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Title: The Sultan and his People
Author: C. Oscanyan
Release Date: May 21, 2017 [EBook #54757]
Language: English
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THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE.
BY
C. OSCANYAN,
OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
Illustrated by a Native of Turkey.
NEW YORK:
DERBY & JACKSON, 119 NASSAU STREET.
CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY & CO.
LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, SON & CO.
1857.
Entered according to Act of Congress, to the year 1857, by
DERBY & JACKSON,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States,
for the Southern District of New York.
W. H. TINSON, STEREOTYPER.
GEO. RUSSELL & CO., PRINTERS.
TO MY
ALMA MATER,
The University of the City of New York,
THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
BY
ONE OF ITS OFFSPRING.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
I. PRELIMINARY CHAPTER, 9
II. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE TURKS, 20
III. THEIR RELIGIOUS CREEDS, 27
IV. SECTARIANISM, 37
V. PRACTICE OF RELIGION, 51
VI. PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA, 67
VII. PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT, 105
VIII. THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT, 109
IX. POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT, 114
X. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE JANISSARIES, 117
XI. THE ULEMA OR SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE TURKISH
GOVERNMENT, 127
XII. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, 134
XIII. ARMY AND NAVY, 138
XIV. COMMERCE, 144
XV. JURISPRUDENCE, 149
XVI. EDUCATION, 159
XVII. MEDICINE, 167
XVIII. WESTERN PREJUDICES AND EASTERN TOLERATION, 171
XIX. THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL, 180
XX. PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN, 200
XXI. THE ROMANCE OF THE EAST, 206
XXII. THE HAREM, 212
XXIII. CONDITION OF WOMEN, 224
XXIV. PERSONAL APPEARANCE, COSTUME, ETC., 232
XXV. DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS, 238
XXVI. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE, 246
XXVII. POLYGAMY, 253
XXVIII. MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, 259
XXIX. SULTAN'S HAREM AND HOUSEHOLD, 264
XXX. CIRCASSIAN AND NUBIAN SLAVES, 274
XXXI. THE WATERING PLACES, 280
XXXII. THE BAZAARS, 293
XXXIII. THE KAHVÉS, 299
XXXIV. THE HAMAMS, OR BATHS, 320
XXXV. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--ARMENIANS, 340
XXXVI. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--GREEKS, 364
XXXVII. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--JEWS, 376
XXXVIII. PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS, 381
XXXIX. THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE, 393
XL. THE FUTURE OF TURKEY, 419
THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE.
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
Mutability is the appropriate motto of humanity; for what are men
but creatures of a day; monarchs, but transient shadows of earthly
greatness; empires, but passing events? Time, with more than eagle
swiftness, hurls all things into the great bosom of Eternity. Futurity
is dark and impenetrable, but the present is with us, and still more
the past, teeming with vast records of human life, of rising and
falling empires, bloody tales of extinguished armies and extirpated
races of mankind, detailing the effects of the wild ambition of kings,
emperors, sultans, themselves but atoms, yet involving the whole mass
in their career.
Contrast is often the greatest source of pleasure to the mind;
therefore do the citizens of this New World delight to revel in the
scenes of the olden hemisphere, which was in full glory when this
vast continent lay in undiscovered obscurity.
Orientalism! Talisman to conjure up the shades of the very parents of
our race, and of the old patriarchs of Israel, to array in picturesque
and savage beauty the vision of Arabian horsemen, flying steeds, vast
encampments on arid plains, tribes of wandering Tartars, and almost
to awaken the echoes of the clashing and blood-stained scimitars
of the desperate champions of the Crescent, the followers of the
Prophet. And while there is a wall of iron between us and our future,
the eventful record of by-gone times displays to us the development
of all that was hidden to our ancestors.
There is a great difference between the primitive condition of the
human race and the effects which Time has produced upon that wonderful
structure, MAN!
Simplicity, almost childlike, seems to characterize the living mind
of man in its embryo state, while years of successive re-conceptions
have continued to develop this noble emanation from the great spirit
of the universe.
But how deeply interesting to us, who are the embodiment of the more
mature and experienced human wisdom, to look into the vast womb of
the Past, and trace the growth of the great human foetus.
The impress of the original condition of our race is yet upon the
nations of the East, and wonderfully do they still retain the habits
and ideas of the earliest ages.
How vividly are the scenes of Biblical record exemplified in the
every-day habits of the people, who, at the present time, dwell
in those venerated countries. The patriarchal family government,
the flowing robes, even the very style of garment of which it is
recorded--"They parted my raiment, and upon my vesture they cast lots,"
are one and all in daily use in the East.
Our attention is peculiarly directed to the history of former ages,
and the progress of different empires, by the events which mark the
present course of time--for the great theme of the day is the Past and
Future of Turkey, the very garden of the East, and the desired of all
nations, upon whose shores has lately been poured the life-blood of
thousands of valiant heroes, each and all members of the vast human
family, whether known to us as Turks, Russians, English, or French.
There is an indefinable charm about all that relates to this land
of the Orient. The position by nature, the variety of scenery, hill,
valley, and undulating plain; the great streams which water its shores,
and the rich productions of the soil, the ancient capital proudly
towering from its verdant hills, the key to two continents, with the
"Ocean stream" for a highway. The lovers of classic lore delight
to realize the existence of ancient heroes, and the very homes of
the demigods, as they tread its honored shores. Romance seems to be
merged in reality, as the robed and turbaned Moslem, with stately step
and meditative countenance, passes beneath your latticed casement; or
the veiled lady and sable eunuch, with mysterious silence, stealthily
glide along. Sultans, vezirs, pashas, grand muftis, sultanas, harems,
and slaves, intriguing ulema and judges, so long enveloped in the
mist of fancy, are, in modern days, to emerge into the sunlight of
truth and civilization, and exhibit to the study of philanthropy,
only the type of ancient usages and the actual scenes of everyday
life. Amid the votaries to superstition and fanaticism, side by side
with the banner of the Cross, the followers of the Prophet, with the
Crescent of the faithful, will, henceforth, march through time into
eternity, but known and read of all men. The door to the East stands
open, and we may pass within the portal to study men and manners,
with their institutions, both social and political.
Many attempts have been made to portray the actual and past condition
of this Oriental empire, and as various have been the lights and
shadows in which it has been pictured; some making the Osmanli a
paragon of humanity, and others again reducing him to a mere polypus
on legs.
"If those who are resident among us," observes the editor of the
"New York Herald," "cannot, after the lapse of years, always succeed
in identifying themselves with our ideas, it is not to be expected
that writers at a distance, should be able to form a fair estimate
of American society from such imperfect evidences as they have before
them. We have seen how few foreign tourists have penetrated below the
surface of things in their analysis of our social and political life."
If these strictures of the "Herald" are just and true with reference
to American and European countries in general, where there is such
similarity, how much more applicable to our Oriental clime; for,
considering the peculiar form of government, and construction of
society in Turkey, based, as they are, upon the Koran, traditional
customs, and Oriental conventionalities, hitherto so inaccessible as
well as incomprehensible to strangers, it is, indeed, no matter of
wonder that such heterogeneous portraits of Eastern men and manners
have been promulgated to the world by travellers and bibliomanists.
Language is the great vehicle of ideas, the bond of man with man, the
"open sesame" to the spirit of every community--the record of the past,
the exponent of the present, and the foreteller of the future. But
how few, even of modern savans, have acquired a knowledge of the
Oriental dialects, which are never used in Europe, and only called
into exercise by researches into ancient chronicles. Even many who
have long resided in the East, and whose daily and hourly contact
with the inhabitants would seem to demand a mutual understanding,
have lived and died in a stoical adherence to their own mother tongues.
A French merchant, Mons. B., who had enjoyed the advantages of commerce
in the East for twenty-five years, may be quoted as an example. Either
considering his own superior civilization compromised by such a
condescension to barbarism, or unable to train his exclusively
French organs to any other guise of speech, Mons. B.'s ideas and
expressions were always in his mother tongue. When, therefore,
on a certain occasion, his Turkish porter excited his displeasure,
he poured out his indignation in pure Gallic, which lost much of its
intended effect upon his employé, who could not imagine the cause
of his master's agitation and vehemence, and ventured to ask an
explanation of a bystander. "What?" said the irritated Frenchman,
"does the stupid fellow mean to say that having been with me
for the past five-and-twenty years, he does not yet understand
French?" "Mashallah!" responded the astonished Turk, "My master,
who has been here so long a time, why can he not scold me in Turkish?"
Emergencies are constantly occurring, and as interpreters cannot be
omnipresent, ridiculous misunderstandings are often the results.
The complacent French and English seem to think their respective
languages universal, and upon their arrival in the East, address the
people accordingly, who can only look and listen, and strain their
senses for one familiar word or phrase; sometimes the simplest
expression, through some euphonious resemblance, may convey an
opposite meaning, or even a flattering compliment be mistaken for a
victimizing oath.
A party of French naval officers, one day visited the shoe bazaar,
and were attracted by the beauty of the collection of a certain
merchant. The author happening to be present, officiated as interpreter
for them, and advised the merchant to display all his best specimens
of embroidered slippers, so that the gentlemen soon had an innumerable
variety before them. But one of them yet unsatisfied, with a spirit
of independence, took a slipper in his hand, and showing it to the
merchant, said, "Beaucoup mieux, beaucoup mieux, Efendi." The grave
merchant instead of replying, turned all of a sudden pale with rage,
and gathering up his embroidered wares, mercilessly consigned them to
the recesses of his shop, and bestowing upon these insolent giavours
a most genuine Turkish benediction, ordered them to quit his premises
instanter. Bewildered at the singular conduct of the merchant, I
inquired as to the cause of his sudden irritation. "What! did you
not hear the impudent rascal say, bokoumu-yé?" said the enraged Turk;
an expression too unfit for ears polite to be translated into English,
though sometimes heard in the purlieus of the Five Points. I attempted
to explain, but in vain; the Turkish was unmistakable, so thought the
shoe-merchant, who insisted that they had at least learned that much
of the language of the country.
Thus, with entire ignorance of the language, thoroughly impregnated
with the prejudices of a European education, the foreigner looks
only upon the surface of things, and comprehends nothing, where the
simplest habits of life and etiquette are diametrically opposed to
his preconceived ideas.
The Osmanli would stare with astonishment at the presumption with which
a Frank uncovered his head in his august presence; while the exquisite
of the beau-monde would be lost in wonder to see his Oriental rival
enter his presence without shoes, and seat himself on the sofa with
his feet carefully concealed beneath him; thus only conforming to the
ancient etiquettes of the Bible, for Moses was not commanded to uncover
his head, but to put off his shoes. At least, some of the Oriental
forms of politeness have antiquity as their origin, and the sanction
of many generations; but for the varying code of western manners,
where can we look, save to the capricious tastes of the passing times.
Thus are the simplest habits of life reversed, and what is excessive
rudeness to the one, may be the essence of politeness to the
other. Very frequently these contrary customs are the source of
ludicrous mistakes.
As we were walking one day with a friend, a sailor from the English
fleet accidentally dropped his pocket-handkerchief. The gentleman
regretting that the worthy tar should meet with such a loss, hailed
him, at the same time beckoning with his hand à la Turque, which
is done by extending the arm and moving the fingers with the palm
downwards, or just in the same manner as would here be done to imply
a more distant removal.
A police officer happening to be at no great distance, the sailor,
on looking back, understood quite naturally my friend's movement as a
signal for him to make his escape, and accordingly took to his heels
with the greatest rapidity, leaving my companion in utter amazement. I
endeavored to explain to him the reason of the sailor's conduct, by
showing him the genuine European style of beckoning, by reversing
the hand and moving the up-turned forefinger back and forth. This
astonished him the more, since that motion is equivalent, in Turkey,
to that comical American gesture of placing the thumb on the tip end
of the nose, and extending the fingers.
Thus things which are in themselves trifles, may lead or mislead to
mighty results, and can only be appreciated when circumstances call
them into action. Therefore nothing but actual nativity and education
among the people, with the enlarged views which are acquired by a
residence in European countries, can enable an individual to judge
and appreciate the peculiar institutions of Turkey.
The author presents himself to the American public a native of
Constantinople, and of Armenian parentage, with the hope that he
may be able to unfold some new phases of Turkey and Orientalism,
which may tend to remove any unfounded prejudices, and enlighten
their minds with regard to the real and existing state of his country.
In order to attain a just and correct idea of the present state of
Turkey and its probable future, it is most essential to take a cursory
glance at the origin of the nation, its religion, government, civil
laws, social condition, and domestic relations, which are the elements
of nationality. In so doing, the writer has carefully avoided all
partiality, and endeavored to display the truth, simply, and nothing
but the truth, invested with the garb of a peculiar nationality,
and only adorned with the poetry of Oriental tastes and habits as
they actually exist.
CHAPTER II.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY.
Turkish and Eastern proverbs have often a deep and significative
meaning under a simple simile. They say, "a neighbor's chicken has
always so unreal a magnitude in covetous eyes, that it swells in its
proportions even to the size of a goose!"
Human nature has in reality undergone but few changes since it
descended upon this planet. The simplest shepherds and the richest
sovereigns have been alike swayed by the demon of envy. The earth
no sooner became the inheritance of man, than its treasures excited
the desire of appropriation in his breast. Mine and thine were the
earliest appellatives between man and his brother.
All-bountiful Nature provided a perpetual feast to their physical
wants, in her luxuriant offerings, ready for use, without toil or
labor. The flocks of the early pastoral days wandered from field to
field, along with their shepherd kings. Ample was the territory as
they forsook the soil when winter chilled, and roamed to summer climes
exempt from care. Simple in their tastes, they grew and multiplied
until they became mighty nations. But the monarchs of the animal
world, the kings of the forests, could not brook any inroads upon
their dominions, and self-defence awoke man's ingenuity, and armed him
with the war-club, the unerring stone and sling, the quivering arrow,
and pointed javelin. The practised hand, thus trained in vanquishing
the roaring lion, easily turned against his neighbor man, and the
stronger prevailed in the usurpation of coveted territories.
Thus war, in the absence of the arts of modern civilization became
the sole aim of these wandering tribes. Alliances were sometimes
formed for mutual protection, and territories were ever changing
masters. The primitive belief that the soil was common property,
and that occupancy gave the only title to possession, induced them to
trespass upon the neighboring territories. This same principle exists
even at this present day among some of the people of the East, of whom
the tribe of Yürücks is well known in Turkey, traversing the whole
dominion of Asia Minor, according to the climate they desire to find.
Passing by the days of Biblical History and the ancient pedigree of
the Arabians, we will observe the first appearance of the Turks on
the pages of history.
As early as the ninth century, a small but adventurous band of
Scythians, known as the Turkomans, impelled either by famine or
hostility, crossed the Caspian Mountains, and invaded the Armenian
territories.
Although they were bravely repulsed, still the prosperous condition
of the country was too alluring for them to give up all hope of its
ultimate conquest, they therefore continued to harass the inhabitants
by their incessant incursions.
In the middle of the eleventh century, a vigorous attempt was made,
under the command of Toghrul Bey, a grandson of Seljuk, one of the
principal families of Tartary, with an army of one hundred thousand
men, who ravaged twenty-four of its provinces.
Toghrul, already so distinguished by his valor, now embraced Islamism,
and thus added to the thirst of conquest, the ardor of the religion
of the Prophet. Another more desperate sally was made with redoubled
force, which met with similar discomfiture.
Fourteen years after, the infuriated Tartars collecting an army of
no less than three hundred thousand men, renewed their assaults.
Armenia was at this time not only harassed on all sides by Greeks,
Saracens, and Persians, but rent by the internal dissensions of its own
princes; so that it now fell a prey to Toghrul, who massacred, in cold
blood, 140,000 of the inhabitants, carrying many also into captivity.
The most flourishing provinces in due time were added to the
conquests of the Turkomans, by Alf-arslan the nephew and successor of
Toghrul. Their empire was greatly extended by the son of Alf-arslan,
Melik-Shah, and was subsequently divided among three branches of
the house of Seljuk. Suleyman, the third in descent from Melik-Shah,
was the first Turkoman prince who governed Asia Minor.
Er-Toghrul, or Orthogrul, the son of Suleyman, having by his assistance
on a certain occasion, secured a victory to Ali-ed-din, the sultan of
Babylon, Kara-Hissar in Bithynia, was bestowed upon him, and there
he settled with his family, which consisted of three sons. Osman,
the eldest son and successor of his father, Orthogrul, was left by
the death of Ali-ed-din, the ally of his father, without a rival in
the government of Syria; he was accordingly proclaimed sultan.
In the year 1,300 he made Neapolis the capital of his dominions,
and from thence is dated the foundation of the present Ottoman empire.
Osman was so distinguished by his conquests, and became so endeared to
his subjects, that ever since his time, the appellation of Osmanlis has
been adopted by them; and the word Türk, or Turk, so indiscriminately
applied to them by the Europeans, is not only inappropriate, but of
a disagreeable signification, for it is only used among themselves
as an epithet of opprobrium.
In the twenty-sixth year of his reign, Osman took the city of Broossa,
in Asia Minor, which his son Orkhan, who succeeded him, made the
capital of his dominions. The desire, however, to possess the city of
Stamboul, was transferred with increasing ardor from sultan to sultan;
but the glory of its conquest was reserved for Mohammed II.
The effeminate condition of the Greeks favored his design; for out
of a population of 200,000 men, there were scarcely 8,000 ready to
defend their capital; and on the 29th of May, 1453, Constantinople
fell into the hands of the Osmanlis, or descendants of Osman, who
have held it in possession until the present day.
It is evident that the Osmanlis are the descendants of the Scythians,
or one of the Tartar tribes; but who those Scythians originally were,
may be questioned.
A very curious, but plausible theory is advanced by some persons,
that the Tartars are of the Jewish race. Tarat-har or Tartar, in the
Syrian language, signifies the remnant of a people.
Now, in the second book of Kings, it is recorded that the King of
Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed
them in Halah and Habor, by the river of Gozan in the cities of the
Medes. This was about 720 years before Christ.
Medea is situated near the Caspian Sea; possessed entirely by these
Tartars.
The names which are given to their principal cities, are the same as
were common among the Jews. For instance, the capital of Tartary is
called Semerkand; which is a corruption of Samaryan, very similar to
Samaria. There are, moreover, many relics of antiquity in this city,
which bear undeniable evidences of having been Jewish monuments. They
have also another town called Jericho, a Mount Sion and a Mount Tabor,
with a river Yordon or Jordan.
They are divided into ten tribes, bearing names similar to the ancient
patriarchs of Israel.
They are under one government, but avoid all intermarriages; which
was also a peculiar observance of the Jews. There is also a great
similarity between the Tartar and the Hebrew languages. The degeneracy
of their language, may be attributed to the fact, that they were
long captives in a strange land, and removed from all intercourse
with more enlightened nations.
The Tartars have even been known to observe the Jewish rites of
worship and circumcision, and they traditionally boast themselves to
be descended from those Israelites, who, conquering their conquerors,
became possessed of all the territories by the Caspian Sea. Indeed,
Timour-link or Tamerlane the Great, is said to have proudly asserted,
that he was descended in a direct line from the tribe of Dan.
From these facts, it seems very probable that the people known as the
Tartars, are the ten lost tribes of the Jews; and it is historically
certain, that the founders of the present Turkish Empire, are
descendants of these Tartars.
CHAPTER III.
RELIGION.
Five hundred and sixty-nine years after Christ, Mohammed the prophet
was born at Mecca, where his immediate ancestors had for many years
enjoyed a sort of regal and priestly authority over the Caaba or Temple
of the Arabians, which, for at least seven hundred years, had been the
shrine of adoration for the worshippers of the sun, moon, and stars.
His family was considered the most illustrious, among the tribes of
the Arabs, so that he was born to distinction.
The early loss of his parents left him an orphan, under the care of
his uncle Abu-Taleb, who paid little attention to his nephew.
At the early age of twelve years, he was initiated into the mysteries
of Eastern commerce, as he journeyed with his uncle through Syria,
to Bassora and Damascus. But the contemplative mind of this youth,
destined to become the Prophet of his country, gathered into its
fructifying soil the tenets of the religious faith of the Christians,
which were more congenial to his spirit than the idolatries of his
own people.
The Arabs too, were anticipating the birth of a Messiah of their own,
who was to descend from the sacred guardians of the Caaba; so that
circumstances seemed to point out to the precocious youth, this road
to greatness.
Well born, of insinuating manners and graceful address, noble and
majestic in appearance, Mohammed became the object of affection to
the wealthy widow Khatijeh, who married him, and thus riches were
added to his facilities.
The great crowd of pilgrims who assembled in Mecca, afforded the
Prophet constant occasions for the discussion of various systems of
religious faith, until Mohammed resolved to announce himself as the
completion of the revelation of God to the Jews and Christians--the
predicted by Moses and Christ, who coming after them, should be the
greatest of all the prophets.
To the idolatrous Arabs he proclaimed one God, omnipotent and
imperishable; to the Christians he revived the unity of their Maker,
and recalled to the Jews the Jehovah, whose worship they had so
corrupted.
The confusion of the Asiatic states, rent with wars, tumults and
heresies, wonderfully favored the spread of Mohammedanism, even beyond
the warmest anticipations of the Prophet.
Arming himself with the sword, and promising the joys of paradise to
every soldier of the Crescent who should die on the battle-field,
he led on this wonderful prodigy of a religious faith, conquering
and to conquer.
At this day there are no less than 200,550,000 Mahommedans! The Koran,
or the written, is the compendium of the faith, practice and civil laws
of Mussulmans, ingeniously compiled by their great Arabian Prophet, and
is styled by the Faithful, The Light of God, Sole Guide to Paradise,
Divine Director to Heavenly Glories, and in common parlance, The
Eternal Word--Kelamu-Kadim. They acknowledge the divine origin of
the Pentateuch, the Psalms of David, and the four Gospels, and upon
these books, with the Koran, their oaths are taken.
The Koran declares, "Verily the true religion in the sight of God
is Islam," which is the proper name of the Mohammedan faith, and it
signifies resignation or submission to the service and commands of
God. It consists of two principles, Iman, or Faith, and Din, Religion
or Practice.
IMAN OR FAITH.
The great article of Faith is called Salavat, and is expressed in
these words:
"La-Illah, Ill-Allah, Mohammed Ressoul-Ullah." There is no God,
but God, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God.
They deny the doctrine of the Trinity, although they acknowledge the
attributes of God, his greatness, goodness, justice, omnipresence,
omniscience, and incomprehensibility. Christ is acknowledged to have
been a prophet greater than Moses, but inferior to Mohammed. He is
styled the Word of God, Kelam-Ullah, in their writings, supposed
to have been miraculously conceived by the Virgin Mary, but not of
divine origin. The crucifixion they regard as inconsistent with the
justice of God; to yield up so mighty a prophet, endowed with power to
work miracles, and raise the dead, a victim to the unbelieving Jews,
they deem incompatible with divine supremacy, and even say, that when
Christ was led out to die, he was, invisibly to his persecutors,
transported into heaven, Judas the betrayer being substituted
in his stead. No terrors of eternal punishment in a future state
distract the unfaithful Moslems, all of whom will, in due time,
expiate their offences and be admitted to happiness. Two angels
are supposed to attend them through life and in death. One white,
glorious and commiserate; the other black, severe, and cruel.
There will also be a last judgment, when a tremendous trumpet will
shake the earth to atoms. God will judge all men. Moses, Christ,
and Mohammed, will appear at the head of their respective followers,
as intercessors. And Cain will lead the immense multitude of the
damned, who are doomed to suffer till their sins are cancelled,
when they will take their seats in Paradise; while Hell, the Devil,
and his wicked angels, will be suddenly annihilated.
A narrow bridge, fine as a hair, called Surat, lies over the region
of the damned. The righteous, upheld by their guardian angels, pass
over safely; while the guilty fall down into awful flames and torture,
doomed to quaff nothing but "boiling water, until their bowels burst."
Paradise is above the seventh heaven, near the throne of God. A vast
and beautiful region, with palaces of gold and gardens of perpetual
delight, in the midst of which is the tree of happiness, Tuba,
whose roots are in the palace of the Prophet, but whose branches,
loaded with luscious fruits and all kinds of meats prepared for food,
silken robes and caparisoned steeds, will extend to the dwelling of
every true believer. Softly murmuring fountains, cooling shades and
grottoes, mountains of sparkling diamonds, and golden trees, will
adorn the gardens of delight, while the ravishing houris of these
enchanting regions, will be blessed with perpetual youth and virginity.
The most insignificant of the Faithful will have a retinue of
80,000 servants and 72 wives, of the sweetly odoriferous damsels,
created of pure musk, in addition to the companions of his earthly
sojourn. Delicious streams of wine, milk, and honey, will flow on
perpetually; balmy zephyrs will pervade the atmosphere; the very
physical excretions of the true believers will be but odoriferous
exhalations.
While the senses are thus ravished with delights, the most excelling
of all their beatific visions will be the presence of Allah, which
is beyond the power of language to describe.
Fatalism is a characteristic item in the Mohammedan creed.
They believe that whatever happens is pre-ordained by the Omniscient,
which article of faith is designated Kader or predestination. But the
doctrine of "free-agency" the Iradeyi-Jüseeyé or the "lesser will,"
is also in their creed. Hence every one is bound to exert himself to
his utmost; and it is only when he fails, that he resigns himself
calmly and philosophically to his disappointment, saying kader,
or it is my fate.
The following legend may perhaps serve to illustrate the spirit of
Oriental Fatalism:
Half-way across the Bosphorus, and between Seraglio Point and Scutari,
in Asia, is the renowned Kiz-Koulessi, or the Maiden's Tower. It
was predicted that the beautiful daughter of a certain sultan would
meet with an early death, from the bite of a serpent. Contrary to
prediction, her father hoped to avert her fate, by placing her in a
situation inaccessible to those reptiles. As he revolved the subject
in his mind, from the windows of the Seraglio, his eye rested on
the rock in the stream, where he immediately ordered a tower to be
erected, and thither the unhappy princess was conveyed and immured
in her island home.
But who can resist the decrees of Fate?
Bin djahd etsen na-muradé
Olmaz moukadderden ziyadé.
You may do your utmost,
But you cannot conquer Fate.
Scutari, fruitful in vineyards, and far-famed for its delicious grapes,
was destined to furnish the venom, which poisoned the crimson tide in
the veins of the beautiful sultana; for a basket of Scutari grapes
concealed the viper, which was the instrument in the hand of Fate,
and the fulfillment of the prophecy.
It is, doubtless, in the recollection of many of the citizens of New
York, that a short time ago an individual passing by Wallack's Theatre
was suddenly killed by the falling of the flag-staff from the top of
the building. This sad occurrence was not the result of carelessness
or temerity, but purely accidental; and would also be termed in Turkey
kaza or accident. Yet why the accident should have happened to this
individual more than to any other of the hundreds of persons who
passed the same spot--Mohammedan doctrine would simply answer, "it
was his kader or predestination." To mourn, therefore, for the dead,
or complain against misfortune, would by them be esteemed a grievous
sin, as though censuring the Almighty, without whose knowledge "not
a sparrow falleth to the ground."
It is not Fatalism that makes the Mohammedan indifferent
to casualties, but his exaggerated and misconceived ideas of his
religious obligations; for human imperfectibility is as prominent an
article of their creed as Fatalism, and even induces a disposition to
avoid self-improvement either intellectually or externally. Perfection
being the attribute of the Deity, it is unbecoming in his creatures to
assert, in any form whatever, their capabilities of approximation to
such a condition. While, then, their minds repose in the simplicity of
innate ideas, they even seek imperfection in the investiture of their
bodies. They will rend their garments so as to mar their completeness,
assume an air of general slovenliness, or studiously clip the corner
of a sheet of paper to destroy its regular uniformity.
It is, then, most erroneous to suppose that the doctrine of Fatalism
is so antagonistic to civilization in the East, as it implies
resignation to the Divine will, and by no means impedes active
personal exertion. But in reality it is the seeming propriety of
human imperfection, in contradistinction to the Divine excellence,
which has hitherto maintained a spirit of indifference to progressive
improvement. While an entire submission to the course of events, as
preordained and predestined by the Omniscient, prevents all restless
anxiety, and calms the repinings of the heart-broken and weary,
this more truly fatal and false notion of inferiority, only leaves
the immortal mind in a sort of embryo state, lest, perchance, there
should be any assimilation to the great Supreme Essence, from which
it is but an emanation, or the spark should glow with the brightness
of the fire from which it has been wafted.
CHAPTER IV.
SECTARIANISM.
Besides the Koran, there are other sacred and traditional books
called the Sonnah, the productions of Abubekir, Omer, and Osman, the
successors of the Prophet. The ancient caliphs of Egypt and Babylon
have also added their own. These books have numerous commentaries upon
them, which constitute the principal part of the Mohammedan literature,
and have been the source of much dissension. Sectarianism, therefore,
prevails among the Mussulmans as in every part of the world. We will
only mention those sects with whom the traveller in the East is apt
to come in contact.
The principal schism which divides the Mohammedan nation is that of
the Sünnees and the Sheyees.
The Sünnees are the orthodox party, and believe in the traditions
attributed to the Prophet and his successors, and are strict in all
their observances. Whereas the Sheyees reject all traditions and
are strict legitimists, adhering to Aali, who married the Prophet's
daughter, as the rightful successor, and rendering their homage to
his descendants.
The Turks are all Sünnees, and the Persians Sheyees, the one is more
fanatical, the other more superstitious, and as the difference between
them is small, so is their mutual hatred proportionably intense.
The Sünnees repudiate Aali, the infallible director of the Sheyees,
who, in their turn, decapitate the representatives of the Prophet,
Abubekir, Omer, and Osman in effigy. For they erect these persons in
sugar at their festivals, and when merry over their wine, cut the
respected friends of Mohammed into pieces and actually drink them
in solution.
The Turks elevate the sacred color, green, to their heads and
turbans with the greatest respect, but in contradistinction, the
Persians choose this hue for their shoes, trowsers, and every other
disrespectful use their ingenuity can devise. When the one shaves, the
other does not, and scorns the thorough ablutions of his rival. Indeed
no matter how or what, so it be vice versâ.
Most ingenious and vituperative are their mutual curses. "May your
fatigued and hated soul, when damned to Berzak (purgatory), find
no more rest than a Giavour's hat enjoys upon earth." Doubtless
alluding to the peculiar custom of the Franks in uncovering their
head in saluting, and the wear and tear that head-gear has to
undergo. "May your transmuted soul become in hell a hackney ass,
for the Jews themselves to ride about on," and many such emphatic
compliments are the height of fashion among the zealous adherents of
each adverse party.
Not only in the West, but in the East,
"'Tis strange there should such difference be,
'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee."
Apart from the foregoing, the very meaning of the word Islam, or
resignation to the service and commands of God, has been a source of
much dissertation and dissension, and has produced a variety of sects,
of which the Hanefees, Mevlevees, Rifayees, and Abdals, are the most
noted in Turkey. The Hanefees are the contemplative philosophers,
Oriental spiritualists or transcendentalists; and to this class the
sultan and the principal part of the people belong. The Mevlevees are
the dancing or whirling dervishes, and they may therefore be considered
as the Oriental Shakers. Their object is practical resignation to
God, which state of mind they think they attain, by whirling round
and round until their senses are lost in the dizzy motion.
They conform to the general tenets and observances, but their form
of worship is peculiar.
Their religious edifices are called Tekkés, which are open every
Tuesday and Friday, and are frequently visited by the sultan and
Europeans in general.
A large square space, which is surrounded by a circular railing,
constitutes the scene of their ritual, or ceremonies. A gallery
occupies three sides of the building, in which is the latticed
apartment of the sultan, and the place for the Turkish ladies.
In every mosque, and here also, there is a niche opposite the entrance,
called the Mihrab, which indicates the direction of Mecca. The walls
are adorned with entablatures, ornamented with verses from the Koran,
and with ciphers of sultans, and mottos in memory of other benevolent
individuals, who have endowed the Tekké.
The Sheikh, or leader of the community, sits in front of the Mihrab,
on an Angora goat-skin, or a carpet, attended by two of his disciples.
An attenuated old man, with a visage furrowed and withered by
time, bronzed by many successive suns, his long and grizzly beard
witnessing to the ravages of age, while his prominent eyes sparkling
like lightnings amid the surrounding darkness, are the only symbols
of animation or life, in his worn-out frame.
The dervishes, as they enter, make a low obeisance with folded hands
to this patron saint, with an air of mystic veneration, and take
their stand with their faces towards Mecca. The old sheikh arises,
and presiding over the assembly commences the services.
Their peculiar head-gear, called sikké, of thick brown felt, in the
shape of a sugar loaf, and long and flowing robes of varied hues,
make them seem like fantastic representations of some other sphere,
particularly, when they commence the slow and measured prostrations
of Mussulman worship.
Prayers being over, each dervish doffs his mantle, and appears in a
long white fustanella, trailing the polished floor, and of innumerable
folds, with a tightly fitting vest of the same pure color.
They now defile two by two before the sheikh, who extending his hand
towards them, seems to diffuse a sort of magnetism, which irradiates
every countenance.
As they stand immovable, the wild and thrilling music slowly pervades
every sense, until suddenly one of the number extends his arms,
and begins to revolve noiselessly, with slow and measured step. The
folds of his ample skirt now gradually open like the wings of a bird,
and with the swiftness of his motion, expand, until the dervish
only appears like the centre of a whirlwind. The rest are all alike
in motion, arms extended, eyes half closed as in a dream, the head
inclined on one side, they move round and round to the measured time
of the music, as if floating in ecstasy.
The calm and unimpassioned chief, with slow and stealthy step,
wanders among their evolutions. Suddenly they cease, and march around
the circle. The music increases its measure, and the dervishes again
commence their giddy motions; old and young seem to be in a visionary
rhapsody. Perhaps transported in the bewildering whirl to the regions
of the blest, they languish with rapture in the arms of the houris
of Paradise; or lose their earthly senses amid the glories which
surround the throne of Allah; till suddenly they stand transfixed,
their outspread and snowy drapery folding around them like the marble
investment of an antique statue.
They are all prostrated, exhausted by their ecstasies, and immovable,
until the sheikh recalls them to the realities of time by his holy
benediction, when they slowly rise again, compass the building, and
enveloping themselves with their cast-off mantles, silently disappear.
HOWLING DERVISHES.
There is an intoxication in the very motions of the whirling dervishes,
but the horrible ceremonies of the Rifayees are really distressing
to the beholder.
A long, empty hall, much like that of the Inquisition, as its walls are
adorned by an infinite variety of instruments of torture, constitutes
their temple of worship.
The fanatical disciples of this sect assemble every Thursday at
their Tekké, which is in Scutari, and after the performance of the
usual ritual of the Mussulmans, commence their ceremonies by ranging
themselves along the three sides of the apartment and within the
balustrade, which serves to separate them from the spectators.
Their sheikh takes his stand before the Mihrab facing the assembly,
and three or four of the members furnishing themselves with instruments
of music place themselves in the centre of the hall.
The performance then begins, by a monotonous chant, accompanied
with music, and the waving of their heads to and fro, which seems to
create a sympathetic vertigo in the Mussulman bystanders--for they
often are irresistibly drawn into the ranks.
By degrees, the motion increases, the chant grows louder, and their
countenances become livid, and their lungs seem to expand with the
noise and excitement.
The line becomes a solid phalanx as they place their arms on each
other's shoulders, and withdrawing a step, suddenly advance with a
tremendous and savage yell, Allah--Allah--Allah--hoo! which divine
appellative is to be repeated a thousand times uninterruptedly.
This strenuous effort renders them perfectly hideous, their very eyes
seem ready to start from their sockets, and their lips foam as the
inspiration possesses them. Thus retreating and springing forward,
they, each time, with increasing energy, renew their invocations of
Allah, Allah, Allah, hoo! until the distinctness of their articulation
is lost, and their exclamation becomes, in reality a complete howl,
as if proceeding from a pack of enraged dogs--thus meriting the
sobriquet of the "Howling Dervishes."
The movements and cries increase in swiftness until a mist of dust
pervades the dim apartment, and the wild and pale enthusiasts,
drenched with perspiration, seem like fantastic demons in the realms
of discord. Suddenly some of them, stripped to their waists, rush
forward and seizing the poignards and stilettoes, commence a wild,
infuriated dance, jumping, leaping, and lacerating themselves--fixing
the weapons into the hollow of their cheeks, and twisting them round
and round, as if on pivots, until, exhausted from exertion, they fall
to the ground in a spasmodic fit.
"Only to show with how small pain,
The sores of faith are cured again,"
Now the enthusiastic mothers approach, and cast their children
before the presiding sheikh, who, as they lie extended before him,
deliberately plants his heavy feet upon their frail bodies, and
so stands for some seconds. Old men and maidens, lay themselves low
before this saint, who is supposed to be by this time so inspired as to
have a miraculous power of expressing all ailments and maladies from
the human frame, and to have become so etherealized by the ecstatic
ceremonies as to lose all his specific gravity.
The Abdals include the various classes of the stoics, who generally
pretend to a total renunciation of all worldly comforts. Sometimes
clothed in the coarsest garments, and again half naked, and even
with lacerated bodies, they wander through the Mohammedan dominions,
a miserable set of frantic, idle, and conceited beggars. They may,
in fact, be considered the "communists" of the East, who despising
honest pursuits, live upon the community at large.
They commit the worst extravagances under the pretence of heavenly
raptures, and are even supposed to be divinely inspired. Idiots and
fools are esteemed by the Mohammedans as the favorites of Heaven;
their spirits are supposed to have deserted their earthly tenements,
and to be holding converse with angels, while their bodies still
wander about the earth.
It would be wearisome to go into further details; for infinite is the
diversity of the orthodox theologies of the Mohammedans, with the 235
articles of the creed, on which all the doctors of divinity differ;
hopeless must be the task of the student to surmount the commentaries
of the 280 canonical authors, not to mention the innumerable heretical
tenets of other sects, which must be studied to be controverted.
Verily we would suggest the recipe of a certain Molla, who must have
given up in dire despair, "Whenever you meet with an infidel, abuse him
with all your might, and no one will doubt you are a staunch believer."
As long as war and its exciting scenes occupied the restless minds
of the Arabs, there was no time for religious or party intrigue. The
simple "La Illah-Illallah," satisfied the momentary breathings of
their souls heavenward.
The turmoil of their life, the glitter of their arms and dreadful
carnage of all infidels, sufficed to ease their fancy, and satisfy
the thirst for excitement.
It was as they wiped their blood-stained scimitars, and during the
reaction which comparative peace and luxury created, that their minds,
free from more substantial food and activity, sought greater refinement
of spirituality.
In the absence of the real, the speculative began to grow, until Imams
and Ulema found that they could turn the tide of human affairs to their
own advantage, by exciting polemical and theological controversies.
A comparative study of the niceties of Mussulman doctrine, and
hair-breadth distinctions with those of more refined and enlightened
creeds, while it displays many and striking similarities, only
illustrates, with startling vividness, the time worn maxim, that
"there is nothing new under the sun."
CHAPTER V.
DIN OR PRACTICE OF RELIGION.
The Din, or Practice of Religion, comprises ablution, prayer, alms,
fasting, and a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Ablution.--Bathing, and various forms of ablutions, were practised long
before the time of Mohammed; but he has incorporated cleanliness with
his religion, until his followers seem to regard water as not only
possessed of virtue to cleanse the pollutions of their bodies, but
as purifying their souls from the contamination of sin. Therefore,
fountains are always to be found in the neighborhood of all the
mosques, in every part of the city and its suburbs, and on the
highways--for they never omit this preliminary to their devotions,
which includes washing the face, hands, and feet; and when they
happen to be in the desert, where no water can be obtained, sand
is substituted. Indeed, the same ablutions are so essential, that
their observance is invariably required of the faithful, before the
administration of an oath.
Prayers. Five times a day the Mussulmans are summoned to prayer by
the muezzin.
Early in the morning, just before the sun is above the horizon, the
ezan resounds through the still atmosphere, from the airy balcony of
the tapering Minaré.
The Muezzin, covering his ears with his hands, as if to exclude all
terrestrial sound, turns his face towards Mecca, and chants with
musical cadence, the beautiful Arabic formula. "Allah, ikber! Allah
ikber! &c, great God! great God! there is no God, but God! I attest
that Mohammed is the apostle of God! Oh, Great Redeemer! Oh! Ruler
of the universe! great God! great God! there is no God but God!" and
he slowly moves round the balcony, as if addressing the inhabitants
of all parts of the world.
Those who catch the echoes of the holy call, exclaim with solemn
earnestness, "There is no power, no strength but in God Almighty."
Again, when the hour of noon seems to indicate a moment of repose
to the work-day world, the ezan summons all thoughts and aspirations
to the great God. At three o'clock in the afternoon, at sunset, and
finally at nine o'clock, the call resounds ere they prepare for sleep.
How beautiful thus to note the passage of time, to look thus from earth
to heaven, to forget for a moment all worldly cares, and breathe out
a soul aspiration towards a better land.
Those who happen to be near a mosque, enter it for the purpose
of performing their devotions; others are in their own houses;
and many prostrate themselves by the wayside; or even on board the
daily steamers. The mosques are always open, and there is an Imam
who presides over the devotions.
The interior of a mosque, is as simple as that of any Protestant
church. The only ornaments seen are the suspended lamps, interspersed
here and there with ostrich eggs. There are no accommodations for
sitting down, and the altar is the niche or mihrab. There is a small
pulpit on one side, from which a sermon is preached every Friday noon;
but the form of prayer is always the same.
As they assemble, they leave their shoes at the door, "for the ground
is holy," and seat themselves upon the floor, which is either covered
with carpet or matting.
At the appointed time, the Imam commences the service, by taking his
position before the mihrab; and placing his thumbs behind his ears,
as if with his open palms to shut out all objects of sense, proclaims
to the assembly, "Allah-ikber! Allah-ikber!" The congregation rise and
imitate the officiating priest. All remain standing with their hands
folded on their bosoms, while the Imam repeats the first chapter of the
Koran--which is the Lord's Prayer of the Mohammedans, termed Fatiha.
"In the name of the most merciful God; praise be to God, the Lord of
all creatures; the most merciful; the King of the day of judgment;
thee do we worship, and of thee do we beg assistance; direct us in
the right way, in the way of those to whom thou hast been gracious;
not of those against whom them art incensed, nor of those who go
astray. Amen."
They then make a semi-genuflexion, by placing the hands on the knees,
and bending the person forward. A complete genuflexion succeeds,
which is made by bending the knees to the ground, and extending the
arms forward as a support to the body, while the forehead touches
the ground.
These same genuflexions are again repeated; then partially rising they
sit on their bended knees. Here endeth the first lesson, for two other
similar ceremonies are repeated successively, during which any portion
of the Koran may be selected by the officiating Imam for recitation.
The termination of the service is known when the Imam, after a few
moments of silent meditation, slowly turns his head, first towards
the right and then to the left, in token of salutation to the two
recording angels who are supposed to be hovering over each shoulder. He
then strokes his beard, and rises from his devotions. His example is
followed by the congregation, who immediately disperse.
There is a wonderful air of sacred stillness during the services in
a mosque. The simplest and plainest attire is worn, and everything
excluded which could divert the attention from God and his worship.
No man utters prayers as matters of form, while he stares about to
see how his neighbors' clothes are fashioned. No sound of footsteps or
creaking boots is heard, nor opening or shutting of pews. No cushioned
seats invite to listlessness, or even to slumbers; no ennui steals
over their devotional spirits; the world is literally and practically
excluded. No earthly houris tempt their thoughts from God, with
alluring smiles and recognitions; there is no peeping from behind
the prayer books, or fluttering fans, or any other of the insinuating
wiles of coquetry.
Ladies with their sweet eyes turned to heaven, while their rosy lips
are modeled to scorn of their neighbor's want of taste and fashion,
are invisible in the Mohammedan temple.
Here the faithful come to worship God, and they wisely divest the
shrine of their devotions of all the trappings of earthly grandeur,
and leave beyond the portal the alluring and sensual pleasures
of earth. The presence of Infidels during the hours of worship
is expressly forbidden, not only as being a source of mental
distraction to the faithful, but in reality an act of perjury on
their own part. "It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit
the temples of God, being witnesses against their own souls of their
infidelity. The works of these men are vain, and they shall remain
in hell-fire forever. But he only shall visit the temples of God,
who believeth in God and the last day, and is constant at prayer,
and payeth legal alms, and feareth God alone."
Alms.--The essence of Islamism, resignation to the will of God, has
its legitimate effect upon the benevolence of the Mohammedans. If Allah
bestows wealth and luxury, they receive and enjoy the good gifts, but
without any self-gratulation. If misfortune arrive, they submit without
any feeling of degradation, practically illustrating the words of Job,
"Shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord and not evil?"
The faithful are enjoined to be constant in prayer and give
alms. "Contribute out of your substance towards the religion of God,
and throw not yourselves into perdition. Do good, for God loveth those
who do good; unto such of you as believe and bestow alms, shall be
given a great reward," and whoever pays not his legal contribution of
alms duly, it is declared by Mohammed, that he shall have a serpent
twisted about his neck at the resurrection; so that the Mussulmans
have every incentive to charity, both as regards this life and that
which is to come.
It is very common for them to found charitable institutions, such
as poorhouses, hospitals, etc., and the same principles of charity
induce them to an unlimited hospitality.
During the feast of Ramazan, a special table is set for the poor,
in the houses of the wealthy, who come and partake without summons or
invitation. The innumerable beggars and mendicant dervishes in Turkey,
are doubtless tolerated from the same spirit of liberality.
As the Koran is but a compilation from Jewish and Christian writers,
adapted to the spirit of the age in which it was promulgated, no
doubt the difficult but sublime doctrine of Christ, "Let not thy right
hand know what thy left hand doeth," was appreciated by the Prophet
in his directions regarding the exercise of the grace of charity:
"God loveth not the proud or vainglorious, nor those who bestow
their wealth in charity, to be observed of men." "Verily God will not
wrong any one, even the weight of an ant, and if it be a good action,
He will double it, and will recompense it in his sight with a great
reward." Their charities are, therefore, bestowed with the greatest
modesty and willingness, their supplications for aid from others made
without any air of servility.
It devolves, then, upon modern civilization to establish corporate
and organized charitable bodies in Turkey, and to initiate the simple
Mussulmans into the self satisfaction which is awakened by public
meetings, and the parade of printed records.
Fasting.--We live to eat, or we eat to live--therefore when we
are denied the great business and aim of life, we undergo a very
palpable kind of mortification. The dainty epicurean seldom conforms
to any regulations for extra abstemiousness, while others, more
superstitious, merely vary the hours of their repast--merging the
substantial meal into those which have not the nomenclature, but yet
become the reality of a good dinner. Again, the pleasant variety of
fish for fowl, or of oil for butter, does not leave any sensation of
emptiness, or mortification of the appetite. But there is a sort of
genuineness in the Mohammedan style of observing a fast--when, for
fourteen consecutive hours, absolutely nothing passes the lips--not
a drop of water, not even the homemade saliva is swallowed--no
hunger-easing pipe is smoked, nor anything indulged in to palliate
the gnawings of hunger and thirst. The laborer toils under a summer
sun--the weary hammal climbs the towering hills under an incredible
load--the athletic boatman for many hours pulls the oars; work, toil,
labor cease not, but the wonted sustenance is utterly withheld.
It is wonderful to see this part of the Mussulman population during
the fasting season--bodily strength and vigor exuding in profuse
perspiration from every pore, while steady persistence in utter
abstinence from all refreshment is persevered in.
This great monthly fast occurs once in every year--
"The month of Ramazan shall ye fast, in which the Koran was sent down."
As they observe the lunar year, it falls in all seasons--and when it
occurs during the dog-days, the sufferings of the faithful are truly
great and distressing. Not only are they forbidden all lusts of the
belly and the flesh, such as may be committed by the eye, ear, tongue,
hand, feet and other members, but the heart must be abstracted as much
as possible from the world, and turned only to God and paradise--thus,
a season of holy rest is instituted.
Among the many idlers who can afford to loiter away the day, some
assume an appearance of unusual sanctimoniousness, whose peculiarly
long faces and abstracted airs, most effectually ward off any attempts
to recall them to the realities of life.
They listlessly toy with their chaplets, gazing into vacancy as
polished bead after bead slips through their fingers, and seemingly are
as divested of thought, as the unmeaning, but apparently, absorbing
playthings they ever dangle. These beads have no such significance
as the Catholic rosaries, but are always in the hand of the Oriental
gentlemen and ladies, and are often of great value, being composed
of large pearls and other precious gems, though the ordinary style
is to make them of cocoa shells, whale teeth, ivory or amber.
During this fast the faithful are at the gate of religion, and the
very odor of their breath is considered to be sweeter than musk to
the olfactories of Allah!
Some of them observe the fast in its true spirit and letter, and
all externally conform to its regulations. No doubt to those who are
incapable of religious ecstasies, who cannot transport themselves out
of the world, while clogged with their human tenements, who relish
not the unsubstantial viands of a superstitious faith, the hours drag
very heavily on from sunrise to sunset.
Physical necessities sometimes force the less spiritualized to taste
some of the forbidden fruits, or to avail themselves of this occasion
to test the truth of the proverb, that "Stolen waters are sweet,
and bread eaten in secret is pleasant."
The more faithful, in the midst of their sufferings remember that
as Mohammed was, fortunately, of human mould like themselves,
he informed them "God would make this an ease unto you and not a
difficulty--therefore * * * * * God knoweth that ye defraud yourselves
therein and forgiveth you, and now therefore * * * * * and earnestly
desire that which God ordaineth you, and eat and drink until ye can
plainly distinguish a white thread by the day-break, then keep the
fast until night," &c.
Thus the faithful acquire new zest for all their sensual appetites as
they anxiously listen for the sunset Ezan, which releases them from
their sufferings. The breaking of the fast is called Iftar. Each person
is furnished with a small table, upon which are a bowl of light soup,
a few olives, some preserves and cakes. A chibouk, already filled and
ready to be lighted, is placed by their side. When the cannon booming
over the Bosphorus, announces the setting sun, each one partakes
sparingly of these refreshments, and having regaled himself with the
fumes of tobacco, attends to his regular sunset prayers, after which
a sumptuous dinner is served and enjoyed. The grand Namaz (prayer)
is performed, after which night is turned into day. The streets,
usually dark and sombre, are brightly illuminated and filled with
people, Mussulmans, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and other Giavours,
who all seem anxious to enjoy the carnival, if not to share the
penance. The slender and tapering minarés are now girdled in light,
while between the consecrated spires, depend fantastic and luminous
bodies, the brilliant but mimic forms of familiar objects. The kahvés
are crowded with wearied Mussulmans, puffing out clouds of smoke,
in pure spite for their long abstinence from their favorite weed,
while their imaginations are regaled with the exciting tales of the
Meddahs, or the drolleries of the far famed Kara-gueöz.
