteius Capito, and to have accused him falsely.[111] Capito's memory
was dear to the army, and when violence reigns murder may show its
face, but pardon must be stealthy. So Burdo was kept in confinement
and only released after victory had allayed the soldiers' rancour.
Meanwhile a centurion, named Crispinus, was offered as a scape-goat.
He had actually stained his hands with Capito's blood, so his guilt
seemed more obvious to those who clamoured for his punishment, and
Vitellius felt he was a cheaper sacrifice.
Julius Civilis[112] was the next to be rescued from danger. He was 59
all-powerful among the Batavi,[113] and Vitellius did not want to
alienate so spirited a people by punishing him. Besides, eight cohorts
of Batavian troops were stationed among the Lingones. They had been an
auxiliary force attached to the Fourteenth, and in the general
disturbance had deserted the legion. Their decision for one side or
the other would be of the first importance. Nonius, Donatius,
Romilius, and Calpurnius, the centurions mentioned above,[114] were
executed by order of Vitellius. They had been convicted of loyalty, a
heinous offence among deserters. His party soon gained the accession
of Valerius Asiaticus, governor of Belgica, who subsequently married
Vitellius' daughter, and of Junius Blaesus,[115] governor of the Lyons
division of Gaul, who brought with him the Italian legion[116] and a
regiment of cavalry known as 'Taurus' Horse',[117] which had been
quartered at Lugdunum. The forces in Raetia lost no time in joining
his standard, and even the troops in Britain showed no hesitation.
Trebellius Maximus, the governor of Britain, had earned by his 60
meanness and cupidity the contempt and hatred of the army,[118] which
was further inflamed by the action of his old enemy Roscius Coelius,
who commanded the Twentieth legion, and they now seized the
opportunity of the civil war to break out into a fierce quarrel.
Trebellius blamed Coelius for the mutinous temper and insubordination
of the army: Coelius complained that Trebellius had robbed his men and
impaired their efficiency. Meanwhile their unseemly quarrel ruined the
discipline of the forces, whose insubordination soon came to a head.
The auxiliary horse and foot joined in the attacks on the governor,
and rallied round Coelius. Trebellius, thus hunted out and abandoned,
took refuge with Vitellius. The province remained quiet, despite the
removal of the ex-consul. The government was carried on by the
commanding officers of the legions, who were equal in authority,
though Coelius' audacity gave him an advantage over the rest.
Thus reinforced by the army from Britain,[119] Vitellius, who now 61
had an immense force and vast resources at his disposal, decided on an
invasion by two routes under two separate generals. Fabius Valens was
to lure the Gauls to his standard, or, if they refused, to devastate
their country, and then invade Italy by way of the Cottian Alps.[120]
Caecina was to follow the shorter route and descend into Italy over
the Pennine Pass.[121] Valens' column comprised the Fifth legion with
its 'eagle',[122] and some picked detachments from the army of Lower
Germany, together with auxiliary horse and foot, amounting in all to
40,000 men. Caecina's troops from Upper Germany numbered 30,000, their
main strength consisting in the Twenty-first legion.[123] Both columns
were reinforced by German auxiliaries, whom Vitellius also recruited
to fill up his own army, intending to follow with the main force of
the attack.
Strange was the contrast between Vitellius and his army. The 62
soldiers were all eagerness, clamouring for battle at once, while Gaul
was still frightened and Spain still undecided. Winter was no obstacle
to them; peace and delay were for cowards: they must invade Italy and
seize Rome: haste was the safest course in civil war, where action is
better than deliberation. Vitellius was dully apathetic, anticipating
his high station by indulging in idle luxury and lavish
entertainments. At midday he would be drunk and drowsy with
over-eating. However, such was the zeal of the soldiers that they even
did the general's duties, and behaved exactly as if he had been
present to encourage the alert and threaten the laggards. They
promptly fell in and began to clamour for the signal to start. The
title of Germanicus was then and there conferred on Vitellius: Caesar
he would never be called, even after his victory.
FOOTNOTES:
[86] Cp. chap. 14.
[87] At Pharsalia Caesar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C.; at Mutina
the consul Hirtius defeated Antony, 43 B.C.; at Philippi
Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, 42 B.C.; at Perusia
Octavian defeated Antony's brother Lucius, 40 B.C.
[88] See note 15.
[89] Between the provinces of Upper and Lower Germany.
[90] In the Gallic tongue this signified 'pot-belly'.
[91] The Sequani had their capital at Vesontio (Besançon), the
Aedui at Augustodunum (Autun).
[92] Cp. chap. 8. The land was that taken from the Treviri
(chap. 53).
[93] Lyons.
[94] A.D. 68.
[95] According to Suetonius he used to kiss the soldiers he
met in the road; make friends with ostlers and travellers at
wayside inns; and go about in the morning asking everybody
'Have you had breakfast yet?' demonstrating by his hiccoughs
that he had done so himself.
[96] Cp. chap. 7. Caecina was in Upper Germany, Valens in Lower.
[97] Cp. chap. 8.
[98] He commanded the army of the Upper Province (chap. 9).
[99] He was Claudius' colleague twice in the consulship, and
once in the censorship.
[100] Andalusia and Granada.
[101] The Treviri have given their name to Trier (Trèves), the
Lingones to Langres.
[102] i.e. two right hands locked in friendship.
[103] At Bonn and at Vetera.
[104] At Vetera and at Neuss.
[105] At Mainz.
[106] The Ubii had been allowed by Agrippa to move their chief
town from the right to the left bank of the Rhine. Ten or
twelve years later (A.D. 50) a colony of Roman veterans was
planted there and called _Colonia Claudia Augusta
Agrippinensium_, because Agrippina, the mother of Nero, had
been born there.
[107] These were thin bosses of silver, gold, or bronze,
chased in relief, and worn as medals are.
[108] This important innovation was established as the rule by
Hadrian. These officials--nominally the private servants of
the emperor, and hitherto imperial freedmen--formed an
important branch of the civil service. (Cp. note 165.)
[109] Cp. chap. 46.
[110] Cp. chap. 12.
[111] Cp. chap. 7.
[112] The leader of the great revolt on the Rhine, described
in Book IV.
[113] The ancestors of the Dutch who lived on the island
formed by the Lek and the Waal between Arnhem and Rotterdam;
its eastern part is still called Betuwe.
[114] Chap. 56.
[115] His supposed murder by Vitellius is described, iii. 38, 39.
[116] Legio Prima Italica, formed by Nero.
[117] Called after Statilius Taurus, who first enlisted it. He
was Pro-consul of Africa under Nero. Cp. note 146.
[118] Their mutiny in A.D. 69 is described by Tacitus, _Agr._ 16.
[119] i.e. by detachments from it.
[120] Mt. Cenis.
[121] Great St. Bernard.
[122] i.e. he had the main body of the Legion V, known as 'The
Larks', and only detachments from the other legions.
[123] Known as 'Rapax', and stationed at Windisch
(Vindonissa), east of the point where the Rhine turns to flow
north.
THE MARCH OF VALENS' COLUMN
On the very day of departure a happy omen greeted Fabius Valens and
the army under his command. As the column advanced, an eagle flew
steadily ahead and seemed to lead the way. Loudly though the soldiers
cheered, hour after hour the bird flew undismayed, and was taken for a
sure omen of success.
They passed peaceably through the country of the Treviri, who were 63
allies. At Divodurum,[124] the chief town of the Mediomatrici,
although they were welcomed with all courtesy, the troops fell into a
sudden panic. Hastily seizing their arms, they began to massacre the
innocent citizens. Their object was not plunder. They were seized by a
mad frenzy, which was the harder to allay as its cause was a mystery.
Eventually the general's entreaties prevailed, and they refrained from
destroying the town. However, nearly 4,000 men had already been
killed. This spread such alarm throughout Gaul, that, as the army
approached, whole towns flocked out with their magistrates at their
head and prayers for mercy in their mouths. Women and boys prostrated
themselves along the roads, and they resorted to every possible means
by which an enemy's anger may be appeased,[125] petitioning for peace,
though war there was none.
It was in the country of the Leuci[126] that Valens heard the news 64
of Galba's murder and Otho's elevation. The soldiers showed no
emotion, neither joy nor fear: their thoughts were all for war. The
Gauls' doubts were now decided. They hated Otho and Vitellius equally,
but Vitellius they also feared. They next reached the Lingones,
faithful adherents of their party. There the courtesy of the citizens
was only equalled by the good behaviour of the troops. But this did
not last for long, thanks to the disorderly conduct of the Batavian
auxiliaries, who, as narrated above,[127] had detached themselves from
the Fourteenth legion and been drafted into Valens' column. A quarrel
between some Batavians and legionaries led to blows: the other
soldiers quickly took sides, and a fierce battle would have ensued,
had not Valens punished a few of the Batavians to remind them of the
discipline they seemed to have forgotten.
Coming to the Aedui,[128] they in vain sought an excuse for fighting.
For when the natives were ordered to contribute money and arms, they
brought a gratuitous present of provisions as well. Lugdunum did
gladly what the Aedui had done from fear. But the town was deprived of
the Italian legion and Taurus' Horse.[129] Valens decided to leave the
Eighteenth cohort[130] there in its old winter quarters as a garrison.
Manlius Valens, who was in command of the Italian legion, never
received any distinction from Vitellius, although he deserved well of
the party, the reason being that Fabius slandered him behind his back,
while to avert his suspicions he praised him to his face.
The recent war[131] had served to inflame the long-standing 65
quarrel between Lugdunum and Vienne.[132] Much damage was done on both
sides, and the frequency and animosity of their conflicts proved that
they were not merely fighting for Nero and Galba. Galba had made his
displeasure an excuse for confiscating to the Treasury the revenues of
Lugdunum, while on Vienne he had conferred various distinctions. The
result was a bitter rivalry between the towns, and the Rhone between
them only formed a bond of hatred. Consequently the inhabitants of
Lugdunum began to work on the feelings of individual Roman soldiers,
and to urge them to crush Vienne. They reminded them how the Viennese
had laid siege to Lugdunum, a Roman colony, had assisted the efforts
of Vindex, and had lately raised troops to defend Galba. Having
supplied a pretext for bad feeling, they went on to point out the rich
opportunity for plunder. Not content with private persuasion, they
presented a formal petition that the army would march to avenge them,
and destroy the head-quarters of the Gallic war. Vienne, they urged,
was thoroughly un-Roman and hostile, while Lugdunum was a Roman
colony,[133] contributing men to the army and sharing in its victories
and reverses. They besought them in the event of adverse fortune not
to leave their city to the fury of its enemies.
By these arguments and others of the same nature they brought 66
matters to such a pass, that even the generals and party leaders
despaired of cooling the army's indignation. However, the Viennese
realized their danger. Arrayed in veils and fillets,[134] they met the
approaching column and, seizing their hands and knees and the soles of
their feet in supplication, succeeded in appeasing the troops. Valens
made each of the soldiers a present of three hundred sesterces.[135]
They were thus persuaded to respect the antiquity and high standing of
the colony, and to listen with patience to their general's speech, in
which he commended to them the lives and property of the Viennese.
However, the town was disarmed, and private individuals had to assist
the army with various kinds of provisions. There was, however, a
persistent rumour that Valens himself had been bought with a heavy
bribe. He had long been in mean circumstances and ill concealed his
sudden accession of wealth. Prolonged poverty had whetted his
inordinate desires, and the needy youth grew into an extravagant old
man.
He next led the army by slow stages through the country of the
Allobroges and Vocontii,[136] bribes to the general determining the
length of each day's march and the choice of a camp. For Valens struck
disgraceful bargains with the landowners and municipal authorities,
often applying violent threats, as, for instance, at Lucus,[137] a
township of the Vocontii, which he threatened to burn, until he was
appeased with money. Where it was impossible to get money, he was
mollified by appeals to his lust. And so it went on until the Alps
were reached.
FOOTNOTES:
[124] Metz.
[125] They would wear veils and fillets, as suppliants. Cp.
chap. 66 and iii. 31.
[126] Living round Toul between the Marne and the Moselle.
[127] Chap. 59.
[128] Cp. chap. 51.
[129] Cp. chap. 59.
[130] This was probably one of the _cohortes civium
Romanorum_, volunteer corps raised in Italy on lighter terms
of service than prevailed in the legions.
[131] With Vindex.
[132] The chief town of the Allobroges, and the capital of
Narbonese Gaul.
[133] So was Vienne; but the status had been conferred on the
Gauls of this town as lately as Caligula's reign, whereas
Lugdunum had been colonized in B.C. 43 by Roman citizens
expelled from Vienne.
[134] Cf. iii. 31.
[135] Nearly fifty shillings.
[136] Part of Dauphiné and Provence, with a capital town at
Vaison.
[137] Luc-en-Diois.
THE MARCH OF CAECINA'S COLUMN
There was even more looting and bloodshed on Caecina's march. The 67
Helvetii, a Gallic tribe[138] once famous as fighting men and still
distinguished by the memory of their past, having heard nothing of
Galba's murder, refused to acknowledge the authority of Vitellius.
This exasperated Caecina's headstrong nature. Hostilities broke out
owing to the greed and impatience of the Twenty-first legion, who had
seized a sum of money which was being sent to pay the garrison of a
fort in which the Helvetii used to keep native troops at their own
expense.[139] The Helvetii, highly indignant at this, intercepted a
dispatch from the German army to the Pannonian legions, and kept a
centurion and some men in custody. Greedy for battle, Caecina hastened
to take immediate vengeance without giving them time for second
thoughts. Promptly breaking up his camp, he proceeded to harry the
country, and sacked a charming and much-frequented watering-place,[140]
which had grown during the long peace into the size and importance of
a town. Instructions were sent to the Raetian auxiliaries to attack
the Helvetii in the rear, while their attention was occupied with the
legion.
Full of spirit beforehand, the Helvetii were terrified in the face 68
of danger. At the first alarm they had chosen Claudius Severus
general, but they knew nothing of fighting or discipline and were
incapable of combined action. An engagement with the Roman veterans
would be disastrous; and the walls, dilapidated by time, could not
stand a siege. They found themselves between Caecina and his powerful
army on the one side, and on the other the Raetian auxiliaries, both
horse and foot, and the whole fighting force of Raetia as well,
trained soldiers well used to fighting.[141] Their country was given
over to plunder and massacre. Flinging away their arms, they wandered
miserably between two fires. Wounded and scattered, most of them took
refuge on the Bötzberg.[142] But some Thracian auxiliaries were
promptly sent to dislodge them. The German army, aided by the
Raetians, pursued them through the woods, and cut them to pieces in
their hiding-places. Many thousands were killed and many sold as
slaves. Having completed the work of destruction, the army advanced in
hostile array against Aventicum,[143] their capital town, and were met
by envoys offering surrender. The offer was accepted. Caecina executed
Julius Alpinus, one of their chief men, as the prime instigator of the
revolt. The rest he left to experience the clemency or cruelty of
Vitellius.
It is hard to say whether these envoys found Vitellius or the army the
more implacable. The soldiers clamoured for the destruction of the
town,[144] and shook their fists and weapons in the envoys' faces:
even Vitellius indulged in threatening language. Ultimately, however,
Claudius Cossus, one of the envoys, a noted speaker who greatly
enhanced the effect of his eloquence by concealing his skill under a
well-timed affectation of nervousness, succeeded in softening the
hearts of the soldiers. A mob is always liable to sudden changes of
feeling, and the men were as sensible to pity as they had been
extravagant in their brutality. Thus with streams of tears and
importunate prayers for a better answer the envoys procured a free
pardon for Aventicum.[145]
Caecina halted for a few days in Helvetian territory until he 70
could get news of Vitellius' decision. Meantime, while carrying on his
preparations for crossing the Alps, he received from Italy the joyful
news that 'Silius' Horse',[146] stationed at Padua, had come over to
Vitellius. The members of this troop had served under Vitellius when
pro-consul in Africa. They had subsequently been detached under orders
from Nero to precede him to Egypt, and had then been recalled, owing
to the outbreak of the war with Vindex. They were now in Italy. Their
officers, who knew nothing of Otho and were attached to Vitellius,
extolled the strength of the approaching column and the fame of the
German army. So the troop went over to Vitellius, bringing their new
emperor a gift of the four strongest towns of the Transpadane
district, Milan, Novara, Eporedia,[147] and Vercelli. Of this they
informed Caecina themselves. But one troop of horse could not garrison
the whole of the widest part of Italy. Caecina accordingly hurried
forward the Gallic, Lusitanian, and British auxiliaries, and some
German detachments, together with 'Petra's Horse',[148] while he
himself hesitated whether he should not cross the Raetian Alps[149]
into Noricum and attack the governor, Petronius Urbicus, who, having
raised a force of irregulars and broken down the bridges, was supposed
to be a faithful adherent of Otho. However, he was afraid of losing
the auxiliaries whom he had sent on ahead, and at the same time he
considered that there was more glory in holding Italy, and that,
wherever the theatre of the war might be, Noricum was sure to be among
the spoils of victory. So he chose the Pennine route[150] and led his
legionaries and the heavy marching column across the Alps, although
they were still deep in snow.[151]
FOOTNOTES:
[138] In Western Switzerland. Caesar had finally subdued them
in 58 B.C.
[139] This had happened before Caecina's arrival. Vindonissa,
their head-quarters (chap. 61, note 123), was on the borders
of the Helvetii.
[140] _Aquae Helvetiorum_ or _Vicus Aquensis_, about 16 miles
NW. of Zurich.
[141] Volunteers, not conscripts.
[142] Mount Vocetius.
[143] Avenches.
[144] Avenches.
[145] Vespasian made it a Latin colony.
[146] Probably raised by C. Silius, who was Governor of Upper
Germany under Tiberius. Troops of auxiliary horse were usually
named either after the governor of the province who first
organized the troop or after the country where it had first
been stationed, or where it had won fame.
[147] Ivrea.
[148] Petra occurs as the name of two Roman knights in _Ann._
xi. 4. One of these or a relative was probably the original
leader of the troop.
[149] The Arlberg.
[150] Great St. Bernard.
[151] Early in March.
OTHO'S GOVERNMENT AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES
Meanwhile, contrary to all expectation, Otho was no prey to idle 71
luxury. He postponed his pleasures and disguised his extravagance,
suiting all his behaviour to the dignity of his position. But people
knew they had not seen the last of his vices, and his virtuous
hypocrisy only increased their alarm. He gave orders to summon Marius
Celsus to the Capitol. This was the consul-elect whom he had rescued
from the savage clutches of the soldiers by pretending to put him in
prison.[152] Otho now wanted to earn a name for clemency by pardoning
a well-known man, who had fought against his party. Celsus was firm.
Pleading guilty to the charge of fidelity to Galba, he went on to show
that he had set an example which was all to Otho's advantage. Otho
treated him as if there was nothing to pardon. Calling on heaven to
witness their reconciliation, he then and there admitted him to the
circle of his intimate friends, and subsequently gave him an
appointment as one of his generals. Celsus remained faithful to Otho
too, doomed apparently to the losing side. His acquittal, which
delighted the upper classes and was popular with the mass of the
people, even earned the approval of the soldiers, who now admired the
qualities which had previously aroused their indignation.
Equal rejoicing, though for different reasons, followed the 72
long-looked-for downfall of Ofonius Tigellinus. Born of obscure
parentage, he had grown from an immoral youth into a vicious old man.
He rose to the command first of the Police,[153] and then of the
Praetorian Guards, finding that vice was a short cut to such rewards
of virtue. In these and other high offices he developed the vices of
maturity, first cruelty, then greed. He corrupted Nero and introduced
him to every kind of depravity; then ventured on some villainies
behind his back, and finally deserted and betrayed him. Thus in his
case, as in no other, those who hated Nero and those who wished him
back agreed, though from different motives, in calling loudly for his
execution. During Galba's reign he had been protected by the influence
of Titus Vinius, on the plea that he had saved his daughter. Saved her
he had, not from any feelings of pity (he had killed too many for
that), but to secure a refuge for the future. For all such rascals,
distrusting the present and fearing a change of fortune, always
prepare for themselves a shelter against public indignation by
obtaining the favour of private persons. So they rely to escape
punishment not on their innocence but on a system of mutual insurance.
People were all the more incensed against Tigellinus, since the recent
feeling against Vinius was added to their old hatred for him. From all
quarters of Rome they flocked to the palace and the squares; and above
all, in the circus and the theatre, where the mob enjoys complete
licence, they assembled in crowds and broke out into riotous uproar.
Eventually Tigellinus at Sinuessa Spa[154] received the news that his
last hour was inevitably come. There after a cowardly delay in the
foul embraces of his prostitutes he cut his throat with a razor, and
blackened the infamy of his life by a hesitating and shameful death.
About the same time there arose a demand for the punishment of 73
Calvia Crispinilla. But she was saved by various prevarications, and
Otho's connivence cost him some discredit. This woman had tutored Nero
in vice, and afterwards crossed to Africa to incite Clodius Macer[155]
to civil war. While there she openly schemed to start a famine in
Rome. However, she secured herself by marrying an ex-consul, and lived
to enjoy a wide popularity in Rome. She escaped harm under Galba,
Otho, and Vitellius, and eventually wielded a great influence due to
her being both rich and childless, considerations of the first
importance in any state of society.
During this time Otho wrote constantly to Vitellius, holding out 74
various effeminate inducements, making him offers of money or an
influential position, or any retreat he liked to select for a life of
luxury.[156] Vitellius made similar offers. At first both wrote in the
mildest tone, though the affectation on either side was stupid and
inappropriate. But they soon struck a quarrelsome note, and reproached
each other with immorality and crime, both with a good deal of truth.
Otho recalled the commission which Galba had sent out to Germany,[157]
and, using the pretext of senatorial authority, sent fresh
commissioners to both the armies in Germany, and also to the Italian
legion, and the troops quartered at Lugdunum. However, the
commissioners remained with Vitellius with a readiness which showed
they were under no compulsion; and the guards who had been attached to
them, ostensibly as a mark of honour, were sent back at once before
they had time to mix with the legionary soldiers. Further than this,
Fabius Valens sent letters in the name of the German army to the
Guards and the City Garrison, extolling the strength of his own side
and offering to join forces. He even went so far as to reproach them
with having transferred to Otho the title which had long before[158]
been conferred on Vitellius. Thus they were assailed with threats 75
as well as promises, and told that they were not strong enough to
fight, and had nothing to lose by making peace. But, in spite of all,
the fidelity of the Guards remained unchanged. However, Otho
dispatched assassins to Germany, Vitellius to Rome. Neither met with
success. Vitellius' assassins were lost in the crowds of Rome, where
nobody knows anybody, and thus escaped detection: Otho's were betrayed
by their strange faces, since the troops all knew each other by sight.
Vitellius then composed a letter to Otho's brother Titianus,[159]
threatening that his life and his son's should answer for the safety
of Vitellius' mother and children. As it happened neither household
suffered. Fear was perhaps the reason in Otho's time, but Vitellius,
after his victory, could certainly claim credit for clemency.
The first news which gave Otho any degree of confidence was the 76
announcement from Illyricum that the legions of Dalmatia and Pannonia
and Moesia[160] had sworn allegiance to him. Similar news arrived from
Spain, and Cluvius Rufus[161] was commended in a special decree, but
it was found out immediately afterwards that Spain had gone over to
Vitellius. Even Aquitania soon fell away, although Julius Cordus had
sworn in the province for Otho. Loyalty and affection seemed dead: men
changed from one side to the other under the stress of fear or
compulsion. It was fear which gave Vitellius the Province of Narbonese
Gaul,[162] for it is easy to go over when the big battalions are so
near. The distant provinces and the troops across the sea all remained
at Otho's disposal, but not from any enthusiasm for his cause; what
weighed with them was the name of Rome and the title of the senate.
Besides, Otho had got the first hearing. Vespasian swore in the Jewish
army[163] for Otho, and Mucianus the legions in Syria;[164] Egypt too
and all the provinces towards the East were held for him. He also
received the submission of Africa, where Carthage had taken the lead,
without waiting for the sanction of the governor, Vipstanus
Apronianus. Crescens, one of Nero's freedmen--in evil days these
creatures play a part in politics[165]--had given the common people of
the town a gala dinner in honour of the new emperor, with the result
that the inhabitants hurried into various excesses. The other African
communities followed the example of Carthage.
The provinces and their armies being thus divided, Vitellius could 77
only win the throne by fighting. Otho meanwhile was carrying on the
government as if the time were one of profound peace. Sometimes he
consulted the country's dignity, though more often the exigencies of
the moment forced him into unseemly haste. He held the consulship
himself with his brother Titianus as colleague until the first of
March. For the next two months he appointed Verginius, as a sort of
sop to the army in Germany.[166] As colleague he gave him Pompeius
Vopiscus, ostensibly because he was an old friend of his own, but it
was generally understood as a compliment to Vienne.[167] For the rest
of the year the appointments which Nero or Galba had made were allowed
to stand. The brothers Caelius and Flavius Sabinus[168] were consuls
for June and July, Arrius Antoninus[169] and Marius Celsus for August
and September; even Vitellius after his victory did not cancel their
appointment. To the pontifical and augural colleges Otho either
nominated old ex-magistrates, as the final crown of their career, or
else, when young aristocrats returned from exile, he instated them by
way of recompense in the pontifical posts which their fathers or
grandfathers had held. He restored Cadius Rufus, Pedius Blaesus, and
_Saevinus Proculus_[170] to their seats in the senate. They had been
convicted during Claudius' and Nero's reigns of extortion in the
provinces. In pardoning them the name of their offence was changed,
and their greed appeared as 'treason'. For so unpopular was the law of
treason that it sapped the force of better statutes.[171]
Otho next tried to win over the municipalities and provincial 78
towns by similar bribes. At the colonies of Hispalis and Emerita[172]
he enrolled new families of settlers, granted the franchise to the
whole community of the Lingones,[173] and made over certain Moorish
towns as a gift to the province of Baetica. Cappadocia and Africa were
also granted new privileges, as showy as they were short-lived. All
these grants are excused by the exigences of the moment and the
impending crisis, but he even found time to remember his old amours
and passed a measure through the senate restoring Poppaea's
statues.[174] He is believed also to have thought of celebrating
Nero's memory as a means of attracting public sympathy. Some persons
actually erected statues of Nero, and there were times when the
populace and the soldiers, by way of enhancing his fame and dignity,
saluted him as Nero Otho. However, he refused to commit himself. He
was ashamed to accept the title, yet afraid to forbid its use.
While the whole of Rome was intent upon the civil war, foreign 79
affairs were neglected. Consequently a Sarmatian tribe called the
Rhoxolani,[175] who had cut up two cohorts of auxiliaries in the
previous winter, now formed the still more daring scheme of invading
Moesia. Inspirited by success, they assembled nearly 9,000 mounted
men, all more intent on plunder than on fighting. While they were
riding about aimlessly without any suspicion of danger, they were
suddenly attacked by the Third legion[176] and its native auxiliaries.
On the Roman side everything was ready for a battle: the Sarmatians
were scattered over the country; some in their greed for plunder were
heavily laden, and their horses could scarcely move on the slippery
roads. They were caught in a trap and cut to pieces. It is quite
extraordinary how all a Sarmatian's courage is, so to speak, outside
himself. Fighting on foot, no one is more cowardly; but their cavalry
charge would break almost any troops. On this occasion it was raining
and the ground was greasy with thaw; their pikes and their long
swords, needing both hands to wield, were useless; their horses
slipped and they were encumbered by the heavy coat of mail which all
their chiefs and nobles wear. Being made of iron plates and a very
hard kind of leather, it is impenetrable to blows, but most
inconvenient for any one who is knocked down by a charge of the enemy
and tries to get up. Besides, they sank into the deep, soft snow. The
Roman soldiers in their neat leather jerkins, armed with javelin and
lance, and using, if need be, their light swords, sprang on the
unarmed Sarmatians (they never carry shields) and stabbed them at
close quarters. A few, surviving the battle, hid themselves in the
marshes, and there perished miserably from the severity of the winter
and their wounds. When the news of this reached Rome, Marcus Aponius,
the governor of Moesia, was granted a triumphal statue,[177] while the
commanding officers of the legions, Fulvius Aurelius, Tettius
Julianus, and Numisius Lupus, received the insignia of consular rank.
Otho was delighted and took all the credit to himself, as if he had
been the successful general, and had himself employed his officers and
armies to enlarge the empire.
In the meantime a riot broke out in an unexpected quarter, and, 80
though trivial at first, nearly ended in the destruction of Rome. Otho
had given orders that the Seventeenth cohort[178] should be summoned
from the colony of Ostia to the city, and Varius Crispinus, a tribune
of the guards, was instructed to provide them with arms. Anxious to
carry out his instructions undisturbed while the camp was quiet, he
arranged that the arsenal was to be opened and the cohort's wagons
loaded after nightfall. The hour aroused suspicion; the motive was
questioned; his choice of a quiet moment resulted in an uproar. The
mere sight of swords made the drunken soldiers long to use them. They
began to murmur and accuse their officers of treachery, suggesting
that the senators' slaves were going to be armed against Otho. Some of
them were too fuddled to know what they were saying: the rascals saw
a chance of plunder: the mass of them, as usual, were simply eager for
a change: and such as were loyal could not carry out their orders in
the darkness. When Crispinus tried to check them, the mutineers killed
him together with the most determined of the centurions, seized their
armour, bared their swords, and mounting the horses, made off at full
speed for Rome and the palace.
It so happened that a large party of Roman senators and their 81
wives was dining with Otho. In their alarm they wondered whether the
soldiers' outbreak was unpremeditated or a ruse of the emperor's:
would it be safer to fly in all directions or to stay and be arrested?
At one moment they would make a show of firmness, at the next their
terror betrayed them. All the time they were watching Otho's face,
and, as happens when people suspect each other, he was just as afraid
himself as they were of him. But feeling no less alarm for the
senators than for himself, he promptly dispatched the prefects of the
Guards to appease the anger of the troops, and told all his guests to
leave immediately. Then on all sides Roman officials could be seen to
throw away their insignia, avoid their suite, and slink off
unattended. Old gentlemen and their wives roamed the dark streets in
all directions. Few went home, most of them fled to friends, or sought
an obscure refuge with the humblest of their clients.
The soldiers' onrush could not be stopped at the gates of the 82
palace. They demanded to see Otho and invaded the banquet-hall.
Julius Martialis, a tribune of the Guards, and Vitellius Saturninus,
the camp-prefect[179] of the legion, were wounded while endeavouring
to bar their progress. On every side they brandished swords and hurled
threats, now against their officers, now against the whole senate; and
since they could not select any one victim for their wrath, in a blind
frenzy of panic they clamoured for a free hand against all the
senators. At last Otho, sacrificing his dignity, stood up on a couch
and with great difficulty restrained them by means of prayers and
tears. They returned to their camp unwillingly, and with a guilty
conscience.
The next day Rome was like a captured city. The houses were all shut,
the streets almost deserted, and everybody looked depressed. The
soldiers, too, hung their heads, though they were more sulky than
sorry for what they had done. Their prefects, Licinius Proculus and
Plotius Firmus, harangued them by companies, the one mildly, the other
harshly, for they were men of different natures. They concluded by
announcing that the men were to receive five thousand sesterces[180]
apiece. After that Otho ventured to enter the camp. The tribunes and
centurions each flinging away the insignia of his rank,[181] crowded
round him begging for a safe discharge. Stung by the disgrace of this,
the troops soon quieted down, and even went the length of demanding
that the ringleaders should be punished. In the general disturbance
Otho's position was difficult. The soldiers were by no means 83
unanimous. The better sort wanted him to put a stop to the prevalent
insubordination, but the great bulk of them liked faction-fighting and
emperors who had to court their favour, and with the prospect of
rioting and plunder were ready enough for civil war. He realized,
also, that one who wins a throne by violence cannot keep it by
suddenly trying to enforce the rigid discipline of earlier days.
However, the danger of the crisis both for the city and the senate
seriously alarmed him, so he finally delivered himself as follows:--
'Fellow soldiers, I have not come to fan the fire of your affection
for me, or to instil courage into your hearts: in both those qualities
you are more than rich. No, I have come to ask you to moderate your
courage and to set some bounds to your affection. These recent
disturbances did not originate in those passions of greed or violence,
which so often cause dissension in an army; nor was it that you
feared some danger and tried to shirk it. The sole cause was your
excessive loyalty, which you displayed with more ardour than
judgement. For with the best of motives, indiscretion often lands men
in disaster. We are preparing for war. Do you imagine that we could
publish all our dispatches, and discuss our plans in the presence of
the whole army, when we have to devise a systematic campaign and keep
up with the rapid changes of the situation? There are things a soldier
ought to know, but there is much of which he must be ignorant. It is
necessary for the maintenance of strict discipline and of the
general's authority that even his tribunes and centurions should often
obey blindly. If every one is going to inquire into his motives,
discipline is done for, and his authority falls to the ground. Suppose
in actual warfare you are called to arms at dead of night: shall a few
drunken blackguards--for I cannot believe that many lost their heads
in the recent panic--go and stain their hands with their officers'
blood, and then break into the general's tent?
'Now I know you did it to protect me, but the riot and the 84
darkness and the general confusion might easily have provided an
opportunity to kill me. Suppose Vitellius and his satellites had their
choice of the state of mind they would pray to find us in; what more
could they desire than mutiny and dissension, the men insubordinate to
the centurions, and the centurions to their superior officers, and the
whole force, horse and foot alike, rushing in headlong confusion to
their ruin? Good soldiering, my comrades, consists in obedience, not
in scrutinizing the general's orders; and the army which is most
orderly in peace is most courageous on the field of battle. Yours are
the swords and the courage; you must leave it to me to plan the
campaign, and to direct your valour. The culprits were but few, and
only two are to be punished; the rest of you must blot out all memory
of that discreditable night. No army must ever hear again such words
spoken against the senate. It is the brain of the empire and the glory
of all the provinces. Why, in Heaven's name, the very Germans
themselves, whom Vitellius is stirring up with all his might against
us, would not dare to call its members into question! Shall it be said
that Italy's own sons, the real soldiery of Rome, are clamouring to
murder and massacre the very senators whose lustre it is that throws
into the shade the obscure and vulgar adherents of Vitellius?
Vitellius has seized a few provinces and raised a sort of shadow of an
army; but the senate is on our side. Therefore, Rome is for us; they
are against her. Do you imagine that the stability of this beautiful
city consists in houses and edifices built of stone upon stone? Nay,
they are dumb inanimate things that may fall to pieces and be rebuilt
at pleasure. The eternity of our empire, the peace of the world, your
welfare and mine, all depend upon the safety of the senate. Instituted
with solemn ceremony by the father and founder of Rome, the senate has
come down in undying continuity from the kings to the emperors; and as
we have received it from our ancestors, so let us hand it on to our
posterity. From your ranks come the senators, and from the senate come
the emperors of Rome.'
This speech, as being well calculated to provide a reprimand and a 85
sedative for the soldiers, and Otho's moderation--for he only ordered
the punishment of two men--were well received. He had calmed for a
moment the troops he could not control. Yet peace and quiet were not
restored in Rome. One could still detect the clash of arms and the
lurid face of war. Refraining from organized riot, the soldiers now
dispersed to private houses and lived in disguise, giving vent to
their bad feeling by maligning all whom nobility of birth or wealth or
any other distinction made a mark for scandal. Many, besides, believed
that some of Vitellius' soldiers had come to Rome to study the state
of party feeling. Everywhere suspicion was rife, and terror invaded
even the privacy of the home. But far greater was the alarm displayed
in public places. With every fresh piece of news that rumour brought,
men's feelings and the expression on their faces changed. They were
afraid to be found lacking in confidence when things looked doubtful,
or in joy when they went well for Otho. Above all, when the senate was
summoned to the House, they found it extraordinarily hard always to
strike the right note. Silence would argue arrogance; plain speaking
would arouse suspicion; yet flattery would be detected by Otho, who
had so lately been a private citizen, practising the art himself. So
they had to turn and twist their sentences. Vitellius they called
enemy and traitor, the more prudent confining themselves to such vague
generalities. A few ventured to fling the truth at him, but they
always chose a moment of uproar when a great many people were all
shouting at once, or else they talked so loud and fast as to drown
their own words.
Another cause of alarm was the various portents vouched for by 86
many witnesses. In the Capitoline Square, it was said, the figure of
Victory had let the reins of her chariot slip from her hands: a ghost
of superhuman size had suddenly burst out of the chapel of Juno:[182]
a statue of the sainted Julius on the island in the Tiber had, on a
fine, still day, turned round from the west and faced the east: an ox
had spoken in Etruria: animals had given birth to strange monsters.
Many were the stories of these occurrences, which in primitive ages
are observed even in time of peace, though now we only hear of them in
time of panic. But the greatest damage at the moment, and the greatest
alarm for the future, was caused by a sudden rising of the Tiber.
Immensely swollen, it carried away the bridge on piles,[183] and, its
current being stemmed by the heavy ruins, it flooded not only the
flat, low-lying portions of the city, but also districts that seemed
safe from inundation. Many people were swept away in the streets,
still more were overtaken by the flood in shops or in their beds at
home. The result was a famine, since food was scarce,[184] and the
poor were deprived of their means of livelihood. Blocks of flats, the
foundations of which had rotted in the standing water, collapsed when
the river sank. No sooner had the panic caused by the flood subsided
than it was found that, whereas Otho was preparing an expedition, its
route over the Martian Plain and up the Flaminian Road was blocked.
Though probably caused by chance, or the course of Nature, this mishap
was turned into a miraculous omen of impending disaster.
FOOTNOTES:
[152] Chap. 45.
[153] Cp. note 46.
[154] A much-frequented watering-place on the borders of
Latium and Campania. The hot baths were considered good for
hysteria.
[155] Cp. chap. 7.
[156] Dio and Suetonius both say that Otho offered to share
the empire with Vitellius, and the latter adds that he
proposed for the hand of Vitellius' daughter. Tacitus here
follows Plutarch.
[157] Chap. 19.
[158] As a matter of fact, only twelve days before. It was on
the 2nd or 3rd of January that the troops of Lower and Upper
Germany proclaimed Vitellius. Galba fell to Otho on January
15.
[159] L. Salvius Otho Titianus, Otho's elder brother.
[160] There were two legions in Dalmatia, two in Pannonia,
three in Moesia, and two in Spain (see Summary, note 3).
[161] Cp. chap. 8.
[162] This included Savoy, Dauphiné, part of Provence or
Languedoc.
[163] Legs. V Macedonica, X Fretensis, XV Apollinaris.
[164] IV Scythica, VI Ferrata, XII Fulminata, and III Gallica.
[165] Since Claudius the great imperial bureaux, the posts of
private secretary, patronage-secretary, financial secretary,
&c., had all been held by freedmen. Cp. chap. 58.
[166] Otho and Titianus would naturally have held it for four
months.
[167] Vopiscus presumably came from Vienne, which had espoused
the cause first of Vindex, then of Galba. Cp. chap. 65.
[168] Not to be confused with Vespasian's brother.
[169] Grandfather of the Emperor Antoninus Pius.
[170] Name uncertain in MS.
[171] i.e. to be accused of 'treason' was in these days to win
public sympathy, even though the defendant were guilty of
offences under other more useful statutes.
[172] Seville and Merida.
[173] As the rest of this sentence refers to Spain and
Portugal it has been proposed to read for _Lingones Lusones_,
a Celtiberian tribe round the sources of the Tagus. The
Lingones were devoted to the cause of Vitellius. (See chap.
53, &c.)
[174] They had been thrown down by the populace, when Nero,
after divorcing Antonia, was shamed--or frightened--into
taking her back. (Cp. chap. 13.)
[175] They lived between the Dnieper and the Don, to the north
of the Sea of Azov.
[176] Gallica.
[177] This would depict him in full triumphal garb. But only
the emperor could actually hold a triumph, since it was under
his auspices that his generals fought.
[178] _Cohors civium Romanorum_. See note 130.
[179] The meaning of the title _praefectus legionis_ is
doubtful. It seems most likely to mean the same as _praefectus
castrorum_, an officer who superintended the camp and
sometimes acted as second-in-command (cp. ii. 89). The post
was one to which senior centurions could rise. At this period
they were not attached to a legion, but to a camp, where more
than one legion might be quartered. That makes the phrase here
used curious. The legion is that of the marines now stationed
in Rome (cp. chaps. 6 and 9). They appear to have joined the
mutinous Seventeenth cohort when they reached the city.
[180] About £40.
[181] The insignia of a tribunus were a tunic with a broad or
narrow stripe (accordingly as they were of senatorial or
equestrian rank), and a gold ring. A centurion carried a staff
made of a vine-branch, for disciplinary purposes.
[182] One of the three chapels in the temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline.
[183] The pons Sublicius which led from the Velabrum to
Janiculum. It was the bridge which Horatius Cocles defended,
and a certain sanctity attached to it.
[184] Plutarch mentions that the quarter which suffered most
was that which contained the retail provision-shops.
OTHO'S PLANS
Otho had held a purification of the city[185] and meditated his 87
plans for the war. Recognizing that the Pennine and Cottian Alps and
all the other passes into Gaul were held by Vitellius, he decided to
invade Narbonese Gaul by sea. His fleet was now a strong and reliable
arm, devoted to his cause. For he had formed the full strength of a
legion out of the survivors of the Mulvian Bridge massacre,[186] whom
Galba's cruelty had kept in prison, and to all the marines he had
held out hopes of honourable service.[187] To the fleet he attached
the cohorts of the City Garrison and a large force of Guards. These
were the flower of the army and its chief strength, well able to
advise their own generals and to take good care of them. The command
of the expedition was entrusted to Antonius Novellus and Suedius
Clemens, both senior centurions,[188] and to Aemilius Pacensis, to
whom Otho had restored his commission,[189] of which Galba had
deprived him. In charge of the fleet he still retained the freedman
Moschus[190] to keep an eye on his betters. In command of the cavalry
and infantry he placed Suetonius Paulinus, Marius Celsus, and Annius
Gallus, but the man in whom he put most faith was the Prefect of the
Guards, Licinius Proculus. This officer had shown himself efficient in
garrison service, but was without any experience of warfare. He
maligned the characteristic virtues of his colleagues, Paulinus' power
of influence, Celsus' energy, Gallus' ripe judgement, and being a
knave and no fool, he easily got the better of men who were both
honest and loyal.
It was about this time that Cornelius Dolabella[191] was banished 88
to the colony of Aquinum,[192] though not kept in close or
dishonourable confinement. There was no charge against him: the stigma
upon him was his ancient name and kinship[193] to Galba. Otho issued
orders that several of the magistrates and a large number of
ex-consuls were to join the expedition, not to take part in the
campaign or to assist in any way, but simply as a friendly escort.
Among these was Lucius Vitellius, whom he treated neither as an
emperor's brother nor as the brother of an enemy, but just like
anybody else. Much anxiety was aroused for the safety of the city,
where all classes feared danger. The leading members of the senate
were old and infirm, and enervated by a long period of peace: the
aristocracy were inefficient and had forgotten how to fight: the
knights knew nothing of military service. The more they all tried to
conceal their alarm, the more obvious it became. Some of them, on the
other hand, went in for senseless display, and purchased beautiful
armour and fine horses: others procured as provisions of war elaborate
dinner-services or some other contrivance to stimulate a jaded taste.
Prudent men were concerned for the country's peace: the frivolous,
without a thought for the future, were inflated by empty hopes: a good
many, whose loss of credit made peace unwelcome, were delighted at the
general unrest, feeling safer among uncertainties. Though the 89
cares of state were too vast to arouse any interest in the masses, yet
as the price of food rose, and the whole revenue was devoted to
military purposes, the common people gradually began to realize the
evils of war. During the revolt of Vindex they had not suffered so
much. Being carried on in the provinces between the legionaries and
the natives of Gaul it was to all intents a foreign war, and the city
had not been affected. For from the time when the sainted Augustus
organized the rule of the Caesars the wars of the Roman people had
been fought in distant countries: all the anxiety and all the glory
fell to the emperor alone. Under Tiberius and Caligula the country
only suffered from the evils of peace.[194] Scribonianus' rising
against Claudius was no sooner heard of than crushed.[195] Nero had
been dethroned more by rumours and dispatches than by force of arms.
But now not only the legions and the fleet, but, as had seldom
happened before, the Guards and the City Garrison were called out for
the campaign. Behind them were the East and the West and all the
forces of the empire, material for a long war under any other
generals. An attempt was made to delay Otho's departure by pointing
out the impiety of his not having replaced the sacred shields in the
temple of Mars.[196] But delay had ruined Nero: Otho would have none
of it. And the knowledge that Caecina had already crossed the
Alps[197] acted as a further stimulus.
Accordingly, on the fourteenth of March he commended the 90
government of the country to the senate, and granted to the restored
exiles all the rest of the property confiscated by Nero which had not
yet been sold for the imperial treasury.[198] The gift was a just one,
and made a very good impression, but as a matter of fact it was
nullified by the haste with which the work of collecting the money had
been conducted.[199] He then summoned a public meeting, and, after
extolling the majesty of Rome and praising the wholehearted adherence
of the senate and people to his cause, he used very moderate language
against the Vitellian party, criticizing the legions more for folly
than treason, and making no mention of Vitellius himself. This may
have been due to his own moderation, or it may be that the writer of
the speech felt some qualms for his own safety, and therefore
refrained from insulting Vitellius. For it was generally believed that
as in strategy he took the advice of Suetonius Paulinus and Marius
Celsus, so too in political matters he employed the talents of
Galerius Trachalus.[200] Some people even thought they could
recognize Trachalus' style of oratory, fluent and sonorous, well
adapted to tickle the ears of the crowd: and as he was a popular
pleader his style was well known. The crowd's loud shouts of applause
were in the best style of flattery, excessive and insincere. Men vied
with each other in their enthusiasm and prayers for his success, much
as though they were sending off the dictator Caesar or the emperor
Augustus. Their motive was neither fear nor affection, but a sheer
passion for servility. One can see the same in households of slaves,
where each obeys his own interest and the common welfare counts for
nothing. On his departure Otho entrusted the peace of the city and the
interests of the empire to his brother Salvius Titianus.
FOOTNOTES:
[185] He would lead the victim, before sacrificing it, round
the ancient boundary of the city, and thus avert the disasters
threatened by the alarming omens detailed in the last chapter.
[186] Cp. chaps. 6 and 37.
[187] i.e. of becoming eventually a legion or praetorian cohort.
[188] Cp. note 57.
[189] The command of a cohort in the City Garrison.
[190] He had held this post under Nero and Galba. His
functions were those of steward and spy combined.
[191] He had been a rival candidate for adoption by Galba.
Vitellius had him killed (ii. 63).
[192] Aquino.
[193] It is not known what this was.
[194] Mainly connected with the elaborate system of espionage.
[195] Furius Camillus Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia,
rebelled against Claudius, A.D. 42, and was crushed within
five days.
[196] They would be taken out on the 1st of March to be used
in the sacred dances of the Salii (the 'Dancing Priests').
Their festival lasted the whole month, and Otho started on the
14th.
[197] See chap. 70.
[198] Cp. chap. 20.
[199] Nero had put the confiscated property of political
exiles up to auction. His treasury officials had been so
prompt in selling it all off and getting the money in, that
there was very little left for Otho to restore, since he could
only give back those lots which had not been paid for.
[200] Cp. ii. 60. Quintilian alludes several times to the
extreme beauty of his voice and his commanding
delivery--better, he thinks, than that of any tragedian he had
ever seen. To read, his speeches were less effective.
BOOK II
VESPASIAN AND THE EAST
Meanwhile, on the other side of Europe, Fortune was already sowing 1
the seeds of a dynasty, the varying fortunes of which were destined to
bring at one time happiness to the country and success to its rulers,
at another misery to the country and to the rulers destruction.[201]
Before Galba's fall Titus Vespasianus had been dispatched by his
father from Judaea to Rome.[202] The ostensible reason of his journey
was to show respect to the new emperor, and to solicit some post for
which his years now fitted him.[203] However, the popular passion for
invention suggested that he had been summoned to be adopted. This
rumour was based on the fact that Galba was old and childless: the
public never wearies of appointing successors until the choice is
made. The character of Titus gave still more colour to it. He seemed
capable of filling any position. His appearance lacked neither charm
nor dignity. Vespasian's successes also and the utterances of certain
oracles further endorsed the rumour, to say nothing of the chance
occurrences which pass for omens where the wish is father to the
thought. It was at Corinth in Achaia that Titus received the news of
Galba's murder, and was assured by people in the town that Vitellius
had declared war. In great perplexity he summoned a few of his friends
and discussed all the possibilities of the situation. If he continued
his journey to Rome he would earn no gratitude for compliments
addressed to another sovereign,[204] and would be held as a hostage
either for Vitellius or for Otho: on the other hand, if he returned to
Judaea he would inevitably offend the victor. However, the struggle
was still undecided, and the father's adherence to the successful
party would excuse the conduct of the son. Or if Vespasian himself
assumed sovereignty, they would have to plan war and forget all about
giving offence.
Such considerations held him balanced between hope and fear; but 2
ultimately hope prevailed. Some people believed that his longing to
get back to Queen Berenice[205] fired him to return. True, the young
man's fancy was attracted by Berenice, but he did not allow this to
interfere with business. Still his youth was a time of gay
self-indulgence, and he showed more restraint in his own reign than in
his father's. Accordingly he sailed along the coasts of Greece and
Asia Minor, and, skirting the seas which lay upon his left, reached
the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus, whence he made a bolder crossing to
Syria.[206] On his way he conceived a desire to visit the temple of
Venus at Paphos,[207] which is famous among all the inhabitants and
visitors. It may not be tedious to give here a short account of the
origin of this worship, the ritual of the cult, and the
shape--unparalleled elsewhere--in which the goddess is depicted.
According to an old tradition the temple was founded by King 3
Aerias, and some people maintain that the goddess bears the same name.
A more modern version states that the temple was consecrated by
Cinyras,[208] on the spot where the goddess landed when the sea gave
her birth. The method of divination,[209] however, according to this
account, was imported from elsewhere by the Cilician Tamiras, and an
arrangement was made that the descendants of both families should
preside over the rites. Later, however, it seemed wrong that the royal
line should have no prerogative, so the descendants of the
foreigner[210] resigned the practice of the art which they had
themselves introduced, and now the priest whom you consult is always
of the line of Cinyras. They accept any victim that is offered, but
males are preferred. They put most faith in kids' entrails. Blood
must not be poured on the altar, at which they offer only prayers and
fire untainted by smoke. Although the altars stand in the open air
they are never wetted by rain. The goddess is not represented in human
form; the idol is a sort of circular pyramid,[211] rising from a broad
base to a small round top, like a turning-post. The reason of this is
unknown.
Titus inspected the temple treasures and the offerings made by 4
various kings, and other curiosities which the Greek passion for
archaeology attributes to a dim antiquity. He then consulted the
oracle first about his voyage. Learning that the sea was calm, and
that no obstacles stood in his way, he sacrificed a large number of
victims, and put covert questions about his own fortunes. The priest,
whose name was Sostratus, seeing that the entrails were uniformly
favourable, and that the goddess assented to Titus' ambitious schemes,
returned at the moment a brief and ordinary reply, but afterwards
sought a private interview and revealed the future to him. So Titus
returned to his father with heightened hopes, and amid the general
anxiety of the provinces and their armies his arrival spread boundless
confidence of success.
Vespasian had already broken the back of the Jewish war.[212] Only the
siege of Jerusalem remained. That this proved a difficult and
laborious task was due rather to the high situation of the town and
the stubborn superstition of its inhabitants than to any adequate
provision enabling them to endure the hardships of the siege.
Vespasian had, as we have already stated,[213] three legions well
tried in war. Four others were under Mucianus' command.[213] Although
these had never seen war, yet their envy of the neighbouring army's
fame had banished sloth. Indeed, as the former were hardened by work
and danger, so the latter owed their ardour to their unbroken
inaction, and their shame at having no share in the war.[214] Both
generals had, besides auxiliary infantry and cavalry, foreign
fleets[215] and allied princes,[216] and a fame that rested on widely
differing claims. Vespasian was an indefatigable campaigner. He 5
headed the column, chose the camping-ground, never ceasing by night or
day to use strategy, and, if need be, the sword to thwart the enemy.
He eat what he could get, and dressed almost like a common soldier.
Indeed, save for his avarice, he matched the generals of old days.
Mucianus, on the other hand, was distinguished by his wealth and
luxury, and his general superiority to the standards of a private
person. He was the better speaker, and a skilful administrator and
statesman. Their combined qualities would have made a fine emperor,
if one could have blended their virtues and omitted their vices.
Governing as they did the neighbouring provinces of Judaea and Syria,
jealousy at first led to quarrels. However, on the death of Nero, they
forgot their dislike and joined hands. It was their friends who first
brought them together, and subsequently Titus became the chief bond of
union and for the common good suppressed their ignoble jealousy. Both
by nature and training he had charm to fascinate even such a man as
Mucianus. The tribunes and centurions and the common soldiers were
attracted, each according to his character, either by Titus'
meritorious industry or by his gay indulgence in pleasure.
Before the arrival of Titus both armies had sworn allegiance to 6
Otho. News travels fast in such cases, but civil war is a slow and
serious undertaking, and the East, after its long repose, was now for
the first time beginning to arm for it. In earlier times all the
fiercest civil wars broke out in Italy or Cisalpine Gaul among the
forces of the West. Pompey, Cassius, Brutus, and Antony all courted
disaster by carrying the war oversea. Syria and Judaea often heard of
Caesars, but seldom saw one. There were no mutinies among the
soldiers. They merely made demonstrations against Parthia with varying
success. Even in the last civil war[217] the peace of these provinces
had been untroubled by the general confusion. Later they were loyal to
Galba. But when they heard that Otho and Vitellius were engaged in a
wicked contest for the possession of the Roman world, the troops
began to chafe at the thought that the prizes of empire should fall to
others, while their own lot was mere compulsory submission. They began
to take stock of their strength. Syria and Judaea had seven legions on
the spot with a vast force of auxiliaries. Next came Egypt with two
legions:[218] beyond lay Cappadocia and Pontus, and all the forts
along the Armenian frontier. Asia and the remaining provinces were
rich and thickly populated. As for the islands, their girdle of sea
was safe from the enemy and aided the prosecution of the war.
The generals were well aware of the soldiers' feelings, but decided 7
to await the issue between Vitellius and Otho. 'In civil war,' they
reckoned, 'there are no sure ties to unite victor and vanquished. It
matters little which survives: even good generals are corrupted by
success: as for Otho and Vitellius, their troops are quarrelsome,
lazy, and luxurious, and they are both the victims of their own vices.
One will fall on the field and the other succumb to his success.' So
Vespasian and Mucianus postponed their attack for the present. They
were themselves recent converts to the project of war, which the
others[219] had long fostered from various motives. The better sort
were animated by patriotism, many by mere love of plunder, some by the
uncertainty of their own fortunes. Thus, though their motives
differed, all, good and bad alike, agreed in their eager desire for
war.
About this time Achaia and Asia were thrown into 8 a groundless panic
by a rumour that 'Nero was at hand'. The accounts of his death being
many and various, people were all the more inclined to allege and to
believe that he was still alive. We shall mention in the course of
this work the attempts and the fate of the other pretenders.[220] This
time it was a slave from Pontus, or, according to other traditions, a
freedman from Italy. His skill as a singer and harpist, combined with
his facial resemblance to Nero, gave him some credentials for
imposture. He bribed some penniless and vagabond deserters by dazzling
promises to join him, and they all set out to sea. A storm drove them
on to the island of Cythnus,[221] where he found some troops homeward
bound on leave from the East. Some of these he enrolled, killing all
who resisted, and then proceeded to plunder the local merchants and
arm all the sturdiest of the slaves. Finding a centurion named Sisenna
carrying home a pair of silver hands[222] as a token of alliance from
the army in Syria to the Household Guards, he tried by various devices
to seduce him, until Sisenna took fright and escaped secretly from the
island in fear of violence. Thus the panic spread. The great name of
Nero attracted many who pined for revolution and hated the existing
state of things. The rumours waxed daily, until a chance dispelled
them. Galba had entrusted the government of Galatia and 9
Pamphylia[223] to Calpurnius Asprenas, who had been granted an escort
of two triremes from the fleet at Misenum. It so happened that with
these he touched at Cythnus. The rebels lost no time in appealing to
the ship's captains in the name of Nero. The pretender, assuming an
air of melancholy, appealed to 'the loyalty of his former soldiers',
and begged them to establish him in Syria or Egypt. The captains
either from sympathy or guile alleged that they must talk to their
men, and would come back when they had prepared all their minds.
However, they faithfully made a full report to Asprenas, on whose
instructions they boarded the ship and killed the impostor, whoever he
was. The man's eyes and hair and ferocious look were so remarkable
that the body was carried into Asia and thence to Rome.
FOOTNOTES:
[201] The Flavian dynasty. Vespasian and Titus brought the
happiness, Domitian the misery.
[202] Cp. i. 10.
[203] He was 30.
[204] i.e. to Galba.
[205] She was the granddaughter of Herod the Great, and lived
with her brother, Herod Agrippa (cp. chap. 81), ruler of
Peraea. They heard St. Paul at Caesarea. She had married first
her uncle, Herod Agrippa, prince of Chalcis; then Polemo II,
king of Pontus, whom she left. She was known to have visited
Titus in Rome, and he was said to have promised her marriage.
[206] i.e. across the open sea.
[207] In Cyprus.
[208] Another mythical king of Cyprus. Hesychius calls him a
son of Apollo, and Ovid makes him the father of Adonis.
[209] From the flight and cries of birds.
[210] i.e. the Tamiradae.
[211] i.e. a conical stone.
[212] Cp. v. 10.
[213] See i. 10 and 76.
[214] Reading _inexperti belli rubor_ (Andresen).
[215] Of Pontus, Syria, and Egypt.
[216] Antiochus of Commagene (between Syria and Cappadocia),
Agrippa of Peraea (east of Jordan), and Sohaemus of Sophene
(on the Upper Euphrates, round the sources of the Tigris). See
chap. 81.
[217] Which dethroned Nero.
[218] III Cyrenaica, XXII Deiotariana.
[219] Titus and their officers and friends.
[220] These accounts are lost. There was one such attempt
under Domitian and another under Titus. The Christians
expected him to re-appear as Antichrist.
[221] Thermia.
[222] See i. 54.
[223] These with Lycia at this date formed a single imperial
province.
THE TRIAL OF ANNIUS FAUSTUS
In a country so divided and tossed by frequent change of rulers 10
between liberty and licence even small events caused serious
disturbance. It happened that Vibius Crispus,[224] a man whose wealth,
influence, and ability had won him a reputation that was great rather
than good, had impeached before the senate a man of equestrian rank,
called Annius Faustus, who had been a professional informer under
Nero. The senate had recently in Galba's principate passed a
resolution authorizing the prosecution of informers. This resolution
had been variously applied from time to time, and interpreted
rigorously or leniently according as the defendant was helpless or
influential. But it still retained some terrors. Crispus, moreover,
had exerted all his powers to secure the conviction of the man who had
informed against his brother.[225] He had, in fact, induced a large
proportion of the senate to demand that Faustus should be sent to
execution undefended and unheard. However, with others, the defendant
gained a great advantage from his prosecutor's undue influence. 'We
must give him time,' they argued, 'the charges must be published:
however hateful the criminal his case must be properly heard.' At
first this advice prevailed. The trial was postponed for a few days.
At length came the conviction of Faustus, which aroused in the country
less satisfaction than his vile character warranted. People recalled
the fact that Crispus himself had turned informer with pecuniary
profit. It was not the penalty but the prosecutor that was unpopular.
FOOTNOTES:
[224] A close friend of Vespasian, who was supposed to ply the
trade of informer (cp. iv. 41 and 43).
[225] Vibius Secundus, banished for extortion in Mauretania.
OTHO'S MEASURES OF DEFENCE
Meanwhile the war opened successfully for Otho. At his order the 11
armies of Dalmatia and Pannonia started from their base. They
comprised four legions,[226] each of which had sent forward
detachments two thousand strong. The rest followed at a short
interval: the Seventh legion raised by Galba,[227] the Eleventh and
Thirteenth, both composed of veteran troops, and the Fourteenth, which
had won great distinction by crushing the rebellion in Britain.[228]
Nero had further increased their glory by choosing them for special
service,[229] which accounts for their lasting loyalty to Nero and
their keen support of Otho. But the stronger their numbers the greater
their self-confidence and the slower their march. The cavalry and
auxiliaries preceded the main body of the legions. From Rome itself
came no mean force, five regiments of Guards with some detachments of
cavalry and the First legion.[230] To these were added an irregular
force of 2,000 gladiators,[231] a shameful assistance of which during
the civil wars even strict generals availed themselves. Annius Gallus
was placed in command of these forces with Vestricius Spurinna,[232]
and they were sent forward to hold the line of the Po. Their first
plans had failed, Caecina, whom Otho had hoped to hold within the
Gallic provinces, having already crossed the Alps.[233] Under Otho's
personal command marched picked detachments of his Body Guard and the
rest of the Household troops, together with reservists of the Guard
and a large force of marines.[234] He let no luxury either delay or
disgrace his march. In an iron breast-plate he marched on foot at the
head of his troops, looking rough and dishevelled, quite unlike his
reputation.
Fortune smiled on his first efforts. By sea his fleet held most of 12
the Italian coast right up to the foot of the Maritime Alps. To secure
these mountains and attack the province of Narbonese Gaul he had
placed in command Suedius Clemens, Antonius Novellus, and Aemilius
Pacensis.[235] Pacensis, however, was made a prisoner by his mutinous
troops: Novellus had no authority: Clemens' command rested on
popularity, and he was as greedy of battle as he was criminally blind
to insubordination. No one could have imagined they were in Italy, on
the soil of their native land. As though on foreign shores and among
an enemy's towns, they burnt, ravaged, plundered, with results all the
more horrible since no precautions had been taken against danger. The
fields were full, the houses open. The inhabitants came to meet them
with their wives and children, and were lured by the security of
peace into all the horrors of war. The Governor of the Maritime
Alps[236] at that time was Marius Maturus. He summoned the
inhabitants, whose fighting strength was ample, and proposed to resist
at the frontier the Othonians' invasion of the province. But at the
first engagement the mountaineers were cut down and dispersed. They
had assembled in random haste; they knew nothing of military service
or discipline, nothing of the glory of victory or the disgrace of
flight.
Enraged by this engagement, Otho's troops visited their 13
indignation on the town of Albintimilium.[237] The battle had brought
them no booty, for the peasants were poor and their armour worthless,
and being swift of foot, with a good knowledge of the country, they
had escaped capture. However, the soldiers sated their greed at the
expense of the innocent town. A Ligurian woman afforded a fine example
of courage which made their conduct the more odious. She had concealed
her son, and when the soldiers, who believed that she had hidden some
money as well, demanded from her under torture where she was keeping
him concealed, she pointed to her belly and replied, 'He is in
hiding.' No subsequent tortures nor even death itself could bring her
to change that brave and noble answer.
Panic-stricken couriers brought to Fabius Valens the news that 14
Otho's fleet was threatening the province of Narbonese Gaul, which had
sworn allegiance to Vitellius. Representatives from the Roman colonies
also arrived beseeching his aid. He dispatched two cohorts of the
Tungri[238] and four troops of horse, together with the entire cavalry
regiment of the Treviri.[239] This force was put under the command of
Julius Classicus,[240] and part of it was detained in the colony of
Forum Julii,[241] since if the whole force marched inland and the
sea-board were left unprotected Otho's fleet would swoop down at once.
Twelve troops of cavalry and a picked body of auxiliaries marched
against the enemy: these were reinforced by a Ligurian cohort which
had long garrisoned this district, and a draft of five hundred
Pannonian recruits who had not yet joined their legion.[242] The
engagement began promptly. Their line was so arranged that some of the
marines, reinforced by the peasants, held the rising ground by the
sea, while the Guards filled the level space between the hills and the
shore. The fleet, acting in conjunction with the land force, was ready
to play its part in the battle, and extended a threatening front
facing the coast. The Vitellians, weaker in infantry, put their trust
in their horse. The mountaineers[243] were posted on the neighbouring
heights, and the auxiliaries massed in close order behind the cavalry.
