The Project Gutenberg eBook of Plan of Chicago
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Title: Plan of Chicago
Creator: Commercial Club of Chicago
Author: Edward H. Bennett
Daniel Hudson Burnham
Editor: Charles Moore
Release date: August 11, 2025 [eBook #76669]
Language: English
Original publication: Chicago: The Commercial Club, 1908
Credits: A Marshall, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLAN OF CHICAGO ***
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
placed at the end of the chapter.
Text extracted from the Illustrations is appended to the captions.
Errata slips bound in the original have been applied to the text.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
[Illustration: I. CHICAGO. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW, SHOWING THE LOCATION OF
THE CITY ON THE SHORES OF LAKE MICHIGAN, TOGETHER WITH THE SMALLER
SURROUNDING TOWNS CONNECTED WITH CHICAGO BY RADIATING ARTERIES.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
PLAN OF
CHICAGO
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB
DURING THE YEARS MCMVI, MCMVII, AND MCMVIII
BY
DANIEL H. BURNHAM
AND
EDWARD H. BENNETT
ARCHITECTS
EDITED BY
CHARLES MOORE
CORRESPONDING MEMBER AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
[Illustration]
CHICAGO
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB
MCMIX
COPYRIGHT, 1908
BY
COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
ORIGIN OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
The tendency towards city life 1
Problems of the great city 1
Necessity for city-planning 2
Economy and efficiency promoted by a city plan 2
Elements of a comprehensive plan 4
Influence of the World’s Columbian Exposition on city-planning in
the United States 4
The success of the Exposition due to competent direction and loyalty
to Chicago 4
Improvement of the Lake front proposed by the South Park
Commissioners 6
Expansion of the South Parks system 7
The Commercial Club undertakes a plan of Chicago 7
Progress of the work 7
Scope of the undertaking 8
An ideal arrangement proposed 8
The Spirit of Chicago 8
CHAPTER II
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES
Commerce, the leading motive in the building of cities 9
Semiramis, the first city-builder 10
The building of Babylon 10
The pyramids and temples of Egypt 10
The work of Pericles at Athens 11
The development of Rome 12
City-building during the Middle Ages 13
Rise of the city during the Renaissance 13
Origin and growth of Paris 14
Paris built according to a definite plan 14
Louis XIV. and his city-builders 15
Napoleon Bonaparte begins the transformation of Paris 15
Haussmann completes the transformation of Paris 17
City-planning in Europe since 1872 19
The influence of European peace on city-building 19
City-planning in Germany 20
The creation of new thoroughfares in London 21
Town-planning in England 22
The L’Enfant plan of Washington 23
The United States Senate Park Commission plan for Washington 25
The Cleveland group-plan 27
The Boston park system 27
City-planning in Baltimore, St. Louis and San Francisco 28
Plans for Manila, and for a summer capital at Baguio 28
Improvements in various American cities 28
CHAPTER III
CHICAGO, THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST
The Old North West Territory 31
Reasons for expecting continuous growth in the Middle West 31
Increase in the population of Chicago 32
Recovery after the great fire of 1871 32
Chicago’s population fifty years hence 33
Attractions of city life 33
The suburbs of Chicago 34
Real estate speculation subversive of good planning 35
The development of the suburb 36
Dependence of the suburb on the municipality 37
Highways along Lake Michigan 38
A system of highways for the territory within sixty miles of
Chicago 39
Suburban transit facilities 39
The advantages of good roads 39
Four sets of encircling highways proposed 40
Highways parallel to railroads 41
Suburban travel needs more comfortable conditions 41
The influence of the electric-railway and the automobile on
suburban life 42
CHAPTER IV
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM
The motto of Chicago 43
Beginnings of the Chicago Park system 43
The Chicago boulevards 44
Park legislation 44
The small parks of Chicago 44
A metropolitan park system proposed 44
The Special Park Commission 44
London’s larger parks 48
The pleasures of Henley 48
The great parks of Paris and Vienna 49
Boston park reservations 49
The park system of the District of Columbia 49
The possibility of a comprehensive park system for Chicago 49
Treatment of the Chicago Lake front 50
A system of lagoons and lake parkways proposed 50
The acquisition and improvements of forest spaces 53
Physical characteristics of the country surrounding Chicago 55
An encircling system of forest parks 57
CHAPTER V
TRANSPORTATION
Chicago the creation of its railroads 61
Present problems in transportation 61
Congestion of railway traffic in 1906-07 62
The necessity for improved terminals 63
A freight center proposed for Chicago 63
Advantages of such an arrangement 63
Railroad and water traffic compared 64
A loop system for handling freight traffic 66
Harbor freight and passenger connections 68
The location of passenger stations on Twelfth and Canal
streets 70
Terminal stations 70
The traction systems 73
Comfort an object in passenger transportation 74
A perfect passenger and freight handling machine 76
The handling of the mails 76
The suburban station 78
The necessity for, and advantages of, harmonious action among the
Chicago railroads 78
CHAPTER VI
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY
The dominant natural features of Chicago 79
The need of new and enlarged channels of circulation 80
Causes of the growth of cities 81
Cleanliness the first consideration for city streets 82
Residence streets 83
The Avenue, or traffic street 84
The Boulevard 84
Street architecture 86
Traffic interruptions 88
The elliptical avenue 90
The planning of new subdivisions 91
The necessity for diagonal streets 93
Proposed new circuits 95
Improvement of the Chicago River 97
CHAPTER VII
THE HEART OF CHICAGO
Opportunity for creating a unified and convenient city 99
The problem of overcoming congestion in the business center 100
Solution of the problem simple and natural 100
Michigan Avenue: its importance in the city plan 100
The proposed improvement of Michigan Avenue 100
An elevated roadway 102
Bridges over the river 104
Improvement of Halsted Street 105
Slums of Chicago 106
The slum represents the failure of the city to protect its
people 106
The Financial Quarter 107
Grant Park as a spacious and attractive public garden 108
Location of the Field Museum, the Crerar Library and the Art
Institute 108
A Center of Letters 108
A yacht harbor 109
Art as a source of wealth 110
Public gifts by citizens 110
The opportunity offered for effective treatment of Chicago River
banks 110
The need of a main axis for Chicago 113
Such an axis would give organic unity to the city 113
Congress Street as the grand axis 113
A Civic Center 115
Buildings to be comprised in the civic center 115
Architectural treatment of the proposed buildings 116
The landscape setting 116
Effectiveness depends on harmony and good order 117
The civic center gives coherence to the city plan 117
Great advantages which will result from the treatment proposed 118
CHAPTER VIII
PLAN OF CHICAGO
The Plan a result of systematic study 119
The cost involved in carrying out the work 119
Wealth created by the growth of population 119
The people are financially able to realize the Plan 120
Three great public works undertaken by Chicago 120
The public spirit of Chicago as shown in music, art and education 120
Gifts for the public good 121
Reasons for believing that the public will favor the Plan of
Chicago 121
The Plan both practical and beautiful 121
The advantages to be derived from systematic development of
Chicago 121
Elements of the Plan reviewed 121
Improvement of the Lake front an economic necessity 122
Ease of realizing the interurban highway system 122
The transportation problem to be worked out by the railroads 122
Additional parks necessary to the physical and mental well-being of
the people 123
The attractive city a source of both wealth and satisfaction 124
APPENDIX
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
Introductory 127
Outer parks, boulevards, and circuits 130
City parks, squares, boulevards, and avenues 133
Lake shore development 137
Transportation problems 139
Control of lands adjacent to public improvements 139
Congested areas 151
Present borrowing and taxing powers 151
Conclusions 154
INDEX 157
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Bird’s-eye view, showing the location of Chicago on the shores of
Lake Michigan, together with the surrounding towns connected with
the city by radiating arteries _Frontispiece_
Wood-cut of Chicago in 1834 1
The World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 2
The Court of Honor, showing effect
of a uniform cornice line 3
Plan showing orderly arrangement
of buildings 5
The Lake Front Park, original plan, 1896 6
Modified plan, 1904 7
The World’s Columbian Exposition; view of the Court of Honor,
looking west 8
The Pyramids at Gizeh 9
The Acropolis at Athens 10
The Greek Theatre at Syracuse, Sicily 10
Plan showing Nero’s Circus at Rome (First Century), Basilica of
St. Peter (Fourth Century), and the present
Cathedral of St. Peter (Sixteenth Century) 11
An ancient Roman circus, near the Appian Way 12
The Ponte Molle, Rome 12
Transformation of the banks of the Seine in Paris 14
Chronological views of the Place de la Bastille, Paris 15
The transformation of Paris under Haussmann: plan showing the
portion executed from 1854 to 1889 16
Paris. Plan proposed by M. Eugene Hénard for additional radial
arteries and an inner circuit boulevard on which would front the
principal existing administrative buildings and many
public monuments 17
Vienna. City center, in 1857, showing the fortifications 19
City center, after transformations made by order of
Francis Joseph in 1857 19
London. Plan of Aldwych and Kingsway connecting Holborn and the
Strand 20
London Traffic Commission’s plan for new thoroughfares to overcome
congestion, 1907 20
Original plan of Washington designed by Peter Charles
L’Enfant, 1791 22
The L’Enfant plan of Washington as developed by the Senate Park
Commission of 1901 23
The Washington Monument, garden, and Mall, looking towards the
Capitol; Senate Park Commission plan 24
The Plaza and Union Station, Washington, begun in 1902 24
Cleveland. Group-Plan 25
View from the civic center to the Lake 25
Plan for the development of the entire city of San Francisco 26
Bird’s-eye view of the plan of development for San Francisco 26
Plans for the development of Manila, submitted to the Philippine
Commission by D. H. Burnham, 1905 27
Plan for a summer capital of the Philippine Islands, at Baguio 28
Florence, Italy. Silhouette of towers 30
Chicago. Diagram of location with regard to the seven central
States 31
Chicago, and diagram of Lake Michigan 33
Nancy, France. View of the Place Stanislas 35
Forest of Fontainebleau, France 36
Chicago. The Sheridan Road north of Glencoe 37
The Des Plaines River; view near Madison Street bridge 40
General diagram of exterior highways encircling, or
radiating from, the city 40
The shore of Lake Michigan; view at the north line of
Cook County 41
View of Lake Zurich, Illinois 42
Chicago. Winter view of Grant Park and the proposed harbor,
looking east 43
General map showing topography, waterways, and complete
system of streets, boulevards, parkways, and parks 44
Berlin. Block plan showing the park system and proposed forest
reserves 45
Vienna. Block plan showing the park system and existing forest
reserves 46
District of Columbia. Block plan showing the park system and
additions 47
London. A view of Rotten Row in Hyde Park 48
Chicago. View of the city from Jackson Park to Grant Park, looking
towards the west 48
Park development proposed for the Lake shore from Jackson
Park to Wilmette 48
View of the proposed park on the south shore, looking
northwest towards the city 48
View looking south over the lagoons of the proposed park
for the south shore 48
Section through the park proposed for the south shore 48
The Midway Plaisance, showing the proposed waterway
connecting the lagoons of Washington Park with those of
Jackson Park 51
Typical view across the proposed south shore park 52
England. Henley-on-Thames: the regatta course 53
Henley-on-Thames: a regatta 53
Versailles, France. Plan of the palace, park, and gardens, and the
great arteries leading to the gates 54
View from the terrace, looking down the
main axis 55
Paris. View of the Sunken Garden in the Luxembourg Gardens 55
St. Germain, France. View of an avenue in the forest and
round-point 55
Chicago. Plan of a park proposed on the main east-and-west axis of
the city at Congress Street and Fifty-second Avenue 56
Plan of a park proposed at Western Boulevard and Garfield
Boulevard, being an extension of Gage Park 57
Plan of a park proposed at the north branch of the
Chicago River and Graceland Avenue 57
Plan of Sherman playground and park 58
Mark White Square 59
Hamilton Park 59
Sherman Park; view of field house 60
Sherman Park; view of swimming pool 60
Diagram of a system of freight handling for land and
water transportation 61
Assembling-interchange; diagrams accompanying the report
of the committee 63
Sketch diagram of docks suggested at the mouth of the
Chicago River 64
Sketch diagram of docks suggested at the mouth of the
Calumet River 65
Diagram of the city and surrounding country, showing
railroad circuits 67
Diagram of the city center, showing the general location
of existing freight yards and railroad lines, the
present tunnel system and proposed circuit, and
connections for all these services, running to the
central clearing yards 69
Diagram of the city, showing complete system of inner
circuits 70
Dresden. Viaduct and railway station (Hauptbahn-hof) passing above
the normal street level 71
Vienna. A railway viaduct passing over an important street 71
Chicago. Suggested arrangement of passenger stations west of the
river. Subway scheme 72
Suggested arrangement of passenger stations west of the
river. Overhead scheme 73
Diagram of city center, showing the proposed arrangement
of railroad passenger stations, the complete traction
system, including rapid transit, subway, and elevated
roads, and the circuit subway line 75
Railroad rights-of-way and properties in the center of
city and the existing radial arteries 76
Diagram of general scheme of street circulation and parks
in relation to the areas covered by industries and
manufactures 77
Viaduct at Auteuil over the River Seine, Paris, France 78
Chicago. The center of the city looking west, showing Grant Park,
the harbor, and the civic center 79
Plan of the street and boulevard system present and
proposed 80
View looking west over the city, showing the proposed
civic center, the grand axis, Grant Park, and the harbor 80
Map showing the successive city limits 81
Diagram of general scheme of street circulation and parks
in relation to the population 82
Theoretical diagram of street circulation 83
Existing and proposed diagonal arteries 85
Paris. The Avenue du Bois de Boulogne, looking towards the Arc
de Triomphe 86
The Tuileries Gardens and Champs Élyseés 86
The Champs Élyseés, from the Place de la Concorde 87
View from the Arc de Triomphe along the Avenue du Bois
de Boulogne 87
System of traffic circulation proposed by M. Hénard for public
places 89
Theoretical diagram of the streets of Paris 90
Theoretical diagram of the streets of Moscow 90
Theoretical diagram of the streets of Berlin 91
Theoretical diagram of the streets of London 91
Chicago. View of Grand Boulevard 92
View of the Lake Shore Drive 92
Plan of the city, showing the general system of boulevards
and parks existing and proposed 93
View of Drexel Boulevard 94
View of Michigan Avenue, looking north 94
Intersection of the three branches of the Chicago River 95
View looking north on the south branch of the
Chicago River 96
View of the south shore looking southeast over Grant Park 98
The proposed plaza on Michigan Avenue 99
Plan of the complete system of street circulation; railway
stations; parks; boulevard circuits and radial arteries;
public recreation piers; yacht harbor, and pleasure boat
piers; treatment of Grant Park; the main axis and the
civic center 100
Plan of the center of the city, showing the present and
proposed street and boulevard system 100
Proposed boulevard to connect the north and south sides
of the river 100
Plan of Michigan Avenue from Twelfth Street to the river,
and its extension on Pine Street to Chicago Avenue 102
Proposed boulevard and parkway on Michigan Avenue and
Pine Street 102
Proposed boulevard on Michigan Avenue; view looking north
from a point east of the Public Library 104
View of Pine Street 105
Paris. View of the Rue de la Paix and the Column Vendôme 105
Chicago. Michigan Avenue, looking towards the south 106
Sketch plan of the intersection of Michigan Avenue and
Twelfth Street 107
Preliminary sketch of the plaza at Michigan Avenue and
Twelfth Street 108
Proposed Twelfth Street boulevard at intersections with
Michigan Avenue and Ashland Avenue 108
Railway station scheme west of the river between Canal
and Clinton streets 108
Alternate railway station scheme west of the river
between Canal and Clinton streets 109
Plan of Grant Park and the harbor 110
Elevation of Grant Park and harbor and the eastern façade
of the city on Michigan Avenue 110
Section looking north, taken through the proposed grand
axis of the city 110
Bird’s-eye view at night of Grant Park 112
Proposed plaza on Michigan Avenue west of the Field
Museum of Natural History 112
The business center of the city, within the first circuit
boulevard 112
Plan of the proposed group of municipal buildings or
civic center 112
Elevation showing the group of buildings constituting
the proposed civic center 112
View, looking west, of the proposed civic center plaza
and buildings 112
Paris. The Place de la Concorde, looking over the Seine towards
the Madeleine 113
Dresden. The Zwingerhof 113
Vienna. The Ringstrasse 114
Rome. St. Peter’s Cathedral 114
Chicago. View of the proposed development in the center of the
city, from Twenty-second Street to Chicago Avenue, looking
towards the east 114
Berlin. Spree Island 115
Chicago. The proposed civic center square 116
Study for the dome of the proposed civic center 118
View eastward to Lake Michigan 119
“The Great Lakes” 124
* * * * *
The drawings for the Plan of Chicago were executed by Ben E. Holden,
Clarence E. Howard, Chester M. Davison, Chris U. Bagge, and Leo
Strelka. Mr. Holden was identified with the study of the general plan
and the park system, both in general and in detail; Mr. Howard with
the Center of the City and the Railroads; and Mr. Davison with the
treatment of the Lake Front. The plans for the Civic Center and for
Grant Park were studied by Fernand Janin of Paris, who came to Chicago
in 1908 for that especial purpose. The renderings by Jules Guerin were
made during extended visits to Chicago in 1907, and again in 1908. The
work of both Mr. Guerin and Mr. Janin appears over their names. The
Sanitary District Map of the City of Chicago has been used in compiling
the plan drawings. Plate XVII is compiled from plans published in “Les
Transformations de Paris.”
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
ORGANIZED 1877; UNITED WITH THE MERCHANTS CLUB, 1907.
THE MERCHANTS CLUB COMMITTEE ON THE PLAN OF CHICAGO, 1906-7. Charles
D. Norton, _Chairman_; Charles H. Wacker, _Vice-Chairman_; David R.
Forgan, _Treasurer_; Walter H. Wilson, _Chairman Finance Committee_;
Edward B. Butler, Frederic A. Delano; Daniel H. Burnham, _Architect_.
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB COMMITTEES ON THE PLAN OF CHICAGO, 1907-08.
GENERAL COMMITTEE. Charles D. Norton, _Chairman_; Charles H. Wacker,
_Vice-Chairman_; Frederic A. Delano, _Secretary_; Walter H. Wilson,
_Treasurer_; Adolphus C. Bartlett, Edward B. Butler, Clyde M. Carr,
John V. Farwell, Jr., Joy Morton, Charles H. Thorne; Daniel H.
Burnham, _Architect_.
ON LAKE FRONT. Edward B. Butler, _Chairman_; Leslie Carter, Charles
G. Dawes, John V. Farwell, Jr., Victor F. Lawson, Harold F. McCormick.
ON BOULEVARD TO CONNECT THE NORTH AND SOUTH SIDES. Clyde M. Carr,
_Chairman_; Charles H. Conover, James L. Houghteling, Albert A.
Sprague II., Charles H. Thorne, Frederic W. Upham, Charles H. Wacker.
ON RAILWAY TERMINALS. Joy Morton, _Chairman_; Adolphus C. Bartlett,
William J. Chalmers, Charles H. Hulburd, Chauncey Keep, Franklin
MacVeagh, Cyrus H. McCormick, Martin A. Ryerson, John G. Shedd,
Albert A. Sprague.
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB COMMITTEES ON THE PLAN OF CHICAGO, 1908-9.
GENERAL COMMITTEE. Charles D. Norton, _Chairman_; Charles H. Wacker,
_Vice-Chairman_; Frederic A. Delano, _Secretary_; Walter H. Wilson,
_Treasurer_; Adolphus C. Bartlett, Edward B. Butler, Clyde M. Carr,
John V. Farwell, Charles L. Hutchinson, Rollin A. Keyes, Joy Morton,
Charles H. Thorne; Daniel H. Burnham, _Architect_.
ON LAKE PARKS. Edward B. Butler, _Chairman_; Edgar A. Bancroft,
William L. Brown, Charles G. Dawes, John V. Farwell, Harold F.
McCormick, John J. Mitchell.
ON STREETS AND BOULEVARDS. Clyde M. Carr, _Chairman_; Charles H.
Conover, Thomas E. Donnelley, James L. Houghteling, Albert A. Sprague
II., Frederic W. Upham, Charles H. Wacker.
ON RAILWAY TERMINALS. Joy Morton, _Chairman_; Adolphus C. Bartlett,
Franklin MacVeagh, Cyrus H. McCormick, Martin A. Ryerson, John G.
Shedd, Albert A. Sprague.
ON INTERURBAN ROADWAYS. Charles H. Thorne, _Chairman_; Benjamin
Carpenter, Edward F. Carry, Homer A. Stillwell, Charles L. Strobel.
ON FINANCE. Adolphus C. Bartlett, _Chairman_; Charles G. Dawes,
Charles L. Hutchinson, Albert A. Sprague, Walter H. Wilson.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
PRIOR TO JUNE 1, 1909
Adams, George E.
Aldis, Arthur T.
Aldis, Owen F.
Alexander, William A.
Allen, Benjamin
Alvord, John W.
American Radiator Company
Armour, J. Ogden
Armstrong, Frank H.
Arnold, Bion J.
Ayer, Edward E.
Bailey, Edward P.
Baker, Alfred L.
Baker, Howard W.
Bancroft, Edgar A.
Banks, Alexander F.
Barber, Bryant H.
Barnes, Albert R.
Barnhart, Kenneth
Bartlett, Adolphus C.
Bartlett, Charles L.
Barton, Enos M.
Bates, Onward
Becker, Abraham G.
Beidler, Francis
Beifeld, Joseph
Bigelow Brothers & Walker Company
Billings, Frank
Birk, William A.
Blair, Chauncey J.
Blair, Henry A.
Blair, Watson F.
Bode, Frederick
Booth, W. Vernon
Bowen, Joseph T.
Boynton, Charles T.
Brand, Rudolph
Bremer, Herman H.
Brill, George M.
Brown, William L.
Buckingham, Clarence
Buda Foundry & Manufacturing Company
Buffington, Eugene J.
Burley, Clarence A.
Burnham, Daniel H.
Bush, William H.
Butler, Edward B.
Butler, Estate of Hermon B.
Butz, Otto C.
Canby, Caleb H.
Carpenter, Augustus A., Jr.
Carpenter, Benjamin
Carr, Clyde M.
Carry, Edward F.
Carton, Laurence A.
Chalmers, William J.
Chapin, S. B. & Company.
Clark, John M.
Clow, William E.
Cochran, J. Lewis
Cofran, John W. G.
Comstock, Charles G.
Condron, Theodore L.
Conover, Charles H.
Corwith, Charles R.
Cowan, William K.
Cowles, Alfred
Cox, Rensselaer W.
Crane, Charles R.
Crane, Richard T. Jr.
Crowell, Henry P.
Cudahy, Michael
Culver, Helen
Cummings, D. Mark
Cummings, Edmund A.
Cunningham, Frank S.
Dau, J. J.
Dawes, Charles G.
Day, Chapin A.
Deering, Charles
Deering, James
Delano, Frederic A.
Dewes, Francis J.
Dewey, Albert B.
De Wolf, Wallace L.
Dick, Albert B.
Dixon, Arthur
Donnelley, Thomas E.
Downey, Joseph
Durand, Elliott
Earling, Albert J.
Eckhart, Barnard A.
Eckstein, Louis
Edward Hines Lumber Company
Eisendrath, Joseph N.
Eitel, Emil
Ellsworth, James W.
Ewen, John M.
Fair, Robert M.
Falkenau, Victor
Farwell, Granger
Farwell, John V.
Fay, Charles N.
Felton, Samuel M.
Ferguson, Louis A.
Fetzer, John C.
Field, John S.
Field, Stanley
Findeisen & Kropf Manufacturing Company
Foote, Erastus
Foreman, Edwin G.
Forgan, David R.
Forgan, James B.
Frost, Albert C.
Fuller, William A.
Gardner, William A.
Gerstenberg, Erich G.
Gilbert, Harry K.
Glessner, John J.
Goodman, Herbert E.
Granger, Alfred H.
Greeley-Howard Company
Gregory, Robert B.
Grey, Charles F.
Grosscup, Peter S.
Gurley, William W.
Hamill, Ernest A.
Hammond, Robert R.
Hardy, F. A. & Company
Harris, George B.
Harris, John F.
Harris, Joseph
Harris, Norman W.
Hart, H. Stillson
Haskell, Frederick T.
Hately, John C.
Haugan, Helge A.
Hewitt, Charles M.
Heyworth, James O.
Heyworth, Lawrence
Holt, George H.
Hoover, Frank K.
Horton, George T.
Horton, Horace E.
Houghteling, James L.
Hoyt, William M.
Hughitt, Marvin
Hulbert, Edmund D.
Hulburd, Charles H.
Hull, Morton D.
Hurley, Edward N.
Hutchins, James C.
Hutchinson, Charles L.
Insull, Samuel
Isham, Mrs. R. N.
Jackson, George W.
James, Fred S.
Johnson, Frank S.
Johnston, Hugh McBirney
Jones, Arthur B.
Jones, David B.
Jones, Frank H.
Jones, William D.
Keep, Chauncey
Kelley, William V.
Kenna, Edward D.
Kent, William
Kesner, Jacob L.
Keyes, Rollin A.
Kimball, Charles F.
Kimball, W. W. Co.
Kurz, Adolph
Laflin, Louis E.
Lamont, Robert P.
Langhorst, Henry A.
Lathrop, Bryan
Lawrence, Dwight
Lawson, Victor F.
Lefens, Thies J.
Leicht, Edward A.
Lincoln, Robert T.
Lindgren, John R.
Linn, William R.
Lobdell, Edwin L.
Logan, Frank G.
Lombard, Isaac G.
Lord, John B.
Lowden, Frank O.
Lynch, John A.
Lyon, John K.
Lytton, Henry C.
MacVeagh, Franklin
Madlener, Albert F.
Magnus, August C.
Mandel, Leon
Mark, Clayton
Martin, William P.
Matz, Rudolph
Mayer, Levy
McCord, Alvin C.
McCormick, Cyrus H.
McCormick, Harold F.
McCullough, Hiram R.
McLaughlin, William F.
Meeker, Arthur
Mendius, Carl
Merryweather, George
Miller, Darius
Miller, Harry I.
Miller, John S.
Miner, William H.
Mitchell, John J.
Mitten, Thomas E.
Modjeski, Ralph
Morris, Edward
Morron, John R.
Morton, Joy
Morton, Mark
Murdock, Thomas
Norlin, Fred
Norton, Charles D.
Noyes, Frank B.
Noyes, La Verne W.
Ortmann, Rudolph
Ortseifen, Adam
Otis, Joseph E. Estate
Otis, Spencer
Paepcke, Hermann
Palmer, Honore
Palmer, Percival B.
Palmer, Potter, Jr.
Paper Mills Company, The
Patten, James A.
Peabody, Francis B.
Peabody, Francis S.
Pirie, John T., Jr.
Pitkin, Edward H.
Pool, Marvin B.
Pope, Henry
Porter, Henry H.
Porter, Henry H., Jr.
Potter, Edwin A.
Rawson, Frederick H.
Rehm, William H.
Revell, Alexander H.
Reynolds, George M.
Rickcords, George E.
Ripley, Edward P.
Robinson, Theodore W.
Rogers, Brown & Company
Rosenthal, Benjamin J.
Rosenwald, Julius
Rubens, Harry
Rudolph, Franklin
Russell, Edmund A.
Russell, Brewster & Company
Ryerson, Edwin L.
Ryerson, Martin A.
Sard, William H.
Sargent, George M.
Scott, John W.
Scully, Arthur B.
Sears, Richard W.
Seipp, Philip W.
Selz, J. Harry
Shaffer, John C.
Shaffner, Joseph
Shedd, Edward A.
Shedd, John G.
Shirk, Elbert W.
Simpson, James
Skinner, Edward M.
Smith, Byron L.
Smith, Mrs. George T.
Smith, Orson
Smith, Walter B.
Soper, James P.
Spoor, John A.
Sprague, Albert A.
Sprague, Otho S. A.
Starring, Mason B.
Stevens, Charles A.
Stillwell, Homer A.
Strobel, Charles L.
Stumer, Louis M.
Sullivan, Roger C.
Sunny, Bernard E.
Swift, Charles H.
Swift, Edward F.
Swift, George B.
Swift, Louis F.
Theurer, Joseph
Thoman, Leroy D.
Thomas, Benjamin
Thompson, John R.
Thompson, William M.
Thorne, Charles H.
Thorne, George R.
Tilden, Edward
Tilt, Joseph E.
Turner, Edward A.
Uhrlaub, Adolph
Uihlein, Edgar J.
Upham, Frederic W.
Van Valkenburg, William
Viles, James, Jr.
Wacker, Charles H.
Walker, Henry H.
Wallace, John F.
Ward, A. Montgomery
Warner, Ezra J.
Warren, William S.
Watson, J. V.
Watson, William J.
Wells, Addison E.
Wells, M. D. Company
Wheeler, Arthur D.
Wheeler, Charles P.
Wheeler, Harry A.
Wilder, John E.
Wilder, T. Edward
Willard, Daniel
Willing, Mark S.
Willits, Ward W.
Wilmarth, Mrs. Mary J.
Wilson, John P.
Wilson, Walter H.
Winchell, Benjamin L.
Winston, Frederick S.
Winston, Payne, Strawn & Shaw
Wolff, L. Manufacturing Company
Wrenn, John H.
Young, Charles O.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
[Illustration: II. WOOD-CUT OF CHICAGO IN 1834.]
PLAN OF CHICAGO
CHAPTER I
ORIGIN OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO: THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION OF
1893 AND ITS RESULTS: THE SPIRIT OF CHICAGO
The tendency of mankind to congregate in cities is a marked
characteristic of modern times. This movement is confined to no one
country, but is world-wide. Each year Rome, and the cities of the
Orient, as well as Berlin, New York, and Chicago, are adding to their
population at an unprecedented rate. Coincident with this urban
development there has been a widespread increase in wealth, and also
an enlarged participation on the part of the people in the work of
government. As a natural result of these causes has come the desire to
better the conditions of living. Men are becoming convinced that the
formless growth of the city is neither economical nor satisfactory;
and that overcrowding and congestion of traffic paralyze the vital
functions of the city. The complicated problems which the great city
develops are now seen not to be beyond the control of aroused public
sentiment; and practical men of affairs are turning their attention
to working out the means whereby the city may be made an efficient
instrument for providing all its people with the best possible
conditions of living.
Chicago, in common with other great cities, realizes that the time has
come to bring order out of the chaos incident to rapid growth, and
especially to the influx of people of many nationalities without common
traditions or habits of life. Among the various instrumentalities
designed to accomplish this result, a plan for a well-ordered and
convenient city is seen to be indispensable; and to the task of
producing such a plan the Commercial Club has devoted its energies for
the past three years.
It is not to be expected that any plan devised while as yet few civic
problems have received final solution will be perfect in all its
details. It is claimed for the plan herein presented, that it is the
result of extended and careful study of the needs of Chicago, made
by disinterested men of wide experience, amid the very conditions
which it is sought to remedy; and that during the years devoted to
its preparation the plan has had the benefit of varied and competent
criticism. The real test of this plan will be found in its application;
for, such is the determination of the people to secure more perfect
conditions, it is certain that if the plan is really good it will
commend itself to the progressive spirit of the times, and sooner or
later it will be carried out.
[Illustration: III. THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, CHICAGO, 1893.
The Court of Honor, looking towards the Peristyle.]
It should be understood, however, that such radical changes as are
proposed herein cannot possibly be realized immediately. Indeed,
the aim has been to anticipate the needs of the future as well as
to provide for the necessities of the present: in short, to direct
the development of the city towards an end that must seem ideal, but
is practical. Therefore it is quite possible that when particular
portions of the plan shall be taken up for execution, wider knowledge,
longer experience, or a change in local conditions may suggest a
better solution; but, on the other hand, before any departure shall
be determined upon, it should be made clear that such a change is
justified.
[Illustration: IV. THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, CHICAGO, 1893. THE
COURT OF HONOR, LOOKING TOWARDS THE PERISTYLE.
This view shows the effect of an orderly arrangement of buildings and a
uniform cornice line. From a painting by Mente.]
If many elements of the proposed plan shall seem familiar, it should be
remembered that the purpose has not been to invent novel problems for
solution, but to take up the pressing needs of to-day, and to find the
best methods of meeting those requirements, carrying each particular
problem to its ultimate conclusion as a component part of a great
entity,—a well-ordered, convenient, and unified city.
This conception of the task is the justification of a comprehensive
plan of Chicago. To many who have given little consideration to the
subject, a plan seems to call for large expenditures and a consequent
increase in taxation. The reverse is the case. It is certain that
civic improvement will go on at an accelerated rate; and if those
improvements shall be marshaled according to a well-ordered plan great
saving must result. Good order and convenience are not expensive;
but haphazard and ill-considered projects invariably result in
extravagance and wastefulness. A plan insures that whenever any public
or semi-public work shall be undertaken, it will fall into its proper
and predetermined place in the general scheme, and thus contribute to
the unity and dignity of the city.
The plan frankly takes into consideration the fact that the American
city, and Chicago preeminently, is a center of industry and traffic.
Therefore attention is given to the betterment of commercial
facilities; to methods of transportation for persons and for goods;
to removing the obstacles which prevent or obstruct circulation;
and to the increase of convenience. It is realized, also, that good
workmanship requires a large degree of comfort on the part of the
workers in their homes and their surroundings, and ample opportunity
for that rest and recreation without which all work becomes drudgery.
Then, too, the city has a dignity to be maintained; and good order is
essential to material advancement. Consequently, the plan provides for
impressive groupings of public buildings, and reciprocal relations
among such groups. Moreover, consideration is given to the fact that
in all probability Chicago, within the lifetime of persons now living,
will become a greater city than any existing at the present time; and
that therefore the most comprehensive plans of to-day will need to be
supplemented in a not remote future. Opportunity for such expansion is
provided for.
The origin of the plan of Chicago can be traced directly to the World’s
Columbian Exposition. The World’s Fair of 1893 was the beginning, in
our day and in this country, of the orderly arrangement of extensive
public grounds and buildings. The result came about quite naturally.
Chicago had become a commercial community wherein men were accustomed
to get together to plan for the general good. Moreover, those at the
head of affairs were, many of them, the same individuals who had taken
part in every movement since the city had emerged from the condition of
a mere village. They were so accustomed to results even beyond their
most sanguine predictions, that it was easy for them to believe that
their Fair might surpass all fairs that had preceded it.
Then, too, the men of Chicago, trained in intense commercial activity,
had learned the lesson that great success cannot be attained unless
the special work in hand shall be entrusted to those best fitted to
undertake it. It had become the habit of our business men to select
some one to take the responsibility in every important enterprise; and
to give to that person earnest, loyal, and steadfast support. Thus
the design and arrangement of the buildings of the World’s Columbian
Exposition, which have never been surpassed, were due primarily to the
feeling of loyalty to the city and to its undertakings; and secondly,
to the habit of entrusting great works to men trained in the practice
of such undertakings.[1]
[Illustration: V. THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION GROUNDS IN JACKSON
PARK.
Plan showing the harmonious arrangement of buildings.
MAP OF THE
BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
OF THE
WORLDS COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION
AT
JACKSON PARK
AND THE
MIDWAY PLAISANCE.
CHICAGO ILL U.S.A.
MARCH 1893.
ISSUED BY
CONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT
D. H. Burnham Director of Works]
The results of the World’s Fair of 1893 were many and far-reaching.
To the people of Chicago the dignity, beauty, and convenience of the
transitory city in Jackson Park seemed to call for the improvement
of the water front of the city. With this idea in mind, the South
Park Commissioners, during the year following the Fair, proposed
the improvement of the Lake front from Jackson Park to Grant Park.
Following out this suggestion, a plan for a connection between the two
parks was drawn to a large scale, and the project was presented at a
meeting of the West and South Park Commissioners. Later this design was
exhibited at a dinner given by the Commercial Club; and many business
men were emphatic in expressing their conviction that the proposed
scheme would be of enormous value to Chicago, and that it should be
adopted and carried into execution. This was the inception of the
project for a park out in the Lake, having a lagoon between it and the
shore.
[Illustration: VI. THE LAKE FRONT PARK, EXTENDING FROM JACKSON PARK TO
GRANT PARK, ALONG THE SOUTH SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN.
Original plan, 1896.
THE SOUTH SHORE DRIVE
D. H. BURNHAM DESIGNER.
1896 ]
During the next three or four years more careful studies of the Lake
front scheme were made, and very large drawings were prepared for a
meeting at the Women’s Club and the Art Institute, and for a Merchants
Club dinner at the Auditorium. The newspapers and magazines, both at
home and throughout the country, united in commenting on and commending
the undertaking; and during the decade that has elapsed since the
plans were first presented, the proposed improvement has never been
forgotten, but has ever been looked upon as something sure to be
accomplished. This was the beginning of a general plan for the city.
[Illustration: VII. THE LAKE FRONT PARK, EXTENDING FROM JACKSON PARK TO
GRANT PARK, ALONG THE SOUTH SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN.
Modified plan, 1904.
PLAN OF
SOUTH SHORE DRIVE & WATERWAY
CHICAGO
D. H. BURNHAM & CO. ARCHT’S. ]
While these projects were in course of preparation, an extensive
expansion of the South Parks system was in progress, and a plan was
formulated for a metropolitan park system, including an outer belt of
parks and parkways. These movements were started with energy in 1903,
under the general direction of the South Park Commissioners and the
Special Park Commission; and the results of their work have been useful
to those who have undertaken the present task.
Early in 1906 the Merchants Club arranged for the preparation of a
complete project for the future development of Chicago. In order to
facilitate the progress of the work, rooms were built on the roof of
Railway Exchange Building, where the drawings have been prepared and
the studies have been made. The Merchants Club and the Commercial Club
having been merged in 1907 under the name of the latter organization,
the work has continued under the auspices of that association. The
committee on the plan has held several hundred meetings; during many
weeks meetings have taken place daily; and throughout the entire time
no week has passed without one or more such gatherings. By invitation
of the Club, the Governor of Illinois, the Mayor of Chicago, and many
other public officials have visited the rooms where the work was in
progress, and have become familiar with the entire scheme as it was
being worked out. The Department of State, through the United States
consuls in various European cities, has furnished valuable information
relative to civic developments now in progress. Thus the plans have
had the benefit of many criticisms and suggestions, made by persons
especially conversant with existing conditions. Moreover, visitors
interested in the improvement of cities and in park work of all kinds
have come from both our own and foreign towns; and from them also much
of value and encouragement has been gained.
In presenting this report, the Commercial Club realizes that from
time to time supplementary reports will be necessary to emphasize
one feature or another which may come prominently before the public
for adoption. At the same time, it is confidently believed that this
presentation of the entire subject accomplishes the task which has been
recognized from the outset, namely:
_First_, to make the careful study of the physical conditions of
Chicago as they now exist;
_Second_, to discover how those conditions may be improved;
_Third_, to record such conclusions in the shape of drawings and texts
which shall become a guide for the future development of Chicago.
In creating the ideal arrangement, every one who lives here is better
accommodated in his business and his social activities. In bringing
about better freight and passenger facilities, every merchant and
manufacturer is helped. In establishing a complete park and parkway
system, the life of the wage-earner and of his family is made healthier
and pleasanter; while the greater attractiveness thus produced keeps
at home the people of means and taste, and acts as a magnet to draw
those who seek to live amid pleasing surroundings. The very beauty
that attracts him who has money makes pleasant the life of those among
whom he lives, while anchoring him and his wealth to the city. The
prosperity aimed at is for all Chicago.
This same spirit which carried out the Exposition in such a manner as
to make it a lasting credit to the city is still the soul of Chicago,
vital and dominant; and even now, although many new men are at the
front, it still controls and is doing a greater work than it was in
1893. It finds the men; it makes the occasion; it attracts the sincere
and unselfish; it vitalizes the organization, and impels it to reach
heights not believed possible of attainment. This spirit still exists.
It is present to-day among us. Indeed, it seems to gather force with
the years and the opportunities. It is even now impelling us to
larger and better achievements for the public good. It conceals no
private purpose, no hidden ends. This spirit—the spirit of Chicago—is
our greatest asset. It is not merely civic pride: it is rather the
constant, steady determination to bring about the very best conditions
of city life for all the people, with full knowledge that what we as a
people decide to do in the public interest we can and surely will bring
to pass.
[Illustration: VIII. THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. VIEW OF THE
COURT OF HONOR, LOOKING WEST.
From a painting by Moran.]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] A significant illustration of the spirit in which the World’s Fair
work was conceived is found in one incident. On the appointed day
the architects assembled to submit to the general committee sketches
for their several buildings. There had been a luncheon, prolonged by
animated discussion. The scheme as a whole had begun to take hold
of the men. The short winter afternoon was approaching an end, when
Richard M. Hunt (then the dean of the architectural profession),
suffering from the severe pains of rheumatism, slowly arose to speak
of the Administration Building, a sketch of which he fastened to the
wall. The New York architect who followed Mr. Hunt had on his building
a dome four hundred and fifty feet high. Instantly a murmur ran around
the group. The designer turned from the sketch. “I think,” he said,
with deliberation, “I shall not advocate that dome; and probably I
shall modify the building.” There was a breath of satisfaction. The
next architect had a portico extending out over the terrace. Without
waiting for criticism, he said he should draw the portico back to the
face of the building. As one by one each man fastened his sketch to the
wall, it was as still as death in the room; and those present could
feel the great work drawing them as by a magnet; and each was willing
to sacrifice his personal ideas to secure the unity of the whole
composition. Finally the last drawing was shown; the last explanation
had been made. Mr. Saint-Gaudens, who had sat in a corner all day
listening, but never speaking and scarcely moving, went over to Mr.
Burnham, and taking both his hands exclaimed: “Do you realize that this
is the greatest meeting of artists since the fifteenth century?”
[Illustration: IX. THE PYRAMIDS AT GIZEH.]
CHAPTER II
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES: COMMERCE A LEADING MOTIVE
IN CITY BUILDING: BABYLON, EGYPT, ATHENS, AND ROME: MEDIÆVAL CITIES:
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PARIS: CITY PLANNING IN GERMANY: OVERCOMING
CONGESTION IN LONDON: WASHINGTON A CITY BUILT ON A PLAN: OTHER
AMERICAN CITIES
From earliest times, two motives have governed the location of cities:
either the site was selected because it offered natural means of
defense, or else commerce gathered men at a particular point, about
which they built fortifications. In either case, the necessity of
protection against enemies from without conditioned the form and
arrangement of the city. Even in this western hemisphere the question
of defense has been of moment. Louisburg and Quebec; Boston, New York,
and Yorktown; Mackinac and New Orleans; Charleston, Mobile, Vicksburg,
and New Orleans again,—are names which recall sieges and battles of
three wars; while the walled towns of Europe find their counterparts
in the palisaded settlements which sprang up in the Indian country of
North America, Chicago itself being a typical example. It is only
within recent times that the city has been able to extend its borders
free from the restraints imposed by the necessity of warding off a foe.
[Illustration: X. THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS.
From a water-color by E. H. Bennett.]
The first city-builder whose exploits are recorded was Semiramis, queen
of Babylon; and although the history of that country, as recorded on
its monuments, fails to mention even the name of this war-like ruler,
we may not disregard the circumstantial accounts given by classical
writers of the greatest commercial city of ancient times. Diodorus
tells us that Semiramis, being of an aspiring spirit and anxious to
excel all her predecessors in glorious actions, set about building a
great city in the province of Babylon. First she had complete plans
prepared by her architects and artists, then she assembled from all
parts of her empire the men necessary for the work of construction.
For the promotion of commerce, she located the city on the banks of
the river Euphrates; and round about it she built a wall, very high,
fortified with many turrets, and so broad at the top that thereon
chariots might be driven abreast. Across the river she threw a bridge
five furlongs in length, with arches having a span of twelve feet.
Along either shore of the river she raised a bank as broad as the wall;
and temporarily turning aside the course of the stream, she made in
the bed of the river a passage in the form of a tunnel to serve as a
connection between her two palaces, which were also lookouts whence she
could command every portion of the city. Other cities on the banks of
the Tigris and the Euphrates Semiramis built, and there she established
traffic centers for the vending of merchandise brought from Media,
Persia, India, Egypt, and other countries reached by the two great
rivers, which in those ancient times vied with the Nile and the Ganges.
So by her able policy she greatly enriched the merchants who trafficked
in those parts, and advanced the glory and majesty of Babylon.
[Illustration: XI. THE GREEK THEATRE AT SYRACUSE, SICILY.
From a water-color by E. H. Bennett.]
The ancient Egyptians, hemmed in by deserts, relied less on walls than
on the defenses provided by nature. Thus relieved from the necessity
of building fortifications, they expended their energies in such
monumental works as the Great Pyramids and temples that embody a
civilization which for at least nine thousand years has been the wonder
and the admiration of the world.
[Illustration: XII. PLAN SHOWING NERO’S CIRCUS AT ROME (FIRST CENTURY),
BASILICA OF ST. PETER (FOURTH CENTURY), AND THE PRESENT CATHEDRAL OF
ST. PETER (SIXTEENTH CENTURY).
These structures were built at successive epochs, on the same site.]
Means of defense having been provided, the desire of mankind for order
and magnificence found expression in works of adornment, which were
measured only by the love of the citizens for their city, the artistic
sense developed among the people, and the means at their disposal for
carrying out their conceptions. Nowhere else have these conditions
been combined as they were in Athens during the days of Pericles. Year
by year the patient excavator is bringing to the light the massive
walls by which the early Athenians protected their citadel against the
invader; and when security had been obtained and the tribute of the
allies had accumulated in the treasury, the Greek passion for beauty
found expression in public buildings which through the ages have placed
the Acropolis at Athens among the world’s famous places. Plutarch lays
emphasis on the fact that undertakings, any one of which singly might
have required for its completion several successions and ages of men,
were every one of them accomplished in the height and prime of one
man’s political service. “Pericles’ works,” this same writer asserts,
“were especially admired because they were made quickly to last long.
For every particular piece of his work was immediately, even at that
time, for its beauty and elegance, antique; and yet in its vigor and
freshness looks to this day as if it were just executed. There is a
sort of bloom of newness upon those works of his, preserving them from
the touch of time, as if they had some perennial spirit and undying
vitality mingled in the composition of them.”
[Illustration: XIII. AN ANCIENT ROMAN CIRCUS, NEAR THE APPIAN WAY.
From an etching by Piranesi.]
As Athens represents the highest expression of civic beauty which
mankind has witnessed, so Rome stands for power and the magnificence
thereof. Mistress of the world she styled herself; and to-day she
can still lay claim to her other proud title of the “Eternal City.”
It is not until we come to Roman times that we begin to obtain the
combination of elements which are the chief characteristics of the
modern city; namely, opportunities for the healthful life of the great
body of the citizens. “Parks, gardens, commons, and public squares,”
says Lanciani, “have been happily compared to the lungs of a city; and
if the health and general welfare of a city depend upon the normal
and sound function of its respiratory organs, ancient Rome, in this
respect, must be considered as the healthiest city which has ever
existed on earth.”[2] This writer enumerates, as existing at the end
of the third century after Christ, eight commons, or green spaces, set
apart mostly for foot-races and gymnastic exercises; eighteen public
squares, and about thirty parks and gardens, at first laid out by
private citizens for their personal comfort, but afterwards absorbed
into the imperial domain by purchase, bequest, or confiscation. Besides
these were the cemeteries, marble cities of the dead, shadowed by
stately cypresses and weeping-willows; the sacred enclosures of the
temples, with their colonnades and fountains; the porticoes, expressly
built for the sake of allowing citizens to move about pleasantly in hot
or rainy weather; and lastly, the great baths, establishments provided
with every possible comfort and accommodation to insure the health of
the body and the education of the mind.
[Illustration: XIV. THE PONTE MOLLE, ROME.
From an etching by Piranesi.]
Out of the original market-place occupying the marshy ground between
the Palatine and the Capitol, the Roman Forum was gradually evolved,
with temples, treasure-houses, places for foreign ambassadors,
the senate-house, the court-house, triumphal arches, and historic
monuments. Here was indeed the civic center of Rome, the place of
religion, business, and politics. Adjoining the Forum proper were other
forums, gifts to the state, purchased at a cost, in the case of Cæsar’s
Forum, of $44.45 a square foot, or over four million dollars. Trajan’s
gift of land alone amounted to four times that sum, and the completed
work was reckoned the masterpiece of Roman architecture of the golden
age.
The baths of Rome, both public and private, had accommodations for
62,800 citizens at a single time, and also every Roman house was
provided with bathing facilities. Beautiful porticoes enabled one to
cross under shelter the whole plain of the Campus Martius, a space
of between two and three miles; and similar structures connected all
the great buildings of the city, serving for markets and exchanges
and picture-galleries, and ministering to a thousand different wants.