Stalls are erected with all the various preparations of food peculiarly
agreeable to Turkish palates; tempting shops stand invitingly open, and
tinkling music vibrates through the air. If Allah only is remembered in
the day, night seems to exclude that divinity from every thought; while
Eblis is apparently enthroned with all the orgies of his dominions.
Exhausted nature at length compels the laboring classes to seek
their couches, while the more fortunate pashas and efendis, beguile
the remaining hours till morn, with continued festivities and the
exchange of social visits.
Just before daybreak, the drum resounds through the streets of the
metropolis, when the faithful, without any reluctance, arise from
their slumbers to avail themselves of their last chance of regaling
their appetites and fortifying their corporeal frames against the
sufferings of the next fourteen consecutive hours.
The morning gun, now booming upon the still air, re-echoed from hill
to hill, proclaims the dawn of another day, of self mortification at
the "gate of Heaven."
CHAPTER VI.
PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
How true the observation that the most helpless of all creatures
is man, born of a woman, who cometh forth like the tender bud of a
delicate and fading flower.
The ever-living soul embarks on the vast ocean of life, in so frail and
delicate a tenement, that there is no semblance of strength to resist
the angry waves that continually dash against the tempest-tossed and
quivering fabric.
But it outrides the storm of three score years and ten, until it
is engulfed in the maelstrom and eddying circles of the river of
Death. How vast, how exquisite are the sensibilities of man, whose
first emotions of pleasure and pain, are the alphabet of humanity.
The pleasure felt by a sentient being, creates the first ideas of
good, while on the other hand the sensation of pain is synonymous
with evil. As we awake into existence, each passing moment seems to
develop new desires; our grasping souls and bodily wants are constantly
re-echoing each other's cravings; unsatisfied human nature is ever
on the alert, crying, give, give. This restless search for good,
pleasure, or happiness, leads its victims astray, and thus is created
the preponderance of evil; for such hot and eager haste stays not to
discriminate. The fatal apple seemed so good and so much to be desired
to the mother of all living, that she took, and ate; but when she had
eaten her eyes were opened. Thus by such efforts to secure the good,
the limit is overstepped, and suffering and sorrow entailed. Still,
none enjoy, and none suffer in the same degree; innumerable have
been the specimens of nature's handiwork, yet never were any two
individuals alike in their natural or intellectual structure.
There is a wonderful connection between the physical and the moral
in our curious composition; and the latter is so much modified by
the former, that the variety of temperaments and dispositions may be
attributed to the reciprocal influences of these two constituents
of our being. The origin of good and evil is then embodied in our
own hearts, in the structure of the human frame, in our natural
susceptibilities to pleasure and pain.
The individuality of pleasure and pain creates an approving and
disapproving principle in every human frame, and each man is pleased
with himself, when he enjoys a personal benefit from good or pleasure,
and displeased when he suffers from the consequences of pain or
evil. The lesson is soon learned that the evil might have been avoided,
and conscience raises her silent testimony in the bosom. Apart from our
own sensations, there seems to be a superstitious principle innate in
the human breast, a deference to a supreme good, which as the Ruler
and Creator of the universe, holds all created things in awe, and to
whom the conscience or self-approving and self-condemning principle
pays all deference.
This principle has existed under every form of humanity, in every
variety of nation and blood, and has been educated, and developed by
different circumstances.
Thus are derived all religions, and the fear of retribution for
transgressing the bounds which conscience claims for the real good,
and its essence the supreme Creator, has led men to various acts of
atonement or self-recommendation.
The mind of man instinctively looked from "Nature up to Nature's God,"
and sought an embodiment for the Divine essence, as there was for
the human.
The earliest semblance of Divinity was displayed in the sun, moon,
and stars. The glorious orb of day, the great source of light and
heat, the vivifier of all creation, whose genial rays warming the
bosom of the mother earth, caused the tender grass to spring forth,
and every herb yielding fruit, to give its increase for the sustenance
of animal life, the great luminary of the vast universe, so beautiful
to gaze upon, and so powerful in its sway over the world alotted to
man for a dwelling-place, seemed as if placed in the heavens for the
especial adoration of all created things.
The gentle moon with silver sheen, and softer radiance was fitting
bride for the all glorious and omnipotent god of day. And the
sparkling stars, like so many distant portals to the dominions of
divine effulgence, emitting each a ray of the internal brightness,
seemed one and all shrines of holy devotion.
Such was the revelation of nature; and no wonder that the innate
impulse to revere and worship the Author of the universe, was kindled
into a fire of enthusiasm by the scintillations of the starry world.
Not content with the semblance of the Creator in his works, the
ever-working mind of man sought an object more tangible--and thus,
doubtless originated the idol worship of the ancients. Then followed
a succession of creeds and dogmas, rites and ceremonies, to which
the superstitious principle was ever ready to yield obeisance.
Ambitious and designing men sought to embody in themselves the germs of
sanctity and holiness--even did they add the sanction of intercourse
with the gods; even did they awaken the silent marble into mysterious
life, and utter oracles and decrees from the lifeless stone.
Thus was nurtured the superstitious feeling in the multitude, until
the most absurd and revolting rites became the sole end, and aim of
existence--until the simple Hindoo, would, with a holy zeal, cast
himself under the wheels of the ponderous car of Juggernaut, and
while his tortured body was crushed to atoms, rejoice with ecstatic
faith in future felicity.
The same principle of superstitious self-torment has existed in as
great force under the Christian dispensation.
Even kings and emperors have tried to stifle the voice of conscience
by the most severe acts of penance and humiliation; and the humbler
members of the human family have willingly suffered every variety
of bodily anguish, which the most cunning devices of a wily and
calculating priesthood could contrive, while from many and hidden
motives, they have striven to produce an entire abnegation of self,
and a renunciation of all worldly hopes in the sin-tormented hearts
of their victims.
Wars were undertaken, territories were coveted, and a holy crusade
was the pretext for taking possession of the city of Jerusalem, the
shrine of the holy sepulchre, and where crowds of pilgrims brought
their offerings and laid them in the coffers of the sanctuary.
The dangers which beset the pilgrims amid the scimitars of the
barbarous Tartars, was the pretext for all Europe to rise in arms
with the determination to conquer or die in their defence.
A wild enthusiast, with haggard features--a body worn and wasted with
fasting and holy vigils, and enveloped in coarse and dusty sackcloth,
elevating the symbolic cross in his attenuated fingers, wanders from
palace to palace, from house to house, from hut to hamlet, calling
aloud for vengeance upon the followers of the Crescent, who dared
to molest the children of God in the performance of their sacred
duties. As his naked feet, pierced by every flinty rock, leave their
crimson stains in his track, so does the thirst for Moslem blood burn
and consume the vitals of the restless human throngs, who listen to
his wild harangues.
Pope Urban was ready to fan this flame, and the panting multitude
were by his holy and supreme power absolved from the weight of all
past offences as well as all those they should ever commit, if they
would prosecute with zeal this holy war.
The worst of sinners, robbers and assassins, over whose hardened
hearts there still lingered the dying glow of the internal fire of
conscience, or before whose sin-distempered vision ever flittered
the phantoms of past transgressions, rejoiced to say avaunt for ever,
to the ghosts of their departed crimes, and feel an assurance of no
future retribution for their dark deeds of horror. A new field for
rapine and adventure opened before them, and they rushed impetuously
on to the combat. Many, who had led a life of more retired wickedness
and grown grey in sin were glad to seize a hope of salvation even on
the borders of eternity, and tottered along with the vast concourse.
Rich and poor, young and old, with fervid zeal embraced the means
of future happiness beyond the grave. And the vast territory through
which these soldiers of the Cross wended their way was whitened with
the bones of the self sacrificed.
Even after the great champion Godfrey de Bouillon, had gained the
prize, and enjoyed a regal rank of one short year's duration, he
had to surrender his earthly throne to his holiness at Rome, and
content himself like his followers with the hopes of a kingdom in
the unseen world.
Vain would be the effort to count the victims of religious enthusiasm;
of the attempts to appease the great unseen essence of human life;
to propitiate the favor of that Power, which, as it has called into
being, can also summon his creatures from their earthly tenements,
and dispose of their spirits, as seemeth best to his sovereign will.
But holy wars, and sin-atoning pilgrimages, are not confined to the
followers of the Cross.
Wherever the Cresent glitters on the dome, or the muezzin proclaims the
ezan from the pointed minaré; wherever throughout the vast dominions
of the Mussulmans, resounds the cry Allah Ikber! Allah Ikber! are
the countless votaries of the religion of Mohammed, ready to arise
from their peaceful homes, and perform the sacred journey to the
shrine of their faith, the holy temple at Mecca. And year after
year, do the pilgrims trace a wearisome way through desert plains
and scorching heats, to the spot where they may roll off the burden
of self-condemnation, and kiss the all-atoning stone, which has been
the heirloom to mortality, since the foundation of the world.
Although throngs of Mussulman pilgrims yearly visit the holy city
of Mecca, but few Europeans have left the impress of their footsteps
upon its soil.
What millions of human beings, nothing intimidated by deserts,
mountains, and all sorts of hardships, have paid their devotions
to this shrine! The great have visited it with pomp, and all its
train of luxury and display; the grasping spirit of trade, has
summoned merchants from all parts of the East. The learned and wise,
of times that were, and times that are, have on the same occasion,
collecting the productions of genius, sought a mart for literature
and renown. Sultanas, and ladies of high and noble rank, have changed
their silken couches for wandering homes through the desert.
Old age has tottered thither staff in hand, and poverty has never
failed to swell the concourse with its numberless train. The vast
multitude, hundreds of thousands of every rank and profession, crying
"La Illah! Il-Allah! Mohammed Ressoul Ullah!" every year people the
silent wastes of sand with the buzz of human voices, as they toil
along their weary way to the holy city of Mecca.
Every Mohammedan is enjoined to perform this pilgrimage, or if unable
to go, to send a proxy, or an offering.
"Verily, the first house appointed unto men to worship in, was that
which is in Mecca, blessed, and a direction to all creatures."
For there was the Kubla, or point to which they were to turn their
faces in prayer.
"And proclaim unto the people a solemn pilgrimage; let them come unto
thee on foot, and on every lean camel, arriving from every distant
road; that they may be witnesses of the advantages which accrue to
them from the visiting this holy place, and may commemorate the name
of God, on the appointed days, in gratitude for the brute cattle
which he hath bestowed on them."
According to the traditions of the Arabs, the city of Mecca has been
the place of religious veneration, from the earliest times. Near
this city, on a mountain, Adam is said to have met his wife Eve,
two hundred years after the expulsion from Paradise.
Here when Abraham was ready to sacrifice his son Ishmael (not Isaac),
the identical ram, which had been offered by Abel many years before,
was substituted in his place, sent expressly from Paradise.
Here also, in the days of idolatry, was a temple dedicated to Saturn,
now the holy temple of Mecca. So that Mohammed found this place
already consecrated by sacred and ancient associations.
Mecca, the birth-place, and Medina, the tomb of the Prophet, are
situated near each other; and not far from the coast of the Red
Sea. Mecca is in a valley surrounded by barren hills, which produce
nothing but the stones of which the houses are constructed. Water,
so essential to life, and most especially to all Mussulmans, is only
supplied by rain which is collected in cisterns; no streams flowing
from the adjacent mountains. Doubtless, the exceeding value all
Mohammedans attach to the pure element, is owing to its scarcity in
these regions, where their religion was promulgated, and the Koran
revealed from heaven. Their Paradise is represented as abounding
in fountains.
There is "the water of Keafeeree, or camphor," a fountain at which the
people of God shall drink, so likened from the aromatic freshness of
this gum, and its snowy whiteness. The waters of zengefeel or ginger,
and the fountain of zelzebil, whose streams glide softly down the
throat; and the fountain of Taz-nim, which flows from the highest
regions of Paradise, and whereof those shall drink who approach the
Divine presence.
Notwithstanding the barrenness of the soil and the unfavorable
situation of the city of Mecca, the wealth of its inhabitants is
very great.
Arabia Felix, truly happy in comparison to the barren and desert tracts
by which she is surrounded, where the gentle zephyrs are perfumed
and laden with aromatic odors, whose villages and towns are crowned
with plenty, and adorned with gardens of delight, and trees bearing
all kinds of fruit, "Araby the blest" pours her treasures into this
holy city. Her gums and spices, olibanum, or frankincense, myrrh of
many kinds, balsams, sugar canes, cocoa nuts, and the fragrant berry
from Mocha. Nature rejoices in a perpetual spring, in this genial
clime which neither chills nor scorches her spicy products.
In Mecca, congregate a vast crowd of Mussulmans with their merchandise
from all quarters of the East, so that the inducement, held out by
the Prophet, that "they may be witnesses of the advantages which
accrue from visiting this holy place," has no little power on the
calculations of the enterprising, while a misguided religious zeal
sways the multitude.
The holy temple of Mecca has been under the successive patronage
of the caliphs, the sultans of Egypt and of Turkey, until by the
constant acquisition of wealth, it has attained its present splendid
magnificence.
No unbeliever can profane the sacred precincts with the dust of his
feet, nor approach within gun shot of the consecrated portico, during
the season of the visitation of the pilgrims. Nor must the Faithful
defile their sinless bodies by any contact with the unsanctified
flesh and blood of the infidel Jews and Christians.
"O true believers, verily the idolaters are unclean; let them not
therefore come near unto the holy temple after this year.
"And if ye fear want, by the cutting off trade, and communication
with them, God will enrich you of his abundance, if he pleaseth;
for God is knowing and wise."
"It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit the temples of God,
being witnesses against their own souls of their infidelity."
Considering the resources which have contributed to construct and
adorn this shrine of the Mohammedan faith, the great wealth of many
nations, and the centuries which have successively rolled on, each
adding the superstitious offerings of religious votaries, it is no
wonder that it is magnificent to behold. The model from Paradise,
the rebuilding by Abram, and its preservation for so many years.
The whole city of Mecca is considered holy ground but the objects of
special adoration are inclosed within a magnificent colonnade, the
foundation of which was laid by the second caliph Omer, to prevent
intrusion upon the sanctum sanctorum. The space inclosed by this
portico is about seven statium. The foundations are broad and lofty,
and approached by an extended flight of marble steps, on both sides,
without and within. No less than four hundred and eighty-four columns
support an arched entablature, which is crowned by a succession
of domes, surmounted by glittering crescents. The colonnade is
quadrangular, and in the four corners are minarés, raising their
tapering spires to heaven, in emblem of the ascending orisons of the
faithful, and from whose gilded galleries the sacred imams have, since
unnumbered suns have risen and set, proclaimed the hours of adoration.
No gloomy darkness ever enshrouds this structure; for when day
withdraws its more glaring brightness, innumerable lamps cast their
fitful light around the pillars.
What tales could these marble columns whisper of human hopes, and
even holier aspirations; of the wicked schemes of intriguing imams,
as with sacerdotal robes and turbans of emerald hue, they traced
their cautious way from pillar to pillar, and received and blessed
the vast concourse of souls, borne down with the ills and sins of
humanity. How honeyed their benedictions as they lay their gilded
palms on the humble suppliant, who would gladly bestow all his earthly
treasures for a sure hope of heaven where his joys would be enduring.
Poor weak mortals! tools of each other, and victims of the calculating;
the deceiver and deceived, on the same journey, on the same race
course, where the goal is Eternity!
Beneath these domes, and overshadowed by these tall minarés, the poet
and the scholar have met to repeat the traditions and romances so
peculiar to the glowing imaginations of the Oriental world, and to vie
with each other for literary fame; the astrologer and diviner, no doubt
the very genii and fairies of Arabian myth, have mingled in the throng.
With what emotion have the deluded victims of superstition and remorse
prostrated themselves upon the hallowed ground, and with what ecstatic
faith in the rewards of their holy pilgrimage, have the only true
believers kissed the dust of the consecrated earth.
Within this beautiful portico, there is a vast space, in the middle
of which stands the Caaba itself.
After Adam was driven from Paradise, he begged the Almighty to allow
him to erect a Beit-el-maamur, or house of God, similar to the one he
had seen there. Therefore the Caaba was let down to Mecca, directly
under the Heavenly Temple. This was rebuilt after the deluge by Abram,
or as some say, again descended from the celestial realms, where it
had been preserved, and has been in the possession of the Ishmaelites,
or Arabs, ever since.
The Caaba, or house of God, is a square building of stone, 24 cubits
long, 23 broad and 27 high. It is nearly surrounded by a semicircular
colonnade, at the base of which is a low balustrade.
Bars of silver, from which lamps are suspended, connect the pillars
at the top.
How mystic and beautiful are the glimmerings of these lights, as they
glisten on the dark night, in their silver lamps, casting uncertain
shadows around the marble columns--their dubious shining conjuring
up the shades of the Prophet and his honored descendants, all arrayed
in jealous and sacred green to watch the devotions of the multitude,
as they surround the shrine.
The outside of the Caaba is covered with rich black damask, which is
renewed every year.
The holy imams, pitying the true and faithful, and wishing to ward
off from them the dangers of sudden death, and the thousand other
casualties of life, bestow a small portion of the covering of this
house of God, which has imbibed the sanctity of three hundred and
sixty-five days' duration, and, therewith, the power to avert all
such evils. A small amount of worldly wealth is sufficient to touch
the heart of the holy Emir, who grants this precious charm, which,
resting in the bosom of its happy possessor, yields to him a sweet
repose from the anticipation of sudden trials which befall the less
fortunate inheritors of human life.
Outside of this black damask is a band of gold which surrounds the
Caaba, and whose lustre is undimmed by time, for it is renewed every
year by the sultan of Turkey. The very rain which flows from the
roof of this edifice, partakes of its sanctity, and is conducted
therefrom by a spout of solid gold, whence it trickles down on the
tomb of Ishmael, the head and founder of the Arab race.
Near the Caaba is the stone on which the patriarch Abraham stood,
when he was rebuilding the holy temple; and even his very foot-prints
are to be seen on the solid piece of rock, leaving no shadow of doubt
as to its identity.
This ancient architect, unwilling to deface the walls by a scaffolding,
when they were beyond his reach, stood upon this stone, which chance
threw in his way; and, wonderful interposition of Allah! the stone
raised him when necessary, let him down again, and transported him
around his precious work, until the whole was finished!
What a treasure to architecture, more worthy of fame than the
undiscovered stone of the philosopher; how carefully to be watched
and guarded from the profanations of unbelieving house-builders for
all time to come.
Upon the southeast corner of the Caaba is the black stone set in
silver, which was dropped down from Paradise.
Like other gems of the heavenly sphere, it was originally white and
shining--but alas! its brightness is dimmed, and even changed to
perfect blackness, by its contact with human sin. For ever since its
removal to this world, it has been polluted by the touch of mortals,
and the contact of their sinful lips.
The interior of the Caaba is approached by a silver door, about the
height of a man from the ground, to which they ascend by movable
steps. There is a single room hung with red and green embroidered
damask, and the roof is supported by four pillars eight feet square,
made of aloes wood.
A sweet perfume pervades this apartment, which has been emitted from
these pillars ever since Mohammed was born in the holy city of Medina,
and silver lamps are suspended, which burn night and day. Near the
Caaba are small chapels for the imams of the different Mohammedan
sects, who severally bestow their blessings upon the pilgrims.
The agonized mother of Ishmael, wandering in the wilderness, her
scanty bottle of water quite empty, having cast her helpless infant
under the shrubs, and retreated that she might not see him die,
sat at a distance and lifted up her voice and wept.
The dying moans of the infant reached the ears of the angel of God,
who, to save the father of a great nation, caused the well-spring of
water to gush forth from its recesses in the bowels of the earth.
As the ministering angel wiped the tears from the eyes of the
disconsolate mother, she spied the crystal water, and hastened to
administer to the fainting child. This same well, called the well of
zem-zem, is near the holy house of prayer, and the thirsty pilgrims
every year quaff its venerated waters and carry some of it to all
parts of the Mohammedan dominions.
Such being the holy places, no wonder that every Mussulman, whether
commanded or not, should desire to visit these sacred relics of
antiquity.
And were it not forbidden, doubtless the unbelievers also would gladly
undertake the same pilgrimage to witness the miraculous preservation
of objects which are, some of them, incorporated with their own faith.
Four caravans meet in the city of Mecca, in the month Zil-hidjay,
or the month of pilgrimage, every year--one from Cairo, one from
Constantinople, a third from the Barbary states, and a fourth from
India. The Egyptian caravan waits for the arrival of the one from
Constantinople at Redowa near the holy cities. As the Sultan of Turkey
holds the possession of the holy cities in his own territories, he
is bound to send certain offerings to the shrine, which are the gold
band and black damask covering for the Caaba, with a large sum of
money to be distributed among the priests at Mecca. A certain kind
of money is expressly coined at the royal mint for the pilgrimage,
called the Caaba money. It is in gold pieces, and every one who goes
to Mecca must provide himself with this circulating medium.
The wants of the numerous poor pilgrims are provided for in part,
by an appeal to the superstitions of the populace. A model of the
temple at Mecca is paraded through the streets followed by a crowd
of the zealous chanting hosannas in Arabic, accompanied by the music
of a drum of antique contrivance.
But few can withhold a tribute. The miser opens his hoards, and the
widow adds her slender mite; the grandee and the slave, one and all,
gladly answer the appeal of their fellows, when under a banner of
such sacred veneration, and for a cause so laudable as a pilgrimage
to the holy shrine of their faith. Rich and poor are busily employed
in preparations.
The dervish in his humble robes, needs no costly array. His garb of
sanctity, and the renunciation of all the trappings of wealth, open the
purses of the more gaily apparelled; and often the rags of a mendicant
conceal a full purse, much better filled perhaps, than his, who has
spent his all on costly embroideries and richly caparisoned steeds.
The pasha and the efendi arrange their financial affairs, taking
care to carry costly offerings, and largesse, wherewith to impress
the multitude with their own greatness.
The ladies of the harems, in like manner, collect their jewels, their
perfumes, in a word gifts of all things esteemed rare and precious,
that they may not go empty-handed to the holy temple.
The merchants pack up their silks and rich stuffs of all sorts,
and prepare for edification both temporal and spiritual.
Considering the immense throng of pilgrims, what must be the din of
preparation throughout the Ottoman dominion?
Constantinople, its sultan, its treasury, its inhabitants high and
low, its ladies, its saints and beggars--even the lisping children
are whispering, God is great, Mohammed is his Apostle, and the Caaba
is the house of God. The Egyptian viceroy is assembling his horseman
and his camels at Berket el Hadge; the Maghrubees, or Barbaresques,
are sharpening their scimitars, and preparing as if for war. India's
wealth, her pearls, shawls, and rubies, and stately elephants, are
slowly wending their way to the shores of the Persian Gulf, where at
al Katif, on the Arabian side, the old sheikh is tarrying with his
herds of camels, to sell or hire them for the passage of the desert.
The holy Mecca is thus, for several months at least, the theme of
all classes of Mohammedans.
At length the day arrives to begin the journey so fraught with
blessings temporal and spiritual.
The conductor of the Constantinople caravan, called the Surré Emminee,
or the trustee of the pilgrimage, proceeds to the palace, to receive
his commission from the sultan; and to him are consigned all the
treasures destined for Mecca.
All hopes of worldly aggrandizement are henceforth renounced by this
dignitary; for having once imbibed the holy atmosphere of Mecca, his
future aspirations are supposed to be only heavenward. He therefore,
upon his return, generally retires to Damascus, where, nearer to
the shrine, and in a clime more genial for holiness, he awaits his
translation into that Paradise, of which his earthly honors are the
type and foretaste.
Quitting the august presence of the "Thrice happy lord of the refulgent
Mecca," the Surré Emminee goes to the Porte, where he takes leave of
his former colleagues in temporal greatness, and thence to the gate
of the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who grants his blessing on the enterprise.
The pilgrims and others collect about him, and they proceed to Bahchai
Capusoo, where a steamer is waiting to transport them over to Scutari,
in Asia.
There, all along the route, are multitudes of people waiting to see
the procession.
The insignia of the Surré Emminee are borne before him; two long poles,
to which the expressive horse-tails are attached, and the Pasha of
two tails follows on a beautiful Arabian charger.
The treasures destined for Mecca succeed on a train of camels, all
bedecked with ribbons and spangles. But this world's grandeurs are
bestowed unequally even to these patient animals; for there is one
of their number who outshines all his fellows. A venerable camel
is covered with trappings enriched with precious stones of rare
and sparkling lustre, for on his back he carries the sacred Koran
extravagantly bound, and enclosed in a golden box set in brilliants;
the gift of the sultan to the temple.
Happy is this distinguished animal, and his companions also, if they
survive the pilgrimage and return; for, like the Surré Emminee, they
are exempt from all future toil in this work-day world; and when Death
at last claims them for his prey, they enjoy the honors of a burial,
where no rude dogs or vultures can disturb their remains.
The Validé Sultan, or the mother of the sultan, reclines in her
Tahtravan, a sort of elongated sedan chair, which is suspended on
long poles between two camels and magnificent in proportion to the
high rank of its occupant.
Mussulman women and children follow, in huge panniers, suspended on
the sides of camels, horses, and donkeys.
Indeed, the good fathers and husbands of the Osmanlis are ever anxious
to ensure to the female portion of their families high places in the
celestial regions; and they are generally accompanied by their harems.
"It is incumbent on him whose family shall not be present at the holy
temple, to fast three days in the pilgrimage, and seven when he is
returned; they shall be ten days complete."
And the same period of fasting is enjoined upon him "who findeth not
anything to offer" at the shrine.
Mohammed himself set an example in this respect; for when he
encompassed the Caaba, he was accompanied by his family, and his wife
Kadijah, who, with his daughter Fatima, were two of the four women
whom he pronounced to have attained a state of perfection on this
side of the grave.
Trains of servants, led horses and camels, swell the concourse;
and the whole is protected by a body of cavalry.
About six miles from Scutari, there is a fountain which bears the
name of Iraluk Cheshmaysee, or the fountain of separation.
Thus far a number of friends and relations have accompanied the
pilgrims; but, as in the journey of life, none can carry their loved
ones with them into the celestial regions, so these travellers who
are on an emblematic pilgrimage must now sunder strong ties, and
loosen their hearts from earthly affections.
Fountain of parting! how are thy streams now accumulating, as the
pearly drops of human woe trickle in among thy waters; how many
days must pass ere those waters regain their crystal brightness, now
all turbid with the crimson gushings of the heart blood of fathers,
mothers, wives, husbands, and children!
Sadly they part: some turn their faces homeward with bitter sighs,
while the pilgrims pursue their course, every advancing step widening
the distance, till their clouded eyes can discern no further traces
of the severed.
Even as faith reveals to the dying the glory of a celestial world,
and reconciles the most trembling to a passage from the dim scenes
of Earth; so does superstition foreshadowing the hour of mortal
dissolution, display an earthly temple as the vestibule to the
heavenly.
With eager steps, the pilgrims now press onwards, till they reach the
most ancient and beautiful city of Damascus; where they halt for the
caravans from Bagdad, Aleppo, and the neighboring towns. Time-worn
associations flit about this monument of the wealth of the earliest
founders of cities, after the universal deluge.
As the descendants of the great survivor of the wreck of the
antediluvian world sought out a portion of the wide expanse of
uninhabited, and as yet uncultivated earth, this lovely valley
of nature's own handiwork seemed to invite their tarrying, as it
lay in calm repose, all fresh and verdant from the great waste of
waters. Perhaps they discovered the ruins of a great city, the remnants
of ancestral wealth; or the relics of the luxury and degeneracy which
brought about the awful destruction of the victims of the flood.
Rapidly rose the proud city, and was famed even at the time of the
first battle of which there is any record, of the five kings against
four, the great Chedorlaomar and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah,
when the patriarch Abram went to rescue his nephew Lot, who had been
taken captive.
It was the birth-place, too, of Eliezer, the steward of Abram, who
must have been a man of superior attainments, as he had the care
of all his master's possessions, and even of the betrothal of his
beloved son Isaac.
This ancient capital of Syria did not escape the enthusiasm of Moslem
conquest, and the great Saracen generals, Abu-Obeidah and Khaled,
took possession of the famous city, after a slaughter of 50,000
infidels, during the reign of Abubekir, the successor of Mohammed,
A. D. 633. Damascus now became the capital of the Ottoman dominions,
and their pride and glory; for they boast Evvely sham, Akhery sham,
or, that as they had their beginning in Sham or Damascus, so there
also, they will have their end.
So precious do they esteem this city, that it is styled the pearl
surrounded by diamonds, and the gate of the most holy Mecca.
Here, then, at the most beautiful gate, do the pilgrims to the
sacred shrine delight to repose awhile, their senses ravished with
the loveliest enchantments of nature. Their eager vision extends over
vast plains of richly waving foliage, mingling with its emerald hues,
the brilliant tints of the citron, pomegranate, and fig. Sweet odors
of aromatic freshness pervade the balmy air, while luscious and juicy
fruits revive their thirsty senses. Over this vast and exquisite
prospect, tower tall minarés, and graceful domes with glittering
crescents, proclaiming as far as the eye can reach, the sway of
Mohammed Ressoul Ullah.
But there is yet a weary way to the shrine, and the zealous throng,
now swelled to a vast multitude, renew their journey. If the weather
is very oppressive, they encamp in the day-time, and proceed by the
light of innumerable torches at night.
How mysterious the pageant, stretching its long train over the
barren and trackless sands. The camels, with stealthy step, waving
their long necks slowly and majestically; now and then the Arabian
coursers neighing in wearied restlessness, break the silence. Then a
voice chanting a hymn of praise, and anon, a shout or chorus from the
multitude. Now all is still, and fitful shadows glide along side by
side with the wanderers, as the bright jewels on the camels glisten
in the torch-light.
The caravan has passed, leaving in its track many palpitating forms,
panting on the sands for that breath of life, which is rapidly exhaling
from their bodies.
So weary a way--sometimes no water to quench the thirst, which rages
in proportion to the scarcity of its antidote; fatigue adding its
prostrating effects day by day, no wonder that many of the way-worn
pilgrims are transferred to the Heavenly Temple, without a sight of
the earthly.
The caravan from Cairo is also moving onwards, made up of a motley
multitude, headed by the Emir Hadgee, who is appointed by the pasha of
Cairo, and receives great emoluments from his office. Every pilgrim
pays him a certain sum for the enregistering of his name and property,
and the possessions of all those who die on the road, are also his
perquisites. He is the governor of the pilgrimage, and is judge
and jury in all matters of dispute. The Egyptians always carry with
them the tomb of Hassan, and accompanied by cavalry and artillery,
they proceed as far as Redowa, near Medina, where they are to meet
the Constantinople caravan. About two days' journey from Cairo,
they arrive at a place called Miz-Haara, the ancient Marah of the
Israelites, where, when the people murmured at the bitterness of
the waters, Moses cast a tree into them, and they became sweet, of
surpassing sweetness to all thirsty pilgrims. Thus they travel over
the same wilderness as their ancient predecessors, encamping in the
very spots selected by Moses for the tents of the chosen people of God.
After these caravans meet, they proceed, a vast multitude, to a
village about sixty miles from Mecca, where is Abram's mountain,
on which he erected the altar to sacrifice his son.
On the top of this hill is a mosque, where an old sheikh resides, who,
as the pilgrims halt, stands on the brow of the hill, and delivers an
address to them on the importance of the duty they are performing,
reminding them also of the blessings in store for all zealous
Mussulmans. To what an immense audience does this lonely old man once
a year proclaim the tenets of the Koran, and how eagerly do their
thirsty souls quaff the water of everlasting life as he dispenses it.
Now the Emir Hadgee conducts the pilgrims one by one to the feet of the
sheikh, as he stands in the mosque on the top of the hill, Rabiie. As
they enter one door and pass out at the other in rapid succession,
each one is touched by the divining rod in the hands of the old sheikh,
and the burden of all their past transgressions rolls from their backs,
as he pronounces the words, "May sin here leave thee."
Lightened from the pressure of sin in every form, they run swiftly down
the hill, and bathing their hands and faces in a stream which flows
below, they become renewed, men, women, and children; and prepared
to gaze upon the holy city of Mecca, which is not far distant. Now
turning their faces to the shrine, the true believers hasten on their
way; sometimes halting at the tomb of Eve, which is at Giddeh, the
port of Mecca.
This illustrious and ancient mother of the human race must have been a
dame of fair proportions; for her grave measures, from the head to the
foot stone, no less than twenty-five yards, or seventy-five English
feet. If she was of such exceeding stature, what must have been the
dimensions of our great parent Adam, or what lofty personages must
have been the giants of those days.
After travelling about three days longer, the domes of the Holy Temple
are descried in the distance; when the multitude with mad delight
prostrate themselves on the ground, and kissing the earth three times,
proclaim with tremendous clamor, La Illah! Ill Lallah! Mohammed
Ressoul Ullah!
There is no other God but God! Mohammed the Apostle of God!
The artillery is now fired to announce the arrival of the caravans to
the inhabitants of Mecca, who, headed by the Shereef of the city and
all the Imams, immediately proceed to meet the pilgrims, and conduct
them within the sacred precincts.
Those who possess but scanty means, encamp without the city, and
others are accommodated at khans, which are very numerous.
The next thing is to visit the bath, and thus purify themselves for
the ceremonies at the temple--"I will wash my hands in innocency,
so will I compass thine altar, O Lord." Having invested themselves
in the ehram, or covering of crimson woollen shag, which is always
wrapped around the person on this occasion, they proceed to the Caaba.
Mohammed having performed these same ceremonies, his followers have
ever since imitated his example.
Immediately after the Prophet took possession of the city of Mecca,
he proceeded to the Caaba. There he stood upon the roof of the house of
prayer, and proclaimed the first ezan, or call to prayer, at noon-day.
He then commenced his adorations at the shrine, by first kissing
the black stone in the corner, near the door of the Caaba, then he
proceeded to compass the building seven times, and then again kissed
the sin-atoning stone. When the Caaba was let down from heaven to Adam,
he requested that it might be so placed that he could compass it as
he had seen the angels do. Ever since the creation, the number seven
has had a mystic signification, and its sacred meaning is demonstrated
in these devotions of the faithful. Mohammed then proclaimed to the
people from Mount Arafat, the manner in which they were to perform
the ceremonies at the Temple, and went to the valley of Mina, where
he threw seven stones at the devil, every time pronouncing the words,
Allah Ikbér! Allah Ikbér! God Almighty! God Omnipotent, as did Adam
and Abraham, when the great Adversary interrupted their devotions.
The enemies of the Prophet account for the accumulation of stones in
this valley by the following story.
It is well known that Mohammed was assisted in the preparation of
the Koran, by an Armenian monk, by name Serkiss. When their work was
completed, the Prophet wished to attest it by a miracle.
He accordingly persuaded Serkiss to descend into a deep well, while
he called all the multitude to assemble. Holding a blank book in his
hand, he declared that if the Koran was indeed revealed from Heaven,
he would drop this blank-book into the well, and Allah would send it
up all written and inscribed.
The book descended, and Serkiss sent up the one he had already
prepared. "Now," said Mohammed, "let each man cast a stone into the
well, which will be a monument to the world." Whereupon every one
of the great concourse cast a stone, and thus effectually prevented
Serkiss from appearing to contradict the miracle. Ever since that
time, the pilgrims have helped to accumulate these stones, until a
vast monument, indeed, has been erected.
The Prophet now offered the sacrifice of sixty-three camels, according
to the years of his own life, shaved his head, and having run seven
times between the two hills Safa and Merwa, in imitation of Hagar
searching for water, he completed the holy ceremonies.
According to this model have the pilgrims continued, ever since his
time, the performance of these superstitious devotions.
The holy duties of the shrine being over, after a few worldly cares are
disposed of, the now self-satisfied travellers turn their footsteps
homewards. Purified, and set apart, henceforth the chosen of Allah,
fearless of all danger, as if within the shadow of the eternal world,
nothing intimidates the followers of the Prophet, as with the greatest
self-complacency they anticipate the rest of their sojourn in this
lower world. Many have sacrificed all their earthly possessions,
but are they not sure of the imperishable riches of paradise. With
eager fondness, they embrace once again friends and relations, while
the odor of sanctity exhales from their sacred persons. With what
panting bosoms and restless vision do the friends search among the
remnant returned from the wanderings, for dear and familiar faces;
and human wailings rend the air, as they are told that brother, sister,
and husband, lie whitening on the sand, long ere this the prey of the
vulture. The happy father clasps to his breast his precious offspring,
and with sweet complacency, ties around its neck a morsel the holy
covering of the Caaba, so sure the charm, and obtained at such infinite
perils. The pilgrims are surrounded, and with jealous caution they
bestow a few drops of the water of the holy well Zem-Zem, which glides
down the throats of the faithful like the oily fountains of Paradise.
The weary camels even linger out their lives in luxurious idleness,
retired from oppressive service, with an air of unconscious sanctity
and repose.
Henceforward, the glorious title of Hadgee, belongs to the returned
pilgrim; no razor profanes the beard, and the very door of the house,
by its hue of the Prophet's robe, the sacred green, proclaims the
rank and holiness of its master.
The Hadgee, with long and solemn face, never wearies of recounting
his wonderful adventures, portraying with ecstasy, the splendors of
the shrine, detailing with holy rapture the ceremonies and devotions,
until the flame of superstitious zeal is enkindled in every bosom, and
their spirits yearn for the sweet sanctity and all-atoning atmosphere
of the most refulgent Mecca--and many vows are made that in the coming
year, their footsteps shall surely be thitherward.
Such, then, are the illusions which beguile life's wearisome journey
to the followers of Mohammed; such the stepping-stones to their
future Elysium.
Thus the tortures of conscience are eased, and thus does superstition
stand fully armed at the portals of the soul.
Few, indeed, are the members of the great human family, who dare
to combat this enemy to moral greatness; and how small the number
of those, who renounce her sway. Chained down to creeds and dogmas,
the mind of man seldom soars above the atmosphere of human inventions,
but relyingly lingers in the leading strings of bigotry, in one form
or another.
Thus is constituted the Practice of the Mohammedan Religion, viz.,
Ablutions, Prayers, Alms, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to Mecca,
which are denominated Farz, or obligatory. There are, however, many
other traditional observances termed Sünnet, which as the Turks are
Sünnees or traditionists, they have incorporated with their religious
duties, such as circumcision, and many other rites. These rites, whose
observance is only optional, are, however, performed with as much zeal
and ceremony as those required by the Koran. Although the ceremony
of circumcision is not alluded to in the Koran, and therefore not
indispensable, yet it is a custom generally observed, and is performed
when the child is able to pronounce the formula of faith "La Illah,
Ill Allah, Mohammed Ressoul Ullah," or is about the age of seven years.
This is a great festival, and when the sultan's children, or those
of any of the grandees, are the neophytes, a general invitation is
extended to other candidates. Music, dancing, and feasting occupy
the minds and distract the thoughts of the numerous company, young
and old, during the week devoted to this ceremony.
CHAPTER VII.
PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT.
A people descended from nomadic tribes, and, until very recently,
severed from foreign intercourse, would naturally retain its simple
and national type. Besides, the peculiar bond of an exclusive faith,
would still more tend to the preservation of ancient and characteristic
usages.
Thus the Osmanlis have, with hitherto but few deviations, preserved
their identity as an eminently patriarchal nation. As the son
recognized the parent to be the governor and controller of his career,
the fountain of experience and wisdom, and rendered to him a willing
and natural obedience; so the people, needing such a fatherly care and
control, were ready to invest one of their number with this authority.
Every system has its centre. The sun rules in the heavens--and the
great mass of humanity seek a centre, around which to rally. The
wonderful magnetism of mortal emotion tends to a common point, as
surely as the needle to the pole. Thus some species of monarchy,
whether elective or hereditary, seems inevitable to a multitude of
beings, cast in human mould.
Tribes were instituted in early times, each with its patriarch or
petty monarch; and when, for mutual strength or by conquest, these
various tribes were combined, the monarch, with increasing subjects,
became more powerful and distinguished.
When the wandering Tartars embraced Islamism, their chief becoming
the successor to the Caliphate, was not only their temporal, but
spiritual head. These two elements of power, church and state,
endowed the monarch with unlimited sway, beyond whom there could be
no appeal. The simple patriarch now becomes not only the father of
his people, but the representative of Allah; the sole controller of
life and death, property and religion. Years, even centuries, roll
on, the scimitar gains nation after nation, fertile territories and
treasures to the followers of the Crescent, and innumerable multitudes
swarm around the standard.
The Padi-Shah, or ruler of this vast concourse of men, the absolute
owner of the domain far and wide, now rejoices in the adulations of
his superstitious subjects who acknowledge him as the
"King of Kings, and Lord of Lords; Ruler of the East and West,
and of all parts of the world; Prince of the Holy and chaste city of
Jerusalem; shining with the brightness of God. Thrice happy Lord of the
refulgent Mecca. Tamer of infidels, and the scourger of the unbelieving
race of Christian vassals. Lord of the White (Mediterranean), and the
Black Seas. The most mighty and invincible Sultan, who has power from
God to rule all people with a bridle."
Many other similar titles are bestowed upon him, which, though they
may seem somewhat bombastic, or even ridiculous, in these days of
equality and freedom, yet are not unparalleled in some of the more
civilized realms of modern Europe; nor without their legitimate
influences upon the subjects of this potentate.
In order to illustrate the wonderful effect which the assumption
of such high-sounding appellatives has upon the general mass of the
people, I will relate an incident which happened to myself:--
During a recent sail on the Bosphorus in a cayik, and immediately
after the arrival of the allied fleets, I thought to amuse myself with
some political chit-chat with my boatman. As I was remarking about the
assistance of the Allies, the simple-minded, but thorough Mussulman,
was very prompt in solving the mystery of this unheard-of political
combination; why should two sets of giavours combine with the true
believers, against a third?
The reason seemed plain enough to him. The French giavours had a new
king, and since the Padi-shah is the "Prince of Princes, and Lord of
Lords," in order to merit at his hands the consummation of royalty,
they had come to fight for him, bringing along England to intercede
for them.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT.
Although the power and authority of the sultan is unlimited, and his
sway entirely arbitrary, the disposal of affairs is naturally consigned
to various officers. The two principal of these are the Grand Vezir,
and the Sheikh-ul-Islam.
The Grand Vezir was formerly called Lala, or Tutor, because he
was the sole adviser to his majesty, and as he exercised the civil
functions of the executive, he was styled "Vekili-Mutlah," or vicar
absolute. He therefore enjoyed all the rights and immunities of his
imperial master--to the entire control of property and life itself.
He used to head the army in time of war; make all appointments
to office; give audiences to the foreign ambassadors, receive and
answer their memorials; and he only, of all the ministers of the
realm, had free access to the royal presence. As he was amenable to
no tribunal, his only forfeit being his own head, and his worldly
possessions, it was his policy to render the person of the sultan
inapproachable--between whom and his people, a mystic veil seemed
ever to depend. By degrees, the monarch, who should have been the
father of his people, removed from all intercourse with his subjects,
became only the shrine of their superstitious devotions, the deity of
their worship, the proxy of Allah; while the real administrator of the
realm, was the selfish, ambitious, scheming, and blood-thirsty Grand
Vezir. Even on Fridays, as his majesty appeared in public on his way
to the mosque, he was so surrounded by pomp and royal pageantry, as
to be almost invisible. But since the promulgation of the Tanzimat or
reformation, an entire change has been effected in the administrative
department, and a substantial check imposed upon the Grand Vezir,
whose former prerogatives and immunities have been much curtailed.
There is now a council attached to each department, which deliberates
upon the various measures proposed. A grand national council,
established on a somewhat European system, called the Medjlissi-Wala,
or senate, composed of the dignitaries and notables of the nation, and
presided over by a Reiss or chief of its own, controls the affairs of
the nation in general. Its duties are to prepare the laws; establish or
revise the basis of the taxation; regulate the revenues and expenditure
of the government; to draft the instructions for the governors of the
provinces; to try all treasonable acts and crimes committed against
the state; to correct the abuses of the functionaries; to attend to
the complaints of citizens brought against the different agents or
authorities; to draw up sentences for criminals, which are either
maintained or modified by his majesty, etc. etc.,
There is another council called the Medjlissi-Khass, or special
council, which, being composed of the ministers of the different
departments, may be termed a cabinet, or privy council.
The Grand Vezir, as prime minister, presides over this. These two
councils together, constitute what is termed and generally known as
the Baabu-Aali, or the Sublime Porte.
Baab is the Arabic word for gate, or porte in French. Ever since
Mordecai sat in the king's gate, and perhaps long before his time, all
the places of public administration in the East, have been designated
by this term. For instance, Baabu-Sheik-ul-Islam, is the Superior
Court; Baabu-Serasker, the war department, and in contradistinction
to all the other courts or departments, the government of the Ottoman
empire is denominated the Baabu-Aali, or the supreme gate or court;
a term of similar significance, with the Court of St. James, the
Tuileries, or the Government at Washington.
Thus it will be perceived, that the original autocratic government
has now been reduced into a form of bureaucracy.
The vast empire of Turkey, partaking of the territories of no less than
three continents, is divided into thirty-seven Ayalets or provinces;
each Ayalet being sub-divided into Livas or counties; and each Liva
into Kazas or townships. These provinces, counties, and townships,
are respectively governed by Valis, Kaimakams, and Müdirs.
The governors, etc., of these provinces, formerly enjoyed in their
respective domains the same absolute authority as the Grand Vezir,
and answered with the same forfeiture of their heads and property
for their misdemeanors. But of late years, the same check has also
been put upon their powers, as in the central government, by the
establishment of councils, &c.
All the ministers and governors of Provinces are now appointed by
the sultan, and the secondary places are filled by the appointment
of the Grand Vezir.
When his majesty designs to elevate a person to the office of minister
of the realm, one of the chamberlains of the palace proceeds to
summon the individual to the royal presence, where he is invested in
his new office by the bestowal of the Nishani-Müshir or the badge of
rank in brilliants, which is suspended around the neck; and an Iradé
or Edict is granted him by the Sultan. He then proceeds with much
pomp and ceremony to the Porte, where he is immediately recognized,
according to the royal commands. He is met at the foot of the stairway
by the Grand Vezir in person, who bows to the edict presented to him
by the chamberlain with as much reverence as if it were his royal
master himself. Holding the document over his head, the viceroy
enters the grand council chamber, where he reads it in a loud voice,
and the ceremony is concluded by an extempore prayer, offered by the
mufty of the council--and the new minister is conducted to his gate,
or his own department.
When they are deposed from office, the royal chamberlain appears,
demanding the Nishan which is immediately relinquished.
CHAPTER IX.
THE POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT.
The policy of the government has hitherto been centralization, that
is, to draw the mass of the people from the frontiers to a common
centre, in order the more readily to suppress any rebellion; and by
depopulating the borders, to prevent the approach of foreign invasion.
Besides, even while consigning the inhabitants of the provinces to
the arbitrary control of the governors, a certain degree of awe and
ready submission might be inspired towards the central government,
which could, at pleasure and option punish, with one fell blow,
the very ruler who was regarded as omnipotent in his own territories.
Also, it was with ulterior designs, that such a degree of laxity was
tolerated. The distant and provincial authorities, in grasping all
within their reach, and oppressing the people under their control,
were able to amass great possessions for themselves; but they were
amenable to the supreme power, which availed itself of its prerogatives
to judge and condemn, upon the slightest accusation, and to confiscate
and appropriate the spoils, with the semblance of justice itself--as
if avenging the wrongs of an injured population.
Notwithstanding, there was often an assumption of independence in
many of the provincial authorities, who succeeded in maintaining
the dignity of Déré-Beys or Feudal Barons, such as Tchapan-Oghlou,
Tepelene, and Mehmed Aali.
The consequence has been, that as you receded from the seat of
government over the vast tracts of territory, the very limited internal
communications, combined with the independence and rapacity of the
governors of the distant provinces, produced anarchy, misrule and
misery, in frightful ratio. Some amelioration has been attempted of
late by the Tanzimat or reformation, and the establishing of roads
and post-offices, councils, &c.; but the spirit of centralization
still pervades with all its legitimate evils.
Another equally pernicious error in their policy, was the idea
that it was better to employ the heads and hands of the people in
foreign wars, with the view to keep them constantly occupied, and to
maintain a military ardor. Although this system contributed vastly
to the extension of the empire, yet sad experience has developed
its injurious effects. For constant acquisitions so enlarged their
dominions and inflated the soldiery, that the very sultan began to
tremble on his throne, until the destruction of the janissaries became
indispensable for the preservation of the empire.
This famous military body was created in the reign of Sultan Mourad,
the son and successor of Orkhan; and it was notorious for many
centuries, till they were at last destroyed by Mahmoud, the father
of the present sultan.
The janissaries are so interwoven with the past and present history
of Turkey, that it does not seem amiss to give here a slight sketch
of their origin and downfall.
CHAPTER X.
HISTORY OF THE JANISSARIES.
The Janissaries were first instituted for the protection of the
throne and person of the sultan; the army being then composed of the
victorious Turkomans, who had become turbulent, and were ready to
take the reins of government into their own hands. A new militia was
consequently instituted by Mourad, composed of young prisoners of war,
who were brought up in the Moslem faith: and, in contradistinction
to the existing army, were denominated Yeni-tcheri, or new soldiers.
With the design of giving more solemnity to the new order, the founder
resorted to the aid of religion, and they were blessed by a famous
sheikh, Hadji-Bektash, [1] who extending his arms over the troops,
invoked the blessing of Allah, and predicted their future victories,
pronouncing these words:
"Let them be called Yeni-tcheries. May their countenance ever be
bright! their hand victorious! their sword keen! May their spear
always hang over the head of their enemies, and wheresoever they go,
may they return with a white face!"
Their uniform consisted of loose trousers, and long, flowing robes,
tucked up. Their head-gear, when in full dress, was very peculiar. A
round cap of grey felt, with a long piece of the same hanging behind,
in commemoration of the loose sleeve of the saint, which was suspended
over their heads when he extended his arms to bless their institution.
They were armed with sabres, scimitars, pistols, yataghans, muskets,
constituting, as it were, a peripatetic model arsenal.