The Treviran cavalry rashly charged the enemy, and meeting Otho's
guards in front were simultaneously assailed in the flank by the
peasants, flinging stones. This they could do well enough; and,
drafted among the regulars, they all, bold and timid alike, showed the
same courage in the hour of victory. Panic struck the defeated
Vitellians when the fleet began to harass their rear. They were now
surrounded, and would have been entirely destroyed had not darkness
arrested the victors and sheltered their flight. But though beaten 15
the Vitellians were not cowed. Calling up reinforcements, they
suddenly attacked while the unsuspecting enemy were taking their ease
after the victory. They killed the pickets, broke into the camp and
terrified the sailors. In time the panic subsided. The Othonians
seized a hill, defended their position, and eventually assumed the
offensive. The slaughter was frightful. The officers commanding the
Tungri, after a long defence of their position, fell beneath a shower
of weapons. The victory also cost the Othonians heavy loss, for the
enemy's cavalry rallied and cut off all who rashly ventured too far in
pursuit. So they agreed to a sort of armistice. As a safeguard against
sudden raids either by the fleet on the one side or the cavalry on the
other, the Vitellians retired to Antipolis,[244] a town of the
Narbonese province, and the Othonians to Albingaunum[245] in the
interior of Liguria.
The fame of this naval victory kept Corsica and Sardinia and the 16
adjacent islands faithful to Otho's cause. However, Decumus Pacarius,
the procurator,[246] nearly ruined Corsica by an act of indiscretion,
which in a war of such dimensions could not possibly have affected the
issue, and only ended in his own destruction. He hated Otho and
determined to aid Vitellius with all the forces of Corsica; a useless
assistance, even if it had been forthcoming. He summoned the chief men
of the island and disclosed his project. Claudius Pyrrhicus, who
commanded the Liburnian cruisers[247] stationed there, and a Roman
knight named Quintius Certus ventured to oppose him. He ordered their
execution. This overawed the others who were present. So they swore
allegiance to Vitellius, as did also the general mass of ignorant
people, who blindly shared a fear they did not feel. However, when
Pacarius began to enlist them and to harass his undisciplined men with
military duties, their loathing for the unwonted labour set them
thinking of their weakness. 'They lived in an island: Vitellius'
legions were in Germany, a long way off: Otho's fleet had already
sacked and plundered districts that had even horse and foot to protect
them.' The revulsion was sudden, but did not issue in overt
resistance. They chose a suitable moment for their treachery. Waiting
till Pacarius' visitors[248] were gone, they murdered him, stripped
and helpless, in his bath, and killed his comrades too. The heads they
bore themselves to Otho, like enemies' scalps. Neither did Otho reward
nor Vitellius punish them. In the general confusion their deed was
overshadowed by more heinous crimes.
We have already described[249] how 'Silius' Horse' had admitted the 17
war into the heart of Italy. No one there either supported Otho or
preferred Vitellius. But prolonged peace had broken their spirits to
utter servility. They were an easy prey to the first comer and cared
little who was the better man. All the fields and cities between the
Alps and the Po, the most fertile district in Italy, were held by the
Vitellian forces, the cohorts sent forward by Caecina[249] having
already arrived. One of the Pannonian cohorts had been captured at
Cremona: a hundred cavalry and a thousand marines had been cut off
between Placentia and Ticinum.[250] After this success the river and
its steep banks were no barrier to the Vitellian troops: indeed the
Batavians and other Germans found the Po a positive temptation.
Crossing suddenly opposite Placentia, they captured a handful of
scouts and created such a panic that the others in terror spread the
false report that Caecina's whole army was upon them.
Spurinna, who was holding Placentia, had made up his mind that 18
Caecina had not yet arrived, and that, if he should, his troops must
be kept within their lines: he could not pit three cohorts of guards
with one detachment a thousand strong,[251] and a few cavalry, against
Caecina's veteran army. But his men were unruly and ignorant of
war.[252] Seizing the standards and colours[253] they broke out,
threatening to kill the general who tried to check them and paying no
heed to their superior officers. They even clamoured that Otho was
being betrayed, and Caecina had been summoned.[254] Spurinna yielded
unwillingly to their folly, at first under compulsion, later with a
show of sympathy. He was anxious to gain weight for his advice,
should the mutiny cool.
At nightfall, with the Po in sight, Spurinna decided to entrench 19
his camp.[255] The unaccustomed hard work soon blunted the enthusiasm
of his town-bred troops. The older men began to curse their credulity,
and to point out the fearful danger to their small force of being
surrounded by Caecina's army in the open country. Soon a more sober
spirit pervaded the camp. The tribunes and centurions mingled with the
men, and every one talked with admiration of Spurinna's foresight in
selecting a powerful and wealthy colony as a strong base for their
operations. Finally Spurinna himself rather explained his plans than
reproached their faults, and, leaving patrols behind, succeeded
eventually in leading the rest of the men back to Placentia in a
quieter and more submissive frame of mind. There the walls were
repaired, outworks built, and the turrets increased in height and
number, while Spurinna provided not only for arms and ammunition but
also for obedience and discipline. This was all his party lacked, for
their courage was unimpeachable.
Caecina, on the other hand, seemed to have left his cruelty and 20
profligacy on the other side of the Alps. He marched through Italy
with a well-disciplined force. The people in the country-towns and
colonies took offence at his costume as showing arrogance. While they
wore the plain toga, Caecina addressed them attired in a
parti-coloured plaid and trousers.[256] Moreover, his wife Salonina
rode on a fine horse with purple trappings, and though this did no one
any harm, they grumbled and seemed hurt. It is an ineradicable human
trait to turn critical eyes on new-found fortune, and to insist upon
moderation most of all in those who used to be our equals. Crossing
the Po, Caecina tried to undermine the loyalty of the Othonians by
negotiations and promises. They retaliated with the same weapons, and
when they had finished bandying empty and fine-sounding phrases about
Peace and Union, Caecina devoted all his attention and plans to an
assault on Placentia in terrific force. He knew that his future
reputation rested on the issue of his first engagements.[257]
But the first day's work savoured more of impatience than of a 21
veteran army's methods. The men ventured under the walls without cover
or precaution, drunk and overfed. Meanwhile the amphitheatre, a fine
building outside the walls, was burnt down. It was set on fire either
by the attacking force hurling torches and heated shot and
fire-brands, or by the besieged in returning their fire. The common
people of the town harboured a suspicion that fuel for the fire had
been surreptitiously introduced from one of the neighbouring colonies,
and that the motive was jealousy, since no building in Italy could
hold so many people. However it happened, they thought little of it,
while worse disasters threatened: safety assured, they bewailed it as
the worst calamity they could have suffered. To return, however, to
Caecina: he was repulsed with heavy losses, and the night was spent in
preparations. The Vitellians provided mantlets, fascines, and
penthouses,[258] to protect the assailants while undermining the
walls: the Othonians procured stakes and huge masses of stone or lead
or brass, to break through the enemy's formation and crush them to
pieces. Both parties were actuated by feelings of pride and ambition.
Various encouragements were used, one side praising the strength of
the legions and the German army, the other the reputation of the
Guards and the City Garrison. The Vitellians decried their enemy as
lazy effeminates demoralized by the circus and the theatre: to which
they replied that the Vitellians were a pack of foreigners and
barbarians. Meanwhile, Otho and Vitellius were held up to praise or
blame, insult providing the more fruitful stimulus.
Hardly had day dawned before the walls of Placentia bristled with 22
defenders, and the fields glittered with the soldiers' armour. The
Vitellian legions[259] advancing in close order with their auxiliaries
in scattered bands assailed the higher portions of the walls with
stones and arrows: where the walls were in disrepair or crumbling from
age they came close up to them. The Othonians above, poising and
aiming their weapons with surer effect, rained them down on the
Germans, who came rashly charging under the walls with the wild songs
and scanty dress of their country, brandishing their shields over
their heads. Meanwhile, the legionaries under cover of their mantlets
and fascines set to work to undermine the walls, build up a mound, and
assail the gates, while Otho's Guards rolled on to them with terrific
crashes huge millstones, which they had arranged for this purpose
along the walls. Of those beneath, some were crushed by the stones;
others, wounded by darts, were left mangled and bleeding to death.
Panic redoubled the slaughter, and the rain of missiles came all the
fiercer from the walls. At last they sacrificed the honour of their
party and beat a retreat. Caecina, ashamed of his rash attempt at
assault, was afraid of looking ridiculous and useless if he sat still
in the same camp. So he crossed the Po and made for Cremona. As he
was retiring, Turullius Cerialis with a large force of marines, and
Julius Briganticus[260] with a few cavalry, came over to his side. The
latter, a Batavian born, had held a cavalry command: the former was a
senior centurion, who was known to Caecina, as he had served in that
capacity in Germany.
Spurinna, learning the enemy's route, informed Annius Gallus[261] 23
by letter of all that had happened, the defence of Placentia and
Caecina's plans. Gallus was leading the First legion to the relief of
Placentia, for he doubted the ability of the weak force of Guards to
resist a long siege and the full strength of the German army. Hearing
that Caecina was defeated and making for Cremona, he halted at
Bedriacum, though he found it hard to restrain the ardour of his
troops, whose zeal for battle nearly broke into mutiny. The village of
Bedriacum lies between Verona and Cremona,[262] and two Roman
disasters have now given it a sinister notoriety.
In the same week Martius Macer[263] gained a victory in the
neighbourhood of Cremona. With great enterprise he had transported his
gladiators across the Po, and suddenly flung them on to the opposite
bank. There they routed the Vitellian auxiliaries and killed all who
offered resistance, the rest taking flight to Cremona. But Macer
checked their victorious ardour, for fear that the enemy might be
reinforced and reverse the fortune of the battle. This aroused
suspicion among the Othonians, who put a bad construction on all that
their generals did. All the least courageous and most impudent of the
troops vied incessantly with each other in bringing various charges
against Annius Gallus, Suetonius Paulinus, and Marius Celsus, for the
two latter had also been placed in command by Otho.[264] The most
energetic in promoting mutiny and dissension were Galba's murderers,
who, maddened by their feelings of fear and of guilt, created endless
disorder, sometimes talking open sedition, sometimes sending anonymous
letters to Otho. As he always believed men of the meaner sort and
distrusted patriots, he now wavered nervously, being always irresolute
in success and firmer in the face of danger. He therefore sent for his
brother Titianus[265] and gave him the chief command.
Meanwhile success attended the generalship of Paulinus and 24
Celsus.[266] Caecina was tortured by his constant failure and the
waning reputation of his army. Repulsed from Placentia, he had lately
seen his auxiliaries defeated, and his patrols constantly worsted in
skirmishes more frequent than memorable. Now that Fabius Valens was
close at hand, he determined not to let all the glory of the war fall
to him, and hastened with more zeal than prudence to retrieve his
reputation. About twelve miles[267] distant from Cremona, at a place
called _Twin Brethren_,[268] he carefully concealed the bravest of his
auxiliaries in a wood overlooking the road. The cavalry were ordered
to ride forward down the road and provoke an engagement. They were
then to feign flight and lure the pursuers on in hot haste until they
fell into the ambush. This plan was betrayed to Otho's generals.
Paulinus took charge of the infantry, Celsus of the horse. A
detachment of the Thirteenth legion,[269] four auxiliary cohorts of
foot, and five hundred cavalry were stationed on the left flank. Three
cohorts of the Guards in column occupied the raised high-road.[270] On
the right flank marched the First legion, two auxiliary cohorts of
foot, and five hundred cavalry. Besides these they moved out a
thousand cavalry--Guards and auxiliaries--as a reserve to crown their
success, or assist them in difficulties.
Before they came to close quarters, the Vitellians began to 25
retire. Celsus, forewarned of the ruse, halted his men. Whereupon the
Vitellians impatiently rose from their ambush and, while Celsus slowly
retired, followed him further and further until they plunged headlong
into an ambush themselves. The auxiliaries were on their flanks; the
legions faced them in front; and the cavalry by a sudden manoeuvre had
closed in on their rear. However, Suetonius Paulinus did not
immediately give the signal for his infantry to charge. He was by
nature dilatory, and preferred cautiously reasoned measures to
accidental success. He kept on issuing orders about filling up the
ditches, clearing the fields and extending the line, convinced that it
was soon enough to play for victory when he had taken every precaution
against defeat. This delay gave the Vitellians time to take refuge in
the vineyards, where the interlaced vine-stems made it hard to follow.
Adjoining these was a little wood, from under cover of which they
ventured another sally and killed the foremost of the Guards' cavalry.
There Prince Epiphanes[271] was wounded, while making vigorous efforts
to rally Otho's forces.
At this point Otho's infantry charged, crushed the opposing line, 26
and even routed the troops who were hurrying up in support. For
Caecina had brought up his reinforcements not all at once but in
separate detachments. These, arriving in scattered units, and never in
sufficient force, only added to the confusion, since the panic of the
rout infected them as well. Mutiny, too, broke out in the camp,
because the troops were not all taken into battle. Julius Gratus, the
camp-prefect, was put in irons on a charge of plotting with his
brother, who was fighting on Otho's side. It was known that the
Othonians had arrested the brother, Julius Fronto, on the same charge.
For the rest, such was the universal panic among pursuers and pursued,
on the field and in the camp, that it was commonly said on both sides
that, if Suetonius Paulinus had not sounded the retreat, Caecina's
whole army might have been destroyed. Paulinus maintained that he
avoided any excessive strain of work or marching, for fear of exposing
his exhausted troops to a counter-attack from the Vitellians in the
camp, who were still fresh for battle: besides, he had no reserves to
fall back on in case of defeat. A few approved of the general's
strategy, but the common opinion was adverse.[272]
FOOTNOTES:
[226] See note 3.
[227] The legion brought from Spain, mentioned in i. 6.
[228] The revolt of Boadicea crushed by Suetonius Paulinus;
described by Tacitus in his life of Agricola and in Book XIV
of the _Annals_.
[229] i.e. for his projected war against the Albanians (cp. i.
6). Probably they stopped in Dalmatia on hearing of Nero's
fall.
[230] The quondam marines (cp. i. 6, 9, &c.).
[231] They were commanded by Martius Macer (see chaps. 23, 35. &c.).
[232] The defender of Placentia. He earned further laurels
under Trajan in Germany. He was a friend of Tacitus and the
younger Pliny, and is suspected of writing some bad verse.
[233] Early in March (cp. i. 70).
[234] Not regularly formed into a legion: those to whom 'he
held out hopes of honourable service' (cp. i. 87).
[235] Cp. i. 87.
[236] The mountainous district north of the Italian frontier
on the Var.
[237] Ventimiglia, the modern frontier town between France and
Italy on the Riviera.
[238] A Gallic tribe living round Tongres and Spa.
[239] Living round Trier.
[240] Afterwards one of the leaders in the rebellion on the
Rhine (cp. iv. 55).
[241] Fréjus.
[242] i.e. either the VII Galbian or XIII Gemina, both of
which were on Otho's side.
[243] i.e. the Ligurian cohort, mentioned above.
[244] Antibes.
[245] Albenga.
[246] Sardinia and Corsica were an imperial province A.D.
6-67. Then Nero gave it back to the senate to compensate for
his declaration of the independence of Achaia. Vespasian once
more transferred it to imperial government. If _procurator_ is
correct here, Pacarius must have been a subordinate imperial
functionary in a senatorial province. As the province changed
hands so often and was so soon after this placed under
imperial control, it is possible that Tacitus made a mistake
and that Pacarius was an ex-praetor. Those who feel that
Tacitus is unlikely to have made this error, and that Pacarius
can hardly have been anything but governor, adopt the
suggestion that Corsica did not share the fate of Sardinia in
A.D. 67, but remained under the control of an imperial
procurator. There is no clear evidence of this, but under
Diocletian Corsica was certainly separate.
[247] These cruisers were of a peculiarly light build, called
after the Liburni, an Illyrian tribe, who fought for Octavian
in the battle of Actium. He introduced similar craft into the
Roman navy. They were very fast, and worked with a triangular,
instead of the usual square sail.
[248] i.e. his Corsican and Roman clients.
[249] i. 70.
[250] Piacenza and Pavia.
[251] i.e. one of the two detachments sent forward by the
armies of Dalmatia and Pannonia (cp. chap. 11).
[252] Otho's Praetorian Guards were the weakest point in his army.
[253] Cp. i. 36 note 61.
[254] i.e. that Spurinna was in league with Caecina, and meant
to hand them over to him.
[255] He was making 'a reconnaissance in force westwards along
the river bank to discover, if he could, the strength and
intentions of the enemy' (B.W. Henderson, _Civil War_, &c.).
But Mr. E.G. Hardy points out that, as he had only 4,000 men
and Caecina's 30,000 were in the immediate neighbourhood, this
would have been foolish. It seems better to believe Tacitus'
suggestion that his insubordinate troops forced Spurinna to
march out.
[256] Considered Gallic and effeminate.
[257] Mr. Henderson (_Civil War_, &c.) argues that it was
imperative for Caecina to take the fortress at Placentia,
since it threatened his sole line of communication with
Valens' column. Tacitus, as usual, gives a practical rather
than a strategic motive. His interests are purely human.
[258] Familiar devices for sheltering troops against missiles
from a town wall. They were generally made of hurdles covered
with raw hides. The _vinea_ was a shelter on poles, so named
from its resemblance to a pergola of vines.
[259] In i. 61 only legion XXI is mentioned. But Caecina may
have formed the detachments into another legion.
[260] Civilis' nephew and bitter enemy. See iv. 70, v. 21.
[261] Spurinna's colleague in the command of the advanced
guard from Rome. He was now probably at Mantua.
[262] At the meeting of two high roads leading to Cremona, the
one from Hostilia and the other from Mantua. It was near here
that Vitellius defeated Otho, and here that his power fell
before Vespasian (cp. iii. 15 f.).
[263] See note 231.
[264] This was stated in i. 87. The reminder is inserted
because they were not mentioned with Gallus in ii. 11--unless,
indeed, Mr. Onions is right in suggesting that _quoque_ is an
error for _duces_.
[265] He had left him in charge of Rome. See i. 90.
[266] We learn in chap. 33 that Gallus was disabled and took
no part in this engagement: hence the omission of his name.
[267] About 10½ English miles.
[268] Locus Castorum.
[269] See chap. 11.
[270] The Via Postumia, built up on a causeway high above the
fields on either side.
[271] Son of Antiochus, king of Commagene (see note 216). He
was in Rome probably as a hostage, and accompanied Otho.
[272] An eminent critic has called Tacitus' account of this
battle an 'historical nightmare', but those who do not suffer
from a surfeit of military knowledge may find that it lies
easy upon them. It is written for the plain man with an eye
for situations and an ear for phrases.
THE DECISIVE STRUGGLE
This reverse reduced the Vitellians not to despair but to 27
discipline. Not only was this the case in Caecina's camp, who blamed
his men as being readier for mutiny than for battle, but the troops
under Fabius Valens, who had now reached Ticinum,[273] lost their
contempt for the enemy, conceived a desire to retrieve their glory,
and offered their general a more respectful and steady obedience.
There had, indeed, been a serious outbreak of mutiny, the account of
which I may now resume from an earlier chapter,[274] where it seemed
wrong to break the narrative of Caecina's operations. The Batavian
auxiliaries, who had left the Fourteenth legion during the war against
Vindex, heard of Vitellius' rising while on their way to Britain, and,
as I have already described,[275] joined Fabius Valens in the country
of the Lingones. There they grew insolent. Whenever they passed the
tents of the Roman soldiers, they boasted loudly that they had coerced
the Fourteenth, had deprived Nero of Italy, and held the whole issue
of the war in the hollow of their hand. This insulted the soldiers and
annoyed the general; brawls and quarrels ruined good discipline.
Ultimately Valens began to suspect that their insubordination meant
treachery. Accordingly, on receiving the news that Otho's fleet 28
had defeated the Treviran cavalry[276] and the Tungri, and was now
blockading Narbonese Gaul, he determined at the same time to assist
his allies, and by a stroke of generalship to separate contingents
that were so insubordinate and, if united, so strong. He therefore
ordered the Batavians to march to the support of Narbo. Immediately
this order became generally known, the auxiliaries began to complain
and the legionaries to chafe. 'They were being deprived of their
strongest support: here were these invincible veterans promptly
withdrawn directly the enemy came in sight: if the province was more
important than the safety of Rome and the empire, why not all go
there? but if Italy was the corner-stone of their success, he ought
not as it were to amputate their strongest limb.'[277] In answer 29
to this presumptuous criticism, Valens loosed his lictors upon them
and set to work to check the mutiny. They attacked their general,
stoned him, and chased him out of the camp, shouting that he was
concealing the spoils of Gaul and the gold from Vienne,[278] the due
reward of their labours. They looted the baggage, ransacked the
general's quarters, and even rummaged in the ground with javelins and
lances. Valens, in slave's dress, took refuge with a cavalry officer.
Gradually the disorder began to die down. Alfenus Varus, the
camp-prefect, then hit upon the plan of forbidding the centurions to
go the rounds or to have the bugle sounded to summon the men to their
duties. No one had anything to do: they eyed each other in
astonishment, dismayed above all at having no one to command them. At
first by silent submission, at last with tearful prayers, they sought
pardon. Valens appeared, haggard and in tears, but above all
expectation safe and sound,--joy, sympathy, cheers! With a wild
revulsion of feeling--mobs are always extravagant--they made a ring
round him with the eagles and standards, and carried him to the
Tribunal with loud praises and congratulations. With wise moderation
he demanded no punishment, but, to disarm suspicion of his good
faith, he criticized one or two of them severely.[279] He was well
aware that in civil war the men are allowed more licence than their
officers.
While they were entrenching themselves at Ticinum they heard the 30
news of Caecina's defeat, and the mutiny nearly broke out afresh:
Valens, they thought, had treacherously delayed in order to keep them
out of the battle. They refused rest, would not wait for the general,
marched on in front of the standards, hurrying on the bearers, and by
a forced march joined Caecina. Valens had a bad name with Caecina's
army. They complained that despite their greatly inferior numbers he
had exposed them to the full force of the enemy. At the same time, for
fear of being despised as defeated cowards, they excused themselves by
exaggerating the strength of the new arrivals. In fact, though Valens'
numbers were larger, and he had almost twice as many legionaries and
auxiliaries as Caecina,[280] yet it was Caecina who enjoyed the
confidence of the men. Apart from his kindness, in which he seemed
much readier than Valens, they admired him for his youthful vigour and
commanding stature,[281] and liked him too without exactly knowing
why. So there was rivalry between the generals. Caecina mocked at
Valens for his dirty and dishonest ways:[282] Valens at Caecina's
pompous vanity. But they smothered their dislike and worked together
for a common end, writing frequent letters in which they sacrificed
all hope of pardon and heaped abuse on Otho. Otho's generals refrained
from retaliating upon Vitellius, though his character offered richer
scope. In death Otho earned a noble name and Vitellius infamy, yet 31
at this time people were more afraid of Otho's burning passions than
of Vitellius' listless luxury. The murder of Galba had made Otho
feared and hated, while no one attributed to Vitellius the outbreak of
the war. It was felt that Vitellius' gluttony was a personal disgrace:
Otho's excesses, his cruelty and his daring, spelt more danger to the
country.
Now that Caecina and Valens had joined forces, the Vitellians had no
longer any reason to avoid a decisive battle. Otho accordingly held a
council to decide whether they should prolong the war or put their
fortune to the test. Suetonius Paulinus, who was considered the 32
most experienced general of his day,[283] now felt it was due to his
reputation to deliver his views on the general conduct of the war. His
contention was that the enemy's interests were best served by haste,
Otho's by delay. He argued thus: 'The whole of Vitellius' force has
now arrived and he has few reinforcements in his rear, for the Gallic
provinces are in a ferment, and it would be fatal to abandon the Rhine
with all those hostile tribes ready to swarm across it. The troops in
Britain are busy with their own foes and cut off by the sea: the
Spanish provinces can scarcely spare any troops: the Narbonese are
seriously alarmed by their recent reverse and the inroads of our
fleet. The country across the Po is shut in by the Alps and denied all
supplies by sea,[284] and, besides, its resources have been already
exhausted by the passage of their army. Nowhere can they get supplies,
and without commissariat no army can be kept together. The German
troops are their strongest fighting arm, but their constitutions will
not be strong enough to stand the change of weather, if we protract
the war into the summer. It has often happened that a force, which
seemed irresistible at first, has dwindled to nothing through the
tedium of forced inaction.
'On the other hand, our resources are rich and reliable. We have on
our side Pannonia, Moesia, Dalmatia, and the East; the armies there
are fresh and strong; we have Italy and Rome, the Queen of the World,
and the Roman Senate and People: those titles always mean something,
though their glory may sometimes be obscured. We have large public and
private resources, and in civil war a vast quantity of money is
stronger than the sword. Our soldiers are inured to the Italian
climate or, at any rate, to heat. We are entrenched behind the
Po:[285] its cities are protected by strong walls and willing hands,
and the defence of Placentia has shown that none of them will yield to
the enemy.' Therefore Otho must remain on the defensive. In a few days
the Fourteenth legion would arrive: its fame alone was great, and the
Moesian forces[286] would be with it. He should, at any rate, postpone
his deliberations until then, and fight, if fight he must, with
augmented strength.
Marius Celsus supported Paulinus. Annius Gallus had been hurt a 33
few days before by a fall from his horse, but messengers were sent to
inquire his views, and they reported that he too agreed. Otho inclined
to a decisive engagement. His brother Titianus and Proculus, the
prefect of the Guard, with all the impatience of inexperience, stoutly
maintained that fortune and Providence, and Otho's own good genius
inspired his policy, and would inspire its performance. They had
descended to flattery by way of checking opposition. When it was
decided to take the offensive, the question arose whether Otho in
person should take part in the battle or hold himself in reserve. His
evil counsellors again carried their point. Otho was to retire to
Brixellum,[287] and, by withdrawing from the hazards of the field,
reserve himself for the supreme control of the campaign and of the
empire. To this Paulinus and Celsus offered no further opposition, for
fear of seeming to endanger the person of their prince. From this day
dates the decline of Otho's party. Not only did he take with him a
considerable force of the Guards, Body Guard, and cavalry, but the
spirit of the troops who remained behind was broken. The men trusted
no one but Otho, and Otho no one but the men. His generals were under
suspicion and their authority left in doubt.[288]
None of these arrangements failed to reach the ears of the 34
Vitellians. Desertions were frequent, as they always are in civil war,
and the scouts in their eagerness to discover the enemy's plans always
failed to conceal their own. Caecina and Valens, counting on the fatal
impatience of the enemy, remained quietly on their guard to see what
they would do: for it is always wisdom to profit by another's folly.
Feigning an intention of crossing the Po, they began to construct a
bridge, partly as a demonstration against the gladiators[289] on the
opposite bank, partly to find something for their idle troops to do.
Boats were placed at equal intervals with their heads up stream and
fastened together by strong wooden planks. They also cast anchors from
them to ensure the solidity of the bridge, but they allowed the
hawsers to drift slack, so that when the river rose the boats might
all rise with it without the line being broken. To guard the bridge a
high tower was built out on the end boat, from which they could
repulse the enemy with various artillery. Meanwhile the Othonians had
built a tower on the bank and kept up a steady shower of stones and
torches.
In midstream there was an island, to which the gladiators tried to 35
make their way in boats, but the Germans swam over and got there
first. When a good number of them had swam across, Macer manned some
Liburnian cruisers[290] and attacked them with the bravest of his
gladiators. But they fought with less courage than soldiers, and from
their unsteady boats they could not shoot so well as the others, who
had a firm footing on the bank. Swaying this way and that in their
alarm, the sailors and the marines were beginning to get in each
other's way, when the Germans actually leapt into the shallows, caught
hold of the boats by the stern, and either clambered up by the
gangways or sunk them bodily with their own hands. All this took place
before the eyes of both armies[291], and the higher rose the spirits
of the Vitellians, the greater became the indignation of the Othonians
against Macer, the author and cause of their disaster. The 36
remainder of the boats were eventually dragged off,[292] and the
battle ended in flight. The army demanded Macer's execution. He had
been actually wounded by a lance that had been flung at him, and the
soldiers were rushing on him with drawn swords when some tribunes and
centurions intervened and rescued him.
Soon after this, Vestricius Spurinna, on Otho's orders, brought up a
reinforcement of the Guards, leaving behind a small garrison at
Placentia, and before long, Otho sent the consul-elect, Flavius
Sabinus,[293] to take command of Macer's force. This change pleased
the soldiers, but the frequent mutinies made the generals unwilling to
assume such a perilous command.
In some of my authorities[294] I find a statement that either a 37
growing fear of war or dislike of the two emperors, whose
discreditable misconduct grew daily more notorious, led the armies to
hesitate whether they should not give up the struggle and either
themselves combine to choose an emperor or refer the choice to the
senate. This, it is suggested, was the motive of Otho's generals in
advising delay, and Paulinus in particular had high hopes, since he
was the senior ex-consul, and a distinguished general who had earned
a brilliant reputation by his operations in Britain. For my own part,
while I am ready to admit that a few people may have tacitly wished
for peace instead of civil war, or for a good and virtuous emperor
instead of two who were the worst of criminals, yet I imagine that
Paulinus was much too wise to hope that in a time of universal
corruption the people would show such moderation. Those who had
sacrificed peace in a passion for war were not likely to stop the war
from any affection for peace. Nor was it possible that armies whose
language and characteristics differed so widely should ever come to
such an agreement. As for the officers; nearly all of them were
extravagant, bankrupt, and guilty of some crime: they had not a good
enough conscience to put up with any emperor who was not as vicious as
themselves and under an obligation for their services.
The old ingrained human passion for power matured and burst into 38
prominence with the growth of the empire. With straiter resources
equality was easily preserved. But when once we had brought the world
to our feet and exterminated every rival state or king, we were left
free to covet power without fear of interruption. It was then that
strife first broke out between patricians and plebeians: at one time
arose seditious tribunes,[295] at another tyrannous consuls:[296] in
the Forum at Rome were sown the first seeds of civil war. Before long,
Marius, rising from the lowest ranks of the people, and Sulla, the
most cruel of all the nobles, crushed our liberty by force of arms and
substituted a despotism. Then came Pompey, whose aims, though less
patent, were no better than theirs. From that time onwards the one end
sought was supreme power in the state. Even at Pharsalia and Philippi
the citizen armies did not lay down their arms. How then can we
suppose that the troops of Otho and Vitellius would have willingly
stopped the war? The same anger of heaven, the same human passions,
the same criminal motives drove them into discord. True these wars
were each settled by a single battle, but that was due to the
generals' cowardice. However, my reflections on the ancient and the
modern character have carried me too far: I must now resume the thread
of our narrative.
When Otho started for Brixellum, he left his brother Titianus in 39
nominal command, though the real power lay with the prefect Proculus.
As for Celsus and Paulinus, no use was made of their experience, and
their empty titles were used as a screen for other people's blunders.
The tribunes and centurions felt themselves in an ambiguous position,
seeing the better generals sacrificed and the worst in command. The
men were full of spirit, but preferred criticizing to carrying out
their officers' orders. It was decided to advance and encamp four
miles west of Bedriacum. Though it was spring, and rivers abounded,
the men were very foolishly allowed to suffer from want of water. Here
a council of war was held, for Otho kept sending dispatches urging
haste, and the soldiers kept clamouring for their emperor to lead
them. Many demanded that the troops stationed across the Po[297]
should be brought up. It is not so easy to decide what was the best
thing they could have done as to be sure that what they did do was the
worst. They were in marching order, not fighting trim, and their 40
objective was the confluence of the Po and the Arda,[298] sixteen
miles away. Celsus and Paulinus refused to expose their troops,
fatigued by the march and under heavy kit, to the assault of an enemy
who, while still fresh after covering barely four miles, would
certainly attack them, either while they were in the disorder of a
marching column, or when they had broken up to dig trenches. However,
Titianus and Proculus, worsted in argument, appealed to their
authority: and there arrived post-haste a Numidian orderly with a
peremptory dispatch from Otho, criticizing his generals' inaction, and
ordering them to bring matters to a head. He was sick of delay and too
impatient to live on hope.
On that same day, while Caecina was busy with the bridge-building 41
operations,[299] two officers of the Guards came and demanded an
interview. He was preparing to hear and answer their proposals, when
some scouts burst in with the news that the enemy were close at hand.
The officers' conversation was thus interrupted, and it was left
uncertain whether they were broaching a hostile plot or a piece of
treachery, or some honest plan. Caecina, dismissing the officers, rode
back to the camp, where he found that Valens had given orders to sound
for battle, and the troops were already under arms. While the legions
were balloting for the order in which they were to take the field, the
cavalry rode out and charged. Strange to say, they would have been
hurtled back upon the trenches by a smaller force of Othonians, had
not the Italian legion bravely stopped them by drawing their swords
and forcing them to go back and resume the fight. The Vitellian
legions formed without any disorder, for though the enemy were close
at hand, thick plantations hid the approaching force. In the Othonian
army the generals were nervous and the men ill-disposed towards them:
their march was hindered by carts and camp-followers, and the high
road,[300] with its deep ditches on either side, was too narrow even
for a peaceful march. Some of the men formed round their standards,
others went searching for their place: on every side there was an
uproar as men ran about shouting to each other: the boldest kept
pressing on to the front, while the tide of the timid ebbed to the
rear.
Amid the confusion of this sudden panic somebody invented a story 42
that Vitellius' army had abandoned his cause, whereupon an
unwarrantable glee relaxed their efforts. It was never fully known
whether this report was spread by Vitellian scouts or whether it was
started on Otho's side, either by treachery or chance. Losing all
their thirst for battle the Othonians actually broke into a cheer. The
enemy answered with angry shouts, and most of Otho's soldiers, having
no idea what caused the cheering, feared treachery. At this point the
Vitellian line charged. They were fresh, and in good order, stronger
and more numerous. However, the Othonians, despite their disorder,
fewer numbers, and fatigue, offered a stubborn resistance. The ground
was encumbered with orchards and vineyards, and the character of the
battle varied accordingly. They fought now from a distance, now at
close quarters, and charged sometimes in detachment, sometimes in
column.[301] On the raised high-road they fought hand to hand, using
the weight of their bodies and their shields. They gave up throwing
their javelins and cut through helmet and breastplate with sword and
axe. Each man knew his foe; they were in view of the other
troops;[302] and they fought as if the whole issue of the war depended
on them.
It happened that two legions met in the open fields between the 43
high road and the Po. These were: for Vitellius the Twenty-first,
commonly called Rapax,[303] a regiment of old renown; and for Otho the
First Adiutrix,[304] which had never been in battle before, but was
full of spirit and eager to win its first laurels. Their charge
overthrew the front ranks of the Twenty-first, and they carried off
its eagle. Fired with indignation, the Twenty-first rallied and
charged the front of the enemy, killing the commanding officer,
Orfidius Benignus, and capturing many of their colours.
On the other flank the Fifth[305] drove the Thirteenth[306] off the
field. The Fourteenth[307] were surrounded by the numbers that
attacked them. Otho's generals had long ago fled. Caecina and Valens
began to bring up the reserves to the support of their men, and, as a
fresh reinforcement, there arrived Varus Alfenus[308] with his
Batavians. They had routed the gladiators[309] by confronting them and
cutting them to pieces in the river before their transports could
land, and flushed by their victory came charging in upon the flank of
the enemy.
Their centre broken, the Othonians fled in disorder, making for 44
Bedriacum. The distance was immense;[310] the road encumbered with
heaps of dead. This made the slaughter all the greater, for in civil
war captives cannot be turned to profit.[311] Suetonius Paulinus and
Licinius Proculus avoided the camp at Bedriacum by diverse routes.
Vedius Aquila, who commanded the Thirteenth legion, was so paralysed
by fear that he allowed himself to fall into the hands of the
indignant troops. It was still broad daylight when he entered the
camp. Immediately a crowd of mutinous fugitives came clamouring round
him. They spared neither abuse nor violence, assailing him as a
deserter and a traitor. They could bring no special charge against
him, but the mob always lay their own disgrace on some one else. Night
came to the aid of Titianus and Celsus, for Annius Gallus[312] had
already placed sentinels on guard and got the men under control. Using
remonstrances, prayers, and commands, he had induced them not to add
to the disaster of their defeat by murdering their own friends.
Whether the war was over, or whether they wanted to fight again, in
defeat, he told them, union was the one thing that could help them.
All the other troops[313] were crushed by the blow. The Guards
complained that they had been beaten, not by the enemy's valour, but
by sheer treachery. 'Why,' they said, 'even the Vitellians have won no
bloodless victory. We beat their cavalry and captured a standard from
one of their legions. We still have Otho left and all the troops with
him on the other side of the Po. The Moesian legions[314] are on their
way. There is a large force left at Bedriacum. These, at any rate,
have not been defeated yet. Better fall, if need be, on the field.'
Now exasperated, now depressed by these reflections, they were in a
state of blank despair, which more often aroused their anger than
their fear.
The Vitellian army halted at the fifth mile-stone on the road from 45
Bedriacum. Their generals would not venture to storm the camp that
same day, and hoped the enemy would consent to surrender. However,
although they were in fighting trim, and had no implements for digging
trenches, they felt safe with their arms and the pride of victory. On
the next day there was no doubt about the wishes of the Othonians.
Even those who showed most spirit had now changed their minds. So they
sent a deputation. The Vitellian generals had no hesitation in
granting terms. However, they detained the deputation for a short
time, which caused some qualms to those who did not know whether it
had been successful. At length the envoys returned, and the gates of
the camp were opened. Then both victors and vanquished burst into
tears, and with a sort of sorrowful satisfaction cursed their fate of
civil war. There in one tent were men of both armies, nursing a
wounded brother or some other relative. Their hopes of recompense were
doubtful: all that was certain was bereavement and grief, for no one
was so fortunate as to mourn no loss. They searched for the body of
the fallen officer, Orfidius, and burnt it with due solemnity. Of the
other dead, some were buried by their relatives, the rest were left
lying on the ground.
Otho[315] was awaiting news of the battle with perfect confidence 46
and firm resolve. First came a disquieting rumour. Soon fugitives from
the field revealed the ruin of his cause. But the soldiers in their
zeal did not wait to hear their emperor speak. 'Keep a good heart,'
they said, 'you still have fresh forces left, and, as for us, we are
ready to risk everything and suffer everything.' Nor was this
flattery. In a wild passion of enthusiasm they urged him to march to
the field and restore the fortunes of his party. Those who were near
him clasped his knees, while those who stood further off stretched out
their arms to him.[316] The most eager of all was Plotius Firmus, the
Prefect of the Guard, who besought Otho again and again not to desert
a supremely faithful army, men who had done him such great service. He
told him that it showed more courage to bear misfortune than to give
in: that men of vigour and courage cling to their hopes even in the
face of disaster: it is only cowards who let their terror hurry them
into despair. Amid all these appeals the soldiers now cheered, now
groaned, according as Otho's expression showed signs of yielding or
seemed to harden. Nor were these feelings confined to Otho's own
Guards. The first arrivals from Moesia assured him that the spirit of
the advancing force was just as firm, and that they had already
entered Aquileia.[317] There is no room for doubt that it was still
possible to revive this cruel and pitiable war, so full of uncertainty
to both parties.[318]
Otho himself disliked the policy of fighting. 'Am I,' he said, 'to 47
expose all your splendid courage and devotion to further risks? That
would be too great a price to pay for my life. Your high hopes of
succeeding, if I were minded to live, will only swell the glory of my
death. We have learnt to know each other, Fortune and I. Do not reckon
the length of my reign. Self-control is all the harder when a man
knows that his fortune cannot last. It was Vitellius who began the
civil war. He originated the policy of fighting for the throne. But
one battle is enough. This is the precedent that I will set. Let
posterity judge me by it. I do not grudge Vitellius his brother, or
wife, or children. I want neither revenge nor consolation. Others may
have held the sceptre longer, but no one can ever have laid it down so
bravely. Am I the man to allow the flower of Rome in all these famous
armies to be mown down once again and lost to the country? Let me take
with me the consciousness that you would have died for me. But you
must stay and live. No more delay. I must no longer interfere with
your chance of pardon, nor you with my resolve. It is a sort of
cowardice to go on talking about the end. Here is your best proof of
my determination: I complain of no one. To blame gods or men is his
alone who fain would keep his life.'
After some such speech as this he urged them courteously to hurry 48
away and not to exasperate the victor by their hesitation. To each
man's age and position he paid due regard, using his authority with
the young and persuasion with his elders, while his quiet looks and
firm speech helped to control their ill-timed tears. He gave orders
for boats and carriages to be provided for their departure. All
petitions and letters containing any compliments to himself, or marked
insults to Vitellius, he destroyed, and distributed his money
carefully, not like a man at the point of death. He then actually
tried to comfort the sorrowful fears of his nephew, Salvius
Cocceianus,[319] by praising his attachment and chiding his alarm. 'Do
you imagine,' he said, 'that Vitellius will be so hard-hearted as not
to show me some gratitude for saving his whole household? By promptly
putting an end to myself, I deserve to earn some mercy for my family.
For it is not in blank despair, but with my army clamouring for
battle, that I determine to save my country from the last calamities.
I have won enough fame for myself and ennoblement for my posterity;
for, after the line of the Julians, Claudians, Servians,[320] I have
been the first to bring the principate into a new family. So rouse
yourself and go on with your life. Never forget that Otho was your
uncle, yet keep your remembrance within bounds.'
After this he made them all retire and rested for a while. But his 49
last reflections were interrupted by a sudden disturbance and the news
of a mutinous outbreak among the troops. They were threatening to kill
all those who were leaving, and turned with especial violence against
Verginius,[321] whose house was in a state of siege. Otho rebuked the
ringleaders and returned, consenting to receive the adieux of those
who were going, until it was time for them to depart in safety. As the
day deepened into evening he quenched his thirst with a drink of iced
water. Two daggers were brought to him and, after trying them both, he
put one under his pillow. Being assured on inquiry that his friends
had started, he spent a peaceful night, not, it is said, without
sleep. At break of day[322] he fell upon his dagger. Hearing his dying
groan, his slaves and freedmen entered with Plotius Firmus, the
Prefect of the Guards, and found a single wound in his breast. The
funeral was hurried forward out of respect for his own earnest
entreaties, for he had been afraid his head might be cut off and
subjected to outrage. The Guard carried the body, sounding his praises
with tears in their eyes, and covering his hands and wounded breast
with kisses. Some of the soldiers killed themselves beside the pyre,
not because they had harmed Vitellius or feared reprisals, but from
love of their emperor, and to follow his noble example. Similar
suicides became common afterwards at Bedriacum and Placentia, and in
other encampments.[323] An inconspicuous tomb was built for Otho, as
being less likely to be disturbed: and thus he ended his life in his
thirty-seventh year.
Otho came originally from the borough of Ferentium.[324] His 50
father had been consul and his grandfather praetor. His mother's
family was inferior, but not without distinction.[325] His boyhood and
youth were such as we have seen. By his two great acts,[326] one most
criminal and the other heroic, he earned in equal measure the praise
and the reprobation of posterity. It would certainly be beneath the
dignity of my task to collect fabulous rumours for the amusement of my
readers, but there are certain popular traditions which I cannot
venture to contradict. On the day of the battle of Bedriacum,
according to the account of the local peasants, a strange bird
appeared in a much-frequented grove near Regium Lepidum.[327] There it
sat, unterrified and unmoved, either by the crowds of people or by the
birds which fluttered round it, until the moment at which Otho killed
himself. Then it vanished. A calculation of the time showed that the
prodigy's appearance and disappearance coincided with the beginning of
the battle[328] and Otho's death.
At his funeral the rage and grief of the soldiers broke out into 51
another mutiny. This time there was no one to control them. They
turned to Verginius and begged him with threats now to accept the
principate, now to head a deputation to Caecina and Valens. However,
Verginius escaped them, slipping out by the back door of his house
just as they broke in at the front. Rubrius Gallus carried a petition
from the Guards at Brixellum, and obtained immediate pardon.
Simultaneously Flavius Sabinus surrendered to the victor the troops
under his command.[329]
FOOTNOTES:
[273] Pavia.
[274] i. 66.
[275] i. 59 and 64.
[276] See chap. 14.
[277] It is Tacitus who has mixed the metaphors.
[278] See i. 66.
[279] i.e. he pretended that not all but only a few were to
blame (cp. i. 84).
[280] Valens had by now Legion V, I Italica, detachments from
I, XV, XVI, and Taurus' Horse: Caecina had Legion XXI and
detachments from IV and VII.
[281] Cp. i. 53.
[282] Cp. i. 66.
[283] He had made his name in a Moorish war (A.D. 42), when he
had penetrated as far as Mount Atlas, and increased his
reputation by suppressing the rebellion of Boadicea when he
was governor of Britain (A.D. 59).
[284] Otho held the fleets.
[285] He means that they would be, if they took his advice and
retired across the Po to the south bank.
[286] According to the rumours quoted in chap. 46 they were
already at Aquileia, near Venice, but Suetonius, whose father
was at this time a tribune in the Thirteenth, says that they
heard of Otho's death before arriving at Aquileia.
[287] Brescello.
[288] No one knew for certain who was in command. We are told
in chap. 39 that he left Titianus in nominal command, though
the real authority lay with Proculus.
[289] Macer's, see chap. 23.
[290] See note 247.
[291] i.e. of Macer's gladiators on one bank and the
detachment employed by Caecina for bridge-building, &c., on
the other. The main armies were Otho's at Bedriacum and
Vitellius' at Cremona.
[292] i.e. from the Germans who were trying to board or sink them.
[293] See i. 77.
[294] Plutarch, in his Life of Otho, after quoting the view of
the emperor's secretary, Secundus, that Otho was over-strained
and desperate, goes on to give the explanation of 'others'.
This agrees exactly with the story given here. Plutarch and
Tacitus are apparently quoting from the same authority,
unknown to us, perhaps Cluvius Rufus.
[295] e.g. the brothers Gracchus, Saturninus, and Drusus.
[296] e.g. Appius Claudius and L. Opimius, of whom Plutarch
says that in suppressing C. Gracchus he used his consular
authority like that of a dictator.
[297] At Brixellum.
[298] About seven miles below Cremona. The Medicean MS. has
Adua, but as the mouth of the Adua is seven miles west of
Cremona and Bedriacum twenty-two miles east of Cremona, the
figures given do not suit. For Tacitus says that they marched
first four miles and then sixteen. Mr. Henderson proposes to
solve the difficulty by reading _quartum decimum_ for
_quartum_ in chap. 39. But his reasons are purely _a priori_.
If the confluence was that of the _Arda_ with the Po, Tacitus'
_quartum_ is still unsatisfactory, but the distances given in
Plutarch's Life of Otho would suit the facts. He makes the
first march a little over six miles. From the camp then
pitched to the mouth of the Arda would be by road about
sixteen miles. Thus Tacitus' first figure may be a slight
underestimate and his second figure correct. The second day's
march, according to Plutarch, was rather more than twelve
miles, so we may suppose that the armies met about four miles
short of the confluence, which was the Othonians' objective.
This suits Paulinus' suggestion a few lines lower that the
Vitellians need only march four miles to catch them in
marching column. The whole question is fully discussed by Mr.
Henderson (op. cit.) and by Mr. E.G. Hardy in the _Journal of
Philology_, vol. xxxi, no. 61.
[299] See 34 and 35.
[300] Via Postumia.
[301] The word here used, _cuneus_ (a wedge), should mean
strictly a V-shaped formation, which the troops also called
'pig's-head'. But it is also used more generally of any
attacking column advancing to pierce the enemy's line, or
indeed of any body of men in close order.
[302] Because they were on the raised Postumian road.
[303] i.e. The Irresistibles.
[304] The quondam marines (cp. i. 6, &c.).
[305] From Lower Germany (cp. i. 55 and 61).
[306] From Pannonia (cp. chap. 24).
[307] Only a detachment of the Fourteenth was present at this
battle, as is explained below, chap. 66.
[308] The camp-prefect (chap. 29). The Batavians are the
detachment which had left the Fourteenth (chap. 27).
[309] This is not an allusion to the fight described in chap.
35. The gladiators, now under Sabinus (ch. 36) seem to have
suffered a second defeat.
[310] The fixing of this distance rests on the doubtful
figures in chap. 39. In any case it must have been between
fourteen and twenty miles.
[311] Plutarch in describing this rout makes the same rather
cynical comment. Dio puts the total loss on both sides at
40,000.
[312] He had remained behind in camp (cp. chap. 33).
[313] i.e. other than the Guards.
[314] See chap. 32.
[315] At Brixellum.
[316] Plutarch adds a picturesque detail: 'One of the common
soldiers held up his sword and saying, "See, Caesar, we are
all prepared to do _this_ for you," he stabbed himself.'
[317] See note 286.
[318] According to Plutarch, Otho's generals, Celsus, Gallus,
and Titianus, capitulated at once and admitted Caecina to the
camp. Tacitus would doubtless have condemned Plutarch's story
for its lack of tragic pathos. The facts, however, are against
Tacitus. Now that his main force had capitulated at Bedriacum,
Otho had no sufficient army to fight with, since the
Vitellians lay between him and his Danube army at Aquileia.
[319] Titianus' son. He was eventually executed by Domitian
for keeping Otho's birthday.
[320] _Servius_ Sulpicius Galba.
[321] The conqueror of Vindex, now consul-elect (cp. i. 77).
[322] April 17.
[323] Cp. note 316.
[324] Ferento in Etruria.
[325] Albia Terentia was the daughter of a knight who had not
risen to office.
[326] Galba's murder and his own suicide.
[327] Reggio.
[328] Accepting Meiser's suggestion _cum initio pugnae et cum
Othonis exitu_.
VITELLIUS' PRINCIPATE
Now that the war was everywhere ended, a large number of senators, 52
who had quitted Rome with Otho and been left behind at Mutina,[330]
found themselves in a critical position. When the news of the defeat
reached Mutina, the soldiers paid no heed to what they took for a
baseless rumour, and, believing the senators to be hostile to Otho,
they treasured up their conversation and put the worst interpretation
on their looks and behaviour. In time they broke into abusive
reproaches, seeking a pretext for starting a general massacre, while
the senators suffered at the same time from another source of alarm,
for they were afraid of seeming to be slow in welcoming the victory of
the now predominant Vitellian party. Terrified at their double danger,
they held a meeting. For no one dared to form any policy for himself;
each felt safer in sharing his guilt with others. The town-council of
Mutina, too, kept adding to their anxiety by offering them arms and
money, styling them with ill-timed respect 'Conscript Fathers'. A 53
remarkable quarrel arose at this meeting. Licinius Caecina attacked
Eprius Marcellus[331] for the ambiguity of his language. Not that the
others disclosed their sentiments, but Caecina, who was still a
nobody, recently raised to the senate, sought to distinguish himself
by quarrelling with some one of importance, and selected Marcellus,
because the memory of his career as an informer made him an object of
loathing. They were parted by the prudent intervention of their
betters, and all then retired to Bononia,[332] intending to continue
the discussion there, and hoping for more news in the meantime. At
Bononia they dispatched men along the roads in every direction to
question all new-comers. From one of Otho's freedmen they inquired why
he had come away, and were told he was carrying his master's last
instructions: the man said that when he had left, Otho was still
indeed alive, but had renounced the pleasures of life and was devoting
all his thoughts to posterity. This filled them with admiration. They
felt ashamed to ask any more questions--and declared unanimously for
Vitellius.
Vitellius' brother Lucius was present at their discussion, and now 54
displayed his willingness to receive their flattery, but one of Nero's
freedmen, called Coenus, suddenly startled them all by inventing the
atrocious falsehood that the Fourteenth legion had joined forces with
the troops at Brixellum, and that their sudden arrival had turned the
fortune of the day: the victorious army had been cut to pieces. He
hoped by inventing this good news to regain some authority for Otho's
passports,[333] which were beginning to be disregarded. He did,
indeed, thus insure for himself a quick journey to Rome, but was
executed by order of Vitellius a few days later. However, the senate's
danger was augmented because the soldiers believed the news. Their
fears were the more acute, because it looked as if their departure
from Mutina was an official move of the Council of State, which thus
seemed to have deserted the party. So they refrained from holding any
more meetings, and each shifted for himself, until a letter arrived
from Fabius Valens which quieted their fears. Besides, the news of
Otho's death travelled all the more quickly because it excited
admiration.
At Rome, however, there was no sign of panic. The festival of 55
Ceres[334] was celebrated by the usual crowds. When it was reported in
the theatre on reliable authority that Otho had renounced his
claim,[335] and that Flavius Sabinus,[336] the City Prefect, had made
all the troops in Rome swear allegiance to Vitellius, the audience
cheered Vitellius. The populace decked all the busts of Galba with
laurel-leaves and flowers, and carried them round from temple to
temple. The garlands were eventually piled up into a sort of tomb near
Lake Curtius,[337] on the spot which Galba had stained with his
life-blood. In the senate the distinctions devised during the long
reigns of other emperors were all conferred on Vitellius at once.[338]
To these was added a vote of thanks and congratulation to the German
army, and a deputation was dispatched to express the senate's
satisfaction. Letters were read which Fabius Valens had addressed to
the consuls in very moderate terms. But Caecina's moderation was still
more gratifying: he had not written at all.[339]
However, Italy found peace a more ghastly burden than the war. 56
Vitellius' soldiers scattered through all the boroughs and colonial
towns, indulging in plunder, violence, and rape. Impelled by their
greed or the promise of payment, they cared nothing for right and
wrong: kept their hands off nothing sacred or profane. Even civilians
put on uniform and seized the opportunity to murder their enemies. The
soldiers themselves, knowing the countryside well, marked down the
richest fields and wealthiest houses for plunder, determined to murder
any one who offered resistance. Their generals were too much in their
debt to venture any opposition. Of the two Caecina showed less greed
and more ambition. Valens had earned a bad name by his own ill-gotten
gains, and was therefore bound to shut his eyes to others'
shortcomings.[340] The resources of Italy had long been exhausted; all
these thousands of infantry and cavalry, all this violence and damage
and outrage was almost more than the country could bear.
Meanwhile Vitellius knew nothing of his victory. With the 57
remainder of his German army he continued to advance as though the war
had just begun. A few of the veterans were left in winter quarters,
and troops were hurriedly enlisted in the Gallic provinces, to fill up
the vacancies in what were now mere skeleton legions.[341] Leaving
Hordeonius Flaccus to guard the line of the Rhine, Vitellius advanced
with a picked detachment from the army in Britain, eight thousand
strong. After a few days' march he received news of the victory of
Bedriacum and the collapse of the war on the death of Otho. He
summoned a meeting and heaped praise on the courage of the troops.
When the army demanded that he should confer equestrian rank on his
freedman Asiaticus, he checked their shameful flattery. Then with
characteristic instability he granted at a private banquet what he had
refused in public. This Asiaticus, who was thus decorated with the
gold ring, was an infamous menial who rose by his vices.[342]
During these same days news arrived that Albinus, the Governor of 58
Mauretania, had been murdered, and both provinces[343] had declared
for Vitellius. Appointed by Nero to the province of Mauretania
Caesariensis, Lucceius Albinus had further received from Galba the
governorship of Tingitana, and thus commanded a very considerable
force, consisting of nineteen cohorts of infantry, five regiments of
horse, and an immense horde of Moors, well trained for war by their
practice in plunder. After Galba's murder he inclined to Otho's side
and, not contented with the province of Africa, began to threaten
Spain on the other side of the narrow strait. Cluvius Rufus,[344]
alarmed at this, moved the Tenth legion[345] down to the coast as
though for transport. He also sent some centurions ahead to gain the
sympathies of the Moors for Vitellius. The great reputation of the
German army throughout the provinces facilitated this task, and they
also spread a rumour that Albinus was not contented with the title of
'Governor', and wanted to adopt a regal style under the name of Juba.
So the sympathies of the army shifted. Asinius Pollio, who 59
commanded the local cavalry, one of Albinus' loyal friends, was
assassinated. The same fate befell Festus and Scipio, who were in
command of the infantry.[346] Albinus himself embarked from Tingitana
for Caesariensis, and was murdered as he landed. His wife confronted
the assassins and was murdered too. How all this happened Vitellius
never inquired. He passed by events of the highest importance after a
few moments' attention, being quite unable to cope with serious
matters.
On reaching the Arar,[347] Vitellius ordered his army to march
overland while he sailed down the river. Travelling with no imperial
state, he had nothing but his original poverty[348] to make him
conspicuous, until Junius Blaesus, Governor of the Lyons division of
Gaul, a member of an eminent family, whose liberality matched his
wealth, provided the emperor with a staff and escorted him in person
with great courtesy, an attention which proved most unwelcome to
Vitellius, although he concealed his annoyance under the grossest
flattery. At Lugdunum he found the generals of both parties awaiting
him. Valens and Caecina were openly commended at a public meeting, and
given places on either side of the emperor's throne. He then sent the
whole army to fetch his infant son,[349] and when they brought him
wearing a general's uniform, Vitellius took him up in his arms and
named him Germanicus,[350] at the same time decorating him with all
the insignia of his imperial position. The exaggerated honours of
these days proved the child's only consolation for the evil times
which followed.[351]
The most energetic of Otho's centurions were now executed, which 60
did more than anything else to alienate the armies of Illyricum. The
other legions also caught the infection, and their dislike of the
German troops made them harbour thoughts of war. Suetonius Paulinus
and Licinius Proculus were kept in mourning[352] and suspense,
disheartened by delay. When at last their case was heard, their pleas
savoured more of necessity than honour. They positively claimed credit
for treachery, alleging that the long march before the battle, the
fatigue of their troops, and the confusion created by the wagons in
their lines were all due not to chance, but to their own treachery.
Vitellius believed their protestations of treason, and acquitted them
of all suspicion of loyalty.
Otho's brother, Salvius Titianus, was in no danger. His affection for
his brother and his personal inefficiency excused him. Marius Celsus
was allowed to hold his consulship.[353] But rumour gave rise to a
belief which led to an attack being made in the senate against
Caecilius Simplex, who was charged with trying to purchase the
consulship and to secure Celsus' destruction. Vitellius, however,
refused this, and afterwards allowed Simplex to hold the consulship
without detriment to his conscience or his purse. Trachalus was
protected against his accusers by Galeria, Vitellius' wife.[354]
With so many of the great in danger of their lives, an obscure 61
creature called Mariccus, of the tribe of the Boii[355]--it is a
sordid incident[356]--endeavoured to thrust himself into greatness and
to challenge the armies of Rome, pretending to be a minister of
Heaven. This divine champion of the Gauls, as he had entitled himself,
had already gathered a force of eight thousand men, and began making
overtures[357] to the neighbouring Aeduan villages. But the chief
community of the Aedui wisely sent out a picked force, with some
Vitellian troops in support, and scattered the mob of fanatics.
Mariccus was captured in the engagement, and later thrown to wild
beasts.[358] As they refused to devour him, the common people stupidly
believed him invulnerable, until he was executed in the presence of
Vitellius.
No further measures were taken against the life or property of the 62
rebels.[359] The estates of those who had fallen fighting for Otho
were allowed to devolve by will or else by the law of intestate
succession. Indeed, if Vitellius had set limits to his luxury, there
was no need to fear his greed for money. It was his foul and
insatiable gluttony. Rome and Italy were scoured for dainties to
tickle his palate: from shore to shore the high roads rang with the
traffic. The leading provincials were ruined by having to provide for
his table. The very towns were impoverished. Meanwhile the soldiers
were acquiring luxurious habits, learning to despise their general,
and gradually losing their former efficiency and courage.
Vitellius sent a manifesto on to Rome in which he declined the title
of Caesar, and postponed calling himself Augustus without giving up
any portion of his power. All astrologers[360] were exiled from
Italy, and rigorous provision was made to restrain Roman knights from
the disgrace of appearing at the games in the arena.[361] Former
emperors had paid, or more often compelled them to do this, and many
of the provincial towns vied together in hiring the most profligate
young aristocrats.
The arrival of his brother and the growing influence of his tutors 63
in tyranny made Vitellius daily more haughty and cruel. He gave orders
for the execution of Dolabella, whom Otho, as we have seen,[362] had
relegated to the colonial town of Aquinum. On hearing of Otho's death,
he had ventured back to Rome. Whereupon an ex-praetor, named Plancius
Varus, one of Dolabella's closest friends, laid information before the
city prefect, Flavius Sabinus, maintaining that he had broken from
custody to put himself at the head of the defeated party. He added
that Dolabella had tried to tamper with the cohort stationed at
Ostia.[363] Having no proof of these very serious charges, he repented
and begged for his friend's forgiveness. But it was too late. The
crime was committed. While Flavius Sabinus was hesitating what to do
in such a serious matter, Lucius Vitellius' wife, Triaria, whose
cruelty was altogether unwomanly, terrified him by suggesting that he
was trying to get a reputation for mercy at the expense of his
emperor's safety. Sabinus was naturally of a kindly disposition, but
easily changed under the influence of fear. Though it was not he who
was in danger, he was full of alarms, and hastened Dolabella's
impending ruin for fear of being supposed to have helped him.
Vitellius, accordingly, from motives both of suspicion and of 64
hatred (Dolabella had married his divorced wife Petronia), summoned
Dolabella by letter to avoid the crowded thoroughfare of the Flaminian
road and to turn off to Interamnium,[364] where he gave orders for his
murder. The assassin found the journey tedious; discovered his victim
sleeping on the floor at a wayside inn, and cut his throat. This gave
the new government a very bad name. People took it as a specimen of
what to expect. Triaria's shameless behaviour was further emphasized
by the exemplary behaviour of her relative Galeria, the emperor's
wife, who kept clear of these dreadful doings. Equally admirable was
the character of his mother, Sextilia, a woman of the old school. It
was even on record that when her son's first letters were read to her,
she said, 'It was no Germanicus,[365] but a Vitellius that I brought
into the world.' From that time neither the attractions of her high
station nor the unanimous flattery of Rome could win her over to
complacence. She only shared the sorrows of her house.
When Vitellius left Lugdunum, Cluvius Rufus[366] relinquished his 65
Spanish province and followed him. He knew that serious charges had
been made against him, and his smiling congratulations hid an anxious
heart. A freedman of the imperial court,[367] Hilarus by name, had
given evidence against him, alleging that, when Cluvius heard of the
rival claims of Otho and Vitellius, he had endeavoured to set up an
independent authority of his own in Spain, and to this end had issued
passports with no emperor's name at the head.[368] Certain phrases in
his speeches were also construed as damaging to Vitellius and as a bid
for his own popularity. However, Cluvius' influence carried the day,
and Vitellius even had his own freedman punished. Cluvius was given a
place at court, while still retaining Spain, of which he was absentee
governor, following the precedent of Lucius Arruntius. In his case,
however, Tiberius' motive had been suspicion, whereas Vitellius
detained Cluvius without any such qualms.[369] Trebellius Maximus[370]
was not allowed the same privilege. He had fled from Britain to escape
the fury of his troops. Vettius Bolanus, who was then about the court,
was sent out to take his place.
The soldiers of the defeated legions still gave Vitellius a good 66
deal of anxiety. Their spirit was by no means broken. They distributed
themselves all over Italy, mingling with the victors and talking
treason. The most uncompromising of all were the Fourteenth, who
refused to acknowledge their defeat. At Bedriacum, they argued, it was
only a detachment that had been beaten, the main strength of the
legion was not present.[371] It was decided to send them back to
Britain, whence Nero had summoned them, and meanwhile they were to
share their quarters with the Batavian irregulars, because of the
long-standing feud between them.[372] Quartered as they were under
arms, their mutual hatred soon broke out into disorder.
At Turin[373] one of the Batavians was cursing a workman for having
cheated him, when a legionary, who lodged with the workman, took his
part. Each quickly gathered his fellow soldiers round him, and from
abuse they came to bloodshed. Indeed, a fierce battle would have
broken out, unless two regiments of Guards had sided with the
Fourteenth, thus giving them confidence and frightening the Batavians.
Vitellius gave orders that the Batavians should be drafted into his
army, while the legion was to be marched over the Graian Alps[374] by
a détour which would avoid Vienne.[375] Its inhabitants were another
cause for alarm.[376] On the night on which the legion started they
left fires burning all over Turin, and part of the town was burnt
down. This disaster, like so many others in the civil war, has been
obliterated by the greater calamities which befell other cities. No
sooner were the Fourteenth across the Alps than the most mutinous
spirits started off to march for Vienne, but they were stopped by the
unanimous interference of the better men, and the legion was shipped
across to Britain.
Vitellius' next cause of anxiety was the Guards. At first they 67
were quartered apart, and then, appeased by an honourable
discharge,[377] they gave up their arms to their officers. But when
the news went round of the war with Vespasian, they enlisted again and
formed the main strength of the Flavian party.
The First legion of marines was sent to Spain to cultivate docility in
peace and quiet. The Eleventh and the Seventh were sent back to their
winter quarters.[378] The Thirteenth were set to work to build
amphitheatres. For Caecina at Cremona and Valens at Bononia were each
preparing to give a gladiatorial show. Vitellius never let his
anxieties interfere with his pleasures.