Lovely gardens, with thickets of box, laurel, and myrtle, with lakes
and fountains, were enclosed by these porticoes, which were in
themselves architectural creations of rare marbles, the floors often
being inlaid with jasper and porphyry. The surrounding hills and the
valleys between, once the dumping-place of the city’s refuse, were
converted into magnificent gardens, forming stretches of verdure in
length sometimes exceeding two miles in a single composition.
To-day, after centuries of destruction and decay, Rome is taking on new
life. Her population is fast increasing; since 1870 scores of millions
of dollars have been spent on works of public utility and general
improvement; great thoroughfares have been created, the monuments
of the past have been opened to the light and air, the pestilential
conditions that during the centuries of her decadence hung over the
city like a pall have been removed by wise sanitation; the great
estates of noble families have been given over to the public; and again
the compelling power of Rome is being felt throughout the civilized
world.
During the slow centuries which followed upon the destruction and
decay of ancient civilization, no great works of civic utility or
adornment were undertaken, and the old were no longer maintained. As
the consciousness of national life again began to assert itself in
Europe, and the unifying forces of Christianity and Roman law began to
bind humanity together, the cities of Italy, of Germany, of France, and
of England grew strong and rich by industry and traffic; and throughout
western Europe the sense of permanence and power found expression in
the rearing and beautification of cities. Everywhere the same spirit
actuated the people, although in each land the mode of expression took
on characteristic form; and since the vital principle was religion, the
cathedral became the embodiment of the highest expression in civic art.
No city in the world, says Charles Eliot Norton, appeals more strongly
to the poetic imagination than Venice. Rising in the dawn of modern
Europe, she linked the tradition of the old civilization to the fresh
conditions of the new. The destiny that ruled her beginnings seemed, as
she grew, to have had no element of chance, but to have been determined
by foresight and wise counsel. Her statesmen were the ablest, her
merchants the most adventurous and most successful, her seamen the
boldest, her craftsmen the most skillful, of their time. The affection
in which she was held by her people had the depth and intensity of a
passion.[3] As it was with Venice, so in a scarcely less degree it
fared with Florence and Siena, and other independent cities of Italy,
which vied with one another not only in power, but much more in beauty
and in the love borne them by their citizens. And to-day their charm
makes them the resort of people of taste and refinement, long after
their power has waned and only their beauty remains.
[Illustration: 1780.]
[Illustration: 1830.]
[Illustration: 1880.
XV. TRANSFORMATION OF THE BANKS OF THE SEINE IN PARIS.
Chronological views of the Petit Pont and Petit Chatelet, showing the
evolution of the boulevards.]
City planning, in the sense of regarding the city as an organic whole
and of developing its various units with reference to their relations
one to another, had its origin in Paris during the Bourbon period.
Among great cities, Paris has reached the highest stage of development;
and the method of this attainment affords lessons for all other
cities. Paris owes its origin and its growth to the convenience of its
location in view of increasing commercial conditions. Its beginnings
go back to the century before the Christian era, when it was but a
straggling village called Lutetia, occupying one of the islands in
the Seine. On the vast level plain adjoining the town, houses could
be erected indefinitely, while the numerous watercourses extending
into the surrounding regions gave easy access to the trader. Fertile
lands furnished an abundance of provisions; and brick-clay, lime, and
sand, with timber from the neighboring forests, provided materials for
building. The surroundings of Paris, so rich in all the requisites for
the creation of a great city, are similar to those of London and Berlin
and Chicago; and in each instance there is the same breadth in the
landscape.
The architects to whom Louis XIV. entrusted his planning went far
beyond the compact walled city of their day. In the open fields which
the growth of Paris must sooner or later transform into streets and
avenues they drew the central axis of the city. Straight, vast in
width, and without limit of length, this avenue passed entirely through
open country, with scarcely a dozen buildings throughout its great
extent. To the noted city-builders of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries—Louis XIV., Colbert, Le Nôtre, Blondel, and the Academy of
Architects,—Paris owes those vast reaches of avenue and boulevard which
to-day are the crowning features of the most beautiful of cities. The
Paris of their day was indeed a crowded, congested city; but the Paris
which they conceived and laid out in the deserts and waste places was
the widespreading, well-adorned, and convenient city in which to-day
all the world takes delight. The Madeleine, the Place de la Concorde,
the Invalides, and the great axial avenue from the garden of the
Tuileries to the Place de l’Etoile,—all existed on paper decades before
they were finally realized in the progress of city building. The point
of interest to us is, that as Paris increased in population, the city
grew according to a well-devised, symmetrical, highly developed plan;
and that the greater portion of the beauty and convenience recognized
to-day was attained at no money cost whatever. Artistic sense and
foresight were the only price paid. It is unnecessary to do more than
point out the fact that a similar opportunity is open to Chicago.
[Illustration: 1740]
[Illustration: 1841]
[Illustration: 1878.
XVI. CHRONOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE PLACE DE LA BASTILLE, PARIS.
The evolution of the castle and moat to its present form of plaza and
boulevard is shown]
Old Paris remained, with its dirty, crowded, ill-smelling, narrow,
winding streets, the hotbeds of vice and crime. Napoleon Bonaparte was
quick to see that while the Paris of the future might indeed grow in
attractiveness and convenience, the Paris of the present demanded his
attention. Napoleon was disturbed over the condition of his capital.
He realized that the city, then numbering some seven hundred thousand
people, was destined to become the home of two, three, or even four
millions; and he proposed to give it a splendor never before realized
by any city in the world. He began to open the Rue de Rivoli, north of
the Tuileries gardens; he created the Rue Napoleon (now the Rue de la
Paix) in the axis of the Place Vendôme; from the mediæval bridges he
swept the superstructures, adding three superb new crossings of the
Seine; he built the first sidewalks in Paris, and lighted the streets
at night; and he transformed the banks of the river by the construction
of three thousand meters of new quays. He also gave to Paris her
great commemorative monuments, the Arc de Triomphe de l’Etoile, which
was finished by Louis Philippe, the Arc du Carrousel, and the Column
Vendôme, all of which were foreshadowed in the designs of Louis XIV.
[Illustration: XVII. THE TRANSFORMATION OF PARIS UNDER HAUSSMANN: PLAN
SHOWING THE PORTION EXECUTED FROM 1854 TO 1889.
The new boulevards and streets are shown in yellow outlined with red.]
[Illustration: XVIII. PARIS. PLAN PROPOSED BY M. EUGENE HÉNARD FOR
ADDITIONAL RADIAL ARTERIES AND AN INNER CIRCUIT BOULEVARD ON WHICH
WOULD FRONT THE PRINCIPAL EXISTING ADMINISTRATIVE BUILDINGS AND MANY
PUBLIC MONUMENTS.
The system, involving radical cuts through the blocks and widening of
existing arteries, is shown by hatched lines.]
It remained for the third Napoleon, however, to accomplish the
great work of breaking through the old city, of opening it to light
and air, and of making it fit to sustain the army of merchants and
manufacturers which makes Paris to-day the center of a commerce
as wide as civilization itself. In 1853, Georges Eugène Haussmann
became prefect of the Seine, the appointment being in the nature of a
promotion due to the successful administration of the office of prefect
in other French cities. Immediately Haussmann began a career which has
established for all time his place among the city-builders of the
world. As if by intuition he grasped the entire problem. Taking counsel
neither of expediency nor of compromise, he ever sought the true and
proper solution. To him Paris appeared as a highly organized unit, and
he strove to create ideal conditions throughout the entire city. The
world gives him credit for the highest success. The people of Paris
have always supported those who aimed to make their city grand and
beautiful. Proud, ambitious, endowed with good taste and an artistic
sense, the Parisians have ever been zealous to make their city the
capital not only of the state, but also of civilization.
Haussmann never overlooked the great and broad lines laid down by his
predecessors; so that to a considerable extent his work was but the
continuation of the plans prepared by Louis XIV. in the later years of
the seventeenth century. His peculiar task, however, was to provide
adequate means of circulation within the old city, by cutting new
streets and widening old ones, by sweeping away unwholesome rookeries,
and by opening up great spaces in order to disengage monuments of
beauty and historic interest. He placed the great railway stations
of Paris in a circle about the old center of the city, and opened up
fine avenues of approach to them. At times he found it less expensive,
and also less disturbing, to build a new street through the blocks,
rather than to widen old streets; and it was his special care to
create diagonal thoroughfares in order to shorten distances, and also
to give picturesqueness to the street system by the creation of those
corner lots which the architects of Paris have learned so well how to
improve.[4]
The task which Haussmann accomplished for Paris corresponds with
the work which must be done for Chicago, in order to overcome the
intolerable conditions which invariably arise from a rapid growth
of population. At the time he began, the population of Paris was
half a million less than the population of Chicago to-day. The work
was accomplished at a cost of $265,000,000. That portion of the
improvements relating to the palaces was borne entirely by the nation,
the remainder being divided between the nation and the city, the former
paying one-third and the latter two-thirds of the expense. It was
Haussmann’s theory that the money thus spent made a better city, and
that a better city was a greater producer of wealth. Experience has
amply justified his contention. The convenience and beauty of Paris
bring large returns in money as well as in æsthetic satisfaction.[5]
In Europe, during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a
widespread impulse towards city planning found expression in all the
great towns. This movement was made possible by the fact that since the
termination of the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870, there has been peace
throughout Europe, and the money which theretofore had been wasted on
swords and spears now found productive employment in plowshares and
pruning-hooks. From out the turmoil and strife which marked the first
two-thirds of the century, Germany arose united, alert, vigorous,
ambitious, like a lusty youth, realizing both the opportunities before
him and his own strength of body, mind, and will to take advantage
of every opening. Austria, unwillingly freed from the incubus of
Italy, found in union with Hungary a strength never before possessed;
and Vienna and Budapest became centers of intense activity, which
developed along lines of commercial progress, and also took on forms
of convenience and orderliness which have served as examples the world
over. Italy, once again shaking off the foreign yoke, became united
under the rule of her own people. France, putting aside for the moment
ideas of foreign domination, set herself to the task of leading all
nations in the world of art and taste. England, drawing her princely
revenues from every hemisphere, watched her commerce develop as her
industries grew and her wealth increased.
[Illustration: XIX. CITY CENTER. VIENNA. IN 1857, SHOWING THE
FORTIFICATIONS.]
Moreover, the past thirty-eight years of peace throughout Europe
coincides with the period in which the greatest discoveries in the
realm of natural forces, as applied to industry, have been made
and utilized. So that the capital saved as the result of peace has
yielded returns that have been increased in geometrical ratio, until
we have reached the days not only of unparalleled wealth, but also
of unparalleled opportunities for increasing wealth. Moreover, peace
has widened the field of traffic, so that no nation now relies merely
on its own people for its commerce, but out of every nation come the
finest fruits of its industry to satisfy the world’s demands. And
inasmuch as there are no bounds to human wants and satisfactions, the
triumphs and the rewards of commerce find no limits.
[Illustration: XX. CITY CENTER, VIENNA, AFTER TRANSFORMATIONS MADE BY
ORDER OF FRANCIS JOSEPH IN 1857.
The Ringstrasse and public buildings replace the fortifications.]
All this commercial activity, suddenly developed by turning the capital
of the world into productive channels, found the cities of Europe
ill adapted to meet the changed conditions. The great towns, Paris
excepted, were still in the swaddling-clothes of the Middle Ages; they
were walled towns with narrow, tortuous streets, picturesque indeed,
but absolutely unfitted for commerce or manufactures according to
the modern scale. All the conditions, therefore, made imperative the
transformation of the old portions of cities to meet modern demands
for circulation, and the extension of their borders to provide for
the constant increase in population. Everywhere throughout Europe the
design of the cosmopolitan city as planned by the architects of Louis
XIV. became the model; everywhere the work of Haussmann in opening
congested regions of old cities by means of straight thoroughfares
found imitators. Vienna with its Ringstrasse followed the example of
Paris as expressed in the boulevards of Colbert; in each case the old
fortifications were cleared away to make park-like thoroughfares. The
heart of old London was transformed by cutting new streets; Brussels
was divided by boulevards. In Italy, Rome, Florence, and Milan, each
carried out extensive schemes of improvement based on French models.
[Illustration: XXI. LONDON. PLAN OF ALDWYCH AND KINGSWAY CONNECTING
HOLBORN AND THE STRAND]
With the Germans the cutting through of new streets was undertaken
for the twofold reason of facilitating traffic and of admitting
light and air into a too congested and unwholesome city quarter. In
Frankfort-on-the-Main, in Hamburg, in Berlin, and in Dresden it became
necessary to abolish with firm hand evil conditions that had become
intolerable, no matter at what sacrifice of buildings enveloped with
historical associations. But the Germans have come to modify the
French theory of the unconditional superiority of the rectilinear
avenue; and now they seek to maintain the essential character of the
city, as in the case of Darmstadt, by admitting strong curves, and,
wherever desirable, by narrowing or widening the thoroughfare, making
compensations by creating open spaces. They have found, also, that a
too extensive clearing away of the old buildings which cluster about a
great minster or cathedral results in an enhancement of effectiveness
only at a sacrifice of scale and a loss of picturesqueness. As a
consequence, the Germans have sought a golden mean by creating about a
monumental structure free room for the beholder to see the essential
parts of the building from a sufficiently remote point of view, while
leaving undisturbed single structures small in scale, in order that the
main building may appear to have grown out of its surroundings.[6]
[Illustration: XXII. LONDON TRAFFIC COMMISSION’S PLAN FOR NEW
THOROUGHFARES TO OVERCOME CONGESTION, 1907.
Revised by Paul Waterhouse, F. R. I. B. A.]
In general, then, it may be said that while the French or classical
theory results in monumental effects for a city and establishes unity,
the German or individualistic treatment preserves for an old city a
homelike feeling and a pleasing variety. It is worthy of note, however,
that where city planning has been undertaken by masters, whether in
France or Germany, the two theories have been used as circumstances
warranted. It is only where designers are not able to handle their
subject in its entirety, but have become slaves to a system, that
results have been attained at great money cost and with a loss of charm
and picturesqueness that by intelligent study might have been saved.[7]
Napoleon Bonaparte, in exile on St. Helena, one day amused himself
by planning improvements for London. He would make, he said, a grand
thoroughfare from St. Paul’s to the Thames; and two wide streets along
the Thames, one on either side of the river. He would build more
bridges, and would remove from the vicinity of public buildings the
mean old structures which disfigure the fine monuments. It would be
easy to do this, he thought, in a city so rich as London.[8] Albert
Shaw, in his work on _Municipal Government in Great Britain_, says:
“If London within the lifetime of men still in their prime had taken
due precautions, what errors might have been avoided! London is now
creating a park system, and acquiring land that has quadrupled in value
within thirty years. London is widening and straightening streets, and
increasing thereby the expense of appropriating frontage that costs
twice as much now as it would have cost a few years ago. The people
of London suffer an inestimable loss in convenience and actual money
through the haphazard nature of passenger transportation facilities.”
After the great fire of September, 1666, London had the opportunity, so
frequently offered in America, of rectifying those unfortunate results
which occur in all cities that have grown up; and the sin of omission
in the case of the British metropolis was the more unpardonable,
inasmuch as plans for improvement were prepared by one of the great
architects of the world, Sir Christopher Wren, only to be set aside by
the perverse self-interest of the then citizens of London. Wren’s plans
contemplated a city with streets radiating from central points, and the
locations for public buildings were arranged so as to give pleasing
objects of sight at the end of long vistas,—principles of civic
arrangement which the English architect fixed on paper years before the
French city-builders adopted the same principles for the development
of Paris.[9] The failure of Wren’s scheme of 1666 has cost London
millions upon millions of money to repair in part the errors which
might have been avoided so easily, besides years of inconvenience and
loss due to congestion of traffic. From 1855 to 1900 one project after
another for bettering the conditions in London has been carried out,
at a cost equal to nearly one hundred million dollars; and now the new
Traffic Commission has reported a tentative plan for diminishing the
congestion in street traffic by cutting two great thoroughfares: one
traversing the town from north to south, the other linking Bayswater
with Whitechapel, the estimated cost of the combined work being in the
neighborhood of $125,000,000 for land damages alone.[10]
Recently England has taken up in comprehensive manner the whole subject
of housing the working classes and of town planning. In 1890 a limited
act was passed for the housing of the working classes; and in 1907 this
act was supplemented by “the small holdings and allottments act.” It
is now proposed to extend the provisions of these acts to every urban
and rural district. The powers conferred center in the Local Government
Board, to which local authorities apply for approval of the plans
proposed; and in case these local authorities fail to make application,
the Board may order schemes to be prepared and carried out. There is
also a Public Works Loan Commission which authorizes loans for the
purpose of carrying out the approved plans.[11]
[Illustration: XXIII. ORIGINAL PLAN OF WASHINGTON DESIGNED BY PETER
CHARLES L’ENFANT, 1791.]
We have found that those cities which retain their domination over the
imaginations of mankind achieve that result through the harmony and
beauty of their civic works; that these artistic creations were made
possible largely by the gains of commerce promoted by years of peace;
and that intense loyalty on the part of the great body of the citizens
was the chief impulse which led them to strive to enhance the prestige
and dignity of their city. We have found, also, that in modern times
the cities of Europe are everywhere making those changes which a rapid
increase in trade and population requires, and which the awakened
artistic sense of the people demands. We turn now to our own country,
to note the conditions which have controlled the development of the
American city, and to recount briefly some of the more noteworthy
attempts that are being made in the United States to give form and
comeliness to our great towns.
[Illustration: XXIV. THE L’ENFANT PLAN OF WASHINGTON AS DEVELOPED BY
THE SENATE PARK COMMISSION OF 1901.]
Washington was planned and founded as the capital of a nation. The
architects of Louis XIV. drew the lines of the new Paris beyond the
walls of the existing town, and mapped avenues converging at central
points where only gardens and farms then existed; and their plans
were a wise provision for a not distant future. Under the direction
of President Washington, and with the aid and encouragement of
Secretary Jefferson, Peter Charles L’Enfant, a young French engineer,
deliberately drew the map of an entirely new capital city designed to
accommodate a population one-third greater than was comprised in Paris
at that date. In that plan no element of civic convenience, beauty,
or adornment was lacking. The entire city was regarded as a unit, and
that unit was to be developed in a form not surpassed by any existing
city. Upon a rectilinear system of streets L’Enfant imposed diagonal
avenues of stately width, converging upon focal points designed to
be the location of important public buildings, statues, or monuments
commemorating historic events. The Capitol and the President’s House
were connected by a spacious park, and axial relations between the two
structures were developed; every other building necessary for national
uses was provided for; and canals, cascades, and fountains were located
with reference to existing springs and watercourses. This comprehensive
and magnificent plan, designed for an area which then consisted of wide
swamps and wooded hills, became the laughing-stock alike of foreign
traveler and American citizen. But fortunately the foundations were
laid broad and deep by means of the donation of the lands necessary
for streets, avenues, and parks. Fortunately the plan was adopted and
the streets, avenues, public squares, and circles were fixed; and
although the development of the city during three-quarters of a century
was slow, yet the rapid increase in wealth and power that followed
the ending of the Civil War found Washington ready and waiting for the
improvements which have lifted it from a straggling, ill-kept town,
into one of the beautiful and stately capitals of the world.
[Illustration: XXV. THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT, GARDEN AND MALL, LOOKING
TOWARDS THE CAPITOL; SENATE PARK COMMISSION PLAN.]
[Illustration: XXVI. THE PLAZA AND UNION STATION, WASHINGTON, BEGUN IN
1902.]
[Illustration: XXVII. Cleveland Group-Plan.
Proposed civic center, railway station and gardens, now being executed.]
Before the opening of the twentieth century, Washington had begun
to expand over the surrounding country; and there unfortunately the
L’Enfant plan stopped short. Moreover, within the city there had been
perversions of the plan; and there had also been additions to the park
area awaiting development. Congress dealt in part with the difficulties
by extending the L’Enfant plan of streets and avenues over the entire
District of Columbia; and in 1901 the task of preparing a report on
the development of the park system of the Federal territory and the
placing of public buildings was committed to an expert commission.
As Haussmann aimed in large part to carry out the work that had been
planned by the architects of Louis XIV., so the Senate Park Commission
sought to re-establish and reanimate the plans of L’Enfant, which had
the sanction of Washington and Jefferson. In spite of much opposition
on the part of those who regard only the present, and take no thought
for future advancement, the new plans have been carried to such a point
that their general lines are well established, and already works to
cost nearly $50,000,000 are in progress, each one of which strengthens
the hold of the general scheme.[12]
[Illustration: XXVIII. CLEVELAND GROUP PLAN.
View looking towards the Lake from the proposed civic center.]
The plans for the improvement of Washington were prepared by the same
hands that guided the artistic development of the World’s Columbian
Exposition in Chicago. The dream city on Lake Michigan, people said,
should take on enduring form in the capital of the nation. Then as the
Washington plans fired the imagination of the American people, the
cities throughout the country began to ask why they too should not
achieve whatever of beauty and convenience their situation and their
civic pride would allow. Among the first to feel the new impulse was
Cleveland, a commercial city where at the time the forces of democracy
were having fullest play. Taking advantage of the fact that a Federal
building, a city hall, and a public library must be constructed in
the near future, and that a railway station on the Lake front could
not long be delayed, a commission of experts was appointed to prepare
a group-plan for the location of those structures, with appropriate
landscape settings; and high-minded, public-spirited citizens who
were behind the movement labored until they brought harmony of action
among the political agencies, and so placed the plans beyond the risk
of failure. The expense involved approximates $14,000,000 for public
purposes, and from three to five millions additional for railway
terminals, museums, and the like.
[Illustration: XXIX. PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENTIRE CITY OF SAN
FRANCISCO.
Report of D. H. Burnham to the Association of Improvement and Adornment
of San Francisco, 1904-1906.]
[Illustration: XXX. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT FOR SAN
FRANCISCO.
This view shows municipal center, boulevard system, and treatment of
surrounding hills as parks.]
[Illustration: XXXI. PLANS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANILA, SUBMITTED TO
THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION BY D. H. BURNHAM, 1905.
The essential elements of this plan are the government center and
system of proposed arteries radiating from it, the railway station, and
the shore road.]
Boston has developed the most extensive park system in America, at
a cost of $33,000,000, and is creating on the Charles River a tidal
basin which bids fair to rival any similar work in Europe. A state
commission is now studying means to relieve congestion in the city,
and to extend its commercial facilities. New York is struggling with
many isolated works of improvement spread over the broad domain of
that city’s activities; Baltimore is seeking to use the opportunity
presented by a great fire to introduce order and symmetry in her street
system, and also to create a connected park system; and the citizens
of St. Louis have prepared and presented a city plan for the grouping
of municipal buildings, for an inner and an outer park system, for
civic centers comprising small parks and playgrounds, museums, branch
libraries, and like public buildings.[13] San Francisco, even before
the great earthquake and fire of April, 1906, was already working on a
comprehensive plan to promote, in every practical way, the beautifying
of the streets, parks, squares, and public places of the city; to
bring to the attention of public officials and the citizens the best
methods of instituting artistic municipal betterments; to stimulate
the sentiment of civic pride in the improvement and care of private
property; and, in short, to make San Francisco a more agreeable city in
which to live. This latter movement resulted in a comprehensive city
plan which has been adopted by the general committee of citizens and by
the Board of Supervisors.[14]
[Illustration: XXXII. PLAN FOR A SUMMER CAPITAL OF THE PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS, AT BAGUIO.
Submitted to the Philippine Commission by D. H. Burnham, 1905.]
Philadelphia is cutting a great parkway from Logan Square to Fairmount
Park, with the expectation of extending the thoroughfare to the City
Hall; is acquiring extensive additions to its large parks; and is
planning for the grouping of its present buildings. Minneapolis and
St. Paul have made common cause in the creation of parkways, and the
last-named city is bent on securing adequate approaches for the newly
completed state capitol.[15] From Providence and Hartford in the East,
to Kansas City and on to Seattle in the West, the city planning is in
full progress. The South also has felt the new impulse. Annapolis, the
capital of Maryland, was laid out on lines strikingly similar to those
embodied in Sir Christopher Wren’s scheme for London; and the plan of
Williamsburg, the colonial capital of Virginia, suggests the locations
adopted for the Capitol and White House at Washington; so that the new
plans for Roanoke, Virginia, seem like the discovery of a lost art.
No sooner had the United States come into the possession of the
Philippine Islands than the War Department set about adapting the
capital city of Manila to the changed conditions brought about by
the influx of Americans, who are used to better conditions of living
than had prevailed in those islands. While fully recognizing the
value of the historic public buildings, the Department undertook
to have prepared a plan for connecting thoroughfares, open spaces,
driveways and promenades which should provide adequate facilities
for transportation, improved sanitation, and opportunities for those
particular kinds of recreation which the climate invites. As a result
the expansion which is coming as the result of American occupation,
will proceed on comprehensive lines. Moreover, the necessity of
providing a summer capital for the rulers of our new possessions has
led to the creation on the hills of Baguio of a city laid out on a
plan similar to the plan made by L’Enfant for the city of Washington,
in that it provides for such public buildings as may be needed for
government offices, for the service of the city itself, and for the
healthfulness, convenience, and recreation of the people; and all
these functions are so arranged as to make a unified and orderly city.
Thus without additional expense, but merely by taking thought for the
future, the two capitals of the Philippines, even in their physical
characteristics, will represent the power and dignity of this nation.
It has been seen that as peace permits the expansion of cities
regardless of means of defense against outside foes, and as commerce
enriches the people, population increases with such rapidity as to
create demands for enlarged facilities for circulation throughout the
city; and that these demands are so insistent that they must be met,
no matter at what cost. Also, that those cities which have made ample
provision for future growth have saved largely in money while at the
same time they have accomplished much in the way of convenience and
orderliness. Thus it has been well said that Paris is a unified city;
whereas London is a collection of towns. Moreover, it is to be noted
that throughout the civilized world there is a great forward movement
in the direction of transforming cities to adapt them to the improved
conditions of living which the people everywhere are demanding, and
which, moreover, they feel that they have the power to enforce. As a
part of this movement arises the impulse to express in concrete form
the feeling of loyalty to and pride in the city; and this feeling finds
expression in parks and pleasure grounds, in monuments and fine public
buildings, in institutions of art and learning, and in hospitals and
other means of alleviating the ills of mankind. Furthermore, there has
arisen the conception of the city as an organic whole, each part having
well-defined relations with every other part; and the expression of
this idea is now seen to be the highest aim of the city-builder.
Each city differs from every other city in its physical characteristics
and in the nature of its opportunities, so that the development of
every city must be along individual lines. This very fact allows full
scope for the development of that peculiar charm which, wherever
discovered and developed irresistibly draws to that city people of
discrimination and taste, and at the same time begets a spirit of
loyalty and satisfaction on the part of the citizens.
It is not to be expected that the people of Chicago will stand still
while the movement for better civic conditions is sweeping over the
whole civilized world; or that the stirrings of the new impulse that
have begun among this people will be suffered to die out, without
accomplishing the possibilities so abundantly offered to make this city
pre-eminent among commercial cities.
The experience of other cities both ancient and modern, both abroad and
at home, teaches Chicago that the way to true greatness and continued
prosperity lies in making the city convenient and healthful for the
ever-increasing numbers of its citizens; that civic beauty satisfies
a craving of human nature so deep and so compelling that people will
travel far to find and enjoy it; that the orderly arrangement of fine
buildings and monuments brings fame and wealth to the city; and that
the cities which truly exercise dominion rule by reason of their appeal
to the higher emotions of the human mind. The problem for Chicago,
therefore, resolves itself into making the best use of a situation, the
central location and resources of which have already drawn together
millions of people, and are clearly destined to assemble many times
that number; and planning for that civic development which promotes
present content and insures permanence.
[Illustration: XXXIII. FLORENCE, ITALY.
This silhouette of towers is characteristic of Italian towns in the
Middle Ages. From La Toscane.]
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Ancient Rome, Chap. IV.
[3] Church Building in the Middle Ages.
[4] Baron Haussmann and the Topographical Transformation of Paris; by
Edward R. Smith, Reference Librarian, Avery Architectural Library,
Columbia University. The Architectural Record, 1907.
[5] A reasonable estimate, for the single year 1907, of the
gold imported into France by travelers, to be spent in hotels,
transportation, amusements, and purchases, is $600,000,000, a sum equal
to the highest gold reserve of the Bank of France. Americans commonly
exaggerate both their numbers and their expenditures in France; but
one-fifth of this sum ($120,000,000) may safely be set down as their
share.—_French Finance, by Stoddard Dewey, Atlantic Monthly, August,
1908._
[6] German City Planning; by Cornelius Gurlitt. Translated for the
Metropolitan Improvements Commission of Boston, by Sylvester Baxter.
[7] The magnitude of the movement for city planning in Germany is so
great that literally hundreds of cities are now prosecuting schemes of
systematic extension and development; and a school of city planners
has grown up within the past twenty-five years, with such men as
Gurlitt, Stübben, Theodor Fischer, and Baumeister among its masters. A
well-edited magazine, “Der Städtebau” (City Planning) is published; and
in 1903 the first German Municipal Exposition was held in Dresden.
[8] Talks with Napoleon; by Dr. Barry E. O’Meara. The Century Magazine,
February, 1890.
[9] History of London Street Improvements, 1855-1897; by Percy J.
Edwards. The Making of a Plan for Washington; by Glenn Brown; Park
Improvement Papers; Washington, 1903. It is interesting to note,
however, that the Thames Embankment improvement was a portion of Wren’s
scheme.
[10] Some observations on the report of the Royal Commission on London
Traffic; by Paul Waterhouse. Read before the Royal Institute of British
Architects. Journal of the R. I. A., May 26 and June 16, 1906.
[11] Mr. John Burns now advocates the proposition that town planning
schemes may be made as respects any land which appears likely to be
used for building purposes; the general object being to secure proper
sanitary conditions, amenity, and convenience, in connection with the
laying out and use of land. To this end the Local Government Board may
authorize a local authority to prepare such a town planning scheme,
with reference to any land within or in the neighborhood of their
area, which scheme, when approved by the Board, shall immediately take
effect. The use of land for building purposes shall include provision
for open spaces, parks, pleasure, or recreation grounds; and where
in any town planning scheme the area extends beyond a single local
authority, a joint body is provided for. Also the Board may take the
initiative in preparing a plan, in case the local authorities fail or
neglect to act. See Housing, Town Planning, etc., Bill, 8 Edw., 7.
[12] The Improvement of the Park System of the District of Columbia;
LVII. Congress, First Session; Senate Report No. 166.
[13] A City Plan for St. Louis; reports of the several committees
appointed by the Executive Board of the Civic League to draft a City
Plan, 1907.
[14] Report on a Plan for San Francisco; by D. H. Burnham, assisted by
Edward H. Bennett; presented to the Mayor and Board of Supervisors by
the Association for the Improvement and Adornment of San Francisco;
edited by Edward F. O’Day, 1905.
[15] A comprehensive summary of the progress of municipal improvement
in the United States is to be found in _Charities and The Commons_ for
February, 1908.
[Illustration: XXXIV. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF LOCATION WITH REGARD TO THE
SEVEN CENTRAL STATES.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
CHAPTER III
CHICAGO THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST: REASONS FOR EXPECTING
CONTINUOUS GROWTH: THE SUBURBS: A LAKESIDE DRIVEWAY ALONG LAKE
MICHIGAN: CONNECTIONS BETWEEN OUTLYING CITIES: THE BUILDING OF GOOD
ROADS
[Illustration: COTTONWOOD, NEAR CHICAGO.
Height, 127 ft.; diameter, 10 ft.]
Chicago is the metropolis of the Middle West, a term popularly applied
to the area known a century ago as the Territory Northwest of the
Ohio River. No section of the country, except New England, has so
distinct a history. Conquered by Virginia troops at the very time when
the Colonies were wresting their independence from Great Britain,
and held for the United States by the sagacity of Franklin and the
pertinacity of John Jay when the treaty of 1783 was negotiated, the Old
Northwest was the first territorial acquisition of the new republic.
Then, while the British still held the posts and only Indians and
fur-traders roamed its forests, the Congress of the Confederation
gave to the Northwest Territory in the Ordinance of 1787 a charter
which contained two provisions that during the years of development
exercised a unifying force comparable only to that brought about by
the extension of Christianity and the civil law during the Middle
Ages,—the prohibition of slavery, and the encouragement of free popular
education. The continuous struggle to preserve human freedom against
all the forces determined to extend slavery to the fertile fields of
the new West, and the establishment of schools and colleges supported
from a public treasury, brought about common aims and aspirations.
When the nation engaged in the struggle for its very life, this region
furnished the battle-ground for the statesmen; and when war came,
both the leader of the people and the commander in the field were the
embodiment of the spirit of the Middle West.
The domain over which Chicago holds primacy is larger than
Austria-Hungary, or Germany, or France; three thousand miles of
navigable waters form a portion of its boundaries; the rivers flowing
into the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, and the Ohio, give access to
every part of the interior; the level prairies invite the railroad and
the canal builder; the large proportion of arable land makes possible
the support of an enormous population; and the abundance and range of
the products of earth and forest furnish the materials for traffic.
It is no wonder, therefore, that the growth of the Middle West in
population and in wealth has been phenomenal; and that at the point of
convenience a city of the first order has sprung up.
During the second half of the nineteenth century the population of
Chicago increased from thirty thousand to two millions of people.
To-day all conditions point to continued gains. The days of chance and
uncertainty are past. The days of doubtful ventures are gone, and the
hazards of new fortunes. The elements which make for the greatness of
the city are known to be permanent; and men realize that the time has
now come to build confidently on foundations already laid.
The growth of the city has been so rapid that it has been impossible
to plan for the economical disposition of the great influx of people,
surging like a human tide to spread itself wherever opportunity for
profitable labor offered place. Thoughtful people are appalled at
the results of progress; at the waste in time, strength, and money
which congestion in city streets begets; at the toll of lives taken
by disease when sanitary precautions are neglected; and at the
frequent outbreaks against law and order which result from narrow and
pleasureless lives. So that while the keynote of the nineteenth century
was expansion, we of the twentieth century find that our dominant idea
is conservation. The people of Chicago have ceased to be impressed by
rapid growth or the great size of the city. What they insist asking
now is, How are we living? Are we in reality prosperous? Is the city a
convenient place for business? It is a good labor market in the sense
that labor is sufficiently comfortable to be efficient and content?
Will the coming generation be able to stand the nervous strain of city
life? When a competence has been accumulated, must we go elsewhere to
enjoy the fruits of independence? If the city does not become better as
it become bigger, shall not the defect be remedied? These are questions
that will not be brushed aside. They are the most pressing questions of
our day, and everywhere men are anxiously seeking the answers.
The remark is often heard, that if, after the great fire of 1871, the
people had realized what the future growth of the city would be, they
would have saved a vast amount of money by planning for a convenient
city. The undaunted courage with which a debt-burdened community of
three hundred and fifty thousand people then set about rebuilding their
city must absolve them from the charge of lack of foresight. To-day
there is no excuse for the second city in the United States with its
destiny made manifest and its wealth secure, if it shall now fail to
keep pace with the march of progress that is gathering into its ranks
the progressive cities of the world.
Chicago is now facing the momentous fact that fifty years hence, when
the children of to-day are at the height of their power and influence,
this city will be larger than London: that is, larger than any existing
city. Not even an approximate estimate can be ventured as to just how
many millions the city will then contain. Mr. Bion J. Arnold, after a
careful discussion of the problem of the increase that may be expected,
reaches the conclusion that if the national and local conditions
governing the population of Chicago shall average in the future
exactly as in the past the population in 1952 will be 13,250,000. Mr.
Arnold hesitates to predict such an increase in population, just as
the most optimistic rebuilder in 1871 would have hesitated to predict
two millions in thirty years. Yet it is apparent that the tendency is
towards city life. “When the Pacific Coast shall have a population
of twenty millions,” prophesies James J. Hill, “Chicago will be the
largest city in the world.” The completion of the Panama Canal,
bringing about a more rapid development of the Mississippi Valley;
the opening of China and Japan and the Far East to American trade and
manufactures; the expansion of the wheat-producing area in the North;
and the conversion of the desert lands of the West into arable acres by
means of irrigation—all are factors in the growth of Chicago.
[Illustration: XXXV. CHICAGO, AND DIAGRAM OF LAKE MICHIGAN.
Proposed roadway to connect all the towns along the shores of the Lake.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
Moreover, city life has attractions that make a strong appeal to human
nature. Opportunities for large success, for wealth and power and
social consideration, for amusement and instruction, for the increase
of knowledge and the cultivation of taste, are greater for the average
person in the city than in the country. The city, therefore, is
constantly drawing from the country the young men and women of ambition
and self-reliance, who are lured thither by the great prizes which in a
democracy are open to the competition of all.
When Chicago is adverted to as the metropolis of the Middle West, the
meaning is that throughout this area Chicago newspapers circulate,
and Chicago banks hold the banking reserves; that in Chicago are the
chief offices of the large industrial enterprises, and the market for
their products. New ideas in government, in civic improvement, in the
creation and maintenance of parks, and pleasure grounds are apt to
appear first in the metropolis, spreading thence to the surrounding
country. On high-days and holidays the great city allures the people
from the neighboring parts, and sends its own people on the water or
into the country for rest and refreshment, so that there is a constant
interchange of comers and goers. In the art schools of Chicago more
than four thousand students are gathered; the theaters draw audiences
from long distances, and in music Chicago is attaining a worthy
position. In Chicago great political conventions are held, party
policies are determined, and from the party headquarters here national
campaigns are conducted.
It is not in the spirit of boasting that these facts are stated, but
rather to show the responsibility which the very pre-eminence of the
city imposes, and the necessity for establishing and maintaining those
standards of commercial integrity, of taste, and of knowledge which are
the prerequisites of lasting success, and the only real satisfaction of
the human mind. The constant struggle of civilization is to know and
to attain the highest good; and the city which brings about the best
conditions of life becomes the most prosperous.
While the influence of Chicago extends throughout a domain larger than
any European country except Russia, there exist between this city
and outlying towns within a certain radius vital and almost organic
relations. The steam and the trolley railways and the automobile
have opened to the city workers all varieties of life, and have made
possible to a large proportion of the people a habitation amid what
might be healthful and attractive surroundings. Unfortunately, however,
conditions near any rapidly growing city are apt to be both squalid and
ugly.
Occasionally a suburb grows up at some sightly point on the Lake shore,
or gathers about some educational institution; or a group of people
engaged in a common enterprise select a picturesque spot on river banks
and there build homes which, by their very relations one to another,
indicate neighborliness. In each of these instances a community of
feeling pervades the place and finds expression in well-shaded streets,
broad lawns, and homelike architecture. Too often, however, the suburb
is laid out by the speculative real estate agent who exerts himself
to make every dollar invested turn into as many dollars as possible.
Human ingenuity contrives to crowd the maximum number of building lots
into the minimum space; if native trees exist on the land they are
ruthlessly sacrificed. Then the speculative builder takes matters in
hand and in a few months the narrow, grassless streets are lined with
rows of cheaply constructed dwellings, and with ugly apartment houses
occupying the more desirable sites. In ten years or less the dwellings
are dropping to pieces; and the apartment houses, having lost their
newness, become rookeries.
This manner of things is as true of London or of Rome as of Chicago;
it is the rule wherever population increases rapidly, because human
nature is alike the world over. England, however, is remedying this
evil by means of town-planning laws executed by a central board; and
is endeavoring to regulate the width and direction of streets, and to
provide for sufficient open spaces for the health and convenience of
the people. After the English manner, a commission should be appointed
to lay out all that territory adjacent to the city of Chicago which
is likely to become incorporated in the city at least during the next
decade. The plans should be so drawn that as subdivisions are platted
the new streets shall bear definite relations to the plan of the city;
that these streets shall be of suitable width, either for traffic or
for residence purposes as the case may be; that building restrictions
shall be made to prevent depreciation of property by the advent
of undesirable classes of structures, or the erection of towering
apartment houses which keep light and air from adjoining property and
from the street.
[Illustration: XXXVI. NANCY, FRANCE. VIEW OF THE PLACE STANISLAS.
The principal avenues lead into it; a typical arrangement of public
squares in small surrounding towns.]
Moreover, adequate provision should be made for public and semi-public
buildings. In each town plan spaces should be marked out for public
schools, and each school should have about it ample playgrounds, so
that during all the year the school premises shall be the children’s
center, to which each child will become attached by those ties of
remembrance that are restraining influences throughout life. Next to
the school, the public library should have place; and here again the
landscape setting should be generous and the situation commanding. The
townhall, the engine-house with its lookout tower, the police station
with its court of justice, and the post-office, all naturally form a
group of buildings that may be located about a common or public square,
so as to form the suburban civic center.
There was a time in the older portions of the country when church
and churchyard occupied the chief place in the town; and to-day
enterprising real estate dealers find it to their advantage to give to
one or more religious denominations building sites. But so numerous
are the sects into which Christianity has divided itself, and so
diverse are the nationalities to be provided for, that the suburban
church building rarely offers to the eye any relief from the monotonous
ugliness of the airless street which it helps to frame. Also, the
old churchyards, with their serried ranks of slate headstones, their
cypresses and weeping willows, and their rows of tombs, made a direct
appeal to the deepest feelings of the human heart; but the disorder of
the modern town cemetery would seem to carry the idea of turbulence
even to the grave itself. Perhaps, in the coming times, the spirit of
unity will draw people together in religion as well as in business,
and such a syndication of religious effort will prevail as shall find
expression in permanent buildings devoted to the moral advancement of
all the people. The day of the splendid cathedral may never dawn for
this country, but certainly in every community there will be buildings
for the help of the unfortunate, and the amelioration of those
desperate conditions which form the reverse side of great prosperity.
[Illustration: XXXVII. FOREST OF FONTAINEBLEAU, FRANCE.
The Croix de Franchard, an illustration of a country road intersection.]
Then, too, there are the various railway stations and the electric
lighting and power buildings, semi-public structures which should be
treated in such manner as to present a smiling face to the public. A
well-arranged grass plot, a few shrubs, and a little regular attention
will give to the plainest building a setting that, like a soft answer,
will often turn away wrath from a public-service corporation.
The question of creating pleasing conditions in a suburb is not
primarily a matter of money, but of thoughtful co-operation. Even the
real estate agent is beginning to discover that by cutting off somewhat
from the depth of his lots he can get park space that will make his
land more available; and by a combination treatment he can secure for
a group of houses an enjoyable area of green grass, to take the place
of the narrow and ill-kept back yards which are at once unsightly
and unsanitary. In every town a public improvement commission should
be formed to bring about the most orderly conditions within the town
itself, and especially to act in co-operation with similar bodies in
neighboring towns so as to secure harmonious, connected, and continuous
improvement.
If we take arbitrarily a radius of sixty miles from the heart of
Chicago and count all the territory in the semi-circumference as
having definite relations with the city, the distance from center to
circumference is no greater than the present suburban electric lines
extend, or the automobilist may cover in a drive of two hours. The
traffic over the ways leading to and from the city is already large and
steady; and the near-by towns and villages along these thoroughfares
may confidently look forward to the day when the tide of Chicago’s
growth will envelop them, and ultimately incorporate them in the city.
Hence two considerations become all-important: first, the improvement
of the thoroughfares, not only those leading to the great city, but
also those which now form the connections between towns and which
ultimately will appear as convenient diagonals within the city itself;
and secondly, the arrangement of the streets of the town, together
with provision for space for the public and semi-public buildings,
and sufficient park and playground area, obtained while land is
comparatively inexpensive.
The suburban movement of population will necessarily increase as the
ground and buildings within the business area of the city become
so valuable for commercial purposes as to preclude their use for
dwellings. In the city of London a thousand policemen are detailed to
guard the five thousand and more buildings left entirely empty each
night. More than one-fifth of all the buildings in the “city” are thus
left vacant at night and on Sunday. Moreover, London, in order to carry
out improvements made to prevent congestion, finds it necessary to
remove and rehouse the working people who are displaced by tearing down
buildings in the over-crowded quarters. On the site of the old Millbank
prison four thousand persons removed at the time of the Holborn to
Strand improvement were rehoused in convenient new dwellings built
by the municipality; and more than fifty thousand people have been
displaced and reinstated by reason of the various improvements. Thus
the city, while drawing from the farms and small towns, also sends out
swarms to be housed under more wholesome conditions.
[Illustration: XXXVIII. CHICAGO. THE SHERIDAN ROAD NORTH OF GLENCOE.
From the Report of the Special Park Commission.]
These suburban residents are dependent on the city for a livelihood,
and either directly or indirectly pay the taxes that support the
municipality. They are vitally interested in adequate and convenient
means of transportation, in the protection of life and property, and in
well-ordered home surroundings. Thus it happens naturally that as the
city grows the functions of the various governing bodies are extended
over areas outside the city limits. The administrative county of London
has an area of but 118 square miles; but the greater London over which
the metropolitan and city police have jurisdiction comprises 693 square
miles, and includes a population of two millions outside of the county.
The water-board and the sanitary authorities also have authority far
beyond county limits.
Boston, first among American cities, realized the advantages of
co-operation between the great city and outlying districts. In 1889 the
Massachusetts legislature created a metropolitan sewage commission,
and later a metropolitan park commission, with jurisdiction over
thirty-seven distinct municipalities; and to-day it is proposed to
extend police jurisdiction and fire protection over substantially the
same area. The Boston park system, developed through the co-operation
of these various towns and cities, is famed for its beauty and variety.
Beginning with the great ocean beach at Revere, where on a summer day
one hundred and fifty thousand persons enjoy the bathing privileges,
broad parkways sweep around the city, enveloping on their way great
stretches of fen and lofty hills, until again salt water is reached
at Nantasket, where another bathing beach as large as the first
furnishes refreshment and recreation. Again, it is not without effect
on the people of the outlying towns that Massachusetts Avenue keeps
its name as it traverses Boston, Cambridge, Arlington, Lexington, and
Concord; and that Beacon Street maintains its integrity from Boston
through Brookline to Newton. Throughout the entire region one and the
same spirit prevails—a spirit of love for and loyalty to the city
set on three hills, which dominates the entire region. It would be
no more difficult to secure the co-operation of Illinois, Wisconsin,
and Indiana in planning for the continuous development of the Lake
shore than it has been for New York and New Jersey to combine for the
preservation of the Palisades of the Hudson and the development of
their park possibilities.[16]
A highway should be built from Wilmette along the western shore of
Lake Michigan to Milwaukee; and even where this road runs through
intermediate towns it should be located as close as possible to the
edge of the water. Such a highway should be kept somewhat back of the
sand beaches and a little above them, a retaining wall being built to
separate the road from the beach. The planting should be of trees and
evergreens hardy enough to stand the exposure. A few miles north of
Waukegan is a sand waste on which grows a dwarf juniper, the effect
of which on the sand banks is that of moss of dark rich color. This
could be used effectively along the shore. A similar treatment might be
adopted for the edge of the water much of the way around Lake Michigan.
It needs no argument to show that direct highways leading from the
outlying towns to Chicago as the center are a necessity for both; and
it is also apparent that suburban towns should be connected with one
another in the best manner. Isolated communities lack those social and
commercial advantages which arise from easy communication one with
another. A diagram has therefore been drawn for the use of the public
bodies in their study of the relations of a particular town with other
towns, and to suggest the locations and routes that may be followed.
This diagram is not put forward as a complete study of the roads, but
as a general scheme, the large details of which can be relied on and
safely followed. The solid black lines are routes already open and in
use as public highways; the dotted lines indicate proposed connection
links not yet in existence. It is believed that the building of these
roads will not be difficult or unduly expensive for any given township,
as very little land will have to be acquired. The existing highways
will suffice for the present, and the burden of the improvement will
fall lightly on each township.[17]
Pending the creation of a metropolitan commission for the treatment of
the entire area, the public authorities or the improvement associations
of each town should confer with their neighbors and agree on the
routes of connecting highways; also upon the width and arrangement of
roadways, sidewalks, planting-spaces and drainage, and the varieties of
trees and shrubs to be used for shade and ornament.
In laying out routes, no bad kinks or sharp turns should be tolerated.
The English roads, though better as to surface-finish and drainage, do
not compare with the roads of France as to trend and direction; because
in England there are so many abrupt and “blind” twistings, which are
generally avoided in France. Liberality in road building now will be
repaid many fold in the future. The aim should be to adopt the best
routes, the best curves and turns, and the most perfect construction
known at the present day.[18] It is the opinion of all experts on road
building that taking a period of ten years, a good bed and surface
carefully maintained all the time will cost less in the aggregate
than the very best bed and surface if neglected. We need perfect
maintenance, and organization constantly kept sharp and effective,
rather than expensive first construction. Nevertheless, the best
original construction will be found economical in the end. Automobiles
have introduced on the roads a new sort of wear and tear, as their
broad pneumatic tires, carrying great weights and moving at high
speeds, press into the softer spots and suck up loose material. The
result is pockmarks or rough places, which destroy the best of roads
constructed according to the old-methods road building.[19]
While good highways are of great value to the terminal cities, they
are of even greater value to the outlying towns, and of greatest
value to the farming communities through which they pass. Good roads
add an element of better living to an agricultural community; they
afford ready communication with the city and reduce materially the
cost of handling farm products of all kinds; and also they promote
communication between farms. These state highways should invariably
include a work-road for heavy loads, and also a pleasure drive. The two
should be separated by a grassway and there should be grass plots at
the sides, and not less than three rows of trees should be planted. The
country schools should be on these highways.