Their mode of warfare was quite primitive; each fighting on his own
responsibility.
From their earliest years, these Christian slaves snatched from
the bosom of their families, were inured to all sorts of hardships,
and to perfect resignation to the will of their superiors. They were
diligently trained in the art of war, and every trace of their parents
and native country being obliterated from their minds, their only
aim was to promote the interest and glory of their lord and sultan,
and they were, for many centuries, justly distinguished for the
excellence of their discipline, and for their indomitable courage.
But, owing to their constant successes, they at last began to consider
themselves invincible, and by degrees becoming insolent, respected
neither the laws nor even the sultan himself. They thus turned that
power, which was originally the defence and glory of the country, to
its ruin and destruction; and many were the sultans who fell victims
to their audacity and rebellion.
Sultan Selim III., in his attempt to reform them, was sacrificed to
their fury.
They were, in reality, the ruling power in the country: dethroning
sultans, and taking off the heads of ministers at their will. They
were upheld in all their excesses by the people, from a dread of
their vengeance, many of whom, from motives of personal safety, even
enlisted as honorary members of their corps. For, even the assassin
could find a secure asylum in their barracks, from which no power or
authority could claim him.
Nothing was sacred in their estimation; families dared not to
venture abroad without a janissary escort; and, on this account,
the different foreign embassies were always accommodated with two or
three of their number, which custom is still in vogue; though Kavasses,
or Turkish police officers, have been substituted for the janissaries
of former times.
Even the royal harem was not safe from them, and neither life nor
property were secure from their depredations.
Besides their regular rations, their pay was at the rate of from one
asper to twenty, according to their rank, per day. An asper was, at
that time, equal to one cent of Federal money. But they had various
ways of increasing their personal revenues.
They assumed a peculiar style of taxing the peaceable citizens, by
carelessly tossing their handkerchiefs at them, with an intimation
that their pockets needed replenishing, and none dared to return the
handkerchief without a tribute tied in one of its corners.
Those who were stationed in the city as metropolitan guards, generally
contrived to amass a quantity of mud before the guardhouse, which
they would ask all the rayahs who passed by, either to sweep away,
or contribute something for its removal.
The day of their revolt was most memorable, and our own janissary
boatman coolly put the number and mark of his regiment upon the
street-door of our residence, as an intimation to his comrades that
the house was already appropriated by one of the brotherhood.
Assassination was a matter of frequent occurrence in those days. The
father of the writer once narrowly escaped with his life.
He happened to be passing by a shop, where a janissary was examining
a yataghan with a view of purchasing it.
"Stop," cried the janissary, to him, "come here, I want to test this
blade on you."
He knew the character of those villains too well to suppose that the
rascal was joking--as a forlorn hope, he indifferently remarked,
"that it would be hardly worth the while to try such an exquisite
blade on my old tottering body," at the same time suggesting, that
it would be better for his excellency to accept the sword as a gift,
with the view of trying it on some worthier subject, and throwing
the money to the merchant, the old gentleman very suddenly disappeared.
Imbued with the wildest fanaticism, and with all the prejudices of
ancient times, and habituated to command rather than to obey, these
janissaries constituted the most effectual barrier to all progress
or national reform.
Indeed, their outrageous conduct was often the principal cause of
war with foreign nations--and a stigma upon their country.
Any monarch, then, who appreciated the real interest of his subjects,
and could anticipate the future downfall of his country, would be
impelled to annihilate this scourge.
Eternal gratitude is due to the illustrious Mahmoud, who at last,
accomplished this task. A man of remarkable energy and discernment,
more inspired with the spirit of civilization and modern reform
than any of his predecessors; with a determination and perseverance
unparalleled in the history of his country, Mahmoud effected this
coup d'état, and has justly been designated of "Glorious memory."
He first gained over to himself the renowned Hüssein Pasha, who
was then the Agha or chief of the janissaries; then Kara-Jehennem
or Black-Hell, the chief of the artillery, and Bostangy-Bashi, the
head of the life-guards; with the co-operation of these personages a
system of military reform was ordered, requiring all the soldiery to
be regularly drilled, and to adopt a certain uniform better suited
to military life, than the flowing robes and cumbersome head gears
they had hitherto worn.
The artillery corps and the life-guards cheerfully submitted to this
order, but the janissaries considered this change of costume as an
innovation upon long established customs, and averse to any military
discipline, there arose great dissatisfaction among them; and, as
usual, they commissioned the Kool-Keahiassi, their representative,
to remonstrate with his majesty, upon whose refusal to listen to
their murmurs, they determined on rebellion.
Having no suspicions of their chief, Hüssein-Pasha, according to his
counsel and public proclamation, the janissaries all assembled in
their own barracks, at the great square of Et-Meydan, nearly in the
centre of the city, to be in readiness to resist any attempt on the
part of the sultan, to enforce his edict.
The sultan being informed of this circumstance, he, on his part,
issued a proclamation that all good Mussulmans should repair to the
holy standard of the Prophet in the court of the seraglio.
This standard is never brought out except in cases of great
emergency, and no Mussulman would refuse to repair to it when
summoned. Accordingly all the Mussulman citizens, the artillery and
the life-guards, who hated the janissaries, assembled at the seraglio
and proceeded in a body to the great rallying point of the rebels,
where they met with a warm reception from the barrack windows of
the janissaries, who, confident in their own sheltered position,
were sure of a glorious victory.
But they were soon undeceived; for, by the order of Kara-Jehennem,
two field pieces had been slily transported to the very doors of the
barracks, whose first discharge shattered the gates and prostrated
hundreds of the rebels.
The janissaries now desperate, rushed to seize the cannon, which
were just reloading: and had it not been for the heroic action of
Kara-Jehennem at this critical emergency, all would have been lost. The
brave general perceiving the nature of the affair, and although wounded
as he was in the thigh, promptly jumped from his horse, and seizing
the torch, instantly applied it to the cannon, and thus baffling the
attempts of the assailants, soon turned the scale of fortune.
All resistance was now rendered futile by the barracks being set
on fire, when amidst shrieks of agony the miserable wretches were,
on the 15th of June, 1826, destroyed. Many among them were allowed
to effect their escape, with the design of sparing the innocent. The
most dangerous of their number were afterwards arrested and sent to
the European castles on the Bosphorus, where their doom was sealed
by the bow-string, and thus perished this formidable scourge of the
Ottoman Empire.
Many censures and much opprobrium have been cast upon the memory
of Mahmoud for this act of consummate destruction. He has been
stigmatized as cruel and blood-thirsty, whereas his whole country
was groaning under a scourge of tremendous power, in the shape of an
unlicensed soldiery.
Day by day, the monster grew in strength, and threatened the utter
annihilation of both sovereign and people. What greater act of humanity
then, than to crush the Hydra with one fell blow.
By this act Mahmoud not only established his own sovereign authority,
but bursting, for the first time, the bonds of barbarism, made a bold
stride towards the platform of civilization, and the fraternity of
the world. But for Mahmoud, Turkey would, perhaps, have, ere this,
been only a record of the past.
The army was immediately re-organized, and the soldiers were trained
in European tactics, by distinguished foreign officers.
They attained great distinction as infantry and artillery-men, and
still greater progress would have been made in military science, had
it not been for the intrigues of Russia, who, just at that period,
availing herself of the forlorn condition of the country, found a
favorable opportunity for declaring war.
The Allies of the present day, not discerning the Muscovite cunning,
were quiet spectators of the affray, and became as it were silent
partners in the shameful treaty of Adrianople, for which they have
since paid so dearly.
But the janissaries were not the sole barriers to the civilization of
the country. The Ulema, or the expounders of the faith, have exercised
even greater influence over the minds of the superstitious people,
through their unlimited spiritual authority.
CHAPTER XI.
SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT.
Turkey is a country where church and state are most eminently
combined. The standard of every measure or act is the Koran; the
administration of affairs, both civil and religions, must, therefore,
be in conformity with the precepts of that sacred book; but since that
book does not provide for all emergencies, and in many instances is
not even explicit, those who made the Koran their special study have
ever been consulted, and all matters referred to them for examination
and sanction.
The entire body of these ecclesiastics are denominated the Ulema, or
learned (in the Koran), and their expositions are termed Fetvas. These
Fetvas constitute, as it were, the statutes of the state.
The sanction of these doctors in every measure being essential,
each civil tribunal is supplied with one of their number, in order
that their acts may be valid. Hence, even the Grand-Vezir, who only
represents the sultan in temporal matters, is associated with the
chief of the Ulema, viz., the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who, on his part,
personifies his majesty in spiritual affairs. Bearing the title
of Fetvayi-Pena, or the Grand Expositor, his approval is necessary
even to the measures of the great viceroy himself, for no law can be
promulgated without his sanction.
Considering then the importance attached to the study of the Koran, and
the benefit derived from a full knowledge of its spirit and contents,
which constitute the basis of the law and government, many have been
induced to adopt it as a profession.
There are no less than forty thousand of these Ulema in Constantinople.
These men are of very low origin, and are generally the sons of poor
peasants. They come to Constantinople and enlist themselves as Softas,
or students of divinity or law, which are synonymous terms, in one of
the principal mosques, where they go through a regular course of study.
They receive no salary, but are allowed one loaf of bread a day,
and partake of such food as is gratuitously distributed to the poor
from the Imarets, or charitable institutions, which are attached to
all the principal mosques.
When they are proficients in writing, they are allowed to copy the
Koran in the original Arabic, which it has hitherto been considered
sacrilege to print or translate. And by the sale of these copies they
gain a livelihood.
They are afterwards promoted either to the office of Imams, officiating
priests, or to that of Kadis and Mollahs, district judges, or Muftis,
or expounders of the law. The acme of their ambition is to become
either Molla-Hunkiar, chaplain to his majesty, Kazy-ul-Asker chief
justice, or Sheikh-ul-Islam, high pontiff of the realm. This latter
personage is considered by the Mussulmans as an undoubted oracle in
all instances.
Though the sultan is the head of both church and state, yet the
Sheikh-ul-Islam being appointed for life, and exempted from capital
punishment, his authority, through the superstition of the people,
has been most arbitrary, and even sometimes controlled the actions of
the executive; and it has only happened in our day, that in order to
assert the entire supremacy of the sultan, the Sheikh-ul-Islam has,
for the first time in the annals of the nation, been deposed from
his sacred office, and another substituted in his place.
The Ulema are not supported by the government, but by the income of
the mosques, which are largely endowed by religious devotees. Those
who are in the civil employment, receive, however, fixed salaries
from the state, in addition to their own ecclesiastical income.
The real estates owned by the mosques are immense and beyond
calculation. They are called Vakuf, in contradistinction to other lands
of the government, termed mülk. These vakuf lands, which comprise
more than two-thirds of the empire, are sold as under a perpetual
lease, with a yearly tax or rent, and all improvements made on them
are considered to belong by right to the land, and not allowed to be
removed. In case of the death of a proprietor leaving no male heirs,
the property, with all the improvements thereon, reverts to the mosque.
The documents by which these lands are held, are so carelessly
registered and transferred, that disputes are almost unavoidable. For
instance, a deed is thus drawn up, A B has purchased of C D a piece of
land, belonging to such a vakuf, said to contain about 156 acres more
or less; that is, it might range from 100 to 1,500 or 2,000 acres,
since its limits are not fixed by any actual survey, or specified by
a map; but the boundaries are described in the most primitive style
by sensible objects, viz., an apple tree on one side, a ditch on
the other, the property of so and so on the third, and the main road
on the fourth. This system has hitherto proved most advantageous to
the vakufs; the peculiar elasticity of such indefinite boundaries,
admitting of great territorial trespass upon adjoining lands, until
they have succeeded in absorbing two-thirds of the empire.
Strangers are not allowed to own these lands, nor hold them in
trust, with the view to avoid litigation with the different foreign
embassies. There has not, therefore, been hitherto any inducement
to European emigration, to the introduction of foreign capital,
nor encouragement to internal improvements.
The mosques derive an immense revenue, both from the rents of these
estates, and the commission on sales, which is enormous; being no
less than 8 per cent. on each transfer.
With such a percentage, were the sale repeated fifteen times, the
original cost of the land would be doubled; so that there is an
effectual check upon land speculation. Apart from this, the vakuf
system is ruinous both to the community and to the government. If a
man wants to raise a sum of money, by mortgaging his property for
three months only, besides the customary interest of the country,
which is 1 per cent., he has to bear the enormous expense of the
transfer and retransfer, which amounts, as has been said, to 6 per
cent. This added to the 3 per cent., the interest for the three months,
making altogether no less than 9 per cent. for three months! This
is not all. The natives not being allowed the privilege of borrowing
foreign funds, by mortgaging their own property, are reduced to the
necessity of resorting to their own capitalists, who usually demand
2 or 3 per cent. a month!
The whole of this vakuf land, or church property, occupied and
unoccupied, pays no taxes, so that a most profitable source of revenue
is unavailable to the government.
The immense incomes of the vakufs are partly appropriated to the
erection of mosques, hospitals, schools, fountains, baths, and
other charitable institutions; and above all to the support of the
Ulema themselves. But there is always an immense surplus, which lies
dormant with previously accumulated hoards, unless resorted to for the
promotion of some of the fanatical schemes and personal aggrandizement
of the Ulema themselves.
These men, thus rendered independent of the government, and possessing
unbounded influence over the minds of the superstitious people, and
being, in fact, the ultimatum of every hope and project, have been the
greatest barriers to national improvement; for, surrounded by wealth,
and themselves of the lowest origin, they attach an undue value to
worldly possessions; and trained in religious bigotry, they resist
all innovations as infringing upon their own interests, temporal and
spiritual; so that in destroying the janissaries, and leaving the
Ulema unmolested, Sultan Mahmoud did but half the work of reform.
CHAPTER XII.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
The revenue of the government is about thirty-six millions of dollars,
and is thus divided:
Göshüre, tithe $11,000,000
Saliane, land tax 10,000,000
Haradj, Poll tax on Christian subjects (lately abolished) 2,000,000
Geömrük, customs 4,300,000
Mirry and Ihtissab, indirect tax 7,500,000
Vergys, or tributes of Egypt $1,000,000
Vergys, or tributes of Wallachia 100,000
Vergys, or tributes of Moldavia 50,000
Vergys, or tributes of Servia 100,000
1,250,000
-----------
$36,050,000
Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, though it contains,
including all its suburbs, a population of nearly a million of
inhabitants, is, owing to the system of centralization, exempt from
the direct tax, which is levied only in the provinces. Of late there
has, however, been a sort of an income tax established, requiring
every house-owner to register all contracts of rent at the Police,
and pay a fee thereon of two per cent. Besides this, they have also
introduced another tax on commercial and financial transactions,
such as stamped bills, &c.
Some of these taxes and revenues are collected by the agents of the
government on its own account; and others are farmed out at public
auction, with the view of avoiding the abuses and corruptions of the
officials; the benefit of which arrangement was illustrated, when
the custom-house was farmed out to the Armenian banker, Djezâyirly,
who bid double the amount which the treasury used to realize.
The expenditure of the government has usually been nearly within its
income; but of late years has exceeded it.
It includes the sultan's personal expenses, and the civil and
military list.
The sultan receiving a salary of $300,000 per month; the Grand Vezir
$4,000, and the others $3,000 each.
Civil list of the Sultan and his harem $4,100,000
Civil list of the Army 15,000,000
of the Navy 2,000,000
Ordnance and Fortifications 1,500,000
Pay of Functionaries 10,000,000
Foreign Diplomatic Salaries 500,000
Public Works 500,000
Séhims or life annuities &c. 2,200,000
Interest on Cayimés at 6 per cent. 450,000
Bank subvention 1,000,000
-----------
$37,250,000
The deficiency in the treasury is occasioned partly by arrears of
taxes, and partly by incidental expenses, such as bank subvention,
appropriations for internal improvements, etc.
With the view of enabling the treasury to carry on its operations,
the government has, for the past few years, been obliged to effect
a local loan of $8,000,000, in the shape of Kayemés, or Treasury
notes, bearing interest of 6 per cent per annum. Apart from this,
it has also contracted a foreign debt of £5,000,000--these two are
the only national debts.
The monetary market in every country is governed by its exports
and imports. The demand in Turkey for articles of foreign produce,
having gradually exceeded its former imports, the balance of trade has
been against the country, and a drain of specie has been the natural
consequence. Apart from this, the payment of the Russian indemnities,
having forced the government to demonetize its currency, the rate
of exchange became very fluctuating, and a fit subject to financial
operators; so that affairs assumed a frightful aspect.
To remedy this evil, the government was advised to establish a Bank,
in order to keep the foreign exchange at a more uniform par value;
this subvention has cost the government on an average $1,000,000 per
annum; jet without any good success, for it only served to enrich
a few individuals, who were intrusted with its management, without
benefiting the country in general, and involved the national treasury
in greater difficulty.
CHAPTER XIII.
ARMY AND NAVY.
The standing army of the Ottoman Empire is in time of peace 120,000
men, and 180,000 during war. It consists of six ordoos or divisions,
viz.:
Hassa, or Imperial Guards.
Der-y-Saadet, or Metropolitan Division.
Roumely, or European (Turkey) Division.
Anadolou, or Asiatic, Division.
Arabistan, or Arabian, Division.
Irak, or Messapotamian, Division.
Every division comprises, three regiments of foot, two of horse,
and one of artillery, with 32 guns, the whole amounting to 30,000 men.
The soldiers in active service are called Nizam, and those in reserve,
Redif. They are raised by conscription, and formerly used to serve
all their lifetime, or as long as they were able, but by a commendable
measure recently introduced by Riza Pasha, a military reform has been
effected, by which they are now relieved at the end of five years,
when they go to their respective homes, subject however, to certain
military duties at stated times. By this measure, Turkey has been
enabled to raise a reserve of no less than 400,000 Redifs.
Both Nizams and Redifs are divided into two bodies, commanded by Feriks
(or Lieutenant Generals) and Livas (Brigadier General), and the whole
of every division by a Serdar or Field Marshal.
The entire army is subject to the orders of the Ser-Asker or the
Generalissimo, who is the minister of war.
The famous Omar Pasha who was one of the Serdars commanding the
Asiatic division, has lately been elevated to the post of Ser Asker.
The rank and file of the Turkish army in composed of able-bodied and
well-drilled soldiers; but they are badly officered by illiterate
men, raised from the ranks, who are untarnished by modern reforms
and imbued with a due share of the popular national conceit.
It is only very recently, that a military school having been
established, the army is supplied with well instructed officers,
among whom may be found many of the sons of the grandees of the
empire. There is, however, a constant jealousy between these more
enlightened young commanders, and the old veterans of the ancien
régime; the latter regarding the former as mere upstarts and parvenus.
The Rayas, or Christian subjects have hitherto been exempt from
military service not because they are not fitted to become the
defenders of their country, equally with their Mohammedan compatriots,
but lest by coming into competition with them they should rise to high
posts in the army, and rank even above their Mussulman subordinates.
The Turkish navy is comprised thus:
+--------------------------+-----------------------------+
| |Ships.| Guns.| Men. |
| +------+------+---------------+
| Three-Deckers, | 2 | 260 | 2700 |
| Two-Deckers, | 8 | 668 | 9500 |
| Frigates, | 14 | 788 | 5400 |
| Corvettes, | 6 | 100 | Indeterminate |
| Brigs, | 6 | 80 | ,, |
| Schooners, cutters, &c., | 12 | 72 | ,, |
| War Steamers, &c., | 28 | 112 | ,, |
| +------+------+---------------+
| | 76 | 2080 | 20 @ 25,000 |
| Destroyed at Sinope, | 11 | | |
| +------+ | |
| | 65 | | |
+--------------------------+------+------+---------------+
Many of the Turkish vessels of war are noble specimens of naval
architecture. For ever since the beautiful models built by Ekford and
his successors, Rhodes and Beeves, have floated upon their waters, a
wonderful impetus has been given to the navy of the Osmanlis--and the
prow of almost every vessel bears the impress of American ingenuity.
Magnificent men of war, vessels of the line, frigates, sloops, brigs,
schooners, and cutters lie all along the Bosphorus, fully manned
and equipped. But so seldom are they in action, or so rarely do they
sail beyond the "ocean stream," that the men are utterly without the
incitement of any real engagements, and unused to rougher seas--so
that if, perchance, they are called into active service, more than
half of them are confined to their hammocks.
Thus the lamentable occurrence at Sinope may be accounted for; the
squadron having been obliged to anchor there on its way to Batoum,
because nearly all the sailors were sea-sick.
The officers themselves are illiterate, and ignorant of the science
of navigation.
It is true that some few have been educated in the British navy, who
are now distinguished in the Turkish marine--and it is to be hoped
that many of the scholars of the new naval academy will hereafter
elevate the character of their nation on the seas; though there are
not the same incentives to maritime emulation as exist in England
and America, or even in France.
The general staff of the navy contains,
3 Admirals,
5 Vice Admirals,
8 Rear Admirals.
The staff of a man-of-war of first rank, contains,
1 Commander--whose rank is equal to Lieutenant-Colonel.
1 Second commander Chef de bataillon.
1 Hodja Major.
16 Mulazims Lieutenants.
1 Physician, 2 Surgeons, 1 Imam or chaplain,
and from 800 to 900 men.
The entire naval force is under the command of a Captain Pasha or
High Admiral, who is the Minister of the Navy.
The men, subalterns and even captains, both of the army and navy,
are most miserably paid. A common soldier at the rate of seventy-five
cents a month, and a captain eleven dollars and rations--so that any
deficiency in hospitality or style of living, is not to be attributed
to indifference on their own part.
CHAPTER XIV.
COMMERCE.
The trade of Turkey, including that of Egypt and the Danubian
Principalities, amounted, in 1852, to
Imports, £11,828,300 Sterling.
Exports, 10,644,450 Sterling.
The Osmanlis, having no commercial marine except their own few
coasters--the whole foreign, and great part of the internal trade,
is carried on by 35,000 foreign vessels; whose aggregate tonnage
amounts to 5,000,000 annually, and they are admitted to her ports at
small charges.
The tariff of Turkey is but nominal; being only three per cent. on
all exports, and two per cent. additional as consumptive duty--making
altogether, five per cent. on their value.
This free-trade principle, is not, however, purely from liberal
motives, but the result of foreign compulsion, and their own ignorance
of political economy. For, in their anxiety to counterbalance the
deficiencies of the treasury, caused by unjust treaties extorted
from them by foreign powers, they have imposed a duty of no less
than thirteen per cent. on all their produce or exports, so that,
when the governmental tithe upon the raw material, the various other
direct and indirect taxes on the same, and the onerous export duty
are together taken into consideration, the cost of the produce is,
in effect, raised to about 30 or 35 per cent. above its original value.
Apart from this, if sheet iron, which is imported from England,
and upon which the usual duty of 5 per cent. is already levied, be
manufactured into stove pipes, or any other form, it is considered
as home produce, and a new duty of 13 per cent. collected thereon!
The tariff is regulated every seven years, and the value of the
different articles is determined by a commission of merchants
representing the different nations, each of whom endeavors to maintain
his own interest. One of these gentlemen exultingly boasted, that
his own fortune was made, as he had succeeded in establishing a low
valuation on a certain article in which he dealt very largely.
America has hitherto had no representative in this body, though her
commerce has, especially of late, been rapidly increasing with this
part of the world. It has only been through ignorance of the country
and its resources, that American enterprise has made so little progress
in the East, or been confined to the interposition of English and
other houses.
Does this country present no inducements to the mercantile
community? Let the following table of Exports and Imports speak
for itself.
EXPORTS. IMPORTS.
Corn. Silk goods.
Beans, peas, etc. Cotton goods.
Wool. Woollen stuffs.
Raw silk. Linen.
Opium. Haberdashery.
Otto of roses, and other perfumes. Hardware.
Angora hair. Watches and clocks.
Coffee (Mocha). Jewelry.
Canary seed. Sugar.
Linseed. Coffee, pepper, and spices.
Do. oil. Iron and nails.
Rice. Coal.
Yellow berries. Stone ware.
Boxwood. Logwood.
Madder root. Rum and wines.
Tallow. Fancy goods.
Valonea. Cochineal.
Gall nuts. Tanned hides.
Fruits. Glass ware.
Drugs. Furniture.
Soap. Drugs and medicines.
Olives and olive oil. Butter.
Sponges. Kaviar.
Tobacco. Tar.
Cotton. Ropes.
Sesame. Cordage.
Meerschaum. Chains.
Carpets. Corn.
Copper. Stoves.
Hides and skins. Nicknacks.
Bones. Machinery, etc.
Confections. Furs.
Helva. Crockery.
Shawls. Indigo.
Oriental manufactures. Dye stuffs.
Leeches. Paints.
Rags. Mirrors.
Cordials. Millinery.
Cymbals. Musical instruments, etc.
Lumber. Leather.
Embroideries. Boots and shoes.
Hemp and Flax. Lead.
Salt. Paper.
Mastic. Do. hangings.
Chibouks, Nargilles, and amber Tea.
mouthpieces. Books.
Carriages.
India rubber.
Mahogany and rose-wood.
If, then, such is the variety of items, more than sufficient to
command the attention of any mercantile community, it is somewhat
astonishing that the Americans should not have been attracted to the
advantages to be derived from an interchange of commerce, so jealous
as they are of commercial supremacy.
The territory is immense, teeming with undeveloped resources;
the population over 35 millions of souls to be supplied with the
necessities, and many of the superfluities of life. England and France
have fought for the freedom of this commerce, America may spread her
sails unstained by the blood of her citizens, and be wafted into ports,
where treasures and profit are in greater profusion than either in
China or Japan.
War having ceased, and so many new and salutary reforms soon to
be introduced, commerce and all the arts of peace and prosperity
will flourish with renewed vigor upon the Turkish soil. Internal
improvements are already projected and in progress, demanding the
genius and ingenuity of foreign climes. While then, England and France
are eagerly watching every opening, shall America remain blindfolded
and indifferent?--a country so productive of men of the rarest energy
and perseverance, so full of the brightest Yankee notions, and the
most curious and useful specimens of mechanical art and manufactures!
CHAPTER XV.
JURISPRUDENCE.
In Europe and America disputes often involve a process of tedious
litigation. It is not so in Turkey; although the Koran and its
voluminous commentaries decide every case "from a point of faith to a
right of gutter," yet the form of trial is so simple that it becomes
quite expeditious. For all Turkish jurisprudence may be condensed
into these two principles, viz.,
1st. In every case of litigation the testimony of two witnesses is
required of the plaintiff, and
2d. In default of witnesses an oath is administered to the defendant
as the only alternative.
No written document, except judicial, is considered valid, or
recognized by the courts, unless it be substantiated by two witnesses.
For instance, a banker had advanced to the treasury about $30,000
on account of a certain pasha, who farmed a province from the
government. Before the year was out the pasha died, and the court
of chancery taking charge of the estate of the deceased, it became
necessary to examine and settle the banker's account current with
the defunct. On examination it was found that the banker had paid
to the treasury the above mentioned sum in thirty-three different
installments, and received from the deceased only $18,000; so that
there was a balance due the banker of $12,000.
But the court of chancery would not recognize the disbursements of
the banker in behalf of the deceased, unless each of the installments
made by the banker to the government could be substantiated by two
witnesses; thus requiring no less than sixty-six witnesses for the
case. It was in vain the banker produced the vouchers of the government
regularly signed and sealed by the proper authorities. The judges
would admit nothing but the requisite witnesses, and in default of
such witnesses claimed from the banker the $18,000, the receipt of
which was avowed by him, and consequently due to the heirs.
Nor is this mode of justice, primitive as it is, ever used with
impartiality.
Witnesses are never subpoenaed by the courts, and no oath is required
of them for the truth of their depositions; also on account of
the spirit of fanatical animosity which exists mutually between
the Christians and Mohammedans, no unbiased testimony is to be
procured. Indeed, formerly, the Christians were not even allowed to
appear as witnesses.
The judges themselves being men of low birth and grovelling principles,
only hold their offices as sources of personal emolument, as the
wealth of various of these functionaries fully attests. The late
Sheikh-ul Islam, at his death, left the sultan, by bequest, nearly
a million of dollars!
Although strictly prohibited by the Koran, they are in the constant
habit of receiving bribes to any amount; notwithstanding the precepts
of their religion, which are ever and anon held up as barriers
to all reform, they are so corrupted, that their consciences are
immediately lulled, whenever the requisite bonus is slily slipped
under the cushions on which they sit, and the testimony of hired
witnesses is then winked at by them, and even supported, as their
interest may demand.
The only qualification requisite for a witness to appear before these
courts of justice, is to be omniscient, and never to utter the fatal
word Bilmem, I don't know.
When conflicting interests occur, which induce the judges to take side
against the witnesses--and such occasions are by no means rare, since
justice is not only put up at auction, but a single recommendation
from a grandee suffices to turn the scale--the scene is truly farcical,
and its sketch worthy of the pen of Dickens himself.
The Kadis adopt a singular method to disqualify the testimony. The
questions which are put in the cross-examination, are not only entirely
irrelevant to the subject matter in dispute, but would even puzzle
the "cutest Yankee" how to answer. Their object is to disqualify the
testimony by questions, no matter how ridiculous, but by which the
witnesses will be forced at last to utter the ominous word Bilmem--I
don't know.
With a view to ascertain whether the witnesses are well acquainted
with the party in whose behalf they are testifying, they are asked,
"who was the grandfather of the plaintiff?" The usual and formal
answer in such cases is, "Abraham," meaning the old Patriarch. "His
great grandfather?" "Adam," beyond whom he (the plaintiff), is not
supposed to have any ancestors.
On a certain occasion, a judge being very anxious to defeat the
testimony of a clever witness, after various ingenious interrogatories,
made the quaint inquiry, "who married Adam and Eve?" To which the
witness unhesitatingly replied, not, as it may be supposed, "I don't
know,"--oh no, not so stupid as that--but, "I was not invited to
the wedding."
It was a maxim of the government and a profitable one to its employés,
that in the administration of justice, a speedy infliction of
punishment, even though unjust, was more desirable than a tedious
course of litigation, as the fear and awe thus infused into the
hearts of the people, rendered them submissive to the most irrational
commands, and terrified the mass into a dread of infringing the laws,
although some few might suffer unjustly.
This principle, though nominally abandoned by the government, is
still maintained by the judiciary; therefore, no pleading by lawyers
is allowed, and the sentence is passed with all possible dispatch,
or deferred at pleasure, as circumstances may require.
The whole of Turkey is divided into two separate judicial districts,
viz., Anadolou, and Roumely, or Asia and Europe, and there is a
Kazi-ul-Asker, or chief justice, appointed to each district, who
preside over their respective courts.
There, is, however, a supreme court called, Arz-Odassi, or court of
appeals, where the Grand Vezir and the Grand Mufty conjointly preside,
and there all cases, when appealed, are heard; but the sentences
are seldom reversed, as they wish to preserve the decisions of the
judiciary courts inviolable. When the injustice is too gross and
palpable, a new Ilam or sentence is granted by this court, without
any allusion to prior proceedings.
It is true that the people have the right to appeal to his majesty
for redress, but as they are invariably referred to this court for
reconsideration, justice is seldom rendered to the appellants.
Foreigners are not tried before these courts. If the litigation
is between themselves, their cases are tried and settled by their
legations; but if with the natives, they are referred to a special
court of the ministry of commerce, called Medjlissy-Tidjaret, composed
of various merchants both natives and foreigners, and presided over
by the Minister of Commerce, or his deputy.
The code by which this body pretends to be governed, is the "Code
de Commerce" of Napoleon. How equitably it is applied by them, may
easily be perceived.
Imagine some twenty-five or thirty merchants, of different nations
and tongues, assembled together in the character of jurors, who not
only do not understand a word or syllable that is uttered in their
hearing, but often do not even possess the means of communicating
their ideas to each other.
The affair brought before them, being unintelligible to most of them,
it is generally conducted by the government officials, or some of the
members who are fortunate enough to know something of the language,
and their decisions imparted to the passive members, who usually
give their sanction, taking it for granted that all is right. The
consequence is, that if one of the litigants is so happy as to secure
the good will and patronage of an acting member, he is sure to come
off successfully, no matter how bad his case.
This body, like the other Turkish courts, admits not the pleading by
lawyers, for a good and simple reason, that its members being men of
business, and ignorant of law and legality, prefer to be governed by
their own judgment, and constitute themselves at once, judge, jury,
and prosecutors.
The interpreters of the foreign legations, are, however, required by
treaty to be present, who not only interpret for the parties, but are
bound to defend and protect their fellow citizens, to the best of their
ability, and report thereupon to their respective ambassadors. It
is to be regretted that the services of these individuals are not
always disinterested. Policy sometimes inclines them to side with
this serio-comical court, for the sake of keeping on good terms
with the officials and its members, and thus maintaining their own
reputations at the Porte as emissaries of foreign lands; while at the
same time a good opportunity is offered them for the gratification
of any personal pique or prejudice against their clients; so that a
foreigner may either suffer injustice, or be injurious to the people
of the country, without the knowledge of his own ambassador. How true,
then, the observation of Lord Stratford, that "the very atmosphere
of Turkey is impregnated with venality."
The costs of lawsuits are always defrayed by the gainer of the cause,
as he is supposed to be better able to afford such expenses; but the
evident design is to induce people to go to law, since justice is set
aside, and every facility afforded by the suborning of witnesses. Even
the sentences are so carelessly, nay designedly worded, that at any
time flaws may be discovered, and a new trial demanded.
The equity of making the gainer of the cause pay the costs, was
ludicrously illustrated in the case of an Arnavout or Albanian, who
was accused of stealing a gimlet. When in the presence of the Kadi,
he pleaded not guilty. The plaintiff, according to law, was required
to substantiate his accusation, by producing two witnesses. The man
was in a dilemma, for he had no witnesses to produce; but, as usual,
he was relieved from the anxiety, by the prompt offer of those harpies,
who linger about mehkemes, or courts of justice, and tender their
benevolent services in such emergencies, for certain remuneration.
Moderate as was their demand, the trifling claim not justifying
much extra expense, he modestly declined availing himself of this
privilege, and pleaded to have no witnesses. The only alternative
then for the kadi was to administer the oath to the defendant; which
was unhesitatingly complied with; for the Arnavouts are generally
noted for their pliable consciences. Thus having been duly sworn,
our hero was pronounced the happy gainer of the cause, and requested
to pay only the costs, which were ten times more than the value of
the article in question.
The Arnavout being somewhat of a speculative genius, after due
consideration of the pros and cons, in the case, coolly put his hand in
his bosom, and producing the disputed gimlet, threw it at his accuser,
saying, "There, have your gimlet, be you the gainer of the cause,
and pay the costs!"
As to criminal laws, they cannot be said to exist in Turkey; for this
form of justice being based upon the principle of retaliation, or
kissass, the prosecution is always on account of the injured party,
and not of the government; so that the release of a criminal is at
the option of an individual.
CHAPTER XVI.
EDUCATION.
Mohammed, who is the oracle on all subjects, having declared, that "the
ink of the learned and the blood of the martyr are equal in the sight
of God," education is not so entirely neglected by his followers, as is
generally supposed. It may, in one sense, be considered general; for
every parent is obliged to send his children, both male and female,
to the schools which are attached to the mosques, and supported
by them. At Constantinople there are no less than 396 mektebs,
or primary free schools, attended by 22,700 children, both boys
and girls. There are six other schools, for more advanced studies,
attended by 870 pupils.
The initiatory services to the Elif Bé, literature of the young
Moslems, are very imposing. The candidate, blooming with the roses
of six short summers, is decked in his best, and in the best of the
neighbors' too; for there is great borrowing of jewelry and rich
embroideries, when the parents cannot afford to buy. The young tyro
mounts a steed which vies with him in the splendor of its caparison,
and with his badge of honor, a beautiful and glittering satchel slung
over his shoulder, parades the streets. The children of the school
about to be honored by his attendance, are the escort; and the good
old hodja, or school-master, leads the train, and the tune, as they
wend their way, singing and chanting; the boys and girls vociferating
in full chorus, Ameen! Ameen!
When the children of the sultan are about to begin their literary
pursuits, the procession and rejoicings are, of course, in proportion
to the excelling importance of the royal progeny over all inferior
buds of humanity.
The public are thus duly notified, though the instruction of the
young sultans is by private masters.
The system of instruction in the Turkish schools is eminently
primitive, and the branches taught are very elementary.
They use neither quill nor desk, the peculiarity of the Turkish
characters requiring the stiffness of the reed; and the importance
attached to calligraphy is so great, that the paper is held on the
palm of the hand, in order to give the flexibility requisite for
the formation of the letters. The lessons of the children consist of
spelling and writing; and the higher studies in committing the Koran
to memory. In order to understand this sacred book, they are obliged to
learn the grammar, in which proficiency is seldom made. Hence very few,
even of the officials, especially of the ancien régime, can read or
write correctly, all their correspondence being performed by keatibs,
or scribes. The general deficiency of education creates a great
demand for men of this profession, whose services are needed for all
sorts of letter writing, for petitions, obligatory notes, contracts,
etc. These persons are to be found in the court-yards of the mosques,
in shops and kahvés near the Porte, and in many other places.
To those who knew not how to affix their own names to any document, a
seal not only became a convenient substitute, but the universal style
of signature. All the grandees have their mëohurdar, or seal-bearer,
and the Sadrazam officiates in this capacity to the sultan.
The common punishment at schools is the world renowned bastinado,
or falaka. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical piece of wood,
about five feet long, and one inch in diameter. Near the centre of
this rod, there is a loop of rope, sufficiently wide to hold both
the feet of the truant. The rod being turned the rope winds upon it,
and thus secures the feet, which are placed therein. The person is
then thrown upon his back, by the raising of the feet, upon the soles
of which the blows are applied with a cudgel by the schoolmaster. It
is a rather painful operation, as some can tell from sad experience,
who, like other boys that are never naughty, had to go through with
it in their younger days.
The Turkish, originally Tartar, is at present composed of three
different languages, viz: Arabic, Persian, and Tartar, owing to the
different people with whom the Turcomans came in contact. The Koran
being their fundamental study, the Arabic has become the basis of
the language, as the Latin is of the European dialects.
It is written from right to left, like all other Oriental languages,
with the exception of the Armenian.
The Turkish has no capitals or Roman letters, but consists of
italics--or in other words, the written and printed characters have
the same forms, nor have they any punctuation. Their calligraphy may
be divided into five different styles.
The Rika, or ordinary hand-writing, the same being used for printing.
Sülüs, or enlarged writing, is used for inscriptions, title-pages,
or the headings of chapters.
Divany, or the court script, which is an ornamental style of writing,
and only used at the Porte for firmans, or edicts.
Taalik, or the Persian letters, is used in the judiciary courts,
and for poetry.
Siyakat, or Turkish hieroglyphics, is only used for treasury bonds.
The Turkish language is, in itself, most copious and expressive,
euphonious in sound, and capable of the greatest variety of expression,
and is well adapted to the composition of poetry. Although the
Osmanlis formerly possessed but little mathematical, philosophical,
or scientific learning, the Muses have never denied their inspiration
to them. Foreign literature has been much in vogue in latter times,
and many translations have been made into Turkish. The languages of
Europe are also cultivated to some extent, and many are now to be
found at the Porte, who speak the French and English quite fluently.
The present sultan has done much to elevate the system of public
instruction in his dominions. He has ordained a council to superintend
all educational affairs, and also has commenced the erection of a
magnificent public university, opposite the mosque of St. Sophia.
There exist already, the school of the mosque of Ahmed, that
of Suleiman, and one founded by the late Validé Sultan, for the
education of the young candidates for public offices. There are,
also, the medical, normal, and naval schools, and last of all, the
agricultural school at San Stefano, the direction of which was, once
upon a time, given to the celebrated Turkey Jim, of South Carolina.
The sultan himself is present at the examinations of these various
colleges, with his retinue of Ulema, Ministers, and Pashas; his
majesty even propounds questions to the pupils, encouraging them by
his gracious condescension of manner.
There are as many as 80,000 books in the public libraries, written
or printed in the different Oriental dialects, Arabic, Persian,
and Turkish. These works treat of history, science, and theology;
also belles-lettres, and good breeding, on which last subject, the
Osmanlis are extremely punctilious. The young men, and even children,
are exceedingly simple and unpretending, but at the same time,
intelligent and polite in their demeanor. They maintain a remarkable
gravity of deportment, and in the absence of their fathers, exercise
the prerogatives of hospitality, with all the dignity of the patriarchs
themselves.
There are now twenty-one different newspapers and periodicals in the
country, viz. two Turkish, eight Armenian, three Greek, five French,
two Italian, and one Jewish.
CHAPTER XVII.
MEDICINE.
Although the ancient Arabs were celebrated for their medical knowledge,
the Osmanlis have only of late years made some advances in the study
of medicine.
They are most credulous and superstitious in their notions upon
this subject, and ready to follow the advice of any empiric in the
healing art. They seem to know two diseases peculiar to themselves;
one they call Gelinjik, and the other Yelanjik. The first is used
in a comprehensive universality and signifies almost any ailment;
the second is applied to erysipelas and nervous pains in the face.
The art of curing the Gelinjik has long been possessed by a single
family, and descended in hereditary succession from one to another of
its members. There is a certain Meriem Kadun of this profession, who
once had the good fortune to cure the present sultan, with some of the
mysterious red nectar, which is the principal medicine administered
for this malady. She has ever since had abundant practice in the
royal palace and everywhere else; and the famous Yelanjikgee has a
far-famed reputation.
A particular class of Emirs, or the descendants of Fatima, the
daughter of Mohammed, are supposed to possess the virtue of healing the
nervous diseases of the face called Yelanjik. They wear green turbans,
repeat certain prayers over the patient, and are supposed to possess
a charm in their fingers' ends. The Emir lays his thumb on his nose,
breathes upon the extended fingers, then lays it upon the forehead
of the patient, and pressing upon the nerves of the face, utters a
short prayer. Thus he often succeeds in dispelling the malady in a
few minutes--whether by his own medical skill or by the credulity
of his superstitious patients, may be questioned. Strange to say,
their only belief is, that when a cure is not effected, it is not
because of the inefficacy of the charmed fingers, but the disease
was not genuine Yelanjik, and therefore the holy Emir could not cure
it. When any disease fails to be cured by either of these characters,
the Gelinjikgee and Yelanjikgee, then in despair the other disciples
of the healing art are summoned, of whom there is no scarcity in
Constantinople, where the last comer is generally patronized, until
some new pretender succeeds him.
A person once exceedingly ill of typhus fever, called in one of
these medical gentlemen, who, although he considered the case quite
hopeless, prescribed for his patient and took his leave. The next day,
in passing by, he inquired of a servant at the door if his master
was not dead. "Dead? no. He is much better." Whereupon the doctor
proceeded up stairs to obtain the solution of this miracle. "Why,"
said the convalescent, "I was consumed with thirst, and I drank a
pailful of the juice of pickled cabbage."
Wonderful! quoth the doctor--and out came the tablets, whereupon
was inscribed, "Cured of typhus fever, Mehemed Agha, an upholsterer,
by drinking a pailful of pickled cabbage juice."
Soon after the worthy doctor was called to another patient,
a Yaghlikgee, or dealer in embroidered handkerchiefs, suffering
from the same malady. He forthwith prescribed "a pailful of pickled
cabbage juice."
On calling the next day to congratulate his patient on his recovery,
he was astonished to be told, the man was dead!
The Oriental Esculapius, in his bewilderment as to these phenomena,
came to the safe conclusion, and duly noted it in his memoranda,
that, "Although in cases of typhus fever, pickled cabbage juice is an
efficient remedy, it is not, however, to be used unless the patient
be by profession an upholsterer!"
Fortunately for the community, this branch of science is improving
in Turkey, and there are numerous graduates from the medical college,
who are employed in the army, and by the inhabitants in general.
CHAPTER XVIII.
WESTERN PREJUDICES, AND EASTERN TOLERATION.
The etiquettes and punctilious ceremonies of society were doubtless
unknown in the primitive condition of our race.
Modern civilization has put the world into fetters with its laws and
by-laws, which seem the result of some secret combination, as they
are generally known only to the initiated, while the less fortunate
mass of the communities become the laughing-stock of these wiseacres.
The true politeness and generosity which spring from good feeling
and common-sense, are little regarded by the aristocracy of society,
unless you have the open sesame to their doors, which is nothing less
than an entire conformity to their pre-conceived ideas.
A certain air and style, only perceivable to the critics themselves,
is to be maintained; a certain contour of costume rigorously to
be adopted, whether agreeable to the wearer or not--an unvaried and
monotonous similarity must pervade the whole world, or those venturing
to differ, must suffer not only an exclusion from the company of
very agreeable people (barring their prejudices), but an absolute
persecution of ill-sounding epithets--such as vulgar, conceited,
independent, and even the moral character is often libelled.
You must not attend the church of the Rev. ----, unless your hat is
black as a stove-pipe, and with a rim of approved dimensions. The
fastidious ladies of upper-tendom show symptoms of nervous agitation,
as you unwittingly mount their steps in your native head-gear, which
may chance to be a sombrero, or a Turkish fess--what if a TURBAN!
The only occasion on which a foreigner might be permitted to appear
in his own every-day clothes, would be at some fancy ball, as if
in masquerade. All this may do among themselves, but why attempt to
renovate the habits of a life-time in others. Indeed, the Americans are
very exacting, for when did they ever conform to any other nation's
mode of dress? while the moment you set foot on their shores, you
must turn American in toto, or you are no go.
The English are proverbial for their snobbism, and stiff
shirt-collars--yet in London, you may meet the Hindostanee in his
white robes and turban, the Turk in his fess or red cap, and many
others, as they are accustomed to be at home. Still more common is
this variety in Paris, and all over Europe.
Americans, English, and French, traverse the East dressed as they like,
without creating either the sensation of disgust or astonishment in the
beholders. Why, then, this illiberality in the land of freedom? why
force the Chinese, the moment they land, into straight-jackets, or
crown the Osmanli with a sombre stove-pipe, the most uncouth machine,
yclept the hat, which ever any sensible people ventured to place in
so honorable a position.
Nolens volens, the Osmanli, on his arrival in the land of
"Independence," must needs become a Pasha of two tails, reversed
however, as at home these emblems of rank are carried before him; but
now he becomes his own standard-bearer, parading his honors and entrée
to the fashionable world, in the shape of the time-honored dress coat.
To those who have never visited foreign lands, one would suppose,
nothing would be more entertaining than to see an exhibition of habits
and customs of other peoples.
But we must take the world as it is.
Although the manners and dress of the Orientals were, and are still,
in many respects very different from those of their western neighbors,
yet they have displayed a degree of civilization, if we may so speak,
in their toleration of others as they chanced to meet them. English,
Spanish, Italians, Magiars, Greeks, Albanians, Croats, Bulgarians,
Persians, Kurds, and Arabs, walk their streets and enter their houses
without dreaming of changing their costume, or disguising their own
nationality under any garb whatever.
Even the European or American travellers, making half-way attempts
at external conformity to those about them, although they become
perfect caricatures, have free scope to sport the travesties they
make of themselves, and are even treated with civility; yet, judging
from appearances, no one could conceive what parts of the world might
claim the honor of their nativity.
Indeed, the only occasion upon which we remember the Turks to have
taken umbrage at the European costume, was some time ago, when
visitors desired to present themselves before his imperial highness,
their ideas of decency compelled them to furnish each one with a
long pelisse. So far have they yielded their prejudices, as even to
adopt the European military and undress costume, only excluding the
hat; though not without a struggle, as was exemplified when Sultan
Mahmoud ordered the janissaries to doff their cumbersome head-gear,
flowing robes, and ample trowsers.
But alas for the robes and turbans! the cashmere girdles, and yellow
slippers! they are rapidly passing away. The audience-hall of the
Grand Signor, is now filled with an ordinary assemblage--the sultan
and his minister are stripped of the mysterious appendages of their
gorgeous draperies--beneath which, there seemed to breathe no common
soul. How imposing the garb, as they were wont to stand in the august
presence, immovable, impenetrable; each with his majesty of mien,
flowing beard, and portentous silence.
We have seen a fac-simile of an ancient court, or, as it was scarce
thirty years ago, in the days of the father of the present sultan.
Mahmoud was seated on his throne upon an elevated platform; an immense
turban composed of innumerable folds of the purest and finest white
muslin covered his royal head, in the front of which was placed a
magnificent spray of brilliants; his robes of rich silk, were confined
by a girdle of Cashmere's softest and richest fabrics, while over his
shoulders hung a magnificent pelisse, lined throughout with the best
of Russia's sables. Behind him stood his numerous pages, all young,
blooming, and beardless as the fairest maidens, arrayed in robes of
delicate tints.
The Silahdar holding his majesty's sword upright, stood on the right
hand, while the Haznadar, or Lord Steward, was upon the other side
of the sultan.
The Ak-agha, or chief of the white eunuchs, was behind the chair,
an old, woman-like man, beardless and wrinkled. In the group were the
imperial cup bearer, Kahvegee Bashi, coffee server, Kaftan-aghassi,
gentlemen of the wardrobe, etc.
Below the platform, and in front of the sultan, stood in respective
rank, the different ministers of the realm, all robed to the feet in
rich and varied hues, and no two turbans alike. They seemed, indeed,
to be the movers and arbitrary controllers of the destinies of a vast
nation, the secret springs which kept the machine in motion.
A most interesting collection of illustrative models from life, is
carefully preserved at Constantinople, called the Elbisseyi Atiké,
and exhibited at the great square of At Meydan, or the ancient
Hippodrome, near St. Sophia. It is wonderfully true to nature, and
typical of Eastern life, recalling those very characters with their
various avocations, who but a few years ago were all upon the scene,
enacting the very reality of Orientalism.
The different grades of life, the officers under government, civil,
religious, and military, the various trades and callings, and
individuals of both sexes were formerly, each and all, designated by
a peculiar style and appearance. The janissaries were also habited
in various costumes, according to their ranks and employments.
Such was the past magnificence of Turkey, now rapidly losing its
former type of varied external beauty, as it merges from day to day
in the great stream of civilization.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL.
Rousseau has wisely observed, "Il faut étudier la société par les
hommes, et les hommes par la société," and as the tone of society in
all countries is derived from the courts and the wealthy, so also in
Turkey, the sultan and his court are the model of domestic life and
its institutions.
Sultan Abd-ul Medjid Khan, the Padishah of the Osmanlis, or the
reigning monarch of Turkey, was born May 6th, 1822, and succeeded
his father Sultan Mahmoud, July 1st, 1839, at the age of seventeen.