The losing party being thus dispersed by peaceful means, disorder 68
broke out in the victorious camp. It originated in sport, but the
number of deaths increased the feeling against Vitellius. He had
invited Verginius to dine with him at Ticinum, and they had just sat
down to table. The conduct of officers is always determined by the
behaviour of their generals; it depends on that whether they adopt the
simple life or indulge their taste for riotous living;[379] this again
determines whether the troops are smart or disorderly. In Vitellius'
army disorder and drunkenness were universal: it was more like a
midnight orgy[380] than a properly disciplined camp. So it happened
that two of the soldiers, one belonging to the Fifth legion, the other
to the Gallic auxiliaries, in a drunken frolic challenged each other
to wrestle. The legionary fell; and when the Gaul began to exult over
him, the soldiers who had gathered round took sides, and the
legionaries, breaking out against the auxiliaries with murderous
intent, actually cut to pieces a couple of cohorts. This commotion was
only cured by another. A cloud of dust and the glitter of arms
appeared on the horizon. Suddenly a cry arose that the Fourteenth had
turned back and were marching on them. However, it was their own
rear-guard bringing up the stragglers. This discovery quieted their
alarm. Meanwhile, coming across one of Verginius' slaves, they
charged him with intending to assassinate Vitellius, and rushed off
to the banquet clamouring for Verginius' head. No one really doubted
his innocence, not even Vitellius, who always quailed at a breath of
suspicion. Yet, though it was the death of an ex-consul, their own
former general, which they demanded, it was with difficulty that they
were quieted. No one was a target for these outbreaks so often as
Verginius. He still retained the admiration and esteem of the men, but
they hated him for disdaining their offer.[381]
On the next day Vitellius granted an audience to the deputation of 69
the senate, which he had told to await him at Ticinum. He then entered
the camp and spontaneously complimented the troops on their devotion
to him.[382] This made the auxiliaries grumble at the growing licence
and impunity allowed to the legions. So the Batavians, for fear of
some desperate outbreak, were sent back to Germany, where Fortune was
contriving for us a war that was at once both civil and foreign.[383]
The Gallic auxiliaries were also sent home. Their numbers were very
large, and had been used at the first outbreak of the rebellion for an
empty parade of force. Indeed, the imperial finances were already
embarrassed by the distribution of largess, to meet the expenses of
which Vitellius gave orders for depleting the strength of the legions
and auxiliaries. Recruiting was forbidden, and discharges offered
without restriction. This policy was disastrous for the country and
unpopular among the soldiers, who found that their turn for work and
danger came round all the more frequently, now that there were so few
to share the duties. Besides, their efficiency was demoralized by
luxury. Nothing was left of the old-fashioned discipline and the good
rules of our ancestors, who preferred to base the security of Rome on
character and not on money.
Leaving Ticinum Vitellius turned off to Cremona. There he 70
witnessed Caecina's games and conceived a wish to stand upon the field
of Bedriacum, and to see the traces of the recent victory with his own
eyes. Within six weeks of the battle, it was a disgusting and horrible
sight; mangled bodies, mutilated limbs, rotting carcasses of men and
horses, the ground foul with clotted blood. Trees and crops all
trampled down: the country-side a miserable waste. No less revolting
to all human feeling was the stretch of road which the people of
Cremona had strewn with laurel-leaves and roses, erecting altars and
sacrificing victims as if in honour of an Oriental despot.[384] The
rejoicings of the moment soon turned to their destruction.[385] Valens
and Caecina were in attendance and showed Vitellius over the
battle-field: this was where their legions had charged: the cavalry
took the field from here: this was where the auxiliaries were
outflanked. The various officers[386] each praised their own exploits,
adding a few false or, at any rate, exaggerated touches. The common
soldiers, too, turned gaily shouting from the high road to inspect the
scene of their great struggle, gazing with wonder at the huge pile of
arms and heaps of bodies.[387] There were a few who reflected with
tears of pity on the shifting chances of life. But Vitellius never
took his eyes off the field: never shuddered at the sight of all these
thousands of Roman citizens lying unburied.[388] On the contrary, he
was very well pleased, and, unconscious of his own impending doom, he
offered a sacrifice to the local deities.
They next came to Bononia, where Fabius Valens gave a gladiatorial 71
show, for which he had all the apparatus brought from Rome. The nearer
they drew to the city, the greater became the disorder of the march,
which was now joined by troops of actors, eunuchs and the like, all in
the true spirit of Nero's court. For Vitellius always had a great
personal admiration for Nero. He used to follow him about to hear him
sing, not under compulsion--many a decent man suffered that fate--but
because he was the slave of his stomach, and had sold himself to
luxury.
To secure a few months of office for Valens and Caecina, the other
consuls of the year[389] had their terms shortened, while Martius
Macer's claim was ignored as belonging to Otho's party. Valerius
Marinus, who had been nominated by Galba, had his term postponed, not
for any offence, but because he was a mild creature and too lazy to
resent an injury. The name of Pedanius Costa was omitted altogether.
Vitellius had never forgiven him for rising against Nero and
instigating Verginius. However, he alleged other reasons. They all had
to observe the servile custom of the time, and offer their thanks to
Vitellius.
An imposture, received at first with great excitement, failed to 72
last more than a few days. A man had appeared who gave out that he was
Scribonianus Camerinus,[390] and that during Nero's reign he had taken
refuge in Histria, where the Crassi still had their old connexions and
estates, and their name was much respected. He accordingly took all
the rascals he could find and cast them for parts. The credulous mob
and some of the soldiers, who were either victims of the imposture or
anxious for a riot, eagerly flocked to join him. However, he was taken
before Vitellius and his identity examined. When it was found that
there was no truth in his pretensions, and that his master recognized
him as a runaway called Geta, he suffered the execution of a
slave.[391]
FOOTNOTES:
[329] i.e. the gladiators (cp. chap. 36).
[330] Modena.
[331] A famous orator and informer, who from small beginnings
acquired great wealth and influence under Nero. Best known as
the prosecutor of Thrasea (cp. iv. 6, &c.). He eventually
conspired against Vespasian and was forced to commit suicide.
[332] Bologna.
[333] They would entitle him to the use of post-horses, &c.,
as for public business.
[334] April 12-19.
[335] From this phrase it is not clear whether the actual news
of his suicide had arrived. It took place on April 17.
[336] Vespasian's brother (see i. 46).
[337] See note 70.
[338] Cp. i. 47.
[339] By this time no one except the emperor was expected to
address official letters referring to the general political
situation to the consuls or the senate. Valens' action was
therefore presumptuous (cp. iv. 4).
[340] The meaning seems to be that Caecina indulged the men in
order to win popularity, Valens in order to obtain licence for
his own dishonesty.
[341] He had depleted them by sending detachments forward with
Valens and Caecina (see i. 61).
[342] One of the vilest and most hated of imperial menials
(see chap. 95, and iv. 11). The gold ring was a token of
equestrian rank (cp. i. 13).
[343] Caesariensis (Fez) and Tingitana (Morocco). They had
been imperial provinces since A.D. 40.
[344] See i. 8.
[345] Gemina.
[346] The military titles here used have a technical meaning
which translation cannot convey. A senior centurion (cp. note
57) could rise to the command of an auxiliary cohort, like the
Festus and Scipio here mentioned (_praefecti cohortium_). The
next step would be to _tribunus legionis_, and from that again
to _praefectus alae_. This was Pollio's position, the highest
open to any but soldiers of senatorial rank.
[347] Saône.
[348] He was so poor, says Suetonius, that he had no money to
take him out to Germany, when appointed to that province. He
had to let his house and hire a garret for his wife and
family, and to pawn one of his mother's pearl ear-rings.
[349] Aged 6.
[350] Cp. i. 62.
[351] He was executed by Mucianus (iv. 80).
[352] He postponed the hearing of their case, and thus, as
accused persons, they had by custom to wear mourning.
[353] Cp. i. 77.
[354] Cp. i. 90. As Trachalus' gentile name was Galerius, she
was presumably a relative.
[355] Between the Loire and the Allier.
[356] Mariccus being a provincial 'of no family', Tacitus
hardly likes to mention him.
[357] The word _trahebat_ may here mean 'began to plunder',
but this seems less likely.
[358] This punishment seems to have been reserved,
appropriately enough, for those who stirred up popular
sedition.
[359] From Vitellius' point of view the Othonians were rebels,
since he had been declared emperor before Otho: or else as
rebels against Galba.
[360] Cp. i. 22.
[361] i.e. as gladiators. Juvenal says this is what the
spendthrifts come to: and also that they would do it for
money, without any Nero to compel them. On the whole the
bankrupt rich preferred 'knock-about comedy' to the very real
dangers of a combat.
[362] i. 88.
[363] Cp. i. 80.
[364] Terni.
[365] Cp. i. 62.
[366] See chap. 58.
[367] i.e. the property, not of Vitellius personally, but of
the imperial household.
[368] He would entertain some natural doubt as to who _was_
emperor. The incriminating suggestion is that he meant to
insert his own name.
[369] In the _Annals_ Tacitus mentions Tiberius' habit of
appointing provincial governors without any intention of
allowing them to leave Rome. See _Ann._ i. 80, vi. 27.
[370] See i. 60.
[371] See chap. 43.
[372] See i. 59, 64, ii. 27.
[373] _Augusta Taurinorum_.
[374] Little St. Bernard.
[375] See i. 65. The legions there might make common cause
with them.
[376] They had suffered once already (see i. 65, 66).
[377] This meant about £200 to every man who had done sixteen
years' service.
[378] i.e. the Eleventh to Dalmatia, the Seventh to Pannonia.
[379] Literally, enjoy dinner-parties beginning at an early
hour, i.e. before two o'clock. This was considered 'fast'.
[380] The word here used by Tacitus, _pervigilia_, properly
denotes all-night religious festivals. But--like Irish
wakes--such festivals tended to deteriorate, and the word
acquired a sinister sense.
[381] See i. 6 and 8.
[382] Because they had seized one of Verginius' slaves, as
described in the last chapter.
[383] The revolt of Civilis described in Book IV. His force
included Roman legionaries as well as Batavians, Gauls, and
Germans.
[384] The word 'rex' had still an 'unroman' sound.
[385] Cremona was sacked and burnt in the following October
(cp. iii. 32 f.).
[386] Literally, the tribunes of the legions and the prefects
of the auxiliaries.
[387] A friend told Plutarch that he had seen on this
battle-field a pile of corpses so high that they reached the
pediment of an ancient temple which stood there.
[388] Suetonius attributes to him the remark, 'A dead enemy
smells good, a dead Roman better.'
[389] Their names are given i. 77.
[390] Dio tells us that he and his father were murdered by
Nero's slave Helios. He was probably related to M. Licinius
Crassus Frugi, who was convicted of treason against Nero (see
note 79), and to Piso, Galba's adopted successor.
THE REVOLT OF VESPASIAN
When once his couriers brought news from Syria and Judaea that the 73
East had sworn allegiance to him, Vitellius' vanity and indolence
reached a pitch which is almost incredible. For already, though the
rumours were still vague and unreliable, Vespasian's name was in
everybody's mouth, and the mention of him often roused Vitellius to
alarm. Still, he and his army seemed to reck of no rival: they at once
broke out into the unbridled cruelty, debauchery and oppression of
some outlandish court.
Vespasian, on the other hand, was meditating war and reckoning all 74
his forces both distant and near at hand. He had so much attached his
troops to himself, that when he dictated to them the oath of
allegiance and prayed that 'all might be well' with Vitellius, they
listened in silence. Mucianus' feelings were not hostile to him, and
were strongly sympathetic to Titus. Tiberius Alexander,[392] the
Governor of Egypt, had made common cause with him. The Third
legion,[393] since it had crossed from Syria into Moesia, he could
reckon as his own, and there was good hope that the other legions of
Illyria would follow its lead.[394] The whole army, indeed, was
incensed at the arrogance of Vitellius' soldiers: truculent in
appearance and rough of tongue, they scoffed at all the other troops
as their inferiors. But a war of such magnitude demands delay. High as
were his hopes, Vespasian often calculated his risks. He realized that
it would be a critical day for him when he committed his sixty summers
and his two young sons to the chances of war. In his private ambitions
a man may feel his way and take less or more from fortune's hands
according as he feels inclined, but when one covets a throne there is
no alternative between the zenith of success and headlong ruin.
Moreover, he always kept in view the strength of the German army, 75
which, as a soldier, he realized. His own legions, he knew, had no
experience of civil war, while Vitellius' troops were fresh from
victory: and the defeated party were richer in grievances than in
troops. Civil strife had undermined the loyalty of the troops: there
was danger in each single man. What would be the good of all his horse
and foot, if one or two traitors should seek the reward the enemy
offered and assassinate him then and there? It was thus that
Scribonianus[395] had been killed in Claudius' reign, and his
murderer, Volaginius, raised from a common soldier to the highest
rank. It is easier to move men in the mass than to take precautions
against them singly.
These anxieties made Vespasian hesitate. Meanwhile the other 76
generals and his friends continued to encourage him. At last Mucianus
after several private interviews went so far as to address him in
public. 'Everybody,' he said, 'who plans some great exploit is bound
to consider whether his enterprise serves both the public interest and
his own reputation, and whether it is easily practicable or, at any
rate, not impossible. He must also weigh the advice which he gets. Are
those who offer it ready to run the risk themselves? And, if fortune
favours, who gains the glory? I myself, Vespasian, call you to the
throne. How much that may benefit the country and make you famous it
lies with you--under Providence--to decide. You need not be afraid
that I may seem to flatter you. It is more of an insult than a
compliment to be chosen to succeed Vitellius. It is not against the
powerful intellect of the sainted Augustus that we are in revolt; not
against the cautious prudence of the old Tiberius; nor even against a
long-established imperial family like that of Caligula, Claudius or
Nero. You even gave way to Galba's ancient lineage. To remain inactive
any longer, to leave your country to ruin and disgrace, that would be
sheer sloth and cowardice, even if such slavery were as safe for you
as it would be dishonourable. The time is long past when you could be
merely _suspected_ of ambition: the throne is now your only refuge.
Have you forgotten Corbulo's murder?[396] He was a man of better
family than we, I admit, but so was Nero more nobly born than
Vitellius. A man who is feared always seems illustrious enough to
those who fear him. That an army can make an emperor Vitellius himself
has proved. He had neither experience nor military reputation, but
merely rose on Galba's unpopularity. Even Otho fell not by the
strategy or strength of his opponent, but by his own precipitate
despair. And to-day he seems a great and desirable emperor, when
Vitellius is disbanding his legions, disarming his Guards, and daily
sowing fresh seeds of civil war. Why, any spirit or enthusiasm which
his army had is being dissipated in drunken debauches: for they
imitate their master. But you, in Judaea, in Syria, in Egypt, you have
nine fresh legions. War has not weakened nor mutiny demoralized them.
The men are trained to discipline and have already won a foreign
war.[397] Besides these, you can rely on the strength of your
fleet,[398] and of your auxiliaries both horse and foot, on the
faithful allegiance of foreign princes,[399] and on your own
unparalleled experience.
'For ourselves I make but one claim. Let us not rank below Valens 77
and Caecina. Nor must you despise my help because you do not encounter
my rivalry. I prefer myself to Vitellius and you to myself. Your house
has received the insignia of a triumph.[400] You have two young sons,
one of whom is already old enough to fill the throne, and in his first
years of service made a name for himself in the German army.[401] It
would be absurd for me not to give way to one whose son I should
adopt, were I emperor myself. Apart from this, we shall stand on a
different footing in success and in failure, for if we succeed I shall
have such honour as you grant me: of the risk and the dangers we shall
share the burden equally. Or rather, do what is better still. Dispose
your armies yourself and leave me the conduct of the war, and the
uncertainties of battle.
'At this moment the defeated are far more strictly disciplined than
their conquerors. Indignation, hatred, the passion for revenge, all
serve to steel our courage. Theirs is dulled by pride and mutiny. The
course of the war will soon bring to light the hidden weakness of
their party, and reopen all its festering sores. I rely on your
vigilance, your economy, your wisdom, and still more on the indolence,
ignorance, and cruelty of Vitellius. Above all, our cause is far safer
in war than in peace, for those who plan rebellion have rebelled
already.'
At the end of Mucianus' speech the others all pressed round with 78
new confidence, offering their encouragement and quoting the answers
of soothsayers and the movements of the stars. Nor was Vespasian
uninfluenced by superstition. In later days, when he was master of
the world, he made no secret of keeping a soothsayer called Seleucus
to help him by his advice and prophecy. Early omens began to recur to
his memory. A tall and conspicuous cypress on his estate had once
suddenly collapsed: on the next day it had risen again on the same
spot to grow taller and broader than ever. The soothsayers had agreed
that this was an omen of great success, and augured the height of fame
for the still youthful Vespasian. At first his triumphal honours, his
consulship, and the name he won by his Jewish victory seemed to have
fulfilled the promise of this omen. But having achieved all this, he
began to believe that it portended his rise to the throne.
On the frontier of Judaea and Syria[402] lies a hill called Carmel. A
god of the same name is there worshipped according to ancient ritual.
There is no image or temple: only an altar where they reverently
worship. Once when Vespasian was sacrificing on this altar, brooding
on his secret ambition, the priest, Basilides, after a minute
inspection of the omens said to him: 'Whatever it is which you have in
mind, Vespasian, whether it is to build a house or to enlarge your
estate, or to increase the number of your slaves, there is granted to
you a great habitation, vast acres, and a multitude of men.' Rumour
had immediately seized on this riddle and now began to solve it.
Nothing was more talked of, especially in Vespasian's presence: such
conversation is the food of hope.
Having come to a definite decision they departed, Mucianus to Antioch,
Vespasian to Caesarea. The former is the capital of Syria, the latter
of Judaea.[403]
The first offer of the throne to Vespasian was made at Alexandria, 79
where Tiberius Alexander with great promptitude administered the oath
of allegiance to his troops on the first of July. This was usually
celebrated as his day of accession, although it was not until the
third that the Jewish army took the oath in his presence. So eager was
their enthusiasm that they would not even wait for the arrival of
Titus, who was on his way back from Syria, where he had been
conducting the negotiations between his father and Mucianus.
What happened was all due to the impulse of the soldiers: there was no
set speech, no formal assembly of the troops. They were still 80
discussing the time and the place, and trying to decide the hardest
point of all, who should speak first, and while their minds were still
busy with hopes and fears, reasons and chances, Vespasian happened to
come out of his quarters. A few of the soldiers, forming up in the
usual way to salute their general, saluted him as emperor. The others
promptly rushed up calling him Caesar and Augustus, and heaping on him
all the imperial titles. Their fears at once gave way to confidence.
Vespasian himself, unchanged by the change of fortune, showed no sign
of vanity or arrogance. As soon as he had recovered from the dazzling
shock of his sudden elevation, he addressed them in simple soldier
fashion, and received a shower of congratulations from every quarter.
Mucianus, who had been waiting for this, administered the oath of
allegiance to his eager troops, and then entered the theatre at
Antioch, where the Greeks ordinarily hold their debates. There, as the
fawning crowd came flocking in, he addressed them in their own tongue.
For he could speak elegant Greek, and had the art of making the most
of all he said or did. What most served to inflame the excitement of
the province and of the army, was his statement that Vitellius had
determined to transfer the German legions to peaceful service in the
rich province of Syria, and to send the Syrian legions to endure the
toil and rigours of a winter in Germany. The provincials were
accustomed to the soldiers' company and liked to have them quartered
there, and many were bound to them by ties of intimacy and kinship,
while the soldiers in their long term of service had come to know and
love their old camp like a home.
Before the 15th of July the whole of Syria had sworn allegiance. 81
The party also gained the support of Sohaemus,[404] with all the
resources of his kingdom and a considerable force, and of
Antiochus,[404] the richest of the subject princes, who owed his
importance to his ancestral treasures. Before long Agrippa, too,
received a secret summons from his friends at home, and leaving
Rome[405] without the knowledge of Vitellius, sailed as fast as he
could to join Vespasian. His sister Berenice[406] showed equal
enthusiasm for the cause. She was then in the flower of her youth and
beauty, and her munificent gifts to Vespasian quite won the old man's
heart. Indeed, every province on the seaboard as far as Asia and
Achaia, and inland to Pontus and Armenia swore allegiance to
Vespasian, but their governors were without troops, for as yet no
legions had been assigned to Cappadocia.[407]
A meeting was held at Berytus[408] to discuss the general situation.
To this came Mucianus with all his officers and the most distinguished
of his centurions and soldiers, besides the elite of the Jewish army
in full uniform. All these cavalry and infantry, and the pageant of
the subject princes, vying with each other in splendour, gave the
meeting an air of imperial grandeur.
The first step was to levy new troops and to recall the veterans 82
to the standards. Some of the strongest towns were told off to
manufacture arms. New gold and silver were coined at Antioch. All
these works were promptly carried out, each in the proper place, by
competent officials. Vespasian came and inspected them himself,
encouraging good work by his praises and rousing the inefficient
rather by example than compulsion, always more ready to see the merits
than the faults of his friends. Many were rewarded by receiving
commands in the auxiliary forces or posts as imperial agents.[409]
Still more were raised to senatorial rank. They were mostly men of
distinction who soon rose high, and with others success atoned for any
lack of merit. A donation for the troops had been mentioned by
Mucianus in his first speech, but in very guarded terms. Even
Vespasian offered for the civil war a lower figure than others gave in
time of peace, for he had set his face with admirable firmness against
largess to the soldiers, and his army was none the worse for it.
Envoys were dispatched to Parthia and Armenia to secure that the
legions, while engaged in the civil war, should not be exposed to
attack in the rear.[410] It was arranged that Titus should carry on
the war in Judaea, while Vespasian held the keys of Egypt.[411]
Against Vitellius it seemed sufficient to send a part of their forces
under the command of Mucianus. He would have Vespasian's name behind
him and the irresistible force of destiny. Letters were written to
all the armies and their generals with instructions that they should
try to win over those of the Guards who were hostile to Vitellius by
promising them renewal of service.
Meanwhile, Mucianus, who acted the part more of a partner than a 83
subordinate, moved forward without the encumbrance of baggage, neither
marching so slowly as to look like holding back, nor so rapidly as not
to allow time for rumours to spread. He realized that his force was
small, and that the less people saw the more they would believe of it.
However, he had a solid column following in support, composed of the
Sixth legion and some picked detachments numbering 13,000 men.[412] He
had ordered the fleet to move from Pontus to Byzantium, for he was
half-minded to leave Moesia and with his whole force to hold
Dyrrachium, at the same time using his fleet to dominate the Italian
sea. He would thus secure Greece and Asia in his rear, which would
otherwise be at the mercy of Vitellius, unless furnished with troops.
Vitellius also would himself be in doubt what points of the Italian
coast to defend, if Mucianus with his ships threatened both Brundisium
and Tarentum and the whole coastline of Calabria and Lucania.
Thus the provinces rang from end to end with the preparations for 84
ships, soldiers and arms. But the heaviest burden was the raising of
money. 'Funds,' said Mucianus, 'are the sinews of war,'[413] and in
his investigations he cared for neither justice nor equity, but solely
for the amount of the sum. Informers abounded, and pounced on every
rich man as their prey. This intolerable oppression, excused by the
necessities of war, was allowed to continue even in peace. It was not
so much that Vespasian at the beginning of his reign had made up his
mind to maintain unjust decisions, but fortune spoilt him; he had
learnt in a bad school and made a bold use of his lessons. Mucianus
also contributed from his private means, of which he was generous, as
he hoped to get a high rate of interest out of the country. Others
followed his example, but very few had his opportunity of recovering
their money.
In the meantime Vespasian's progress was accelerated by the 85
enthusiasm with which the Illyrian army[414] espoused his cause. The
Third set the example to the other legions of Moesia, the Eighth and
the Seventh Claudian, both strongly attached to Otho, although they
had not been present at the battle. On their arrival at Aquileia[415]
they had mobbed the couriers who brought the news of Otho's fall, and
torn to pieces the standards bearing Vitellius' name, finally looting
the camp-chest and dividing the money among themselves. These were
hostile acts. Alarmed at what they had done they began to reflect
that, while their conduct needed excuse before Vitellius, they could
make a merit of it with Vespasian. Accordingly, the three Moesian
legions addressed letters to the Pannonian army,[416] inviting their
co-operation, and meanwhile prepared to meet refusal with force.
Aponius Saturninus, the Governor of Moesia, took this opportunity to
attempt an abominable crime. He sent a centurion to murder Tettius
Julianus,[417] who commanded the Seventh legion, alleging the
interests of his party as a cloak for a personal quarrel. Julianus
heard of his danger and, taking some guides who knew the country,
escaped into the wilds of Moesia and got as far as Mount Haemus.[418]
After that he meddled no more in civil war. Starting to join
Vespasian, he prolonged his journey by various expedients, retarding
or hastening his pace according to the nature of the news he received.
In Pannonia the Thirteenth legion and the Seventh Galbian had not 86
forgotten their feelings after the battle of Bedriacum. They lost no
time in joining Vespasian's cause, being chiefly instigated by
Antonius Primus. This man was a criminal who had been convicted of
fraud[419] during Nero's reign. Among the many evils of the war was
his recovery of senatorial rank. Galba gave him command of the
Seventh legion, and he was believed to have written repeatedly to Otho
offering his services as general to the party. But, as Otho took no
notice of him, he was without employment in the war. When Vitellius'
cause began to decline, he joined Vespasian and proved an acquisition.
He was a man of great physical energy and a ready tongue; an artist in
calumny, invaluable in riots and sedition. Light-fingered and
free-handed, he was intolerable in peace, but by no means contemptible
in war. The union of the Moesian and Pannonian armies soon attracted
the troops in Dalmatia to the cause. Tampius Flavianus and Pompeius
Silvanus, the two ex-consuls who governed respectively Pannonia and
Dalmatia,[420] were wealthy old gentlemen who had no thought of
rising. But the imperial agent in Pannonia, Cornelius Fuscus, was a
vigorous young man of good family. In his early youth a desire to make
money[421] had led him to resign his senatorial rank. He had headed
the townsmen of his colony in declaring for Galba, and his services
had won him a position as imperial agent.[422] Then he joined
Vespasian's party, giving a keen stimulus to the war; for, being
attracted more by danger itself than by its prizes, he always disliked
what was certain and long established, preferring everything that was
new and dangerous and doubtful. So the Vespasian party used all their
efforts to fan every spark of discontent throughout the empire.
Letters were sent to the Fourteenth in Britain and to the First in
Spain,[423] since both these legions had stood for Otho against
Vitellius. In Gaul, too, letters were scattered broadcast. All in an
instant the war was in full flame. The armies of Illyricum openly
revolted, and all the others were ready to follow the first sign of
success.
FOOTNOTES:
[391] i.e. he was crucified.
[392] See note 30.
[393] Cp. i. 79.
[394] This hope was fulfilled (chap. 85).
[395] See i. 89.
[396] Under Nero, after brilliant service in Armenia and
Parthia. Nero was jealous and afraid of him. So is Vitellius
jealous of Vespasian.
[397] Against the Jews.
[398] From the Pontus. Cp. ii. 83.
[399] See note 216; and cp. chap. 81.
[400] For his victories in Britain under the auspices of
Claudius, who nominally shared with him the command of the
expedition, A.D. 43.
[401] Titus, who was now thirty, had served as _Tribunus
militum_ under his father in Germany and in Britain.
[402] More exactly of Galilee and Phoenicia.
[403] This is of course from the Roman point of view. Caesarea
was the seat of the procurator. That Jerusalem was the
national capital Tacitus recognizes in Book V.
[404] See note 216.
[405] He had started for Rome with Titus (chap. 1), and
continued his journey when Titus turned back.
[406] See note 205.
[407] Cappadocia was under a procurator of equestrian rank
until Vespasian some years later was forced to send out troops
and a military governor.
[408] Beyrut.
[409] _Procuratio_ covers the governorship of an imperial
province such as Judaea, the post of financial agent in an
imperial province where there was a military governor
(_legatus Caesaris_), and the position of collector of
imperial taxes in a senatorial province. _Praefectura_, may
mean either a command in the auxiliary infantry or the
governorship of certain imperial provinces. Here the former
seems the more probable sense.
[410] They would treat with Vologaeses, king of Parthia, and
Tiridates of Armenia, and keep an eye on them. This they did
with such success that Vologaeses offered Vespasian 40,000
cavalry.
[411] Alexandria and Pelusium.
[412] i.e. besides the Sixth Ferrata he had detachments from
the other two legions in Syria, and from the three in Judaea.
Cp. notes 163 and 164.
[413] Borrowing this platitude from Cicero, who got it from
the Greek.
[414] i.e. the legions in Moesia, Pannonia, and Dalmatia (cp.
note 3).
[415] Cp. note 286.
[416] XIII Gemina and VII Galbiana (see below).
[417] See i. 79.
[418] The Balkan range.
[419] He was concerned in the forgery of a will: see _Ann._
xiv. 40, where he is called 'a man of ready daring'.
[420] These were imperial provinces, each governed by a
_legatus Caesaris_ and a _procurator_, the former a military,
the latter a financial officer.
[421] Reading _quaestus cupidine_ (Grotius). The reading of
the Medicean manuscript is _quietis cupidine_. But Fuscus, as
the sequel shows, had little taste for a quiet life. It is
more likely that his motives were mercenary, since both law
and custom still imposed some restrictions upon a senator's
participation in 'business'. In the _Annals_ (xvi. 17) Tacitus
says that Annaeus Mela abstained from seeking public office,
because he 'hoped to find a shorter road to wealth' by
entering, as Fuscus did, the imperial civil service. The
statement that Fuscus loved danger better than money does not
imply any rooted antipathy to the latter.
[422] i.e. in Pannonia.
[423] Cp. chaps. 66 and 67.
VITELLIUS IN ROME
While[424] Vespasian and his generals were showing such activity 87
in the provinces, Vitellius grew more contemptible and indolent every
day. Halting at every town or country house that offered any
attractions, he made his way to Rome with a heavy marching column of
sixty thousand troops, demoralized by loose discipline, and an even
greater number of menials as well as those camp-followers who are more
troublesome than any slaves. Besides these he had the vast retinue of
his generals and friends, which not even the strictest discipline
could have kept under control. This mob was further encumbered by
senators and knights, who came from Rome to meet him, some from fear,
some from servility; and gradually all the others followed, so as not
to be left behind by themselves. There flocked in, too, a crowd of
low-bred buffoons, actors and chariot-drivers, who had gained
Vitellius' acquaintance by various dishonest services. He delighted in
such discreditable connexions. To furnish supplies for this host not
only were the colonies and country towns laid under contribution, but
the farmers as well. The crops were just ripe and the fields were
ravaged like an enemy's country.
Many murderous affrays took place among the soldiers, for after 88
the mutiny at Ticinum[425] there were ceaseless quarrels between the
legions and the auxiliaries. They only united to harry the villagers.
The worst bloodshed took place at the seventh milestone from Rome.
Here Vitellius had ready-cooked food served to each of the soldiers,
as is done with gladiators in training, and the common people flocked
out from Rome and wandered all over the camp. Some of these visitors
indulged in a cockney practical joke,[426] and stole some of the
soldiers' swords, quietly cutting their belts while their attention
was diverted. Then they kept asking them, 'Have you got your sword
on?' The troops were not used to being laughed at, and refused to
tolerate it. They charged the defenceless crowd. Amongst others the
father of one of the soldiers was killed while in his son's company.
When it was discovered who he was, and the news spread, they shed no
more innocent blood. Still there was some panic in the city as the
first soldiers arrived and began to roam the streets. They mostly made
for the Forum, anxious to see the spot where Galba had fallen.[427]
They themselves were a sufficiently alarming sight with their rough
skin coats and long pikes. Unused to towns, they failed to pick their
way in the crowd; or they would slip on the greasy streets, or collide
with some one and tumble down, whereupon they took to abuse and before
long to violence. Their officers, too, terrified the city by sweeping
along the streets with their bands of armed men.
After crossing the Mulvian bridge, Vitellius himself had been 89
riding on a conspicuous horse, wearing his sword and general's
uniform, with the senate and people trooping in front of him. However,
as this looked too much like an entry into a captured city, his
friends persuaded him to change into civilian dress and walk on foot.
At the head of his column were carried the eagles of four legions,
surrounded by the colours belonging to the detachments of four other
legions.[428] Next came the standards of twelve regiments of
auxiliary horse, then the files of infantry and the cavalry behind
them. Then came thirty-four cohorts of auxiliaries, arranged according
to their nationality or the nature of their weapons. In front of the
eagles came the camp prefects and tribunes, and the senior
centurions,[429] all dressed in white. The other centurions marched
each at the head of his company, glittering with their armour and
decorations. Gaily, too, shone the soldiers' medals[430] and their
chains of honour. It was a noble spectacle, an army worthy of a better
emperor. Thus Vitellius entered the Capitol, where he embraced his
mother and conferred on her the title of Augusta.
On the following day Vitellius delivered a grandiloquent eulogy on 90
his own merits. He might have been addressing the senate and people of
some other state, for he extolled his own industry and self-control,
although each member of his audience had seen his infamy for himself,
and the whole of Italy had witnessed during his march the shameful
spectacle of his sloth and luxury. However, the thoughtless crowd
could not discriminate between truth and falsehood. They had learnt
the usual flatteries by heart and chimed in with loud shouts of
applause. They insisted in the face of his protests that he should
take the title of Augustus. But neither his refusal nor their
insistence made much difference.[431]
In Rome nothing passes without comment, and it was regarded as a 91
fatal omen that Vitellius took office as high priest, and issued his
encyclical on public worship on the 18th of July, which, as the
anniversary of the disasters on the Cremera and the Allia,[432] had
long been considered an unlucky day. But his ignorance of all civil
and religious precedent was only equalled by the incapacity of his
freedmen and friends. He seemed to live in a society of drunkards.
However, at the consular elections he canvassed for his candidates
like a common citizen.[433] In everything he courted the favour of the
lowest classes, attending performances in the theatre and backing his
favourite at the races. This would undoubtedly have made him popular
had his motives been good, but the memory of his former life made his
conduct seem cheap and discreditable. He constantly attended the
senate, even when the debates were on trivial matters. It once
happened that Helvidius Priscus,[434] then praetor-elect, opposed
Vitellius' policy. At first the emperor showed annoyance, but was
content to appeal to the tribunes of the people to come to the rescue
of his slighted authority. Afterwards, when his friends, fearing that
his resentment might be deep-seated, tried to smooth matters, he
replied that there was nothing strange in two senators disagreeing on
a question of public policy: he himself had often opposed even such a
man as Thrasea. Most people laughed at the impudence of this
comparison; others were gratified that he had selected Thrasea, and
not some court favourite, as an example of real distinction.[435]
Vitellius had given the command of the Guards to Publilius 92
Sabinus, who had commanded an auxiliary cohort,[436] and Julius
Priscus, hitherto only a centurion. Priscus owed his rise to Valens'
support, Sabinus to that of Caecina. The rivalry between Valens and
Caecina left Vitellius no authority at all. They managed the
government between them. They had long felt the strain of mutual
dislike. During the war they had concealed it. Lately it had been
fanned by dishonest friends and by life in the city, which so easily
breeds quarrels. They were constant rivals, comparing their respective
popularity, the number of their retinue, the size of the crowds that
came to wait upon them. Meanwhile Vitellius let his favour alternate
between them, for personal influence is not to be trusted beyond a
certain limit. Meanwhile, they both feared and despised the emperor
himself, who thus veered between sudden brusqueness and unseasonable
flattery. However, they were not in the least deterred from seizing on
the houses, gardens, and funds in the emperor's patronage, while the
crowd of miserable and needy nobles, whom Galba had recalled from
exile with their children, derived no assistance from the emperor's
liberality. He earned the approval both of the upper classes and of
the people by granting to the restored full rights over their
freedmen.[437] But the freed slaves with characteristic meanness did
all they could to invalidate the edict. They would hide their money
with some obscure friend or in a rich patron's safe. Some, indeed, had
passed into the imperial household and become more influential than
their masters.
As for the soldiers, the Guards' barracks were crowded, and the 93
overflow spread through the city, finding shelter in colonnades and
temples. They ceased to recognize any head-quarters, to go on guard,
or to keep themselves in training, but fell victims to the attractions
of city life and its unmentionable vices, until they deteriorated both
physically and morally through idleness and debauchery. A number of
them even imperilled their lives by settling in the pestilent Vatican
quarter, thus increasing the rate of mortality. They were close to the
Tiber, and the Germans and Gauls, who were peculiarly liable to
disease and could ill stand the heat, ruined their constitutions by
their immoderate use of the river.[438] Moreover, the generals, either
for bribes or to earn popularity, tampered with the rules of the
service, enrolling sixteen regiments of Guards[439] and four for the
city garrison, each composed of a thousand men. In enlisting these
troops Valens put himself forward as superior to Caecina, whose life
he claimed to have saved. It is true, indeed, that his arrival had
consolidated the party, and by his successful engagement he had
silenced the current criticism of their slow marching. Besides which
the whole of the army of Lower Germany was attached to Valens, and
this is said to be the reason why Caecina's loyalty first wavered.
Whatever indulgence Vitellius showed to his generals, he allowed 94
still more licence to the troops. Each man chose his service. However
unfit, he might enlist in the Guards, if he preferred it. On the
other hand, good soldiers were allowed, if they wished, to remain in
the legions or the auxiliary cavalry. Many wished to do this who
suffered from ill health and complained of the climate. However, the
best soldiers were thus withdrawn from the legions and from the
cavalry; and the Guards were robbed of their prestige when twenty
thousand men were thus not so much selected for service with them as
drafted at random from the whole army.
While Vitellius was addressing the troops, they demanded the execution
of three Gallic chieftains, Asiaticus, Flavus, and Rufinus, on the
ground that they had fought for Vindex.[440] Vitellius never checked
these outcries. For, apart from the innate cowardice of his nature, he
knew that his donation to the soldiers was nearly due, and that he had
no money for it; so he freely granted all their other demands. The
imperial freedmen were forced to contribute a sort of tax,
proportionate to the number of their slaves. Meanwhile, his one
serious occupation was extravagance. He built stables for
chariot-drivers, filled the arena with gorgeous shows of gladiators
and wild beasts, and fooled away his money as though he had more than
he wanted.
Moreover, Valens and Caecina celebrated Vitellius' birthday[441] 95
by holding gladiatorial shows in every quarter of Rome on a scale of
magnificence hitherto unknown. Vitellius then gratified the rabble and
scandalized all decent people by building altars in the Martian Plain,
and holding a funeral service in honour of Nero. Victims were killed
and burnt in public: the torch was applied by the Augustales, members
of the college which Tiberius Caesar had founded in honour of the
Julian family, just as Romulus similarly commemorated King Tatius.
It was not yet four months since Vitellius' victory, and yet his
freedman Asiaticus was as bad as a Polyclitus or a Patrobius,[442] or
any of the favourites whose names were hated in earlier days. At this
court no one strove to rise by honesty or capacity. There was only one
road to power. By lavish banquets, costly profusion, and feats of
gastronomy, you had to try and satisfy Vitellius' insatiable gluttony.
He himself, without thought for the morrow, was well content to enjoy
the present. It is believed that he squandered nine hundred million
sesterces[443] in these brief months. Truly it shows Rome's greatness
and misfortune, that she endured Otho and Vitellius both in the same
year, and suffered humiliation of every kind at the hands of men like
Vinius and Fabius,[444] Icelus and Asiaticus, until at last they gave
way to Mucianus and Marcellus--a change of men but not of manners.
The first news of rebellion which reached Vitellius came from 96
Aponius Saturninus,[445] who, before himself going over to Vespasian's
side, wrote to announce the desertion of the Third legion. But a
sudden crisis makes a man nervous: Aponius did not tell the whole
story. So the emperor's flattering friends began to explain it all
away: what was the defection of a single legion, while the loyalty of
the other armies remained unshaken? Vitellius himself used the same
language to the soldiers. He accused the men, who had been recently
discharged from the Guards,[446] of spreading false rumours, and kept
assuring them there was no fear of civil war. All mention of Vespasian
was suppressed, and soldiers were sent round the city to frighten
people into silence, which, of course, did more than anything else to
make them talk.
Vitellius, nevertheless, sent for reinforcements from Germany, 97
Britain, and the Spanish provinces, though with a lack of urgency
which was intended to conceal his straits. The provinces and their
governors showed the same want of enthusiasm. Hordeonius Flaccus,[447]
who had suspicions of the Batavi, was distracted with a war of his
own,[448] while Vettius Bolanus[449] never had Britain under complete
control: nor was the loyally of either beyond doubt. The Spanish
provinces, where there was at the time no consular governor,[450] were
equally slow. The three officers in command of the legions held an
equal authority, and if Vitellius' cause had prospered, would have
each outbid the other for his favour: but they all shared the resolve
to leave his misfortunes alone. In Africa the legion and auxiliaries
enlisted by Clodius Macer, and subsequently disbanded by Galba,[451]
took service again at Vitellius' orders, and at the same time all the
young men of the province eagerly enlisted. Vitellius had been an
honest and popular pro-consul in Africa, while Vespasian had been
distrusted and disliked. The provincials took this as an earnest of
their reigns; but experience proved them wrong.
The military legate Valerius Festus[452] at first loyally seconded 98
the enthusiasm of the province. After a while he began to waver. In
his official letters and edicts he still acknowledged Vitellius, while
in secret communication with Vespasian and ready to support whichever
party proved successful. In Raetia and the Gallic provinces some
centurions and men carrying letters and edicts from Vespasian were
taken prisoners and sent to Vitellius, who had them executed. But most
of these envoys escaped capture either by their own ingenuity or the
loyal help of friends. Thus, while Vitellius' plans were known,
Vespasian's were for the most part still a secret. This was partly due
to Vitellius' negligence, but also to the fact that the garrisons on
the Pannonian Alps stopped all messengers. By sea, too, the
Etesian[453] winds from the north-west favoured ships sailing
eastward, but hindered the voyage from the East.
Terrified at last by the imminence of invasion and the alarming 99
news that reached him from all quarters, Vitellius instructed Caecina
and Valens to prepare for war. Caecina was sent on ahead, Valens, who
was just recovering from a serious illness, being delayed by his weak
state of health. Great, indeed, was the change in the appearance of
the German army as it marched out of Rome. There was neither energy in
their muscles nor fire in their hearts. Slowly the column straggled
on, their horses spiritless, their arms neglected. The men grumbled at
the sun, the dust, the weather, and were as ready to quarrel as they
were unwilling to work. To these disadvantages were added Caecina's
inveterate self-seeking and his newly-acquired indolence. An overdose
of success had made him slack and self-indulgent, or, if he was
plotting treachery, this may have been one of his devices for
demoralizing the army. It has often been believed that it was Flavius
Sabinus[454] who, using Rubrius Gallus as his agent, tampered with
Caecina's loyalty by promising that, if he came over, Vespasian would
ratify any conditions. It may have occurred also to Caecina to
remember his quarrels and rivalry with Valens, and to consider that,
as he did not stand first with Vitellius, he had better acquire credit
and influence with the new emperor.
After taking an affectionate and respectful farewell of Vitellius, 100
Caecina dispatched a body of cavalry to occupy Cremona. He soon
followed with the detachments of the First, Fourth, Fifteenth, and
Sixteenth legions in the van. The centre was composed of the Fifth and
Twenty-second, and in the rear of the column came the Twenty-first
Rapax and the First Italian legion, with detachments from the three
legions of Britain and a select force of auxiliaries. When Caecina had
started, Valens wrote instructions to the legions belonging to his old
command[455] to await him on the march, saying that he and Caecina had
arranged this. Caecina, however, took advantage of being on the spot,
and pretended that this plan had been altered so as to enable them to
meet the first outbreak of the war with their full strength. So some
legions were hurried forward to Cremona[456] and part of the force was
directed upon Hostilia.[457] Caecina himself turned aside to Ravenna
on the pretext of giving instructions to the fleet. Thence he
proceeded to Patavium[458] to secure secrecy for his treacherous
designs. For Lucilius Bassus, whom Vitellius, from a prefect of
auxiliary cavalry had raised to the supreme command of the two fleets
at Ravenna and Misenum, felt aggrieved at not being immediately given
the praefecture of the Guards, and sought in dastardly treachery the
remedy for his unjustifiable annoyance. It can never be known whether
he influenced Caecina or whether one was as dishonest as the other.
There is seldom much to choose between rascals. The historians[459] 101
who compiled the records of this war in the days of the Flavian
dynasty were led by flattery into adducing as the causes of the
rebellion patriotism and the interests of peace. We cannot think them
right. Apart from the innate disloyalty of the rebels and the loss
of character after Galba's betrayal, they seem to have been led by
jealousy and rivalry into sacrificing Vitellius himself for fear that
they might lose the first place in his favour. Thus when Caecina
joined his army,[460] he used every device to undermine the staunch
fidelity of the centurions and soldiers to Vitellius. Bassus found
the same task less difficult, for the fleet remembered that they had
lately been in Otho's service, and were therefore already on the
brink of rebellion.
FOOTNOTES:
[424] The narrative is here resumed from chap. 72.
[425] See chap. 68.
[426] The word 'cockney' may perhaps be admitted here to
express that which is characteristic of the metropolitan
masses. Similarly Petronius speaks of a man as 'a fountain of
cockney humour' (_urbanitatis vernaculae fontem_).
[427] They were cast for the part of Galba's avengers.
[428] Only detachments of these latter four were present, so
they had not got their eagles.
[429] Under the empire there were six tribunes to each legion,
and they took command on the march and on the field, acting
under the orders of the _legatus legionis_. The ten centurions
of the _pilani_ or front rank each commanded his cohort.
[430] See note 107.
[431] The end was so near.
[432] At Cremera, near Veii, the Fabii died like heroes, 477 B.C.,
and on the Allia the Gauls won their victory over Rome,
390 B.C. The day was called Alliensis, and no work was to be
done on it (Livy, vi. 1).
[433] See chap. 71. At this time the emperor had in theory
only the right of nominating candidates for the consulships,
but it was obviously unnecessary for him to do more. The
alliteration in this sentence is Tacitus'.
[434] See iv. 4 f.
[435] Thrasea, Helvidius' father-in-law, was an honoured
member of the Stoic opposition who had been executed by Nero
A.D. 66. Here Vitellius is posing as an ordinary senator. If
he had opposed so distinguished a man as Thrasea, why should
not Helvidius oppose him? Thrasea's end gives the remark a
slightly sinister tone.
[436] See note 346.
[437] A patron apparently could claim support from his
freedmen if he was in want, as these restored exiles certainly
were, since their property had been confiscated and was
irrecoverable. In exile they had of course lost their rights.
[438] This probably includes bathing as well as drinking.
[439] Since Tiberius there had been only nine, and Vespasian
restored that number.
[440] See i. 6.
[441] Probably September 24. He was 54.
[442] Cp. i. 37, 49.
[443] About nine million pounds. Not to be taken too literally.
[444] Valens.
[445] Governor of Moesia (see chap. 85).
[446] See chap. 67.
[447] He had been left to guard the Rhine.
[448] See chap. 57. The revolt of Civilis was soon to break out.
[449] See chap. 65.
[450] Cluvius Rufus was governing the Tarragona division from
Rome (chap. 65). Lusitania was under a praetorian legate.
Baetica was a senatorial province with no troops.
[451] See i. 7 and 11.
[452] He had succeeded Clodius Macer in command of the Third
Augusta, and in virtue of that command governed Numidia (see
i. 7).
[453] These 'annual' winds blew steadily and gently from July
20 for a month.
[454] Vespasian's brother.
[455] In Lower Germany.
[456] Only two legions went to Cremona (see iii. 14).
[457] Ostiglia.
[458] Padua.
[459] e.g. Cluvius Rufus (cp. i. 8), the elder Pliny (cp. iii. 28),
and Vipstanus Messala (cp. iii, 9, 25, 28).
[460] i.e. at Hostilia, coming back from Padua.
Oxford: Horace Hart, Printer to the University
* * * * *
TACITUS
THE HISTORIES
TRANSLATED WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY
W. HAMILTON FYFE
FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOLUME II
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1912
HENRY FROWDE
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK
TORONTO AND MELBOURNE
SUMMARY OF CHIEF EVENTS
I. THE FIGHT FOR THE THRONE
A.D. 69.
_September_
Antonius surprises a Vitellian detachment at Forum Alieni.
At Padua the Pannonian legions arrive.
He fortifies Verona. The Moesian legions arrive.
Caecina holds Cremona with Legs. I Italica and XXI Rapax and
cavalry.
He encamps with the rest of his force near Hostilia on the
Tartaro.
Valens dawdles northward with three praetorian cohorts.
_October_
The fleet at Ravenna declares for Vespasian.
Caecina attempts treachery and is imprisoned by his army, which
starts on a forced march to Cremona.
Antonius starts from Verona to intercept them.
27. Second Battle of Bedriacum. Legs. I Italica and XXI Rapax sally
from Cremona and are driven back by Antonius.
The six legions from Hostilia reach Cremona.
The united Vitellian army makes a night sally from Cremona and
is defeated.
28. Sack of Cremona.
Surrender of Vitellian army.
_November_
Valens, having reached Ariminum, flies to Monaco, and is captured
in the Stoechades Islands.
Spain, Gaul, and Britain declare for Vespasian.
Antonius advances via Ariminum to Fanum Fortunae.
Vitellius holds the Apennines at Mevania with fourteen praetorian
cohorts, a new legion of marines, and cavalry.
Mutiny of the fleet at Misenum. Tarracina seized.
Vitellius returns to Rome with seven cohorts and part of the
cavalry.
The remaining cohorts are moved back from Mevania to Narnia.
L. Vitellius with six cohorts and cavalry besieges Tarracina.
_December_
Antonius crosses the Apennines and halts at Carsulae.
Varus wins a cavalry skirmish at Interamna.
Valens beheaded at Urbino: his head flung into camp at Narnia.
Surrender of Vitellians at Narnia.
Antonius marches as far as Ocriculum, sending Cerialis forward
to Rome with 1,000 cavalry.
17. Vitellius, wishing to abdicate, is prevented by troops and mob.
18. They besiege Flavius Sabinus in the Capitol.
19. Capitol stormed. Temple of Jupiter burnt.
Sabinus caught and killed.
L. Vitellius takes Tarracina.
20. Cerialis defeated outside Rome.
20. Antonius makes a forced march along Via Flaminia.
21. Capture of Rome. Murder of Vitellius. Domitian installed as
'Caesar'.
A.D. 70.
_January_
L. Vitellius surrenders in Campania. Mucianus arrives in Rome
as regent.
II. THE REBELLION ON THE RHINE
A.D. 69.
_Autumn_
Revolt of Civilis and Batavians, at first ostensibly in support
of Vespasian.
Revolt supported by Canninefates, Frisii, Marsaci, Cugerni.
Civilis routs Gallic auxiliaries and captures the Rhine flotilla
in 'The Island'.
Munius Lupercus advances from Vetera with remnant of Legs. V
Alaudae and XV Primigenia, supported by Ubian, Treviran, and
Batavian auxiliaries.
Civilis drives him back into Vetera.
The eight Batavian cohorts at Mainz march off to join Civilis,
and defeat Leg. I Germanica at Bonn.
Bructeri and Tencteri join revolt.
Civilis blockades Vetera.
Vocula advances to relieve Vetera with detachments of Legs. IV
Macedonica, XXII Primigenia, and I Germanica.
Vocula encamps at Gelduba. Flaccus makes head-quarters at
Novaesium.
Civilis' assault on Vetera repulsed.
Vocula with difficulty repulses attack on Gelduba.
Relief of Vetera. Vocula then retires to Novaesium.
Civilis takes Gelduba and wins skirmish outside Novaesium.
Mutiny in Novaesium. Flaccus murdered.
Civilis renews blockade of Vetera.
Chatti, Mattiaci, and Usipi threaten Mainz.
Vocula relieves Mainz and winters there.
A.D. 70.
_January_ (?)
Revolt of Gallic tribes, Ubii, Tungri, Treviri, Lingones, headed
by Classicus, Tutor, and Sabinus.
Vocula advances to save Vetera, but is driven back to Novaesium
by mutiny of Gallic auxiliaries, and there murdered.
His army swears allegiance to 'Empire of Gaul'.
Tutor takes Cologne and Mainz.
Vetera surrenders to Classicus. Garrison massacred.
The Baetasii, Nervii, and Tungri join revolt.
_Spring_
Mucianus and Domitian start from Rome with reinforcements.
Cerialis, with Legs. XXI Rapax and II Adjutrix, is to operate on
Lower Rhine.
Annius Gallus, with Legs. VII Claudia, VIII Augusta, XI Claudia,
is to operate on Upper Rhine.
The Sequani, still loyal, defeat Sabinus and Lingones.
The Remi, also loyal, summon a Gallic Council, which votes for
peace, but the Treviri and Lingones hold out under Classicus,
Tutor, and Valentinus.
The Roman mutineers return to their allegiance.
_Summer_
Sextilius Felix routs Tutor near Bingen. Cerialis defeats
Valentinus and occupies Trier.
The Germans surprise the Romans in Trier, but Cerialis drives
them out and storms their camp.
Massacre of Germans at Cologne. Cohort of Chauci and Frisii
entrapped and burnt.
Leg. XIV Gemina arrives from Britain and receives submission of
Nervii and Tungri.
Legs. I Adjutrix and VI Victrix arrive from Spain.
_Autumn_
Civilis defeats Cerialis near Vetera, but is routed on the next
day and retires into The Island.
Hard fighting on the Waal.
Germans capture Roman flotilla.
Civilis retires northwards over the Rhine.
Cerialis occupies The Island.
Civilis makes overtures of peace.
NOTE
The text followed is that of C.D. Fisher _(Oxford Classical Texts)_.
Departures from it are mentioned in the notes.
BOOK III
ANTONIUS' ADVANCE
On the Flavian side the generals concerted their plans for the war 1
with greater loyalty and greater success. They had met at Poetovio[1]
at the head-quarters of the Third legion, where they debated whether
they should block the passage of the Pannonian Alps and wait until
their whole strength came up to reinforce them, or whether they should
take a bolder line, assume the offensive, and strike for Italy. Those
who were in favour of waiting for reinforcements and prolonging the
war dwelt on the strength and reputation of the German legions, and
pointed out that the flower of the British army had lately arrived in
Rome with Vitellius;[2] their own forces were numerically inferior and
had recently suffered defeat; moreover, conquered troops, however bold
their language, never show the same courage. On the other hand, if
they occupied the Alps, Mucianus would soon arrive with the forces
from the East. Besides, Vespasian still[3] commanded the sea, and
could count on the support of the fleets[4] and of the provinces,
where he could still raise material for a sort of second war. A
salutary delay would bring them fresh forces without in any way
prejudicing their present position.
In answer to these arguments Antonius Primus,[5] who had done more 2
than any one else to stir up the war, stoutly maintained that prompt
action would save them and ruin Vitellius. 'Their victory,' he said,
'has not served to inspirit but to enervate them. The men are not held
in readiness in camp, but are loitering in towns all over Italy. No
one but their hosts has any call to fear them. The more unruly and
ferocious they showed themselves before, the greater the greed with
which they now indulge in unwonted draughts of pleasure. The circus,
the theatre, and the charms of the capital have ruined their hardness
and their health. But if we give them time to train for war they will
regain their energy. It is not far to Germany, whence they draw their
main strength. Britain is only separated by a narrow channel. Close at
hand they have Gaul and Spain, from the provinces of which they can
get men, horses, and subsidies. Then again, they can rely on Italy
itself and all the resources of the capital, while, if they want to
take the offensive, they have two fleets[6] and full command of the
Illyrian Sea.[7] Besides, what good to us are the ramparts of the
mountains? Why should we drag on the war into another summer? Where
can we get funds and supplies in the meanwhile? No, let us seize our
opportunity. The Pannonian legions are burning to rise in revenge.
They were not defeated but deceived.[8] The Moesian army has not yet
lost a man. If you count not legions but men, our forces are superior
both in numbers and in character. The very shame of our defeat[9]
makes for good discipline. And even then our cavalry was not beaten.
For though we lost the day, they shattered the enemy's line.[10] And
what was the force that broke through the Vitellians? Two regiments of
cavalry from Pannonia and Moesia. What have we now? Sixteen regiments.
Will not their combined forces, as they roar and thunder down upon the
enemy, burying them in clouds of dust, overwhelm these horses and
horsemen that have forgotten how to fight? I have given you my plan,
and, unless I am stopped, I will put it in operation. Some of you have
not yet burnt your boats.[11] Well, you can keep back the legions.
Give me the auxiliaries in light marching order. They will be enough
for me. You will soon hear that the door of Italy is open and the
power of Vitellius shaken. You will be glad enough to follow in the
footsteps of my victory.'
All this and much else of the same tenor Antonius poured out with 3
flashing eyes, raising his voice so as to reach the centurions and
some of the soldiers, who had gathered round to share in their
deliberations.[12] His truculent tone carried away even the more
cautious and far-seeing, while the rest of the crowd were filled with
contempt for the cowardice of the other generals, and cheered their
one and only leader to the echo. He had already established his
reputation at the original meeting, when Vespasian's letter[13] was
read. Most of the generals had then taken an ambiguous line, intending
to interpret their language in the light of subsequent events. But
Antonius seemed to have taken the field without any disguise, and this
carried more weight with the men, who saw that he must share their
disgrace or their glory.
Next to Antonius in influence stood Cornelius Fuscus, the imperial 4
agent.[14] He, too, always attacked Vitellius in no mild terms, and
had left himself no hope in case of failure. Tampius Flavianus[15] was
a man whose disposition and advanced years inclined him to dilatory
measures, and he soon began to earn the dislike and suspicion of the
soldiers, who felt he had not forgotten his kinship with Vitellius.
Besides this, when the legions first rose, he had fled to Italy and
subsequently returned of his own free will, which looked like
meditating treachery.[16] Having once given up his province and
returned to Italy, he was out of the reach of danger, but the passion
for revolution had induced him to resume his title and meddle in the
civil war. It was Cornelius Fuscus who had persuaded him to this--not
that he needed his assistance, but because he felt that, especially at
the outset of the rising, the prestige of an ex-consul would be a
valuable asset to the party.
In order to make their march across into Italy safe and effective, 5
letters were sent to Aponius Saturninus[17] to bring the Moesian army
up as quickly as possible. To prevent the exposure of the defenceless
provinces to the attacks of foreign tribes, the chiefs of the
Sarmatian Iazyges,[18] who formed the government of the tribe, were
enlisted in the service. They also offered their tribal force,
consisting entirely of cavalry, but were excused from this
contribution for fear that the civil war might give opportunity for a
foreign invasion, or that an offer of higher pay from the enemy might
tempt them to sacrifice their duty and their honour.[19] Sido and
Italicus, two princes of the Suebi,[20] were allowed to join
Vespasian's side. They had long acknowledged Roman sovereignty, and
companionship in arms[21] was likely to strengthen the loyalty of the
tribe. Some auxiliaries were stationed on the flank towards Raetia,
where hostilities were expected, since the imperial agent Porcius
Septiminus,[22] remained incorruptibly loyal to Vitellius. Sextilius
Felix was therefore dispatched with Aurius' Horse[23] and eight
cohorts of auxiliary infantry, together with the native levies of
Noricum, to hold the line of the river Aenus,[24] which forms the
frontier of Raetia and Noricum. Neither side provoked a battle: the
fortune of the rival parties was decided elsewhere.
Meanwhile, at the head of a picked band of auxiliaries and part of 6
the cavalry, Antonius hurried off to invade Italy. He took with him an
energetic soldier named Arrius Varus, who had made his reputation
while serving under Corbulo in his Armenian victories. He was supposed
to have sought a private interview with Nero, at which he maligned
Corbulo's character. His infamous treachery brought him the emperor's
favour and a post as senior centurion. This ill-gotten prize delighted
him now, but ultimately proved his ruin.[25]
After occupying Aquileia,[26] Antonius and Varus found a ready welcome
at Opitergium and Altinum[27] and all the other towns in the
neighbourhood. At Altinum a garrison was left behind to guard their
communications against the fleet at Ravenna, for the news of its
desertion had not as yet arrived. Pressing forward, they won Patavium
and Ateste[28] for the party. At the latter place they learnt that
three cohorts of Vitellius' auxiliary infantry and a regiment of
cavalry, known as Sebosus' Horse,[29] were established at Forum
Alieni,[30] where they had constructed a bridge.[31] The report added
that they were off their guard, so this seemed a good opportunity to
attack them. They accordingly rushed the position at dawn, and cut
down many of the men without their weapons. Orders had been given
that, after a few had been killed, the rest should be terrorized into
desertion. Some surrendered at once, but the majority succeeded in
destroying the bridge, and thus checked the enemy's pursuit. The first
bout had gone in the Flavians' favour.
When the news spread to Poetovio, the Seventh Galbian and the 7
Thirteenth Gemina hurried in high spirits to Patavium under the
command of Vedius Aquila. At Patavium they were given a few days'
rest, during which Minicius Justus, the camp-prefect of the Seventh
legion, who endeavoured to enforce a standard of discipline too severe
for civil war, had to be rescued from the fury of his troops and sent
to Vespasian. Antonius conceived that his party would gain in
prestige, if they showed approval of Galba's government, and stood for
the revival of his cause. So he gave orders that all the statues of
Galba, which had been thrown down during the civil war, should be
replaced for worship throughout the country towns. This was a thing
that had long been desired, and in their ambitious imaginations it
assumed an undue importance.
The question then arose where they should choose their seat of war. 8
The best place seemed to be Verona. The open country round it was
suited for the manoeuvres of the cavalry, in which their strength
lay: and they would gain both prestige and profit by wresting from
Vitellius a strongly garrisoned town. On the road they occupied
Vicetia.[32] In itself this was a very small matter, since there was
only a moderate force in the town, but it gained considerable
importance from the reflection that it was Caecina's birthplace: the
enemy's general had thus lost his native town. But Verona was well
worth while. The inhabitants could aid the party with encouragement
and funds: the army was thrust midway between Raetia and the Julian
Alps,[33] and had thus blocked all passages by that route for the
German armies.
This move had been made either without the knowledge or against the
orders of Vespasian. His instructions were to suspend operations at
Aquileia and wait for the arrival of Mucianus. He had further added
this consideration, that so long as he held Egypt and the key to the
corn-supply,[34] as well as the revenue of the richest provinces,[35]
he could reduce Vitellius' army to submission from sheer lack of money
and provisions. Mucianus had sent letter after letter with the same
advice, pointing to the prospect of a victory without bloodshed or
bereavement, and using other similar pretexts to conceal his real
motive. This was ambition. He wanted to keep all the glory of the war
to himself. However, the distance was so great that events outran his
instructions.
Antonius accordingly made a sudden sally against the enemy's 9
outposts, and after a slight skirmish, in which they tested each
other's temper, both sides withdrew without advantage. Soon after,
Caecina entrenched a strong position between a Veronese village called
Hostilia[36] and the marshes of the river Tartaro. Here he was safe,
with the river in his rear and the marsh to guard his flanks. Had he
added loyalty to his other advantages, he might have employed the full
strength of the Vitellian forces to crush the enemy's two legions,
before they were reinforced by the Moesian army, or, at least, have
forced them to retire in ignominious flight and abandon Italy. But
Caecina used various pretexts for delay, and at the outset of the war
treacherously yielded all his advantages to the enemy. While it was
open to him to rout them by force of arms, he preferred to pester them
with letters and to wait until his intermediaries had settled the
terms of his treason. In the meantime, Aponius Saturninus arrived with
the Seventh Claudian legion,[37] commanded by the tribune[38]
Vipstanus Messala, a distinguished member of a famous family, and the
only man who brought any honesty to this war.[39] To these forces,
still only three legions and no match for the Vitellians, Caecina
addressed his letters. He criticized their rash attempt to sustain a
lost cause, and at the same time praised the courage of the German
army in the highest terms. His allusions to Vitellius were few and
casual, and he refrained from insulting Vespasian. In fact he used no
language calculated either to seduce or to terrorize the enemy. The
Flavian generals made no attempt to explain away their former defeat.
They proudly championed Vespasian, showing their loyalty to the cause,
their confidence in the army, and their hostile prejudice[40] against
Vitellius. To the tribunes and centurions they held out the hope of
retaining all the favours they had won from Vitellius, and they urged
Caecina himself in plain terms to desert. These letters were both
read before a meeting of the Flavian army, and served to increase
their confidence, for while Caecina wrote mildly and seemed afraid of
offending Vespasian, their own generals had answered contemptuously
and scoffed at Vitellius.
When the two other legions arrived, the Third[41] commanded by 10
Dillius Aponianus, and the Eighth by Numisius Lupus, Antonius decided
to entrench Verona and make a demonstration in force. It so happened
that the Galbian legion, who had been told off to work in the trenches
facing the enemy, catching sight of some of their allies' cavalry in
the distance, took them for the enemy, and fell into a groundless
panic. Suspecting treachery, they seized their arms and visited their
fury on Tampius Flavianus.[42] They could prove no charge against him,
but he had long been unpopular, and a blind impulse made them clamour
for his head. He was Vitellius' kinsman, they howled; he had betrayed
Otho; he had embezzled their donative. They would listen to no
defence, although he implored them with outstretched hands, grovelling
for the most part flat upon the ground, his clothes all torn, his face
and chest shaken with sobs. This only served to inflame the soldiers'
anger. His very excess of terror seemed to prove his guilt.