At the earliest possible date measures should be taken for beginning
what may be termed the outer encircling highway. Beginning at Kenosha
on the north, this thoroughfare would run through Pleasant Prairie,
Trevor, and Wilmot to McHenry, thus passing through the northern lake
region. Here are the headwaters of the Fox River, lying in natural
scenery of much beauty; here too are a large number of lakes and
waterways surrounded by hills, the whole forming an extensive park-like
territory that will become an important adjunct of Chicago life when
properly improved, and when suitable connections are secured.
[Illustration: XXXIX. CHICAGO. THE DES PLAINES RIVER; VIEW NEAR MADISON
STREET BRIDGE.
From the Report of the Special Park Commission.]
Beyond McHenry, this outer encircling highway continues on through
Woodstock, Marengo, Genoa, Sycamore, De Kalb, Cortland, Sandwich,
Millington, and Morris; thence it runs beside or near the Kankakee
River through Wilmington, Kankakee, Momence, Shelby, and Maysville,
the scenery along the route being very interesting, and much of it
romantically beautiful. From Maysville the highway bends north through
Valparaiso to Lake Michigan at Michigan City; or by another route
from Maysville through La Crosse, Wellsboro, and La Porte to Michigan
City, the total length from Kenosha around to Michigan City being
approximately two hundred and fifty miles. It is obvious that such a
highway, properly built and adorned, would become a strong influence in
the development of the social and material prosperity of each of the
cities involved, and of all the farming communities along the entire
route.
The encircling highway next inside the outer one above described begins
at Waukegan and passes through Libertyville to Lake Zurich; thence by
two routes, one through Barrington to Elgin, the other bending around
to skirt the Fox River near Algonquin and Dundee to Elgin, and on
through St. Charles, Geneva, and Batavia to Aurora. From Aurora the
highway continues to Plainfield, where it crosses the Du Page River,
thence through Joliet, and by one route through Manhattan, Monee,
Eagle Lake, Cedar Lake, Crown Point, and Hobart, to Lake Michigan; and
by another route from Joliet, through Chicago Heights, Griffith, and
Tolleston to Gary, on the Lake. The highway will be approximately one
hundred and forty miles long, and nearly the whole of the northern
part of it is very picturesque. The next highway proposed goes through
a fine, rolling country west of the Des Plaines River. Beginning at
Winnetka, it runs through Des Plaines, Elmhurst, and Hinsdale to Blue
Island, whence the route divides into two routes, one running through
Harvey and Hammond to Gary, and the other running from Blue Island to
Robey, on the Lake.
The fourth of the encircling highways begins at Evanston, and passes
through Niles or Des Plaines, and along the Des Plaines River to
Riverside; all this part of the way, being wooded on the borders of the
water, is very beautiful in its present condition. From Riverside, this
highway runs through Chicago Ridge to Robey or Blue Island, and from
thence to the Lake, over routes already mentioned.
[Illustration: XL. CHICAGO. GENERAL DIAGRAM OF EXTERIOR HIGHWAYS
ENCIRCLING, OR RADIATING FROM, THE CITY.
All the arteries composing the system without the city limits exist,
except where shown in dotted lines. City limits shown in red tint;
rivers and other waterways in blue.
CHICAGO
GENERAL DIAGRAM OF EXTERIOR
HIGHWAYS
ENCIRCLING AND RADIATING FROM
THE CITY
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
It will be noted that the diagram provides not only for encircling
highways, but also for roads running directly to the heart of Chicago
from every important town or village. And it will also be noted that
nearly every stretch of roadway shown on the diagram already exists as
a more or less satisfactory country road, the dotted lines indicating
proposed changes or links. The system as outlined is complete, and it
meets every present demand of road building for such extensive environs
as those of Chicago. It is confidently believed that in the course of
the next few years every mile of these highways will be improved in the
best manner, and that thus Chicago ultimately will come to possess a
network of surface thoroughfares equal to the requirements of future
generations.
A satisfactory method of running highways is to parallel the railroads.
The work-road should be next to the right-of-way; then should come the
carriage driveway. Where electric railways exist, or are projected on
thoroughfares, the most agreeable treatment is found in setting apart
for the tracks a space which may be grassed over and well shaded.
Besides adding to the comfort of the passengers, the uninterrupted
use of the tracks permits high speed and thereby saves time. The
improvement of the three roadways as a unit, with the appropriate
planting, would give a charm to suburban travel where now there is
none, while at the same time expenses of maintenance would be lessened.
As a rule, the creation of highways along railroads involves only
the bare cost of inexpensive land and the building of the road. The
railroads are in themselves great diagonals; and by following them the
shortest lines between important points are secured. Then, too, the
right-of-way traversed by the tracks should be improved. The drainage
should be perfect, so that pools of stagnant water shall not be an
offense to the eye and a menace to health. The unsightly billboard
should be replaced by shrubbery or by a wall; and the entire space
should be free from the litter of papers or the accumulations of dirt
and ashes.
[Illustration: XLI. CHICAGO. THE SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN; VIEW AT THE
NORTH LINE OF COOK COUNTY.
From the Report of the Special Park Commission.]
The suburban resident is vitally interested in the means of
communication between his home and his place of business. If his
morning and his evening ride are made on the steam railway, he is
interested not only in passing through pleasant scenes on his way
to and from Chicago, but he is concerned also in having the railway
station in his suburban town conveniently located, constructed simply
but artistically, and placed amid surroundings which in themselves are
harmonious and appropriate. A well-kept lawn, with shrubbery shutting
out the necessarily unpleasant feature of a steam railway station; a
sheltered platform well lighted at night, and a commodious station,
architecturally in good taste—these accessories go a long way towards
mitigating the nerve strain which every business man feels and from
which too many suffer.
The electric railroads, with their frequent cars passing one’s very
door, have done a vast deal to bind the outlying towns firmly to the
central city. More than this, they have promoted neighborliness among
people of adjoining towns, and have broken up the isolation of farm
life. These roads now strive to obtain private rights-of-way, excepting
where for the convenience of passengers they pass through city streets;
and the same observations as to good order along the routes and at the
terminals that appertain to steam roads apply equally to trolley lines.
The rapidly increasing use of the automobile promises to carry on
the good work begun by the bicycle in the days of its popularity in
promoting good roads and reviving the roadside inn as a place of rest
and refreshment. With the perfection of this machine, and the extension
of its use, out-of-door life is promoted, and the pleasures of suburban
life are brought within the reach of multitudes of people who formerly
were condemned to pass their entire time in the city.
While the people generally have yet to be brought to appreciate the
value of well-constructed highways, the universal experience is that
where a stretch of good road has been built the saving in time and
money is so great and so apparent that the movement gathers force
rapidly, and culminates only when all main lines have been completed.
Land adjacent to such roads increases in value and finds a readier
sale; the farmer is no longer cut off from his market, and often he
finds it possible to lessen the number of horses he keeps. The actual
economies which the good road allows far exceed the increase in taxes
necessary to meet the bond issue, and life on the farm becomes more
profitable as well as more agreeable.
[Illustration: XLII. VIEW OF LAKE ZURICH, ILLINOIS.]
FOOTNOTES:
[16] The Palisades Interstate Park Commission was organized in 1900.
Mr. J. P. Morgan, the honorary president of the American Scenic and
Historic Preservation Society, gave $122,500; the state of New Jersey,
$55,000; and New York appropriated $410,000. With these resources the
Palisades Commission has acquired most of the palisades fronting on the
Hudson, from Fort Lee, N. J., to Piermont, N. Y.
[17] The commercial value of good roads was recognized by Massachusetts
a quarter of a century ago, and to-day every portion of the
commonwealth is provided with a network of excellent highways built
under the direction of a highway commission at the joint expense of
state and town; and now the work of tree planting along the roads is in
progress. In Los Angeles County, California, $3,500,000 has been raised
by a bond issue for laying out and improving highways—so thoroughly
do the people appreciate the attractions which good roads have for
the tourists who, as in Massachusetts, are a source of income to the
community.
In Illinois the State Highway Commission has built two so-called
experimental roads in the vicinity of Chicago, one at Wheaton and the
other at Naperville. On the road at the latter town, the commission has
tried both limestone and slag macadam, and also gravel treated with tar
and with oil. A movement is on foot to connect the Wheaton road with
Chicago by a direct highway built in a substantial manner. In a letter
dated October 20, 1908, Mr. A. N. Johnson, the State Highway Engineer,
says: “It is possible that some attempt will be made at the coming
session of the legislature to secure means to start the construction of
highways. Public sentiment in general, however, is somewhat backward,
and I imagine will require longer time than is available by the next
legislature to get to such a point that any considerable sum of money
will be forthcoming, such as will be necessary to take this work up
properly.”
[18] For general information on road building there is no better
reference document than the paper read by Mr. John Alvord some years
ago before the Commercial Club. In general, the conclusion of Mr.
Alvord and of others seems to be that there are many specifications,
any of which will produce good surfaces, but that durability and
lasting value in any case, must finally depend on maintenance. No road
yet invented will stand up without constant care and attention being
bestowed upon it, care which should begin almost as soon as the surface
is first finished.
[19] No roads constructed with smooth surfaces have stood up under
heavy automobile travel, except those made of asphaltum and those made
like the Sheridan Road in Buena Park. The last-mentioned road has gone
through two seasons of very hard usage, and although little repairing
has been done, it seems unchanged as to its surface. In one section
of England considerable stretches of the same sort of construction
have been in service for some time, and with the same result as at
Buena Park. In France two years ago, the main road from Versailles to
Chartres was in first-class condition; going over the same road in
June, 1907, it was found to be almost impassible, the wear upon it
having come from automobiles; and yet this highway was constructed with
care, on the best old-fashioned macadam formula. Asphaltum roads can be
made that will not chip up or pockmark, but the surfacing must be done
so that it will incorporate with the mass beneath, and not rolled on as
an outer layer. A very moderate speed limit for automobiles will keep
roads in good repair, for it is the high speed of the machines that is
so destructive to roadbeds.
[Illustration: XLIII. CHICAGO. WINTER VIEW OF GRANT PARK AND THE
PROPOSED HARBOR, LOOKING EAST.
From the original sketch by E. H. Bennett.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
CHAPTER IV
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM: THE MOVEMENT FOR PARK EXTENSION:
PLAYGROUNDS: OUTLYING PARK SYSTEMS IN LONDON, PARIS, BERLIN, VIENNA,
AND BOSTON: PROPOSED TREATMENT OF THE LAKE MICHIGAN SHORE: AN OUTER
PARK BELT
Chicago, on becoming a city, chose for its motto _Urbs in horto_—a city
set in a garden. Such indeed it then was, with the opalescent waters
of the Lake at its front, and on its three sides the boundless prairie
carpeted with waving grass bedecked with brilliant wild flowers.
The quick advance of commerce and manufactures, the rapid building
of railroads and factories, and the hastily constructed homes of
operatives crowded out nature’s parterres of flowers. Still the motto
lingered in the minds of men, and in 1839 the struggle began to secure
for the fast-growing population park spaces which should at least
recall the gardens that of necessity had been sacrificed.
In the year mentioned, a half-square on Michigan Avenue, where the
Public Library now stands, comprised the entire park system of the
city of Chicago. Three years later Washington Square was added; then
followed at intervals Jefferson, Union, Ellis, and Vernon parks, each
representing the public spirit of individuals rather than the foresight
of the city. In 1864 the Common Council, having been awakened to the
necessity of providing recreation places for the growing multitudes of
citizens, secured a portion of the lands which later came to be named
Lincoln Park, and the sum of ten thousand dollars was appropriated for
park improvement.
At first no effort was made to provide connections among the various
parks; but in 1869 a movement was started, by those whom the practical
people of that day called dreamers, to realize the then half-forgotten
and wholly disregarded motto, by framing the city of Chicago with a
garden of parks and boulevards, beginning at Lincoln Park on the north
and connecting Humboldt, Garfield, Douglas, Washington, and Jackson
parks. The attempt succeeded; the Chicago park system came to take
second place among the park areas of the United States, and was the
pride and glory of the city. Substantially, park acquisition in Chicago
halted there—thirty-nine years ago. Second only to Philadelphia in
1880, Chicago has now dropped to the seventh place in so far as park
area is concerned; and when the relative density of population is taken
into consideration this city occupies the thirty-second place! At least
half the population of Chicago to-day live more than one mile from any
large park, and in the congested sections of the city there are nearly
five thousand people to each acre of park space. The average for the
entire city is 590 persons to each acre of park. For health and good
order there should be one acre of park area for each hundred people.[20]
The seriousness of present conditions being generally realized, a
movement to bring about radical changes has already taken direction,
and is fast gathering the force necessary to accomplish its ends.
The state of Illinois has authorized the respective boards of park
commissioners to connect Grant Park with Lincoln Park on the north and
with Jackson Park on the south, and has granted the submerged lands
along the Lake shore for that purpose, providing, however, that in all
cases the commissioners must reach an amicable understanding with the
riparian owners, the right of condemnation being withheld. Moreover,
the state has also authorized cities, towns, and villages to grant to
park authorities the right to take and improve streets not more than a
mile in length without the consent of the abutting property owners, and
to construct surface and elevated ways and turn the same over to public
park corporate authorities.[21]
In 1899 the Chicago City Council created the Special Park Commission,
at the same time adopting resolutions recognizing the value of parks in
preventing crime, promoting cleanliness, and diminishing disease; also
declaring the need of greater area for parks, both large and small, and
providing for a systematic study of the present and future needs of
the city in the matter of parks and recreation grounds. In 1903, Cook
County having created a commission to secure an outer belt of parks and
boulevards, co-operation between the Special Park Commission and the
Outer Belt Commission was established.
At the instance of the Special Park Commission legislation has been
enacted to enable the several park authorities to locate parks and
pleasure grounds, of not more than ten acres in extent, in any
portion of their respective districts, and to raise money by bond
issues. On the South Side seventeen new parks, with a total area of
671 acres have been acquired. A feature of these small parks is the
neighborhood-center building, provided with baths, gymnasia, refectory
service, club rooms, and reading rooms for the district served. These
“clubhouses for the people,” as they are called, are in service both
summer and winter. The outdoor swimming-pools and athletic fields are
in charge of expert directors furnished by the authorities. The aim of
the commissioners is to improve the health and morals of the people,
and to stimulate local pride and patriotism; and the work has attracted
international attention. The South Side expansion movement, now nearing
completion, will cost about seven million dollars.
In suggesting additions to the smaller parks, the principle has
been followed of placing them, as far as possible, on the proposed
circuit boulevards. The intersections of these boulevards with
streets will necessarily form round-points, which should be treated
as part of the park system. The same principle of placing is followed
for the larger play parks, in order that they may be reached from
one another by passing through a continuous line of planting. The
question of density of population has been considered with reference
to the relative sizes of those parks which lie within the congested
center, particularly with regard to the first circuit; and although
all such parks cannot be placed adjacent to boulevards, they are
shown connected with one another by important thoroughfares, so that
the natural lines of travel will pass them. The smaller play parks
disregard to some extent the above principles, because these are in the
strictest sense neighborhood centers. The play parks and squares are
thus balanced equally around the civic center, which may be said to be
the center of the varying densities of population. In this way, they
serve to accentuate the scheme of circuits laid down in the system of
circulation on the general plan.
[Illustration: XLIV. CHICAGO, GENERAL MAP SHOWING TOPOGRAPHY,
WATERWAYS, AND COMPLETE SYSTEM OF STREETS, BOULEVARDS, PARKWAYS, AND
PARKS.
The parks and parkways encircle the city; they are placed in relation
to the radiating arteries, and increase in area in proportion to their
distance from the center (green). Also showing railroads (red), the
proposed harbors at the mouths of the Chicago and Calumet rivers, and
the location of outlying townships. The elevation of the ground is
shown by increasing depth of color (orange), from the center of the
city.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: XLV. BERLIN. BLOCK PLAN SHOWING THE PARK SYSTEM (GREEN),
AND PROPOSED FOREST RESERVES (DARK GREEN).
Reproduced from “Gross Berlin.”]
[Illustration: XLVI. VIENNA. BLOCK PLAN SHOWING THE PARK SYSTEM
(GREEN), AND EXISTING FOREST RESERVES (DARK GREEN).
Reproduced from “Gross Berlin.”]
The report of the Special Park Commission, issued in 1904, contains a
detailed study for a metropolitan park system embracing all of Cook
County, together with recommendations for an outer system of parks
and boulevards, in the main following the watercourses throughout the
area of the county. Thus foundations have been laid for a systematic
and aggressive campaign to obtain for the people of Chicago those
means of recreation and refreshment absolutely necessary to a growing
city. Extensive as the recommendations of the various park authorities
appear, a consideration of the whole problem will show that they
scarcely do more than meet the situation as it exists to-day, and that
the near future will demand more ample spaces. The development of the
suburban service on steam roads, the extension of the electric lines
which give quick and frequent service between Chicago and cities sixty,
seventy, and even a hundred miles distant, and the increasing use of
the automobile have brought within the sphere of Chicago’s dominating
influence the towns and country for a radius of at least sixty miles
from the geographical center of the city. From Kenosha on the north,
around to De Kalb on the west, and thence to Michigan City on the
south, all roads lead to Chicago; and this entire region might well
be included in a metropolitan area within which large parks shall be
located, improved, and maintained at joint expense.
[Illustration: XLVII. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. BLOCK PLAN SHOWING THE PARK
SYSTEM (GREEN), AND ADDITIONS (DARK GREEN).
Proposed by the Senate Park Commission.]
The time to secure the lands necessary for such a system is now, while
as yet the prices are moderate and the natural scenery is comparatively
unspoiled. Every year of failure or neglect to act largely increases
the expense and diminishes the opportunities, for all of the lands
about Chicago are almost equally available for building purposes.
Already the prairie state of Illinois is nearly one-half urban, and the
tendency towards city life is fast increasing. At the same time the
need for breathing spaces and recreation grounds is being forced upon
the attention of practical men, who are learning to appreciate the fact
that a city, in order to be a good labor-market, must provide for the
health and pleasure of the great body of workers. Density of population
beyond a certain point results in disorder, vice, and disease, and
thereby becomes the greatest menace to the well-being of the city
itself. As a measure of precaution, therefore, the establishment of
adequate park area is necessary.
If Chicago is to equal or surpass London in size, the provision for
open spaces here certainly should be no less than that which the
British metropolis has found necessary. And yet London is constantly
adding to its recreation grounds. As respects large parks, that city
counts Epping Forest, sixteen miles to the north, which with the
neighboring Hainault Forest includes 5,600 acres, an area opened by the
Corporation of London in 1882, as a free and inalienable public park
and place of recreation; and Bushy Park, fifteen miles to the west,
comprising a thousand acres; and Richmond Park, with its 2,255 acres,
not counting the famous Kew Gardens; while Windsor Great Park, 1,800
acres in extent, is but twenty-one miles from the city. Thus within a
radius of twoscore miles from his city, the Londoner has at his command
large parks comprising in the aggregate more than ten thousand acres;
and every traveler who has found himself in London on a pleasant Sunday
in summer knows well how the city empties itself of people on that day,
and how every vehicle available is brought into service to accommodate
the crowds seeking rest and recreation in the woods and on the Thames.
On such an afternoon the Thames at Richmond is so covered with canoes
and wherries that one might walk dry-shod across the river, stepping
from boat to boat. The great crowd of all sorts and conditions of men
and women is gay and good natured, and the scene, as looked down upon
from the terraces of Hampton Court, has a charm beyond the power of
words to express.
[Illustration: XLVIII. LONDON. A VIEW OF ROTTEN ROW IN HYDE PARK.]
The name of Henley brings to the mind of the Englishman all that
is beautiful and picturesque in the amateur aquatic life of that
country. Henley is situated on the Thames in one of its most beautiful
stretches; the valley is verdant; the trees are old and stately, while
velvet lawns and gardens gay line the banks at frequent intervals.
Back from the water the Chiltern Hills rise in a mass of green woods
and waving grain. During regatta week, bunting, flags, flowers, and
decorations of all kinds attract the eye, and the picturesque old place
is made a scene of brightness and gayety. In the evening the many
house-boats are aglow with colored lanterns; lights from boats of every
sort flash hither and thither on the water, and fireworks light the
heavens in beautiful colors.
Paris, which is one of the great manufacturing centers of the world,
has the Bois de Boulogne of 2,250 acres at its very gates; and only
five miles distant, skirting the eastern boundary of the city, is the
Bois de Vincennes of somewhat greater area. Thirty-seven miles distant
is the forest of Fontainebleau, which covers no less than 42,500
acres, the most beautiful of all French forests; while the gardens
of Versailles, with their wonderful fountains, are but fourteen miles
away. Berlin has its great pine woods on the east, west, and north
of the city, the park development having been made to keep pace with
other radical changes which since 1878 have transformed the German
capital from a badly arranged, ill-built, and ill-kept town into one
of the magnificent capital cities of the world. At Vienna the forest
park known as the Prater, 4,270 acres in extent, extends along the
east side of the city; and so diversified are the uses to which this
recreation place is put, that perhaps no other single park in the world
accommodates so many people. Large as these spaces seem, no one of the
cites mentioned is satisfied with its present park area; but each one
is striving to enlarge its opportunities for recreation.
In 1893 Boston began the creation of its system of metropolitan parks,
by the adoption of a report made that year by a special commission.
Thirteen cities and twenty-six towns are now included in the
metropolitan district; and upwards of ten thousand acres are controlled
by a board of five commissioners. The funds for the acquirement and
development of the system had been raised by loans represented by
forty-year bonds issued by the State of Massachusetts, to be repaid
from sinking funds made up of annual payments by the various cities and
towns included within the district, except that the entire commonwealth
has assumed about two and a half millions of one of the three loans,
which aggregate about ten and a half millions. The annual payments
for sinking funds, interest, and maintenance are made according
to a table of percentages fixed by the supreme court of the state
upon the report of a special commission appointed each five years.
The original plan, although somewhat modified from time to time to
accommodate new circumstances, has been adhered to with great fidelity
as constituting the project for a complete outlying park system, to
the gradual accomplishment of which the state and the district has
committed itself. The appropriations, averaging between six and seven
hundred thousand dollars a year for sixteen years, have been general
in form; the commission has never made direct appeals or efforts to
secure grants of money; but citizens concerned in the accomplishment
of some particular portion of the system have interested themselves
to secure the necessary funds. The woods reservations were acquired
first; then Revere Beach and the banks of the lower Charles River; and
lastly the twenty-seven miles of connecting parkways. After the first
ten years, the legislature reviewed the entire situation, and, finding
the work good, provided three hundred thousand dollars a year for four
years for its continuation. Each year increases the number of friends
of the system, and the necessary funds for enlargement or for special
treatments, such as building ocean-front driveways, the acquisition
of some specially desirable natural feature, or the construction of a
connecting parkway, are provided.
The plan of Washington provides for a complete system of parks
encircling the entire city, uniting Potomac Park, which stretches along
the river front, with the present Zoölogical and Rock Creek parks on
the north; thence by parkways to the Soldiers’ Home grounds, some seven
hundred acres in extent, and on to the valley of the Anacostia, where
a tidal basin will be formed. The palisades of the upper Potomac,
the Arlington estate, and the chain of abandoned forts on the hills
overlooking the city, all become parts of the simple yet comprehensive
scheme, which is but the logical development of the original L’Enfant
plan. Already Washington is realizing in large measure the commercial
advantages of civic beauty. People from all parts of the country are
building fine residences along the broad avenues; and new business
structures vie with the government office buildings in design and
solidity. Thus the plans which seemed but a dream when they were first
exhibited eight years ago are now so far accomplished that complete
realization seems plainly in sight.
The opportunities for large parks in the immediate vicinity of Chicago
are ample. First in importance is the shore of Lake Michigan, which
should be treated as park space to the greatest possible extent. The
Lake front by right belongs to the people. It affords their one great
unobstructed view, stretching away to the horizon, where water and
clouds seem to meet. No mountains or high hills enable us to look over
broad expanses of the earth’s surface; and perforce we must come even
to the margin of the Lake for such a survey of nature. These views of
a broad expanse are helpful alike to mind and body. They beget calm
thoughts and feelings, and afford escape from the petty things of life.
Mere breadth of view, however, is not all. The Lake is living water,
ever in motion, and ever changing in color and in the form of its
waves. Across its surface comes the broad pathway of light made by the
rising sun; it mirrors the ever-changing forms of the clouds, and it
is illumined by the glow of the evening sky. Its colors vary with the
shadows that play upon it. In its every aspect it is a living thing,
delighting man’s eye and refreshing his spirit. Not a foot of its
shores should be appropriated by individuals to the exclusion of the
people. On the contrary, everything possible should be done to enhance
its attractiveness and to develop its natural beauties, thus fitting it
for the part it has to play in the life of the whole city. It should be
made so alluring that it will become the fixed habit of the people to
seek its restful presence at every opportunity.
Wherever possible, the outer shore should be a beach on which the
waves may break; and the slopes leading down to the water should be
quiet stretches of green, unvexed by the small irregular piers and the
various kinds of projections which to-day give it an untidy appearance.
Except where formal treatments are demanded, the inner shore should be
a planted space. There should be lagoons, narrow and winding, along the
north shore, and wider, with more regular lines, along the south shore.
Both margins of these lagoons should be planted with trees and shrubs,
so arranged as to leave openings of various sizes, thus making vistas
of the water and the life upon it, to be enjoyed by the people passing
along the driveways or living in the homes that line park stretches.
These plantations should be carefully devised so as to display every
form and color of foliage and blossom known to this climate; the
foliage should be arranged so as to be seen here in masses and there
at the end of vistas, by boatmen close at hand or far away over the
waters. The aspect of these plantings from the open lake also should be
studied, and especially the subject of evergreens and other forms of
winter planting demands adequate attention.
Moreover, the sweet breath of plant life so abundant in nature and so
agreeable to man should give greeting to those who seek the refreshment
of the parks. Color of blossoms, too, should be used, not in little
beds or as mere incidents, but in masses stretching broadly along the
shores of the lagoons, and even upon the surface of the water itself,
where aquatic plants of many varieties may be made to contribute their
part in this possible paradise. The cultivation and maintenance of such
stretches of natural beauty must have the co-operation of the people,
to the end that the loveliness intended for all may be protected.
[Illustration: XLIX. CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE CITY FROM JACKSON PARK TO
GRANT PARK, LOOKING TOWARDS THE WEST.
The proposed shore treatment as a park enclosing a waterway (or a
series of lagoons) is shown together with the enlarged yacht harbor,
recreation piers, and a scheme for Grant Park. Painted for the
Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
This park may be built almost without cost to the people of Chicago, by
making use of the excavated material and general wastage from the city.
This material aggregates at the present moment an amount sufficient to
fill as many as twenty-two acres per annum. In this manner Grant Park
has already been created, and its extension down the south shore will
be only a question of time.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: L. CHICAGO. PARK DEVELOPMENT PROPOSED FOR THE LAKE SHORE
FROM JACKSON PARK TO WILMETTE
This park, enclosing lagoons for boating, would be a continuous
playground for the people, and may be built by utilizing the wastage
from the city and excavated material at practically no cost.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
Diagram A. Lake shore from Chicago Avenue on the north to Jackson Park
on the south. ]
[Illustration: Diagram B. Lake shore from Chicago Avenue on the south
to Wilmette on the north.]
[Illustration: L(a). CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE PROPOSED PARK ON THE SOUTH
SHORE, LOOKING NORTHWEST TOWARDS THE CITY.
From the drawing of D. H. Burnham and Paul Lathrop, 1896.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: LI. CHICAGO. VIEW LOOKING SOUTH OVER THE LAGOONS OF THE
PROPOSED PARK FOR THE SOUTH SHORE.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: LII. CHICAGO. SECTION THROUGH THE PARK PROPOSED FOR THE
SOUTH SHORE.
A boulevard is suggested above that portion of the railroad
right-of-way used for freight; additional right-of-way open to the air
to be provided for passenger trains; approaches to the outer park to
run from the boulevard over the tracks.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The building of parks along the shore is dictated by considerations of
health and enjoyment. The ease with which the work can be accomplished
becomes apparent when one considers that the refuse of the city seeks
a dump which cannot be found anywhere else than on the Lake front.
Probably 1,000,000 cubic yards of waste are annually conveyed to the
Lake front from Evanston to South Chicago, enough to fill twenty acres
of ground, raising it seven feet above the surface in twenty feet of
water. The necessary breakwaters having been built, this constantly
growing amount of waste material can be put in place cheaply.
Therefore, it is wise to provide now for the disposition of it, and
to design beautiful and extensive park strips along the entire shore,
which will almost build themselves in the course of another generation.
Indeed both health and danger to navigation prohibit the emptying of
this spoil in the Lake, as has been done in the past.
[Illustration: LIII. CHICAGO. THE MIDWAY PLAISANCE, SHOWING THE
PROPOSED WATERWAY CONNECTING THE LAGOONS OF WASHINGTON PARK WITH THOSE
OF JACKSON PARK, AND EVENTUALLY WITH THE WATERWAY OF THE PROPOSED SHORE
PARK EXTENDING FROM JACKSON PARK TO GRANT PARK.
COURTESY OF THE SOUTH PARK COMMUNITY CLUB ]
These lagoons, protected from the waves of the open Lake and sheltered
from the wind by the city on one side and the park strips on the other,
will be a powerful attraction toward open-air athletics, both winter
and summer; they will afford a course for races for Northwestern
University at the north and the Chicago University at the south.
House-boats, launches, canoes, rowboats, and small sailboats will ply
upon them, as well as craft for the public use, such as are usual on
the Thames, the Seine, and the canals of Venice. The waterway should
be lined with restaurants and pleasure pavilions and with public bath
houses; swimming beaches should be constructed on their shores, which
by careful designing can be made as picturesque as any inland river.
Both shores should be a part of the general design, and together with
the lagoon itself these shores should be owned by the park authorities,
in order that the whole may be effectually policed.
Imagine this supremely beautiful parkway, with its frequent stretches
of fields, playgrounds, avenues, and groves, extending along the shore
in closest touch with the life of the city throughout the whole water
front. What will it do for us in health and happiness? After it is
finished will the people of means be so ready to run away and spend
their money in other cities? Where else can they find such delightful
conditions as at home? We should no longer lose so much of the cream
of our earnings, now spent in other lands. When this parkway shall be
created, our people will stay here, and others will come to dwell among
us—the people who now spend time and large amounts of money in Paris,
in Vienna, and on the Riviera. It will turn back the stream of profits
which have to such a large degree gone away from us, and every one
living here will feel the result of this change, for between prosperity
and bad times there is often but a small percentage, and the community
which can keep its earnings at home prospers.
In order to appreciate the recreation which the Lake front when
properly developed will afford, one has but to recall the pleasure
which similar waters afford to the people of other countries. For
example, the clusters or fringes of islands in the vicinity of
Stockholm form a favorite resort for the yachtsmen of Sweden, their
chief rendezvous being Sandham, a pilot station on the margin of
the Baltic. Tourists enjoy the exhibitions of swimming given in the
public baths of Stockholm, and the canoeing on the numerous lakes and
waterways. The winter sports and competitions—skating, skee-running,
skate-sailing, ice-yachting, sledge-kicking, and toboganning—are famous
the world over; and the Sport Park (Idrottsparken) at Stockholm is one
of the features of the city.
[Illustration: XLIV. CHICAGO. TYPICAL VIEW ACROSS THE PROPOSED SOUTH
SHORE PARK, FOR EXAMPLE, AT WOODLAND PARK.
COPYRIGHT, 1909 BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
From South Chicago to Grant Park the treatment proposed is made up of a
parkway along the actual shore line, following the right-of-way of the
Illinois Central Railroad; and also a wide park strip entirely in the
Lake, enclosing a series of lagoons. On the north a similar treatment
is suggested, except that here the parkway is somewhat narrower than on
the South Side, and an additional element is introduced in the form of
a chain of outlying islands. The arrangement on the north comprises two
roadways, the first following the shore as it exists to-day, while the
second roadway runs within the park strip lying beyond the lagoons. In
the latter parkway the line is simplified and irregularities disappear
to a large extent, the outer line from North Avenue to Evanston finally
becoming a double curve. This is further enveloped with a line formed
by the chain of islands which it is proposed to build on the shallows.
This line curves gently from the north in a southerly direction
until it joins the outer park strip north of the River. This point
is the beginning of the line which flows towards the south shore. A
yacht harbor should be constructed at the northern end. The sport of
yachting is very greatly in need of encouragement of this form, as
the navigation of Lake Michigan is rather dangerous, and there is now
no point north of the River to which a yacht can run for shelter. In
addition to the northern yacht harbor, there should be other harbors,
in the lee of the proposed islands, out in the Lake. These would be of
the utmost value to yachtsmen, as they would afford from mile to mile a
point of refuge in case of surprise by squalls.
For the most part, an informal landscape treatment is proposed for
the two park strips; but where the bridges cross the lagoons, a more
formal treatment is introduced and pavilions are provided for the
various recreation purposes. It is also proposed to create a yacht
harbor just north of Jackson Park, where the shallowness of the water
permits the formation of extensive meadows by filling; and also to fill
in above the shoals dotting the shore, with a group of islands. Broadly
stated, the treatment of the shore from South Chicago to Wilmette may
be said to be one which will result in the restoration or perfection of
the line already existing; while the formal treatment proposed at the
bridges, which are spaced at intervals of from one to two miles, will
create a rhythm which even in this broad, general scheme must have its
value.
[Illustration: LV. ENGLAND. HENLEY-ON-THAMES: THE REGATTA COURSE.]
[Illustration: LVI. ENGLAND. HENLEY-ON-THAMES: A REGATTA.
Illustrating the life which would develop in the lagoons of the
proposed Lake Shore Parks.]
Next in the importance to the development of the Lake shore
possibilities is the acquisition and improvement of forest spaces. Both
the water front and the near-by woodlands should be brought within easy
reach of all the people, and especially of the wage-earners. Natural
scenery furnishes the contrasting element to the artificiality of the
city. All of us should often run away from the works of men’s hands
and back into the wilds, where mind and body are restored to a normal
condition, and we are enabled to take up the burden of life in our
crowded streets and endless stretches of buildings with renewed vigor
and hopefulness. Those who have the means and are so placed in their
daily employments that they can do so constantly seek the refreshment
of the country. Should not the public see to it that every one may
enjoy this change of scene, this restorer of bodily and mental vigor,
and will not citizenship be better thereby? He who habitually comes in
close contact with nature develops saner methods of thought than can
be the case when one is habitually shut up within the walls of a city.
If a census of the purposes and acts of all of the people of Chicago
as they affect the general good could be made for this year of grace
1909, and again in 1933, after the creation of extensive forests in the
suburbs, the percentage of improvement affecting the whole community
would probably be quite surprising. The existing public parks go far in
this direction, but not far enough. The spaces to be acquired should
be wild forests, filled with such trees, vines, flowers, and shrubs
as will grow in this climate, and all should be developed in a natural
condition. Country roads and a few paths should run through these
forests, but they should not be cut into small divisions. There should
be open glades here and there, and other natural features, and the
people should be allowed to use them freely.
[Illustration: LVII. VERSAILLES, FRANCE. PLAN OF THE PALACE, PARK, AND
GARDENS, AND THE GREAT ARTERIES LEADING TO THE GATES.]
In the disposition of interior parks the main consideration should be,
first, to distribute the areas about the city as evenly as possible,
so as to make large parks readily accessible to all citizens; and
secondly, to select for improvement those localities which have the
greatest charm and value as park lands. Happily nature has furnished
the opportunity to combine both considerations. The wooded bluffs and
ravines at the northern boundary of Cook County in Glencoe mark a
natural park entrance from Lake Michigan. The virgin forest known as
the Peterson woods, south of Peterson Avenue, the Gibbs woods, north of
Gibbs Street, a beautiful spot on the Chicago River south of Central
Avenue, are especially attractive features of this stretch. In spring
the bloom of the thorn, the crab-apple, and the wild plum are features
of the landscape; the ground is everywhere carpeted with flowers; there
are forests of elm, oak, ash, willow, and cottonwood; and the Skokee
marsh in beauty vies with the Lake itself. At a distance of a mile
inland the valley of the North Branch of the Chicago River is reached.
In this valley the views are particularly beautiful, especially where
the stretches are unbroken by constructions of any kind. To the north
the valley stretches far beyond the county line; to the south it is
framed on both sides with forest lands. In the region of Central Avenue
these forest lines spread, taking in the grounds of the Glenview Golf
Club, closing again between Kenilworth and Bryn Mawr avenues, where
the foliage closely follows the banks of the River. The area which
should be taken for this particular northern park includes upwards of
eight thousand acres, and at the present time the land can be had at
comparatively small expense.
[Illustration: LVIII. VERSAILLES, FRANCE. VIEW FROM THE TERRACE,
LOOKING DOWN THE MAIN AXIS.]
The opportunity for a park area entirely surrounding the city is to be
found in the extension of the Lake entrance at Glencoe westward until
it reaches the valley of the Des Plaines; thence the park stretch would
extend south along that valley to Riverside, and, taking in the valleys
of Salt and Flag creeks, still southerly to the Drainage Canal. Turning
to the east, the line would extend along the Calumet Feeder, Stony
Creek, and Little Calumet River to and including Lake Calumet, and
thence to the Lake front.
[Illustration: LIX. PARIS. VIEW OF THE SUNKEN GARDEN IN THE LUXEMBOURG
GARDENS.]
[Illustration: LX. ST. GERMAIN, FRANCE. VIEW OF AN AVENUE IN THE FOREST
AND ROUND-POINT.
This avenue crosses above a railroad.]
The Des Plaines River from the county line to Riverside flows mainly
through thickly wooded country which the parkway plans include;
the forests for the most part lie on the east side of the River,
occasionally crossing to the west side. There are places of great
beauty on the River banks, including Thatcher’s Park at River Forest,
which has been fenced in, and where an admission fee is charged.
South of River Forest the parkway divides, and, passing around the
cemeteries at Harlem, joins the River at Riverside. From Harlem to
the southern extremity of Riverside the foliage and the scenery
generally are exceptionally fine. The boulevard from Summit, running
in a southwesterly direction to Spring Forest, commands fine views,
particularly over the rising wooded land of Du Page County. Mount
Forest is covered with trees, and presents many delightful outlooks
from its height; these are particularly fine in the southwestern
extremity, where the valley of the Des Plaines to the southwest and
northwest, and the Sag valley to the east, all are visible. Evergreen
Park is noted for its evergreens, and Sherman farm is thickly wooded.
As in the Chicago River region, the thorn, the crab-apple, and wild
plum abound; and the great forests consist of elm, cottonwood, and
willow, the elm seeming to predominate. The forests in the Palos region
stretch south as far as the eye can reach.
[Illustration: LXI. CHICAGO. PLAN OF A PARK PROPOSED ON THE MAIN
EAST-AND-WEST AXIS OF THE CITY AT CONGRESS STREET AND FIFTY-SECOND
AVENUE.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: LXII. CHICAGO. PLAN OF A PARK PROPOSED AT WESTERN
BOULEVARD AND GARFIELD BOULEVARD, BEING AN EXTENSION OF GAGE PARK.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The Calumet is an ample stream, and on every hand the silhouettes of
steel industries give strong evidence of the coming importance of
this channel as a harbor. Every effort, therefore, should be made to
concentrate the vehicle traffic crossing this river at well-chosen
points where great bridges might be constructed, in order to create as
little friction as possible between the vessel and the land traffic. On
the banks of the Calumet, in the neighborhood of One Hundred and Third
Street, are large swamps capable of being developed into fine parks;
the country is gently undulating, with plenty of woodland, and the
view across Calumet Lake is fine. It is proposed to create a driveway
around Lake Calumet, and to reclaim the low lands south of the lake
without essentially changing their present topography; also to plant
a belt of woods surrounding this lake park set in one of the greatest
manufacturing districts in the world; and to construct roadways to form
connections with the different park reservations and at the same time
to become highways to the city.
[Illustration: LXIII. CHICAGO. PLAN OF A PARK PROPOSED AT THE NORTH
BRANCH OF THE CHICAGO RIVER AND GRACELAND AVENUE.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The encircling system of forest parks and park connections as thus
outlined, when taken in conjunction either with the existing interior
boulevards and the Sheridan Road, or the proposed driveway along the
Lake lagoons makes a circuit of about one hundred miles, every portion
of which would serve directly an adjoining portion of the city. Such
a comprehensive system of outlying parks is for the Chicago of to-day
quite as practical and quite as much needed as were the boulevards
of a generation ago, which have now become interior thoroughfares of
priceless value. The forest preserves, with their bordering driveways,
would in time come to be lined with residences and large estates, and
rise in the value of the adjoining lands would permit the city to
recoup in taxation many times the cost of lands now of small value.
[Illustration: LXIV. CHICAGO. PLAN OF SHERMAN PLAYGROUND AND PARK.
The assembly hall, gymnasia, and open-air swimming pool, forming a
group as the center of the composition.]
The grouping of manufacturing towns at the southern end of Lake
Michigan, and the serious attempts that have been made (especially
in Pullman and Gary) to provide excellent living conditions for
people employed in large operations, create a demand for extensive
parks in that region; because no city conditions, however ideal in
themselves, supply the craving for real out-of-door life, for forests
and wild flowers and streams. Human nature demands such simple and
wholesome pleasures as come from roaming the woods, for rowing and
canoeing, and for sports and games that require large areas. The
increasing number of holidays, the growing use of Sunday as a day of
rest and refreshment for body and mind tired by the exacting tasks
of the week, together with the constant improvement in the scale of
living, all make imperative such means of enjoyment as the large park
provides. Therefore, adequate provision for the growing populations
that of necessity must live in restricted town areas requires that in
the region south and southwest of Chicago all those marsh lands and
wooded ridges which nature has thus far preserved from being taken for
manufacturing purposes now should be secured for the parks that in
the next generation will be required, but which will be beyond reach
unless taken in the immediate future.
[Illustration: LXV. CHICAGO. MARK WHITE SQUARE.
View of the children’s wading pool and the field house.]
[Illustration: LXVI. CHICAGO. HAMILTON PARK.
View of the boys’ gymnasium.]
[Illustration: LXVII. CHICAGO. SHERMAN PARK.
Field-house seen from the west side.]
The development of a system of outlying large parks along the lines
above indicated will give to Chicago breathing-spaces adequate at least
for the immediate future; the physical character of the lands to be
taken will insure a diversity in natural features most pleasing and
refreshing to dwellers in cities; and the acquisition of the areas
entirely around the present city will afford convenient access for all
the citizens, so that each section will be accommodated. Moreover, the
development of especially beautiful sections, such as the region about
Lake Zurich, will give marked individuality to Chicago’s outlying park
system. It is by seizing on such salient features of a landscape and
emphasizing their peculiar features that the charm and the dignity of
the city are enhanced.
[Illustration: LXVIII. CHICAGO. SHERMAN PARK.
View of the open-air swimming pool.]
FOOTNOTES:
[20] Report of the Special Park Commission; Compiled by Dwight Heald
Perkins, 1904.
[21] See Acts of May 14, 1903; May 2, 1907; April 19, 1879; June 21,
1895; May 25, 1907.
[Illustration: LXIX. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF A SYSTEM OF FREIGHT HANDLING
FOR LAND AND WATER TRANSPORTATION, TO BE WORKED IN CONJUNCTION WITH ONE
ANOTHER.
(1) A central clearing and warehousing yard. (2) A north harbor at the
mouth of the Chicago River. (3) A south harbor at the mouth of the
Calumet River. (4) Underground freight lines interconnecting the city
stations, the central yard, and the two harbors; these lines are shown
in red; they do not represent exact locations of the routes.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
CHAPTER V
TRANSPORTATION: A FREIGHT CENTER: GROUPING OF PASSENGER STATIONS: A
LOOP SYSTEM
Chicago has been made largely by the railroads, and its future
prosperity is dependent upon them. In the past, however, it has been
the increase in the number of roads reaching this city which has built
up its commerce; but now, with twenty-two trunk lines entering Chicago
from every possible direction, and with connections extending to all
portions of the country, the question of numbers has ceased to be the
important one.
The present problem is to handle the traffic of the railroads with
dispatch and at the lowest cost. The city is too large for each
railroad to attempt to maintain a separate system unrelated to that
of any other except the physical connection of the tracks. The time
has come to develop one common system for the handling of freight,—a
traffic clearing-house. The whole perplexing and intensely intricate
subject requires not only the careful study of men expert in such
matters, but also a spirit of mutual forbearance and conciliation among
railroad managers for the sake of promoting the general good.
Not that any one road of the entire twenty-two should be expected to
make what will ultimately prove a sacrifice, but that no road should
hold back from doing its full part to bring about the conditions
essential to the continued prosperity of the city by the development
in Chicago of a unified system of traffic handling that shall place
this city ahead of any other in so far as efficiency and cheapness are
concerned. The fine arts of traffic management should be studied no
less than the fine arts of parks and boulevards; for unless Chicago
keeps ahead of her rivals in commercial matters, the parks will become
pastures, and the boulevards will be deserted.
In an address made in Chicago during the winter of 1906-7 Mr. James
J. Hill laid the utmost stress on the necessity for improved railway
terminals. At that time a cry was going up for more cars. Traffic was
delayed, the railways being entirely unable to handle promptly the
freight offered them. Mr. Hill pointed out that the main difficulty
was not lack of cars, but lack of proper terminal facilities. It was a
fact that hundreds and even thousands of loaded cars were at that very
moment standing on the tracks in the yards of every one of the great
trunk lines, which with their utmost efforts could not place these cars
at the sides of the receiving platforms in the various cities. It is
not an extreme statement to say that business was almost paralyzed on
account of the inability of the roads to handle at the terminals the
freight traffic of the country. On all the two-track lines continuous
trains could have been handled from one terminus to another, if the
cars could have been rescued from the disordering conditions in which
they were involved and lost to use. The railroad companies were unable
to make proper use of their own rolling stock and main lines, all
because of the congested condition of their terminals, in which there
were tracks enough, but tracks so badly placed and arranged as to
deprive the roads of the full benefit of their aggregate mileage.
The bad arrangement of terminal tracks was not alone responsible for
the congested condition which then prevailed at Chicago, New York,
Pittsburgh, and many other points. In an equal or perhaps greater
degree the habit of hauling all the freight into the heart of a city
and then hauling most of it out again was the cause of the trouble. If
freight stations and yards located close to the center of the business
district of a city were inadequate under the conditions that obtained
in the winter of 1906-7, what will be the result at the next test,
which will surely be a more severe one?
The conclusion is inevitable. Either nearly every one of the great
railroads must increase and improve both its main line and such of its
freight houses and yards as are now located in the heart of the city,
or they must cease to bring all freight into the congested business
center. Separate roads operating separate and independent rights-of-way
to the separate and independent freight houses cannot do the work.
Year by year the railroads have gone on straightening their lines,
reducing grades, and building additional tracks; and the result has
been large savings in operating expenses. The time has now come to
devise some plan whereby the enormous terminal costs will be lessened
materially; and that city will benefit most wherein this problem shall
be worked out first and best.
This report does not attempt to dictate; or to discuss the practical
questions of railroading. Its aim in respect to transportation is the
same as in regard to all other matters of Chicago’s welfare, namely, to
incorporate such generalizations as are obviously true, logical, and
helpful; because it is recognized fully that unless the railroads have
power to improve their terminals, this city will be hopelessly left
behind in the struggle for commercial advancement. The same spirit that
is evoked to bring about other improvements is necessary also in the
case of the railroads.
[Illustration: DIAGRAM A.]
[Illustration: DIAGRAM B.
LXX. CHICAGO. ASSEMBLING-INTERCHANGE; DIAGRAMS ACCOMPANYING THE REPORT
OF THE COMMITTEE. C. W. HOTCHKISS, CONSULTING ENGINEER.
(A) Present method of handling interchange of freight on railroads in
center of city. (B) Proposed method of handling interchange of freight
on railroads by means of a belt line and clearing yards, disengaging
the center of the city from existing freight congestion.]
In order to obtain for the community as a whole the greatest economy
per ton handled, no goods should be carried into and out of the
congested business center except those needed for construction, for
retailing, or for consumption in that territory. Goods that are now
brought into Chicago as a center, and from thence sold and distributed
to the country outside of Chicago, should be stored at some point
most convenient for the purpose,—most convenient for deposit and for
reloading and carrying away to other points. It is obvious that the
spot chosen be one most convenient for the shipping public as a whole;
and therefore if common ground for such a great general depot can be
found for all the roads, it will best answer the purposes of quick
handling and of lowest cost per ton. A central depot, and common track
facilities which should form a part of it, would bring about time
and money saving both to the railroads themselves and to the trading
public. For the sake, therefore, of the best interests of all the
citizens of Chicago, it is proposed that great machines owned and
operated in common by all the railroads be created to handle freight
business.