He has a brother and a sister, both younger than himself.
His brother, Aziz Efendi, lives in the same palace with him, having
apartments therein for his own use and accommodation.
His sister Adilé Sultan, who is married to Mehmed Aali Pasha, the
ex-Grand Vezir, resides in a separate palace on the Bosphorus.
The sultan has until now had nine children, two girls and seven boys,
but none of his children will succeed him while his brother is living;
for the law of the country requires that the eldest living male member
of the Imperial family shall ascend the throne.
The ceremony of the coronation consists simply in escorting the
new sultan in a state procession, to a particular mosque at Eyoub,
at the northern extremity of the city, where he girds on the sword
of state after suitable prayers, and is thus constituted Padishah.
The Princes Regent of Turkey, were formerly shut up at a place called
Kafes or Cage, within the old Seraglio, where they were watched
and closely guarded, and never allowed to go abroad--with a view to
avoid intrigue or civil commotion. But Sultan Mahmoud first broke the
unsocial chains of ancient usages; his successor has nobly followed
in his father's footsteps, and allows his brother liberty to go out
when he wishes, but not without a formal application for permission,
which is enjoined upon him by court etiquette.
The two brothers differ very materially from each other, in temperament
and character. The sultan is of a mild and affable disposition, and so
willing and yielding is he on matters of state to please his people,
that he is more ready to be governed than to govern. His brother,
on the contrary, is very stern and passionate, and has the same
determined character as his father.
Abd-ul-Medjid is of medium stature, rather delicately formed. His eyes
are dark and heavy in expression, with lofty and arched eye-brows;
his beard and moustaches of a dark auburn hue, are carefully trimmed
and completely conceal the expression of his lower features.
His complexion is very pallid, and his whole air decidedly nonchalant.
On all state occasions he appears in public on horseback, wearing
the national fess, ornamented with the royal aigrette in brilliants.
His short Spanish cloak falls in graceful folds around his person,
the collar of which is also adorned with diamonds. In a word, his
lofty carriage and beautifully caparisoned steed quite realize the
picturesque ideas generally conceived of an Eastern monarch.
He never salutes any one in public or private, save by a single glance
of his eye.
His favorite residence is the palace of Tchiraghan on the European
shore of the Bosphorus, a few miles from the city.
In order to accommodate the numerous and peculiar retinue of an Osmanli
sovereign, there is a similarity in the internal arrangements of all
the royal residences.
These palaces, like all other Osmanli houses, are divided into
two compartments; the first is called the Selamluk or the place of
salutation, and is appropriated to the men; the second is the Harem,
which belongs exclusively to the ladies. Between these two are the
apartments of the sultan, called Mabeyn.
The personnel of a sultan formerly consisted of many
functionaries. Their number has of late been much reduced, though
they are still very numerous.
The principal honorary officer is the Silahdar or Imperial
sword-bearer, whose office being a sinecure, he only enters the
presence when specially summoned, or to make some official reports.
Those who are in the most constant communication with the sultan,
are his own Sir-Kiatibs, private secretaries, and the Mabeyngys,
or chamberlains, and he is always attended by one or two of the
latter, when he goes out. These gentlemen having the private ear of
his majesty, there is constant intrigue among the different political
parties to ensure their patronage, as the easiest means of access to
his sublime highness.
The Enderoun Aghalery, or gentlemen of the royal household, are young
men selected from among the slaves, and also from the families of the
citizens. They are trained from their earliest years to the usages
of the palace, and receive an education suited to their prospective
career. When they are fitted for attendance upon his imperial majesty,
they become Itch-Oghlans, or pages of the presence, and perform
the duties of cup-bearer, towel-bearer, gentlemen of the wardrobe,
and slippers, pipe and coffee bearers, ushers, etc. They are many of
them distinguished for their elegance of manner and intelligence.
From the rank of pages they are afterwards promoted to be chamberlains,
and often even attain the dignity of Müshirs, or Ministers of
State. The present Ministers Riza Pasha, and Mehmed-Aali Pasha,
the brother-in-law of the sultan, were both Mahmoud's pages.
The mutes are as indispensable as any of the palace attendants;
when the Grand Vezir goes alone, or in company with the Grand Mufty,
to the Imperial chamber, all the Mabeyngys and the Enderoun Aghalery
withdraw, and the deaf mutes remain in attendance.
As on no occasion, not even during a grand council, when they
deliberate with closed doors, the Osmanlis can dispense with their
attendants, mutes are always very necessary appendages to them,
both at the palace and the Porte.
Although they have not the sense of hearing nor the faculty of speech,
they possess a remarkable quickness of comprehension, and have a
great tact in communicating their ideas, even to the divulging of
state secrets to their intimate friends and favorites.
They were formerly the executioners of the palace; no reason can be
assigned for their holding such an office, unless, being deaf and dumb,
they were not qualified to hear and pity the unfortunate victims.
There are also generally one or two dwarfs in the royal retinue,
who are a sort of court jesters. There is one now at the palace,
who became a very distinguished character during the reign of Mahmoud.
On one occasion, when the sultan was in high glee, he summoned this
man of small pretensions to the harem. His majesty wishing to test
his ingenuity, proposed to him, that if he could kiss any one of
those girls (pointing to a group of tall and beautiful Circassian
slaves in attendance), he should have that very one for his wife.
At this novel and unexpected intimation, Sir Paynim raised his eyes to
survey the bewitching circle, apparently so far beyond his reach. But
such a chance could not be lost; at all hazards, he boldly advanced
to one of the fairest, and while she looked down upon him in dismay,
gave her tangible proofs of his attachment by a tremendous blow on
her stomach.
As she almost doubled with pain, her pigmy lover seized her around
the neck, imprinted his first kiss of love, and gained the royal
prize by this coup de main.
At the threshold of the Mabeyn, you will meet the Enderoun Aghalery,
or the gentlemen of the household; passing by these personages, you
ascend the stairway, and enter a large hall. On all sides are many
curtained doorways, at one of which two guards are stationed. These
are the Perdegys, or curtain keepers to his majesty.
The peculiarity of their domestic habits, viz., the ladies occupying
separate apartments, leaves the entire Selamluk free and accessible
to all. Hence the necessity, when wishing to be retired, of having
curtains suspended to the doorways, and guards stationed to prevent
the abrupt encroachment of visitors and strangers.
The personal vanity of the Osmanlis is such, that no occasion
is neglected for its gratification, and munificence is always the
concomitant of rank and distinction; therefore the slightest service
is invariably compensated by a remuneration, technically called
bakshish. The keahya at the landing, who holds your cayik while you
disembark, or the ostler who holds your horse, the pabouchjy, who
officiously arranges your slippers as you leave the house, with the
whole household retinue of obsequious attendants, one and all expect
the customary bakshish.
So universal is this practice, that the grander the establishment,
the lower are the wages of the servants, who are sure to reap so good
a harvest from the numerous visitors, that they willingly compound
for the most trifling salaries; indeed, it may justly be said, that
the grandees support each other's menials.
This system pervades all classes of the people, and even the palace
of the sultan.
An amusing story is told illustrative of the way in which these
Perdegys make their post available.
One of these guards seemed to be enjoying such extensive revenues
from his office, that he was reported to his majesty in a very
ludicrous manner.
A certain wit, by name Indjyly-Tchavoush, a sort of an Oriental
Curran, occasionally used to visit the sultan; but never without
paying tribute to these keepers of the curtain.
Nettled at these exactions, and wishing to attract his majesty's
attention to the subject, he one day entered the royal presence
with a large mackerel, the commonest fish in Turkey, in his hand,
as a present. The sultan was struck with the oddity of the gift, and
supposing that the expectations of the donor could only be realized
by some royal munificence, asked, "What he desired in return?"
"Only 500 lashes, sire," was the prompt reply. This reply added to his
majesty's astonishment, "and why so strange a request?" he demanded.
"Because, since, I am obliged to share all your majesty's gifts with
your majesty's curtain keepers, I wish the rogues to have their share
in this also!"
Judging from your benevolent countenance, that you are endowed with
generous impulses, the keepers allow you to pass within the curtained
door. You are now in a large apartment, on three sides of which are
windows, with a wide Turkish sofa at the end, some two feet high
from the floor, where the sultan is seated entirely alone, with a
desk and implements of writing before him, and a long and graceful
chibouk, mounted with a splendid amber mouth-piece ornamented with
diamonds, carelessly lying by his ride. He utters the simple word,
Gel! come! when several attendants appear as if by magic, and stand
before him with folded hands. At every command they make the temennah,
or Turkish salutation, which is done, not by bending the person,
and bringing their arms over their heads, as though they were going
to dive, as is often represented in theatres, but simply by raising
the right hand to the mouth, the fingers touching the lips, then the
right temple, and then carelessly dropping it down. This temennah
is performed without uttering a single word, and signifies perfect
comprehension of the royal orders.
An air of humility is always maintained in the presence of superiors,
and such signs of active existence, as coughing or sneezing, are
quite unallowable. The person feeling preliminary symptoms of these
actions, being obliged either to suppress them, or to withdraw from
the presence. Indeed the social etiquettes are very strict, even among
equals. Although tobacco is introduced on occasions of ceremony and
social intercourse--the chibouk and nargillé are not the calumets of
peace, but of hospitality--the disagreeable concomitants of the weed
so universal in America, are absolutely unknown in Turkey.
Spitting, then, is to the Osmanlis a most repulsive act, and their
horror may be imagined when, on a certain occasion, while in the
company of a grandee of the realm, the representative of the great
American nation (the New World), deliberately took his quid from his
pocket, and after cutting the requisite morsel, stored it carefully
in the corner of his mouth, and commenced the slow mastication so
characteristic of good tobacco chewers! The indulgence of such a luxury
having only made his excellency's mouth water, and there being no
other accommodation at hand, in order to relieve his salivary glands,
he was obliged to aim at an open window close by!
His excellency, consequently, became a sort of a proverb among them,
and the question was repeatedly asked, "Does your American friend
still continue to enact the camel, or does he not weary of chewing
the cud?" Unlearned in classic lore, how should they know that the
poet once said--
"Tu tantum erucis imprime dentem."
No one is ever seated in the presence of the sultan, nor are any of
the customary rites of hospitality observed; such as the introduction
of pipes, coffee, sherbet, etc.
On the presentation of foreign ambassadors, the ceremony is so
arranged, that the minister plenipotentiary and his sublime highness,
enter the apartment simultaneously by opposite doors; thus the sultan
receives the representatives of foreign potentates on foot, without
condescending to rise from his seat.
After the audience is terminated, the royal guests are conducted
into the apartment of the Mabeyngys, where they are treated with true
Oriental hospitality and munificence.
Those persons who are not aware of the wonderful changes that have
taken place in Turkey, may fancy this monarch to be surrounded by
a group of robed, turbaned, and bearded Osmanlis; on the contrary,
both the sultan and his attendants now wear a European military frock
coat and pantaloons, with only the national fess for a head-dress.
The moustache is universally worn, and it would seem as ridiculous to
an Osmanli to shave the eyebrows as the upper-lip. Indeed, nothing
excites the curiosity of the rising generation so much, as to see
a man without a moustache; especially an aged man, in whose case,
it would seem to them like an attempt at perpetual youth.
There is not a beard to be seen on any of the attendants of the palace,
for the beard is considered in Turkey as a mark of dignity and freedom;
consequently, no one in the personal service of the sultan is allowed
this honor, except by special permission of his majesty; which implies,
that the individual is no longer retained in the palace, but soon to
be elevated to some superior office. The beard, then, being indicative
of rank and position, it is preserved with a certain superstitious
reverence; no Mussulman, therefore, after the ceremony of allowing
the beard to grow has been once performed, ever again uses the razor;
nevertheless it is not permitted to assume the natural growth, but
is carefully trimmed according to the fashion of modern times.
Abd-ul-Medjid makes his appearance in the Mabeyn, early in the morning;
for it is a universal custom with the Osmanlis to rise early. He
generally spends his mornings in the perusal of local and foreign
newspapers, which are translated for him, and other general reading.
He has lately acquired a taste for the French language, in which
he has made considerable progress. He is, according to the Turkish
acceptance of the term, well-educated; that is, well versed in Turkish
belles-lettres, with a general acquaintance with the history of his
own country.
The science of mathematics has also engrossed some of his attention,
and he even condescended to receive instructions from Etem Pasha,
a young man of distinguished abilities and foreign education, who was
taken into the royal retinue as colonel of the body-guards; doubtless,
however, with reference to his scientific acquirements.
His majesty's meals, according to the custom of the country, are two;
one in the morning between ten and eleven, the other at sunset. They
are served by the Tcheshnigear, whose duty it is to break the seals
of the different dishes intended for the sultan's repast, and after
having tasted, to carry them into the royal presence.
Although the Osmanlis are great epicures, their tastes are very
singular. Their dishes are very diversified and numerous, consisting
usually of twelve or fifteen, and sometimes even thirty courses;
sweet and meat dishes being introduced in alternate succession; the
meal commencing with soup, and ending with pilaf, or a preparation of
rice peculiar to Turkey. They have a species of pastry or paklava,
which is remarkably light and delicious; and the mohalleby, or
Turkish blanc-mange, is much liked, even by Europeans. Fruit, at
Constantinople, is very abundant and delicious, and is partaken of
frequently during a repast. Indeed, the grapes of Scutari, called
Tchavoush, are unrivalled, and even more delicious and delicate than
those of Madeira or Malaga.
The order in which a dinner is served is as follows: soup, kebab
(or roast meat in small pieces), entremet (or vegetables and meat
cooked together), pastry, roast, fish, entremet, mohalleby, entremet,
maccaroni, fowls, jelly, etc., until at last it winds up with the
significative pilaf and sherbet, or hosh-ab.
No wine or liquor is served at the table, but his sublimity
occasionally during the day visits the pantry, doubtless, "for his
stomach's sake, and his often infirmities." Unfortunately, modern
civilization has some vices as well as many virtues; and the fashion
of excessive drinking, has, among others, lately crept into Turkey,
to which some of the élégants are becoming much addicted, and, ere
long, they may, perhaps excel even the paragon, John Bull.
Although many other innovations and attempts at reform have
succeeded in Turkey, yet the original style of eating has not been
much improved. They use neither chairs nor tables; but a low stool
being put in the middle of the room, a large circular copper tray is
placed upon it.
No such paraphernalia as cloths, napkins, knives, forks, plates,
glasses, etc., are essential; small loaves of bread, alternately
with small dishes of fruit, pickles, anchovies, cheese, etc., are
indiscriminately scattered around the edges of the tray, in the
middle of which the different preparations of food are successively
placed by the ayvaz or scullion, and the food is eaten with the
fingers, excepting the liquid dishes, for which wooden spoons
are provided. Around the tray, the company assemble, sitting with
their legs under them, and all eating from the dish in the middle;
reminding us of the customs of ancient times, when it was said,
"It is one of the twelve who dippeth with me in the dish."
One long, narrow napkin is provided, which goes all round the tray,
and lies upon the floor; each person slipping under it as he sits down.
Their tables being accessible to their friends at all times,
dinner-parties are never given, except on state occasions; for,
hospitality being one of the characteristics of the East, and
especially enjoined by the Koran, no one is excluded from their board;
and when the number present is so large as not to allow them to sit
comfortably, they place themselves side-wise, or in a sort of spoon
fashion, as though they were leaning upon one another, and thus
illustrating the scene at the feast of the Passover.
In some of the houses of the wealthy, and especially of those whose
owners have visited Europe, the European mode of eating is imitated,
when the motley company, which is always assembled, sometimes presents
a most ludicrous scene.
Once, a Turk at such a table, wishing to conform to the customs of
civilized life, endeavored to use the fork. Failing in several attempts
to take a piece of meat, and determined to overcome his gaucherie,
he resolutely took hold of the morsel with his fingers, and placing
one end of the fork against his breast, stuck the meat upon it with
an immense effort, and then carried it to his mouth, quite contented
with his own success, amid the applause of the company. During the
sacred month of Ramazan, however, the European mode of eating is never
practised, even by the most enlightened and liberal. Knives, forks,
tables and chairs, are then altogether set aside, as being too profane.
His majesty usually breakfasts at the Mabeyn, and always quite alone;
for no one being equal to him, none can have the honor of his company;
and his evening repast is often taken, weather permitting, at some
beautiful watering-place.
The time between these two meals is usually occupied with some of
his ministers, or the audiences of the foreign ambassadors, and in
excursions on the Bosphorus or elsewhere.
Whatever transpires at the Porte, is reported to him every evening,
through the Ameddjy, or state chancellor, expressed in the most
beautiful and elegant style of which the Turkish language is
capable. In fact, the bureau of the Ameddjy is considered the best
school for polite literature, and those who have once served in that
department, invariably acquire a remarkable elegance of diction. The
sultan reads over these documents every evening, together with the
Arzou-hals, or petitions, which are presented to him on Fridays; and
after giving his imperial sanction or veto, returns them to the Porte,
to be acted upon accordingly.
The approval of the sultan is not expressed by the application of
any royal seal or cypher, but by a bold stroke of his majesty's reed,
representing the Arabic letter S, which is termed sah, meaning correct
or approved. And those which are rejected are torn in one corner.
The sultan's cipher, called Toora, is formed from the names of
the reigning monarch, and that of his father. It reads thus,
"Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, son of Sultan Malmoud Khan, the sultan of
sultans." This is the imperial seal, and Ottoman coat of arms, and
it is affixed to all royal edicts, engraved upon public buildings,
and stamped upon the various current coins of the empire.
When his evening occupations are over, the sultan retires to the harem.
Such is the ordinary routine of the life of the Turkish sovereign;
but there are also many other public duties which occupy his time
and attention, and fully demonstrate that the post of sultan is by
no means a sinecure.
CHAPTER XX.
PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN.
The sultan is obliged to attend one of the public mosques in person
every Friday, which is the Mohammedan Sunday. One reason of his public
appearance is to set an example of religious devotion; another, to
assure the people by his actual presence, that he is in the enjoyment
of life and health; and a third, to give an opportunity to any of
his discontented subjects to appeal to him in person; for, the right
of appeal has never been denied in Turkey. This is done by a paper,
which is held in the extended hand of the petitioner, and presented
anywhere in the course of the royal route.
It is received by his pages and reserved for the future perusal of
his majesty. His departure, both from the palace and the mosque,
is announced by a royal salute of 21 guns from the batteries, and
the ships of war.
These opportunities are eagerly embraced by all strangers who wish
to gaze on the great "Tamer of Infidels and the scourger of the
unbelieving race of Christian vassals." There are two other great state
festivals, on which occasions the sultan and the whole of the royal
retinue combine to present one of the most beautiful Oriental pageants.
These are the feasts of Bairam, one of which occurs at the end of
Ramazan or the long fast, and the other the Courban Bairam, or feast
of the sacrifice, sixty-eight days after.
There is a grand state procession. Surrounded by his numerous pages
in uniforms glittering with golden embroidery and plumed head-dresses,
attended by dignitaries of the realm in full court dress, all mounted
on Arabian steeds, splendidly caparisoned, the sultan enters the
mosque of Sultan Ahmed at the ancient Hippodrome. He alights upon a
velvet carpeting, which extends into the mosque, and is supported on
each side by chamberlains.
As he dismounts, the voice of the assembled multitude proclaims "Allah
Padishahumuza Oozoon eömürler versin," Long live the king--God bless
the sultan.
The Padishah after the performance of prayers, returns to his palace at
the Seraglio Point, where the throne room is always preserved. There
he receives the compliments of the season from his ministers and
officers of state.
The procession to the mosque being public, has been described by
many who have witnessed it; but from the reception at the palace all
foreigners are excluded.
The sultan is seated on a chair of state, with the princes and younger
princesses of the royal blood on each side.
Behind the throne, in a semicircle, stand the personnel of the royal
household.
Opposite the throne, at the farthest end of the hall, a band of
musicians is stationed, and as they perform the national airs, the
dignitaries enter the royal presence according to their respective
ranks, to pay homage to their sovereign.
As has already been described, the usual mode of salutation in the east
is the temennah, made by touching the hand to the lips and then to the
forehead, which signifies affection and humility. With the desire,
however, to be more respectful, they often bend down to the ground,
as if willing to take up the very dust upon which the honored feet
have rested, or attempt to kiss the hem of the garment. But all these
ordinary modes of salutation are insufficient at a royal reception;
when a beautifully embroidered rug is spread before the sultan,
on one end of which his feet rest.
As they present themselves, they slowly bend their persons and touch
their lips and foreheads to the border of the carpet, which ceremony
is called the kissing of the sultan's feet; for, no one is allowed
any actual proximity to the royal person--thus guarding him from the
assassin's dagger.
After kissing the end of the carpet they arrange themselves in two
opposite lines on each side of the sultan, to witness the homages of
the various pashas and other dignitaries. Those who take their stand
in the presence are only the heads of the departments, both civil
and religious.
After the ceremony is over, every one retires to hit own dwelling,
to enact the sultan to his subordinates.
The Courban Bairam is the great festival celebrated by the pilgrims
at Mecca, in commemoration of the offering up of Ishmael; and is
generally observed throughout the Mohammedan dominions,--on which
occasion every Mussulman must kill a sheep with his own hand, and
distribute the meat to the poor.
The sultan performs this sacrifice at his own palace before the
morning prayers. As he stands at the threshold, a ram with gilded
horns is laid at his feet, and girding himself with a silken towel,
he completes the sacrifice.
The solution of this act of devotion is, that they believe that the
faithful will be transported over the surat or bridge of hair into
paradise on the backs of these immolated victims.
The old seraglio, which was the residence of so many sultans,
and the scene of the aggrandizement and downfall of so many good
Mussulmans; under whose latticed windows the Bosphorus flows so deeply
as to tell no tales of the hundreds of living and beautiful maidens
that have perished in the blue waves and left no sign of their sad
fate--the bloody and mysterious seraglio is now deserted, save on
such occasions as have been described--notwithstanding travellers'
assertions to the contrary.
How many of the royal blood, even sultans themselves, within this
time-worn palace, have either drained the insidious and poisoned
potion, or been dispensed with by the surer cord, or assassin's dagger!
The last victim was Sultan Mustafa, or the uncle of the present
monarch; and Mahmoud himself was miraculously preserved by the
attachment and perseverance of his lala or eunuch, who concealed
him in the fire-place of the bath, until the fury of the mob had
subsided--thus saving him, whom Allah had reserved for the proud
distinction of being the savior and regenerator of his country.
No wonder, then, that the sultans of later times have recoiled from
such associations and built for themselves other palaces on the bright
and smiling shores of the "ocean stream."
Abd-ul-Medjid has just erected a magnificent residence opposite the
entrance to the Marmora, the palace of Dolma Bahché.
CHAPTER XXI.
ROMANCE OF THE EAST.
The ordinary course of events, the humdrum monotonous tinkling of
life's daily and ever recurring necessities, is wearisome to the
soul. There is a longing for variety; the love of the marvelous craves
wherewith to slake its thirst, the imagination seeks its food, and the
beautiful, in fancy or reality, must sometimes minister its soothing
charms. Anything to escape from the physical, cumbersome part of our
nature, into the world of romance and visionary exultation. War and its
glory, its sudden vicissitudes of victory and defeat, its brilliant
arms and thundering voices excite the most thrilling emotions in the
bosoms of care-worn mortals. Love, with its gentle wooing, its kind
sympathies, and tender ministry, comes to the heart, sick of itself,
as the very balm of Gilead. Religion calls the crushed and bleeding
spirit to an unseen world, where fancy may luxuriate in realms of
ethereal anticipations, anon to become the realities of Faith, as
the soul is discharged from its mortal tenement.
It is, under any guise, a blissful attribute, this ability to soar
out of life's dullness, into scenes of imaginary hope and brightness:
to escape from the real into the unreal, whether to deeds of heroic
valor, whose charm consists in the extravagance of the excitement, or
to linger in the enchantments of a tender passion, or to listen to the
tales of others' woes or joys: all these kindle up the enthusiasm of
the soul. But is there ever any reality to what may be termed romance?
If, as some would fain have us believe, the very objects which seem
so tangible to our senses, are no realities, what then of the vagaries
of the imagination? The moment you reduce the most thrilling incident
to mere matter of fact, or divest it of the garb in which fancy ever
delights to clothe its objects, the romance loses its charm. The
more remote the scene, the more unfettered by conventionalities the
actors, the more bewitching the tale of their adventures, and the more
impossible the achievements, the better prized. Even the aid of genii
and fairies wonderfully helps on this love of the marvelous. What
was Aladdin's lamp more than any other old piece of copper ore,
until the slave of the lamp suddenly appeared. There has ever hung
over the East, a veil of mystery; it may be from the warmth of the
Oriental imagination and its own extravagant creations, or from the
seclusiveness of the women, who, as they became unfamiliar objects,
seemed to be the very Venuses and Peris of the world of fable. The
reserve of the men themselves, leaving their better halves to an
obliviousness from all the world, is calculated to excite the curiosity
of the community at home, and the rest of the world abroad, and to
invest the fair sex with most improbable charms. The difficulty
and imminent danger of a single interview, excites the love of
adventure. Tottering old crones, themselves the genuine antidotes to
all passion, point with their bony fingers to the penetralia, where a
goddess in human form enshrines her charms. Even a transformation takes
place, a new complexion is produced, feminine draperies and a basket
of wares, and you pass the unsuspecting and smooth-faced guardian of
the portal. You love to linger in the sweetly perfumed halls, to toy
with the beautiful Circassian, as she listlessly lounges on her silken
couch; you love even the sense of danger, as you start at every step,
and again relax into forgetfulness of the external world. But sometimes
there is a sequel; you fly for life; your lovely companion bares her
neck to the bow-string, her beautiful form enters the mystic veil of
the lost woman; the coarse and heavy sack, her coffin--her grave the
blue and briny wave of the ocean stream.
All this is wild, romantic, thrilling, and tragic. But how rare the
occurrence; and of the multitude of adventure-loving, romance-seeking
beings that people earth's surface, to whose lot shall we assign
the realization? All dream; but how few wake to the vision in life's
action. All fancy; but when does not the broad sunshine of earth's
glare dispel the wreathed and mistlike draperies of imagination. The
ideal has an existence only in the "mind's eye."
There is, then, no more romance in the East than elsewhere; indeed
there is even more of natural life divested of all extravagance
of fiction. The very lack of education, which, in some respects,
is certainly to be lamented, tends to fasten their hearts together,
in the bonds of nature's best affections. Home has joys enough for
their simple souls; so entirely devoid of that refined selfishness,
which in other lands seems to annihilate those sweet provisions
for kindred sympathies, which arise from the reciprocal affinities
of parent and child, brother and sister. There is little food then
for morbid imaginations, but much for natural pleasures and simple
tastes. The very externals of Orientalism are making their exit
from the world's scene; soon there will not exist even the illusion
of characteristic and graceful forms. Ere long we shall realize,
that, divested of form and coloring, of tinsel and decoration, the
descendants of the great common ancestor of the human race, are all
alike in feature, nature, and spirit.
Indeed a general acquaintance with the different tribes and nations
under heaven only serves to convince the cosmogonist, that all are
of one family, have a common nature or origin, are but human, and
liable to human frailties and passions. The most powerful emotions
are felt in the bosoms of the savage and the polite. Ambition, love,
hatred, revenge, and a like train of absorbing impulses, rule and sway
wherever man has planted his footsteps. But how interesting to mark
the influence of circumstances, to define the latitudes and longitudes
of ideas and actions, to measure the rise and fall of the thermometer
of life, according to the various climes on earth's broad surface,
to feel the pulse of the dissenting creeds and dogmas, in a word,
to observe the same faculties under such varied culture.
In comparing the different grades of education and civilization,
it is curious to observe how often an innate refinement of feeling
equals, if not supersedes, the greatest efforts of cultivation, or the
brightest results of philosophy. A lifetime spent in the schools often
leaves the man far behind one, whose early years have passed in shrewd
observation, and practical experience, for while the one is reasoning,
abstracting, ruminating, the other experiments, and lo! he enters the
very penetralia of the temple of wisdom. And where do we find the most
susceptible hearts, the most poetical fancies, the purest aspirations
of nature? Not among the dry and tutored reasoners of civilization,
but where the mind of man has been untrammeled by rules and etiquettes,
forms and ceremonies.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE HAREM.
We cannot deny that habit is second nature--the axiom holds good in
every form of social existence; yet there is a universal disposition
to mutual criticism and condemnation, whether between nations or
neighbors. There is always the vibrating why and wherefore, and
each, approves his own course of action, without ceding to others
the same privilege.
There is no doubt that the peculiar style of the toilet of the Turkish
ladies would be deprecated by the belles of modern Christendom. Indeed,
we have often heard these fastidious dames exclaim, in regarding
representations of their Eastern rivals, "most horribly indecent,"
while they turned their sensitive vision from the offenders against
all delicacy. And, on the other hand, we have heard the Osmanli Hanums
and Efendis express equal honor at the sight of a European lady,
en costume de bal.
When the Marchioness of Londonderry presented herself at the palace of
the sultan, en grand tenue for a reception, the gentlemen in waiting
could scarcely persuade themselves to conduct her ladyship into the
royal presence, so astonished were they at the display of the fair
neck, shoulders, etc.
Both the Western and Eastern toilets may be styled décolletées, the
one a horizontal, the other a longitudinal display of charms. But one
thing may be said in favor of the Orientals, that they never appear
in public without covering their necks and bosoms, and even veiling
their features; they are only permitted to appear uncovered at home,
and even then only in the presence of their nearest relatives. On
the contrary, on the most public occasions, at the operas, balls,
soirées, and many other grand assemblies, do the Western décolletées
delight to vie with each other in their various styles of full dress;
they are even so fastidious as to have no nomenclature but ankles,
while they willingly pay their dollars to see a full extension of
these same ankles on the stage.
The Turkish ladies with perfect indifference present their unslippered
and even unhosed feet to any shop-boy, at the same time carefully
concealing their shalvar, or full trowsers, which are fastened below
the knee, and tucked up whenever they sally forth for a promenade à
pied ou en voiture.
As to the intrinsic merit or real modesty of these different styles,
peculiar tastes and prevailing modes can only decide; for habit is
strong in its sway, and imitation is a kindred principle. Therefore,
there is neither vice nor virtue in walking in the footsteps of our
predecessors, or each man or woman adopting the peculiar modes and
customs of their own people. As fertile a brain may throb beneath a
turban as a hat, as pure a form enshroud itself in a modest veil as
lurks beneath the shadow of a Parisian bonnet. What are externals
but whims and caprices; it is the virtue of domestic institutions
and daily habitudes that stamps the character of a people.
European or American ladies may grace their boudoirs, models of beauty
and excellence, and Turkish Hanums may, by the exercise of domestic
virtues, equally adorn and ennoble the precincts of their Harems.
The word Harem is familiar to most persons, but how grossly
misunderstood. Some have considered it as unmentionable to ears polite;
while the votaries of pleasure, ever ready to indulge their longing
fancies, have pictured it to themselves as the earthly realization of
the Paradise of Mohammed. Indeed many European authors in describing
the licentious and corrupted courts of their own monarchs, have
seemed to consider this term as the most distinguishing compendium
of immorality.
Strange perversion, that the very word which inspires every Oriental,
whether Mohammedan or Christian, with the greatest respect, should
suggest to the mind of a European only a system of concubinage and
licentiousness.
What then is Harem?
One peculiarity in the construction of society in its primitive
condition was that might makes right. This not only affected personal
property, but even the more domestic relations. If an enemy strong
enough felt the inclination, he might rob his neighbor of his wife
or family, of which there are instances on Biblical record.
To avoid any occasions of such unjust appropriation, it became a
policy to seclude the women from general observation.
The unbounded hospitality of those good old days when the worthy
patriarchs lived with open doors, and good cheer; when the three
virtues which made a man distinguished, were bravery, eloquence,
and hospitality, or in the hyperbole of the times, a sharp sword,
a sweet tongue, and forty tables; in such an era of benevolence it
became necessary to separate the more precious and defenseless portion
of the family from the vulgar gaze.
The seclusion of women, then, has ever been one of the greatest
social peculiarities of the East, and does not date its origin from
modern times, nor even from the foundation of the Moslem faith. In
some forms, it existed in the times of the ancient Jews; for, when
Rebecca lifted up her eyes and saw Isaac, who had gone out to meditate
in the field at even tide, she said unto the servant, "What man is
this, who walketh in the field to meet us?" and the servant said,
"It is my master, therefore she took a veil and covered herself."
"The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and cried through
the lattice."
The same institution existed among the Arabs from time immemorial, so
that Mohammed was not the originator of this separation of women from
general society, but rather the sustainer of an old and established
usage, which the condition of the community in his times, rendered
imperative.
"Speak unto the true believers, that they restrain their eyes,
and keep themselves from immodest actions. This will be more pure
for them, for God is well acquainted with that which they do; and
speak unto the believing women, that they restrain their eyes, and
preserve their modesty, and discover not their ornaments (personal
charms), except what necessarily appeareth thereof; and let them
throw their veils over their bosoms, and not show their ornaments,
unless to their husbands or their fathers, or their husband's fathers,
or their sons, or their husband's sons, or their brother's sons, or
unto such as attend them and have no need of women, or unto children
who distinguish not the nakedness of men."
Supposing then society were on a different basis, according to
these tenets, the women would be perpetually veiled, and the men
ever wandering with averted eyes. In order to remedy these evils,
and facilitate their seclusion, the houses are all divided into two
sets of apartments, the Selamluk, or men's apartment, and the Harem,
or the sanctuary of the women, where no men are allowed to enter,
except those specified by the Prophet.
Now, it is evident that the principle upon which society is constructed
in the East, is the careful seclusion of women from the gaze of
the world.
The peculiar charm of modesty is known and acknowledged all over the
world, as the domestic arrangements of civilized society everywhere
demonstrate.
The Greeks of Homer's day had their gynaikeion, the Romans, in
imitation, their Gynæceum; and modern civilization has created its
boudoir; but none of these terms are as expressive of the sanctity
of the abode, as the word Harem of the Orientals.
It is well known that the cities of Mecca and Medina are the holy
shrines of the Mohammedan faith. No other appellative is used in
speaking of them, but the same word Harem, which, when used in
the plural, in itself comprises these venerated cities. They say,
Hadjj-ul-Haremein, or pilgrim of the two harems, meaning the holy
Mecca and Medina. This word is applied to the temple itself at Mecca,
which is honored by the title of Mesjad-el-Harem, the sacred or
inviolable temple.
Thus some idea may be formed of the etymology of the term and its
sacred signification, when used by the Arabs and other Orientals,
to designate their firesides or family homes; the sanctity of which,
not only admits of no intrusion, but any summons or interruption to
the master of the family after he has once retired, is considered
indecorous.
Mohammed received a revelation regarding himself, while he was engaged
in his harem preparing the Koran.
Some persons had the rudeness to call him out. In order to reprove
them, and like sinners in all times to come, the following passage
was revealed:
"The interior of thy dwelling is a sanctuary; they who violate it
by calling unto thee, are deficient in the respect which they owe to
the interpreter of heaven."
This passage has not only rendered the interior of the dwelling,
viz. the harem, an inviolable asylum to the female portion of the
family, but it has made it a convenient place of refuge to pashas and
efendis, where they often seek repose from the multitude of unwelcome
visitors who infest, with perfect freedom, and at all hours, their
selamluks.
The frequent visits of the Osmanlis to their harems, are not always
indications of the attractions within, but other external motives may
impel them thither; nevertheless, the inviolability of these precincts
has induced the supposition that they contained naught but the shrine
of the fair Goddess of Beauty, and her sly coadjutor.
The upper part of a house in America, or those rooms appropriated to
the exclusive use of the ladies, are as sacred and inviolable as any
Oriental harem; and are not, as a matter of course, supposed to be
the scenes of mystery and intrigue. Indeed, it is fully evident that
the same spirit of deference to the comfort of the fair sex, exists
in America, where is seen over one of the principal entrances to the
general post-office, the announcement, "Exclusively for Ladies," which
in Turkey would be intimated by the single and expressive word HAREM.
Again the "Ladies' Cabin" on board the steamers would, in the East,
be designated by the word Harem, written in golden characters, which
would at once indicate its sacred nature, and inspire every Oriental
with the respect due to the sex, which is even more imperative in
that clime than in other lands, where they make a glory and boast of
their excessive deference to the fairer portion of the community.
Hence how erroneous the impression, that the harem is a species of
female prison, established by the tyranny of men, where the weaker
sex are forcibly shut up against their will.
If the Osmanli ladies were under no other restrictions, their own sense
of self-respect, based upon time-hallowed usage, and inculcated by the
precepts of their religion, would compel them to the same seclusion. I
one day happened to be in the dressing room of a pasha, adjoining
the harem; when he left the room for a moment. In the interval,
his daughter, supposing her father quite alone, suddenly entered
the apartment; but on seeing me there, instinctively covering her
face with the drapery of her sleeve, as suddenly disappeared. While
I myself as instinctively displayed my sense of the courtesy due to
a lady, by looking as far as I could in an opposite direction.
I heard her remarking to the slaves in the next room, that she was
so mortified, for, instead of seeing her father there stood ----
as large as life.
Her feeling at being seen without the precincts of the harem unveiled,
was the same as would be experienced by a lady of this country,
who should be surprised by the sight of a gentleman, when she was en
toilette de nuit!
Nor is this seclusion entirely Mohammedan, but being an ancient custom
of the East, it is practised by all who dwell in that clime. The
families of the rayas, or non-mussulman subjects of the Porte,
consisting of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, are also under the
same social laws as their Mohammedan compatriots. It is true, that
in proportion as European customs have found their way into these
countries, the rigidity of the Christians has relaxed in this respect;
because the observance in question has never been incorporated with
their religion; whereas Mohammed, on the contrary, took special pains
to enforce the practice upon his followers.
The word harem being by courtesy applied also to its inmates, has now
become a general term to designate the female portion of the family,
and is by no means synonymous with polygamy, otherwise the same
expression would not be used by the Christian subjects in speaking
of their domestic relations.
It would be said that a certain pasha or an Armenian banker had gone
to a distant place without his harem, or family.
An Osmanli lady, on being informed of the arrival of an American
minister in Constantinople, would naturally inquire whether he was
accompanied by his harem, or family.
CHAPTER XXIII
CONDITION OF WOMEN.
It is fortunate that the less enlightened members of the human family
are unconscious of their comparative inferiority--and are ignorant
of the bliss to which the more sublimated specimens of humanity are
constantly aspiring, and even rendering themselves discontented with
real life, as destiny has accorded it to them.
The actual condition of women in the East is not then so much to be
lamented, as their ideal of happiness so essentially differs from that
of other portions of the fair sex in Europe or America. As no other
philosophy has yet crept into their minds, they dream not of "woman's
rights," "free love" or "equality of the sexes," and calmly content
themselves with the rights of nature, and the relative position which
has ever existed among their simple and patriarchal ancestors. The
Osmanlis have not yet deviated from the form of family government
which nature dictated to them.
The venerable father, who has guided his children through youth, and
even counseled them in maturer years, is the monarch in the family
circle--the Dei penates are no creations of myth--but are embodied
in the one and sacred title of Pater familias.
Each son, as he succeeds to the paternal duties, is invested with
the robes of veneration and respect. Thus the male branches of the
household have a prior rank, which is unconsciously recognized by the
women and younger members of the family. The laws even allow to the
son double the share of inheritance that they do to the daughters,
because of the heavy responsibilities which may devolve upon him in
future by the death of the father.
There is not, therefore, the most distant suspicion in their
composition that females are equal to males, or girls to boys. It is
as if the members of the body should revolt, and the hands and feet
proclaim themselves superior, or even equal, to the head.
The women of Turkey know very well, and gracefully submit to facts,
which are stubborn things. They never think of denying that
"Women first were made for men,
Not men for them."
There are countries where the condition of woman is indeed miserable,
and where, also, they are unconscious of their own degradation,
and willingly toil and drudge in the service of men; content with
the slightest proofs of affection with which their lords may honor
them--indeed, any concession to their woman nature is thankfully
received.
To be bought and sold is a matter of course. In China, the
purchased wife is suddenly transported into the family of a man,
whose name even she has never heard. There she is the slave of the
whole establishment. The husband may beat her with impunity, reduce
her to a state of starvation, or hire her out, if he fancies to do so.
The Hindoo forces her to immolate herself on her husband's funeral
pile--after having spent a lifetime in his slavery and service.
Such barbarities are unknown in Turkey. For in no country in the
world are mothers more respected, wives more tenderly cherished, and
children more idolized. If, in the relative position of the sexes,
men rank above women, it is because the man is considered as the
vital principle, and the woman the material. Hence the man loves
and cherishes the woman, who in return regards him with reverence
and respect; and any deviation from these reciprocal affections,
would be considered as the greatest breach of decorum.
There are certain acts of politeness which devolve altogether upon
the lords of creation in the most exquisitely civilized regions of
the world, which are however sometimes reluctantly performed--but,
as usual, such matters are reversed in the East, where even the sun
rises at a different hour. There the Efendi graciously receives a
glass of water at the hands of his too happy Hanum; his pipe and his
coffee are gracefully served by some fair Hebe of a wife or sister,
who naturally considers herself as the helpmeet for her spouse,
as did Eve, the first and fairest of woman kind.
The reluctance they feel to have their ladies appear in general
society does not arise from any want of deference and respect on the
part of the men, but rather from an intuitive desire to guard and
protect them from public scandal.
As the Osmanlis enshrine the objects of their affection in the recesses
of their own hearts, so they love to guard them from all contact of a
selfish world. Indeed, Moore has beautifully expressed their feelings
in the warblings of the Peri,
"No pearl ever lay under Oman's green water,
More pure in its shell, than thy spirit in thee."
They feel so sensitive on this score, that they do not make their
Harems a subject of conversation. Even the most distant allusion
to this part of their establishment would consequently be, not
only indelicate, but also an infringement of etiquette--so that
the ordinary questions, such as "how are madam and the ladies,"
or according to Irish vocabulary, "how's yer wife and the gals,"
would cause the lord of the house to redden with astonishment.
As a further proof of the respect a man is supposed to feel for his
family, his enemy, when wishing to touch him to the quick, in cursing
him, only utters maledictions against his wife, mother, or sister.
A man may be publicly executed, but a woman is sacked, entirely out
of respect.
A Turkish lady is eminently queen of her own dominions, sometimes
even a despot--and most independent on all occasions, both public
and private.
It is not necessary for ladies to be attended by their husband or any
other gentleman when they go out; public sentiment entirely protects
them; for, if any one should accost them rudely, the commonest citizen
would immediately turn avenger. When the ladies are attended by
servants and eunuchs, they are only appendages of rank and distinction.
They seem, indeed, to be a privileged class. Wherever they appear
the men must retire--and woe to the man who ventures upon a warfare
of words with a Turkish woman; for her tongue has no bounds, and her
slipper is a ready weapon of chastisement; and no man would dare to
repel the attack.
The convenience of the slipper as a ready means of self-defence,
seems to have been familiar in the days of the old classics, for,
the Roman poet says:
"Et soleâ pulsare nates,"
And doubtless many of the rising generation can testify to its abuse,
even in these days of modern improvement.
The very whims and caprices which seem indigenous to the fair sex,
are tolerated as a matter of course with philosophic resignation,
as they are instructed by the Koran, "If ye be kind towards women
and fear to wrong them, God is well acquainted with what ye do." They
have a proverb also which supplants all reasoning on such occasions.
"Satchi-ouzoun, Akli-Kissa." Long hair, short brains.
To salute a lady, or in any way accost her, in public would be an
act of consummate rudeness; even a husband would pass by his wife and
family with an air of affected indifference. Certainly such a neglect
of the fair sex would be unpardonable in Europe and this country, but
on the contrary, in the East, it only evinces the greatest deference
and respect.
Nevertheless, the Mohammedans have been most maliciously reported
by ignorant writers on the East, to hold that women have no souls;
or if they have, that they will perish like those of brute beasts.
This assumption is founded upon the promise of the Prophet, that the
faithful shall be provided with black-eyed Houris in Paradise.
If this excludes the Mussulman women from Paradise, we may reasonably
place the Christian ladies in the same category, for they are assured
in the Gospel that "there will be no marrying nor giving in marriage
in Heaven."
On the contrary, Houris are but an addition to the earthly wives of the
Mussulmans, and the faithful are assured that "God promiseth unto the
true believers, both men and women, gardens through which rivers flow,
wherein they shall remain for ever," and that "whoso doth good works,
whether he be male or female, and is a true believer, shall be admitted
into Paradise, and shall not in the least be unjustly dealt with."
CHAPTER XXIV.
PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND COSTUME.
The first years of the life of every girl are spent both in the
Harem and Selamluk (or men's apartment), indiscriminately. The female
children being then allowed free access to the society of the men,
they imbibe certain notions in their youth, which are not always
consistent with refinement.
As there is not in the Selamluk, the restraint which the presence
of ladies always imposes, the manners and conversation of the men
are often but ill calculated to nurture a sense of delicacy in the
minds of the children, who mingle so freely with them. Nevertheless,
they seem to possess an innate sense of propriety, and are never
deficient in politeness of deportment.
Every girl is permitted to attend either the public schools, or to
receive private instruction at home, until she is eight or ten years of
age, when she is no longer allowed the freedom of her childhood. Very
little learning is acquired by them, the language being difficult,
and the mode of instruction altogether unsystematical; so that for
all future years they retain their simplicity, and are but overgrown
children.
Their minds having had no culture, the senses assume entire dominion
over them, and their time is spent either in adorning their persons,
or in etiquetical observances, by which they hope to render themselves
more bewitching to the lords of creation.
As in all other countries, fashion is regulated by the court, so at
Constantinople it is controlled by the ladies of the palace. Their
costume, according to the Oriental taste, always consisting of long
flowing robes, may be supposed to admit of no change; but on the
contrary, the ladies having little other occupation, delight in varying
the shape and style of their dress. Sometimes the hair is worn long,
again cropped short. A fess with flossy tassel is one day the mode,
and a fantastic turban is adopted the next morning. The sleeves are
long and wide, and again their drapery is dispensed with, and they
are confined at the wrist.
The entary, or dress, is invariably cut high, either closed around
the neck, or left open in front; it is made long, trailing about a
yard below the person; sometimes left open at the sides to the hips,
and at others, made wide, and sewed up as low as the ankles.
The shalvar, or full trowsers, are made to match the dress, and again
of varied and contrasting hues.
There in a great variety in the fashion for trimming the dresses
and handkerchiefs, which generally are adorned with most exquisite
embroideries in silk or gold, as may suit the mode, or taste of the
wearer. Sometimes an immense cashmere shawl is wound round the waist;
at others, a light gauze scarf, or belt of gold, with a clasp adorned
with brilliants, serves for a girdle. No Turkish lady can dispense
with jewelry, and even women of the lowest rank adorn themselves
with diamonds.
Abundant occupation is afforded to the jewellers by the constant
transformation of their bijouterie; for one day the capricious beauties
fancy a star or a crescent, and the next, nothing will suit their
toilet but a large spray of brilliants.
The number of the ladies in the royal palace and in other wealthy
harems, all of whom are bedecked in elegant and costly costumes,
causes a demand for the services of many merchants, through whom the
last new fashion is immediately promulgated.
Their beauty is such, however, that it might well afford to be
unadorned, for their complexions are generally exceedingly fair, and
of the most delicate softness; owing to the constant use of the bath,
as well as the protection of the yashmack, or veil, without which
they never go abroad.
Their features are very regular, and their almond shaped eyes, so
much sung by their poets, are dark and lustrous, and so valued for
their size, that the enjoyment of the great-eyed ladies is promised
by Mohammed as one of the sublimest joys of Paradise. The power of
these electric and darkly beautiful orbs is so terrible, that woe to
those upon whom they are turned, for, as Pertev Pasha, one of their
celebrated poets, has described:
"On the point of each ray that is darted from those bright meteors,
there is a bloody slaughter house," or as the French would expressively
say, "un regard assassin."
Exquisitely arched eyebrows are also so essential to their ideas of
beauty, that they are never contented, till by the repeated application
of artificial means, they raise their brows to a lofty semicircle.
Beauty spots, or moles, are considered of great value; and if nature
has proved niggard in this respect, art is brought into requisition to
produce the same contrasting effect between the tiny circle of jetty
hue and the surrounding fairness. The poet Hafiz has sung their value
in flowing numbers, offering the wealth of Semerkand and Bokhara for
the possession of the Indian mole on the cheek of the fair beauty
of Shiraz.
The tips of their fingers and toes are frequently stained with henna,
producing the roseate hue so much à la mode.
Their forms and movements are graceful, being under no artificial
restraints; and there is an exquisite charm about them as they
languidly lounge on their silken couches, or glide about from room
to room in long flowing robes, and slip-shod shup-shups.
Well has the illustrious bard portrayed the varied charms of the
Eastern houris:
"Many and beautiful lay those around,
Like flowers of different hue and clime, and root,
In some exotic garden sometimes found,
With cost, and care, and warmth, induced to shoot."
Considering their limited education, it is delightful to listen to
the melodious tone of their voices, as they speak with remarkable
purity the harmonious Turkish language. Notwithstanding their lack
of learning, there have been some among the ladies renowned for
their poetical productions, such as Leyla and Fitnett Hanums, justly
celebrated for their exquisite poetry.
CHAPTER XXV.
DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS.
The interior arrangements of the Turkish apartments and their
furniture, are very peculiar, and quite unlike those of European
or American drawing rooms, being entirely adapted to the habits and
tastes of the Orientals. There is never any doubt or hesitation as
to the place suitable to be occupied by any one who may happen to
enter a room; nor is it possible to mistake the different ranks of
its occupants.
Generally there is a sofa on three sides of the room, sufficiently
ample to accommodate the ladies in their style of sitting, which is not
cross-legged as is usually represented in pictures, but with the limbs
folded under their persons and carefully concealed by the drapery of
their long robes; for to show these parts of the person while sitting,
is considered a great breach of etiquette. Hence no Osmanli lady is
ever to be seen perched on the very edge of the sofa, but leaving
her slippers on the floor, she steps upon the couch and gracefully
bending her knees, sits reclining against the cushions behind her.
On the floor, at the foot of the sofa, are placed mattresses,
furnished with cushions, and these are called erkean mindery or
seats of homage, where humbler visitors or members of the family
are allowed to place themselves. The angles or corners of the sofa,
are regarded as the seats of honor, and the places on either side,
rank in regular succession down to the seat of homage; but the most
honorable person in the company may, at her or his option, occupy
any part of the couch, when the rest place themselves on each side
according to their own rank. The servants are always present, and
stand in a row at the lower end of the room, their arms humbly folded
on their girdles, attentive to the slightest nod of their superiors.