Aponius[43] tried to address them, but his voice was drowned in their
shouts. The others, too, were contemptuously howled down. They would
give no one a hearing except Antonius, who had the power of authority
as well as the arts of eloquence necessary to quiet a mob. When the
riot grew worse, and they began to pass from insulting speeches to
murderous violence, he gave orders that Flavianus should be put in
chains. Feeling that this was a farce,[44] the soldiers broke through
the guards round the general's quarters, prepared to resort to
extremities. Whereupon Antonius, drawing his sword, bared his breast
and vowed that he would die either by their hands or his own. Whenever
he saw a soldier whom he knew or could recognize by his decorations,
he called on him by name to come to the rescue. At last he turned
towards the standards and the gods of war,[45] and prayed incessantly
that they would rather inspire the enemy's army with this mad spirit
of mutiny. At last the riot died away and at nightfall they all
dispersed to their tents. Flavianus left that same night, and on his
way met letters from Vespasian, which delivered him from danger.
The infection seemed to spread among the legions. They next 11
attacked Aponius Saturninus, who was in command of the Moesian army.
This fresh disturbance was caused by the circulation of a letter,
which Saturninus was supposed to have written to Vitellius, and it was
the more alarming since it broke out not when they were tired by their
labours but in the middle of the day. Once the soldiers had vied with
each other in courage and discipline: now they were rivals in ribaldry
and riot. They were determined that the fury with which they denounced
Aponius should not fall short of their outcry against Flavianus. The
Moesian legions remembered that they had helped the Pannonian army to
take their revenge; while the Pannonian troops, feeling that their
comrades' mutiny acquitted them of blame, were glad enough to repeat
the crime. They invaded the country house in which Saturninus was
living. He escaped, however, aided not so much by the efforts of
Antonius, Aponianus, and Messala, who did everything in their power to
rescue him, but rather by the security of his hiding-place, for he
concealed himself in the furnace of some disused baths. Eventually he
gave up his lictors and retired to Patavium. The departure of both the
consular governors left Antonius in supreme command of the two armies.
His colleagues[46] deferred to him and the men gave him enthusiastic
support. It was even supposed by some that he had cunningly promoted
both outbreaks, to secure for himself the full profit of the war.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Petau.
[2] i.e. the detachments 8,000 strong from the army in
Britain (see ii. 57).
[3] i.e. still, after parting with the force which he had
sent forward under Mucianus (see ii. 82, 83).
[4] Of Pontus, Syria, and Egypt.
[5] See ii. 86.
[6] Of Misenum and Ravenna.
[7] Adriatic.
[8] See ii. 42.
[9] At Bedriacum.
[10] See ii. 41.
[11] i.e. not yet declared finally against Vitellius.
[12] These were usually confined to the legates,
camp-prefects, tribunes, and senior centurions.
[13] See ii. 82.
[14] In Pannonia (see ii. 86).
[15] Military governor of Pannonia (see ii. 86).
[16] i.e. they suspected that he wanted to alienate the
troops from Vespasian.
[17] Military governor of Moesia (see i. 79, &c.).
[18] They occupied part of Hungary between the Danube and the
Theiss.
[19] They took the chiefs as a pledge of peace and kept them
safely apart from their tribal force.
[20] Tiberius' son, Drusus, had in A.D. 19 settled the Suebi
north of the Danube between the rivers March and Waag.
[21] Reading _commilitio_ (Meiser). The word _commissior_ in
the Medicean manuscript gives no sense.
[22] This being a small province the procurator was sole
governor.
[23] A squadron of Spanish horse, called after some governor
of the province where it was raised.
[24] The Inn.
[25] Probably under Domitian, who married Corbulo's daughter.
[26] See ii. 46.
[27] Oderzo and Altino.
[28] Este.
[29] A Gallic troop called after some unknown governor.
[30] (?) Legnago.
[31] Over the Adige.
[32] Vicenza.
[33] The Brenner.
[34] i.e. Alexandria.
[35] i.e. Egypt, Syria, Asia.
[36] Ostiglia.
[37] From Moesia (cp. chap. 5).
[38] The legate Tettius Julianus had fled (see ii. 85).
[39] He also wrote a history of the period, which Tacitus
found useful (see ii. 101, note 459). He is one of the
characters in the _Dialogue on Oratory_, and many passages
show that Tacitus admired him greatly, both for his character
and his eloquence.
[40] The text here is doubtful. There seems to be no exact
parallel to the absolute use of _praesumpsere_. In the
Medicean MS. the whole passage, from _revirescere_ at the end
of chap. 7 down to _inimici_ here, has been transposed to the
beginning of chap. 5, where it stands between the second and
third syllables of the word _Saturnino_. Thus in M.
_praesumpsere_ stands immediately after _partes_. It is
possible that the word _partes_ may belong to this passage as
well as to the end of chap. 7. _Praesumpsere partes_ would
mean 'they took their own cause for granted' (cp. Quintilian
xi. 1. 27). The addition of _ut inimici_ would add the sense
of 'hostile prejudice'.
[41] Gallica.
[42] See chap. 4, note 15.
[43] Saturninus.
[44] We have seen this trick before (cp. i. 45).
[45] Mars, Bellona, Victoria, Pavor, &c., whose images were
wrought in medallion on the shafts of the standards, which
themselves too were held sacred.
[46] i.e. Vedius, Dillius, Numisius, Vipstanus Messala.
DISSENSION IN VITELLIUS' CAMP
[47]Vitellius' party was equally a prey to disquiet, and there the 12
dissension was the more fatal, since it was aroused not by the men's
suspicions but by the treachery of the generals. The sailors of the
fleet at Ravenna were mostly drawn from the provinces of Dalmatia and
Pannonia, which were both held for Vespasian, and while they were
still wavering, the admiral, Lucilius Bassus, decided them in favour
of the Flavian party. Choosing the night-time for their treason, the
conspirators assembled at head-quarters without the knowledge of the
other sailors. Bassus, who was either ashamed or uncertain of their
success, awaited developments in his house. Amid great disturbance the
ships' captains attacked the images of Vitellius and cut down the few
men who offered any resistance. The rest of the fleet were glad enough
of a change, and their sympathies soon came round to Vespasian. Then
Lucilius appeared and publicly claimed responsibility. The fleet
appointed Cornelius Fuscus[48] as their admiral, and he came hurrying
on to the scene. Bassus was put under honourable arrest and conveyed
with an escort of Liburnian cruisers[49] to Atria,[50] where he was
imprisoned by Vibennius Rufinus, who commanded a regiment of auxiliary
horse in garrison there. However, he was soon set free on the
intervention of Hormus, one of the emperor's freedmen. For he, too,
ranked as a general.
When the news that the navy had gone over became known, Caecina, 13
carefully selecting a moment when the camp was deserted, and the men
had all gone to their various duties, summoned to head-quarters the
senior centurions and a few of the soldiers. He then proceeded to
praise the spirit and the strength of Vespasian's party: 'they
themselves had been deserted by the fleet; they were cramped for
supplies; Spain and Gaul were against them; Rome could not be
trusted.' In every way he exaggerated the weakness of Vitellius'
position. Eventually, when some of his accomplices had given the cue
and the rest were dumbfoundered by his change of front, he made them
all swear allegiance to Vespasian. Immediately the portraits[51] of
Vitellius were torn down and messengers dispatched to Antonius.
However, when the treason got abroad in the camp, and the men
returning to head-quarters saw Vespasian's name on the standards and
Vitellius' portraits scattered on the ground, at first there was an
ominous silence: then with one voice they all vented their feelings.
Had the pride of the German army sunk so low that without a battle and
without a blow they should let their hands be shackled and render up
their arms? What had they against them? None but defeated troops. The
only sound legions of Otho's army, the First and the Fourteenth,
Vespasian had not got, and even those they had routed and cut to
pieces on that same field. And all for what? That these thousands of
fighting men should be handed over like a drove of slaves to Antonius,
the convict![52] 'Eight legions, forsooth, are to follow the lead of
one miserable fleet. Such is the pleasure of Bassus and Caecina. They
have robbed the emperor of his home, his estate, and all his wealth,
and now they want to take away his troops. We have never lost a man
nor shed a drop of blood. The very Flavians will despise us. What
answer can we give when they question us about our victory or our
defeat?'
Thus they shouted one and all as their indignation urged them. Led 14
by the Fifth legion, they replaced the portraits of Vitellius and put
Caecina in irons. They selected Fabius Fabullus, commanding the Fifth
legion, and the camp-prefect, Cassius Longus, to lead them. Some
marines who arrived at this point from three Liburnian cruisers,[53]
quite innocent and unaware of what had happened, were promptly
butchered. Then the men deserted their camp, broke down the
bridge,[54] and marched back to Hostilia, and thence to Cremona to
join the two legions, the First Italian and Twenty-first Rapax, which
Caecina had sent ahead[55] with some of the cavalry to occupy Cremona.
FOOTNOTES:
[47] The narrative is now resumed from the end of Book II.
[48] See ii. 86.
[49] See ii. 16, note 247.
[50] Atri.
[51] i.e. the medallions on the standards.
[52] See ii. 86.
[53] See ii. 16, note 247.
[54] Over the Tartaro (chap. 9).
[55] See ii. 100.
THE ENGAGEMENT NEAR CREMONA
When Antonius heard of this he determined to attack the enemy 15
while they were still at variance and their forces divided. The
Vitellian generals would soon recover their authority and the troops
their discipline, and confidence would come if the two divisions were
allowed to join. He guessed also that Fabius Valens had already
started from Rome and would hasten his march when he heard of
Caecina's treachery. Valens was loyal to Vitellius and an experienced
soldier. There was good reason, besides, to fear an attack on the side
of Raetia from an immense force of German irregulars. Vitellius had
already summoned auxiliaries from Britain, Gaul, and Spain in
sufficient numbers to blight their chances utterly, had not Antonius
in fear of this very prospect forestalled the victory by hurriedly
forcing an engagement. In two days he marched his whole force from
Verona to Bedriacum.[56] On the next day[57] he left his legions
behind to fortify the camp, and sent out his auxiliary infantry into
territory belonging to Cremona, to taste the joys of plundering their
compatriots under pretext of collecting supplies. To secure greater
freedom for their depredations, he himself advanced at the head of
four thousand cavalry eight miles along the road from Bedriacum. The
scouts, as is usual, turned their attention further afield.
About eleven in the morning a mounted scout galloped up with the 16
news that the enemy were at hand; there was a small body in advance of
the rest, but the noise of an army in movement could be heard over the
country-side. While Antonius was debating what he ought to do, Arrius
Varus, who was greedy to distinguish himself, galloped out with the
keenest of the troopers and charged the Vitellians, inflicting only
slight loss; for, on the arrival of reinforcements, the tables were
turned and those who had been hottest in pursuit were now hindmost in
the rout. Their haste had no sanction from Antonius, who had foreseen
what would happen. Encouraging his men to engage with brave hearts, he
drew off the cavalry on to each flank and left a free passage in the
centre to receive Varus and his troopers. Orders were sent to the
legions to arm and signals were displayed to the foraging party,
summoning them to cease plundering and join the battle by the quickest
possible path. Meanwhile Varus came plunging in terror into the middle
of their ranks, spreading confusion among them. The fresh troops were
swept back along with the wounded, themselves sharing the panic and
sorely embarrassed by the narrowness of the road.
In all the confusion of the rout Antonius never for a moment 17
forgot what befitted a determined general and a brave soldier. Staying
the panic-stricken, checking the fugitives, wherever the fight was
thickest, wherever he saw a gleam of hope, he schemed, he fought, he
shouted, always conspicuous to his own men and a mark for the enemy.
At last, in the heat of his impatience, he thrust through with a lance
a standard-bearer, who was in full flight, then seized the standard
and turned it against the enemy. Whereupon for very shame a few of his
troopers, not more than a hundred, made a stand. The nature of the
ground helped them. The road there was narrower; a stream barred their
way, and the bridge was broken; its depth was uncertain and the steep
banks checked their flight. Thus necessity or chance restored their
fallen fortunes. Forming in close order, they received the
Vitellians' reckless and disordered charge, and at once flung them
into confusion. Antonius pressed hard on the fugitives and cut down
all who blocked his path. The others followed each his inclination,
rifling the dead, capturing prisoners, seizing arms and horses.
Meanwhile, summoned by their shouts of triumph, those who had just now
been in full flight across the fields came hurrying back to share the
victory.
Four miles from Cremona they saw the standards of the Rapax and 18
Italian legions gleaming in the sun. They had marched out thus far
under cover of their cavalry's original success. When fortune turned
against them, they neither opened their ranks to receive the routed
troops nor marched out to attack the enemy, who were wearied with
fighting and their long pursuit. While all went well the Vitellians
did not miss their general, but in the hour of danger they realized
their loss. The victorious cavalry came charging into their wavering
line, and at the same time Vipstanus Messala arrived with the Moesian
auxiliaries and a good number of men from the legions, who had kept up
with the pace of their forced march.[58] These combined forces broke
the opposing column, and the proximity of Cremona's sheltering walls
gave the Vitellians more hope of refuge and less stomach for
resistance.
FOOTNOTES:
[56] About thirty-three miles.
[57] October 27.
[58] They would be more heavily laden than the Moesian
auxiliaries.
THE FATE OF CREMONA
Antonius did not follow up his advantage. He realized that, although
the issue had been successful, the battle had long been doubtful, and
had cost the troopers and their horses many wounds and much hard
fighting. As evening fell, the whole strength of the Flavian army 19
arrived. They had marched among heaps of corpses, and the still
reeking traces of slaughter, and now, feeling that the war was over,
they clamoured to advance at once on Cremona and either receive its
submission or take it by storm. This sounded well for public
utterance, but each man in his heart was thinking, 'We could easily
rush a city on the plain. In a night-assault men are just as brave and
have a better chance of plunder. If we wait for day it will be all
peace and petitions, and what shall we get for our wounds and our
labours? A reputation for mercy! There's no money in that. All the
wealth of Cremona will find its way into the officers' pockets. Storm
a city, and the plunder goes to the soldiers: if it surrenders, the
generals get it.' They refused to listen to their centurions and
tribunes and drowned their voices in a rattle of arms, swearing they
would break their orders unless they were led out. Antonius then 20
went round among the companies, where his authoritative bearing
obtained silence. He assured them that he had no wish to rob them of
the glory and the reward they so well deserved. 'But,' he said, 'an
army and a general have different functions. It is right that soldiers
should be greedy for battle, but the general often does more good not
by temerity but by foresight, deliberation and delay. I have done all
I could to aid your victory with my sword: now I will serve you by the
general's proper arts of calculation and strategy. The risks that face
us are obvious. It is night; we know nothing of the lie of the city;
the enemy are behind the walls; everything favours an ambush. Even if
the gates were open, we cannot safely enter except by day and after
due reconnoitring. Are you going to begin storming the town when you
cannot possibly see where the ground is level and how high the walls
are? How do you know whether to assault it with engines and showers of
missiles, or with penthouses and shelters?'[59] Then he turned to
individuals, asking one after another whether they had brought
hatchets and pick-axes and other implements for storming a town. When
they answered no, 'Well,' he said, 'could any troops possibly break
through walls or undermine them with nothing but swords and javelins?
Suppose it proves necessary to construct a mound and to shelter
ourselves with mantlets and fascines,[59] are we going to stand idle
like a lot of helpless idiots, gaping at the height of the enemy's
towers and ramparts? Why not rather wait one night till our
siege-train arrives and then carry the victory by force?' So saying,
he sent the camp-followers and servants with the freshest of the
troopers back to Bedriacum to bring up supplies and whatever else was
wanted.
The soldiers indeed chafed at this and mutiny seemed imminent, 21
when some of the mounted scouts, who had ridden right up to the walls,
captured a few stragglers from Cremona, and learnt from them that six
Vitellian legions and the whole Hostilia army had that very day
covered thirty miles, and, hearing of their comrades' defeat, were
already arming for battle and would be on them immediately. This
alarming news cured their obstinate deafness to the general's advice.
He ordered the Thirteenth legion to take up their position on the
raised Postumian high-road. In touch with them on the left wing in the
open country were the Seventh Galbian, beside whom stood the Seventh
Claudian, so placed that their front was protected by a ditch. On the
right wing were the Eighth, drawn up along an open cross-road, and
next to them the Third, distributed among some thick clumps of trees.
Such, at any rate, was the order of the eagles and standards. In the
darkness the soldiers were confused and took their places at random.
The band of Guards[60] was next to the Third, and the auxiliaries on
the wings, while the cavalry were disposed in support round the flanks
and the rear. Sido and Italicus with their picked band of Suebi[61]
fought in the front line.
For the Vitellians the right course was to rest at Cremona and 22
recuperate their strength with food and a night's rest, and then on
the next day to crush and rout the Flavians when they were stiff with
cold and weak from hunger. But they had no general;[62] they had no
plan. Though it was nearly nine at night they flung themselves upon
the Flavians, who were standing steady in their places to receive
them. In their fury and the darkness the Vitellian line was so
disordered that one can hardly venture to describe the disposition of
their troops. However, it has been stated that the Fourth Macedonian
legion were on the right flank; in the centre were the Fifth and
Fifteenth with the detachments of the Ninth, the Second and the
Twentieth from Britain; the Sixteenth, the Twenty-second, and the
First formed the left wing. The men of the Rapax and Italian
legions[63] were distributed among all the companies.[64] The cavalry
and auxiliaries picked their own position. All night the battle raged
with varying fortune, never decided, always savagely contested.
Disaster threatened now one side, now the other. Courage, strength
were of little use: their eyes could not even see in front of them.
Both sides were armed alike; the watchwords, constantly demanded, soon
became known; the standards were all in confusion, as they were
captured and carried off from one band to another. The Seventh legion,
raised recently by Galba, suffered most severely. Six of the senior
centurions fell and several standards were lost. They nearly lost
their eagle too, but it was rescued by the bravery of the senior
centurion, named Atilius Verus, who after great slaughter of the enemy
fell finally himself.
Antonius had meanwhile called up the Guards to reinforce his 23
wavering line. Taking up the fight, they repulsed the enemy, only to
be repulsed in their turn. For the Vitellian artillery, which had at
first been scattered all along the line, and had been discharged upon
the bushes without hurting the enemy, was now massed upon the
high-road, and swept the open space in front. One immense engine in
particular, which belonged to the Fifteenth, mowed down the Flavian
line with huge stones. The slaughter thus caused would have been
enormous, had not two of the Flavian soldiers performed a memorable
exploit. Concealing their identity by snatching up shields from among
the enemy's dead,[65] they cut the ropes which suspended the weights
of the engine. They fell immediately, riddled with wounds, and so
their names have perished. But of their deed there is no doubt.
Fortune had favoured neither side when, as the night wore on, the moon
rose and threw a deceptive glamour over the field of battle. Shining
from behind the Flavians the moon was in their favour. It magnified
the shadows of their men and horses so that the enemy took the shadow
for the substance, and their missiles were misdirected and fell
short. The Vitellians, on the other hand, had the moon shining full on
them and were an easy mark for the Flavians, shooting as it were out
of cover.[66]
Thus being enabled to recognize his own men, and to be recognized 24
by them, Antonius appealed to some by taunting their honour, to many
by words of praise and encouragement, to all by promising hope of
reward. He asked the Pannonian legions why they had drawn their swords
again. Here on this field they could regain their glory and wipe out
the stain of their former disgrace.[67] Then turning to the Moesian
troops, who were the chief promoters of the war,[68] he told them it
was no good challenging the Vitellians with verbal threats, if they
could not bear to face them and their blows. Thus he addressed each
legion as he reached it. To the Third he spoke at greater length,
reminding them of their victories both old and new. Had they not under
Mark Antony defeated the Parthians[69] and the Armenians under
Corbulo?[70] Had they not but lately crushed the Sarmatians?[71] Then
he turned in fury on the Guards. 'Peasants that you are,' he shouted,
'have you another emperor, another camp waiting to shelter you, if you
are defeated? There in the enemy's line are your standards and your
arms: defeat means death and--no, you have drained disgrace already to
the dregs.'
These words roused cheers on all sides, and the Third, following the
Syrian custom,[72] saluted the rising sun. Thus arose a casual 25
rumour--or possibly it was suggested by the general's ingenuity--that
Mucianus had arrived, and that the two armies were cheering each
other. On they pressed, feeling they had been reinforced. The
Vitellian line was more ragged now, for, having no general to marshal
them, their ranks now filled, now thinned, with each alternation of
courage and fear. As soon as Antonius saw them waver, he kept
thrusting at them in massed column. The line bent and then broke, and
the inextricable confusion of wagons and siege-engines prevented their
rallying. The victorious troops scattered along the cross-road in
headlong pursuit.
The slaughter was marked by one peculiar horror. A son killed his
father. I give the facts and names on the authority of Vipstanus
Messala.[73] One Julius Mansuetus, a Spaniard who had joined the
legion Rapax, had left a young son at home. This boy subsequently grew
up and enlisted in the Seventh legion, raised by Galba.[74] Chance now
sent his father in his way, and he felled him to the ground. While he
was ransacking the dying man, they recognized each other. Flinging his
arms round the now lifeless corpse, in a piteous voice he implored
his father's spirit to be appeased and not to turn against him as a
parricide. The crime was his country's, he cried; what share had a
single soldier in these civil wars? Meanwhile he lifted the body and
began to dig a grave and perform the last rites for his father. Those
who were nearest noticed this; then the story began to spread, till
there ran through the army astonishment and many complaints and curses
against this wicked war. Yet they never ceased busily killing and
plundering friends and relatives and brothers; and while they talked
of the crime they were committing it themselves.
When they reached Cremona a fresh task of vast difficulty awaited 26
them. During the war with Otho[75] the German army had entrenched
their camp round the walls of Cremona and then erected a rampart round
the camp; and these fortifications had been further strengthened. The
sight of them brought the victors to a halt, and their generals were
uncertain what instructions to give. The troops had had no rest for a
day and a night. To storm the town at once would be an arduous and, in
the absence of reserves, a perilous task. On the other hand, a retreat
to Bedriacum would involve the intolerable fatigue of a long march,
and destroy the value of their victory. Again, it would be dangerous
to entrench themselves so close to the lines of the enemy, who might
at any minute sally forth and rout them while they were dispersed and
digging trenches. The chief anxiety lay in the temper of the men, who
were much more ready to face danger than delay. To them discretion was
disagreeable and hazard spelt hope. Their thirst for plunder
outweighed all fears of wounds and bloodshed.
Antonius also inclined to this view and gave orders for them to 27
surround the rampart. At first they stood back and delivered volleys
of arrows and stones, suffering themselves the severer loss, for a
storm of missiles rained down from the walls. Antonius then told off
each legion to assault a different point of the rampart or one of the
gates, hoping that by thus separating them he could distinguish the
cowards from the brave and inflame them with a spirit of honourable
rivalry. The Third and Seventh took the position nearest the road to
Bedriacum; the Eighth and Seventh Claudian assaulted the right-hand
side of the rampart; the Thirteenth swept up to the Brixian Gate.[76]
A brief delay was caused while some fetched mattocks and pickaxes from
the fields, and others hooks and ladders. Then holding their shields
above their heads in close 'tortoise' formation,[77] they advanced
under the rampart. Both sides employed Roman tactics. The Vitellians
rolled down huge masses of stones, and, as the sheltering cover of
shields parted and wavered, they thrust at it with lances and poles,
until at last the whole structure was broken up and they mowed down
the torn and bleeding soldiers beneath with terrible slaughter.
The men would certainly have hesitated, had not the generals,
realizing that they were really too tired to respond to any other form
of encouragement, pointed significantly to Cremona. Whether this 28
was Hormus's idea, as Messala[78] records, or whether we should rather
follow Caius Pliny, who accuses Antonius, it is not easy to determine.
This one may say, that, however abominable the crime, yet in
committing it neither Antonius nor Hormus belied the reputation of
their lives. After this neither wounds nor bloodshed could stay the
Flavian troops. They demolished the rampart, shook the gates, climbed
up on each other's shoulders, or over the re-formed 'tortoise', and
snatched away the enemy's weapons or caught hold of them by the arms.
Thus the wounded and unwounded, the half-dead and the dying, all came
rolling down and perished together by every imaginable kind of death.
The fight raged thickest round the Third and Seventh legions, and 29
the general, Antonius, came up with a picked band of auxiliaries to
support their assault. The Vitellians, finding themselves unable to
resist the attack of troops thus stubbornly vying with each other, and
seeing their missiles all glide off the shelter of shields, at last
sent their engine of war crashing down upon their heads. For the
moment it scattered and crushed beneath it the men on whom it fell,
but it dragged with it some of the battlements and the top of the
rampart. At the same moment one of the towers on the rampart gave way
under a shower of stones. While the men of the Seventh struggled up to
the breach in close column,[79] the Third hewed down the gate with
hatchets and swords. All the authorities[80] agree that Caius Volusius
of the Third legion was the first man in. Emerging on the top of the
rampart, he hurled down those who barred his path, and from this
conspicuous position waved his hand and shouted that the camp was
taken. The others poured through, while the Vitellians in panic flung
themselves down from the rampart, and the whole space between the camp
and the walls became a seething scene of carnage.
Here, again, was a new type of task for the Flavians. Here were 30
high walls, stone battlements, iron-barred gates, and soldiers hurling
javelins. The citizens of Cremona were numerous and devoted to the
cause of Vitellius, and half Italy had gathered there for the Fair
which fell just at that time. Their numbers were a help to the
defenders, but the prospect of plundering them offered an incentive to
their assailants. Antonius ordered his men to bring fire and apply it
to the most beautiful of the buildings outside the walls, hoping that
the loss of their property might induce the citizens to turn traitor.
The houses that stood nearest to the walls and overtopped them he
crowded with his bravest troops, who dislodged the defenders with
showers of beams and tiles and flaming torches. Meanwhile, some of 31
the legionaries began to advance in 'tortoise' formation,[81] while
others kept up a steady fire of javelins and stones.
Gradually the spirit of the Vitellians ebbed. The higher their rank,
the more easily they gave way to misfortune. For they were afraid that
if Cremona too[82] was demolished, there would be no hope of pardon;
the victors' fury would fall not on the common poor but on the
tribunes and centurions, whom it would pay to kill. The common
soldiers felt safe in their obscurity, and, careless of the future,
continued to offer resistance. They roamed the streets or hid
themselves in houses, and though they had given up the war, refused
even so to sue for peace. Meanwhile the tribunes and centurions did
away with the name and portraits of Vitellius.[83] They released
Caecina, who was still in irons,[84] and begged his help in pleading
their cause. When he turned from them in haughty contempt they
besought him with tears. It was, indeed, the last of evils that all
these brave men should invoke a traitor's aid. They then hung veils
and fillets[85] out on the walls, and when Antonius had given the
order to cease firing, they carried out their standards and eagles,
followed by a miserable column of disarmed soldiers, dejectedly
hanging their heads. The victors had at first crowded round, heaping
insults on them and threatening violence, but when they found that the
vanquished had lost all their proud spirit, and turned their cheeks
with servile endurance to every indignity, they gradually began to
recollect that these were the men who had made such a moderate use of
their victory at Bedriacum.[86] But when the crowd parted, and Caecina
advanced in his consular robes, attended by his lictors in full state,
their indignation broke into flame. They charged him with insolence
and cruelty, and--so hateful is crime--they even flung his treachery
in his teeth.[87] Antonius restrained them and sent Caecina under
escort to Vespasian.
Meanwhile the citizens of Cremona suffered sorely from the 32
violence of the troops, and only the entreaties of their generals
could withhold them from a general massacre. Antonius summoned a mass
meeting and delivered a eulogy upon his victorious army, promising
mercy to the vanquished and speaking of Cremona in ambiguous terms.
Besides their natural passion for plunder, there was an old grudge
which urged them to sack Cremona. The town was believed to have given
assistance to the Vitellian cause before this in the war with
Otho;[88] and again, when the Thirteenth had been left behind to
build an amphitheatre,[89] the populace had shown its town-bred
impertinence by assailing them with insolent ridicule. Other causes
increased this bad feeling: it was here that Caecina had given his
show of gladiators:[89] the town had become for a second time the
theatre of the war: the citizens had conveyed food to the Vitellians
during the battle: some women had been killed, whose enthusiasm for
the cause had led them to take part in the fight. Besides all this,
the Fair had filled the rich city with an even greater display of
wealth than usual. All eyes were now centred on Antonius, whose fame
and good fortune overshadowed all the other generals. It so happened
that he hurried off to the baths to wash off the stains of blood.
Finding fault with the temperature of the water, he received the
answer, 'It will not be long before it is hot,' and this phrase was
caught up. The attendant's words were repeated, and brought all the
odium on Antonius, who was thus believed to have given the signal to
set fire to Cremona, which was already in flames.[90]
Thus forty thousand soldiers burst into the town with a yet larger 33
crowd of servants and sutlers, even more depraved than the soldiers in
their readiness for cruelty and lust. Without any respect for age or
for authority they added rape to murder and murder to rape. Aged men
and decrepit old women, who were worthless as booty, were hustled off
to make sport for them. If some grown girl or a handsome youth fell
into their clutches, they would be torn to pieces in the struggle for
possession, while the plunderers were left to cut each other's
throats. Whoever carried off money or any of the solid gold offerings
in the temples was liable to be cut to pieces, if he met another
stronger than himself. Some, disdaining easy finds, hunted for hidden
hoards, and dug out buried treasure, flogging and torturing the
householders. They held torches in their hands and, having once
secured their prize, would fling them wantonly into an empty house or
some dismantled temple. Composed as the army was of citizens, allies,
and foreign troops, differing widely in language and customs, the
objects of the soldiers' greed differed also. But while their views of
what was right might vary, they all agreed in thinking nothing wrong.
Cremona lasted them four days. While all other buildings sacred and
secular sank in the flames, only the temple of Mefitis outside the
walls was left standing, saved either by its position or the power of
the presiding deity.[91]
Such was the end of Cremona two hundred and eighty-six years after 34
its foundation. It had been originally built in the consulship of
Tiberius Sempronius and Publius Cornelius, while Hannibal was
threatening to invade Italy, to serve as a bulwark against the Gauls
beyond the Po,[92] and to resist any other power that might break in
over the Alps. And so it grew and flourished, aided by its large
number of settlers, its conveniently situated rivers,[93] the
fertility of its territory, and its connexion through alliance and
intermarriage with other communities. Foreign invasions had left it
untouched only to become the victim of civil war. Antonius, ashamed of
his crime, and realizing his growing disfavour, proclaimed that no
citizen of Cremona was to be kept as a prisoner of war; and, indeed,
the unanimous feeling in Italy against buying such slaves had already
frustrated the soldiers' hope of profit. So they began to kill their
captives, whose relatives and friends, when this became known,
covertly bought their release. After a while, the rest of the
inhabitants returned, and the squares and temples were rebuilt by the
munificence of the burghers and under Vespasian's direct patronage.
However, the soil was so foully infected by the reek of blood that 35
it was impossible for the Flavians to encamp for long on the ruins of
this buried city. They advanced along the road to the third milestone,
and mustered the Vitellians, still straggling and panic-stricken, each
under his own standard. The defeated legions were then distributed
through Illyricum, for the civil war was still in progress and their
fidelity could not be relied on. They then dispatched couriers to
carry the news to Britain and the Spanish provinces. To Gaul they sent
an officer named Julius Calenus, to Germany Alpinius Montanus, who had
commanded an auxiliary cohort. Montanus was a Treviran and Calenus an
Aeduan; both had fought for Vitellius and thus served to advertise
Vespasian's victory. At the same time garrisons were sent to hold the
passes of the Alps, for fear that Germany might rise in support of
Vitellius.
FOOTNOTES:
[59] See ii. 21.
[60] i.e. the band of Otho's old Guards whom Vitellius had
disbanded and Vespasian re-enlisted (see ii. 67, 82).
[61] See chap. 5.
[62] Caecina was under arrest, Valens still on his way from
Rome (see chaps. 14, 15).
[63] XXI and I.
[64] Because they had already suffered heavy losses earlier
in the day (see chap. 18).
[65] These shields would have Vitellius' name on them, and
thus conceal their identity.
[66] Dio asserts that the moon was 'black and bloody, and
gave off other fearsome hues'.
[67] i.e. at the first battle of Bedriacum (see ii. 43).
[68] See ii. 85.
[69] 36 B.C.
[70] A.D. 63.
[71] i.e. the Rhoxolani (cp. i. 79).
[72] They had served recently in Syria under Corbulo (see above).
[73] An eyewitness (see note 39).
[74] In Spain.
[75] i.e. at the time of the first battle of Bedriacum in April.
[76] i.e. the gate giving on to the road to Brescia.
[77] In this famous formation the front-rank men kept close
together and covered their bodies with long, concave shields,
while the others, holding flat shields over their heads and
pressing them one against another, formed a protecting roof.
They could thus approach the walls under cover.
[78] Cp. ii. 101, note 459.
[79] For the term (_cuneus_) here used, see note on ii. 42.
[80] Cp. ii. 101, note 459.
[81] See note 77.
[82] As well as the buildings outside the walls.
[83] i.e. tore them off the standards and shields, and broke
the statues at head-quarters.
[84] See chap. 14.
[85] Cp. i. 66.
[86] Cp. ii. 45.
[87] i.e. even though it was in their own interest.
[88] Cp. ii. 70.
[89] Cp. ii. 67.
[90] The words were either attributed wrongly to Antonius or
were supposed to be spoken in answer to his question, 'Are
the furnaces not lit?' In either case they were taken to
apply not to the heating of the baths but to the burning of
the town.
[91] i.e. the goddess of malaria, who reigned in terror by
the swampy banks of the Po.
[92] Cremona was founded in 218 B.C. as a Latin colony,
together with Placentia, to keep the Gallic tribes of North
Italy in check.
[93] The Po, Adda, and Oglio.
VITELLIUS
When Caecina had left Rome,[94] Vitellius, after an interval of a 36
few days, sent Fabius Valens hurrying to the front, and then proceeded
to drown his cares in self-indulgence. He neither made any provision
for the war, nor tried to increase the efficiency of his troops either
by haranguing or by drilling them. He did not keep himself in the
public eye, but retired into the pleasant shade of his gardens,
regarding past, present, and future with equal indifference, like one
of those listless animals which lie sluggish, and torpid so long as
you supply them with food. While he thus loitered languid and indolent
in the woods of Aricia,[95] he received the startling news of Lucilius
Bassus' treachery and the disaffection of the fleet at Ravenna.[96]
Soon afterwards he heard with mixed feelings of distress and
satisfaction that Caecina had deserted him and had been imprisoned by
the army. On his insensate nature joy had more effect than trouble.
He returned in triumph to Rome and at a crowded meeting praised the
devotion of the troops in extravagant terms. He gave orders for the
imprisonment of Publilius Sabinus, the prefect of the Guards, on the
ground of his intimacy with Caecina, and appointed Alfenus Varus[97]
in his place.
He next delivered a pompous and elaborate speech in the senate, 37
where he was loaded with far-fetched compliments by the members.
Lucius Vitellius rose to propose a harsh sentence against Caecina. The
rest of the house inveighed with assumed indignation against the
consul who had betrayed his country, the general who had betrayed his
commander-in-chief, the friend who had betrayed his benefactor to whom
he owed all his riches and distinction. But their protestations of
sympathy with Vitellius really voiced their personal vexation.[98]
None of the speeches contained any criticism of the Flavian generals.
They threw the blame on the misguided and impolitic action of the
armies, and with cautious circumlocution avoided all direct mention of
Vespasian. Caecina's consulship[99] had still one day to run, and
Rosius Regulus actually made humble petition for this one day's
office, Vitellius' offer and his acceptance exciting universal
derision. Thus he entered and abdicated his office on the same day,
the last of October. Men who were learned in constitutional history
pointed out that no one before had ever been elected to fill a
vacancy without the passing of a bill or some act of deprivation,
although there was precedent for the one day consulship in the case of
Caninius Rebilus when Caius Caesar was dictator and the civil war
necessitated prompt rewards.[100]
It was at this time that the news of the death of Junius 38
Blaesus[101] gave rise to much talk. I give the story as I find it.
When Vitellius was lying seriously ill at his house in the Servilian
Park, he noticed that a neighbouring mansion was brilliantly
illuminated at night. On asking the reason, he was told that Caecina
Tuscus[102] was giving a large dinner-party, at which Junius Blaesus
was the chief guest. He further received an exaggerated account of
their extravagance and dissipation. Some of his informants even made
specific charges against Tuscus and others, but especially accused
Blaesus for spending his days in revelry while his emperor lay ill.
There are people who keep a sharp eye on every sign of an emperor's
displeasure. They soon made sure that Vitellius was furious and that
Blaesus' ruin would be an easy task, so they cast Lucius Vitellius for
the part of common informer. He had a mean and jealous dislike for
Blaesus, whose spotless reputation far outshone his own, which was
tainted with every kind of infamy. Bursting into the emperor's
apartment, he caught up Vitellius' young son in his arms and fell at
his feet. When asked the reason of this excitement, he said it was due
to no anxiety for himself; all his suit and all his prayers were for
his brother and his brother's children. Their fears of Vespasian were
idle: between him and Vitellius lay all the legions of Germany, all
those brave and loyal provinces, and an immeasurable space of land and
sea. 'It is here in Rome,' he cried, 'in the bosom of our household
that we have an enemy to fear, one who boasts the Junii and Antonii as
his ancestors, one who shows himself affable and munificent to the
troops, posing as a descendant of imperial stock.[103] It is to him
that Rome's attention turns, while you, Sire, careless who is friend
or foe, cherish in your bosom a rival, who sits feasting at his table
and watches his emperor in pain. You must requite his unseasonable
gaiety with a night of deadly sorrow, in which he may both know and
feel that Vitellius lives and is his emperor, and, if anything should
happen, has a son to be his heir.'
Vitellius hesitated anxiously between his criminal desires and his 39
fear that, if he deferred Blaesus' death, he might hasten his own
ruin, or by giving official orders for it might raise a storm of
indignation. He decided to proceed by poison. The suspicion against
him he confirmed by going to see Blaesus and showing obvious
satisfaction. Moreover, he was heard to make the savage boast that he
had, to quote his own words, 'feasted his eyes on his enemy's
deathbed.'
Blaesus, besides his distinguished origin and refined character, was
steadfastly loyal. Even before the decline of Vitellius' cause he had
been canvassed by Caecina and other party leaders, who were turning
against the emperor, and had met them with a persistent refusal. He
was a man of quiet and blameless life, with no ambition for the
principate or, indeed, for any sudden distinction, but he could not
escape the danger of being considered worthy of it.
Meanwhile Fabius Valens, encumbered by a long train of harlots and 40
eunuchs, was conducting a leisurely advance, most unlike a march to
the front, when couriers arrived post-haste with the news that
Lucilius Bassus had surrendered the Ravenna fleet.[104] If he had
hurried forward on his march he might have been in time to save
Caecina's faltering loyalty, or to have joined the legions before the
critical engagement was fought. Many, indeed, advised him to avoid
Ravenna and to make his way by obscure by-roads to Hostilia or
Cremona. Others wanted him to send to Rome for the Guards and to break
through the enemy's lines with a strong force. Valens himself, with
helpless indecision, let the time for action go by while he took
advice; and then rejecting the advice he was offered, chose the middle
course, which is always the worst in a crisis, and thus failed both in
courage and in caution.
He wrote to Vitellius demanding reinforcements, and there arrived 41
three cohorts of Guards and a regiment of cavalry from Britain, too
many to slip through unobserved and too few to force a passage. But
even in such a crisis as this Valens' reputation was as unsavoury as
ever. He was still believed to use violence in the pursuit of illicit
pleasures, and to betray the confidence of his hosts by seducing their
wives and families. He had money and authority to help him, and the
feverish impatience of one whose star is on the wane. At last the
arrival of the reinforcements revealed the perversity of his strategy.
He had too few men to assume the offensive, even if they had been
unquestionably loyal, and their loyalty was under grave suspicion.
However, their sense of decency and respect for the general restrained
them for a while, though such ties are soon broken when troops are
disinclined for danger and indifferent to disgrace.[105] Fearing
trouble, he sent the Guards forward to Ariminum[106] with the cavalry
to secure the rear. Valens himself, with a few companions, whose
loyalty had survived misfortune, turned off into Umbria and thence to
Etruria, where he learnt the result of the battle of Cremona.
Thereupon he formed a plan, which was far from cowardly and might have
had alarming consequences, if it had succeeded. He was to seize ships
and cross to some point on the coast of Narbonnese Gaul, whence he
could rouse the provinces of Gaul and the native German tribes, and
thus raise forces for a fresh outbreak of war.
Valens' departure having dispirited the troops at Ariminum, 42
Cornelius Fuscus[107] advanced his force and, stationing
Liburnian[108] cruisers along the adjoining coast, invested the town
by land and sea. The Flavians thus occupied the Umbrian plain and the
sea-board of Picenum; and the Apennines now divided Italy between
Vitellius and Vespasian.
Valens, embarking from the Bay of Pisa, was either becalmed on a slow
sea or caught by an unfavourable wind and had to put in at the harbour
of Hercules Monoecus.[109] Stationed in the neighbourhood was Marius
Maturus, the Governor of the Maritime Alps,[110] who had remained
loyal to Vitellius, and, though surrounded by enemies, had so far been
faithful to his oath of allegiance. He gave Valens a friendly welcome
and strongly advised him not to venture rashly into Narbonnese Gaul.
This alarmed Valens, who found also that his companions' loyalty was
yielding to their fears. For Valerius Paulinus, the imperial agent 43
in the province, was an energetic soldier who had been friendly with
Vespasian in old days, and had lately sworn all the surrounding
communities to his cause. Having summoned to his flag all the Guards
discharged by Vitellius,[111] who needed no persuasion to resume the
war, he was now holding the colony of Forum Julii,[112] the key to the
command of the sea. His influence carried the more weight since Forum
Julii was his native town and, having once been an officer in the
Guards, he was respected by the men. Besides this, the inhabitants
supported their fellow citizen, and in the hope of future
aggrandizement rendered enthusiastic service to the party. When the
news of these efficient preparations, somewhat exaggerated by rumour,
came to the ears of the Vitellians, who were already in some doubt,
Fabius Valens returned to the ships with four men of the Body Guard,
three of his friends and three centurions, while Maturus and the rest
preferred to remain and swear allegiance to Vespasian. As for Valens,
though he felt safer at sea than among the cities on the coast, he was
still full of doubts for the future, since he was certain what he had
to avoid but quite uncertain whom he could trust. Eventually a gale
drove him upon the Stoechades,[113] some islands belonging to
Marseilles, and there he was overtaken by the cruisers which Paulinus
had sent in pursuit.
FOOTNOTES:
[94] The story returns again to ii. 101.
[95] La Riccia.
[96] See chap. 12.
[97] Hitherto camp-prefect (cp. ii. 29).
[98] Against Caecina for his inefficiency.
[99] Cp. i. 77.
[100] This was in 45 B.C., when Caesar was carrying on the
government with a high hand and small regard for precedent.
Holding an election on the last day of the year, he was told
that the consul was dead: there was no one to preside. So he
promptly announced that Caninius was consul till the next
morning. 'So no one,' says Cicero, 'breakfasted during his
consulship. However, there was no crime either, and his
vigilance was such that he never closed an eye during his
whole term of office.'
[101] Cp. ii. 59.
[102] This man had been prefect of Egypt, and had built
special baths for Nero, who was expected to visit Alexandria.
But he committed the indiscretion of washing in them first,
for which Nero had banished him.
[103] Both the Junii and Antonii could claim as an ancestor
Augustus' sister Octavia; and the Junii were also connected
with M. Junius Silanus, Augustus' great-great-grandson, whom
Nero had put out of the way.
[104] See chap. 12.
[105] They had already incurred the disgrace of betraying
first Galba, then Otho.
[106] Rimini.
[107] Now admiral of the Ravenna fleet (see chap. 12).
[108] See ii. 16, note 247.
[109] Monaco.
[110] See ii. 12.
[111] Cp. ii. 67.
[112] Fréjus.
[113] Îles d'Hyères.
THE STATE OF THE PROVINCES
With the capture of Valens the tide had now fully turned in favour 44
of Vespasian. The movement had been begun in Spain by the First legion
_Adjutrix_,[114] whose reverence for Otho's memory made them hate
Vitellius. They carried the Tenth and the Sixth[115] with them. The
provinces of Gaul soon followed suit. Britain was bound to his cause
by the favour felt for one who had been sent there by Claudius in
command of the Second legion, and had fought with great distinction in
the war. But the adherence of the province was to some extent opposed
by the other legions, in which many of the centurions and soldiers had
been promoted by Vitellius. They were used to their emperor and felt
some doubt about the change. This quarrel between the legions and 45
the constant rumours of civil war, encouraged the Britons to take
heart. Their chief instigator was one Venutius. He was of a ferocious
disposition and hated the name of Rome, but his strongest motive was a
private quarrel with Queen Cartimandua, a member of a powerful family,
who ruled the Brigantes.[116] Her authority had lately increased,
since she had betrayed King Caratacus into the hands of the Romans,
and was thus considered to have provided Claudius Caesar with material
for his triumph.[117] Thus she had grown rich, and with prosperity
came demoralization. She threw over Venutius, who was her husband, and
gave her hand and kingdom to his squire, Vellocatus. This crime soon
proved the ruin of her house. The people supported her husband: she
defended her lover with passionate ferocity. Venutius therefore
summoned assistance and, aided by the simultaneous revolt of the
Brigantes, brought Cartimandua into dire straits. She petitioned for
troops from Rome. Our auxiliaries, both horse and foot, then fought
several engagements with varying success, but eventually rescued the
queen. Thus the kingdom was left in the hands of Venutius and the war
in ours.
Almost simultaneously a disturbance broke out in Germany, where 46
the inefficiency of the generals, the disaffection of the troops, the
strength of the enemy, and the treachery of our allies all combined to
bring the Roman government into serious danger. The causes and history
of this protracted struggle--for such it proved--we must leave to a
later chapter.[118] Amongst the Dacians[119] also there was trouble.
They could never be trusted, and now that the army was moved from
Moesia they were no longer under the restraint of fear. At first they
remained quiet and awaited developments. But when they saw Italy in
the flames of war, and found the whole empire divided into hostile
camps, they fell upon the winter-quarters of the auxiliary infantry
and cavalry and began to occupy both banks of the Danube. They were on
the point of storming the Roman camp as well, when Mucianus, who knew
of the victory at Cremona, sent the Sixth legion[120] against them.
For the empire was in danger of a double foreign invasion, if the
Dacians and the Germans had broken in from opposite directions. But
here, as so often, Rome's good fortune saved her by bringing Mucianus
on the scene with the forces of the East just at the moment when we
had settled matters at Cremona. Fonteius Agrippa, who had for the last
year been pro-consul in Asia, was transferred to the government of
Moesia. His forces were strengthened by a draft from the defeated
Vitellian army, for in the interest of peace it seemed prudent to
distribute these troops over the provinces and to keep their hands
tied by a foreign war.
The other peoples soon made their voices heard. Pontus[121] had 47
suddenly risen in a general rebellion at the instigation of a foreign
menial, who was in command of what had once been the royal fleet. He
was one of Polemo's freedmen, by name Anicetus, who had formerly been
influential and resented the change which had converted the kingdom
into a province of the Roman empire. He accordingly enlisted the
maritime tribes of Pontus in Vitellius' service, attracting all the
neediest ruffians with promises of plunder. At the head of no mean
force he suddenly fell upon Trapezus,[122] an ancient and famous city,
founded by Greek settlers on the frontier of the Pontic kingdom. There
he cut to pieces the auxiliaries, who had once formed the king's Body
Guard, and, after receiving the Roman franchise, had adopted our
ensigns and equipment, while still retaining all the inefficiency and
insubordination of Greek troops. Anicetus also set fire to the
fleet[123] and thus enjoyed complete mastery of the sea, since
Mucianus had moved the pick of his cruisers and all his troops to
Byzantium. The sea was overrun by natives too, who had hurriedly built
themselves boats. These, which they call 'arks',[124] are
broad-bottomed boats with low sides, built without any brass or iron
rivets. In a rough sea, as the waves rise higher and higher, the
height of the sides is raised by the addition of planks which, in the
end, enclose the whole boat under a sort of roof. They are thus left
to toss up and down on the waves. They have bows at both ends and the
paddles can be used on either side, since it is as easy and as safe to
row in one direction as in the other.
This state of things attracting Vespasian's attention, he was 48
obliged to send out a picked force of detachments from the legions
under Virdius Geminus, a soldier of tried experience. He attacked the
enemy while they were dispersed in all directions in quest of plunder,
and drove them back to their ships. He then had some Liburnian
cruisers hurriedly constructed and ran Anicetus to ground in the mouth
of the river Chobus,[125] where he had taken refuge with the King of
the Sedochezi tribe, whose alliance he had purchased by bribes. At
first, indeed, the king endeavoured to protect his petitioner by using
threats of violence, but he soon saw that it was a choice between
making war or being paid for his treachery. The barbarian's sense of
honour was unequal to this strain. He came to terms, surrendered
Anicetus and the other fugitives, and thus put an end to 'the slaves'
war'.
This victory delighted Vespasian: everything was succeeding beyond his
hopes: and to crown all the news of the battle of Cremona now reached
him in Egypt. He hurried forward all the faster towards Alexandria
with the object of bringing starvation[126] upon Vitellius' defeated
troops and the inhabitants of Rome, who were already feeling the pinch
of diminished imports. For he was at the same time making preparations
for an invasion of the adjacent province of Africa[127] by land and
sea. By cutting off their corn supply he hoped to reduce the enemy to
famine and disunion.
FOOTNOTES:
[114] The marines (see ii. 67, i. 6).
[115] X Gemina, VI Victrix.
[116] They occupied a large district of the north of England,
from the Trent to the Tyne.
[117] As a matter of fact his triumph took place in 44.
Caratacus was brought to Rome in 51. Perhaps Tacitus regards
this in itself as a 'triumph', or else he makes a venial
mistake.
[118] The rebellion on the Rhine is described in Books IV and V.
[119] In Roumania.
[120] Ferrata. Cp. ii. 83.
[121] This little kingdom west of Trebizond was left to Rome
by Polemo II, A.D. 63. Nero made it a Roman province under the
name of Pontus Polemoniacus.
[122] Trebizond.
[123] Mucianus had 'ordered the fleet to move from Pontus to
Byzantium' (ii. 83). This leads some editors to change the
text, and others to suppose that a few ships were left behind.
[124] Literally, arched boats. Tacitus describes somewhat
similar craft in _Germania_, 44.
[125] The Khopi, which flows from the Caucasus into the Euxine.
[126] Cp. chap. 8.
[127] Africa came next to Egypt in importance as a Roman
granary (cp. i. 73).
ANTONIUS' ADVANCE FROM CREMONA
Thus[128] a world-wide convulsion marked the passing of the 49
imperial power into new hands. Meanwhile, after Cremona, the behaviour
of Antonius Primus was not so blameless as before. He had settled the
war, he felt; the rest would be plain sailing. Or, perhaps, in such a
nature as his success only brought to light his greed and arrogance
and all his other dormant vices. While harrying Italy like a conquered
country, he courted the goodwill of his troops and used every word and
every action to pave his way to power. He allowed his men to appoint
centurions themselves in place of those who had fallen, and thus gave
them a taste for insubordination; for their choice fell on the most
turbulent spirits. The generals no longer commanded the men, but were
dragged at the heels of their caprices. This revolutionary system,
utterly fatal to good discipline, was exploited by Antonius for his
own profit.[129] Of Mucianus' approach he had no fears, and thus made
a mistake even more fatal than despising Vespasian.[130]
His advance, however, continued. As winter was at hand[131] and 50
the Po had inundated the meadows, his column marched unencumbered by
heavy baggage. The main body of the victorious legions was left
behind at Verona, together with such of the soldiers as were
incapacitated by wounds or old age, and many besides who were still in
good condition. Having already broken the back of the campaign,
Antonius felt strong enough with his auxiliary horse and foot and some
picked detachments from the legions. The Eleventh[132] had voluntarily
joined the advance. They had held back at first, but, seeing Antonius'
success, were distressed to think they had had no share in it. The
column was also accompanied by a force of six thousand Dalmatian
troops, which had been recently raised. The ex-consul, Pompeius
Silvanus,[133] commanded the column, but the actual control was in the
hands of a general named Annius Bassus. Silvanus was quite ineffective
as a general, and wasted every chance of action in talking about it.
Bassus, while showing all due respect, managed him completely, and was
always ready with quiet efficiency to do anything that had to be done.
Their force was further increased by enlisting the best of the marines
from the Ravenna fleet, who were clamouring for service in the
legions. The vacancies in the fleet were filled by Dalmatians. The
army and its generals halted at Fanum Fortunae,[134] still hesitating
what policy to adopt, for they had heard that the Guards were on the
move from Rome, and supposed that the Apennines were held by troops.
And they had fears of their own. Supplies were scarce in a district
devastated by war. The men were mutinous and demanded 'shoe-money',[135]
as they called the donative, with alarming insistence. No provision
had been made either for money or for stores. The precipitate greed of
the soldiers made further difficulties, for they each looted what
might have served for them all.
I find among the best authorities evidence which shows how 51
wickedly careless were the victorious army of all considerations of
right and wrong. They tell how a trooper professed that he had killed
his brother in the last battle, and demanded a reward from his
generals. The dictates of humanity forbade them to remunerate such a
murder, but in the interests of civil war they dared not punish it.
They had put him off with the plea that they could not at the moment
reward his service adequately. And there the story stops. However, a
similar crime had occurred in earlier civil wars. In the battle which
Pompeius Strabo fought against Cinna at the Janiculum,[136] one of his
soldiers killed his own brother and then, realizing what he had done,
committed suicide. This is recorded by Sisenna.[137] Our ancestors, it
seems, had a livelier sense than we have both of the glory of good
deeds and the shame of bad.[138] These and other such instances from
past history may be appropriately cited, whenever the subject seems to
demand either an example of good conduct or some consolation for a
crime.
Antonius and his fellow generals decided to send the cavalry ahead 52
to explore the whole of Umbria, and to see whether any of the
Apennines were accessible by a gentler route; to summon the eagles and
standards[139] and all the troops at Verona,[140] and to fill the Po
and the sea with provision ships. Some of the generals continually
suggested obstacles. Antonius had grown too big for his place, and
they had surer hopes of reward from Mucianus. He was distressed that
victory had come so soon, and felt that, if he was not present when
Rome was taken, he would lose his share in the war and its glory. So
he kept on writing to Antonius and Varus in ambiguous terms, sometimes
urging them to 'press forward on their path', sometimes expatiating on
'the manifold value of delay'. He thus managed to arrange that he
could disclaim responsibility in case of a reverse, or acknowledge
their policy as his own if it succeeded. To Plotius Grypus, whom
Vespasian had lately raised to senatorial rank and put in command of a
legion, and to his other trusty friends he sent less ambiguous
instructions, and they all wrote back criticizing the haste with which
Antonius and Varus acted. This was just what Mucianus wanted. He
forwarded the letters to Vespasian with the result that Antonius'
plans and exploits were not appreciated as highly as Antonius had
hoped. This he took very ill and threw the blame on Mucianus, 53
whose charges he conceived had cheapened his exploits. Being little
accustomed to control his tongue or to obey orders, he was most
unguarded in his conversation and composed a letter to Vespasian in
presumptuous language which ill befitted a subject, making various
covert charges against Mucianus. 'It was I,' he wrote, 'who brought
the legions of Pannonia into the field:[141] it was my stimulus which
stirred up the officers in Moesia:[142] it was by my persistence that
we broke through the Alps, seized hold of Italy and cut off the German
and Raetian auxiliaries.[143] When Vitellius' legions were all
scattered and disunited, it was I who flung the cavalry on them like a
whirlwind, and then pressed home the attack with the infantry all day
and all night. That victory is my greatest achievement and it is
entirely my own. As for the mishap at Cremona, that was the fault of
the war. In old days the civil wars cost the country far more damage
and involved the destruction of more than one town. It is not with
couriers and dispatches that I serve my master, but with my sword in
my hand. Nor can it be said that I have interfered with the glory of
the men who have meanwhile settled matters in Dacia.[144] What peace
in Moesia is to them, the safety and welfare of Italy are to me. It
was my encouragement which brought the provinces of Gaul and of Spain,
the strongest parts of the whole world, over to Vespasian's side. But
my labours will prove useless, if the reward for the dangers I have
run is to fall to the man who was not there to share them.' All this
reached the ears of Mucianus and a serious quarrel resulted. Antonius
kept it up in a frank spirit of dislike, while Mucianus showed a
cunning which was far more implacable.
FOOTNOTES:
[128] The narrative is here resumed from the end of chap. 35.
[129] Would-be centurions doubtless bribed him to influence
the soldiers in their favour.
[130] Vespasian was too big to mind being despised; Mucianus
was not, and eventually retaliated (cp. iv. 11).
[131] November.
[132] From Dalmatia (see ii. 11, 67).
[133] Governor of Dalmatia (cp. ii. 86).
[134] Fano.
[135] Apparently soldiers' slang. Probably at some period an
officer had bribed his men under the pretence of making
special grants for the purchase of nails for their shoes.
[136] 87 B.C.
[137] L. Cornelius Sisenna, who died 67 B.C. in Pompey's war
against the pirates, wrote a history of his own time, dealing
in particular with Sulla's wars.
[138] This or some similar incident seems to have become a
respected commonplace of history and poetry (cp. chap. 25).
[139] i.e. the main body of the legions.
[140] See chap. 50.
[141] See ii. 86.
[142] i.e. Aponius, Vipstanus Messala, Dillius, and Numisius
(see ii. 85, iii. 9, 10).
[143] Cp. chap. 8.
[144] i.e. Mucianus and his officers (see chap. 46).
VITELLIUS' MEASURES OF DEFENCE
After the crushing defeat at Cremona Vitellius stupidly suppressed 54
the news of the disaster, thus postponing not the danger itself but
only his precautions against it. Had he admitted the facts and sought
advice, hope and strength were still left to him: his pretension that
all went well only made matters worse. He was himself extraordinarily
silent about the war, and in Rome all discussion of the subject was
forbidden. This only increased the number of people who, if permitted,
would have told the truth, but in the face of this prohibition spread
grossly exaggerated rumours. Nor were the Flavian leaders slow to
foster these rumours. Whenever they captured Vitellian spies they
escorted them round the camp to show them the strength of the winning
army, and sent them back again. Vitellius cross-examined each of them
in private and then had them murdered. A centurion named Julius
Agrestis, after many interviews, in which he endeavoured in vain to
fire Vitellius' courage, at last with heroic persistence induced the
emperor to send him to inspect the enemy's forces and discover what
had really happened at Cremona. He made no attempt to deceive Antonius
by concealing the object of his mission, but openly avowed the
emperor's instructions, stated his intentions and demanded to be shown
everything. He was given guides, who showed him the field of battle,
the ruins of Cremona and the captured legions. Back went Agrestis to
Vitellius. Finding that the emperor disbelieved his report and even
suggested that he had been bribed, he said, 'You want some certain
evidence and, since you have no further use for me either alive or
dead, I will give you evidence that you can believe.' And he was as
good as his word. He went straight from the emperor's presence and
committed suicide. Some say he was killed by order of Vitellius, but
they give the same account of his heroic devotion.[145]
Vitellius was like a man roused from sleep. He dispatched Julius 55
Priscus and Alfenus Varus[146] with fourteen cohorts of Guards and all
his available cavalry to hold the Apennines. A legion levied from the
marines[147] was sent after them. This large army of picked men and
horses, if there had been any general to lead it, was strong enough to
have even taken the offensive. His other cohorts[148] were given to
his brother, Lucius Vitellius, for the protection of the city. The
emperor himself gave up none of his habitual luxuries, but, feeling
nervous and depressed, he hurried on the elections and nominated
consuls for several years in advance. He lavished special
charters[149] on allied communities and extended Latin rights[150] to
foreign towns: he remitted taxation here, granted immunities there. In
fact, he took no thought for the future, and did his best to cripple
the empire. However, the mob accepted these munificent grants with
open mouths. Fools paid money for them, but wise men held them
invalid, since they could be neither given nor received without a
revolution. At last he yielded to the demands of the army and joined
the camp at Mevania,[151] where they had taken up their position. A
long train of senators followed him, many moved by their ambition, but
most by their fears. Here he was still undecided and at the mercy of
treacherous advice.
During one of his speeches a portent occurred. A cloud of 56
ill-omened birds[152] flew over his head and its density obscured the
daylight. To this was added another omen of disaster. A bull broke
from the altar, scattered the utensils for the ceremony, and escaped
so far away that it had to be killed instead of being sacrificed
according to the proper ritual. But the chief portent was Vitellius
himself. He was ignorant of soldiering, incapable of forethought: knew
nothing of drill or scouting, or how far operations should be pressed
forward or protracted. He always had to ask some one else. At every
fresh piece of news his expression and gait betrayed his alarm. And
then he would get drunk. At last he found camp life too tedious, and
on learning of a mutiny in the fleet at Misenum[153] he returned to
Rome. Every fresh blow terrified him, but of the real crisis he seemed
insensible. For it was open to him to cross the Apennines and with his
full strength unimpaired to attack the enemy while they were worn out
with cold and hunger. But by breaking up his forces he sent his
keenest soldiers, stubbornly loyal to the last, to be killed or taken
prisoner. The more experienced of his centurions disapproved of this
policy and would have told him the truth, if they had been consulted.
But the emperor's intimates refused them admittance. He had, indeed,
formed a habit of regarding wholesome advice as unpleasant, and
refusing to listen to any that was not agreeable, and in the long run
fatal.
In civil war individual enterprise counts for much. The mutiny of 57
the fleet at Misenum had been engineered by Claudius Faventinus, a
centurion whom Galba had dismissed in disgrace. To obtain his object
he had forged a letter from Vespasian promising rewards for treachery.
The admiral, Claudius Apollinaris,[154] was neither a staunch loyalist
nor an enthusiastic traitor. Accordingly Apinius Tiro, an ex-praetor,
who happened to be at Minturnae,[155] offered to take the lead of the
rebels. They proceeded to win over the colonies and country towns.
Puteoli in particular was strong for Vespasian, while Capua remained
loyal to Vitellius, for they dragged their local jealousies into the
civil war. To pacify the excited troops Vitellius chose Claudius
Julianus, who had lately been in command of the fleet at Misenum and
had allowed lax discipline. To support him he was given one cohort of
the city garrison and the force of gladiators already serving under
him. The two parties encamped close to one another, and it was not
long before Julianus came over to Vespasian's side. They then joined
forces and occupied Tarracina,[156] which owed its strength more to
its walls and situation than to the character of its new garrison.
When news of this reached Vitellius, he left part of his force at 58
Narnia[157] with the prefects of the Guard,[158] and sent his brother
Lucius with six regiments of Guards and five hundred horse to cope
with the threatened outbreak in Campania. His own nervous depression
was somewhat relieved by the enthusiasm of the troops and of the
populace, who clamoured loudly for arms. For he dignified this
poor-spirited mob, which would never dare to do anything but shout, by
the specious titles of 'the army' or 'his legions'. His friends were
all untrustworthy in proportion to their eminence; but on the advice
of his freedmen he held a levy for conscription and swore in all who
gave their names. As their numbers were too great, he gave the task of
selection to the two consuls. From each of the senators he levied a
fixed number of slaves and a weight of silver. The knights offered
money and personal service, while even freedmen volunteered similar
assistance. Indeed, protestations of loyalty prompted by fear, had
gradually changed into real sympathy. People began to feel pity, not
perhaps so much for Vitellius as for the throne and its misfortunes.
He himself by his looks, his voice, his tears made ceaseless demands
upon their compassion, promising rewards lavishly and, as men do when
they are frightened, beyond all limits. He had hitherto refused the
title of Caesar,[159] but he now expressed a wish for it. He had a
superstitious respect for the name, and in moments of terror one
listens as much to gossip as to sound advice. However, while a rash
and ill-conceived undertaking may prosper at the outset, in time it
always begins to flag. Gradually the senators and knights deserted
him. At first they hesitated and waited till his back was turned, but
soon they ceased to care and openly showed their disrespect. At last
Vitellius grew ashamed of the failure of his efforts and excused them
from the services which they refused to render.