[Illustration: LXXI. CHICAGO. SKETCH DIAGRAM OF DOCKS SUGGESTED AT THE
MOUTH OF THE CHICAGO RIVER FOR PACKAGE FREIGHT STEAMERS.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
A careful analysis of the entire freight traffic of Chicago shows that
ninety-five per cent, in and out, is done by the railroads, and only
five per cent is done by water. It is the opinion of leading merchants
and manufacturers of this city, as well as of traffic managers of both
rail and water transportation, that this average percentage of tonnage
will not change in the future. This being the case, the location of a
great common freight depositing and reloading station for all the roads
should be located at a point most economical for them as a whole, at
the common center of gravity so to speak. This center of gravity is
at or near the location shown on the diagram. Here should be trackage
capable of handling in the best manner all freight trains coming into
or departing from Chicago, which are intended to do business other than
local and suburban. It should be so arranged that individual incoming
cars can be promptly placed beside the intended unloading platform or
warehouse, where the goods can be handled with dispatch, and as largely
as possible by machinery. The car so unloaded should be at once placed
at the platform from which it is to take its new load, and then be
entrained and started away to its next destination.
At this freight center may be the great warehouses of the city,
arranged in reference to the tracks and service. These mutual relations
must of necessity produce economy of handling goods, and economy of
the closest sort. If the car and track service be perfected from the
freight train standpoint, Chicago will have an advantage not possessed
by any other trade center of the world, and her equipment will be
fully equal to her destiny. The principal results would be the quick
handling of freight trains by all the roads, their rapid unloading
and reloading, and their exemption from passing into or through the
crowded city. This would result in an enormous saving every year.
Such a scheme can be carried out here, because the entire surrounding
country is flat.
The relief from the congestion in the city now caused by bringing in
and carrying out goods not to be consumed there will result in less
crowding in the city, and also in the saving of its pavements, in much
less dirt, and finally, in a mitigation of the smoke nuisance, because
of the removal of freight engines and manufacturing to the new freight
handling locality.
[Illustration: LXXII. CHICAGO. SKETCH DIAGRAM OF DOCKS SUGGESTED AT THE
MOUTH OF THE CALUMET RIVER FOR BULK FREIGHT STEAMERS; ACCESS TO BE HAD
WITHOUT OPENING OF BRIDGES.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
Together with this freight handling center should be a harbor in
connection with each of the two rivers, the Chicago and the Calumet.
These two harbors should be connected underground or overhead by
freight ways operated electrically, and they should also be connected
with the freight handling center. The four elements, namely, freight
center, two harbors, and the connecting systems, will then form one
complete machine for doing almost all the transportation of goods for
Chicago for all time. No doubt the present tunnel railway system should
be tied up with and form part of this machine: all probably to be owned
jointly by some general utility corporation. In such case any merchant
or manufacturer, located wherever he may be, could, in the shortest
space of time and at lowest cost per ton, receive goods from the great
depository (the freight center) or send them to it for entraining.
The present underground system of tunnels already extends under all of
the streets in the old business district of Chicago, and is extending
on the North, South, and West Sides. It is connected with all of the
railway freight stations, its floor is about 40 feet from the street
surface, and is connected at that level with chambers under many of
the leading commercial and manufacturing establishments and office
buildings of the city, from each of which freight elevators deliver
goods to and from the shipping-rooms above. Any existing tunnel system
can be utilized as far as it will go in carrying out a complete system
of underground distribution.
The freight handling center should become a perfect machine in itself.
Trains of freight cars coming to or going from the city should be
handled there, so that the individual cars may be placed at the
particular warehouse from which goods are to come, and from these cars
the new trains should be made up in station order. No considerable
car supply should be kept on hand in this freight yard. In the course
of time, when the freight business of Chicago shall have greatly
increased, the present freight-car yards will be needed for storage of
cars, and holding those needing repairs or rebuilding. The yards will
then perform an important function, for when more cars are needed at
the great central freight machine, they can be sent thither from each
of the separate yards. Should a surplus of cars exist at the center of
any road, this surplus can be withdrawn to that road’s own yard.
One of the large retail merchants of Chicago, when in need of a fresh
case of goods, now telephones to his own storehouse situated far from
his shop, and through the underground tunnel quickly receives goods in
a sealed car. This method of supplying the merchant’s needs illustrates
what will happen to all merchants when the central freight depot shall
come fully into existence. A method that will work with precision,
quickness, and close economy will relieve the down-town streets of
freight traffic now hauled over them, and therefore make the streets
cleaner and more lasting. Will not these great general facilities
profoundly affect for the better the material prosperity of Chicago
as a whole? When this system shall be put in operation, the better
street plan, and the enlargement and improvements suggested for parks,
parkways, and the Lake front, will cause the city to become permanently
and highly prosperous.
In connection with the freight diagrams, the one numbered LXXIII
should be considered. It shows a radical change in warehousing, and
perhaps manufacturing, which will take time and cannot be put into
effect abruptly, but is undoubtedly the logical outcome and ultimately
must prevail. It also shows the present tendency of growth of both
manufacturing and warehousing which seems to follow and cling to belt
lines of railroad, especially when such lines run beside the River or
Canal, where every sort of freighting economy now in vogue can be made
use of. It is evident that while present methods continue in use, and
until the great freight scheme can be put into operation, some common
facility railroad highways must be introduced in order to improve the
handling of freight in the direction of quickness and cost. The diagram
(No. LXXIII) shows what these freight common facilities should be,
namely:
1. An inner loop (A),
2. Loop (B), connected as shown with the inner loop,
3. Loop (C), also connected with the inner loop, and finally, loop (D).
If these three loops be wide, many-tracked, and operated for the
benefit of all railroads, then the movement of freight can be increased
in efficiency; and such manufacturers and warehousemen as build against
the loops can be accommodated with everything needed to carry on their
individual activities. Freight stations can be located on these loops
wherever required, and each can be certain of quick and cheap service,
the common facilities being operated by the railroads. A detail diagram
for freight in the center of the city is shown in No. LXXIV.
[Illustration: LXXIII. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF THE CITY AND SURROUNDING
COUNTRY, SHOWING RAILROAD CIRCUITS, B, C, D, AND E, WHICH ARE, OR MAY
BECOME, TANGENT TO THE INNER CIRCUIT (A).
The diagram also shows the existing industries, and the probable trend
of growth away from the center of the city.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
It is proposed to extend the freight lines to the Lake front piers and
harbors. The excursion-boat piers, as well as the recreation piers and
those at the harbors, are to be thus connected. It is probable that
many of the present freight houses of the railroads will remain and
carry on their functions as at present, except as to goods now hauled
into and out of Chicago, although intended solely for outside trade. As
they are already connected by tunnel, they can be and will be used for
the city-consumption trade, and to supply the great number of smaller
retailers and others who cannot afford to operate separate individual
freight elevators from their shops to the tunnel railroad.
At the present time much of the near-by farm stuff for housekeepers,
hotels, and restaurants is brought into the city on wagons which
load late in the afternoon and travel at night, reaching the general
market at South Water Street or West Market at dawn. Much if not all
of this freightage can be done cheaper to the truck farmers, and more
satisfactorily to the consumer, by cars run at night on the trolley
and elevated lines. Between one and seven o’clock in the morning these
roads should render this important service. The saving of wear and tear
on roadbeds due to the elimination of heavy teaming is, all by itself,
enough to recommend the adoption of the above suggestion. Besides, the
convenience of both producer and consumer is to be considered, and also
the saving of time and the cheapening of provisions.
The proposed street plan of Chicago is based on a system of circuits
and radials. This is also true of the railroad and traction systems. As
shown on the accompanying diagrams, the heart of Chicago is surrounded
by a circuit of railways, which may be said to follow Michigan Avenue,
Canal Street, Sixteenth Street, and Kinzie Street. Following the same
lines, a subway circuit may be constructed for handling freight, and
another for passengers, the latter running, however, on Twelfth and
Washington. To this circuit would be tangent three others enclosing
areas increasing in size around the center of the city as above
described. By means of these circuits a complete system of distribution
of passengers and freight may be secured. To the inner circuit will
relate the various services of distribution of the elements of life,
produce, and commodities for manufacture; and on it should be placed
the freight substations, the markets for general produce, the main
post-office, and postal substations. The various services for water,
sewers, power, telephone, and telegraph, also may be schemed on the
inner circuit as a basis. To it will also correspond the inner circuit
of boulevard circulation.
Although these various circuits do not correspond in exact detail
to one another, they may be said to be virtually superposed, and to
serve not only the intensely active center of the city, but also the
enclosing zone as far as the second boulevard circuit—Michigan Avenue,
Twenty-second Street, Ashland Avenue, and Chicago Avenue—an ideal
condition if the main circulation of the streets be left free and
uninterrupted in its working.
The center line on which balance the circuit A, and all the others to a
greater or less degree, is the axial line of Congress Street. The two
great arteries, Halsted and Congress streets, may be said to form the
grand crossing, at the intersection of which it is proposed to place
the civic center. The base of this civic center touches the west side
of the inner circuit, tangent to which are all the other circuits. The
importance of this inner circuit will thus be seen. The tangent or line
of coincidence extends from Lake Street to Sixteenth Street. It may
be used as the clearing-house for all the interests above described,
coming to and going from the heart of the city.
[Illustration: LXXIV. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF THE CITY CENTER, SHOWING THE
GENERAL LOCATION OF EXISTING FREIGHT YARDS AND RAILROAD LINES, THE
PRESENT TUNNEL SYSTEM AND PROPOSED CIRCUIT, AND CONNECTIONS FOR ALL
THESE SERVICES, RUNNING TO THE CENTRAL CLEARING YARDS.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The passenger lines entering the densely inhabited parts of the city
should not cross each other or carriage roads at grade. Much has been
done already, and much more is proposed to eliminate grade crossings.
In European cities, and in some American cities as well, the railroads
have taken great pains to beautify their rights-of-way, a step very
important to the roads themselves, to individual passengers, and to the
community at large. Cleanliness and pleasing treatment of the roadways,
the embankments, the drainage channels, the fences, the yards, and
the stations, large and small, insure better service on the part of
the railroad employees, while the appearance of the city is immensely
improved thereby.
[Illustration: LXXV. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF THE CITY, SHOWING COMPLETE
SYSTEM OF INNER CIRCUITS.
(1) General traction subway circuit. (2) General railroad freight
circuit.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The terminal stations in the city should be either above or below the
street levels. They should be centrally located, but always arranged so
as to avoid the closing of streets. The two best available locations
for permanent passenger stations for all the roads are, first, between
Canal and Clinton streets from Lake Street to Twelfth Street, and
on Twelfth Street widened as proposed. In the case of the terminal
stations between Canal and Clinton streets, the tracks either under
or over street grades may be allowed to extend out to the street
curb lines and possibly farther. Whether under or over the grade,
the railroads should be allowed to occupy this entire space. In case
the overhead system be adopted, there should be two open plazas, one
preferably at Washington Street and the other at Congress Street; and
the plazas should have no tracks above them, except passovers on each
side of the plazas.
[Illustration: LXXVI. DRESDEN. VIADUCT AND RAILWAY STATION (HAUPT
BAHN-HOF) PASSING ABOVE THE NORMAL STREET LEVEL, ILLUSTRATING THE TYPE
PROPOSED IN THE OVERHEAD SCHEME FOR RAILWAY STATIONS WEST OF THE RIVER.]
In case of overhead installation, the roads may, for the present,
burn coal in their locomotives. In case of depressed rights-of-way
coal cannot be burned unless the spaces from street to street over
the railways be kept open. In the long run, it will be very costly to
do this, because all this space from street to street, so long as not
needed by the railroads, could be used for markets, commercial booths,
and warehouses, the rentals reducing the cost of operation to the road.
[Illustration: LXXVII. VIENNA. A RAILWAY VIADUCT PASSING OVER AN
IMPORTANT STREET.]
In case of elevation, the viaducts over the streets should have
sidewalk lights between the rails, and these viaducts should be freed
of posts, deep girders being used; the walls and pavements should be
as nearly white as possible. The Eighth Street subway under the Union
Station yard at Washington, D.C., is a good example of what such a
structure should be. There is no reason why these viaducts should
not be very attractive when brilliantly lighted. Each should have a
handsome police house in the center, with windows arranged to give a
clear view of the entire space included under the tracks. There is no
reason why this construction, even if elevated, should not present a
very pleasing appearance as seen from Canal Street or Clinton Street.
Whether there are buildings or only unoccupied spaces beneath, they can
be enclosed by masonry walls extending high enough above track level
effectually to screen the trains from view. Such a structure would
be similar in general effect to the great Roman aqueducts. It might
be made not only of practical value, but at the same time a highly
interesting and even a grand architectural detail lending orderly
distinction to that part of the city.
[Illustration: LXXVIII. SUGGESTED LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE
RAILWAY PASSENGER STATIONS WEST OF THE RIVER. SUBWAY SCHEME: 1. PLAN
OF STREET LEVEL. 2. PLAN BELOW STREET LEVEL.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The Twelfth Street location would extend from State Street west to
the South Branch of the Chicago River, straightened as shown on the
diagram, according to the design for the passenger stations of Chicago
which was made and published years ago. Here the purpose is to care
for passenger service of every sort, except that of roads coming in
on the West Side system. These stations should open on the great
Twelfth Street Boulevard, which in front of the stations should be
two hundred and fifty feet wide, and east and west of the stations
should be one hundred and eighty feet in width. This boulevard would
begin to rise at Michigan Avenue, and at the final elevation, which is
at the level of the main floor of the stations, should pass over the
River on a double-deck bascule bridge. This thoroughfare should come
to the present street level at Canal Street, where there is to be a
round-point from which a new street should extend to the civic center.
As a one hundred and fifty foot wide boulevard, Twelfth Street should
continue westward until it joins the West Park Boulevard now existing
on the same line, west of Ashland Avenue. The present rights-of-way
of the railroads passing under Twelfth Street can go into business
use without loss to the corporations owning them. The freight systems
and trackage for all of these roads should be underneath the proposed
passenger stations and their yards.
[Illustration: LXXIX. SUGGESTED LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE RAILWAY
PASSENGER STATIONS WEST OF THE RIVER. OVERHEAD SCHEME: 1. PLAN AT
STREET LEVEL. 2. PLAN ABOVE STREET LEVEL.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
No more modern or perfect machine could possibly be devised for both
passenger and freight in a great city’s heart than that included in the
two schemes above shown and explained. Of necessity they should have an
ideal street-car connection with all parts of the city. To accomplish
this result it is proposed:
_First_, to carry the elevated loop along the side and east of the West
Side passenger system; along the side and south of the Twelfth Street
passenger system; thence over to the Alley L as at present, around by
Lake Street and across to the West Side passenger station, forming a
complete overhead circuit.
_Second_, there should be a surface street-car circuit following the
same route, with minor circuits within it.
_Third_, there should be an underground street-car system following
substantially the same route as first mentioned above, but extending
under the main branch of the River and running east and west at or near
Michigan Street. Two extensions of this service are shown north of the
River, two south of Twelfth Street, and one west, at or near Ashland
Avenue.
This entire system of stations and street-car routes is shown on
diagram marked No. LXXX. If carried out, many times the present number
of people can be handled in the center of Chicago; and all streets can
be kept open on their present level north and south, east and west,
giving every possible opportunity for circulation on foot and in wagons
and carriages, since surfaces would be available for carrying people
below and above the present grades.
The better circulation of people on the streets and on street-car
systems is not all or even the principal gain anticipated. Of first
importance is the restoration to general business of the territory
from State Street to the South Branch of the River, and from Van Buren
Street south to Twelfth Street. This area is almost as large as our
present central business district of Chicago, in which there can now
be no extension of such of our great industries as can succeed only
when operated in the very center of the business district. Present
conditions are crowding out enterprising men and vast capital. This
new area must be added to the old, and by no other means than those
proposed can this be done. The regions north of the main River and
west of the South Branch are filling up solidly and very rapidly with
business, such as is not and never will be done on the old location
from Van Buren Street to Water Street; meanwhile there is the most
urgent necessity of extending the space for the kind of business that
is and always will be done on such a location as the one proposed. If
this is the case now, what will be the case ten years hence? We cannot
act too promptly in regard to creating and maintaining perfect street
circulation, car circulation, and extension of area for the heart of
Chicago. We cannot get ready too soon for the enormous extension of all
those facilities the necessity for which is already pressing.
By the arrangement of passenger stations at Canal and Twelfth streets,
the business center is convenient for pedestrians, and with the
addition of the underground and overhead loops, the entire business
district is within easy and comfortable reach. This applies to both
through and suburban passenger traffic.
This report does not go into details of the roadways and stations,
either trunk or intramural. Routes are suggested which seem to be
the natural and logical ones. The expert engineers will find the
best solutions of the constructive and mechanical problems as they
arise. But all citizens are interested to see that the best and most
comprehensive general schemes shall be adopted, and that in carrying
out of any one of them, every detail shall be designed and executed
with regard to its effect on the senses as well as on the basis of mere
mechanical or constructive excellence. A million Chicago people who
habitually use railway facilities will possess a higher average of good
citizenship when the irritation of nerves is reduced to the minimum,
and within a few years most of the waking hours of a million Americans
will be spent in the business center of Chicago, where unpleasant
sights and sounds should be abolished. The community will get far more
out of its million workers when their nerves cease to be wracked by
irritating conditions.
[Illustration: LXXX. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF CITY CENTER, SHOWING THE
PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT OF RAILROAD PASSENGER STATIONS, THE COMPLETE
TRACTION SYSTEM, INCLUDING RAPID TRANSIT, SUBWAY, AND ELEVATED ROADS,
AND THE CIRCUIT SUBWAY LINE.
The last is designed,—(A) To connect all railroad stations with one
another. (B) To connect passengers from all points of the city within
and without the center with the railroad stations by transfer from
the subway line proposed in the Arnold Report. (C) To supplement by
transfer the interchange of passengers from traction lines going
through the center from the North, South, or West to any point in the
city.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
Again, the noises of surface and elevated road cars is often
excruciating. It is not denied that this evil can be largely mitigated.
These conditions actually cause misery to a large majority of people
who are subjected to the constant strain, and in addition they
undoubtedly cause a heavy aggregate loss of money to the business
community. For the sake of the state, the citizen should be at his
best, and it is the business of the state to maintain conditions
conducive to his bodily welfare. Noises, ugly sights, ill smells, as
well as dirty streets and workshops or offices, tend to lower average
efficiency. It does not pay the state to allow them to continue.
Moreover, citizens have pride in and loyalty to a city that is quiet,
clean, and generally beautiful. It is not believed that “business”
demands that our present annoying conditions be continued. In a state
of good order all business must be done better and more profitably.
With things as they should be, every business man in Chicago would make
more money than he does now.
[Illustration: LXXXI. CHICAGO. RAILROAD RIGHTS-OF-WAY AND PROPERTIES IN
THE CENTER OF CITY AND THE EXISTING RADIAL ARTERIES.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
In regard to the mail service of Chicago this report can have little
to say. Only expert public officials trained in handling the mails
are capable of discussing it; and apart from the pneumatic tube or
other circulatory system it does not affect our special problem. From
motives of economy the Federal Government has incorporated post-offices
in the same buildings with United States courts and other public
offices. The time has come for a change in this respect, and it is to
be hoped that such a building or buildings as this service will need
in order to do its great and fast-growing business will be located
where needed for post-office purposes, and be designed as to subserve
these special functions. The Federal Government should work out a
complete scheme for handling the mail matter of Chicago. The location
of the central post-office and substations should be determined with
a view to economical reception and distribution, all having reference
to one another, to the railway mail stations in the city and suburbs,
and, as before stated, to the general system of railway circuits. If
it be possible to determine the future route of overhead, surface,
and elevated street-car systems, they should be brought into the
consideration of the Chicago mail service scheme. Strict economy and
quick collections and delivery are all involved in this study.
The general trend of improvement is in the direction of central plants
for heating, lighting, and power, because such plants are found to
do the work more economically than separate stations. The individual
buildings would, in such a case, cost less initially by leaving out
much of the mechanical work now installed; and also they would make
saving by greater cleanliness, due to improved atmospheric conditions.
For it stands to reason that the abolition of a large majority of the
smokestacks of the down-town district would improve the air we breathe,
and relieve us of much of the cost of cleaning buildings, inside and
out, and of protecting goods.
[Illustration: LXXXII. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF GENERAL SCHEME OF STREET
CIRCULATION AND PARKS IN RELATION TO THE AREAS COVERED BY INDUSTRIES
AND MANUFACTURES (RED). THE CENTER OF INDUSTRIES IS INDICATED BY A
STAR. RAILROAD PROPERTIES AND LINES IN BLUE.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The embellishment of stations and station grounds of railroads first
began in this country on the Boston and Albany and the Pennsylvania
roads. It is now a feature all over the country; it adds immensely
to the pleasure and comfort of travel, and especially of suburban
travel. So strong is this attraction that many an owner of a large
subdivision in the suburbs not only recognizes it, but he puts into
practice at and near the station all the arts of landscaping at his
command. In a very few places especial pains have been taken to plant
for winter effect, as well as for effects depending on full foliage
and blossoming shrubs. New winter effects should be studied in the
parks, boulevards, playgrounds, and for all stations. It generally
calls for expenditure of thought; but very little, if any, extra
expenditure of money is involved in procuring charming results.
As a rule, the general aspect of our suburban stations is not
pleasant. They should be bright, cheery, and inviting in a high
degree. More study, not more money, is needed for this work. Let the
architectural schools and societies take up this topic; it demands
artistic imagination as well as skill. Let the man who undertakes
this problem think of the hundreds or even thousands of people who
must habitually use the given station, and let him do his utmost to
bring into being for these people something that shall be a joy to
them. A delightful station conduces to cheerfulness as a man goes
to work and as he comes home, while a shabby or neglected station
produces the opposite effect.
The problems of transportation have been viewed entirely from the
standpoint of the paramount interests of Chicago as a commercial
city. It has been assumed that what is for the greatest advantage
to the city as a whole, will also be of the greatest benefit to the
transportation lines both collectively and individually. Just as the
realization of other portions of the plan call for harmonious and
united action on the part of civic authorities, so the carrying out
of the recommendations in respect to transportation will necessitate
unity of action on the part of the managers of transportation
facilities. Each must yield in some particulars in order to bring
about the great end sought; but whatever concessions may be called
for, they will be found insignificant when compared with the great
gain which will result to the transportation systems themselves
from creating here in the central metropolis of the United States a
complete system of handling both freight and passenger traffic so as
to promote the convenience of the people, and to enhance the commerce
of the city of Chicago.
[Illustration: LXXXIII. THE VIADUCT AT AUTEUIL OVER THE RIVER SEINE,
PARIS, FRANCE.]
[Illustration: LXXXIV. CHICAGO. THE CENTER OF THE CITY LOOKING WEST,
SHOWING GRANT PARK, THE HARBOR, AND THE CIVIC CENTER.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
CHAPTER VI
NATURAL FEATURES OF CHICAGO: NECESSITY FOR COMPREHENSIVE TREATMENT
OF THE STREET SYSTEM: STREETS WITHIN THE CITY: THE RESIDENCE
STREET, THE AVENUE, AND THE BOULEVARD: STREET ARCHITECTURE: THE
STREETS OF CHICAGO: PROPOSED NEW CIRCUITS
Chicago has two dominant natural features: the expanse of Lake
Michigan, which stretches, unbroken by islands or peninsulas, to
the horizon; and a corresponding area of land extending north,
west, and south without hills or any marked elevation. These two
features, each immeasurable by the senses, give the scale. Whatever
man undertakes here should be either actually or seemingly without
limit. Great thoroughfares may lead from the water back into the
country interminably; broad boulevards may skirt the Lake front, or
sweep through the city; but their beginnings on the north, on the
south, or on the west must of necessity be points that move along
determined lines with the growth of population. Other harbors have
channels winding among islands or around jutting promontories until
the landlocked basin is reached; but Chicago must throw out into
the open water her long arms of piled-up rock in order to gather
in safety the storm-tossed vessels. Other cities may climb hills
and build around them, crowning the elevations with some dominating
structure; but the people of Chicago must ever recognize the fact
that their city is without bounds or limits. Elsewhere, indeed, man
and his works may be taken as the measure; but here the city appears
as that portion of illimitable space now occupied by a population
capable of indefinite expansion.
Whatever may be the forms which the treatment of the city shall take,
therefore, the effects must of necessity be obtained by repetition
of the unit. If the characteristics set forth suggest monotony,
nevertheless such are the limitations which nature has imposed; and
unless the problem is faced squarely no treatment proposed will seem
adequate or will prove lastingly satisfactory. On the other hand, the
opportunity now exists to create out of these very conditions a city
which shall grow into both convenience and order, and shall possess
all the means of making its citizens prosperous and contented.
It is in the grouping of buildings united by a common purpose—whether
administrative, educational, or commercial—that one must find an
adequate method of treatment; or again, in far-stretching lines of
lagoons, inviting the multitudes to seek recreation along the endless
miles of water front; or in broad avenues where the vista seemingly
terminates with a tower by day, or in the converging lines of lights
by night, in each case the mind recognizing that there is still space
beyond. Always there must be the feeling of those broad surfaces of
water reflecting the clouds of heaven; always the sense of breadth
and freedom which are the very spirit of the prairies.
At no period in its history has the city looked far enough ahead.
The mistakes of the past should be warnings for the future. There
can be no reasonable fear lest any plans that may be adopted shall
prove too broad and comprehensive. That idea may be dismissed as
unworthy a moment’s consideration. Rather let it be understood that
the broadest plans which the city can be brought to adopt to-day must
prove inadequate and limited before the end of the next quarter of a
century. The mind of man, at least as expressed in works he actually
undertakes, finds itself unable to rise to the full comprehension
of the needs of a city growing at the rate now assured for Chicago.
Therefore, no one should hesitate to commit himself to the largest
and most comprehensive undertaking; because before any particular
plan can be carried out, a still larger conception will begin to
dawn, and even greater necessities will develop.
The two prime considerations for every large city are, first,
adequate means of circulation; and second, a sufficient park area
to insure good health and good order. In those portions of the
city where congestion has brought about hindrances to traffic and
consequent waste, new streets must be created at whatever present
cost. Chicago has now reached that point in its growth when the
congestion within the city demands new and enlarged channels of
circulation, in order to accommodate the increasing throngs that
choke the narrow and inadequate thoroughfares. There is need, also,
for an orderly arrangement of public and semi-public buildings,
and for proper approaches to such structures, to express the power
and dignity of the city. One thinks of Paris, not as a place of so
many millions of people, but as the beautiful capital, in which the
artistic sense of the French people has found fullest expression.
London impresses one, not so much on account of its size, but because
of those monuments which the genius of the Anglo-Saxon race has
reared to mark great events and to commemorate great names in the
progress of civilization. In Berlin, in Vienna, and in every great
city of Europe it is the plan of the city, the character of its
monuments, the impressive location of its public buildings, the
picturesqueness of its thoroughfares, the development of its parks
and gardens, or the treatment of its water front that give the
character and charm which create individuality and interest.
[Illustration: LXXXV. CHICAGO. PLAN OF A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF STREET
CIRCULATION AND SYSTEM OF PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS, PRESENTING THE CITY
AS AN ORGANISM IN WHICH ALL THE FUNCTIONS ARE RELATED ONE TO ANOTHER.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: LXXXVI. CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE STREET AND BOULEVARD
SYSTEM PRESENT AND PROPOSED.
Proposed additional arteries and street widenings (orange); the
present park system (green); the proposed new parks and playgrounds
(hatched green). The proposed diagonal arteries are in every instance
extensions of those already existing, and around the center of the
city they serve to create, in conjunction with rectangular streets,
the proposed circuit boulevards.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: LXXXVII. CHICAGO. VIEW LOOKING WEST OVER THE CITY,
SHOWING THE PROPOSED CIVIC CENTER, THE GRAND AXIS, GRANT PARK, AND
THE HARBOR.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: LXXXVIII. CHICAGO. MAP SHOWING THE SUCCESSIVE CITY
LIMITS, AND A LINE TRACED FROM THE SITE OF FORT DEARBORN THROUGH THE
PRESENT CENTER OF POPULATION, REPRESENTING THE GENERAL TENDENCY OF
GROWTH.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
In all growing cities it has been necessary, as it is now necessary
in Chicago, to break through the conditions imposed by the lack of
an adequate and comprehensive plan at the beginning, and to create,
at large expense, those thoroughfares and boulevards and public
squares which the increasing demands of population and the larger
requirements of civic life require. The longer the beginning has been
postponed the harder has been the task and the greater the expense;
but whatever the labor and however large the cost, the result has
always been found more than compensation for the outlay. And so it
will be with Chicago. Every year of postponement will deprive its
citizens of advantages they might have enjoyed had they carried
out improvements the necessities of which have been universally
acknowledged.
People flock to those cities where conditions of work are good, where
means of recreation abound, and where there are attractions for the
senses and the intellect. Persons of wealth and refinement seek
such cities as their abiding-places; and those who have accumulated
wealth in a city bent on improvement remain there. Moreover, there
is no stronger appeal made to the American citizen of to-day than
comes from the call of one’s native or adopted city to enter upon the
service of creating better surroundings not only for one’s self, but
for all those who must of necessity earn their bread in the sweat
of their brows. Nor is the call of posterity to be denied. To love
and render service to one’s city, to have a part in its advancement,
to seek to better its conditions and to promote its highest
interests,—these are both the duty and the privilege of the patriot
of peace.
[Illustration: LXXXIX. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF GENERAL SCHEME OF STREET
CIRCULATION AND PARKS IN RELATION TO THE POPULATION.
The various densities of population, ranging from 0 to 25 persons per
acre to 250 to 300 per acre are indicated by different densities of
red color. The center of population is indicated by a star. Railroads
are shown in blue.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The thoroughfares of a city may be divided into three classes: the
street, by which is meant the general type of artery; the avenue,
on which tides of traffic and travel surge back and forth; and the
boulevard, designed primarily as a combination of park and driveway.
The first consideration for all thoroughfares is cleanliness,
which is the result of a good roadbed kept in thorough repair, and
unremitting care on the part of the city cleaning department. In the
congested retail district the desirable street width is from 80 to
100 feet, about equally divided between sidewalks and roadway. Here
the pavement should be smooth and noiseless; there should be frequent
islands of safety for the pedestrian crossing from side to side,
and occasional subway crossings; and the lighting, the signs, and
every accessory of the street should be arranged with regard to the
dictates of good taste. For streets carrying heavy tonnage a width
of from 70 to 90 feet is desirable, with a roadway width of a little
more than one-half the entire space, and here the pavements should be
of the most enduring character, regardless of noise.[22]
[Illustration: XC. CHICAGO. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF STREET
CIRCULATION, SHOWING EXISTING LINES OF TRAVEL (BLACK), AND PROPOSED
SUPPLEMENTARY LINES (ORANGE).
Circulation from north to south and east to west is already
established by the rectilinear system of streets. There is need of
additional facilities to be provided by street widenings and new
arteries. Circulation towards the center is partially established,
but the arteries need extending and developing, and circulation
across the city from the northwest to the south and east and from the
southwest to the north is lacking. It is proposed to remedy this lack
by extending existing diagonal streets.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
On residence streets the area devoted to pavement may well be
lessened to from 20 to 36 feet, according to the amount of traffic,
in order that greater area may be obtained for trees and grass plots.
This is highly desirable where, as in some sections is inevitable,
houses are crowded together or apartment buildings abound, so
that the smaller children may have playgrounds close at hand, and
restful shade may prevail. A well-kept grass plot in front of the
house induces habits of neatness and comfort within; and cool shade
brings people from cellars and dark rooms out into the light, thus
contributing to good order and a higher morality.
The greatest disfigurement of the residence street is found in the
varied assortment of poles which crowd out the trees along the
space between curb and sidewalk. There are trolley-poles, electric
lighting poles, poles for telephone wires, and poles for police
and fire-alarm purposes. The natural development of the city will
relegate the greater portion of such service into conduits controlled
by the municipality and occupied in common by the city and the
various public service corporations. So fast as streets are cleared
from these obstructions, the municipality should take over the
planting and maintenance of all trees in street spaces; so that the
planting may be effective and attractive throughout the entire way.
The present method of leaving such work to individuals necessarily
results in a ragged appearance of the street, and also fails to
provide that diversity in variety of trees which gives beauty and
individuality to the thoroughfare.
The avenue or traffic street should be of sufficient width to draw
to itself the streams of traffic passing from one point in a city to
distant points. Provision should here be made not only for vehicular
traffic, but also for street-car lines; and the two currents may well
be separated, so as to avoid interference with each other. This end
may be obtained as in Paris by a road lined with trees, or there may
be subdivision into various roadways, of which one is dominant. These
thoroughfares, when conforming to the rectilinear street system,
should be developed at intervals sufficiently frequent to accommodate
the traffic that naturally would be drained into them from the
narrower parallel streets and from the intersecting streets. In
order, however, to care for the traffic which flows from northeast to
southwest, and from northwest to southeast, and vice versa, diagonal
avenues become a necessity, in order to save time and consequent
expense.
Few cities have been laid out with sufficient foresight to provide
for such diagonals. It has usually happened that at first a small
city area has been developed, in which the need of diagonal
thoroughfares was not felt; and then as the city expanded subdivision
after subdivision has been added, wherein the original street system
has been followed, with no care or thought for the increased traffic
which growth begets. The one idea of those who make new subdivisions
is to secure the utmost space to sell immediately, leaving the future
to take care of itself. Hence it happens that, as a rule, when
diagonal streets become of prime necessity they must be created at
large expense, and with great temporary inconvenience. Yet whatever
the expense, such thoroughfares must be opened; and the city itself
is the gainer in each instance, not alone by the saving of time, but
also in the increased valuations for taxation which such improvements
inevitably bring about. Fortunately for Chicago a considerable number
of diagonals already exist, and the large part which they play in
promoting circulation offers the best argument for their extension
and completion. Blue Island and Milwaukee avenues, the happy
survivals of old country roads, now carry great streams of traffic,
while Ogden and Archer avenues and other lesser diagonals are of
large utility as time-savers.
[Illustration: XCI. CHICAGO. EXISTING AND (IN RED) PROPOSED DIAGONAL
ARTERIES.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The third class of thoroughfares are the boulevards properly so
called; the streets from which all heavier traffic is excluded; the
streets lined with commodious and even fine dwellings; the streets
where grass and shrubs and trees assert themselves, and where
there may well be continuous playgrounds for the children of the
neighborhood, such as many Chicago boulevards now provide. If in
certain sections buildings for light manufactures abut upon these
thoroughfares, the working people will then enjoy a maximum of fresh
air and light; and so will work with greatest effectiveness. The
boulevard also affords appropriate sites for statues and fountains,
and all other forms of adornment pleasing to the eye, making
attractive the city. The smaller parks may well be adjacent to the
boulevards, or may be expansions of them, thus providing for larger
playgrounds, for places of assembly, and for displays of plants and
flowers, and rare and beautiful trees, which appeal to the almost
universal love of nature. The principle governing the grouping of
boulevards and avenues is the establishment of through connection, so
that one thoroughfare shall lead into another, and that circulation
shall be everywhere promoted but never impeded.
[Illustration: XCII. PARIS. THE AVENUE DU BOIS DE BOULOGNE, LOOKING
TOWARDS THE ARC DE TRIOMPHE.]
[Illustration: XCIII. PARIS. THE TUILERIES GARDENS, AND CHAMPS
ÉLYSEÉS BEYOND, FORMING THE MAIN AXIS OF THE CITY.]
Along the curved avenues and the diagonals the architectural design
should avoid the building up of the thoroughfare structure by
structure, each one following the whim of its owner or the struggle
for novelty on the part of its architect. Without attempting to
secure formality, or to insist on uniformity of design on a large
scale, there should be a constant display of teamwork, so to
speak, on the part of the architects. The former days when each
architect strove to build his cornice higher or more elaborate
than the adjoining cornice are giving place, happily, to the saner
idea of accepting existing conditions when a reasonable line has
been established. There is as much reason why façades should live
together in harmony as there is for peace among neighbors. In the
case of open spaces, effectiveness of architectural design is to
be obtained only by a large unity in the entire composition. The
harmonious treatment of the buildings facing the circle opposite
the railway station in Rome and on the Place Vendôme in Paris, and
the plan adopted for the plaza in front of the Union Station at
Washington, all prove that an imposing effect can be produced by a
unified and grandly simple design. In Paris when attempt was made
to alter some of the houses in the Place Vendôme, the owners were
forbidden to do so, because the proposed alterations would have
spoiled the architectural symmetry of that circle.
[Illustration: XCIV. PARIS. THE CHAMPS ÉLYSEÉS, FROM THE PLACE DE LA
CONCORDE, SHOWING THE ARC DE TRIOMPHE IN VISTA.]
[Illustration: XCV. PARIS. VIEW FROM THE ARC DE TRIOMPHE ALONG THE
AVENUE DU BOIS DE BOULOGNE.]
Chicago, being a comparatively new city, escapes one difficulty
experienced in the re-formation of cities of the Old World; here
there are no buildings possessing either historical or picturesque
value which must be sacrificed in order to carry out the plans
necessary to provide circulation for a growing metropolis. The
absence of monumental structures, however, imposes other obligations
on the city planner. All the boulevards of Paris were established on
the models of the boulevards of Louis XIV., with two lines of trees
bordering the driveways, and lines of houses on each side of the
street, so that the mass of verdure almost entirely obscures the view
of the façades. In the new streets the houses are to have a different
system of alignment, so as to form a broken line which will admit of
alternate masses of masonry, and masses of green. In this manner the
boulevards will gain in artistic effect; while at the same time the
line of the façades will be lengthened, thereby making the interior
of the dwellings more healthful and agreeable. Much the same effect
is produced in many Boston and some Washington apartment buildings,
which are constructed on three sides of a court, leaving a mass of
green open to the street.
In laying out new thoroughfares or treating old ones it must be
remembered that with respect to traffic streets the increase in
population is constantly making larger demands for width, and that
on residence streets the city should not be burdened unnecessarily
with the cost of street construction and maintenance. Moreover,
there is great economy in the distinct separation of residence
streets from traffic streets. Whenever a street railway seizes upon
a residence street of ordinary size, that street immediately begins
to undergo transformation into a business street; and this change
while working its slow way causes depreciation in land values which,
save on favorably located corners, amounts to virtual confiscation.
With good planning these ruinous transformations become unnecessary,
and the purchase of a home then becomes a stable investment and not
a gambling hazard. Again, in every country experience has proved
that the clear and even remorseless cutting of main lines through
the district to be developed, and the division of great blocks into
traffic arteries and service streets is the soundest economy, as well
as the most effective means of reaching the sought-for end.
The second form of traffic interruption, arising from the
intersection of lines of movement, is complicated by reason of the
fact that here the pedestrian movement, as well as the vehicular
movement, must be taken into consideration. There are times when men
gather in the streets for patriotic purposes, as on the Fourth of
July and Decoration Day; or because of an eager desire to learn the
news of great events, like election results. The right of the people
to assemble for discussion is fundamental. All these requirements
must be met by the creation of open spaces, which appropriately may
be adorned by the statues of men of achievement, or may be ornamented
with fountains and memorials of various kinds. These spaces for
assembly and for embellishment should be arranged so as to allow
traffic to flow unvexing and unvexed. Nothing could be more of a
makeshift than the arbitrary regulations of the police in many of our
cities, where long detours are imposed on the wayfarer and vehicle
alike, in order to diminish that congestion which it is the task of
the city planner to prevent. Yet in no city in the world has this
intricate and perplexing problem been completely solved.
It is charged against the French system of “star-places” that they
invite congestion by concentrating traffic; and doubtless they are
open to this accusation when placed on great traffic thoroughfares,
unless pains are taken to insist on a movement similar to that of
a whirlpool, so that each entering vehicle shall be required to
move around the circumference until its particular street shall be
reached. The solution of a gentle junction of two lines in a common
line for a certain distance, like that of a railway, has advantages
which the city planner will not overlook. Whatever the form taken
in a particular instance, the angles in the lots produced by the
junction should be studied in order that the open space may not seem
to be unfinished, and also that the architect may not be compelled to
utilize sharp points unfitted for architectural treatment.
It should be borne in mind that directness is not the only
consideration. Traffic wagons when loaded naturally seek the shortest
course, but the great majority of vehicles and of pedestrians as
well are lured out of the direct line to streets made attractive
by the shops, the trees, or other embellishments. Often it happens
that unattractive streets, in spite of being shorter, are quite
deserted because they are spotted with vacant sites, ugly buildings,
and dreary spaces. Beauty allures while ugliness repels in city
architecture as in everything else. Moreover, every consideration
which affects the planning of a city as a whole is truly
architecture, and wherever there is evidence of foresight and the
relation of one part to another, there the mind finds the highest
satisfaction. Paris is the international capital because in its
planning the universal mind recognizes that complete articulation
which satisfies the craving for good order and symmetry in every part.
[Illustration: XCVI. SYSTEM OF TRAFFIC CIRCULATION PROPOSED BY M.
HÉNARD FOR PUBLIC PLACES.
A continuous gyratory movement reduces conflict of currents to the
minimum.]
If Chicago were to be relocated to-day, it would still be placed
at the spot where it now is; and if the streets were again to be
mapped, the same general system would be adopted, because the present
rectilinear street system best comports with the line of the Lake
front which nature has unalterably fixed. The rectilinear system
certainly accords with the ideas of rightness inherent in the human
mind; and also it involves a minimum waste of ground space. Moreover,
the River, for the most part, allows the use of the right-angled
system without playing havoc with the orderly arrangement of the
streets. It is only when and as the city increases in population that
diagonals become necessary in order to save considerable amounts
of time and to prevent congestion by dividing and segregating the
traffic. Thus it happens that no rectilinear city is perfect without
the diagonal streets; and conversely, having the rectilinear system,
the creation of diagonals produces the greatest convenience.
Now, while it happens that the planning of a new city imposes
straightness as a duty, and diagonals as a necessity, it is equally
true that a virtue should be made of these hard-and-fast conditions.
There is a true glory in mere length, in vistas longer than the eye
can reach, in roads of arrow-like purpose that speed unswerving in
their flight; and when and where the opportunity of level ground
permits, this glory should be sought after. Older cities may indeed
bend and curve their new streets to preserve what is picturesque or
historic; but new cities, built on level country, should see to it
that as subdivisions are platted, the streets and avenues shall be
adequate to bear the traffic which will come to them from the city
itself, and that such thoroughfares shall form an integral part of
the entire system of circulation.
[Illustration: XCVII. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF PARIS.
REPRODUCED FROM “LES TRANSFORMATIONS DE PARIS,” BY M. E. HÉNARD]
At the same time the elliptical avenue may be used to introduce
variety, and especially to serve as a link to connect parks. Chicago
had no encircling fortifications to turn into boulevards such as
those which beautify and distinguish the cities of Vienna, Brussels,
Rouen, Milan, and especially Paris; but such avenues may well be
created in order to relieve the monotony of the straight streets.
One such great parkway is shown on the plans, and it requires but a
glance to recognize the effectiveness of such a thoroughfare.
[Illustration: XCVIII. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF MOSCOW.
REPRODUCED FROM “LES TRANSFORMATIONS DE PARIS,” BY M. E. HÉNARD ]
Having discussed the general principles applicable to the arrangement
and development of streets within a city, we come to the specific
problem. The city of Chicago now extends for about twenty-six miles
along the Lake front, and has a width of not more than seven miles.
It is apparent that as population increases, the entire territory
between the present western boundaries and the Des Plaines River
will become thickly settled, and that as this occupation proceeds
the pressure of the increased numbers to reach the business district
and the Lake front will work serious congestion, unless additional
thoroughfares shall be created in order to add to transit facilities
inadequate even at the present time. Obviously it is idle to expect
those who plat subdivisions for the mere purpose of selling land to
make provision for a circulatory system sufficiently comprehensive
to meet the requirements of a growing city. That task belongs to the
city itself, and the only way in which it can be accomplished is by
the preparation and adoption of a plan for platting all those lands
adjacent to the city which are reasonably certain to be included
within the enlarged boundaries. The entire territory extending
westward to the Des Plaines should be laid out to meet future
requirements, with the requisite area for residences, as well as
wide thoroughfares for traffic, well-planned diagonals to gather and
distribute the travel, and adequate park spaces. As the architects of
Louis XIV. laid out streets and avenues of Paris far in advance of
occupation, and as the United States government adopted a plan for
the development of the entire District of Columbia in accord with
the original L’Enfant plan, so the authorities of Chicago should see
to it that when and as new subdivisions are platted in any portion
of Cook County not now included within the city boundaries, the
thoroughfares in those subdivisions shall be fitted to care for the
traffic that will be imposed upon them by reason of their location in
relation to the business district.
[Illustration: XCIX. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF BERLIN.
REPRODUCED FROM “LES TRANSFORMATIONS DE PARIS,” BY M. E. HÉNARD]
The functions of the diagonals and circuits proposed for the area
impinging upon the business district are three in number: first,
to allow traffic seeking the center to reach its destination
expeditiously; secondly, to divert from the center traffic not having
its objective point within the central area; and, thirdly, to afford
direct passage through the center in those cases where such crossing
is necessary.
[Illustration: C. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF LONDON.
REPRODUCED FROM “LES TRANSFORMATIONS DE PARIS,” BY M. E. HÉNARD]
The matter of widening avenues by means of regulating the frontage
is largely one of conservation. That is to say, along streets
where residences predominate the thoroughfare should be widened by
acquiring all the property to the line of the buildings, so that
as the street changes its character from a residence to a business
thoroughfare it shall not be narrowed at the very time when greater
width is desirable. In short, the city should acquire and own the
front yards, just as the Federal government owns the space between
houses and sidewalks in Washington. For example, Chicago Avenue gives
one the impression of a splendid boulevard, owing to the fact that
the buildings are set well back from the street; but eventually the
avenue will be narrowed to 100 feet, unless the yard spaces shall be
acquired, as acquired they can be at small expense, so long as the
purpose is to keep the space open.
[Illustration: CI. CHICAGO. VIEW OF GRAND BOULEVARD.]
The diagonals are the most useful and necessary arteries. Those
belonging to the first circuit passing around the business center are
as follows:
Chicago Avenue and Lincoln Park Boulevard to Milwaukee Avenue and
Canal Street, crossing the river north of the junction of its three
branches;
From the intersection of Washington and Canal streets running to
Halsted and Congress streets;
From Halsted and Congress streets to Twelfth and Canal streets,
and from the latter intersection across the river at Sixteenth
Street to Archer Avenue at State Street and Cottage Grove Avenue at
Twenty-second Street.
For the most part, these diagonals would run through wholesale
and manufacturing districts, passing near some of the railroad
freight yards and intercepting the traffic to the city from the
other outlying freight yards. This traffic, once having reached
the circuit, would make use of it as a means of getting around the
congested district.
[Illustration: CII. CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE LAKE SHORE DRIVE.]
[Illustration: CIII. CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE CITY, SHOWING THE GENERAL
SYSTEM OF BOULEVARDS AND PARKS EXISTING AND PROPOSED.
The boulevards are planned to form a continuous system of
circulation; the parks are related closely to the boulevard system,
and are located, wherever possible, in connection with them.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
As the city increases in population, its retail and business district
necessarily expands also, the rise in values of the real estate
forcing the wholesale interests farther away from the center.
Traffic on these circuit arteries would thus change in character,
and they might eventually be made boulevards to carry traffic of
every description except that of heavy teaming. The argument for the
circuit as described is equally strong when considered with regard
to any form of traffic. It is based on a general experience in other
cities, which proves that there is a gradual evolution from mere
utility to a service of a lighter and more agreeable character. For
example, the Square of the Innocents in Paris, once a cloistered
cemetery, is now a playground, and serves as a breathing space for
the densely populated neighborhood. Some such evolution will come
in the case of the present freight yards lying along the river,
which ultimately will be abandoned for freight purposes, just as
the fortifications of Paris and Vienna have been transformed from
absolute utility to useful purposes of an entirely different nature.
When the freight yards shall be abandoned as industrial sites a large
tract of territory will be available for public purposes, and the
growing population might easily demand the space for recreation; and
the fact that the available space lies along the river will be of
double advantage, since river banks furnish an agreeable variety when
they extend throughout a city.
[Illustration: CIV. CHICAGO. VIEW OF DREXEL BOULEVARD.]