There are several windows on each of the three sides of the room, so
as to permit a full view of the surrounding scenery, while they are
seated; for the Osmanlis are very fond of sunlight and the beauties of
nature. The windows of the harem are all furnished with close lattices,
permitting those within to see without being seen.
The more modernized salons, have only a sofa on one side, European
couches, chairs, tables, and mirrors, being substituted for the other
sofas. They also endeavor to imitate the Europeans in the style of
the window draperies, which are often of the most brilliant hues.
There is one peculiarity in the Oriental houses. You may wander
from one end to the other and not see a single bed-room or any of
its appurtenances--which has induced many persons to report them as
sleeping on the sofas, and never dressing or undressing. It would,
however, seem more natural to suppose, that the Osmanlis never had
any but day dreams.
The fact is, that the beds are all packed away in large closets during
the day-time, and spread upon the floor at night. In the houses of
the wealthy, the mattresses and coverlets are made of the richest
materials, and the sheets of beautiful silk gauze, manufactured in
Broossa. The whole appearance of the bed, so brilliant in hue, and
rich in ornament, is very different from the style of a European couch.
Every house has an infinite number and variety of extra beds and
bedding, to be spread on the floors of any of the apartments, for
the accommodation of visitors--hospitality being one of the most
religious precepts and observances of the Orientals.
In the sultan's palace, however, and in the families of the wealthy,
especially of those pashas who have resided in Europe, bedsteads have
been introduced.
Upon rising, the person claps her hands, as the apartments are never
furnished with bell ropes, and immediately the attendants appear--one
holding the basin, another the ewer, and a third presenting the towel,
richly embroidered at the ends.
The usual method of warming the houses, is by the mangal and
tandur. The mangal is generally made of brass highly polished,
somewhat in the form of an hour-glass, about a foot and a half high,
and two, or two and a half in diameter; and contains a large pan of
ignited charcoal.
The tandur consists of a wooden frame about the height and size of a
table, lined with tin, under which a pan of fire is placed, and the
whole is covered with a thickly wadded quilt. This is surrounded by
sofas, and they sit with their legs and feet under the covering.
More cozy than any capacious arm-chair, or softly yielding fauteuil,
is this same tandur. The genial warmth excites a wonderful sympathy in
its occupants. They warm to each other, and to the world in general,
and never neglect to take cognizance of their neighbor's affairs and
doings. From the palace of the sultan to the cottage of the crone,
they benignantly travel, bestowing on each and all a blessing,
or when necessary, even a cursing. The ups and downs of pashas,
probable and accomplished--whispers of the sultan's favorites, or of
the efendi's coquettish ladies--the style of Adilé Sultan's feradjé,
or the grand vezir's fess, are each and all passed in review, until
you wonder how ever a set of miserable imprisoned women should be
such arrant gossips. Ah! one cannot believe the fair sex so unjust to
themselves, even in Turkey, as to neglect the observation of those
interesting little items of public or retired life, which become
great and weighty affairs, when discussed by ruby lips, and in the
cadence of sweet-toned voices.
They possess a most lady-like love of chit-chat, and so little do they
covet repose for their delicate jaws, that should conversation lag,
they keep them in motion by the use of mastic, which is always in
readiness, preserved in little jewelled boxes.
It is only of late years, that those hot, repelling machines called
stoves, have been introduced; but they have by no means superseded
the social and old-fashioned tandur, whose warmth, and luxurious
cushions, often beguile its occupants to slumber, during which the
fire is overturned, and thus occur many of the conflagrations so
frequent in Turkey.
There are two occasions when the still air resounds with the echoes
of human voices. The chant of the Muezzin from the minaré, slowly and
musically vibrating through the atmosphere, enticing all to linger at
the casement or in the thoroughfare to catch its melodious accents;
and the terrible cry of yangun var! Fire! Fire! accompanied by the
reverberations of the watchman's club striking upon the pavement.
A thrill of horror pervades every heart, for there are no bounds to
the devouring element.
There are two towers, one at the Seraskér's in the city itself, and
the other on the Galata hill, which command an extensive isometrical
view of the whole metropolis and its suburbs.
Here guards are stationed, who descry the first indications of fire,
and immediately give, from the top of the towers, the requisite signal,
by hoisting, in the day-time, an immense globe, painted red, and at
night by producing a bright and steady light--these signals remain
until the fire is extinguished.
At Candilly, on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, and half way up
the stream, there are a battery and a flag-staff stationed on the
mountain top called Kenan-tepessy; as soon as the signals are seen,
the fire globe ascends the flag-staff, and the battery discharges a
certain number of guns, according to the locality of the conflagration.
From the towers, detailed officers, Neöbetgees, are dispatched to
the different ministers, and guard houses, where the engines are
kept, who create a tremendous sensation, as they rush wildly about,
brandishing their batons of office, and with a protracted yell, warning
every one to clear the way. The different Bekgees or district watchmen,
now take up the cry--striking their iron-shod clubs on the pavement and
repeating with all the power of their lungs yangun-var! Stambolda! or
there is fire at Stamboul.
The firemen assemble at their respective quarters, and shouldering
their engines, rush to the scene. These firemen receive no pay,
but are exempt from taxes and allowed certain other privileges--yet
they always manage to extort certain compensations for their services,
from the victims of the devastating element. The engines are small and
portable, on account of the narrowness and steepness of the streets,
nor is there any connexion-hose attached to them, the water being
supplied with buckets; yet it is astonishing how much they effect
even with such inadequate means.
The inflammable materials of which the houses are constructed, the
narrow streets, winding up the hillside like foot-paths, the irregular
and projecting dwellings, from which the people could shake hands
with their opposite neighbors, if it were only the fashion in Turkey,
contribute to make a most desirable promenade for the Fire-King when
he sallies forth.
The flames leap from house to house; the burning cinders fly in all
directions, and the fire kindles at many and distant points; so that
in less than half an hour, a large district is often wrapt in flames.
The general panic is so intense, that the whole community is roused;
the pashas desert their couches, and even the sultan himself sometimes
repairs to the scene, to animate, by his presence, the efforts of
the desperate firemen.
CHAPTER XXVI.
SOCIAL INTERCOURSE.
It seems something of an anomaly that a race of beings so distinguished
for selfishness, should be so exceedingly social in their inclinations.
Birds of a feather flock together, and man loves his fellow, though
he loves himself better.
To prevent the inroad of this extreme selfishness, certain forms
and ceremonies are established in every community where there is any
interchange of mutual civilities.
Oriental life has many distinguishing peculiarities and characteristic
forms of politeness, but unlike other parts of the globe, etiquette
in the East is permanent and general. The mental accomplishments being
but few, wealth seems to constitute the only aristocratic distinction,
while the poorest and the richest are equally well versed in the
established routine of civility.
It is curious to observe the native refinement even of the lower
classes in Turkey. There is no gaucherie, no reluctance in any one to
do the right thing in the right way and place; no fear of being unlike
other distinguished personages in manners and customs; for there is no
doubt as to the prescribed and most elegant style of conduct; even the
salutations, compliments and congratulations are most carefully worded,
and any deviation from the formula would destroy the intended effect.
There is, consequently, no lack of social etiquette among the
Osmanlis. A visitor is received according to her station in life,
and after being announced, is met by the lady of the house with her
suite, at the head of the staircase, or at the door of the saloon,
or sometimes by merely stepping down from the sofa, as may be demanded
by the rank of the guest.
There is no ceremony of introducing one person to another, nor is
there any shaking of hands. The company salute each other without any
regard to previous acquaintance; and the younger members of society
always kiss the hem of the garment, or the hands of their superiors
in rank and age.
The manner of salutation varies--those of equal rank endeavor to kiss
the hem of each other's garments, or only exchange temennas.
The temenna, which has already been described, is a graceful
salutation, and is used as frequently as thank you by the English;
serving as an acknowledgment for all compliments and kind inquiries.
When one thinks of the innumerable occasions on which this expressive
temenna is called into action, it seems as if a whole chapter would
scarcely suffice to describe them all. But we will content ourselves
with its demonstration upon the arrival of a guest among a company
of some fifteen or twenty persons.
As soon as the visitor is seated, the lady welcomes her guest by a
temenna--which is acknowledged by the same signal, and reiterated by
each person in the company successively, according to her rank.
Now another round commences. The lady of the house makes a new temenna,
which signifies, "How do you do?" Another temenna from the visitor, is
equivalent to an acknowledgment of thanks, who with the same gesture,
intimates a desire to know the state of her hostess's health.
The whole company then in succession follow suit, to each of whom
the visitor replies in the same way.
This Quaker-meeting style of receiving company, might be ludicrously
illustrated in American society, by substituting bows for temennas--if,
indeed, the ladies could be expected to preserve the requisite silence
and gravity of demeanor.
In Turkey, every attention or compliment, brings its train of temennas,
and it is much to be regretted that no mathematician has yet arisen
in Turkey, capable of producing a regular formula for their exact
computation.
The Meddahs, however, or the famous story-tellers of the East, who
are the best critics, sometimes endeavor to exhibit the danger of
too great an excess in this act of politeness.
They say there was once a worthy Hodja or schoolmaster, who was
very punctilious. Desirous that all his scholars should realise the
importance of true politeness, he insisted that when he drank water,
not a single one of them should omit to exclaim with a respectful
temenna, afiyet olsoun hodja efendy, or may it do you much good,
respected master--and when he sneezed, they were all to clap their
hands, and vociferate hayr ola hodja efendy, or good luck to the
master.
The means employed by this worthy schoolmaster to enforce his lessons,
may be readily guessed by others of the same profession; but that
the desired effect was produced, there is no doubt.
There was a deep well, from which the scholars had to draw water for
their own use.
One day, it was reported to the teacher that the bucket had fallen
in the well, who, after many vain attempts to fish it up, resolved
to descend by means of a rope, and the scholars were called upon to
assist in his descent and ascent.
The hodja was accordingly lowered down into the well, and at a
given signal, the boys began to pull him up. But as he approached
the mouth of the well, the change of the atmosphere titillating his
nostrils, unfortunately made him sneeze; when the well-trained pupils,
instinctively making the temenna, and clapping their hands, let go
the rope and shouted, "hayr ola hodja efendy," good luck to the master.
But, retournons nous à nos moutons.
After the visitor is seated, and the usual temennas are exchanged,
long chibouks with amber mouthpieces, set in diamonds, are offered
by the halayiks or slaves; after which, sweetmeats are served upon
a silver tray, with goblets of water, and then coffee.
This beverage is served in small porcelain cups, in stands of silver
or gold, sometimes enamelled and set in diamonds--which ceremony is
thus poetically described by Lord Byron:
"And mocha's berry, from Arabia pure,
In small fine china cups, came in at last;
Gold cups of filagree, made to secure
The hand from burning, underneath them placed."
Although there are certain ceremonies which are never omitted
as matters of form, their intercourse with each other is most
unsophisticated. Mutual criticism, and inspection of toilets,
catechising about prices, etc., are indulged in as matters of course,
and if by chance the guest is a European lady, the scrutiny is the
more intense; so that those who desire to visit Turkish harems, must
go prepared to undergo the most thorough examination with smiles
and good humor; the only satisfaction being a genuine retaliation
upon the fair hanums, who would feel exceedingly flattered thereby,
and by no means dream of being offended.
The whole establishment is shown to visitors, as one way of
entertaining them; and frequently they get up a dance among themselves,
or call in the dancing girls with their castanets.
Upon intimation of departure, sherbet is served; after which the visit
is terminated, and the guest reconducted in the same manner in which
she was
CHAPTER XXVII.
POLYGAMY.
It is true that a Harem is generally composed of an assemblage of
women, but not such as the public usually imagine.
Although the Mussulmans are allowed by the Koran to have several wives,
there are few who have more than one, especially at the present day;
a fact not to be, however, attributed to any new code of morality,
but rather to the coercion of circumstances.
It was the practice of the Arabs to have eight or ten wives, whom they
were seldom able to maintain. Mohammed, wishing to remedy this evil,
and not altogether to abolish ancient usages, limited the number--"Take
in marriage of such women as please you, two, or three or four, and
not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably to so many,
marry only one, or the slaves which ye shall have acquired." They were
allowed to marry a greater number of slaves, as their dowry was much
smaller, and they were maintained in a very different style from the
free women.
As the Osmanlis have a remarkable love of offspring, it often happens
that a man having had no children by a wife, and unwilling to divorce
her, which is considered discreditable, takes a second one in imitation
of Abraham and Jacob and many other patriarchs of old, whose practices
were but the type of the habits of all Oriental people, even those of
the present day. But such a step being often the source of domestic
difficulty, the substitution of a slave in the place of a second wife
is generally preferred--and such slaves are retained in the harem
with the appellation of Odaluk or handmaid, like Hagar, Bilhah, and
Zilpah. When these Odaluks become mothers, by right of their maternity,
they acquire their freedom and are considered second wives.
A man may, however, be induced to contract a second marriage either
from mercenary or ambitious motives.
When circumstances or selfish inclinations induce the Mussulmans to
have several wives, they are obliged to assign to each one private
apartments and attendants. These ladies, although often living under
the same roof, visit each other with all the etiquette of perfect
strangers, and require an expenditure for retinue and accommodations,
which can only be sustained by wealth.
Besides all partiality being out of the question, there is great cause
for jealousy among the different members of such establishments--and
the less favored being ever ready for intrigue, conspire to render
the husband most miserable and the sanctuary a perfect bedlam, and
the ambition of a second wife sometimes can only be satisfied by the
sacrifice of her rival.
Fethi Ahmed Pasha was so favored by the sultan that his majesty
bestowed his sister upon him in marriage. Notwithstanding this alliance
with royalty, the wife and children of his humbler fortunes retained
their place in his memory; but he could only visit them in secret.
The author has, on several occasions, assisted to his incognito, as
he left his state barge and proceeded en bourgeois in a small cayik,
to visit the house of his affections.
There is, therefore, every reason to believe that our Mussulman
friends will soon come to the conclusion, that,
"Polygamy may well be held in dread,
Not only as a sin, but as a bore:"
Notwithstanding then the toleration of polygamy by the Prophet, it is
evident that circumstances have combined to restrict this practice;
and most particularly the abolition of the Circassian slave-trade,
to a certain extent, has created an effectual check to the use
of Odaluks--thus increasing the necessity of alliances between the
members of different families which were formerly avoided; because
the wife being surrounded and supported by her own relations, attained
an undue share of domestic power and influence.
Especially when alliances are formed with royalty, the circumstances
are most aggravating. The husband then becomes an abject slave,
and has tacitly to submit to the caprices of his spouse.
He cannot enter the harem of his sultana unless especially sent for;
nor can he postpone his attendance to her summons no matter what his
circumstances or occupation may be.
The sultan's brother-in-law has often been seen, sleeping in a corner
of a sofa at the Selamluk, till two or three o'clock in the morning,
awaiting the pleasure of his royal mistress--while she on her part
was amusing herself in the harem with dancing girls, music, &c.
The pasha's embarrassment has also been very evident when he has been
obliged to leave the company abruptly; no apology being necessary
on such occasions; the entrance of the sable messenger, with a
single temenna intimating the absolute command of the royal wife,
who generally dismisses her train of ladies and slaves before he
makes his appearance.
It is with the desire to avoid such petticoat government that the young
men do not contract alliances with ladies of rank and distinction;
preferring to marry their own slaves, or to content themselves with
the Odaluks which their mothers bestow upon them to keep them within
the home circle, and out of mischief.
Sometimes they are forced to a second marriage by the bestowal of a
bride from a superior in power whose orders they cannot refuse.
A great number of women then in any harem is by no means a sure sign
of the uxorious disposition of its master, but is rather an indication
of his personal rank and wealth.
For the Osmanlis men and women are proverbially fond of display, they
say "Sense belongs to Europe--wealth to India, beauty to Georgia--but
show and display are the attributes of the Osmanlis alone."
They therefore delight in all the appendages of luxury, and surround
themselves with crowds of attendants. This Oriental propensity has
even been sustained by the Prophet himself, who says, that "the very
meanest in Paradise will have 80,000 servants," &c. While, then, the
gentleman in the selamluk, has his steward, treasurer, cup-bearer, pipe
bearer, etc., the Hanum on her part, has her own appropriate suite,
which is in many instances more numerous than that of her Efendy.
This is particularly true with regard to the sultanas or sisters and
daughters of the sultan, whose husbands are not allowed to behold
the faces of any of the fair maidens in the royal train, except by
special permission of the sultanas themselves.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.
Marriage is considered "honorable in all," but most especially among
the Osmanlis, who enter into this condition as they arrive at the age
of puberty. The independent state of bachelorship is therefore unknown
among them, or if such an accident should happen, the unfortunate
gentleman is styled beekear, or useless member of society, which
stigma it is needless to say they by no means covet; as for old maids,
there is not a word in the language descriptive of that class of women.
The preliminaries of all marriages are effected by the parents, who
not only thus spare their children much trouble and embarrassment,
but use all their own wisdom and experience of genuine terrestrial
happiness in providing for their own offspring. Besides, parental
authority is supreme, and filial obedience equally innate, hence it
never enters into the calculations of the young to weary themselves
with the anticipatory illusions of love, though sometimes when old
enough they join in the matrimonial deliberations.
Marriage is not a religious, but rather a civil contract among the
Mussulmans, and the ceremony is as simple as in Protestant countries.
This ceremony which is called Nikeah, is effected by proxies, and
there is always a fixed sum settled upon the bride, according to the
condition of the party. This Nikeah constitutes the legal marriage,
but the bride does not go to her husband's home until three or four
months have elapsed, at which time the friends assemble to partake of
the nuptial festivities, which continue during four days, and always
end on Thursday, as the following day is the Turkish sabbath.
Upon her arrival, the bride is met at the door of the harem, and
conducted into the room by the bridegroom himself, who carries her
up stairs in his arms, and placing her in the most honorable part of
the sofa, raises her veil of tinsel, and takes the liberty, for the
first time, to gaze upon the features of his beloved.
Separate establishments are almost unknown in Turkey. The bride goes
to the house of her husband's parents, so that the family circle often
becomes very numerous. It occasionally happens that by special request,
the bridegroom enters the family of his wife's parents; which, however,
is considered a misfortune, for they say, "Itch guveyeeden halludja"
or any condition is preferable to that of a man married into a family.
DIVORCE.
Voltaire has observed, "Le divorce est probablement de la même date
à peu près que le mariage; je crois, pourtant, que le mariage est de
quelques semaines plus ancien; c'est à dire qu'on se querella avec
sa femme au bout de quinze jours, qu'on se battit au bout d'un mois,
et qu'on s'en sépara après six semaines de cohabitation."
If such be a true picture of human nature, it is not too highly drawn
for a country where polygamy is practised, since it is no hard matter
for a man to part with one wife, when he has several others. The
privilege of divorce would be somewhat tyrannical if allowed only
to the men, but in Turkey, the women themselves may exercise this
prerogative, if they are maltreated, or not properly provided for,
with at least the requisite "bread and candles."
A man may put away his wife merely by uttering in the hearing of
a third party, the ominous word "bosh," null, void, which even
if carelessly spoken renders the man and wife strangers to each
other, the lady feeling obliged to assume her veil, and conceal her
charms; and in case of reconciliation, a second marriage ceremony is
necessary. The woman, on her part, has the privilege of leaving her
husband, by declaring before the Cadi, Djanum azad, nikeahum helal--I
forfeit my dowry, and claim my freedom.
It is fortunate that divorce is very disreputable, and is seldom
practised by either party if they have any respect for public opinion,
or regard for themselves; otherwise, wives and husbands would be
constantly changing hands, as was the practice among the old Arabs,
in the time of Mohammed.
This custom was decried by the Prophet, "It shall not be lawful for
thee to take other women to wife hereafter, nor to exchange any of
thy wives for them."
The moral effect of a facility of divorce is to keep both parties
on their good behavior, but at the same time a spirit of extreme
selfishness is induced in the women. For being in constant apprehension
of a sudden separation, they look upon their husbands as a means of
revenue, and endeavor to store up as much jewelry, clothing etc.,
as possible, to be ready in case of emergency. The display of shawls
and diamonds upon the persons of women, even of the poorest classes,
is not from a feeling of vanity, but rather an exhibition of the extent
of the personal wealth they have extorted from their lords and masters.
In case of separation, the children are supported until they are
seven years old, by the father; after which the boys remain under
the paternal care, and the girls belong to the mother; unless some
other arrangement is made by mutual consent.
The most unjust stigma of illegitimacy, is almost unknown in Turkey;
the children by slaves being as respectable and legitimate as those
by the regular wives, and it is only when the father cannot be
discovered that they are regarded as bastards. Such principles are
certainly right, and more humane than those of Christian lands, where
the innocent are taunted all their lifetime with the immoralities
of others, for whose actions they are as irresponsible as "the babe
unborn."
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE SULTAN'S HAREM.
Although there are more than 2,000 women in the palace, but five of
these hold the rank of kaduns, or wives.
Mussulmans, in general, are allowed to have four wives, but sultans
can have seven.
Their superiority to ordinary men is thus attested, and the chance
made surer of an heir to the throne.
It will, therefore, be perceived that polygamy, in the case of a
sultan, is a matter of policy, and not choice; for even should he
content himself with one wife, the State would interfere.
The design of limiting his majesty's wives to seven, is to spare the
State the enormous expense attendant upon the maintenance of so many
ladies of royal rank.
The present sultan, however, in asserting his prerogative, has
limited the number to five, which, while it shows his power to
exceed the restrictions upon other Mussulmans, at the same time,
displays an inclination not to burden the State too heavily with his
private expenses.
It is true he has had children by several others, whom custom requires
to be elevated to the rank of kaduns, but he has retained them under
the title of ikbals, or favorites, for the sake of sparing the State
the additional expense which the dignity of kaduns would require.
The sultan being above all law, cannot submit to any matrimonial
bondage; he is not, therefore, legally married to any of his wives, but
those who are selected by him to share his affections, are pronounced
by him Kaduns, or ladies, and not sultanas; for none but those of the
royal blood can enjoy that title, except the mother of the reigning
sultan, who on her son's accession to the throne, takes, by courtesy,
this title, and is called Validé Sultan.
The title Sultan is equally applied to males and females, with this
difference only, that it precedes the name of the male, and follows
that of the female: thus, they say Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, but for his
sister, Adilé Sultan.
When it is used by itself, it always implies the female branch of
the royal family, and never his majesty, who is known by the title
of Padishah, or Hünkear, or, in common parlance, Efendimiz--our Lord.
His majesty never forming an alliance with any of his subjects,
all his kaduns are originally Georgian or Circassian slaves, who
are selected for this distinguished honor and presented to him by
his mother or sisters, on Kadir Gedjessy, or the night in which the
Koran descended from Heaven.
They have each their separate establishments and retinue in the palace,
and live as much apart as if in different dwellings, seldom seeing
each other, except on occasions of state ceremony and etiquette.
The princes of the royal blood also reside in the same palace, who,
if of age, have their own odaluks, attendants, etc.
It may be supposed, that in such a royal establishment, the rising
generation is well represented; but on the contrary, few of them are
allowed to prolong their lives, while many more never see the light.
This premature destruction of life, though strictly prohibited in the
Koran, is very prevalent in Turkey. In some cases from State-Policy,
lest the heirs to the crown should become too numerous, and in
others, from a false desire in the ladies to preserve their beauty
and freshness from the toils and trial of maternity.
But very often the better feelings of their natures are sorely tried,
and two of the sisters of the present sultan pined away in sorrow,
and at last died, because their infant sons were sacrificed upon the
altar of state-policy!
Abd-ul-Medjid himself, in his younger days, was not exempt from
trials of this sort. For just before coming to the throne, he had a
favorite odaluk, to whom he was much attached. But as the princes are
not permitted to become fathers, she fell a victim in the attempt to
frustrate the probable birth of an heir, when a single week's delay
would have elevated her to the rank of first kadun to the reigning
monarch; for sultan Mahmoud died a few days after she was sacrificed.
Whenever a child is born to the sultan, or any other Oriental father,
the tidings are immediately communicated to him and the family
relatives, and the messenger handsomely rewarded. Among the Mussulmans
the father himself pronounces the future name of his offspring at
the moment of its birth.
A certain man, having scarce passed the honeymoon, for he had only been
married three months, one day, while he was in the bath, was suddenly
apprised of the birth of a son and heir. As soon as he recovered from
his surprise at such an unexpected event, he ordered him to be named
Tchapgun or racer, because, said he, he has accomplished in three
months, the customary labor of nine.
They have a singular notion that the reason a child cries as soon as
it is born is, because his satanic majesty being of course present,
cruelly pinches the tender offshoot of humanity; the only exception
on record, being the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ, who were protected
from the touch of the devil by a veil, so placed by Allah himself;
thus, doubtless, accounting for the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin.
The children, at their birth, are rubbed down with salt, and nicely
bandaged. They are placed in a cradle and secured there. The hands
and feet are bound in, so that the child cannot move. The poor little
victim becomes black and blue under this treatment, and is occasionally
relieved from its fetters to be re-enveloped in swaddling clothes;
and when the toilet is completed, it very much resembles a little
Egyptian mummy.
The child is nursed while lying down, the mother bending over it,
and tilting the cradle, until she attains the requisite position.
Owing to the bandages in which the infants are constantly enveloped,
the circulation of the blood is impeded, and they are obliged to be
relieved by occasional scarifications, and the writer still wears
the honorable scars of this traditional practice.
When the sultan wends his steps from the Mabeyn to the Harem, the
black gentlemen on guard at the door of the ladies' apartments, proceed
immediately to announce his majesty's approach to the Haznadar-Ousta,
or the lady treasuress.
This personage, is a very important character in the royal household;
being the keeper of all the jewels and other treasures, and the
mistress of ceremonies; she is, in a word--
"That dame who keeps up discipline among
The general ranks, so that none stir or talk
Without her sanction on their she-parades:
Her title is, the mother of the maids."
There is always one of these Haznadars attached to the harems of
the wealthy; and the individual who fills this office, has been the
nurse of the head of the family in infancy; so that this "mother of
the maids" feels almost a maternal interest in his majesty's happiness.
The Haznadar-Ousta immediately proceeds to the salon, where she awaits
the entrance of the sultan, who, after receiving her salutations, in
the course of conversation, inquires after the health of one of the
Kaduns, which is taken as an indication that her company is desired
by his majesty.
This Kadun now enters the royal presence alone, or perhaps with
one of her children, while her train of attendants remain within
call. Like all other Orientals, the Padishah delights in the company
of his children, and they are often seen in public with him, or in
the royal Mabeyn. His first-born was a daughter, and lately married
to Aali-Ghalib Pasha, the son of Reshid.
The children of the sultan precede their mother in rank, for they
are of royal blood, while she is but a slave.
Hence the mother always takes a secondary position in cayiks,
carriages, or in the saloon of reception. This apparent superiority
never elates the children, nor in any way lessens the respect which
they feel for their mothers. For whilst they are flattered and
worshipped as Shah-zadés and Sultans, or Princes and Princesses, the
general deference paid to their mothers is undiminished. They have
a proverb which is very expressive of their feelings on this subject,
"Dagh kadar babam olajaghina,
Yüksük kadar anam ola."
"Rather than a father the size of a mountain,
Give me a mother, small as a thimble."
The late Validé-Sultan, or mother of the sultan, was one of the most
powerful individuals in the realm, and her patronage most assiduously
courted.
His majesty and his harem are frequently entertained with the graceful
movements and merry castanets of the dancing girls. The Osmanlis
are very fond of dancing, but consider it inconsistent with their
own dignity; they always have beautiful young slaves trained in this
accomplishment, and also made proficient in the music of the country.
Turkish music is very unlike that of European countries, where there is
a general similarity. Although the Orientals have very good ears for
music, and treat the subject scientifically, yet it is strange that
they do not understand the harmony of sounds--for all their concerts,
both vocal and instrumental, consist of solos, that is, they all sing
and play only the air or tenor, and never the bass and contralto, etc.
The natural tones of their voices are very sweet; and of late years
the military music having been arranged in European style, they have
made great proficiency in this art.
The opera house in Pera is also very attractive to the Turkish
gentlemen, and much frequented by them. The sultan has his loge,
or box there, and sometimes honors the house by his royal presence.
Recently the piano has also become very fashionable among them, and
it is to be heard incessantly jingling in all the harems. The sultan
being himself an amateur, frequently plays on that instrument, and has
also an Italian Opera attached to his palace for the entertainment
of his ladies, where many of the female slaves are trained to sing
and act à la Italienne, in the costumes of both sexes.
The ladies of the palace are also amused with other exhibitions,
which they witness through latticed partitions.
From the preceding sketch, it will be readily understood, that all the
ladies in the royal palace, are in reality slaves from the regions
of Circassia, but they are always well treated, and even addressed
by the title of Hanums, or ladies; and we may say their greatest
hardship is being lightly clothed all seasons of the year; their feet
without stockings, and their dresses made of the lightest fabrics,
from which fact many of them fall easy victims to consumption.
These ladies are not allowed to go abroad as freely as Turkish hanums
in general, on account of the restrictions of court etiquette; this
confinement is also very injurious to their health, and their ennui
is often insupportable. Sometimes, after a due warning to all the
gardeners and other gentlemen to quit the premises, they are allowed
to stroll in the palace gardens, and occasionally the Validé Sultan
takes pity on some of them, and permits them to enjoy a promenade
in her own train, when the exuberance of their spirits often tempts
them to the most childish acts of coquetry. Indeed, so great is their
longing to encounter the lords of creation, that a feigned sickness
affords an occasion of seeing a doctor, and their favorite remedy
for all ailments is bleeding, or the bleeder!
These beautiful girls having no other ambition than to be as
fascinating as possible, and such aspirations sometimes seem to be felt
in more enlightened bosoms, they do not like to waste their sweetness
on the desert air; as they are consequently a little mischievous,
the practice of locking up each one in her own apartments has been
deemed advisable. When the muezzin proclaims the hour of evening
prayer, the disconsolate ladies are severally consigned to a state
of security by the sable turnkeys of the palace.
This is not, however, so dismal a fate, when we remember that a short
time ago, all the inhabitants of Stamboul were obliged to be within
their own domiciles, about two hours after sunset; and awhile since,
there was the curfew bell even in good old England.
CHAPTER XXX.
CIRCASSIAN SLAVES.
Although the slave trade has been nominally abolished in Turkey, and
the public mart formally closed to this traffic, yet the practice
of buying and selling has not been, nor will it ever be altogether
abandoned, because the slave constitutes an essential element in the
composition of their domestic institutions.
There are two kinds of servitude in every house; one, the ordinary
labor of domestic service; the other that of personal attendance;
neither of which the free Mussulman women are willing to perform,
because they will thereby be more or less brought in contact with
men, which is proscribed by the Koran. The slave service, therefore,
becomes necessarily indispensable with the Mussulmans, whose houses
have hitherto been supplied with Circassian and Nubian slaves, the
former being a species of ladies in waiting, and the latter performing
the menial services of the household.
The average price of the slaves is, according to the tariff of the
Custom-house, $500 for the white, and $100 for the black. They bring
these prices when they arrive fresh from their native lands. Those
of the Circassian, who are, however, brought into the country in
childhood, and carefully educated and trained in accomplishments,
attain so rare a style of beauty and delicacy of appearance that they
are frequently sold for $6,000 or $8,000.
Though the restrictions upon the trade have forced Turkish families to
employ Greek and Armenian women in their houses, yet there is always
a demand for slaves.
The Armenians having the same institution as the Mussulmans, viz.,
the harem, their maidens are prevented from entering any family as
servants; it is only the old women, whose charms have all faded and
gone, who are willing to expose themselves in this way. The Greeks,
though not so scrupulous, are generally ignorant of the Turkish
language, and altogether uncongenial in their habits and ideas,
so that they are unpopular.
Slaves are still more indispensable in the palace, for the Mussulman
prejudice is opposed to the introduction of any of the subjects who
would thus come in contact with royalty. Besides, is his majesty to
form an alliance with his subjects?
The Circassian parents so long accustomed to the benefits derived by
the advancement of their daughters to positions of comparative ease,
will always be ready and anxious to supply the metropolis; and the
traffic, notwithstanding the formal prohibition, is still continued
at private houses in Top-hané.
Circassian slavery in Turkey, is not a condition of servitude. All
the children who are born from odaluks are free, and they also render
their mothers free; an odaluk may be sold alone, but never after she
has become a mother.
Besides the maids of honor or ladies in waiting, at the palace,
are often bestowed in marriage upon pashas and other dignitaries,
who thus consider themselves in some sense allied to royalty. One of
their number was a slave to Validé Sultan. She was married to Mehmed
Bey, the brother of the sultan's brother-in-law, with the idea of
ameliorating her condition; but being very ill-treated by her husband,
she had a petition written and presented it to her royal patroness,
whereupon the validé summoned the husband, and reprimanded him in
such a manner that he became exasperated, and having intoxicated
himself with racky, or Turkish brandy, rushed into the harem, and
plunged his dagger into the breast of the unfortunate wife.
Sultan Mahmoud lost his favorite wife, and was so much grieved by
her death, that he ordered her apartments to be locked up, and that
no one should enter them; he only, spent some time there every day
in solitary meditation upon his lost favorite.
There was a slave girl fourteen or fifteen years old, whose duty
was to clean the bath belonging to these apartments. She was so
curious to know why these rooms were always locked up, that she one
day found herself on an exploring expedition by means of the private
staircase. Finding the door open, she ventured to enter the apartment,
when, lo! and behold! there was the awful Mahmoud himself.
He said, "how dare you venture here; do you not know my express
commands?"
The terrified girl fell at his majesty's feet, and craved pardon.
She was so bewitching in this posture, that the sultan not only
pardoned her, but invited her to meet him every day in the same place,
till at last, he ordered that the apartments should be appropriated
to her, and she became the Fifth Kadun, and the mother of the present
sultan!
It is the idea of aspiring to such honors and stations, near even
royalty itself, which induces the Circassian parents so readily to
sell their daughters to Mussulmans, when nothing could induce them
to barter their offspring to Christians.
No wonder that each simple peasant of the Caucasus fancies slavery
in the metropolis, to be a translation from poverty to an earthly
elysium, when tales, and true tales too, not the enchantments of
Aladdin's wonderful lamp, are so common in Oriental life!
Therefore, even if the traffic is formally prohibited, the Circassian
parents will force their offspring into the market, not only to
ameliorate their condition, but to secure favorable alliances for
themselves; so that if the legal sum be not hereafter realized as
purchase money, their children will still be apprenticed in some way
or other.
CHAPTER XXXI.
WATERING PLACES.
There is a prevalent impression that the Turkish ladies are always
imprisoned at home; but nothing is more erroneous. For, since the
destruction of the janissaries, who molested every one in public,
they are to be seen everywhere, and on all occasions.
The only requisite for their appearance is to be veiled, and to wear
the Feradjé, or cloak.
Thus accoutred, they wander through the bazaars, frequent all rural
places of resort, visit the baths, and scarcely a day passes when they
stay at home. Nor is it to be supposed that they are closely muffled,
as they were formerly. The ancient out-door costume was most hideous;
they were enveloped in an immense white sheet, a little piece of
horse-hair gauze being suspended over the eyes. But the yashmak or
veil, is, at the present day, composed of the lightest India mull,
and has little power of concealing their charms, but on the contrary,
serves to heighten their beauty by its gossamer transparency.
The arched eyebrows, through this deceptive veil, seem more delicately
curved; the large and lustrous eyes shine more darkly from its snowy
folds; and the delicate and peach-like hue of the complexion is
rendered tenfold more lovely.
The texture of the yashmak is now so exquisitely fine, that the two
square yards of muslin which compose it do not weigh more than a
single drachm!
The feradjé or cloak is an ample outer garment, made of fine colored
bombazine or Thibet, lined with silk, and the edges are trimmed
with embroidery.
Their feet are clothed with yellow chedik, or morocco buskins, over
which paboudj, or slippers of the same color, are worn in the street.
So great is the force of habit and education, that not even the oldest
woman ever appears in public unveiled, although the Koran pronounces
furrows and wrinkles to be all-sufficient disguises for faded charms;
yet, in Turkey, as well as all over the world, the maxim doubtless
is popular, that beauty never dies.
Even the dames of ebony hue, dreading the display of darkness visible,
are most punctilious in covering their charms, thus affording more
distinguished specimens of the wonderful effects of light and shade.
During visits of ceremony, when the feradjé and yashmak are taken off,
a long strip of white muslin is left hanging from the top of the head
down the back, for the purpose of covering the face in case of sudden
emergency. But such accidents seldom occur, as the gentlemen of the
family are informed, as soon as they enter the vestibule of the harem,
that there are strangers within.
Thus equipped, the Osmanli ladies are the most independent creatures
in the world.
As no one dares to look them in the face, from a sense of respect,
it has been customary for them slightly to encourage their timid
admirers by a few furtive glances, if not positive attacks; so that,
on all public occasions, an attentive observer may detect them in
some of the wiles of coquetry, or unmeaning flirtation.
Ladies of distinction are attended by black eunuchs, who protect
them from the too familiar approach of any witless knight, who may
ignorantly trespass the limits of Oriental decorum.
These ebony gentry, from the nature of their position, had become
insolent and overbearing, under the plea of protecting the ladies,
and a native always avoided a collision with them, since they were
sustained by public opinion. But their own extravagant conduct has
put an end to their pretensions and power.
Kizlar Aghassy, or the head black eunuch of the palace, was formerly
so influential a personage as to rank among the ministers of state;
but at the present time, the eunuchs have lost all their pristine
greatness, and are mere domestics of the household.
The carriage generally used by the ladies is called an araba, which
is often very richly ornamented and gilded, and well cushioned in the
inside. The top is covered with a crimson or green ehram or shaggy
cloth, manufactured in Albania, and fringed with gold. This spacious
conveyance, capable of accommodating six or eight persons, has no
springs, and is drawn by a couple of oxen, whose heads are gaily
tricked out, and furnished with a charm against the Evil-Eye. The
ends of the tails are tied to a cluster of red tassels, which are
fastened to a hoop set in the yoke, and gracefully arched over their
backs. This arrangement is to prevent the animals from spattering
the mud with their tails.
The araba is entered by means of a small temporary ladder at the
back. There is a conductor, or arabagee, who leads the oxen by a chain
attached to their heads, and a yanashma, or boy, who walks by the side,
and goads them on.
But many of the families are now to be seen in public, in European
carriages, and they delight in excursions on the water in their
beautiful cayiks.
Nature has been so lavish in her gifts to the land of the Osmanlis,
that they have every temptation to linger for hours in some one of
the many lovely spots which are to be found all along the Bosphorus.
Boghas-itchy or the Bosphorus, is the most magnificent stream in
the world. Its winding way, its shores besprinkled with palaces,
mosques and minaré's, in the peculiar picturesque style of the East;
the gradually sloping hills, here and there studded with airy and
pretty dwellings, and decked out in green array--all combine to
enchant the eye and delight the mind.
There is nothing so exquisite as the cayiks of the Bosphorus. Their
forms are as slender as the canoe's, and certainly more graceful than
the gondola's, defying any other aquatic conveyance rowed by men. They
are always propelled by long sculls of one, two, or three pair,
fastened on the gunnels at about midships, to pins, by leather bands.
The hold is allotted to the accommodation of passengers; there you
recline amid downy cushions, and noiselessly glide along, with the
measured oars of the boatmen, who look like very sea-nymphs, in their
snow-white robes.
By moonlight, the shores, with their latticed and irregular buildings,
seem to be some fantastic realms in the distance; and the blue waters
reflecting back the silvery stars, almost tempt one to plunge beneath
their glassy surface. No wonder, then, that the Osmanlis should
spend most of their time, when the summer sun cheers and invigorates,
in loitering among such scenes as these.
The sultan has numerous kiosks of his own; on the most lofty summits
of the hills, in the most sweetly embosomed valleys, by the margin
of the briny sea, where wave after wave has "noiselessly rolled up
the beach" ever since the waters which were above the firmament were
divided from those below--in the midst of plains, by the roadside,
and in the noisy populous streets of the metropolis, are these tasteful
pleasure bowers ever to be met with, but carefully guarded from profane
footsteps. Generally, however, in the spots thus consecrated by royal
pleasure, are to be found coffee shops, and mats or low stools, for
the accommodation of other classes of this nature-loving multitude,
where at all times the most lovely groups of men, women, and children
are collected.
There are some places of resort more frequented than others. The
Kehat-hané, or as it is commonly known to Europeans the "Sweet-waters
of Europe," at the head of the Golden Horn, Fener-Bahchessy, or, the
garden of the Light House, and Moda Bournou, or the Fashionable Point,
on the Marmora, the Geök-Souyou or the Heavenly Waters of Asia, on
the Bosphorus, Hunkear-Iskellesy or the Sultan's Valley--and Kalender
on the opposite shore.
To all of these places, the people flock in cayiks and carriages,
and spreading their carpets upon the green sward, recline with true
Oriental nonchalance and comfort. The chibouk adds its curling fumes
to the scene, the narghillé bubbles in unison, the favorite kahvé is
handed round in tiny cups, the wild notes of the Lahouta and Kementché
are re-echoed by the verdant hills, while an entire lamb on a spit
sheds its fragrant odors, predicting a pic-nic champêtre. The itinerant
seller of bon-bons plants his tray before you, and you cannot refuse
to partake of its luscious contents--wandering gipsies present you
wild flowers, and proffer their services in unfolding the pages of
destiny. Group after group glides along in the fanciful costumes of
Stamboul, and all are joyous and contented.
Thus the Osmanlis enjoy that sensation of delight, their indescribable
Kief, when for the moment all care and trouble are forgotten, amid
the scenes of beauty which nature so freely lavishes upon all, rich
and poor.
Especially on a Friday, or the Mohammedan Sunday, there are
congregated thousands of persons, people from every clime, and of
every rank--Persians in their peaked papakhs; Albanians with their
fustanels; Circassians in their woolly caps; Zeybeks, or Turkish
mountaineers, in gay costumes and lofty head-gear, and armed from head
to foot; strange men on horse-back, who seem to be made up of gold
embroidery and cashmere shawls; Turkish soldiers, and ebony negroes
on milk-white steeds; the representatives of the different western
powers in their elegant carriages, with their own ladies and families;
European travellers and book-making authors, mingle in the crowd. The
imported beauties of Circassia, sit on their embroidered cushions,
sable guards patroling around, while their lords and masters keep at
a respectful distance.
The Osmanli ladies seem all to be beautiful, especially in their white
and delicate veils, and costumes of such varied hues, with brilliant
diamonds glittering upon their heads, necks, arms, and fingers--in
a word, a Turkish watering-place would eclipse even Broadway itself
in recherchées toilettes and unparalleled beauty; while the charm of
such an endless variety furnishes a study for the artist, and leaves
nothing to be desired to complete a picture exquisitely perfect.
Amid such scenes as these, the blue heavens for a canopy, with nature's
emerald carpeting, the tall and majestic trees bearing the impress of
unnumbered seasons, more beautiful in their leafy verdure than the most
exquisitely carved and marble columns of the palaces of kings; while
the tuneful songsters of the grove trill their plaintive notes--are
displayed the simple tastes and habits of this people, so inaccessible
when they are once within the precincts of their own domiciles.
Here may the stranger, who for the first time treads the shores of
the Eastern world, perceive the real spirit of Oriental society and
manners, as exhibited in the exchange of mutual intercourse and the
etiquettes of life.
The group just before you may be the harem of an Armenian
banker. Though composed of many ladies, yet the Armenians being
Christians, by virtue of their religion, they are not allowed to
number more than one wife in their harems.
Again, under the shadow of yonder tree, are two lovely Mussulman girls,
surrounded by a train of halayiks, or female slaves, and attended
by black eunuchs. Stay your footsteps, for it is the harem of ----
Efendy--a Redjal or grandee of the realm.
This distinguished man had the misfortune to lose his interesting
and beloved wife; and so strong was her memory upon his heart, that
he never sought to replace her loss; consoling himself with these
two beautiful pledges of her love, and lavishing upon them all his
affection and indulgence.
These young ladies alone now constitute the harem of a man who has
perfect freedom to number as many as four lawful wives!
Thus it may be perceived, how far from being synonymous are the two
words Harem and Polygamy.
CHAPTER XXXII.
THE BAZAARS.
The bazaars of Constantinople are built of stone, and lighted from
the top. They seem like long streets covered with arched roofs,
each street being appropriated to some particular merchandise; thus,
there are the spice bazaar, where all kinds of condiments, drugs,
and dye stuffs are sold; the perfumery bazaar, containing the most
delicious perfumes of the East, the otto of roses, Tcherkess-souyou,
and many other essences, also the fragrant pastilles, which are placed
upon the pipe bowls, filling the atmosphere with their delicious
scent, and the singular rat's tails which emit a perfume like musk,
and retain their odor for any length of time; the silk bazaar, the
calico bazaar, the shoe bazaar, depots of most varied and exquisite
embroideries; the jewelry bazaar, the pipe bazaar, where are displayed
the beautiful and costly mouthpieces studded with gems, the long and
graceful stems of jessamine, or cherry, and the gilded and delicately
modelled red clay bowls.
The space occupied by these bazaars is equal to the whole of the
sixth ward in the city of New York, and the internal arrangements are
entirely unlike the shops of this country. There are no front windows,
nor counters. The entire façade of the streets being shelved for the
display of wares and goods, presents a whole front with the appearance
of a vast library, not of books, but of merchandise. A sort of elevated
platform, about five or six feet wide, and two feet from the ground,
extends the whole side, on which both merchants and customers sit,
thus serving the double purpose of counter and seats. The shops are
divided by elbow boards, and a small room is attached behind each
for the storage of goods, etc.
The ends of the streets are furnished with immense gates, which are
closed every evening about an hour before sunset, and are opened
again in the morning about eight.
The whole effect is very interesting; the fanciful wares, the great
number and proximity of the stalls or shops, and the varied costumes of
the venders and purchasers, combine to create rare and beautiful groups
for the pencil of the artist. Carriages, horses, and foot-passengers,
are continually passing and re-passing in crowds.
Occasionally the owners of the shops are obliged to leave their
merchandise for a short time, and during their absence, a covering
of net-work suspended across the front of the stall, is sufficient
to indicate the absence of the proprietor, and also to protect the
property from all depredation.
These bazaars are the favorite resort of the Turkish ladies of
all ranks, and there is no little coquetry displayed by the fair
purchasers, when the unusually handsome appearance of the merchant
tempts them literally to ransack his whole establishment for the
most trifling article. These occasions are also made available
for the purposes of flirtation, assignation, and all other romantic
amusements. It is amusing to observe the ladies as they fit themselves
with their peculiarly colored and shaped chaussure, for they make
no scruple of displaying their beautiful ankles, which are generally
divested of every semblance of hosiery.
The method of buying and selling is peculiar to the country, and
doubtless very entertaining to strangers. The system of Prix-Fix,
is unknown in Turkey, for, as they go on the principle "each
one for himself," no one is content with any price except his own
valuation. Besides, the people are so conceited that any concession on
the part of the merchant is flattering to their vanity. He, therefore
enjoys the privilege of being beaten down, merely as complimentary to
his customers. So the merchant always demands an exorbitant price,
which he has no idea of receiving, in order to give his customer a
fair chance to gratify his vanity, and also to exercise his judgment.
As London has its "Whitechapel Road," Paris its "Temple," and New
York its "Chatham street," so Constantinople has its "Bit-Bazaar,"
emphatically so denominated from the vermin which infest old clothing.
Infinite diversity pervades the garments here displayed, and as
people's clothes always look something like themselves, so the empty
garments seem to tell tales of their good or bad fortunes, whether
the former owners died of plague or small pox, were solitary occupants
of the robes, or shared them with other animalculæ.
At the auction, which occurs every day in these purlieus, poverty may
find a momentary relief by the disposal of its surplus wardrobe, or
may even don the cast off rags of some less fortunate victim of misery.
There is a more respectable auction at the Bezesten every day except
Friday, until noon, where jewelry, embroideries, carpets, arms,
and all sorts of superior second-hand garments are disposed of. Here
the humblest citizen may at least enjoy the semblance of grandeur,
as he invests himself in the same setry which the Efendi discarded
the day before; or an ambitious mother may procure the same toilette
de noces as graced the form of a beautiful Hanum.
The Bezesten is a large quadrangular stone building, surmounted by a
cupola, in the centre of the bazaars, and serves not only as a place
of public auction, but for the safe deposit of valuable property,
either money, shawls, or jewelry.
There are numerous khans in the city, which are constructed in the
form of a hollow square, and are two or three stories in height. The
various rooms are occupied as offices, by jobbers, wholesale merchants,
and bankers.
Goods are sold in wholesale, usually at two or three installments of
31 days each, which are seldom liquidated in less than 6 or 8 months.
The trades are divided into different guilds, called esnafs; each one
governed by its own laws and officers. The chiefs of these guilds are
always Mussulmans, and appointed out of the corps of superannuated
palace attendants, such as boatmen, cooks, and scullions, who are
thus pensioned off.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
KAHVÉS.
We have desires to which we are impelled by nature, and their
attainment is indispensable to the continuation of life; but we have
desires also which are the results of acquired tastes, and which habit
often makes as impulsive as our natural wants. Thus are created the
luxuries of life, and to increase the delight which we derive from
such sources of enjoyment, we endeavor to refine, to etherealize their
forms, and to divest them of all sensual and grosser accompaniments.
Among such luxuries, coffee and tobacco are pre-eminent, which are
made even the basis of hospitality and the bond of social intercourse
by all the Osmanlis. Tobacco, when imbibed in its exquisite forms,
is the source of the most refined enjoyments, creating those reveries
and dreamy sensations which float for the moment about our listless
senses, beclouding with a silvery vapor some of life's dull realities.
Tobacco, ever since its first introduction to the civilized world,
has become so indispensable an item of consumption that it has long
been ranked among the staple commodities of life, and seems to claim
the double title of a natural and artificial taste. Yet, no form of
pleasure and exhilaration has ever been the subject of so much study,
as the ways and means of enjoying this fragrant weed.
All the world are well aware of the different forms in which tobacco is
used, viz., inhaling in the form of smoke, titillating the nostrils by
its powder called snuff, or imbibing the juice into the system by the
process of mastication. The two latter forms of enjoying this luxury,
seem to admit of no refinement, as time has rolled on, and snuffing
and chewing yet remain in their pristine state of simplicity.