FOOTNOTES:
[145] This incident was probably another historical
commonplace. See the story from Plutarch (ii. 46, note 316),
which is also told by Suetonius and Dio.
[146] The prefects of the Guards (cp. ii. 92).
[147] At Misenum. (Leg. II Adjutrix.) The Ravenna marines were
on the Flavian side (see chap. 50).
[148] i.e. the rest of the Guards (2), with the city garrison (4),
and police (7) (cp. ii. 93).
[149] i.e. granting them special privileges denied to other
communities in the same province.
[150] A sort of 'half-way house to Roman citizenship'. Full
commercial rights were included but not those of
intermarriage. It was possible for individual citizens in a
Latin town to obtain the full rights of a Roman.
[151] Bevagna.
[152] Dio makes them vultures and the scene a sacrifice: they
scattered the victims and nearly knocked Vitellius off his
pulpit.
[153] Described in the following chapter.
[154] He had succeeded Bassus (iii. 12).
[155] Near the mouth of the Liris.
[156] Horace's 'Anxur perched on gleaming rocks'. It lay near
the Pontine marshes on the Appian way.
[157] Narni.
[158] Priscus and Varus (see chap. 55).
[159] i. 62, ii. 62.
THE PASSAGE OF THE APENNINES
The occupation of Mevania[160] had terrified Italy with the 59
prospect of a revival of the war, but Vitellius' cowardly retreat[161]
sensibly strengthened the popularity of the Flavian party. The
Samnites, Pelignians, and Marsians were now induced to rise. They were
jealous of Campania for stealing a march on them, and the change of
masters, as so often happens, made them perform all their military
duties with the utmost alacrity. But in crossing the Apennines
Antonius' army suffered severely from the rough December weather.
Though they met with no opposition, they found it hard enough to
struggle through the snow, and realized what danger they would have
had to face if Vitellius had not happened to turn back. Certainly
chance helped the Flavian generals quite as often as their own
strategy. Here they came across Petilius Cerialis,[162] who had been
enabled by his knowledge of the country to elude Vitellius' outposts,
disguised as a peasant. As he was a near relative of Vespasian and a
distinguished soldier he was given a place on the staff. Several
authorities say that Flavius Sabinus and Domitian[163] were also
afforded facilities for escape, and that Antonius sent messengers who
contrived by various devices to get through to them, and made
arrangements for an interview and safe conduct. Sabinus, however,
pleaded that his health was unequal to the fatigue of such a bold
step. Domitian was quite ready to venture, but although the guards to
whom Vitellius had entrusted him, promised that they would share his
flight, he was afraid they might be laying a trap for him. As a matter
of fact, Vitellius was too anxious for the safety of his own relatives
to plot any harm against Domitian.
Arrived at Carsulae[164] the Flavian generals took a few days' 60
rest and awaited the arrival of the main legionary force.[165] The
place suited them admirably for an encampment. It commanded a wide
view, and with so many prosperous towns in the rear their supplies
were safe. The Vitellians too, were only ten miles away, and they had
hopes of negotiating treason with them. The soldiers chafed at this
delay, preferring victory to peace. They did not even want to wait for
their own legions, for there would be more plunder than danger to
share with them. Antonius accordingly summoned a meeting of the men
and explained to them that Vitellius still had troops at his command.
Reflection might make them waver, despair would steel their hearts. In
civil war, he told them, the first steps may be left to chance,
nothing but careful strategy can win the final victory. The fleet at
Misenum and the richest districts of Campania had already deserted
Vitellius, and in the whole world nothing was left to him now except
the country between Narnia and Tarracina. The battle of Cremona had
brought them credit enough, and the destruction of the town more than
enough discredit. Their desire must be not to take Rome but to save
it. They would gain richer rewards and far more glory if they could
show that they had saved the senate and people of Rome without
shedding a drop of blood. Such considerations as these calmed their
excitement, and it was not long before the legions arrived.
Alarmed at the repute of this augmented army, Vitellius' Guards 61
began to waver. There was no one to encourage them to fight, while
many urged them to desert, being eager to hand over their companies or
squadrons to the enemy and by such a gift to secure the victor's
gratitude for the future. These also let the Flavians know that the
next camp at Interamna[166] had a garrison of four hundred cavalry.
Varus was promptly sent off with a light marching force, and the few
who offered resistance were killed. The majority threw away their arms
and begged for quarter. Some escaped to the main camp[167] and spread
universal panic by exaggerating the strength and prowess of the enemy,
in order to mitigate the disgrace of losing the fort. In the Vitellian
camp all offences went unpunished: desertion met with sure reward.
Their loyalty soon gave way and a competition in treachery began.
Tribunes and centurions deserted daily, but not the common soldiers,
who had grown stubbornly faithful to Vitellius. At last, however,
Priscus and Alfenus[168] abandoned the camp and returned to Vitellius,
thus finally releasing all the others from any obligation to blush for
their treachery.
About the same time Fabius Valens[169] was executed in his prison 62
at Urbinum, and his head was exhibited to Vitellius' Guards to show
them that further hope was vain. For they cherished a belief that
Valens had made his way into Germany, and was there mustering his old
force and fresh troops as well. This evidence of his death threw them
into despair. The Flavian army was vastly inspirited by it and
regarded Valens' death as the end of the war.
Valens had been born at Anagnia of an equestrian family. He was a man
of loose morality, not without intellectual gifts, who by indulging in
frivolity posed as a wit. In Nero's time he had acted in a
harlequinade at the Juvenalian Games.[170] At first he pleaded
compulsion, but afterwards he acted voluntarily, and his performances
were rather clever than respectable. Rising to the command of a
legion, he supported Verginius[171] and then defamed his character. He
murdered Fonteius Capito,[171] whose loyalty he had undermined--or
perhaps because he had failed to do so. He betrayed Galba and remained
faithful to Vitellius, a merit to which the treachery of others served
as a foil.
Now that their hopes were crushed on all sides, the Vitellians 63
prepared to go over to the enemy. But even at this crisis they saved
their honour by marching down with their standards and colours to the
plains below Narnia, where the Flavian army was drawn up in full
armour ready for battle in two deep lines on either side of the road.
The Vitellians marched in between and were surrounded. Antonius then
spoke to them kindly and told them to remain, some at Narnia and some
at Interamna. He also left behind some of the victorious legions,
which were strong enough to quell any outbreak but would not molest
them so long as they remained quiet.
FOOTNOTES:
[160] See chap. 55.
[161] See chap. 56.
[162] A distinguished officer, who successfully crushed the
rebellion on the Rhine (Book IV), and became governor of
Britain in 71.
[163] Vespasian's brother and younger son were both in Rome,
the former still holding the office of city prefect (cp. i. 46).
[164] Casigliano.
[165] From Verona (see chap. 52).
[166] Terni.
[167] At Narnia.
[168] The two prefects of the guard.
[169] See chap. 43.
[170] Properly a festival to celebrate the first cutting of
the beard. Nero forced high officials and their wives to take
part in unseemly performances (ii. 62), and the festivities
became a public scandal, culminating in Nero's own appearance
as a lyrist.
[171] See i. 7, 8.
THE ABDICATION OF VITELLIUS AND THE BURNING OF THE CAPITOL
During these days Antonius and Varus kept sending messages to
Vitellius, in which they offered him his life, a gift of money, and
the choice of a safe retreat in Campania, if he would stop the war and
surrender himself and his children to Vespasian. Mucianus wrote him
letters to the same effect. Vitellius usually took these offers
seriously and talked about the number of slaves he would have and the
choice of a seaside place. He had sunk, indeed, into such mental
torpor that, if other people had not remembered that he was an
emperor, he was certainly beginning to forget it himself. However, 64
it was to Flavius Sabinus, the City Prefect, that the leading men at
Rome addressed themselves. They urged him secretly not to lose all
share in the glory of victory. They pointed out that the City Garrison
was under his own command, and that he could count on the police and
their own bands of slaves, to say nothing of the good fortune of the
party and all the advantage that victory gives. He must not leave all
the glory to Antonius and Varus. Vitellius had nothing left but a few
regiments of guards, who were seriously alarmed at the bad news which
came from every quarter. As for the populace, their feelings soon
changed, and if he put himself at their head, they would be just as
loud in their flattery of Vespasian. Vitellius himself could not even
cope with success, and disaster had positively paralysed him. The
credit of ending the war would go to the man who seized the city. It
was eminently fitting that Sabinus should secure the throne for his
brother, and that Vespasian should hold him higher than any one else.
Age had enfeebled Sabinus, and he showed no alacrity to listen to 65
such talk as this. Some people covertly insinuated that he was jealous
of his brother's success and was trying to delay its realization.
Flavius Sabinus was the elder brother and, while they were both
private persons, he had been the richer and more influential. It was
also believed that he had been chary in helping Vespasian to recover
his financial position, and had taken a mortgage on his house and
estates. Consequently, though they remained openly friendly, there
were suspicions of a secret enmity between them. The more charitable
explanation is that Sabinus's gentle nature shrank from the idea of
bloodshed and massacre, and that this was his reason for so constantly
discussing with Vitellius the prospects of peace and a capitulation on
terms. After several interviews at his house they finally came to a
settlement--so the report went--at the Temple of Apollo.[172] To the
actual conversation there were only two witnesses, Cluvius Rufus[173]
and Silius Italicus,[174] but the expression of their faces was
watched from a distance. Vitellius was said to look abject and
demoralized: Sabinus showed less sign of pride than of pity.
Had Vitellius found it no harder to persuade his friends than to 66
make his own renunciation, Vespasian's army might have marched into
Rome without bloodshed. But as it was, each of his friends in
proportion to his loyalty persisted in refusing terms of peace. They
pointed to the danger and disgrace. Would their conqueror keep his
promises any longer than he liked? However great Vespasian's
self-confidence, he could not allow Vitellius to live in private. Nor
would the losers acquiesce: their very pity would be a menace.[175]
'Of course,' they said, 'you are an old man. You have done with
fortune, good or bad. But what sort of repute or position would your
son Germanicus[176] enjoy? At present they are promising you money and
a household, and the pleasant shores of Campania. But when once
Vespasian has seized the throne, neither he nor his friends nor even
his army will feel their safety assured until the rival claimant is
dead. They imprisoned Fabius Valens and meant to make use of him if a
crisis occurred, but they found him too great an incubus. You may be
sure that Antonius and Fuscus and that typical representative of the
party, Mucianus, will have no choice but to kill you. Julius Caesar
did not let Pompey live unmolested, nor Augustus Antony.[177] Do you
suppose that Vespasian's is a loftier disposition? Why, he was one of
your father's dependants,[178] when your father was Claudius's
colleague.[179] No, think of your father's censorship, his three
consulships,[179] and all the honour your great house has won. You
must not disgrace them. Despair, at least, should nerve your courage.
The troops are steadfast; you still enjoy the people's favour. Indeed,
nothing worse can happen to you than what we are eager to face of our
own free will. If we are defeated, we must die; if we surrender, we
must die. All that matters is whether we breathe our last amid mockery
and insult or bravely and with honour.'
But Vitellius was deaf to all courageous counsel. His mind was 67
obsessed with pity for his wife and children, and an anxious fear that
obstinate resistance might make the conqueror merciless towards them.
He had also a mother,[180] very old and infirm, but she had
opportunely died a few days before and thus forestalled the ruin of
her house. All she had got out of her son's principate was sorrow and
a good name. On December 17 he heard the news that the legion and the
Guards at Narnia had deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. He at
once put on mourning and left the palace, surrounded by his sorrowful
household. His small son was carried in a little litter, as though
this had been his funeral. The populace uttered untimely flatteries:
the soldiers kept an ominous silence.
On that day there was no one so indifferent to the tragedy of 68
human life as to be unmoved by this spectacle. A Roman emperor,
yesterday master of the inhabited world, had left the seat of his
authority, and was now passing through the streets of the city,
through the crowding populace, quitting the throne. Such a sight had
never been seen or heard of before. The dictator, Caesar, had been the
victim of sudden violence; Caligula of a secret conspiracy. Nero's had
been a stealthy flight to some obscure country house under cover of
night. Piso and Galba might almost be said to have fallen on the field
of battle. But here was Vitellius--before the assembly of his own
people, his own soldiers around him, with women even looking
on--uttering a few sentences suitable to his miserable situation. He
said it was in the interest of peace and of his country that he now
resigned. He begged them only to retain his memory in their hearts and
to take pity on his brother, his wife, and his little innocent
children. As he said this, he held out his son to them and commended
him, now to individuals, now to the whole assembly. At last tears
choked his voice. Turning to the consul, Caecilius Simplex,[181] who
was standing by, he unstrapped his sword and offered to surrender it
as a symbol of his power over the life and death of his subjects. The
consul refused. The people in the assembly shouted 'No'. So he left
them with the intention of depositing the regalia in the Temple of
Concord and then going to his brother's house. But he was faced with a
still louder uproar. They refused to let him enter a private house,
and shouted to him to return to the palace. They blocked every other
way and only left the road leading into the Via Sacra open.[182] Not
knowing what else to do, Vitellius returned to the palace.
A rumour of his abdication had preceded him, and Flavius Sabinus 69
had sent written instructions to the Guards'[183] officers to keep the
men in hand. Thus the whole empire seemed to have fallen into
Vespasian's lap. The chief senators, the majority of the knights, and
the whole of the city garrison and the police came flocking to the
house of Flavius Sabinus. There they heard the news of the popular
enthusiasm for Vitellius and the threatening attitude of the German
Guards.[184] But Sabinus had gone too far to draw back, and when he
showed hesitation, they all began to urge him to fight, each being
afraid for his own safety if the Vitellians were to fall on them when
they were disunited and consequently weaker. However, as so often
happens on these occasions, every one offered to give advice but few
to share the danger. While Sabinus' Body Guard were marching down by
the Fundane reservoir[185] they were attacked by some of the most
determined Vitellians. The surprise was unpremeditated, but the
Vitellians got the best of an unimportant skirmish. In the panic
Sabinus chose what was at the moment the safest course, and occupied
the summit of the Capitol,[186] where his troops were joined by a few
senators and knights. It is not easy to record their names, since
after Vespasian's victory crowds of people claimed credit for this
service to the party. There were even some women who endured the
siege, the most famous of them being Verulana Gratilla, who had
neither children nor relatives to attract her, but only her love of
danger.[187]
The Vitellians, who were investing them, kept a half-hearted watch,
and Sabinus was thus enabled to send for his own children and his
nephew Domitian at dead of night, dispatching a courier by an
unguarded route to tell the Flavian generals that he and his men were
under siege, and would be in great straits unless they were rescued.
All night, indeed, he was quite unmolested, and could have escaped
with perfect safety. The Vitellian troops could face danger with
spirit, but were much too careless in the task of keeping guard;
besides which a sudden storm of chilly rain interfered with their
sight and hearing.
At daybreak, before the two sides commenced hostilities, Sabinus 70
sent Cornelius Martialis, who had been a senior centurion, to
Vitellius with instructions to complain that the conditions were being
violated; that he had evidently made a mere empty show of abdication,
meant to deceive a number of eminent gentlemen. Else why had he gone
from the meeting to his brother's house, which caught the eye from a
conspicuous position overlooking the Forum, and not rather to his
wife's on the Aventine. That was the proper course for a private
citizen, anxious to avoid all pretension to supreme authority. But no,
Vitellius had returned to the palace, the very stronghold of imperial
majesty. From there he had launched a column of armed men, who had
strewn with innocent dead the most crowded quarter of Rome, and even
laid violent hands upon the Capitol. As for Sabinus himself, the
messenger was to say, he was only a civilian, a mere member of the
senate. While the issue was being decided between Vespasian and
Vitellius by the engagement of legions, the capture of towns, the
capitulation of cohorts; even when the provinces of Spain, of Germany,
of Britain, had risen in revolt; he, though Vespasian's brother, had
still remained faithful to his allegiance, until Vitellius, unasked,
began to invite him to a conference. Peace and union, he was to remind
him, serve the interest of the losers, and only the reputation of the
winners. If Vitellius regretted their compact, he ought not to take
arms against Sabinus, whom he had treacherously deceived, and against
Vespasian's son, who was still a mere boy. What was the good of
killing one youth and one old man? He ought rather to march out
against the legions and fight for the empire on the field. The result
of the battle would decide all other questions.
Greatly alarmed, Vitellius replied with a few words in which he tried
to excuse himself and throw the blame on his soldiers. 'I am too
unassuming,' he said, 'to cope with their overpowering impatience.' He
then warned Martialis to make his way out of the house by a secret
passage, for fear that the soldiers should kill him as an ambassador
of the peace to which they were so hostile. Vitellius himself was not
in a position to issue orders or prohibitions; no longer an emperor,
merely an excuse for war.
Martialis had hardly returned to the Capitol when the furious 71
soldiery arrived. They had no general to lead them: each was a law to
himself. Their column marched at full speed through the Forum and past
the temples overlooking it. Then in battle order they advanced up the
steep hill in front of them, until they reached the lowest gates of
the fortress on the Capitol. In old days there was a series of
colonnades at the side of this slope, on the right as you go up.
Emerging on to the roof of these, the besieged overwhelmed the
Vitellians with showers of stones and tiles. The attacking party
carried nothing but swords, and it seemed a long business to send for
siege-engines and missiles. So they flung torches into the
nearest[188] colonnade and, following in the wake of the flames, would
have burst through the burnt gates of the Capitol, if Sabinus had not
torn down all the available statues--the monuments of our ancestors'
glory--and built a sort of barricade on the very threshold. They then
tried to attack the Capitol by two opposite approaches, one near the
'Grove of Refuge'[189] and the other by the hundred steps which lead
up to the Tarpeian Rock. This double assault came as a surprise. That
by the Refuge was the closer and more vigorous. Nothing could stop the
Vitellians, who climbed up by some contiguous houses built on to the
side of the hill, which in the days of prolonged peace had been raised
to such a height that their roofs were level with the floor of the
Capitol. It is uncertain whether the buildings at this point were
fired by the assailants or--as tradition prefers--by the besieged in
trying to dislodge their enemies who had struggled up so far. The fire
spread to the colonnades adjoining the temples, and then the
'eagles'[190] supporting the roof, which were made of very old wood,
caught the flames and fed them. And so the Capitol, with its doors
fast shut, undefended and unplundered, was burnt to the ground.
Since the foundation of the city no such deplorable and horrible 72
disaster had ever befallen the people of Rome. It was no case of
foreign invasion. Had our own wickedness allowed, the country might
have been enjoying the blessings of a benign Providence; and yet here
was the seat of Jupiter Almighty--the temple solemnly founded by our
ancestors as the pledge of their imperial greatness, on which not even
Porsenna,[191] when Rome surrendered, nor the Gauls, when they took
it, had ever dared to lay rash hands--being brought utterly to ruin by
the mad folly of two rival emperors![192] The Capitol had been burnt
before in civil war,[193] but that was the crime of private persons.
Now it had been openly assaulted by the people of Rome and openly
burnt by them. And what was the cause of war? what the recompense for
such a disaster? Were we fighting for our country?
King Tarquinius Priscus had vowed to build this temple in the Sabine
war, and had laid the foundations on a scale that suited rather his
hope of the city's future greatness than the still moderate fortunes
of the Roman people. Later Servius Tullius, with the aid of Rome's
allies, and Tarquinius Superbus, with the spoils of the Volscians
after the capture of Suessa Pometia,[194] continued the building. But
the glory of completing it was reserved for the days of freedom. After
the expulsion of the kings, Horatius Pulvillus, in his second
consulship[195] dedicated this monument on such a magnificent scale,
that in later days, with all her boundless wealth, Rome has been able
to embellish but never to enlarge it. After an interval of four
hundred and fifteen years, in the consulship of Lucius Scipio and
Caius Norbanus,[196] it was burnt and rebuilt on the same site. Sulla
after his victory undertook the task of restoring it, but did not
dedicate it. This only was lacking to justify his title of 'Fortune's
Favourite'.[197] Much as the emperors did to it, the name of Lutatius
Catulus[198] still remained upon it up to the time of Vitellius.[199]
This was the temple that was now ablaze.
The besieged suffered more panic than their assailants. The 73
Vitellian soldiers lacked neither resource nor steadiness in moments
of crisis. But on the other side the troops were terrified, the
general[200] inert, and apparently so paralysed that he was
practically deaf and dumb. He neither adopted others' plans nor formed
any of his own, but only drifted about from place to place, attracted
by the shouts of the enemy, contradicting all his own orders. The
result was what always happens in a hopeless disaster: everybody gave
orders and nobody obeyed them. At last they threw away their weapons
and began to peer round for a way of escape or some means of hiding.
Then the Vitellians came bursting in, and with fire and sword made one
red havoc. A few good soldiers dared to show fight and were cut to
pieces. Of these the most notable were Cornelius Martialis,[201]
Aemilius Pacensis,[202] Casperius Niger, and Didius Scaeva. Flavius
Sabinus, who stood unarmed and making no attempt to escape, was
surrounded together with the consul Quintius Atticus,[203] whose empty
title made him a marked man, as well as his personal vanity, which had
led him to distribute manifestoes full of compliments to Vespasian and
insults against Vitellius. The rest escaped by various means. Some
disguised themselves as slaves: some were sheltered by faithful
dependants: some hid among the baggage. Others again caught the
Vitellians' password, by which they recognized each other, and
actually went about demanding it and giving it when challenged, thus
escaping under a cloak of effrontery.
When the enemy first broke in, Domitian had taken refuge with the 74
sacristan, and was enabled by the ingenuity of a freedman to escape
among a crowd of worshippers in a linen dress,[204] and to take refuge
near the Velabrum with Cornelius Primus, one of his father's
dependants. When his father came to the throne, Domitian pulled down
the sacristan's lodging and built a little chapel to Jupiter the
Saviour with an altar, on which his adventures were depicted in marble
relief. Later, when he became emperor, he dedicated a huge temple to
Jupiter the Guardian with a statue of himself in the lap of the god.
Sabinus and Atticus were loaded with chains and taken to Vitellius,
who received them without any language or looks of disfavour, much to
the chagrin of those who wanted to see them punished with death and
themselves rewarded for their successful labours. When those who stood
nearest started an outcry, the dregs of the populace soon began to
demand Sabinus' execution with mingled threats and flatteries.
Vitellius came out on to the steps of the palace prepared to plead for
him: but they forced him to desist. Sabinus was stabbed and riddled
with wounds: his head was cut off and the trunk dragged away to 75
the Ladder of Sighs.[205] Such was the end of a man who certainly
merits no contempt. He had served his country for thirty-five years,
and won credit both as civilian and soldier. His integrity and
fairness were beyond criticism. He talked too much about himself, but
this is the one charge which rumour could hint against him in the
seven years when he was Governor of Moesia, and the twelve years
during which he was Prefect of the City. At the end of his life some
thought he showed a lack of enterprise, but many believed him a
moderate man, who was anxious to save his fellow citizens from
bloodshed. In this, at any rate, all would agree, that before
Vespasian became emperor the reputation of his house rested on
Sabinus. It is said that Mucianus was delighted to hear of his murder,
and many people maintained that it served the interests of peace by
putting an end to the jealousy of two rivals, one of whom was the
emperor's brother, while the other posed as his partner in the
empire.[206]
When the people further demanded the execution of the consul,
Vitellius withstood them. He had forgiven Atticus, and felt that he
owed him a favour, for, when asked who had set fire to the Capitol,
Atticus had taken the blame on himself, by which avowal--or was it a
well-timed falsehood?--he had fixed all the guilt and odium on himself
and exonerated the Vitellian party.
FOOTNOTES:
[172] On the Palatine.
[173] See i. 8.
[174] A friend of Vitellius and the author of the historical
epic on the second Punic War.
[175] This apparently means that, if Vitellius were spared,
pity for his position would inspire his supporters to make
further trouble.
[176] See ii. 59.
[177] Two good points, but both untrue.
[178] This too is probably hyperbole, but Vespasian may have
owed his command in Germany to the influence of Vitellius'
father.
[179] See i. 52, note 99.
[180] See ii. 64, 89.
[181] See ii. 60.
[182] i.e. the way back from the Forum to the Palace.
[183] Including the city garrison and police.
[184] In chap. 78 we find three cohorts of Guards still
faithful to Vitellius, and, as it appears from ii. 93, 94 that
men from the legions of Germany had been enlisted in the
Guards, the term _Germanicae cohortes_ seems to refer to these
three cohorts, in which perhaps the majority were men from the
German army.
[185] Said to be on the Quirinal.
[186] Either the whole hill, or, if the expression is exact,
the south-west summit.
[187] This seems to have led her later into the paths of
conspiracy, for she is said to have been banished by Domitian
for her friendship with Arulenus Rusticus.
[188] _Prominentem_ seems to mean the one that projected
towards them.
[189] The space lying between the two peaks of the Capitoline.
[190] A technical term for the beams of the pediment.
[191] 'Lars Porsenna of Clusium,' 507 B.C.
[192] 'Burning the Capitol' was a proverb of utter iniquity.
[193] In the war between Sulla and Marius, 83 B.C.
[194] The capital town of the Volscians. This early history is
told in the first book of Livy.
[195] 507 B.C.
[196] 83 B.C. The interval is really 425 years.
[197] This, according to Pliny, was Sulla's own saying.
[198] Consul in 69 B.C. He took the title of Capitolinus.
[199] On the monument which details his exploits Augustus says
that he restored the Capitol at immense cost without
inscribing his name on it.
[200] Flavius Sabinus.
[201] Cp. chap. 70.
[202] Cp. i. 20, 87; ii. 12.
[203] Consul for November and December. His colleague,
Caecilius Simplex, was on the other side (see chap. 68).
[204] The dress of the worshippers of the Egyptian goddess
Isis, who considered woollen clothes unclean.
[205] A flight of steps leading down from the Capitol to the
Forum. On them the bodies of criminals were exposed after
execution.
[206] Mucianus.
THE TAKING OF TARRACINA
About this same time Lucius Vitellius,[207] who had pitched his 76
camp at the Temple of Feronia,[208] made every effort to destroy
Tarracina, where he had shut up the gladiators and sailors, who would
not venture to leave the shelter of the walls or to face death in the
open. The gladiators were commanded, as we have already seen,[209] by
Julianus, and the sailors by Apollinaris, men whose dissolute
inefficiency better suited gladiators than general officers. They set
no watch, and made no attempt to repair the weak places in the walls.
Day and night they idled loosely; the soldiers were dispatched in all
directions to find them luxuries; that beautiful coast rang with their
revelry; and they only spoke of war in their cups. A few days earlier,
Apinius Tiro[210] had started on his mission, and, by rigorously
requisitioning gifts of money in all the country towns, was winning
more unpopularity than assistance for the cause.
In the meantime, one of Vergilius Capito's slaves deserted to 77
Lucius Vitellius, and promised that, if he were provided with men, he
would put the abandoned castle into their hands. Accordingly, at dead
of night he established a few lightly armed cohorts on the top of the
hills which overlooked the enemy. Thence the soldiers came charging
down more to butchery than battle. They cut down their victims
standing helpless and unarmed or hunting for their weapons, or perhaps
newly startled from their sleep--all in a bewildering confusion of
darkness, panic, bugle-calls, and savage cries. A few of the
gladiators resisted and sold their lives dearly. The rest rushed to
the ships; and there the same panic and confusion reigned, for the
villagers were all mixed up with the troops, and the Vitellians
slaughtered them too, without distinction. Just as the first uproar
began, six Liburnian cruisers slipped away with the admiral
Apollinaris on board. The rest were either captured on the beach or
overweighted and sunk by the crowds that clambered over them. Julianus
was taken to Lucius Vitellius, who had him flogged till he bled and
then killed before his eyes. Some writers have accused Lucius
Vitellius' wife, Triaria,[211] of putting on a soldier's sword, and
with insolent cruelty showing herself among the horrors of the
captured town. Lucius himself sent a laurel-wreath to his brother in
token of his success, and inquired whether he wished him to return at
once or to continue reducing Campania. This delay saved not only
Vespasian's party but Rome as well. Had he marched on the city while
his men were fresh from their victory, with the flush of success added
to their natural intrepidity, there would have been a tremendous
struggle, which must have involved the city's destruction. Lucius
Vitellius, too, for all his evil repute, was a man of action. Good men
owe their power to their virtues; but he was one of that worst sort
whose vices are their only virtue.
FOOTNOTES:
[207] See chap. 58.
[208] An Italian goddess of freedom. The temple is mentioned
in Horace's _Journey to Brundisium_, where Anxur = Tarracina,
which was three miles from the temple.
[209] Chap. 57.
[210] He was in command of the rebels from the fleet at
Misenum, and engaged in bringing over the country-towns (see
chap. 57).
[211] Cp. chaps. 63 and 64.
THE SACK OF ROME AND THE END OF VITELLIUS
While things[212] went thus on Vitellius' side, the Flavian army 78
after leaving Narnia spent the days of the Saturnalian holiday[213]
quietly at Ocriculum.[214] The object of this disastrous delay was to
wait for Mucianus. Antonius has been suspected of delaying
treacherously after receiving a secret communication from Vitellius,
offering him as the price of treason the consulship, his young
daughter, and a rich dowry. Others hold that this story was invented
to gratify Mucianus. Many consider that the policy of all the Flavian
generals was rather to threaten the city than to attack it. They
realized that Vitellius had lost the best cohorts of his Guards, and
now that all his forces were cut off they expected he would abdicate.
But this prospect was spoilt first by Sabinus' precipitation and then
by his cowardice, for, after very rashly taking arms, he failed to
defend against three cohorts of Guards the strongly fortified castle
on the Capitol, which ought to have been impregnable even to a large
army. However, it is not easy to assign to any one man the blame which
they all share. Even Mucianus helped to delay the victors' advance by
the ambiguity of his dispatches, and Antonius was also to blame for
his untimely compliance with instructions--or else for trying to throw
the responsibility[215] on Mucianus. The other generals thought the
war was over, and thus rendered its final scene all the more
appalling. Petilius Cerialis was sent forward with a thousand cavalry
to make his way by cross-roads through the Sabine country, and enter
the city by the Salarian road.[216] But even he failed to make
sufficient haste, and at last the news of the siege of the Capitol
brought them all at once to their senses.
Marching up the Flaminian road, it was already deep night when 79
Antonius reached 'The Red Rocks'.[217] His help had come too late.
There he heard that Sabinus had been killed, and the Capitol burnt;
the city was in panic; everything looked black; even the populace and
the slaves were arming for Vitellius. Petilius Cerialis, too, had been
defeated in a cavalry engagement. He had pushed on without caution,
thinking the enemy already beaten, and the Vitellians with a mixed
force of horse and foot had caught him unawares. The engagement had
taken place near the city among farm buildings and gardens and winding
lanes, with which the Vitellians were familiar, while the Flavians
were terrified by their ignorance. Besides, the troopers were not all
of one mind; some of them belonged to the force which had recently
surrendered at Narnia, and were waiting to see which side won. Julius
Flavianus, who commanded a regiment of cavalry, was taken prisoner.
The rest fell into a disgraceful panic and fled, but the pursuit was
not continued beyond Fidenae.
This success served to increase the popular excitement. The city 80
rabble now took arms. A few had service-shields: most of them snatched
up any weapons they could find and clamoured to be given the sign for
battle. Vitellius expressed his gratitude to them and bade them sally
forth to protect the city. He then summoned a meeting of the senate,
at which envoys were appointed to go to the two armies and urge them
in the name of public welfare to accept peace. The fortunes of the
envoys varied. Those who approached Petilius Cerialis found themselves
in dire danger, for the soldiers indignantly refused their terms. The
praetor, Arulenus Rusticus,[218] was wounded. Apart from the wrong
done to a praetor and an envoy, the man's own acknowledged worth made
this seem all the more scandalous. His companions were flogged, and
the lictor nearest to him was killed for venturing to make a way
through the crowd. Indeed, if the guard provided by the general had
not intervened, a Roman envoy, the sanctity of whose person even
foreign nations respect, might have been wickedly murdered in the mad
rage of civil strife under the very walls of Rome. Those who went to
Antonius met with a more reasonable reception; not that the soldiers
were less violent, but the general had more authority.
A knight named Musonius Rufus had attached himself to the envoys. 81
He was a student of philosophy and an enthusiastic advocate of
Stoicism. He mingled with the armed soldiers offering them advice and
discoursing on the advantages of peace and the perils of war. This
amused many of them and bored still more. Some, indeed, wanted to
maul him and kick him out, but the advice of the more sober spirits
and the threats of others persuaded him to cut short his ill-timed
lecture. The Vestal Virgins, too, came in procession to bring Antonius
a letter from Vitellius, in which he demanded one day's postponement
of the final crisis, saying that everything could easily be settled,
if only they would grant this respite. Antonius sent the Virgins away
with all respect, and wrote in answer to Vitellius that the murder of
Sabinus and the burning of the Capitol had broken off all
negotiations. However, he summoned the legions to a meeting and 82
endeavoured to mollify them, proposing that they should pitch their
camp near the Mulvian Bridge and enter the city on the following day.
His motive for delay was a fear that the troops, when once their blood
was up after a skirmish, would have no respect for civilians or
senators, or even for the temples and shrines of the gods. But they
suspected every postponement as a hindrance to their victory.
Moreover, some colours which were seen glittering along the hills,
gave the impression of a hostile force, although none but peaceful
citizens accompanied them.
The attack was made in three columns. One advanced from its original
position on the Flaminian road, one kept near the bank of the Tiber,
and the third approached the Colline Gate along the Salarian road. The
cavalry rode into the mob and scattered them. But the Vitellian troops
faced the enemy, themselves, too, in three separate divisions. Again
and again they engaged before the walls with varying success. But the
Flavians had the advantage of being well led and thus more often won
success. Only one of the attacking parties suffered at all severely,
that which had made its way along narrow, greasy lanes to Sallust's
Gardens[219] on the left side of the city. Standing on the garden
walls, the Vitellians hurled stones and javelins down upon them and
held them back until late in the day. But at last the cavalry forced
an entrance by the Colline Gate and took the defenders in the rear.
Then the opposing forces met on the Martian Plain itself. Fortune
favoured the Flavians and the sense of victories won. The Vitellians
charged in sheer despair, but, though driven back, they gathered again
in the city.
The people came and watched the fighting, cheering and applauding 83
now one side, now the other, like spectators at a gladiatorial
contest. Whenever one side gave ground, and the soldiers began to hide
in shops or seek refuge in some private house, they clamoured for them
to be dragged out and killed, and thus got the greater part of the
plunder for themselves: for while the soldiers were busy with the
bloody work of massacre, the spoil fell to the crowd. The scene
throughout the city was hideous and terrible: on the one side fighting
and wounded men, on the other baths and restaurants: here lay heaps of
bleeding dead, and close at hand were harlots and their
companions--all the vice and licence of luxurious peace, and all the
crime and horror of a captured town. One might well have thought the
city mad with fury and mad with pleasure at the same time. Armies had
fought in the city before this, twice when Sulla mastered Rome,[220]
once under Cinna.[221] Nor were there less horrors then. What was now
so inhuman was the people's indifference. Not for one minute did they
interrupt the life of pleasure. The fighting was a new amusement for
their holiday.[222] Caring nothing for either party, they enjoyed
themselves in riotous dissipation and took a frank pleasure in their
country's disaster.
The storming of the Guards' camp was the most troublesome task. It 84
was still held by some of the bravest as a forlorn hope, which made
the victors all the more eager to take it, especially those who had
originally served in the Guards. They employed against it every means
ever devised for the storming of the most strongly fortified towns, a
'tortoise',[223] artillery, earthworks, firebrands. This, they cried,
was the crown of all the toil and danger they had undergone in all
their battles. They had restored the city to the senate and people of
Rome, and their Temples to the gods: the soldier's pride is his camp,
it is his country and his home. If they could not regain it at once,
they must spend the night in fighting. The Vitellians, for their part,
had numbers and fortune against them, but by marring their enemy's
victory, by postponing peace, by fouling houses and altars with their
blood, they embraced the last consolations that the conquered can
enjoy. Many lay more dead than alive on the towers and ramparts of the
walls and there expired. When the gates were torn down, the remainder
faced the conquerors in a body. And there they fell, every man of them
facing the enemy with all his wounds in front. Even as they died they
took care to make an honourable end.
When the city was taken, Vitellius left the Palace by a back way and
was carried in a litter to his wife's house on the Aventine. If he
could lie hid during the day, he hoped to make his escape to his
brother and the Guards at Tarracina. But it is in the very nature of
terror that, while any course looks dangerous, the present state of
things seems worst of all. His fickle determination soon changed and
he returned to the vast, deserted Palace, whence even the lowest of
his menials had fled, or at least avoided meeting him. Shuddering at
the solitude and hushed silence of the place, he wandered about,
trying closed doors, terrified to find the rooms empty; until at last,
wearied with his miserable search, he crept into some shameful
hiding-place. There Julius Placidus, an officer of the Guards, found
him and dragged him out. His hands were tied behind his back, his
clothes were torn, and thus he was led forth--a loathly spectacle at
which many hurled insults and no one shed a single tear of pity. The
ignominy of his end killed all compassion. On the way a soldier of the
German army either aimed an angry blow at him, or tried to put him
out of his shame, or meant, perhaps, to strike the officer in command;
at any rate, he cut off the officer's ear and was immediately stabbed.
With the points of their swords they made Vitellius hold up his 85
head and face their insults, forcing him again and again to watch his
own statues hurtling down, or to look at the Rostra and the spot where
Galba had been killed. At last he was dragged along to the Ladder of
Sighs,[224] where the body of Flavius Sabinus had lain. One saying of
his which was recorded had a ring of true nobility. When some officer
flung reproaches at him, he answered, 'And yet I was once your
emperor.' After that he fell under a shower of wounds, and when he was
dead the mob abused him as loudly as they had flattered him in his
lifetime--and with as little reason.
Vitellius' home was at Luceria.[225] He was in his fifty-seventh 86
year, and had won the consulship, priesthoods, and a name and position
among Rome's greatest men, all of which he owed to no efforts of his
own, but solely to his father's eminence.[226] Those who offered him
the throne had not yet learnt to know him; and yet his slothful
cowardice won from his soldiers an enthusiasm which the best of
generals have rarely evoked. Still he had the qualities of candour and
generosity, which without moderation are liable to prove disastrous.
He had few friends, though he bought many, thinking to keep them, not
by showing moral stamina, but by giving liberal presents. It was
indubitably good for the country that Vitellius should be beaten. But
those who betrayed him to Vespasian can hardly make a merit of their
perfidy, for they were the very men who had deserted Galba for
Vitellius.
The day was already sinking into evening. The magistrates and senators
had fled in terror from the city, or were still in hiding at
dependants' houses: it was therefore impossible to call a meeting of
the senate. When all fear of violence was at an end, Domitian came
out[227] and presented himself to the generals of his party. The
crowds of soldiers at once hailed him as Caesar, and marched off,
still in full armour, to escort him to his father's house.
FOOTNOTES:
[212] The narrative is continued from chap. 63.
[213] December 17-23.
[214] Otricoli.
[215] i.e. for the delay which gave time for the burning of
the Capitol. The fact that he tried to shift the
responsibility seemed to argue an uncomfortable conscience.
[216] i.e. through the Colline Gate.
[217] Grotta Rosa.
[218] A well-known member of the Stoic opposition, executed by
Domitian's order, A.D. 94.
[219] The historian. They now belonged to the emperor.
[220] 88 and 82 B.C.
[221] 87 B.C.
[222] The Saturnalia.
[223] See chap. 27, note 77.
[224] Cp. note 205.
[225] The words are uncertain. There is probably a lacuna.
[226] Cp. vol. i, note 99.
[227] He had taken refuge with a humble friend (see chap. 74).
BOOK IV
ROME AFTER THE FALL OF VITELLIUS
(January-July, A.D. 70)
The death of Vitellius ended the war without inaugurating peace. 1
The victors remained under arms, and the defeated Vitellians were
hunted through the city with implacable hatred, and butchered
promiscuously wherever they were found. The streets were choked with
corpses; squares and temples ran with blood. Soon the riot knew no
restraint; they began to hunt for those who were in hiding and to drag
them out. All who were tall and of youthful appearance, whether
soldiers or civilians, were cut down indiscriminately.[228] While
their rage was fresh they sated their savage cravings with blood; then
suddenly the instinct of greed prevailed. On the pretext of hunting
for hidden enemies, they would leave no door unopened and regard no
privacy. Thus they began to rifle private houses or else made
resistance an excuse for murder. There were plenty of needy citizens,
too, and of rascally slaves, who were perfectly ready to betray
wealthy householders: others were indicated by their friends. From all
sides came cries of mourning and misery. Rome was like a captured
city. People even longed to have the insolent soldiery of Otho and
Vitellius back again, much as they had been hated. The Flavian
generals, who had fanned the flame of civil war with such energy, were
incapable of using their victory temperately. In riot and disorder the
worst characters take the lead; peace and quiet call for the highest
qualities.
Domitian having secured the title and the official residence of a 2
Caesar,[229] did not as yet busy himself with serious matters, but in
his character of emperor's son devoted himself to dissolute intrigues.
Arrius Varus[230] took command of the Guards, but the supreme
authority rested with Antonius Primus. He removed money and slaves
from the emperor's house as though he were plundering Cremona. The
other generals, from excess of modesty or lack of spirit, shared
neither the distinctions of the war nor the profits of peace.
People in Rome were now so nervous and so resigned to despotism that
they demanded that Lucius Vitellius and his force of Guards should be
surprised on their way back from Tarracina,[231] and the last sparks
of the war stamped out. Some cavalry were sent forward to Aricia,
while the column of the legions halted short of Bovillae.[232]
Vitellius, however, lost no time in surrendering himself and his
Guards to the conqueror's discretion, and the men flung away their
unlucky swords more in anger than in fear. The long line of prisoners
filed through the city between ranks of armed guards. None looked like
begging for mercy. With sad, set faces they remained sternly
indifferent to the applause or the mockery of the ribald crowd. A few
tried to break away, but were surrounded and overpowered. The rest
were put in prison. Not one of them gave vent to any unseemly
complaint. Through all their misfortunes they preserved their
reputation for courage. Lucius Vitellius was then executed. He was as
weak as his brother, though during the principate he showed himself
less indolent. Without sharing his brother's success, he was carried
away on the flood of his disaster.
At this time Lucilius Bassus[233] was sent off with a force of 3
light horse to quell the disquiet in Campania, which was caused more
by the mutual jealousy of the townships than by any opposition to the
emperor. The sight of the soldiers restored order. The smaller
colonies were pardoned, but at Capua the Third legion[234] was left in
winter quarters and some of the leading families fined.[235]
Tarracina, on the other hand, received no relief. It is always easier
to requite an injury than a service: gratitude is a burden, but
revenge is found to pay. Their only consolation was that one of
Vergilius Capito's slaves, who had, as we have seen,[236] betrayed
the town, was hanged on the gallows with the very rings[237] on his
fingers which Vitellius had given him to wear.
At Rome the senate decreed to Vespasian all the usual prerogatives of
the principate.[238] They were now happy and confident. Seeing that
the civil war had broken out in the provinces of Gaul and Spain, and
after causing a rebellion first in Germany and then in Illyricum, had
spread to Egypt, Judaea, Syria,[239] and in fact to all the provinces
and armies of the empire, they felt that the world had been purged as
by fire and that all was now over. Their satisfaction was still
further enhanced by a letter from Vespasian, which at first sight
seemed to be phrased as if the war was still going on. Still his tone
was that of an emperor, though he spoke of himself as a simple citizen
and gave his country all the glory. The senate for its part showed no
lack of deference. They decreed that Vespasian himself should be
consul with Titus for his colleague, and on Domitian they conferred
the praetorship with the powers of a consul.[240]
Mucianus had also addressed a letter to the senate which gave rise 4
to a good deal of talk.[241] If he were a private citizen, why adopt
the official tone? He could have expressed the same opinions a few
days later from his place in the House. Besides, his attack on
Vitellius came too late to prove his independence, and what seemed
particularly humiliating for the country and insulting to the emperor
was his boast that he had held the empire in the hollow of his hand,
and had given it to Vespasian. However, they concealed their ill-will
and made a great show of flattery, decreeing to Mucianus in the most
complimentary terms full triumphal honours, which were really given
him for his success against his fellow countrymen, though they trumped
up an expedition to Sarmatia as a pretext.[242] On Antonius Primus
they conferred the insignia of the consulship, and those of the
praetorship on Cornelius Fuscus and Arrius Varus. Then came the turn
of the gods: it was decided to restore the Capitol. These proposals
were all moved by the consul-designate, Valerius Asiaticus.[243] The
others signified assent by smiling and holding up their hands, though
a few, who were particularly distinguished, or especially practised in
the art of flattery, delivered set speeches. When it came to the turn
of Helvidius Priscus, the praetor-designate, he expressed himself in
terms which, while doing honour to a good emperor, were perfectly
frank and honest.[244] The senate showed their keen approval, and it
was this day which first won for him great disfavour and great
distinction.
Since I have had occasion to make a second allusion[245] to a man 5
whom I shall often have to mention again,[246] it may be well to give
here a brief account of his character and ideals, and of his fortune
in life. Helvidius Priscus came from the country town of Cluviae.[247]
His father had been a senior centurion in the army. From his early
youth Helvidius devoted his great intellectual powers to the higher
studies, not as many people do, with the idea of using a philosopher's
reputation as a cloak for indolence,[248] but rather to fortify
himself against the caprice of fortune when he entered public life. He
became a follower of that school of philosophy[249] which holds that
honesty is the one good thing in life and sin the only evil, while
power and rank and other such external things, not being qualities of
character, are neither good nor bad. He had risen no higher than the
rank of quaestor when Paetus Thrasea chose him for his son-in-law,[250]
and of Thrasea's virtues he absorbed none so much as his independence.
As citizen, senator, husband, son-in-law, friend, in every sphere of
life he was thoroughly consistent, always showing contempt for money,
stubborn persistence in the right, and courage in the face of danger.
Some people thought him too ambitious, for even with philosophers 6
the passion for fame is often their last rag of infirmity. After
Thrasea's fall Helvidius was banished, but he returned to Rome under
Galba and proceeded to prosecute Eprius Marcellus,[251] who had
informed against his father-in-law. This attempt to secure a revenge,
as bold as it was just, divided the senate into two parties, for the
fall of Marcellus would involve the ruin of a whole army of similar
offenders. At first the struggle was full of recrimination, as the
famous speeches on either side testify; but after a while, finding
that Galba's attitude was doubtful and that many of the senators
begged him to desist, Helvidius dropped the prosecution. On his action
in this matter men's comments varied with their character, some
praising his moderation, others asking what had become of his
tenacity.
To return to the senate: at the same meeting at which they voted
powers to Vespasian they also decided to send a deputation to address
him. This gave rise to a sharp dispute between Helvidius Priscus and
Eprius Marcellus. The former thought the members of the deputation
ought to be nominated by magistrates acting under oath; Marcellus
demanded their selection by lot. The consul-designate had already 7
spoken in favour of the latter method, but Marcellus' motive was
personal vanity, for he was afraid that if others were chosen he
would seem slighted. Their exchange of views gradually grew into a
formal and acrimonious debate. Helvidius inquired why it was that
Marcellus was so afraid of the magistrates' judgement, seeing that he
himself had great advantages of wealth and of eloquence over many
others. Could it be the memory of his misdeeds that so oppressed him?
The fall of the lot could not discern character: but the whole point
of submitting people to the vote and to scrutiny by the senate was to
get at the truth about each man's life and reputation. In the interest
of the country, and out of respect to Vespasian, it was important that
he should be met by men whom the senate considered beyond reproach,
men who would give the emperor a taste for honest language. Vespasian
had been a friend of Thrasea, Soranus, and Sentius,[252] and even
though there might be no need to punish their prosecutors, still it
would be wrong to put them forward. Moreover, the senate's selection
would be a sort of hint to the emperor whom to approve and whom to
avoid. 'Good friends are the most effective instruments of good
government. Marcellus ought to be content with having driven Nero to
destroy so many innocent people. Let him enjoy the impunity and the
profit he has won from that, and leave Vespasian to more honest
advisers.'
Marcellus replied that the opinion which was being impugned was not 8
his own. The consul-designate had already advised them to follow the
established precedent, which was that deputations should be chosen by
lot, so that there should be no room for intrigue or personal
animosity. Nothing had happened to justify them in setting aside such
an ancient system. Why turn a compliment to the emperor into a slight
upon some one else? Anybody could do homage. What they had to avoid
was the possibility that some people's obstinacy might irritate the
emperor at the outset of his reign, while his intentions were
undecided and he was still busy watching faces and listening to what
was said. 'I have not forgotten,' he went on, 'the days of my youth or
the constitution which our fathers and grandfathers established.[253]
But while admiring a distant past, I support the existing state of
things. I pray for good emperors, but I take them as they come. As for
Thrasea, it was not my speech but the senate's verdict which did for
him. Nero took a savage delight in farces like that trial, and,
really, the friendship of such an emperor cost me as much anxiety as
banishment did to others. In fine, Helvidius may be as brave and as
firm as any Brutus or Cato; I am but a senator and we are all slaves
together. Besides, I advise my friend not to try and get an upper hand
with our emperor or to force his tuition on a man of ripe years,[254]
who wears the insignia of a triumph and is the father of two grown
sons. Bad rulers like absolute sovereignty, and even the best of them
must set some limit to their subjects' independence.'
This heated interchange of arguments found supporters for both views.
The party which wanted the deputies chosen by lot eventually
prevailed, since even the moderates were anxious to observe the
precedent, and all the most prominent members tended to vote with
them, for fear of encountering ill-feeling if they were selected.
This dispute was followed by another. The Praetors, who in those 9
days administered the Treasury,[255] complained of the spread of
poverty in the country and demanded some restriction of expenditure.
The consul-designate said that, as the undertaking would be so vast
and the remedy so difficult, he was in favour of leaving it for the
emperor. Helvidius maintained that it ought to be settled by the
senate's decision. When the consuls began to take each senator's
opinion, Vulcacius Tertullinus, one of the tribunes, interposed his
veto, on the ground that they could not decide such an important
question in the emperor's absence. Helvidius had previously moved that
the Capitol should be restored at the public cost, and with the
assistance of Vespasian. The moderates all passed over this suggestion
in silence and soon forgot it, but there were others who took care to
remember it.[256]
It was at this time that Musonius Rufus[257] brought an action 10
against Publius Celer on the ground that it was only by perjury that
he had secured the conviction of Soranus Barea.[258] It was felt that
this trial restarted the hue and cry against professional accusers.
But the defendant was a rascal of no importance who could not be
sheltered, and, moreover, Barea's memory was sacred. Celer had set up
as a teacher of philosophy and then committed perjury against his
pupil Barea, thus treacherously violating the very principles of
friendship which he professed to teach. The case was put down for the
next day's meeting.[259] But now that a taste for revenge was aroused,
people were all agog to see not so much Musonius and Publius as
Priscus and Marcellus and the rest in court.
Thus the senate quarrelled; the defeated party nursed their 11
grievances; the winners had no power to enforce their will; law was in
abeyance and the emperor absent. This state of things continued until
Mucianus arrived in Rome and took everything into his own hands. This
shattered the supremacy of Antonius and Varus, for, though Mucianus
tried to show a friendly face towards them, he was not very
successful in concealing his dislike. But the people of Rome, having
acquired great skill in detecting strained relations, had already
transferred their allegiance. Mucianus was now the sole object of
their flattering attentions. And he lived up to them. He surrounded
himself with an armed escort, and kept changing his house and gardens.
His display, his public appearances, the night-watch that guarded him,
all showed that he had adopted the style of an emperor while forgoing
the title. The greatest alarm was aroused by his execution of
Calpurnius Galerianus, a son of Caius Piso.[260] He had attempted no
treachery, but his distinguished name and handsome presence had made
the youth a subject of common talk, and the country was full of
turbulent spirits who delighted in revolutionary rumours and idly
talked of his coming to the throne. Mucianus gave orders that he
should be arrested by a body of soldiers, and to avoid a conspicuous
execution in the heart of the city, they marched him forty miles along
the Appian road, where they severed his veins and let him bleed to
death. Julius Priscus, who had commanded the Guards under Vitellius,
committed suicide, more from shame than of necessity. Alfenus Varus
survived the disgrace of his cowardice.[261] Asiaticus,[262] who was a
freedman, paid for his malign influence by dying the death of a
slave.[263]
FOOTNOTES:
[228] Because they were taken for members of Vitellius' German
auxiliary cohorts.
[229] Cp. iii. 86 sub fin.
[230] Cp. iii. 6.
[231] See iii. 76.
[232] These three towns are all on the Appian Way, Bovillae
ten miles from Rome, Aricia sixteen, Tarracina fifty-nine, on
the coast.
[233] Cp. iii. 12.
[234] Gallica.
[235] Capua had adhered to Vitellius. Tarracina had been held
for Vespasian (cp. iii. 57).
[236] See iii. 77.
[237] The insignia of equestrian rank (cp. i. 13).
[238] The chief of these were the powers of tribune,
pro-consul, and censor, and the title of Augustus (cp. i. 47,
ii. 55).
[239] Vindex had risen in Gaul; Galba in Spain; Vitellius in
Germany; Antonius Primus in the Danube provinces (Illyricum);
Vespasian and Mucianus in Judaea, Syria, and Egypt.
[240] This was necessary in the absence of Vespasian and Titus.
[241] See vol. i, note 339.
[242] A triumph could, of course, be held only for victories
over a foreign enemy. Here the pretext was the repulse of the
Dacians (iii. 46).
[243] Vitellius' son-in-law (cp. i. 59).
[244] In the text some words seem to be missing here, but the
general sense is clear.
[245] Cp. ii. 91.
[246] If Tacitus ever told the story of his banishment and
death, his version has been lost with the rest of his history
of Vespasian's reign.
[247] In Samnium.
[248] i.e. shirking the duties of public life.
[249] i.e. the Stoic.
[250] See ii. 91.
[251] Cp. ii. 53.
[252] Soranus, like Thrasea, was a Stoic who opposed the
government mainly on moral grounds. The story of their end is
told in the _Annals_, Book XVI. Sentius was presumably another
member of their party.
[253] He refers to Augustus' regularization of the principate.
[254] Fifty-nine.
[255] The administration of this office was changed several
times in the first century of the empire. Here we have a
reversion to Augustus' second plan. Trajan restored Augustus'
original plan--also adopted by Nero--of appointing special
Treasury officials from the ex-praetors.
[256] His offence lay in assigning to the emperor a merely
secondary position.
[257] His ill-timed advocacy of Stoicism is mentioned iii. 81.
[258] Described in the _Annals_, xvi. 32.
[259] The description of this is postponed to chap. 40. Celer
was convicted.
[260] C. Piso had conspired against Nero, A.D. 65.
[261] They had both abandoned their camp at Narnia (cp. iii. 61).
[262] Cp. ii. 57.
[263] i.e. he was crucified.
THE REVOLT OF CIVILIS AND THE BATAVI
The growing rumour of a reverse in Germany[264] had not as yet 12
caused any alarm in Rome. People alluded to the loss of armies, the
capture of the legions' winter quarters, the defection of the Gallic
provinces as matters of indifference. I must now go back and explain
the origin of this war, and of the widespread rebellion of foreign and
allied tribes which now broke into flame.
The Batavi were once a tribe of the Chatti,[265] living on the further
bank of the Rhine. But an outbreak of civil war had driven them across
the river, where they settled in a still unoccupied district on the
frontier of Gaul and also in the neighbouring island, enclosed on one
side by the ocean and on the other three sides by the Rhine.[266]
There they fared better than most tribes who ally themselves to a
stronger power. Their resources are still intact, and they have only
to contribute men and arms for the imperial army.[267] After a long
training in the German wars, they still further increased their
reputation in Britain, where their troops had been sent, commanded
according to an ancient custom by some of the noblest chiefs. There
still remained behind in their own country a picked troop of horsemen
with a peculiar knack of swimming, which enabled them to make a
practice[268] of crossing the Rhine with unbroken ranks without losing
control of their horses or their weapons.
Of their chieftains two outshone the rest. These were Julius 13
Paulus and Julius Civilis, both of royal stock. Paulus had been
executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion.[269] On
the same occasion Civilis was sent in chains to Nero. Galba, however,
set him free, and under Vitellius he again ran great risk of his life,
when the army clamoured for his execution.[270] This gave him a motive
for hating Rome, and our misfortunes fed his hopes. He was, indeed,
far cleverer than most barbarians, and professed to be a second
Sertorius or Hannibal, because they all three had the same physical
defect.[271] He was afraid that if he openly rebelled against the
Roman people they would treat him as an enemy, and march on him at
once, so he pretended to be a keen supporter of Vespasian's party.
This much was true, that Antonius Primus had written instructing him
to divert the auxiliaries whom Vitellius had summoned, and to delay
the legions on the pretence of a rising in Germany. Moreover,
Hordeonius Flaccus[272] had given him the same advice in person, for
Flaccus was inclined to support Vespasian and anxious for the safety
of Rome, which was threatened with utter disaster, if the war were to
break out afresh and all these thousands of troops come pouring into
Italy.
Having thus made up his mind to rebel, Civilis concealed in the 14
meantime his ulterior design, and while intending to guide his
ultimate policy by future events, proceeded to initiate the rising as
follows. The young Batavians were by Vitellius' orders being pressed
for service, and this burden was being rendered even more irksome than
it need have been by the greed and depravity of the recruiting
officers. They took to enrolling elderly men and invalids so as to get
bribes for excusing them: or, as most of the Batavi are tall and
good-looking in their youth, they would seize the handsomest boys for
immoral purposes. This caused bad feeling; an agitation was organized,
and they were persuaded to refuse service. Accordingly, on the pretext
of giving a banquet, Civilis summoned the chief nobles and the most
determined of the tribesmen to a sacred grove. Then, when he saw them
excited by their revelry and the late hour of the night, he began to
speak of the glorious past of the Batavi and to enumerate the wrongs
they had suffered, the injustice and extortion and all the evils of
their slavery. 'We are no longer treated,' he said, 'as we used to be,
like allies, but like menials and slaves. Why, we are never even
visited by an imperial Governor[273]--irksome though the insolence of
his staff would be. We are given over to prefects and centurions; and
when these subordinates have had their fill of extortion and of
bloodshed, they promptly find some one to replace them, and then there
are new pockets to fill and new pretexts for plunder. Now conscription
is upon us: children are to be torn from parents, brother from
brother, never, probably, to meet again. And yet the fortunes of Rome
were never more depressed. Their cantonments contain nothing but loot
and a lot of old men. Lift up your eyes and look at them. There is
nothing to fear from legions that only exist on paper.[274] And we are
strong. We have infantry and cavalry: the Germans are our kinsmen: the
Gauls share our ambition. Even the Romans will be grateful if we go to
war.[275] If we fail, we can claim credit for supporting Vespasian: if
we succeed, there will be no one to call us to account.'
His speech was received with great approval, and he at once bound 15
them all to union, using the barbarous ceremonies and strange oaths of
his country. They then sent to the Canninefates to join their
enterprise. This tribe inhabits part of the Island,[276] and though
inferior in numbers to the Batavi, they are of the same race and
language and the same courageous spirit. Civilis next sent secret
messages to win over the Batavian troops, which after serving as Roman
auxiliaries in Britain had been sent, as we have already seen,[277] to
Germany and were now stationed at Mainz.[278]
One of the Canninefates, Brinno by name, was a man of distinguished
family and stubborn courage. His father had often ventured acts of
hostility, and had with complete impunity shown his contempt for
Caligula's farcical expedition.[279] To belong to such a family of
rebels was in itself a recommendation. He was accordingly placed on a
shield, swung up on the shoulders of his friends, and thus elected
leader after the fashion of the tribe. Summoning to his aid the
Frisii[280]--a tribe from beyond the Rhine--he fell upon two cohorts
of auxiliaries whose camp lay close to the neighbouring shore.[281]
The attack was unexpected, and the troops, even if they had foreseen
it, were not strong enough to offer resistance: so the camp was taken
and looted. They then fell on the Roman camp-followers and traders,
who had gone off in all directions as if peace were assured. Finding
the forts now threatened with destruction, the Roman officers set fire
to them, as they had no means of defence. All the troops with their
standards and colours retired in a body to the upper end of the
island, led by Aquilius, a senior centurion. But they were an army in
name only, not in strength, for Vitellius had withdrawn all the
efficient soldiers and had replaced them by a useless mob, who had
been drawn from the neighbouring Nervian and German villages and were
only embarrassed by their armour.[282]
Civilis thought it best to proceed by guile, and actually ventured 16
to blame the Roman officers for abandoning the forts. He could, he
told them, with the cohort under his command, suppress the outbreak of
the Canninefates without their assistance: they could all go back to
their winter-quarters. However, it was plain that some treachery
underlay his advice--it would be easier to crush the cohorts if they
were separated--and also that Civilis, not Brinno, was at the head of
this war. Evidence of this gradually leaked out, as the Germans loved
war too well to keep the secret for long. Finding his artifice
unsuccessful, Civilis tried force instead, forming the Canninefates,
Frisii and Batavi into three separate columns.[283] The Roman line
faced them in position near the Rhine bank.[284] They had brought
their ships there after the burning of the forts, and these were now
turned with their prows towards the enemy. Soon after the engagement
began a Tungrian cohort deserted to Civilis, and the Romans were so
startled by this unexpected treachery that they were cut to pieces by
their allies and their enemies combined. Similar treachery occurred in
the fleet. Some of the rowers, who were Batavians, feigning clumsiness
tried to impede the sailors and marines in the performance of their
functions, and after a while openly resisted them and turned the
ships' sterns towards the enemy's bank. Finally, they killed the
pilots and centurions who refused to join them, and thus all the
twenty-four ships of the flotilla either deserted to the enemy or were
captured by them.
This victory made Civilis immediately famous and proved 17
subsequently very useful. Having now got the ships and the weapons
which they needed, he and his followers were enthusiastically
proclaimed as champions of liberty throughout Germany and Gaul. The
German provinces immediately sent envoys with offers of help, while
Civilis endeavoured by diplomacy and by bribery to secure an alliance
with the Gauls. He sent back the auxiliary officers whom he had taken
prisoner, each to his own tribe, and offered the cohorts the choice of
either going home or remaining with him. Those who remained were given
an honourable position in his army: and those who went home received
presents out of the Roman spoil. At the same time Civilis talked to
them confidentially and reminded them of the miseries they had endured
for all these years, in which they had disguised their wretched
slavery under the name of peace. 'The Batavi,' he would say, 'were
excused from taxation, and yet they have taken arms against the common
tyrant. In the first engagement the Romans were routed and beaten.
What if Gaul throws off the yoke? What forces are there left in Italy?
It is with the blood of provincials that their provinces are won.
Don't think of the defeat of Vindex. Why, it was the Batavian cavalry
which trampled on the Aedui and Arverni,[285] and there were Belgic
auxiliaries in Verginius' force. The truth is that Gaul succumbed to
her own armies. But now we are all united in one party, fortified,
moreover, by the military discipline which prevails in Roman camps:
and we have on our side the veterans before whom Otho's legions lately
bit the dust. Let Syria and Asia play the slave: the East is used to
tyrants: but there are many still living in Gaul who were born before
the days of tribute.[286] Indeed, it is only the other day[287] that
Quintilius Varus was killed, when slavery was driven out of Germany,
and they brought into the field not the Emperor Vitellius but Caesar
Augustus himself. Why, liberty is the natural prerogative even of dumb
animals: courage is the peculiar attribute of man. Heaven helps the
brave. Come, then, fall upon them while your hands are free and theirs
are tied, while you are fresh and they are weary. Some of them are for
Vespasian, others for Vitellius; now is your chance to crush both
parties at once.'
Civilis thus had his eye on Gaul and Germany and aspired, had his 18
project prospered, to become king of two countries, one pre-eminent in
wealth and the other in military strength.
FOOTNOTES:
[264] Cp. iii. 46.
[265] One of the greatest and most warlike of the German
tribes living in the modern Hessen-Nassau and Waldeck. Tacitus
describes them at length in his _Germania_.
[266] i.e. a stretch of land about sixty miles in length, from
Nymwegen to the Hook of Holland, enclosed by the diverging
mouths of the Rhine, the northern of which is now called the
Lek, the southern the Waal (in Tacitus' time Vahalis). The
name Betuwe is still applied to the eastern part of this
island.
[267] In the _Germania_ Tacitus says that, like weapons, they
are kept exclusively for use in war, and are spared the
indignity of taxation.
[268] Some such word as _peritus_ or _exercitus_ must be
supplied at the end of this chapter.
[269] Probably during the revolt of Vindex. Capito governed
Lower Germany.
[270] Cp. i. 59.
[271] The loss of an eye.
[272] Governor of Upper Germany.