In addition to the diagonals shown on the diagram are the existing
roads running beside the great railway rights-of-way. Some of these
already extend far out in the country, and also penetrate inside the
city. All of them should be improved, and missing links should be
supplied. When, at perhaps no distant day, the railroads entering the
city come to be operated by electricity, no better highways can be
imagined. They should be broadened, ornamented, and made to serve as
great arteries. Outside the city limits, and often inside them, these
highways beside the railways penetrate populous districts, where they
are of increasing importance. They should be drained, paved, and
planted in the best manner, and it is of first importance that there
should be no grade crossings of carriageways and railways. This work
of improvement which is already in progress inside the city should
be carried on until every crossing within the territory shown on the
main diagram or encircling highways shall be eliminated.
[Illustration: CV. CHICAGO. VIEW OF MICHIGAN AVENUE, LOOKING NORTH.]
In time the streets within the business center will be taxed to the
utmost on the surface, on the overhead tramways, and underneath the
present grades. Knowing this, it is important to provide means to
divert as much as possible the movement of people around the center
when business or pleasure does not necessitate passing into or through
it. The topography of Chicago is such that this may be accomplished
readily. The shore of the Lake bends rapidly away toward the northwest
north of North Avenue, thus placing the center of population of that
section so far west that traffic can go directly to the South Side
without passing through the business district, if only means to this
end be provided; and at the same time the people of the West side
can easily reach the North and South Sides, south of the business
districts, without passing through the center.
The streets should be arranged and improved so as to provide for such
lines of travel. At present, nearly every one going from one section
of the city lying outside of the center to another section outside
of the center comes into the business district and passes through it
on his way. This movement includes pedestrians, passengers on the
elevated and surface cars, and wheeled vehicles; it also includes
teams and trucks of every description, including those for fire
and police services. It is obvious that direct and well-improved
thoroughfares should enable this traffic to pass outside the
congested center from one section to another.
[Illustration: CVI. CHICAGO. INTERSECTION OF THE THREE BRANCHES OF
THE CHICAGO RIVER.
Plan suggested to facilitate traffic circulation by means of two
additional bridges placed as proposed for the north-and-south
boulevard at Michigan Avenue, on a level above the present street,
and connected eventually with streets to be built on either side of
the River.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The main portion of the proposed grand circuit would extend from a
park at the intersection of Graceland and West avenues, around to
Gage Park, thence on Fifty-fifth Boulevard to Michigan Avenue, and
thence north to Graceland Avenue at the Lake, a distance of nearly
thirty miles. This great circuit can be utilized for continuous
playgrounds sweeping around the center and connecting the dense
populations that will inhabit the North and South Sides; and thus
it will be of inestimable value. To this circuit traffic would
come from considerable distances on either side of it, then follow
its line until reaching a street leading directly to that portion
of the city for which it is destined. By such a route congested
business and manufacturing territories may be avoided, and thus it
would serve the purpose of many diagonals that otherwise must be
created. As a continuous park it would furnish breathing space and
playgrounds for a very large number of people, and become a most
popular avenue for pleasure as well as for necessary circulation.
Moreover, the great circuit seems to be the line most normal to all
the great existing radials, and thus it would be the most economical
method of furnishing quick and easy communication. Also it expresses
in an ideal manner what is aimed at by all inner circuits, which
are angular because of the prohibitive cost of making them follow a
continuous curve; and also because a curve for the inner circuits
would not develop the necessary articulation with existing important
rectangular streets. The degree of curvature of this outer circuit
parkway insures an extremely noble effect along its entire length and
makes many picturesque angles with the intersecting streets. As a
whole, it is intended to be a stately highway, such as does not now
exist in any city.
The next circuit inside the grand one now largely exists in the form
of the great park boulevards of Michigan Avenue, Grand Boulevard, or
Drexel Boulevard to Washington Park, Fifty-fifth Street to Gage Park;
thence by the West Park boulevards through the West Parks, back by
Diversey Boulevard to the Lake, and south to Michigan Avenue. Another
circuit is on the same route as the one last mentioned, except that
it does not extend so far to the south as Fifty-fifth Street, but
goes west to McKinley Park as shown on the diagram.
A circuit of very great ultimate importance would extend on Michigan
Avenue from Chicago Avenue to Twenty-second Street; thence on
Twenty-second Street to Halsted; on Halsted diagonally to the corner
of Ashland and Twelfth streets; thence north on Ashland to Union
Park; from Union Park diagonally to the corner of Chicago Avenue and
Halsted, thence east on Chicago Avenue to the Lake. This route should
be a great thoroughfare, affording every facility for the movement
of people on foot, in carriages, or in street cars, and for teams as
well. It should be very wide and well planted.
The innermost circuit utilizes Michigan Avenue, Twelfth Street, and
Canal Street; thence diagonally to Halsted and Congress streets;
thence again diagonally to Washington and Canal streets; thence
on Washington Street to the Lake. This circuit should have an
underground and an overhead loop for passengers, except that the
overhead line should swing over Wabash Avenue instead of over
Michigan Avenue.
The following existing east-and-west streets should be widened and
much improved: Graceland Avenue, Diversey Boulevard, North Avenue,
Indiana Avenue, Chicago Avenue, Washington Street, Congress Street
extended and very much widened. Twelfth Street should become a
great viaduct, beginning at grade at Michigan Avenue and extending
elevated over to Canal; and it should not be less than 180 feet in
width as shown on drawings. Sixteenth Street and also Twenty-second
Street should be widened. It would be wise, also, to widen each
of the section-limit streets running east and west, and also the
half-section streets.
South Park Avenue (which is the extension of Grand Boulevard) should
be carried over the Illinois Central right-of-way from Twenty-second
Street to Grant Park, over which it should pass to that railroad’s
north freight yards; thence over the yards and the main branch of
the river, and on until it connects with the Lincoln Park Lake Shore
Drive on the North Side. This would form a continuous outer boulevard
connecting the Lincoln Park and South Park systems with the utmost
correctness, and in a fine manner. This way would enable people to
pass by the business center when they do not desire to enter it, and
would be an additional thoroughfare to and from the center.
[Illustration: CVII. CHICAGO. VIEW LOOKING NORTH ON THE SOUTH BRANCH
OF THE CHICAGO RIVER, SHOWING THE SUGGESTED ARRANGEMENT OF STREETS
AND WAYS FOR TEAMING AND RECEPTION OF FREIGHT BY BOAT, AT DIFFERENT
LEVELS.
Examples of the arrangement exist at Algiers, Budapest, Geneva, and
Paris.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The cost of this improvement would amount to comparatively little
for condemnation of private property; the space to be taken would
be only that necessary to widen Grand Boulevard to Twenty-second
Street, and to carry through the route on the North Side portion. The
right-of-way over the railroad from Twenty-second Street to Grant
Park, and from Grant Park to the river should be obtained without
cost.
The Chicago River, which gave to the city its location and fostered
its commerce, has become a dumping spot and a cesspool; bridges of
every possible style and condition span it at irregular intervals
and at all angles; and year by year riparian owners have been
permitted to encroach upon its channel until there are to be found
as many as four lines of docks, each newer one having been built
further into the stream. Tunnel-backs have restricted its depth
for purposes of navigation. The widening proposed by the Sanitary
District authorities and the fact that almost all the docks are in a
dilapidated condition will combine to make changes imperative. The
opportunity should be seized to plan a comprehensive and adequate
development of the river banks, so that the commercial facilities
shall be extended, while at the same time the æsthetic side of the
problem shall be worked out.
Boulevards should extend from the mouth of the river along the North
and South branches and on both sides, at least from the mouth of the
river to North Avenue on the North Branch and to Halsted Street on
the South Branch. These thoroughfares would be an important factor
in the relief of traffic congestion down-town; they should be raised
above the normal traffic level in order to afford greater facility
of circulation, and to allow warehouses to be constructed below the
roadway. This upper level would thus connect the points on the river
at which the street scheme calls for an elevation, as in the case of
the north-and-south connecting boulevards, the junctions of the three
branches of the river, and Twelfth Street. These boulevards apart
from their practical advantages would become the most delightful
route to the Lake.
We have now considered with some detail the disposition of the
streets and avenues surrounding the intense business center of
Chicago. While this outer city area is occupied mainly by dwellings,
certain streets along which transportation lines pass, come to be
lined with shops throughout their entire length, so that one passes
from the center of affairs into the residence district without noting
the transition. As a rule, however, the density and importance of
the buildings decrease from the center to the circumference; and in
corresponding manner the highways of circulation and exchange may
diminish in width. It is essential, however, to provide encircling
or belt thoroughfares which act as collectors of traffic, and also
as distributors of it; so as to prevent the inextricable congestion
which inevitably arises when masses of people gathered along
converging lines attempt to penetrate the center at a single point.
However difficult it may be to provide against such congestion in
the case of older cities, a reasonable system of circulation in
connection with the business center of a comparatively new city like
Chicago should be accomplished with comparative ease. The widening
of some streets and the construction of needed arteries is made less
difficult by reason of the fact that the buildings which cover the
greater part of Chicago’s area beyond the business center are not of
a permanent character, and in the natural order of things they must
be replaced by others more substantial. Provision should be made now
so as to ensure that, as the transformation progresses, sufficient
land area shall be left unoccupied to provide good sanitary
conditions, and attractive streets as well.
The three requisites for this outer region, therefore, are: first,
convenient means of access to the main business center and to the
subordinate centers, which are the day’s working-places; secondly,
equally convenient means of access to the water and the fields and
forests, where the hours of recreation and refreshment are passed;
and, thirdly, as much light and air as possible for the dwellings and
the schools, where the home-keepers are occupied with their daily
tasks, and where the children are trained, either for weakness or for
strength, as physical conditions largely determine.
[Illustration: CVIII. CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE SOUTH SHORE LOOKING SOUTH
EAST OVER GRANT PARK.]
FOOTNOTES:
[22] The report to the Street Paving Committee of the Commercial Club
on the street paving problem of Chicago, by John W. Alvord, C. E.,
and an opinion by John S. Miller, Esq., on maintenance and repair of
Chicago streets (1904) is at once so comprehensive and so compact a
document that it is sufficient simply to call attention to it. After
discussing tendencies in this country and Europe, Mr. Alvord reaches
this conclusion: “Everywhere the main result is the same. So soon as
wealth and population increase to the point where luxury and comfort
can demand it, the economical and more durable pavements of stone or
granite on heavily traveled streets give way to pavement of shorter
life and higher maintenance cost, but of immensely greater comfort
to the public in the cessation of noise, smoothness for traffic, and
ease with which they may be kept in condition.”
[Illustration: CIX. CHICAGO. THE PROPOSED PLAZA ON MICHIGAN AVENUE.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
CHAPTER VII
THE HEART OF CHICAGO: OPPORTUNITY FOR CREATING A CONVENIENT AND
UNIFIED CITY: MICHIGAN AVENUE AS THE BASE OF A GREAT COMPOSITION:
THE WIDENING OF HALSTED STREET: A GROUP-PLAN FOR THE FIELD MUSEUM,
THE CRERAR LIBRARY, AND THE ART INSTITUTE: CONGRESS STREET AS THE
MAIN AXIS OF THE CITY: THE CIVIC CENTER
The Heart of Chicago is that portion of the city area between
Halsted Street and the Lake, and between the main river and Twelfth
Street. Within the next few years these boundaries will be enlarged
to include Chicago Avenue on the north, Ashland Avenue on the west,
and Twenty-second Street on the south. The treatment of this area,
having a length of approximately three miles north and south, and a
width of four miles from Ashland Avenue to the ends of the two great
piers planned to extend into the Lake at Chicago Avenue and again at
Twenty-second Street, involves the most serious problems encountered
in the plan of the city.
As the population of Chicago spreads itself over the area between
the Lake and the Des Plaines River the pressure on the Heart of
Chicago must of necessity increase in geometrical ratio. The ground,
being devoted to business purposes, will become so valuable that the
buildings will rise to the height permitted by law. These buildings
will be used for offices by corporations whose plants are scattered
throughout the wide territory of which Chicago is the metropolis;
for shops and banks; for hotels; for theatres and other places of
entertainment; for railroad passenger terminals; for churches and
public or semi-public structures, all of which will be resorted to by
hundreds of thousands of people who must pass daily into and out of
this comparatively small area.
The main problem to be solved is the disposition of the various
streams of traffic, so that people may reach expeditiously the
places to which their daily vocations call them. This problem
may be postponed, or it may be solved inadequately; but sooner
or later, as experience teaches, some solution must be found.
Postponement multiplies ultimate cost, and meantime creates a
constantly increasing burden of discomfort and loss of business. True
economy, therefore, dictates that the present moment, when already
congestion is a menace to the commercial progress of the city, shall
be seized upon as the proper time to begin a thorough regeneration
of the street system within the Heart of Chicago. Fortunately, the
general lines on which the changes should be made are determined by
opportunities so obvious that the development of a dignified and
thoroughly convenient composition would seem to come about quite
naturally. All that is necessary is to take advantage of existing
possibilities by combining the various elements into a consistent
whole. By so doing a unified city, wherein each portion will have
organic relation to all other portions, will result.
In considering the Heart of Chicago as a single composition it is
desirable to begin with the base line. Obviously this is found in
Michigan Avenue, which is already a broad thoroughfare, and is
now in process of being widened to a width of 130 feet throughout
that portion which is bordered by Grant Park. At the present time,
Michigan Avenue is the main connecting thoroughfare between the North
and South Sides; but it is much more than this. Office buildings,
hotels, clubs, theatres, music-halls, and shops of the first order
as to size and architecture line the western side of the avenue, the
Park opposite their fronts insuring light, air, and an agreeable
outlook. So desirable has this thoroughfare become that extensions of
it to the north or the south must enhance the value of the abutting
real estate, because of the increased opportunities such extensions
will create for continuing the building of structures of the highest
class.
Michigan Avenue is probably destined to carry the heaviest movement
of any street in the world. Any boulevard connection in Michigan
Avenue which fails to recognize the basic importance of the avenue
will be a waste of money and energy. Any impairment of the capacity
of this street at any point along its entire front, any weakening of
this foundation, is an error of the first magnitude.
At the present time the northern limit of this foundation of street
circulation on the Lake front is the water-tower on Chicago Avenue,
and the south limit is the intersection of Twelfth Street and
Michigan Avenue. This avenue or parkway should be made as spacious
as possible along its entire length. It should be wide enough to
provide two broad parallel roadways: one to be used by those who
wish to visit the shops, hotels, or theatres, and the other for the
passage of those who do not care to stop on their way through the
city. Between these roadways should be a broad sidewalk, and the walk
next to the buildings also should be very broad. This roadway should
be made attractive by effective planting. The trees framing the
boulevard may well be of the clipped variety in order to carry out
the architectural effect; and the lamps and other accessories should
be designed so as to give finish and unity to the composition.
The limit of width is fixed by the physical conditions of Michigan
Avenue between Randolph Street and the river. Here the distance
between the west side of Michigan Avenue and the west line of the
Illinois Central property is 246 feet. Michigan Avenue north of
Randolph Street is now 66 feet wide. The business blocks between
Michigan Avenue and Beaubien Court are 130 feet deep, and Beaubien
Court is 50 feet wide; a total of 246 feet. Therefore 246 feet is the
limit of possible width, and this is recommended as the width of the
proposed boulevard connection, every foot of which is part of this
Lake front parkway—the great base of Chicago’s street circulation.
[Illustration: CX. CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE COMPLETE SYSTEM OF STREET
CIRCULATION; RAILWAY STATIONS; PARKS, BOULEVARD CIRCUITS AND RADIAL
ARTERIES; PUBLIC RECREATION PIERS, YACHT HARBOR, AND PLEASURE-BOAT
PIERS; TREATMENT OF GRANT PARK; THE MAIN AXIS AND THE CIVIC CENTER,
PRESENTING THE CITY AS A COMPLETE ORGANISM IN WHICH ALL ITS FUNCTIONS
ARE RELATED ONE TO ANOTHER IN SUCH A MANNER THAT IT WILL BECOME A UNIT.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: CXI. CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE CENTER OF THE CITY, SHOWING
THE PRESENT STREET AND BOULEVARD SYSTEM.
The proposed additional arteries and street widenings (orange); the
present parks (green); and proposed new parks and playgrounds within
present shoreline (hatched green); the present railway properties,
lines, and stations, and the proposed new stations arranged on a
circuit boulevard (dark blue).
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: CXII. CHICAGO. PROPOSED BOULEVARD TO CONNECT THE NORTH
AND SOUTH SIDES OF THE RIVER; VIEW LOOKING NORTH FROM WASHINGTON
STREET.
The boulevard is raised to allow free flow of east-and-west teaming
traffic under it, and both Michigan Avenue and Beaubien Court are
raised to the boulevard level. The raised portion throughout its
entire length, from Randolph Street to Indiana Street, extends from
building line to building line. It is approached from the cross
streets by inclined roadways or ramps; these may be changed to the
east side or omitted.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
In a study of this problem several years ago, “along lines that
will not only meet the present requirements of the city, both as
to convenience and beauty, but which for years to come will meet
the needs of the city,” committees of the City Council, the Real
Estate Board, the architects, the South Park Board, and the Lincoln
Park Board, after consultation with the Mayor of Chicago and other
interested citizens, recommended the condemnation of all of the
land lying between Michigan Avenue and Beaubien Court from Randolph
Street to the river, in order that an adequate thoroughfare might be
provided. These committees, which contributed very much to a proper
understanding of the conditions, were convinced of the necessity of
taking all of the property rather than a strip of it. This parkway
should be reserved exclusively for the use of pedestrians and lighter
vehicles. It is the one great thoroughfare that can be so dedicated,
and commercial traffic should be excluded from it and amply provided
for elsewhere.
From Twelfth Street to Chicago Avenue the only east-and-west streets
crossing Michigan Avenue that carry a heavy commercial traffic are
the four east-and-west streets immediately south of the river, and
the four east-and-west streets immediately north of the river.
These eight east-and-west streets, together with the tracks and
sidings of the Chicago and Northwestern railway on the north bank
of the river, are the only points where commercial traffic comes
into collision with the north-and-south movement on the Lake front
parkway. Naturally the commercial cross-traffic that flows east and
west through these eight streets is particularly dense, being created
by the railway terminals, docks, and warehouses east of Michigan
Avenue, both north and south of the river. By actual count on a
given day it was found that between the hours of 8 and 10 o’clock in
the morning the pedestrian movement at the crowded crossing at the
intersection of Michigan Avenue with Randolph Street was 12,484. In
short, 104 people, sixty per cent of whom were probably women and
children, passed this corner every minute. On the same morning it
was ascertained that between 7 and 10 o’clock 893 trucks and light
vehicles moved in the intersection of one of these streets and
Michigan Avenue. Confusion and delay attendant upon the concentration
of such masses are certain to increase as the Illinois Central, the
Michigan Central, and the Wisconsin Central railways improve their
terminals, as the warehouses of this district are increased, and as
more docks or harbors are developed at the mouth of the river.
By the plan for the connecting boulevard, which would begin its rise
at Randolph Street, heavy traffic would be diverted into Lake Street
and other streets north, making the Randolph Street intersection
safer for pedestrian movement. The other streets crossing under the
parkway would be freed almost entirely of cross-traffic, and the
loss of time resulting from impeded movement would be reduced to the
minimum.
Evidently if this Lake front parkway is to be dedicated solely to
the use of the people, with commercial traffic excluded, it cannot
be carried across these east-and-west streets at the present level
of Michigan Avenue, without depressing these east-and-west streets.
After an investigation by engineers all thought of such street
depression has been abandoned. Therefore the boulevard connection
must be elevated from Randolph Street on the south to Indiana Street
on the north, if collision between two classes of traffic, both of
which are better served when kept apart, is to be avoided.
It is not, however, necessary to carry the connecting boulevard very
high. The present grade of Michigan Avenue at Randolph Street can
be raised one foot, or a little more, without difficulty, so that
from the street level at this point to the level of the boulevard
connection one block north, at the corner of Lake Street and Michigan
Avenue, the total rise would be about eleven feet, with a grade of
two and seven-tenths per cent. From Lake Street to South Water Street
the surface of the boulevard connection would rise only three feet
more on a grade of three-fourths of one per cent. North of South
Water Street the surface would rise very slightly to the bridge, from
which point it would continue to the north practically on a level,
until descending on a gentle grade to Lincoln Park Boulevard, near
Indiana Street, or to Ohio Street. The grades suggested are less than
those existing on Fifth Avenue in New York.
[Illustration: CXIII. CHICAGO. PLAN OF MICHIGAN AVENUE FROM TWELFTH
STREET TO THE RIVER, AND ITS EXTENSION ON PINE STREET TO CHICAGO
AVENUE.
The proposed double roadway is designed to accommodate the immense
volume of traffic which will be attracted to the Lake front. The
west roadway cares for shopping traffic and carriages waiting for
the crowds attending public functions; the eastern roadway carries
traffic through the business section without interference from
stationary vehicles. The boulevard proposed is raised above the three
streets north and south of the River (as shown in illustration No.
CV), thus creating an artery free from heavy teaming traffic at its
crossings from the North to the South Sides. A double-deck bridge
accommodates the north-and-south traffic-teaming below light vehicles
above.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
[Illustration: CXIV. CHICAGO. PROPOSED BOULEVARD AND PARKWAY ON
MICHIGAN AVENUE AND PINE STREET. View looking west across Grant Park,
showing the relation of the park to the boulevard.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
[Illustration: CXV. CHICAGO. PROPOSED BOULEVARD ON MICHIGAN AVENUE;
VIEW LOOKING NORTH FROM A POINT EAST OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY. ALSO
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPERTY EAST OF BEAUBIEN COURT, IN WHICH A RAILWAY
STATION MIGHT BE INCORPORATED.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
Not one roadway only, but the whole boulevard connection, 246 feet
wide, should rise gradually from Randolph Street, and every store and
building, both on the east side and on the west side of the parkway,
north as well as south of the river, would naturally open on the level
of the boulevard, exactly as the shops or hotels open on Michigan
Avenue south of Randolph Street. Furthermore, every building facing on
the boulevard connection would have direct access to the lower level
under the elevation (except for a portion of one block at each end),
so that goods could be brought into the buildings conveniently. This
lower level, well lighted, ventilated, and protected from weather,
would afford ideal conditions for handling commercial traffic. Part
or all of it could be solidly filled in if the authorities and the
property owners deemed this more desirable; it would not be necessary
to have all of the lower level open. From this lower level at street
intersections there would be inclined roadways or ramps, giving
comfortable facilities for pedestrians or carriages to reach the
parkway. It would not be necessary to place these ramps at exactly the
points where they are shown in the design; but they could be moved to
the east side of the parkway if for any reason that side offered an
advantage; or they could be eliminated if considered unnecessary.
[Illustration: CXVI. CHICAGO. VIEW OF PINE STREET.
The Waterworks tower is shown as a marker in the vista of the proposed
boulevard to connect the North and South Sides.]
The proposed bridge has two decks. The lower one, being designed for
commercial traffic, would provide for the present heavy teaming moving
north and south over the Rush Street bridge, without interrupting the
teaming during the construction of the new parkway, as the old bridge
could be retained until the completion of the new one.
[Illustration: CXVII. PARIS. VIEW OF THE RUE DE LA PAIX AND THE COLUMN
VENDÔME.]
The grade on the lower level approach up to the heavy teaming deck
from the south would be 2½ per cent as compared with the present
grade of nearly 5 per cent up to the present Rush Street bridge, and
5 per cent up to the present Dearborn Street bridge. The advantage of
the double-deck bridge recommended in this plan is set forth in the
statement of general requirements in the report made by the commission
of engineers to the Board of Local Improvements on the proposed
north-and-south boulevard connection. The engineers say: “The bridges
over the river may be of either the bascule or the vertical lift type,
and two single bridges may be used, one to accommodate boulevard
traffic, the other for team traffic; or one double-deck bridge may be
used, the upper deck to accommodate boulevard traffic, the lower deck
for team traffic. In the case of two bridges, the present Rush Street
bridge may be continued in service during the construction of the new
boulevard bridge, and after completion of the latter may be temporarily
used as a team traffic bridge. Eventually, however, Rush Street bridge
will have to be replaced by a new bridge, and during the construction
of the latter it will be necessary to divert the team traffic to other
crossings. This will cause some inconvenience to this traffic, which is
very heavy. The double-deck bridge avoids this difficulty, as it can be
completed and put in service without disturbing Rush Street bridge; so
that all the traffic of that bridge, both team and boulevard traffic,
can be at once transferred to the new bridge when this is ready.”
[Illustration: CXVIII. CHICAGO. MICHIGAN AVENUE, LOOKING TOWARDS THE
SOUTH.
Proposed double roadway running to a plaza at its intersection with
Twelfth Street, and a suggestion for buildings to surround the place,
including rearrangement of the Twelfth Street railway station.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
In the plan here presented, the surface of the elevated boulevard
connection at Lake Street would be only 11 feet higher than the present
Michigan Avenue, and the upper deck of the new bridge would be only 16
feet higher than the surface of the present Rush Street bridge, and
only 9¼ feet higher than the surface of the Jackson Boulevard bridge.
Looking south, a pedestrian would see before him Grant Park and the
improved Michigan Avenue; the view along the river, both east and
west, would offer an interesting picture of the business activities of
the city; on the north the wide avenue would end at the water-tower,
beyond which can be seen the waters of Lake Michigan opposite the
Lake Shore Drive. Thus the plan presents one of the most magnificent
highways of the world. It seizes and develops the finest opportunity
which Chicago possesses for this purpose. The people of Chicago, during
the past twenty-five years, have expended more than $220,000,000 in
permanent improvements. This fact proves conclusively that the city
is bent on increasing its traffic facilities; yet because there has
been no comprehensive plan for development of city thoroughfares, much
of this work must now be done over again. The proposed connecting
boulevard is but one detail in the plan of a great city, but it is one
of the most important. Unless the Lake front is dealt with as one great
thoroughfare, there is no excuse for the expenditure of a large sum of
money on a single span of it.
This great improvement will come because it is a part of a plan which
provides a basis of street circulation, and which will weld and unify
the three detached sides of Chicago; because it will improve facilities
for commercial traffic, and at the same time preserve for the people
the uninterrupted use of their greatest and most attractive highway.
[Illustration: CXIX. CHICAGO. SKETCH PLAN OF THE INTERSECTION OF
MICHIGAN AVENUE AND TWELFTH STREET.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
No less important than the widening and extension of Michigan Avenue is
the improvement of Halsted Street, often called “the king of streets”
by reason of its extreme length. This street begins near the Lake,
two and a half miles north of Lincoln Park, and thence runs directly
south through the center of population of Chicago to the southern city
limits and beyond them to Chicago Heights, a distance in the city of
over twenty miles. This street will inevitably be called upon to bear
a very heavy burden of traffic. One of the longest business streets
in the world, it is bound to become also one of the most important.
The necessity for widening Halsted Street becomes apparent when one
considers that this thoroughfare, situated midway between Michigan and
Ashland avenues, is already congested by reason of the traffic poured
into it by those important diagonals, Milwaukee Avenue on the northwest
and Blue Island Avenue on the southwest.
The conditions now prevailing near the intersection of Chicago Avenue
and Halsted Street need thorough transformation. There the smoke
from railroad shops and yards and from standing locomotives combines
with the soot sent up by nearly four hundred trains that come and
go each day. Steamships, tugs, and other river craft add their
contribution; the near-by tanneries and the garbage wagons contribute
their odors; the great coal docks, with their noisy buckets and
intermittent engines, increase the din; and the streets are covered
with the sawdust, coal, and dirt spilled from the thousands of wagons
that constantly use this crossing. Close to this intersection is a
cosmopolitan district inhabited by a mixture of races living amid
surroundings which are a menace to the moral and physical health of the
community.
[Illustration: CXX. CHICAGO. PRELIMINARY SKETCH OF THE PLAZA AT
MICHIGAN AVENUE AND TWELFTH STREET LOOKING SOUTH EAST.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
The electrification of the railways within the city, which cannot be
long delayed, will serve to change radically for the better the dirt
conditions in this neighborhood; but the slum conditions will remain.
The remedy is the same as has been resorted to the world over: first,
the cutting of broad thoroughfares through the unwholesome district;
and, secondly, the establishment and remorseless enforcement of
sanitary regulations which shall insure adequate air-space for the
dwellers in crowded areas, and absolute cleanliness in the street, on
the sidewalks, and even within the buildings. The slum exists to-day
only because of the failure of the city to protect itself against
gross evils and known perils, all of which should be corrected by the
enforcement of simple principles of sanitation that are recognized to
be just, equitable, and necessary. It is no attack on private property
to argue that society has the inherent right to protect itself against
abuses; and when the city itself leads the way by the creation of broad
streets well paved and cleaned, restrictions against overcrowding,
defective drainage, and the heaping of waste in yards and side streets
are but a logical sequence. In respect to street cleanliness and
adequate air-space, Chicago may well take a lesson from Berlin, where
the streets are kept clean by daily washings, and where a property
owner may build on only two-thirds of his land, leaving the remainder
for a court. Chicago has not yet reached the point where it will be
necessary for the municipality to provide at its own expense, as
does the city of London, for the rehousing of persons forced out of
congested quarters; but unless the matter shall be taken in hand at
once, such a course will be required in common justice to men and women
so degraded by long life in the slums that they have lost all power of
caring for themselves.
[Illustration: CXXI. CHICAGO. PROPOSED TWELFTH STREET BOULEVARD AT ITS
INTERSECTIONS WITH MICHIGAN AVENUE AND ASHLAND AVENUE.
The proposed railway terminals are shown fronting on the Boulevard at
its level, which is raised to allow north-and-south traffic to flow
underneath. Access to the Boulevard is provided at alternate streets.
The rise begins at Michigan Avenue and may end at Canal Street. From
the intersection of Twelfth and Canal streets a diagonal thoroughfare
is shown extending to the proposed civic center. Between this diagonal
and the River is shown the beginning of the proposed West Side railway
stations.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
[Illustration: CXXII. CHICAGO. RAILWAY STATION SCHEME WEST OF THE RIVER
BETWEEN CANAL AND CLINTON STREETS, SHOWING THE RELATION WITH THE CIVIC
CENTER.
This plan provides for the railways at a level below that of the
street, with the stations above.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
In other localities in Chicago besides the one adverted to like
conditions prevail, and must be dealt with in similar manner.
[Illustration: CXXIII. CHICAGO. ALTERNATE RAILWAY STATION SCHEME WEST
OF THE RIVER BETWEEN CANAL AND CLINTON STREETS.
This plan provides for the railways at a level above that of the
streets.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
It is proposed ultimately to widen La Salle Street from Van Buren
Street south and to connect it with Wentworth Avenue, also widened;
likewise to widen La Salle Avenue from the river north,—changes which
will come about with the new arrangement of railway stations. By this
means a much needed thoroughfare can be opened between the North and
the South Sides; and when this is accomplished an open space should be
created at the intersection of La Salle and Congress streets, around
which should be grouped great business exchanges. This area would
become the financial heart of the city, being directly connected in the
best manner with the existing banking and office-building neighborhood.
Such an axis as La Salle Street, running from the South Side north to
Lincoln Park, and having no street cars on its surface, would seem to
be demanded for that future time (perhaps not so far off) when the
inhabitants of the city shall number several times as many as to-day.
Canal Street, also, should be widened and extended, as has already been
discussed in the chapter on Transportation.
The opportunity for one of the most comprehensive, convenient, and
dignified compositions known to city planning anywhere comes from the
combination of elements already existing in Chicago, together with the
manifest needs of the city in the immediate future. Chicago, unlike
many American cities, has not been drawn away from the water. The
creation of Grant Park adjacent to the Lake and extending along the
entire business front of the city is of inestimable value.
Grant Park readily lends itself to the function of a spacious and
attractive public garden. The location of the Field Museum in the
center of this space is a special instance of good fortune. The
purpose of this building is to gather under one roof the records of
civilization culled from every portion of the globe, and representing
man’s struggle through the ages for advancement. Hence it must become
a center of human interest, making appeal alike to the citizen and
the visitor; to those who are drawn by curiosity and those who come
for study. The very size of the building required to hold and display
such collections as are being formed fits it to play an important part
in the architectural development of the city.[23] At the same time
the great size of the area in which it is placed calls for supporting
buildings, to answer corresponding needs. The South Park Commissioners
have arranged also for the location of the new Crerar Library building
in Grant Park, and a fund of over one million dollars will be available
for that structure. This institution, intended for the use of the
student of social, physical, natural, and applied science, renders to
the community a special service which permits a location irrespective
of the center of population. It is the expressed intention of the
trustees to make the building monumental in character and classical in
style of architecture, so that it will harmonize with the design of
the Field Museum.[24] As meeting center for the scientific societies
of the West, the location in Grant Park, near the buildings devoted to
music and art, seems most appropriate. Moreover, the space set apart
on the plan for this structure allows for that expansion in the way
of lecture and convention halls which the growing importance of this
institution will render necessary. If it shall be found desirable, the
central building and administrative headquarters of the Public Library
might also be located at this point, thus establishing here a center of
letters, similar to the Sorbonne in Paris.
The Art Institute, already located in Grant Park, now occupies a site,
a portion of which is needed for the widening of Michigan Avenue; and
at the same time the increase in the collections will soon necessitate
a larger structure than the one now in use.[25] When the new gallery
and school shall be built, the location should occupy the same
relative position north of the Field Museum that is proposed for the
library group on the south. The plan shows a gallery of the fine arts,
together with a school of art, comprising lecture halls, exhibition
rooms, ateliers, and general administration quarters. To complete this
composition would be open-air loggias and gardens, the whole group
being akin to the great art museums and schools of Europe. In Boston
the new art museum now under construction in the Back Bay district
has been located in the midst of the most attractive surroundings,
near the fine group of buildings recently erected for the Harvard
Medical School, and near other educational institutions which have been
established on lands reclaimed by the city in much the same manner that
Grant Park has been created. In New York the large extension of the
Metropolitan Art Museum in Central Park indicates clearly the growing
demand for great galleries adapted for the exhibition of works of the
fine arts.
[Illustration: CXXIV. CHICAGO. PLAN OF GRANT PARK AND THE HARBOR,
SHOWING PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT.
Three main groups of buildings devoted to letters, science, and arts;
meadows, playgrounds, plazas, and avenues; yacht clubs, at the water’s
edge; passenger steamer landings and lagoons.
From a drawing by F. Janin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: CXXV. CHICAGO. ELEVATION OF GRANT PARK AND HARBOR; THE
EASTERN FAÇADE OF THE CITY ON MICHIGAN AVENUE, AND THE DOME OF THE
ADMINISTRATION BUILDING OF THE CIVIC CENTER, LOOKING FROM LAKE MICHIGAN.
Twelfth Street Congress Street Washington Street
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
[Illustration: CXXV. CHICAGO. SECTION LOOKING NORTH, TAKEN THROUGH
PROPOSED GRAND AXIS OF THE CITY, SHOWING THE CIVIC CENTER AND GRANT
PARK.
Halsted Street Chicago River Michigan Avenue
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The assembling in Grant Park of three monumental groups so as to
form one composition offers opportunity for treatment impressive and
dignified in the highest degree. It is such opportunities which when
properly utilized give to a city both charm and distinction, because
of the satisfaction which the mind obtains in contemplating orderly
architectural arrangements of great magnitude both in themselves and
in relation to the city of which they thus become an integral part. On
the other hand, the failure to realize such possibilities inevitably
creates dissatisfaction over lost opportunities; and this feeling
increases with the years and is shared by all the people.
Economy, as well as effectiveness, dictates the adoption of a group
plan; for the buildings have kindred uses, and should express
relationship both in their architecture and also in their landscape
settings. Indeed they may well be bound together by porticos to protect
the visitor against sun and rain; and such porticos would offer
abundant means of adornment by statues, paintings, and commemorative
inscriptions. One has only to recall the impressiveness of the
Peristyle at the World’s Fair to understand the value of the colonnade
as an adjunct to buildings beautiful in themselves.
The landscape setting of the Grant Park group offers opportunities
of the highest order. The broad terraces need for their relief the
green of trees and the judicious use of parterres; and the walks and
driveways, if well located, will give the sense of unity, while at the
same time adding to the convenience of the visitor.
It should be realized clearly that as Michigan Avenue is widened and
extended, the great traffic which this thoroughfare is sure to bear
will come to require large open spaces for gatherings of people to
witness parades and pageants and for similar occasions. Much of the
passing from north to south will utilize the lakeside drive; and at
gala times, when the harbor is illuminated, the terraces of Grant Park
will afford unsurpassed views of the spectacle. Such pleasures make a
universal appeal, and give charm and brightness to the life of people
who must of necessity pass long summers in the city.
The yacht harbor, planned to extend the entire length of the park, is
enclosed on the north and south by broad recreation piers stretching
for a mile and a half into the Lake; and provision is made for transit
lines reaching to the ends of the piers, so as to make these places
parks of decided value. The movement among the yachts and small craft;
the life of the clubhouses by day and the bright lights by night
already lend interest to the Lake front; and as the city grows, the
increased boating facilities will afford opportunities for indulging
in one of the most universally popular sports, while at the same time
imparting life to the otherwise monotonous stretch of water.
Such a treatment for Grant Park is not only feasible, but it requires
no radical change in present procedure. It is the obvious and natural
manner in which the work will be conducted unless some violent change
or some regrettable failure to act shall work distortion in a plan
that must commend itself to the judgment of those who study the whole
problem of the development of the Lake front in its relation to the
city of Chicago. No additional expense is involved; for public money is
being spent continuously to accomplish the same ends. The plan merely
provides for the most effective and satisfactory manner of expending
that money.
The advantages of developing Grant Park as the intellectual center
of Chicago cannot be overestimated; for art everywhere has been a
source of wealth and moral influence. Already the students at the Art
Institute number more than four thousand, and as art collections and
opportunities for study increase Chicago will draw pupils from many
states. The influence of this training in raising the standard of
public taste and in creating demands for better physical conditions
must be manifest. The possession of Saint-Gaudens’ statue of Lincoln
is a distinction to the city of Chicago, in the same sense that the
Sistine Madonna enriches Dresden. Take the Louvre from Paris, the
Rubens collection from Antwerp, the National Gallery and the British
Museum from London, the Public Library and the Art Museum from Boston,
the Metropolitan Museum from New York, and the Library of Congress
from Washington, and the commercial loss to those cities would be
very considerable. When Chicago realizes all the advantages of the
location in Grant Park of three great groups of buildings devoted to
the intellectual and æsthetic cravings of man, it must be apparent that
the city will have a great asset in the gifts of those public-spirited
citizens who have found satisfaction in leaving to the public useful
memorials of the successful lives of the givers.
Public-spirited citizens have left precious legacies by providing for
the intellectual and æsthetic needs of the people; and it should be
esteemed a high privilege as well as a sacred duty to administer those
gifts in such a manner as to accomplish the most effective results
from the benefactions. So to manifest appreciation encourages others
to emulate the good example; and simply by taking thought the city
gains constantly by the addition of monuments which benefit the whole
community.
South of Grant Park, and extending along the lagoon between Twelfth
and Twenty-second streets, the plans show a great meadow developed as
an athletic field, with central gymnasium, outdoor exercising grounds,
swimming beaches, and such other features as have been found advisable
in the playground parks.
Another great opportunity comes from the fact that the river flows
through the center of the business district. It has been the experience
of European cities that the banks of a river, although at first devoted
only to commercial purposes, sooner or later are transformed into
places which combine business uses with drives and promenades for
traffic and for the pleasure of the people. The treatment of the Thames
in London, the Seine in Paris, the Danube in Vienna and Budapest, the
Scheldt at Antwerp, the Riverside Drive in New York, and the proposed
Potomac Quay at Washington are, all of them, instances of a development
which indicates clearly what must also result to the Chicago River when
the city comes to give attention to other needs in addition to those of
commerce and manufactures.
The grouping of railway passenger terminals along Canal and Twelfth
streets will add another element of good order, convenience, and
architectural dignity; for it is not to be conceived that as the
railroads replace their present inadequate structures the new buildings
will be less important or less dignified than those which have been
built in other cities. It is to be supposed rather that the greatest
railway center in the world will be able to command terminal stations
equal in every respect to any that have been constructed elsewhere.
[Illustration: CXXVII. CHICAGO. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW AT NIGHT OF GRANT PARK,
THE FAÇADE OF THE CITY, THE PROPOSED HARBOR, AND THE LAGOONS OF THE
PROPOSED PARK ON THE SOUTH SHORE.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
[Illustration: CXXVIII. CHICAGO. PROPOSED PLAZA ON MICHIGAN AVENUE WEST
OF THE FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN GRANT PARK, LOOKING EAST FROM
THE CORNER OF JACKSON BOULEVARD.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: CXXIX. CHICAGO. THE BUSINESS CENTER OF THE CITY, WITHIN
THE FIRST CIRCUIT BOULEVARD, SHOWING THE PROPOSED GRAND EAST-AND-WEST
AXIS AND ITS RELATION TO GRANT PARK AND THE YACHT HARBOR; THE RAILWAY
TERMINALS SCHEMES ON THE SOUTH AND WEST SIDES, AND THE CIVIC CENTER.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: CXXX. CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE PROPOSED GROUP OF MUNICIPAL
BUILDINGS OR CIVIC CENTER, AT THE INTERSECTION OF CONGRESS AND HALSTED
STREETS.
This plan indicates a possible orderly and harmonious arrangement of
public buildings grouped for the purpose of administration, near the
center of population. The central building is planned not only to
dominate the place in front of it, but also to mark the center of the
city from afar, and it is in part a monument to the spirit of civic
unity.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
[Illustration: CXXXI. ELEVATION SHOWING THE GROUP OF BUILDINGS
CONSTITUTING THE PROPOSED CIVIC CENTER
From drawing by F. Janin. ]
[Illustration: CXXXII. CHICAGO. VIEW, LOOKING WEST, OF THE PROPOSED
CIVIC CENTER PLAZA AND BUILDINGS, SHOWING IT AS THE CENTER OF THE
SYSTEM OF ARTERIES OF CIRCULATION AND OF THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY.
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
An adequate study of existing conditions in the Heart of Chicago
must show the necessity of providing adequate means of circulation
from west to east throughout the business center. Chicago Avenue is
already a wide thoroughfare capable of carrying the heavy traffic which
inevitably it will be called upon to bear; and the widening of Twelfth
Street is required as a means of giving access to the Lake front to the
dense population west of the River, which is now practically shut off
from the enjoyment of this most attractive feature of Chicago life.
It would be desirable to widen several of the east-and-west streets
that pass through the present business district, but such a course
would be inexpedient, on account of the prohibitive cost of the land
and buildings abutting on those thoroughfares. For this reason it is
not proposed to widen east-and-west streets north of Congress. It is
within reasonable financial possibility, however, to develop a great
avenue, extending from Michigan Avenue throughout the city and westward
indefinitely. This would result in providing for all time to come a
thoroughfare which would be to the city what the backbone is to the
body. Thus, and thus only, is it possible to establish organic unity,
and, in connection with the improvement of the streets above mentioned,
to give order and coherence to the plan of Chicago.
[Illustration: CXXXIII. PARIS. THE PLACE DE LA CONCORDE, LOOKING OVER
THE SEINE TOWARDS THE MADELEINE.
This square is one of the great circulatory centers, placed on the
grand axis of the city (the Champs Élyseés) and the circuit of the
grand boulevards.]
[Illustration: CXXXIV. DRESDEN. THE ZWINGERHOF.
A formal arrangement of architecture and public gardens in the center
of a city.]
The selection of Congress Street for development into a broad cross
avenue is urged by many considerations. First, this particular street
coincides substantially with the center of the business district;
and also is about equidistant from the other east-and-west streets
(Twelfth and Washington, and Twenty-second and Chicago Avenue) which
most readily lend themselves to development as arteries in the street
system; and it is also equidistant from the two great east-and-west
railroad rights-of-way at Kinzie and at Sixteenth streets. Secondly,
the very fact that Congress Street now exists only in disconnected
portions, and that the buildings throughout the proposed cutting are
comparatively inexpensive, offers a very strong argument for its
selection on the score of economy. The widening of another street would
mean the destruction of two frontages in order to obtain sufficient
width without encroaching on the building space on parallel streets.
Thirdly, Congress Street stands in such relations to Grant Park that
its use as a central axis of the city allows park and avenue to
sustain reciprocal relations in the highest degree conducive both to
convenience and to good order. Fourthly, the opening of Congress Street
would create, in combination with Van Buren Street on the north and
Harrison Street on the south, a triple set of arteries at the center of
things. There are no arguments favoring the selection of another street
which present such a combination of advantages as is to be found in
the choice of Congress Street. The diagram showing business occupancy
indicates that Congress Street is already very near the center of the
great commercial activities, and also that this center has steadily
moved in a southwesterly direction.
[Illustration: CXXXV. VIENNA. THE RINGSTRASSE, SHOWING THE PUBLIC
BUILDINGS GROUPED ABOUT SQUARES AND GARDENS ALONG ITS COURSE.]
Thus far the argument for the selection of Congress Street has dealt
with purely practical questions, which in themselves would seem to be
conclusive. The choice of Congress Street is quite as logical from an
æsthetic point of view. In a sense the Field Museum will be one of the
important buildings in the city. The site selected is exactly opposite
the intersection of Congress Street with Michigan Avenue. To create
a great cross avenue without utilizing the element of symmetry which
this noble building stands ready to furnish would be to set at defiance
every law of civic order, and to perpetrate a crime against good taste
that could never be atoned for. It is inconceivable that in the present
state of public taste any people would permit such a barbarism.
[Illustration: CXXXVI. ROME. ST. PETER’S CATHEDRAL, SHOWING THE
APPROACH.]
[Illustration: CXXXVII. CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT IN
THE CENTER OF THE CITY, FROM TWENTY SECOND STREET TO CHICAGO AVENUE,
LOOKING TOWARDS THE EAST OVER THE CIVIC CENTER TO GRANT PARK AND LAKE
MICHIGAN.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
Painted for the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.]
The new Congress Street should be created with a width, from Wabash
Avenue westward, of from 200 to 250 feet to Canal Street; and thence to
the civic square the width should approximate 300 feet. The roadways
should be divided for the various kinds of traffic, and it should
furnish opportunities for the highest class of adornment known to civic
art. Theaters, public and semi-public buildings, retail shops, and
all the other structures which are to be found on frequented streets
would come to be built along a thoroughfare which from the time of its
opening would be of the first importance.[26]
As it is proposed to group in Grant Park the buildings pertaining to
art, literature, and science, so it is planned to create on the axis of
Congress Street a composition representing the dignity and importance
of the city from the administrative point of view. Where Congress
Street intersects Halsted Street, a civic center should be established.
At this center radiating arteries naturally converge. The population
in Chicago has stretched itself along the Lake shore; but the center
of density has moved steadily in a southwesterly direction. Beginning
with the original Fort Dearborn reservation, the line of density of
population passes through the present location of the City Hall and
the Court House, thence a little to the south of the proposed civic
center. Moreover, the point selected for the civic center is the center
of gravity, so to speak, of all the radial arteries entering Chicago.
Even now the proposed center is not far in advance of the growth of the
city; while at the same time land values in the area selected are not
excessive.
[Illustration: CXXXVIII. BERLIN. SPREE ISLAND, IN THE HEART OF THE
CITY.]
The buildings comprised in the civic center naturally fall into three
divisions, represented by the City of Chicago, by Cook County, and by
the Federal Government; and inasmuch as a single building would be
insufficient to accommodate the offices either of the city or of the
general government, there should eventually be three groups. Of these
three the city group would predominate, with the city hall as the
central building. The city administration building should accommodate
the mayor and the common council, together with the clerks and officers
directly connected with the administrative and legislative departments;
also the headquarters of the fire department; the offices of the board
of education, including those of the superintendent of schools; the
offices of the city attorney, the auditor, the board of assessors,
the tax collectors, the license department, the board of local
improvements, the elections bureau, and others of like character.
Ultimately there should be a separate building for the department
of public works; but for the immediate future one wing of the
administrative building may be set apart for the engineers and
surveyors, for the electrical department, and the departments of
sewers, water, and gas, and the superintendent of streets. The need of
special quarters for this division of the public service arises not
only from the extent and character of the work of the various bureaus,
but also because of the great number of people who of necessity resort
to them in order to obtain permits for constructing and repairing
buildings, for establishing electrical, gas, and water connections, and
to transact the vast amount of business arising in a department that
affects every business, institution, and home.
The department of public health, requiring extensive laboratories,
should include an emergency hospital, rooms for the commission on
insanity, and a detention place for the insane, as well as a bureau of
vital statistics; offices for the health, food, and milk inspectors;
quarters for the coroner, including autopsy and inquest rooms and a
public morgue.
The hall of records should be accessible to the courts and the other
departments of the public service, and to the general public. The
building should be so constructed as to secure its contents from
possible danger from fire or the results of dampness; and it should
be so arranged and administered as to make the records immediately
available.
The court-house building offers architectural opportunities of the
first order; and here again the dignity, majesty, and impartiality of
justice should be made manifest in every appointment, so as to teach
the lesson that “obedience to law is liberty.” The highest of the city
courts, with chambers for the judges; the grand jury quarters; trial
jury rooms, with accommodations for lodging juries over night; the
offices of the district attorney; the marriage license department; and
the law library should be housed in this edifice.