On the contrary, no ingenuity has been spared to invent, improve or
remodel the various vehicles by which the more exquisite and graceful
practice of smoking may be enjoyed.
Although tobacco may have been indigenous to America, yet we have
the assertion of Professor Beckman to corroborate the fact, that
this plant was known to the Tartars long before the discovery of
America. As early as the year 1610 a native Turk was paraded through
the streets of Constantinople with a pipe transfixed through his nose,
as the penalty of indulging in the pastime of smoking, which was then
in great disrepute.
Indeed, if we may credit tradition, Mohammed himself predicted "that
in times to come there should be men, bearing the name of Mussulmans,
but not really such, who should smoke a certain weed called Dükhan,
or Tobacco."
Tobacco was introduced into England soon after the discovery of
Columbus, by Sir Walter Raleigh, and thence found its way into Europe;
but not until fifteen years after do we hear of it among the Turks,
whence it seems that the Orientals must have acquired their knowledge
of this plant through some other channel, most probably from their
Tartar neighbors. But from whatever clime we first derived this
fragrant weed, there is no doubt that the earliest method of using it
was in a pipe, and not in the form of cigars, or by imbibing the juice
by chewing--which latter practice was unknown to the early lovers of
tobacco, and is unpractised by the Orientals even at this day.
As the aromatic plant by degrees became essential to the happiness
of mankind, even including the fair sex, doubtless the inconvenience
of the pipe suggested the idea of a more portable form, whence the
invention of cigars.
In Holland, in 1570, they smoked out of conical tubes, made of
palm-leaves plaited together; and subsequently the leaf of the
plant was rolled up, and the present form of cigars adopted. The
only recommendation to the form of cigars is their convenience; but
many amateurs pretend that they thus attain a stronger relish of the
tobacco than from pipes. The cigar is certainly strong in its fumes,
but whether the relish is greater is a matter to be questioned, and
in this form the injurious and even poisonous properties of the plant
are imparted to the system. Besides, there is the close proximity of
the fire to the mouth and teeth; secondly, the condensation of the
essential oil on the lips, leaving a yellow tinge around the mouth;
thirdly, the gradual dissolving of the end of the cigar in the mouth,
producing, by its nicotine property, irritation of the gums and the
salivary glands; fourthly, there is the necessity of always holding
the cigar, which in the course of time imparts a dingy hue to the
fingers; fifthly, the danger of injuring the clothes and furniture
by the constant falling of the ashes; sixthly, the eyes suffer from
their proximity to the heated fumes; and last, but not least, there
is the satisfaction of imbibing the nectar-juice of some black mouth,
for the black nymphs who are employed in this manufacture, always
salivate their handiwork, by way of giving it a smooth and handsome
finish. Surely, could our amateurs but witness the manufacture of
their favorite Havanas, they would forever eschew that form of the
aromatic weed.
But apart from all these considerations, the very convenience of the
cigar becomes an objection; for being always at hand, the too frequent
use of it has converted the pleasure into an evil--such a constant
craving being excited that even the health is injured. Doubtless
this perverted taste, in circumstances where smoking has not been
permitted, as on board ships, behind counters, in offices, etc.,
has induced the pernicious practice of chewing.
Those nations who retain the original, natural, and simplest mode
of enjoying the weed, have never relinquished the pipe, but have
varied the form of this implement, and much beautified and improved
it. The people who have retained the use of the pipe, are the Dutch,
Irish, English, Scotch, Germans, Russians, Turks, Persians, and all
Orientals. In the perfection of the art of smoking the Persians may
rank first, then the Osmanlis, Russians, Hungarians, Dutch, English,
and last of all the Germans.
The Persians rank high in this respect, because they have studied
the philosophy of enjoying the fumes of tobacco in their greatest
purity. This they have attained by passing the smoke through water,
and thus purifying it from the essential oil of the plant. The kaleon
of the Persians, the hookah of Hindostan, the shishé of the Arabs, or
the narghillé of the Turks, is an air-tight vessel partially filled
with water, on the top of which is a bowl to contain the ignited
tobacco. From this bowl a tube descends into the water, and the long
and flexible pipe is inserted into the vessel above the level of the
water. When the smoker begins to draw through the pipe, a partial
vacuum is created in the vessel, which occasions the pressure of
the external air to force the smoke of the tobacco downward through
the small tube above mentioned into the water beneath, where, after
losing its solid particles, it bubbles up into the vacant space above,
and thence through the pipe to the mouth of the smoker.
But ever since the peculiar and agreeable properties of this fragrant
plant have been known, the ingenuity of its votaries has been excited
to invent and improve the ways and means of obtaining the greatest
amount of satisfaction from its use.
In the earliest stages the pipe was made of one entire piece of clay,
but soon the fact was established that this substance became so heated
as to decompose the tobacco. Metallic and other pipes were tried,
but still the same evil existed; until wood became the most popular
material. But that being combustible, the flavor of the tobacco was
deteriorated; and at last the arrangement was made of a stem of wood
with a bowl of clay attached to it, to contain the ignited plant. The
wood was a nonconductor of heat, capable of being constructed of any
length, and moreover, easily cleaned, so that this was pronounced
the great desideratum.
The Turks have displayed the greatest refinement and taste in the
manufacture of their long and beautiful chibouks or pipe-stems, to
which they attach the amber mouth-piece, so agreeable to the lips
and free from all impurities.
A peculiar species of clay was discovered in Turkey so remarkably
argillaceous as to supersede all other substances for the construction
of pipe-bowls; and these Oriental and philosophic smokers have
displayed their wisdom and science in the peculiar form into which
they have molded them. The form of a lüllé, or Turkish pipe-bowl,
is that of an inverted cone, the base of which, when filled with
tobacco, forms the surface. The design of this form is to present a
greater surface of exposure to the atmosphere, and to bring a smaller
body of tobacco in contact with the bowl, which is made as thin and
delicate as the nature of the material will permit, so as to possess
the least quantity of body, and thus less power of retaining heat. The
pipe should be lighted in the centre of the bowl, not with a piece
of paper, which would scorch the surface of the tobacco, but with a
small piece of spunk. At each inhalation the ignited circle enlarges
and extends toward the edge of the bowl, and as the combustion takes
place proportionally downward, it is evident that all the tobacco is
consumed without the assistance of fingering it, as the Germans are
in the habit of doing.
The stem is always of wood, but great care is used in its
selection. Jasmine is cultivated expressly for pipe-stems,
and carefully trained so as to increase in length and uniform
thickness. Cherry-stems are much prized and more durable than the
jasmine, and there is a species of wild fruit tree called germeshek,
peculiar to Turkey, remarkably suited for the use of tobacco, and very
generally used. These pipe-stems are never less than four or five feet
long, and perfectly straight. The object gained by the length is that
the smoke arrives at the lips comparatively cool, having deposited its
more solid particles in the stem, which being perfectly straight is
easily cleansed; for it is an essential point that the pipe should,
contrary to German philosophy, be kept pure. Still another advantage
gained by the length is that the pipe may be easily disposed of for
the moment, resting by the side or against a table without deranging
the tobacco in the bowl, which should always have a small brass tray
beneath it to protect the floor from any accident.
Certainly, then, a Turkish chibouk is unequalled as an implement for
smoking. The pure amber mouthpiece often glittering with brilliants,
the long stem, one unbroken length of slender jasmine, and the delicate
and beautifully-gilded bowl, seem to constitute the very essence of
refinement in the luxury of smoking; and no wonder that the Osmanlis
recline for hours on their silken cushions, and puff and puff again
"ambrosial gales."
One reason of the luxury displayed in the Turkish pipe is, that the
chibouk is an indispensable appendage of hospitality, always presented
to the guests, and constantly changed and replaced by another, each
successive pipe exceeding its predecessor in beauty and value, until
the visit is terminated.
The chibouks and narghillés are symbols of luxury and wealth among
the Osmanlis, as services of silver are appendages of elegant life
to the Europeans, and there is great ambition to excel each other in
the costliness of their appurtenances of smoking. Many of the pashas
and other men of wealth, possess chibouks to the value of $50,000,
ranging from $10 upwards.
Sultan Mahmoud was forced to issue an edict forbidding the hosts to
present them to visitors, and ordering that every one should provide
his own chibouk. Hence the appendage to all gentlemen of rank of a
Chibouk-gy, who always accompanies his master.
The narghillés or hookahs are also very popular, and often of exquisite
workmanship; but pipes being more portable and handy, are generally
preferred. The effort necessary to draw the smoke from the narghillé
is, by some, considered as objectionable, but a little practice soon
habituates to its use, and certainly with this instrument we have
the smoke in its greatest purity.
But it is not only the utility and beauty of the long chibouk which
constitute the Osmanlis the best and most philosophical smokers. There
is no tobacco in the world so delicious as the Turkish; so varied in
its degrees of narcotic strength, or so carefully prepared, and a taste
once being acquired for this species of the plant, all other varieties
become intolerable. A growing taste for this tobacco has of late been
acquired in America, and the increasing demand for this article has
induced speculators to flood the market with spurious imitations or
adulterations both imported and of home manufacture. Even in Turkey the
greatest connoisseurs can, with difficulty, procure the best species;
there are so many varieties offered for sale; the very worst kind,
of which so much is exported to America, being from Smyrna and its
immediate neighborhood. The tobacco most valued, and justly so, for
its pure and aromatic flavor, is only raised in a small district of
Thessaly, in European Turkey, and is called Yenijé tobacco, from the
name of the region where it is cultivated.
There has been concocted a peculiar kind or brand of the plant under
the title of scafarlatti, which seems to have gained great celebrity
in the United States as being the genuine Turkish article. This
appellation is as yet unknown in Turkey, and must have sprung from
the inventive brain of some one of the Barnum race, who would even
enlarge the Turkish vocabulary at the expense of the lingua Italiana.
Not to notice the Western nations, who, with their clay pipes, have
remained in statu quo in the art of smoking, the Germans deserve some
criticism: for they have made many attempts to arrive at perfection.
The material of which the German pipe-bowls are made, poetically
called meerschaum, is ill adapted for the purpose, and the forms of
their stems and mouth-pieces imply entire ignorance of the science
of smoking.
The meerschaum, or froth of the sea, is a native rock formation of
Turkey, and is excavated about two or three hundred miles from the
sea of Marmora. Every particle is exported to Vienna, and it is
never used by the natives, because it is a calcareous substance,
and when in contact with fire undergoes a process of combustion
to a sufficient degree to decompose the tobacco. This fact is well
attested by the circumstance that a meerschaum pipe-bowl is greatly
enhanced in value when by a long and tedious process it has lost
all its combustible properties, and is thus rendered incapable of
deteriorating the tobacco. But why select a substance which requires
so long an apprenticeship, when nature furnishes one well suited for
the purpose? and why esteem an article for its power of absorption
and then prize it the more for having lost it by time and use? German
philosophy only can explain!
Apart from the unfitness of meerschaum for the bowl, the form in which
it is modelled shows how little the nature of tobacco is understood
by those sturdy people; for the form of an elongated cylinder only
serves to surround the weed by a heavy body of combustible material
capable of containing an excessive degree of heat, and thus decomposing
the tobacco. But the main object of these amateurs of the mere-sham
seems to be to deteriorate the fume of the narcotic plant as much as
possible--for to cap the climax of their absurdity, a metallic cover
is nicely fitted to those exquisite pipe-bowls, and thus the favorite
meerschaum is converted into a perfect retort for the manufacture
of tobacco-gas!
Their stems are generally made of the most ordinary wood, short
and curving, and the mouth-piece of the minutest dimensions. The
object in having such small mouth-pieces is to imitate the process
by which infants are nourished, by introducing them into the mouth
and regularly sucking up the smoke instead of inhaling it, as the
Osmanlis do, by merely resting their lips upon the large and oval
surface of the amber. The introduction of the piece into the mouth
immediately excites the saliva, which in part passes into the pipe,
and is otherwise discharged by spitting--a most disgusting practice
unknown among the Orientals. Notwithstanding also the shortness of
the pipe, owing to its curved form and the diminutive mouthpiece,
it is almost impossible to keep it clean. But it seems to be a sort
of German philosophy not only to have their pipes in a most filthy
state, but to delight in and value them the more in proportion to
their antiquity and impurity. Truly there is no accounting for taste,
nor is it any longer a matter of wonder that pigs delight to wallow
in the mire.
If, then, the nations of the East, the Persians and Osmanlis, are
behind the age in other matters of civilization, they have surely
attained the acme of refinement in this delight.
Nature, too, has favored them in the peculiar quality of their tobacco,
and the very indolence of their habits has led them to meditate more
diligently on their favorite luxury. Hence the palm in this matter is
to be given to their musical gurgling narghillé, purifying and cooling
the fragrant fumes, and to the long and graceful chibouk, which a
little care will keep always pure and ready for use. These are well
worth the adaptation of other nations. Some have, however, objected to
the chibouk as not being portable and convenient during a promenade,
as if there were a municipal law requiring all good citizens to smoke
in the streets. If the good taste of the community should render the
use of these chibouks and narghillés popular, there is no doubt that
all the places for public refreshment would be provided with them,
as they now are in Turkey and all over the East.
The coffee plant is well known to be a native of Arabia; it was used as
a drink in that part of the world as early as the ninth century of the
Hegira, and was gradually introduced into the countries of the Levant;
it was many times declared unlawful by the followers of the Koran,
as being of the class of inebriating liquors so often condemned
by Mohammed; but the Eastern nations are so addicted to its use,
that they say, "A cup of coffee and a pipe of tobacco are a complete
entertainment!" It seems that this beverage was made fashionable in
Paris about the year 1668, by a Turkish ambassador. "The elegance of
the equipage recommended it to the eye, and charmed the women; the
brilliant porcelain cups in which it was poured, the napkins fringed
with gold, and the Turkish slaves on their knees, presenting it to
the ladies seated on the ground on cushions, turned the heads of the
Parisian dames. This elegant introduction made the exotic beverage
a subject of conversation; and in 1672, an Armenian at Paris, at
the fair time, opened a coffee house." This establishment was much
frequented by the literati, until the proprietor added the sale of
wine and beer to its attractions.
A similar attempt was made in New York in 1855, but soon relinquished;
notwithstanding the proverbial fondness of the Americans for good
coffee and tobacco. The fact is, their temperament is too nervous,
and their habits are too restless to allow them quietly to sip their
coffee and smoke their pipes as the Orientals do.
Besides, the style of preparing the coffee in Turkey is decidedly
superior to any known in Europe or America, and has met with the
approbation of those who have tasted it either in New York, or in
the sultan's dominions.
"Coffee is found on chemical analysis to contain a highly nutritious
element, known as caffein. This component part of all good coffee
is found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than any other
vegetable principle, and in this respect equals some of the most
highly animalized products, rendering it nutritious as a drink."
The essential oil of the berry is so volatile, that the greatest
care and skill are requisite in its roasting and pulverization;
for if too much burnt, the aroma is destroyed, if underdone, the
water fails to absorb or extract the nutritious material, and if not
properly pulverized, a perfect chemical combination of the particles
in solution is not effected.
There is no doubt a desire among the Americans, to obtain this
beverage in its purity and excellence, as evince the many machines
and contrivances they use; yet they seldom if ever succeed in their
attempts.
The mixture from the grocers, and the ingredients they mingle at home,
such as eggs, isinglass, etc., render it impossible to secure a pure,
unadulterated, fragrant solution of this berry.
The commercial competition is so great that in order to be able to
undersell each other, all sorts of cheaper substitutes are mixed with
the coffee, such as chicory, beans, peas, etc.; thus annihilating
the really nutritive properties of the genuine plant.
In a word, those who have never tasted a cup of good Turkish coffee,
are yet in unhappy ignorance of the peculiar aroma and deliciousness
of coffee as a beverage.
Coffee being the universal and favorite beverage in Turkey, the
first ideas of an Osmanli, upon opening his eyes in the morning,
are associated with his kahvé and chibouk, or coffee and pipe, which
in reality constitute his only breakfast, and are not only used upon
rising, but at all hours during the day, and at the very moment of
his retiring.
These luxuries are invariably offered to visitors, and their omission
is regarded as a breach of hospitality.
Their universal use has given rise to the establishment of
numerous kahvés, which are the resort of persons of all ranks and
condition. They are to be met with in all parts and quarters of
the city, each having its own set of customers, and constituting,
in reality, the only casinos or club houses, where politics are
discussed, business transacted, and the news of the day freely
circulated; in fact the only Bourse or Exchange in Constantinople,
was a coffee house at Pershembé-Pazar, in Galata: and it is only of
late years that a regular Exchange has been erected.
Many of these kahvés are very beautifully constructed, and adorned
with pillars and fountains, with gardens attached to them, where
visitors are entertained with sweet strains of music; and crowds
assemble to listen to the extravagant fictions of the Meddahs, or
professed story-tellers, or otherwise to wile away the time; smoking,
sipping the fragrant berry, and playing backgammon, dama, or mangala.
All games of chance are played by the Osmanlis, only for amusement,
and gambling is not generally practised by them.
The moral effect of these establishments upon the community is
very evident; for though wine is forbidden by the Koran, there are
many mey-hanés, or grog-shops, to be found in Turkey, which are not
generally frequented by people of any pretensions to respectability;
indeed drunkenness is a very uncommon vice, doubtless owing to the
numerous kahvés, which afford the habitual refreshments of pipes and
coffee to the people, with every facility for social intercourse.
On entering the coffee shop, there is an elevated platform on the three
sides, which is furnished with cushions or mats for the accommodation
of visitors. On the sides of the wall are various grotesque pictures,
and also shelves, where the implements of shaving and toilette are
so fantastically displayed as to create a somewhat comic appearance,
and one altogether peculiar to Turkey. At one of the remotest corners
is an elevated fire-place for the preparation of coffee, which is
served in very small cups. The diminutive quantity of this beverage
was so unsatisfactory to one of the sailors of the English fleet at
Constantinople, that upon tasting it he observed, "This is excellent;
just bring me a dozen."
Surrounding the fire-place are shelves, upon which stand the graceful
narghillés, with their brazen and polished mountings, attractive and
pleasing to the eye. But the most active and busy personage in this
establishment is the Berber, or barber, who is not only the shaver,
hair-dresser, and trimmer in general, but extends the province of his
sharp profession to bleeding, cupping, leeching, and tooth-drawing; the
results of which avocations are displayed at the door, fantastically
strung and diversified with colored beads.
Barbers always follow in the train of doctors, and even precede them,
for bleeding is a universal remedy in Turkey, whether the patient
is sick of fever or fright. Indeed, it is the custom for every
body to be bled once a year, generally in the spring, in order to
purify the system. Add to this the frequent application of leeches,
scarifications, and cupping, and it may be easily conceived that
this branch of industry is very profitable; still more so when
it was the custom to shave the whole head, for the convenience of
frequent ablutions. Many, in conformity with European civilization,
now allow the hair to grow, but those who oppose other reforms are
equally unyielding in this respect, and "calculating even to a hair."
CHAPTER XXXIV.
HAMAM, OR BATH.
In the East there is one source of comfort and enjoyment which is
more essential than all else, and that is the use of the bath, which
follows all other pleasures, when excess has wearied the system, and
precedes and prepares for anticipated luxuries physical or mental. This
process of purifying and refreshing the body, is eagerly sought for
as soon as the traveller arrives at Constantinople; indeed seems to
be second only in his mind to the impressions of an entrance to the
magnificent harbor.
The baths of classic memory, where the heroes of ancient Rome were
wont to prepare their sinews for the athletic games, and where the
patrician dames of Pompeii resorted, to add fresher and more glowing
tints to their fair charms, were all conducted on the same principle
as those of Stamboul at the present day.
It is wonderful that modern civilization should not yet have adopted
the refinements of olden times, when they are so essential to real
health and comfort.
As by some mishap this desideratum exists, it would not be mal-a-propos
to describe the real charm and merit of these institutions. The object
of all bathing is to free the skin from the deposits of insensible
perspiration. This idea has been much in vogue of late, as testify
the water-cures, vapor-baths, medicated, sulphurated, etc., being in
reality rather vehicles for disease than remedies. But the peculiar
substance which closes up the pores of the skin, cannot be removed
by simple immersion in soap and water, for, like all other greasy
substances, it is composed of solid and liquid, or stearine and olein,
the liquid part of which may, in a chemical combination, be absorbed
by the water, but the skin will still remain clogged up. Seeing the
futility of the process of immersion, many have supposed that a profuse
perspiration excited by fumigation, vaporization, etc., would carry
off these deposits, by which processes, however, the liquid portion
only would be removed, and the system reduced to a state of perfect
exhaustion. The Turkish baths are neither immersion nor vapor baths;
but the atmosphere is heated by means of flues through the walls, to
a temperature suited to induce a free perspiration, without causing
over-exhaustion; for the interior is so arranged that the bather, in
passing from one apartment to another, gradually becomes acclimated
to the heat.
These baths, unlike many other institutions in the East, are
perfectly accessible to all, both natives and foreigners, and are
the more attractive on account of their entire dissimilarity from
all establishments for the same purpose in Europe or America.
Frequent ablutions, and the greatest personal cleanliness being
strictly enjoined upon all true believers, by the precepts of the
Koran, it is considered an act of piety to erect edifices and public
fountains for those purposes, either during life-time, or by personal
bequest; consequently, such instances of benevolence are by no means
rare, nor are the structures deficient in architectural beauty. They
are built of stone, and adorned with cupolas, besprinkled with globular
glasses, which transmit a softened light to the interior.
The interior is divided into three compartments; the saloon, the
tepidarium, and the bath itself.
The saloon, where the visitors dress and undress, is a large apartment
surrounded on three sides by elevated platforms, on which are placed
mattresses and cushions for the comfort and accommodation of those
who frequent the bath. In the centre of this room there is usually a
marble fountain, whose trickling waters soothe the ear, and add beauty
to the scene, dispensing a delicious coolness to the atmosphere. On
his entrance to this saloon, the visitor is immediately greeted with
Bouyourun, (you are welcome), from the attendants, who conduct him to
one of the mattresses on the platform, where he is undressed, within
a temporary screen, made by holding up a towel to prevent exposure
of the person; for the Osmanlis are sensitively modest, and feel a
feminine delicacy in this respect, so that none ever bathe in public
without being suitably invested.
His watch, ring, and purse, are handed over to the Hamamgy for
safe keeping, and his apparel being carefully folded in a shawl, and
designated by his own head-gear, which is placed upon it, is deposited
by the side of the mattress, now appropriated to his exclusive use.
Notwithstanding all these precautions, very ludicrous mistakes
sometimes occur, as happened recently to a certain soldier, who was
anxious to abandon the ranks, and possessing no other means of changing
his uniform for a citizen's dress, entered the bath en militaire;
where, after having performed his ablutions, he committed the very
slight error of appropriating to himself a neighbor's mattress, with
its accompanying wardrobe, and thus was enabled to make an honorable
retreat en bourgeois.
Being now undressed, enveloped in large towels, and mounted on nalluns,
or wooden pattens, to protect his feet from the hot marble and the
water, the bather is conducted into the Halvet, or tepidarium, which
is heated to a degree a little above temperate, where he reposes on
cushions until he is gradually acclimated to the atmosphere.
When the pores of the skin are opened, and perspiration excited,
the visitor proceeds to the inner room to go through the process
of bathing.
The Hamam, or bath itself, whose temperature is raised to any requisite
degree by means of flues constructed within, and all along the walls,
so as to allow the flames to circulate freely in every direction,
is in many of these establishments, exceedingly beautiful; the dome
being supported on magnificent columns, and the walls and doors inlaid
with large slabs of marble, and adorned with finely chiselled fonts
on all sides, which are furnished with double ornamented brass cocks,
for the supply of warm and cold water.
There is an elevated marble platform in the middle, where the bathers
lie at full length, for the purpose of having their sinews relaxed, and
joints examined. Both the apartment, and this process in particular,
have been most ridiculously described, and, either through malice or
ignorance, most egregiously exaggerated by travellers; for example,
the public are informed that, "A dense vapor sometimes so fills the
saloon, that he (the bather), sees nothing distinctly, but figures
flit before him like visions in a mist. Having walked, or sat in this
heated mist, till a profuse perspiration bursts out, the tellak again
approaches, and commences his operations. He lays the bather on his
back or face, and pins him to the ground by kneeling heavily on him,
and having thus secured him, he handles him in the rudest and most
painful manner. He twists and turns the limbs, so as to seem to
dislocate every joint. The sufferer feels as if the very spine was
separated, and the vertebræ of the back torn asunder. It is in vain he
complains of this treatment, screams out in anguish and apprehension,
and struggles to extricate himself. The incubus sits grinning upon him,
and torturing him, till he becomes passive from very exhaustion."
In the first place, there is no dense vapor in a Turkish bath, but the
heat is produced by the flues in the walls; true, there is sometimes
the appearance of mist, which is only created momentarily by the
quantity of hot water poured over the bathers, and is soon dispersed by
ventilation, for such an atmosphere is never tolerated by the natives.
Now, as to the bather being pinned to the ground in the rudest and
most painful manner, etc., there is more of a spirit of ridicule than
simple truth in this description; it being only resorted to in cases
of rheumatism, and the like maladies, when the patient is extended
on the marble platform, and all his joints examined and rubbed by
the tellak, or assistant, who, owing to the relaxed condition of
the nervous system, easily discovers the seat of any local pain,
and proceeds to dispel it by friction.
Many having experienced decided relief from this mode of treatment,
it is very frequently resorted to in Turkey. No such treatment,
therefore, ever occurs on ordinary occasions, unless the farce
is got up by special request, and for the benefit of strangers or
travellers, who, not content with the usual modus operandi, insist
upon the realization of their own extravagant ideas.
A native of Constantinople had to stop at Smyrna on his way to
America. Being anxious to enjoy the luxury of a bath once more,
he repaired to one of the establishments. As he wore a hat, the
attendants mistook him for a regular Frank or European, and he resolved
to maintain the joke by pretending utter ignorance of all the languages
of the country. After having experienced many absurdities, all novel
to a native, he was at last stretched full length upon his stomach
on the marble platform of the bath. The tellak kneeling by his side
commenced a regular process of pommelling him, and, at the same time,
of cracking his joints. The incubus, as though not satisfied with
his own exertions, now called for assistance from another tellak,
who came and placed himself on the opposite side, when both commenced
in the rudest manner to push their victim from one to the other. The
sufferer, astonished at this extraordinary treatment, was ready to
split his sides with laughter, which one of the tellaks taking as an
indication of uneasiness, observed to the other not to be so rude in
his manipulations. He was, in return, assured "this is the way the
Franks like, the harder the better; also, they must not be allowed
to think they haven't had their money's worth!"
Doubtless an Osmanli would not only be much amused, but astonished,
could he behold the victim of a European vapor bath, as he sits boxed
up, and enveloped in blankets to his throat, parboiled with steam,
and suffocated by the fumes of brimstone; surely he would believe he
had by mistake got into the regions of Eblis.
When the person is in a state of free perspiration, he is seated by
the side of one of the fountains, beneath which are marble basins to
receive the water, both hot and cold, as it flows from the ornamented
cocks, for no Osmanli ever uses the tub, water which has once been
in contact with the body, having imbibed its impurities, is deemed
unfit for further use; therefore, on all occasions, their ablutions
are performed with flowing water, for they do not delight to wallow
and splash in a solution of their own dirt.
The tellak having upon his right hand a kesse, or bag made of raw
silk, commences a gentle rubbing (for they cannot bear any rude or
rough treatment, for which reason the delicate hands of boys are
employed), over the surface of the body, by which the deposits of
insensible perspiration are disengaged from the pores of the skin,
and combining together fall from the person like fibres of paste,
which, to the uninitiated, might seem like the peeling off of the
outer pellicle itself.
In this process consists the real virtue of a Hamam, and to it alone
is to be attributed the peculiar velvet-like softness of the skin of
an Oriental, which even gives them an air of effeminacy.
Immediately after the process of shampooing or rubbing, the marble
font having been filled with water of the desired temperature, it is
poured over the person of the bather from the brass tass, or bowl,
used for the purpose by the attendant. The person is now thoroughly
washed with perfumed soap, again water is poured over him in abundance,
and he is finally enveloped in the havlous, or large napped towels,
manufactured in the country expressly for the purpose, and admirably
adapted to absorb moisture.
Now perfectly purified, with a sensation of languor, the bather
proceeds to the dressing saloon, where, as he reclines upon luxurious
cushions, his whole being seems momentarily lost in that dreamy repose
of half-conscious existence, which is the true kief of an Oriental.
He is only awakened to real life by the assiduities of his attendants,
some gently fanning him, and others presenting sherbet, coffee,
pipes, etc.
The fatigue and languor gradually pass away, as, with a sensation
of renovated existence, he reposes until the heat of his body is
reduced to its natural temperature. His toilette being completed, he
surveys himself in a small enamelled mirror which is offered to him,
and after depositing upon it the amount of money compatible with
his own station in life, he quits the precincts of this luxurious
establishment, light, joyful, and contented.
The Hamams being altogether charitable institutions, there is no fixed
price demanded from visitors, for the use of the bath itself--it
being entirely left to their own option. But the personal services
of the attendants, and the wear and tear of the splendid bathing
paraphernalia not being included in the same category, an adequate
remuneration is of course expected. This also is left to individual
generosity; in ordinary cases, from half to three quarters of a dollar
is sufficient, but there may be no limit to a person's munificence,
nor to the attentions bestowed upon him.
A gentleman of rank once visited a bath where he was an entire
stranger, and although he was not treated with even ordinary
politeness, he left on his departure a sum of money far beyond the
expectations of the attendants, which, opening their eyes, forced them
to make a thousand apologies for their remissness, and protestations
for the future. The gentleman soon after gave them an opportunity to
retrieve their former errors, and contrary to their excited hopes
rewarded them with a couple of piasters (about 8 cents) observing,
"This is what you merited on my first visit, and what you then received
is the equivalent for your present services."
The money collected at the bath is divided into two portions; one
of which is for the Hamamgy, or proprietor, and the other is shared
among the attendants.
Many of the public bathing houses are divided into two parts, one
for men, and the other for women, and when the establishment is not
a double one, Fridays and Sundays only are reserved for men, and the
rest of the week allotted to the ladies.
There are always exquisite specimens of these Hamams attached to
the houses of the wealthy; and their friends and neighbors are often
invited to partake with them of this amusement.
As the Osmanli ladies very seldom enjoy the excitement and bustle
of a crowd, they consider the occasion of going to bathe as one of
the greatest festivity; and they always carry with them every article
necessary for comfort or luxury, the Hamamgy not furnishing mattresses,
towels, etc., as in the case of the gentlemen.
Besides the opportunity of displaying embroidered cushions, napkins,
etc., they find rare and ample amusement in the discussion of scandal,
moral and political, as well as general domestic gossip.
The tout ensemble of a lady's bath is one altogether peculiar, and of
course more enchanting to the eye than the ablutions of their lords
and masters.
The following description of a visit to a bath by a lady long a
resident in Constantinople, may be interesting as the result of
personal observation and experience.
"My first Turkish bath--shall I describe it, dear?--We were a large
party. The mother, her three daughters, three maids, and my humble
self. You would have supposed we were arranging our wardrobes for
a long season of travel--except that the garments would be rather
unpresentable on ordinary occasions. Very peculiar nappy towels, large
as sheets, issued forth from their repose in the vast closets, white
and colored, embroidered and fringed; head-gear of the same style;
curious-looking yellow woollen mittens, to rub with, they told me;
innumerable shining bowls; tremendous stilt-like clogs for the feet,
great bars of soap, precious packages of dyes, paints, capillary
antidotes, perfumes, essences, mirrors in embroidered frames, and a
thousand other etceteras of Oriental toilette, in due order entered the
vast bundles which were in preparation. Next appeared a beautiful rug
or carpet, a rich silken mattress and cushions, and a large piece of
crimson woollen, shaggy material, to envelope the cushions, such as I
have frequently seen spread in the beautiful cayiks. Really one would
have supposed we were to be deposited in some unfurnished dwelling
with all this paraphernalia.
"Then came the private wardrobe of each individual neatly folded in a
separate envelope--and last but not least; the most refreshing array
of fruit, sherbets, and a curious machine, some five stories high,
in whose different compartments were packed various specimens of
Turkish cookery. I began to wonder if we were ever to return from this
bathing pic-nic, so vast were the preparations; but every one was gay,
and nothing was tiresome. Besides we always go to bathe in this style,
at least once a month.
"Our carriage waited at the door, a grand spacious one, covered with
crimson shag, the ends trimmed with deep fringes of gold--no seats,
but plenty of cushions, and two milk-white oxen were our steeds.
"Having duly veiled ourselves, that our 'ornaments' or charms might
not be displayed to the eyes of the unprivileged, we ascended the
steps at the end of our araba, and were seated according to our
respective ranks. The old lady and myself occupying the honorable
places in the front, just behind the tails of the oxen, which were
fortunately looped up, so that they could neither switch us, nor
themselves. There is a decided advantage in this seat, the view
being unobstructed by any coachman, as that dignitary always walks
before the head of the animals. Next to us were the three Hanums,
behind whom were the maids and bundles, and the large pannier was
slung underneath full of its creature comforts.
"I felt as if I had suddenly been transformed into a houri, as they
all declared that the Yashmak converted me into a real Circassian
beauty. In due time we arrived, and descended from our airy
vehicle. As we entered the outer hall of the bath, each one made a
polite temennah to the Hamamgy-Kadun, or the lady proprietress, who was
squatting on her cushions in a corner. This salutation she returned,
to all genuine Turkish ladies (myself included) with the same polite
gesture--but the unfortunate giavours only received a slight nod, no
matter how profound their selams. It is well to be queen somewhere,
even of a bathing establishment.
"The maids, Eleny, Maria, and Sophy, spread out our cushions in one
of the niches upon the elevated platform, and as they modestly held
up a towel as a screen, we proceeded to reduce ourselves to a state
of nature. Enveloped from head to feet in our bathing habiliments,
which hung about us in just such folds as they drape the statues--we
willingly thrust our pedestrial extremities into the great clogs,
inlaid with mother of pearl, entered the antechamber of the bath,
and sat down on the marble platform to acclimate ourselves. Here we
take a coup d'oeil of the strange scene.
"Old women without any charms to conceal, spare themselves the effort,
and multitudes of naked cherubs patter about. Yonder sits a victim
to paints and dyes--her hair now white, suddenly becomes beautifully
black, and the colour streaming over her body bedecks her for the
moment à l'Indienne. But that was all washed off, and they proceeded
to rub a sort of mud all over her body, to take out the pains. Then
she underwent a process of pommelling, as she was stretched out on
the marble floor--poor thing, she had both rheumatism and grey hairs,
and was a fit subject for the most special and extra efforts of the
attendants of the bath. But the children! such victims, of all ages,
from one month upwards, were screaming to the highest pitch of their
little voices, as they were unmercifully rubbed and lathered from the
crown of their heads to the soles of their feet. 'Rough up and smooth
down,' seemed to be no part of the nursery creed of their unmerciful
mothers, but rough all ways. Amid these infantile yells and agonies,
the girls, young and pretty, walked up and down, pattering with their
clogs, and chanting their wild native melodies, as if to put out all
other noises, and the great marble halls did their best to re-echo
all these floating sounds.
"Was I in Paradise or Pandemonium; were these peris or demons, I
could not tell; everything was so bewildering. I was duly rubbed,
and washed like the rest--then it was proposed to take lunch. Our
party en déshabillé de-pechetemal, which means, crimson faces and
napkin drapery, with long and dripping hair, sea nymphs--maids of the
mist--seated themselves on the marble platform in the cooler room,
and the large round tray made its appearance.
"How delicious the iced sherbet, the little balls of rice covered with
delicate vine leaves--the artichokes à l'huile d'olive, the kebab,
the helva--in a word, spite of the strange table, strange costume,
and general humidity, we all had tremendous appetites.
"Then, came a chibouk to the old lady, little cigarettes to the young
maidens--a delicious cup of coffee, and we all raised our voices in
a sweet Turkish song, about loves, jessamines, güle and bülbüls.
"Being thus recruited, we were able to undergo the last ablutions,
and with a complete investment of pure white and delicately perfumed
towels, we proceeded to our first niche in the great dressing-room,
and laid us down to dream, or listlessly to watch the innumerable
toilettes of the devotees to Venus and Love.
"Some, all fair and rosy, were reclining luxuriously like ourselves,
enveloped in fine white drapery, richly embroidered and fringed with
gold, while their beautiful slaves, whose charming figures were not
so carefully concealed, were combing, braiding, and perfuming the
long silken tresses of the fair hanums.
"After we had amused ourselves at the indifference of the really
beautiful, and the minute and strenuous efforts of others to appear
so, we again sipped our coffee and completed our toilette, ready at
any time, to spend another day in such delightful aquatic luxuries. I
could not help contrasting my sensations with those I had often felt
on leaving one of the bathing establishments in my own country. There,
a solitary closet, a tub, from which perhaps some dirty wench had
just emerged, a hook or two, a dirty flesh brush for general service,
etc. True, the warm water was agreeable, and for the moment caused an
oblivion of all antecedents, the hook convenient, and the brush need
not be used. After an immersion of perhaps half an hour, you hurry
on your apparel, and hurry home, all à l'Américaine. But here, in
this Turkish bath, how imperceptibly a whole day had passed away, how
entertaining the scene, how beautiful the fair handmaidens of Nature,
so soft and pure, after their watery festivities. Their skin so white,
their lips so red, the delicate rosy tinge of their cheeks so tempting;
even old age seemed to bloom again, while a universal exhilaration
took possession of us all. A delicate tissue of softness seemed to
envelop my body, and a wonderful feeling of amiability and love for
all the race of human kind glowed within my breast. Every motion gave
me pleasure, and I could scarce recognize myself. Alas! for American
ladies, they can never feel the true oriental Kief in bathing; for
they have no cushions to repose upon, no softly murmuring fountains
to lull their senses, nor any such relaxation from all external and
internal woes, as follows a Turkish bath. In vain they tinge their
complexions, powder, and wash, they cannot attain this to kalon of
beauty, nor be electrified by this wand of enchantment, which renders
the humblest Cinderella of the Orient lovely as a princess, and says
avaunt to all the modern mysteries of the toilette."
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE RAYAS OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS.
THE ARMENIANS.
The whole population of Turkey may be estimated at over 35,000,000
of souls, including the principalities and other tributary states,
which, if deducted, leaves 27,000,000 in Turkey proper, half of whom
are Mohammedans, and the rest Christians and Jews.
The Christians are of various denominations, each denomination
constituting a separate community, governed by their own municipal
regulations, and guided by their respective spiritual heads.
Hitherto the Europeans have regarded the Greeks as the predominating
Christian population of the East; the truth is, among the different
communities the Armenians stand most prominent, because not only next
to the Bulgarians they rank high in numbers, but in reality supersede
all others, politically and morally, in their relations with Turkey.
Although the Bosnians, Bulgarians, and the Greeks profess the same
religion, they do not surrender their respective nationalities. The
Greeks themselves are not, therefore, so numerous as is generally
supposed, but have erroneously been confounded with the others.
The Armenians, of whom there are 3,500,000 in Turkey, like other
nations, have evinced their pride in national pedigree, by tracing
their origin to Haig, the grandson of Noah, and they call themselves
Haiks even at the present day.
In the year of the creation of the world, 1757, Jewish chronology,
soon after the flood, and even during the lifetime of Noah, Haig,
or Haicus, with his sons and daughters, resided in the country of
Senaar, in Mesapotamia.
While they lived in those regions, the famous Tower of Babel was
erected, and the Babylonian Empire was founded by Belus.
Haig, unwilling to submit to the authority of Belus, returned with
his family, of about 300 persons, to the country of Ararat, where he
incorporated himself with the earliest settlers in those regions, who
had never wandered thence, and retained all the undisciplined habits
and freedom of their utter seclusion from the progress of civilization.
It is more than probable that he and his descendants continued to
speak the language of their father Noah, and in that case there is no
more ancient tongue than the Armenian. Besides, while the descendants
of Shem and Ham emigrated to other lands, those of Japhet who begat
Gomer who begat Togarmah, the father of Haig remained in the vicinity
of Ararat, and there is no reason to suppose ever changed their
language. The Biblical history records the confusion of languages of
those who were in the land of Shinar.
The Armenians are as ancient as the Jews, and have ever remained as
separate a people; and even amid all their vicissitudes have preserved
their nationality with equal tenacity.
But Haig was not left long in quiet, for Belus, fearing that he would
become too powerful a rival, marched against him with his warriors all
clad in iron armour. Yet destiny was about to found a great nation,
and the small band of Haig proved victorious--an arrow from the bow
of Haig, transfixed the proud Belus as he was retiring. Thus was the
first impetus given to this embryo empire.
Victory and the spoils of war inflamed their breasts and strengthened
their resources; cities were erected, one on the very spot of this
battle.
Haig was a man of noble appearance, and superior intellect, which
must have had a perfect development during his long life of five
hundred years.
His immediate descendants built fortified towns, adorned with
palaces, and caravanserais. A very beautiful city was built by
Semiramis, the queen of Babylon, which occupied 12,000 workmen and
600 architects. She was enamored of Arah, the Armenian king, who was
surnamed the Handsome, and being a widow wished to marry him. But he,
disgusted at her demonstrations of excessive fondness, refused the
alliance. The consequence was, that she determined to take him by
force, and marched with her troops into his dominions.
But all she obtained was the dead body of the beautiful young
Armenian prince, which she endeavored to restore to life by magical
incantations.
The beauty of the country and her own romantic associations, inspired
her with the desire to erect a monument of her magnificence, and she
founded the city of Shamiram, now called Bitlis, on the borders of
Lake Van, which became ever after her summer residence.
The Armenians enjoyed a long period of prosperity, waging successful
wars with the Syrians, Medes, Persians, and other neighboring nations,
until they were at last conquered by Alexander the Great, and remained
tributary to him for 176 years, under governors appointed by him and
by his successors the Seleucidæ.
They now changed masters, and enjoyed great prosperity under the
Arsacidæ or Parthians who freed them from the Seleucian yoke.
Their prosperity lasted for 580 years, until internal dissensions
rendered them easy victims to the intrigues of the Greeks and Persians,
who eventually divided this beautiful domain between them. Oppression
of all sorts, spiritual and temporal, now pervaded the once peaceful
and happy homes of this fated race.
Royal blood could not quench the fire of its rage, profusely shed by
the princes, in defence of their people and religion. Idolatry was
enshrined upon the altars, and the priesthood sacrificed to fire and
tortured upon the rack.
A temporary relief was afforded to the country by the rise of the
Bagratian princes, who were the descendants of Abraham, and who
first came into Armenia during the captivity of the Jews under
Nebuchadnezzar.
Bagarat, the founder of this Jewish line of princes, was distinguished
in the reign of Valarsace, and was appointed by him to the hereditary
office of placing the crown upon the king's head, and all his
descendants were known as the Bagratians. Now it happened that Ashot,
one of their number, so pleased the caliph in his administration of the
affairs of his own tribe, that in the year 859 A. D., he appointed him
governor of Armenia, and dispatched Aali-Ermeny, an apostate Armenian,
to invest him with magnificent robes of state. Although the nation
was again restored to comparative tranquillity under this race of
princes, yet internal disunion and foreign oppression did not cease
to harass the country, and the Greeks finally destroyed the Bagratian
monarchy. But Melik-Shah, of Persia, regained his sway over Armenia,
and the power of the Greeks was thenceforth annihilated.
The Armenian princes of the line of Reuben now governed the country,
and it was during their reign that the Crusaders took Jerusalem;
and while they were besieging Antioch, Constantine, the second of
these Armenian princes, supplied the army with provisions. He was in
return made a marquis, and received the order of knighthood, besides
many valuable presents. This line of princes was extirpated by the
Egyptians, who poured an immense and devastating army into their
country, and after besieging Leo, the last king, for nine months,
took him and all his family to Cairo, with all the royal treasures.
They remained in prison seven years, because they refused to renounce
Christianity. By the intervention of king Juan, of Spain, they were
set at liberty, and received from him many valuable possessions,
such as houses and lands.
King Leo even appealed to England and France to assist him in regaining
the throne of Armenia, but without any good success. He died in Paris,
A. D. 1393, and was buried in the convent of Celestine.
His wife Mary, who belonged to the family of Lewis Charles, king of
Hungary, died at Jerusalem.
The Armenians next fell into the power of the Ottomans; with their
last king their glory perished.
The sunrise over Mount Ararat, the meridian brightness over the fairest
portion of Asia, and the last departing rays shed over the regions
of Silicia, are all merged into the dark pages of history--where but
few ever seek to read the tale.
The ancient religion of the Armenians was that of the Magi, but the
introduction of Christianity among them was coeval with Christ.
Abgar, one of their kings, having had occasion to send ambassadors to
the Roman general Marinus, in Syria, upon the return of his messengers,
was apprised of the wonderful and miraculous performances of the
Messiah.
Giving a ready credence to the report that this was indeed the Son of
God, a second embassy was sent to entreat the great healer of the sick
to visit the king Abgar, who was laboring under a distressing malady.
The letter was as follows: "I have heard that the Jews murmur against
you, and seek to destroy you. I have a small but beautiful city,
which I offer you to partake with me. It is sufficient for us both."
It is said that the Saviour received this embassy with much
satisfaction, and dictated to the Apostle Thomas this remarkable
reply,--"When I shall rise to my glory, I will send you one of my
disciples, who shall remove your pains, and give life to you and
those around you."
After the Ascension of Christ, according to his request, Thaddeus,
one of the seventy, was sent to Edessa, who, having instructed the king
in the true faith, baptized him and the citizens of that metropolis.
The seeds of Christianity were thus early sown in Armenia, still but
little progress was made until the appearance of Gregory of Cesarea,
three centuries later, who created such a revival of this faith,
that he was called the Illuminator, and his followers, the Gregorians.
The Armenian resembles the Greek church in some respects. They are
both Episcopal in their government. Both acknowledge the Trinity,
and the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin, and perform the ceremony
of the Lord's supper, or the mass, with even more pomp than the
Catholics. The Armenians believe the divine and human nature of Christ
to be so blended as to form but one; whereas the Greeks declare them
to be entirely separate. Therefore the former, in administering the
Eucharist, use only wine, and unleavened bread, and the latter mingle
water with the wine, and use leaven in the bread. The Armenians, in
case of necessity, partake of the holy sacrament in other Christian
churches, whereas the Greeks acknowledge no church ceremonies as
canonical but their own; always re-baptizing those who may wish to come
under their spiritual jurisdiction. Their manner of signing the cross
even differs, the one making it from left to right, and the other from
right to left. They celebrate the church festivals on different days,
and find many other occasions on which to disagree.
The Armenians are not, therefore, to be confounded with the Greeks,
nor with that sect called Arminians, or the followers of Arminius,
but as a distinct people, originally inhabiting the country about
Mount Ararat, and professing Christianity at an early period.
The reason why they are known to the Western nations as the Armenians,
and not by their proper name, Haiks, is, that when Aram, one of
their early kings, and the father of Ara the Handsome, succeeded
to the throne of Armenia, he, by his wisdom and policy, so greatly
extended his dominions, that the power and valor of the nation was
acknowledged from Mount Caucasus to Mount Tauris. This prince first
raised his people to any degree of renown, both by the exercise of
arms and the cultivation of the arts of peace; so that contemporary
nations, in making mention of the actions performed by his subjects,
called them the deeds of the Aramians, or the followers of Aram, a name
which has been corrupted into Armenians; the country which these people
originally inhabited was called by them Haikastan, or Hayasdan, and
those regions which were added to their territories by the conquest of
Prince Aram were called Aramia, or in contradistinction to each other,
the former were called the Greater, and the latter the Lesser Hayasdan,
which the Western nations transcribed as Armenia Major and Minor.
It will be perceived that they were at one time a very powerful and
flourishing nation, and were the envy of all the neighboring tribes;
facts well authenticated even by Roman historians.
In the reign of Tigranes, many unfortunate princes, who had fallen
prisoners to the Armenian king, were obliged to stand in his presence
in an attitude of Oriental deference, with arms folded on their
breasts, in token of perfect submission. Four of these wretched
monarchs had also to attend him constantly in their regal robes, and
when he appeared in public on horseback, his royal captives preceded
him on foot.
Mithridates, the uncle to the king Tigranes, rendered himself no
less glorious. He extended his dominions even to the borders of
Scythia. His subjects and tributaries comprised twenty-two nations;
and it is related that this prince conversed with equal fluency in
all the languages spoken by those peoples. Even Hannibal, the great
Carthaginian general, found an asylum in Armenia.
In the time of their greatest prosperity, they amounted to 30,000,000
of souls, but constant wars, with their attendant train of famine,
disease, and death, have sadly diminished their numbers, and reduced
them to less than five millions.
The depopulated condition of their provinces, and the internal
dissension of their princes, favored the depredatory invasions of
various nations, Romans, Greeks, Persians, Saracens, and Scythians,
or Turks. These last finally crossing over the Caspian Mountains
in hordes, subjugated them, and took possession of their immense
territories, and have ever since held them in bondage.
The Armenians were the first Christians who were subjugated by
the Mussulmans, and as they were the earliest Christian subjects,
they became, in their mutual relations, the model or measure for
all succeeding conquests; for the Turks, profiting by their first
experience, ever after practised accordingly.
The conquerors, imbued with a spirit of Islamism, added to their
barbarities a system of religious persecution. The cruelties which
they committed on the inhabitants were horrible in the extreme. Aged
men and women were often tied in pairs, and then together cut in
halves. Pregnant women were frequently ripped open, and their unborn
babes wantonly thrown into the air; infants sucking at the breast were
torn from the arms, and massacred before the eyes of their distracted
mothers, so that human blood flowed in torrents throughout the country,
and well may the Osmanlis of the present day regard the very name of
Turk opprobrious, as it reminds them of former barbarities.
At last these persecutions and cruelties ceased; for perceiving the
advantages which they might derive from this hardy and industrious
race, and finding them also strong and enthusiastic in their faith,
the persecutors moderated their religious ardor, and adopting a more
politic course, opened negotiations with the Armenians, and willingly
compromised by making them tributaries, with the payment of Kharadj,
or poll tax, as recommended by the Koran; and by kind promises for
the future, their servitude was rendered more tolerable.