[273] As a subordinate division of Lower Germany the Batavian
district would be administered by 'prefects' subordinate to
the imperial legate.
[274] Vitellius had reduced the strength of the legions (cp. ii. 94).
[275] Because it would weaken the position of Vitellius.
[276] They lived north of the Batavi, between the Zuider Zee
and the North Sea.
[277] ii. 29.
[278] Mogontiacum.
[279] Caligula's only trophy had been helmetfuls of stones and
shells from the sea-shore of Germany.
[280] Living in Friesland, north-east of the Zuider Zee.
[281] Reading _applicata_ (Andresen) instead of _occupata_,
which gives no sense. The camp was probably somewhere near
Katwyk.
[282] The Nervii were a Gallic tribe living on the Sambre,
with settlements at Cambray, Tournay, Bavay. Ritter's
alteration of _Germanorum_ to _Cugernorum_ is very probably
right. They lived about a dozen miles west of Vetera, and are
thus a likely recruiting-ground. They were of German origin,
so if _Germanorum_ is right, the reference will still be to
them and the Tungri and other German Settlements on the east
of the Rhine.
[283] See ii. 42, note 301. Here, however, it is not
improbable that the word _cuneus_ means a V-shaped formation.
Tacitus' phrase in _Germ._ 6 is generally taken to mean that
the Germans fought in wedge-formation. The separation of the
three tribes in three columns was also typical of German
tactics. The presence of kinsmen stimulated courage.
[284] Presumably at the eastern end of the island, near either
Nymwegen or Arnheim.
[285] The Aedui lived in Bourgogne and Nivernois, between the
Loire and the Saône; the Arverni in Auvergne, north-west of
the Cevennes. Both had joined Vindex.
[286] 'Many' must be an exaggeration, since Augustus' census
of Gaul took place 27 B.C., ninety-five years ago.
[287] Sixty years ago, to be exact.
THE MUTINY OF THE BATAVIAN COHORTS
Hordeonius Flaccus at first furthered Civilis' schemes by shutting his
eyes to them. But when messengers kept arriving in panic with news
that a camp had been stormed, cohorts wiped out, and not a Roman left
in the Batavian Island, he instructed Munius Lupercus, who commanded
the two legions[288] in winter-quarters,[289] to march against the
enemy. Lupercus lost no time in crossing the river,[290] taking the
legions whom he had with him, some Ubii[291] who were close at hand,
and the Treviran cavalry who were stationed not far away. To this
force he added a regiment of Batavian cavalry, who, though their
loyalty had long ago succumbed, still concealed the fact, because they
hoped their desertion would fetch a higher price, if they actually
betrayed the Romans on the field. Civilis set the standards of the
defeated cohorts[292] round him in a ring to keep their fresh honours
before the eyes of his men, and to terrify the enemy by reminding them
of their disaster. He also gave orders that his own mother and sisters
and all the wives and small children of his soldiers should be
stationed in the rear to spur them to victory or shame them if they
were beaten.[293] When his line raised their battle-cry, the men
singing and the women shrieking, the legions and their auxiliaries
replied with a comparatively feeble cheer, for their left wing had
been exposed by the desertion of the Batavian cavalry, who promptly
turned against us. However, despite the confusion, the legionaries
gripped their swords and kept their places. Then the Ubian and
Treviran auxiliaries broke in shameful flight and went wandering all
over the country. The Germans pressed hard on their heels and
meanwhile the legions could make good their escape into the camp,
which was called 'Castra Vetera'.[294] Claudius Labeo, who commanded
the Batavian cavalry, had opposed Civilis as a rival in some petty
municipal dispute. Civilis was afraid that, if he killed him, he might
offend his countrymen, while if he spared him his presence would give
rise to dissension; so he sent him off by sea to the Frisii.
It was at this time that the cohorts of Batavians and 19
Canninefates, on their way to Rome under orders from Vitellius,
received the message which Civilis had sent to them.[295] They
promptly fell into a ferment of unruly insolence and demanded a
special grant as payment for their journey, double pay, and an
increase in the number of their cavalry.[296] Although all these
things had been promised by Vitellius they had no hope of obtaining
them, but wanted an excuse for rebellion. Flaccus made many
concessions, but the only result was that they redoubled their vigour
and demanded what they felt sure he would refuse. Paying no further
heed to him they made for Lower Germany, to join Civilis. Flaccus
summoned the tribunes and centurions and debated with them whether he
should use force to punish this defiance of authority. After a while
he gave way to his natural cowardice and the fears of his
subordinates, who were distressed by the thought that the loyalty of
the auxiliaries was doubtful and that the legions had been recruited
by a hurried levy. It was decided, therefore, to keep the soldiers in
camp.[297] However, he soon changed his mind when he found himself
criticized by the very men whose advice he had taken. He now seemed
bent on pursuit, and wrote to Herennius Gallus in command of the First
legion, who was holding Bonn, telling him to bar the path of the
Batavians, and promising that he and his army would follow hard upon
their heels. The rebels might certainly have been crushed had Flaccus
and Gallus each advanced their forces from opposite directions and
thus surrounded them. But Flaccus soon gave up the idea, and wrote
another letter to Gallus, warning him to let the rebels pass
undisturbed. This gave rise to a suspicion that the generals were
purposely promoting the war; and all the disasters which had already
occurred or were feared in the future, were attributed not to the
soldiers' inefficiency or the strength of the enemy, but to the
treachery of the generals.
On nearing the camp at Bonn, the Batavians sent forward a 20
messenger to explain their intentions to Herennius Gallus. Against the
Romans, for whom they had fought so often, they had no wish to make
war: but they were worn out after a long and unprofitable term of
service and wanted to go home and rest. If no one opposed them they
would march peaceably by; but if hostility was offered they would find
a passage at the point of the sword. Gallus hesitated, but his men
induced him to risk an engagement. Three thousand legionaries, some
hastily recruited Belgic auxiliaries, and a mob of peasants and
camp-followers, who were as cowardly in action as they were boastful
before it, came pouring out simultaneously from all the gates, hoping
with their superior numbers to surround the Batavians. But these were
experienced veterans. They formed up into columns[298] in deep
formation that defied assault on front, flank, or rear. They thus
pierced our thinner line. The Belgae giving way, the legion was driven
back and ran in terror to reach the trench and the gates of the camp.
It was there that we suffered the heaviest losses. The trenches were
filled with dead, who were not all killed by the blows of the enemy,
for many were stifled in the press or perished on each other's swords.
The victorious cohorts avoided Cologne and marched on without
attempting any further hostilities. For the battle at Bonn they
continued to excuse themselves. They had asked for peace, they said,
and when peace was persistently refused, had merely acted in
self-defence.
FOOTNOTES:
[288] V Alaudae and XV Primigenia, both depleted.
[289] At Vetera.
[290] Waal.
[291] They lived round their chief town, known since A.D. 50
as Colonia Agrippinensis, now Cologne (cp. i. 56, note 106).
[292] See chap. 16.
[293] This was a German custom. We read in the _Germania_ that
in battle 'they keep their dearest close at hand, where the
women's cries and the wailing of their babies can be heard'.
[294] This means, of course, simply The Old Camp, but, as
Tacitus treats Vetera as a proper name, it has been kept in
the translation. It was probably on the Rhine near Xanten and
Fürstenberg, some sixty-six miles north of Cologne.
[295] Cp. i. 59; ii. 97; iv. 15.
[296] Who got better pay for lighter service.
[297] i.e. at Mainz, Bonn, Novaesium and Vetera.
[298] See note 283.
THE SIEGE OF VETERA
After the arrival of these veteran cohorts Civilis was now at the 21
head of a respectable army. But being still uncertain of his plans,
and engaged in reckoning up the Roman forces, he made all who were
with him swear allegiance to Vespasian, and sent envoys to the two
legions, who after their defeat in the former engagement[299] had
retired into Vetera, asking them to take the same oath. The answer
came back that they never followed the advice either of a traitor or
of an enemy: Vitellius was their emperor, and they would keep their
allegiance and their arms for him so long as they had breath in their
bodies. A Batavian deserter need not try to decide the destiny of
Rome; he should rather expect the punishment he richly deserved. When
this was reported to Civilis he flew into a passion, and called the
whole Batavian people to take arms. They were joined by the Bructeri
and Tencteri,[300] and Germany was summoned to come and share the
plunder and the glory.
Threatened with this gathering storm, Munius Lupercus and Numisius 22
Rufus, who were in command of the two legions, proceeded to strengthen
the ramparts and walls. They pulled down the buildings near the
military camp, which had grown into a small town during the long years
of peace, fearing that the enemy might make use of them. But they
omitted to provide a sufficient store of provisions for the camp, and
authorized the soldiers to make up the deficiency by looting, with the
result that what might have supplied their needs for a long time was
consumed in a few days. Meanwhile Civilis advanced, himself holding
the centre with the flower of the Batavi: on both banks of the Rhine
he massed large bands of Germans to strike terror into the enemy: the
cavalry galloped through the fields, while the ships were
simultaneously moved up the stream. Here could be seen the colours of
veteran Roman cohorts, there the figures of beasts which the Germans
had brought from their woods and groves, as their tribes do when they
go to battle. It seemed both a civil and a savage war at once; and
this strange confusion astounded the besieged. The hopes of the
assailants rose when they saw the circumference of the ramparts, for
there were barely five thousand Roman soldiers to defend a camp which
had been laid out to hold two legions.[301] However, a large number of
camp-followers had collected there on the break-up of peace, and
remained to give what assistance they could to the military
operations.
The camp was built partly on the gentle slope of a hill and partly 23
on the level ground. Augustus had believed that it would serve as a
base of operations and a check upon the German tribes: as for their
actually coming to assault our legions, such a disaster never
occurred to him. Consequently no trouble had been taken in choosing
the site or erecting defences: the strength of the troops had always
seemed sufficient.
The Batavians and the Germans from across the Rhine[302] now formed up
tribe by tribe--the separation was designed to show their individual
prowess--and opened fire from a distance. Finding that most of their
missiles fell harmlessly on to the turrets and pinnacles of the walls,
and that they were being wounded by stones hurled from above, they
charged with a wild shout and surged up to the rampart, some using
scaling-ladders, others climbing over their comrades who had formed a
'tortoise'. But no sooner had some of them begun to scale the wall,
than they were hurled down by the besieged, who thrust at them with
sword and shield, and buried under a shower of stakes and javelins.
The Germans are always impetuous at the beginning of an action and
over-confident when they are winning; and on this occasion their greed
for plunder even steeled them to face difficulties. They actually
attempted to use siege-engines, with which they were quite unfamiliar.
But though they had no skill themselves, some of the deserters and
prisoners showed them how to build a sort of bridge or platform of
timber, on to which they fitted wheels and rolled it forward. Thus
some of them stood on this platform and fought as though from a mound,
while others, concealed inside, tried to undermine the walls. However,
stones hurled from catapults soon destroyed this rude engine. Then
they began to get ready hurdles and mantlets, but the besieged shot
blazing spears on to them from engines, and even attacked the
assailants themselves with fire-darts. At last they gave up all hope
of an assault and resolved to try a waiting policy, being well aware
that the camp contained only a few days' provisions and a large number
of non-combatants. They hoped that famine would breed treason, and
counted, besides, on the wavering loyalty of the slaves and the usual
hazards of war to aid them.
Meanwhile, Flaccus,[303] who had received news of the siege of 24
Vetera, dispatched a party to recruit auxiliaries in Gaul, and gave
Dillius Vocula, in command of the Twenty-second, a force of picked
soldiers from his two legions.[304] Vocula was to hurry by forced
marches along the bank of the Rhine, while Flaccus himself was to
approach by water, since he was in bad health and unpopular with his
men. Indeed, they grumbled openly that he had let the Batavian cohorts
get away from Mainz, had connived at Civilis' schemes, and invited the
Germans to join the alliance. Vespasian, they said, owed his rise more
to Flaccus than to all the assistance of Antonius Primus or of
Mucianus, for overt hatred and hostility can be openly crushed, but
treachery and deceit cannot be detected, much less parried. While
Civilis took the field himself and arranged his own fighting line,
Hordeonius lay on a couch in his bedroom and gave whatever orders
best suited the enemy's convenience. Why should all these companies
of brave soldiers be commanded by one miserable old invalid? Let them
rather kill the traitor and free their brave hearts and good hopes
from the incubus of such an evil omen. Having worked on each other's
feelings by these complaints, they were still further incensed by the
arrival of a letter from Vespasian. As this could not be concealed,
Flaccus read it before a meeting of the soldiers, and the messengers
who brought it were sent to Vitellius in chains.
With feelings thus appeased the army marched on to Bonn, the 25
head-quarters of the First legion. There the men were still more
indignant with Flaccus, on whom they laid the blame of their recent
defeat.[305] It was by his orders, they argued, that they had taken
the field against the Batavians on the understanding that the legions
from Mainz were in pursuit. But no reinforcements had arrived and his
treachery was responsible for their losses. The facts, moreover, were
unknown to the other armies, nor was any report sent to their emperor,
although this treacherous outbreak could have been nipped in the bud
by the combined aid of all the provinces. In answer Flaccus read out
to the army copies of all the letters which he had sent from time to
time all over Gaul and Britain and Spain to ask for assistance, and
introduced the disastrous practice of having all letters delivered to
the standard-bearers of the legions, who read them to the soldiers
before the general had seen them. He then gave orders that one of the
mutineers should be put in irons, more by way of vindicating his
authority than because one man was especially to blame. Leaving Bonn,
the army moved on to Cologne, where they were joined by large numbers
of Gallic auxiliaries, who at first zealously supported the Roman
cause: later, when the Germans prospered, most of the tribes took arms
against us, actuated by hopes of liberty and an ambition to establish
an empire of their own when once they had shaken off the yoke.
Meanwhile the army's indignation steadily increased. The imprisonment
of a single soldier was not enough to terrify them, and, indeed, the
prisoner actually accused the general of complicity in crime, alleging
that he himself had carried messages between Flaccus and Civilis. 'It
is because I can testify to the truth,' he said, 'that Flaccus wants
to get rid of me on a false charge.' Thereupon Vocula, with admirable
self-possession, mounted the tribunal and, in spite of the man's
protestations, ordered him to be seized and led away to prison. This
alarmed the disaffected, while the better sort obeyed him promptly.
The army then unanimously demanded that Vocula should lead them, and
Flaccus accordingly resigned the chief command to him. However, 26
there was much to exasperate their disaffection. They were short both
of pay and of provisions: the Gauls refused either to enlist or to pay
tribute: drought, usually unknown in that climate, made the Rhine
almost too low for navigation, and thus hampered their commissariat:
patrols had to be posted at intervals all along the bank to prevent
the Germans fording the river: and in consequence of all this they had
less food and more mouths to eat it. To the ignorant the lowness of
the river seemed in itself an evil omen, as though the ancient
bulwarks of the empire were now failing them. In peace they would have
called it bad luck or the course of nature: now it was 'fate' and 'the
anger of heaven'.
On entering Novaesium[306] they were joined by the Sixteenth legion.
Herennius Gallus[307] now shared with Vocula the responsibility of
command. As they could not venture out against the enemy, they
encamped ... at a place called Gelduba,[308] where the soldiers were
trained in deploying, in fortification and entrenchment, and in
various other military manoeuvres. To inspire their courage with the
further incentive of plunder, Vocula led out part of the force against
the neighbouring tribe of the Cugerni,[309] who had accepted Civilis'
offers of alliance. The rest of the troops were left behind with 27
Herennius Gallus,[310] and it happened that a corn-ship with a full
cargo, which had run aground close to the camp, was towed over by the
Germans to their own bank. This was more than Gallus could tolerate,
so he sent a cohort to the rescue. The number of the Germans soon
increased: both sides gradually gathered reinforcements and a regular
battle was fought, with the result that the Germans towed off the
ship, inflicting heavy losses. The defeated troops followed what had
now become their regular custom, and threw the blame not on their own
inefficiency but on their commanding-officer's bad faith. They dragged
him from his quarters, tore his uniform and flogged him, bidding him
tell them how much he had got for betraying the army, and who were his
accomplices. Then their indignation recoiled on Hordeonius Flaccus: he
was the real criminal: Gallus was only his tool. At last their threats
so terrified Gallus that he, too, charged Flaccus with treason. He was
put in irons until the arrival of Vocula, who at once set him free,
and on the next day had the ringleaders of the riot executed. The army
showed, indeed, a strange contrast in its equal readiness to mutiny
and to submit to punishment. The common soldiers' loyalty to Vitellius
was beyond question,[311] while the higher ranks inclined towards
Vespasian. Thus we find a succession of outbreaks and penalties; an
alternation of insubordination with obedience to discipline; for the
troops could be punished though not controlled.
Meanwhile the whole of Germany was ready to worship Civilis, 28
sending him vast reinforcements and ratifying the alliance with
hostages from their noblest families. He gave orders that the country
of the Ubii and Treviri was to be laid waste by their nearest
neighbours, and sent another party across the Maas to harass the
Menapii and Morini[312] and other frontier tribes of Gaul. In both
quarters they plundered freely, and were especially savage towards the
Ubii, because they were a tribe of German origin who had renounced
their fatherland and adopted the name of Agrippinenses.[313] A Ubian
cohort was cut to pieces at the village of Marcodurum,[314] where they
were off their guard, trusting to their distance from the Rhine. The
Ubii did not take this quietly, nor hesitate to seek reprisals from
the Germans, which they did at first with impunity. In the end,
however, the Germans proved too much for them, and throughout the war
the Ubii were always more conspicuous for good faith than good
fortune. Their collapse strengthened Civilis' position, and emboldened
by success, he now vigorously pressed on the blockade of the legions
at Vetera, and redoubled his vigilance to prevent any message creeping
through from the relieving army. The Batavians were told off to look
after the engines and siege-works: the Germans, who clamoured for
battle, were sent to demolish the rampart and renew the fight directly
they were beaten off. There were so many of them that their losses
mattered little.
Nightfall did not see the end of their task. They built huge fires 29
of wood all round the ramparts and sat drinking by them; then, as the
wine warmed their hearts, one by one they dashed into the fight with
blind courage. In the darkness their missiles were ineffective, but
the barbarian troops were clearly visible to the Romans, and any one
whose daring or bright ornaments made him conspicuous at once became a
mark for their aim. At last Civilis saw their mistake, and gave orders
to extinguish the fires and plunge the whole scene into a confusion of
darkness and the din of arms. Discordant shouts now arose: everything
was vague and uncertain: no one could see to strike or to parry.
Wherever a shout was heard, they would wheel round and lunge in that
direction. Valour was useless: chance and chaos ruled supreme: and the
bravest soldier often fell under a coward's bolt. The Germans fought
with blind fury. The Roman troops were more familiar with danger; they
hurled down iron-clamped stakes and heavy stones with sure effect.
Wherever the sound of some one climbing or the clang of a
scaling-ladder betrayed the presence of the enemy, they thrust them
back with their shields and followed them with a shower of javelins.
Many appeared on top of the walls, and these they stabbed with their
short swords. And so the night wore on. Day dawned upon new 30
methods of attack. The Batavians had built a wooden tower of two
stories and moved it up to the Head-quarters Gate,[315] which was the
most accessible spot. However, our soldiers, by using strong poles and
hurling wooden beams, soon battered it to pieces, with great loss of
life to those who were standing on it. While they were still dismayed
at this, we made a sudden and successful sally. Meanwhile the
legionaries, with remarkable skill and ingenuity, invented still
further contrivances. The one which caused most terror was a crane
with a movable arm suspended over their assailants' heads: this arm
was suddenly lowered, snatched up one or more of the enemy into the
air before his fellows' eyes, and, as the heavy end was swung round,
tossed him into the middle of the camp. Civilis now gave up hope of
storming the camp and renewed a leisurely blockade, trying all the
time by messages and offers of reward to undermine the loyalty of the
legions.
FOOTNOTES:
[299] Chap. 18.
[300] The Bructeri lived between the Lippe and the Upper Ems,
the Tencteri along the eastern bank of the Rhine, between its
tributaries the Ruhr and the Sieg, i.e. opposite Cologne.
[301] i.e. about 12,000 men. The bulk of the Fifth and a
detachment of the Fifteenth had gone to Italy.
[302] i.e. Frisii, Bructeri, Tencteri, &c.
[303] At Mainz.
[304] His other legion was IV Macedonica.
[305] Cp. chap. 20.
[306] Neuss.
[307] He commanded the First legion, which had joined the main
column at Bonn.
[308] Gellep. Some words are lost, perhaps giving the distance
from Novaesium.
[309] See note 282.
[310] At Gelduba.
[311] Cp. iii. 61.
[312] The Menapii lived between the Maas and the Scheldt; the
Morini on the coast in the neighbourhood of Boulogne. They
were a proverb for 'the back of beyond'.
[313] See i. 56, note 106.
[314] Düren.
[315] i.e. the gate on to the street leading to Head-quarters.
THE RELIEF OF VETERA
Such was the course of events in Germany up to the date of the 31
battle of Cremona.[316] News of this arrived by letter from Antonius
Primus, who enclosed a copy of Caecina's edict,[317] and Alpinius
Montanus,[318] who commanded one of the defeated auxiliary cohorts,
came in person to confess that his party had been beaten. The troops
were variously affected by the news. The Gallic auxiliaries, who had
no feelings of affection or dislike to either party and served without
sentiment, promptly took the advice of their officers and deserted
Vitellius. The veterans hesitated; under pressure from Flaccus and
their officers they eventually took the oath of allegiance, but it was
clear from their faces that their hearts were not in it, and while
repeating the rest of the formula they boggled at the name of
Vespasian, either muttering it under their breath or more often
omitting it altogether. Their suspicions were further inflamed 32
when Antonius' letter to Civilis was read out before the meeting; it
seemed to address Civilis as a member of the Flavian party, and to
argue hostility to the German army. The news was next brought to the
camp at Gelduba, where it gave rise to the same comments and the same
scenes. Montanus was sent to carry instructions to Civilis that he was
to cease from hostilities and not to make war on Rome under a false
pretext; if it was to help Vespasian that he had taken arms, he had
now achieved his object. Civilis at first replied in guarded terms.
Then, as he saw that Montanus was an impetuous person who would
welcome a revolution, he began to complain of all the dangers he had
endured in the service of Rome for the last twenty-five years. 'A fine
reward I have received,' he cried, 'for all my labours--my brother's
execution,[319] my own imprisonment,[319] and the bloodthirsty
clamours of this army, from which I claim satisfaction by natural
right since they have sought my destruction. As for you Trevirans and
all the rest that have the souls of slaves, what reward do you hope
to gain for shedding your blood so often in the cause of Rome, except
the thankless task of military service, endless taxation, and the rods
and axes of these capricious tyrants? Look at me! I have only a single
cohort under my command, and yet with the Canninefates and Batavi, a
mere fraction of the Gallic peoples, I am engaged in destroying their
great useless camp and besieging them with famine and the sword. In
short, our venture will either end in freedom or, if we are beaten, we
shall be no worse off than before.' Having thus inflamed Montanus he
told him to take back a milder answer and dismissed him. On his return
Montanus pretended that his errand had been fruitless, and said
nothing about the rest of the interview: but it soon came to light.
Retaining a portion of his force, Civilis sent the veteran cohorts 33
with the most efficient of the German troops against Vocula and his
army.[320] He gave the command to Julius Maximus and his nephew
Claudius Victor. After rushing the winter-quarters of a cavalry
regiment at Asciburgium[321] on their way, they fell upon the Roman
camp and so completely surprised it that Vocula had no time to address
his army or to form it for battle. The only precaution he could take
in the general panic was to mass the legionaries in the centre with
the auxiliaries scattered on either flank. Our cavalry charged, but
found the enemy in good order ready to receive them, and came flying
back on to their own infantry. What followed was more of a massacre
than a battle. The Nervian cohorts, either from panic or treachery,
left our flanks exposed; thus the legions had to bear the brunt. They
had already lost their standards and were being cut down in the
trenches, when a fresh reinforcement suddenly changed the fortune of
the fight. Some Basque auxiliaries,[322] originally levied by Galba,
who had now been summoned to the rescue, on nearing the camp heard the
sound of fighting, and while the enemy were occupied, came charging in
on their rear. This caused more consternation than their numbers
warranted, the enemy taking them for the whole Roman force, either
from Novaesium or from Mainz. This mistake encouraged the Roman
troops: their confidence in others brought confidence in themselves.
The best of the Batavians, at least of their infantry, fell. The
cavalry made off with the standards and prisoners taken in the earlier
stage of the battle. Though our losses that day were numerically
larger, they were unimportant, whereas the Germans lost their best
troops.
On both sides the generals deserved defeat, and failed to make 34
good use of their success. Their fault was the same. Had Civilis
furnished the attacking column with more troops, they could never have
been surrounded by such a small force, and having stormed the camp
would have destroyed it. Vocula, on the other hand, had not even set
scouts to warn him of the enemy's approach, and consequently no sooner
sallied out than he was beaten. Then, when he had won the victory, he
showed great lack of confidence, and wasted day after day before
moving against the enemy. If he had made haste to follow up his
success and struck at the enemy at once, he might have raised the
siege of Vetera at one blow.
Meanwhile Civilis had been playing upon the feelings of the besieged
by pretending that the Romans had been defeated and success had
favoured his arms. The captured standards and colours were carried
round the walls and the prisoners also displayed. One of these did a
famous deed of heroism. Shouting at the top of his voice, he revealed
the truth. The Germans at once struck him dead, which only served to
confirm his information. Soon, too, the besieged saw signs of harried
fields and the smoke of burning farms, and began to realize that a
victorious army was approaching. When he was in sight of the camp
Vocula ordered his men to plant the standards and construct a trench
and rampart round them: they were to deposit all their baggage there
and fight unencumbered. This made them shout at the general to give
them the signal; and they had learnt to use threats too. Without even
taking time to form their line they started the battle, all tired as
they were, and in disorder. Civilis was ready waiting for them,
trusting quite as much to their mistakes as to the merits of his own
men. The Romans fought with varying fortune. All the most mutinous
proved cowards: some, however, remembered their recent victory and
stuck to their places, cutting down the enemy, and encouraging
themselves and their neighbours. When the battle was thus renewed,
they waved their hands and signalled to the besieged not to lose their
opportunity. These were watching all that happened from the walls, and
now came bursting out at every gate. It chanced that at this point
Civilis' horse fell and threw him; both armies believed the rumour
that he had been wounded and killed. This caused immense consternation
to his army and immense encouragement to ours. However, Vocula failed
to pursue them when they fled, and merely set about strengthening the
rampart and turrets, apparently in fear of another blockade. His
frequent failure to make use of his victory gives colour to the
suspicion that he preferred war.[323]
What chiefly distressed our troops was the lack of supplies. The 35
baggage-train of the legions was sent to Novaesium with a crowd of
non-combatants to fetch provisions thence by land, the enemy being now
masters of the river. The first convoy got through safely, while
Civilis was recovering from his fall. But when he heard that a second
foraging-party had been sent to Novaesium under guard of several
cohorts, and that they were proceeding on their way with their arms
piled in the wagons as if it was a time of perfect peace, few keeping
to the standards and all wandering at will, he sent some men forward
to hold the bridges and any places where the road was narrow, and then
formed up and attacked. The battle was fought on a long straggling
line, and the issue was still doubtful when nightfall broke it off.
The cohorts made their way through to Gelduba, where the camp remained
as it was,[324] garrisoned by the soldiers who had been left behind
there. It was obvious what dangers the convoy would have to face on
the return journey; they would be heavily laden and had already lost
their nerve. Vocula[325] accordingly added to his force a thousand
picked men from the Fifth and Fifteenth legions who had been at Vetera
during the siege, all tough soldiers with a grievance against their
generals. Against his orders, more than the thousand started with him,
openly complaining on the march that they would not put up with famine
and the treachery of their generals any longer. On the other hand,
those who stayed behind grumbled that they were left to their fate now
that part of the garrison had been removed. Thus there was a double
mutiny, one party calling Vocula back, the others refusing to return
to camp.
Meanwhile Civilis laid siege to Vetera. Vocula retired to Gelduba, 36
and thence to Novaesium, shortly afterwards winning a cavalry skirmish
just outside Novaesium. The Roman soldiers, however, alike in success
and in failure, were as eager as ever to make an end of their
generals. Now that their numbers were swelled by the arrival of the
detachments from the Fifth and the Fifteenth[326] they demanded their
donative, having learnt that money had arrived from Vitellius. Without
further delay Flaccus gave it to them in Vespasian's name, and this
did more than anything else to promote mutiny. They indulged in wild
dissipation and met every night in drinking-parties, at which they
revived their old grudge against Hordeonius Flaccus. None of the
officers ventured to interfere with them--the darkness somehow
obscured their sense of duty--and at last they dragged Flaccus out of
bed and murdered him. They were preparing to do the same with Vocula,
but he narrowly escaped in the darkness, disguised as a slave.
When the excitement subsided, their fears returned, and they sent 37
letters round by centurions to all the Gallic communities, asking for
reinforcements and money for the soldiers' pay.
Without a leader a mob is always rash, timorous, and inactive. On the
approach of Civilis they hurriedly snatched up their arms, and then
immediately dropped them and took to flight. Misfortune now bred
disunion, and the army of the Upper Rhine[327] dissociated itself
from the rest. However, they set up the statues of Vitellius again in
the camp and in the neighbouring Belgic villages, although by now
Vitellius was dead.[328] Soon the soldiers of the First, Fourth, and
Twenty-second repented of their folly and rejoined Vocula. He made
them take a second oath of allegiance to Vespasian and led them off to
raise the siege of Mainz. The besieging army, a combined force of
Chatti,[329] Usipi, and Mattiaci,[330] had already retired, having got
sufficient loot and suffered some loss. Our troops surprised them
while they were scattered along the road, and immediately attacked.
Moreover, the Treviri had built a rampart and breastwork all along
their frontier and fought the Germans again and again with heavy loss
to both sides. Before long, however, they rebelled, and thus sullied
their great services to the Roman people.
FOOTNOTES:
[316] The end of October, A.D. 69 (see iii. 30-34).
[317] Caecina, as consul, had probably while at Cremona issued
a manifesto in favour of joining the Flavian party.
[318] Cp. iii. 35.
[319] See chap. 13.
[320] At Gelduba (chap. 26).
[321] Asberg.
[322] From the north-east frontier of the Tarragona division
of Spain, of which Galba had been governor. Hordeonius
explained (chap. 25) that he had summoned aid from Spain.
[323] Mr. Henderson calls this sentence 'a veritable
masterpiece of improbability', and finds it 'hard to speak
calmly of such a judgement'. He has to confess that a military
motive for Vocula's inaction is hard to find. Tacitus, feeling
the same, offers a merely human motive. Soldiers of fortune
often prefer war to final victory, and in these days the
dangers of peace were only equalled by its ennui. Besides,
Tacitus' explanation lends itself to an epigram which he would
doubtless not have exchanged for the tedium of tactical truth.
[324] Cp. chap. 26.
[325] Having strengthened the defences of Vetera, he was now
going back to Gelduba.
[326] From the Vetera garrison.
[327] i.e. the troops which Flaccus at Mainz had put under
Vocula for the relief of Vetera (chap. 24).
[328] It was therefore later than December 21.
[329] Cp. chap. 12.
[330] The Usipi lived on the east bank of the Rhine between
the Sieg and the Lahn; the Mattiaci between the Lahn and the
Main, round Wiesbaden.
ROME AND THE EMPIRE UNDER VESPASIAN
During these events Vespasian took up his second consulship and 38
Titus his first, both in absence.[331] Rome was depressed and beset by
manifold anxieties. Apart from the real miseries of the moment, it
was plunged into a groundless panic on the rumour of a rebellion in
Africa, where Lucius Piso was supposed to be plotting a revolution.
Piso, who was governor of the province, was far from being a
firebrand. But the severity of the winter delayed the corn-ships, and
the common people, accustomed to buy their bread day by day, whose
interest in politics was confined to the corn-supply, soon began to
believe their fears that the coast of Africa was being blockaded and
supplies withheld. The Vitellians, who were still under the sway of
party spirit, fostered this rumour, and even the victorious party were
not entirely displeased at it, for none of their victories in the
civil war had satisfied their greed, and even foreign wars fell far
short of their ambition.
On the first of January the senate was convened by the Urban 39
Praetor,[332] Julius Frontinus, and passed votes of thanks and
congratulation to the generals, armies, and foreign princes.[333]
Tettius Julianus,[334] who had left his legion when it went over to
Vespasian, was deprived of his praetorship, which was conferred upon
Plotius Grypus.[335] Hormus[336] was raised to equestrian rank.
Frontinus then resigned his praetorship and Caesar Domitian succeeded
him. His name now stood at the head of all dispatches and edicts, but
the real authority lay with Mucianus, although Domitian, following
the promptings of his friends and of his own desires, frequently
asserted his independence. But Mucianus' chief cause of anxiety lay in
Antonius Primus and Arrius Varus. The fame of their exploits was still
fresh; the soldiers worshipped them; and they were popular in Rome,
because they had used no violence off the field of battle. It was even
hinted that Antonius had urged Crassus Scribonianus[337] to seize the
throne. He was a man who owed his distinction to famous ancestors and
to his brother's memory, and Antonius could promise him adequate
support for a conspiracy. However, Scribonianus refused. He had a
terror of all risks, and would hardly have been seduced even by the
certainty of success. Being unable to crush Antonius openly, Mucianus
showered compliments on him in the senate and embarrassed him with
promises, hinting at the governorship of Nearer Spain, which the
departure of Cluvius Rufus[338] had left vacant. Meanwhile he lavished
military commands on Antonius' friends. Then, having filled his empty
head with ambitious hopes, he destroyed his influence at one stroke by
moving the Seventh legion,[339] which was passionately attached to
Antonius, into winter-quarters. The Third, who were similarly devoted
to Arrius Varus, were sent back to Syria,[340] and part of the army
was taken out to the war in Germany. Thus, on the removal of the
disturbing factors, the city could resume its normal life under the
old regime of law and civil government.
On the day of his first appearance in the senate Domitian spoke a 40
few moderate sentences regretting the absence of his father and
brother. His behaviour was most proper, and, as his character was
still an unknown quantity, his blushes were taken for signs of
modesty.[341] He moved from the chair that all Galba's honours should
be restored, to which Curtius Montanus proposed an amendment that some
respect should also be paid to the memory of Piso. The senate approved
both proposals, though nothing was done about Piso. Next, various
commissions were appointed by lot to restore the spoils of war to the
owners; to examine and affix the bronze tablets of laws, which in
course of time had dropped off the walls; to revise the list of public
holidays, which in these days of flattery had been disgracefully
tampered with; and to introduce some economy into public expenditure.
Tettius Julianus was restored to his praetorship as soon as it was
discovered that he had taken refuge with Vespasian: but Grypus was
allowed to retain his rank.[342] It was then decided to resume the
hearing of the case of Musonius Rufus against Publius Celer[343]
Publius was convicted and the shade of Soranus satisfied. This strict
verdict made the day memorable in the annals of Rome, and credit was
also due to private enterprise, for everybody felt that Musonius had
done his duty in bringing the action. On the other hand, Demetrius, a
professor of Cynic philosophy, earned discredit for defending an
obvious criminal[344] more for ostentatious motives than from honest
conviction. As for Publius, courage and fluency alike failed him at
the critical moment. This trial was the signal for further reprisals
against prosecutors. Junius Mauricus[345] accordingly petitioned
Domitian that the senate might be allowed access to the minutes of the
imperial cabinet, in order to find out who had applied for leave to
bring a prosecution and against whom. The answer was that on such a
question as this the emperor must be consulted. Accordingly, at 41
the instigation of its leading members, the senate framed an oath in
these words, 'I call heaven to witness that I have never countenanced
any action prejudicial to any man's civil status, nor have I derived
any profit or any office from the misfortune of any Roman citizen.'
The magistrates vied with each other in their haste to take this oath,
and the other members did the same, when called upon to speak. Those
who had a guilty conscience were alarmed, and managed to alter the
wording of the oath by various devices. The house meanwhile applauded
every sign of scruple, and protested against each case of perjury.
This kind of informal censure fell most severely on Sariolenus Vocula,
Nonius Attianus, and Cestius Severus, who were notorious as habitual
informers under Nero. Against Sariolenus there was also a fresh charge
of having continued his practices with Vitellius. The members went on
shaking their fists at him until he left the house. They next turned
on Paccius Africanus, trying to hound him out in the same way. He was
supposed to have suggested to Nero the murder of the two brothers
Scribonius,[346] who were famous for their friendship and their
wealth. Africanus dared not admit his guilt, though he could not very
well deny it. So he swung round on Vibius Crispus,[347] who was
pestering him with questions, and tried to turn the tables by
implicating him in the charges which he could not rebut, thus shifting
the odium on to his accomplice.
On this occasion Vipstanus Messala[348] gained a great reputation, 42
both for dutiful affection and for eloquence, by venturing to
intercede for his brother Aquilius Regulus,[349] although he had not
attained the senatorial age.[350] Regulus had fallen into great
disfavour for having brought about the ruin of the noble families of
the Crassi and of Orfitus. It was supposed that, though quite a young
man, he had voluntarily undertaken the prosecution, not to escape any
danger which was threatening him, but from purely ambitious motives.
Crassus' wife, Sulpicia Praetextata, and his four sons were anxious to
secure revenge if the senate would grant a trial. Messala therefore
made no attempt to defend the case or the accused, but tried to
shelter his brother, and had already won over some of the senators.
Curtius Montanus now attacked him in a savage speech, and even went so
far as to charge Regulus with having given money to Piso's murderer
after Galba's death, and with having bitten Piso's head.[351] 'That,'
said he, 'Nero certainly did not compel you to do. You purchased
neither position nor safety by that savage piece of cruelty. We may
put up with the pleas of those wretches who prefer to ruin others
rather than endanger their own lives. But your father's banishment had
guaranteed your security. His property had been divided amongst his
creditors.[352] You were not of an age to stand for office. Nero had
nothing either to hope or to fear from you. Your talents were as yet
untried and you had never exerted them in any man's defence, yet your
lust for blood, your insatiable ambition, led you to stain your young
hands in the blood of Rome's nobility. At one swoop you caused the
ruin of innocent youths, of old and distinguished statesmen, of
high-born ladies; and out of the country's disaster you secured for
yourself the spoils of two ex-consuls,[353] stuffed seven million
sesterces into your purse, and shone with the reflected glory of a
priesthood. You would blame Nero's lack of enterprise because he took
one household at a time, thus causing unnecessary fatigue to himself
and his informers, when he might have ruined the whole senate at a
single word. Why, gentlemen, you must indeed keep and preserve to
yourselves a counsellor of such ready resource. Let each generation
have its good examples: and as our old men follow Eprius Marcellus or
Vibius Crispus, let the rising generation emulate Regulus. Villainy
finds followers even when it fails. What if it flourish and prosper?
If we hesitate to touch a mere ex-quaestor, shall we be any bolder
when he has been praetor and consul? Or do you suppose that the race
of tyrants came to an end in Nero? That is what the people believed
who outlived Tiberius or Caligula, and meanwhile there arose one more
infamous and more bloody still.[354] We are not afraid of Vespasian.
We trust his years and his natural moderation. But a good precedent
outlives a good sovereign. Gentlemen, we are growing effete: we are no
longer that senate which, after Nero had been killed, clamoured for
the punishment of all informers and their menials according to our
ancestors' rigorous prescription. The best chance comes on the day
after the death of a bad emperor.'
The senate listened to Montanus's speech with such sympathy that 43
Helvidius began to hope that it might be possible to get a verdict
even against Marcellus. Beginning with a eulogy of Cluvius Rufus, who,
though quite as rich and as eloquent as Marcellus, had never brought
any one into trouble under Nero, he went on to attack Marcellus, both
by contrasting him with Rufus and by pressing home the charge against
him. Feeling that the house was warming to this rhetoric, Marcellus
got up as though to leave, exclaiming, 'I am off, Helvidius: I leave
you your senate: you can tyrannize over it under Caesar's nose.'
Vibius Crispus followed Marcellus, and, though both were angry, their
expressions were very different. Marcellus marched out with flashing
eyes, Crispus with a smile on his face. Eventually their friends went
and brought them back. Thus the struggle grew more and more heated
between a well-meaning majority and a small but powerful minority; and
since they were both animated by irreconcilable hatred, the day was
spent in vain recriminations.
At the next sitting Domitian opened by recommending them to forget 44
their grievances and grudges and the unavoidable exigences of the
recent past. Mucianus then at great length moved a motion in favour of
the prosecutors, issuing a mild warning, almost in terms of entreaty,
to those who wanted to revive actions which had been begun and
dropped. Seeing that their attempt at independence was being
thwarted, the senate gave it up. However, that it might not seem as if
the senate's opinion had been flouted and complete impunity granted
for all crimes committed under Nero, Mucianus forced Octavius Sagitta
and Antistius Sosianus, who had returned from exile, to go back to the
islands to which they had been confined. Octavius had committed
adultery with Pontia Postumina, and, on her refusal to marry him, had
murdered her in a fit of jealous fury. Sosianus was an unprincipled
scoundrel who had been the ruin of many.[355] The senate had found
them both guilty, and passed a heavy sentence of exile, nor had their
penalty been remitted, although others were allowed to return.
However, this failed to allay the ill-feeling against Mucianus, for
Sosianus and Sagitta, whether they returned or not, were of no
importance, whereas people were afraid of the professional
prosecutors, who were men of wealth and ability and experts in crime.
Unanimity was gradually restored in the senate by the holding of a 45
trial according to ancient precedent, before a court of the whole
house. A senator named Manlius Patruitus complained that he had been
beaten before a mob of people in the colony of Siena by order of the
local magistrates. Nor had the affront stopped there. They had held a
mock funeral before his eyes, and had accompanied their dirges and
lamentations with gross insults levelled at the whole senate. The
accused were summoned; their case was tried; they were convicted and
punished. A further decree of the senate was passed admonishing the
commons of Siena to pay more respect to the laws. About the same time
Antonius Flamma was prosecuted by Cyrene for extortion, and exiled for
the inhumanity of his conduct.
Meanwhile, a mutiny almost broke out among the soldiers. The men 46
who had been discharged by Vitellius[356] came together again in
support of Vespasian, and demanded re-admission. They were joined by
the selected legionaries who had also been led to hope for service in
the Guards, and they now demanded the pay they had been promised. Even
the Vitellians[357] alone could not have been dispersed without
serious bloodshed, but it would require immense sums of money to
retain the services of such a large number of men. Mucianus
accordingly entered the barracks to make a careful estimate of each
man's term of service. He formed up the victorious troops with their
own arms and distinctive decorations, each company a few paces from
the next. Then the Vitellians who had surrendered, as we have
described, at Bovillae,[358] and all the other soldiers who had been
hunted down in the city and its neighbourhood, were marched out almost
entirely without arms or uniforms. Mucianus then had them sorted out,
and drew up in separate corps the troops of the German army, of the
British army, and of any others that were in Rome. Their first glance
at the scene astounded them. Facing them they saw what looked like a
fighting front bristling with weapons, while they were caught in a
trap, defenceless and foul with dirt. As soon as they began to be
sorted out a panic seized them. The German troops in particular were
terrified at their isolation, and felt they were being told off for
slaughter. They embraced their comrades and clung upon their necks,
asking for one last kiss, begging not to be left alone, crying out,
'Our cause is the same as yours, why should our fate be different?'
They appealed now to Mucianus, now to the absent emperor, and lastly
to the powers of Heaven, until Mucianus came to the rescue of their
imaginary terrors by calling them all 'sworn servants of one emperor',
for he found that the victorious army was joining in and seconding
their tears with cheering. On that day the matter ended there. A few
days later, when Domitian addressed them, they received him with
renewed confidence, refused his offer of lands, and begged for
enlistment and their pay instead. This was only a petition, but one
that could not be refused: so they were admitted to the Guards.
Subsequently, those who had grown old and completed the regular term
of service[359] were honourably discharged. Others were dismissed for
misbehaviour, but one by one at different times, which is always the
safest method of weakening any kind of conspiracy.
To return to the senate; a bill was now passed that a loan of 47
sixty million sesterces should be raised from private individuals and
administered by Pompeius Silvanus. This may have been a financial
necessity, or they may have wanted it to seem so. At any rate the
necessity soon ceased to exist, or else they gave up the pretence.
Domitian then carried a proposal that the consulships conferred by
Vitellius should be cancelled, and that a state funeral should be held
in honour of Flavius Sabinus.[360] Both proposals are striking
evidence of the fickleness of human fortune, which so often makes the
first last and the last first.
It was about this time that Lucius Piso,[361] the pro-consul of 48
Africa, was killed. To give a true explanation of this murder we must
go back and take a brief survey of certain matters which are closely
connected with the reasons for such crimes. Under the sainted Augustus
and Tiberius the pro-consul of Africa had in his command one legion
and some auxiliaries with which to guard the frontier of the
empire.[362] Caligula, who was restless by nature and harboured
suspicions of the then pro-consul, Marcus Silanus, withdrew the
legion from his command and put it under a legate whom he sent out for
the purpose. As each had an equal amount of patronage and their
functions overlapped, Caligula thus caused a state of friction which
was further aggravated by regrettable quarrels. The greater permanence
of his tenure[363] gradually strengthened the legate's position, and
perhaps an inferior is always anxious to vie with his betters. The
most eminent governors, on the other hand, were more careful of their
comfort than of their authority.
At the present time the legion in Africa was commanded by Valerius 49
Festus,[364] an extravagant young man, immoderately ambitious, whose
kinship with Vitellius had given him some anxiety. He had frequent
interviews with Piso, and it is impossible to tell whether he tempted
Piso to rebel or resisted Piso's temptations. No one was present at
their interviews, which were held in private, and after Piso's death
most people were inclined to sympathize with his murderer. Beyond
doubt the province and the garrison were unfavourable to Vespasian.
Besides, some of the Vitellian refugees from Rome pointed out to Piso
that the Gallic provinces were wavering. Germany was ready to rebel,
and he himself was in danger; 'and,' they added, 'if you earn
suspicion in peace your safest course is war.' Meanwhile, Claudius
Sagitta, who commanded Petra's Horse,[365] made a good crossing and
outstripped the centurion Papirius, who had been sent out by Mucianus
and was commissioned, so Sagitta affirmed, to assassinate Piso.
Sagitta further stated that Galerianus,[366] Piso's cousin and
son-in-law, had already been murdered, and told him that while his one
hope lay in taking a bold step, there were two courses open to him: he
might either take up arms on the spot, or he might prefer to sail to
Gaul and offer to lead the Vitellian armies. This made no impression
on Piso. When the centurion whom Mucianus had sent arrived at the
gates of Carthage, he kept on shouting all sorts of congratulations to
Piso on becoming emperor. The people he met, who were astounded at
this unexpected miracle, were instructed to take up the cry. With a
crowd's usual credulity, they rushed into the forum calling on Piso to
appear, and as they had a passion for flattery and took no interest in
the truth, they proceeded to fill the whole place with a confused
noise of cheering. Piso, however, either at a hint from Sagitta, or
from his natural good sense, would not show himself in public or give
way to the excitement of the crowd. He examined the centurion, and
learnt that his object was to trump up a charge against him and then
kill him.[367] He accordingly had the man executed more from
indignation against the assassin than in any hope of saving his life;
for he found that the man had been one of the murderers of Clodius
Macer,[368] and after staining his hand in the blood of a military
officer was now proposing to turn it against a civil governor. Piso
then reprimanded the Carthaginians in an edict which clearly showed
his anxiety, and refrained from performing even the routine of his
office, shutting himself up in his house, for fear that he might by
accident provide some pretext for further demonstrations.
When the news of the popular excitement and the centurion's 50
execution reached the ears of Festus, considerably exaggerated and
with the usual admixture of falsehood, he at once sent off a party of
horsemen to murder Piso. Riding at full speed, they reached the
governor's house in the twilight of early dawn and broke in with drawn
swords. As Festus had mainly chosen Carthaginian auxiliaries and Moors
to do the murder, most of them did not know Piso by sight. However,
near his bedroom they happened on a slave and asked him where Piso was
and what he looked like. In answer the slave told them a heroic lie
and said he was Piso, whereupon they immediately cut him down.
However, Piso himself was killed very soon after, for there was one
man among them who knew him, and that was Baebius Massa, one of the
imperial agents in Africa, who was already a danger to all the best
men in Rome. His name will recur again and again in this narrative, as
one of the causes of the troubles which beset us later on.[369]
Festus had been waiting at Adrumetum[370] to see how things went, and
he now hastened to rejoin his legion. He had the camp-prefect,
Caetronius Pisanus, put in irons, alleging that he was one of Piso's
accomplices, though his real motive was personal dislike. He then
punished some of the soldiers and centurions and rewarded others; in
neither case for their deserts, but because he wanted it to be thought
that he had stamped out a war. His next task was to settle the
differences between Oea and Lepcis.[371] These had had a trivial
origin in thefts of fruit and cattle by the peasants, but they were
now trying to settle them in open warfare. Oea, being inferior in
numbers, had called in the aid of the Garamantes,[372] an invincible
tribe, who were always a fruitful source of damage to their
neighbours. Thus the people of Lepcis were in great straits. Their
fields had been wasted far and wide, and they had fled in terror under
shelter of their walls, when the Roman auxiliaries, both horse and
foot, arrived on the scene. They routed the Garamantes and recovered
all the booty, except what the nomads had already sold among the
inaccessible hut-settlements of the far interior.
After the battle of Cremona and the arrival of good news from 51
every quarter, Vespasian now heard of Vitellius' death. A large number
of people of all classes, who were as lucky as they were adventurous,
successfully braved the winter seas on purpose to bring him the
news.[373] There also arrived envoys from King Vologaesus offering the
services of forty thousand Parthian cavalry.[374] It was, indeed, a
proud and fortunate situation to be courted with such splendid offers
of assistance, and to need none of them. Vologaesus was duly thanked
and instructed to send his envoys to the senate and to understand that
peace had been made. Vespasian now devoted his attention to the
affairs of Italy and the Capitol, and received an unfavourable report
of Domitian, who seemed to be trespassing beyond the natural sphere of
an emperor's youthful son. He accordingly handed over the flower of
his army to Titus, who was to finish off the war with the Jews.[375]
It is said that before his departure Titus had a long talk with 52
his father and begged him not to be rash and lose his temper at these
incriminating reports, but to meet his son in a forgiving and
unprejudiced spirit, 'Neither legions nor fleets,' he is reported to
have said, 'are such sure bulwarks of the throne as a number of
children. Time, chance and often, too, ambition and misunderstanding
weaken, alienate or extinguish friendship: a man's own blood cannot be
severed from him; and above all is this the case with a sovereign,
for, while others enjoy his good fortune, his misfortunes only concern
his nearest kin. Nor again are brothers likely to remain good friends
unless their father sets them an example.' These words had the effect
of making Vespasian rather delighted at Titus' goodness of heart than
inclined to forgive Domitian. 'You may ease your mind,' he said to
Titus, 'It is now your duty to increase the prestige of Rome on the
field: I will concern myself with peace at home.' Though the weather
was still very rough, Vespasian at once launched his fastest
corn-ships with a full cargo. For the city was on the verge of
famine.[376] Indeed, there were not supplies for more than ten days in
the public granaries at the moment when Vespasian's convoy brought
relief.
The task of restoring the Capitol[377] was entrusted to Lucius 53
Vestinus, who, though only a knight, yet in reputation and influence
could rank with the highest. He summoned all the soothsayers,[378] and
they recommended that the ruins of the former temple should be carried
away to the marshes[379] and a new temple erected on the same site:
the gods were unwilling, they said, that the original form of the
building should be changed. On the 21st of June, a day of bright
sunshine, the whole consecrated area of the temple was decorated with
chaplets and garlands. In marched soldiers, all men with names of good
omen, carrying branches of lucky trees:[380] then came the Vestal
Virgins accompanied by boys and girls, each of whom had father and
mother alive,[381] and they cleansed it all by sprinkling fresh water
from a spring or river.[382] Next, while the high priest, Plautius
Aelianus, dictated the proper formulae, Helvidius Priscus, the
praetor, first consecrated the site by a solemn sacrifice[383] of a
pig, a sheep and an ox, and then duly offering the entrails on an
altar of turf, he prayed to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, as the
guardian deities of the empire, to prosper the enterprise, and by
divine grace to bring to completion this house of theirs which human
piety had here begun. He then took hold of the chaplets to which the
ropes holding the foundation-stone were attached. At the same moment
the other magistrates and the priests and senators and knights and
large numbers of the populace in joyous excitement with one great
effort dragged the huge stone into its place. On every side gifts of
gold and silver were flung into the foundations, and blocks of virgin
ore unscathed by any furnace, just as they had come from the womb of
the earth. For the soothsayers had given out that the building must
not be desecrated by the use of stone or gold that had been put to any
other purpose. The height of the roof was raised. This was the only
change that religious scruples would allow, and it was felt to be the
only point in which the former temple lacked grandeur.
FOOTNOTES:
[331] We now reach the year A.D. 70. Vespasian had already
been consul under Claudius in 51.
[332] In the absence of both consuls.
[333] i.e. Sohaemus, Antiochus, and Agrippa (cp. ii. 81).
[334] Cp. ii. 85.
[335] Cp. iii. 52.
[336] Vespasian's freedman (cp. iii. 12, 28.)
[337] The elder brother of Galba's adopted son Piso.
[338] See ii. 65. He must by now have ceased to be absentee
governor.
[339] It was to the command of this legion that Galba promoted
Antonius (see ii. 86).
[340] Varus had served under Corbulo in Syria.
[341] In his life of _Agricola_ Tacitus speaks of Domitian's
red face as 'his natural bulwark against shame'.
[342] See chap. 39.
[343] See chap. 10.
[344] i.e. Publius Celer. As this Demetrius was present with
Thrasea at the end, holding high philosophical discourse with
him (_Ann._ xvi. 34), he seems to have been a Cynic in the
modern sense as well.
[345] Another Stoic malcontent, brother of the Arulenus
Rusticus mentioned in iii. 80.
[346] According to Dio they were two devoted and inseparable
brothers. They became governors, one of Upper and the other of
Lower Germany, and, being wealthy, were forced by Nero to
commit suicide.
[347] Cp. ii. 10.
[348] Cp. iii. 9.
[349] Cp. i. 48, note 79.
[350] Twenty-five.
[351] Piso was a brother of Regulus' victim. He was therefore
glad to see him incapable of reprisal.
[352] i.e. there was no property left to tempt Nero.
[353] i.e. the money and other rewards won by prosecuting
Crassus and Orfitus.
[354] Nero.
[355] He had recited some libellous verses on Nero and been
condemned for treason.
[356] Cp. ii. 67.
[357] i.e. those who had surrendered at Narnia and Bovillae,
as distinct from those who had been discharged after Galba's
death.
[358] Chap. 2.
[359] i.e. those who were either over fifty or had served in
the Guards sixteen or in a legion twenty years.
[360] See iii. 74.
[361] See chap. 38.
[362] Africa was peculiar in that the pro-consul, who governed
it for the senate, commanded an army. All the other provinces
demanding military protection were under imperial control.
Caligula, without withdrawing the province from the senate, in
some degree regularized the anomaly by transferring this
command to a 'legate' of his own, technically inferior to the
civil governor.
[363] Whereas the pro-consul's appointment was for one year
only, the emperor's legate retained his post at the emperor's
pleasure, and was usually given several years.
[364] Cp. ii. 98.
[365] See i. 70.
[366] See chap. 11.
[367] i.e. he hoped that Piso would accept the story with
alacrity and thus commit himself.
[368] Cp. i. 7.
[369] Under Domitian he became one of the most notorious and
dreaded of informers. His name doubtless recurred in the lost
books of the Histories. But the only other extant mention of
him by Tacitus is in the life of Agricola (chap. 45).
[370] On the coast between Carthage and Thapsus.
[371] Tripoli and Lebda.
[372] Further inland; probably the modern Fezzan.
[373] Vespasian was still at Alexandria.
[374] Cp. ii. 82, note 410.
[375] Cp. ii. 4 and Book V.
[376] It had been Vespasian's original plan to starve Rome out
by holding the granaries of Egypt and Africa. See iii. 48.
[377] Cp. iii. 71.
[378] Probably from Etruria, where certain families were
credited with the requisite knowledge and skill. Claudius had
established a College of Soothsayers in Rome. They ranked
lower than the Augurs.
[379] At Ostia.
[380] Their names would suggest prosperity and success, e.g.
Salvius, Victor, Valerius, and they would carry branches of
oak, laurel, myrtle, or beech.
[381] This too was 'lucky' and a common ritualistic
requirement.
[382] The 'holy water' must come from certain streams of
special sanctity, such as the Tiber or its tributary, the
Almo. The water would be sprinkled from the 'lucky' branches.
[383] To the god Mars.
THE LOSS OF GERMANY
Meanwhile,[384] the news of Vitellius' death had spread through 54
Gaul and Germany and redoubled the vigour of the war. Civilis now
dropped all pretence and hurled himself upon the Roman Empire. The
Vitellian legions felt that even foreign slavery was preferable to
owning Vespasian's sovereignty. The Gauls too had taken heart. A
rumour had been spread that our winter camps in Moesia and Pannonia
were being blockaded by Sarmatians and Dacians:[385] similar stories
were fabricated about Britain: the Gauls began to think that the
fortune of the Roman arms was the same all the world over. But above
all, the burning of the Capitol led them to believe that the empire
was coming to an end. 'Once in old days the Gauls had captured Rome,
but her empire had stood firm since Jupiter's high-place was left
unscathed. But now, so the Druids[386] with superstitious folly kept
dinning into their ears, this fatal fire was a sign of Heaven's anger,
and meant that the Transalpine tribes were destined now to rule the
world.' It was also persistently rumoured that the Gallic chieftains,
whom Otho had sent to work against Vitellius,[387] had agreed, before
they parted, that if Rome sank under its internal troubles in an
unbroken sequence of civil wars, they would not fail the cause of the
Gallic freedom.
Previous to the murder of Hordeonius Flaccus[388] nothing had 55
leaked out to arouse suspicions of a conspiracy, but when he had been
assassinated, negotiations passed between Civilis and Classicus,[389]
who commanded the Treviran cavalry. Classicus was far above the rest
both in birth and in wealth. He came of royal line and his stock was
famous both in peace and war. It was his boast that his family had
given Rome more enemies than allies. These two were now joined by
Julius Tutor and Julius Sabinus, the one a Treviran, the other a
Lingonian. Tutor had been appointed by Vitellius to watch the bank of
the Rhine.[390] Sabinus' natural vanity was further inflamed by
spurious pretensions of high birth, for he alleged that his
great-grandmother's beauty had caught the fancy of Julius Caesar
during the campaign in Gaul, and that they had committed adultery.
These four tested the temper of the rest in private interviews, and
having bound to the conspiracy those who were considered fit, they
held a conference at Cologne in a private house, the general feeling
in the city being hostile to such plans as theirs. A few of the Ubii
and Tungri, indeed, attended, but the Treviri and Lingonians were the
backbone of the conspiracy. Nor would they tolerate deliberation or
delay. They vied with each other in protesting that Rome was
distracted by internal quarrels; legions had been cut to pieces, Italy
devastated, the city was on the point of being taken, while all her
armies were occupied with wars of their own in different quarters.
They need only garrison the Alps and then, when liberty had taken firm
root, they could discuss together what limit each tribe should set to
its exercise of power.
All this was no sooner spoken than applauded. About the remnant of 56
Vitellius' army they were in some doubt. Many held that they ought to
be killed as being treacherous and insubordinate and stained with the
blood of their generals. However, the idea of sparing them carried the
day. To destroy all hope of pardon would only steel their obstinacy:
it was much better to seduce them into alliance: only the generals
need be killed; a guilty conscience and the hope of pardon would soon
bring the rest flocking over to their flag. Such was the tenor of
their first meeting. Agitators were sent all over Gaul to stir up war.
The conspirators themselves feigned loyalty to Vocula, hoping to catch
him off his guard.[391] There were, indeed, traitors who reported all
this to Vocula, but he was not strong enough to crush the conspiracy,
his legions being short-handed and unreliable. Between suspected
troops on one side and secret enemies on the other, it seemed his best
course under the circumstances to dissemble, as they were doing, and
thus use their own weapons against them. So he marched down the river
to Cologne. There he found Claudius Labeo, who after being taken
prisoner, as described above,[392] and relegated to the Frisii, had
bribed his guards and escaped to Cologne. He promised that if Vocula
would provide him with troops, he would go to the Batavi and win back
the better part of their community to the Roman alliance. He was given
a small force of horse and foot. Without venturing any attempt upon
the Batavi, he attracted a few of the Nervii and Baetasii[393] to his
standard, and proceeded to harass the Canninefates and Marsaci[393]
more by stealth than open warfare.
Lured by the treachery of the Gauls, Vocula marched out against 57
his enemy.[394] Not far from Vetera, Classicus and Tutor rode
forward[395] on a pretext of scouting, and ratified their compact
with the German leaders. They were now for the first time separated
from the legions, and entrenched themselves in a camp of their own. At
this, Vocula loudly protested that Rome was not as yet so shattered by
civil war as to earn the contempt of tribes like the Treviri and
Lingones. She could still rely on loyal provinces and victorious
armies, on the good fortune of the empire and the avenging hand of
God. Thus it was that in former days Sacrovir and the Aedui,[396] more
lately Vindex and the Gallic provinces had each been crushed at a
single battle. Now, again, these treaty-breakers must expect to face
the same powers of Providence and Destiny. The sainted Julius and the
sainted Augustus had understood these people better: it was Galba's
reduction of the tribute[397] that had clothed them in enmity and
pride. 'They are our enemies to-day because their yoke is easy: when
they have been stripped and plundered they will be our friends.' After
these spirited words, seeing that Classicus and Tutor still persisted
in their treachery, he turned back and retired to Novaesium, while the
Gauls encamped a couple of miles away. Thither the centurions and
soldiers flocked to sell their souls. This was, indeed, an unheard of
villainy that Roman soldiers should swear allegiance to a foreign
power, and offer as a pledge for this heinous crime either to kill or
imprison their generals. Though many urged Vocula to escape, he felt
that he must make a bold stand, so he summoned a meeting and spoke
somewhat as follows:--'Never before have I addressed you with such 58
feelings of anxiety for you, or with such indifference to my own fate.
That plans are being laid for my destruction I am glad enough to hear:
in such a parlous case as this I look for death as the end of all my
troubles. It is for you that I feel shame and pity. It is not that a
field of battle awaits you, for that would only accord with the laws
of warfare and the just rights of combatants, but because Classicus
hopes that with your hands he can make war upon the Roman people, and
flourishes before you an oath of allegiance to the Empire of All Gaul.
What though fortune and courage have deserted us for the moment, have
we not glorious examples in the past? How often have not Roman
soldiers chosen to die rather than be driven from their post? Often
have our allies endured the destruction of their cities and given
themselves and their wives and children to the flames, without any
other reward for such an end save the name of honourable men. At this
very moment Roman troops are enduring famine and siege at Vetera, and
neither threats nor promises can move them, while we, besides arms and
men and fine fortifications, have supplies enough to last through any
length of war. Money, too--the other day there was enough even for a
donative, and whether you choose to say that it was given you by
Vespasian or by Vitellius, at any rate you got it from a Roman
Emperor. After all the engagements you have won, after routing the
enemy at Gelduba, at Vetera, it would be shameful enough to shirk
battle, but you have your trenches and your walls, and there are ways
of gaining time until armies come flocking from the neighbouring
provinces to your rescue. Granted that you dislike me; well, there are
others to lead you, whether legate, tribune, centurion, and even
private soldier. But do not let this portent be trumpeted over the
whole world, that Civilis and Classicus are going to invade Italy with
you in their train. Suppose the Germans and Gauls lead the way to the
walls of Rome, will you turn your arms upon your fatherland? The mere
thought of such a crime is horrible. Will you stand sentry for the
Treviran Tutor? Shall a Batavian give you the signal for battle? Will
you swell the ranks of German hordes? And what will be the issue of
your crime, when the Roman legions take the field against you?
Desertion upon desertion, treachery upon treachery! You will be
drifting miserably between the old allegiance and the new, with the
curse of Heaven on your heads. Almighty Jupiter, whom we have
worshipped at triumph after triumph for eight hundred and twenty
years; and Quirinus, Father of our Rome, if it be not your pleasure
that under my command this camp be kept clean from the stain of
dishonour, grant at the least, I humbly beseech ye, that it never be
defiled with the pollution of a Tutor or a Classicus; and to these
soldiers of Rome give either innocence of heart or a speedy repentance
before the harm is done.'