To the building used as the police headquarters would be assigned the
central police court with its official clerks, stenographers, bailiffs,
bond and warrant officers; the city prison, with its complement of
vaults for criminal records of all kinds; the headquarters of the chief
of police and of the staff of detectives; a drill-room, assembly-room,
gymnasium, and practice gallery for shooting, and arsenal. One reason
for making this building one of the civic group is to promote the
convenience of the citizens who are called to the court for jury duty
or as witnesses.
The central administrative building, as shown in the illustrations,
is surmounted by a dome of impressive height, to be seen and felt by
the people, to whom it should stand as the symbol of civic order and
unity. Rising from the plain upon which Chicago rests, its effect may
be compared to that of the dome of St. Peter’s at Rome. The buildings
are shown raised on terraces one story in height. These terraces would
give great dignity to the structures, and would mark the transition
from them to the great open space on which they front. The motifs
surmounting the terraces, with such other accessories as refuges,
shelters, subway stations, balustrades, and lamps, would combine to
unite the square into an harmonious whole. The group of buildings
may be connected by subways, or even bridges treated in the form of
colonnades or arcades of a decorative character, all contributing to
the general effect of the square.
Space at the civic center should be reserved for the next county
building which Cook County will build when the present one becomes too
small to accommodate the county business. Experience shows that in this
country a public building is no sooner finished than it is found not
sufficiently extensive to provide for the public business that it was
meant to serve.
The designs for this square and its buildings are suggestions of what
may be done, for the report does not seek to impose any particular form
on structures that when executed must carry out a program written by
the growing necessities for adequate accommodations for administrative
offices and the rapidly developing demand on the part of the public for
order and beauty in the arrangement of these elements of city life.
[Illustration: CXXXIX. CHICAGO. THE PROPOSED CIVIC CENTER SQUARE,
SHOWING THE GROUP OF SURROUNDING BUILDINGS, CROWNED BY THE CENTRAL DOME.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
The administration building, located on the main axis, is placed in
such a manner that, while dominating the square, it does not obstruct
the flow of traffic which will be poured into this open space from the
streets reaching it, and in particular from the great radial arteries.
The latter thoroughfares are schemed to center upon an obelisk in the
middle of the square, the base of which it is proposed to combine with
a decorative fountain, treated with the greatest richness, since it
will be located on the spot which is to be the center of interest in
the city.
The Federal group should be only less extensive than that devoted
to city purposes. The Chicago Federal Building, completed in 1905,
is already inadequate. Indeed it has been the custom of the general
government to attempt to house many and divergent departments of
administration under one roof. In a great city like Chicago the
dignity and the business of the United States courts demand a building
exclusively for that one purpose. The post-office is now seeking a
site on the West Side. Thus the opportunity is at hand to begin the
civic center group with a building of importance, by locating it
in connection with ground reserved on the plan as a public square
which finally shall be surrounded with administrative buildings. The
custom-house and the internal revenue office; the various offices of
the engineers employed on lake and river improvements and surveys; the
lighthouse service; the inspectors of steam vessels; the life-saving
service; the recruiting officers for the army and the navy; the
emigrant inspectors; and the various other officials charged with
enforcing the rapidly growing body of laws for the protection of
health and the promotion of good order,—all this army of employees of
the United States should have suitable quarters in buildings erected
for the exclusive use of the government. The Federal buildings alone,
if they are to be adequate to the demands of the public business,
would require a group of buildings of the first order in so far as
architecture and location are concerned.
The civic center will be dependent for its effectiveness on the
character of the architecture displayed in the buildings themselves,
in their harmonious relations one with another, and in the amount of
the space in which they are placed. Surely, the results attained at
the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893 so amply proved the truth of
these principles that it is not necessary to enlarge upon them. The
attainment of harmony, good order, and beauty is not a question of
money cost, for in the end good buildings are far cheaper than bad
buildings. What is required is enlightened understanding and competent
planning; the great buildings of the world are simple and inexpensive
when compared with many of the over elaborate structures of the present
day; but for centuries they have served their important purposes and
the people will not give them up, because they have become part and
parcel of their life. They typify the permanence of the city, they
record its history, and express its aspirations. Such a group of
buildings as Chicago should and may possess would be for all time to
come a distinction to the city. It would be what the Acropolis was
to Athens, or the Forum to Rome, and what St. Mark’s Square is to
Venice,—the very embodiment of civic life. Land should be acquired in
quantity sufficient to carry out a plan commensurate with Chicago’s
needs, and with her dominating position in this region. This plan first
should be worked out by the architects, and then should be realized by
the concerted action of the community.
Important as is the civic center considered by itself, when taken in
connection with this plan of Chicago it becomes the keystone of the
arch. The development of Halsted Street, and Ashland and Michigan
avenues, flanked by the great thoroughfares of Chicago Avenue and
Twelfth Street, will give form to the business center; while the
opening of Congress Street as the great central axis of the city will
at once create coherence in the city plan. Nowhere else on this
continent does there exist so great a possibility combined with such
ease of attainment. Simply by an intelligent handling of the changes
necessary to accommodate the growing business of Chicago, a city both
unified and beautiful will result. The Lake front will be opened to
those who are now shut away from it by lack of adequate approaches;
the great masses of people which daily converge in the now congested
center will be able to come and go quickly and without discomfort;
the intellectual life of the city will be stimulated by institutions
grouped in Grant Park; and in the center of all the varied activities
of Chicago will rise the towering dome of the civic center, vivifying
and unifying the entire composition.
[Illustration: CXL. STUDY FOR THE DOME OF THE PROPOSED CIVIC CENTER.
From a study by F. Janin.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO ]
FOOTNOTES:
[23] The Field Museum of Natural History, established in 1894, at
the close of the World’s Columbian Exposition, was made possible by
the gift of one million dollars by Marshall Field, who at his death
in 1906 bequeathed a further eight million dollars, one-half for the
erection of a building, and one-half for endowment. Another half
million has been contributed by various individuals; and to the $25,000
annual income aside from the endowment, about $100,000 for maintenance
will be raised annually by taxation. On the collections representing
anthropology, botany, geology, and zoölogy, over two million dollars
has been expended, and the institution (now occupying temporary
quarters in Jackson Park) has a staff of directors and curators, a
library of 50,000 titles, a well equipped publication bureau, and
other appropriate accessories. By a contract between the South Park
Commissioners and the trustees of the Field Museum, dated January 31,
1907, the site in Grant Park was set aside for the new building.
[24] The Crerar Library had its foundation in the bequest made by the
late John Crerar, a resident of Chicago from 1862 until his death in
1894. The endowment fund is upwards of $3,400,000. The new building
will have accommodations for a million volumes, and provisions will be
made for extensions when necessary.
[25] The collections of the Art Institute now give the galleries a rank
among the first three or four in the country. The present building was
opened in 1893.
[26] While Congress Street is the ideal location for the grand axis,
the development of one of the parallel streets and a corresponding
change in the site of the Field Museum and of the civic center might
be resorted to, if obstacles to the use of Congress Street arise which
shall seem insuperable.
[Illustration: CXLI. VIEW EASTWARD TO LAKE MICHIGAN.
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO]
CHAPTER VIII
THE PLAN OF CHICAGO: THE RESULT OF SYSTEMATIC STUDY: THE COST
INVOLVED IN CARRYING OUT THE WORK: THE PEOPLE ARE FINANCIALLY ABLE TO
REALIZE THE PLAN: THE ELEMENTS INVOLVED: HOW THE COST MAY BE DIVIDED:
THE FINAL RESULT.
The plan of Chicago as presented in illustration and text is the result
of a systematic and comprehensive study, carried on during a period of
thirty months, with the sole purpose of mapping out an ideal project
for the physical development of this city. Perfection of detail is not
claimed, but the design as a whole is placed before the public in the
confident belief that it points the way to realize civic conditions of
unusual economy, convenience, and beauty.
It is fully realized that a plan calling for improvements on a scale
larger and more inclusive than any heretofore proposed seems, on first
consideration, beyond the financial ability of the community. If,
however, the plan meets public approval, it can be executed without
seriously increasing present burdens. The very growth of the city,
creating as it does wealth greater than mines can produce, gives a
basis of bond issues in excess of the utmost cost involved in carrying
out this plan. The increase in the assessed value of real estate in the
city of Chicago for the past ten years exceeds the expense required to
put the plan into execution; and at the same time the very character of
the proposed changes is such as to stimulate the increase in wealth.
The public, therefore, has the power to put the plan into effect if it
shall determine to do so.
It is quite possible that some revision of existing laws may be
necessary in order to enable the people to carry out this project;
but this is clearly within the power of the people themselves. The
realization of the plan, therefore, depends entirely on the strength
of the public sentiment in its favor. And what hope is there that the
people will desire to make Chicago an ideal city? A brief survey of the
past will help to form an opinion on this subject.
Sixty years ago, when Chicago was scarcely more than a village, it
became apparent that in order to secure proper drainage the street
levels must be raised to a considerable extent throughout what we
know as the old city, from the main river to Twelfth Street, and also
for a distance on the West and North Sides. This project, albeit a
very formidable one for that time, was promptly entered upon and
duly carried out, although it involved raising all the streets and
most of the buildings throughout that large territory. For that
day and generation the undertaking was much more serious than the
reconstruction of the city thoroughfares now proposed.
Again, some fifty years ago, when the idea of creating great
metropolitan park areas was new, Chicago undertook to acquire and
improve a chain of parks surrounding the city on three sides. This
scheme, which has well supplied the needs of Chicago until recent
times, was carried out in such a manner that it never was burdensome.
The creation of a park system for Chicago was not undertaken from
motives of utility, but purely because of a desire to make the city
attractive; and the success was magnificent.
Later, in the Eighties, the purification of the water of Lake Michigan
by the diversion of the sewage became a public issue. Once again the
people of Chicago rose to the occasion; and after years of hard work
the Drainage Canal, built at a cost of $60,000,000, has been completed.
Next came the World’s Fair, in the early Nineties, and here also a
result was accomplished which has never been surpassed either in scope
or in architectural beauty. The cost of the Fair (over $20,000,000 for
grounds and buildings alone) was very large for that day. The fact that
the Fair came into being here indicated that this people, generally
regarded as a commercial community, were deeply appreciative of the
higher forms of good order and municipal beauty.
The Chicago World’s Fair, like the raising of the grades of the
city, the creation of a complete system of parks and boulevards, and
the building of the Drainage Canal, went far beyond anything of the
same kind ever before undertaken by a city. These four works are the
greatest ones which have been achieved by Chicago. They have proved the
readiness of the people to take up large schemes of public improvement
which at the time of their inception required great foresight and
great faith in the future. Two of them were demanded by considerations
exclusively practical, while the other two were not so regarded, but on
the other hand were the expression of the deeper sense in man of the
value of delightful surroundings. If an accurate statement of the costs
of the four improvements could be made, it would probably show that
about equal sums have been spent on the practical and on the æsthetic
side.
Besides the public enterprises mentioned, the people of Chicago,
either collectively or as individuals, have established many agencies
for the improvement of the intellectual, social, moral, and æsthetic
conditions. The Chicago Orchestra occupies land and buildings on
Michigan Avenue which have a present value of over a million and
a quarter of dollars; and during the past twenty years private
subscriptions have amounted to at least another million, all expended
for an organization purely artistic. The Art Institute building in
Grant Park cost $700,000, and since its completion, in 1893, it has
never been closed for a day. Besides its large and excellent art
school, there is a good collection of the works of old and modern
masters, which is constantly receiving additions. The Crerar Library
has an endowment fund of three and a half millions, besides a
substantial building fund; and the Newberry Library and the Armour
Institute of Technology are other worthy public benefactions.
Especially notable are the educational foundations which contribute so
largely to the intellectual life of the city, and exert an influence
throughout the Middle West,—Lake Forest University, Northwestern
University, and the University of Chicago. The last-named institution,
established in 1892, has already taken its place among the foremost
universities in this country, not only by reason of its endowment and
property (representing more than $23,000,000), but also because of wise
administration along a well-considered plan.
Quite in accord with the plan of Chicago is the Benjamin Franklin
Ferguson Monument Fund of a million dollars, the income of which is
available for defraying the cost of statuary commemorating worthy men
and women of America, or important events in American history, to be
erected in the parks and boulevards of the city, under the direction of
the trustees of the Art Institute. The Field Museum, representing gifts
aggregating $9,000,000, is a further instance of loyalty to the city
and a desire for its improvement.
Such enterprises and such gifts as those enumerated show what may be
expected from individual benefactions as wealth increases and the idea
of public service is encouraged. When opportunities for enriching the
city are provided, individual citizens rise to the occasion, and find
true satisfaction in leaving memorials useful or agreeable to the
people.
Mere increase in numbers does not warrant the belief that public
sentiment in favor of extensive public works will grow in proportion
to the population; but the history of the past does prove that the
people of Chicago are always ready and anxious to follow when the way
to great benefits is plainly open. We believe that the tendency which
the community has shown by its acts points hopefully to the adoption of
a great scheme of public improvement. In other words, Chicago having
already carried out large projects strictly on the lines of this
report, may we not, therefore, confidently expect this people to go on
doing as they have done?
There is a still stronger reason for the belief that the public will
favor such a plan as is herein presented. It lies in the growing love
of good order, due to the advance in education. Every one knows that
the civic conditions which prevailed fifty years ago would not now be
tolerated anywhere; and every one believes that conditions of to-day
will not be tolerated by the men who shall follow us. This must be so,
unless progress has ceased. The education of a community inevitably
brings about a higher appreciation of the value of systematic
improvement, and results in a strong desire on the part of the people
to be surrounded by conditions in harmony with the growth of good
taste; and as fast as the people can be brought to see the advantage
to them of more orderly arrangement of the streets, transportation
lines, and parks, it is well-nigh certain that they will bring
about such desirable ends. Thus do the dreams of to-day become the
commonplaces of to-morrow; and what we now deem fanciful will become
mere matter-of-fact to the man of the future.
If the plan as a whole be approved by the majority of our citizens
because it is found to be both practical and beautiful, the next
question is as to what it commits us. In answering this query a general
review of the principal elements composing the plan will be of value.
The following list comprises the main items:
_First._ The improvement of the Lake front.
_Second._ The creation of a system of highways outside the city.
_Third._ The improvement of railway terminals, and the development of a
complete traction system for both freight and passengers.
_Fourth._ The acquisition of an outer park system, and of parkway
circuits.
_Fifth._ The systematic arrangement of the streets and avenues within
the city, in order to facilitate the movement to and from the business
district.
_Sixth._ The development of centers of intellectual life and of civic
administration, so related as to give coherence and unity to the city.
The improvement of the Lake front from Winnetka to the Indiana line is
an economic necessity. As has been stated, the aggregate of the waste
material seeking dumping ground on the Lake shore because that is
the cheapest place to deposit it, is not less than one million cubic
yards per annum. This material is sufficient to produce annually from
twenty-seven to thirty acres of land if used to build the Lake parkways
and park strips herein recommended. The park authorities would only
have to furnish breakwaters and bridges and to finish the grounds.
The utilization of this material in thirty years would produce all
the Lake front land recommended in the report for the region between
Grant and Jackson parks. But long before the expiration of the thirty
years the amount of filling urgently seeking the Lake front dump will
be enormously increased. This dirt should be utilized for the public
benefit, instead of being wasted as at present in the open Lake, where
it becomes detrimental to health and an interference to navigation.
The dirt to be disposed of in building new traction tunnels under the
principal streets of the city will go far toward the completion of the
new Lake shore parks. It is evident, therefore, that this improvement,
involving the redemption of the entire Lake front from Winnetka to
the Indiana state line, and the creation of an extremely beautiful
and useful public recreation ground, will involve very little public
expense. There can be no doubt that this part of the plan of Chicago
will be carried through; and in fact much is already being accomplished
along these lines.
The interurban highway system can be realized very cheaply. Ninety-five
per cent of the necessary roads now exist as public highways, and the
cost of acquiring the other five per cent will be merely nominal. The
diagram (Plate XL) is laid out with a radius of approximately sixty
miles from the city hall. The cost of widening that comparatively small
portion of the roadways which require to be widened; the straightening
of the few which need such treatment; the planting of trees along the
highways; and the macadamizing of the roads are improvements that may
be hastened by concerted intelligent action. The expense involved is
comparatively small, but the economy and convenience to the public are
very large. Is it not evident that this portion of the plan can be
realized at no distant day provided a strong organization of active men
shall be formed for the purpose of carrying it into effect?
The suggestions in regard to trunk lines, their rights-of-way,
stations, and general conditions, are many and serious. The suggestions
have been made for the purpose of bringing about the greatest economy
of money and time, both in freight and passenger handling. If the
recommendations herein contained will produce conditions really
beneficial to the individual shipper and passenger, undoubtedly they
will be found best for the railroads themselves. The direct object
in view is to free a large portion of the South Side from tracks and
stations and restore it to business use; to double the capacity of
the streets of the whole city by opening circulation to the north,
west, and south, and by connecting the outlying parts in the best
possible manner with the heart of the city. Over and above all these
considerations, highly important as they all are, is economy in the
freight handling of Chicago as a shipping center. The object here has
been to find that general principle which, if applied, will give to the
merchants, manufacturers, and jobbers of this city all the advantages
that should naturally be theirs throughout the great territory
dominated by Chicago. If the general scheme herein proposed shall not
be adopted by the public and the railroads, some other inevitably
must be, because the very life of the community is involved in the
solution of this problem. The commercial prosperity of the community
is represented by the cost per ton of handling freight into and out
of this territory as a shipping center. General changes in railroad
conditions take years to accomplish. That will be the case if such a
scheme as we recommend is carried out; but the public should remember
that they will not be taxed to pay for it. When these improvements come
they will be railroad enterprises, undertaken by the railroads and
carried out by the railroads.
The traction recommendations contained in this report are already in
progress, and no question need be raised as to whether or not this
portion of work will be carried out. It has practically been decided
upon, and no doubt will be accomplished. The cost will be borne in part
by the traction lines themselves, and partly by the public.
The additional parks and parkways recommended are extensive, as should
be the case. Although it is true that the men of forty years ago did
devise a scheme which has been sufficient almost up to the present
moment, it is also true that the number, location, and arrangement of
the parks and parkways of Chicago to-day are entirely inadequate for
its future development; and nothing is suggested in this report except
what has seemed to be absolutely required. Fifty years ago, before
population had become dense in certain portions of the city, people
could live without parks; but we of to-day cannot. We now regard the
promotion of robust health of body and mind as necessary public duties,
in order that the individual may be benefited, and that the community
at large may possess a higher average degree of good citizenship. And
after all has been said, good citizenship is the prime object of good
city planning. In some locations parks and parkways are sufficient
to accommodate the people in the immediate neighborhoods; other
sections of this city, and suburbs which will soon become parts of
this city, should be equally well provided. “Nature,” says President
Charles W. Eliot, “is the greatest factor in the continuous education
of man and woman.” The extensive woodlands proposed are an addition
not usually designed for American cities, although almost invariably
used in Europe. The cost of these added parks and woodlands will be
considerable, and it must be borne by the public; but it is a sane
proposition that the people of Chicago and its suburbs should have the
sixty thousand acres of wooded territory as well as the great Bow,
(Plate CIII) which will occupy from six to eight hundred additional
acres. The acquisition and completion of an outer park system may
easily be carried through in ten years; and if the cost shall be
distributed over that period of time, it will not prove burdensome. The
returns will come in the shape of increase of health and joy of living
for all the people; and incidentally the value of every real estate
holding in the city will be enhanced.
The land necessary for the civic center should be secured at once,
while values at the point proposed are reasonable. For the time being
this land may be treated as park space; but the sites and the general
scheme of grouping for the buildings should be approved, so that as
the city, the county, and the general government outgrow their present
structures, the new ones may take their appointed places, each one
contributing its part to an orderly and convenient scheme. The adoption
of such a scheme would save a very large amount of money in the
purchase of public building sites; and would create stability in real
estate values. To the West Side especially the development of a civic
center along the lines indicated is a matter of prime importance; for
it will give to that portion of the city the needed impetus towards
higher standards than now prevail there. At the same time it will
benefit all other parts of the city, since it is for the advantage of
Chicago as a whole that each portion shall be developed equally with
every other portion. The cost of the civic center should be paid by the
whole community.
The street plan as laid out involves a very considerable amount of
money; but it will be found that in Chicago as in other cities, the
opening of new thoroughfares, although involving large initial expense,
creates an increase in values, due to increase in convenience and the
provision for adequate sites for the increasing retail traffic of
the city. The cost will amount to many millions of dollars, but the
result will be continuous prosperity for all who dwell here; and such
prosperity the city cannot have unless it becomes a convenient and
pleasant place in which to live.
Finally, it seems probable that the schemes of outer highways and of
all the Lake front improvements may come about quite naturally and with
very little expense to the city; that the railways will pay most of
the expense of their changes and improvements, thus leaving a portion
of the cost of the traction system and all of the cost of the civic
center, of the parks and parkways, and of the street development for
the general public to meet. The community has ample financial ability
to do its part without placing undue burdens upon the people. Paris
had not much more than half a million people, and her commercial
prospects were far less than are ours to-day, when that municipality
adopted a street improvement scheme involving over two hundred and
sixty million dollars, and carried it to completion in thirty-five
years. The motive of the French people in undertaking this enterprise
was to create a great attraction for all men: a city so delightful as
to insure continuous prosperity to the inhabitants. The success of
the undertaking has amply justified the pains and the expense. People
from all over the world visit and linger in Paris. No matter where
they make their money, they go there to spend it; and every proprietor
and workman in Paris benefits by reason of that fact. Conditions in
Chicago are such as to repel outsiders and drive away those who are
free to go. The cream of our own earnings should be spent here, while
the city should become a magnet, drawing to us those who wish to enjoy
life. The change would mean prosperity, effective, certain, and forever
continuous.
If, therefore, the plan is a good one, its adoption and realization
will produce for us conditions in which business enterprises can
be carried on with the utmost economy, and with the certainty of
successful issue, while we and our children can enjoy and improve life
as we cannot now do. Then our own people will become home-keepers, and
the stranger will seek our gates.
[Illustration: CXLII. THE GREAT LAKES.
From the group by Lorado Taft.]
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
The following opinion, prepared by WALTER L. FISHER, as counsel for the
Plan Committee of the Commercial Club, has been submitted to EDWARD J.
BRUNDAGE, Corporation Counsel for the City of Chicago, HARRY A. LEWIS,
County Attorney of Cook County, BENJAMIN F. RICHOLSON, Attorney for
the West Chicago Park Commissioners, CHARLES A. CHURAN, Attorney for
the Commissioners of Lincoln Park, ROBERT REDFIELD, Attorney for the
South Park Commissioners, to EDGAR B. TOLMAN, FRANK L. SHEPARD, HARRY
S. MECARTNEY, FRANK HAMLIN, and R. P. HOLLETT, who have been counsel
for these official bodies, respectively, and to MILTON J. FOREMAN,
Member of the City Council of Chicago, and GEORGE A. MASON, Special
Assessment Attorney for the City, all of whom concur in the conclusions
and recommendations stated. WILLIAM W. CASE assisted in the preparation
of the opinion.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
BY WALTER L. FISHER, OF THE CHICAGO BAR
INTRODUCTORY
The purpose of an inquiry into the legal aspects of the Plan of
Chicago is to ascertain to what extent and in what manner the Plan can
be carried out under the existing laws, to suggest such additional
legislation as may be necessary or desirable, and to consider how far
such legislation is controlled or prevented by existing constitutional
provisions. It is gratifying to be able to state at the outset that
the main structure of the Plan of Chicago is framed with due regard
to the limitations imposed by law upon public enterprises, although
important details cannot be carried into effect without some aid from
the legislature.
In considering the legal aspects of city planning in the United States,
the first inquiry naturally relates to the limitations contained in
the state and federal constitutions. Governmental powers in the United
States, unlike those of many European countries, are defined by written
constitutions, which would undoubtedly prevent the imitation here
of some of the sweeping undertakings and arbitrary though effective
methods of European city planning. European governments have carried
to a successful issue many wide-reaching reforms which could be
undertaken in this country only with important modifications. It is
these modifications with which we are chiefly concerned. A Prussian
statute enacted in 1902 empowered the police authorities to prohibit
advertising which was calculated to disfigure the landscape;[27] and
a provision of the Prussian Code declares that no building shall be
so erected as to disfigure cities and public places.[28] Regulations
intended to maintain the suburban character of certain localities
have been upheld in Prussia, in the absence of statute, as sanitary
measures within the jurisdiction of the police authorities, and in
other German cities they are authorized by law.[29] The State of
Illinois, in attempting to follow such examples, would be obliged to
reckon not only with that provision of her own constitution which
forbids the taking of private property for public use without just
compensation, but also with that other provision, found both in her
own constitution and in that of the United States, which declares that
no person shall be deprived of property without due process of law.
In England, as long ago as 1862, the Metropolitan Local Management
Act authorized the Board of Public Works to fix building lines to
which all new buildings must conform, and to prohibit the erection
of any house beyond the general line of buildings in any street in
which the same is situated.[30] Compensation is allowed to any owner
of property who can show himself to be injured by such restrictions
upon the use of his land, but the parliamentary fiat determines
forever that he must submit to the regulations thus imposed upon
him. In this country the owner, even if compensation were provided,
could demand the judgment of a court whether the use for which his
property was taken was a “public use,” within the judicial definition
of that phrase as found in our constitutions. In Illinois he could
insist upon his further constitutional privilege of having his
compensation fixed by a jury before the restriction became operative.
The public authorities of Paris, when condemning land for municipal
purposes, were authorized to and did take more extensive areas than
were actually needed, seeking by this means to recoup the cost of the
improvements by selling the adjacent premises at the enhanced values
produced by these improvements. Indeed, the contractors for these
public works were themselves authorized, in some cases, to acquire
considerable areas outside the lines of the actual improvement, so
that the prospective profits thus to be realized might be deducted
from the cost of the improvement to the public.[31] Governments in
this country are forbidden by constitutional principles thus to take
private property against the will of the owner merely for pecuniary
profit. Many cities in Great Britain and on the continent have removed
the entire population of insanitary districts and have constructed new
dwellings, at public expense, in the renovated area. Such features
figure largely in the town-planning schemes of Europe, but have been
considered inexpedient or unnecessary here. The town-planning bill
introduced in Parliament last year by John Burns not only confers power
upon municipal authorities to impose a town-planning scheme on any land
within or near their boundaries, but enables the authorities to take
judgment against the owners of neighboring property for the amount by
which its value is enhanced through the operation of the plan. Such
methods of procedure, however justifiable from an economic point of
view, would be contrary to established public policy in this country.
The constitution of Illinois requires uniformity of taxation with
respect to both persons and property, and while it permits the cost of
local improvements to be assessed by the authorities of cities, towns
and villages upon property specially benefited thereby, it not only
limits the aggregate amount of such special assessments to the cost of
the improvement, but requires the distribution of that aggregate over
all property similarly benefited.
While, therefore, in every civilized country the makers of laws strive
to protect private property and private rights from spoliation and
abuse, it remains true that extensive municipal and governmental works
are more quickly and easily executed in those parts of the world where
the legislative authorities have a free hand than they can be under
a system of rigid constitutional restraints. Those vast projects
which have created the modern city of Paris and are transforming
London and many continental cities would necessarily follow different
channels in this country; yet there is every reason to believe that
the constitutional limitations which here determine the form of public
improvements do not really prohibit any measures that in this country
would be considered wise. It will be found that the restraints of the
fundamental law under which we live do not forbid any of the steps
recommended in the proposed Plan of Chicago, although in many important
respects they do fix and control the manner in which, and the means
by which, these steps can be taken. The state, and its agent, the
municipal corporation, are fully empowered to protect and to promote
the public welfare, and for that purpose have been vested with the
three great functions of government known as the police power, the
power of eminent domain, and the power of taxation, in one or another
of which will be found adequate authority for the accomplishment of the
Plan.
The police power has been characterized by the Supreme Court of
Illinois as “that inherent plenary power in the state which permits
it to prohibit all things hurtful to the comfort, welfare and safety
of society.”[32] Avoiding too rigid an exactness of definition, the
courts have described it in terms which are said to be summed up in the
statement that “the police power, in its broadest acceptation, means
the general power of a government to preserve and promote the public
welfare by prohibiting all things hurtful to the comfort, safety and
welfare of society, and establishing such rules and regulations for the
conduct of all persons, and the use and management of all property,
as may be conducive to the public interest.”[33] It is only under the
police power that men can be required to submit to the destruction or
appropriation of their property without monetary recompense for the
loss.[34]
In the exercise of the power of eminent domain, the state may take
private property, but only for a “public use” and only upon payment
of just compensation. No man can, in this country, be required to
surrender his property, even for full value, unless the use for which
it is taken is public. The right assumed by some European governments
to condemn large areas of land in order, by selling part of it, to
defray the cost of improving the rest, would be subject in this country
to the inquiry whether such a purpose is “public,” within the meaning
of that term as expounded by the courts. No judge grounded in the
principles of American jurisprudence would countenance the argument
that mere pecuniary advantage to a municipality could, without other
pretext, justify the taking of private property against the will of the
owner. It is quite another question, however, whether the condemnation
of more land than is directly involved may not be justified as an
incident of a public improvement, when it could not be defended as an
independent speculation.
The last of the three governmental powers mentioned is the power of
taxation. Like the power of eminent domain, it is inherent in every
sovereign state, but no taxes can be levied for other than public
purposes. They may be general, representing the tribute due from every
person to the government which protects him; or special, measured or
limited by the particular benefit accruing to his property from a local
improvement. The cost of public works may be paid for outright from the
proceeds of a single levy or assessment, or may be defrayed from the
proceeds of bonds to be liquidated by annual contributions distributed
over a term of years. The constitution of Illinois requires provision
to be made for paying all municipal bonds within twenty years, and
limits the amount of indebtedness which any municipal body may incur to
five per cent of the assessed value of taxable property therein; but
does not impose any general limitation upon the amount or rate of taxes
which municipal bodies may be authorized to levy.
Such is a brief characterization of the three functions of government
upon which chiefly depends the execution of public enterprises in
this country. The Plan of Chicago, now under consideration, embraces
as its leading features the acquisition, maintenance, and control
of parks, boulevards and arteries of communication throughout the
metropolitan territory tributary to Chicago; the establishment and
control of similar parks, circuits and avenues within the city itself,
and incidentally the reclamation of slums and congested areas; the
embellishment of the shore of Lake Michigan; the consolidation and
rearrangement of freight and passenger terminals; and the creation of
a Civic Center connected with other parts of the city by convenient
avenues, and in or about which shall be grouped important public
buildings which may hereafter be erected.
OUTER PARKS, BOULEVARDS, AND CIRCUITS
The outer belt of parks and forest preserves, the boulevards and
highways connecting country towns with each other and with the city,
and the extension of a driveway around the shore of Lake Michigan,
involve relations with counties outside of Cook, and even with states
beyond the borders of Illinois. It may safely be assumed, without
specific inquiry, that the laws of Wisconsin and Indiana, if not
already adequate to the performance of their share in the project, can
easily be made so by the people of those states.
In Illinois the existing laws are in the main sufficient for the
needs of local communities which desire, by the exercise of their
present taxing powers or the organization of park districts, to bear
their part in a general scheme of improvement. The Act of June 19,
1893,[35] provides for the incorporation of park districts to connect
two or more cities or villages by means of boulevards or parks. A more
comprehensive measure is the Act of June 24, 1895,[36] under which
several park districts in Cook County, such as those at Winnetka,
Kenilworth, Wilmette and Rogers Park, have been organized by vote of
the people of those communities. A district formed under this act may
acquire land for parks or boulevards by purchase or condemnation, and
the board of park commissioners may accept from any municipality in
the district the control of any park or boulevard therein. Bonds may
be issued up to three per cent of the assessed valuation of property
in the district, and, in addition to taxes for the payment thereof,
a general tax of four mills on the dollar may be collected. Special
assessments for local improvements may be levied through the township
authorities. Districts bordering upon navigable bodies of water are
empowered to reclaim submerged lands, and the title of the state is
granted for that purpose to the park district to which such submerged
land is adjacent. The park authorities could construct islands or
driveways beyond the present water line. They would be required to
recompense the owners of the shore for any loss or diminution of their
riparian rights; but the benefits to the shore lands would doubtless in
many, if not most, instances more than offset the cost of the property
and property rights that would be taken or damaged for the improvement.
Among local agencies which might co-operate in suburban development
may be mentioned the townships. These have long exercised jurisdiction
over country roads, and they were authorized by two Acts of March 2,
1907,[37] to secure small parks by purchase or condemnation and upon
vote of the people to issue bonds and levy taxes for that purpose. No
park so established can be more than ten acres in extent.
Such limited local authorities may prove serviceable auxiliaries to the
main plan, but their powers are inadequate to the execution of the more
general features of metropolitan development; nor would it be just to
impose on local tax-payers the entire burden of such improvements as
the acquisition of extensive areas of park or woodland chiefly for the
resort and recreation of the people of the city. These enterprises
require the co-operation of a central body of more extensive powers and
larger resources.
In looking for instrumentalities through which such plans might be
executed, the park legislation of Massachusetts claims first attention.
The Metropolitan Park Commission, under whose auspices the city and
suburban park system of Boston has been developed, was created by an
act of the legislature of Massachusetts, approved June 3, 1893.[38]
It consists of five members, appointed by the governor, and exercises
jurisdiction over Boston and various other cities and towns which
constitute the Metropolitan Parks District. The board has power to
acquire and maintain open spaces, taking in fee or otherwise any land
necessary for that purpose, and acting so far as may be in consultation
with local boards. Any open space in a city or town may be turned
over to the board by the local authorities. Subsequent acts empower
the commission to construct roadways and boulevards, to purchase
or condemn land for that purpose, and to assess property specially
benefited thereby. The commissioners are authorized to abandon land
which they have acquired, thereby revesting title in the original
owner and reducing the damages which he might otherwise justly claim.
Authority is also given to sell, at public or private sale, any lands
or rights acquired and paid for. Property taken by the commission vests
in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and is to be paid for by state
bonds extending over a term of not more than forty years. Taxes to
meet the bonds are, however, apportioned among the cities and towns
within the district, and a reapportionment is to be made once in
five years. By an Act of March 17, 1903, the commission and the park
officers in any city or town were empowered to make reasonable rules
and regulations respecting the display of signs or advertisements
visible from public parks and parkways; but the Supreme Court, in the
case of _Commonwealth_ v. _Boston Advertising Co._, 188 Mass. 348,
held that this statute did not and could not confer upon the public
authorities any power to prohibit the owners of land from leasing it
for advertising purposes, unless just compensation were provided.
The Metropolitan Park Commission is a creature of the state—not of
the particular communities directly affected—and over its fortunes
the legislature has maintained a constant fostering care, extending
and defining its jurisdiction by successive acts, and granting fresh
financial powers as occasion arose. Local home rule is a political
principle not so firmly established there as in Illinois. Here it would
not be feasible to create a similar body by legislative fiat without
the concurring vote of the people of the district over which its
jurisdiction extended. Legislation designed for similar ends is more
likely, in this state, to take the general form of enlargement of the
powers and functions of the city and the county; or, especially if more
than one county is involved, of the creation of a special commission
endowed with extraordinary powers and similar in many of its features
to the forest-preserve districts contemplated by the Act approved May
18, 1905.[39]
This measure, which is entitled “An Act to provide for the creation
of forest-preserve districts,” authorizes the incorporation as a
forest-preserve district of any area of contiguous territory containing
one or more cities, towns, or villages within the same or adjoining
counties. Such a district can only be organized by the affirmative vote
of the inhabitants; and if it embraces parts of two counties, there
must be a favorable vote in each. The affairs of the district are to be
managed by a president and six commissioners, appointed by the governor
and drawn from different political parties. The president alone
receives a salary. The board is authorized to accept control of streets
in any city, town, or village on request of the local authorities, and
to designate existing streets and roads as pleasure driveways, and lay
out and establish others for that purpose; but none of these is to be
within any public park district. Power is given to acquire, by gift,
purchase, or condemnation, any land not already in a park district for
driveways and forest preserves. Bonds may be issued to the amount of
one per cent of the assessed value of all property in the district, and
this amount may be increased by a vote of the people to three per cent.
Authority is given to levy taxes for the payment of bonds and interest
thereon, and also to levy for general purposes an additional tax not
exceeding one mill on the dollar.
An attempt was made under this act to organize as a forest-preserve
district all of Cook County, except a few towns in the extreme north
and south ends thereof. It received a majority of the votes cast on
the proposition, but not a majority of those cast at the regular
election held on the same day. This has left some doubt as to the legal
effect of the vote. The result was largely due to indifference and to
the creation of a new taxing body with what were regarded by many as
unnecessarily extensive powers. A committee of the legislature was
appointed to report a revised act more consonant with the wishes of
the people. Among the changes which have been suggested are that each
district shall be confined to a single county; that the members of the
commission shall be appointed by the president of the county board; and
that taxes for the purposes contemplated by the act shall not be levied
by the district authorities themselves but by the board of county
commissioners. The proposed forest-preserve districts are essentially
park districts, though called by a different name; and the main objects
of this act might be accomplished by creating a forest-preserve
commission as a department of the county government, under appropriate
legislation—a method certainly less open to attack from a legal point
of view than the one embodied in the Forest-Preserve Act of 1905.[40]
Counties in Illinois have under existing law no general powers which
would enable them to take a prominent part in plans for the development
of the metropolitan district of Chicago; but it would be competent
for the legislature to invest them with more extensive functions.
There is in the constitution no limit upon the amount of county taxes
which may be voted by the people; and county bonds, when authorized by
popular vote, may be issued for any authorized county purpose up to the
constitutional limit of five per cent of the assessed value of taxable
property in the county.
In an inventory of the agencies which might be capable of sharing in
the creation of outer parks and boulevards, mention should not be
omitted of a Greater City of Chicago, which might be invested by the
legislature with power to purchase or condemn land far beyond its own
corporate limits in order to establish a system of parks and boulevards
commensurate with the needs of its inhabitants.[41] Some doubt has
been suggested as to the constitutionality of such a grant of power
if attempted under the so-called Chicago charter amendment to the
state constitution,[42] which authorizes “a special charter of local
municipal government for the territory now or hereafter embraced within
the limits of the city of Chicago.” The effective policing by the city
of parks and boulevards outside the city limits would present practical
difficulties, and the plan would impose upon the city the entire cost
of improvements in the advantages of which the suburban districts in
which these improvements were located would share. If all of the people
and property benefited are to bear their proportionate share of the
expense, the proposed system of outer parks and boulevards should be
acquired and controlled by the county or by a new municipal body.
CITY PARKS, SQUARES, BOULEVARDS, AND AVENUES
The existing municipal corporations that might be authorized to bear
a part in realizing the Plan within the city limits are the city
of Chicago, the county of Cook, and the several park boards. Any
participation by the Sanitary District, as by bridging its canals or
improving the appearance of their banks, would be incidental.
City councils are empowered by Article V of the City and Village Act of
1872 to lay out, establish, open, widen, pave, and otherwise improve
streets, alleys, avenues, parks, and public grounds, and to plant trees
upon and regulate the use of the same.[43] In the case of _Thompson_
v. _Highland Park_, 187 Ill. 265, the court sustained the power of
the city to include parkways and grass plots in the improvement of a
street to be paid for by special assessment. The special Act of May
18, 1905,[44] relating to the city of Chicago only, confers upon the
council power to acquire, by purchase or otherwise, municipal parks
and playgrounds, and declares that the city may exercise the right of
eminent domain for the acquirement of property useful, advantageous,
or desirable for municipal purposes; and that the procedure in such
cases shall be, as nearly as may be, like that provided for in the
Act of June 14, 1897, concerning local improvements as amended or to
be amended. Land taken for a park is “property useful, advantageous,
or desirable for municipal purposes,” and a public park is a “local
improvement,” the cost of which may be assessed upon contiguous
property to the extent of the special benefits when the legislature
authorizes that course to be pursued.[45] The “Act concerning local
improvements”[46] directs the city council to provide, in any ordinance
for a local improvement, whether it shall be made by special assessment
or special taxation, or by general taxation, or otherwise; and, in
sections 13 to 33, inclusive, defines the procedure for ascertaining
the compensation to be paid for private property taken or damaged,
and for assessing the cost on other property to the extent to which
it is specially benefited. The city, therefore, already possesses
power to acquire public parks within the city limits and to assess
the cost, or the greater part thereof, against property in the
neighborhood of the improvement. Under the present law all ordinances
for local improvements in the city, to be paid for wholly or in part
by special assessment or special taxation, must originate with the
board of local improvements; but if the park boards were merged in the
city government, it might be feasible to grant to an administrative
department of parks the initiative with respect to local improvements
within their special jurisdiction.[47] The city authorities have now
ample power, to the extent of their financial resources, to improve
and widen existing streets and to open new streets, parks and public
grounds. The city council has adequate discretion to determine how wide
any street shall be, and whether it shall be devoted entirely to travel
or given up partly to lawns, trees, and parkways.
It is highly important that the city should be able effectively to
control the traffic on streets and boulevards, and especially to keep
designated residence streets free from heavy teaming or particular
kinds of traffic (such as through teaming, not going to or from
property fronting on the particular street), without formally turning
such streets over to park authorities as boulevards. This power may be
given by the 96th paragraph of Section 1 of Article V of the statute in
relation to cities, villages, and towns,[48] which authorizes the city
council to “direct, license, and control all wagons and other vehicles
conveying loads within the city, or any particular class of such wagons
or other vehicles.” If more specific authority is required, it should
be obtained from the legislature. The streets are held by the city in
trust for the general public and cannot be diverted from that purpose
by the city without special authority.[49] The legislature, however, as
representative of the public, has control over them, and may limit the
public right to make free use of streets; as it actually has done in
the statute authorizing the wheel tax.[50] It may authorize municipal
authorities to designate certain streets as pleasure driveways, to the
exclusion of heavy traffic,[51] or to turn over any of its streets
to park boards for boulevard and driveway purposes;[52] but the city
cannot, without legislative authority, divest itself of the control of
a street nor restrict the public in the reasonable use and enjoyment
thereof.[53] General authority has been conferred upon city councils to
regulate the use of streets, but this provision of the statute cannot
safely be relied upon as an unqualified delegation of power to set
aside some streets for exclusive use as pleasure driveways, since the
Act of March 27, 1889,[54] expressly empowers the municipal authorities
of a city or village to select for that purpose _not more than two
streets_ within the corporate limits. This doubt the legislature should
be asked to set at rest.
The narrow scope of the powers of Cook County has already been
commented upon. While counties could not, under the present
constitution, be authorized to pay for improvements by special
assessment, the general assembly might empower the county board to
purchase or condemn land within or without the city limits for parks or
other public uses, the cost to be paid from the proceeds of any bond
issues which the people might see fit to vote within the five per cent
limit of indebtedness. A park commission or forest-preserve commission,
established as an administrative department of the county government,
would be an appropriate agency for carrying out these objects.
The only park authorities now exercising any considerable jurisdiction
within the city limits are the South Park Commissioners, the West
Chicago Park Commissioners and the Commissioners of Lincoln Park, all
of which were incorporated by the legislature in the year 1869 for the
purpose of acquiring certain specific parks and boulevards. They have
received additional powers from time to time. The West Chicago Park
Commissioners, within whose jurisdiction the proposed Civic Center
would lie, were authorized by the Act of 1869 to purchase or condemn
the land described therein, and to levy special assessments for that
purpose. The Act of April 9, 1879,[55] as amended, gives every board
of park commissioners power to connect its parks or boulevards with
any part of a city, town, or village by taking any appropriate street
with the consent of the corporate authorities and of the owners of a
majority of the frontage. In 1885 park boards were authorized to accept
from municipal authorities any parks under their control.[56] The Act
of May 10, 1901,[57] empowers every park board to acquire, by purchase
or condemnation, as many small parks, not exceeding ten acres each, as
it desires and can pay for.
By the Act of March 4, 1907,[58] even more extensive powers are
conferred upon the commissioners of every public park district
appointed or selected pursuant to any act which has been or may be
submitted to the legal voters of such park district and by them
adopted. Full power is given to purchase or condemn any land for the
establishment of new parks or the extension of old parks, and, by
vote of the people, to issue bonds to any desired amount within the
constitutional limit. This act materially increases the powers of the
boards to which it applies. The West Park board is within its terms;
and may, upon favorable vote of the people of the district, bond itself
up to the constitutional limit; and it can probably also levy special
assessments under authority of the Act of June 24, 1895,[59] to pay for
property condemned for park purposes.
Land for the proposed Civic Center might be acquired through any one
of several agencies. The city of Chicago, if financially able, could
purchase the necessary area, or condemn it and assess back part of
the expense on real estate in the vicinity. Any portion of the cost
not raised by special assessment would have to be defrayed from the
proceeds of bonds, which, under the constitution, must be redeemable
within twenty years, and must not increase the indebtedness of the
city beyond five per cent of the assessed value of property therein.
Additional borrowing powers may be conferred upon the city through
consolidation of various local authorities with the city under the
so-called charter amendment to the state constitution, or through a
change in the statutory method of fixing the assessed valuation of
property. Appropriate legislation should be enacted at once in order to
make land thus acquired available not only for city buildings or park
purposes, but for the location of the buildings of other public bodies,
upon financial and other terms to be fixed by negotiation with the
city.[60]
The county of Cook, though now lacking the necessary powers, might be
authorized by the legislature to acquire, with the proceeds of a bond
issue, the requisite area for the Civic Center, and to make appropriate
arrangements for the location therein of federal and city buildings and
other public edifices.
The West Park board might well be asked to treat the Civic Center as a
legitimate object for the exercise of its functions, and with that end
in view it should be invested by the legislature with powers adequate
to the immediate acquisition of the land embraced in the proposed
Civic Center, and should be authorized to arrange appropriate terms
for the future occupation of part of the area by the buildings of
other governmental and public bodies; among which terms might be the
reimbursement of part of the original cost.
Among the agencies which might be created to carry out this and
other features of the Plan should, perhaps, be mentioned a municipal
corporation organized along the lines indicated by the forest-preserve
legislation already alluded to. The Act of 1905[61] permitted cities
and villages to be included in a forest-preserve district, and the city
of Chicago was included within the boundaries of the proposed district
the creation of which was submitted to popular vote. Section 6 of that
act, providing for the designation of streets as pleasure driveways,
specified that none of them should fall within any park district, and
that no preserves should be within the limits of a park district.
The legislature may have power to eliminate such restrictions, and
to sanction the incorporation of a metropolitan board capable of
exercising all the powers of a park commission within and without the
city limits.
With reference to the proposed boulevard link on Michigan Avenue,
connecting the north and south sides, it is to be borne in mind that
the city under its general powers can enlarge Michigan Avenue to any
desired width and can alter the grade of the whole or any portion of
the street. There were, however, passed by the legislature May 25,
1907, four acts which were designed to facilitate the construction of
this boulevard link. It was in contemplation at that time that the
South Park and Lincoln Park boards would do part of the work and defray
part of the expense, and that the city would meet the balance of the
cost by annual appropriations extending over a series of years.
The first of these four acts[62] was designed to enable the South
Park board to contribute such part of the expense as to it might seem
best. This bill provides that the corporate authorities of any public
park district having control of any park in a city wherein other park
districts and parks are situated, but not connected therewith by any
boulevard or driveway or other park thoroughfare, may from time to time
in their discretion issue and sell additional bonds, not exceeding the
five per cent limitation, in order to defray the expense of connecting
any park under their control with any other public park or parks
by means of a boulevard and driveway in the city, and altering and
improving any connection or connections between such parks. Such bonds
must, however, be authorized by the voters of the park district at an
election.
By the second act,[63] the Lincoln Park board is authorized to issue,
upon a favorable vote of the electors of the district, bonds not
exceeding $1,000,000 for the purpose of constructing surface and
elevated boulevards and the approaches thereto over or along streets
and alleys, when authorized to do so by any city having control thereof.
The other two acts referred to were passed in order to dispel any doubt
about the power of municipalities to erect an elevated structure in a
public street. One[64] empowers any city to grant, by ordinance, to any
board having jurisdiction over parks and boulevards the right to take
and improve, by means of surface or elevated ways, a street not more
than one mile in length, with all convenient or necessary approaches,
inclines, and superstructures; while the other[65] confers power upon
any city to construct and maintain an elevated way in any street,
with all necessary approaches, inclines, and superstructures, and to
authorize any commission or board having jurisdiction of a public park
to take over, maintain, and control, upon terms fixed by ordinance, any
street and any incline, approach, or superstructure therein.