Besides, with the design of ruling them through religions prejudices,
the Armenians were granted the privilege of being governed by one
of their own priesthood, to whom they gave the title of Patrik,
or Patriarch.
The people being now deprived of all civil rights, regarded this
Patriarch as the sole bond of national unity.
The Turks, on their part, finding it an easy policy to govern the
mass through one individual, allowed great privileges to this office,
and the free exercise of the principles of their own religion in
its administration.
The power of the Patriarch was so unlimited, that he could even
levy taxes, punish any person with the bastinado, imprison, or send
into exile.
National enthusiasm and the politic tolerance of their conquerors,
in the course of time, led the Patriarchs into the abuse of their
privileges.
Cloaked though they were under the mantle of religion, their despotism
was not always exempt from impunity. For the people, long accustomed
to regard the church apart from temporal authorities, could not brook
such conduct in their high priest, and therefore there has always
been a strife between them and the priesthood.
The government has sometimes sustained the popular will, and at others,
the rights of the pontiff, as interest or policy required.
This community constitutes the very life of Turkey, for the Turks long
accustomed to rule rather than serve, have relinquished to them all
branches of industry. Hence the Armenians are the bankers, merchants,
mechanics, and traders of all sorts in Turkey.
Besides, there exists a congeniality of sentiment and community
of interest between them and the Mussulmans. For, being originally
from the same region, they were alike in their habits and feelings;
therefore, easily assimilating themselves to their conquerors,
they gained their confidence, and became and still are the most
influential of all the rayas. There is not a pasha, or a grandee,
who is not indebted to them, either pecuniarily, or for his promotion,
and the humblest peasant owes them the value of the very seed he sows;
so that without them the Osmanlis could not survive a single day.
This is a fact so well attested, that Russia, with the design of
undermining Turkey, always endeavored to gain over this part of the
population, and in 1828, when she took possession of Erzeroum, she
enticed the Armenians of that place to acts of violence and revenge
against the Turks, so that when the Russians retired, the Armenians
were obliged to emigrate with them.
Besides, in the demarcation of her boundaries with Turkey, she so
managed as to embody Etchmiadzin, the see of the high pontiff of the
Armenians, within her own territories, for the express purpose of
governing them through their spiritual head.
Even the correspondent of the London Morning Post, in speaking of
the corruptions of the country, in his ribaldry, termed the Armenians
the cloaca of Turkey, accusing them of being the means through whom
all the filth passed.
Naturally endowed with a brave and warlike spirit; of noble and
intelligent appearance, and great athletic vigor, their services have
ever been invaluable to the country; it has only been their protracted
servitude which has reduced them to the timid and cautious temperament
that they now possess.
Some have even distinguished themselves as statesmen, patriots, and
faithful servants. Had it not been for the good advice and diplomacy
of Abro, or, as he is commonly known to Europe, of Boghos Bey, Mehmed
Aali could not have secured to his heirs the independence of Egypt.
Again, at the conclusion of the last war with Russia, when Sultan
Mahmoud was writhing under his inability to meet the peremptory
demands of his enemy, an Armenian came to his rescue.
Kazaz Artyn was a most noted personage of the Armenian nation. Having
risen from the lowest rank in life, he finally became the head of the
Royal Mint, and the friend and factotum of his majesty Sultan Mahmoud,
who never passed a day without seeing him.
He was so much beloved by his imperial master, that although he was a
giavour, his majesty visited him at his last hours. This condescension
was not only remarkable in the king, but more wonderful in a Mussulman;
for the Koran forbids all intimacy with Christians. "O true believers,
take not the Jews or Christians for your friends; they are friends the
one to the other; but whoso among you taketh them for his friends,
he is surely one of them." This passage explains the antipathy of
the Mohammedans to all Christians, as well as to the institutions
of Christianity.
Sultan Mahmoud being of an imperious nature, waived such religious
considerations when impelled by gratitude, and no one of the ministry
dared to breathe a censure against the imperial will; for as sultan,
he was not only above the law, but the law itself. Besides, every
one knew the extent of Kazaz Artyn's services to his royal master.
At the end of the last war, when the Russian indemnities were to be
paid, there was not a single piaster in the treasury.
The sultan, in despair, shut himself up, and forbade any one to
approach him; but, reckless of consequences, Kazaz Artyn rushed into
the royal presence, and anxiously begged to be informed the cause
of his majesty's grief. "The Muscovite giavours are insisting upon
their indemnities, and I am told the treasury is empty." Whereupon
Kazaz Artyn assured his majesty that their demands should be met,
even on the very next day.
He accordingly summoned all the bankers, and collected the necessary
funds, which were transmitted to the Russian Embassy to their utter
astonishment, in the course of twenty-four hours. This money remained
at the Russian Embassy, out of which they were accustomed to pay
the salaries of the whole legation, etc. The bankers were afterwards
repaid in beshliks, a species of spurious coin, which are now being
redeemed by the present sultan.
The cultivation of the arts and sciences were of an early origin with
the Armenians.
In the reign of Valarsace, the Parthian, 150 B. C. the archives of
Nineveh were searched by Maribas, and made to contribute to the
literature of the nation; and during Arsaces' reign, the city of
Armavir was embellished with several pieces of beautiful statuary,
which were taken from the Greeks. Three, in particular, those of Diana,
Hercules, and Apollo, well executed, brazen and gilt, were from the
hands of the celebrated Cretan artists Scyllis and Dipænus.
Duin, Ani, Edessa, and several other cities, were noted for their
architectural beauties, and, considering that Armenia is coeval with
the Babylonian Empire, there is no reason to doubt, that researches
into its territories would be as interesting, as those of Mossoul.
The Armenians having no alphabet of their own, adopted the characters
of other nations, viz., the Syriac in religious writings, the Greek
in scientific works, and the Persian for statutes of law. But at the
commencement of the 5th century, a monk, Mesrop by name, invented the
present characters, which have been in use ever since. They are neat
in appearance, and capable of representing any articulate sound; thirty
nine in number, and styled by Lord Byron, a Waterloo of an alphabet.
There is no doubt that they early possessed some literature of
their own, prior to the invention of their alphabet, for even the
writings of Eusebius were originally discovered in the archives of the
Armenians. Many very eminent works, generally in MSS. on martyrology
and the affairs of the church, are still extant, and it is reported
that the old monasteries in Armenia contain records of history, which,
if brought to light, would prove great additions to the annals of
very ancient times.
They boast of classic authors, to whom Lord Byron alludes in eulogistic
terms, and the works of Moses of Khoren, which have been translated,
are highly appreciated by the literati of Europe.
The Armenians of the present day are also many of them distinguished
for their acquisitions in both Armenian and Turkish literature; and
so great is their aptitude for acquiring languages, that they are
often well versed in the various dialects of Europe. Even the children
are in the daily habit of speaking three different languages, viz.,
Turkish, Armenian, and Greek.
In their domestic relations, living in constant intercourse with the
Osmanlis, and the lapse of time throwing the veil of oblivion over
their past sufferings, all their habits of life and general ideas have
become assimilated to those of their masters, with those distinctions
only, which result from the tenets of their faith. Self-respect has
forced them to seclude their women from the public, and hence they
have the same domestic arrangements, style of dress, etc., as those
of the Osmanlis.
Their social institutions, like other Orientals, are very patriarchal,
every man being a monarch in his own family, and the children are
educated to observe the greatest deference and respect to their
parents. No son or daughter ever dreams of contracting a marriage on
their own responsibility, but the destined bride is selected by the
mother and her friends, and is thankfully accepted by the happy son.
The betrothal having been arranged with all due ceremony, the
wedding takes place at the appointed time. The marriage ceremonies
are celebrated both at the house of the bride and of the bridegroom
during three days.
The bride is conducted by the bridegroom and his friends to the house
of her intended husband, and the ceremony is performed on Sunday
at midnight.
The bride, muffled and tinselled, is conducted to a carpet in the
middle of the saloon, where she is placed opposite to the chosen
bridegroom. Their right hands are joined by the officiating priest, and
they are severally demanded whether they will "love, cherish, and honor
each other." The man is also asked, as he stands opposite to this mass
of shawls and tinsel, "will you take this girl, whether she be lame, or
deaf, or humped, or blind," to which he responds with due resignation,
"even so I will take her." A silken cord, twisted of two colors, is
now tied round the head of each, and after a long service, reading of
prayers and chanting, the happy pair are pronounced man and wife! The
bride, over whose varying emotions during the interesting ceremonies
an impenetrable veil was suspended, is now led by two attendants to
a corner of the sofa, where she is temporarily enthroned on a cushion.
The propitious moment has at last arrived, and the legalized husband
may ascertain for himself the measure of charms to which he is
allied. While the agitated maiden sits, oppressed by shawls and
tinsel, and internal anxiety as to the effect she may produce upon
her future lord, he slowly approaches, pale and tottering--for he
has sworn to have her, blind or hump-backed. With such alternatives,
even a moderate share of good-looks, or the mere absence of actual
deformity, would almost constitute beauty.
The attendant bridemaids exultingly raise the veil, and the new husband
ventures to take one look of love and admiration, in return for which
he places a valuable ring on her finger, and slowly retreats to muse
upon his fate, which is not often so deplorable, for the Armenian
girls are generally pretty. At all events, he submits with the best
grace, for, unlike his Mohammedan compatriots, he has no retrieve or
door of escape, but must abide by his bargain "till death us do part."
The veil is again dropped, and the bride left to her own meditations.
She receives presents from all the guests, so that the tickets of
admission to an Armenian wedding are no trivial affairs to one's
pockets.
Three days after the ceremony, the newly married couple are at length
left to a better acquaintance, unmolested by veils or spectators.
The Sunday following, the bridegroom proceeds to his father-in-law's
house, to acknowledge his gratitude for the possession of such a
charming treasure, etc., all which is expressed by the ceremony of
kissing the hands of the parents of the maiden, and this Sunday is
called, par excellence, the "Kissing Sunday."
These are the real Armenians; but about a hundred and fifty years
ago there was a secession in favor of Catholicism. The Catholic
Armenians, of whom there are about fifteen thousand in the metropolis,
and seventy-five thousand throughout Turkey, although distinct from
the Roman Catholics, have assimilated themselves, in many respects,
to European habits; forgetting their nationality and language, and
aping customs and usages they do not even understand; so much so,
that a very amusing work has been written in Armeno-Turkish under the
title of Acaby, as a burlesque upon such inclinations. They are not,
therefore, to be confounded with the orthodox Armenians.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
THE GREEKS.
The Greeks, who sent the trophies of their versatile genius, their
graceful architectural adornings, and exquisite paintings to the
temples at Rome, and over the western world, whose classic lore is
yet the theme and model of the learned, once gloried in the possession
of the proud Stamboul.
About a century after its foundation by Constantine, it is said
to have possessed "a capital, a school of learning, a circus,
two theatres, eight public and one hundred and fifty-three private
baths, fifty-two porticoes, five granaries, eight aqueducts of water,
four spacious halls of justice, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces,
and four thousand and three hundred and eighty-eight houses, which,
for their size and beauty, deserved to be distinguished from the
multitude of plebeian habitations."
The magnificent temple Ayia-Sophia, dedicated to the Goddess of Divine
Wisdom, rose like a Phoenix from its ruins, under the liberal patronage
of Justinian, and the assiduous labors of ten thousand workmen during
five years, eleven months, and ten days.
This was the shrine of the Greek Faith, and those walls glittering
with golden mosaic and precious stones, re-echoed the Kyrie eleêson
of the adoring Christians. The magnificent altar of precious metals
and glittering gems witnessed the prostrations of patriarchs and
their acolyths--and the impenetrable veil was suspended before the
Holy of Holies.
The great city was the arena for the sports of the pleasure-loving
Greeks; sometimes in the race of wild beasts with each other, and
again in the more terrible contests of the gladiators.
The Bosphorus was alive with human freight, youths and maidens, wooed
by its blue and sparkling waves, delighted to dream of love as they
glided over the gently-heaving waters.
The shores were gay and gladsome, as the enamored throng tripped
through the mazes of their fantastic Romaica to the tinkling music. But
the Grecian prince is hurled from his throne, and the grave and sombre
Moslem sits there, the despot and bloody conqueror. The great temple,
which rivalled even that of Solomon, is suddenly divested of the
symbols of a Christian faith. Its mosaics of the saints which adorn
the walls are obliterated, its cherubim are torn down, its altar
demolished, and nothing left of all the gorgeous decorations. The
bare, unadorned niche--the mihrab or index to the temple of Mohammed,
is instituted, and "Allah-il-Allah," is henceforth the cry of the
Faithful.
Yet, they say, the distant chant of the last officiating priest of
the Greek religion still lingers within the walls, from whence he
will issue when the edifice is restored to its original worship.
Sports are over--maidens and youths are coy of their charms, for a
change has come over the spirit of their dreams.
The liberty of woman is shackled, and the dominion of seclusion
established. Certain quarters of the city are assigned to the Greek
subjects--and externally their very dwellings assume the dusky tints
of bondage and ruin.
Truly their glory has departed, and their name as a nation is only
sustained by the shades of their ancient heroes, who even after their
last degenerate descendant has mouldered into dust, will continue
to flit around the civilized world, scattering the scintillations
of early genius amid earth's darkness. Yet, as it is their nature to
boast, they point into the past, and even one day hope to sit on the
throne of their ancestors eis tin polin of yore.
There are no less than a million and a half of Greeks in the Turkish
dominions, of whom 150,000 live in the capital. At the time of their
conquest, the Turks allowed them the same municipal immunities and
privileges as they had done to the Armenians.
As the Greeks seemed to approximate more nearly to the western nations
in their habits, than any of the other rayahs, the Osmanlis supposed
them more fitted to act as intermediaries between themselves and the
European states; they therefore became the first interpreters of the
Divan. Many of their number have thus risen to wealth and distinction,
and after long services they even succeeded to the government of the
Danubian Principalities--yet the Osmanlis have never felt the same
sympathy and confidence towards them as for the Armenians, who, though
not so advanced in civilization, possess better stamina of character,
greater honesty, and more congeniality of temperament. Many Greeks,
even now, occupy places of trust, which are confided to them rather
from political motives than as marks of peculiar confidence. The
office of saraf or banker, which is equivalent to homme de confiance,
has never been successfully filled by them, though attempts have been
made to do so; this post has invariably been assigned to the Armenians.
It is customary with the Osmanli grandee, when appointed to some
high station in the provinces, before their departure, to leave with
their banker a certain number of blanks to be filled by him whenever
occasion should require their use. And many even entrust their personal
property to the sarafs on their pilgrimage to Mecca, for safe keeping.
One of the principal dignitaries of the present day, who is reputed
for his irascible temper, was some years ago involved in a dilemma. One
of his attendants was found to be guilty of a liaison with a slave in
his harem. The circumstances were aggravating, and his pride could
not be satisfied, save by dire revenge; and the two, instead of
being married, according to the custom of the country, fell victims
to his fury. But after the commission of the rash act, he repented,
and began to fear the disgrace which would probably fall on himself.
In his perplexity he sent for his old Armenian saraf, and when
closeted with him, poured his sorrows into the bosom of his confidant,
relating to him the whole circumstance, weeping bitterly for his act,
and asking advice and consolation.
Now, no Osmanli has as yet evinced such confidence and sympathy
towards the Greeks.
Besides, the pride of the Mussulmans is not compromised in associating
with the Armenians, who are so much like their masters in manners and
language, that often it is impossible to detect any difference. On the
contrary, although some of the Greeks have distinguished themselves in
Oriental literature, especially Yacobaky, in his History of Russia,
written in elegant Turkish, yet they have never been able to speak
the language of the country correctly.
The moment they open their mouths, out leaps the native accent. This
is equally true of the French and other languages, and even their own
beautiful Hellenic can scarce ever be heard in Stamboul, a miserable,
mongrel island dialect being the substitute.
The character of the Greeks of Constantinople is thus admirably
portrayed by the author of Anastasius, the best work extant on Turkey.
"The complexion of the modern Greek may receive a different cast
from different surrounding objects; the core still is the same
as in the days of Pericles. Credulity, versatility, and thirst
of distinction, from the earliest periods formed, still form, and
ever will continue to form, the basis of the Greek character; and
the dissimilarity in the external appearance of the nation arises,
not from any radical change in its temper and disposition, but only
from the incidental variation in the means through which the same
propensities are to be gratified. The ancient Greeks worshipped a
hundred gods, the modern Greeks adore as many saints. The ancient
Greeks believed in oracles and prodigies, in incantations and spells;
the modern Greeks have faith in relics and miracles, in amulets and
divinations. The ancient Greeks brought rich offerings and gifts to
the shrines of their deities, for the purpose of obtaining success
in war, and pre-eminence in peace; the modern Greeks hang up dirty
rags round the sanctuaries of their saints, to shake off an ague,
or propitiate a mistress. The former were staunch patriots at home,
and subtle courtiers in Persia; the latter defy the Turks in Mayno,
and fawn upon them at the Fanar. Besides, was not every commonwealth
of ancient Greece as much a prey to cabals and factions as every
community of modern Greece? Does not every modern Greek preserve
the same desire for supremacy, the same readiness to undermine, by
every means, fair or foul, his competitors, which was displayed by his
ancestors? Do not the Turks of the present day resemble the Romans of
past ages in their respect for the ingenuity, and at the same time,
in their contempt for the character of their Greek subjects? And does
the Greek of the Fanar show the least inferiority to the Greek of
the Piræus in quickness of perception, in fluency of tongue, and in
fondness for quibbles, for disputation, and for sophistry? Believe me,
the very difference between the Greeks of time past and of the present
day arises only from their thorough resemblance, from that equal
pliability of temper and of faculties in both, which has ever made
them receive, with equal readiness, the impression of every mould,
and the impulse of every agent. When patriotism, public spirit, and
pre-eminence in arts, science, literature, and warfare were the road
to distinction, the Greeks shone the first of patriots, of heroes, of
painters, of poets, and of philosophers. Now that craft and subtlety,
adulation, and intrigue, are the only paths to greatness, these same
Greeks are--what you see them!"
Although the Armenians have borne the first impetus of Mussulman
fanaticism, and consequently suffered more than any other Christian
subjects, yet the Greeks excel them in their animosity towards their
conquerors.
This is owing to their excessive bigotry, and it is recorded that
even while the enemy was before the gates of Constantinople, they
were discussing the great question, whether the Holy Ghost proceeded
from the Father or the Son.
This disposition to cavil on religious points, has made them a ready
prey to the domineering priesthood who have completely swayed the
multitude. These priests being a mean and grovelling set, utterly
indifferent to the moral elevation of their people, are ever ready
to make traffic of the sins of those who are still more ignorant
than themselves; the consequence is, that lying, cheating, stealing,
and other immoralities to any extent, are very common among this
community, for a few piastres, or even paras, cancel the crime and
lull the conscience.
The whole community suffers from such a system, as business and other
necessities bring them into constant contact.
The servants are generally Greek, and there is no virtue in lock
and key in any house. You suddenly find your wardrobe emptied by
imperceptible degrees, and the jars of preserves gradually diminish,
as they are repeatedly licked and sleeked over again.
Divorces are easily obtained, or they are granted after the priest
has extorted the last para he can from the applicant.
The corruption of the masses through their spiritual leaders is
painfully evident. The most dire superstition rules every mind,
and the veriest knaves, and even prostitutes, follow their injurious
callings without compunction, if under the patronage of one of their
saints. Christos kai Panayiaumo is an expiatory charm, and the dingy
portrait of any saint in the calendar annihilates the bad effects of
every crime. The most abandoned class of women are generally Greeks;
and while they perform the obscene rites of Bacchus and Venus, they
watch with holy trembling the twinkling taper which burns night and
day before the anointed picture of their guardian angel. This flame,
like the Vestal fire, is never suffered to go out, if perchance,
Dii avertite omen!
The Greek islands furnish a miserable set of men and women to the
population of Turkey, who come to gather spoils in the metropolis, and
then return to enjoy them at home. Robberies, and even assassinations
are committed by them, which, if they are detected, are either
protected by the Greek legation, or punished by a short imprisonment,
and then the miscreants are again let loose, hardened in crime,
and thirsting to revenge their temporary detention.
It is only within the last two years, that a famous bandit, in
the vicinity of Smyrna, has been captured. Katurjy Yanny and his
merry men had long infested the neighboring mountains, detaining
gentlemen on their travels, carrying them blindfolded to their den,
and only liberating them upon the receipt of a handsome ransom
from their friends. The eagle of the mountain was at last caged in
the humble prison of Smyrna. While other miserable victims were
peeping through their latticed and iron bound casements, whining
out a feeble cry for alms, he, the proud chieftain, sat upon a
sofa, dressed in the picturesque costume of the Greek mountaineer,
his eyes flashing defiance, and his lofty bearing all princely,
as he puffed his narghillé, and chatted with those about him. But
he must now feel somewhat crest-fallen, as day succeeds day, and he
still dwells within the awful precincts of the Bagnio, whence, like
the rest of its miserable occupants, the once proud Katurgy Yanny,
sometimes emerges, broom in hand, and chained to his fellow, to sweep
the streets of the metropolis.
The restless temperament and fanaticism of the Greeks have ever made
them the most turbulent of the Ottoman subjects, and ready instruments
in the hands of Russian diplomatists for sowing the seeds of discord
and confusion in the Turkish empire.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
THE JEWS.
The Jews of Turkey, of whom there are about 170,000, are by no means
exempt from the sorrows and curses of their race. As if conscious that
there is no escape from the contempt of the rest of the world, they
are willing to undertake the meanest of earth's callings, literally to
"eat the dirt" of their Moslem masters.
Content to appear like the refuse of humanity, they strive to
accumulate the miser's hoards, and receive the buffetings and cursings
of their neighbors as if they were choice blessings--usury of all
sorts, whether upon sequins or old clothes, peddling the meanest of
wares in the streets, rag-picking, and filth-gathering in general,
are their means of earning a livelihood.
The venerated names of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, are almost needless,
or seldom heard--for the one comprehensive word Yahoudy (Jew) is the
nomenclature of the whole remnant of the chosen people. Yahoudy come,
and Yahoudy go, are the summons and dismissal--while the rabble boys
mockingly shout Tchefut, and snatch some fragment of their tattered
garments.
Public sentiment having stigmatized them as utterly depraved, they
have no incentive to honesty, and not daring enough to commit any
atrocious crime, they become more expert in petty larcenies and like
misdemeanors. They are even accused of stealing a Christian child
once a year, in order to mingle its blood in their festivals, as a
retaliation upon the Christians in general.
This, of course, refers to the mass, who, victims as they are to misery
of all sorts, cannot be expected to practice the kindlier virtues which
distinguish those among them to whom a better fate has been allotted.
There was a celebrated Armenian banker, Tcharazly, who, having fallen
under the displeasure of a certain Turkish grandee, was suddenly one
day seized and hung before the door of his own dwelling; his property
confiscated, and his only son cast into prison.
A certain Jewish banker, Shabgee by name, had long been the friend
and neighbor of this family; and now, in the time of their trouble,
he spared nothing for the liberation of the unfortunate young man,
the son of his friend; which, he not only succeeded in obtaining,
but reinstated him in all the honors of which he was the lawful heir.
The Jews are to be found in many villages on the Bosphorus, though
their principal quarter is at Balat, on the Golden Horn. They live
also in other parts of the city, but as may naturally be inferred,
in such places as no one else would inhabit.
Their houses are like bee-hives, literally swarming with human
life; even one single room serves for the only home of several
families--and the streets of their quarters are almost impassable,
from the collection of garbage and all sorts of refuse, which are
indiscriminately thrown from the windows of their dwellings. Their
misery may partly be attributed to their practice of very early
marriages, as before a man is twenty-one years of age he is burdened
with the care and support of a numerous family, which reduces him to
such poverty, that even the meanest economy can scarcely enable him to
support his own existence and that of the helpless beings dependent on
him. The exactions of the Khakhams or priests, which are very great,
help also to impoverish this pitiable people. It is no wonder,
then, that they appear in rags and tatters--and herd together in
styes--yet it is most amusing to see them on a Jewish Sabbath. The
filthy gabardines which they wore in the week, as they exercised
their various callings, being laid aside, and bright and gaudy finery
substituted, in which they strut about the streets, seeming to be other
beings, and to have no relation to the wretches of yesterday. But, of
course, in such a population there will be various grades of misery,
and a few families of wealth are to be found among them.
They have some of the domestic institutions of the Osmanlis, and the
women wear thick white veils, but without concealing the features,
as in the case of the Turkish ladies. The young virgins are allowed
to wear their hair long and flowing--but after marriage it is
carefully concealed beneath a towering and cumbersome headgear,
which is a wonderful illustration of the tenacity with which this
singular race adheres to ancient usages. It recalls to mind the days
of Pharaoh and the people of Israel, for the similarity is perfect
between their present head-dress and that of the mummies who have
reposed in their tombs ever since the family of Joseph "took their
cattle and their goods, which they had gotten in the land of Canaan,
and came into Egypt, Jacob and all his seed with him."
As they were originally from Spain, their language is still a mongrel
dialect of that country.
They are very strict in the observance of their religious rites
and ceremonies--never transacting any business on the Sabbath, nor
performing any domestic duties. Even their lamps on Sabbath evenings
must be lighted by some one of their Christian neighbors--and should a
conflagration occur on that day, their helplessness is truly pitiable,
for they will see all their property consumed without making one
effort to save it.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS.
At the time that the Turks took Constantinople, there was a colony of
Genoese Venetians established in a suburb of the city, called Galata,
who were allowed to retain this quarter, which occupies the declivity
of the hill with the summit called Pera, where the European emigrants,
attracted by commerce and other motives, as well as the foreign
dignitaries, have ever since continued to reside. The warehouses of
the merchants are at Galata, which is connected with the city by a
floating bridge across the Golden Horn.
A little above Galata, on the Bosphorus, is a Turkish quarter called
Top-hané, or the department of ordnance, through which access
is usually obtained to Pera. The most busy and varied scene is
constantly presented to the eye at this quay. The graceful cayiks
with their delicately pointed prows lie on all sides, some waiting
for the convenience of passengers, and others engaged in disembarking
their living freight. It is wonderful to observe the dexterity of
cayikgees. Now, a single boatman pushes up his slender craft, and
succeeds in gaining just space enough to slip in, so closely packed
are the boats all around. It may be some lonely veiled woman who is
safely landed. Anon arrives the large omnibus cayik, as completely
stored with live stock as the New York avenue cars on a Sunday.
The boatmen vociferate, and shove alongside in spite of all their
competitors; the motley group of passengers, Mussulmans, Armenians,
Greeks, Jews, Franks, all huddled together, move not, speak not,
but fasten their eyes upon the shore, with the firm conviction,
that as they were safely landed the day before, they will be equally
successful to-day. A prolonged, shrill musical cry, ya-lu-nuz! hushes
every other sound; there is a simultaneous movement among the cayiks,
a moment's pause in the hurrying crowd on shore, as way is made for
the embassy boat with its gilded prow, flying colors, and five pair
of oars. The Eltchy-Bey! is whispered from ear to ear.
Even the beautiful canopied boat of the sultan sometimes passes this
way; propelled by twenty-eight men, it rapidly glides over the waters,
with the regular music of the plashing oars. The cannon peals forth
a royal salute from the shore, and the landing of Top-hané resumes
its bustling appearance.
Thousands of men, women, and children, are daily landed here, of every
rank and clime, and doubtless, in each bosom one similar emotion,
for a moment displaces all others: gratitude for the footing gained;
then rushes in the vast tide of human hopes, cares and anxieties. The
platform upon which they step, is wretchedly out of repair; the keahya,
who gains a slender pittance by holding the boats from which so many
are safely landed, is invariably a trembling old man; and as the crowd
necessarily jostle each other, it is astonishing that there are so
few accidents. But Oriental self-possession has its careful measured
gait, and it is rarely that any stumble, though Turkish indifference
leaves cracks, crevices, and chasms in yawning boldness. There is
a large open area, just after you land; apparently Nature's great
warehouse, solid ground for a foundation and the vault of heaven for
a roofing. Along the shore lie numberless small coasters, whose crews
and cargoes are alike begrimed with darkness, for they have come down
from the Black Sea to supply the city with charcoal, the ordinary fuel;
and immense piles of wood proclaim the demolition of forests of trees.
There, too, is a great market place, or rather a centre of attraction
to the venders of various merchandise, whom time and custom have
established in their prerogatives, for there is no building whatever
for the convenience or protection of this sort of commerce. Here, then,
in the open air, are butchers, green-grocers, fishmongers, bakers,
fruiterers, and basket-makers, an epitome of practical life. But here
too, is the mosque, the minaré, and the fountain, carrying away in
its limped flowing, impurities both spiritual and physical.
This fountain is a beautiful specimen of Oriental architecture. It is
an edifice about 30 feet square, built of pure white marble. Beneath
the cornice which surrounds the roof is a border of arabesque
characters, richly gilt, and from each side the water flows into a
marble basin.
Not far from this fountain is a cluster of small shops, for the sale
of Kebabs, tobacco, bonbons, and also many small Kahvés.
The Kebabs are small pieces of mutton, passed on iron skewers,
and roasted over fires of ignited charcoal, and, though the
establishments are small, they are constantly filled with groups,
who surrounding the copper dishes, seem to attest the excellence of
the viands. After satisfying the more imperative calls of nature, a
visit to the tetune-gee, or tobacco merchant, is inevitable; for not
to mention the almost hourly use of the far-famed weed, this luxury
must always succeed every other repast. Then a moment of kief at
the coffee shop, the fumes of the chibouque, a sip of mocha's berry,
a little neighborly chit-chat, or it may be a business rendezvous,
and you are ready to proceed up the steep hill to Pera. Some mount
their own horses, which the grooms hold in attendance, others avail
themselves of the more jaded looking animals who are waiting to be
hired, and sometimes the Turkish ladies,--rather antiquities of the
species, deliberately mount the leather hunch on the Hamal's back, and
they too ride up, while others still are obliged, either from a lack
of a like independence, or other stringent motives, to go on Shank's
mare. Those who do not ascend the hill, disperse in various directions
through the many narrow by-ways which diverge from the great area.
Pera is the Elysium of shop-keepers, the very essence of à la Franga,
the Bey-oghlu or dwelling-place of Princes, the rendezvous of Ministers
Plenipotentiary, Ministers resident, Consular dignitaries, secretaries
of Legations, Dragomans, Attachés, and all the élite of society--a
swarming hive of Diplomacy--only get inside of the hive, even as drone,
and you are comme il faut. There is a certain imposing, mysterious,
impenetrable air about every member of this haute noblesse--each one
is full of importance, each one is condescending to the other; all
are on the qui vive for a stray word, an echo of the all-important
diplomatic measures of their rivals; all are cautious not to betray
by look or action any embryo intrigues or manoeuvres. Thus social
intercourse consists of gracious words, unmeaning civilities, and
mutual distrust and suspicion.
Those who have been born in Pera, and others who have been bred
there, have one and all become so very diplomatic that conversation
ordinarily dwindles into monosyllables, general inquiries after health,
and prognostics of the weather.
The simplest question is regarded by them as an inquisitive intrusion
upon their prerogatives and peculiar sphere, so that, not to exceed the
bounds of decorum, absolute silence becomes the only alternative. But
when any sudden change takes place in the Turkish administration, or
a new public measure is adopted, there is a jubilee in this social
clique--for the discussion of the pros and cons, probabilities and
possibilities, are talked over until the original theme is lost sight
of, and all the excitement subsides--unless something else turns up
at the Porte.
Intermarriage has produced a race of Perotes who never having had the
benefit of finding their proper level by contact with a more elevated
and extended sphere, consider themselves the very salt of civilization,
and are even more afraid than the members of the Legations themselves,
of mingling in general society.
The honorable distinction of being a Perote, does not only depend upon
birth, but a still more essential point is allegiance to the Catholic
religion. For the embassies under whose wings these colonies first
sheltered themselves were the representatives of Catholic nations. The
Oriental principle that religion and nationality are synonymous,
had its effect even on this mongrel race; who, by degrees came to
consider Catholicity as also identical with Europeanism.
Enjoying peculiar immunities as protégés of these embassies, in their
imagined superiority, as Catholics, to all around them, they regarded
the rest of their fellow citizens with even greater contempt than the
Mohammedans felt towards the Giavours. This soi-disant aristocracy
is not confined to Pera, but is to be found scattered throughout the
Levant, at Smyrna and other commercial ports.
Ignorance of the language of the country where they are born is
considered only a proof of their superiority to the other nations; but
for their ignorance of all languages and miserable mongrel dialect
called lingua Franca, we can find no excuse either aristocratic
or diplomatic.
This lingua Franca is a corrupted dialect of the Greek language,
interlarded with French and Italian; and in writing the Roman
characters are substituted for the Hellenic, as being more
distingués. Even family names have been modified so as to ignore any
traces of parentage--such as Sazan Oghlou into Salsani, and Zipgy
Oghlou into Zipcy, etc.
When the foreign ambassadors first became residents of Pera, as long
ago as the days of Suleyman, they found this mixed people apparently
a connecting link between the East and the West; and being themselves
then ignorant of Oriental peculiarities, and the languages of Stamboul,
they were glad to receive these Perotes as employés, dragomans, etc.
Thus, by degrees, they became a sort of necessary evil to the foreign
diplomatists.
Greater familiarity with the country, and still more, a just
appreciation of these aspirants to aristocratic honors and functions,
has, however, of late years, opened the eyes of the foreign
representatives; and each embassy is now furnished with employés
from the home government--consequently, the Perotes are now decidedly
below par.
Adventurers, who, in their own lands, would never be heard of, in Pera
become the guests of ambassadors and statesmen, and aping the airs and
manners of their distinguished patrons, manage to pass current. Women
at every other word murdering their mother tongues, are transformed
into ladies of quality in the palaces of the representatives of their
respective sovereigns.
But these are trifling matters. The outcasts of European society
here find a safe retreat, and are even protected in their outrages,
while the various protégés of the different Legations, natives and
foreigners, constitute a privileged community.
Russia has endeavored to increase her own power by inducing the
rayas to adopt her protection, in order to secure any claims whatever
against either Turks or Christians.
"The most desperate ruffians of Southern Europe are in Turkey under
British, Austrian, French, or Greek protection. The English give
impunity to Ionians and Maltese; Austria has her Croats; French
passports screen a crowd of Levantines, whose professed attachment
to Catholicism is allowed to be the cloak to any knavery; while
Greece and Naples send a contingent whose character may be easily
imagined. While the worst of them have protection for delinquencies,
the whole enjoy immunities of the most unjust kind.
"They can only be sued in the consular courts of their own
country. They pay less taxes than their neighbors, and in some places
none at all. They are wholly beyond the jurisdiction of the Porte,
while for all claims on the government, or on Turkish subjects
they can bring into play the whole machinery of their embassy. Each
representative is almost bound to make every private complaint an
affair of state, and, in fact the real or nominal Austrian, Briton,
or Frenchman, practically turns the diplomatists of his sovereign
into his own special attorneys whenever he pleases."
This picture is not too highly drawn, and shows that if the Mussulmans
need reforms, the nominal Frank population are in a somewhat similar
category.
The effect which has been produced upon the minds of the Osmanlis by
such specimens of civilized Europeans has certainly not been favorable;
and it is to be hoped that more extended intercourse with Europe will
counteract these influences.
The Diplomatic corps and the Perotes, though the Upper Tendom, and
codfish aristocracy of Pera, are by no means the greater part of
the population.
English, Americans, French, Germans, Greeks, Armenians, and even
Moslems, reside there, preferring the bustle and public amusements
which are to be secured, to the quiet atmosphere of Stamboul. The
opera house and the fashionable emporiums of commerce have their
attractions. On a Friday, it is amusing to see the crowds of Turkish
women in the different shops, relentlessly handling the merchandize to
the infinite annoyance of the proprietors themselves, who are not so
patient as the merchants of the Bazaars. Often the most extravagant
prices are paid for trifling articles of luxury, by the Osmanlis of
wealth, who, even in this sort of trade, seem to feel that everything
à la Franca must cost them dear.
The modistes have grown rich by selling them feathers, flowers,
and haberdashery, and the confiseurs have exchanged their honeyed
stores for bags of Turkish gold. There is a great fondness for dress
in the population of Pera, and the balls, soirees and reunions are
so numerous that many shopkeepers, having reaped a rich harvest, have
retired from business. Feast days and holidays, which are so frequent,
require their appropriate garb, and the Carnival, its masquerades
and costumes de bal.
All the people, high and low, are determined to dress well, and
display their toilets, so that the marts of fashion and luxury are
never deserted.
The great rendezvous for these happy souls, when their supremest
efforts in outward adorning are accomplished, is the Grand champ
des Morts. Whither they resort in crowds, and sit among the verdure
that springs from the dust of their ancestors, the white tombstones,
the only records of those who once walked in their midst! Occasional
funeral trains, slowly moving towards the newly opened graves, and
the mournful strains of the requiems of the dead, do not distract
the thoughts of those who are bent in chasing the shadows of Time,
even while the realities of Eternity are passing in review before them,
and the very spectres of the tombs seem ready to burst their cerements,
and start up in mocking derision.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE.
As in every country there ate two classes, viz., the aristocracy and
the people, so in Turkey, there are the Kibars and the Nass.
Aristocracy may everywhere be sub-divided into the aristocracies of
birth, of letters, wealth and position.
In Turkey, all hereditary rank is vested solely in the person of
the sultan; titles are conferred at his sovereign will and pleasure,
and they do not descend from father to son.
There is not, therefore, a regular or systematic aristocracy, and
the spirit of democracy is there very evident.
Although the Osmanlis hold all learning in great respect, yet
Turkish literature having hitherto been confined to the Koran and
its commentaries, the aristocracy of letters has consequently been
constituted by the expounders of the faith, who arrogate to themselves
the modest appellative of Ulema, or savans. Nevertheless, the people
have the greatest reverence and consideration for Zadés, or those
who are the descendants of illustrious and enlightened parents.
L'argent fait tout is known and acknowledged by all the world; and
wealth is everywhere the great highway to power and distinction;
elevating its possessor above the common herd. But the love of
riches usually begets the love of power; for, N'est on que riche,
on veut être grand, this is most evident in a country where the great
tenure by which individual wealth is preserved and personal respect
commanded, is official authority. Hence no Osmanli is contented,
however great his wealth, without some civil function by which he can
avert the overbearing disposition of his rivals. Indeed, so great is
their ambition for supremacy, that wealth and everything else is but
secondary in their estimation.
Therefore the only aristocracy in Turkey is that of wealth combined
with position.
It is not generally merit that raises a man to power in any part
of the world, but still less in Turkey. No matter what his previous
avocations, or utter ignorance, it is supposed that when Allah, or
his proxy, the Padishah, gives the office, that within the turban of
distinction lie all the sense and wit needed for the post! Hence,
what if the cobbler become the pasha, or the shop-boy Grand Vezir,
Allah Kerim!
This a country where versatility of talent is very remarkable, if
not great depth of genius; for one day a man may be head cook to
his majesty, the next a captain pasha, or minister of finance! Thus
are often realized the tales of the Arabian Nights, and the humblest
subject may dream of greatness, and wake to find himself a Redjal,
or grandee of the realm.
Indeed the only real statesmen and true patriots may be reduced to
few individuals, all told, viz., Reshid, Aali, Fuad, Riza, Rifaat,
and Omer Pashas.
Besides, those who have been long employed as servants of the palace,
or have proved themselves cunning buffoons, or able intriguers, are
rewarded by some official post instead of a royal pension, provided
they are of the Faithful. For elevation to office is the privilege of
the Mussulmans only, who, considering themselves lords of the soil,
as they are the proprietors, are unwilling to consign their rights to
their rayas, on the principle that "to the victors belong the spoils."
The very existence of the rayas has rendered the Osmanlis proud and
arrogant in their peculiar right as Mussulmans; and, though holding
all high places themselves, they have been willing to call in the
assistance of their subjects in secondary employments. The rayas
thus employed, are, of course, but a small proportion of the whole;
to all the rest life dwindles into a tinkering, jobbing affair.
This mushroom aristocracy, which was formerly ephemeral, like Jonas'
gourd, springing suddenly into existence, coming to maturity in an
incredibly short space of time, then perishing ere the sun of its
glory arrived at meridian height, has now, by virtue of the Tanzimat,
which secures the enjoyment of life and property, attained a sort
of permanency.
These officials being originally of the people, it may be supposed,
would feel some sympathy for them; but the moment they come into power,
they become an exclusive class. Because in Turkey the patriarchal
idea that everything belongs to the sovereign, has led them to regard
the government as not made for the people, but the people for the
government; they think, therefore, that all advantages should accrue
not to the governed but to the governing, thus reducing the mass
into the state of individual nonentities, or mere conduits for the
resources of the empire. The persons in authority seek, therefore, only
the prosperity of the government, and constitute, as it were, a sort
of fiscal administration, rather than one mindful of the good of the
commonwealth. Hence, whenever a project of public utility is proposed,
the first idea that crosses the mind of a Turkish functionary, is what
direct advantage may accrue to the government? With such perverted
ideas, the aristocracy, who are termed par excellence the Kibars,
though few in numbers, are like leaven to the whole mass; domineering,
exciting, and often corrupting the best materials; and as men are
creatures of circumstances, their moral and temporal conditions
are but the results of the good or bad government under which they
live. The evils, corruptions, and miseries existing in a community,
are not therefore to be attributed to the mass indiscriminately,
but rather to the influences that surround them.
Baluk bashdan Kokar is a common proverb with the Osmanlis, or as is
the fountain so will be the streams which flow from it; therefore
a government which exercises its prerogatives to revenge, not to
punish; to remove the offender, not to benefit others by making an
example of him; to deal death-blows to all who stand in the way;
to encourage self-aggrandizement rather than study the wants of the
community; to prefer the intriguant before the patriot; to patronize
the buffoon rather than the statesman; such a government cannot fail
to stamp its sanguinary and arbitrary character upon its subjects.
A country where the insidious poison is ever at hand, and where
the innocent and new-born infant who may endanger the heirs to the
throne is forced to yield the life it has but just received; in such
a land the same scenes will be enacted in its darkest corners, and
the peasant will mimic the lord as far as he dares.
The selfish and corrupt principles of the government have naturally
had their pernicious effects upon all its agents, and through them,
upon the people.
The sultan is the great sun of the system--around whom the many lesser
orbs revolve. While the pashas and dignitaries are themselves planets
of no small lustre, attended by innumerable satellites of their own.
The grandee holds the cable of power upon which tremblingly cling a
numerous train, from its summit to its lowest extremity--all sustained,
as long as the rope is firm; all crushed, when it slips from the hand
of its supporter.
Indiscriminate patronage being a principle, favoritism and corruption
become of necessity a natural consequence. Indifferent men are
therefore raised to places of trust, to perform duties which can
never occupy their minds or engross their intellect, but the want of
money is their first and their keenest necessity; for "N'est on que
grand? On veut être riche. Est on et grand et riche? On veut être
plus grand et plus riche."
Thus all patriotism is subverted--and individual interest and position
are made the sine quâ non of existence.
Before they were enervated by conquest and the possession of vast
tributary states, which intoxicated them with sudden wealth, the
Turks were brave in battle, faithful to their friends, and generous
to their enemies. But being inured to war and excitement, peace and
tranquillity only reduced them to a state of sloth and idleness, and
inspired them with conceit and arrogance to all around them. Content
with being the lords of the realm, ignorant and unfitted for the arts
of peace, all their affairs were consigned to their rayas.
The titles of Vali, Pasha, Mussellim, etc., were enjoyed by them while
their provinces and Pashaliks were either farmed out to subordinates
or managed by their Armenian sarafs or bankers--who received and
disbursed their incomes; so that the Osmanli grandee had nothing to do
but lounge listlessly in his Keosk and puff his long chibouk--varying
his life by occasional official visits to the Porte, or in the softer
seclusion of his harem.
The enviable condition of indolence, and the desire to be surrounded
with the trappings of wealth, created a rivalry among them, not to
attain high and honorable posts as the champions of their country's
welfare, but to ensure the means of luxury and display--and to excel
each other in supremacy.
Hence they have arrived at the acme of perfection in the arts of
adulation, servility, deceit, and intrigue. Real virtue is of no
avail, where successful vice only is admired, and the most insidious
and faithless ever the favorites of fortune. Indeed, ingratitude
is stamped upon their character, for an Osmanli raised to power,
would turn the enemy even of his patron, should he dare to cross his
schemes. This is so proverbial that they have a saying--Bir Osmanli
bir piré itchin koss kodja yorgani yakar! an Osmanli would burn up an
entire coverlet to rid himself of a single flea! or in other words,
no consideration would deter him from any sacrifice that would promote
his own interests--examples of which are of daily occurrence in their
political machinations.
In such a malarious atmosphere, it would be supposed that every moral
virtue would perish, and only noisome weeds choke the soil--but such is
by no means the case. As the richest fruits and most fragrant flowers
often grow from the very putrefactions that lie on the surface of
the earth, so the people in Turkey, surrounded by such a depraved
and corrupted court, are themselves often specimens of nature's
best handiwork.
The native honesty of the Turks is proverbial, and in illustration
thereof the following story has been widely circulated.
An Englishman having landed a cargo of goods at one of the
custom-houses in the East, was unwilling to leave them at the wharf
unguarded; when he was told by the officer, that there was no need for
apprehension, as there was not another Englishman within fifty miles!
Whatever may be the truth of this statement, it may be observed,
that some of the Osmanlis of the present day have so far advanced in
civilization as to even excel in this respect their present honorable
Allies! For, the idea that to rob the treasury of the sultan is not
defrauding the people, has led the officials into all the wiles of
corruption and systematic cheating--so that cheating and bribery may
be considered as the corner stones of this vast edifice.
In the purchase of government supplies there is a display of honesty
on the part of the officials, and also of the European merchants, who
endeavor to underbid each other in prices, which may be considered by
an outsider as ruinous, but on the contrary, always proves profitable
to the co-partners in the speculation.
On a certain occasion 780 pieces of cotton cloth were palmed off upon
the government by a European merchant for 78,000 pieces! for which
amount the Treasury gave a note.
Such instances are not of rare occurrence, nor confined only to
officials--they pervade all classes. Hence the scullion cheats
the cook; the cook the steward; the steward the master; the master
the efendy; the efendy the pasha; and the pasha the sultan; and why
not? Where the strife for aggrandizement and power is so great, and the
battle not to the brave and good, but to the wealthy and intriguing,
there is little or no inducement to honesty and good faith.
Russia seems to understand our people better than any other Europeans,
owing perhaps to her natural proximity; also since "a fellow feeling
makes us wond'rous kind," she knew where to touch the sensitive
Osmanlis, when she provided Prince Menschikoff, on his late mission
to Constantinople, with a surplus fund of 300,000 Paul Imperials,
or over a million of dollars!
It is not, however, only in Turkey that bribery and corruption
prevail--even Europe, France and England, the very centres of
civilization, have furnished sad examples of personal aggrandizement,
under the garb of patriotism.
Nevertheless, it is eminently true, that those of the people who have
retained their primitive simplicity are truly honest and confiding;
while others have become contaminated by the corruption of the court,
and the grasping spirit of European adventurers.
Many of the peasants remove to the metropolis, with the hope of
bettering their condition. Some of them become hamals, or porters,
Tellaks, or attendants of the baths; cayikjys, or boatmen, common
laborers, venders in general, and others, domestics in private houses.
A certain Armenian, native of Van, immediately upon his arrival in
Constantinople, was engaged as a scullion.
In course of time, he complained to his companions that he was not
doing a good business on such a salary as he received, and he wondered
at their apparent prosperity.
His simplicity was, of course, ridiculed at first, and through
compassion, he was initiated into the tricks of the trade. He was told
that he must always add to his account the customary Khamin of 20 or
30 per cent., a technical term, expressing overcharge, or cheating,
not understood by novices.
So the next day, when this simple son of Armenia presented his account
to his master, at the foot of the bill there was an item, which seemed
not quite intelligible to him. He therefore called for an explanation;
when the servant, in all his native simplicity, informed him that,
that item was the Khamin, or the sum total of his cheating, which his
companions assured him was customary, and allowed to all servants in
their daily purchases! How fortunate and consoling it would be, if,
instead of being drugged in small doses, we could thus be informed
of the sum total of all the cheatings to which we are subjected!
The most unlimited confidence is stamped upon all their reciprocal
transactions, and they intrust each other with any amount of goods,
without demanding a receipt, check, or counter check. In the exercise
of their avocation as hamals, they are often intrusted with bags of
money untold; they are generally the watchmen or guardians to the
stores and mercantile houses of the Franks, and in any deficiency
or robbery, their character and integrity are never questioned or
suspected.
The Osmanlis possess the domestic virtues of kindness and affection
in a remarkable degree; their love of offspring is very great, and
their patient endurance of the whims and caprices of their women
quite exemplary.
Merhamet, or compassion, is an essential component in their character,
and induces them to extend a most unlimited patronage even to the
lower orders of creation. Hence the streets in Turkey swarm with dogs,
the roofs of the houses with cats, and the domes of the mosques with
venerated pigeons, which, one and all, are objects of special charity.
The thousands of cayiks that ply up and down the Bosphorus, acting as
aquatic omnibuses, besides their designated load of passengers, make
a point to carry one or more boys gratuitously, as an act of charity;
and how astonished would they be at the cry of "cut behind," which
so often greets the ears of beggars in more eminent Christian lands,
who mistaking wishes for horses might otherwise chance to ride.
Yet a Turk is a singular being, apparently composed of contrarieties,
of savage traits, as well as domestic virtues, and this contrariety
is to be attributed solely to his fanaticism. Social and humane until
you touch his religious prejudices, when he becomes implacable.
It has been the interest of the clergy to nurture a fanatical conceit,
by which the great principle of human nature, self-glorification, has
well sustained, and the Mussulmans been led to consider themselves
the very salt of the earth, and the rest of the human family as
contemptible Giavours.
Hence they will not honor a Christian with the Mohammedan salutation,
Selamin Aleküm, "Pax vobiscum," nor will they observe any one in the
company, until they have looked for a true believer, to whom, however
humble he may be, is offered the Arabic, or orthodox salutation; and
on the Christians present, however great in their own estimation,
will afterwards be bestowed as their due, a simple Sabahlar-Hayr
Olsoon, or good morning, in plain Turkish.
Though they have been subdued into a certain degree of external
deference by the progress of civilization, yet in the exchange of
social etiquettes, there is always a meaning slight cast upon their
unbelieving friends, which is well understood and appreciated among
themselves.