The speech was variously received, with feelings fluctuating 59
between hope, fear, and shame. Vocula withdrew and began to prepare
for his end, but his freedmen and slaves prevented him from
forestalling by his own hand a dreadful death. As it was, Classicus
dispatched Aemilius Longinus, a deserter from the First legion, who
quickly murdered him. For Herennius and Numisius imprisonment was
thought sufficient. Classicus then assumed the uniform and insignia of
a Roman general, and thus entered the camp. Hardened though he was to
every kind of crime, words failed him,[398] and he could only read out
the oath. Those who were present swore allegiance to the Empire of All
Gaul. He then gave high promotion to Vocula's assassin, and rewarded
the others each according to the villainy of his service.
The command was now divided between Tutor and Classicus. Tutor at the
head of a strong force besieged Cologne and forced the inhabitants and
all the soldiers on the Upper Rhine to take the same oath of
allegiance. At Mainz he killed the officers and drove away the
camp-prefect, who had refused to swear. Classicus ordered all the
greatest scoundrels among the deserters to go to Vetera and offer
pardon to the besieged if they would yield to circumstances: otherwise
there was no hope for them: they should suffer famine and sword and
every extremity. The messengers further cited their own example.
Torn by a conflict of loyalty and hunger, the besieged vacillated 60
between honour and disgrace. While they hesitated, all their sources
of food, both usual and unusual, began to fail them. They had eaten
their mules and horses and all the other animals which, though foul
and unclean, their straits had forced into use. At last they took to
grubbing up the shrubs and roots and the grass that grew between the
stones, and became a very pattern of endurance in wretchedness, until
at last they soiled their glory by a shameful end. Envoys were sent to
Civilis begging him to save their lives. Even then he refused to
receive their petition until they had sworn allegiance to All Gaul. He
then negotiated for the plunder of the camp and sent guards, some to
secure the money, servants and baggage, and others to conduct the men
themselves out of the camp with empty hands. About five miles down the
road their line was surprised by an ambush of Germans. The bravest
fell on the spot; many were cut down in flight; the rest got back to
camp. Civilis, indeed, complained that the Germans had criminally
broken faith and rebuked them for it. There is no evidence to show
whether this was a pretence or whether he was really unable to
restrain his savage troops. The camp was plundered and burnt, and all
who had survived the battle were devoured by the flames.
When Civilis first took up arms against Rome he made a vow, such 61
as is common with barbarians, to let his ruddled hair[399] grow wild;
now that he had at last accomplished the destruction of the legions he
had it cut. It is said also that he put up some of the prisoners for
his little son to shoot in sport with javelins and arrows. However
that may be, he did not himself swear allegiance to All Gaul, nor did
he force any of the Batavi to do so. He felt that he could rely on the
strength of the Germans, and that if any quarrel arose with the Gauls
about the empire, his fame would give him an advantage. Munius
Lupercus, one of the Roman commanding-officers, was sent among other
presents to Veleda, a virgin of the Bructeran tribe who wielded a
wide-spread authority.[400] It is an ancient custom in Germany to
credit a number of women with prophetic powers, and with the growth of
superstition these develop into goddesses. At this moment Veleda's
influence was at its height, for she had prophesied the success of the
Germans and the destruction of the Roman army.[401] However, Lupercus
was killed on the journey. A few of the centurions and officers who
had been born in Gaul were detained as a security for good faith. The
winter camps of the legions and of the auxiliary infantry and cavalry
were all dismantled and burnt, with the sole exception of those at
Mainz and Vindonissa.[402]
The Sixteenth legion and the auxiliary troops who had surrendered 62
with it now received orders to migrate from their quarters at
Novaesium to Trier, and a date was fixed by which they had to leave
their camp. They spent the meantime brooding on various anxieties, the
cowards all shuddering at the precedent of the massacre at Vetera, the
better sort covered with shame at their disgrace. 'What sort of a
march would this be? Whom would they have to lead them? Everything
would be decided by the will of those into whose hands they had put
their lives.' Others, again, were quite indifferent to the disgrace,
and simply stowed all their money and most cherished possessions about
their persons, while many got their armour ready and buckled on their
swords, as if for battle. While they were still busy with these
preparations the hour struck for their departure, and it proved more
bitter than they had expected. Inside the trenches their disgrace was
not so noticeable. The open country and the light of day revealed
their depth of shame. The emperors' medallions had been torn down[403]
and their standards desecrated, while Gallic ensigns glittered all
around them. They marched in silence, like a long funeral procession,
led by Claudius Sanctus,[404] a man whose sinister appearance--he had
lost one eye--was only surpassed by his weakness of intellect. Their
disgrace was doubled when they were joined by the First legion, who
had left their camp at Bonn. The famous news of their capture had
spread, and all the people who shortly before had trembled at the very
name of Rome, now came flocking out from fields and houses, and
scattered far and wide in transports of joy at this unwonted sight.
Their insulting glee was too much for 'The Picenum Horse'.[405]
Defying all Sanctus' threats and promises, they turned off to Mainz,
and coming by chance upon Longinus, the man who killed Vocula, they
slew him with a shower of javelins and thus made a beginning of future
amends. The legions, without changing their route, came and camped
before the walls of Trier.
Highly elated by their success, Civilis and Classicus debated 63
whether they should allow their troops to sack Cologne. Their natural
savagery and lust for plunder inclined them to destroy the town, but
policy forbade; and they felt that in inaugurating a new empire a
reputation for clemency would be an asset. Civilis was also moved by
the memory of a past service, for at the beginning of the outbreak his
son had been arrested in Cologne, and they had kept him in honourable
custody. However, the tribes across the Rhine were jealous of this
rich and rising community, and held that the war could only be ended
either by throwing the settlement open to all Germans without
distinction or by destroying it and thereby dispersing the Ubii 64
together with its other inhabitants.[406] Accordingly the
Tencteri,[407] their nearest neighbours across the Rhine, dispatched a
deputation to lay a message before a public meeting of the town. This
was delivered by the haughtiest of the delegates in some such terms as
these:--'We give thanks to the national gods of Germany and above all
others, to the god of war, that you are again incorporate in the
German nation and the German name, and we congratulate you that you
will now at last become free members of a free community. Until to-day
the Romans had closed to us the roads and rivers, and almost the very
air of heaven, to prevent all intercourse between us; or else they
offered a still fouler insult to born warriors, that we should meet
under supervision, unarmed and almost naked,[408] and should pay for
the privilege. Now, that our friendly alliance may be ratified for all
eternity, we demand of you that you pull down those bulwarks of
slavery, the walls of your town, for even wild beasts lose their
spirit if you keep them caged: that you put to the sword every Roman
on your soil, since tyrants are incompatible with freedom; that all
the property of those killed form a common stock and no one be
allowed to conceal anything or to secure any private advantage. It
must also be open both for us and for you to live on either
river-bank, as our forefathers could in earlier days. As daylight is
the natural heritage of all mankind, so the land of the world is free
to all brave men. Resume again the customs and manners of your own
country and throw off those luxurious habits which enslave Rome's
subjects far more effectively than Roman arms. Then, grown simple and
uncorrupt, you will forget your past slavery and either know none but
equals or hold empire over others.'
The townspeople took time to consider these proposals, and, 65
feeling that their apprehensions for the future forbade them to
assent, while their present circumstances forbade them to return a
plain negative, they answered as follows: 'We have seized our first
opportunity of freedom with more haste than prudence, because we
wanted to join hands with you and all our other German kinsmen. As for
our town-walls, seeing that the Roman armies are massing at this
moment, it would be safer for us to heighten them than to pull them
down. All the foreigners from Italy or the provinces who lived on our
soil have either perished in the war or fled to their own homes. As
for the original settlers[409], who are united to us by ties of
marriage, they and their offspring regard this as their home, and we
do not think you are so unreasonable as to ask us to kill our parents
and brothers and children. All taxes and commercial restrictions we
remit. We grant you free entry without supervision, but you must come
in daylight and unarmed, while these ties which are still strange and
new are growing into a long-established custom. As arbitrators we will
appoint Civilis and Veleda, and we will ratify our compact in their
presence.'
Thus the Tencteri were pacified. A deputation was sent with presents
to Civilis and Veleda, and obtained all that the people of Cologne
desired. They were not, however, allowed to approach and speak to
Veleda or even to see her, but were kept at a distance to inspire in
them the greater awe. She herself lived at the top of a high tower,
and one of her relatives was appointed to carry all the questions and
answers like a mediator between God and man.
Now that he had gained the accession of Cologne, Civilis 66
determined to win over the neighbouring communities or to declare war
in case of opposition. He reduced the Sunuci[410] and formed their
fighting strength into cohorts, but then found his advance barred by
Claudius Labeo[411] at the head of a hastily-recruited band of
Baetasii, Tungri, and Nervii.[411] He had secured the bridge over the
Maas and relied on the strength of his position. A skirmish in the
narrow defile proved indecisive, until the Germans swam across and
took Labeo in the rear. At this point Civilis by a bold move--or
possibly by arrangement--rode into the lines of the Tungri and called
out in a loud voice, 'Our object in taking up arms is not to secure
empire for the Batavi and Treviri over other tribes. We are far from
any such arrogance. Take us as allies. I am come to join you; whether
as general or as private it is for you to choose.' This had a great
effect on the common soldiers, who began to sheathe their swords. Then
two of their chieftains, Campanus and Juvenalis, surrendered the
entire tribe. Labeo escaped before he was surrounded. Civilis also
received the allegiance of the Baetasii and Nervii, and added their
forces to his own. His power was now immense, for all the Gallic
communities were either terrified or ready to offer willing support.
In the meantime, Julius Sabinus,[412] who had destroyed every 67
memorial of the Roman alliance,[413] assumed the title of Caesar and
proceeded to hurry a large unwieldy horde of his tribesmen against the
Sequani,[414] a neighbouring community, faithful to Rome. The Sequani
accepted battle: the good cause prospered: the Lingones were routed.
Sabinus fled the field with the same rash haste with which he had
plunged into battle. Wishing to spread a rumour of his death, he took
refuge in a house and set fire to it, and was thus supposed to have
perished by his own act. We shall, however, relate in due course the
devices by which he lay in hiding and prolonged his life for nine
more years, and allude also to the loyalty of his friends and the
memorable example set by his wife Epponina.[415]
FOOTNOTES:
[384] Tacitus here resumes the thread of his narrative of the
rebellion on the Rhine, interrupted at the end of chap. 37,
and goes back from July to January, A.D. 70.
[385] Cp. iii. 46.
[386] The danger of Druidism was always before the eyes of the
emperors. Augustus had forbidden Roman citizens to adopt it.
Claudius had tried to stamp it out in Gaul and in Britain, yet
they appear again here to preach a fanatic nationalism.
However, this seems to be their last appearance as leaders of
revolt.
[387] Probably they were in Rome, and were sent back to their
homes to intrigue against Vitellius' rising power.
[388] See chap. 36.
[389] Cp. ii. 14.
[390] i.e. he was to prevent any incursions from Germany along
the frontier of his canton, between Bingen and Coblenz.
[391] At Mainz.
[392] Chap. 18.
[393] These tribes lived between the Maas and the Scheldt, and
the Marsaci were round the mouth of the Scheldt.
[394] Civilis, again besieging Vetera (chap. 36).
[395] i.e. from the rest of Vocula's force, which they had not
yet deserted.
[396] The Aedui, one of the most powerful of the Gallic
tribes, living between the Saône and the Loire had revolted in
A.D. 21, and held out for a short time at their chief town
(Autun).
[397] This had only been granted to a few tribes who had
helped in crushing Vindex (see i. 8 and 51). The Treviri and
Lingones had been punished. But it is a good rhetorical point.
[398] His presumption took away his breath.
[399] i.e. artificially reddened according to a Gallic custom.
[400] Cp. chap. 69.
[401] Under Vespasian she inspired another rebellion and was
brought as a captive to Rome, where she aroused much polite
curiosity.
[402] Windisch.
[403] From the standards.
[404] Claudius the Holy; lucus a non lucendo.
[405] An auxiliary squadron of Italian horse, originally
raised, we may suppose, by a provincial governor who was a
native of Picenum.
[406] The Ubii were distrusted as having taken the name
Agrippinenses and become in some degree Romanized. The town
was strongly walled, and Germans from outside only admitted on
payment and under Roman supervision.
[407] See chap. 21.
[408] Not, of course, to be taken literally. 'The Germans do
no business public or private except in full armour,' says
Tacitus in the _Germania_. So to them 'unarmed' meant
'unclothed'.
[409] i.e. the veterans whom Agrippina had sent out to her
birthplace in A.D. 50.
[410] West of the Ubii, between the Roer and the Maas.
[411] See chap. 56.
[412] Cp. chap. 55.
[413] e.g. the inscriptions recording the terms of alliance
granted to the Lingones by Rome.
[414] Round Vesontio (Besançon).
[415] The story, which Tacitus presumably told in the lost
part of his _History_, dealing with the end of Vespasian's
reign, is mentioned both by Plutarch and Dio. Sabinus and his
wife lived for nine years in an underground cave, where two
sons were born to them. They were eventually discovered and
executed.
THE EBB-TIDE OF REVOLT
This success on the part of the Sequani checked the rising flood. The
Gallic communities gradually came to their senses and began to
remember their obligations as allies. In this movement the Remi[416]
took the lead. They circulated a notice throughout Gaul, summoning a
meeting of delegates to consider whether liberty or peace was the
preferable alternative. At Rome, however, all these disasters were 68
exaggerated, and Mucianus began to feel anxious. He had already
appointed Annius Gallus and Petilius Cerialis to the chief command,
and distinguished officers as they were, he was afraid the conduct of
such a war might be too much for them. Moreover, he could not leave
Rome without government, but he was afraid of Domitian's unbridled
passions, while, as we have already seen,[417] he suspected Antonius
Primus and Arrius Varus. Varus, as commanding the Guards, still had
the chief power and influence in his hands. Mucianus accordingly
displaced him, but, as a compensation, made him Director of the
Corn-supply. As he had also to placate Domitian, who was inclined to
support Varus, he appointed to the command of the Guards Arrecinus
Clemens, who was connected with Vespasian's family[418] and very
friendly with Domitian. He also impressed it upon Domitian that
Clemens' father had filled this command with great distinction under
Caligula: that his name and his character would both find favour with
the troops, and that, although he was a member of the senate,[419] he
was quite able to fill both positions. He then chose his staff, some
as being the most eminent men in the country, others as recommended by
private influence.
Thus both Domitian and Mucianus made ready to start, but with very
different feelings. Domitian was full of the sanguine haste of youth,
while Mucianus kept devising delays to check this enthusiasm. He was
afraid that if Domitian once seized control of an army, his youthful
self-assurance and his bad advisers would lead him into action
prejudicial both to peace and war. Three victorious legions, the
Eighth, Eleventh, and Thirteenth;[420] the Twenty-first--one of
Vitellius' legions--and the Second, which had been newly enrolled, all
started for the front, some by way of the Poenine and Cottian[421]
Alps, others over the Graian Alps.[422] The Fourteenth was also
summoned from Britain, and the Sixth and First from Spain.
The rumour that this force was on its way, combined with the present
temper of the Gauls, inclined them to adopt a sober policy. Their
delegates now met in the territory of the Remi, where they found the
representatives of the Treviri awaiting them. One of these, Julius
Valentinus, who was the keenest instigator of a hostile policy,
delivered a set speech, in which he heaped spiteful aspersions on the
Roman people, making all the charges which are usually brought against
great empires. He was a clever agitator, whose mad rhetoric made him
popular with the crowd. However, Julius Auspex, a chieftain of the 69
Remi, enlarged upon the power of Rome and the blessings of peace. 'Any
coward can begin a war,' he said, 'but it is the brave who run the
risks of its conduct: and here are the legions already upon us.' Thus
he restrained them, awakening a sense of duty in all the sager
breasts, and appealing to the fears of the younger men. So, while
applauding Valentinus' courage, they followed the advice of Auspex.
The fact that in Vindex's rising the Treviri and Lingones sided with
Verginius is known to have told against them in Gaul. Many, too, were
held back by tribal jealousy. They wanted to know where the
head-quarters of the war would be, to whom were they to look for
auspices and orders, and, if all went well, which town would be chosen
as the seat of government. Thus dissension preceded victory. They
angrily magnified, some their great connexions, others their wealth
and strength, others their antiquity, until they grew tired of
discussing the future and voted for the existing state of things.
Letters were written to the Treviri in the name of All Gaul, bidding
them cease hostilities, suggesting, however, that pardon might be
obtained, and that many were ready to plead their cause if they showed
repentance. Valentinus opposed this mandate and made his tribesmen
offer a deaf ear to it. He was always less anxious to organize a
campaign than to make speeches on every possible occasion.
The result was that neither the Treviri nor the Lingones nor the 70
other rebel tribes behaved as if aware of the serious risks they were
undertaking. Even the leaders did not act in concert. Civilis wandered
over the wilds of the Belgic country, trying to catch or expel
Claudius Labeo. Classicus ordinarily took his ease, apparently
enjoying the fruits of empire. Even Tutor seemed in no hurry to
garrison the Upper Rhine and block the Alpine passes. In the meantime,
the Twenty-first legion made its way down from Vindonissa, while
Sextilius Felix[423] advanced through Raetia with some auxiliary
cohorts. These were joined by the 'Picked Horse',[424] a force that
had been raised by Vitellius and then deserted to Vespasian. This was
commanded by Civilis' nephew, Julius Briganticus,[425] for uncle and
nephew hated each other with all the aggravated bitterness of near
relatives. Tutor swelled his force of Treviri with fresh levies from
the Vangiones, Triboci, and Caeracates,[426] and a stiffening of Roman
veterans, both horse and foot, who had either been bribed or
intimidated. These first cut up an auxiliary cohort sent forward by
Sextilius Felix, but on the advance of the Roman army with its
generals they loyally deserted to their old flag, and were followed by
the Triboci, Vangiones, and Caeracates. Tutor, followed by his
Treviri, avoided Mainz and fell back on Bingium,[427] relying on his
position there, as he had broken down the bridge over the river Nava.
However, Sextilius' cohorts followed him up; some traitor showed them
a ford; Tutor was routed. This disaster was a crushing blow to the
Treviri. The rank and file dropped their weapons and took to the
fields, while some of their chieftains, hoping it might be thought
that they had been the first to lay down arms, took refuge among
tribes who had never repudiated the Roman alliance. The legions which
had been moved, as we saw above,[428] from Novaesium and Bonn to
Trier, now administered to themselves the oath of allegiance to
Vespasian. This happened in Valentinus' absence. When he arrived in
furious excitement, ready to spread universal ruin and confusion, the
legions withdrew into the friendly territory of the Mediomatrici.[429]
Valentinus and Tutor then led the Treviri forcibly back into the
field, but first they killed the two Roman officers, Herennius and
Numisius.[430] By diminishing the hope of pardon they tried to cement
their bond of crime.
Such was the position when Petilius Cerialis reached Mainz. His 71
arrival roused high hopes. He was himself thirsting for battle, and
being always better at despising his enemy than at taking precautions,
he fired his men by delivering a spirited harangue, promising that
directly there was a chance of getting into touch with the enemy he
would engage without delay. He dismissed the Gallic recruits to their
homes with a message that the legions were enough for his task: the
allies could resume their peaceful occupations, feeling assured that
the war was practically ended, now that Roman troops had taken it in
hand. This action rendered the Gauls all the more tractable. They made
less difficulty about the war-tax, now that they had got their men
back again, while his disdain only sharpened their sense of duty. On
the other side, when Civilis and Classicus heard of Tutor's defeat,
the destruction of the Treviri, and the universal success of the Roman
arms, they fell into a panic, hastily mobilized their own scattered
forces, and kept sending messages to Valentinus not to risk a decisive
battle. This only hastened Cerialis' movements. He sent guides to the
legions stationed in the country of the Mediomatrici to lead them by
the shortest route on the enemy's rear. Then, assembling all the
troops to be found in Mainz[431] together with his own force, he
marched in three days to Rigodulum.[432] Here, on a spot protected by
the mountains on one side and the Moselle on the other, Valentinus had
already taken his stand with a large force of Treviri. His camp had
been strengthened with trenches and stone barricades, but these
fortifications had no terrors for the Roman general. He ordered the
infantry to force the position in front, while the cavalry were to
ascend the hill. Valentinus' hurriedly assembled forces filled him
with contempt, for he knew that whatever advantage their position
might give them, the superior morale of his men would outweigh it. A
short delay was necessary while the cavalry climbed the hill, exposed
to the enemy's fire. But when the fight began, the Treviri tumbled
headlong down the hill like a house falling. Some of our cavalry, who
had ridden round by an easier gradient, captured several Belgic
chieftains, including their general, Valentinus.
On the next day Cerialis entered Trier. The troops clamoured 72
greedily for its destruction. 'It was the native town of Classicus and
of Tutor: these were the men who had wickedly entrapped and
slaughtered the legions. Its guilt was far worse than that of Cremona,
which had been wiped off the face of Italy for causing the victors a
single night's delay. Was the chief seat of the rebellion to be left
standing untouched on the German frontier, glorying in the spoil of
Roman armies and the blood of Roman generals?[433] The plunder could
go to the Imperial Treasury. It would be enough for them to see the
rebel town in smoking ruins; that would be some compensation for the
destruction of so many camps.' Cerialis was afraid of soiling his
reputation if it was said that he gave his men a taste for cruelty and
riot, so he suppressed their indignation. They obeyed him, too, for
now that civil war was done with, there was less insubordination on
foreign service. Their thoughts were now distracted by the pitiful
plight of the legions who had been summoned from the country of the
Mediomatrici.[434] Miserably conscious of their guilt, they stood with
eyes rooted to the ground. When the armies met, they raised no cheer:
they had no answer for those who offered comfort and encouragement:
they skulked in their tents, shunning the light of day. It was not
fear of punishment so much as the shame of their disgrace which thus
overwhelmed them. Even the victorious army showed their bewilderment:
hardly venturing to make an audible petition, they craved pardon for
them with silent tears. At length Cerialis soothed their alarm. He
insisted that all disasters due to dissension between officers and
men, or to the enemy's guile, were to be regarded as 'acts of
destiny'. They were to count this as their first day of service and
sworn allegiance.[435] Neither he nor the emperor would remember past
misdeeds. He then gave them quarters in his own camp, and sent round
orders that no one in the heat of any quarrel should taunt a fellow
soldier with mutiny or defeat.
Cerialis next summoned the Treviri and Lingones, and addressed 73
them as follows: 'Unpractised as I am in public speaking, for it is
only on the field that I have asserted the superiority of Rome, yet
since words have so much weight with you, and since you distinguish
good and bad not by the light of facts but by what agitators tell you,
I have decided to make a few remarks, which, as the war is practically
over, are likely to be more profitable to the audience than to
ourselves. Roman generals and officers originally set foot in your
country and the rest of Gaul from no motives of ambition, but at the
call of your ancestors, who were worn almost to ruin by dissension.
The Germans whom one party summoned to their aid had forced the yoke
of slavery on allies and enemies alike. You know how often we fought
against the Cimbri and the Teutons, with what infinite pains and with
what striking success our armies have undertaken German wars. All that
is notorious. And to-day it is not to protect Italy that we have
occupied the Rhine, but to prevent some second Ariovistus making
himself master of All Gaul.[436] Do you imagine that Civilis and his
Batavi and the other tribes across the Rhine care any more about you
than their ancestors cared about your fathers and grandfathers? The
Germans have always had the same motives for trespassing into
Gaul--their greed for gain and their desire to change homes with you.
They wanted to leave their marshes and deserts, and to make themselves
masters of this magnificently fertile soil and of you who live on it.
Of course they use specious pretexts and talk about liberty. No one
has ever wanted to enslave others and play the tyrant without making
use of the very same phrases.
'Tyranny and warfare were always rife throughout the length and 74
breadth of Gaul, until you accepted Roman government. Often as we have
been provoked, we have never imposed upon you any burden by right of
conquest, except what was necessary to maintain peace. Tribes cannot
be kept quiet without troops. You cannot have troops without pay; and
you cannot raise pay without taxation. In every other respect you are
treated as our equals. You frequently command our legions yourselves:
you govern this and other provinces yourselves. We have no exclusive
privileges. Though you live so far away, you enjoy the blessings of a
good emperor no less than we do, whereas the tyrant only oppresses
his nearest neighbours. You must put up with luxury and greed in your
masters, just as you put up with bad crops or excessive rain, or any
other natural disaster. Vice will last as long as mankind. But these
evils are not continual. There are intervals of good government, which
make up for them. You cannot surely hope that the tyranny of Tutor and
Classicus would mean milder government, or that they will need less
taxation for the armies they will have to raise to keep the Germans
and Britons at bay. For if the Romans were driven out--which Heaven
forbid--what could ensue save a universal state of intertribal
warfare? During eight hundred years, by good fortune and good
organization, the structure of empire has been consolidated. It cannot
be pulled down without destroying those who do it. And it is you who
would run the greatest risk of all, since you have gold and rich
resources, which are the prime causes of war. You must learn, then, to
love and foster peace and the city of Rome in which you, the
vanquished, have the same rights as your conquerors. You have tried
both conditions. Take warning, then, that submission and safety are
better than rebellion and ruin.' By such words as these he quieted and
reassured his audience, who had been afraid of more rigorous measures.
While the victors were occupying Trier, Civilis and Classicus sent 75
a letter to Cerialis, the gist of which was that Vespasian was dead,
though the news was being suppressed: Rome and Italy were exhausted by
civil war: Mucianus and Domitian were mere names with no power behind
them: if Cerialis desired to be emperor of All Gaul, they would be
satisfied with their own territory: but if he should prefer battle,
that, too, they would not deny him. Cerialis made no answer to Civilis
and Classicus, but sent the letter and its bearer to Domitian.
The enemy now approached Trier from every quarter in detached bands,
and Cerialis was much criticized for allowing them to unite, when he
might have cut them off one by one. The Roman army now threw a trench
and rampart round their camp, for they had rashly settled in it
without seeing to the fortifications. In the German camp different 76
opinions were being keenly debated. Civilis contended that they should
wait for the tribes from across the Rhine, whose arrival would spread
a panic sufficient to crush the enfeebled forces of the Romans. The
Gauls, he urged, were simply a prey for the winning side and, as it
was, the Belgae, who were their sole strength, had declared for him or
were at least sympathetic. Tutor maintained that delay only
strengthened the Roman force, since their armies were converging from
every quarter. 'They have brought one legion across from Britain,
others have been summoned from Spain, or are on their way from
Italy.[437] Nor are they raw recruits, but experienced veterans, while
the Germans, on whose aid we rely, are subject to no discipline or
control, but do whatever they like. You can only bribe them with
presents of money, and the Romans have the advantage of us there:
besides, however keen to fight, a man always prefers peace to danger,
so long as the pay is the same. But if we engage them at once,
Cerialis has nothing but the remnants of the German army,[438] who
have sworn allegiance to the Gallic Empire. The very fact that they
have just won an unexpected victory over Valentinus' undisciplined
bands[439] serves to confirm them and their general in imprudence.
They will venture out again and will fall, not into the hands of an
inexperienced boy, who knows more about making speeches than war, but
into the hands of Civilis and Classicus, at the sight of whom they
will recall their fears and their flights and their famine, and
remember how often they have had to beg their lives from their
captors. Nor, again, is it any liking for the Romans that keeps back
the Treviri and Lingones: they will fly to arms again, when once their
fears are dispelled.' Classicus finally settled the difference of
opinion by declaring for Tutor's policy, and they promptly proceeded
to carry it out.
The Ubii and Lingones were placed in the centre, the Batavian 77
cohorts on the right, and on the left the Bructeri and Tencteri.
Advancing, some by the hills and some by the path between the road and
the river,[440] they took us completely by surprise. So sudden was
their onslaught that Cerialis, who had not spent the night in camp,
was still in bed when he heard almost simultaneously that the fighting
had begun and that the day was lost. He cursed the messengers for
their cowardice until he saw the whole extent of the disaster with his
own eyes. The camp had been forced, the cavalry routed, and the bridge
over the Moselle, leading to the outskirts of the town, which lay
between him and his army,[440] was held by the enemy. But confusion
had no terrors for Cerialis. Seizing hold on fugitives, flinging
himself without any armour into the thick of the fire, he succeeded by
his inspired imprudence and the assistance of the braver men in
retaking the bridge. Leaving a picked band to hold it, he hurried back
to the camp, where he found that the companies of the legions which
had surrendered at Bonn and Novaesium[441] were all broken up, few men
were left at their posts, and the eagles were all but surrounded by
the enemy. He turned on them in blazing anger, 'It is not Flaccus or
Vocula that you are deserting. There is no "treason" about me. I have
done nothing to be ashamed of, except that I was rash enough to
believe that you had forgotten your Gallic ties and awakened to the
memory of your Roman allegiance. Am I to be numbered with Numisius
and Herennius?[442] Then you can say that all your generals have
fallen either by your hands or the enemy's. Go and tell the news to
Vespasian, or rather, to Civilis and Classicus--they are nearer at
hand--that you have deserted your general on the field of battle.
There will yet come legions who will not leave me unavenged or you
unpunished.'
All he said was true, and the other officers heaped the same 78
reproaches on their heads. The men were drawn up in cohorts and
companies, since it was impossible to deploy with the enemy swarming
round them, and, the fight being inside the rampart, the tents and
baggage were a serious encumbrance. Tutor and Classicus and Civilis,
each at his post, were busy rallying their forces, appealing to the
Gauls to fight for freedom, the Batavians for glory, and the Germans
for plunder. Everything, indeed, went well for the enemy until the
Twenty-first legion, who had rallied in a clearer space than any of
the others, first sustained their charge and then repulsed them. Then,
by divine providence, on the very point of victory the enemy suddenly
lost their nerve and turned tail. They themselves attributed their
panic to the appearance of the Roman auxiliaries, who, after being
scattered by the first charge, formed again on the hill-tops and were
taken for fresh reinforcements. However, what really cost the Gauls
their victory was that they let their enemy alone and indulged in
ignoble squabbles over the spoil. Thus after Cerialis' carelessness
had almost caused disaster, his pluck now saved the day, and he
followed up his success by capturing the enemy's camp and destroying
it before nightfall.
Cerialis' troops were allowed short respite. Cologne was 79
clamouring for help and offering to surrender Civilis' wife and sister
and Classicus' daughter, who had been left behind there as pledges of
the alliance. In the meantime the inhabitants had massacred all the
stray Germans to be found in the town. They were now alarmed at this,
and had good reason to implore aid before the enemy should recover
their strength and bethink themselves of victory, or at any rate of
revenge. Indeed, Civilis already had designs on Cologne, and he was
still formidable, for the most warlike of his cohorts, composed of
Chauci and Frisii,[443] was still in full force at Tolbiacum,[444]
within the territory of Cologne. However, he changed his plans on
receiving the bitter news that this force had been entrapped and
destroyed by the inhabitants of Cologne. They had entertained them at
a lavish banquet, drugged them with wine, shut the doors upon them and
burned the place to the ground. At the same moment Cerialis came by
forced marches to the relief of Cologne. A further anxiety haunted
Civilis. He was afraid that the Fourteenth legion, in conjunction with
the fleet from Britain,[445] might harry the Batavian coast. However,
Fabius Priscus, who was in command, led his troops inland into the
country of the Nervii and Tungri, who surrendered to him. The
Canninefates[446] made an unprovoked attack upon the fleet and sank or
captured the greater number of the ships. They also defeated a band of
Nervian volunteers who had been recruited in the Roman interest.
Classicus secured a further success against an advance-guard of
cavalry which Cerialis had sent forward to Novaesium. These repeated
checks, though unimportant in themselves, served to dim the lustre of
the recent Roman victory.[447]
FOOTNOTES:
[416] Round Reims.
[417] Chap. 39.
[418] His sister was Titus's first wife.
[419] Augustus had made it a rule that the _praefectus
praetorio_ should come from the equestrian order.
[420] The text is here uncertain, and some historians maintain
that the third of these legions was not XIII Gemina but VII
Claudia (v. Henderson, _Civil War_, &c., p. 291).
[421] Great St. Bernard and Mt. Genèvre.
[422] Little St. Bernard.
[423] See iii. 5.
[424] i.e. not raised in any one locality.
[425] Cp. ii. 22.
[426] The Triboci were in Lower Alsace; the Vangiones north of
them in the district of Worms; the Caeracates probably to the
north again, in the district between Mainz and the Nahe
(Nava).
[427] Bingen.
[428] Chap. 62.
[429] Round Metz.
[430] See chap. 59.
[431] The other detachments of legions IV and XXII.
[432] Riol.
[433] Hordeonius Flaccus, Vocula, Herennius, and Numisius.
[434] Legions I and XVI.
[435] They had, as a matter of fact, changed their allegiance
no less than six times since the outbreak of the civil war.
[436] Ariovistus, king of the Suebi, summoned to aid one
Gallic confederacy against another, formed the ambition of
conquering Gaul, but was defeated by Julius Caesar near
Besançon (Vesontio) in 58 B.C.
[437] See chap. 68.
[438] Tutor erred. Cerialis had also the Twenty-first from
Vindonissa, Felix's auxiliary cohorts, and the troops he had
found at Mainz (see chaps. 70 and 71).
[439] He suppresses his own defeat at Bingen (chap. 70).
[440] The town lay on the right bank of the Moselle; the Roman
camp on the left bank between the river and the hills. There
was only one bridge.
[441] The Sixteenth had its permanent camp at Novaesium, the
First at Bonn. Both surrendered at Novaesium (cp. chap. 59).
[442] See chaps. 59 and 70.
[443] The Frisii occupied part of Friesland; the Chauci lay
east of them, between the Ems and Weser.
[444] Zülpich.
[445] A small flotilla on guard in the Channel. It probably
now transported the Fourteenth and landed them at Boulogne.
[446] Cp. chap. 15.
[447] The narrative is resumed from this point in v. 14.
EVENTS IN ROME AND IN THE EAST
It was about this time that Mucianus gave orders for the murder of 80
Vitellius' son,[448] on the plea that dissension would continue until
all the seeds of war were stamped out. He also refused to allow
Antonius Primus to go out on Domitian's staff, being alarmed at his
popularity among the troops and at the man's own vanity, which would
brook no equal, much less a superior. Antonius accordingly went to
join Vespasian, whose reception, though not hostile, proved a
disappointment. The emperor was drawn two ways. On the one side were
Antonius' services: it was undeniable that his generalship had ended
the war. In the other scale were Mucianus' letters. Besides which,
every one else seemed ready to rake up the scandals of his past life
and inveigh against his vanity and bad temper. Antonius himself did
his best to provoke hostility by expatiating to excess on his
services, decrying the other generals as incompetent cowards, and
stigmatizing Caecina as a prisoner who had surrendered. Thus without
any open breach of friendship he gradually declined lower and lower in
the emperor's favour.
During the months which Vespasian spent at Alexandria waiting for 81
the regular season of the summer winds[449] to ensure a safe voyage,
there occurred many miraculous events manifesting the goodwill of
Heaven and the special favour of Providence towards him. At Alexandria
a poor workman who was well known to have a disease of the eye, acting
on the advice of Serapis, whom this superstitious people worship as
their chief god, fell at Vespasian's feet demanding with sobs a cure
for his blindness, and imploring that the emperor would deign to
moisten his eyes and eyeballs with the spittle from his mouth. Another
man with a maimed hand, also inspired by Serapis, besought Vespasian
to imprint his footmark on it. At first Vespasian laughed at them and
refused. But they insisted. Half fearing to be thought a fool, half
stirred to hopes by their petition and by the flattery of his
courtiers, he eventually told the doctors to form an opinion whether
such cases of blindness and deformity could be remedied by human aid.
The doctors talked round the question, saying that in the one case the
power of sight was not extinct and would return, if certain
impediments were removed; in the other case the limbs were distorted
and could be set right again by the application of an effective
remedy: this might be the will of Heaven and the emperor had perhaps
been chosen as the divine instrument. They added that he would gain
all the credit, if the cure were successful, while, if it failed, the
ridicule would fall on the unfortunate patients. This convinced
Vespasian that there were no limits to his destiny: nothing now seemed
incredible. To the great excitement of the bystanders, he stepped
forward with a smile on his face and did as the men desired him.
Immediately the hand recovered its functions and daylight shone once
more in the blind man's eyes. Those who were present still attest both
miracles to-day,[450] when there is nothing to gain by lying.
This occurrence deepened Vespasian's desire to visit the 82
holy-place and consult Serapis about the fortunes of the empire. He
gave orders that no one else was to be allowed in the temple, and then
went in. While absorbed in his devotions, he suddenly saw behind him
an Egyptian noble, named Basilides, whom he knew to be lying ill
several days' journey from Alexandria. He inquired of the priests
whether Basilides had entered the temple that day. He inquired of
every one he met whether he had been seen in the city. Eventually he
sent some horsemen, who discovered that at the time Basilides was
eighty miles away. Vespasian therefore took what he had seen for a
divine apparition, and guessed the meaning of the oracle from the name
'Basilides'.[451]
The origins of the god Serapis are not given in any Roman 83
authorities. The high-priests of Egypt give the following account:
King Ptolemy, who was the first of the Macedonians to put the power of
Egypt on a firm footing,[452] was engaged in building walls and
temples, and instituting religious cults for his newly founded city of
Alexandria, when there appeared to him in his sleep a young man of
striking beauty and supernatural stature, who warned him to send his
most faithful friends to Pontus to fetch his image. After adding that
this would bring luck to the kingdom, and that its resting-place would
grow great and famous, he appeared to be taken up into heaven in a
sheet of flame. Impressed by this miraculous prophecy, Ptolemy
revealed his vision to the priests of Egypt, who are used to
interpreting such things. As they had but little knowledge of Pontus
or of foreign cults, he consulted an Athenian named Timotheus, a
member of the Eumolpid clan,[453] whom he had brought over from
Eleusis to be overseer of religious ceremonies, and asked him what
worship and what god could possibly be meant. Timotheus found some
people who had travelled in Pontus and learnt from them, that near a
town called Sinope there was a temple, which had long been famous in
the neighbourhood as the seat of Jupiter-Pluto,[454] and near it there
also stood a female figure, which was commonly called Proserpine.
Ptolemy was like most despots, easily terrified at first, but liable,
when his panic was over, to think more of his pleasures than of his
religious duties. The incident was gradually forgotten, and other
thoughts occupied his mind until the vision was repeated in a more
terrible and impressive form than before, and he was threatened with
death and the destruction of his kingdom if he failed to fulfil his
instructions. He at once gave orders that representatives should be
sent with presents to King Scydrothemis, who was then reigning at
Sinope, and on their departure he instructed them to consult the
oracle of Apollo at Delphi. They made a successful voyage and received
a clear answer from the oracle: they were to go and bring back the
image of Apollo's father but leave his sister's behind.
On their arrival at Sinope they laid their presents, their 84
petition, and their king's instructions before Scydrothemis. He was in
some perplexity. He was afraid of the god and yet alarmed by the
threats of his subjects, who opposed the project: then, again, he
often felt tempted by the envoys' presents and promises. Three years
passed. Ptolemy's zeal never abated for a moment. He persisted in his
petition, and kept sending more and more distinguished envoys, more
ships, more gold. Then a threatening vision appeared to Scydrothemis,
bidding him no longer thwart the god's design. When he still
hesitated, he was beset by every kind of disease and disaster: the
gods were plainly angry and their hand was heavier upon him every day.
He summoned an assembly and laid before it the divine commands, his
own and Ptolemy's visions, and the troubles with which they were
visited. The king found the people unfavourable. They were jealous of
Egypt and fearful of their own future. So they surged angrily round
the temple. The story now grows stranger still. The god himself, it
says, embarked unaided on one of the ships that lay beached on the
shore, and by a miracle accomplished the long sea-journey and landed
at Alexandria within three days. A temple worthy of so important a
city was then built in the quarter called Rhacotis, on the site of an
ancient temple of Serapis and Isis.[455] This is the most widely
accepted account of the god's origin and arrival. Some people, I am
well aware, maintain that the god was brought from the Syrian town of
Seleucia during the reign of Ptolemy, the third of that name.[456]
Others, again, say it was this same Ptolemy, but make the place of
origin the famous town of Memphis,[457] once the bulwark of ancient
Egypt. Many take the god for Aesculapius, because he cures disease:
others for Osiris, the oldest of the local gods; some, again, for
Jupiter, as being the sovereign lord of the world. But the majority of
people, either judging by what are clearly attributes of the god or by
an ingenious process of conjecture, identify him with Pluto.
Domitian and Mucianus were now on their way to the Alps.[458] 85
Before reaching the mountains they received the good news of the
victory over the Treviri, the truth of which was fully attested by the
presence of their leader Valentinus. His courage was in no way crushed
and his face still bore witness to the proud spirit he had shown. He
was allowed a hearing, merely to see what he was made of, and
condemned to death. At his execution some one cast it in his teeth
that his country was conquered, to which he replied, 'Then I am
reconciled to death.'
Mucianus now gave utterance to an idea which he had long cherished,
though he pretended it was a sudden inspiration. This was that, since
by Heaven's grace the forces of the enemy had been broken, it would
ill befit Domitian, now that the war was practically over, to stand
in the way of the other generals to whom the credit belonged. Were the
fortunes of the empire or the safety of Gaul at stake, it would be
right that a Caesar should take the field; the Canninefates and Batavi
might be left to minor generals. So Domitian was to stay at Lugdunum
and there show them the power and majesty of the throne at close
quarters. By abstaining from trifling risks he would be ready to cope
with any greater crisis.
The ruse was detected, but it could not be unmasked. That was part 86
of the courtier's policy.[459] Thus they proceeded to Lugdunum. From
there Domitian is supposed to have sent messengers to Cerialis to test
his loyalty, and to ask whether the general would transfer his army
and his allegiance to him, should he present himself in person.
Whether Domitian's idea was to plan war against his father or to
acquire support against his brother, cannot be decided, for Cerialis
parried his proposal with a salutary snub and treated it as a boy's
day-dream. Realizing that older men despised his youth, Domitian gave
up even those functions of government which he had hitherto performed.
Aping bashfulness and simple tastes, he hid his feelings under a cloak
of impenetrable reserve, professing literary tastes and a passion for
poetry. Thus he concealed his real self and withdrew from all rivalry
with his brother, whose gentler and altogether different nature he
perversely misconstrued.
FOOTNOTES:
[448] Cp. ii. 59.
[449] During June and July before the Etesian winds (cp. ii. 98)
began to blow from the north-west.
[450] Circa A.D. 108.
[451] Meaning 'king's son', and therefore portending sovereignty.
[452] i.e. Ptolemy Soter, who founded the dynasty of the
Lagidae, and reigned 306-283 B.C.
[453] They inherited the priesthood of Demeter at Eleusis and
supplied the hierophants who conducted the mysteries.
[454] i.e. the sovereign god of the underworld.
[455] It is evident from these words that the worship of
Serapis was ancient in Egypt. It seems to be suggested that
the arrival of this statue from Pontus did not originate but
invigorated the cult of Serapis. Pluto, Dis, Serapis, are all
names for a god of the underworld. Jupiter seems added vaguely
to give more power to the title. We cannot expect accurate
theology from an amateur antiquarian.
[456] Ptolemy Euergetes, 247-222 B.C.
[457] According to Eustathius there was a Mount Sinopium near
Memphis. This suggests an origin for the title Sinopitis,
applied to Serapis, and a cause for the invention of the
romantic story about Sinope in Pontus.
[458] Cp. chap. 68.
[459] i.e. Mucianus was too cunning to give Domitian any
excuse for declaring his suspicions.
BOOK V
THE CONQUEST OF JUDAEA
Early in this same year[460] Titus Caesar had been entrusted by his 1
father with the task of completing the reduction of Judaea.[461] While
he and his father were both still private citizens, Titus had
distinguished himself as a soldier, and his reputation for efficiency
was steadily increasing, while the provinces and armies vied with one
another in their enthusiasm for him. Wishing to seem independent of
his good fortune, he always showed dignity and energy in the field.
His affability called forth devotion. He constantly helped in the
trenches and could mingle with his soldiers on the march without
compromising his dignity as general. Three legions awaited him in
Judaea, the Fifth, Tenth, and Fifteenth, all veterans from his
father's army. These were reinforced by the Twelfth from Syria and by
detachments of the Twenty-second and the Third,[462] brought over from
Alexandria. This force was accompanied by twenty auxiliary cohorts and
eight regiments of auxiliary cavalry besides the Kings Agrippa and
Sohaemus, King Antiochus' irregulars,[463] a strong force of Arabs,
who had a neighbourly hatred for the Jews, and a crowd of persons who
had come from Rome and the rest of Italy, each tempted by the hope of
securing the first place in the prince's still unoccupied affections.
With this force Titus entered the enemy's country at the head of his
column, sending out scouts in all directions, and holding himself
ready to fight. He pitched his camp not far from Jerusalem.
Since I am coming now to describe the last days of this famous 2
city, it may not seem out of place to recount here its early history.
It is said that the Jews are refugees from Crete,[464] who settled on
the confines of Libya at the time when Saturn was forcibly deposed by
Jupiter. The evidence for this is sought in the name. Ida is a famous
mountain in Crete inhabited by the Idaei,[465] whose name became
lengthened into the foreign form Judaei. Others say that in the reign
of Isis the superfluous population of Egypt, under the leadership of
Hierosolymus and Juda, discharged itself upon the neighbouring
districts, while there are many who think the Jews an Ethiopian stock,
driven to migrate by their fear and dislike of King Cepheus.[466]
Another tradition makes them Assyrian refugees,[467] who, lacking
lands of their own, occupied a district of Egypt, and later took to
building cities of their own and tilling Hebrew territory and the
frontier-land of Syria. Yet another version assigns to the Jews an
illustrious origin as the descendants of the Solymi--a tribe famous in
Homer[468]--who founded the city and called it Hiero_solyma_ after
their own name.[469]
Most authorities agree that a foul and disfiguring disease once 3
broke out in Egypt, and that King Bocchoris,[470] on approaching the
oracle of Ammon and inquiring for a remedy, was told to purge his
kingdom of the plague and to transport all who suffered from it into
some other country, for they had earned the disfavour of Heaven. A
motley crowd was thus collected and abandoned in the desert. While all
the other outcasts lay idly lamenting, one of them, named Moses,
advised them not to look for help to gods or men, since both had
deserted them, but to trust rather in themselves and accept as divine
the guidance of the first being by whose aid they should get out of
their present plight. They agreed, and set out blindly to march
wherever chance might lead them. Their worst distress came from lack
of water. When they were already at death's door and lying prostrate
all over the plain, it so happened that a drove of wild asses moved
away from their pasture to a rock densely covered with trees. Guessing
the truth from the grassy nature of the ground, Moses followed and
disclosed an ample flow of water.[471] This saved them. Continuing
their march for six successive days, on the seventh they routed the
natives and gained possession of the country. There they consecrated
their city and their temple.
To ensure his future hold over the people, Moses introduced a new 4
cult, which was the opposite of all other religions. All that we hold
sacred they held profane, and allowed practices which we abominate.
They dedicated in a shrine an image of the animal[472] whose guidance
had put an end to their wandering and thirst. They killed a ram,
apparently as an insult to Ammon, and also sacrificed a bull, because
the Egyptians worship the bull Apis.[473] Pigs are subject to leprosy;
so they abstain from pork in memory of their misfortune and the foul
plague with which they were once infected. Their frequent fasts[474]
bear witness to the long famine they once endured, and, in token of
the corn they carried off, Jewish bread is to this day made without
leaven. They are said to have devoted the seventh day to rest, because
that day brought an end to their troubles.[475] Later, finding
idleness alluring, they gave up the seventh year as well to
sloth.[476] Others maintain that they do this in honour of
Saturn;[477] either because their religious principles are derived
from the Idaei, who are supposed to have been driven out with Saturn
and become the ancestors of the Jewish people; or else because, of the
seven constellations which govern the lives of men, the star of Saturn
moves in the topmost orbit and exercises peculiar influence, and also
because most of the heavenly bodies move round[478] their courses in
multiples of seven.
Whatever their origin, these rites are sanctioned by their 5
antiquity. Their other customs are impious and abominable, and owe
their prevalence to their depravity. For all the most worthless
rascals, renouncing their national cults, were always sending money to
swell the sum of offerings and tribute.[479] This is one cause of
Jewish prosperity. Another is that they are obstinately loyal to each
other, and always ready to show compassion, whereas they feel nothing
but hatred and enmity for the rest of the world.[480] They eat and
sleep separately. Though immoderate in sexual indulgence, they refrain
from all intercourse with foreign women: among themselves anything is
allowed.[481] They have introduced circumcision to distinguish
themselves from other people. Those who are converted to their customs
adopt the same practice, and the first lessons they learn are to
despise the gods,[482] to renounce their country, and to think nothing
of their parents, children, and brethren. However, they take steps to
increase their numbers. They count it a crime to kill any of their
later-born children,[483] and they believe that the souls of those who
die in battle or under persecution are immortal.[484] Thus they think
much of having children and nothing of facing death. They prefer to
bury and not burn their dead.[485] In this, as in their burial rites,
and in their belief in an underworld, they conform to Egyptian custom.
Their ideas of heaven are quite different. The Egyptians worship most
of their gods as animals, or in shapes half animal and half human. The
Jews acknowledge one god only, of whom they have a purely spiritual
conception. They think it impious to make images of gods in human
shape out of perishable materials. Their god is almighty and
inimitable, without beginning and without end. They therefore set up
no statues in their temples, nor even in their cities, refusing this
homage both to their own kings and to the Roman emperors. However, the
fact that their priests intoned to the flute and cymbals and wore
wreaths of ivy, and that a golden vine was found in their temple[486]
has led some people to think that they worship Bacchus,[487] who has
so enthralled the East. But their cult would be most inappropriate.
Bacchus instituted gay and cheerful rites, but the Jewish ritual is
preposterous and morbid.
The country of the Jews is bounded by Arabia on the east, by Egypt 6
on the south, and on the west by Phoenicia and the sea. On the Syrian
frontier they have a distant view towards the north.[488] Physically
they are healthy and hardy. Rain is rare; the soil infertile; its
products are of the same kind as ours with the addition of balsam and
palms. The palm is a tall and beautiful tree, the balsam a mere shrub.
When its branches are swollen with sap they open them with a sharp
piece of stone or crockery, for the sap-vessels shrink up at the touch
of iron. The sap is used in medicine. Lebanon, their chief mountain,
stands always deep in its eternal snow, a strange phenomenon in such a
burning climate. Here, too, the river Jordan has its source[489] and
comes pouring down, to find a home in the sea. It flows undiminished
through first one lake, then another, and loses itself in a
third.[490] This last is a lake of immense size, like a sea, though
its water has a foul taste and a most unhealthy smell, which poisons
the surrounding inhabitants. No wind can stir waves in it: no fish or
sea-birds can live there. The sluggish water supports whatever is
thrown on to it, as if its surface were solid, while those who cannot
swim float on it as easily as those who can. Every year at the same
time the lake yields asphalt. As with other arts, it is experience
which shows how to collect it. It is a black liquid which, when
congealed with a sprinkling of vinegar, floats on the surface of the
water. The men who collect it take it in this state into their hands
and haul it on deck. Then without further aid it trickles in and loads
the boat until you cut off the stream. But this you cannot do with
iron or brass: the current is turned by applying blood or a garment
stained with a woman's menstrual discharge. That is what the old
authorities say, but those who know the district aver that floating
blocks of asphalt are driven landwards by the wind and dragged to
shore by hand. The steam out of the earth and the heat of the sun
dries them, and they are then split up with axes and wedges, like logs
or blocks of stone.
Not far from this lake are the Plains, which they say were once 7
fertile and covered with large and populous cities which were
destroyed by lightning.[491] Traces of the cities are said to remain,
and the ground, which looks scorched, has lost all power of
production. The plants, whether wild or artificially cultivated, are
blighted and sterile and wither into dust and ashes, either when in
leaf or flower, or when they have attained their full growth. Without
denying that at some date famous cities were there burnt up by
lightning, I am yet inclined to think that it is the exhalation from
the lake which infects the soil and poisons the surrounding
atmosphere. Soil and climate being equally deleterious, the crops and
fruits all rot away.
The river Belus also falls into this Jewish sea. Round its mouth is
found a peculiar kind of sand which is mixed with native soda and
smelted into glass. Small though the beach is, its product is
inexhaustible.
The greater part of the population live in scattered villages, but 8
they also have towns. Jerusalem is the Jewish capital, and contained
the temple, which was enormously wealthy. A first line of
fortifications guarded the city, another the palace, and an innermost
line enclosed the temple.[492] None but a Jew was allowed as far as
the doors: none but the priests might cross the threshold.[493] When
the East was in the hands of the Assyrians, Medes and Persians, they
regarded the Jews as the meanest of their slaves. During the
Macedonian ascendancy[494] King Antiochus[495] endeavoured to abolish
their superstitions and to introduce Greek manners and customs. But
Arsaces at that moment rebelled,[496] and the Parthian war prevented
him from effecting any improvement in the character of this grim
people. Then, when Macedon waned, as the Parthian power was not yet
ripe and Rome was still far away, they took kings of their own.[497]
The mob were fickle and drove them out. However, they recovered their
throne by force; banished their countrymen, sacked cities, slew their
brothers, wives, and parents, and committed all the usual kingly
crimes. But this only fostered the hold of the Jewish religion, since
the kings had strengthened their authority by assuming the priesthood.
Cnaeus Pompeius was the first Roman to subdue the Jews and set foot 9
in their temple by right of conquest.[498] It was then first realized
that the temple contained no image of any god: their sanctuary was
empty, their mysteries meaningless. The walls of Jerusalem were
destroyed, but the temple was left standing. Later, during the Roman
civil wars, when the eastern provinces had come under the control of
Mark Antony, the Parthian Prince Pacorus seized Judaea,[499] and was
killed by Publius Ventidius. The Parthians were driven back over the
Euphrates, and Caius Sosius[500] subdued the Jews. Antony gave the
kingdom to Herod,[501] and Augustus, after his victory, enlarged it.
After Herod's death, somebody called Simon,[502] without awaiting the
emperor's decision, forcibly assumed the title of king. He was
executed by Quintilius Varus, who was Governor of Syria; the Jews were
repressed and the kingdom divided between three of Herod's sons.[503]
Under Tiberius all was quiet. Caligula ordered them to put up his
statue in the temple. They preferred war to that. But Caligula's death
put an end to the rising.[504] In Claudius' reign the kings had all
either died or lost most of their territory. The emperor therefore
made Judaea a province to be governed by Roman knights or freedmen.
One of these, Antonius Felix,[505] indulged in every kind of cruelty
and immorality, wielding a king's authority with all the instincts of
a slave. He had married Drusilla, a granddaughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, so that he was Antony's grandson-in-law, while Claudius was
Antony's grandson.[506]
The Jews endured such oppression patiently until the time of 10
Gessius Florus,[507] under whom war broke out. Cestius Gallus, the
Governor of Syria, tried to crush it, but met with more reverses than
victories. He died, either in the natural course or perhaps of
disgust, and Nero sent out Vespasian, who, in a couple of
campaigns,[508] thanks to his reputation, good fortune, and able
subordinates, had the whole of the country districts and all the
towns except Jerusalem under the heel of his victorious army. The next
year[509] was taken up with civil war, and passed quietly enough as
far as the Jews were concerned. But peace once restored in Italy,
foreign troubles began again with feelings embittered on our side by
the thought that the Jews were the only people who had not given in.
At the same time it seemed best to leave Titus at the head of the army
to meet the eventualities of the new reign, whether good or bad.
Thus, as we have already seen,[510] Titus pitched his camp before 11
the walls of Jerusalem and proceeded to display his legions in battle
order. The Jews formed up at the foot of their own walls, ready, if
successful, to venture further, but assured of their retreat in case
of reverse. A body of cavalry and some light-armed foot were sent
forward, and fought an indecisive engagement, from which the enemy
eventually retired. During the next few days a series of skirmishes
took place in front of the gates, and at last continual losses drove
the Jews behind their walls. The Romans then determined to take it by
storm. It seemed undignified to sit and wait for the enemy to starve,
and the men all clamoured for the risks, some being really brave,
while many others were wild and greedy for plunder. Titus himself had
the vision of Rome with all her wealth and pleasures before his eyes,
and felt that their enjoyment was postponed unless Jerusalem fell at
once. The city, however, stands high and is fortified with works
strong enough to protect a city standing on the plain. Two enormous
hills[511] were surrounded by walls ingeniously built so as to project
or slope inwards and thus leave the flanks of an attacking party
exposed to fire. The rocks were jagged at the top. The towers, where
the rising ground helped, were sixty feet high, and in the hollows as
much as a hundred and twenty. They are a wonderful sight and seem from
a distance to be all of equal height. Within this runs another line of
fortification surrounding the palace, and on a conspicuous height
stands the Antonia, a castle named by Herod in honour of Mark Antony.
The temple was built like a citadel with walls of its own, on 12
which more care and labour had been spent than on any of the others.
Even the cloisters surrounding the temple formed a splendid rampart.
There was a never-failing spring of water,[512] catacombs hollowed out
of the hills, and pools or cisterns for holding the rain-water. Its
original builders had foreseen that the peculiarities of Jewish life
would lead to frequent wars, consequently everything was ready for the
longest of sieges. Besides this, when Pompey took the city, bitter
experience taught them several lessons, and in the days of Claudius
they had taken advantage of his avarice to buy rights of
fortification, and built walls in peace-time as though war were
imminent. Their numbers were now swelled by floods of human refuse and
unfortunate refugees from other towns.[513] All the most desperate
characters in the country had taken refuge there, which did not
conduce to unity. They had three armies, each with its own general.
The outermost and largest line of wall was held by Simon; the central
city by John, and the temple by Eleazar.[514] John and Simon were
stronger than Eleazar in numbers and equipment, but he had the
advantage of a strong position. Their relations mainly consisted of
fighting, treachery, and arson: a large quantity of corn was burnt.
Eventually, under pretext of offering a sacrifice, John sent a party
of men to massacre Eleazar and his troops, and by this means gained
possession of the temple.[515] Thus Jerusalem was divided into two
hostile parties, but on the approach of the Romans the necessities of
foreign warfare reconciled their differences.
Various portents had occurred at this time, but so sunk in 13
superstition are the Jews and so opposed to all religious practices
that they think it wicked to avert the threatened evil by
sacrifices[516] or vows. Embattled armies were seen to meet in the sky
with flashing arms, and the temple shone with sudden fire from heaven.
The doors of the shrine suddenly opened, a supernatural voice was
heard calling the gods out, and at once there began a mighty movement
of departure. Few took alarm at all this. Most people held the belief
that, according to the ancient priestly writings, this was the moment
at which the East was fated to prevail: they would now start forth
from Judaea and conquer the world.[517] This enigmatic prophecy really
applied to Vespasian and Titus. But men are blinded by their hopes.
The Jews took to themselves the promised destiny, and even defeat
could not convince them of the truth. The number of the besieged, men
and women of every age, is stated to have reached six hundred
thousand. There were arms for all who could carry them, and far more
were ready to fight than would be expected from their total numbers.
The women were as determined as the men: if they were forced to leave
their homes they had more to fear in life than in death.
Such was the city and such the people with which Titus was faced. As
the nature of the ground forbade a sudden assault, he determined to
employ siege-works and penthouse shelters. The work was accordingly
divided among the legions, and there was a truce to fighting until
they had got ready every means of storming a town that had ever been
devised by experience or inventive ingenuity.
FOOTNOTES:
[460] A.D. 70.
[461] See ii. 4; iv. 51.
[462] XXII Deiotariana and III Cyrenaica.
[463] Cp. ii. 4.
[464] There seems little to recommend Tacitus' theory of the
identity of the Idaei and Judaei, though it has been suggested
that the Cherethites of 2. Sam. viii. 18 and Ezek. xxv. 16 are
Cretans, migrated into the neighbourhood of the Philistines.
The Jewish Sabbath (Saturn's day) seems also to have suggested
connexion with Saturn and Crete.
[465] Elsewhere the Idaei figure as supernatural genii in
attendance on either Jupiter or Saturn.
[466] Ethiopian here means Phoenician. Tradition made Cepheus,
the father of Andromeda, king of Joppa.
[467] From Damascus, said Justin, where Abraham was one of
their kings, and Trogus Pompeius adds that the name of Abraham
was honourably remembered at Damascus. These are variants of
the Biblical migration of Abraham.
[468] _Il._ vi. 184; _Od._ v. 282.
[469] Another piece of fanciful philology, based on a
misinterpretation of a Greek transliteration of the name
Jerusalem. The Solymi are traditionally placed in Lycia. Both
Juvenal and Martial use Solymus as equivalent to Judaeus.
[470] The only known King Bocchoris belongs to the eighth
century B.C., whereas the Exodus is traditionally placed not
later than the sixteenth.
[471] See Exod. xvii.
[472] i.e. an ass. The idea that this animal was sacred to the
Jews was so prevalent among 'the Gentiles' that Josephus takes
the trouble to refute it.
[473] Cp. Lev. xvi. 3, 'a young bullock for a sin offering,
and a ram for a burnt offering.' Tacitus' reasons are of
course errors due to the prevalent confusion of Jewish and
Egyptian history.
[474] Cp. Luke xviii. 12, 'I fast twice a week.'
[475] Cp. Deut. v. 15.
[476] Cp. Lev. xxv. 4, '... in the seventh year shall be a
sabbath of solemn rest for the land, a sabbath unto the Lord:
thou shalt neither sow thy field, nor prune thy vineyard.'
[477] The seventh day being named after Cronos or Saturn (cp.
chap. 2, note 464).
[478] Reading _commeent_ (Wölfflin).
[479] This refers to proselytes, who, like Jews resident
abroad, contributed annually to the Temple treasury. They
numbered at this time about four millions. Romans naturally
regarded this diversion of funds with disfavour.
[480] Jewish exclusiveness always roused Roman indignation,
and 'hatred of the human race' was the usual charge against
Christians (see _Ann._ xv. 44).
[481] The strict regulations of Deut. xxii. &c. give a strange
irony to this slander. Most of these libels originated in
Alexandria.
[482] 'A people,' says the elder Pliny, 'distinguished by
their contemptuous atheism.'
[483] _Agnati_, as used here and in _Germ._ 19 means a child
born after the father has made his will and therein specified
the number of his children. The mere birth of such a child
invalidated any earlier will that the father had made, but the
fact of its birth might be concealed by making away with the
baby. This crime seems to have been not uncommon, but there is
no evidence that 'exposure of infants' was permitted.
[484] Josephus also alludes to this belief that the corruption
of disease chained the soul to the buried body, while violent
death freed it to live for ever in the air and protect
posterity.
[485] Under the kings cremation was an honourable form of
burial, but in Babylon the Jews came to regard fire as a
sacred element which should not be thus defiled.
[486] This was over the door of the Temple. Aristobulus gave
it as a present to Pompey.
[487] Plutarch shared this error, which seems somehow to have
been based on a misinterpretation of the Feast of Tabernacles,
at which they were to 'take ... the fruit of goodly trees, ...
and willows of the brook; and ... rejoice before the Lord your
God seven days' (Lev. xxiii. 40).
[488] Over Coele-Syria, from the range of Lebanon.
[489] i.e. from Mount Hermon, nearly 9,000 feet high.
[490] Merom; Gennesareth; the Dead Sea.
[491] 'Then the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah
brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven; and he
overthrew those cities, and all the Plain' (Gen. xix. 24).
[492] These were not concentric, but an enemy approaching from
the north-west would have to carry all three before reaching
the temple, which stood on Mount Moriah at the eastern
extremity of the city.
[493] Cp. Luke i. 8-10, where Zacharias entered the temple to
burn incense, 'and the whole multitude of the people were
praying without.'
[494] The Seleucids.
[495] Antiochus Epiphanes (176-164 B.C.).
[496] This was really in the reign of Antiochus II (260-245 B.C.).
[497] Of the Hasmonean or Maccabean family.
[498] 63 B.C. when he was called in to decide between
Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus.
[499] At the invitation of the Maccabean Antigonus, who thus
recovered the throne.
[500] Ventidius and Sosius were Antony's officers. The former
was famous as having begun life as a mule-driver and risen to
be a consul and to hold the first triumph over the Parthians.
[501] Herod the Great, who on the return of Antigonus had fled
to Rome and chosen the winning side.
[502] One of Herod's slaves.
[503] Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Philip.
[504] A.D. 40.
[505] A freedman, Procurator of Judaea, A.D. 52-60 (cp. Acts xxiv).
[506] Claudius' mother, Antonia, was the daughter of Antony's
first marriage.
[507] A.D. 64-66.
[508] A.D. 67 and 68.
[509] A.D. 69.
[510] Chap. 1.