An alternative method of constructing a surface or elevated boulevard
link would be found in a proceeding by the city under the Local
Improvement Act. The city has ample power to condemn property for
widening the street and to assess the land damages against all property
specially benefited thereby. Having thus added contiguous property to
the street as a part thereof, the city could, under the enabling act
already alluded to, if not under its general powers, construct the
proposed improvement. It must be borne in mind, however, that even if
the method of special assessment were resorted to in order to defray
the cost, a substantial percentage of that cost would, no doubt, be
designated by the court to be paid by the city as public benefits.
LAKE SHORE DEVELOPMENT
The treatment of the shore of Lake Michigan within the city limits
involves comparatively little difficulty from a legal point of view.
Ample legislation has been provided under which the Lincoln Park and
South Park boards can extend their driveways and parks over the bed
of Lake Michigan, subject to the consent of the Secretary of War. An
Act of May 14, 1903,[66] expressly confers upon every board of park
commissioners having control of any park, boulevard, or driveway
bordering upon any public waters in the state the power to extend the
same over the bed of such waters, and to connect two parks under their
control by a boulevard or driveway over the bed of the water. Private
riparian rights or titles may for such purpose be acquired by contract
with or deeds from the owners, and may be paid for out of the general
revenues of the park board. By Section 4, the title of the state to
the submerged lands between the shore and the boulevard or parkway—in
other words, the bed of the intervening lagoon—is granted to the board
of park commissioners. Several other statutes on this subject were
enacted on the same date. One authorizes the South Park Commissioners
to extend any park under their control out into the lake over the
adjacent submerged lands;[67] another conveys to the South Park
Commissioners Grant Park from Randolph Street to Park Row, together
with the submerged lands lying between those streets extended east to
the harbor line established by the Secretary of War;[68] another grants
to the South Park Commissioners title to all submerged and artificial
lands between the south boundary of Jackson Park and the south line of
Seventy-ninth Street extended one thousand feet into Lake Michigan,
and to the land included within a triangle formed by the shore of Lake
Michigan, the extension of Ninety-fifth Street and the extension of the
state boundary line.[69]
This legislation did not authorize the condemnation of riparian
rights, but only the acquisition of such rights by negotiation. To
facilitate settlement, an Act passed May 2, 1907,[70] empowered the
park commissioners, with the approval of the Circuit Court, to agree
with the riparian owners upon a boundary line between the public park
and the private shore lands, and to convey to the riparian owners
all submerged land lying inside of the boundary line thus fixed by
agreement; in other words, the park board, having received from the
state a grant of its title to the bed of the lake, is authorized to
sell and convey to the shore owners so much thereof as may be necessary
to induce them to release their riparian rights. If any shore land is
owned by persons who are incompetent to contract or who are unknown,
the power is given to condemn their riparian rights, pursuant to the
provisions of the statute of eminent domain. That power should not be
limited to the lands of unknown or legally incompetent owners. Under
this legislation, the park board has power to build a boulevard far out
into the lake and to settle with the riparian owners by conveying to
them as wide a strip of the submerged lands as may be deemed expedient;
and the shore owners will then have the right to fill in such
submerged strip, thus adding extensive areas of valuable shore land
to their present holdings. The constitutionality of this legislation
is virtually settled by the case of _People_ v. _Kirk_, 162 Ill. 138,
sustaining a similar arrangement between the Lincoln Park board and the
proprietors of the shore south of Oak Street. The Lincoln Park board
has been given power to condemn shore lands and riparian rights under
an amendment of Section 2 of an act passed June 15, 1895, and court
proceedings are authorized for the establishment of the boundary line
between the park lands and the lands of private owners.[71]
The right of the state to authorize structures which might interfere
with navigation is subordinate to the paramount control of the War
Department of the United States; and the improvements contemplated
by the legislation last described cannot be carried out without the
consent of the Secretary of War. Proceedings looking to a grant of
such consent were temporarily stayed by the remonstrance of Mayor
Busse, and the appointment by him, under authority of the city council,
of the Chicago Harbor Commission, which has made a comprehensive
study and detailed report on the harbors of the city, together with
recommendations as to harbor, railway terminal, and park plans along
that part of the shore of Lake Michigan between Twelfth Street and
Jackson Park. The report is entirely favorable to the essential
features of the plan for park and boulevard development on the Lake
Front, but with appropriate reservations for future harbor development.
It strongly favors the accomplishment of such plans at the earliest
possible moment, stating that “there is no real conflict between
the harbor and the park interests of Chicago and no artificial or
unnecessary discord should be permitted to retard the complete and
prompt execution of the plans necessary for the development of both
sides of the city’s life.” It recommends that “a detailed plan carrying
out this idea should be worked out jointly by the experts of the park
authorities and an expert engineer appointed by the city, subject to
the approval of the city council and the South Park Commissioners,” and
urges immediate action by these authorities. As soon as such a plan can
be worked out and the consent of the War Department be secured, there
is nothing but the question of ways and means to delay the execution of
this plan. The legislature has already authorized the South Park board,
upon obtaining authority from the people at an election, to issue bonds
up to the constitutional limit for the construction of the Lake Front
Park.[72]
TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
The readjustment of freight and passenger traffic and the relocation
of railroad terminals is a subject which requires little comment from
a legal point of view. When railway companies are brought to the point
of hearty co-operation with the Chicago Plan, the powers which they
already enjoy will be found adequate to the execution of their part.
The state has placed at their service all necessary powers of eminent
domain, and those portions of streets and alleys required for railway
terminals may be vacated by the city. Although the action of the city
council in vacating streets to make room for a railway station has been
attacked, it has been sustained by the lower courts.
It may be that the legislature should be asked to confer upon the
city additional powers that would enable it to acquire property for
railway terminals and appropriate connections to be used by the
various transportation lines on just terms. A city cannot condemn
land for the purpose of turning it over to a railway corporation,
but there can be little doubt of the power of the legislature to
authorize a city to condemn land in order to create a central clearing
place for traffic. Chapter 247 of the Acts of the legislature of
Wisconsin for the year 1907 is an example of a law designed for that
end. This statute authorizes cities of the first class to acquire,
establish, own and operate railway terminals, and to condemn land
for that purpose. Having established such a terminal, the city may
permit any railroad corporation to use it upon agreed terms, or, if
the parties cannot agree, then upon terms to be fixed by the state
railroad commission. To meet the first cost, the city is authorized
to issue “railway terminal certificates,” payable only out of the
revenues derived from the terminals for the acquisition of which they
are issued. These certificates may be secured by trust deed, and there
are provisions for foreclosure similar in many respects to those
contained in the so-called “Mueller Law” enacted by the legislature of
Illinois, authorizing municipal ownership of street railways. Under
the decision of the Supreme Court of Illinois,[73] such certificates
would constitute “indebtedness” of the city, and the amount which
could be issued at any time would be controlled by the constitutional
limitation of municipal indebtedness. That municipal certificates or
bonds secured by revenue-producing utilities and not made a charge upon
the other property or general credit of the city should be exempted
from the general constitutional debt limit is advocated by men of
widely different opinions upon the public-utility question,[74] and is
provided in various state constitutions.[75] Constitutional amendments
to this effect are being proposed in New York and elsewhere.
CONTROL OF LANDS ADJACENT TO PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS
In order to secure the full benefit of a park, boulevard, avenue
or other place of public recreation or resort, some control of the
immediate surroundings is indispensable. The municipal authorities
which establish parks, boulevards, and other public places need some
power to regulate the use of premises within immediate view of the
public grounds, so as to prevent offensive advertising, restrict
the kinds of business, if any, to be conducted thereon, and make
appropriate regulation of the height, manner of construction, and
location of the surrounding buildings. To that end, resort must be had
either to the police power or to the power of eminent domain.
The police power of the state is not available for merely æsthetic
purposes, and is quite inadequate to the solution of this special
problem. Owners of land, under existing constitutional limitations,
can with impunity lease to advertising companies the right to erect
safely constructed billboards and paint the sides and roofs of barns
with any advertisements not injurious to morals or contrary to public
decency; nor can vulgarities which merely offend the sight and shock
temperamental susceptibilities be construed as breaches of decency. “It
is believed,” says a writer in the Harvard Law Review,[76] “that both
on theoretical and practical grounds the law must be taken as settled
that, although public æsthetic ends may be effectuated by statute or
ordinance through the exercise of eminent domain, the same object may
not be accomplished by legislation under the police power without
compensation.”
In the case of _Chicago_ v. _Gunning System_, 214 Ill. 628, the
Supreme Court of Illinois declared that the legislature, by conferring
authority upon the city council to abate nuisances and enforce police
ordinances, had given that body ample power to regulate, within
reasonable limits, the construction of billboards upon private
property; but the court nevertheless condemned a particular ordinance
for the reason, among others, that the purpose of certain sections
seemed “to be mainly sentimental and to prevent sights which may be
offensive to the æsthetic sensibilities of certain individuals residing
in or passing through the vicinity of the billboards.”
A broader control may, however, be exerted under the power of eminent
domain. It is possibly within the capacity of the legislature to
authorize park boards or other governmental bodies to acquire by
condemnation proceedings, upon payment of compensation, the right,
even in country districts, to restrict the use of all land within view
of a driveway or park; but the exercise of that power with respect to
property which does not actually front on the park or driveway scarcely
falls within the domain of practical consideration in connection with
the present Plan.
Nearer the center of urban population, where the billboard nuisance is
even more aggravated, the city is now the only effective repository of
the police power. The county is not at present a factor in the problem;
and park boards, while they have adequate police jurisdiction in their
own territory, have none outside. It is competent for the city council,
in the exercise of the police power, to regulate the construction of
advertising signs for the protection of public decency or public safety
by reasonable ordinances, but not to prohibit them altogether, nor
restrict their size, construction, or location more than is reasonably
necessary to keep them within the limit of safety; nor could land
abutting upon parks and boulevards be subjected to substantially
different regulations in this respect from those imposed upon property
fronting on business streets. In the case of _Chicago_ v. _Gunning
System_, already adverted to, a provision forbidding the erection of
billboards on residence streets without the consent of residents in the
block was condemned by the court as “an arbitrary restriction on the
part of the city, depriving an individual property owner of the use of
his property as he may choose, without any showing that such use would
be injurious to others in the same vicinity.” The city council cannot
condemn as a nuisance what the law adjudges not to be a nuisance. In
order, therefore, to control offensive advertising by such regulations
as the city ought to have power to impose, resort must be had to some
other function of government than the police power.
The construction of buildings is also subject to some regulation under
the police power. The city is vested with authority to prescribe the
strength and manner of constructing buildings, to define fire limits,
and to pass and enforce all necessary police ordinances; and the
power conferred upon it to pass “all necessary police ordinances” is
construed as delegating to the city all the appropriate police power of
the state.[77] No question is made but that the city council has power
to regulate the height of buildings with a view to health and public
safety; but it may be doubted whether the police power would justify
the municipal authorities in imposing more rigorous restrictions upon
the character of buildings to be constructed along boulevards and
around parks than in other parts of the city. The Supreme Judicial
Court of Massachusetts has sustained the right of the legislature to
delegate to a city the power to regulate the height of buildings, to
prescribe different regulations for different districts, and to invest
a commission with the right to determine the boundaries between such
districts,[78] and has expressed the opinion that certain special
regulations of the height of buildings around a public square might
be imposed under the police power without making compensation.[79]
It is doubtful whether local distinctions of this character would be
sustained in Chicago under existing legislation, except in so far as
they might be justified by the power to establish fire limits. The
legislature might delegate to city councils the power to district the
city and prescribe different building limits in different districts;
but any distinctions of this sort would have to rest upon real
differences, and it remains doubtful whether the police power could be
invoked to justify making a special district of the area surrounding
a public square or avenue. The council could not be invested with
authority to establish building lines without awarding compensation to
the owner;[80] nor could the legislature confer the right to regulate
arbitrarily the character of the business to be conducted in premises
abutting on a boulevard.[81] A business which is an actual nuisance
may be prohibited altogether; and the legal machinery exists for
excluding saloons and some other kinds of business from limited areas.
Such exercise of the police power must, however, bear some reasonable
relation to the public health, safety, or morals, and could not, under
existing constitutional restraints, be extended to business in general.
Such being the limits of the police power, it is evident that, in
order to secure any effective control of the environs of a public
place, resort must be had to some authority of wider scope, and the
only available power is that of eminent domain, under which the state
and its agencies have the right to take any private property for a
public use, upon providing just compensation. The areas adjacent to a
public place could probably be controlled under this power, either by
condemning them outright as a part of the improvement, or by condemning
merely a qualified right to regulate and control them. If they were
taken outright, the question would arise whether they could be resold
subject to the necessary restrictions upon their future use; thus
reducing the cost of the improvement to the extent of the increase in
the value of this land caused by the improvement.
The right to appropriate private property for public use is an
attribute of sovereignty, existing in the state independently of
written constitutions, and vested in the general assembly by those
provisions of the constitution which confer upon that body the
legislative power of the state. In Illinois, as in all of the states,
the power of the legislature to take private property for the use of
the community is subject to two constitutional limitations: one, that
just compensation must be provided for all property so taken; the
other, that private property cannot be taken, even upon payment of its
full value, for any except a public use. These two restrictions are
also imposed by the fourteenth amendment of the federal constitution,
which declares that no state shall deprive any person of property
without due process of law. Subject to these qualifications, the state
has unlimited power to appropriate through its legislature any property
within its borders which has become the subject of private ownership;
and this power of eminent domain the legislature may delegate, with or
without restrictions, to any subordinate agency. The expediency of the
exercise of that power in any given case is a subject over which the
courts have no control, unless they can say that the proposed use is
not public. On these general principles all the authorities are agreed.
The United States Supreme Court has frequently stated the principles of
the law of eminent domain. In _Boom Company_ v. _Patterson_, 98 U. S.
403, Mr. Justice Field, in delivering the opinion of the court, said:
“The right of eminent domain, that is, the right to take private
property for public uses, appertains to every independent government.
It requires no constitutional recognition: it is an attribute of
sovereignty. The clause found in the constitutions of the several
states providing for just compensation for property taken is a
mere limitation upon the exercise of the right. When the use is
public, the necessity or expediency of appropriating any particular
property is not a subject of judicial cognizance. The property
may be appropriated by an act of the legislature, or the power of
appropriating it may be delegated to private corporations, to be
exercised by them in the execution of works in which the public is
interested.”
Parks, boulevards, and places of recreation are now universally
recognized as legitimate objects of public concern, for which the power
of eminent domain may appropriately be exercised; and it seems clear
that if private property can be taken to create such utilities, it may
also be taken for the purpose of realizing the full benefit of these
works by adequate control of the surroundings. The legislature might
at least authorize a city, park district, or other subordinate agency
to exercise the power of eminent domain by imposing upon property in
the neighborhood of a public place restrictions upon the location or
character of the buildings to be erected, or the kinds of business,
if any, to be conducted upon such adjacent land. It could not be
successfully argued that such a use was not public.
The conception of a public use must alter and expand with the
development of civilization, and especially with the growth of cities.
In sustaining an act of Congress providing for the condemnation of
land for a public park in the District of Columbia, and assessing part
of the cost upon the property specially benefited, the Supreme Court,
in the case of _Shoemaker_ v. _United States_, 147 U. S. 282, 297,
speaking through Mr. Justice Shiras, said:
“In the memory of men now living, a proposition to take private
property, without the consent of its owner, for a public park, and to
assess a proportionate part of the cost upon real estate benefited
thereby, would have been regarded as a novel exercise of legislative
power. It is true that, in the case of many of the older cities and
towns, there were common or public grounds, but the purpose of these
was not to provide places for exercise and recreation, but places on
which the owners of domestic animals might pasture them in common,
and they were generally laid out as part of the original plan of the
town or city. It is said, in Johnson’s Cyclopedia, that the Central
Park of New York was the first place deliberately provided for the
inhabitants of any city or town in the United States for exclusive
use as a pleasure ground for rest and exercise in the open air.
However that may be, there is now scarcely a city of any considerable
size in the entire country that does not have, or has not projected,
such parks. The validity of the legislative acts erecting such parks,
and providing for their cost, has been uniformly upheld.”
Again, in the case of _Attorney General_ v. _Williams_, 174 Mass. 476,
the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts used the following language:
“The uses which should be deemed public in reference to the right of
the legislature to compel an individual to part with his property
for a compensation, and to authorize or direct taxation to pay for
it, are being enlarged and extended with the progress of the people
in education and refinement. Many things which a century ago were
luxuries, or were altogether unknown, have now become necessaries.
It is only within a few years that lands have been taken in this
country for public parks. Now the right to take land for this purpose
is generally recognized and frequently exercised.... The grounds on
which public parks are desired are various. They are to be enjoyed
by the people who use them. They are expected to minister not only
to the grosser senses, but also to the love of the beautiful in
nature, in the varied forms which the changing seasons bring. Their
value is enhanced by such touches of art as help to produce pleasing
and satisfactory effects on the emotional and spiritual side of our
nature. Their influence should be uplifting, and, in the highest
sense, educational. If wisely planned and properly cared for, they
promote the mental as well as the physical health of the people. For
this reason it has always been deemed proper to expend money in the
care and adornment of them, to make them beautiful and enjoyable.
Their æsthetic effect never has been thought unworthy of careful
consideration by those best qualified to appreciate it. It hardly
would be contended that the same reasons which justify the taking of
land for a public park do not also justify the expenditure of money
to make the park attractive and educational to those whose tastes are
being formed, and whose love of beauty is being cultivated.”
When once it is conceded that a use is public, the courts have no
control over the character of the estate or easement to be taken for
the purpose. The constitution of Illinois provides, indeed, that when
a railroad company condemns a right-of-way the fee shall remain in the
former owner; but, subject to that restriction as to these particular
corporations, the legislature has unlimited power to specify the
nature, extent, and duration of the estate that shall be taken for any
public use. Having the right to authorize the taking of an absolute
title, it could direct the appropriation of any lesser interest, and
could confer upon public bodies power to condemn the right to restrict
the use and improvement of property contiguous to public grounds.
It does not appear, however, that the present statutes of Illinois
do confer upon municipalities any express power to condemn such
easements over lands contiguous to a street, boulevard, park or other
public place. In the legislation under which the West Chicago Park
Commissioners were incorporated and organized, there were sections
expressly directing the park commissioners to impose building lines
upon property adjacent to the parks and boulevards authorized thereby,
and in the condemnation proceedings compensation was to be included for
this burden. The West Park board, however, never undertook to avail
itself of these extensive powers, which were limited to the acquisition
of the original parks and boulevards authorized by the act. It might
be argued that the city, under its present authority to establish and
enlarge parks, boulevards, and streets, could condemn such easements
directly, or that it could condemn a wide strip for a new street or
land contiguous to an old street, and, by the familiar device of a
stipulation entered of record in the condemnation suit, limit the
appropriation to a restricted control of the use of the property.
The latter method, if lawful, would be clumsy and inadequate, and
additional legislation would be desirable to enable public authorities
effectively to acquire, under the power of eminent domain, a qualified
jurisdiction or control over property of which the exclusive use is not
taken.
Even such a law, however, would fall short of the public need. To
give the city or other agency a free hand in controlling the environs
of a public place, the authorities should be invested with power to
acquire the actual title, and then to dispose of it subject to such
restrictions as might be deemed expedient. This course offers the
double advantage of giving the public agency absolute control of the
future use and improvement of the surrounding property, and of enabling
it, if the price of acquisition is not too great, to recoup in some
measure the cost of the improvement by selling the residual title. A
lot abutting on a park or boulevard might be worth much more after it
had become part of a larger area subject to uniform building lines and
restrictions than it was in its unencumbered condition; and the public
authorities, by treating the whole improvement and its environment as
a unit, might reap a pecuniary advantage which they could not have
conferred upon individual owners even if they had desired to do so.
An examination of the power of municipalities to take land in excess
of physical requirements involves two questions: first, whether extra
land can be taken merely for the purpose of selling it and defraying
the cost of the improvement; and, second, whether, even if that right
is denied, such land can be condemned and resold for the purpose of
imposing upon it building or sanitary restrictions and limitations of
use.
As already stated, it may be accepted as elementary that neither the
state, through its legislative department, nor any subordinate agency
of the state can take a man’s property against his will, under the
power of eminent domain, merely for the purpose of giving it or selling
it to another man. Such a taking would not be for public use and would
violate the state and federal constitutions. It by no means follows,
however, that a state agency, exercising the power of eminent domain,
is always forbidden to derive profit from the sale of property not
found to be actually needed. The activities of the Sanitary District
of Chicago suffice to show how an area larger than is demanded by the
ultimate needs of the public work may be acquired and converted into a
source of revenue. A municipal corporation enjoys a large discretion
in determining for itself how much land it needs for its public works,
and courts will not ordinarily curb its freedom of action unless the
exercise of the power of eminent domain is clearly excessive. If the
city council saw fit to condemn a strip of land five hundred feet
wide for an avenue or boulevard, the courts would have no right to
question its decision unless, in the particular instance, there was
some “manifest injustice, oppression or gross abuse of power”;[82]
nevertheless, if it did clearly appear as a fact that the ultimate
object was to lay out an avenue only one hundred feet in width, the
question would be squarely presented whether the margins on each
side could be taken outright in order to govern their future use and
development.
In an early New York case, a legislative attempt to authorize the
taking of more land than was actually needed was condemned by the court
in the following language:
“This power has been supposed to be convenient when the greater
part of a lot is taken, and only a small part left not required for
public use, and that small part of but little value in the hands
of the owner. In such case the corporation has been supposed best
qualified to take and dispose of such parcels, or gores, as they have
sometimes been called; and probably this assumption of power has been
acquiesced in by the proprietors. I know of no case where the power
has been questioned and where it has received the deliberate sanction
of this court. Suppose a case where only a few feet or even inches
are wanted from one end of a lot to widen a street, and a valuable
building stands upon the other end of such lot, would the power be
conceded to exist to take the whole lot, whether the owner consented
or not? Or suppose the commissioners had deemed it expedient and
proper in this case, in the language of the statute, to take the
whole of the churchyard, the act would have been equally within the
letter of the statute with their act in the present case; and yet
no one would suppose that the legislature ever intended to confer
such a power. The quantity of the residue of any lot cannot vary the
principle. The owner may be very unwilling to part with only a few
feet; and I hold it equally incompetent for the legislature thus to
dispose of private property, whether feet or acres are the subject of
this assumed power. I am clearly of opinion that the commissioners
have no right to take the strip of land in question against the
consent of the corporation of Trinity Church.”[83]
While there is a dearth of modern authority on this subject, it is
believed that the courts would still accept the reasoning of this
Albany Street case, and would sustain the position of an owner who
refused to surrender his property in order merely to diminish the
cost of a public improvement. Such enactments, however, though void
as to an unwilling property owner, are valid in so far as they confer
authority on the city to take and pay for the whole parcel with the
owner’s consent, and to spend the people’s money for that purpose.[84]
A plan for acquiring a large area by private purchase could not be
successfully carried out if one or two of the proprietors could refuse
to part with their property, and such a scheme must therefore be
confined within the limits of the power of eminent domain.
In order to justify the appropriation of a zone outside of the actual
lines of the public space, it must appear that the property is to be
made, in some sort, a part of the improvement; and that fact does
appear when the control of the debatable zone is sought in order
to save the environment of the public place from disfigurement or
objectionable use. That end suffices to justify the condemnation
of some interest in the zone; and it is well established by the
authorities that when the public good requires the appropriation of
some interest, the legislature is sole judge of the particular nature
of the interest that shall be taken, and may, without being answerable
to any court, declare that the interest to be taken shall be a fee
simple absolute. A railway company does not require the title, or even
the exclusive use, of its entire right-of-way; yet it is not doubted
that, in the absence of a constitutional restriction, the legislature
might authorize a railway company to take the entire title. In most
states, the fee of a street remains in the owner of the property over
which the street is laid out under the power of eminent domain; yet
there is no question but that the legislature has power to vest the fee
in the city. The Supreme Court of Minnesota, in the case of _Fairchild_
v. _St. Paul_, 46 Minn. 540, where the question was raised whether the
city acquired through condemnation proceedings the actual title to the
street or only an easement, stated the established principles of the
law in the following language:
“There is nothing better settled than that, the power of eminent
domain being an incident of sovereignty, the time, manner and
occasion of its exercise are wholly in the control and discretion
of the legislature, except as restrained by the constitution. It
rests in the wisdom of the legislature to determine when and in what
manner the public necessities require its exercise; and with the
reasonableness of the exercise of that discretion the courts will
not interfere. As the legislature is the sole judge of the public
necessity which requires or renders expedient the exercise of the
power of eminent domain, so it is the exclusive judge of the amount
of land, and of the estate in land, which the public end to be
subserved requires to be taken. * * *
“When the use is public, the necessity or expediency of appropriating
any particular property is not a subject of judicial cognizance.
Consequently, if in the legislative judgment it is expedient to do
so, it has the power expressly to authorize a municipal corporation
compulsorily to acquire the absolute fee simple to lands of private
persons condemned for street or any other public purpose. The
authorities are so numerous and uniform to this effect that an
extended citation of them is unnecessary. * * * It is often laid down
as the law that the taking of property must always be limited to the
necessity of the case, and, consequently, no more can be appropriated
in any instance than is needed for the particular use for which the
appropriation is made. But it will be found that this is almost
invariably said, not in discussing the extent of the power of the
legislature, but with reference to the construction of statutes
granting authority to exercise the right of eminent domain, and where
the authority to take a certain quantity of land or a particular
estate therein depended, not upon an express grant of power to do
so, but upon the existence of an alleged necessity, from which the
disputed power is to be implied.”
The city of Brooklyn acquired land for public parks under a statute
authorizing the acquisition of the title, and the court, in sustaining
the validity of a subsequent act of the legislature authorizing the
sale of portions of the land no longer needed, said:
“Doubtless, in most cases, when land is condemned for a special
purpose on the score of public utility, the sequestration is limited
to that particular use. But this is where the property is not taken,
but the use only. Then, the right of the public being limited to
the use, when the use ceases the right ceases. Where the property
is taken, the owner paid its true value, and the title vested in
the public, it owns the whole property, and not merely the use; and
though the particular use may be abandoned, the right to the property
remains.”[85]
Land acquired for canal purposes has often been held to have vested
absolutely in the state, so that upon abandonment of the canal the
premises could be devoted to a different use or sold to a private
purchaser.[86]
Some courts have intimated that land condemned for park purposes is
presumptively dedicated to that use forever; and, hence, that authority
to condemn for such a use implies authority to take the absolute
title. Moreover, if a statute provided that land acquired for a public
purpose could be sold when no longer needed, the implication would
seem to be unavoidable that the title acquired under the statute was
absolute. No general authority, however, has as yet been conferred upon
municipalities in this state to take under the power of eminent domain
a title that would survive the public use.
Under appropriate legislation, then, a city could take the absolute
fee to any property in which it required an interest for the public
use. It is equally well settled that the legislature can authorize the
sale of any such land when it is no longer needed for the purpose for
which it was acquired. The property, it is true, is held in trust for
the public, but that trust could be relinquished by authority of the
legislature, which represents the public, and the property could then
be sold; and the authority to sell such surplus when no longer needed
could be contained in the act authorizing the original condemnation. Of
such a statute it was said in _Matter of City of Rochester_ 137 N. Y.
243:
“It is claimed that this provision is in conflict with the provisions
of the constitution respecting the taking of private property for
public use, as it in fact authorizes the city to take it for a
purpose not public. We think the objection is without merit or
substance. Of course, the city could not take private property for
the purpose of selling it or dealing in it; but, having once acquired
it for a park, and it becoming, in the course of time, unnecessary or
useless for that purpose, by the growth of the city or other changes
in the situation, a sale in the manner prescribed by the statute
would be within the legitimate functions of the city as a municipal
corporation, and power to that end, conferred by the legislature at
any time, or in the act authorizing the taking, cannot invalidate the
delegated right to exercise the power of eminent domain.”
The power of the municipality to sell superfluous land under the
authority of such a statute could not be challenged at the time of
sale. If the title had been acquired, it could be sold. The only
question that could be raised would be one in the original condemnation
proceeding as to the power to take the land at all. That question would
be merely the question of good faith. The petitioner could be made to
file plans showing some reasonable need for the property sought to be
condemned; and the courts would not permit an obvious abuse of the
power of eminent domain either by the state legislature or by any of
its agencies. It is believed, however, that no question of abuse or bad
faith could arise when the legislature was shown to have authorized,
in its sovereign discretion, the taking of the whole title as the most
direct and convenient method of controlling the use.
An instructive case bearing upon this argument is that of _Dingley_ v.
_Boston_, 100 Mass. 544. For the purpose of draining and grading up a
part of the Back Bay district, the Massachusetts legislature authorized
the city of Boston to take land within a certain area, and provided
that the title should vest in the city. The contemplated use, although
extensive, was merely temporary; when the land was filled and the
surface raised to a higher grade, the purpose for which it was taken
would have been accomplished. The Supreme Court, nevertheless, holds
that it was the object of the statute to authorize the taking of a fee
simple absolute, and that after the filling had been completed the
title remained in the city, subject to such use or disposition as the
authorities might deem expedient. The use being public, it could not be
said that the taking of a fee simple was any the less for public use
than the taking of a smaller estate would have been; the legislature
was sole judge of the expediency of taking one or the other. The court
speaks as follows:
“The act provides that the city government may first take the land,
and thereby transfer to the city a title in fee simple, without the
consent of the owners. It is contended that, as the only object of
the act is to abate a nuisance, the act ought only to have granted
the power to occupy the land temporarily until the object of the act
should be effected, and it should then be restored to the owners,
with a provision that the benefit done to the land should be applied
in offset to the damages. It is true that the raising of the grade
does not require an occupation of the land for a great length of
time. When this work is completed the nuisance will be abated, and
the land will be in a condition to be occupied by private persons.
But its condition will be greatly changed; almost as much so as
raising flats into upland. The former surface will be deeply buried
under the earth that will have been brought upon it, and the changed
condition is to be perpetual. If the old property is restored, the
new property which has been annexed to it must go with it. This
would be very unjust to the city, who have been compelled to incur
the great expense of destroying the nuisance, unless the owner were
required to make a reasonable compensation, which might be far beyond
the amount of the damages to which he would be entitled.
“It would be difficult to adjust the matter; and in many cases it
might operate harshly upon the owner to compel him to take and pay
for the improvements. On the whole, therefore, the plan of compelling
the city to take the land in fee simple, and the owner to part with
his whole title for a just compensation, would seem to be the most
simple and equitable that could be adopted; unless there is some
objection on the ground that a fee simple is more sacred than an
estate for life or years, or than an easement of greater or less
duration. We can see no ground for regarding one of these titles as
more sacred than another, or for regarding land as more sacred than
personal property. * * *
“Whether land be taken under the clause authorizing the making of
wholesome and reasonable laws, or by virtue of the clause authorizing
the appropriation of private property to public uses, it must in
either case be left to the legislature to decide what quantity of
estate ought to be taken in order to accomplish its purpose, and do
the most complete justice to all parties.”
If a municipality were justified in taking an area in order to control
the surroundings of a park or boulevard, the proceeding would not
be rendered illegal by the fact, if fact it was, that the hope of
pecuniary profit was a strong, or even the controlling, motive. If
there is a sound basis which justifies the action of public officials,
the motive by which those officials are actuated is not open to
judicial inquiry.[87]
If, then, it be a legitimate part of a public improvement—as few would
question that it is—to impose appropriate restrictions upon the use
and improvement of adjacent property, and if, as seems probable, the
condemnation of the entire title can be authorized for that purpose,
a municipal body could be empowered by the legislature to acquire
title to land outside of the physical area of improvement; and if the
municipality had also been authorized by the legislature to sell any
interest no longer needed in any of its land, it could sell the land
subject to all necessary conditions or restrictions; nor would it lie
in the mouth of any court to question the proceeding or brand it as
illegal because the real, efficient motive may have been to get the
benefit of the enhancement in the value of the property.
There is probably no constitutional obstacle to legislation investing
a city, park board, county, or other appropriate agency with power
to condemn as part of or supplementary to a public improvement such
contiguous area as the reasonable needs of the improvement itself might
require to be subjected to proper restrictions; nor could such a law
be condemned by reason of its also authorizing the sale of the land
subject to such conditions or restrictions as the public authorities
saw fit to impose upon it.[88]
If any local legislation authorizing the condemnation and sale of
surplus lands were brought to the test, the question for the courts
would be whether the use for which the property was taken was a public
one; and it must be borne in mind that upon this point the judgment
of the Supreme Court of a state would not be final. By the Fourteenth
Amendment to the Constitution of the United States it is provided that
no state shall deprive any person of property without due process of
law; and it is now settled that this clause prohibits the taking of
private property for any use that is not public. The United States
Supreme Court, however, has always paid the greatest deference to the
opinions of state legislatures and the state judiciary as to what uses
are public. The power of the United States Supreme Court to review
a state decision in this particular, and also the extreme respect
which will be paid to local decisions, are both well illustrated in
the case of _Clark_ v. _Nash_, 198 U. S. 361, sustaining a statute of
the state of Utah, by the terms of which an individual land owner was
empowered to condemn the right of conveying water in a ditch across his
neighbor’s land for the purpose of irrigating his own farm. Mr. Justice
Peckham, delivering the opinion of the court, said:
“In some states, probably in most of them, the proposition contended
for by the plaintiffs in error would be sound. But whether a statute
of a state permitting condemnation by an individual for the purpose
of obtaining water for his land or for mining should be held to be
a condemnation for a public use, and therefore a valid enactment,
may depend upon a number of considerations relating to the situation
of the state and its possibilities for land cultivation, or the
successful prosecution of its mining or other industries. Where the
use is asserted to be public, and the right of the individual to
condemn land for the purpose of exercising such use is founded upon
or is the result of some peculiar condition of the soil or climate,
or other peculiarity of the state, where the right of condemnation is
asserted under a state statute, we are always, where it can fairly
be done, strongly inclined to hold with the state courts, when they
uphold a state statute providing for such condemnation. * * *
“We do not desire to be understood by this decision as approving of
the broad proposition that private property may be taken in all cases
where the taking may promote the public interest and tend to develop
the natural resources of the state. We simply say that in this
particular case, and upon the facts stated in the findings of the
court, and having reference to the conditions already stated, we are
of the opinion that the use is a public one, although the taking of
the right of way is for the purpose simply of thereby obtaining the
water for an individual, where it is absolutely necessary to enable
him to make any use whatever of his land, and which will be valuable
and fertile only if water can be obtained.”
Again, in the very recent case of _Hairston_ v. _Danville & Western
Railway Co._, 208 U. S. 598, the facts were that the Supreme Court of
Virginia had sustained a proceeding by which a railroad condemned land
for a spur track to a tobacco factory, the owner of which agreed to
reimburse the company for the cost of acquiring the land. The decision
of the federal court sustaining the judgment of the state court was
delivered by Mr. Justice Moody, who said:
“When we come to inquire what are public uses for which the right
of compulsory taking may be employed, and what are private uses
for which the right is forbidden, we find no agreement, either in
reasoning or conclusion. The one and only principle in which all
courts seem to agree is that the nature of the uses, whether public
or private, is ultimately a judicial question. The determination of
this question by the courts has been influenced in the different
states by considerations touching the resources, the capacity of
the soil, the relative importance of industries to the general
public welfare, and the long-established methods and habits of the
people. In all these respects, conditions vary so much in the states
and territories of the Union that different results might well be
expected.... No case is recalled where this court has condemned as a
violation of the Fourteenth Amendment a taking upheld by the state
court as a taking for public uses in conformity with its laws.... We
must not be understood as saying that cases may not arise where this
court would decline to follow the state courts in their determination
of the uses for which land could be taken by the right of eminent
domain. The cases cited, however, show how greatly we have deferred
to the opinions of the state courts on this subject, which so closely
concerns the welfare of their people. We have found nothing in the
Federal Constitution which prevents the condemnation by one person
for his individual use of a right of way over the land of another
for the construction of an irrigation ditch; of a right of way over
the land of another for an aerial bucket line; or of the right to
flow the land of another by the erection of a dam. It remains for
the future to disclose what cases, if any, of taking for uses which
the state constitution, law and court approve will be held to be
forbidden by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the
United States.”
It thus appears that it would require an extreme case of manifest
abuse of the power of eminent domain to lead the Supreme Court of the
United States to condemn as private a use which a state legislature
had recognized as public, and which had been sustained by the Supreme
Court of the state. If the abuse of power were manifest, the United
States courts would not hesitate to condemn the proceeding, even though
expressly sanctioned by the constitution of a state; but there is every
reason to believe that any method of taking and selling land justified
by the reasonable purpose of controlling the environs of a public place
would withstand the scrutiny of the United States Supreme Court if
sanctioned by the legislative and judicial departments of the state
government.
In concluding this topic, some experiments made in other states towards
taking more property than was demanded by the physical requirements of
an improvement, either to control the environs or for mere pecuniary
considerations, may be passed briefly in review. The experience of
foreign countries need not be recounted here, since some governments,
unlimited by constitutional restrictions, have conducted real estate
transactions of a wide range, far beyond anything that could reasonably
be contemplated in America. The State of New York had upon its statute
books early in the last century an act already adverted to, purporting
to authorize municipalities to take all of a connected tract of land
when only part was needed and to sell the surplus. This statute was
adjudged by the courts to be unconstitutional, in so far as it sought
to authorize the taking, against the owners’ consent, of land not
actually needed. A resolution, however, has, after many years, been
introduced (January 27, 1909), in the senate of the State of New York
for the submission of a constitutional amendment in the following
language:
“When private property shall be taken for public use by a municipal
corporation, additional adjoining or neighboring property may be
taken, under conditions to be prescribed by the legislature by
general law. Property thus taken shall be deemed to be taken for
public use.”
In Massachusetts, Section 4 of Chapter 50 of the revised laws provides
that the owner of abutting land liable to assessment may at a certain
stage of the proceedings give notice that he elects to surrender his
land; in which event the board may, if it thinks expedient, take the
whole parcel at its estimated value, and any part not required may
be sold. A somewhat similar statute, authorizing an owner to convey
to the city his entire property at its appraised value when part of
it was taken for widening a street, was involved, and by implication
sustained, in the case of _Dorgan_ v. _Boston_, 12 Allen, 223.
Chapter 443 of the Massachusetts laws of 1904 sanctions the taking of
remnants of parcels part of which are condemned for public improvement,
and authorizes the city to sell any of such remnants subject to any
building or other restrictions which the proper authorities may see
fit to impose. The power to take the whole of a tract when part only
is needed is limited to the case where the remnant after such taking
would, from its size or shape, be unsuited for the erection of suitable
and appropriate buildings, and where also the public convenience and
necessity require such taking. There are provisions authorizing such
remnants to be sold and united with adjacent property if the owner
thereof consents; but the legislature refused to adopt the more radical
plan, recommended by a committee, of uniting such remnants with the
contiguous property, without the consent of the owner thereof, by
condemning his land in order to incorporate the remnant with it and
thus effect an advantageous sale. This act has never been tested in
the courts, and it may be surmised that, in spite of the very liberal
views of the Massachusetts courts, the fate of a proceeding under its
provisions would be problematical, unless it could be made to appear
that the “public convenience and necessity” actually did require
such taking of entire tracts for the purpose of imposing upon the
odd remnants some conditions and restrictions germane to the major
improvement.
Another statute, framed on somewhat similar lines, but also never
submitted to a judicial test, is Section 10 of the Ohio Municipal
Code, as amended in 1904. This section provides that all municipal
corporations shall have power to appropriate real estate within their
corporate limits for certain specific purposes, among which are the
following:
“For establishing esplanades, boulevards, parkways, park grounds
and public reservations in, around and leading to public buildings,
and for the purpose of reselling such land, with reservations in
the deeds of such resale as to the future use of said lands so as
so protect public buildings and their environs, and to preserve
the view, appearance, light, air and usefulness of public grounds
occupied by public buildings and esplanades and parkways leading
thereto.”
Chapter 194 of the Acts of the Virginia General Assembly for the
session of the year 1906 provides as follows:
“Any city or town of this Commonwealth may acquire by purchase, gift
or condemnation property adjoining its parks, or plats on which its
monuments are located, or other property used for public purposes, or
in the vicinity of such parks, plats or property, which is used and
maintained in such a manner as to impair the beauty, usefulness or
efficiency of such parks, plats or public property, and may likewise
acquire property adjacent to any street, the topography of which,
from its proximity thereto, impairs the convenient use of such
street, or renders impracticable, without extraordinary expense,
the improvement of the same, and the city or town so acquiring any
such property may subsequently dispose of the property so acquired,
making limitations as to the uses thereof, which will protect the
beauty, usefulness, efficiency, or convenience of such parks, plats
or property.”
CONGESTED AREAS
In considering a model plan for the city of Chicago, attention is
naturally called to the example of European cities which have removed
the inhabitants from whole areas where the population was congested
or the arrangement of the streets unwholesome, and have transplanted
them to new territory while the condemned area was being renovated
or rebuilt. The Plan of Chicago does not contemplate any imitation
of such examples. The police power is adequate to the destruction,
without recompense, of single buildings which are insanitary or unsafe;
but the legislature of Illinois has not yet undertaken to go further
and license the condemnation by municipal authorities of congested or
unwholesome areas under the power of eminent domain. Local drainage
districts may be organized, with power to reclaim wet agricultural
lands and locate ditches over private property, on the payment of
proper compensation; and it would also doubtless be competent for the
legislature to sanction the taking by eminent domain of a district even
within the city which was by nature low or pestilent, as was done with
the Back Bay flats in Boston. Different considerations, however, apply
to an area where the noxious conditions are due to the arrangement of
streets or to the manner of building upon land by individual owners.
Each proprietor might with reason demand the right to be dealt with
individually; and if his own lot was vacant, or was improved with
buildings transgressing no sanitary laws or regulations, he might well
oppose any scheme which required him to part with his land on account
of the transgression of his neighbors. A tract of land fit to breed
pestilence because of the niggardliness of nature might be reclaimed
under the power of eminent domain, because the arch offender was not
subject to the police jurisdiction of the state; but if a plague spot
has been created by the fault of men, an innocent victim of their
malfeasance would have some reason and more law on his side if he
insisted upon the state proceeding against the culprits singly.
Accordingly, the Chicago Plan deals only incidentally with this
subject. The city can, as has been done in some European capitals,
open wide thoroughfares and avenues through congested areas, or take
the heart of the district for a public park; and the legislature might
authorize the condemnation of a zone of reasonable width around these
open spaces on the principles already laid down. It may be doubted,
however, whether the courts would sustain as constitutional a statute
designed to appropriate a whole congested area merely for the purpose
of renovating it. If the power to do so in a flagrant case were
sustained by the Supreme Court of the state, or if such a project were
authorized by constitutional amendment, the measure would probably not
be condemned by the federal courts as contravening the Constitution of
the United States. To the opening of wide streets, however, through
congested districts, as proposed in the Plan, there is no obstacle
unless it be the lack of financial resources.
PRESENT BORROWING AND TAXING POWERS
In carrying out so comprehensive a scheme of development as is
outlined in the Plan of Chicago, some subsidiary sources of revenue
may be found, but the main dependence must be upon the taxing power
of the state and its agencies. Current expenses are properly met by
current taxes; but it is a main principle of economics that the cost
of permanent improvements should be distributed over a series of
years commensurate with the probable duration of the benefit. Lest,
however, the existing generation should lay inordinate burdens upon
posterity, limitations have been set upon the amount and duration of
indebtedness which may be incurred by any municipal body. Section 12
of Article IX of the constitution of the State of Illinois declares
that no municipal corporation shall become indebted for any purpose to
an amount exceeding five per cent of the value of the taxable property
therein, as ascertained by the last assessment; and that, at or before
the time of incurring such debt, the municipality shall provide for
the collection of a direct annual tax sufficient to pay the interest
and to discharge the principal within twenty years from the time when
the debt was contracted. Under the present revenue laws applicable to
Cook County, all taxable property is valued by assessors at its “full
value,” and one-fifth of that figure is entered in the books as the
“assessed value,” and, as afterwards equalized, is made the basis on
which all tax and debt limitations are computed.[89]
The constitutional limit of municipal indebtedness does not mean that
every public corporation has power to incur debts to that amount.
Municipalities have no greater powers than the legislature confers upon
them. There is no constitutional limit on the amount of taxes that the
legislature can authorize municipalities to levy.[90] They may incur
only such debts, not exceeding the constitutional limit, and levy such
taxes as the general assembly authorizes them to do. Several municipal
corporations, however, may be created under legislative authority for
different purposes, embracing all or part of the same territory, and
each of these overlapping municipalities may be given power to levy
taxes and incur debts up to the constitutional limit. To restrain
the increasing burden of taxes, the legislature in 1901 passed the
so-called Juul law, designed to limit the aggregate taxes which might
be levied upon any community in any one year to five per cent of the
assessed valuation of property therein; but the constitutionality of
this statute has been questioned and the amendments of and numerous
exceptions to its provisions made by the legislature have left its
operation, if not its continued existence, so doubtful that its repeal
has been sought on divers occasions.[91]
The county of Cook is permitted to levy taxes not exceeding
seventy-five cents on every one hundred dollars, without popular
vote, and to levy any additional taxes voted by the people. County
bonds may be voted by the people in any such amount as not to cause
the total debt of the county to exceed five per cent of the assessed
value of the property therein. The assessed value for the year 1908
was $514,730,186, of which five per cent is $25,736,509. Up to that
limit the county might become indebted by vote of the people. The
present bonded debt is $9,360,000, and the floating debt averages about
$1,600,000. Without aiming at nicety of detail, it may be said that
the county has at present a borrowing capacity, in round figures, of
$15,000,000. The operation of the Juul law, however, now reduces the
tax available for the general expenses of Cook County to sixty-five
cents on one hundred dollars; and the increasing demands upon the
county would probably necessitate a modification of this law, so as
specifically to exclude from its limitations the taxes necessary to
care for additional bond issues and provide for future maintenance of
county parks or boulevards.
The city of Chicago is practically indebted at all times to the
constitutional limit of five per cent of its assessed valuation, and
has been given power by the legislature to levy an annual tax for
corporate purposes not exceeding two per cent on that valuation,
exclusive of taxes levied for the payment of bonds. Under the
operation of the Juul law, the maximum rate has been cut down to one
and eight-tenths per cent. The assessed valuation of city property
for 1908 was $477,190,399. A two per cent tax on that amount is
$9,543,808, and a five per cent indebtedness would be $23,859,520. The
legislature could authorize a higher annual tax, but could not, under
the constitution, increase the limit of indebtedness unless by means
of some change in the method of assessing the property on which the
limitation was to be computed.[92] One of the chief reasons for asking
a new charter was to increase the bond-issuing power of the city by
changing the basis of computation of the limit of indebtedness.
The taxing powers of the three park districts in the city of Chicago
are contained in a mass of separate laws, which authorize the issuing
of bonds for particular purposes and the levying of taxes to pay
the interest and retire the principal. The park boards could be
authorized by the legislature to incur debts somewhat in excess of
their present bonded liability, without infringing the provisions of
the constitution; but here also the tax limitations of the Juul law
would have to be modified unless maintenance expenditures were scaled.
The assessed valuation for the year 1908 of property in the West Park
district was $105,614,809, of which five per cent is $5,280,740. The
present bonded debt of the West Park board is $3,270,000, leaving a
possible margin of about $2,000,000 of additional indebtedness that the
legislature could authorize to be incurred by the board.
An entirely new taxing body could, with the consent of the voters, be
created by the legislature, having jurisdiction over all or part of
Cook County. That body, if properly constituted, could be invested with
power to levy such taxes as might be deemed advisable, and with power
to issue bonds up to the constitutional limit of five per cent of the
assessed valuation. It is also to be borne in mind that by some slight
changes in the method of fixing the assessed valuation of property,
which is now arbitrarily defined as one-fifth of the full valuation,
the legislature could largely increase the borrowing power of all the
taxing bodies.
Large improvements need not only extensive borrowing powers, but the
distribution of the burden over a long series of years. While twenty
years has been heretofore deemed the limit of time which ought to be
allowed for paying any debt incurred by the issue of bonds, it may be
thought that the radical changes contemplated by the Plan of Chicago
are of such unusual magnitude and of such permanent character that
justice might demand distribution of the burden over more than one
generation. Upon that view, bonds running for a longer period might be
thought reasonable. The present constitutional limit of twenty years
is, however, absolute, and an amendment to the constitution would be
required to enable any municipality to issue bonds for a longer term.
CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing examination of the legal aspects of the Plan of
Chicago it appears
First: That without any additional legislation many of the
recommendations of the Plan can be adopted and practical steps be taken
to carry them into effect;
Second: That the legislature has ample power to grant either to the
city or to other governmental agencies such additional authority as may
be necessary to carry out all of the recommendations of the Plan as
fully and as rapidly as may be found wise; and
Third: That additional authority, and especially a substantial
increase in the local bonding power, is essential to the effective
accomplishment of the most important of these recommendations.