Even the humblest Mohammedan will appropriate to himself the best
position in a public conveyance, or in any promiscuous assembly,
considering himself as fully entitled to such privileges, by the
simple guarantee of his faith, which elevates him above all humanity.
In the medical school, where some of the scholars belong to the
families of the rayas, this Mussulman conceit is most evident, and
even tolerated and encouraged by the government at the present day;
for regardless of actual merit, it has hitherto been a principle with
the faculty always to place a Mussulman boy at the head of the class!
It may be a matter of wonder to see such bigoted characters adopting
the very garb of the contemptible giavours. But the change of costume
was effected by the invincible Mahmoud, who, to liberate his people
from the thraldom of the janissaries, and the superstitions of darker
ages, feared neither priest or Koran, and at all hazards resolved to
make a daring stride towards civilization and reform.
Therefore this change of costume was not effected through any
relaxation of religious bigotry, but by the force of the supreme power
of the sultan; and the Ulema themselves were obliged to compromise,
by wearing a fez, with a simple turban around it, with some other
slight modification of their flowing robes.
Reform in dress having become an essential principle of the government,
those connected with the court and all public officers, were obliged
to conform to the established style, and the young élégans of Stamboul
now vie with the Parisian exquisites in their recherchées toilettes.
But beyond the circle of court etiquette and fashion, the artisans
and peasants still preserve all the varieties of costumes identified
with Orientalism.
Religious fanaticism in the East, is not confined to the Mussulmans
alone. It seems to have a universal sway in this climate, pervading
every community.
The Mussulman would feel callous at the sight of the decapitation of
a Christian, and a Christian would experience a secret exultation at
the death of a Mussulman.
Some years ago, I had the misfortune to meet with an accident;
my carriage was lost in the Bosphorus, and my horse and hostler
were drowned. Near the spot of this occurrence, there was a Greek
coaster lying at anchor, and the sailors soon came to my call for
assistance; but perceiving that the drowning man was dressed in
Turkish costume, and taking him for a Mussulman, they instinctively
exclaimed, Tourkos eine, Tourkos eine, he is a Turk, he is a Turk,
left him to his sad fate. It was in vain that I proclaimed that he
was a Greek and co-religionist of their own.
The Mussulman is fanatical, because he has thereby been goaded on
to victory, and attributes all his successes to the banner of the
Prophet--and the Christian is bigoted, because his religion is the
only thing left him--his church is the cradle of his superstitions,
and the badge of his nationality.
Even a Turk designates his nationality by his religion; for if you
ask him, Of what nation are you? his answer will invariably be,
El-hamd-ullah Mussulmanem, or Thank God I am a Mussulman.
Indeed, religion in the East is so pre-eminent, that a declaration of
faith is equal to an allegiance of fealty, and the Mohammedan formula
of La-Illah-Illallah, etc., is the only oath of naturalization,
which, if once pronounced, fully entitles the individual to all the
privileges and immunities of Turkish citizenship.
Neither is there a community of sentiment among the Christians
themselves--who, all abhorring Islamism, hate none the less each
other through their religious differences.
An Armenian, native of Angora--whose inhabitants are reputed for their
religious bigotry--and a Roman Catholic by persuasion, had occasion to
visit Trieste on some commercial business. On his arrival there, he was
asked by the officer of the quarantine what nation he belonged to! His
unsophistical and prompt answer was "Catholic." The officer, somewhat
puzzled at this novel nationality, reminded him that they were also all
Catholics there, but called themselves Austrians or Italians--now, what
is your nation? thereupon our worthy friend unflinchingly reiterated
that he was a Catholic; nothing else but a Catholic; for they now
had, through the interference of the French Ambassador, a Patriarch
of their own, and were recognized as a nation! meaning a community.
If a Greek mendicant happen to call at your door, and you ask his
co-religionist who it is, his answer will surely be Christianos or
a Christian; but if the applicant for charity should chance to be of
any other creed, his only title would be ztiyanos, or beggar.
Apart from the religious fanaticism, which is universal, the people,
uncontaminated by a depraved and corrupted court--unlike the enervated
and luxurious Osmanlis of the metropolis, are simple-minded, brave,
robust, temperate, intelligent, active and industrious.
The Mussulmans formerly taught that apostasy should be punished with
death; but now a new system of instruction, on this and other points,
proceeding from supreme authority, is as readily received by the
credulous multitude.
Their bravery has been attested by the late massacre of Sinope,
when one and all preferred death to an ignominious surrender. The
events of the recent war have established the fact, that there are
no better soldiers than the Turks.
We have the testimony of a distinguished American who
"Stood
Among them, but not of them."
He says that "we had an agreeable conversation with General Omar
Pasha's staff surgeon.... Among other things, he said the Turks
had long been extremely anxious to unite with their Allies in a
direct assault upon Sebastopol. I was somewhat surprised at this
intimation, knowing their considerate nature, and general inclination
to conservative views." Yet, notwithstanding, they have been accused
of cowardice for the desertion of the batteries daring the battle
of Balaklava, which could not well have been avoided under the
circumstances. The triumphs of Silistria, Tchetate and Kars, afford
ample refutation of such calumnies.
The Orientals are strong and athletic men, capable of enduring the
greatest bodily fatigue.
The hamals or porters, both Mussulman and Armenian, have been known
to carry on their backs immense weights; and one of these Oriental
Hercules has been seen carrying, on a wager, a load of no less than
a thousand pounds to a distance of a quarter of a mile!
The heavier hardens are suspended from long poles, the number of
which increases in proportion to the weight. And when the contents
are of glassware, instead of being marked Fragile, a full size
representation of a bottle is painted upon the package. The ends of
these poles rest on the shoulders of the hamals, and they walk in a
steady and measured soldier-like step. One of them once accidentally
slipped and fell, and the end of the pole striking him on the chest,
he became senseless. His companions raised him up, whilst one of their
number stood back to back with the injured man, and locking his arms
within those of his comrade, repeatedly raised him from the ground,
thus expanding the chest, until he recovered his breath, when, to the
astonishment of the bystanders, the man, after taking one or two long
inspirations, smiling at the funny incident, shouldered his pole and
marched on as if nothing had happened!
These very men live habitually on the simplest diet, consisting of
the coarsest brown bread, in the middle of which they make a cavity,
and fill it with equal proportions of olive oil and molasses, and
it is really a pleasure to see them enjoy their simple meals with a
relish that would kill all dyspepsia doctors from sheer envy.
The native intelligence of the people is evinced by their aptitude
in acquiring the arts of civilized life; for after a residence of
a couple of years in the metropolis, the rudest peasants become
accomplished soldiers and skillful artisans.
The facility with which they have adapted themselves to the European
style of music is very remarkable, and certainly implies much talent
or cleverness.
Indeed, many of those who have risen to the higher ranks of society,
evince no signs, in their general deportment, of plebeian origin,
save the peculiar brogue of local rusticity.
Nothing is more erroneous and unjust than the idea that the Orientals
are indolent or inactive.
The tabys or garçons of the Kahvés even excel their Parisian
competitors in alertness and general ubiquity--serving scores of
customers at once with coffee, chibouk, and narghillés.
The boatmen, who transport the pashas and others to their homes,
after the adjourning of the Porte, and closing of the Bazaars,
delight to compete with each other in speed, and linger on their
course until they meet with an antagonist, when the race sometimes
extends the whole length of the Bosphorus.
Their sports and national games, consisting of horsemanship, wrestling,
chasing, cricket, etc, all tend to show their love of activity.
There is none of the bustle, or American go-a-headism, in the
Oriental character and habits; none of that nervous excitement
which has so much the air of great progress, too often, like the
whirlwind among the natural elements, creating prodigies of human
noise and commotion, which subside and leave no sign; or it may be,
only havoc and destruction. In all the machineries of Eastern life,
public or domestic, steady and quiet perseverance rules the motion,
the oil of gentleness falling drop by drop upon the rolling wheels,
suffices for the friction; while in the land of modern adventure, by
increasing the pressure to a tremendous degree, the whole structure
is often crushed to atoms. This giddy rushing to a certain point
is too apt to wear out human energy, and most surely annihilates
self-possession, which is the keystone to success. Leave then, we say,
the Oriental sometimes to sit amid the fumes of his favorite chibouk;
for while external things are beclouded, often a mighty scheme is
in conception, and the sunshine of matured judgment suddenly bursts
upon the dim atmosphere, in full power and glory, ready to fructify
and yield all manner of increase.
The apparent idleness which some persons have attributed to the natives
of this country, is more the effect of a spirit of resignation to
external circumstances, than of a desire to be unemployed.
Taking for a basis the idea that the interest of the people is but
secondary, and under the pretence of increasing the revenue of the
country, and thus benefiting the state as it were, but with the
secret hope of self-aggrandizement, all advantageous projects are
seized upon by the officials; thus an effectual check is thrown upon
all private and public enterprise.
The writer was the first to propose to the Turkish government the
establishment of a railroad from the capital to Adrianople. Not
succeeding in this, a line of post coaches was suggested, for which,
after great exertion, a Firman was granted. But no sooner were
the advantages of the project understood, than several persons in
authority began to intrigue, until they succeeded in appropriating
the Firman to themselves, which had been obtained at so much expense
and toil by another.
But as usual, it proved to them more ruinous than profitable, because
of the numerous contenders for the spoils.
No internal improvements are dreamt of, and no motive left for
speculation, and as there is no mutual confidence between the
government and the people, the formation of corporate companies,
which require united action, is out of the question, or, if attempted,
they are sure to fall through by official exactions. Thus, a country
teeming with mines and minerals, is left unexplored, and all other
internal resources lie dormant.
Some attempts have of late been made by the government at internal
improvements, such as the post-road from Trebizond to Erzuroum; but
the over-exertions of those intrusted with the work soon exhausted
the appropriations, and the road was but half completed.
The coal mines at Heraclea have shared a similar fate. Indeed, no
undertaking can be prosperous in the lands of the officials--and if
any such privilege be granted to private individuals, it is invariably
under the patronage of some grandee.
A permission was obtained from government by an individual to light the
streets of Pera. In the course of six months the lamps were demolished
by the citizens, because they were heavily taxed to fill the pockets
of the speculator, without any advantage to themselves--the streets
for the most part, being as dark as before.
All innovations are, therefore, in disrepute, not that they are not
appreciated, but because they invariably prove to be mere schemes
for individual advantage, and never pro bono publico.
Hence it is also that the streets, even in the metropolis, are ill
paved, filthy, and not lighted--each person carrying his own lantern,
and getting along as best he can.
Public enterprise being at so low an ebb, a spirit of indifference
pervades the country and if you once pass the aristocracy, the actual
necessities of the community are but few. They have no idea therefore
of bettering their condition. If you offer them any new invention,
they admire its ingenuity, and dryly tell you they have no need of
it--consequently there is no need of patent rights for new inventions.
This indifference is not to be construed into a love of inactivity--but
is rather the result of selfishness--each man's interests being
circumscribed by the sphere in which he moves. In case of any emergency
they are most indefatigable and persevering. It needs only to cite the
fact that Pera, one of the suburbs of the city, has, in the course of
twenty years, been destroyed by fire four times, and entirely rebuilt
by native industry. Indeed, inactivity is against the spirit of the
country, for there, there are no Rentiers--but every one must have a
calling--even the sultan is traditionally supposed to belong to the
tooth-pick trade!
Since the abolition of capital and summary punishments and the
monopolies, by the promulgation of of the Tanzimat, which was an
attempt at reformation, not without some beneficial results, a new
impulse has been given to the activity of the population. In a word,
give but the necessary impetus, and as much genuine go-a-headism may
be found in Turkey, as in Yankee-land itself.
With such a population, and so many internal resources, it may be
deemed a matter of wonder that this empire should be in so ruinous
a condition.
CHAPTER XL.
THE FUTURE OF TURKEY.
The survey that has been taken of the Turkish empire, political and
social, will furnish the component parts of this wonderful structure
of human power and religious fanaticism. Owing to the remarkable
sway attained by the sword of the Prophet, the various ingredients
mingled by the power of conquest, have all been brought together,
like so many antagonistic elements, to be wrought into some degree
of unity of spirit and purpose, and to be rendered subservient to
one great potentate, absolute and despotic.
The dread power of the Turk, ravaging and blood-thirsty, has only of
late years ceased to inspire terror to the world in general, and to
hold in trembling awe the subjects over which it domineered. Suddenly
the dark cloud of barbarism began to disperse from this vast clime of
the Orient, as Mahmoud, seizing the torch of civilization, scattered
the light of science and reform over the land.
Ever since his day, the struggling beams of knowledge and truth have
been casting a mistlike glow over these dominions, sometimes almost
bursting into a blaze of brightness, and again subsiding into the
obscurity of olden times and religions bigotry.
The principles of progress, and the maintenance of ancient and
long established usages were now at war; the former supported by the
semi-enlighted portion of the people, and the latter by the formidable
body of the ulema or the Mohammedan clergy.
The Rayas, or Christian subjects, hitherto quiescent and despairing,
now saw the star of hope and comparative liberty in their horizon,
and were ready to grasp at any straw of deliverance from the storms
of oppression and tyranny. The mass is in commotion--Mussulman power
trembles at the vision of the emancipation of its victims. Oppressed
and suffering humanity even dares to utter one vast groan, and to
raise a furtive glance towards the glorious temple of liberty, and
the equality of man with man.
Mahmoud, the bold champion of his country, is surrounded by intrigues,
both foreign and domestic, and becomes entangled in the web of
turbulence and opposition, until his soul can endure no longer,
and wings its flight from the terrible field of battle.
But the iron gates of barbarism had been unlocked; and even the
extreme youth of the succeeding Sultan, Abd-ul-Medjid, bringing with
him a sort of regency, could not refasten the heavy bolts.
Thus we find this empire only advancing in progress, the more wonderful
since there has been comparatively so little reform in the actual
government. Even the Sultan has abrogated his absolute and despotic
sway; the once powerful viceroy still sits at his right hand, but no
longer unfettered; and the various religious and civil functionaries,
although the same as the creatures of yesterday, are themselves
amenable to the tribunal of justice and reform, where the spirit of
Mahmoud seems to linger as a reproving and condemning monitor.
The opposing influences to all innovations were strong; the very soil
rank with bigotry, conceit, and prejudice, and the powers in actual
possession of the commonwealth self-willed and cunning. Hitherto a
comparative isolation had created natural walls, within which despotism
had its unmitigated sway. But as distance became annihilated throughout
the world's dominions, as oceans dwindled into lakes, rivers into
little rills, and broad acres into mere pleasure gardens, before
the mighty achievements of modern invention, all natural barriers
disappeared.
As in ancient times the walls of the great city of Jericho fell at
the blast of the trumpets of Joshua, no sooner did the echoes of the
shrill whistle of the mighty steamship reverberate along the shores
and among the seven hills of Stamboul, than were annihilated the
frontiers of a barbarous and spiritual despotism, in the stronghold
of the Mussulmans. Civilization from Europe was no longer stayed,
but boldly stepped into this natural garden of the world. To stem
the current would be to perish in an overwhelming vortex; and the
very government was obliged to conform, to compromise, and to make
treaties of peace with this new element, social and political progress.
Not only in Turkey, but universally, the spirit of domination has
been pre-eminent, until the march of human improvement awakened the
community to a sense of their own power and individual rights. Thus
the elements of democracy have been arrayed in opposition to the
oppressions of despotism, threatening its utter annihilation, and
forcing the ruling powers to terms of capitulation. The Reformation
checked the authority of the Pope, a charter was granted to the
English, and their colonies in America soon grew to a great and
independent state.
Though the European states cannot boast of that degree of independence
they have ofttimes struggled for, yet their rulers and potentates
have ever been, and are still, forced to don the mantle of Liberty,
and maintain the guise of Justice in their various administrations;
thus proving the supremacy of the spirit of democracy.
But despotism, fostered in the bosom of the little dukedom of Moscow,
has maintained its unbroken sway, and spread over the vast territories
now known as the Russian dominions.
It has engulphed Finland, Crimea, Poland, Bessarabia, Circassia,
Georgia and many other provinces, and by its continued and systematic
encroachments upon Turkey, even threatened to overwhelm Europe
itself. Local circumstances have combined to favor her designs,
and render her aggressions successful.
The remarkable spirit of Mohammedan fanaticism led the Turks on to
conquest. The neighboring countries were all subjugated, until the
thirst for war enticed them into Europe, where victory still followed
their banner. But the very nations that they conquered, many of whom
were induced, by force or otherwise, to make their abode in the Turkish
dominions, tended by degrees to undermine their power. With them came
various religions and creeds, conflicting with each other, and creating
the bitterest animosities. Apart from this, the vast extent of their
territories, without any of the modern facilities of intercourse,
rendered the empire unmanageable by an unenlightened and barbarous
government. The army was numerous and powerful, but turbulent and
refractory, usurping the power of governing to themselves, as attests
the well known history of the Janissaries, who could only be subdued by
the bold daring of the illustrious Mahmoud. A new army was organized,
on European principles, and various civil reforms attempted, but
without any beneficial result; for the neighboring nations, especially
the formidable power of Russia, the inveterate enemy of Turkey,
were anxiously regarding the waning decline of Ottoman supremacy.
Russia, who never missed an opportunity to expedite the rain of
this rival empire, has at various times waged war upon the most
trifling pretexts. Upon the termination of the Greek insurrection,
and immediately after the destruction of the Janissaries, a most
aggressive and iniquitous war was commenced, in which the European
powers acted as sleeping partners. The Albanian, Servian, Egyptian
and Kürdish rebellions were each successively instigated by Russian
and Austrian emissaries, or secret agents, until the whole country
became the arena of party intrigue, and the direst confusion, thus
realizing the plans of its enemy, and rendering it an easy prey to
Moscovite cunning.
To Europe, now awakened to a sense of her own impending danger, the
division of Turkey seemed the only alternative, since that empire
showed evident symptoms of decay and inability to resist so powerful
an enemy as Russia.
Reshid Pasha, one of the ablest and oldest statesmen and a true
patriot, was at this time in Europe as representative of the Porte. On
hearing of this proposed division of his country, he hastened home
to offer his counsels to the young sultan who had just ascended
the throne. By his representations and suggestions, his majesty was
induced to issue a proclamation called the Tanzimat, or reformation,
by which it was hoped that the country would be regenerated, and the
world convinced that Turkey could maintain itself.
THE TANZIMAT.
Translated from the Turkish.
In the former days of the Ottoman empire, as every one knows, the
glorious precepts of the Koran and the laws of the monarchy were
universally observed; and consequently the empire increased both in
power and size, and all subjects, without exception, attained the
highest degree of ease and prosperity. For one hundred and fifty
years a succession of accidents and of divers causes have put an end
to this obedience to the sacred code of the laws, and to the rules
which spring from it, and our former power and prosperity have been
changed into weakness and poverty; for an empire loses all stability
when the laws cease to be observed.
These considerations are constantly present to our mind, and from the
day of our accession to the throne, the idea of the public welfare,
the amelioration of the state of the provinces, and condolence with
the people, have been its sole occupations. Now, when we consider
the geographical position of the Ottoman empire, the fertility of
the soil, the aptitude and intelligence of the inhabitants, we are
convinced that by applying ourselves to discover suitable means, the
result, which by the aid of God we hope to attain, may be obtained
in the space of a few years. Thus, then, full of confidence in the
Most High, and relying upon the intercession of our Prophet, we have
judged proper to seek by new institutions to procure for the provinces
composing the Ottoman empire the benefit of a good administration.
These institutions must bear principally upon three points, to wit;
1st. The pledges which insure to our subjects a perfect security of
life, honor and fortune. 2d. A regular mode of assessing and levying
the taxes. 3d. A mode equally regular, for the levy of soldiers,
and the duration of the service.
And are not life and honor truly the most precious goods which
exist? What man, however base his situation, if his character adapt
him for violence, could be prevented from having recourse to it, and
thus doing injury to his government and the country, if his life and
honor are endangered? If, on the contrary, he enjoys, in this respect,
a perfect security, he will not wander from the paths of loyalty,
and all his acts will concur to the prosperity of the government, and
of his brethren. If his fortune be not secured to him, each remains
cold to the voice of the prince and the country; no one is occupied
with the progress of public fortune, absorbed as every one must be in
his own inquietudes. But if, on the other hand, the citizen possess
in confidence his property of every kind, then full of ardor in his
business, the circle of which he seeks to enlarge in order to extend
that of his pleasure, he finds each day redoubled in his heart the
love of his prince and country, and devotion to her cause; these
sentiments become in him the source of the most praiseworthy actions.
As to the regular assessment and establishment of the taxes, it is
very important that this matter should be regulated, for the State
that is driven to various expenses for the defense of its territory,
can procure the money necessary for its armies and other services only
by the contributions levied upon the subjects. Although, thanks be
to God, those of our empire have for some time been delivered from
the scourge of monopolies, improperly regarded in former times as
a source of revenue, an injurious custom still exists, and which
cannot but have disastrous consequences, I mean that practice of
venal concession known as the Iltizam. By this system the civil and
financial administration of a locality is delivered to the arbitration
of a single man, and sometimes to the iron hand of the most violent
and base passions, for if this farmer of the revenue be not good,
he will only have regard to his own advantage.
It is requisite, then, that this time forward each individual of
the Ottoman society be taxed his quota of his established impost,
in the ratio of his fortune and possessions, and nothing farther can
be required of him. Special laws too must fix and limit the expenses
of our armies by sea and land.
Although, as we have said, the defense of our common country is an
important matter, and although it is the duty of all the inhabitants
to furnish soldiers to that effect; laws must now be established to
regulate the proportion that each locality shall furnish upon the
necessity of the moment, and to reduce to four or five years the term
of military service. For it is both acting unjustly, and giving a
death blow to agriculture and industry, to take, without regard to
the respective population of the districts, from one more, and from
another fewer, than they can supply; while it reduces the soldiers
to despair, and contributes to the depopulation of the country to
retain them all their life-time in the service.
To resume, without these different laws, the necessity for which we
have just seen, the empire can possess neither power, riches, happiness
nor tranquillity; while all these blessings may be obtained from
the existence of the new laws. Therefore, from this time forward the
cause of every accused will be publicly judged conformably to our own
divine law, after thorough inquest and examination, and so long as the
regular judgment is not interrupted, no one will be able in secret, or
in public, to put another to death by poison, or any other punishment.
No one will be permitted to attaint the honor of another. Each
individual will possess his property, of every kind, and will dispose
of it with the most entire liberty, without the opposition of any one;
thus, for example, the property of a criminal shall not be confiscated
to his innocent heirs.
These imperial concessions, extending to all our subjects, of
whatever religion or sect they may be, shall by them be enjoyed
without exception. A perfect security is thus granted by us to the
inhabitants of the empire in their lives, honor, and fortunes, as
the sacred text of our law demands.
Upon all other points, as they must be regulated by the agreement of
enlightened opinion, our Council of Justice (augmented by new members
when it shall be necessary), to which will be joined, on certain
days by us appointed, our Ministers and the Notables of the Empire,
will assemble for the purpose of establishing regular laws, for the
security of life and fortune, and the imposition of taxes. In these
assemblies each man will freely express his ideas and give his opinion.
The laws for the regulation of the military service will be fixed
by the military council, to hold its sessions at the Palace of the
Seraskier.
As soon as a law is fixed to be forever available and executory, it
shall be presented to us, and we will give it our sanction, which we
shall write at the head with our own imperial hand.
As the present institutions have for their aim but the establishment of
religion, government, the nation and the empire, we pledge ourselves
to do nothing contrary to them. In pledge of our promise we will,
after having placed them in the hall in which is kept the glorious
mantle of our Prophet, in presence of all the ulema and grandees of
the empire, make oath by the name of God, and afterwards the ulema
and grandees shall also swear. And if, after this, any one among the
ulema, or grandees of the empire, or any other person whatsoever,
shall violate these institutions, he shall undergo, without regard to
rank, consideration, or credit, the penalty annexed to his well-proved
crime. To this effect a penal code will be re-enacted.
As all the functionaries of the empire at the present day receive
suitable salaries, and as the appointments of those, whose duties
are not sufficiently well remunerated as yet, will be regulated,
a vigorous law will be enacted against the traffic of favor and of
charges (richvet), which is reproved by the divine law, and which is
one of the principal causes of the decadence of the empire.
These dispositions, above stated, being an alteration, and a complete
renovation from the ancient usages, this imperial edict will be
published at Constantinople, and in all the other cities of our empire,
and will be communicated officially to all the Ambassadors of friendly
powers residing at Constantinople, that they may be witnesses of
the alteration in our institutions, which, if it please God, shall
ever endure.
To this may God have us all in his holy and worthy keeping.
May those who are guilty of an act contrary to the present
institutions, be the object of divine malediction, and be forever
deprived of every kind of happiness.
This document, which is an official acknowledgment of the existing
evils and corruptions, was read at Gül-hané, on the 3d of November,
1839, with the greatest solemnity, before a vast concourse of people,
and in the presence of the foreign representatives.
In order to commemorate the occasion, and enforce these new principles,
it was proposed to erect a magnificent public monument, the plans
and designs of which were confided to the writer; but before the
foundations could be laid, a complete
"Change came o'er the spirit of their dreams."
The great Napoleon has wisely pronounced that "Constantinople is the
key to all Europe, and designed to be the capital of the world." Turkey
may, therefore, be divided and subdivided, but Constantinople, the
great bone of contention, being indivisible, the partition of Turkey
becomes an impossibility, and political equilibrium will not permit
any one power to usurp its possession.
It was fortunate that it fell accidentally into the hands of the
Turks, who were incapable of availing themselves of its advantages;
and for the same reason it is desirable they should retain it. Hence
the maintenance, or diplomatically speaking, the integrity of Turkey
became an essential element in the polity of Europe.
The proclamation of the above Hatti Sherif, or Royal Edict, was
therefore hailed with general satisfaction by the European states,
and hopes were awakened that the impending danger would be averted
by such an entire change in the administrative government.
But the Turks of the ancien régime, perceiving no threatening attitude
in their European neighbors, and highly offended at the ultra-liberal
measures of the reform party, who even dared to insult their Mussulman
prejudices, and coolly inform them that "the council chamber was
not a theological school for the discussion of religious polemics,
nor convertible into a mosque," resolved to resist to the utmost, and
re-establish their own party. They, therefore, in a body, protested
to the sultan, who, in such a dilemma, could do nothing but dismiss
the actual ministry, and organize a new one.
Rendered bold by success, the new ministry, at whose head was placed
Riza Pasha, soon began to adopt fanatical measures, whereby to modify
the Tanzimat, which it did not suit their policy to nullify altogether;
for, by it additional security of life and property was granted even
to themselves.
Besides, the lords of the realm, who only existed by the "cohesive
power of public plunder," foresaw that the Tanzimat secured equality
of civil and political rights to the Christians, especially to the
Armenians, who, being better educated and more enlightened than
they themselves were, and in fact the ruling spirits, would soon
have preceded them in all the departments, and taken the lead in the
control of the country.
Schemes of oppression were formed to deprive the Rayas of their newly
acquired privileges. Even the external semblance of equality was no
longer tolerated. To distinguish them from the true followers of the
Prophet, their dress being the same, an order was issued, that the
giavours should wear a certain mark on their fesses, a piece of black
tape. Even the grandees of the Christian community were stigmatized
by a mock badge of honor, made of gold, to be also worn on the side
of the fess. They carried their fanaticism so far as even to defy
Europe in the decapitation of Ovagim, an Armenian apostate, who had
abjured Mohammedanism.
Though his life was promised to Lord Stratford, no sooner had the
secretary of legation, Mr. Alison, left the Porte, than the unfortunate
victim was led forth and beheaded. Whatever may have been the cause
of the sudden reversal of their merciful intentions, it is well known
that Prince Handgery, the Russian Dragoman, was also at the Porte,
and did not leave until the consummation of the sentence. His body
was exposed in the streets of Constantinople at Baluk-Bazaar, the
head placed between his legs, as was customary, with the European
cap which he wore, upon it, as an extra insult to all Europe.
The bodies of state criminals were formerly exposed in public for
three days, but the weather being at this time excessively warm,
the late Sheikh-ul-Islam was advised that injurious effects might
result from such a long exposure; who sagely remarked, that "the
fact was indeed so, but the sad results would be still more palpably
felt three years hence." Strange to say the prediction has been fully
verified by recent events.
Thus Mussulman fanaticism brought on a retrograde movement, and
threatened the entire ruin of the country; and the rapacious and
ambitious dispositions of those who lived on the fat of the land, by
degrees so consumed its vitality that it justly merited the cognomen
of the SICK-MAN.
The Eagle and the Vulture were hovering over the expiring empire,
and Humanity and Civilization demanded that it should be watched
over, with the hope either of prolonging its existence, or at least
of giving it a decent burial.
Russia and Austria, who thought that the propitious moment had arrived
to pounce upon their victim, resolved to accomplish their own plans
by one sudden and effective coup-de-main, as the insulting conduct and
threatening attitude of their respective emissaries fully demonstrated.
But their expectations were not to be realized; for, notwithstanding
the corrupt character of those in power, the spirit of regeneration
was not wholly extinct in the country. The liberal party, some of whom
had retired from public life in disgust, and others, who, giving up
all hope of reform, had abandoned their favorite project, and joined
the powers that be, in such an emergency, like true patriots, whose
moral influence had been silently exerted over the people, came to
the rescue; resisting every form of bribery and fearless of menaces,
they boldly took up the gauntlet, and war was declared.
The interests of Europe being involved in the fate of Turkey, "foreign
interference" became inevitable. Fortunate it is not only for Turkey,
but for Europe in general, that this event happened at a time when such
interference was available, otherwise Turkey, like Poland, would have
been ingulphed by Russia and Austria. The result is known to the world.
Although the battle has been fought, the Russian bear been driven
to his den, and the congress of nations at Paris has adopted the
Osmanlis into their fraternity, still the "Eastern question," or the
maintenance of Turkey, as a barrier between Russian despotism and
European liberty, is far from being settled. For the problem is not
solved, in as much as the ways and means for the future permanence
of this empire are not proclaimed to the world.
Turkey is apparently secured from Russian animosities, but unless the
country be set on a new basis, and rendered capable of maintaining
itself, the future of Turkey will inevitably be only a repetition of
the past, if not indeed far worse.
This difficult subject will, no doubt, engross the wisdom of Europe,
but the present is the moment to be seized, while the indebtedness
of the Osmanlis to their allies is fresh in their memories, and the
gates of their vast empire stand open to civilization and reform.
Will the Allies again content themselves with mere scrolls, parchments,
and state papers like the Tanzimat of 1839? Shall the patriots of
the state again be left subject to the sway of a conceited bigotry
and blind fanaticism? In a word, shall the country be permitted to
feed upon its own vitals until it consumes itself?
The time has arrived when fictitious progress can no longer be
tolerated, and a wholesome reaction most take place.
Turkey and its inhabitants have suffered not only from external
aggressions, but internal discord has maintained an empire of misrule.
Religious animosity and party spirit have reigned supreme. Greeks
and Christians hating each other, Christians denouncing Christians,
and the Grand Mufti pouring out the anathemas of the Prophet upon
the whole host of giavours. Whence then, in such a population, can
any unity of feeling or of action spring? Amor patriæ, philanthropy,
progress are all merged in sectarianism and the rage for religious
supremacy. Hitherto, Mohammedanism filling the places of authority,
and possessing the only permanent foothold upon the territory itself,
has left the Christian population without incentive to competition
of any sort. Even in the earliest conflicts of Mohammedanism,
three proposals were always made to those whose territories were
invaded--to join the standard of the Prophet; to adhere to their
own religious tenets as tributaries; or the trial by combat; thus
evincing a wonderful spirit of liberality in a conquering power,
whether the antagonism was that of conquest or propagandism.
Religious toleration was only a wise policy of the Ottoman government,
for as long as the rayas were of various creeds and conflicting
with each other, the Mussulmans were in no danger. As in union is
strength, so in the disunion of the subjects was the safety of the
rulers. The rayas, as has been said, losing their own nationality in
their condition of servitude, clung to the tenets of their respective
creeds, and knew no country, no nationality but that of religion. In
Turkey all classes of Christians and Jews have always had freedom of
religions worship with the free exercise of their peculiar rites and
observances, public and private.
The proof may daily be witnessed in their funeral processions with
torches, crosses, and chanting priests, preceded by kavasses or police
officers, as the pages of the "Missionary Herald of the American Board
for Foreign Missions" amply testify. Besides it is a well known fact
that all the Christian churches are privileged to hold vakufs of their
own, on the same footing as those of the mosques; the very existence
of so many differing creeds, and their constant free discussions,
is proof of a great degree of religious toleration.
Even the recent war was the result of this tolerance; for it is well
known that the original matter of debate was whether Russia or France,
or, in other words, whether the Greek church or the Catholic should
control the holy places of Jerusalem!
These holy places not only are in the dominions of the Sultan, but
are the objects of religious veneration to the Mussulmans themselves,
who reverently style them Coods-u-Sherif, or Holy Jerusalem; yet with
a remarkable spirit of conciliation, their jurisdiction was conceded
to the Christians.
Travellers who have chanced to be in Jerusalem during the festivities
of Easter, may remember, that when the Christians are quarrelling and
contending with each other, the Mussulmans are forced to interfere
to keep peace and tranquillity!
It is true that the Ottoman government has frequently refused
permission to the Christians to erect or repair churches, etc. This,
however, is not from a spirit of intolerance, for it soon was
understood that a liberal sum might be obtained for these privileges,
and the officials could not resist such occasions for increasing their
revenues. The same advantage is taken of the party intrigues, at the
time of the election of the new patriarchs of the Armenians and Greeks.
In the days of ignorance, this election cost the Armenians 40,000
piasters, but years of experience have raised the value of the
Sultan's sanction to 200,000 piasters, and the Greeks, amongst whom
party strife is far greater, pay between two and three millions for
the installation of their spiritual head.
Hence it is evident that religious toleration is a principle of the
government, and the contrary an incidental abuse for the advantage of
those in power. This very abuse has had its origin among the Christians
themselves, who were ready to bribe the ruling power to any amount,
in order to gain their own ends.
Nevertheless, Russia has endeavored to mislead the whole world, and
especially the Christian population of Turkey, with the plausible
pretence of a "Guarantee of Liberty of Worship to all classes of
Christians in Turkey;" while her conduct at home belies her sincerity.
The cross upon the Armenian church at Odessa was, not long ago,
removed by order of the government, lest the population should be
misled by the impression that the edifice belonged to the established
church. And in the case of intermarriage, the law orders that the
children should invariably be educated in the Russian faith.
The adage "nearer the church, farther from God," is peculiarly
applicable to Russia; for we are told by Gibbon, that long before the
Turks were in Constantinople, the Russians made several attempts
to capture this fated city, and were only driven away by the
flood discharged from the batteries. Were the Greeks of that time
Mohammedans, or was there any suffering Christianity, that these
philanthropic Muscovites were impelled to come to the rescue of the
Christian faith?
There are some strange records in history which conflict materially
with political hypocrisy! The fact is, under the pretence of being
the champion of the Cross, the real object of Russia has ever been
to avail herself of the existing religious fanaticism of the East,
and by fanning the flames of Christian ardor, to institute a crusade
of the nineteenth century!
Nations are not, however, governed by sympathy, but by interest, and
the Christians have had too bitter experience of Russian protection
to be again caught in the same net.
The Armenians of Erzuroum were induced to emigrate into the Russian
land of Canaan, which, they were assured, flowed with milk and honey;
but when they drank these honeyed waters, they found them only
wormwood and gall, and all who could, eagerly burst their fetters,
and returned to Turkey, preferring Moslem oppression to Moscovite
despotism and systematic serfdom.
The Greeks, who were so clamorous against the Turks, when they
succeeded in obtaining their independence, by raising the standard
of the Cross against the Crescent of the Prophet, showed very little
preference for the Hellenic government, since after a while they
returned by thousands into Turkey!
The effect of Turkish policy has been such, that there is a prevalent
desire among the Rayas to escape from their allegiance to such a
government, and place themselves under foreign protection, not from
any fear of religious intolerance whatever, but merely to obtain
comparative liberty and justice. Indeed, what incentive have the
people in general, either Turks or Rayas, to patriotism, or what
care they for national prosperity, when they are forced to regard
themselves as mere tenants of their own houses and lands?
Missak, the late Armenian banker, did not escape into Russia from any
fear of religious oppression, but to avoid the vindictive persecutions
of the Minister of Finance.
It is not, then, religious freedom that the Christians of Turkey
require, but political franchise and unbiased justice.
The past has sadly proved that the Mohammedans are incapable even
of self government, or at best, Mohammedan domination has had a
demoralizing tendency over half, if not the entire population.
Is the country, then to be ruled by the other half of the inhabitants
viz., the Christian population?
This is another impossibility; for this population is like a house
divided against itself, and besides their incapacity in other
respects, they, having so long felt the bitterest animosity towards
their Mussulman masters, would in their turn become even greater
oppressors than the Mohammedans themselves, as was evinced by the
conduct of the Armenians of Erzuroum during the last war with Russia.
The "Eastern question" is not, however, one of propagandism, either
of Christianity or of Mohammedanism, but demands, while granting
perfect liberty of conscience to all classes, how political and civil
equality may be maintained throughout the Ottoman dominions. Fusion,
then, is the only policy that can resuscitate the Turkish Empire.
The Tanzimat was the beginning of a reform, but there were no coercive
measures put into play, to overthrow the power of ancient usages,
so that the proclamation soon became almost a dead letter. The
blind bigotry of the people and the absolute power of the heads
of government, imbued as they are with a spirit of favoritism and
corruption, have hitherto excluded the unfortunate subjects of the
sultan from the justice and protection which are the sacred rights
of every son of Adam. There has been no security for property nor
any inducement to honesty in Turkey.
A man has, under the existing laws, every temptation to injure
his neighbor to any extent, and the innocent have no other means
of protecting themselves and their interests, than by resorting to
counter dishonesty. For instance, if a man is unjustly accused of a
debt of one hundred dollars, it would naturally be inferred that he
would at once deny the accusation, and call for proof. But such an
honest procedure would not answer in the Turkish courts of justice,
for it would immediately give the plaintiff the desired privilege of
producing two hired witnesses, by whose testimony the defendant would,
beyond a doubt, be condemned to pay the pretended debt.
The only alternative, in such instances, is to verify the principle
"set a rogue to catch a rogue" by acknowledging the debt, at the same
time declaring that it has already been paid; thus the accuser is
deprived of the privilege of suborning witnesses, and the defendant
avails himself of that prerogative.
Therefore the moral sense of the community is corrupted, and
self-preservation impels the people only to strive to excel each other
in roguery. In such a poisoned atmosphere, no salutary influence can
be exercised until the axe is laid at the root of the evil. In order,
then, to give a fresh stamina to this fading empire--
1. A new and complete code of justice is needed, consistent with
progressive civilization, and suited to the necessities of these
heterogeneous peoples.
2. To overthrow the sceptre of oppressive bigotry, the next thing
to be effected is an entire separation of church and state, so as
to prevent the interference of the ulema in the administration of
justice. Thus also the aristocracy of religion being abolished,
the animosity existing between the Moslems and Christians will be
annihilated, and the hitherto excluded portion of the subjects of
the sultan acknowledged as members of the great Ottoman family.
The identity of religious faith and nationality long swayed even the
European states, but in those countries, this idea is now obsolete,
and must of necessity become so in Turkey, since she has entered
their confederacy.
3. A mixed administration must be formed, composed of representatives
of the different communities, and Mussulman supremacy no longer
tolerated. The mutual benefit of this combination is evident; for
while the Christians, in sharing the supreme power, would lose their
former incentives to cunning and self-interest, the Mussulmans, on
their part, would make rapid strides in the true science of government.
The tenure by which this mutual authority is to be held, must be
supported and confirmed by a superior tribunal, as it were, consisting
of the powers of Europe, who, having constituted themselves the
champions of Turkey, and shed their blood in her defense, are entitled
to become the guardians of her interests, which are, henceforth,
so identified with their own.
4. The resources of the country must be developed, and a system of
internal improvements established, by which the ruinous principle of
centralization will be counteracted, and the beneficial effects of
this regeneration felt in the uttermost corners of the land.
A general and accurate survey of the country is indispensable, defining
the exact boundaries of both public and private lands, and the idea
that the natural treasures of the soil, belonging to individuals,
appertain to the government, must be abandoned. Hitherto much of the
wealth of the country has lain dormant, because there was no incentive
to exploration of any sort.
5. The Vakuf system must be abolished, and the accumulated wealth
devoted to internal improvements, thus depriving the Ulema of their
great arm of power. It is true, the government has in some measure
controlled these revenues, and established a Bureau of all the Vakufs,
called Evkaf, but it has never dared to appropriate, or to touch any
portion of this income for its own purposes.
6. Equal taxation should be levied on property, and the tariff
equitably regulated.
7. A limited free press must be established as the only means of
bringing into publicity the corruptions and abuses to which the
officials have hitherto been addicted.
These are the most apparent means of the preservation and regeneration
of Turkey.
Broad principles may be laid as the foundation, but the edifice is
to be raised and the master builders must not desert their work. For,
unless these salutary reforms are accomplished by the aid and influence
of the European Powers, there is no hope of the preservation of Turkey,
nor is there any security for the peace of all Europe and the world
in general.
The only question is, Can these reformations be effected in Turkey?
The nature of the Mohammedan religion is not essentially in opposition
to reform. Modern times have proved the Koran of a more elastic nature
than was once supposed, as was exemplified in the establishment of
quarantine regulations; when it was pretended, that it was blasphemous
to interfere with the decrees of Allah to protect human life; but as
it was proved that the Koran allowed self-protection, the measure
was sanctioned by the expounders of that sacred book, and accepted
by the Mussulmans.
Apostasy from Islamism was formerly punished with death; but when
Lord Stratford de Redcliffe interfered in behalf of humanity in the
case of poor Ovagim, who was beheaded in 1843, the Koran was found to
be on his side. The same lenity was manifested by the Mohammedans of
Hindoostan, only a few months ago, towards an apostate, on the plea
that the country was now under British jurisdiction. The reason is,
that the principles of Islamism are so very simple that they can be
adapted to any degree of modification and reform, especially under
the pressure of circumstances--besides, necessity knows no law,
not even the Koran itself.
But it may be said that the government thus remodelled will no longer
be Turkish or Mohammedan.
Surely the aim of the friends of this falling empire is not to
re-instate a decaying faith, but to enable the Turks and all the
inhabitants of the land, to gird up their strength and stand before
the world a united and powerful people, freed from bigotry and
superstition, a great Ottoman nation.
Turkey has been admitted into the fraternity of Europe; not as a
Mohammedan power, but as one of the powers that rule the earth's
domains.
The sultan has a voice among the potentates of his times--not the
voice of Mohammed the Prophet, but of the civilized and regenerated
friend of his own people and the world in general.
A new era has dawned upon Mohammedanism; for, if the Christian
world has for the first time received into its confederation
an anti-Christian empire, the Mohammedans, by entering such a
confederation, have also for the first time placed themselves on an
equality with the former Giavours, whom the precepts of the Koran have
proscribed, and doomed to the sword of the Faithful. Here then is a
bold stride beyond the confines of a faith only suited to barbaric
days, and well calculated to sway the minds of a superstitious
multitude on to conquest. As consanguinity with civilization is
strengthened, who can trace the pathway of the Mussulman nation
through the world's history!
The genius of the country and the condition of the people are not in
opposition to the progress of reform.
The past history of this nation has been the progress of
Mohammedanism--its conquests and its laws. As Moses was both the
spiritual and temporal law-giver to the Jews, so has Mohammed been
to the Turkomans. Such laws suited the exigencies of the times; but
the sword is sheathed, and in its sheath too, must abide the darkness
and barbarity of past ages.
Besides Mohammedanism in Turkey is not the same as in Arabia or
Bokhara, where Imams and priests predominate. The Turkomans had,
previous to embracing Islamism, a civil government of their own;
and in making the Koran the rule of faith and conduct, they never
lost the idea of Sovereignty independent of Religion. Hence the
Turkish has never been like the Papal government, where cardinals and
bishops represent all the departments of the pontifical state. The
very existence of two distinct representatives of the Sultan, the
Grand Vezir and the Sheikh-ul-Islam, are evidences of a separation
of church and state. If the ecclesiastical has hitherto superseded
the civil power, it has been through the superstitions of the people,
and the chicanery of the officials.
The only real union is in the person of the Sultan, who is the proxy
of Allah, and the supreme Ruler of his people. His will and his edicts
are regarded by them with superstitious reverence.
The natural relations of this empire with the rest of the world,
as well as its new ties of consanguinity with civilization, must,
of necessity, bring about a revolution of policy as well as of action.
His majesty has already introduced many measures of reform--such
as the abolishing of capital punishment--the promulgation of a new
constitution, with the privilege of free deliberation in the national
councils, etc.; and besides all these, he has already commenced, even
in his own person and household, a renovation, which is, in reality,
only a conformation to the habits of civilized life. He has become
himself a salaried executive, diminished his own retinue, etc.
The Sultan well understands the imitative nature of his own people,
and is aware that he is the model to the Grand Vezir and the various
Pashas, who, in their turn, are the channels of his majesty's own
movements to the rest of their fellow citizens. Constantinople is
the city where the game is played by high and low, "So does the
Grand Mufti."
Indeed, the very monkeys of India cannot excel them in their
disposition to imitate each other. For, it is said that a merchant
once carrying a large bale of fesses, or red caps on a speculation,
opened his goods on the way, with the view to examine them; and taking
one out and putting it upon his head laid down to repose a while under
a tree. What was his astonishment on waking, to find his stock of caps
had taken wings. He looked around in dismay, but happening to cast
his eyes upwards, he beheld a whole colony of monkeys each sporting
one of his caps! It seemed a hopeless case to catch each one of them
and force him to surrender the cap. In his anger and bewilderment
he seized his cap and in a passion threw it to the ground; when the
whole tribe of these mimicking creatures of the grove, instinctively,
with the same vehemence, divested themselves of their head-gear!
In imitation of Sultan, Pashas, and Efendi, the people in the East
have already doffed their robes and turbans; and are ready for other
reforms, if derived from the same honored projectors; crosses now
adorn the breasts of statesmen, and his majesty, the Sultan, displays
on his person the insignia of the garter. Indeed much good may be
anticipated from the liberal sentiments and benevolent dispositions of
the Sultan, were he but rightly advised and sustained in the exercise
of his absolute power; with the requisite protection against inimical
intrigues and aggressions, both foreign and domestic.
Besides, the government itself is already divided into two parties, the
liberal, who are ready to throw off the yoke of ancient prejudices,
and the church party, who not only with a blind zeal, but with
hopes of self-aggrandizement, are resolved to maintain the rule of
superstition. Now as the advancement, the maintenance of the country
is dependent on the one, its retrogradation and downfall involved in
the other, so Europe necessarily holds out its strong arm to the one,
and leaves the other not only unsupported but threatened. The wisest
of the Turkish statesmen are therefore prepared for changes; indeed,
they feel themselves bound to certain compromises with their friends
the Allied Powers, who engaged in the war, as they well know, not with
the view to reinstate Mussulman oppression and bigoted misrule, but to
set the country on a new footing--by raising the Christian population
to a level with the Mussulman. Considering the almost equal proportion
of the Christians to the Mohammedans, it is but just, there should
at least be an equality of national rights and privileges. For in
civilized countries, even a MINORITY is protected and their rights
respected; how much more then should this be the case where there
is not only no disproportion in numbers--but decided superiority
in civilization.
Besides, should the Mohammedans resist the required concessions--the
great Christian population of Turkey is ready to join their western
co-religionists in any movement. Therefore it is only a wise policy
in the Mohammedans, making a virtue of necessity, to submit to
circumstances, rather than by opposing, to work their own ruin.
The great essential is a community of interest, which has already,
in some cases, produced a legitimate action. The corps of firemen is
composed of both Mussulmans and Christians, who not only unite in a
common effort for mutual good, but call each other brothers, carouse
together, shed their blood in each other's defense, and never seem
to remember their characteristic dissimilarities.
There is already an indisposedness towards the tenacity of religious
fanaticism, which is so hostile to moral and social progress. Many
of the distinguished men of Turkey having resided abroad, and
acquired foreign languages, have imbibed a taste for the literature
of Europe. A familiarity with the works of such authors as Voltaire,
Volney, and Rousseau, has made many of them free-thinkers. Indeed,
most of the younger members of the Porte are men of liberal sentiments.
They pay external deference to the religion of the state rather from
motives of self-interest than from any moral conviction.
Nevertheless, some of these very men, so long habituated to power and
the spoils of office, may, under the guise of religious enthusiasm,
become the instigators of opposition through the superstitions of
the multitude.
Hence the gazettes will occasionally report hostile demonstrations,
and even bloodshed; but any attempts at insurrection must prove
futile; for, with the destruction of the Janissaries, the spirit of
rebellion perished in Turkey. Besides, recent events having brought
the superiority and power of Europe within the immediate vision of
the whole population, they have been forced to call to mind their
own proverb, that "the elephant is greater than the camel," and
doubtless they will henceforth arrive at a juster appreciation of
their own capabilities.
Much more might be written on so extended a theme as The Sultan and
His People, and an abler pen portray the condition of this interesting
Eastern empire, just emerging from barbarism into civilization. Yet
it may be hoped that these humble efforts will awaken some sympathy
in behalf of a country and its inhabitants, who so much need the
interest and assistance of other lands; at a moment, too, when the
question is of life or death; of free progressive life, under the
shelter of the broad wings of civilization, or of a suffering death
within the claws of the rapacious Vulture of despotism and oppression.
It may be objected that Turkey has been represented "en couleur de
rose." If that roseate hue has been given, the odorous flower has
been presented with all its thorns, divested of the verdure which
might have concealed their bristling points.
But the sweetest rose may preserve its pure essence and odor, even
while growing amid wild and poisonous roots; and if the noxious weeds
can be uprooted, Turkey may, with the requisite culture, become one
of the fairest gardens which adorn our beautiful planet.
It is to be hoped, that the morning twilight is already casting its
softening beams over this land of the Orient; and that the noon-tide
glory of the sun of peace and regeneration, will, ere long, irradiate
with its glorious effulgence, this ancient and interesting Empire!
THE END.
NOTE
[1] Some historians attribute the origin of the janissaries to
Orkhan; at the same time all agree that they were blessed by Hadji
Bektash--forgetting that the said sheikh was only contemporary with
Mourad, and not Orkhan.
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