[511] Jerusalem stands on a rock which rises into three main
hills, Zion (south), Acra (north), and Moriah (east). It is
not clear to which two of these Tacitus alludes; probably Zion
and Moriah.
[512] Of this no traces remain, and the tradition may have
been based on the metaphorical prophecy that a fount of living
water would issue from the Sanctuary.
[513] i.e. the Galilean towns captured by Vespasian in A.D. 67 and 68.
[514] Simon was a bandit from the east of Jordan; John of
Gischala headed a party of refugees from Galilee; Eleazar was
the leader of the Jewish war-party, and related to the high
priests.
[515] They submitted to John's authority and were not killed.
[516] 'Ye shall not ... use enchantments, nor practise augury'
(Lev. xix. 26).
[517] e.g. 'And in the days of those kings shall the God of
heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed, nor
shall the sovereignty thereof be left to another people; but
it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms' (Dan.
ii. 44). The Jews were looking for Messiah: the Romans thought
of Vespasian.
THE END OF THE GERMAN REVOLT
After the severe reverse at Trier[518] Civilis recruited his army 14
in Germany, and pitched his camp near Vetera. The position was a safe
one, and he hoped to inspirit his native troops with the memory of
their former victories there.[519] Cerialis followed in his footsteps,
with forces now doubled by the arrival of the Second,[520] Thirteenth,
and Fourteenth legions, besides auxiliary troops, both horse and
foot,[521] who had long received their summons and came hurrying on
the news of victory. Neither general was dilatory, but a vast plain
lay between them. It was by nature swampy, and Civilis had built a dam
projecting into the Rhine, which stemmed the current and flooded the
adjacent fields. The treacherous nature of the ground, where the
shallows were hard to find, told against our men, who were heavily
armed and afraid of swimming. The Germans, on the other hand, were
used to rivers, lightly armed, and tall enough to keep their heads
above water.
Provoked by the Batavi, the bravest of our troops opened the 15
engagement at once, but soon fell into a panic when their arms and
horses began to sink in the deep marshes. The Germans, who knew the
fords, came leaping across them, often leaving our front alone and
running round to the flanks or the rear. It was not like an infantry
engagement at close quarters, but more like a naval battle. The men
floundered about in the water or, finding firm foothold, strove with
all their might for possession of it. Thus, wounded and whole, those
who could swim and those who could not, struggled helplessly with each
other and perished all alike. However, considering the confusion, our
loss was less than might have been expected, for the Germans, not
daring to venture out of the marsh, withdrew to their camp. The result
of this engagement gave each of the generals a different motive for
hastening on a decisive battle. Civilis wanted to follow up his
success, Cerialis to wipe out his disgrace. Success stimulated the
pride of the Germans; the Romans thrilled with shame. The natives
spent the night singing uproariously, while our men muttered angry
threats.
At daybreak Cerialis formed up his cavalry and the auxiliary 16
cohorts on his front, with the legions behind them, while he himself
held a picked body in reserve for emergencies. Civilis did not deploy
his line, but halted them in columns,[522] with the Batavi and
Cugerni[523] on his right, and the forces from across the Rhine[524]
near the river on the left. Neither general followed the usual custom
of haranguing the whole army. They rode along and addressed their
various divisions in turn. Cerialis spoke of the ancient glory of the
Roman name and of all their victories old and new. He urged them 'to
blot out for ever their treacherous and cowardly enemy whom they had
already beaten. They had to punish not to fight them. They had just
fought against superior numbers and had yet routed the Germans, and,
moreover, the pick of their troops. This remnant had their hearts full
of panic and all their wounds behind them.' He then gave special
encouragement to each of the legions, calling the Fourteenth the
conquerors of Britain,[525] reminding the Sixth that the influence of
their example had set Galba on the throne,[526] and telling the Second
that in the coming fight they would for the first time dedicate their
new colours and their new eagle to Rome's service.[527] Then riding
along to the German army,[528] he pointed with his hand and bade them
recover their own river-bank and their own camp[529] at the enemy's
expense. They all cheered with hearts the lighter for his words. Some
longed for battle after a long spell of quiet: others were weary of
war and pined for peace, hoping that the future would bring them rest
and recompense.
Nor was there silence in Civilis' lines. As he formed them up he 17
appealed to the spot as evidence of their valour. The Germans and
Batavians were standing, he told them, 'on the field of their glory,
trampling the charred bones of Roman soldiers under foot. Wherever the
Romans turned their eyes they saw nothing but menacing reminders of
surrender and defeat. They must not be alarmed by that sudden change
of fortune in the battle at Trier. It was their own victory which
hampered the Germans there: they had dropped their weapons and filled
their hands with loot. Since then everything had gone in their favour
and against the Romans. He had taken every possible precaution, as
befitted a cunning general. They themselves were familiar with these
soaking plains, but the swamps would be a deadly trap for the enemy.
They had the Rhine and the gods of Germany before their eyes, and in
the might of these they must go to battle, remembering their wives and
parents and their fatherland. This day would either gild the glory of
their ancestors or earn the execration of posterity.' They applauded
his words according to their custom by dancing and clashing their
arms, and then opened the battle with showers of stones and leaden
balls and other missiles, trying to lure on our men, who had not yet
entered the marsh.
Their missiles exhausted, the enemy warmed to their work and made 18
an angry charge. Thanks to their great height and their very long
spears they could thrust from some distance at our men, who were
floundering and slipping about in the marsh. While this went on, a
column[530] of Batavi swam across from the dam which, as we described
above,[531] had been built out into the Rhine. This started a panic
and the line of our auxiliaries began to be driven back. Then the
legions took up the fight and equalized matters by staying the enemy's
wild charge. Meanwhile a Batavian deserter approached Cerialis,
avowing that he could take the enemy in the rear if the cavalry were
sent round the edge of the swamp: the ground was solid there, and the
Cugerni, whose task it was to keep watch, were off their guard. Two
squadrons of horse were sent with the deserter, and succeeded in
outflanking the unsuspecting enemy. The legions in front, when the din
told them what had happened, redoubled their efforts. The Germans were
beaten and fled to the Rhine. This day might have brought the war to
an end, had the Roman fleet[532] arrived in time. As it was, even the
cavalry were prevented from pursuit by a sudden downpour of rain
shortly before nightfall.
On the next day the Fourteenth legion were sent to join Annius 19
Gallus[533] in Upper Germany, and their place in Cerialis' army was
filled by the Tenth from Spain. Civilis was reinforced by the
Chauci.[534] Feeling that he was not strong enough to hold the
Batavian capital,[535] he took whatever was portable with him, burnt
everything else, and retired into the island. He knew that the Romans
had not enough ships to build a bridge, and that they had no other
means of getting across. He also destroyed the mole built by Drusus
Germanicus.[536] As the bed of the Rhine here falls towards Gaul, his
removal of all obstacles gave it free course; the river was
practically diverted, and the channel between the Germans and the
island became so small and dry as to form no barrier between them.
Tutor and Classicus also crossed the Rhine,[537] together with a
hundred and thirteen town-councillors from Trier, among whom was
Alpinius Montanus, who, as we have already seen,[538] had been sent by
Antonius Primus into Gaul. He was accompanied by his brother. By
arousing sympathy and by offering presents, the others, too, were all
busy raising reinforcements among these eagerly adventurous tribes.
The war was far from being over. Dividing his forces, Civilis 20
suddenly made a simultaneous attack on all four Roman garrisons--the
Tenth at Arenacum, the Second at Batavodurum, and the auxiliary horse
and foot at Grinnes and at Vada.[539] Civilis himself, Verax his
nephew, Classicus and Tutor each led one of the attacking parties.
They could not hope all to be successful, but reckoned that, if they
made several ventures, fortune would probably favour one or the other.
Besides, Cerialis, they supposed, was off his guard; on receiving news
from several places at once he would hurry from one garrison to
another, and might be cut off on his way. The party told off against
the Tenth considered it no light task to storm a legion, so they fell
on the soldiers, who had come outside to cut timber, and killed the
camp-prefect, five senior centurions, and a handful of the men. The
rest defended themselves in the trenches. Meanwhile another party of
Germans endeavoured to break the bridge[540] which had been begun at
Batavodurum, but nightfall put an end to the battle before it was won.
The attack on Grinnes and Vada proved more formidable. Civilis led 21
the assault on Vada, Classicus on Grinnes. Nothing could stop them.
The bravest of the defenders had fallen, among them, commanding a
cavalry squadron, Briganticus, whom we have seen already, as a
faithful ally of Rome and a bitter enemy of his uncle Civilis.[541]
However, when Cerialis came to the rescue with a picked troop of
horse, the tables were turned, and the Germans were driven headlong
into the river. While Civilis was trying to stop the rout he was
recognized, and finding himself a target, he left his horse and swam
across the river. Verax escaped in the same way, while some boats put
in to fetch Tutor and Classicus.
Even now the Roman fleet had not joined the army. They had, indeed,
received orders, but fear held them back, and the rowers were employed
on various duties elsewhere. It must be admitted, also, that Cerialis
did not give them time enough to carry out his orders. He was a man of
sudden resolves and brilliant successes. Even when his strategy had
failed, good luck always came to his rescue. Thus neither he nor his
army cared much about discipline. A few days later, again, he narrowly
escaped being taken prisoner and did not escape disgrace. He had 22
gone to Novaesium and Bonn to inspect the winter quarters that were
being built for his legions, and was returning with the fleet.[542]
The Germans noticed that his escort[543] straggled, and that watch was
carelessly kept at night. So they planned a surprise. Choosing a night
black with clouds they slipped down stream and made their way
unmolested into the camp.[544] For the first onslaught they called
cunning to their aid. They cut the tent-ropes and slaughtered the
soldiers as they struggled under their own canvas. Another party fell
on the ships, threw hawsers aboard, and towed them off. Having
surprised the camp in dead silence, when once the carnage began they
added to the panic by making the whole place ring with shouts.
Awakened by their wounds the Romans hunted for weapons and rushed
along the streets,[545] some few in uniform, most of them with their
clothes wrapped round their arms and a drawn sword in their hand. The
general, who was half-asleep and almost naked, was only saved by the
enemy's mistake. His flag-ship being easily distinguishable, they
carried it off, thinking he was there. But Cerialis had been spending
the night elsewhere; as most people believed, carrying on an intrigue
with a Ubian woman named Claudia Sacrata. The sentries sheltered their
guilt under the general's disgrace, pretending that they had orders to
keep quiet and not disturb him: so they had dispensed with the
bugle-call and the challenge on rounds, and dropped off to sleep
themselves. In full daylight the enemy sailed off with their captive
vessels and towed the flag-ship up the Lippe as an offering to
Veleda.[546]
Civilis was now seized with a desire to make a naval display. He 23
manned all the available biremes and all the ships with single banks
of oars, and added to this fleet an immense number of small craft.
These carry thirty or forty men apiece and are rigged like Illyrian
cruisers.[547] The small craft he had captured[548] were worked with
bright, parti-coloured plaids, which served as sails and made a fine
show. He chose for review the miniature sea of water where the Rhine
comes pouring down to the ocean through the mouth of the Maas.[549]
His reason for the demonstration--apart from Batavian vanity--was to
scare away the provision-convoys that were already on their way from
Gaul. Cerialis, who was less alarmed than astonished, at once formed
up a fleet. Though inferior in numbers, he had the advantage of larger
ships, experienced rowers, and clever pilots. The Romans had the
stream with them, the Germans the wind. So they sailed past each
other, and after trying a few shots with light missiles they parted.
Civilis without more ado retired across the Rhine.[550] Cerialis
vigorously laid waste the island of the Batavi, and employed the
common device of leaving Civilis's houses and fields untouched.[551]
They were now well into autumn. The heavy equinoctial rains had set
the river in flood and thus turned the marshy, low-lying island into a
sort of lake. Neither fleet nor provision-convoys had arrived, and
their camp on the flat plain began to be washed away by the force of
the current.
Civilis afterwards claimed that at this point the Germans could 24
have crushed the Roman legions and wanted to do so, but that he had
cunningly dissuaded them. Nor does this seem far from true, since his
surrender followed in a few days' time. Cerialis had been sending
secret messages, promising the Batavians peace and Civilis pardon,
urging Veleda and her relatives[552] to change the fortune of a war
that had only brought disaster after disaster, by doing a timely
service to Rome.[553] 'The Treviri,' he reminded them, 'had been
slaughtered; the allegiance of the Ubii recovered; the Batavians
robbed of their home. By supporting Civilis they had gained nothing
but bloodshed, banishment, and bereavement. He was a fugitive exile, a
burden to those who harboured him. Besides, they had earned blame
enough by crossing the Rhine so often: if they took any further
steps,--from the one side they might expect insult and injury, from
the other vengeance and the wrath of heaven.'
Thus Cerialis mingled threats and promises. The loyalty of the 25
tribes across the Rhine was shaken, and murmurs began to make
themselves heard among the Batavi. 'How much further is our ruin to
go?' they asked. 'One tribe cannot free the whole world from the yoke.
What good have we done by slaughtering and burning Roman legions
except to bring out others, larger and stronger? If it was to help
Vespasian that we have fought so vigorously, Vespasian is master of
the world. If we are challenging Rome--what an infinitesimal fraction
of the human race we Batavians are! We must remember what burdens
Raetia and Noricum and all Rome's other allies bear. From us they levy
no tribute, only our manhood and our men.[554] That is next door to
freedom. And, after all, if we have to choose our masters, it is less
disgrace to put up with Roman emperors than with German priestesses.'
Thus the common people: the chieftains used more violent language. 'It
was Civilis' lunacy that had driven them to war. He wanted to remedy
his private troubles[555] by ruining his country. The Batavians had
incurred the wrath of heaven by blockading Roman legions, murdering
Roman officers, and plunging into a war which was useful for one of
them and deadly for the rest. Now they had reached the limit, unless
they came to their senses and openly showed their repentance by
punishing the culprit.'
Civilis was well aware of their changed feelings and determined to 26
forestall them. He was tired of hardship, and he felt, besides, that
desire to live which so often weakens the resolution of the bravest
spirits. He demanded an interview. The bridge over the river
Nabalia[556] was broken down in the middle, and the two generals
advanced on to the broken ends. Civilis began as follows: 'If I were
defending myself before one of Vitellius' officers, I could expect
neither pardon for my conduct nor credence for my words. Between him
and me there has been nothing but hatred. He began the quarrel, I
fostered it. Towards Vespasian I have from the beginning shown
respect. When he was a private citizen, we were known as friends.
Antonius Primus was aware of this when he wrote urging me to take up
arms to prevent the legions from Germany and the Gallic levies from
crossing the Alps.[557] The instructions which Antonius gave in his
letter Hordeonius Flaccus ratified by word of mouth. I raised the
standard in Germania, as did Mucianus in Syria, Aponius in Moesia,
Flavianus in Pannonia....'
[The rest is lost.]
FOOTNOTES:
[518] iv. 78.
[519] Cp. iv. 28, 33, 35.
[520] Adiutrix.
[521] Before this Cerialis had five legions, I, IV, XVI, XXI,
and XXII, but of these only XXI was in full force, so these
new reinforcements may have doubled his army. The auxiliaries
had been called out by Hordeonius Flaccus (iv. 24).
[522] Perhaps 'in wedge-formation' (see note 283).
[523] Cp. iv. 26.
[524] Bructeri, Tencteri, &c. (cp. iv. 23).
[525] Cp. ii. 11.
[526] Cp. iii. 44.
[527] They had been newly enrolled (see iv. 68).
[528] i.e. the Roman army of occupation which had joined the
Gauls and come over again.
[529] Vetera.
[530] See note 522.
[531] Chap. 14.
[532] Stationed in the Rhine (see chap. 21).
[533] Cp. iv. 68.
[534] Cp. iv. 79.
[535] ? Cleves.
[536] This mole, begun by Drusus in A.D. 9, was built out from
the left bank of the Rhine near Cleves. It turned most of the
water into the Lek, thus making the island easily accessible
from the Roman side and barring access from the north. Civilis
now reversed this position. His friends were now on the north.
The swollen Waal would be an obstacle to the Romans.
[537] i.e. the Waal.
[538] See iii. 35.
[539] These places cannot be certainly identified. They must
have lain on the south of the Waal, probably east and west of
Nymwegen.
[540] Across the now swollen Waal.
[541] See iv. 70.
[542] Which he had found on his way.
[543] Marching along the bank.
[544] Pitched on the left bank somewhere between Novaesium and
Vetera. The German assailants were probably Tencteri.
[545] Dividing the different portions of the camp.
[546] Cp. iv. 61.
[547] Cp. ii. 16.
[548] See chap. 22 and iv. 16 and 79. But the ships captured
by Civilis were not small craft. Perhaps _luntres_ is here
repeated from the preceding sentence by mistake for _naves_ or
_puppes_.
[549] The de Noord channel carries the combined waters of the
Maas and the Waal into the Lek a few miles above Rotterdam.
From the point of this confluence to the sea the Lek takes the
name of Maas.
[550] Into the country of the Frisii up toward the Zuyder Zee.
[551] To make his party suspect that he was in league with the
Romans.
[552] Cp. iv. 65.
[553] i.e. by betraying Civilis to them.
[554] Tacitus remarks in the _Germania_ (chap. 29) that the
Batavi do not suffer the indignity of paying tribute, but,
'like armour and weapons are reserved for use in war.'
[555] Cp. iv. 13.
[556] Perhaps the Neue Yssel, near Arnhem.
[557] Cp. iv. 13, 32.
INDEX OF NAMES
[The references are to the chapters of the Latin text as given in the
margin. The Roman numerals denote the book.]
Abraham, v 2 n. 467.
Actium, i 1.
Acts of the Apostles, v 9 n. 505.
Adriatic, iii 2.
Adrumetum, iv 50.
Adua, ii 40 n. 298.
Aedui, i 51, 64; ii 61; iii 35; iv 17, 57.
Aegialus, i 37.
Aelianus, Plautius, iv 53.
Aenus (Inn), iii 5.
Aerias, ii 3.
Aesculapius, iv 84.
Africa, i 7, 11, 37, 49, 70, 73, 76, 78; ii 58, 97; iii 48; iv 38, 48-50.
Africanus, Paccius, iv 41.
Agrestis, Julius, iii 54.
Agricola, Tacitus' Life of, i 1 n. 6, 49 n. 84; iv 40 n. 341, 50 n. 369.
Agrippa (of Peraea), ii 5 n. 216, 81; iv 39; v 1.
Agrippa (Augustus' son-in-law), i 15.
Agrippa, Fonteius, iii 46.
Agrippa, Vipsanius, i 31 n. 56.
Agrippina, i 56 n. 106; iv 65 n. 409.
Albanians, i 6.
Albingaunum (Albenga), ii 15.
Albintimilium (Ventimiglia), ii 13.
Albinus, Lucceius, ii 58, 59.
Alexander, Tiberius, i 11; ii 74, 79.
Alexandria, i 31; ii 79; iii 48; iv 81-4; v 1.
Allia, ii 91.
Allobroges, i 65, 66.
Alpinus, Julius, i 68.
Alps, i 23, 66, 89; ii 11, 12, 17, 20, 32; iii 34, 35, 42, 53, 55, 70, 85;
v 26.
Altinum (Altino), iii 6.
Ammon, v 3, 4.
Anagnia (Anagni), iii 62.
Andresen, ii 4 n. 214; iv 15 n. 281.
Anicetus, iii 47, 48.
Antigonus, v 9 n. 499.
Antioch, ii 79, 80, 82.
Antiochus Epiphanes, v 8.
Antiochus (of Commagene), ii 5 n. 216, 81; iv 39; v 1.
Antipolis (Antibes), ii 15.
Antonia, The, v 11.
Antonii, iii 38.
Antoninus, Arrius, i 77.
Antonius Primus, ii 86; iii 2, 6, 7, 9-11, 13, 15-17, 19, 20, 23-32, 34,
49, 52-4, 59, 60, 63, 64, 66, 78-82; iv 2, 4, 11, 13, 24, 31, 32, 39,
68, 80; v 19, 26.
Antony, ii 6; iii 24, 66; v 9, 11.
Apennines, iii 42, 50, 52, 55, 56, 59.
Apis, v 4.
Apollinaris, Claudius, iii 57, 76, 77.
Apollo, i 27; iii 65; iv 83.
Aponianus, Dillius, iii 10, 11.
Aponius Saturninus, i 79; ii 85, 96; iii 5, 9-11; v 26.
Appian Road, iv 11.
Apronianus, Vipstanus, i 76.
Aquila, Vedius, ii 44; iii 7.
Aquileia, ii 32 n. 286, 46, 85; iii 6, 8.
Aquilius, iv 15.
Aquinum (Aquino), i 88; ii 63.
Aquinus, Cornelius, i 7.
Aquitania, i 76.
Arabia, v 6.
Arabs, v 1.
Arar (Saône), ii 59.
Archelaus, v 9 n. 503.
Arda, ii 40.
Arenacum, v 20.
Argius, i 49.
Aricia (La Riccia), iii 36; iv 2.
Ariminum (Rimini), iii 41, 42.
Ariovistus, iv 37.
Aristobulus, v 5 n. 486.
Arruntius, ii 65.
Arsaces, v 8.
Arsacids, i 40.
Arverni, iv 17.
Asciburgium (Asberg), iv 33.
Asia, i 10; ii 2, 6, 8, 9, 81, 83; iii 46; iv 17.
Asiaticus (Gallic chieftain), ii 94.
Asiaticus (Vitellius' freedman), ii 57, 95; iv 11.
Asiaticus, Valerius, i 59; iv 4.
Asprenas, Calpurnius, ii 9.
Assyrians, v 8.
Ateste (Este), iii 6.
Atria (Atri), iii 12.
Attianus, Nonius, iv 41.
Atticus, Julius, i 35.
Atticus, Quintius, iii 73-5.
Augustus, i 11, 15, 18, 50, 89, 90; ii 76; iii 66; iv 17, 28, 48, 57; v 9.
Aurius' Horse, iii 5.
Auspex, Julius, iv 69.
Aventicum (Avenches), i 68.
Aventine, iii 70, 84.
Babylon, v 5 n. 485.
Bacchus, v 5.
Baetasii, iv 56, 66.
Baetica, i 53, 78; ii 97 n. 450.
Barea Soranus, iv 7, 10, 40.
Basilides (Egyptian noble), iv 82.
Basilides (Carmelite Priest), ii 78.
Basques, iv 33.
Bassus, Annius, iii 50.
Bassus, Lucilius, ii 100, 101; iii 12, 13, 36, 40; iv 3.
Batavians or Batavi, i 59, 64; ii 17, 22, 27, 28, 43, 66, 69, 97;
iv 12, 14-25, 28, 30, 32, 33, 56, 58, 61, 66, 73, 77-9, 85;
v 15-20, 23-5.
Bedriacum, ii 23, 39, 44, 45, 49, 50, 57, 66, 70, 86;
iii 15, 20, 25, 27, 31.
Belgae, iv 37, 70, 71, 76.
Belgic auxiliaries, iv 17, 20.
Belgica, i 12, 58, 59.
Belus, v 7.
Benignus, Orfidius, ii 43, 45.
Berenice, ii 2, 81.
Berytus (Beyrut), ii 81.
Bingium (Bingen), iv 70.
Blaesus, Junius, i 59; ii 59; iii 38, 39.
Blaesus, Pedius, i 77.
Boadicea, i 37 n. 63; ii 11 n. 228, 32 n. 283.
Bocchoris v 3.
Boii, ii 61.
Bolanus, Vettius, ii 65, 97.
Bonn, iv 19, 20, 25, 62, 70, 77; v 22.
Bononia (Bologna), ii 53, 67, 71.
Bovillae, iv 2, 46.
Brescia, iii 27.
Brigantes, iii 45.
Briganticus, Julius, ii 22; iv 70; v 21.
Britain, i 2, 6, 9, 52, 59, 61; ii 11, 27, 32, 37, 57, 65, 66, 86, 97,
100; iii 2, 22, 15, 35, 41, 44, 70; iv 12, 15, 25, 54, 68, 76, 79;
v 16.
British auxiliaries, i 43, 70.
Britons, iii 45; iv 74.
Brixellum (Brescello), ii 33, 39, 51, 54.
Brixian Gate, iii 27.
Bructeri, iv 21, 61, 77; v 16, 18.
Brundisium (Brindisi), ii 83.
Brutus, iv 8.
Burdo, Julius, i 58.
Byzantium, ii 83; iii 47.
Caecina, Alienus, i 52, 53, 61, 67, 68, 70, 89; ii 11, 17-27, 30, 31,
41, 43, 51, 55, 56, 59, 67, 70, 71, 77, 92, 93, 95, 99-101;
iii 8, 9, 13-15, 31, 32, 36, 37, 40; iv 31, 80.
Caecina, Licinius, ii 53.
Caecina Tuscus, iii 38.
Caelius, Roscius, i 60.
Caeracates, iv 70.
Caesar, Julius, i 42, 50, 67 n. 138, 86, 90; iii 37, 66, 68;
iv 55, 57, 73 n. 436.
Caesarea, ii 79.
Caesariensis (Mauretania), ii 58, 59.
Caetronius Pisanus, iv 50.
Calabria, ii 83.
Calenus, Julius, iii 35.
Caligula, i 16, 48, 89; ii 76; iii 68; iv 42, 48, 68; v 9.
Calvia Crispinilla, i 73.
Camerinus, Scribonianus, ii 72.
Camillus Scribonianus, i 89; ii 75.
Campania, i 2, 23; iii 58-60, 63, 66, 77; iv 3.
Campanus, iv 66.
Camurius, i 41.
Canninefates, iv 15, 16, 19, 32, 56, 79, 85.
Capito, Fonteius, i 7, 8, 37, 52, 58; iii 62; iv 13.
Capito, Vergilius, iii 77; iv 3.
Capitol, i 2, 33, 39, 40, 47, 71; ii 89; iii 69-72, 75, 78, 81;
iv 4, 9, 53, 54.
Capitoline Square, i 86.
Cappadocia, i 78; ii 6, 81.
Capua, iii 57; iv 3.
Caratacus, iii 45.
Carmel, Mt., ii 78.
Carsulae (Casigliano), iii 60.
Carthage, i 76; iv 49, 50.
Cartimandua, iii 45.
Carus, Julius, i 42.
Caspian Pass, i 6.
Cassius, ii 6.
Cassius Longus, iii 14.
Cato, iv 8.
Catulus, Lutatius, i 15 n. 40; iii 72.
Celer, Egnatius, iv 10, 40.
Celsus, Marius, i 14, 31, 39, 45, 71, 77, 87, 90; ii 23-5, 33, 39, 40,
44, 60.
Cepheus, v 2.
Ceres, ii 55.
Cerialis, Petilius, iii 59, 78-80; iv 68, 71-9, 86; v 14-24.
Cerialis, Turullius, ii 22.
Certus, Quintius, ii 16.
Chatti, iv 12, 37.
Chauci, iv 79; v 19.
Chobus (Khopi), iii 48.
Cicero, ii 84 n. 413; iii 37 n. 100.
Cilo, Betuus, i 37.
Cimbri, iv 73.
Cinna, iii 51, 83.
Cinyras, ii 3.
Civilis, i 59; iv 13, 14, 16-19, 21, 22, 24-6, 28-30, 32-7, 54, 55, 58,
60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 70, 71, 73, 75-9; v 14-17, 19-26.
Classicus, ii 14; iv 55, 57-9, 63, 70-9; v 19-21.
Claudia Sacrata, v 22.
Claudius (Emperor), i 10, 16, 48, 52, 77, 89; ii 48, 75, 76;
iii 44, 45, 66; v 9.
Clemens, Arrecinus, iv 68.
Clemens, Suedius, i 87; ii 12.
Cleopatra, v 9.
Cluviae, iv 5.
Cocceianus, Salvius, ii 48.
Coelius, Roscius, i 60.
Coenus, ii 54.
Colline Gate, iii 78, 82.
Cologne, i 56, 57; iv 20, 25, 28; iv 55, 56, 59, 63-6, 79.
Comitia Curiata, i 15 n. 39.
Concord, Temple of, iii 68.
Corbulo, ii 76; iii 6, 24.
Cordus, Julius, i 76.
Corinth, ii 1.
Cornelius, Publius, iii 34.
Corsica, ii 16.
Cossus, Claudius, i 69.
Costa, Pedanius, ii 71.
Cottian Alps (Mt. Cenis), i 61, 87; iv 68.
Crassi, ii 72; iv 42.
Crassus (the Triumvir), i 15.
Crassus, M. Licinius, i 14.
Crassus, M. Licinius (his son), i 48; iv 42.
Cremera, ii 91.
Cremona, ii 17, 22-4, 67, 70, 100; iii 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22, 26, 27,
30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 41, 46, 48, 49, 53, 54, 60, 72; iv 2, 31, 51.
Crescens, i 76.
Crete, v 2.
Crispina, i 47.
Crispinilla, Calvia, i 73.
Crispinus (a centurion), i 58.
Crispinus, Varius, i 80.
Crispus, Vibius, ii 10; iv 41-3.
Cugerni, iv 16 n. 282, 26; v 16, 18.
Curtius, Lake, i 41; ii 55.
Cynic philosophy, iv 40.
Cyprus, ii 2.
Cyrene, iv 45.
Cythnus, ii 8, 9.
Dacia, i 2; iii 46, 53; iv 4 n. 242, 54.
Dalmatia, i 76, 89 n. 195; ii 11, 32, 86; iii 12, 50.
Damascus, v 2 n. 467.
Daniel, Book of, v 13 n. 517.
Danube, iii 46.
Danube Provinces, v. Illyricum.
Dead Sea, v 6 n. 490.
Delphi, iv 83.
Demetrius, iv 40.
Densus, Sempronius, i 43.
Deuteronomy, v 5 n. 481.
Dexter, Subrius, i 31.
Dio Cassius, i 74 n. 156; ii 44 n. 311, 72 n. 390; iii 23 n. 66,
54 n. 145, 56 n. 152; iv 41 n. 346, 67 n. 415.
Divodurum (Metz), i 63.
Dolabella, Cornelius, i 88; ii 63, 64.
Domitian, i 1; iii 59, 69, 74, 86; iv 2, 3, 39, 40, 43-7, 51, 52, 68, 75,
80, 85, 86.
Druids, iv 54.
Drusilla, v 9.
Drusus, iii 5 n. 20; v 19.
Dyrrachium (Durazzo), ii 83.
Egypt, i 11, 70, 76; ii 6, 9, 74, 76, 82; iii 8, 48; iv 3, 83, 84;
v 2, 3, 6.
Eleazar, v 12.
Eleusis, iv 83.
Emerita (Merida), i 78.
Epiphanes, ii 25.
Eporedia (Ivrea), i 70.
Epponina, iv 67.
Etesian Winds, ii 98; iv 81 n. 449.
Etruria, i 86; iii 41.
Eumolpid clan, iv 83.
Euphrates, v 9.
Exodus, Book of, v 3 n. 471.
Ezekiel, Book of, v 2 n. 464.
Fabii, ii 91 n. 432.
Fabullus, Fabius, iii 14.
Fanum Fortunae (Fano), iii 50.
Faustus, Annius, ii 10.
Faventinus, Claudius, iii 57.
Felix, Antonius, v 9.
Felix, Sextilius, iii 5; iv 70.
Ferentium (Ferento), ii 50.
Feronia, Temple of, iii 76.
Festus (_praefectus cohortis_), ii 59.
Festus, Valerius, ii 98; iv 49, 50.
Fidenae, iii 79.
Firmus, Plotius, i 46, 82; ii 46, 49.
Flaccus, Hordeonius, i 9, 52, 54, 56; ii 57, 97; iv 13, 18, 19, 24, 25,
27, 31, 36, 55, 77; v 26.
Flaminian Road, i 86; ii 64; iii 79, 82.
Flamma, Antonius, iv 45.
Flavianus, Julius, iii 79.
Flavianus, Tampius, ii 86; iii 4, 10, 11; v 26.
Flavius Sabinus (Vespasian's brother), i 46; ii 55, 63, 99;
iii 59, 64, 65, 68-71, 73-5, 78, 79, 81, 85; iv 47.
Flavius Sabinus (consul A.D. 69), i 77; ii 36, 41.
Flavus, ii 94.
Florus, Gessius, v 10.
Florus, Sulpicius, i 43.
Forum Alieni (? Legnago), iii 6.
Forum Julii (Fréjus), ii 14; iii 43.
Frisii, iv 15, 16, 18, 56, 79.
Frontinus, Julius, iv 39.
Fronto, Julius, i 20; ii 26.
Fulvus, Aurelius, i 79.
Fundane reservoir, iii 69.
Fuscus, Cornelius, ii 86; iii 4, 12, 42, 66; iv 4.
Galatia, ii 9.
Galba, i 1, 5-16, 18, 19, 21-4, 26, 27, 29-56, 64, 65, 67, 71-4, 77,
87, 88; ii 1, 6, 9-11, 23, 31, 55, 58, 71, 76, 86, 88, 92, 97, 101;
iii 7, 22, 25, 57, 62, 68, 85, 86; iv 6, 13, 33, 40, 42, 57; v 16.
Galeria, ii 60, 64.
Galerianus, Calpurnius, iv 11, 49.
Gallus, Annius, i 87; ii 11, 23, 33, 44; iv 68; v 19.
Gallus, Cestius, v 10.
Gallus, Herennius, iv 19, 20, 26, 27, 59, 70, 77.
Gallus, Rubrius, ii 51, 99.
Garamantes, iv 50.
Garutianus, Trebonius, i 7.
Gaul, i 2, 8, 37, 51, 61-3, 87, 89; ii 6, 11, 29, 32, 57, 61, 86, 94, 98;
iii 2, 13, 15, 35, 41, 44, 53; iv 3, 12, 14, 17, 18, 24-6, 28, 31, 32,
37, 49, 54, 67-9, 71, 73-6, 77, 85; v 19, 23.
Gaul, Lyons division of, i 59; ii 59.
Gaul, Narbonnese, i 48, 76, 87; ii 12, 14, 15, 28, 32; iii 41, 42.
Gauls, i 51, 64, 67, 70; ii 68, 69, 93; iii 34, 72; iv 25, 54, 57, 58, 61,
62, 71, 73, 76, 78; v 26.
Gelduba (Gellep), iv 26, 32, 35, 36, 58.
Geminus, Ducenius, i 14.
Geminus, Virdius, iii 48.
Genesis, Book of, v 7 n. 491.
Gennesareth, v 6 n. 490.
_Germania_, Tacitus'; iii 47 n. 124; iv 12 n. 265, n. 267, 16 n. 283,
18 n. 293, 64 n. 408; v 5 n. 483, 25 n. 554.
Germanicus (Title of Vitellius), i 62; ii 64.
Germanicus (Vitellius' son), ii 59; iii 66.
Germans, i 52, 61, 68, 70, 84; ii 22, 32, 35, 93; iii 15, 46, 53;
iv 14-16, 18, 22, 24-7, 29, 33, 34, 37, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66,
73-5, 78, 79; v 14-25.
Germany, i 7, 9, 12, 37, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55, 61, 73; ii 16, 17, 22, 69,
93, 97; iii 2, 35, 41, 46, 62, 70; iv 3, 15, 17-19, 21, 23, 28, 31, 41,
49, 54, 63, 64, 70, 72, 76; v 14, 17.
Germany, Legionary and auxiliary troops of, i 8, 19, 26, 31, 67, 70,
74, 77; ii 22, 23, 55, 57, 58, 60, 75, 77, 80, 99; iii 1, 8, 9, 13, 26,
38, 69, 84; iv 32, 46, 76; v 16, 26.
Geta, ii 72.
Graian Alps (Little St. Bernard), ii 66; iv 15, 68.
Gratilla, Verulana, iii 69.
Gratus, Julius, ii 26.
Grinnes, v 20.
Grotius, ii 86 n. 421.
Grypus, Plotius, iii 52; iv 39, 40.
Hadrian, i 58 n. 108.
Haemus, Mt. (Balkans), ii 85.
Hannibal, iii 34; iv 13.
Hardy, E.G., ii 19 n. 255, 40 n. 298.
Helvetii, i 67, 69, 70.
Henderson, B.W., ii 19 n. 255, 20 n. 257, 40 n. 298; iv 34 n. 323,
68 n. 420.
Hercules Monoecus, iii 42.
Hermon, Mt., v 6 n. 489.
Herod (the Great), v 9, 11.
Herod Agrippa I, ii 2 n. 205.
Herod Agrippa II, ii 2 n. 205, 5 n. 216, 81; v 1.
Herod Antipas, v 9 n. 503.
Herod Philip, v 9 n. 503.
Hesychius, ii 3 n. 208.
Hierosolyma, ii 2.
Hierosolymus, ii 2.
Hilarus, ii 65.
Hispalis (Seville), i 78.
Histria, ii 72.
Homer, v 2.
Horatius Cocles, i 86 n. 183.
Hordeonius Flaccus, v. Flaccus.
Hormus, iii 12, 28; iv 39.
Hostilia (Ostiglia), ii 100; iii 9, 14, 21, 40.
Iazyges, iii 5.
Icelus, i 13, 33, 37, 46; ii 95.
Ida, Idaei, v 2, 4.
Illyrian Sea (Adriatic), iii 2.
Illyricum, i 2, 6, 9, 76; ii 60, 74, 86; iii 35; iv 3.
Illyricum, troops of, i 31; ii 60, 85, 86.
Interamna, Interamnium (Terni), ii 64; iii 61, 63.
Isis, iii 74 n. 204; iv 84; v 2.
Italicus, Silius, iii 65.
Italicus (Suebian prince), iii 5, 21.
Italy, i 2, 9, 11, 50, 61, 62, 70, 84; ii 6, 8, 12, 17, 20, 21, 27, 28,
32, 56, 62, 66, 83, 90; iii 1, 2, 4-6, 9, 30, 34, 42, 46, 49, 53, 59;
iv 5, 13, 17, 51, 55, 58, 65, 72, 73, 75, 76; v 1, 10.
Jerusalem, ii 4; v 1, 8, 9, 11-13.
Jewish Army (Roman), i 76; ii 79, 81.
Jews, i 10; ii 4, 78; iv 51; v 1, 2, 4, 5, 7-11, 12.
John (of Gischala), v 12.
Jordan, v 6.
Josephus, v 3 n. 472, 5 n. 484.
Juba, ii 58.
Juda, v 2.
Judaea, ii 1, 5, 6, 73, 76, 78, 79, 82; iv 3; v 1, 8, 9, 13.
Julian Alps (Brenner), iii 8.
Julian family, i 16; ii 48, 95.
Julianus, Claudius, iii 57, 76, 77.
Julianus, Tettius, i 79; ii 85; iv 39, 40.
Julius Caesar, v. Caesar.
Junii, iii 38.
Juno, i 86; iv 53.
Jupiter, iii 72, 74; iv 53, 54, 58, 83, 84; v 2.
Jupiter-Pluto, iv 83.
Justin, v 2 n. 467.
Justus, Minicius, iii 7.
Juvenal, ii 62 n. 361; v 2 n. 469.
Juvenalian Games, iii 62.
Juvenalis (Tungrian chief), iv 66.
Labeo, Claudius, iv 18, 56, 66, 70.
Laco, Cornelius, i 6, 13, 14, 19, 26, 33, 39, 46.
Ladder of Sighs, iii 74, 85.
Laecanius, i 41.
Latin rights, iii 55.
Lebanon, v 6.
Legions.
I, German, i 55, 57; ii 100; iii 22; iv 19, 25, 37, 57, 59, 62, 70,
72, 77.
I Adiutrix, i 6, 31, 36; ii 11, 17, 22, 23, 43, 67, 86; iii 13, 44;
iv 68.
I, Italian, i 59, 64, 74; ii 41, 100; iii 14, 18, 22.
II Adiutrix, iii 55, 67; iv 68; v 14, 16, 20.
II Augusta, iii 22, 44.
III Augusta, i 7 n. 16, 11; ii 97; iv 49.
III Cyrenaic, vi.
III Gallic, i 79; ii 74, 85, 96; iii 10, 21, 24, 27, 29; iv 3, 39.
IV Macedonian, i 18, 55, 56; ii 89, 100; iii 22; iv 37.
IV Scythian, i 76 n. 164.
V Alaudae, i 55, 61; ii 43, 68, 100; iii 14, 22; iv 35, 36.
V Macedonian, i 76 n. 163; v 1.
VI Ferrata, i 76 n. 164; ii 83; iii 46.
VI Victrix, i 16; iii 44; iv 68, 76; v 16.
VII Claudian, ii 85; iii 9, 21, 27; iv 68 n. 420.
VII Galbian, i 6; ii 11, 67, 86; iii 7, 10, 21, 22, 25, 27, 29; iv 39.
VIII Augusta, ii 85; iii 10, 21, 27; iv 68.
IX Spanish, iii 22.
X Fretensis, i 76 n. 163; v 1.
X Gemina, ii 58; iii 44; iv 76; v 19, 20.
XI Claudian, ii 11, 67; iii 50; iv 68.
XII Fulminata, v 1.
XIII Gemina, ii 11, 24, 43, 44, 67, 86; iii 1, 7, 21, 27, 32; iv 68;
v 14.
XIV Gemina, i 59, 64; ii 11, 27, 32, 43, 54, 66, 68, 86; iii 13;
iv 68, 76, 79; v 14, 16, 19.
XV Apollinaris, i 76 n. 163; v 1.
XV Primigenia, i 41, 55; ii 100; iii 22, 23; iv 35, 36.
XVI Gallic, i 55; ii 100; iii 22; iv 26, 57, 62, 70, 72, 77.
XX Valeria Victrix, i 60; iii 22.
XXI Rapax, i 61, 67; ii 43, 100; iii 14, 18, 22, 25; iv 68, 70, 78.
XXII Deiotariana, v 1.
XXII Primigenia, i 18, 55, 56; ii 100; iii 22; iv 24, 37.
Lepcis (Lebda), iv 50.
Leuci, i 64.
Leviticus, Book of, v 4 n. 473, n. 476; v 5 n. 487; v 13 n. 516.
Liburnian Cruisers, ii 16, 35; iii 12, 14, 42, 43, 47, 48, 77; v 23.
Libya, v 2.
Licinianus, Piso, v. Piso.
Liguria, ii 13, 14, 15.
Lingones, i 53, 54, 57, 59, 64, 78; ii 27; iv 55, 57, 67, 69, 70, 73,
76, 77.
Lippe, the, v 22.
Livy, iii 72 n. 194.
Locus Castorum, ii 24.
Longinus, Aemilius, iv 59, 62.
Longinus, Pompeius, i 31.
Longus, Cassius, iii 14.
Lucania, ii 83.
Luceria, iii 86.
Lucus (Luc-en-Diois), i 66.
Lugdunum (Lyons), i 51, 59, 64, 65, 74; ii 59, 65; iv 85, 86.
Luke, Gospel of, v 4 n. 474, 8 n. 493.
Lupercus, Munius, iv 18, 22, 61.
Lupus, Numisius, i 79; iii 10.
Lusitania, i 13, 21, 70; ii 97 n. 450.
Lusones, i 78 n. 173.
Lutatian house, i 15.
Maas, the, iv 28, 66; v 23.
Macedonians, iv 83; v 8.
Macer, Clodius, i 7, 11, 37, 73; ii 97; iv 19.
Macer, Martius, ii 23, 35, 36, 71.
Magnus (Piso's brother), i 48.
Mainz, iv 15, 24, 25, 33, 37, 59, 61, 62, 70, 71.
Malaria, iii 33 n. 91.
Manlius Patruitus, iv 45.
Mansuetus, Julius, iii 25.
Marcellus, Claudius, i 15.
Marcellus, Cornelius, i 37.
Marcellus, Eprius, ii 53, 95; iv 6, 7, 8, 10, 42, 43.
Marcellus, Romilius, i 56, 59.
Marcodurum (Düren), iv 28.
Mariccus, ii 61.
Marinus, Valerius, ii 71.
Marius, Caius, ii 38.
Marius Celsus, v. Celsus.
Marsaci, iv 56.
Marseilles, iii 43.
Marsi, iii 59.
Martial, v 2 n. 469.
Martialis, Cornelius, iii 70, 71, 73.
Martialis, Julius, i 28, 82.
Martian Plain, i 86; ii 95; iii 82.
Massa, Baebius, iv 50.
Mattiaci, iv 37.
Maturus, Marius, ii 12; iii 42, 43.
Mauretania, i 11; ii 58, 59.
Mauricus, Junius, iv 40.
Maximus, Julius, iv 33.
Maximus, Trebellius, i 60; ii 65.
Medes, i 40 n. 67; v 8.
Mediolanum (Milan), i 70.
Mediomatrici, i 63; iv 70-2.
Mefitis, iii 33.
Meiser, ii 50 n. 328; iii 5 n. 21.
Mela, Annaeus, ii 86 n. 421.
Memphis, iv 84.
Merom, v 6 n. 490.
Messala, Vipstanus, ii 101 n. 459; iii 9, 11, 18, 25, 28; iv 42.
Messiah, v 13 n. 517.
Mevania (Bevagna), iii 55.
Minerva, i 86 n. 182; iv 53.
Minturnae, iii 57.
Misenum, Fleet at, ii 9, 100; iii 56, 57, 60.
Moesia, i 76, 79; ii 32, 46, 74, 83, 85; iii 46, 53, 75; iv 54; v 26.
Moesia, Troops of, ii 32, 44, 85, 86; iii 2, 5, 9, 11, 18, 24.
Mogontiacum, v. Mainz.
Monoecus (Monaco), iii 42.
Montanus, Alpinius, iii 35; iv 31, 32; v 19.
Montanus, Curtius, iv 40, 42, 43.
Moriah, Mt., v 8 n. 492, 11 n. 511.
Morini, iv 28.
Moschus, i 87.
Moselle, the, iv 71, 77.
Moses, v 3, 4.
Mucianus, i 10, 76; ii 4, 5, 7, 74, 76-84, 95; iii 1, 8, 25, 46, 47, 49,
52, 53, 63, 66, 75, 78; iv 4, 11, 24, 39, 44, 46, 49, 68, 75, 80, 85;
v 26.
Mulvian Bridge, i 87; ii 89; iii 82.
Mummia, i 15 n. 40.
Murcus, Statius, i 43.
Mutina, i 50; ii 52, 54.
Nabalia, the, v 26.
Narbonnese Gaul, v. Gaul.
Narnia (Narni), iii 58, 60, 63, 67, 78, 79.
Naso, Antonius, i 20.
Nava (Nahe), iv 70.
Nero, i 2, 4-10, 13, 16, 20-3, 25, 30, 46, 48, 49, 51, 53, 65, 70, 72, 73,
76-8, 89, 90; ii 5, 8-11, 27, 54, 58, 66, 71, 72, 76, 86, 95; iii 6, 62,
68; iv 7, 8, 13, 41, 42-4; v 10.
Nerva, i 1.
Nervii, iv 15, 33, 56, 66, 79.
Niger, Casperius, iii 73.
Norbanus, iii 72.
Noricum, i 11, 70; iii 5; v 25.
Novaesium (Neuss), iv 26, 33, 35, 36, 57, 62, 70, 77, 79; v 22.
Novaria (Novara), i 70.
Novellus, Antonius, i 87; ii 12.
Numisius Lupus, i 79; iii 10.
Numisius Rufus, iv 22, 59, 70, 77.
Nymphidius Sabinus, v. Sabinus.
Ocriculum (Otricoli), iii 78.
Oea (Tripoli), iv 50.
Onions, J.T., ii 23 n. 264.
Onomastus, i 25, 27.
Opitergium (Oderzo), iii 6.
Orfitus, Cornelius, iv 42.
Osiris, iv 84.
Ostia, i 80; ii 63.
Otho, i 1, 13, 21, 22, 24, 26-36, 39-47, 50, 64, 70-90; ii 1, 6, 7, 11,
13, 14, 16-18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 36, 38-60, 63, 65, 76,
85, 86, 95, 101; iii 10, 32, 44; iv 17, 54.
Pacarius, Decimus, ii 16.
Pacensis, Aemilius, i 20, 87; ii 12; iii 73.
Pacorus (Viceroy of Media Atropene), i 40.
Pacorus (Parthian king), v 9.
Paetus, Thrasea, ii 53 n. 331, 91; iv 5-8.
Palace of the Caesars, i 17, 29, 32, 35, 39, 47, 72, 80, 82; iii 67, 68,
70, 74, 84.
Pamphylia, ii 9.
Pannonia, i 76; ii 32, 86; iii 4, 12; iv 54; v 26.
Pannonia, Troops of, i 26, 67; ii 11, 14, 17, 85, 86; iii 2, 11, 24.
Pannonian (Julian) Alps, ii 98; iii 1.
Paphos, ii 2.
Papirius, iv 49.
Parthians, i 2; ii 6, 82; iii 24; iv 51; v 8, 9.
Patavium (Padua), ii 100; iii 6, 7, 11.
Patrobius, i 49; ii 95.
Patruitus, Manlius, iv 45.
Paul, Saint, ii 2 n. 205.
Paulinus, Suetonius, i 87, 90; ii 23-6, 31, 33, 37, 39, 40, 44, 60.
Paulinus, Valerius, iii 43.
Paulus, Julius, iv 13.
Pedanius Costa, ii 71.
Pennine Alps (Great St. Bernard), i 70, 87; iv 68.
Persians, v 8.
Perusia (Perugia), i 50.
Petilius Cerialis, v. Cerialis.
Petra's Horse, i 70; iv 49.
Petronia, ii 64.
Petronius Arbiter, ii 88 n. 426.
Pharsalia, i 50; ii 38.
Philippi, i 50; ii 38.
Philo, i 11 n. 30.
Phoenicia, v 6.
Picenum, iii 42.
Picenum Horse, iv 62.
Picked Horse, iv 70.
Pisa, Bay of, iii 42.
Piso, Caius, iv 11.
Piso, Lucius, iv 38, 48-50.
Piso Licinianus, i 14, 15, 17-19, 21, 29, 30, 34, 39, 43, 44, 47, 48;
iii 68; iv 40, 42.
Placentia (Piacenza), ii 17-20, 23, 24, 32, 36, 49.
Placidus, Julius, iii 84.
Plautus, Rubellius, i 14.
Pliny (the elder), ii 101 n. 459; iii 28; v 5 n. 482.
Pliny (the younger), i 48 n. 79; ii 11 n. 232.
Plutarch, i 27 n. 55, 43 n. 72, 74 n. 156; ii 37 n. 294, 38 n. 296,
40 n. 298, 44 n. 311, 46 n. 316, 46 n. 318, 70 n. 387; iii 54 n. 145;
iv 67 n. 415; v 3 n. 487.
Pluto, iv 83.
Po, the, i 70; ii 11, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 32, 34, 39, 40, 43, 44;
iii 34, 50, 52.
Poetovio (Petau), iii 1.
Polemo, ii 2 n. 205; iii 47.
Pollio, Asinius, ii 59.
Polyclitus, i 37; ii 95.
Pompeius (Pompey), i 15, 50; ii 6, 38; iii 66; v 9, 12.
Pontia Postumina, iv 44.
Pontus, ii 6, 8, 81, 83; iii 47; iv 83.
Poppaea Sabina, i 13, 22, 78.
Porcius Septiminus, iii 5.
Porsenna, iii 72.
Postumian Road, ii 24, 41; iii 21.
Primus, Antonius, v. Antonius.
Primus, Cornelius, iii 74.
Priscus, Fabius, iv 79.
Priscus, Helvidius, ii 91; iv 4, 10, 43, 53.
Priscus, Julius, ii 92; iii 55, 61; iv 11.
Priscus, Tarquinius, iii 72.
Proculus, Barbius, i 25.
Proculus, Cocceius, i 24.
Proculus, Licinius, i 46, 82, 87; ii 33, 39, 40, 44, 60.
Propinquus, Pompeius, i 12, 58.
Proserpine, iv 83.
Ptolemy, Soter, iv 83, 84.
Ptolemy, Euergetes, iv 84.
Ptolemy (Otho's astrologer), i 22.
Pudens, Maevius, i 24.
Pulvillus, Horatius, iii 72.
Puteoli (Pozzuoli), iii 57.
Pyrenees, i 23.
Pyrrhicus, Claudius, ii 16.
Quintilian, i 90 n. 200; iii 9, n. 40.
Quirinal, iii 69.
Quirinus, iv 58.
Raetia, i 11, 68; ii 98; iii 5, 8, 15; iv 70; v 25.
Raetia, Troops of, i 59, 67, 68; iii 53.
Raetian Alps (Arlberg), i 70.
Ravenna, Fleet at, ii 100; iii 6, 12, 36, 40, 50.
Rebilus, Caninius, iii 37.
Receptus, Nonius, i 56, 59.
Red Rocks, iii 79.
Regium Lepidum (Reggio), ii 50.
Regulus, Aquilius, i 48 n. 79; iv 42.
Regulus, Rosius, iii 37.
Remi, iv 67-9.
Repentinus, Calpurnius, i 56, 59.
Rhacotis, iv 84.
Rhine, the, i 51; ii 32; iii 12, 16, 22, 23, 26, 55, 59, 64, 73;
iv 14, 15, 17-19, 23, 24, 28, 63, 76; v 16, 25.
Rhoxolani, i 79.
Rigodulum (Riol), iv 71.
Romulus, ii 95.
Roscius Caelius, i 60.
Rufinus, Vivennius, iii 12.
Rufinus (Gallic chieftain), ii 94.
Rufus, Cadius, i 77.
Rufus, Cluvius, i 8, 76; ii 37 n. 294, 58, 65, 101 n. 459; iii 65;
iv 39, 43.
Rufus, Musonius, iii 81; iv 10, 40.
Rufus, Numisius, iv 22, 59, 70, 77.
Rufus, Verginius, v. Verginius.
Rusticus, Arulenus, iii 69 n. 187, 80.
Sabinus, Caelius, i 77.
Sabinus, Calvisius, i 48.
Sabinus, Domitius, i 31.
Sabinus, Flavius, v. Flavius.
Sabinus, Julius, iv 55, 67.
Sabinus, Nymphidius, i 5, 6, 25, 37.
Sabinus, Obultronius, i 37.
Sabinus, Publilius, ii 92; iii 36.
Sacrata, Claudia, v 22.
Sacrovir, iv 57.
Saevinus (?) Proculus, i 77.
Sagitta, Claudius, iv 49.
Sagitta, Octavius, iv 44.
Salarian Road, iii 78, 82.
Salii, i 89 n. 196.
Sallust's Gardens, iii 82.
Salonina, ii 20.
Salvius Titianus, i 75, 77, 90; ii 23, 33, 39, 40, 44, 60.
Samnites, iii 59.
Samuel, Book of, v 21 n. 464.
Sanctus, Claudius, iv 62.
Sardinia, ii 16.
Sarmatians, i 2, 79; iii 5, 24; iv 4, 54.
Saturn, i 27; v 24.
Saturnalian holiday, iii 78.
Saturninus, v. Aponius, Vitellius.
Scaeva, Didius, iii 73.
Scipio (_praefectus cohortis_), ii 59.
Scipio, L. (consul, B.C. 83), iii 72.
Scribonia, i 14.
Scribonianus, Camillus, i 89; ii 75.
Scribonianus Camerinus, ii 72.
Scribonianus Crassus, i 15, 47; iv 39.
Scribonius, iv 41.
Scydrothemis, iv 83, 84.
Sebosus' Horse, iii 6.
Secundus, Vibius, ii 10 n. 225.
Sedochezi, iii 48.
Seleucia, iv 84.
Seleucids, v 8.
Seleucus (soothsayer), ii 78.
Sempronius, Tiberius, iii 34.
Sempronius Densus, i 43.
Sentius, iv 7.
Septiminus, Porcius, iii 5.
Sequani, i 51; iv 67.
Serapis, iv 81, 84.
Serenus, Amullius, i 31.
Sertorius, iv 13.
Servian family, ii 48.
Servilian Park, iii 38.
Servius Tullius, iii 72.
Severus, Cestius, iv 41.
Severus, Cetrius, i 31.
Severus, Claudius, i 68.
Sextilia, i 75; ii 64, 89; iii 67.
Shoe-money, iii 50.
Sido, iii 5, 21.
Siena, iv 45.
Sighs, Ladder of, iii 74, 85.
Silanus, M. Junius, iii 38 n. 103.
Silanus, M. Junius M.f., iv 48.
Silius' Horse, i 70; ii 17.
Silius Italicus, iii 65.
Silvanus, Pompeius, ii 86; iii 50; iv 47.
Simon (Herod's slave), v 9.
Simon (Jewish leader), v 12.
Simplex, Caecilius, ii 60; iii 68.
Sinope, iv 83, 84.
Sinuessa Spa, i 72.
Sisenna, L. Cornelius, iii 51.
Sisenna (centurion), ii 8.
Sohaemus, ii 81; iv 39; v 1.
Solymi, v 2.
Soranus, Barea, iv 7, 10, 40.
Sosianus, Antistius, iv 44.
Sosius, v 9.
Sostratus, ii 4.
Spain, i 6, 8, 22, 37, 49, 62, 76; ii 32, 58, 65, 67, 86, 97;
iii 2, 13, 15, 25, 35, 44, 53, 70; iv 3, 25, 39, 68, 76; v 19.
Spurinna, Vestricius, ii 11, 18, 19, 23, 36.
Stoechades (Îles d'Hyères), iii 43.
Stoics, iii 81; iv 5.
Strabo, Pompeius, iii 51.
Suebi, i 2; iii 5, 21.
Suessa Pometia, iii 72.
Suetonius (the historian), i 13 n. 35, 52 n. 95, 74 n. 156;
ii 32 n. 286, 59 n. 348, 70 n. 388; iii 54 n. 145.
Suetonius Paulinus, v. Paulinus.
Sulla, ii 38; iii 72, 83.
Sulpicia Praetextata, iv 42.
Sulpician house, i 15.
Sunuci, iv 66.
Syria, i 10; ii 2, 5, 6, 9, 73, 74, 76, 78-81; iv 3, 17, 39, 84;
v 2, 6, 9, 10, 26.
Syria, Troops of, i 10, 76; ii 8, 74, 80; iv 39; v 1.
Tamiras, ii 3.
Tampius, v. Flavianus.
Tarentum, ii 83.
Tarpeian Rock, iii 71.
Tarquinius Priscus, iii 72.
Tarquinius Superbus, iii 72.
Tarracina (Anxur), iii 57, 60, 76, 77, 84; iv 2, 3.
Tarragona, ii 97 n. 450; iv 33 n. 322.
Tartaro, the, iii 9, 14.
Tatius, ii 95.
Taurus' Horse, i 59.
Taurus, Antonius, i 20.
Tencteri, iv 21, 64, 65, 77; v 16.
Terentius, i 41.
Tertullinus, Vulcacius, iv 9.
Tettius, v. Julianus.
Teutons, iv 73.
Thrace, i 11, 68.
Tiber, i 86; ii 93; iii 82; iv 53 n. 382.
Tiberius, i 15, 16, 27, 89; ii 65, 76, 95; iv 42, 48; v 9.
Ticinum (Pavia), ii 17, 27, 30, 68, 88.
Tigellinus, i 24, 72.
Timotheus, iv 83.
Tingitana, ii 58, 59.
Tiridates, ii 82 n. 410.
Tiro, Apinius, iii 57, 76.
Titianus, Salvius, i 75, 77, 90; ii 23, 33, 39, 40, 44, 60.
Titus, i 1, 10; ii 1, 4-6, 74, 79, 82; iv 3, 38, 51, 52; v 1, 10, 11, 13.
Tolbiacum (Zülpich), iv 79.
Trachalus, Galerius, i 90; ii 60.
Trajan, i 1; iv 9 n. 255.
Transalpine tribes, iv 54.
Transpadane district, i 70.
Trapezus (Trebizond), iii 47.
Trebellius Maximus, i 60; ii 65.
Treviri, Trier, i 53, 57, 63; ii 14, 28; iii 35; iv 18, 28, 32, 37, 55, 57,
58, 62, 66, 68-76, 85; v 14, 17, 19, 24.
Triaria, ii 63, 64; iii 77.
Triboci, iv 70.
Trogus Pompeius, v 2 n. 467.
Tungri, ii 14, 15, 28; iv 16, 55, 66, 79.
Turin, ii 66.
Turpilianus, Petronius, i 6, 37.
Turullius Cerialis, ii 22.
Tuscus, Caecina, iii 38.
Tutor, iv 55, 57-9, 70-2, 74, 76, 78; v 19-21.
Twin Brethren, ii 24.
Ubii, iv 18, 28, 55, 63, 77; v 22, 24 (_see also_ Cologne).
Umbria, iii 41, 42, 52.
Umbricius, i 27.
Urbicus, Petronius, i 70.
Urbinum, iii 62.
Usipi, iv 37.
Vada, v 20, 21.
Valens, Donatius, i 56, 59.
Valens, Fabius, i 7, 52, 57, 61, 62, 64, 66, 74; ii 14, 24, 27, 29-31, 41,
43, 51, 54-6, 59, 67, 70, 71, 77, 92, 93, 95, 99, 100; iii 15, 36, 40-4,
62, 66.
Valens, Manlius, i 64.
Valentinus, iv 68-71, 76, 85.
Vangiones, iv 70.
Varro, Cingonius, i 6, 37.
Varus, Alfenus, ii 29, 43; iii 36, 55, 61; iv 11.
Varus, Arrius, iii 6, 16, 52, 61, 63, 64; iv 1, 4, 11, 39, 68.
Varus, Plancius, ii 63.
Varus, Quintilius, iv 17; v 9.
Vatican Quarter, ii 93.
Vatinius, i 37.
Velabrum, i 27; iii 74.
Veleda, iv 61, 65; v 22, 24.
Vellocatus, iii 45.
Ventidius, v 9.
Venus, ii 2.
Venutius, iii 45.
Verania, i 47.
Verax, v 20, 21.
Vercellae (Vercelli), i 70.
Vergilio, Atilius, i 41.
Verginius Rufus, i 8, 9, 52, 53, 77; ii 49, 51, 68, 71; iii 62; iv 17, 69.
Verona, ii 23; iii 8, 10, 15, 50, 52.
Verulana Gratilla, iii 69.
Verus, Atilius, iii 22.
Vespasian, i 1, 10, 46, 50, 76; ii 1, 4, 5, 7, 67, 73, 74, 76, 78-87, 96-9;
iii 1, 3, 7-13, 34, 37, 38, 42-4, 48, 49, 52, 53, 57, 59, 63-6, 69, 70,
73, 75, 77, 78, 86; iv 3-9, 13, 14, 17, 21, 24, 27, 31, 32, 36-40, 42,
46, 49, 51, 52, 54, 58, 68, 70, 75, 77, 80-2; v 1, 10, 13, 25, 26.
Vesta, Temple of, i 43.
Vestal Virgins, i 2 n. 7; iii 81; iv 53.
Vestinus, iv 53.
Vetera, iv 18, 21, 35, 36, 57, 58, 62; v 14.
Vettius Bolanus, ii 65, 97.
Veturius, i 25.
Vibius Crispus, ii 10; iv 41-3.
Vicetia (Vicenza), iii 8.
Victor, Claudius, iv 33.
Victory, Statue of, i 86.
Vienne, i 65, 66, 77; ii 29, 66.
Vindex, Julius, i 6, 8, 16, 51, 53, 65, 70, 89; ii 94; iv 17, 57, 69.
Vindonissa (Windisch), i 61 n. 123, 67 n. 139; iv 61, 70.
Vinius, Titus, i 1, 6, 11-14, 32-4, 37, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48, 72; ii 95.
Vipsanian arcade, i 31.
Vitellius, i 1, 9, 14, 44, 50, 52, 56-64, 67-70, 73-7, 84, 85, 90;
ii 1, 6, 7, 14, 16, 17, 21, 27, 30-2, 38, 42, 43, 47, 48, 52-77, 80-101;
iii 1-5, 8-15, 31, 35-44, 47, 48, 53-75, 78-81, 84-86;
iv 1, 3, 4, 11, 13-15, 17, 19, 21, 24, 27, 31, 36, 37, 41, 46, 47, 49,
51, 54, 55, 58, 70, 80; v 26.
Vitellius, Lucius (his father), i 9; iii 66, 86.
Vitellius, Lucius (his brother), i 88; ii 54, 63; iii 37, 38, 55, 58,
76, 77; iv 2.
Vitellius Saturninus, i 82.
Vocetius, i 68.
Vocontii, i 66.
Vocula, Dillius, iv 24-7, 33-7, 56-9, 62, 77.
Vocula, Sariolenus, iv 41.
Volaginius, ii 75.
Vologaesus, i 40; ii 82 n. 410; iv 51.
Volusius, iii 29.
Vopiscus, Pompeius, i 77.
Wölfflin, v 4 n. 478.
Zion, v 11 n. 1.
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