It remains for the people of Chicago, through their legally constituted
representatives, to decide upon the wisdom of the suggestions and to
adopt them in the order of their relative importance and availability.
The necessary funds can no doubt be secured as rapidly as it can be
clearly shown that their expenditure will result in real advantage to
the individual citizens who constitute “the public,” and upon whom
rests, directly or indirectly, the burden of expense. In the last
analysis it must be clear that a community which makes wise expenditure
for public works not only imposes no real burden upon private property,
but increases the value of all private property within its limits. Such
a community should be given adequate authority to levy taxes and incur
debt, subject always to such intelligent supervision of expenditures
as will effectively guard against extravagance and waste. Certainly,
any limitations upon a progressive municipality should be broad enough
to make it possible to undertake such public enterprises as are
recommended in this Plan.
Fortunately, this is entirely possible in Chicago within the
constitutional limitations upon municipal indebtedness. By
consolidating the local authorities within the city of Chicago under
the provisions of the so-called charter amendment to the state
constitution (Article IV, Sec. 34), the present bonding capacity of
the city can be multiplied five times, less the aggregate indebtedness
of the consolidating bodies, and subject to such limitations as may
be imposed in the consolidating act. By merely changing the statutory
method of fixing the assessed value of property, the present bonding
power will be proportionately increased. By utilizing the county for
making such improvements as it may well be authorized to make, we can
secure additional bonding capacity even greater than that available
through the agency of the city. There would seem to be no valid
objection to an act authorizing any county which chose to adopt its
provisions by popular vote to acquire, construct, and maintain parks
and boulevards, with all the powers (including those of eminent domain)
already recommended as to cities and park or forest-preserve districts,
and with appropriate increase of taxing and of bonding powers subject
to popular approval. For many, if not all, of the purposes now sought
under the Forest-Preserve Act, the county of Cook would seem to be the
appropriate and available agency. It would be a distinct public gain to
enlarge its functions so that membership on its board of commissioners
would both demand and permit the highest type of public service. If
the Forest-Preserve Act, or an act of this general character, is
constitutional, the agency thereby provided is also available for many
of the purposes of the Plan, and could be given additional bonding
power subject only to the constitutional limitation. It will thus be
seen that ample bonding power for all the purposes of the Plan can be
conferred by the legislature. Significant precedents are not lacking
to justify the expectation that private generosity will co-operate
in the accomplishment of some of the recommendations here made for
the practical and effective promotion of the public welfare. Some of
the conspicuous benefactions of this general nature, already made by
public spirited citizens of Chicago, have been mentioned earlier in
this volume,[93] and the movement for small parks and playgrounds has
already received very substantial assistance from the generosity of
private individuals. To other individuals other features, such as outer
parks or the improvement of tenement conditions, may make an equal or
greater appeal.
Some increase in the bonding power of the city is, however, essential
to the effective accomplishment of certain park and street improvements
which the city itself should immediately undertake. The two great
connecting links—that between the North and South Divisions at Michigan
Avenue, and that between the West and South Divisions by means of
Twelfth Street—might well proceed immediately; and yet to raise the
entire cost of these improvements by special assessment, spread over
a wide area, would be to arouse vigorous opposition both in and out
of the courts. This contest should, if possible, be confined to the
adjustment of damages and benefits to the property directly affected
and which abuts on or is in the immediate vicinity of the improvements.
Property which is clearly benefited in a special and peculiar manner
should be assessed its fair share—and only its fair share—of the cost
of these improvements, and the remaining cost should be borne by the
city at large as a public benefit. The present machinery of the special
assessment law is adequate for all these purposes. What is needed is
sufficient bonding power to enable the city to issue bonds for the
portion of the cost assessed as “public benefits.”
The power to condemn or otherwise acquire easements, and to acquire
and thereafter sell the fee simple title to property in the immediate
vicinity of public parks and boulevards, subject to such easements as
may enhance and protect the public use, would be of great advantage
in the practical accomplishment of many improvements, and might aid
in overcoming serious financial obstacles. The available space will,
however, not permit the discussion of the particular instances to which
this suggestion especially applies.
It remains only to consider the official agencies which are most
desirable and most available for the effective working out of the Plan.
As a matter of theory, the best results could be achieved through a
consolidation of the city and county governments, or by placing the
entire metropolitan district, which constitutes the real city of
Chicago, under a unified municipal administration, endowed with broad
powers of local self-government, including the power to levy taxes and
incur indebtedness. Practically, however, the enlargement of the powers
of these two governing bodies—the city and the county—within the limits
permitted by the present constitution, is probably the most available
method of attaining desirable results. As a means of co-ordinating the
two it is respectfully suggested that a permanent Commission on City
and County Plan should be created by joint resolution or ordinance of
the city council and the county board. This commission should contain
appropriate representation for each body, and it should be charged
with the duty of reporting to each its recommendations as to all
matters falling within the general scope of a city and county Plan. It
might well be ordained by the city council that no public buildings
should be hereafter located or erected, and that no parks should be
acquired and no streets or boulevards be opened, without a report from
the commission or the city members thereof. The commission might
be composed entirely of city and county officials, or might contain
some representation of those who are not public officials but who are
particularly interested in and particularly qualified for its work. The
city board of local improvements and the present park boards or any
future consolidated park board should be directly represented.
Whether the functions of the Commissions on Municipal Art and Small
Parks should in the interest of simplification and efficiency be
transferred to such a Commission on City and County Plan might be
profitably considered. While such an advisory commission would be
entirely extra-legal, it would be of distinct service in securing the
harmonious development of a single comprehensive Plan for the city of
Chicago and its environs.
FOOTNOTES:
[27] Freund on Police Power, sec. 182, note 5.
[28] Freund on Police Power, sec. 181, note 50.
[29] Freund on Police Power, sec. 181, note 50.
[30] Statutes at Large, vol. 102, p. 730; see also subsequent Acts
shown in Chitty’s Statutes, vol. 8, “Metropolis” p. 253, and vol. 10,
“Public Health” p. 53.
[31] House Document No. 288, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Dec. 29,
1903, pp. 62 and 63, and citations there made from _L’Economiste
Français_.
[32] _City of Belleville_ v. _Turnpike Co._, 234 Ill. 428, 437; _City
of Chicago_ v. _Gunning System_, 214 Ill. 628, 635.
[33] 22 Amer. & Eng. Encyc. of Law, 916.
[34] In the case of _Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railway Co._ v.
_People_, 212 Ill. 103, 116, the Supreme Court quotes with approval the
following language from the American and English Encyclopædia of Law:
“The police power is to be clearly distinguished from the right of
eminent domain; and the distinction lies in this: that in the exercise
of the latter right, private property is taken for public use and the
owner is invariably entitled to compensation therefor, while the police
power is usually exerted merely to regulate the use and enjoyment of
property by the owner, or, if he is deprived of his property outright,
it is not taken for public use, but rather destroyed in order to
promote the general welfare of the public, and in neither case is the
owner entitled to any compensation for any injury which he may sustain
in consequence thereof, for the law considers that either the injury
is _damnum absque injuria_ or the owner is sufficiently compensated
by sharing in the general benefits resulting from the exercise of the
police power.”
This decision was affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States,
200 U. S. 561.
[35] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1532.
[36] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1546.
[37] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1574-5.
[38] Acts of 1893, chap. 407.
[39] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1129.
[40] See _Russell_ v. _High School Board_, 212 Ill., 327.
[41] House bill No. 350, introduced in the Illinois legislature, March
23, 1909, provides (Art. IV, Sec. 9) that “the city shall have power
to acquire, by dedication, gift, purchase, or condemnation, lands or
easements inside or outside of the city limits, for park purposes, and
for ways connecting parks with the city or with each other.”
[42] Constitution of Illinois, Art. IV, Sec. 34.
[43] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 316.
[44] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 336.
[45] _Shoemaker_ v. _United States_, 147 U. S. 282; _Dunham_ v.
_People_, 96 Ill. 331; _People_ v. _Brislin_, 80 Ill. 423.
[46] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 421.
[47] House bill No. 350, Illinois, 1909, already mentioned, which
contemplates the merger of the park boards in the city government,
provides (Art. IV, Sec. 19) as follows: “The provision of the statutes
governing the making of local improvements in the city shall be as
nearly as possible applied to the proceedings for the taking of lands
and the meeting of the expenses in connection with such improvements,
except that the board of park commissioners shall act in place of the
board of local improvements.”
[48] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 321.
[49] _Kreigh_ v. _Chicago_, 86 Ill. 407.
[50] _Harder’s Storage Co._ v. _Chicago_, 235 Ill. 58.
[51] _Cicero Lumber Co._ v. _Cicero_, 176 Ill. 9; _Brodbine_ v.
_Revere_, 182 Mass. 598.
[52] _People_ v. _Walsh_, 96 Ill. 232.
[53] _Ligare_ v. _City of Chicago_, 139 Ill. 46; _Smith_ v. _McDowell_,
148 Ill. 51.
[54] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 408.
[55] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1518.
[56] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1521.
[57] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1890, p. 1560.
[58] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1569.
[59] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1544.
[60] House Bill No. 350, Illinois, 1909, already mentioned, contains
the following provision: “Art. IV, Sec. 14. The city shall have
authority to acquire and hold lands for the erection and maintenance
thereon of public buildings of the city and for public grounds
surrounding such buildings or connected therewith, and shall have the
right to permit buildings of the County of Cook, the State of Illinois,
the United States of America or other governmental or public bodies to
be erected and maintained on such lands and grounds upon such terms and
conditions as the city council may prescribe. Subject to such use, the
board of park commissioners shall, when directed by the city council,
have the same power to manage and control, improve, maintain, and
beautify such lands and grounds, as is in this Act conferred upon said
board with respect to parks; and for any of the purposes hereinbefore
in this section specified, the city may acquire or dispose of the title
to or rights in lands or rights or easements in or over lands abutting
on or in the vicinity of such lands or public grounds in like manner
and to like extent as in this Act provided with respect to parks.”
[61] Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1129.
[62] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1570.
[63] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1572.
[64] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1577.
[65] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1578.
[66] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1562.
[67] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1563.
[68] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1564.
[69] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1565.
[70] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1570.
[71] Hurd’s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1540.
[72] House Bill No. 352, introduced in the Illinois legislature on
March 23, 1909, proposes to confer on the city complete legal power
to create harbors and provides as follows: “Sec. 14. For the purpose
of acquiring or constructing wharves, docks, levees, or in connection
with such wharves, docks, or levees, elevators, warehouses, vaults
or necessary or appropriate tracks or terminal facilities, the city
may reclaim the submerged lands under any public waters within the
jurisdiction of or bordering upon the City of Chicago, and shall
thereupon be vested with the absolute title, in fee simple, to the
lands so reclaimed; and for any of the purposes aforesaid the city
may acquire, by purchase, condemnation or otherwise, the title of the
private or public owners, if any there be, to lands lying beneath such
public waters and to any lands penetrating into or abutting on such
public waters, and also the riparian or other rights, if any there be,
of the owners of the shore lands abutting on such public waters in or
over such public waters or the submerged lands under such waters. The
city and the owner or owners of any such abutting lands or riparian or
other rights are hereby authorized to agree upon a division of the said
submerged lands between the said city and the said owners, and upon a
boundary line dividing the submerged lands acquired or to be acquired
by said city, and the submerged lands to be taken, owned and used by
said owners in lieu of and as compensation for the release or transfer
of such riparian or other rights to said city; subject, however, to the
requirement that in all cases in which said city shall have agreed upon
any such division, the said city shall file a petition or petitions
in chancery and obtain a decree of court thereon, in like manner as
is provided with respect to boards of park commissioners in and by a
statute of the State of Illinois entitled, ‘An Act authorizing park
commissioners to acquire and improve submerged and shore lands for park
purposes, providing for the payment therefor, and granting unto such
commissioners certain rights and powers and to riparian owners certain
rights and titles,’ approved May 2, 1907.”
[73] _Lobdell_ v. _Chicago_, 227 Ill. 218
[74] See Report of National Civic Federation Commission on Public
Ownership and Operation, Part 1, Vol. 1, p. 25.
[75] Digest of City Charters, prepared for Chicago Charter Convention,
pp. 25, 26.
[76] Vol. xx, p. 43.
[77] _McPherson_ v. _Village of Chebanse_, 114 Ill. 46.
[78] _Welch_ v. _Swasey_, 193 Mass. 364.
[79] _Attorney General_ v. _Williams_, 174 Mass. 476.
[80] _City of St. Louis_ v. _Hill_, 116 Mo. 527; _Chicago_ v. _Gunning
System_, 214, Ill. 628.
[81] _City of St. Louis_ v. _Dorr_, 145 Mo. 466.
[82] _Dunham_ v. _Hyde Park_, 75 Ill. 371.
[83] _Matter of Albany Street_, 11 Wend. 148.
[84] _Embury_ v. _Conner_, 3 N. Y. 511; _Dorgan_ v. _Boston_, 12 Allen,
223.
[85] _Brooklyn Park Comm’rs._ v. _Armstrong_, 45 N. Y. 234, 243.
[86] _Heyward_ v. _New York_, 7 N. Y. 314; _Rexford_ v. _Knight_, 11 N.
Y. 308; _Malone_ v. _Toledo_, 34 Ohio, 541.
[87] _Meyer_ v. _Teutopolis_, 131 Ill. 552; _People_ v. _Wieboldt_, 233
Ill. 572; _Wisconsin River Improvement Co._ v. _Pier_, 118 N. W. Rep.
857.
[88] House Bill No. 350, Illinois, 1909, already mentioned, contains
the following provisions, the legality of which is based upon the
conclusions above stated.
Art. IV, Sec. 10. “The city council, on recommendation of the board
of park commissioners, shall have power to extend the park system
of the City of Chicago, both within and outside of the city limits,
by adding to or otherwise enlarging any parks, and by opening and
establishing new parks, and by extinguishing or acquiring such title
to, or such easements and rights in or over, any lands abutting on or
in the vicinity of any existing or projected park as may be necessary
or appropriate to control the surroundings of such park so as to
increase the advantage thereof to the public, or secure to the public
the full benefit, use and enjoyment thereof. For any such purpose the
city may extinguish easements or rights in land, and may acquire lands
and easements and rights in or over land, by gift, devise, dedication,
purchase or condemnation, and may in its discretion, take under the
power of eminent domain or otherwise the title in fee simple absolute
to any land which the city is authorized to acquire, or in or over
which it is authorized to acquire easements and rights as aforesaid,
and such title shall not terminate or be defeated by cessation or
abandonment of the use for which it was acquired. The declaration of
the city council that any such lands or easements or rights in or over
land are necessary or appropriate for any such purpose shall constitute
sufficient prima facie evidence of such necessity or appropriateness.
The city council may vacate streets and alleys within the limits of or
adjacent to any lands acquired for the purpose of this section.”
Art. IV., Sec. 13. “The provisions in this Act contained authorizing
the city to acquire the absolute title in fee simple to lands in or
over which the city is authorized to acquire easements or rights, shall
be subject to the provision that any lands so taken for such purpose
shall, unless appropriated to some public use within ten (10) years
after acquisition of the title thereto, be sold and disposed of by
the city in the manner now or hereafter provided by statute for the
sale and conveyance of property no longer required for the use of the
city, subject, however, to such easements or rights in said lands,
and to such conditions, covenants and restrictions respecting the use
or improvement thereof as the city, upon recommendation of the board
of park commissioners, shall, in the deed of conveyance, impose or
reserve, and subject further to the power (which is hereby granted) of
the city council, with the consent of the board of park commissioners,
to release, waive or (by or with the consent of the grantee or owner
of the conveyed premises) alter any such easements rights, conditions,
covenants or restrictions.”
[89] House Bill No. 293, introduced at Springfield, March 11, 1909,
seeks to make the assessed value one-third, instead of one-fifth, of
the full value.
[90] _Schnell_ v. _Rock Island_, 232 Ill. 89, 98.
[91] For the Juul law as amended see Hurd’s Statutes of Illinois,
edition of 1908, p. 1814.
[92] House Bill No. 293, Illinois, 1909, already mentioned, would, if
enacted into a law, give the city power to issue bonds for its share
of the cost of the north and west connecting boulevards, or for a
beginning on the Civic Center. The other necessities of the city would,
however, exhaust most of the increased bonding power provided by this
bill.
[93] See Chapter VIII.
INDEX
INDEX
A
Advertising, regulation of, 127, 131, 132, 140.
Algonquin, 40.
Alvord, John W., his paper on good roads, 39 (note);
his report on Chicago pavements, 83.
American cities, centers of industry and traffic, 4.
Annapolis, Md., laid out on lines similar to those proposed by Wren
for London, 29.
Ancient civilization, decay of, 13.
Antwerp, 100;
the influence of the Rubens collection on, 116;
treatment of the river banks in, 116.
Apartment houses, 33, 34.
Arc de Triomphe de l’Etoile, Paris, begun by Napoleon I, finished by
Louis Phillippe, 17.
Arc du Carrousel, Paris, 17.
Architects, present plans for World’s Columbian Exposition, 6, (note);
should work together in street building, 86.
_Architectural Record_, quoted, 18.
Armour Institute of Technology, 120.
Arnold, Bion J., estimates increase in the population of Chicago, 33.
Art, a source of wealth and moral influence, 116.
Art Institute, the Lake Front improvements presented at, 6;
students at, 109;
new building for, 114;
cost of, 120, 121.
Art Schools, 34.
Ashland Avenue, 117.
_Atlantic Monthly Magazine_, quoted, 19.
Athens, works of Pericles in, 11;
characteristics of architecture in, 11;
the Acropolis, 117.
Athletic Field, proposed location on the lake front, 116.
Aurora, 40.
Austria, finds new strength in union with Hungary, 19.
Automobiles, damage to roads by, 39;
promote suburban life, 42, 46.
Avenue, the, character of, 82;
division of traffic on, 84;
use of the ellipse in, 90.
B
Babylon, the greatest commercial city of ancient times, 10;
description of, 10.
Baltic, the, yachtmen of, 52.
Baltimore, improvements in, 28.
Baguio, summer capital of the Philippines, plan for, 29.
Batavia, 40.
Baths, in Rome, accommodations of, 13.
Baumeister, German city-builder, 21, (note).
Baxter, Sylvester, secretary of Metropolitan Improvement Commission,
Boston, 20.
Beauty, Greek passion for, 11;
commercial advantages of, 110.
Berlin, rapid growth of, 1;
physical conditions in, 14;
parks of, 49, 80;
building restrictions in, 107.
Bill-boards, 41, 131, 140.
Blue Island, 40, 41.
Board of Local Improvements, powers of, 133.
Boating facilities, need of increased, 115.
Bois de Boulogne, 48.
Bois de Vincennes, 48.
Bond issues for improvements, 151.
Boston, defenses of, 9;
cost of park system, 27;
metropolitan sewage and park commissions, 38;
extension of streets, 38;
extent of park system, 49;
apartment houses in, 88;
improvements in Back Bay district, 108, 110.
Boulevard, character of, 82.
Boulevards of Chicago, 84, 93, 120.
British Museum, 110.
Brown, Glenn, Secretary American Institute of Architects, 21, (note).
Brussels, boulevards in, 20, 90.
Budapest, commercial progress of, 19;
treatment of the Danube in, 116.
Buildings, regulation of the height of, 141.
Building lines, 127.
Burnham, Daniel H., 6 (note);
plan for San Francisco, 28.
Burns, John, town-planning scheme of, 22, 128.
Bushy Park, London, 48.
C
Chicago, rapid growth of population, 1;
realizes that a city plan is necessary, 1;
the plan presented the result of experience, 2;
justification of the plan, 4;
legal aspects of plan, 127-156;
Chicago a center of industry and traffic, 4;
future greatness, 4;
public spirit, 4;
understands the necessity of experts, 4;
results of the World’s Fair, 6;
plans for improvement of the Lake front, 6;
Merchants Club begins plan, 7;
prosperity the result of comprehensive plan, 8;
the Spirit of Chicago, 8;
a typical example of a palisaded town, 9;
surroundings similar to those of Paris, London and Berlin, 14;
opportunity for systematic improvement, 15;
population greater than that of Paris when Haussmann’s work
began, 18;
nature of the Chicago problem, 30;
the metropolis of the Middle West, 31;
extent of city’s influence, 32, 34;
probable growth, 32, 33;
size of the city not the first consideration, 32;
lack of foresight after the fire of 1871, 32;
B. J. Arnold’s estimates of growth of population, 33;
James J. Hill’s prophecy as to growth, 33;
circulation of Chicago newspapers, 33;
bank reserves, 33;
commercial influence, 34;
political headquarters, 34;
responsibilities of the city, 34;
Commission to lay out territory adjoining the city, 34;
provision should be made for public buildings and playgrounds, 35;
churches, 36;
suburbs, 36;
need of highways into surrounding country, 38;
building of good roads, 39;
highways surrounding the city, 40, 41;
streets of Chicago, 43;
beginnings of park system, 43;
park area second to that of Philadelphia, 44;
park extension begins, 44;
small parks, 44, 54;
proposed arrangement of new parks, 44;
park area relative to population, 44;
park circuits, 45;
recommendations of Special Park Commission, 46;
development of suburban railway service, 46;
need for outlying parks, 47;
compared with London, 48;
opportunities for large parks, 50;
development of Lake front, 50;
yachting, 52;
Chicago made largely by the railroads, 61;
problem of freight traffic, 61;
necessity for revising transportation facilities, 62;
only goods to be consumed in city should enter therein, 63;
a traffic clearing-house proposed, 64;
railway and water traffic compared, 64;
relief from congestion of traffic, 65;
harbors, 65;
tunnel system, 65;
a loop system, 66;
excursion piers, 68;
circuits for freight and passenger traffic, 68;
passenger stations, 70, 71;
locations of passenger stations, 72, 112;
street-car loop system, 73;
extension of business area, 74;
suburban passenger traffic, 74;
mail service, 76;
ideal nature of proposed transportation system, 78;
natural features of Chicago, 79;
how effective results may be obtained, 80;
needs of the growing city, 80;
adequate circulation and sufficient park area essential, 80;
cost of postponing improvements in circulation system, 81;
report on street paving, 83;
existing diagonals, 84;
location of the city, 89;
advantages of rectilinear street system, 89;
circular avenues, 90;
necessity for platting outlying district, 91;
preserving width of existing avenues, 92;
circuit arteries suggested, 92;
avenues paralleling railways, 94;
diversion of traffic from the business center, 95;
proposed circuits, 95-96;
encroachments on the river, 97;
treatment of river banks, 97, 112;
widening of streets, 97;
requisites for area outside the business center, 98;
the heart of Chicago, 99;
spread of population, 99;
disposition of traffic within the business center, 99;
Michigan Avenue the base line of the city, 100;
width of streets, 100;
bridge at Michigan Avenue, 105;
expenditures for permanent improvements, 107;
the improvement of Halsted Street, 107; slums of the city, 108;
Berlin an example for housing conditions, 109;
opportunity for comprehensive treatment of the central portion of
the city, 110;
development of Grant Park, 110;
economy and effectiveness of group-plan for Grant Park, 111;
a yacht harbor, 111;
gifts by citizens should be encouraged, 112;
Congress Street as the grand axis, 113;
reasons for choice of Congress Street for grand axis, 113, 114;
the civic center, 115;
buildings composing civic center, 115, 116;
dome of civic center, 116, 118;
Federal group of buildings, 117;
increase in real estate values, 119;
raising street levels, 120;
creation of the park system, 120;
purification of Lake Michigan, 120;
cost of World’s Fair, 120;
cultivation of the fine arts, 120;
influence of the universities, 120;
taxing powers, 153.
City-planning, begins in Paris, 13;
in Europe, 19;
French and German theories, 20.
Civic Center of Chicago, buildings comprising, 115;
location of, 115;
architecture of, 117;
dome of, 118;
cost of, 123;
power of park commissioners to acquire land for, 134.
Civil Law, unifying force of, 31.
Cleanliness, a necessity for the city, 82.
Cleveland, Ohio, group-plan for, 27;
cost of improvements in, 27.
Club houses for the people, 44.
Colbert, one of the Paris planners, 15, 20.
Commerce, governing motive in location of cities, 9;
beginning of in Europe, 13;
expansion of, 19;
makes art creations possible, 22.
Commercial Club, undertakes plan of Chicago, 1;
designs for Lake Front improvement presented to, 6;
consolidates with Merchants’ Club, 7;
carries on work for plan of Chicago, 7;
meetings of, 7;
discussion of good roads, 39 (note).
Condemnation, limitations on the right of, 128;
congested areas, power to open, 151.
Congress of the Confederation, 31.
Congress Street, should be developed as central axis of city, 113;
width of, 114;
its relation to Grant Park, 115.
Cook County, creates outer belt Commission, 44;
County building part of the civic center group, 116;
attempt to organize a forest-preserve district, 132;
limited powers of, 134;
taxation in, 152.
Courtland, 40.
Courts, building for, 116.
Crerar, John, endows Crerar Library, 109.
Crerar Library, 108, 114, 120.
Crown Point, 40.
Calumet Feeder, 55.
Calumet River, importance of harbor, 57.
Canal Street, location of railway stations on, 107;
widening of, 113.
Cathedral, the, embodied the highest expression of civic art, 13.
Cedar Lake, 40.
Cemeteries, Roman, 12;
characteristics of modern, 36.
_Century Magazine_, quoted, 21, (note).
Charles River, Mass., improvement of, 49.
Charleston, 9.
Chicago Avenue, traffic on, 116, 117.
Chicago Heights, 40.
Chicago Ridge, 41.
Chicago River, forests along, 56;
improvement of, 97;
treatment of the banks, 116.
Chicago University, 51, 120, 121.
China, opening of, 33.
Christianity, unifying force of, 31.
Churches, usually not architecturally important, 36.
City, the, formless growth of neither economical nor satisfactory, 1;
overcrowding and congestion of traffic paralyzes vital functions
of, 1;
complicated problems of not beyond control of public sentiment, 1;
efforts to bring about best conditions of life in, 1;
parks the lungs of, 12;
strain of life in, 32;
opportunities for the ambitious, 33;
needs adequate circulation and sufficient park area, 80;
needs created by increase in population, 81;
reasons for growth of population, 81;
general character of, 82, 87.
D
Danube, the, 110, 116.
Darmstadt, 20.
Defense, governing motive in location of cities, 9.
De Kalb, 40, 47.
Department of State, facilitates work on plan of Chicago, 7.
Des Plaines River, scenery along, 40;
beauty of, 55, 90, 91.
_Der Stadteban_, magazine, 21, (note).
Dewey, Stoddard, on foreign money spent in Paris, 19.
Diagonals necessity for, 84;
function of, 91;
those proposed for Chicago, 92.
Diodorus, his description of Babylon, 10.
District of Columbia, L’Enfant plan extended over the entire
District, 25;
plan of, 91.
(See also Washington, D. C.)
Douglas Park, 44.
Drainage Canal, 55;
cost of, 120.
Dresden, 20, 110, 116.
Driveways, extent of proposed, 58.
Dundee, 40.
Du Page County, 55.
Du Page River, 40.
E
Eagle Lake, 40.
Education, unifying force of in the Northwest, 32.
Edwards, Percy J., his history of London street improvements,
21, (note).
Egypt, defended by deserts, 10;
pyramids and temples of, 10.
Electric railways bind outlying towns to central city, 42;
promote neighborliness, 42.
Elgin, 40.
Eliot, President, Charles W., quoted, 123.
Ellis Park, 43.
Elmhurst, 40.
Eminent domain, exercise of power of, 129, 140, 141, 142;
right to take more than necessary lands, 144, 151.
England, beginning of national life in, 13;
growth of commerce, 19;
housing schemes, 21, 128;
town planning, 21, 22, 34;
holds Northwestern posts after the Revolution, 31;
roads, 39;
regulation of advertising, 127.
Epping Forest, 48.
Evanston, 40, 50.
Evergreen Park, 56.
Euphrates River, tunnel under, 10.
Europe, national life begins in, 13;
changes in cities, 19, 22.
F
Federal Building in Chicago, 117.
Ferguson Monument Fund, 121.
Field, Marshall, gives Field Museum of Natural History to
Chicago, 108.
Field Museum, the importance of, 108, 114;
new building for, 114;
location of, 121.
Fischer, Prof. Theodore, German city-builder, 21, (note).
Flag Creek, 55.
Florence, beauty and power of, 13, 20.
Folleston, 40.
Fontainebleau, Forest of, 48.
Foreign peoples in Chicago, 1.
Forest parks, 53, 131, 136.
Fort Dearborn, 115.
Fortifications, in relation to cities, 9;
changed into boulevards, 90.
Fountains, location of, 86.
Fox River, 40.
France, beginning of national life in, 13;
leads the world in art and taste, 19;
improvement of cities, 19;
roads, 39.
Franco-Prussian war, improvements in European cities since, 19.
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 20.
Franklin, Benjamin, his connection with the Northwest, 31.
G
Ganges River, 10.
Garfield Park, 44.
Gary, 40, 58.
Geneva, 40.
Genoa, 40.
German city improvements, nature of, 20;
modification of French system, 20;
aim of to produce variety and interest, 20;
in Frankfort-on-the-Main, 20;
advertising regulations, 127.
Germany, beginning of National Life in, 13.
Germany, effect of peace on, 19;
magnitude of the city-planning movement in, 21 (note);
municipal expositions, 21, (note).
Gibbs Woods, 54.
Gifts by public-spirited citizens, advantage of to a city, 110, 116.
Glencoe, entrance to park system at, 54, 55.
Glenview Golf Club, 55.
Good Roads, economic effects of, 42.
(See also highways.)
Governor of Illinois inspects work on plan of Chicago, 7.
Government, enlarged participation of people in, 1.
Grade crossings of railroads, 71.
Grant Park, improvement of, 6, 44, 52;
proposed treatment of, 108;
grouping of buildings in, 109, 114, 115;
intellectual center of Chicago, 116.
Grant, Gen. U. S., embodiment of the spirit of the Middle West, 32.
Great Lakes, 32.
Griffith, 40.
Gurlitt, Cornelius, as to German city-planning, 20, 21.
H
Hainault Forest, London, 48.
Hall of Records, 116.
Halsted Street, longest business street in the world, 106;
treatment of, 106;
known as the king of streets, 106, 117.
Hamburg, 20.
Hammond, 40.
Hampton Court, England, 48.
Harbors, in Chicago, 65, 68.
Harlem, 55.
Hartford, improvement of, 29.
Harvard Medical School, location of, 115.
Harvey, 40.
Haussmann, George Eugene, becomes prefect of the Seine, 17;
his place as a city builder, 18;
builds on the foundations laid by Louis XIV., 18;
character of his work, 18;
cost of his improvements, 19;
imitation of, 19.
Heart of Chicago, the, 99, 110 (see also Business Center).
Henley, regattas at, 48.
Highways, necessity for adequate, 38;
commercial advantages of, 38;
along railways, 41, 94;
drainage of, 41;
proposed system of, 121;
cost of creating, 121 (see also Roads).
Hill, James J., predicts future population of Chicago, 33;
on improvement of railway terminals, 62.
Hinsdale, 40.
Hobart, 40.
Holidays, necessity of caring for crowds on, 88.
Housing conditions in England, 21;
in Chicago, 113, 141.
Hudson Palisades, improvement of, 38.
Humboldt Park, 44.
Hungary, 19.
Hunt, Richard M., presents plan for Administration building at
World’s Fair, 6 (note).
I
Illinois, good roads in, 39;
park legislation, 44, 127;
tendency toward city life in, 47;
constitutional limitations on improvements, 128.
Illinois Central Railway, 52.
India, 10.
Indian country of North America, settlement of, 9.
Indiana, coöperation of, 130.
Indians in the Northwest, 31.
Irrigation of western lands, 33.
Italy, 13, 19.
J
Jackson Park, site of World’s Columbian Exposition, 6, 44, 53.
Japan, opening of, 33.
Jay, John, pertinacity of on behalf of the Northwest, 31.
Jefferson Park, 43.
Jefferson, Thomas, aids L’Enfant in planning Washington, 23, 25.
Joliet, 40.
Johnson, A. N., Illinois State Highway Commissioner, as to good
roads, 39 (note).
Juniper, suitable for lake shore planting, 38.
K
Kankakee, 40.
Kankakee River, 40.
Kansas City, improvement of, 29.
Kenilworth, 130.
Kenosha, 39, 40, 47.
Kew Gardens, 48.
L
La Crosse, 40.
Lagoons, along Lake Front, 52.
Lake Calumet, 55;
park reservations near, 57.
Lake Forest University, 120.
Lake Front, improvement of suggested by World’s Columbian
Exposition, 6;
testimony as to advantages of to Chicago, 6;
progress of plan for, 6;
favored by press, 7;
of right belongs to the people, 50;
to be made from city waste, 50, 122;
improvement of, 122;
legislation for improvements, 137, 138.
Lake Michigan, driveway along shore of, 38;
beauty of, 50;
boating on, 51;
treatment of shores, 53.
Lake Zurich, 40, 60.
Lanciani, L., his description of ancient Rome, 13.
La Porte, 40.
La Salle Street, improvement of, 107, 113.
L’Enfant, Peter Charles, makes plan of Washington, 23, 49, 91.
Le Nôtre, plans of for Paris, 15.
Libertyville, 40.
Lincoln Park, 43, 44, 135, 136.
Lincoln, Abraham, embodiment of the spirit of the Middle West, 34;
Saint-Gaudens’ statue of, 112.
Little Calumet River, 55.
London, physical conditions in, 14;
street changes, 20;
cost of delaying improvements in, 21;
opportunities offered by the Great Fire of 1666, 21;
Sir Christopher Wren’s plan of, 21;
cost of recent improvements in, 21;
cost of proposed new thoroughfares, 21;
suburbs, 34;
police jurisdiction, 37;
rehousing of working people, 37, 107, 128;
recreation grounds, 48;
monuments, 80;
housing conditions, 113;
treatment of Thames, 116;
influence of National Gallery and British Museum, 116.
London Traffic Commission, plan for diminishing congestion, 21.
Louisburg, Cape Breton, a fortified city, 9.
Louis XIV., of France, plan of Paris, 14;
his plan a model in Europe, 19, 22, 87, 91.
Louis Phillippe, finished Arc de Triomphe, 17.
Los Angeles, Cal., expenditure for roads, 39 (note).
Lutetia, original name of Paris, 14.
M
Mackinac, defenses of, 9.
Mail service of Chicago, 76.
Manhattan, 40.
Manila, improvement of, 29.
Manufacturers, buildings for, 86.
Marengo, 40.
Massachusetts, good roads in, 39 (note);
metropolitan park commission, 131.
Maysville, 40.
McHenry, 40.
Media, 10.
Merchants’ Club, Lake Front Improvements presented to, 7;
arranges for complete plan of Chicago, 7;
consolidates with Commercial Club, 7.
Metropolitan Art Museum, New York, 115.
Michigan Avenue, the base line of Chicago, 100;
traffic on, 100; proposed improvement of, 100;
grades of, 102;
elevation of, 103;
necessity for open spaces, 115, 117;
the city has power to improve, 136.
Michigan City, 40, 47.
Middle Ages, conditions prevailing among European cities, 19, 31.
Middle West, limits of, 31;
Chicago the metropolis of, 31;
its distinct history, 31;
extent of, 32;
navigable waters of, 32;
phenomenal growth of, 32;
meaning of term, 33.
Milan, 20, 90.
Miller, John S., on maintenance and repair of Chicago streets, 83.
Millington, 40.
Milwaukee, 38.
Minneapolis, improvement of, 28.
Mississippi Valley, development of, 33.
Mobile, 9.
Momence, 40.
Monee, 40.
Morgan, J. Pierpont, president of the American Scenic and Historic
Preservation Society, gift of, 38 (note).
Morris, 40.
Mt. Forest, 55.
Music in Chicago, 34, 120.
N
Nantasket Beach, Boston, bathing at, 38.
Naperville, good roads in, 39.
Napoleon Bonaparte, his belief in and work for Paris, 15, 17;
suggests improvements for London, 21.
Napoleon III., transformation of Paris under, 17.
Natural forces applied to industry, effects of, 19.
Natural scenery, desirability of for city workers, 53.
Newberry Library, 120.
New Orleans, 9.
New York, rapid growth of, 1;
defenses of, 9;
civic improvement in, 27;
railway congestion at, 62;
Riverside Drive, 116;
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 109, 116;
sudden expansion of, and waste of money in, 153.
Newspapers of Chicago, 34.
Nile, the, 10.
Niles, 40.
Noises, 74.
North Western University, 51, 120.
Norton, Prof. Charles Eliot, his characterization of Venice, 13.
Nuisances, 141.
O
O’Day, Edward, editor of plan for San Francisco, 28 (note).
Ohio River, 32.
O’Meara, Dr. Barry E., his talks with Napoleon, 21.
Ordinance of 1787, 31.
Orient, rapid growth of cities in the, 1.
Outer belt of parks, scheme for, 7;
Commission for, 41, 52, 121;
cost of, 123;
legislation for, 130, 133.
P
Pacific Coast, commercial development of, 33.
Palisades of the Hudson, commission for, 38.
Palisades of the Potomac, 49.
Palos, 56.
Panama Canal, influence of on growth of Chicago, 33.
Parks, economic effects of 51;
character of, 54.
Paris, first modern city, 14;
has reached the highest state of civic development, 14;
origin of, 14;
growth the result of commerce, 14;
plans of Louis XIV., 14;
new portions of laid out in vacant places, 14, 23;
congestion of population, 15;
grows according to a well-considered plan, 15;
improvements of Napoleon I., 15;
a center of commerce, 17;
first sidewalks in, 17;
the quays, 17;
commemorative monuments, 17;
plans of Napoleon III., 17;
transformations wrought by Haussmann, 17;
grouping of railway stations, 18;
compared with Chicago, 18;
cost of Haussmann’s improvements, 19;
civic pride, 19;
amount of foreign money spent in, 19;
Wren anticipates features of Paris plan, 21, 54;
parks, 48, 54, 87, 90, 91, 94, 108;
treatment of Seine, 116;
influence of the Louvre, 116;
commercial advantages of improvements, 124;
condemnation of land in, 128.
Paving, report of Commercial Club Committee on street paving in
Chicago, 83.
Peace, results of in Europe since 1872, 19.
Pennsylvania Railroad, improvement of station buildings, 77.
People, increased participation of in government, 1;
determination to secure better conditions of life, 2.
Pericles, character of his work, 11.
Perkins, Dwight Heald, compiles report of the Special Park
Commission, 44.
Persia, 10.
Peterson Woods, 54.
Philadelphia, improvements in, 28;
park system, 44.
Philippine Islands, plans for summer capital in, 29.
Pittsburg, railway congestion at, 62.
Place de la Concorde, Paris, 15.
Place de l’Etoile, Paris, 15.
Place Vendôme, Paris, 15, 87.
Plainfield, 40.
Plan of the City, necessity for, 1;
impossibility of perfection in, 2;
real test of is in its application, 2;
not an expense but a measure of economy, 4;
insures orderly growth, 4.
Planting, for Lake Shore drive, 38;
winter effects should be studied, 78.
Play grounds, need of, 35, 45;
on Lake Front, 51.
Pleasant Prairie, 40.
Plutarch, his description of the works of Pericles, 11.
Poles, disfigurement of streets by, 84.
Police Headquarters, part of the civic center group, 116.
Police power, extent of, 128, 140.
Population, density of in Chicago, 48, 115.
Post-office, 68, 76;
new building for, 117.
Potomac Park, Washington, 49.
Potomac, treatment of banks of, 110.
President’s House, (White House) the, 23.
Providence, R. I., improvement of, 28.
Public Health Department, 116.
Public Libraries, 35.
Public Library, possible location for in Grant Park, 114.
Public Schools, 35.
Public service plans for heating, lighting and power, 76.
Public Works, department of, 115.
Pullman, 58.
Pyramids of Gizeh, 10.
Q
Quebec, a fortified city, 9.
R
Railway stations, treatment of, 36, 42;
in Europe, 70;
embellishment of, 77;
grouping of on Canal and Twelfth Streets, 110, 116.
Railways, dependence of Chicago on, 61;
congestion of traffic, 62;
necessity for improved terminals, 62;
necessity of combination among to secure Chicago terminals, 62, 121;
electrification of, 106; cost of scheme for terminals, 122
(see also Transportation).
Real Estate Board of Chicago, report of on Michigan Avenue, 101.
Recreation piers, 68, 115.
Residence streets, 83, 91.
Revere Beach, bathing at, 38, 49.
Richmond Park, near London, 48.
Ringstrasse, the, Vienna, 20.
River Forest, 55.
Riverside, 40, 55.
Riverside Drive, New York, 110.
Rivers, transformation of banks of, 116.
Riviera, the, 51.
Roads, John Alvord’s paper on, 39 (note);
in Buena Park, 39;
from Versailles to Chartier, 39;
English and French roads, 39;
value of good roads to the community, 39;
in Los Angeles, 39;
in Illinois, 39;
an adjunct of Chicago life, 40.
Roanoke, Va., improvement of, 29.
Robey, 41.
Rogers Park, 130.
Roman Law, unifying force of, 13.
Rome, growth of, 1;
possessed elements that characterize the modern city, 11;
parks and gardens of, 12;
rejuvenation of, 13;
baths, 13;
the Forum, 13, 117, 20;
suburbs, 34;
aqueducts, 72;
railway stations, 87.
Royal British Institute of Architects, 21 (note).
Rouen, 90.
Rue de la Paix, Paris, 15.
Rue de Rivoli, Paris, opened by Napoleon, 15.
S
Sag Valley, 56.
Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, opinion of architect’s meeting for the
World’s Fair, 6 (note);
statue of Lincoln, 112.
Salt Creek, 55.
Sandwich, 40.
San Francisco, comprehensive plan for, 28.
Scheldt, the, 110.
Schools, location of on highways, 39, 98.
Seattle, improvement of, 29.
Seine, the, 51, 110.
Senate Park Commission, the, (Daniel H. Burnham, Charles Follin
McKim, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Frederick Law Olmstead, Jr.)
makes plan for park system of the District of Columbia, 25;
opposition to plan of, 25;
members of the commission also planners of World’s Columbian
Exposition, 25.
Semiramis, queen of Babylon, the first city builder, 10.
Shaw, Albert, as to cost of delays in London planning, 21.
Shade, advantages of in city, 84.
Shelby, 40.
Sherman Farm, 56.
Sheridan Road, 39 (note), 57.
Sidewalks, first in Paris built by Napoleon I., 17.
Sienna, beauty and power of, 13.
Sistine Madonna, 112.
Slavery excluded from the North West territory, 31.
Slums of Chicago, 106, 129.
Smith, Edward R., on the transformation of Paris, 18.
Smoke, 71, 77, 112.
Sorbonne, the, Paris, 114.
South Chicago, 51, 52, 53.
South Park Commissioners suggest improvement of Lake Front, 6;
meeting of on Lake Front improvements, 6;
arrangement for Grant park, 114, 134.
South Parks, expansion of, 7, 44.
Special Park Commission, plan of Metropolitan Park system, 7, 44;
report of, 46.
Spirit of Chicago, the, 8.
Sport Park at Stockholm, 52.
Spring Forest, 55.
Square of the Innocents, Paris, transformation of, 93.
St. Charles, 40.
St. Louis, plan for improvement of, 28.
St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, 21.
St. Paul, Minn., improvement of, 28.
St. Peter’s Cathedral, Rome, 116.
Statues, location of, 86.
Stëubben, German city-builder, 21 (note).
Stockholm, yachting at, 52.
Stony Creek, 55.
Street plan of Chicago, cost of, 123.
Streets, the desirable width of, 83;
regulation of traffic on, 88.
Submerged lands granted for park purposes, 44.
Suburban highways, commission for, 39.
Suburbs, apt to be ugly and squalid, 35;
when attractive, 34;
connections among, 38;
residents of concerned with city communication, 41;
railway stations in, 77.
Summit, 55.
Sweden, yachting of, 52.
Swimming, exhibition of at Stockholm, 52.
Sycamore, 40.
T
Taxation, limitations on power of, 129, 151.
Terminal railway passenger stations in Chicago, 68.
Territory Northwest of the Ohio River, conquered by Virginia
troops, 31;
retained as first territorial acquisition, 31;
diplomacy, 31;
endowed with freedom and popular education, 31.
Thames, the, London, the embankment a part of Wren’s plan, 21 (note);
use of the river on Sunday, 48, 51;
treatment of the banks, 110.
Thatchers Park, 55.
Thoroughfares, improvement of, 37.
Tigris River, 10.
Town-planning in England, 21, 34, 128.
Townships, powers of in suburban development, 130.
Trajan’s Forum in Rome, cost of, 13.
Transportation system for Chicago, suggested, 61-76;
legislation necessary for, 139.
Treaty of 1783, secures the Northwest, 31.
Trees along streets, 84.
Tuileries, gardens of the, 15.
Twelfth Street, widening of, 110, 116, 117.
U
Union Park, 43.
United States, consuls furnish reports on civic improvements, 7;
offices in Chicago, 117;
constitutional limitations on city planning, 127.
V
Valparaiso, 40.
Venice, a commercial city, 13;
canals of, 15;
St. Mark’s Square, 117.
Vernon Park, 43.
Versailles, 39;
fountains, 49.
Vicksburg, 9.
Vienna as a center of activity, 19;
follows example of Paris in planning, 20;
parks, 49, 80, 90;
boulevards, 94;
treatment of the Danube, 116.
Virginia troops conquer the Northwest, 31.
W
Walled towns, 9.
Washington, D. C., planned as National Capital, 22;
L’Enfant’s plan, 23;
city regarded as a unit, 23;
comprehensive character of the original plan, 23;
plan ridiculed, 23;
effect of Civil War on the city, 23;
extension of L’Enfant’s plan, 23;
plan of the Senate Park Commission, 23;
Union Station, 71, 87;
apartment houses, 88;
ownership of front yards, 92;
Potomac Quay, 116;
influence of Library of Congress, 112.
Washington, George, directs L’Enfant in planning the Federal
City, 23-25.
Washington Park, 44.
Washington Square, 43.
Waterhouse, Paul, observations on London improvements, 21 (note).
Waukegan, 38, 40.
Wealth, rapid increase of in modern times, 1, 19.
Wellsboro, 40.
West Park Commissioners, project for improvement of Lake Front
presented to, 6, 134.
Wheaton, connected with Chicago by good road, 39.
White House, the, 29.
Williamsburg, Va., suggests features of plan of Washington, 29.
Wilmette, 38, 53, 130.
Wilmington, 40.
Wilmot, 40.
Windsor Great Park, 48.
Winnetka, 40, 122, 130.
Winter Sports, 52.
Wisconsin, coöperation of, 130.
Women’s Club, Lake Front Improvement presented to, 6.
Woodstock, 40.
World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, origin of plan of Chicago
traced to, 4;
the beginning of orderly arrangements of public buildings and
grounds, 4;
results of, 6;
suggests improvements of Lake Front, 6;
spirit in which conceived, 6;
architects present plans for, 6 (note);
reasons for success of, 6;
effect of on Washington plans, 25;
impressiveness of Peristyle, 109;
cost of, 120;
indicated appreciation of good order and municipal beauty, 120.
Working classes, English schemes for housing, 21.
Wren, Sir Christopher, his plan of London anticipates certain
features of Paris designs, 21;
plan of Annapolis, similar to his plan of London, 29.
Y
Yacht harbor, on lake front, 52, 109, 115.
Yachting on Lake Michigan, 52.
Z
Zoological Park, Washington, 49.
ENGRAVED AND PRINTED FOR THE
COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO, IN THE
YEAR NINETEEN HUNDRED AND NINE,
BY R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY,
AT THE LAKESIDE PRESS, CHICAGO
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
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Page
xi Replaced “Bastile” with “Bastille”
21 Replaced “beeen” with “been”
29 Replaced “Bagnio” with “Baguio”
31 Replaced “Ordinanace” with “Ordinance”
32 Replaced “Chicaco” with “Chicago”
48 Replaced “Fountainebleau” with “Fontainebleau”
51 Replaced “playgounds” with “playgrounds”
52 Replaced “Stockhom” with “Stockholm”
59 Replaced “aquisition” with “acquisition”
62 Replaced “Pittsburg” with “Pittsburgh”
63 Replaced “satifies” with “satisfies”
96 Replaced “streets” with “street”
111 Replaced “found” with “bound”
159 Replaced “Reubens” with “Rubens”
Index: Replaced “neccessity” with “necessity” in
“Chicago understands the necessity”
Replaced “pubic” with “public” in
“City complicated problems of not...”
Replaced “Halstead” with “Halsted” in
“Halsted Street, longest business street...”
Replaced “Manilla” with “Manila” in
“Manila, improvement of”
Replaced “Napierville” with “Naperville” in
“Naperville, good roads in”
Replaced “Pallisades” with “Palisades” in
“Palisades of the Potomac”
Replaced “appartment” with “apartment” in
“Washington, D. C., apartment houses”
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